'^■v.

X27 'Lils

Bulletin

OF THE

Illinois State Laboratory

OF

Natural History

Urbana, Illinois, U. S. A.

VOLUME XI
1915, 1917, 1918

Contributions to the Natural History Survey of Illinois

MADE under the DIRECTION OF

Stephen A. Forbes

1918

Bulletin

OF THE

Illinois State Laboratory

OF

Natural History

Urbana, Illinois, U. S. A.

VOLUME XI
1915, 1917, 1918

Contributions to the Natural History Survey of Illinois

made under the direction of

Stephen A. Forbes

1918

/^/^-/g

ScHXEPP & Barnes. State Printers

Springfiei,d, Ii-l.

1918.

8040—600

CONTENTS.

ARTICLE I. AN OUTLINE OF THE RELATIONS OF ANIMALS TO page
THEIR INLAND ENVIRONMENTS. BY CHARLES C. ADAMS,

Ph.D. July, 1915 3-32

The dynamic relations of animals 3_17

1. Introductory note 3

2. The relations of animals to their environment 3'

3. Optima and limiting factors 8

4. Determination of dynamic status 9

5. Animal responses 10

6. The interrelations of animals 12

7. Ecological units for study 14

8. The animal association 15

9. Associational succession 16

The dynamic relations of the environment , 17-31

1. Introductory 17

2. The dynamic and genetic standpoint IS

3. Dynamic and genetic classification of environments 21

References to literature 31-32

ARTICLE II. AN ECOLOGICAL STUDY OF PRAIRIE AND FOREST
INVERTEBRATES. BY CHARLES C. ADAMS, Pii.D. (63 Platics)

September, 1915 33-280

Introductory 33

General description of the region and location of the ecological stations 35-40

I. General description of the region 35

II. The ecological stations 38

Description of the prairie habitats and animals ■ . 40-56

I. Prairie area north of Charleston, Station 1 40

1. Colony of swamp grasses (Spartina and 'Elymus), Sta-

tion I, a 41

2. Colony of wild rye {Elymus virr/inicus suhmuticus) , Sta-

tion I, c 43

3. Wet area of swamp milkweed (As'Tpnirifi Incarnata).

Station I, d 44

4. Cone-flower and rosin-weed colony, Station I, c 48

5. Colony of blue stem (Andropogon) and drop-seed (Sporob-

olus), bordered by swamp milkweed, Station 1, g 49

6. Supplementary collections from Station 1 52

IV

PAGE

II. Prairie area near Loxa, Illinois, Station II 52

III. Prairie area east of Charleston, Station III 55

Description of the forest habitats and animals 56-66

1. The Bates woods, Station IV 56

2. The upland oak-hickory forest, Station IV, a 57

3. Embarras valley and ravine slopes, forested by the oak-hickory

association. Station IV, b 59

4. Lowland or "second bottom," red oak-elm-sugar-maple-woodland

association. Station IV, c 62

5. Supplementary collections from the Bates woods. Station IV. . . . 65

6. Small temporary stream in the south ravine. Station IV, a 65

General characteristics of the gross environment 66-102

1. Topography and soils of the State 66

2. Climatic conditions 67

3. Climatic centers of influence 69

4. Relative humidity and evaporating power of the air 71

5. Temperature relations in the open and in forests 83

6. Soil moisture and its relation to vegetation 86

7. Ventilation of land habitats 88

8. The tree trunk as a habitat 91

9. Prairie and Forest vegetation and animal life 91

10. Sources and role of water used by prairie and forest animals.. 98

Animal associations of the prairie and the forest 102-158

I. Introduction 102

11. The prairie association 103

1. Swamp prairie association 103

2. The Cottonwood community 105

3. Swamp-grass association 107

4. Low prairie association 108

5. Upland prairie association 10j9

6. The tiolidago community 109

7. Dry prairie grass association -. Ill

8. A milkweed community 112

III. Relation of prairie animals to their environment 113

1. The black soil prairie community 114

2. The prairie vegetation community 117

3. Interrelations within the prairie association 119

IV. The forest associations 122

1. Introduction 122

2. Dry upland (Quercus ana Cnrya) forest association 124

3. Artificial glade community in lowland forest 125

4. Humid lowland (hard maple and red oak) forest asso-

ciation 126

5. Animal association of a temporary stream 127

V. Relation of the deciduous forest invertebrates to their environ- page
• ment 128

1. Forest soil community 129

2. The forest fungus community 135

3. The forest undergrowth community 138

4. The forest crown community 139

5. The tree-trunk community 142

6. The decaying wood community 148

7. Interrelations within the forest association 157

Ecologically annotated list: —

I. Prairie invertebrates 158-201

II. Forest invertebrates 201-238

Bibliography 239-264

Index - 265-280

ARTICLE III. THE VERTEBRATE LIFE OF CERTAIN PRAIRIE
AND FOREST REGIONS NEAR CHARLESTON, ILLINOIS. BY

T. L. HANKINSON. (16 Plates) Skptkmiser. 1915 281-303

Introduction 281

The prairie area, Station 1 282

Amphibians and reptiles 284

Birds 284

Mammals 288

Relations of the prairie vertebrates to their environment 289

The forest area, Station II 291

Fish, amphibians, and reptiles 293

Birds 294

Mammals ' 297

Supplementary list of birds 298

Relation of the woodland vertebrates to their environment 299

Summary and conclusions 301

ARTICLE IV. SOME ADDITIONAL RECORDS OF CHIRONOMID^
FOR ILLINOIS AND NOTES ON OTHER ILLINOIS DIPTERA.
BY JOHN R. MALLOCH. (5 Pi.atks) DF.n-MiiKU. 1915 305-363

Notes on blood-sucking Ceratopogonin;p.-. . 306-309

Additions to list of Illinois Chironomidge: —

Ceratopogonidge 310

Tanypinte 317

Descriptions of males of Ceratopogoninae previously unknown 317-319

Immature stages of some Illinois Diptera (Scij.ridae and Mycetophil-

idas ) and biological notes 319-324

Predaceous and Parasite Orthorrhapha 324-342

Key to pupae 325

Bombyliidae 327

VI

PAGE

Therevidffi 334

Mydaidse 336

Asilidae 337

Cyrtidae 341

Phytophagous and other Cyclorrhapha 342-352

Syrphidse 342

Ephydridse 345

Drosophilid£e 346

Agromyzidse 348

Descriptions of new Illinois Diptera 352-363

Phoridee 353

Anthomyiida^ 356

Geomyzidse 357

Agromyzidae 359

Chloropidae 360

ARTICLE V. PHYLLOPHAGA HARRIS (LACHNOSTERNA HOPE) : A
REVISION OF THE SYNONYMY, AND ONE NEW NAME. BY

ROBERT D. GLASGOW, Ph.D. February, 1916 365-377

Synonymy of the Phyllophaga of the United States and Canada 370

Alphabetical list of foregoing names 374

PTtyllophaga fordesi, n. sp 378

ARTICLE VI. AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF THE EFFECTS OF
GAS Y/ASTE UPON PISHES, WITH ESPECIAL REFERENCE
TO STREAM POLLUTION. BY VICTOR E. SHELFORD. Ph.D.

(1 Figure. 4 Charts) March. 1917 381-412

I. Introduction 381

II. Statement of the fish and gas-waste problem 381

III. Material and methods 383-388

1. The character of University of Illinois water 383

2. Treatment for keeping fishes alive 384

3. Difficulties to be guarded against in fish experiments.... 385

4. Fishes used 387

IV. Gas waste — its character and constituents 388

V. Toxicity of waste 389-394

1. Methods of experimenting 390

2. Toxicity of waste and tar 391

3. Toxicity of illuminating gas and constituent gas-mixtures. 392

4. Reactions of fishes to waste 392

VI. The toxicity of illuminating gas waste constituents 394

VII. General discussion 406

1. Toxicity and size 406

2. Toxicity and species 40S

Vll

PAGE

3. Fish reactions to polluting substances .• 408

4. Treatment of by-products of the manufacture of coal gas.. 409

VIII. Summary 409

IX. Acknowledgments 410

X. Literature consulted 410

*

ARTICLE VII. SOME EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS. BY
WALTER B. McDOUGALL, Ph.D. (2 Figurks, 59 Plates) Novem-
ber, 1917 413-555

Introduction 413

Mushrooms and toadstools 414

The mushroom plant 414

Life history and development 414

Structure 417

Spore production and liberation 417

Other types of mushrooms 419

The ecology of mushrooms 420

Dissemination 420

Gravity 421

Air 421

Heat 421

Light 422

Substratum 422

Water 422

Parasites and saprophytes 423

Mycorrhizas 424

Animal relations 425

Diseases 427

Fairy rings 427

Luminosity 427

Mushroom-growing 429

Food value of mushrooms 430

Poisonous properties of mushrooms 430

Collecting wild mushrooms 431

Preparation of mushrooms for the table ■ • 433

Classification of mushrooms 435

Use of the key 436

Key to genera of gill fungi • • • ■ 437

Descriptions and illustrations of species 440-552

Reference to literature 554

Index to described or briefly characterizetl species 555

Vlll

ARTICLE VIII. THE REACTIONS AND RESISTANCE OF FISHES

TO CARBON DIOXIDE AND CARBON MONOXIDE. BY MORRIS page
M. WELLS, Ph.D. (1 Fkiuke, 1 Chart) May, 1918 557-571

Introduction 557

Properties of the gases 559

Methods and materials 559

Ggneral resistance of fishes 565

Summary 568

Bibliography 569

ARTICLE IX. EQUIPMENT FOR MAINTAINING A FLOW OF
OXYGEN-FREE WATER. AND FOR CONTROLLING GAS CON-
TENT. BY VICTOR E. SHELFORD, Ph.D. CI Figure) May, 1918.573-575

ARTICLE X. A COLLECTING BOTTLE ESPECIALLY ADAPTED
FOR THE QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE DETERMINA-
TION OF DISSOLVED GASES, PARTICULARLY VERY SMALL
QUANTITIES OF OXYGEN. BY EDWIN B. POWERS, M. A.
(1 Figure) May, 1918 577^578

ERRATA AND ADDENDA.

Page 50, second column, line 13 from bottom, for Danais archippus read Anosia
plexipj)us ; line 8 from bottom, for mellifica read mellifera.

Page 51, line 11 from bottom, for Danais read Anosia.
Page 159, at right of diagram, for Bracon agrilli read Bracon agrili.
Page 289, second column, last line but one, for Scalops real Scalopus.
Page 294, line 3, for catesbeana read catesbiana.
Pages 327 and 330, line 12, for oreus read oreas.
Page 347, line 4, for Cecidomyidse road Cecidomyiidas.
Page 356, line 7, for Anthomyidas read Anthomyiid^.
Page 368, line 18, dele second word.

Page 373, after line 10 insert as follows: 53a, suhpruinosa Casey, 1884, p. 38.
Page 375, after sudviucida Le Conte, 48, Insert suhpruinosa Casey, 53a.
Page 377, after line 7, insert as follows: —
1884. Casey, Thomas L.

Contributions to the Descriptive and Systematic Coleopterology of
North America. Part I.
Page 379, line 11 from bottom, for sensu lata read sensu lato.
Page 382, line 12, for VII read VIII.

Page 408, line 2, for the next article in read Article VIII of.
Page 410, line 6 from bottom, for = 4 read '11.
Page 412, line 7, for 31 read 30.
Page 421, line 17 from bottom, insert it before grows.

Bulletin

OF THE

Illinois State Laboratory

Olf

Natural History

Urbana, Illinois, U. S. A.

STEPHEN A. FORBES, Ph.D., L-L.D.,
Director

Vol. XI. July, 1915 Article I.

AN OUTLINE OP THE RELATIONS OF ANIMALS
TO THEIR INLAND ENVIRONMENTS

BY

Charles C. Adams, Ph.D.

Bulletin

OK THE

Illinois State Laboratory

OF

Natural History

Urbana, Illinois, U. S. A.

STEPHEN A. FORBES, Ph.D., L.L.D.,
Director

Vol. XL July, 1915 Article L

AN OUTLINE OF THE RELATIONS OF ANIMALS
TO THEIR INL,AND ENVIRONMENTS

BY

Charles C. Adams, Ph.D.

CONTENTS

PAGE

The (Ijnaniic relations of animals 1-17

1 . 1 iitroduetory note 1

2. The relations of animals to their environment 1

3. Optima ami limiting factors 8

4. Determination of dynamic status 9

5. Animal responses 5

fi. The interrelations of animals 12

7. Ecological units for study 14

<S. The animal association 15

9. Associational succession IG

The dynamic relations of the environment 17-31

1. Introductory 17

2. The dynamic and genetic standpoint 18

3. Dynamic and genetic classification of environments 21

References to literature 31-32

Article I. — An Outline of the Relations of Animals to their In-
land Bnz'iromnents. By Charles C. Adams, Ph.D.

The Dynamic Relations oe Animals
I. introductory note

As creatures of habit, the attitude of mind with which we approach
a scientific problem has much influence upon what we see in it or get
from it. Although the essence of life is activity — the response of the
changing organism to its changing environment — yet this dynamic
conception of animal relations, and all that it implies, has not become
as prevalent a mental habit among biologists as one might expect.
While some naturalists view the animal from a more or less dynamic
standpoint, they do not include a similar conception of the relation of
an animal to its environment. Still others view the environment more
or less dynamically but do not extend this conception to the animal,
and thus both of these conceptions lack completeness and are not thor-
oughgoing and consistent. The study of activities, or in other words
the study of processes, has made great progress in the allied sciences,
much to their advantage, and undoubtedly the prevalence of similar
conceptions will lead to similar advances in biology.

In the present brief paper I have attempted to discuss only certain
phases of the problem with the idea of emphasizing the general prin-
ciples involved, and in the hope that it may aid in making these con-
ceptions of more practical value in investigation, and also facilitate an
understanding of the discussion contained in a report on the inver-
tebrates of the Charleston (Illinois) region, to appear in a subsequent
paper of this volume of the Laboratory Bulletin.

2. THE relations OE ANIMALS TO THEIR ENVIRONMENT

The study of animal ecology may be taken up from many sides and
in many ways. One of the most interesting and fundamental of these
is that which considers the dependence of the animal upon its environ-
ment, and at the same time orients it in the gamut of energies and
substances. Many phases of this discussion, though elementary and
for this reason easily overlooked, are yet of fundamental importance.
Every boy who has kept pets in confinement, and who has had the re-

sponsibility of caring for them, and every one who has cared for
domestic animals, knows what constant attention must be given to keep
them suppHed with food, water, sheher, and other "necessities of hfe."
And who can overlook the fact that it requires attention to maintain
his own physical health? In the laboratory this dependence upon the
environment is readily tested experimentally by any method of isola-
tion which will prevent an animal from securing any "vital necessity" :
as air — when sealed in a vessel ; or food — when locked up without it ;
or a favorable temperature. No animal can survive such isolation
from its normal environment. Every student of animals in nature
must also realize that similar supplies and conditions determine and
control the existence and welfare of all zuild animals. The animal is
not self-sustaining, but requires a constant intake of energy and sub-
stance from its environment. Chemical methods will readily show the
source from which the materials composing the animal body have been
derived. The ash came from the soil or rock, and shows the animal's
dependence upon the solid earth; the liquids came from the water ot
the earth and constitute from fifty to ninety-five per cent, of the bulk
of the animal's body, showing that a relatively large quantity of this
substance is essential to all living animals ; the abundant gaseous ele-
ment was derived from the atmosphere, to which it will again return.
The substance composing the animal body is thus derived mainly from
the water and the air rather than from the relatively inert and stable
earth. It will be profitable for us to imagine these proportions so
changed that the solids instead of the relatively mobile Hquids and
gases form the principal mass of the body, keeping in mind meanwhile
the slow rate of chemical change in S(jlids compared with the change
in substances in a finely divided condition, such as liquids and gases.
If the solids predominated, the rate of the chemical change, upon
which the active life of animals depends, would be greatly retarded,
and animals, including man, would be stolid beyond comprehension.
Furthermore, we must not overlook the fact that animals are not main-
tained solely by substance, because substances are also carriers of en-
ergy, substance and energy never being separated. The living animal
is not a producer: it can make neither substance nor energy, nor is it
a kind of energy; it is solely a transfonncr, a chemical engine which
changes the form of suljstance and chemical energy and produces new
combinations from the old. The living plant transforms energy and
inorganic substance, from the air, water, and earth, into complex
chemical compounds, and thus concentrates powerful chemical energy
in such a form that the animal, by a further change, is able to set it
free and to utilize it. Sugar, starch, and gluten are familiar examples

of this "tablet" or "cartridge" form of chemical energy which animals
explode or set free and then use in maintenance. During this trans-
formation, in which chemical energy is set free, waste products — inert
chemical substances — are formed which if not eliminated from the ani-
mal system will prevent its operation, just as ashes if not removed will
check a furnace. Respiration aids in the removal of carbonic acid
gas — a waste product — from the body, but we often forget that the
chemical energy derived from the oxygen is an important feature in
respiration. By another process the liquid and the solid waste is re-
moved. Thus gases, liquids, and solids are taken into the body and
later returned to the environment in a different chemical condition,
thus completing a cycle of transft^rmation. That the animal body is
so largely made up of solutions and gaseous substances is an important
factor in its relatively unstable chemical condition, a condition of uii-
stablc equilibrium, which determines the active and dynamic character
of the animal. Since, then, chemical activity is one of the essential
characteristics of a living organism, its influence forms one of the main
problems of the zoologist when studying the changes in animal activi-
ties; their orderly secjuence and the laws which govern them.

On account of the fact that the animal is a chemical engine, it is
able to use chemical energy to the fullest extent. If we assume a hier-
archy in the forms of energy, chemical energy seems to belong to the
upper class; for though some forms of energy are not readily trans-
formed into chemical energy, chemical energy can be transformed into
all others. As a result the animal, being a chemical engine, has, as it
were, an "inside track" to the main sources of energy, and thus by
transformation is able to utilize chemical energy to form light, as in
the firefly, or electricity, as in the electric eel ; and other forms of en-
ergy useful to the animal are similarly derived. This study of the
activities of living animals, as contrasted with the study of dead ones,
is a phase of the general science of en'^rgetics, a science which fur-
nishes the basis for the correlation of many diverse branches of knowl-
edge.

The activities and transformations within the animal body show
us very clearly how an animal is dependent upon environmental condi-
tions. The animal transforms air, water, and rock, and all animal
habitats and environments must contain these elements. In nature
these are combined in a multitude of ways. The interrelations of these
fundamental environmental units have been strikitigly expressed by
Powell ('95: 22-23) -'^ follows:

"The envelopes of air, water, and rock are so distinct that they can
be clearly distinguished ; and yet, when they are carefully studied, it is

6

discovered that every one encroaches upon the territory of the others,
not only by interaction, but also by interpenetration. It has already
been shown that the water penetrates deep into the rock. Every spring
that falls from the hillside gives proof that the rocks above its level
hold water, which they yield slowly as a perennial supply; and the in-
numerable hills of the continents and islands have their innumerable
springs. Every well proves that there is water below; every artesian
fountain shows the existence of underground waters ; and every boring
in the crust of the earth, and every excavation in underground min-
ing, discovers the presence of water.

"Wherever water flows, air flows with it, and all natural waters
are permeated with air.

"The acjueous envelope is everywhere permeated with rock, which
it holds in solution or suspension, and there is no natural water abso-
lutely pure. The sea is full of salt. Salt lakes are more than full of
salt, and so they must throw it upon the bottom ; and the waters hold
lime and many other substances. Not a drop of pure water can be
found in the sea ; not a drop can be found in a lake ; not a drop of pure
water can be found in any river, creek, brook, or spring; and not a
drop of pure water can be found underground : it is all mixed to some
degree with rock.

"All natural waters are aerated. No drop of water unmixed with
rock and air can be found, except by the process of artificial purifica-
tion.

"But surely there is pure air? Nav, not so. There is no natural
air unmixed with rock and water. All the air that circulates above the
land and sea, within the ken of man, and all the air which circulates
underground, is mixed with rock and water.

"Pure air is invisible: it will not reflect light; it is transparent, but
will not convey light. Light is conveyed through the atmosphere by
ether, and is reflected and refracted by rock and water; and it seems
to be largely afifected in this manner by rock. If the ambient air of
the earth were pure, there would be no color in the sky, no rainbow
in the heavens, no gray, no purple, no crimson, no gold, in the clouds.
All these are due largelv to the dust in the air. The purple cloud is
painted with dust, and the sapphire skv is adamant on wings.

"Land plants live on underground waters : were there no subter-
ranean circulation of water, there would be no land plants. Fishes
live on under-water air: were there no circulation of subaqueous air,
there would be no fishes in the sea. The clouds are formed bv par-
ticles of dust in the air, which gather the vapor : were there no dust in
the air. there would be no clouds; were there no clouds, there would
be no rain."

Up to this point we have considered mainly the processes of main-
tenance of the animal body, but there are other processes as well which
must be called to mind, such as growth, development, multiplication,
and behavior. Physiologically considered, none of these activities are
essentially different from the fundamental phases of metabolism and
all are dependent upon it; they are special forms of the transformation
of substances and energy within the animal. As the individual animal
grows and develops in its life cycle, its metabolism, form, and behavior
change in an orderly manner, and this transformation is in the main
a continuous process like the other transformations of matter and en-
ergy. The changes which take place during entogeny are often greater
than the differences which exist between very distantlv related adults,
and these differences result in very different roles which the animal
often plays in the economy of nature.

Comparable to the responses of the animal to its environment, and
indeed essentially of the same kind, are the responses of any part of
an animal to all its other parts, the entire organism, in this case, being
considered as a unit. The environment of an internal parasite is
formed by the body of its host, and in a similar sense the different
parts of the body are parts of the environment of the other
parts. The different parts of the animal body are what they are
on account of three conditions. The first is determined by its
relative position and responses as a member of a series of
successive generations. In this way the hereditary potential-
ities are determined. Ecologically considered heredity may be
regarded both as the response of individuals (unicellular) and
germs to the conditions of life, and as the mutual responses of
different germs to one another. The crossing and intermingling of
germinal elements is as trulv a response as are other forms of activity.
Secondly, there is considerable evidence which indicates that at some
stage in the development of an animal any part is potentially capable
of developing into any other part. The character of development,
then, is conditioned by the character of the cell-environment — its rela-
tive position, and all that implies with regard to environment. A frag-
ment of a regenerating animal develops differently according to its po-
sition, and this is a response to its relative position in the cell commu-
nity. Thirdly, the development of an animal is conditioned by its ex-
ternal environment. The external conditions influence animals by
changing their internal activities. The internal changes modify the
cell community and change development. In this manner every part
of the animal is influenced by the conditions of its existence.

The processes of metabolism are continuous as long as life lasts.
Thus, as an animal respires there is a gaseous exchange, from the

8

earliest stages of its existence until its maturity and death. Eggs re-
spire as surely as larvse and adults, and the chemical, physical, and
physiological changes within them vary with their growth and develop-
ment. Some of these changes are primarily dependent on the orderly
course of development during the life cycle, and are therefore irrever-
sihle processes, because no higher animal which is mature may reverse
its development and become young again. At different stages of de-
velopment different enzymes and harmones appear v.hich modify the
physiological conditions of growth, development, and behavior. Envi-
ronmental changes, persistent and uniform, or periodic in character,
tend to modify and alter these internal processes, and are an additional
source of change, which is particularly shown in behavior.

It is interesting to observe in this connection that certain factors
are important as they hasten or retard other processes. Thus enzymes
hasten chemical changes which without them would take place at a
very slow rate, and they set free much energy in a relatively short
time. Temperature is another hastener of chemical reaction. Not
only is it a condition which sets limitations on the chemical reaction in
animals, but it also influences their optimum, and with increasing tem-
perature chemical changes take place within the animal irrespective of
the control of the animal, except in the warm-blooded animals, where
a mechanism exists which regulates, within certain limits, temperature
conditions.

3. OPTIMA AND LIMITING FACTORS

We have seen that the animal is dependent upon its environment
for both substance and energy. If. therefore, the environment does
not contain, in available form, both substance and energy, animals will
not be able to live in it permanently, although with energy stored in
their bodies they may be able to make more or less prolonged and suc-
cessful invasions into such an environment. The optimum is the most
favorable condition for any function. We may consider optima cor-
responding to units of different rank : a single cell or tissue in action,
an organ or system of organs, the animal as a whole, a taxonomic
imit — and so on, to an animal community or association. There are,
then, many kinds of optima, and the study of the conditions which pro-
duce them is a complex subject. The optima for different functions
may differ much ; for example, that for growth is often different from
that for reproduction, and the optima may also change greatly with the
development of the animal. Optima, therefore, are not fixed condi-
tions, even though they do represent a condition of physiological rela-
tive equilihriiim. The amount or intensity of substance and energy
which produces an optimum is limited above by the maximum and be-
low by the minimum. Thus departures from the optimum, toward an

9

increase or a decrease, are departures from the most favorable condi-
tions toward less favorable conditions, and hence toward liniiting^ con-
ditions. This form of expression is mainly that of the laboratory; it
is desirable therefore, in addition, to express it in terms of the normal
habitat. In nature we look upon the optimum as that complex of
habitat factors which is the most favorable, and departure in any di-
rection from this optimum intensity is in the direction of a less favor-
able degree of intensity or into unfavorable conditions. From this
standpoint any unfavorable condition is a Uniting factor and may re-
tard, hasten, or prevent vital and ecological activities. Optima arc
thus almost ideal conditions, and are probably realized in nature only
to a limited degree ; in other words only approximately. Here also,
as in the laboratory, they represent a condition of relative equilibrium.
The laws of the transformation and development of optima are of
great ecological importance, as I pointed out several years ago ('04).
In field study probably the most valuable criterion to be used in the
recognition of ecological optima is the normal relative abundance and
influence of animals in their breeding environment.

In the preceding discussion no special emphasis has been placed
upon the time element, or the rate at which changes may take place.
Natural environments are complexes, in the composition of which sev-
eral factors are involved. This being true, it is desirable to recall the
fact that the rate of change is determined by the pace of the slowest
factor, or, as Blackman ('05:289) has expressed it: "When a proc-
ess is conditioned as to its rapidity by a number of separate factors,
the rate of the process is limited by the pace of the 'slowest' factor."
This is a general law and applies to all changes, internal as well as
environmental.

In closing this section, I wish to call attention to another conclu-
sion of the English plant physiologists Blackman and Smith. They
state ('11) that from experimental study of the assimilation of water
plants, the conception of the optima is untenable, and that the phe-
nomena are better explained as the result of "interacting limiting
factors than by the conception of optima" (p. 412). This princijjle is
formulated as follows (p. 397) : "When several factors arc possibly
controlling a function, a small increase or decrease of the factor that
is limiting, and of that factor only, will bring about an alternation of
the magnitude of the functional activity." It will be of much impor-
tance to test the application of this idea to animal responses.

4. DETERMINATION OF DYNAMIC STATUS

In any study of the energetics of organisms it is desirable to have
clearly in mind one of the fundamental conceptions of this science —

10

the dynamic status. The law of conservation of energy teaches us
that energy can not be destroyed ; that it is transformed only, and thus
undergoes a cycle of changes. The animal or an animal community,
as a unit and as an agent or transformer, is constantly transforming
energy, setting it free. In this sense it originates, but not at a uniform
rate. At one time much energy may be transformed, and at another
very little. When a great amount of energy is being set free, when
the animal or community is exerting much influence, we may look upon
it as producing pressure or strain. A condition of stress is not a per-
manent one, because the pressure tends to cause such changes as will
equalize or relieve this condition. This is considered as the process
of adjustment to strain, and is called Bancroft's law ('ii). An ani-
mal in an unfavorable condition is stimulated, its normal activities are
interfered with, and a physiological condition of stress is produced
which lasts until by repeated responses or "trials" the animal escapes
stimulation or succumbs and a relative equilibrium is established. An
area may become overpopulated and consequcntlv there may be estab-
lished a condition of stress, which results in an adjvistment bv a reduc-
tion (through many causes) in the excess of population and a restora-
tion of the normal, or a condition of relative equilibrium. From these
examples it may be seen that the dynamic status means the condition
of a unit or system with regard to its degree of relative cqnilihriiini.
The cycle of change may be considered to begin at any point. I have
taken as the initial stage of the cycle the condition of stress or pres-
sure, and have indicated how this condition tends to change in re-
sponse to pressure, bringing about the process of adjustment to strain,
and leading to the condition of adjustment to strain, or that of relative
equilibrium. The activity of the agent produces the condition of
stress, the process of adjustment to the strain follows, and this leads
to the product — the establishment of the condition of adjustment or of
relative equilibrium.

These conceptions are very suggestive when applied to various
phases of organic activity, and aid greatly in utilizing the dynamic con-
ceptions which are in constant use in many of the physical sciences.
But we can not assume that these ideas will take definite form unless
the student makes some special effort to master the principles involved.

5. ANIMAI, RESPONSES

The general character of the changes within the animal, which re-
sult in the transformations of energy and substance, or the process of
metabolism in its broadest sense, is the basis of all animal responses.
It is well known that growth, development, and behavior are condi-

11

tioned by certain metabolic processes, the rate of which are further
conditioned by the presence of certain substances, as enzymes (from
Hver, etc.), and internal secretions (from thyroid, testes, adrenals,
etc.). The influence of certain physiological conditions or processes
is thus well known to affect the behavior of animals. The changes
of instinct through the removal of the testes or ovaries, may be cited
as examples of this influence. An animal whose metabolic processes
have reached a certain stage is said to be satiated ; later it is in the con-
dition of incipient hunger; and still later, in the physiological condi-
tion of intense hunger. These internal changes cause the animal to
react very differently to any food which is in its immediate vicinity.
These changes in physiological conditions are strictly comparable to
the change which an animal passes through in its ontogeny; to the life
cycle of an insect, for example, in wdiich the physiological conditions
and behavior of a caterpillar are very different from those of the pupa
and of the adult or moth. One of the higher animals, a dog, for in-
stance, will undergo internal changes which will completely alter its
responses at the sight of an old rival or enemy. Such considerations
as those just cited show^ clearly that extensive internal physiological
changes take place in animals, and that while some of them are very
gradual others are exceedingly rapid. These internal conditions or
changes have been well characterized by Jennings ('06:289) as fol-
lows : "The 'physiological state' is evidently to be looked upon as a
dynamic condition, not as a static one. It is a certain way in which
bodily processes are taking place, and tends directly to the production
of some change. In this respect the 'law of dynamogenesis,' pro-
pounded for ideas of movement in man, applies to it directly (Bald-
win, '97: 167) ; ideas must indeed be considered so far as their objec-
tive accompaniments are concerned, as certain physiological states
in higher organisms. The changes toward which the physiological
state tends are of two kinds. First, the physiological state (like the
idea) tends to produce movement. This movement often results in
such a change of conditions as destroys the physiological state under
consideration. But in case it does not, then the second tendency of the
physiological state shows itself. It tends to resolve itself into another
and different state."

I may thus summarize the relation of metabolic processes to
physiological conditions and processes of behavior by the following
table.

12

Table ]. — The Dynamic Eelations of Animal Activities

The Animal as an Agent
(Activitij of an Agent)

The animal as an agent transforms
energy and substance by its metab-
olic processes. These are accom-
panied by physiological conditions
or states; they constitute a condi-
tion of unstable equilbriuni. The
transformations take place as —

(1) Continuous and irreversible
processes, as development, differen-
tiation, etc.; or are —

(2) Periodic or rhythmic pioc
esses, as digestion sexual activity,
etc.

Processes of Activity

This unstable internal
condition tends towards
change, resulting in —

(1) New conditions;

(2) Movement;

(3) The processes of
behavior: trial, experi-
ment, investigation, etc.

Products of
Activity

New states.
Movement.
Response.
Regulation.
Adjustment.
Relative equilib-
rium.
Learning.
Orientation.
Data.
Concepts.
Explanation.
Theory.
Hypotheses.
Ideals.

Changes in the internal conditions
are produced also by external stim-
uli.

The responses of animals to the conditions in which they live are
of a composite character. Certain responses, such as the chirping re-
sponse of a coot within the egg, are inherited and are relatively auto-
matic in character; others are greatly modified by experience, as when
an animal "learns," or forms a habit by repeated responses.

The responses of animals to the conditions of existence are the
basis for any study of their relations, not only to other members of
their own species, but to all elements, living or otherwise, of their com-
plete environment. It is from this standpoint that animals must be
considered in estimating their place in the economy of nature; that is,
in estimating how they influence one another in an association of ani-
mals living together in the same habitat, and in judging of their rela-
tion to the succession of animal communities, and even to man him-
self.

6. the; interrelations of animals

"A group or association of animals or plants is like a single organ-
ism in the fact that it brings to bear upon the outer world only the
surplus of forces remaining after all conflicts interior to itself have
been adjusted. Whatever expenditure of energy is necessary to main-
tain the existing internal balance amounts to so much power locked
up, and rendered unavailable for external use." — S. A. Forbes.

We have now seen the dependence of the animal upon its environ-
ment, as this forms the basis for an understanding of conditions in-
volved in the problem of maintenance or the upkeep of the animal.
The optimum conditions for prolonged maintenance produce the vital

• 13

and ecological optima. These conditions imply more than mere main-
tenance ; they mean as well, a degree of favorable conditions which
permits the animal to exert an influence or stress upon its environment.
As Forbes has said, if all the energy available to the animal is utilized
internally there will be nothing left to influence the environment.
Metabolic changes show that large amounts of energy and substance
are used in maintenance. Under optimum conditions even greater
amounts must exist. An animal must not only be able to maintain
itself against other kinds of animals but even against its own kind, for
the overproduction of its own race wMl be practically self-destructive.
A good example of this kind of influence is seen in the hordes of lem-
mings which migrate, even into the sea, when overproduction becomes
extreme.

The vital and ecological optima are thus to be looked upon as in-
ternally balanced, but externally, not as a state of balance or poise, but
as a condition in which the animal is exerting stress, pressure, or in-
fluence upon its environment, instead of being passive or inert. A
group of animals living together in any given condition such as an
association, is an assemblage of interacting organisms. The active,
free-moving animals collide with each other, with other kinds of ani-
mals, especially the relatively sedentary kinds, and with their environ-
ment of plants and the inorganic factors. The relatively sedentary
animals are correspondingly bombarded by all elements of their en-
vironment. The association, as a whole, is thus in a continuous proc-
ess of bombardment and response frf)m every possible angle, and just
as the individual animal is stimulated and responds, so all the mem-
bers of any association are stimulated and respond in a similar man-
ner. It is by this form of activity that animals not only maintain
themselves but exert a radiating influence.

It will assist in realizing the constant pressure exerted by animals
if we compare their activity to the flow of a stream. The pressure ex-
erted by the stream may be realized if by a dam or similar means the
current is resisted. Think for a moment of the amount of energy
which would be transformed in an effort to prevent animals (or
plants) from taking possession of a favorable habitat. Imagine an
area lo feet square and think of the effort it would reciuire to prevent
animals permanently from invading and establishing themselves in this
habitat if no barriers were interposed, and if the means of destruction
of the invaders were not so drastic that they materially changed the
character of the habitat. Increase the size of the area and the diffi-
culties will increase in geometrical ratio, and the utter futility of such
an undertaking will soon be realized. The si)reading processes of the
gypsy moth in Massachusetts, and of the San Jose scale and the cotton

14

boll weevil, show us in terms of human experience something of the
energy expended by these radiating animal activities even when there
are strong human economic inducements against such invasions.

When a balanced condition, or relative equilibrium, in nature is
referred to, we must not assume that all balances are alike, for some
are disturbed with little effort and others are exceedingly difficult to
change. This distinction is an important one. Once the balance is
disturbed, the process of readjustment begins. This is a phase of the
balancing of a complex of forces. Just what stages this process will
pass through will depend, to an important degree, upon the extent of
the disturbance. Slight disturbances are taking place all the time and
grade imperceptibly into the normal process of maintenance, as when
a tree dies in the forest and its neighbors or suppressed trees expand
and take possession of the vacancy thus formed. Disturbances of a
greater degree, on the other hand, may only be adjusted by a long
cumulative process. This change can progress no faster than the rate
at which its slowest member can advance. Thus a forest association
of animals may be destroyed by a fire so severe that all the litter and
humus of the forest floor is burned. The animals which live in the
moist humic layer as a habitat, such as many land snails, diplopods,
and certain insects, can not maintain themselves upon a mineral soil,
rock, or clay. As such a forest area becomes reforested, these animals
can only find the optimum conditions when the slow process of
humus formation reaches a certain degree of cumulative development.
Under such circumstances this later stage must be preceded by ante-
cedent processes, and restoration of the balance is long delayed. Some
adjustments take place so quickly that little can be learned of the
stages through which they pass. There are, however, many slow proc-
esses which afford an abundance of time for study; in fact some are
too slow to study during a lifetime. The processes which are moder-
ately slow are often particularly illuminating because all stages are
frequently so well preserved that comparison is a very useful method
of study ; the slowness of a process has a certain resolving power, as
it were, recalling the influence of a prism upon a beam of white light,
which reveals many characteristics obscure to direct vision. A study
of the processes of adjustment among animals is a study of an im-
portant phase of the problem of maintenance. The continued process
of response will, if circumstances permit, lead to a condition of rela-
tive adjustment, or to a balancing among all the factors in operation.

7. ECOLOGICAL, UNITS FOR STUDY

In the study of animal responses many different units are avail-
able, and a brief consideration of these will aid in an vmderstanding of

15

the methods which are useful. Because the animal body has been
found to be composed of a single cell or a multitude of cells, a com-
mon belief has grown up that the cell is the natural unit for study.
This opinion seems to be due to overlooking the fact that there is just
as much reason for considering the zvhole animal as the unit. The
unicellular animals are zvhole animals as truly as they are cells, and
in multicellular animals the activity of single cells means little inde-
pendently of the animal as a whole. It thus seems that ecologically at
least the smallest valuable unit for study is the individual animal. The
responses of the individual, as a kind of animal, to its condition of
existence form the basis for what may be called individual ecology.
Animals which are related by descent from common ancestors, as a
community of social animals (e. g., an ant colony), or taxonomic
units, such as genera, families, orders, etc. (e. g., fish, birds, catfishes,
and salamanders), are also units which may be studied ecologically.
Some of these hereditary units are, ecologically, fairly homogeneous,
as, for instance, when a taxonomic unit is equally distinct ecologically :
e. g., the woodpeckers with their arboreal habits. In other cases the
taxonomic unit contains animals of great ecological diversity, as in the
case of beetles, which possess almost unlimited ecological diversity, in-
cluding littoral, aquatic, subterranean, and arboreal habitats, and para-
sitic, herbivorous, and predaceous habits. The study of ecology, upon
the basis of such a unit, may be called aggregate ecology. Still another
unit is available, based upon the animals which live together in a given
combination of environmental conditions, as in a pond, on the shore
of the sea, in a cave, within the bodies of animals, on the floor of the
forest, or in the tree tops, etc. The animals found living together in
such conditions form an animal association or a social community, and
the study of the responses of such a community is the province of
associational ecology.

8. the; animal, association

In the study of the animal association as a unit, we consider it as
an agent, whose modes of activity, or responses, are of primary inter-
est. We desire to know the kinds of animals which compose the com-
munity, the optimum and limiting influences which control its activity,
the character of its responses, and the orderly sequence of changes in
the environment to which it is responding.

The maintenance of an association depends upon the maintenance
of the individual members which compose it, just as the maintenance
of the entire animal depends upon the activities of the cells. There is
the same basis for speaking of the responses of the association as there

16

is for speaking of the responses of the individual. The association can
continue to exist indefinitely only in such environments as possess, in
available form, substance and energy for its individual members. The
activities of the individuals transform energy and substance, produc-
ing growth, development, multiplication, and behavior. The persist-
ence of an association in a given habitat brings about the formation of
certain waste products, which if not changed or transformed at a cer-
tain rate, or transported from the environment in some way, tend to
limit the optimum activity of the individuals and of the association.
In the association, as in the individual, there must be an internal rela-
tive balance before there can be such a surplus of energy that the asso-
ciation can radiate or exert outward stress or pressure. An association
which is only maintaining itself is not at an optimum, for in this latter
condition there is a surplus of energy, and the activity, rate of multi-
plication, and favorable development under normal conditions are fa-
vorable to the extension of the association. The pressure which such
an association exerts is shown by the progressive extension of its range
of influence. By the active movements of the animals, by the activity
of the environment, or by both together, they tend to invade other
habitats and areas, and in such of these as afford favorable conditions
they tend to survive and extend the area of the association. From the
standpoint of the association the behavior of these active pioneering
animals corresponds to the trial activities in the behavior of the indi-
vidual animal. These activities are not different in kind from those
which are invohed in normal maintenance. They are those which
form the initial stages in the establishment and extension of the asso-
ciation in a new locality or the re-establishment in an old one, and thus
lead to a sequence or succession of associations. Ecological succession
thus consists in an orderly sequence or series of associations which
occur successively and form a genetic series.

9. ASSOCIATIONAI, SUCCESSION

A succession of associations takes place either through the trans-
formation of older ones, or through the origin of a new one on a
surface which has been newly formed and has had no population. A
favorable habitat without a population of animals is comparable in
some respects to a vacuum ; it exists as a condition of unstable equi-
librium which tends to change toward a more stable state. The active
life of animals tends to lead them into all possible habitats, and where
they find the conditions favorable for existence they tend to survive
and thus bring about the establishment of an association. Each asso-
ciation, like the individual animal, has a certain amount of unity and

17

tends to maintain or perpetuate itself. But the stability of associations
is only relative, and some are much more stable than others. Naturally
the unstable ones are those which show succession most readily. Thus
if we destroy a few trees in a hardwood forest and produce a glade, a
large number of the characteristic animals of the dense forest will dis-
appear and be replaced by animals which normally frequent open
places; then in a few years sprout-growth and young and suppressed
trees will change the conditions so much that tlie kind of forest ani-
mals which were eliminated for a time will begin to return ; and when
the new growth is replaced by the mature forest the animals of the
mature forest will return and a new e(juilibrium will be formed. In
such a forested region the glade is to be looked upon as an unstable
condition, which through a succession of associations will later arrive
at a relatively stable condition, which is able to perpetuate itself indefi-
nitely under existing conditions. Such an association is considered a
climax, or the culmination of a series of successions under existing
conditions. The succession of associations leading to a climax repre-
sents the process of adjustment to the conditions of stress, and the
climax represents a condition of relative equilibrium. Climax associa-
tions are large units, and are the resultants of certain climatic, geolog-
ical, physiographic, and biological conditions.

The Dynamic Rfxations of the Environment
i. introductory

In the preceding section we have seen that to understand animals
we must consider them as active living agents which are constantly
changing and responding to their environment. That the environment
of animals should also be studied as an actiz'cly changiiiy iiicdiiuii has
not been as clearly recognized by students of plants and animals as one
might anticipate from its importance. Some students feel that the
study and understanding of the environment is not a part of zoology,
or at least not an essential part. Furthermore, to some of these stu-
dents at least, the environment seems largely chaotic, a confused un-
wieldy mass with no evident favorable point of attack. This view is
quite natural to those who have had no training and practical experi-
ence in recognizing the "orderly sequence" or laws of environmental
changes, and particularly to those who do not feel that environmental
relations are an essential part of their subject. By many such students
the environment is viewed in a manner compar.'ible to the prevailing
chaotic views on weather before meteorology became a science, or on
taxonomy before Linnaeus, or on geology before Lyell. If one has seri-
ous doubts on this point, he need only turn to the standard treatises

18

on zoology and search for a comprehensive and adequate recognition
and utilization of the orderly and regulatory character of the environ-
ment as an essential part of the subject.

The fallacy of this position has been well expressed as follows by
Brooks ('99) : "I shall try to show that life is response to the order of
nature. . . . But if it be admitted, it follows that biology is the study
of response, and that the study of that order of nature to which re-
sponse is made is as well within its province as the study of the living
organism which responds, for all the knowledge we can get of both
these aspects of nature is needed as a preparation for the study of
that relation between them which constitute life." Later he says : "But
if we stop there, neglecting the relation of the living being to its en-
vironment, our study is not biology or the science of life." No one
seems to have attempted to refute this ; naturally an easier path is fol-
lowed— to ignore it. Perhaps up to the time of the present generation
there has been some excuse for this confusion; l)ut now the respon-
sibility does not rest upon students of the physical and vegetational en-
vironment but upon students of animals, because the former students
have arranged their scientific data in a manner which clearly shows
the orderly lawful sequence of changes in environmental activities.
This should form the basis for a study of the corresponding series of
changes which take place within the animal, and also be the basis for
a study of the reciprocal responses taking place between the animal and
the environment.

In this section an outline will be given of some of the most impor-
tant phases of environmental changes in inland areas viewed as lawful
and orderly, particularly those changes which influence animal hab-
itats.

2. THE DYNAMIC AND GENETIC STANDPOINT

Since Lyell taught the scientific world that a study of processes
now in operation is the key to an understanding of the present as well
as of the past, the process method has been slowly but inevitably pene-
trating to the utmost subdivisions of inquiry. With the progressive
appreciation and use of this method its efficiency has been increased.
Its progress has been the most rapid where the principles of its appli-
cation have been most clearly understood. As models become known
in each field of work others will find the method much easier to apply,
and for this reason it is desirable that such examples become fairly
numerous and wide-spread.

In the application of the process method to an imperfectly under-
stood subject, and particularly to a complex one, it is desirable to con-
sider the subject as a imit or entity. This unit may then be regarded
as an agent whose process of activity is to be studied, for the activity

19

of an agent gives us a process. Thus an organism, a plant society, or
an animal community is a very complex unit or agent, which largely
through chemical energy, under conditions of a normal environment,
responds in an orderly sequence or changes. The environment changes,
the internal conditions of the animal change, and so do the correspond-
ing responses on the part of the animal. When all of these changes
are studied as orderly processes we are able to see the advantage of
this method of study. It is desirable to investigate all phases of animal
responses in this manner, such as growth, development, heredity, etc.,
in order to determine the causes and conditions of this orderly se-
quence. As a rule our recognition of the orderly sequence or laws of
action or succession precedes our knowledge of the causes and condi-
tions of the sequence. This order of sequence is thus of fundamental
importance and must be recognized before it can be investigated or
explained. This method of studying the activity of agents, the char-
acter of their processes, constitutes the dynamic standpoint.

When the dynamic relations of an agent have been investigated, the
orderly sequence of its responses established, and the causes and con-
ditions of its activity determined, it is then possible to explain fully the
origin or genesis of its activities. The genetic method is the study of
origins in terms of the processes involved, and therefore the classifica-
tion of facts genetically implies a knowledge of the processes involved
in their origin. There are thus many degrees or stages in the develop-
ment of a genetic classification, the first step of which is to determine
the orderly sequence of changes. In a certain sense, in its broadest
application, the process method is universal and includes the genetic,
but until their mutual relations become clearly recognized and are gen-
erally understood both should be emphasized.

Particular attention should be called to the fact that the activity of
an agent results in a process, and processes give us the laivs of change.
Many processes are reversible ; that is a process may go forward in
one direction and then become reversed and proceed in the opposite
direction. Other processes are non-reversible, and operate in only one
direction, being in a sense orthogenetic, as in the later stages of the
ontogenetic process.

Let us summarize the main characteristics and principles involved
in the dynamic and genetic method. They have been well expressed
by Keyes ('98), and for my purpose are arranged as follows :

"A truly genetic scheme for the classification of natund phenomena
thus always has prominently presented its underlying principle of
cause and effect. ... To begin with, an adeciuate scheme should be
based directly upon . . . agencies. ... All products must find accu-
rate expression in terms of the agencies. . . . The primary groupmgs

'20

of the . . . processes must be based, therefore, upon the manner in
which these agencies affect the . . . materials. . . . Constructive and
destructive agencies can be recognized only when the phenomena are
made the basis for the scheme. Processes are merely operative. If
coupled with products at all, in classification, all must be regarded as
formative or constructive. The product's destruction, its loss of iden-
tity, is wholly immaterial. The action of agencies is merely to pro-
duce constant change."

Van Hise ('04) has formulated other principles of the process
method as follows :

"The agent is the substance containing energy which it expends in
doing work upon other substances. The substance upon which work is
done may thereby receive energy, and thus become an agent which
does work upon other sul)stances ; and so on indefinitely. Indeed, the
rule is that one process follows another in the sequence of events, until
the energy concerned becomes so dispersed as to be no longer trace-
able. Theoretically this goes on indefinitely. . . . We have seen that
the action of one or more agents through the exertion of force and the
expenditure of energy upon one or more substances is a geological
process. It is rare indeed, if it ever happens, that a single agent works
through a single force upon a single substance. ... If geology is to
be simplified, the proces.ses must be analyzed and classified in terms of
energies, agents, and results. Kach of the classes of energy and agent
should be taken up, and the different kinds of work done by it dis-
cussed. . . . The general work of each of the agents and the results
accomplished should be similarly considered. Not only so, but the
work of the dirt'erent forms that each of the agents takes should be
separately treated. Thus, besides considering the work of water gen-
erally, the work which it does both running and standing must be
treated. The first involves the work of streams; the second, the work
of lakes and oceans. This involves the treatment of streams as enti-
ties. . . . The treatment of the agents will be more satisfactory in pro-
jjortion as the work done by each of the forms of each (jf the agents
is explained under physical and chemical principles in the terms of
energy."

\'iewed fr<Mn this standpoint it is remarkable how many of our
current zoological conceptions are essentially static, and how confused
are our conceptions of the process method. Physiology is supposed
to be devoted solely to processes, yet physiologists use the terms anab-
olism and katabolism, constructive and destructive influences, and,
likewise, zoologists frequently use the expressions "the friends" or
"the enemies" of animals — a dual terminology which has a certain

()

21

utility but which exists mainly on account of the static conceptions of
organic relations.

The dynamic or process concept is a difficult one to attain, and t
apply in all cases, as any one will soon learn if he strives to do this
consistently ; and yet as a scientific ideal there can be no doubt that it
has the same superiority over the older static methods and point of
view that an explanation has over an empirical description.

3. DYNAMIC AND GE;ne;TIC CLASSIFICATION OF ENVIRONMENTS

In the natural history sciences w^e have two main sorts of classifi-
cations of phenomena, those which we call "natural" and those which
we call "artificial." Natural classifications are those in which
the basal criteria are of origin, the method of processes or gen-
esis. A classification of lakes upon the basis of the processes iv/iich
operated in their origin — crustal movements of the earth, the mean-
ders of streams, the work of an ice-sheet, volcanic activity, etc. —
would at the same time furnish an explanation of them in terms of
their origin. Artificial classifications are those in which the criteria
are arbitrarily chosen. Any character may be made the basis for an
artificial classification. Thus lakes may be classified upon the basis of
their size, depth, color of the water, distance from cities, number ot
boats upon them, etc., but such classification would not furnish the
basis for a scientific explanation of lakes. The artificial is often useful
or convenient for a special purpose; the genetic is illuminating from
the standpoint of scientific interpretation. This method may be ap-
plied to any kind of environment, physical, physical and biological
combined, or solely biological. To the degree that the environment i-^
dominated by the physical conditions the laws of physical change and
physical genesis will preponderate in the origin of such environments,
and corresponding relations apply to biological environment*^.

The dependence of the genetic method upon causes atid conditions
makes it impossible to divorce it from the local conditions. This is
at once the strength and weakness of this method, for it is particular,
and generalized averages mean little because origins are different un-
der different conditions ; this is the key to individuality. Thus streams
viewed as stages in the progressive transformation of a lidiiid mediiun
for life, may be formed in many diverse ways, and for this reason tlv:
general principles of the method of genesis mav be exi)ressed most
simply in an ideal case. Genetic series are unending, thcv extend into
the past and will continue in the future. The point of deDarturc for
study must therefore be arbitrarily chosen, and the more nearly a nat
ural basis can be approximated the simpler its application bcronies

90

For this reason a cycle will be followed here which begins with a con-
dition of stress, advances through the process of adjiistiuent to strain,
and reaches a condition of relative eqitilibriiini. The starting point in
such a cycle we will consider as the original conditions, and the later
activities as the derived ones. The original conditions we will assume
to be an uplifted undulating plain, composed of relatively homoge-
neous materials, in a humid climate, and covered by a varied vegetation
including trees. The elevated condition of the land produces a condi-
tion of unstable eqiiilibriuni or stress for the rain falling upon its sur-
face ; and. furthermore, the vegetation will tend to spread over the en-
tire surface, and thus exert a certain pressure also These original
C(MKlitions are, therefore, unstable and destined to change, and mu-
tually to influence and regulate one another.

If we now imagine the rain "turned on" under such conditions,
what are the main processes which will operate? The rain falling in a
depression will be supplemented by that which drains from the eleva-
tions; thus, through the agency of running water, a standing water
habitat will have its origin. With this concentration of water will
come also a burden of debris from the upland ; and in this way the
"constructive" and "destructive" processes will begin at the same time.
Plants will invade such a depression and add their remains. Some of
the depressions will overflow and the outflowing streams will cut down
the outlet to progressively lower levels, and ultimately drain the basin.
On the other hand, inwash and organic debris may tc^gether accumu-
late at such a rate as to raise the level of the basin above ground water
and thus transform the conditions to that of land. The progressive
stages of the process of degradation thus favor the transformation of
the depression and a progressive formation of lakes, which are con-
verted into ponds and swamps and ultimately, with drainage, to dry
land. For depressions we thus get a genetic series which we may call
the lake, pond, and swamp series. This does not classify the depres-
sion series according to size, depth, character of water, etc., as in an
artificial classification, but in the order of their development or genesis
through the agency of running water. Accompanying this sequence
there are of course changes in size, depth, etc., but these are subordi-
nated in the classification to the developmental sequence centering
about the process of the degradation of the land by the agency of run-
ning zvater. This is therefore a classification of environments, not on
the basis of the product, as it might appear from calling it a depression
or standing-water series, but upon the basis of the activity or proc-
esses of tJie dominant agent.

We will assume that all the lakes, ponds, and swamps, due to the
original relief of the land, become drained and constructively con-

23

verted into streams or dry land. Let tis consider the streams, particu-
larly those which did not develop from the lake, pond, and swamp se-
ries, in order to consider them in their simpler conditions of develop-
ment.

The first shower on the new land surface, or the begirininj^ of a
cycle, forms an extensive ramification of small streamlets, their den-
dritic branches flowing down all slopes. With the confluence of the
smaller branches the progressively larger trunks are formed, and with
their increase in volume, cutting progresses; but all traces of this
stream itself tend to vanish soon after the shower is over, although
some water may linger in pools in the deeper depressions. These con-
ditions form an initial stage in the development of the activity of run-
ning water as an animal habitat. These temporary streams are rain
waters intermingled with dust from the air and soil from the ground.
Since, viewed chemically, such waters have not existed as a liquid long
enough to dissolve much gaseous and solid material, they represent a
relatively original condition, or an initial stage in the chemical devel-
opment of the stream as a medium for living animals. Again and
again these showers are repeated, and where there is a slight variation
in the hardness of the substratum small pools are formed on the softer
materials, where erosion is more rapid. In these pools it is possible
for some aquatic or amphibious animals, of marked powers of disper-
sal, to become lodged, or even entrapped, as in the case of animals
which migrate up the stream during its temporary flow; such pools,
in fact, may be reached even by individuals from the ground water.

Finally these temporary streams cut down to ground-water level
and become permanent. Such a stream then, in additi(^n to the fresh
rain-water which it receives with each shower, has a permanent supply
of ground water. This water, having filtered through the soil, con-
tains both gas, particularly COo, and minerals, and thus as a solution
differs much from rain water. The composition of ground water
varies much with the chemical differences of the substratum. Such
water generally contains enough substance in solution to be a favor-
able medium for plant growth, such as algse — aquatic pioneers which
are comparable to the lichens in their invasion upon bare rock. But
the temporary flow of water is still dominant, and will remain so until
the supply of permanent ground water is of such a volume that, hav-
ing a good current, it rushes over the obstacles in its path ; then a per-
manent brook has been evolved, and a permanent rapid-water habitat
has originated.

As the erosion of the stream advances, organic debris not only
multiplies indigenously in the water, but it is also washed and blown
in, and through its decay the composition of the water is changed.

24

particularly in the amount of CO2 present. This gas causes the water
to take into solution a greater amount of lime ; and at the same time
the agitation to which it is subjected while dashing over obstacles or
flowing over falls increases the amount of oxygen present, a process
further aided by the oxygen set free in it by water plants. Carbonic
acid, moreover, is set free by the rapids and falls. It is thus very
evident that the chemical processes are undergoing an important devel-
opment as the stream progresses, since there are going on both the
process of gaseous equilibrium with the air, and an increase of the sol-
ids in solution. The stream is progressively becoming a more favor-
able or enriched culture medium for organisms. The rapidly flowing
water which characterizes the brook is the predominant physical fea-
ture of this environment, the stretches of relatively quiet water which
form the pools, between the more rapidly flowing parts, anticipating
the kind of conditions which are destined to increase with the trans-
formation of the brook conditions into those of a creek. With the
progress of development in drainage a brook is progressively trans-
formed by the processes of erosion into a creek. Here the rapid-water
conditions are more nearly equaled by a corresponding enlargement of
the pool or the quieter stretches of water, where the finer sediments
are deposited and the animals dwelling on the surface film or in the
mud and sand, find suitable conditions. The falls and rapids which
characterize the brook are exceptional in the creek, but may linger
where the rate of change has been very slow on account of the resist-
ance of the substratum. The alternation of rapid and slower water,
which characterizes the creek stage, with the preponderance of the
relativelv rapidlv flowing water, is gradually transformed into that of
a river, where the water flows at a slower rate and rapids and falls
have as a rule become extinct, and where a condition of relative chem-
ical equilibrium has also been reached. Here the burden of coarse
debris is at a minimum, and the surface, sides, and bottom of the
stream, have become differentiated as relatively distinct habitats. With
progressive approach toward baselevel all conditions of the environ-
ment tend to become more stable and equalized until the stream erodes
to tide level, becomes brackish and finally as salt as the sea itself, and
reaches an equilibrium determined by the dominant animal environ-
ment upon the earth — that of the sea.

We have now outlined the developmental sequence of wet depres-
sions, the lake-pond-swamp series, and the running water, the brook-
creek-river series, these two series including the main inland animal
environments in a liquid medium in a humid climate. We have yet to
consider the animal environments of land animals proper, those which
live in the gaseous medium of air. The complexity of conditions upon

25

land is much greater than that in water, either fresh or salt. In othe.-
words the land habitats are the most complex on earth. For simplicity
in handling this involved problem, an ideal series will also be followed,
and instead of attempting to discuss all the principles involved, only
such will be mentioned as may be illustrated by a single example. This
will serve to show the application of the method. We shall consider
the process of degradation of the land, such as might be developed
during a topographic cycle of erosion, and as applied to a snow-capped
conical mountain in a temperate humid region.

Let us consider the series of processes which operate upon such a
mountain. The snow and rain which fall upon it are in unstable equi-
librium, the snow creeps or plunges down the slopes, and the water
flows down. In the zone of ice and snow physical and mechanical
changes preponderate ; but at lower altitudes, with the melting of the
snow and ice, on account of the higher temperature, chemical changes
become more prominent and supplement the mechanical work of run-
ning water. Here, also, plants and animals become an important factor
in modifying the processes of change by hastening or retarding the
processes of degradation. We thus see that on different parts of a
mountain there are important modifications in the processes of degra-
dation. The same general processes which operate to form lakes, ponds,
swamps, brooks, creeks, and rivers, are also at the same time producing
changes in the land habitats. The entire surface of such a mountain is
undergoing change, but because of the concentration of degradativc
progress near its base, particularly on account of the concentration of
the drainage there, ravines and valleys develop here more rapidly and
converge toward the main divide, the mountain top. As these ravines
and valleys enlarge, the mountain is lowered ; and ultimately all is re-
duced to a plain, and to baselevel. The condition of stress which existed
upon the slopes of such a mountain as degradation progressed, became
relatively adjusted at that place, but where the degraded materials
were deposited a stress was becoming citmnlative, and it is this ever
changing adjustment of stresses which makes natural processes unend-
ing.

With the degradation of the mountain, progressively higher zones
are lowered; the snow cap disappears; the region above the tree limit,
and later the lower parts, are spread over a large area, and the moun-
tainous character is largely gone. In this manner and at the same time
as the land is degraded to a lowland by running water, in the water
itself a series of habitats is developing, and thus all the environment
is being transformed, along relati7'ely distinct but mutually interde-
pendent lines, tozvard the same general direction or condition — a rela-

26

tive equilibrium resulting from the balancing of all stresses near sea
level.

In the preceding discussion no emphasis has been placed on the fact
that degradation of the land is only a part of a large cycle of activity,
and that the deposition of the degraded materials may he a cause of so
much stress as to initiate an elevation of the land. If the heavy solu-
ble materials from the land are washed into the sea and only lighter
materials remain behind, the increased stress resulting between the sea
and the land will tend to elevate the lighter areas until an equilibrium
is established between the heavy sea and the lighter land ; therefore,
some crustal movements, at least, may be complementary phases of the
degradation of the land. The elevations and depressions of the sur-
face of the land with regard to the sea level may thus initiate new
cycles of transformation in all environments. These processes do not
need amplification here, although they should be noted ; but this lack
of amplification does not imply a minor influence of this factor. Still
another cycle may be initiated by the processes of vulcanism, a factor
the influence of which is easily overlooked in large parts of the world
but in others is very prominent. Only one more comprehensive physi-
cal factor will be mentioned ; that due to alterations in the atmos-
phere— climatic changes. Although the temperate humid climate has
been made the basis for the preceding discussion, it must be remem-
bered not only that there are other kinds of climates, but that these
undergo transformation or changes from such extremes as the cold
arctic deserts on the one hand, to the dry hot deserts on the other.
Within this great amplitude of climatic possibility is found one of the
greatest causes both of complexity in land environment and of many
local differences in the transformation of habitats.

To simplify this sketch of the operation of the physical features of
the environment the organic factors have been neglected, and these
should now be considered. On account of the ultimate dependence of
animals for food upon vegetation, many intimate relations exist be-
tween plants and animals ; furthermore, in addition to the food rela-
tions there are manv other important ones, such as the physical and
chemical influence of the vegetation upon the soil, its influence upon
the temperature and humidity of the air and on light ; and, finally,
there is qualification of these influences by the different kinds of vege-
tation. A vegetational cover of grass has a very different effect from
one of shrubs or a forest cover; conifers and hard-wood forests differ
in effect also; and the succession of plant societies varies, not only with
different kinds of vegetation but also in different climates, and with
different physiographic conditions. As Cowles ('ii) has shown, there
are several cycles or series of successions of vegetation. Many of

27

these changes are dependent upon physical conditions which are
equally potent in their influence upon animals. Thus physical and
vegetational changes in comhination influence animals directly and in-
directly, and in the conditions due to this fact we find the basis for the
important control which vegetation exerts upon animals.

Animals themselves form an important part of their own environ-
ment, not only in their relation to their own kind, as mates or as prog-
eny, but also as members of an animal community whose members
must adjust their activities to one another through symbiotic, competi-
tive, or predatory relations. If any animal becomes abnormally abun-
dant, that is, more numerous than the conditions can support, this
number in itself becomes a weakness, through the positive attraction
of the organisms (plant and animal) which are able to prey upon it,
and soon the normal abundance is restored. For example, in a conif-
erous forest, bark-beetles (Scolytoidea) may increase to such an extent
that the forest is largely destroyed, and a succession is produced in
the vegetation as the conifers are replaced by a growth of aspen and
birch. As a result of this destruction of the kind of food and habitat
essential for the next generation of beetles, a proper habitat is lacking,
and the restoration of the normal number of beetles is hastened. This
same example also shows how one kind of animal may influence the
character of a whole community by its control over the vegetation.

The influence of man must be looked on from the same standpoint
as one views the activitv of anv other animal ; as that of a member of
an animal community. He hastens and retards the changes in his en-
vironment as do other animals. In general his early methods are pred-
atory ; he reaps where he does not sow ; but later tlie milder competi-
tive and symbiotic relations and the constructive or productive aspect
become more prominent. Civilization is an attempt to make the en-
vironment "to order." but as yet man has not learned how to produce
a permanent "optimum" along the lines of an ecological commiuiity.
As has already been said, to understand man we should view him as
an integral part of an ecological community, as one member of a biotic
community of plants and animals, or at least of an animal community
which includes all animals that are influenced by man — and not con-
sider him, as some students do. as a distinct entity with little regard
to his animal and plant associates.

The main features of the preceding discussion may be summarized
as in the following table.

28

Table 2. — The Genesis and Fokmation of Inland Habitats in a Humid Climate
AND THE Dynamic Status of the Processes

Dynamic status.

Phases in the formation of inland environ-
ments.

I. Unstable equilibrium — condition
of stress or pressure

Original conditions; elevated land area, or
new land surface, or beginning of new
cvrde.

II. Process of adjustment to stress
or strain.

Process of formation of habitats; all hab-
its are constructive.

bd

re

(yj

^

f^

•^

CD

s s a

5^5

que
(de
seri

§1

que
prei

sibl

t-J

ti iT3 B

^ tJ

CD ^ B

55 S3

tn ►I (-S

ri-

■ '£..n,

,— ^ rn

a> (t>

m fX)

O CD

CO

2.0

ft
2.0

B
o

<%%

m ^

«

o si

P

(The following are examples of the

B - »

3 » ^.
3 » B

mding wat
series) ; r

nd habital
reversible

ream habi
es; parti

major processes; :

<3 "-J

^^

-^^

£.1

H< cn

1. The processes of degradation of
the land.

r-f-

CD (D
CD CO

CD 2
en -1
OQ W

CD ■*

7 ?

2. The processes of adjustment to

climate.

B-5.

t-'

r:;

H

y

•2^

rx 2

pr

-*• 3

3. The process of the establish-

1 1

o

P3
B

11

3 P

ment of biotic (plant or animal)

•~^

dominance.

1— i

^

a

a

o

o

"1

B

o
o

era

B

* 5-

r^

a>

r.

O

CD
PT

O

tJ

a

S

^2

pS

— ^

5'

3 —

:i^ t)

(D

S 5-

^§

S.?^

•-i

«•§

Qj

"^ 2.

rt-

I

III. Relative equilibrium.

-^

Derived conditions; lowland area

, old land

surface (baseleveleil to the ni

arine en-

vironnient), end of a cycle.

or domi-

nance; under relatively stable

ponditions.

29

The preceding discussion is based upon the conditions of a humid
cUmate, but the semi-arid and the arid cHmates should also be touched
on. In time, as ecological studies are extended to all kinds of land
areas, it will be possible to formulate all of the general principles ot
the origin or process of development of land habitats; but at present
vast areas of the land have never been observed by a zoologist from a
modern ecological standpoint. Most of the ecological studies of ani-
mals have been carried on in a humid climate, only slight attention
having been given to the ecological relations existing in -an arid cli-
mate, and still less to those in alpine and polar regions. After the
humid regions have been better studied, the arid regions will probably
be the next to be carefully investigated. The plant ecologists, by their
studies in these regions, have already furnished important facts pre-
paring the way for the animal ecologist, because they investigate both
the physical and vegetational conditions upon the prairies and plains
of the West. If the regions of progressively increasing aridity are
examined, there will be found to be a corresponding series of changes
in the animal habitats. The standing- water series of habitats found in
such a series, in contrast with those of humid regions with fresh-water
lakes, ponds, and swamps in addition to the temporary fresh waters,
are alkaline and salt waters, and we find an extensive series ranging
from Great Salt Lake, Salton Sea, and Devil's Lake, to strong briny
pools and alkaline mud flats. These are, of course, as capable of a
genetic treatment as are the corresponding fresh-water bodies of hu-
mid areas. The stream series is also present in the arid region, but it
exists under conditions quite different from those in humid areas. The
through-flowing streams are relatively independent of local conditions
because their main supply of water is from the mountain ; but they are
nevertheless much modified by the character and amount of the burden
which they carry during the time of high water, and they tend to be-
come clogged at low water stages. The chemical composition of such
waters is quite different from that of regions continually leached by
rains. The small streams flowing from the mountains, whose dimin-
ishing volume does not allow them to traverse the arid regions, suc-
cumb, and disappear in the dry earth — examples of a second degree of
dominance of the desert or plains. But the truly characteristic streams
of the arid regions are those primarily dependent upon the desert con-
ditions. Such streams are well within the arid regions and are domi
nated wholly by them. They are solely of a temporary character, and
correspond to the initial stage of stream development, the temporary
stream, in a humid climate. In an arid climate, however, development
does not proceed beyond this early stage, and the degradation and

30

baseleveling of the land is due to the combined influence of water and
the wind.

On land, the movements of the soil by the wind, as in the sand-
dune regions of true deserts, show us a characteristic condition; in a
more humid climate, however, the dunes would tend to become an-
chored by vegetation. Other soils than sand are also blown about. The
extreme of dry desert conditions must be looked upon as the ultimate
or climax condition, a condition of relative equilibrium, under present
climatic conditions, for certain regions. A slight departure from these
extreme conditions is seen in such localities as receive most abundant
showers during the growing season for vegetation. These are able to
influence the development of the drainage only in a minor way, but
they moisten a shallow surface layer of soil and permit the growtii
of short grasses, such as the buffalo-grass (Schantz, 'ii 140). Very
recently another important source of water in the arid regions has
come to be recognized. This, McGee has shown to be the subsurface
or artesian waters which come up from below ; and this is an important
supplementary source of moisture in extensive areas in the arid West
(McGee, '13), where the evaporation is large. It is not unlikely that
even in humid regions where the soils are very sandy, as upon the
Coastal Plain, and where the strata dip in such a manner as to favor
an underflow of water, this supply may be of considerable importance
to the biota. With a greater rainfall during the growing season, per-
mitting a relative humidity greater than on the short-grass area of the
plains, a deeper-rooted vegetational cover gives us the long prairie
grasses of the eastern prairie.

As soon as the physical conditions permit a growth of vegetation
this material becomes an environmental factor which reflexly modifies
the physical conditions of the air, the soil, and the animal habitat. This
is shown to a marked degree in the humid area of the southeastern
United States, where the rainfall, greater than that on the arid plains
and prairies, favors the development of a forest cover. Such a forest
not only tends to retard evaporation but also acts as a sponge and by
its vegetable debris and loose soil retards the run-off. In this manner
not only are land habitats influenced, but this conservation of moisture
tends to prolong the duration of temporary streams, and to stabilize
the flow of permanent ones ; and, further, through the same influence,
the ground-water level declines slowly, and bodies of standing water
are also influenced. Thus all the more important habitats are to some
degree regulated and made more stable by a forest cover.

The foregoing discussion and examples, selected from the activi-
ties of animals and changes in their environments, are varied enough to

31

show how diverse are the appHcations of the process method to inves-
tigation. The general idea is easily grasped, but to make the dynamic
method a regular habitual procedure in investigation is truly difficult,
so difficult, indeed, that there is reasonable ground for doubting if this
method can be mastered without a practical application of it to a con-
crete problem, at the same time giving special attention to the method
of procedure.

REFERENCES TO LITERATURE

Adams, C. C.

'04. On the analogy between the departure from optimum vital

conditions and departure from geographical life centers.

Science, n. s., 19:210-211.

'13. Guide to the study of animal ecology. 183 pp. New York.

(This book contains numerous references to the literature bearing upon the
subject of this article.)

Bancroft, W. D.

'11. A universal law. Science, n. s., 23: 159-179.

Blackman, F. F.

'05. Optima and limiting factors. Ann. Bot. 19: 281-295.

Blackman, F. F. and Smith, A. M.

'11. Experimental researches on vegetable assimilation and res-
piration. IX. On assimilation in submerged water-plants,
and its relation to the concentration of carbon dioxide and
other factors. Proc. Royal Society, B., 83: 389-412, 1910.

Brooks, W. K.

'99. The foundations of zoology. 339 pp. New York.

Cowles, H. C.

'11. The causes of vegetative cycles. Bot. Gaz., 51: 161-183;
also, Ann. Assoc. Amer. Geogr., i : 1-20. 1912.

32

Jennings, H. S.

'06. Behavior of the lower organisms. 366 pp. New York.

Keyes, C. R.

'98. The genetic classification of geological phenomena. Journ.
Geol., 6:809-815.

McGee, W J

'13. Field records relating to subsoil water. U. S. Dept. Agr.,
Bur. Soils, Bull. 93. 40 pp.

Powell, J. W.

'95. Physiographic processes. Nat. Geogr. Monographs, i : 1-32.

Schantz, H. L.

'11. Natural vegetation as an indicator of the capabilities of land
for crop production in the Great Plains area. U. S. Dept.
Agr., Bur. Plant Industry, Bull. No. 201. 100 pp.

Van Hise, C. R.

'04. The problems of geology. Journ. Geol., 12 : 589-616.

The New York State College of Forestry, Syracuse, N. Y.

Bulletin

OP THE

Illinois State Laboratory

Olf

Natural History

Urbana, Illinois, U. S. A.

STEPHEN A. FORBES, Ph.D., L.E.D.,
Director

Vol. XL September, 1915 Article IL

AN ECOLOGICAL STUDY OF PRAIRIE AND FOREST
INVERTEBRATES

BY

Charles C. Adams, Ph.D.

ORIGINAL FOREST AND PRAIRIE AREA IN ILLINOIS
(after brendel anb barrows )

Bulletin

OK THB

Illinois State Laboratory

OK

Natural History

Urbana, Illinois, U. S. A.

STEPHEN A. FORBES, Ph.D., L.L.D.,
Director

Vol. XI. September, 1915 Article H.

AN ECOLOGICAL STUDY OF PRAIRIE AND FOREST
INVERTEBRATES

BY

Charles C. Adams, Ph.D.

CONTENTS

Page

Introductory 33

General description of the region and location of the ecological stations 35

I. General description of the region 35

II. The ecological stations 38

Description of the prairie habitats and animals 40-56

I. Prairie area north of Charleston, Station 1 40

1. Colony of swamp grasses (Spartina and Elymus), Station I, a. . 41

2. Colony of wild rye, Elymus virginicus submuticus, Station I, c. . 43

3. "Wet area of swamp milkweed (Asclepias incarnata), Station l,d 44

4. Cone-flower and rosin-weed colony, Station I, e 48

5. Colony of blue stem (Andropogon) and drop-seed (Sporohulus),

bordered by swamp milkweed, Station 1, g 49

6. Supplementary collections from Station 1 52

II. Prairie area near Loxa, Illinois, Station II 52

III. Prairie area east of Charleston, Station III 55

Description of the forest habitats and animals 56-66

1. The Bates woods, Station IV 56

2. The upland oak-hiekory forest, Station IV, a 57

3. Embarras valley and ravine slopes, forested by the oak-hickory

association. Station IV, fc 59

4. Lowland or * ' second bottom, ' ' red oak-elm-sugar maple wood-

land association, Station IV, c 62

5. Supplementary collections from the Bates woods. Station IV. ... 65

6. Small temporary stream in the south ravine, Station IV, d 65

General characteristics of the gross environment 66-102

1. Topography and soils of the State 66

2. Climatic conditions 67

3. Climatic centers of intluenee 69

4. Eelative humidity and evaporating power of the air 71

5. Temperature relations in the open and in forests 83

6. Soil moisture and its relation to vegetation 86

7. Ventilation of land habitats 88

8. The tree trunk as a habitat 91

9. Prairie and forest vegetation and animal life 91

10. Sources and role of water used by prairie and forest animals. ... 98

Animal associations of the prairie and the forest 102-158

I. Introduction 102

II. The prairie association 103

1. Swamp prairie association 103

2. The Cottonwood community 105

3. Swamp-grass association 107

4. Low prairie association 108

5. Upland prairie association 109

6. The Solidago community 109

7. Dry prairie grass association Ill

8. A milkweed community 112

III. Relation of prairie animals to their environment 113

1. The black soil jarairie community 114

2. The prairie vegetation community 117

4. Interrelations within the prairie association 119

Page
IV. The forest associations 122

1. Introduction 122

2. Dry upland ( Querents and Carya) forest association 124

3. Artificial glade community in lowland forest 125

4. Humid lowland (hard maple and red oak) forest association. . . . 126

5. Animal association of a temporary stream 127

V. Eelation of the deeiiluous forest invertebrates to their environment. . . . 128

1. Forest soil community 129

2. The forest fungus community 135

3. The forest undergrowth community 138

4. The forest crown community 139

5. The tree-trunk community 142

6. The decaying wood community 148

7. Interrelations within the forest association 157

Ecologically annotated list: —

I. Prairie invertebrates 158-201

II. Forest invertebrates 201-238

Bibliography 239-264

Article II. — An Bcological Study of Prairie and Forest Inverte-
brates. By Charles C. Adams, Ph.D.

Introductory

In four generations a true wilderness has been transformed into
the present prosperous State of IlHnois. This transformation has been
so complete that in many parts of the state nearly all of the plant and
animal life of the original prairie- and forest has been completely ex-
terminated. Between the degree of change which has taken place in
any given area and the suitability of that area for agriculture there has
been an almost direct relation. Fortunately, however, for the preser-
vation of prairie and forest animals, the state is not homogeneous,
some areas being too hilly, rocky, or sandy for prosperous agriculture.

The character and mode of transformation w^hich has taken place
in the past is instructive in several particulars because it serves to
guide our anticipations as to the future of our fauna. The forested
southern part of the state (see frontispiece) was first invaded by trap-
pers and hunters, who began the extermination of the larger animals.
These invaders were in turn followed by others who, with the round
of the season, were hunters or farmers, and continued this exterminat-
ing process, particularly in the clearings, which began to replace the
forest. These pioneers, men of little wealth, possessed a combination
of mental and economic habits which was the result of life in a for-
ested country, and naturally they settled in those places most like their
former homes — within the forest or near the forest margin. From
these settlements they looked out upon the prairies as vast wastes to
be dreaded and avoided. As a result of this attitude toward the prai-
ries, it required some time, even a new generation, some economic
pressure, and a change of habits before the prairies were settled. Mean-
while the northern part of the state was yet a wilderness; but through
the influence of the Great Lakes, as a route of communication with
the populous East, a rapid invasion of settlers set in from that direc-
tion. Though these settlers also came from a wooded country, they
were more wealthy, settled upon a very fertile soil which was favorably
located with regard to eastward communication, and they therefore
progressed more rapidly than the less favored, more isolated southern
invaders on the poorer soil ; consequently they spread from the forest

34

to the prairie more rapidly than did the settlers in the South. There
thus developed two active centers of influence, each of which trans-
formed the primeval conditions in the same manner and in the same
direction toward an environment suitable for man.

The forests and the: upland prairie were first changed. Then the
fertile wet prairie was drained, so that today it has largely become
either the hilly and rocky areas that survive as forests or the low
periodically flooded tracts, and the undesirable sand areas which simi-
larly preserve patches of sand prairie. All the changes are more
rapid and complete upon fertile soil than upon the poorer soils in the
southern part of the state.

Such considerations as these will aid one in estimating the probable
rate of future changes in different parts of the state, and will serve to
show in what parts there is urgent need of local studies if ecological
records are to be made before extinction of some forms is complete.

A study has been made with the idea of reporting upon represen-
tative patches of prairie and forest in a manner which would aid others
in making similar local studies, and would at the same time preserve
some records of the present condition of the prairie and forest. When
this work was planned, we had no general or comprehensive discussion
of the conditions of life upon the prairie and in the forest. For this
reason a general summary of these conditions and a sketch of the gen-
eral principles involved are given, so that the reader may gain some
conception of the relation of the local problems to those of a broader
and more general character.

A section for this report was prepared giving general directions
for making such local studies, but later it was decided to publish this
separatelv, in somewhat extended form, as a "Guide to the Study of
Animal Ecology."* This volume should be regarded as intimately re-
lated to this paper, and this report should at the same time be consid-
ered as a concrete example of the procedure suggested in that "Guide"
for ecological surveys. It will be observed that the study of the
Charleston area here referred to has been conducted in much the same
way as was my cooperative study of Isle Royale, Lake Superior, en-
titled "An Ecological Survey of Isle Royale. Lake Superior" ('09),
although certain aspects have been elaborated here which, for lack of
time, were not treated there. The time devoted to the study of the
Charleston area was also limited, but in the preparation of the report
upon it use has been made of many years' experience and a general
knowledge of the prairie and forest. Without such a background

*The Maemillan Co. 1913.

35

much greater caution would have been necessary In discussing many
phases of the problem.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The study of the Charleston area was carried out with the coop-
eration of the Illinois State Laboratory of Natural History, through
its director, Prof. Stephen A. Forbes, and with the further coopera-
tion of Professors E. N. Transeau and T. L. Hankinson, of the East-
ern Illinois State Normal School, located at Charleston. Personally I
am indebted to Professor Forbes for the opportunity of taking part in
this study as the State Laboratory representative, and for the aid he
has given in the illustration of the report. To Professor Transeau I
am particularly indebted for the plant determinations, for lists of the
plants, and for evaporation data. To Professor Hankinson I am
under especial obligation for many specimens, which materially added
to my lists, and for a large number of photographs. I am indebted
likewise to my associates in this study for their hearty cooperation
throughout the progress of the work.

For the determination of entomological specimens I am indebted
primarily to Mr. C. A. Hart, Systematic Entomologist of the State
Laboratory of Natural History, who named most of the insects col-
lected. For the names of certain flies I am indebted to Mr. J. R. Mal-
loch, of this Laboratory. Others who have determined specimens are
as follows: N. Banks (Phalaugiida), J. H. Emerton (spiders), R. V.
Chamberlain (myriapods), F. C. Baker (Molkisca), Dr. W. T. M.
Forbes (lepidopterous larvae), Dr. M. C. Tanquary (ants). Dr. M. T.
Cook (plant galls), J. J. Davis {Aphididcc) , and Dr. A. E. Ortmann
(crawfishes collected by T. L. Hankinson). I am indebted to the U.
S. Geological Survey for photographs. Acknowledgments for illus-
trations are made under text figures and in explanations of plates.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE REGION AND LOCATION
OF THE ECOLOGICAL STATIONS

I. General Description of the Region

The town of Charleston, Coles county, Illinois, in the vicinity of
which these ecologic studies were made, is situated on the Shelbyville
moraine which bounds the southern extension of the older Wisconsin
ice-sheet. To the south of this moraine lie the poorer soils which char-
acterize so much of southern Illinois ; to the north, upon the older Wis-
consin drift, are some of the most productive soils found in the upper

36

Mississippi Valley. The economic, sociologic, political, and historical
significance of the difference in the soils of these regions is funda-
mental to any adecjiiate understandng of man's response to his ecolog-
ical environment within this area. Some of the results of this differ-
ence have long been known, but it is only in recent years that their
general bearing has been adequately interpreted in terms of the en-
vironment. Hubbard ('04) was the first, I believe, to show the sig-
nificance of this difference in soils and its influence upon local eco-
nomic problems. That such an important influence should affect one
animal (man) and not others seems very doubtful, and yet in only one
other case do we know that the lower animals respond to this ecologic
influence. Forbes ('07b) has shown that certain kinds of fish found
in streams on the fertile soils are wanting in streams on the poorer
soil. To what degree the land fauna and the native vegetation respond
to this distinction is not known, as this subject has not been investi-
gated except agriculturally. Here, then, is a factor in the physical
surroundings which should be reckoned with in any comprehensive
study of the biotic environment. In this portion of the state, on ac-
count of the differences in the soil, the physical environment is prob-
ably more favorable to certain organisms and less favorable to others,
and consequently, to a certain degree, the environment selects, or fa-
vors, some organisms. Through their activities and through other
agencies of dispersal, the animals along the borders between the two
soil types transgress these boundaries, and are therefore forced to
respond to the new conditions and to adjust themselves, if possible.

But the soil is not the only environmental influence which has pro-
duced an unstable zone or tension line in this area. A second factor is
the difference in the vegetation — the difference between the forest and
the prairie. In all probability. Coles county was at one time all prairie,
but the Kaskaskia and Embarras rivers, as they cut their valleys
through the moraine and developed their bottoms, have led forests
within the morainic border from farther south. The forests about
Charleston have extended from the Wabash River bottoms. On account
of the southerly flow of the Embarras through this county, the forest
and prairie tension line is about at right angles to that produced by the
differences in the soil. The forests have tended to spread east and west
from the streams and to encroach upon the prairie, and thus to restrict
its area more and more. The fundamental significance of the tension
between the forest and the prairie has long been known within the
state. It influenced its economic, social, political, and historic develop-
ment as much as any other single factor during its early settlement.
And just as Hubbard ('04) has shown the influence of soil upon man

37

within the state, so also has Barrows ('lo) shown the influence of the
forests and prairie upon the state's development. While the influence
of the soil upon the animal life of the state is not so well known or es-
tablished, the influence of prairie and forest upon the animals is univer-
sally recognized, even though the subject has been given relatively
little study by naturalists.

A third leading agency is the influence of man, who has trans-
formed the prairie and forest to make his own habitat. There are thus
recognized in the Charleston region three primary environmental in-
fluences: first, the relative fertility of the soil (this depending on the
geological history) ; second, the kind of vegetable covering, whether
prairie or forest (this probably depending largely on climatic condi-
tions) ; and third, the agency of man. The general background of the
Charleston region, then, ecologically considered, depends on the com-
bined influence of five primary and secondarv agencies, four of which
we may call natural and one artificial. All these are different in kind
and so independent that they tend toward different equilibria or dif-
ferent systems of unity. Two of these are due to differences in the
soil, two others to the character of the vegetation (whether prairie or
forest), and the fifth, or artificial one, is due to man. Though the
present report does not undertake to include all the problems centered
here, as any complete study would, it is desirable to see the relation of
our special study to the general problems of the region as a whole.

The undulating plain about Charleston, formed as a terminal mo-
raine, is broken along the small streams by ravines, which have cut a
few hundred feet below the general level of the region as they ap-
proached the larger drainage lines. The main drainage feature is the
Embarras River, which flows southwest about two to three miles east
of Charleston, in a narrow valley partly cut in rock. The wooded
areas are mainly near the streams; the remainder of the area is under
intensive cultivation.

During the preliminarv examination of the region, which was made
to aid in selecting representative areas for study, it soon became evi-
dent that the only samples of prairie which could give any adequate
idea of the original conditions were those found along the different
railway rights-of-way. Other situations, vastly inferior to these and
yet a valuable aid in the determination of the original boundaries of
the prairies, were the small patches or strips along the country roads.
Most of the patches of prairie along the railway tracks represent the
"black soil" type of prairie, which is extensively developed in this part
of the state upon the "brown silt loam" soil" (see Hopkins and Pettit,
'08 : 224-231). Much of the region studied was originally wet prairie

38

(which has since been drained), but some of the higher ground,
formed by the undulation of the surface and surrounded by the black
soil, is lighter in color and is well drained. Thus in the black soil areas
there are both wet and well-drained tracts, and corresponding differ-
ences in the habitats.

The originally wooded and the present wooded areas east of
Charleston, in the vicinity of the Embarras River, are in a region quite
different from the prairie both in topography and in soil. Here the re-
lief is much more pronounced, on account of both the proximity of the
river and the greater development of the drainage lines, which have cut
a few hundred feet below the general level of the country. The tribu-
tary valleys and ravines are numerous and steep-sided, and in general
are wooded, the density varying with the amount of clearing done.
Most of the soil of the wooded areas and along the bluffs is distinctly
lighter in color than that of the black soil prairie, and is presumably
"gray silt loam" (Hopkins and Pettit, '08 : 238-242), though along the
flood-plain and the river bottom the soils are mixed in character.

II. The Ecological Stations

In the study of an area or an animal association of any considera-
ble size two methods are available. One is to examine as much of the
area as is possible and secure data from a very wide range of condi-
tions. This method is useful in obtaining the general or broad features
of a region or an association, though to a corresponding degree it must
ignore local influences and details, and by it most of the previous stud-
ies upon prairie animals have been made. It seemed, therefore, that in
the present study a somewhat more intensive method was desirable,
particularly in view of the fact that the extinction of prairie and for-
est is rapidly progressing. The method followed was to examine a
large area in order to select a representative sample, and upon the
basis of this sample to make as intensive a study as time and circum-
stances would permit. This method has the advant^ige of making it
possible to preserve at least some record of the local details ; and at the
same time, to the degree that the selected area is a true sample, it also
gives the results a much wider application.

The prairie samples examined were all along the rights-of-w'ay,
and the forest was a second-growth woods on the bottoms and bluff
of the Embarras River, on a farm belonging, at that time, to Mr. J. I.
Bates. Practically all of the observations here reported upon were
made during August, 1910. The forest is a modified one, but it ap-
pears to have been cut over so gradually that its continuity as a forest
habitat was not completely interrupted, although the cutting has prob-

39

ably seriously influenced many animals, particularly those which fre-
quent mature forests, abounding in dead and dying trees and with an
abundance of logs upon the ground in all stages of decay. Such con-
ditions are the cumulative product of a fully mature climax forest. Of
course the conditions have also been influenced by the extinction, or
reduction in the number, of the original vertebrate population of the
forest.

The different localities or regions examined are, for brevity and
precision, indicated by Roman numerals; the particular minor condi-
tions, situations, or habitats, by italic letters. An effort has been made
to indicate the location of the place studied with enough precision to
enable students to re-examine the habitats at any future time (PI. I).
The photographs which accompany this report may also aid in locat-
ing the places studied. Had similar photographic records been
made fifty years ago, they would have been of much value and inter-
est to us in this study, in much the same way as fifty years hence this
report will form a part of the very limited record of the conditions
found at the present time.

List of Ecological Stations, Charleston, Illinois, August, ipio

Station I. Prairie along the right-of-way of the Toledo, St. Louis and
Western, or "Clover Leaf" R. R., between one and two miles north
of Charleston: Section 2, Township 12 N., Range 9 E., and S. 35,
T. 13N., R. 9 E. (PL I.)

a. Cord or Slough Grass (Spartina) and Wild Rye (Elymus) Asso-
ciation. At mile-post marked ' ' Toledo 318 miles and St. Louis 133
miles": S. 2, T. 12 N., R. 9 E.

b. Couch Grass (Agropyron smithii) Association. The distance of
two telegraph poles north of Station I, a, and west of the railway
track: S. 2, T. 12 E., R. 9 E.

c. Wild Rve (Elymus) Association. East and north of the "Yard
Limits"^ sign: S. 2, T. 12 N., R. 9 E. (PI. II, Fig. 1.)

d. Swamp Milkweed (Asclepias incarnata) Association. North of
first east-and-west cross-road north of Charleston ; east of railway
track : S. 35, T. 13 N., R. 9 E. A wet area. (PI. II, Fig. 2 ; PI. Ill,

Fig. 1.)

e. Cone-flower (Lepacliys pinnata) and Rosni-weed (Silplimm tere-
U7itliinaceu7n) Association. Just north of the preceding Station;
east of railway track: S. 35, T. 13 N., R. 9 E. (PI. V.)

/. Couch Grass (Agropyron smitliii) Association. West of radway
track : S. 35, T. 13 N., R. 9 E. Moist area.

g. Prairie Grass (Andropocjon furcatus and A. virgimcus and Si)0-
roholus cryptandrus) Association, bordered by Swamp Milkweed
(Asclepias incarnata) and Mountain Mint (Pycnantliemum flex-

40

uosum). This formed the north boundary of the area studied:
S. 35, T. 13 N., R. 9 E. (PI. Ill, Fig. 2 ; PI. IV, Fig. 1 and 2.)

Station II. Prairie area west of Loxa, Illinois. Right-of-way along the
Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago and St. Louis, or "Big Four,"
R. R.: Sections 10 and 11, Township 12 N., Range 8 E.

a. From one half mile west of Loxa west to near Anderson Road, to
telegraph pole No. 12330: S. 11, T. 12 N., R. 8 E. (PI. VI. and
VII.)

h. Prairie at Shea's: S. 17, T.12 N., R. 8 E.

c. Cord Grass (Spartina) Association. East of Shea's: S. 17, T.12
N., R.8 E.

Station III. Prairie east of Charleston. Right of way along the C. C. C.
& St. L. R. R. : S. 12, T. 12 N., R. 9 E. ; S. 5, 6, and 7, T. 12 N.,
R. 10 E.

a. Rosin-weed (SUpliium terehintJiinaceum) Association. Just west
of the place where the Ashmore Road crosses the Big Four track;
about one mile east of Charleston : S. 12, T. 12 N., R. 9 E.

h. Blue Stem (Andropogon) and Rosin-weed (SUpliium. terehintJiina-
ceum) Association. Three fourths of a mile east of the crossing of
the Ashmore Road and the Big Four track : S. 6 and 5, T. 12 N.,
R. 10 E. An area which grades from prairie into transitional for-
est conditions. (PI. VIII and IX.)

Station IV. Bates Woods. On the east bluffs and bottom of the Embar-
ras River, north of where the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago and
St. Louis, or Big Four, R. R. crosses the river. On the farm of
J. I. Bates: S. 5, T. 12 N., R. 10 E. (PI. X, Fii,'. 1 ; PI. XI, XII,
and XIII.)

a. Upland Oak-Hickory Association (Quercus alha and Q. velutina,
and Carya alha, C. glahra, and C. ovata.) Second-growth forest.
(PI. XII and XIII.)

h. Embarras Valley and Ravine Slopes, with Oak-Hickory Associa-
tion.

c. Red Oak (Quercus ruhra), Elm (TJlmus americana), and Sugar
Maple (Acer saccliarum) Association. Lowland or "second bot-
tom, ' ' Embarras Valley. (PI. XIV ; XV ; and XVI, Fig. 1 and 2.)

d. Small streamlet in South Ravine. This formed the southern bor-
der of the area examined. A temporary stream. (PI. XVII, Fig.
1 and 2.)

DESCRIPTION OF THE PRAIRIE HABITATS AND ANIMALS
I. Prairie Area North of Charleston, Station I

This area includes patches or islands of prairie vegetation oc-
curring along the right-of-way of the Toledo, St. Louis and West-

41

ern, or "Clover Leaf," Railway, north of Charleston. The south-
ern border began just beyond the area of numerous side tracks and ex-
tended north of the first east and west cross-road for a distance of
about one mile, to the place where the right-of-way is much narrowed
and fenced off for cultivation. This is a strip of land through the level
black soil area, which was originally composed of dry and wet prairie.
The higher portions have a lighter colored soil, and the lower parts
have the black and often wet soil which characterized the original
swamp or wet prairie. The railway embankment and the side drain-
age ditches have favored the perpetuation of patches or strips of these
wet habitats ; the excavations for the road-bed, on the other hand, have
accelerated drainage of the higher grounds. The soil taken from these
cuts and heaped up on the sides of the tracks reinforces the surface
relief noticeably in a region which is so nearly level. Through the
depressions fillings have been made in building the railway embank-
ment, and as a result the drainage has been interfered with in some
places.

The disturbances brought about by railway construction and main-
tenance have greatly modified the original conditions, so that the
prairie vegetation persists usually only in very irregular areas, some-
times reaching a maximum length equal to the combined distance be-
tween three or four consecutive telegraph poles — these poles are gen-
erally about 200 feet apart. In breadth the area is usually less than
the space between the ditch bordering and parallel to the road-bed or
embankment and the adjacent fence which bounds the right-of-way, or
about 40 feet. This entire right-of-way is about 100 feet wide. In
addition to these changes in the physical conditions, a large number of
weeds not native to the prairie have been introduced, opportunities for
this introduction being favorable, as railways traverse the entire area.
In general, attention was devoted solely to the areas or colonies of
prairie vegetation and their associated invertebrate animals, the areas
of non-prairie vegetation being ignored, not as unworthy of study, but
because the vanishing prairie colonies required all the time available.

I. Colony of Szvamp Grasses (Spartina mid Blymus) , Station I, a

This colony of slough grass (Spartina tnichauxiana) and wild rye
(Blymus) is located a short distance north of the "Clover Leaf" switch
tracks and just south of the telegraph pole marked "Toledo 318 miles
and St. Louis 133 miles." The length of this colony was about 40
paces.

During August, 19 10, it was dry, but probably in the spring and
early summer, rains make this area a habitat for swamp grasses.

Though it was an ahiiost pure stand of slough grass, with this were
mixed a few plants of wild rye (Blynius virginicus sitbninticiis and B.
canadensis). These grasses reach a height of abou: four feet. The
ground was very hard and dry, and there were large cracks in it.
A single collection of animals was made here, No. 179.

Common Names

Common Garden Spider

Ambush Spider

Differential Grasshopper, adult

and nymphs
Red-legged Grasshopper, adult

and nymphs
Texan Katydid
Meadow Grasshopper

Dorsal-striped Grasshopper
Black-horned Meadow Cricket
Four-spott-ed White Cricket
Ground-beetle
Sciomyzid fly

Scientific Names

Argiope aurantia
Misiimena aleatoria

Melanoplus differ entialis

Melanoplus femur-rubrum

Scudderia texensis

Orchelimum vulgare, adult, and

nymphs of vidgare or glaherri-

mum.
Xiphidium sirichnn
Qlcanthiis nigricornis
QEcanfJius quadripimctatus
Leptotrachelus dorsalis
Tctanoccra plumosa

The basic food-supply in such a habitat is of course the grasses, and
this fact fully accounts for the presence of large numbers of individ-
uals which feed upon grasses, as do the Orthoptera in general. But
the Orthoptera listed are not exclusively vegetable feeders, for Forbes
('05: 147) has shown that XipJiidiimi strictum feeds mainly upon in-
sects, chiefly plant-lice, as well as upon vegetable tissues, including fun-
gi and pollen; Orchelimum vidgarc (p. 144), largely upon plant-lice
and other insects; and CEcanthus qiiadripunctatus (p. 220), upon plant
tissues, pollen, fungi, and plant-lice. These observations were based
upon a study of the contents of the digestive tract. The food of the
sciomyzid fly is unknown. The garden spider lives exclusively upon ani-
mal food; and being abundant, it must exert considerable influence
upon other small animals. It not only destroys animals for its food, but
many others are ensnared in its web and thus killed. In one of the
webs I found a large differential grasshopper. The rank growth of
vegetation furnishes the necessary support for the webs of this spider.

Some of the insects, as Melanoplus differentialis and M. femur-
ruhriim, oviposit in the soil, but others — Scudderia texensis, Xiphid-
ium strictum, Orchelimum vidgare, and CEcanthus — deposit their

43

eggs in stems of plants or under the leaf-sheaths of grasses (Forbes,
'05: 143, 145, 148, 216). The mode of oviposition in these Orthop-
tera raises the question whether or not they are able to pass their com-
plete life cycle within this habitat. Are the species which oviposit in
the soil able to endure submergence during the wet season of the year,
or must they each year re-invade this habitat from the more favorable
adjacent regions? The sciomyzid fly is a regular inhabitant of such
situations, for an allied species, Tetanocera pictipcs Loew, has been
found by Needham ('01 : 580) to be aquatic, breeding on colonies of
bur reed (Spargmmim) , and Shelford ('13a: 188, 284) also finds
pUiuiosa in wet places.

The flower spider, Misumena, captures its prey direct, frequenting
flowers where its prey comes to sip nectar,

With more perfect drainage the character of this habitat would
change ; a more varied growth of vegetation would probably devel-
op ; and the relative abundance of the various kinds of animals would
also change. The present imperfect drainage is more favorable to the
accumulation of vegetable debris than if the habitat was connected
with a stream which could float it away. The periodical drying hastens
decay, and the deep cracks in the soil become burial places for various
kinds of organic debris.

2. Colony of Wild Rye, Blymus zirginiciis submitticus, Station I, c*

Wild rye is a swamp grass. This colony was located about half a
mile north of the colony of slough grass (Station I, a) and about 222
feet south of the first east and west cross-road north of Charleston.
For a/ general view of this grassy habitat see Figure i, Plate II. In
length this habitat extends about one third the distance between two
consecutive telegraph poles, or about 65 feet. The conditions of the
habitat are in general similar to those in the colony of Spartina. The
black soil was very dry and much cracked when examined, late in Au-
gust. Though a few plants of Asclepias siillivantii grew here among
the grass, it was a dense, almost pure stand of wild rye, which reached
a height of about three and a half feet.

Only a very few collections were made here, and these were for
the sole purpose of determining the general composition of the asso-
ciation.

These collections, Nos. 153, 180, and 181, were as follows:

*Aiiimals were not studied at Station I, 6, and therefore the location will not be
discussed here.

No.

1 80

No.

180

No.

180

No.

181

44

Common Garden Spider Argiope aurantia No. 153

Differential Grasshopper Mela no plus differentialis

Red-legged Grasshopper Melanoplus femur-rnhrum

Dorsal-striped Grasshopper Xiphidiiim strictum
Meadow Grasshopper Orchelimum vnlgare, adult,

and nymphs of vnlgare

or glaherrimum
Texan Katydid Scudderia texensis

These are all abundant species. O. vnlgare, by its persistent fid-
dling, is noticeable in all such grass spots during hot sunny weather.
A live differential grasshopper was found in the web of the garden
spider. A comparison of the two colonies of swamp grasses, Spartina
and Blymns, will probably help to give one a general idea of the kind
of invertebrates which were abundant in the original swamp-grass
area of this vicinity. It will be noticed that grass and grass eaters are
the dominant species, and that upon these a smaller number of preda-
ceous animals depend. The characteristic species are the Ortlioptera
and the garden spider. This spider, on account of its predaceous hab-
its, is able to live in a great variety of open situations, but does not
normally live in dense woodlands.

3. Wet Area of Szvamp Milkzveed (Asclepias incarnata), Station I, d

This colony of swamp milkweed was about one eighth of a mile
north of the east and west cross-road. This flat, poorly drained black-
soil area, about 80 feet long, was wet throughout August, crawfish
holes being abundant (PI. IIIA, fig. 2; PI. IIIB, figs, i, 2). To
the east, beyond the boundary fence, in the adjoining corn field, stood
a pool of water surrounded by a zone of yellowish weakened corn,
visited occasionally by a few shore birds. Along the east side of the
newly formed railway embankment (PI. Ill, fig. i) is a shallow
trench containing water and a growth of young willows (Salix) and
cottonwoods (Popnlns deltoides), also blue flags flris versicolor),
bulrush (Scirpns), and sedge (Carex). The characteristic plants
over this area were the abundant swamp milkweed (Asclepias incar-
nata, PI. IIIA, fig. I ) and Bidens. A few plants of water horehound
(Lycopiis) and dogbane (Apocyniim medium) were present, and many
individuals of a low plant with a winged stem (Lythrnni alatuni).

The collections (Nos. i, 12, 13, 14, 15, 18, 32, 37, 45, 156, and
157) of animals taken here were as follows:

45

Pond snail

Prairie Crawfish

Garden Spider

Ambush Spider

Chigger

Nine-spot Dragon-fly

Stink-bug

Small Milkweed-bug

Large Milkweed-bug

Ambush Bug

Tarnished Plant-bug

Soldier-beetle

Black Flower-beetle

Four-eyed Milkweed-beetle

Milkweed-beetle

Leaf-beetle

Dogbane Beetle

Celery Butterfly

Philodice Butterfly

Idalia Butterfly

Milkweed Butterfly

Honeysuckle Sphinx

Giant Mosquito

Giant Fly

Honey-bee

Pennsylvania Bumblebee

Bumblebee

Bumblebee

Carpenter-bee

Rusty Digger-wasp

Galba iiinhilicata

i8

Cambarns gracilis

Argiope aurantia

Misiimena aleatoria

157

Tromhidium sp.

%j f

Libclliila pulchella

Biischistiis variolarius

12

Lygccus kalmii

12

Oncopeltiis fascia tits

I

Phymata fascia ta

12

Lygiis pratcnsis

12

Chauliognathus pcnnsylvaniciis

156

Hnphoria scpiilchralis

156

Tetraopes tetraoph thalmus

12

Tetraopes femoratiis (?)

I

Diahrotica atrip ennis

I

Chrysochus auratiis

14

Papilio polyxenes

15. 45

Bitrymus philodice

12

Argynnis idalia ■

33

Anosia plexippiis

Hemaris diffinis

32

PsoropJiora ciliata

13

Mydas clavatus

12

Apis mellifera

Bonihus pennsylvanicus

155

Bonibus f rat emus

12

Bombus separatus

12, 157

Xylocopa virginica

1,156

Chlorion iclinciinwncutn

12

The soft, wet, black soil contained large numbers of crawfish holes,
and from several of them T. L. Hankinson dug specimens of Cambarns
gracilis. Frogs (Rana) were seen but none were secured. A Caro-
lina rail was flushed from the ditch along the track, and on the mar-
gins of the water in the adjacent corn field Mr. Hankinson recognized
some shore birds. The dragon-fly Libclliila pulchella was abundant on
the wing and resting on the vegetation, and two examples were found
in the webs of Argiope aurantia. No nymphs were found, but doubt-
less eggs were laid by some of the numerous adults. It was interest-
ing to observe the fresh burrows of the crawfish which had traversed
the fresh firm yellow clay of the recently reinforced railway embank-

46

ment (shown in PI. II, fig. 2) and appeared upon its surface. The
occurrence here of a small snail, Galba iiinbilicata, is of interest. A
very large species of mosquito with conspicuously banded legs, Psoro-
phora cilia ta, was found here. Though these aquatics and the ground
forms did not receive much attention, they are representative of wet
places.

The presence of certain plants in this habitat bus determined the
occurrence of several species of animals. Thus the dogbane Apocy-
niim medium accounts for the brilliantly colored leaf-beetle Chry-
sochiis auratus, which feeds upon its leaves and roots. But the most
conspicuous feature of this habitat in August is the variety of insects
which are attracted by the flowers of the swamp milkweed. These
flowers may be regarded as so much insect pasture. A few butterflies
were observed, Papilio polyxenes being found in an Argiope web; and
on the flowers of the swamp milkweed were Papilio crcsphontcs, Bury-
mus philodice, Argynnis idalia, Anosia plexippus, and the honeysuckle
sphinx (Heinaris diffiiiis). Among the most abundant Hynieuoptera
were the honey-bee (Apis mellifcra) and the common rusty digger-
wasp (Chlorion ichnciiiuoneuni). Others were the carpenter-bee
(Xylocopa virginica)- and the bumblebees Bonibus fratermis and sep-
arafiis. On the flowers of the thistle (Cirsiinn) near this station, Bom-
btts pe^insylvanicus was also taken The giant fly (Mydas davatus)
was taken on the flowers of the swamp milkweed. Beetles from these
flowers were the spotted milkweed-beetles (Tctraopes tetraophthaUiius
and fenioratiis?) the flower-beetle BupJioria sepulcliralis, and, late
in August, great numbers of the soldier-beetle CJiaidiognatlius penn-
syhanicus. The Heiniptera found are equally characteristic, and in-
clude both of the common milkweed-bugs (Oncopeltus fasciatus and
Lygccus kalmii) and Lygus pratensis. Still other insects were present
on the milkweeds, preying not upon the plant, but upon its guests.
These were the ambush bug (P/iyniafa fasciafa) and the ambush
spider (Mismnena aleatoria), the latter being captured with a large
bumblebee (Bonibus separatus) in its grasp. It is thus quite evident
that this milkweed has an important controlling influence upon the in-
sects of this habitat at this season. Another abundant animal was the
chigger, a larval mite of the genus Tronibidium, whicli is brushed from
the vegetation by one's arms and legs. These irritating pests were so
abundant that to work with comfort in this region it was necessary
to powder one's clothes and body with flowers of sulphur. These
young six-legged mites are supposed to prey upon insects, as do the
adults. According to Chittenden ('06 14) chiggers are most abun-
dant in damp places and forest margins, and among shrubs, grass,

47

and herbage. The adults are known to eat plant-Hcc, small caterpil-
lars, and grasshoppers' eggs. This mite is thus an important preda-
ceous member of the association. The dragon-flies are well known to
feed upon small insects, which they capture on the wing, and on ac-
count of their abundance they are influential insects here.

An examination of the list of animals secured at this station
shows that there is considerable diversity in the conditions under which
their breeding takes place. Indeed the breeding habits and places are
almost as diverse as are the feeding relations. Thus the snail Galba
breeds in the water; and the crawfish, Cambarns gracilis, lives as a bur-
rower except for a brief period in spring, when it is found in streams.
It is distinctly a subterranean species. The garden spider, in the fall,
leaves its eggs in its web. The Hfe history of the ambush spider is not
known. It seems probable that the sexes meet upon flowers, and as
the flowers fade they migrate to fresh ones — a response wdiich Han-
cock has observed ('ii : 182-186) in the allied species Misumcna
vatia. The ambush bug, when found on flowers, is in a large number
of cases copulating, but where the eggs are laid and the young devel-
oped is unknown to me. Though this bug also must migrate with the
fading of the flowers, after the habit of Misumena, it is winged and
does not have to go "on foot" as the spider probably does. When dis-
turbed these bugs do not as a rule seek to escape by flight, and it is not
unlikely that they often crawl from one flower to another when the
distance is short. The soldier-beetle is similar to the ambush bug in
its propensity to copulate on flowers. The milkweed beetles and the
dogbane beetle are commonly seen copulating upon the leaves and
stems of the plants on which they live. The larva of the milkweed
beetles bore into the roots and stems of plants ; the dogbane beetle has
similar habits. Of the butterflies, Anosia was observed copulating on
the willows, one sex with the wings spread, the fore ones overlapping
in part the hinder pair, the other sex with the wdngs folded together
vertically, the heads of the insects being turned in opposite directions.
The eggs of the mosquito are laid near the surface of the water. The
honey-bee and bumblebees are social, and the breeding and care of
the young are quite different from those of the other animals found
in this habitat. Xylocopa cuts the nest for its brood in solid wood,
and seems rather foreign upon the prairie, although posts and ties
are now to be found there. The rusty digger-wasp provisions its nest,
which is dug in the ground, with various grasshoppers ; upon these the
tgg is laid and the young larva feeds. This wasp probably did not
breed in this moist habitat. The wet substratum here is probably un-
favorable for the breeding of those Orthoptcra which deposit their
eggs in the soil.

48

4- Cone-flower and Rosin-zi'ecd Colony, Station I, e

This station was continuous with and just north of the swamp
milkweed area (Station l,d) just described. The surface of the
ground sloped gently upward toward the north, but none of it was free
from crawfish holes, and the ground-w^ater level was not far below.
The soil is very dark in color.

The general appearance of this habitat is shown in Plate V. The
large-leaved plants are SilpJiium terebinfliinaccum, and the heads of
the numerous cone-flowers (Lepachys pinnata) show as black points in
the picture. The cone-flower was the dominant plant at this time.
There were a few scattered plants of Silphium intcgrifoliiim and of
wild lettuce (La'ctiica canadensis). At the time the collecting was done
in this area Silphium was not in blossom, and all the flower-collecting
was from Lepachys.

The collections of animals taken here (Nos. 8, 40, and 158) are
as follows :

Crawfish

Garden Spider

Sordid Grasshopper

Differential Grasshopper

Red-legged Grasshopper

Texan Katydid

Dorsal-striped Grasshopper

Black-horned ^leadow Cricket

Membracid bug

Jassid

Lygseid

Ambush Bug

Chrysomelid beetle

Southern Corn Root-worm

Beetle
Robber-fly
Trypetid fly
Eucerid bee
Eucerid bee
Xomadid bee
Social wasp

Canibarus sp. (Burrows observed)

Argiope aurantia 40

Bncoptolophus sordidus 158

Melanopliis differentialis 40

Melanoplus fenwr-ruhrum 40

Scudderia texensis 40

Xiphidiitni strictum 40

CEcanthus nigricornis 40

Canipylcnchia curvata 40

Platymetopius frontalis 40

Ligyrocoris sylvestris 40

Phymata fascia ta 40

Xodonota convexa 40

Diabrotica 12-punctata 40

A si li dee —

Euaresta ceqnalis 40

Melissodes biniaculata 8

McUssodes obliqua 8

Epeolus concolor 8

Polistes sp. —

Collection No. 40 was made by sweeping the vegetation with an in-
sect net. No. 8 is a collection made from the flowers of Lepachys pin-
nata. The nest of Polistes was across the railway track from this
station. The abundance of Melissodes obliqua and of the pretty

49

Hpeolus concolor on the flowers of Lcpacltys indicates the attractive
power of this plant. The coarser plants furnish support for the webs
of Argiope; the flowers serve as drinking cups in which Phymata lies
in ambush ; and the varied vegetation affords food for the numerous
Orthoptcra. The proximity of ground-water accounts for the pres-
ence of Cainbarus, and an adjacent corn field explains the presence
of Diabrotica. A robber-fly (Asilidcr) was seen but not captured. It is
interesting to see Melissodes obliqua as it hurries round and round the
heads of cone-flowers and sweeps up the great masses of yellow poilcn.
The hind pair of legs, when loaded with pollen, have nearly the bulk
of the abdomen. Robertson ('94; 468) says that this is the most
abundant visitor to the cone-flower, and more abundant on this flower
than on any other.

It is probable that the conditions within this habitat were suitable
for the breeding of most of the species listed. Huaresta cequalis has
been bred from the seed pods of the cocklebur (Xanthium) and prob-
ably came from the adjacent corn field. It is most likely on flowers
that the strepsipterid parasitic insects find many of their hosts (Pierce
'09 b : 116). These insects are found on the following prairie insects :
Polistes, Odyneriis, CJdorion icJincuinoncum, C. pennsylvanicum, and
C. atratum. Robertson ('10) records many important observations on
the hosts of Illinois Strepsiptera.

5. Colony of Blue Stem (Aiidropogon) and Drop-seed (Sporobolus) ,
bordered by Szvanip Milkweed, Station I, g*

This colony formed the extreme northern part of the prairie area
examined along the "Clover Leaf" track. It extended along the track
for a distance of about 200 feet. The area is level black soil prairie.
Its general appearance and location are indicated in Figure 2, Plate
II, and in Figure 2, Plate III, photographs taken at the time of our
study, and in Figure 2, Plate IV, a photograph taken by T. L. Hankin-
son April 23, 191 1. This latter view clearly shows the character of the
drainage during the spring wet season. During the late summer, the
dry season, the ditch along the railway track concentrates the drainage
so that a colony of swamp milkweed (Asclepias incarnata) and small
willows flourish in it. Upon the well-drained part of this area there is
a rather rich growth of Andropogon ftircatus, A. virginiciis, and
Sporobolus cryptandrus, and many plants of the dogbane Apocynnm
medium and a few plants of Asclepias sullivantii. This was the larg-
est and best colony of the upland prairie grasses seen along the Clover
Leaf tracks ; and yet when it is compared with the patches of such

*No collections were made at Station I, /.

50

grass east of Charleston (Station III) it is a meager colony. Just
south of this grassy colony was a large one of the mountain mint.
Pycnanthemum flexuosum. This is shown in Figure i, Plate IV.

The collections of animals (Nos. i, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 19, 28a, 36, 39, 44,
157, and 159) are as follows:

Pond snail

Crawfish

Harvest-man

Garden Spider

Ambush Spider

Red-tailed Dragon-fly

Nine-spot Dragon-fly

Prairie Ant-lion

Lace-wing Fly

Grasshopper

Sordid Grasshopper

Differential Grasshopper

Red-legged Grasshopper

Texan Katydid

]\Ieadow Grasshopper

Cone-nosed Katydid

Four-spotted White Cricket

Stink-bug

Small Milkweed-bug

Large Milkweed-bug

Rapacious Soldier-bug

Ambush Bug

Four-eyed Milkweed Beetle

Rhipiphorid beetle

Bill-bug

Milkweed Butterfly

Giant Mosquito

Mycetophilid fly

Giant Bee-fly

Vertebrated Robber-fly

Honey-bee

Bumblebee

Bumblebee

Eucerid bee

Nomadid bee

Leaf-cutting bee

Rusty Digger-wasp

Myzinid wasp

rliysa gynna

19

Cambarus sp.

Liobunum politiimf

7

Argiope aurantia

6, 39

Misiunena aleatoria 6,

157. 159

Sympetrnm rubicundiiliim

7

Libcllula piilchella

B rachynemurus abdo minalis

36

Chrysopa oculata

44

Syrbula admirabilis

3

BncoptolopJnis sordidus

44

Melanoplus differcntialis

39

Mclanopliis femiir-rubrum

3. 39

Scudderia texensis

2, 44

Orchelimmn vidgare

. 3

ConocepJialus sp.

159

Qlcanthiis 4-piinctatits

3

Buschistiis variolariiis

39

Lygcrus kalmii

1,6

Oncopeltus fascia tiis

I

Sinca diadema

6

Phymata fasciata

I

Tctraopcs tctraophthaUmis

I

Rhipiphoriis dimidiatus

6

Sphenophoriis venatiis

39

Danais archippus

Psorophora cilia ta

44

Sciara sp.

6

Bxoprosopa fasciata

6

Promachits vertebratus

39. 44

Apis mclUfica

I

Boinbus fratcrnits

I

Bombus separatus

I

Melissodes hiniacidata

6

Bpeolus concolor

6

Megachile mendica

I

Chlorion ichneumoneum

I

Myziiie sexcincta

I, 6

51

Physa and Camharus were found among the milkweeds on account
of the wet ground, and the presence of the giant mosquito was prob-
ably due to the same condition. The majority of the other animals
were attracted to this habitat by the milkweed, particularly by its flow-
ers. Among these were the milkweed bugs and beetles, the milkweed
butterfly, the honey-bee, and the rusty digger-wasp. The dense growth
of the milkweeds does not appear to be so favorable to the garden
spider as is the more open and irregular growth of vegetation else-
where. The ambush spider frequented the milkweed flowers for prey
and also the flower masses of the mountain mint, on which it was in
active competition with the ambush bug and the rapacious soldier-bug,
which have similar food habits. The mountain mint, whose flowers
are frequented by the predaceous animals just mentioned, is also vis-
ited by rhipiphorid beetles, the bee-fly (Bxoprosopa fasciata) , the bees
Mclissodes himacnlata and Bpeolus concolor, and the myzinid wasp
Myzine sexcincta. The prairie grasses were frequented by a large
variety of Orthoptera, which showed a decided preference for them,
their abundance being evident in the list. The wide-ranging predators
and parasites, such as Liohunnm, Libellnla, Sympefrum, Chrysopa,
Brachynemunis, Promachiis, Clilorion, and Myzine, probably forage
over extensive areas compared with the relatively sedentary kinds,
such as Misuniena, Argiope, Phymata, and Sinea. Pliymata was cap-
tured on a milkweed flower with a honey-bee ; Promachiis vertehratiis
was taken on a grass stem with a stink-bug (Buscliistus variolarius) ;
and Misiimena aleatoria was taken with a large, nearly mature female
nymph of Conoccplialus.

The conditions which permit an animal to breed in a habitat have
an important influence upon the character of its population. It is evi-
dent that manv of the animals taken do not breed here. Some of the
relatively sedentary kinds, such as Physa, Camhams, and Argiope, and
probably Misumeiia, do not cover long distances. Good examples of
the wider ranging forms are Synipetruni, Lihcllula, Danais, Prouia-
chus, Apis, Bonihus, and Chlorion. Several of the animals, as the
snails, crawfish, and the dragon-flies, require an aquatic habitat.
Chrysopa places its eggs among colonies of plant-lice, and Brachyne-
murus probably spends its larval life in dry or sandy places, feeding
upon ants and other small insects, as do other ant-lions. Several of
the Orthoptera deposit their eggs in the soil ; and some of the locustids,
among grasses and herbaceous stems. Others are found copulating
upon the plants on which the young feed, as Tetraopes, Chrysochus,
Lygceits, and Oncopeltns; and still others copulate in the flowers
mainly, as Phymata. It is probable that on the flowers some of the para-

52

sitic species find their hosts, as Pierce ('04) has shown' to be the case
I'n the rhipiphorid genus Myodites. Rhipiphorus is probably parasitic.

6. Supplementary Collections from Station I

In addition to the specimens given in the preceding lists for Station
I there are others, general collections from this area, which should be
listed for this prairie. For details concerning each species of the fol-
lowing consult the annotated list.

Garden Spider

Argiope aiirantia

26

Ambush Spider

Mismnena aleatoria

31

Chigger

Trombidium sp.

Dorsal-striped Grasshopper

Xip Indium s trie turn

35

Coreid bug

Harnwstes reflexulus

27

Ambush Bug

Phyniata fasciata

24, 26, 43

Ladybird

Hippodaniia parenthesis

Hankinson

Leaf-beetle

Trirhabda tomentosa

Hankinson

Four-eyed Milkweed Beetle

Tetraopes 4-ophthahniis

35

Old-fashioned Potato Beetle

Bpicauta vittata

Hankinson

Margined Blister-beetle

Bpicauta marginata

Hankinson

Black Blister-beetle

Bpicauta pcnnsylvamca

26, 152

Snout-beetle

Centrimis peniccllus

41

Snout-beetle

Centrinus scutcllum-albmn

Hankinson

Giant Bee-fly

Bxoprosopa fasciata

24, 31

American Syrphid

Syrphus americaniis

II

Tachinid fly

Trichopoda ruficauda

38

Bumblebee

Bondnis separalus

22

False Bumblebee

Psithyrus varia bills

22

Eucerid bee

Melissodes obliqua

24, 48

Short Leaf-cutting Bee

Megachile brevis

Hankinson

Halictid bee

Halictiis fascia tits

26

Halictid bee

Halictns z'irescens

23

Stizid wasp

SticHs brevipennis 35,

Hankinson

Rusty Digger-wasp

Chlorion ichneumoneum

6

Harris Digger-wasp

Chlorion harrisi

24

Digger-wasp

A mmophila nigricans

24

Solitary wasp

Odynerus vagus

46

II. Prairie Area near Loxa, Illinois, Station II

This station includes patches of prairie along the Cleveland, Cin-
cinnati. Chicago and St. Louis (Big Four) railroad right-of-way be-
tween Charleston and Mattoon, 111., and about one mile west of

53

the small station of Loxa. Along this track the telegraph-pole num-
bers were used in locating our substations. This is a rather level black
soil area, originally poorly drained and wet, but now considerably
modified by the ditching and grading occasioned by railway construc-
tion and maintenance. The changes have been similar to those on the
prairie north of Charleston, but the ditching has been a few feet deeper
and the embankment is higher. The most abundant and characteristic
kinds of vegetation are the tall prairie grasses — blue stem (Andropo-
gon furcatiis), drop-seed (Sporobolus cryptandrus) , and beard grass
(Andropogon virgimcus) — a rosin-weed (SilpJiium laciniatiini), the
flowering spurge (BupJiorhia corollata), wild lettuce (Lactuca can-
adensis), rattlesnake-master (Bryngiinn yucci folium), and beggar-
ticks (Desnwdinni). Many other kinds of plants were also present.
The general appearance of this habitat is shown in plates VI and VII.
Our collections from this prairie (Nos. 47-57 and 176-178) are as
follows :

Garden Spider
Ambush Spider
Sordid Grasshopper
Two-lined Grasshopper
Differential Grasshopper
Meadow Grasshopper
Lance-tailed Grasshopper
Dorsal-striped Grasshopper
Stink-bug
Ambush Bug

Dusky Leaf-bug

Soldier-beetle

Southern Corn Root-worm

Margined Blister-beetle

Black Blister-beetle

Rhipiphorid beetle

Rhipiphorid beetle

Snout-beetle

Thoe Butterfly

Dogbane Caterpillar

Giant Bee-fly

Robber-fly

Vertebrated Robber-fly

Corn Syrphid

Syrphid fly

Argiope aiirantia 49,179

Misiinicna aleatoria 47, 178

Bncoptolophus sordidiis 48

Mclanoplus bivittatus 55

Mclanopliis differentialis 48

OrcJicliuium. vulgare 178

Xipliidinm attcmiatiim 48

Xiphidiiun strictum 48, 50, 57

Bnschistus variolariiis 50, 52, 178
Phymata fasciata

48, 52, 54, 55, 57, 178

Adclpliocoris rapidus 55
CJiauliognathus pennsylvanicus 178

Diabrotica 12- punctata
Bpicauta marginata
Bpicauta pennsylvanica
Rhipipliorus dimidiatns
Rhipiplwrus limbatiis
Rhynchitcs ccncus
Chrysophanes tJioe
Amnialo eglenensis or tenera

Bxoprosopa fasciata
Deromyia sp.
Proniachus vertcbratus
Mesogramma politimi
Allograpta obliqua

55
48

48, 178

52

178

48

55
53
176

51

56

177

177

47. 57.

54

Tachinid fly Cisfogaster immaciilata 55

Pennsylvania Bumblebee Bomhus pennsylvanicus 50, 52, 55, 176

False Bumblebee PsitJiyrns variabilis 176

Eucerid bee Mclissodcs himacnlata 48

Nomadid bee EpcoUis concolor 48, 52

Halictid bee Halictus ohscnnis 55

Halictid bee Halictus fasciatus 48, 52

Black Digger-wasp Clilorion atratum 55

Pennsylvania Digger-wasp Chlorion pennsylvanicum 55

Alyzinid wasp My due sexcincta 52, 55

Ant Formica pallid c-fidva schaufussi

incerta 52

The general conditions of this prairie appear to have been less dis-
turbed than at Station I ; at least the prairie vegetation is more exten-
sive and uniform. The change in the vegetation is i^pparently greater
than the change in the kinds of animals. Their feeding and breeding
relations appear to be much like those at the prairie stations previously
discussed.

In the flowers of the cup-leaved rosin-weed (Silphimn integri-
foliuui) was found a giant bee-fly (Bxoprosopa fasciafa) which had
been captured by the ambush spider (Misiimcna alcatoria) , and on
webs in colonies of this same plant the garden spider (Argiope aiiran-
tia) was observed, with a grasshopper (Melanoplus diffcrentialis) en-
tangled in the web. From the flowers of this SUpJiiuui the following
insects were taken : Epicauta marginata and B. pcnnsylvanica, Rhyn-
chitcs (uncus, Phyniata fasciafa, Encoptolopluis sordidus, Melanoplus
diffcrentialis (nymph), Xiphidiuni strictuni (adult and nymph), A'.
attcnuatuni, Mclissodcs hiniaculata and obliqua, Bpcolus concolor, and
Halictus fasciatus. The margined blister-beetle (Bpicauta marginata)
was found both upon the flowers and the leaves of the plant. On the
flowers of the purple prairie clover {Petalosteniuni purpurewni), Bom
bus pcnnsyh'anicus, Xiphidium strictum, and Buscliistus variolarius
were taken. Collection 176 was taken from the flowers of Liatris
scariosa, and Nos. 55 and 178 from the flowers of Bryngium yiicci-
folium.

Swarms of the small corn syrphid, Mesogramma politum, were
present, on one day settling by dozens on my hands and clothes, where
they were easily grasped by the wing. It had been a warm day, and
this swarming was in the sunshine at about 4 :30 p. m. The flies came
from a large corn field a few feet away.

55

III, Prairie Area East of Charleston, Station III

This prairie area is about two miles east of Charleston along the
"Big Four" railway track. There were two colonies here. One, sub-
station a, was on low black-soil prairie just west of the first north and
south road crossing the railway track east of Charleston. This was
largely a colony of the large-leaved rosin-weed, Silphiimi terebinthi-
naceuni. The second colony, substation h, was a mile and a half di-
rectly east of substation a, and half a mile east of the second north and
south road east of Charleston.

Substation or "station" a was originally far out upon the black soil
prairie ; h, on the other hand, is of special interest because it was origi-
nally wooded, has been cleared and maintained as a railroad right-of-
way, and contains today, therefore, a practically unique mixture of for-
est and prairie plants and animals, with the prairie kinds dominating.
The soil, lighter in color than the black soil prairie, is representative of
the wooded regions. This colony has every appearance of a cleared
forest area invaded by prairie organisms.

The animals at station a were not studied, and the only record is
that of the black blister-beetle, Bpicauta pennsyhanica (No. 119),
which was abundant on the flowers of Silphiiim terebinthinaceitm.

At station b excavation was necessary to' lower the road-bed, and
upon the disturbed soil thus thrown up along the track the prairie veg-
etation had become established. The general appearance of this region
is shown in plates VIII and IX. Here grew large quantities of rosin-
weed (Silphiiim terebinthinacciun) and blue stem (Andropogon) ; in
places upon high ground, indeed, this prairie grass was dominant.
Associated with it was the flowering spurge, Buphorhia coroUata, as
seen in Plate VIII. The forest near by is shown in the background.
This same forest and grass area is shown in the background and mid-
dle of Plate IX, and in the foreground of the same picture is shown
the mixture of prairie and forest plants. Here are hickory sprouts,
crab-apple, grape, sumac, and smilax, intermingled with Silphiiim,
blue stem, and Lactiica canadensis. Not all of these appear in the
photograph, but they were present in some parts of the colony.

The collections here (Nos. 58-62 and 175) are as follows:

Leather-colored Grasshopper Schistocera alntacea 59

Black-horned Meadow Cricket Q^cauthiis nigricornis 62

Meadow Grasshopper Orchelimiim vulgar e 175

Soldier-beetle Chanliognathus pcnnsylv aniens 175

Spotted Grape-beetle Pclidnota punctata 58

Black Blister-beetle Bpicauta pcnnsvlvanica

(Sta. Ill, a) 119

56

Cabbage Butterfly Pontia rapce 6i

Vertebrated i^obber-fly Proniachits vertehratus 62

Pennsylvania Bumblebee Bomhus pennsylvanicus 175

Impatient Bumblebee Bomhus impatiens 175

Bumblebee Bombns auricomus 175

(Rose-gall) Rhodites nebulosus 60

No animals were taken here which were dependent upon the sumac,
hickory, crab-apple, or smilax. Pclidnota lives upon the grape, and
grapes are primarily woodland or forest-margin rather than prairie
plants. ScJiistoccrca is also probably a marginal species. On the flow-
ers of Silphiuni terchinthinaccum were taken Orchelimum vidgare,
Chauliognathus pennsylvanicus, and Bonibus pennsylvanicus, auri-
comus, and impatiens.

The persistence of woodland vegetation in this locality, in spite
of the repeated mowings and burnings, shows that it has much vigor,
and would, if undisturbed, in a few years shade out the prairie vege-
tation and restore the dominance of the forest. With such a change in
the vegetation there would of course be a corresponding change in the
animals.

DESCRIPTION OF THE FOREST HABITATS AND ANIMALS

/. The Bates Woods, Station IV

The Bates woodland area is located about three and a half miles
northeast of Charleston on the farm that was owned by Mr. J. I. Bates,
and consists of about 160 acres. It includes a bottom-land area near
the Embarras River, and extends up the valley slope on to the upland.
It is isolated from the trees bordering the river (PI. X, fig. i) by a
narrow clearing, and from those on the northeast, north, and north-
west by another clearing (PI. XI) ; on the south and southwest it is
continuous with partially cleared areas, which extend south to the Big
Four railway track.

The river bottom-land is undulating and rises rather gradually
toward the base of the bluffs. The bluff line is irregular on account of
the ravines which have been etched in it, the largest of which forms
the southern boundary of the region examined. The upland is rela-
tively level. The soils on the bottom are darker colored, except in
places near the base of the bluff, and at the mouths of the ravines
where the upland soil has been washed down. The upland soil is pre-
sumably the "light gray silt loam" of the State Soil Survey (Moultrie
County Soils, 111. Exper. Sta. Soil Rep., 191 1, No. 2, p. 23). All of

57

the area examined was well drained, and all was forested. ^The region
is not homogeneous physically or in its vegetation, and for this reason
' the area is divided into substations in order that the influences of the
local conditions within the forest might be preserved, and their indi-
viduality recognized.

2. The Upland Oak-Hickory Forest, Station IV, a

The general appearance of this forest is shown in plates XII and
XIII. This is an open second-growth forest composed of oaks and
hickories — such as white oak (Quercus alba), black oak (Q. vclutina),
shag-bark hickory (Carya ovata) , bitternut (C. cordiforniis) , pignut
(C. glabra), and scattered individual trees of red oak (Q. rubra), wal-
nut (Jnglans nigra), and mulberry (Morus rubra). The shrubs are
sassafras (Sassafras variifoliiim), sumac (Rhus glabra), Virginia
creeper (Psedcra quinquefolia) , poison ivy (Rhus toxicodendron),
rose (Rosa), raspberry (Rubus), moonseed (Menisperniuni cana-
dense) , and tree seedlings. The average diameter of the largest trees
is 8-IO inches. Most of the small growth consists of the sprouts from
stumps, and many of these are 2-3 inches in diameter. The forest
crown is not complete, and as a consequence there are more or less open
patches in which most of the herbaceous growth is found, such as
horse mint (Monarda bradburiana), pennyroyal (Hcdcoma pide-
gioides), everlasting (Antenuaria plantaginifolia), tick-trefoil (Des-
modium nudifloruui) , and other, less abundant kinds. Even a plant
quite characteristic of the prairie, the dogbane Apocynuin, was found
here in one of the open glades.

The forest floor has an unequal covering of dead leaves, largely
oak, most of which lie in the low vegetation and in slight depressions.
Occasionally there is but little cover and the light-colored soil is ex-
posed. There are few stumps and logs in this part of the forest, and
no thick layer of vegetable mold, so that one would not expect to find
any animals which normally frequent moist soil and vegetable debris.
As this is a second-growth forest it lacks the conditions which abound
in an original growth, where are old, dead and decaying trees, and
numerous decaying logs and stumps. In this respect the woods is not
fully representative of an original upland forest on well-drained bluff
land.

The relative evaporating power of the air of this substation was 54
per cent, of that of the standard instrument in the open garden at the
Normal School, a fact which indicates a relative evaporation com-
parable to that of the ordinary black-soil prairie ; in producing this con-
dition, the glade-like, open character of this forest is undoubtedly
an important factor.

58

The characteristics of this habitat may be summed up as follows :
upland, open, relatively dry second-growth oak-hickory forest, with
little undergrowth of shrubs and herbs, and with a small amount of
litter and humus ; soil dry and firm ; and few decaying stumps and tree
trunks.

The collections of animals made here (Nos. 64-67, 69, 71, 74-83,
88, 91-93, 102, 103, 107, 109, 118. 120-123, 127, 135, 136, 142, 145,
147, 150, 151, 162, 163. 166, 169, 170, 171, and 183) are as follows:

Land snail

Predaceous snail

Land snail

Carolina slug

Land snail

Harvest-spider

Harvest-spider

Stout Harvest-spider

Island Spider

White-triangle Spider

Rugose Spider

Ground Spider

\Miite Ant

Ant-lion

Dog-day Harvest-fly

Periodical Cicada

Forest Walking-stick

Grouse Locust

Short-winged Grouse Locust

Green Short- winged

Grasshopper
Sprinkled Grasshopper
Boll's Grasshopper
Lesser Grasshopper
Acridiid grasshopper
Acridiid grasshopper
Forked Katydid
Angle-winged Katydid
Common Katydid
Meadow Grasshopper
Meadow Grasshopper
Striped Cricket
Spotted Cricket
Woodland Cricket

Polygyra alholahris 91

Circinaria concava 71

Zoiiitoides arhorea 71

PJiilomycus carolinensis 71

Pyramidula perspectiva 71, 88

Liohunum vittatmn 82, 123

Liohumim ventricosinn 123b

Liohunum grande 82

Bpcira insularis 70

Epe'ira verrucosa 70

Acrosoma rugosa 70, 147

Lycosa sp. 142, 150

Vermes flavipes "^2, 76, 79
Myrmeleonidcv (Forest border) 183

Cicada linnei 162

Tibicen septendecim —

Diapheromera femora ta 64, 93

Tcttigidea lateralis 109

Tettigidea pari'ipennis 122
DicJiro nwrpJia z'iridis

67, 92, 93, 121, 123

Chloealtis conspersa 67, 93, 122

Spharagemon holli
Melanoplus atlanis
Melanoplus amplectens
Melanoplus ohovatipennis
Scudderia furcata
Microceiitrmn laiirifoliiim
Cyrtophyllus perspicilla his
Orchelimum cuticulare
Xiphidium nemorale
Nemohius fasciatus
Nemohius maculatus
A pi thus agitator

^7^ 150
67
67

93

109

135

145

67. 93

93» 103

67, 93. 122

122
93

59

Woodland Tiger-beetle
Caterpillar-hunter
Carabid beetle
Ladybird

Splendid Dung-beetle
Dogbane Beetle
Tenebrionid larva
Philenor Butterfly
Turnus Butterfly
Troilus Butterfly
Sphingid larva
Arctiid moth
Notodontid moth
Notodontid moth
Notodontid moth
Geometrid moth
Gelechiid moth

(Cecidomyiid gall)
(Cecidomyiid gall)
(Cecidomyiid gall)
Syrphid fly
Corn Syrphid

Vespa-like Syrphid
Pigeon Tremex
(Oak Bullet-gall)
(White Oak Club-gall)
(Oak Wool-gall)
Formicid ant
Formicid ant
Formicid ant
Mutillid ant
Short Caterpillar-wasp

Cicindcla nnipimctata

136

Calosoma scrutator

64

Galerita janus

171

Coccinellidtr

81

Geotriipes splendidiis

120

Chrysochiis atiratus

103

Meracantha contracta

83

Papilio philenor

^9,

166

Papilio turnus

Papilio troilus

163

Cressonia juglandis

102

Halisidota tessellaris

168

D at ana angusii

65,

162

Nadata gibbosa

169

Heterocampa guttivittaf

127

Bustroma diversilineata

163

Ypsolophus ligulellus?

. 76. 78,

Hankinson

Cecidomyia holotricha

107,

I/O

C ecidomyia tubicola

107

Cecidomyia carycecola

107,

170

Chrysotoxum ventricosum

163

Mesogramma politum

?(>, 78,

Hankinson

Milesia ornata

103

Tremex columba

66

Holcaspis globulus

170

Andricus clavida

170

Andricus lana

170

Cremastogaster lincolata

118

Aphccnogaster fidva

74-80

Formica fusca subsericea

163

Sphccroplithalma

151

Ammophila abbreviata

127

J. Bmbarras Valley and Ravine Slopes, forested by the Oak-Hickory

Association, Station IV, b

This station included the slope of the valley from the river bottom
(Station IV, c) to the upland forest (Station IV, a) and the side of
the south ravine, the bottom of which forms Station IV, d. This sub-
station is not as homogeneous physically as the upland or lowland for-
est, because the part along the south ravine is relatively open, is well
drained, and has a south exposure, and the southeast slope to the low-

60

land forest on the other hand, is well wooded and shaded, and much
more humid. The substation also has a considerable amount of litter,
leaves, and humus. This region may be considered as transitional be-
tween the upland and lowland forest, but it represents, not one but two
transitional stages, the south slope approaching the upland forest type,
and the southeast slope approaching that of the lowland forest.
Thus, if one walked from the upland forest down the slope of the
south ravine, and eastward to the southeast valley slope to the bottom-
land forest, he would traverse all the main degrees of conditions found
at Station IV.

The forest cover consists primarily of the following trees : white
oak (Qucrcns alba), black oak (Q. velutiiia), walnut (Juglans nigra),
pignut (Carya glabra), and, in smaller numbers, mulberry (Morns
rubra), red oak (Quercus rubra), shag-bark hickory (Carya ovata),
bitternut (C. cordiformis) ; and of the following shrubs: redbud (Cer-
cis canadensis), sassafras (Sassafras varii folium), moonseed (Menis-
perinuni canadcnsc), five-leaved ivy (Pscdcra qmnquefolia) , grape
(Vitis cinerea), prickly ash (Zanthoxylum amcricamim), and sumac
(Rhus glabra), the latter growing in large colonies on the open south
ravine-slope. On the more moist and shaded southeast slope lived the
clearweed (Pilca pumila), a plant quite characteristic of moist deep-
shaded woods. Thus sumac and clearweed may be considered as in-
dex plants to the physical conditions in different parts of these two
slopes, one shaded and the other rather open.

The atmometer, located on the upper part of the south ravine slope,
gave a relative humidity of 31 per cent, of the standard in the garden
of the Normal School. It will be recalled that in the upland forest
(Station IV, a) the atmometer gave 54 per cent., the comparison
showing how much less the evaporating power of the air is on the
south ravine slope than it is in the upland forest. The relative evap-
oration was not determined for the southeast slopes, but the presence
of Pilea clearly indicates that it is less than on the south ravine slope,
where the instrument was located. On the lower parts of the valley
slope, where this substation grades into the lowland, the layers of dead
matted leaves and humus reached to a considerable depth, and looked
as if they had been pressed down by drifting snows. Such places were
found to contain very few animals.

This habitat is characterized by a sloping surface, by relative open-
ness on the ravine side and dense shade on the valley slope, by rela-
tively humid air, by second-growth forest somewhat transitional be-
tween that of the uplands (Station IV, a) and the river bottoms (Sta-
tion IV, c), by a relatively large amount of shrubbery, by considerable

61

humus and litter, by moist soil, and by more logs and stumps than are
in the upland forest.

The collections of animals made at this substation (Nos. 68, 84, 85,
87, 89, 90, 94, 100, 104, 105, 106, 108, no, III, 124, 125, 131, 132,
133, 140, 149, 161, 164, 165, 166, and 168) are as follows:

Land snail

Polygyra claiisa

164

Land snail

Vitrea indentata

140,

164

Land snail

Vitrea rhoadsi

164

Land snail

Zonitoides arborea

84

Carolina Slug

PlUlomycus carolinensis

89,

125

Land snail

Pyramidida perspcctiva

84,

164

Milliped

Cleidogona ccesioanmdata

140

MilHped

Polydesmus sp.

125

Stout Harvest-spider

Liobunum grande

III

White Ant

Vermes flavipes

125

Woodland Cockroach

Ischnoptera sp.

140

Green Short-winged

DichromorpJia viridis

no

Grasshopper

Boll's Grasshopper

Spharagemon bolli

133

Scudder's Grasshopper

Melanoplus scitdderi

124

Woodland Cricket

Apithes agitator

124

Caterpillar-hunter

Calosoma scrutator

100,

149

Wireworm

Melanotus sp.

125

Horned Passalus

Passalus cornutiis

85

Tenebrionid larva

Meracantha contracta

140

Troilus Butterfly

Papilio troilus

161

Philenor Butterfly

Papilio philenor

166

Lyca^nid butterfly

Bveres coniyntas

161

American Silkworm

Tclea polyphemus

163

Hickory Horned-devil

atheroma regalis

68,

108

Arctiid caterpillar

Halisidota tessellaris

163,

168

Rotten-log Caterpillar

Scolecocampa lihurna

125

Notodontid

Datana angusii

104

Notodontid larva

Nadata gibbosa

94

Geometrid

Caberodcs confusaria

161

Slug Caterpillar

Cochlidion or Lithacodes

165

Pigeon Tremex

Tremex columba

132

(Acorn Plum-gall)

Amphibolips primus

131

Old-fashioned Ant

Stigmato mma pallipes

140

Tennessee Ant

Aphccnogaster tennesaeensis

87

Formicid ant

Myrmica rubra scabrinodis

schnecki

140

62

Carpenter-ant Canipouotus hcrculeanns penn-

sylvanicus 84, 85

Rusty Carpenter-ant Canipouotus Jierculeanus penn-

syh'anicus ferriigineus 90

Short Caterpillar-wasp Ammophila ahhreviata 124

4. Lowland or "Second Bottom," Red Oak-Bhu-Sugar Maple Wood-
laud Association, Station IV, c

This station includes the part of the forest located upon the upper
or higher part of the river bottom. This area is sometimes called the
"second bottom" because it is above the present flood-plain. The gen-
eral position of the forest is shown in Figure i, Plate X. The fringe
of willows along the river bank is shown at a; the flood-plain area is
cleared at b; the substation forest is at c; and part of the forest of the
valley slope is seen at d. Other views of this station are shown in
plates XIV, XV, and XVI (figures i and 2). The general slope is
toward the river; minor inequalities are due to the action of the tem-
porary streams which are etching into the uplands and depositing their
burdens of debris at the mouths of the ravines. Soil, leaves, and other
organic debris are washed from the upland, the ravines, and the val-
ley slopes, and are deposited upon the bottoms, forming low alluvial
fans, which have been built up in successive layers or sorted again and
again as the temporary streams have wandered over the surface of
the fan on account of the overloading and deposition which filled up
their channels. In this manner the soil in general is not only supplied
with moisture, drained from the upland, but the various soils are both
mixed as successive layers of organic debris are buried by storms and
also mulched by the large amount of this debris which is washed and
blown to the lowland. No springs were found upon the southeast
valley slope, but in the south ravine pools of water were present dur-
ing August, 1 9 10, when my observations were made.

The forest, characterized by hard maple (Acer saccharum), red
oak (Qucrcus rubra), and elm (Ulunts americana), forms a dense
canopy which shuts out the light and winds, thus conserving the mois-
ture which falls and drains into it, and making conditions very favor-
able to a rich mesophytic hardwood forest. That the relative humid-
ity is high is shown by the moisture found in the humus of the forest
floor, and, further, not only by the presence of clearweed (Pilea pu-
mila) and the nettle Lap or tea canadensis, which characterize such
moist shady woods, but also by the presence of the scorpion-flies (Bit-
tacus). These organisms are permanent residents where such condi-

63

ditions prevail, and their presence is as clearly indicative of certain
physical conditions as that of aquatic animals would be indicative of
other physical conditions. In addition to these evidences we have
the readings of our atmometer, which showed the evaporating power
of the air to be 26 per cent, of the standard in the garden at the Normal
School. This shows that the relative evaporation is very low, and
that conditions for the preservation of the moisture which falls and
drains into this area are very favorable. The general character of this
forest is shown in plates XIV, XV, and XVI, Figure i.

The vegetational cover on the lowland is quite different in its com-
position from that on the upland. This is shown mainly by the pres-
ence of the elm (Ulmus americana), hard maple (Acer saccharum),
and red oak (Quercus rubra), and secondarily, by the presence, in
smaller numbers, of the black cherry (Priimts serotina), slipperv elm
(Uhmis fiilva), shingle oakf (Quercus imhricaria) , nnd the Kentucky
cofifee-tree (Gyninocladus dioica). Other trees present are walnut
(Juglaus nigra), mulberry (Moms rubra) , and bitternut (Carya cor-
diformis). The shrubs and vines are gooseberry (Ribes cynosbati),
prickly ash (Zanthoxylimi americanum) , redbud (Ccrcis canadensis) ,
buck-brush (Symphoricarpos orbiculatus), green brier (Smilax),
five-leaved ivy (Psedcra quinquefolia) , moonseed (Menispermum
cana dense), bittersweet (^ Celastrus scandens), and grape (Vitis cine-
rea). The characteristic herbaceous vegetation is nettle (Laportea
canadensis) , clearweed (Pilea puniila) , bellflower (Campanula ameri-
cana), Indian tobacco (Lobelia infiata) , tick trefoil (Desmodimn
grandifloruni), Actinomeris alternifolia, maiden hair fern ( Adiantuni
pedatuni), beech fern (Phegopteris hexagonoptera) , the rattlesnake
fern (Botrychiiun z'irginianuni), and Galium circcczans and G. tri-
foliuni.

Although the forest is generally dense and therefore deeply shaded,
there are some places which are comparatively open. Attention, how-
ever was devoted mainly to the denser parts. At one place, near the
base of the eastern slope of the valley, a few trees had been cut within
a few years, and in this glade the conditions and plants and animals
were different from those in the dense forest. (See PI. XVI, figs, i
and 2.)

This habitat may be characterized as follows : lowland densely cov-
ered by sugar maple-red oak forest (climax mesophytic) ; very humid
air ; a moist soil ; relatively few shrubs ; herbaceous plants — nettles and
clearweed — characteristic of damp, shady, rich woods ; and considera-
ble litter and humus in places.

64

The collections of animals made here (Nos. 113, 114,
137-139- 141- ^43, 144, 173, 1S2, and 184) are as follows,
cised numbers designating collections from the glade :

Predaceoiis Snail

Land snail

Slug eggs

Alternate Snail

Milliped

Ambush Spider

Tent Epeirid

Three-lined Epeirid

Spined Spider

Rugose Spider

Ground Spider

Cherry-leaf Gall-mite

Clear-winged Scorpion-fly

Leaf-hopper

Pentatomid

Coreid

Spined Stilt-bug

Short-winged Grasshopper

Acridiid grasshopper

Acridiid grasshopper

Scudder's Grasshopper

Round-winged Katydid

Nebraska Cone-nose

Meadow Grasshopper

Meadow Grasshopper

Meadow Grasshopper

Striped Cricket

Elaterid larva

Elaterid

Black-tipped Calopteron

Reticulate Calopteron

Horned Fungus-beetle

Common Skipper

Imperial Moth (larva)

Noctuid moth

Asilid fly

Vespa-like syrphid

Long-sting

Black Longtaii

Cocoanut Ant

Circinaria concava
Vitrca indentata
Philomycus (?) eggs
Pyramidiila alternata
Callipus lactarius
Misumena aleatoria
Bpcira domicilionim
Epeira trivittata
Aero soma spine a
Aerosoma rugosa
Lyeosa scutulata
A earn s serotince
Bittacus stigmatcriis
Aidacizes irrorata
Hymenareys nervosa
Aeanthocerus galeator
Jalysus spinosiis
Diehromorpha viridis
Mclanoplus ainplectens
Mclanoplus gracilis
Mclanoplus scudderi
A mblycorypha rotundifolia
Conoeephalus nehrascensis
Orclieliniuni euticulare
O rchclinm ni gla h crrimu m
Xiphidiuni nemorale
Nemohius fasciatus
Corymhites sp.
Asaphes memnonius
Calopteron terminale
Calopteron reticulatum
Boletotherus hifiircus
Bpargyreus tityrus
Basilona imperialis
Autographa precationis
Deromyia discolor
Milesia ornata
Thalessa lunator
Peleeinus polyturator
Tapinoma sessile

[I6,

ii7>

the itali-

113

113

114

173

113

184

131.

> 173

138

138,

172

172

144

116

141

ii7>

143

113

182

117

ii7>

143

117,

143

143

117

ii7>

143

117

143

ii7>

143

ii7>

143

143

113

113

173

143

173

173

106

143

117

i43>

184

143

ii7>

143

139

65

5- Supplementary Collections from the Bates Woods, Station IV

Tent Epeirid
White-triangle Spider
Spined Spider
Rugose Spider
Mealy Plata
Leaf -hopper
Pentatomid bug
Pentatomid bug
Tarnished Plant-bug
Coreid bug
Coreid bug

Rapacious Soldier-bug
Acridiid grasshopper
Pennsylvania Firefly
Margined Soldier-beetle
Soldier-beetle
Chrysomelid beetle
Clubbed Tortoise-beetle
Portlandia Butterfly
Eurytus Butterfly
Gelechiid moth
(Hairy Midge-gall)

Corn Syrphid Fly
(Horned-knot Oak-gall)
(Oak Wool-gall)
Ichneumon Wasp
Formicid ant
Rusty Carpenter-ant

Spider Wasp

Bpeira domiciliorum 167

Bpeira verrucosa 126

Acrosoma spinea 148

Acrosonia rugosa 126

Ormenis pruinosa Hankinson

Gypona pect oralis Hankinson

Buschistiis fissilis 124

Mormidea lugens Hankinson

Lygus pratensis Hankinson

Alydiis qninqiiespinosus Hankinson

Acanthoceros galeator Hankinson

Sinea diadema Hankinson

Melanoplus ohovatipennis 124

Photuris pennsylvanica Hankinson
ChaidiognatJiiis tnarginatus Hankinson

Tclephorus sp. Plankinson

Cryptoccphalus mutahilis Hankinson

Coptocycla clavata Hankinson

Bnodia portlandia 63

Cissia eurytus Hankinson

YpsolopJius ligulcllus Hankinson
Cccidoniyia holotricha

(Near collection No. 96)

Mesogramma politum Hankinson

Andricits cornigerus (Near 96)

Andricus lana (Near 96)

Tragus ohsidianator Hankinson

Aphccnogaster fidva 125
Camponotus hercideanus penn-

sylvanicus ferrugineus 97

Psammochares cuthiops Hankinson

6. Small Temporary Stream in the South Ravine, Station IV, d

This small temporary stream in a ravine formed the southern
boundary of the area examined (PI. XVH, figs, i and 2). At the sea-
son of our examination it was a series of small disconnected pools.
Very little attention was devoted to the collection and study of its life.
Most of the collections were secured by T. L. Hankinson. A few aquat-
ic animals were collected here. In a small pool were taken numerous
specimens of the creek chub (Semotilus atromacidatiis), and one stone-

66

roller (Campostoiua anonialuin). Frogs, toads, and salamanders were
also taken in the vicinity by Mr. Hankinson, who dug" from their bur-
rows specimens of Cambarus diogenes, and also secured immunis and
propinqnus. On the surface of the pools were numerous specimens
of a water-strider, Gerris remigis. The forest cover is undoubtedly an
important factor in the preservation of such pools, as it controls the
evaporating power of the air.

Mr. Hankinson tells me that during the summer of 191 2 this tem-
porary stream was completely dry, and that no fish have been taken
from it since the earlier collection mentioned above. From the mouth
of the ravine across the bottom to the river it is only a few hundred
feet, and in time of heavy or prolonged rains these pools are in direct
communication with the river. Such a stream is an excellent example
of an early stage in the development of the stream habitat, and shows
its precarious character, and the liability to frecjuent extermination
of these pioneer aquatic animals which invade it in its early stages.
This applies particularly to those animals which have no method of
tiding over dry periods. On the other hand, those animals which live
in the pools, those parts of temporary streams which persist longest
between showers, have better chances of survival, particularly bur-
rowing animals, like the crawfish and its associates. It seems prob-
able that crawfish burrows harbor a varied population; not only the
crawfish leeches (Branchiohdcllidce) but also the eggs of certain Cor-
ixidcc (Forbes, '76:4-5; '78, p. 820; Abbott, '12) may almost cover
the body of some crawfishes. By means of this burrow ground-water
is reached, and a subterranean pool is formed. For the elaboration of
the stream series see Adams ('01) and Shelford ('11 and 13a).

This temporary stream shows how, by the process of erosion, the
upland forest area is changed into ravine slopes, and, later, even into
the bed of a temporary stream. Thus progresses the endless transfor-
mation of the habitat.

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE GROSS

ENVIRONMENT

I. Topography and Soils of the State

Illinois lies at the bottom of a large basin. This is indicated in
part bv the fact that so many large rivers flow toward it. The mean
elevation of the state is about 600 feet, and about a third of it lies be-
tween 600 and 700 feet above sea-level. Except Kentucky, the bor-
dering states are from 200 to 500 feet higher. Iowa and Wisconsin
are considerably higher, so that winds from the north and northwest

67

reach the state coming down grade. Taken as a whole the land sur-
face is a tilted plain sloping from the extreme northern part — where a
few elevations exceed a thousand feet — toward the south, bowed in
the central part by a broad crescentic undulation caused by a glacial
moraine, and then declining gradually to the lowland north of the
Ozark Ridge, near the extreme southern part of the state. This east
and west ridge occasionally exceeds i,ooo feet, but its average height
is between 700 and 800 feet. It is very narrow, only about 10 miles in
average width, and rises about 300 feet above the surrounding low-
land (Leverett, '96, '99). South of this ridge lie the bottoms of the
Ohio River. The largest river within the state is the Illinois.

The soils of the state are largely of glacial origin. Even the un-
glaciated extreme northwestern part and the Ozark Ridge region have
a surface layer of wind-blown loess. In some places considerable sand
was assorted by glacial water, forming extensive tracts of sandy soil,
and locally dune areas are active. Along the larger streams there are
extensive strips of swamp and bottom-land soils. The remaining soils,
which characterize most of the state, were either produced mainly by
the lowan or Illinoian ice-sheets, as in the case of the relatively poorer
soils, or by the Wisconsin sheet, which formed the foundation for the
better soil. The dark-colored prairie soils are due to organic debris.
Coffey ('12:42) has said: "Whether this accumulation of humus is
due to lime alone or to the lack of leaching, of which its presence is an
indication, has not been definitely determined. Neither do we know
whether it is due to chemical or bacteriological action ; most probably
the latter, an alkaline medium being necessary for the growth of those
bacteria or other microorganism which cause this form of decomposi-
tion."*

2. Climatic Conditions

The climatic features of a region are generally conceded to have a
fundamental influence upon its life. The controlling influences upon
climate are elevation above sea-level, latitude, relation to large bodies
of water — generally the sea — and the prevailing winds. The eleva-
tion and relief of Illinois have but a slight influence. In latitude
Illinois is practically bisected by the parallel 39>^° in the north tem-
perate zone. This position influences the seasons and the amount of
heat received from the sun. The sea is far distant, but the Great
Lakes are near by, and proximity to the interior of a large continent

*Consult Hopkins and Pettit ('08) and the County Soil Eeports of the State
Soil Survey for a detailed account of the chemical conditions of Illinois soils.
The bacterial, algal, and animal population have hardly been noticed by stu-
dents of Illinois soils.

68

brings the state within that influence. And, finally, it lies in the zone
of the prevailing westerly winds, and directly across the path of one
of the main storm tracks, along which travel in rapid alternation the
highs and lows which cause rapid changes of temperature, wind, and
precipitation, and thus produce the extremely variable weather condi-
tions.

The state is 385 miles long, and as latitude has much influence
upon climate, the climate of Illinois differs considerably in the extreme
north and south. This is clearly shown in the average annual tempera-
ture, which in the northern part is 48.9° F., in the central part is
52.70°, and in the southern part is 55.9° (Hosier, '03). These aver-
ages probably closely approximate the soil temperatures for these re-
gions. The average date of the last killing frost in the northern part
is April 29 ; in the central part, April 22 ; and in the southern part,
April 12. The average date of the first killing frost for the northern
part is October 9, central part, October 11, and the southern part is
October 18 (Henry). The growing season for vegetation in the
northern half of the state averages from 150 to 175 days and for the
southern half from 175 to 200 days (VVhitson and Baker, 12:28).
The precipitation shows similar differences, increasing from north to
south. The annual average for the northern part is 33.48 inches, in-
creasing to 38.01 in the central and to 42.10 inches in the southern
part (Hosier, '03:62). Hosier has shown that the Ozark Ridge,
with an average elevation of about 800 feet, condenses the moisture
on its south slope so that it has a precipitation of 7.15 inches more
than do the counties just north of the ridge. This same humid area
appears to extend up the Wabash Valley to Crawford county, and
gives the valley counties a rainfall 3 inches in excess of the adjacent
counties to the west. The average annual rainfall for the state is
37.39 inches — nearly one third of it during April, Hay, and June,
and if July is included, more than half. The heaviest precipitation,
8.23 inches, is in Hay and June.

As previously mentioned, the state lies in the zone of prevailing
westerly winds and across the path of storms. These have a dominant
influence upon the direction of the winds. In the northern part of the
state, they are, by a slight advantage, southerly — a tendency which
progressively increases toward the south, for in the central part the
southerly winds reach 55 per cent., and in the southern part 62 per
cent. During the winter the northwest winds predominate throughout
the state, to a marked degree in the central part, where they reach
60 per cent., and where also the velocity is greatest, reaching an av-
erage of 10.3 miles an hour. The velocity of the wind for the entire

69

state is highest during spring. During the summer, the southwest
winds predominate in the northern and central parts, and in the south-
ern part 82 per cent, of the winds are southerly. The velocity of the
wind is least during the summer, and the greatest stagnation occurs
in August. During autumn there is a falling off of the southerly
winds and an increased velocity as winter conditions develop. The
transition in the fall is in marked contrast with the vigor of the
spring transition. The cooler seasons are more strongly influenced
by northerly winds, and the warmer seasons by southerly winds.

J. Climatic Centers of Influence

In the preceding section the average conditions of temperature,
precipitation, and the direction and velocity of the winds have been
summarized, but little effort was made to indicate the mode of opera-
tion of the determining factors which produce and maintain these aver-
age conditions. It is often true that the main factors which explain
the conditions seen in some restricted locality can not be found within
it because the local sample is only a very small part of a much larger
problemi. Thus no one attempts to find an explanation of the through-
flowing upper Mississippi system within the state of Illinois; a larger
unit of study is necessary. The region examined must extend to the
headwaters. So, also, with most of the climatic features of Illinois;
their approximate sources must be sought elsewhere. Let us there-
fore consider some of the broader features which influence the climate
of North America, particularly that of the eastern part.

The climates of the world have been divided into two main kinds,
depending primarily upon the controlling influence of temperature.
This is due to the relative specific heat of land and water, that of water
being about four times that of land. The sea, which covers three
fourths of the earth's surface, is thus an immense reservoir of heat,
which is taken up and given off slowly, at a rate one fourth that of the
land. It is therefore relatively equable. The northern hemisphere
contains the largest amount of land, and is therefore less under the
control of the sea than the southern hemisphere ; yet the sea's influence
is very powerful, particularly near the shore. The large land masses,
on the other hand, on account of their lower specific heat, receive and
give off heat more rapidly to the air above. For this reason the tem-
perature changes, as between day and night or summer and winter,
are much more rapid and much more extreme over land than over
the sea. A climate dominated by the equable sea is oceanic; that
dominated by the changeable lands is continental. Illinois lies far

70

from the sea and is therefore strongly influenced by continental con-
ditions. To what degree is the marine influence shown?

Meteorologists (cf. Fassig, '99) have come to look upon the large
areas of permanent high and low barometric pressure as among the
most important factors in climatic control. There are five of these
powerful "centers of action" which influence our North American
climate (Fig. i), and four of these are at sea. A pair of loius are in
the far north, one in the north Pacific near Alaska, the other in the

Fig. 1. DiagTam showing the positions of the relatively stable areas of high and
low barometic pressure, and indicating their influences upon the evaporating power of
the air and upon the climate in general.

north Atlantic south of Greenland. A pair of highs are farther south,
one in the Pacific between California and the Hawaiian Islands, and
the other centering in the Atlantic near the Azores. The highs and
lows in each ocean seem to be paired and to have some reciprocal rela-
tion. The fifth center of action is upon the land. It is a high baromet-
ric area in the Mackenzie basin of Canada, where it becomes a pow-
erful center of influence through winter and spring, but with the prog-
ress of summer conditions weakens, and through the accumulation of
continental heat becomes converted into a lozv; thus there is a complete
seasonal inversion on the continent.

These large highs and lows, although relatively permanent, are con-
tinually changing in intensity and position. The highs are regions of
descending, diverging, warming, and drying air, producing clearing
and clear air on their western side, but the reverse on their eastern side.

71

The lows are regions of ascending, converging, cooling air, with in-
creasing moisture and clouds on their western side, but are the re-
verse on their eastern side (Moore, 'lo: 153). These same character-
istics apply to the small highs and lows which we are accustomed to
see on the daily weather maps.

If, now, we consider these large centers of action, such considera-
tion will do much toward giving us a graphic idea of our climate. Dur-
ing the winter, because of the small amount of heat received in the
Mackenzie basin, the temperature becomes very low, and a powerful
high barometric area is formed ; then the descending air blowing from
the eastern part of this high, or from small highs originating from the
larger one, produce the cold winters and cold waves in winter which
characterize the northeastern United States. If, however, the Atlantic
high wanders on the eastern coast of the United States in winter, the
zvestern part of this high, with its descending, diverging, warming, and
drying air, produces a mild winter. The climate of the eastern United
States is thus, in the cold season, under the alternate invasion of these
two powerful centers of action. During the warm season the conti-
nental winter high is replaced by a low, due to the accumulating warm
continental temperatures which thus have produced an inversion or
seasonal overturning. But the Atlantic high is permanent and exerts
its influence continuously. If the zvestern part of this high encroaches
upon the eastern United States during the summer, with its descend-
ing, drying, and clear air, it may produce drouth, this depending, of
course, on its degree of development. The continental low of sum-
mer, with the drying influence of its eastern side, has a similar ten-
dency. Thus the character of the summer is determined, to an im-
portant degree, by the interplay and relative balance between these twO
ivarming and drying centers. The activity of these centers has a pow-
erful influence upon the moisture-bearing winds, which influence hu-
midity and evaporation in Illinois, and in the eastern United States.

4. Relative Hnmidity and Evaporating Pozver of the Air

We are now in a position to examine the facts of relative humidity
and the relative evaporating power of the air in the eastern United
States. The relative aridity on the plains east of the Rocky Moun-
tains is due primarily to the removal of moisture from the prevailing
westerlies in their passage from the Pacific over the various western
mountain ranges which extend across their path, combined with the
excessive summer heating of the continental mass. Here, then, is the
influence of the continental summer low. Farther east the Atlantic
high tends to supplement the continental low and to cause the Gulf

winds to brings moisture inland,* and the Great Lakes region adds its
quota.

In the storm-track zone, where stagnation of the air is due largely
to the balance existing between the continental low and the oceanic
high, the aridity of the plains extends the farthest east, and as an arid
peninsula it crosses Illinois, giving during August a relative humidity
to the prairie area of 60-70 per cent, of saturation (Johnson, '07).
The reality of the arid peninsula across Illinois is further shown by
the rainfall-evaporation ratios computed and mapped by Transeau
('05). These ratios were determined by dividing the mean annual
rainfall at each place by the total mean annual evaporation. These
mapped percentages show that the prairie region is closely bounded
by the region with an evaporation ratio of between 60 and 70 per
cent, of the rainfall received. These conditions furnish a general
background or perspective for a profitable consideration of the local
and more detailed studies which have been made of the relative evap-
orating power of the air in different plant and animal habitats.

For our purpose it is not necessary to consider the history of meth-
ods of measuring relative evaporation. This measurement may be
made by evaporating water in open pans or by the porous porcelain-cup
method. Such cups have been devised by several students, but a modi-
fied form of the Livingston atmometer has been mainly used by plant
ecologists, and this was the kind we used at Charleston. Transeau
('08) was the first to use such an instrument and to show its value in
studying the relation of intensity of evaporation to plant societies.
His work on Long Island, N. Y., showed very clearly that evaporation
in open places was much greater than in dense forests. These obser-
vations were enough to show that evaporation is a factor related to the
physical conditions of life upon the prairie and in the forest, and there-
fore in our cooperative study of the Charleston area in 19 10 relative
evaporation was made a special feature in the study of representative
environments, in order to determine its relation to both the plants and
the animals. So far as is known this is the only study yet made in
which these determinations have been recorded from the same places
where the animals have been studied. Since our data were secured,
several papers have been published on relative evaporation in different
sorts of habitats in this state and in northern Indiana by plant ecolo-
gists Fuller ('11, '12a, '12b), McNuttand Fuller ('12), Fuller, Locke,

*Zon ('13) has recently asserted that the moisture from the sea does not
make a single overland flight inland, but rather is largely precipitated near the
sea, is evaporated and carried farther inland, is precipitated again, and this
process repeated again and again, so that its inland flight is a vertical revolv-
ing cycle of precipitation and evaporation. If this contention is valid, evapo-
ration from the land is a much more important climatic factor than it is usually
thought to be.

73

and McNutt ('14), Sherff ('12, '13a, '13b), and Gleason and Gates
('12). Shelford ('12, '13a, '13b, '14a), utilizing the evaporation
data of the plant ecologists, has applied the same to animal associa-
tions also, and he has further tested some of these ideas experiment-
ally in the laboratory. In Ohio, Dachnowski ('11) and Dickey ('09)
have made records of data obtained by the use of the porous cup, and
in Iowa Shimek ('10, '11) has used the open-pan method. Mention
should also be made of Yapp's observations ('09) on a marsh in Eng-
land. A very important summary of evaporation records, in the open
and in forests, is given by Harrington ('93). The effect of wind-
breaks upon evaporation has been studied by Bates ('11) and Card
('97). Finally, mention should be made of Hesselman's studies of
relative humidity in forest glades in Sweden ('04).

Our records from the Charleston region will be given first, and then
their significance will be discussed. The unglazed porcelain cups, with
a water reservoir, were placed so that the tops of the cups were about
six inches above the soil in the habitats examined, and at weekly in-
tervals the water loss was measured. The instruments were in opera-
tion simultaneously, so that the results are comparable. The standard
instru-ment was located in the open exposed garden of the Eastern
Illinois Normal School at Charleston, which was considered as unity,
or 100 per cent. For further details as to the conditions where the
atmometers were located consult the description of the stations and
the photographs.

An examination of the diagram (Fig. 2) will show that although
based upon a limited amount of data (for less than a month, from

Intensity of evaporation .

Standard, open garden, Normal School
Sta. Ill, b. Mixed prairie and young forest
Sta. II, a. Grassy area, Panicum
Sta. II, a. Grassy area. Euphorbia
Sta. IV, a. Upland, open woods
Sta. Ill, a. Silphium on black soil
Sta. II, a. Colony of S. laciniatum
Sta. IV, b. Ravine slope, open woods
Sta. IV, c. Dense climax forest cover

Fig. 2. Diagram of the relative evaporation in different prairie and forest
habitats, showing the great reduction in evaporation with the development of a closed
forest canopy of a climax forest; Charleston, Illinois.

74

August 19 to September 22) the facts are in harmony with similar
studies elsewhere covering a much longer period, so that there is valid
reason for confidence in them. The standard instrument was located,
as already mentioned, in an open, exposed cultivated garden, where the
intensity of evaporation was very high. The black soil prairie areas.
Stations II and III, a, have an average of 56.1 per cent. — a condition
much like that in the grassy-Euphorbia prairie at Loxa (Station II, a)
— or a little more than half that of the standard instrument. The dry
upland area of mixed prairie and young forest, on gray silt loam (Sta-
tion III, b), has an intensity of 80 per cent. This is in the region of
the most extensive grassy prairie about Charleston; the general ap-
pearance of the region is shown in Plate XIII. A surprising feature
of the table is the evaporation in the open-crowned upland oak-hickory
woods (Station IV, a). In this forest perhaps two thirds to three
fourths of the ground was shaded, and it was very well drained. The
evaporation here reached 54.2 per cent., being very near that of the
average of the black soil prairie (56.1 per cent.). I had anticipated
much less evaporation than on the prairie, a position more intermedi-
ate between the prairie and the lowland forest, or about 42 per cent,
(cf. Harvey, '14:95). The ravine slope (Station IV, b), although
somewhat open, has 31.5 per cent. — a very low rate of evaporation —
and is remarkably close to that of the densely crowned lowland for-
est (Station IV, c), at 26.9 per cent. The decline, however, in the
intensity of evaporation with the degree of completeness of the for-

Per cent, of standard

Sta. 11. Salt marsh outer margin

Sta. 3. Gravel slide, open

Sta. 1. Carnegie garden, standard

Sta. 9 and 10. Upper beach

Sta. 12. Salt marsh, inner margin

Sta. 2. Garden, high level

Sta. 4. Gravel slide, partly invaded

Sta. 5. Forest, open

Sta. 13. Fresh-water marsh

Sta. 6. Forest, typical mesophytic

Sta. 7. Forest, ravine type

Sta. 8. Forest swamp type

0 20

40

60

80

100

t20

■-

1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1

^IHBH^^HB

LX

■

f

Fig. 3. Diagram of the relative intensity of evaporation in the lowest stratum
of different kinds of habitats, Long Island, N. Y. (After Transeau.)

75

est crown, is strikingly shown in passing from the open upland
woods, at 54.2 per cent., to the ravine slope at 31.5 per cent., and on
to the lowland forest at 26.9 per cent.

A comparison of these results with those secured by Transeau
('08) on Long Island, is instructive. His standard instrument was
also in an open garden (Fig. 3), comparable with the Charleston
standard. A gravel slide, partly invaded by plants, had an evaporation
of 60 per cent., comparable with the open prairie at Charleston; the
open forest, 50 per cent., comparable with the upland open Bates
woods at 54.2 per cent. ; and the mesophytic forest, 33 per cent., com-
parable with the ravine and lowland places in the Bates woods at 31.5
and 26.9 per cent, respectively.

Association
Blowout (basin)
Blowout (slide)

Bunchgrass (Leptoloma consoc.)
Bunchgrass (Eragrostis trichodes con.
Standard
Beach

Quercus velutina woods
Quercus velutina
Willows (Acer part)
Willows (Salix part)
Mixed forest (margin)
Mixed forest (center)

Fig. 4. Relative intensity of evaporation in different kinds of habitats on sandy
soil, Havana, Illinois. (After Gleason and Gates.)

0

.CO 0

.40 0

.to 0

.80 1

.00 1

.so 1

J 40

1.56
1.27
1.18

) 1.04
1.00
0.93
0.66

^^^_

^^^^

^^^^

— 1 1

^__

^^™

^^^

^^^

^^"

"^^

^^B

^^"

""

"""

■

^^"

^^^

^^^

■

^^"

"J"

^™

^^^

^^^

^^^H

m

0.55

n^i^i

^^m

0.56

^^^^

^^_

^^^*

^"*

0.44

IBlHi

1

0.36

m^B

0.29

1^1

Another series of relative evaporation observations was made by
Gleason and Gates ('12) on sandy soils at Havana, Illinois. As their
methods were similar to those used at Charleston, useful comparisons
may again be made. The standard instrument was in an open area
comparable to the garden at Charleston. An examination of Figure 4,
summarizing the results of their study, shows that upon the grass-
covered sand prairie (bunch-grass) the evaporation was about no per
cent., that in open black oak (Q. velutina) woods (on sand) it was
about 60 per cent., and that in a denser hickory-black-oak-hackberry
mixed forest (somewhat open) it was about 31 per cent. There is thus
a close general correspondence between the conditions at Havana c^nd
Charleston, although the evaporation upon sand prairie appears to be
relatively much greater than upon the black-soil prairie.

Fuller ('11) and McNutt and Fuller ('12) have made comparative
studies in different kinds of forest in northern Illinois and in northern

76

Indiana. Their results are combined and summarized in Figure 5.
This diagram shows the relative evaporation near the surface of the
soil, the standard of comparison being the evaporation in a maple-
beech climax forest, where evaporation is relatively low. The aver-
age daily amount, in c.c, shows that there is a progressive increase in
evaporation as follows: 8.1 c.c. in a maple-beech forest, 9.35 c.c. in
the oak-hickory upland forest, 10.3 c.c. in an oak dune forest, 11.3 c.c.
in a pine dune forest, and an increase to 21.1 c.c, on the cottonwood
dunes. This expressed on a percentage basis is, in inverse order, re-
spectively 260 per cent, in the cottonwoods, 140 per cent, in the pines,
127 per cent, in the oak dunes, 115 per cent, in the oak-hickory for-
est, and 100 per cent, in the maple-beech forest.

20 ^0 60 eo 100 120 r40 160 160 200 22Q gdO 260 260

ndard

"

140
7%

SU

■ \?

115%

"

^00

Intensity of evaporation

Sta. A. Cottonwood dunes

Sta. B. Pine dune

Sta. C. Oak dune

Sta. D. Oak-hickory

Sta. E. Maple-beach forest

Pig. 5. Diagram showing the relative rate of evaporation in different kinds of
forest in northern Illinois and Indiana. [Data from Fuller ('11) and McNutt and
Fuller ('12).]

Shimek ('10, '11) has made valuable observations on the relative
rate of evaporation on the prairie of western Iowa. He used the open-
pan method in four representative habitats. His results show very
clearly that the rate of evaporation is much greater in exposed places
than where there is shelter from the sun and wind. I have put his
data in a form comparable with those which have just been discussed
(Fig. 6), and have made the cleared field area, Station 4, the standard
of comparison, as it more nearly approaches the standard used at
Charleston and by others. Station 3 is on a high bluff, exposed to the

Intensity of evaporation .

200

Sta. 3. Open, much exposed prairie
vegetation

Sta. 1. Open, exposed slope of bluflf,
prairie

Sta. 4. Open, cleared area, partly pro-
tected

Sta. 2. Bur-oak grove, protected

Fig. 6. Diagram of relative evaporation in prairie and forest habitats, in western
Iowa. (Data from Shimek.)

77

west and south winds, and, as might be expected, it has an excessive
evaporation — 184 per cent. Station i, also covered by prairie vegeta-
tion, and exposed to west and southwest winds but shehered from
winds from the south and southeast, also shows a very high evapora-
tion— 132 per cent. Station 4, which was made the standard, had been
cleared of forest, and was an open place protected by a ridge. Station
2 was apparently a dense grove composed of bur oak. basswood, elm,
and ash, with considerable undergrowth. Here the rate of evapora-
tion dropped considerably — to 36 per cent. The general character of
this forest calls to mind the denser oak forests on sand at Havana,
Illinois. An important feature of these observations is that they were
made far out upon the "prairie", bordering the plains, most other
studies on relative evaporation having been made much farther east.

In Ohio, Dachnowski ('11) and Dickey ('09) have recorded the
relative evaporation of the air, using a campus lawn as unity. In the
central grass-like area of a cranberry bog the evaporation was 69.2
per cent., and in the marginal maple-alder forest it was 51.2 per cent.

Harrington ('93:96-102), in summarizing European studies on
the relative evaporation (with a water-surface as standard) in the
open and in German forests shows that the "annual evaporation in the
woods is 44 per cent, of that in the fields." Compared with evapora-
tion in the open, that under deciduous trees is 41 per cent., and that
under conifers is 45 per cent. — a difference most marked in the sum-
mer. Ebermeyer's Austrian observations (I.e. .-99) show that the
"evaporation from a bare soil wet is about the same as that from a
water surface," both in the open and in the forest. A saturated soil
under forest litter gives an evaporation of only 13 per cent, of that
of a free-water surface in the open. Harrington (I.e.: 100) con-
cludes that "About seven-eighths of the evaporation from the forest
is cut off by the woods and litter together." Sherff ('13a, '13b) has
shown that in the Skokie Marsh, north of Chicago, the absolute
amount of evaporation near the soil was less at the center of a Phrag-
mites swamp than at its margin (Fig. 7), that a swamp meadow

Intensity of evaporation.

Sta. D. White oak-ash forest

Sta. B. Phragmites swamp, margin

Sta. C. Swamp meadow

Sta. A. Phragmites swamp, center

Fig. 7. Diagram of relative evaporation in Skokie Marsh area, near Chicago,
at 10 inches (25 cm.) above the soil. Eecalculated. (Adapted from Sherff.)

78

was in an intermediate position, and that in an adjacent white oak-ash
forest evaporation was about twice as much as in the swamp meadow.
Sherff used as standard the forest (D). This gave him for the center
of the swamp (A) 38 per cent., for the swamp meadow (C) 54 per
cent., and for the outer swamp margin (B) 105 per cent. In Figure
7, I have used his swamp meadow as 100 per cent., and by recalcula-
tion this gives the forest (D) 185 per cent., for the swamp margin (B)
105 per cent., and for the center of the swamp (A) 70 per cent. These
figures indicate a concentric arrangement of the conditions of evap-
oration about the swamp.

Intensity of eraporation

1907:

Sta. A. Above vegetation. 4
inclies above soil

Sta. B. Middle of vegetation.
2 inches above soil

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 MO

Sta. C. Lower vegetation,
above soil

feet, 6
2 feet,
5 inches

1908:

Sta. A. Above

vegetation. 5 feet, 6
inches above soil

Sta. B. Middle of vegetation. 2 feet,
2 inches above soil

Sta. C.

liower vegetation,
above soil

5 inches

i007.

»

■1 'x&y.

-

|32.

17.

■■i

lOO-/.

rr

r

HBPB M.7%

1

Fig. 8. Diagram showing the relative evaporation at different vertical levels in
a marsh in England, the evaporation in the lower layers of the vegetation being much
greater than in the upper strata or in the air above it. (Data from Yapp.)

Thus far, attention has been devoted solely to the horizontal differ-
ences in evaporation. There are also important vertical ones, vary-
ing above the surface of the substratum. Important observations on
this subject have been made, by a porous-cup method, in an open
grassy marsh in England, by Yapp ('09). The vegetation grew to a
height of two to five feet. From his data the accompanying diagrams
(Figs. 8, 8a) have been prepared. This shows that when the stand-
ard was made the rate of evaporation above the general level of the
vegetation, within the grass layer evaporation was reduced from about
one half (Sta. B, 1908, 56.2 per cent.) to one third (Sta. B, 1907,
32.8 per cent.) at 2 feet 2 inches above the soil; and that at 5 inches
above the soil it was reduced to between one fourteenth (Sta. C, 1907,
6.6) and one seventh (Sta. C, 1908, 14.7) of that above the vegeta-
tion. Yapp (1. c. : 298) concludes from his studies that "In general,
the results of the evaporation experiments show that the lower strata
of the vegetation possess an atmosphere which is continually very much

79

more humid than that of the upper strata, and farther, that the higher
and denser the vegetation the greater these differences are." This is
shown in Fig. 8a.

Intensity of evaporation.

Sta. A. 60 inches above ground, above
vegetation

Sta. B. 12 inches above ground among
vegetation

Sta. C. 3 inches above ground, among
vegetation

I

30

40

50 60

70

do go

71-:

50";

100'

Fig. 8a. Diagram showing the relative evaporation at different vertical levels in
a marsh in England, the evaporation in the lovFer layers of the vegetation being much
greater than in the upper strata or in the air above it. (Data from Yapp.)

In America only a few records have been made on vertical gra-
dients in evaporation, two of these in marsh areas, one in Ohio by
Dachnowski ('ii), and the other near Chicago by Sherff ('13a, '13b).
The Ohio observations, made upon a small island in a lake, in a cran-
berry-sphagnum bog, show that the rate of evaporation above the vege-
tation is much greater than among it, and that this diminishes as the
soil is approached, these results agreeing with those obtained by Yapp.
Sherff's observations were made in Skokie Marsh, north of Chicago,
and show that the relative evaporation also varies with different kinds
of swamp vegetation. From his data a diagram has been made (Fig.
9) in which the rate of evaporation in the upper part of the reeds

Intensity of evaporation

Phragmites
Sta. A. Within vegetation, 198 cm. (77
inches) above soil. Standard.

Sta. B. Within vegetation, 107 cm. (42
inches) above soil

Sta. C. Within vegetation, 25 cm. (10
inches) above soil

Sta. D. At soil surface

Typha

Sta. A. Within vegetation, 175 cm. (69
inches) above soil

Sta. B. Within vegetation, 107 cm. (42
inches) above soil

Sta. C. Within vegetation, 25 cm. (10
inches) above soil

Sta. D. At soil surface

Pig. 9. Diagram of relative evaporation at different vertical levels above the soil
within the vegetation of Skokie Marsh. (Adapted from Sherff.)

80

(Phragmites) at yy inches is taken as lOO per cent, or the standard.
Lower down, at 42 inches, the rate is 70 per cent., at 10 inches, 53 per
cent, and at the surface, 33 per cent. Among the cattails {Typha), in
the upper part of the vegetation, at 69 inches evaporation was 85 per
cent. ; at 42 inches it was 36 per cent. ; at 10 inches, 20 per cent. ; and
at the surface, 8.5 per cent. These results show that at successively
lower levels in the vegetation the rate of evaporation is greatly .re-
duced. They tend also to confirm the results of Yapp and Dachnow-
ski. It seems, then, fair to conclude that the rate of evaporation above
the swamp vegetation increases rapidly with downward progression,
and probably with upward progression also. A vegetable layer, com-
parable to the mulching of straw used by gardeners, thus acts as a pow-
erful conserver of moisture. There are great differences within a few
vertical feet in the open ; what is the condition within the forest ?

Intensity of evaporation.

Sta. A. Maple-beech forest. 6 feet (2m.)
above soil

Sta. B. Maple-beech forest. 10 inches

(25 cm.) above soil

Sta. C. Maple-beech forest. On slope of

ravine 30 feet deep (10 m. )
13.3 feet (4 m.) below general
surface.

20 ao 60 60 100 l?0 MO 160 180

;

100 5i

055 daL/sl

Standard

I

60%

""

Fig. 10. Diag:ram showing the relative evaporation in a beech-maple woods, six
feet above the soil (A), near the surface of the soil (B), and in a ravine (C).
[Adapted from Fuller ('12).]

The character of vertical differences in evaporation within the for-
est has not been given as much attention as the similar changes in the
open; but attention has already been called to the moisture-conserving
effect of a forest litter, the evaporating rate in one instance being only
13 per cent, when compared with that from a water surface in the open.
McNutt and Fuller ('12) have shown that grazing in an oak-hickory
forest changed the average daily rate of evaporation for 189 days
from 9.89 c.c, in the ungrazed forest, to 12.74 c.c, in the grazed for-
est, at Palos Park, 111. There are thus, within the forest, changes in
evaporation with differences both in the ground cover and in the litter
on the forest floor which correspond to the change in the vegetation in
open places.

Vertical differences in evaporation have been tested in a maple-
beech-forest in northern Indiana by Fuller ('12b), who used the po-
rous-cup method. His results have been summarized in Figure 10.
This diagram shows that the evaporation at six feet above the surface
is nearly twice as much as that at 10 inches above the surface, and

81

that in a ravine, 13.3 feet (4 m.) below, it was 80 per cent, of that 10
inches above the surface. The relative seasonal activity from May to
November is shown in Figure 11. This diagram shows that after the
leaves appear the highest evaporation takes place in July. This is
probably the critical season for some animals.

MAY

JUNE

JULY

AUGUST

SEPTEMBER

OCTOBER

-

—

a

\

20

\

/

\

\

^

s

/

\

\

\

\

/

\

/

\

-

15

\

\

,b

\

\

\

N

c

\

/

\

k,

10

\

\

\

/

\

N.

\

N

s

\

/

f

V

s

\

\

\

/

■^

/

/

\

\

^

—

\,

S

1,

\;

\

/

f

/

\

\

\

\

\

\

/

/

—

\

^

■—

\,

\

^

5

\ ^

f

/

^

\,

s,

■~-

\

/

>

s

-\

,

V

>5

Fig. 11. Diagram showing the average daily rate of evaporation in beech-maple
forest, six feet above soil (a), near the surface of soil (b), and in a ravine (c).
(From Fuller.)

In the forest, Libernau (Harrington, '93 : 34) found that the "rela-
tive humidity increases and decreases with the absolute humidity,
whereas it is known in general, and also at the Station in the open
country, that these two climatic elements are inverse. This is ac-
counted for by the fact that the forest is a source of atmospheric
aqueous vapor as well as of cooling." (L. c : 104: "The absolute
humidity decreases in the forest from the soil upwards. The rate of
decrease is usually the greatest under the trees and the least at the level
of the foliage. The rate above the trees is intermediate between the
other two. This rate is least in the late hours of the night, when it
may be zero. It increases with the increase of the temperature of the
air, becoming greatest in the midday hours, when, under exception-
ally favorable circumstances, it may make a difference of 10 per cent.

82

or even more. Occasionally, in high winds, the absolute humidity is
greater over the trees. Over the field station the daily progress of ab-
solute humidity was about the same as in the forest, but the maximum
difference was only about half as great. The absolute humidity in and
above the forest is greater than that over the open fields, and there is
some trace of an increase of this difference to the time of maximum."
A greater relative humidity has been found over evergreen trees
than over deciduous trees, which is slight (I.e.: 104), but the psy-
chrometer was close to the evergreens and farther above the decidu-
ous ones.

Intensity of evaporation .

10 20 30 40 SO 60 7

0 80 90 100

1^

wm

100;.

^

■■

\

1 31 X

r

■1

■ -. .

Neb./

(Julii 15- Sept IS, 62 d^Lts, Uncoln.

Sta. A. 20 rods (330 ft.) from wind-
break, 25 to 40 feet high.
Standard

Sta. B. 12 rods (198 ft.) from wind-
break

Sta. C. 3 rods (49.5 ft.) from -niud-
break

Fig. 12. Diagram showing relative retardation of evaporation by a windbreak,
Lincoln, Nebraska. [Adapted from Card ('97).]

The border of the Illinois forest and prairie was characterized by
tongues and isolated groves of forest and by glades. The forest had
the same kind of influence as windbreaks upon the leeward areas and
glades, and therefore the influence of windbreaks upon the evaporating
power of the air is of interest. Card ('97) made a valuable study of
this series of problems at Lincoln, Nebraska. The influence of wind-
breaks upon evaporation is summarized in Figure 12. This diagram
shows that leeward of a close windbreak ranging from 25 to 40 feet
in height, the rate of evaporation in terms of the standard (A), which
was 330 feet leeward, was 91 per cent, at a distance of 198 feet (B),
and 71 per cent, at 49.5 feet (C), thus showing, a marked reduction
with proximity to the windbreak. These observations covered 62 days.

Nearer to Illinois, similar though very limited observations were
made in central Wisconsin by King ('95) which agree with Card's
on the retardation of evaporation by windbreaks. His results are
shown graphically in Figure 13.

Recently Bates ('11) has made an elaborate study of the effects of
windbreaks upon light, soil, moisture, velocity of wind, evaporation,
humidity, and temperature. His results confirm those just given and
give additional facts which, however, with one exception, will not be
mentioned. The paper itself should be consulted. This investigation
by Bates shows that in proportion to the perfection of the windbreak

88

a quiet, stagnant air strip is formed to the leeward, and that this fa-
vors excessive heating during clear days and low temperatures on clear
nights. Years ago Harrington ('93:119) suggested this idea and
called attention to the close relation existing between the leeward con-
ditions of windbreaks and forest glades. The glade climate is more
rigorous, or extreme, than that upon plains (I.e.: 19, 84-88, 119).
Such a climate is thus a bit more "continental" during the spring, sum-

1

D 2

1 i

0 40

50

60 70

ao 90

lOO 110

100 •/.

1 lOlV.
1 101'/.

I

5%

1

7^\

^^

""

""

^

Intensity of evaporation

Distance from windbreak 12 inches high :

Sta. F. 500 feet leeward. Standard

Sta. E. 400 feet leeward

Sta. D. 300 feet leeward

Sta. C. 200 feet leeward

Sta. B. 100 feet leeward

Sta. A. 20 feet leeward

Fig. 13. Diagram showing the relative evaporation, May 31, at different dis-
tances leeward of a windbreak, Almond, Wis. [Adapted from King ('95).]

mer, and autumn. These glades are very hot in the early afternoon
and cool on clear nights, and the air is relatively stagnant ; as Harring-
ton says, it is "lee for winds from all directions." The center of a
dense forest may thus possess physical conditions quite different from
those of the glade forest margin or in the open. Beginning with the
relatively stable conditions within a forest toward its margin, the diur-
nal temperature variations are much more extreme (Harrington,
1. c. : 89) "to a distance of a score or so of rods where it reaches a max-
imum. The amplitude is greater in glades. Hence the extremes of
temperature are exaggerated just outside the forest." The annual soil
temperatures of a glade are intermediate between that of the forest and
the plain. The forest margin is thus seen to possess many of the char-
acteristics of the glade, for its climate is somewhat more extreme than
that in the open, far from the forest.

5. Temperature Relations in the Open and in Forests

The temperature relations in open and forested regions are often
very different. The density of the vegetable covering in the open and
in the forests varies much and may have considerable influence upon
animals. Yapp ('09) observed that the marsh vegetation in England

84

caused marked vertical differences in temperature in the vegetational
stratum. He summarizes these results as follows (p. 309) : "The
temperature results show that the highest layers of the vegetation pos-
sess a greater diurnal range of temperature than either the free air
above or the lower layers of the vegetation. Regularly, especially in
clear weather, both the higher day and the lowest night temperatures
were recorded in this position."

Dachnowski ('12: 292-297) studied the temperature conditions in
a cranberry bog substratum in central Ohio. He found that at a time
when ice formed from 8 to 15 inches thick on the adjacent lake, in the
bog it was only 3 to 5 inches thick, and there were small patches where
it did not form at all. At a depth of 3 inches in the peat the tempera-
ture ranged from 33° to '/'/° F. (.5 "-25.0° C). In the bordering
maple-alder zone, at 3 inches depth it ranged from 33° to 72° F. (.5''-
22.0° C. ). His observations indicate that the temperature relations
within the maple-alder zone are more stable than those in the open
central area.

Cox ('10) has also shown that the character of the vegetation in
Wisconsin cranberry bogs has much influence upon temperature rela-
tions in this habitat.

It seems very probable that similar conditions hold over prairie
vegetation, but I do not know of any observations on this point. We
are all familiar with the common practice of gardeners of using a mulch
of straw to retard temperature changes under it ; prairie vegetation
must have a similar influence. (Cf. Bouyoucos, '13: 160.)

The relative air temperatures within and without the forest show
a distinct tendency to reduce the maxima and minima, and to lozver
the mean annual temperature. Harrington ('93:53) concludes,
therefore, that ''the forest moderates (by reducing the extremes) and
cools (by reducing the maxima more than the minima) the tempera-
ture of the air within it. The moderating influence is decidedly greater
than the cooling effect." These effects are not uniform, but are much
more marked in the summer, and Harrington further says : "The cool-
ing effect tends to disappear in winter. The moderating effect is the
most important one and it is the most characteristic" (p. 56).

The temperature relations within the forest crown show that in
general the effects are similar to those found at an elevation of about
5 feet. The maxima are lowered, the minima are elevated, and there
is a cooling effect. The differences are most pronounced during the
summer, and the temperatures are intermediate in position between
those at the five-foot level and those in the open (I.e.: 66). At a
height of 24 feet, deciduous trees showed a marked summer cooling

85

effect, while evergreens showed much less, though they are much more
uniform for 9 months of the year. Again, he says: "In summer the
average gradient under trees is about +2°; that is, it grows warmer
as we ascend at the rate of two degrees per 100 feet (31 m.). Out-
side in the general average it grows colder by about a quarter of a de-
gree." This warmer air above the cooler in the forest favors its sta-
bility or relative stagnation, although as a wdiole the forest air is cool-
er and heavier than the surrounding air and tends to flow outward.
The forest thus tends to produce a miniature or incipient barometric
high. In conclusion Harrington (p. 72) states that "The surface of
the surface of the forest is, meteorologically, much like the surface of
the meadow or cornfield. The isothermal surface above it in sun-
shine is a surface of maximum temperature, as is the surface of a
meadow or cornfield. From this surface the temperature decreases in
both directions." In the case of a beech forest the warm diurnal layer
above the forest crown was only 6.5 feet thick (p. 34).

The conditions above the forest are thus representative of the at-
mospheric conditions above dense vegetation in general, and are in per-
fect harmony with Yapp's observations upon the temperature above a
marsh ('09: 309), quoted on a previous page, to the effect that tem-
perature changes are extreme here, and greater than in the free
air above or in the lower layers among the vegetation. The forest is
thus to be considered as a thick layer of vegetation in its influence upon
meteorological conditions. The conditions above the forest, there-
fore, exemplify a general law.

In general terms, the temperature of the soil below the zone of
seasonal influence is that of the mean annual temperature for a given
locality. The surface zone, however, varies with the season. Har-
rington ('93) has summarized the German observations on the rela-
tive soil temperatures in the open and in the forest. In the following
c|uotation the minus sign indicates a forest temperature less than a cor-
responding observation in the open. These temperatures were taken
about 5 feet above the soil. He says (p. 43) : "The average of the
seventeen stations (representing about two hundred years of observa-
tions) should give us good and significant results. It shows for the
surface — 2°. 59, for a depth of 6 inches (152 mm.) — 1°.87, and for
a depth of 4 feet (1.22 m.) — 2°. 02. The influence of the forest
on the soil, then, is a cooling one, on the average, and for central
Europe the cooling amounts to about two and a half degrees for the
surface. The cooling is due to several causes: The first is the shade;
the foliage, trunks, branches, and twigs cut off much of the sun's
heat, absorb and utilize it in vegetative processes, or in evaporation, or.
reflect it away into space. Thus the surface soil in the forest receives

■ 86

less heat than the surface of the fields. The same screen acts, how-
ever, in the reverse direction by preventing radiation to the sky, thus
retaining more of the heat than do the open fields. The balance of
these two processes, it seems from observation, is in favor of the first

and the average result is a cooling one The dififerences of

temperature at the depth of 6 inches (152 mm.) are more than half a
degree less than at the surface. In this is to be seen the specific effect
of the forest litter; it adds a covering to that possessed by the sur-
face, so that while the deeper layer is cooled as much by the protec-
tion from the sun's rays as is the surface, it is not cooled so much by
radiation of heat to the sky. Its temperature is, consequently, rela-
tively higher, and approximates somewhat more the field tempera-
tures."

"The forest soil is warmer than that of the open fields in winter,
but cooler in the other seasons, and the total cooling is much greater

than the warming one The forest, therefore, not only cools

the soil, but also moderates the extremes of temperature" (p. 46).

The character of the forest, whether evergreen or deciduous, in-
fluences the temperature conditions of the soil, as is seen by a com-
parison of these conditions in the forest and in the open. The two kinds
of forest are much alike in winter; during the spring the soil warms
up more rapidly under conifers. Temperature variations are slightly
greater under deciduous trees.

6. Soil Moisture and its Relation to Vegetation

The moisture in the soil is derived largely from precipitation, but
part of it, in some localities, comes directly from the adjacent deeper
soils or rocks, and thus only indirectly from precipitation. As Illinois
lies at the bottom of a large basin, there must be some subsurface flow
from the adjacent higher regions, but to what extent is not known.
McGee ('13a: 177) estimates that the general ground-water level —
the level at which the soil becomes saturated — has, since settlement, de-
clined 10.6 feet in Illinois. This decline is not limited to drained re-
gions but is a general condition. In addition to these changes of level
there are seasonal fluctuations. Sherff ('13a: 583) observed in Skokie
Marsh that the water-table was at or above the surface in May, then
declined until early September, and then rose rapidly to the surface by
the middle of October. The wet prairie at Charleston has undergone
just such changes as these ; the ground-water level has been lowered
and there are marked seasonal changes.

Harvey ('14) has recently shown that the soil of Bryngium-Sil-
phium prairie at Chicago contains a large amount of water during

87

April and until late in May ; that the moisture falls and is low during
July and August, with a mean of 24 per cent, of saturation for these
months ; but that in October the soil is again at or near the point of
saturation.

The blanket of humid air which accumulates under a cover of vesfe-
tation, retards evaporation and conserves soil moisture. The denser
the vegetation the more marked is its influence. The litter — the or-
ganic debris in an early stage of decomposition — on the forest floor
has the same tendency, and has even a greater water capacity than the
soil itself. On the other hand, a forest is a powerful desiccator; as
Zon ('13:71) has recently put it: "A soil with a living vegetative
cover loses moisture, both through direct evaporation and absorption
by its vegetation, much faster than bare, moist soil and still more than
a free water surface. The more developed the vegetative cover the
faster is the moisture extracted from the soil and given off into the air.
The forest in this respect is the greatest desiccator of water in the
ground." This drying effect is shown particularly near the surface
of the soil, where roots are abundant and where drouth is so marked
that it may prevent the growth of young plants here (cf. Zon and
Graves, '11 : 17-18).

Warming ('09:45) says: "It may be noted that, according to
Ototozky, the level of ground-water invariably sinks in the vicinity of
forest, and always lies higher in an adjoining steppe than in a forest ;
forest consumes water."

McNutt and Fuller ('12) have made a study of the amount of soil
moisture at 3 inches (7.5 cm.) and at 10 inches (25 cm.) below the
surface in an oak-hickory forest, at Palos Park, Illinois. They found
that the percentage of water to the dry weight of the soil at the 3-inch
level averaged 18.9 per cent, and at 10 inches was 12.5 per cent, of the
dry weight of the soil. The greater moisture near the surface is due
to the humus present in this layer. The grazed part of the forest
possessed less soil moisture, and shows the conserving effect of vege-
tation. (Cf. also Fuller '14.)

The artificial control of soil moisture is well shown by the effect of
windbreaks. Card ('97) studied the moisture content of the soil to
leeward of a windbreak and found that in general there is a "de-
crease in the per cent, of water as the distance from the windbreak
increases." As the physical conditions leeward of windbreaks are
similar in many respects to those in forest glades and forest margins,
it is very probable that the conditions of soil moisture also will be very
similar in these places.

88
7- Ventilation of Land Habitats

«

The preceding account of the temperature, humidity, and evapo-
rating conditions in various habitats forms a necessary basis for an un-
derstanding of the processes of ventilation or atmospheric change in
land habitats. The differences in pressure due to the different densi-
ties of cool and warm air and to the friction and retardation of mov-
ing air currents, determine to an important degree the composition
of the air in many habitats. In such an unstable medium as air,
changes take place very rapidly through diffusion, and through this
constant process of adjustment there is a tendency to level off all local
dift"erences. These are naturally best preserved where diffusion cur-
rents are least developed — in the most stagnant or stable atmospheric
conditions ; therefore any factor which retards an air current and pro-
duces eddies, or slow diffusion, will favor local differentiation of
the air.

We have seen that any vegetable cover retards air currents, so that
the air within the vegetation becomes different from the faster moving
air above it. The accumulation of humidity at different levels above
the soil within the vegetation, clearly shows this. The denser the vege-
tation the more completely are the lower strata shut off and, to a cor-
responding degree, stagnant and subject to the local conditions. Two
factors have an important influence upon these conditions : the charac-
ter of the cover itself, and the character of the substratum. If both
of these are mineral rather than organic, in general comparatively
little local influence is to be expected, although in some localities CO2
escapes from the earth and on account of its density may linger in de-
pressions and thus kill animals (Mearns '03). Generally, however,
the organic materials are of most importance both as a cover and as a
substratum, and are often the source of carbon dioxide. Living vege-
tation may also add oxygen to such stagnant air, but the main source of
it is the free air itself. The forest litter, on account of its imperfect
stage of decay, consumes oxygen and gives off carbon dioxide ; in the
humus below it, shut off even more from free access to air, the carbon
dioxide is relatively more abundant and the oxygen relatively less so
or absent; and in the deeper mineral soil the amount of carbon
dioxide is relatively less on account of the absence of organic debris,
and a small amount of oxygen is present.

The aeration of the soil is influenced to a large degree by its poros-
ity; the looser it is, the freer the circulation. Buckingham ('04) has
shown that "the' speed of diffusion of air and carbonic acid through
these soils was not greatly dependent upon texture and structure, but
was determined in the main by the porosity of the soil. . . . the

. 89

rate of diffusion was approximately proportional to the square of the
porosity .... the escape of carbonic acid from the soil and
its replacement by oxygen take place by diffusion, and are determined
by the conditions which affect diffusion, and are sensibly independent
of the variations of the outside barometric pressure."

In the upper, better ventilated, moist, neutral or alkaline layers of
vegetable debris decomposition is brought about mainly by the agency
of fungi ; but in the deeper, poorly ventilated acid layers, lacking oxy-
gen, bacteria are the active agents (cf. Transeau, '05, '06). The
higher the temperature the more rapid the circulation, and on this ac-
count ventilation in the open is relatively more rapid than in the cooler
woodlands. The black soil prairies are thus favorable to a higher tem-
perature and better ventilation. Dry soil, according to Hilgard
('06: 279) contains from 35 to 50 per cent, its volume of air, and in
moist or wet soils this space is replaced by water. Thus the condi-
tions which influence the amount of water present have a very im-
portant influence upon aeration. As water is drained from the soil, air
takes its place ; so drainage and the flow of water through the soil facil-
itate ventilation. The part of the soil containing air is thus above the
water-table ; and as this level fluctuates with the season and from year
to year the lower boundary of this stratum is migratory. Hilgard
states that cultivated garden soil contains much more air than uncul-
tivated forest soil. Warming ('09:43) says that the "production of
acid humus in the forest leads to an exclusion of the air." If lime is
present, such an acid condition can not arise.

While the source of oxygen in the soil is the air, the reverse is the
case with carbon dioxide. The surface layers of the soil, among
dense vegetation, constitute an area of concentration of carbon
dioxide. Because this is more soluble than other gases, it is found
in rain water, according to Geikie, in a proportion 30 to 40 times
greater than in the air. Rains thus assist in the concentration of
carbon dioxide in the soil. This concentration is well shown by the
following table by Baussungault and Lewy (Van Hise, '04:474).

Character of soil air

CO3 in

10,000 parts

by weight

1.

Sandy subsoil of forest

38

2.

Loamy subsoil of forest

124

3.

Surface soil of forest

130

4,

Surface soil of vineyard

146

5.

Pasture soil

270

6.

Eieh in hiunus

543

90

The amount of carbonic acid in the atmosphere is by weight about
4.5 parts in 10,000. The amount in the air is, as Van Hise says, "in-
significant in comparison with the amount in soils in regions of luxu-
riant vegetation. In such regions the carbon dioxide is from thirty to
more than one hundred times more abundant than in the atmosphere."
This carbonic acid in the presence of bases, sodium, potassium, cal-
cium, and magnesium compounds, forms carbonates c'nd bicarbonates.
This is the process of carbonation — one of the most important proc-
esses of change in surface soils.

In view of the dominance of CO2 in soils we may anticipate that
many of the animals living in them possess some of the characteristics
of the plants, bacteria, fungi, etc., which are active in such soils. The
anaerobic forms live without free oxygen ; others live only where oxy-
gen is present. The animals which thrive in the soil are likely to be
those which tolerate a large amount of COo and are able to use a rela-
tively small amount of oxygen, at least for considerable intervals, as
when the soil is wet during prolonged rains. This is a subject to
which reference will be made later.

The air is the main source of oxygen, and from the air it diffuses
into the soil ; thus the process of ecjuilibration is constantly in progress.
Carbonic acid, also present in the air, is washed down by rain and
concentrated in the soil, where it is increased by the decay of organic
debris and by respiring animals to such an extent that it exists under
pressure and diffuses into the air, thus contributing to the air. In the
soil, then, the process of decarbotiisation is of great importance to
animal life, and must not be neglected. The optimum soil habitat is
therefore determined, to a very important degree, by the proper ratio
or balance between the amount of available oxygen and the amount of
carbon dioxide which can be endured without injury. The excessive
accumulation of carbon dioxide, an animal waste product, is compar-
able to the accumvilation of plant toxins which may increase in the
soil to such a degree as to inhibit plant growth. Such substances
must be removed from the soil, or changed in it to harmless com-
pounds, or plants and animals can not continue to live in certain
places. I have used the term ventilation to cover both the oxvgena-
tion and decarbonization of land habitats, and the same principles
are applicable to life in fresh-water habitats.

We have just seen how atmospheric ventilation favors the removal
of certain injurious waste products from the air and soil. In addition
to gaseous waste products there are also liquids and solid kinds which
may be equally harmful in a habitat. These are known to exist in con-
fined liquids, as in acjuaria (Colton, '08; Woodruff, '12), where they

91

interfere with the welfare of the animals present, and it is probable
that they also exist in soils. The older naturalists elaborated the idea
that if organisms were not such active agents in the destruction or
transformation of plant and animal bodies such remains would soon
encumber the earth. Thus organisms themselves are among the most
active agents in influencing directly and indirectly the ventilation of
animal habitats.

8. The Tree Trunk as a Habitat

A living tree trunk is composed of wood, sap (moisture), and
bark, all of which are relatively poor conductors of heat. When the
trunks are cooled, as in winter, they are slow in warming, not only
because of poor conduction but also because of the slow circulation of
sap, which is derived from the cool ground-water. As the season
progresses, the trunks warm up, this process being retarded in part by
the shade and the cool forest conditions ; and in the fall, radiation of
the heat accumulated also takes place slowly. The tree trunk therefore
changes its temperature slowly, as does the soil. The animals which
live within wood thus live in a relatively cool and stable environment.
In living trees the humidity is relatively high, as it may also be in
fallen, deca,ying logs. Relatively dry logs, before progress of decay,
on the other hand, form a relatively dry and uniform habitat. (Cf.
on the temperature of trees : Harrington, '93, pp. 72-75 ; Packard,
'90, p. 23 ; and Jones, Edson, and Morse, '03, pp. 97-100.)

p. Prairie and Forest Vegetation and Animal Life

The dependence of animals upon plants for food is one of the most
fundamental animal relations. It is a world-wide relation, but its
mode of operations varies greatly in different enviroimients. For ex-
ample, many years ago, Brooks gave us a graphic picture of the role
of marine vegetation in the economy of marine animals. In the sea
there are no forests or grasslands, and no corresponding animals as-
sociated with these conditions, as on land ; but in the sea great numbers
of minute plants float, and upon these feed an immense number of
small crustaceans and other small animals. These small creatures
occur in such large numbers that at times the sea is a sort of gruel
which sedentary and stationary kinds may appropriate by simply al-
lowing the sea to flow into their mouths. The food here circulates in
their environmental medium, as plant foods do in the soil and air. This
condition has made it possible for vast numbers of plant-like animals
to grow over the sea floor as plants do over rocks and plains. The
living meadows of animals thus furnish pasture for a host of preda-

92

ceous kinds ; and upon these still others prey, so that flesh-eating ani-
mals make up the most conspicuous classes of marine animals. Quite
otherwise are the conditions on land, where no air current carries food
to the hungry mouths of animals. Plants with roots in the soil and
stems in the air are able, however, to secure their food from the cir-
culating medium, but being themselves fixed, they are easy prey to
animals — both the sedentary kinds, which live in or upon the plant tis-
sues, and the active wandering kinds, which forage over large areas.
The predaceous animals, either by active mind or body, must secure
their food from the plant-feeding kinds. The great expanses of grass-
land and forest tend to be devastated by a vast army of animals which
far outnumber the predaceous kinds. The conditions of life, there-
fore, found upon grassland areas, like the prairie, and in the forest,
are to the farthest possible extent removed from those found in the
sea. This, then, is one of the most fundamental contrasts in the con-
ditions of existence encountered by animals.

These considerations naturally raise the question to what extent
and in what particular manner does land vegetation influence animal
life ? Does a change in the vegetation as great as that between the for-
est and the prairie have a marked influence upon animals? In the
Charleston region we have just such a difference in the vegetation.

Many years ago Bates pointed out repeatedly in his "The Natural-
ist on the River Amazons" that the animals of that densely forested
region were to a marked degree distinctly arboreal and "adapted" to a
forest life. In most densely forested regions like conditions probably
prevail, and to a corresponding degree open lands harbor animals
equally characteristic and as truly terrestrial in habits. The contrast
between the conditions of life in the open and in the forest is one of
the most fundamental environmental conditions upon land. The sig-
nificance of this contrast seems to have been realized only in part. The
prairies or grasslands are representative of only one kind of open ;
they are caused by many kinds of factors limiting the extension of
forests. Open places are formed by lakes, ponds, and swamps ; by the
avenues through forests formed by different kinds of streams, as
brooks, creeks, and rivers ; by the small amount of soil on rock sur-
faces; and by still other kinds of limiting influences, such as the sea,
severe climate, and altitude. Among almost all of the major taxo-
nomic groups of land animals is seen the independent origin and pres-
ervation of animals suited for life in the forest; this clearly points to
the extensive influence and antiquity of this environment. The same
is true of animals living in the open. But to assume that it is solely
the kinds of forest trees serving as food for animals, or the cor-
responding kinds of vegetation in the open, which determines whether

93

an animal lives in the open or in the forest, would be unwarranted in
the light of the preceding discussion of the effect of vegetation upon
air temperatures, winds, humidity, relative evaporating power of the
air, and corresponding changes in the soil. Animal life is most
abundant in a narrow vertical layer above the earth's surface, by far
the most of it is within a few inches or feet of the surface ; and above
the level of the forest-crown it diminishes with great rapidity. Be-
low the surface of the soil the same general law holds; most of the
ground animals are within the first few inches of soil, only a small
number extending a few feet below the surface, and those found at
greater depths being indeed very few. The rate of decline is many
times more rapid below the surface than it is above it. There is, then,
above and below the surface a rapid and progressive attentuation of
the favorable conditions for animals and plants, and the animals do
not establish thriving communities far from those physical conditions
which are also favorable to vegetation. Animals are dependent upon
plants for food, but both are dependent upon a certain complex of
physical conditions near the surface of the earth.

It is well to recall at this point how the influence of the climate and
the vegetation exemplify certain general laws which operate in all hab-
itats. The differentiation of habitats upon the earth is primarily due
to temperature and the specific heat relations of the earth, which re-
sult in the several media — gases, liquids, and solids. With a higher
temperature all would be gas, and with a lower one all would be solidi-
fied. The present intermediate conditions, therefore, permit the pres-
ent differentiation. These media are further differentiated by tem-
perature about as follows : Since the source of solar energy, heat, and
light, and the oxygen supply, are above the surface of the earth, the
vertical attenuation of these influences is one of the most striking
peculiarities of animal habitats, both in water (where the causes have
long been recognized) and upon land. Any covering of the earth,
even the surface layer of vegetation, soil and water, tends to shut off
heat, light, and oxygen. At the same time such a layer tends to shut
in those influences which originate primarily in or below it. Thus car-
bonic acid originating under the cover, by organic decay, breathing
animals, or bacteria, or washed in by the rain, tends to be shut in.
Furthermore, heat once reaching here, either in water or on land, tends
toward slow radiation. Thus we may look upon the surface layer as a
partition which is under pressure from both sides, and through which
constant interchange is in progress, as the process of dynamic equili-
bration operates.

94

This attenuation of intensities, above and below the surface, pro-
duces vertical layers of relatively equal strength or pressure. Thus
the attenuation of temperature in gases (air) and in liquids (water)
causes different densities in air and in water which modify to an im-
portant degree the physical and chemical conditions in these media.
This results in their stratification: when the heavier layers are below,
stability is the tendency ; and when the reverse order obtains, a
change takes place toward the stable condition. With stratification,
fiowage tends to occur within the strata, and to be horizontal rather
than vertical; additional pressure is therefore necessary to cause the
vertical currents or circulation under such conditions. This is why
carbonic acid accumulates in the soil and in small deep lakes abound-
ing in organic debris, this accumulation being largely due, in both
cases, to the slow rate of exchange caused by the stratification pro-
duced by differences in density. This same relative stagnation is a
primary ^factor in the vertical differences in the relative evaporating
power of the air within a vegetable layer of the prairie or the forest.
Though on the prairie the vegetational layer is generally but a few
inches or a few feet thick, in the forest it is about eighty feet, or
more, thick ; and the forest thus influences atmospheric conditions
solely as a thick layer of vegetation.

Differences, then, in the character, structure, or composition of the
surface of the substratum are of fundamental importance in under-
standing its relative influence upon animals. Primarily these differ-
ences are due to temperature, secondarily to temperature in combina-
tion with moisture ; and they result in the relative humidity and the
relative evaporating power of the air. The most important difference
in the surface layer in the Charleston region is that of prairie and for-
est, and therefore the main features of these habitats will now be sum-
marized. It should not be overlooked that conditions on the prairie are
likely to be quite representative of open places in general, though they
will probably be somewhat unrepresentative in the case of open places
having wet or extremely dry substrata. It is also true that the condi-
tions produced by the forest are comparable, in some degree, with
those due to the influence of an elevation.

95

Summary of Environmental Features of the Prairie and the Deciduous Forest
— Temperature, Humidity, and Evaporation — during the Growing Season

Prairie

Ahove the Vegetation

Sim, maximum heated stratum.

In

Cooler above and below this stratum.
Absolute humidity less than in or over

forest.

Forest

Above crown, in sun, maximum heated
stratum. A thin layer. Cooler above
and below this stratum.

Absolute humidity greater than in the
open.

Prairie

Among the Vegetation

Temperature lower and higher than in

the forest — more extreme.
Temperature lower toward the soil, and

warmer than in the forest.

Absolute humidity progressively increases

toward the soil.
Relative evaporation decreases toward the

soil; greater than in the forest.

Forest

Temperature moderated — not as low or
as high as on the prairie.

Temperature lower toward the soil, and
cooler than in the open.

Absolute humidity progressively increases

toward the soil.
Relative evaporation decreases toward the

soil; less than in the open.

In the Soil

Prairie

Temperature averaging warmer than
forest, warmer near surface in sum-
mer, and cooler in winter. Warmer in
sun and cooler at night than in forest.

Temperature progressively more stable
downward. Soil moisture increases
downward.

Forest

Temperature cooler on the average and
in summer, and warmer in winter, near
the surface, than in the open. Cooler
in sun and warmer at night than in
the open.

Temperature progressively more stable
downward. Soil moisture, below the
surface layer, increases downward.

*tai

The conditions on the prairie and in the forest may be graphically-
shown as in the following diagrams. Figure 14 showing the tempera-
ture relations, and Figure 15 showing the relative evaporating power
of the air.

96

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98

lo. Sources and Role of Water used by
Prairie and Forest Anim,als

The bodies of animals contain a very large proportion of water —
from 60 to 95 per cent. Growing animals in particular require water
in relatively large amounts. Practically all foods gain entrance into the
body in acpeous solutions, and are transported by water to all parts ;
and by the same means, the waste products, with the exception of the
excretion of carbonic acid, are removed. The methods by which aquatic
animals secure water are relatively simple, because they live in a
liquid medium; but the conditions upon land are quite different. Here
osmotic pressure does not operate as in water, and the air varies from
saturation to a very dry condition. This dryness tends to cause strong
evaporation from animals living in such a medium, and a proper bal-
ance between intake and water-loss is one of the most potent influences
in the life of land animals. In this relation lies the importance of the
sources of water available to them. These sources are as follows :
with the food, by drinking, from the atmosphere, and by metabolism.
The loss is by excretion and evaporation, the relative humidity and the
evaporating power of the air being, therefore, important considera-
tions. The loss of water is retarded in many ways. Some animals
possess a relatively impermeable skin, or a covering, as hair or feath-
ers, which retards air currents and evaporation through the skin, just
as a cover of vegetation retards soil evaporation. Other animals con-
serve their moisture by modes of behavior, being active mainly during
the cooler night, thus escaping the excessive evaporation of the heated
day; and still others live in burrows in the soil, where the humidity is
higher than in the air. Many animals can live only where the air is
humid. There is thus an almost endless series of conditions relating
animals to the supply and loss of water.

On account of the herbivorous food habits of so many animals a
large number secure much water with the juicy vegetation eaten, and
others from nectar or from the sap drawn or escaping from plants.
The predaceous animals secure a large amount of water from the fluids
of the animals they devour or the juices sucked from their bodies, as
in the case of certain Hemiptera and some parasites. In addition to
the fluids derived from plants and animals, many animals also drink
water, some in small amounts and others in large quantities. Innu-
merable observations have been made by naturalists on the drinking
habits of animals, but I know of no general discussion of this subject,
and particularly of none from the standpoint of the variation of their
behavior in this resoect in different environments. But the sources
of water mentioned are not the only ones available to animals, although

99

they are the most obvious, and familiar to us. An important addi-
tional source is that formed within the body of the animal by the proc-
esses of respiration and dehydration; this is metabolic water. The
relation of this source to others and to water-loss has recently been
summarized in an important paper by Babcock ('12:87, 88, 89-90,
91, 160, 161, 171-172, 174-175, 175-176, 181). The following quo-
tations from this paper will serve to give a concise statement of the
general principles involved in this important process. He says (pp.
87-88) : "There are, however, particular stages in the life history of
both plants and animals in which metabolic water is sufficient for all

purposes for considerable periods of time This is also true

in the case of hibernating animals that receive no water from external
sources for several months, although water is constantly lost through
respiration and the various excretions. In addition many varieties of
insects such as the clothes moths, the grain weevils, the dry wood bor-
ers, etc., are capable of subsisting, during all stages of development,
upon air-dried food materials containing less than ten per cent water ;
in these cases, nearly all of the water required is metabolic. . . . Many
organisms also, when deprived of free oxygen, are capable of main-
taining for a short time, certain of the respiratory functions, and de-
riving energy from food material and from tissues by breaking up the
molecular structure into new forms of a lower order. This is known
as intramolecular respiration, and like direct respiration, results in the
production of both water and carbon dioxide." (Pp. 89-90) : "The
substances oxidized by both plants and animals, to supply vital energy,
consist of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. All of these substances
contain hydrogen, and their complete oxidation produces a quantity
of water equal to nine times the weight of hydrogen present in the orig-
inal substances. . . . Most of the the fats yield more than their weight
of water, while proteins, when completely oxidized, give from 60 to

65 per cent of water Animals, however, are unable to utilize

the final products of protein metabolism which are in most cases
poisonous and must be removed from the tissues by excretion in vari-
ous forms, the principal of which are urea, uric acid, and am-
monia The amount of metabolic water formed by oxidation

during any period is proportional to the rate of respiration

(Page 91 ) : "With parasitic plants, and with animals, which derive all
of their organic nutrients from chlorophyl producing plants, im-
bibed water is not so essential to life; with these the chief function
of imbibed water is to aid in the removal of waste products, the
metabolic water being in most cases sufficient for transferring nutri-
ents and for replacing the ordinary losses incurred by respiration
and evanoration." (Page 160): "Another and more im-

100

portant difference is the inability of animals to resynthesize the or-
ganic waste products of respiration into substances that may be

again utilized as nutrients This is especially the case with the

soluble products arising from protein metabolism. With most animals
these nitrogenous products are excreted in solution through the kid-
neys, chiefly as urea, but birds, reptiles, and all insects excrete most
of the nitrogenous waste matter as uric acid, or its ammonia salt, which
being practicall}^ insoluble in the body fluids, is voided in a solid con-
dition." (Page 6i) : "The need for water is much less for ani-
mals that excrete uric acid than for those that excrete urea, since
uric acid, being practically insoluble in the the body fluids, is not so
poisonous as urea and is voided solid with a minmum loss of water.
Many animals that excrete uric acid instead of urea never have access
to water and subsist in every stage of their development upon air dried
food which usually contains less than lo per cent water. The most
striking illustrations of this kind are found among insects such as the
clothes moths, the grain weevils, the dry wood borers, the bee moths,
etc. The larvse of these insects contain a high per cent of water, and
the mature forms, in spite of the development of wnngs which are rela-
tively dry, rarely contain less than 50 per cent of water." (Pp. 171-
172) : "Serpents and other reptiles that live in arid regions and rarely
if ever have access to water, except that contained in their food, are
said by Vauquelin to excrete all of the waste nitrogen as salts of uric
acid. The same is true of birds that live on desert islands where only
salt water is available. It is essential that animals of these types should
produce as much metabolic water as possible from the assimilated food,
and the waste of water through the excretions should be reduced to a
minimum. Since the food is largely protein both of these ends are at-
tained by the excretion of uric acid which, as already stated, contains
the least hydrogen of any nitrogenous substance excreted by animals so
that the maximum amount of metabolic water has been derived from
the food consumed." (Pp. 174-175) : "There are many animals that
are able to go long periods without having access to water except that
contained in their food, in which water usually amounts to less than
20 per cent of total weight, and the metabolic water derived from oxi-
dation of organic nutrients. A notable example of this is the prairie
dog which thrives in semi-arid regions. These small animals feed
upon the native herbage which for months at a time is as dry as hay.
It has been surmised that the burrows in which they live extend to
underground water courses, but this does not seem likely since in many
of .these regions wells must be sunk hundreds of feet before water is
reached. It is more probable that they depend chiefly upon metabolic
water. They feed mostly at night when the temperature is low and

101

during the hottest hours of day remain in their burrows where the air
is more nearly saturated with moisture and evaporation is relatively
small." (Pp. 175-176) : "An application of these principles would
undoubtedly serve to prolong life, when suitable water for drinking
is not available. In such cases the food should consist of carbohy-
drates and fats. Proteins should not be used The water re-
quired for preventing uremic poisoning under these conditions is small
and if the relative humidity of the surrounding air is high enough to
prevent rapid evaporation of water from the body, the metabolic water
arising from the oxidation of nutrients may be ample for the purpose."
(Page 181) : "Metabolic water derived from the oxidation of organic
nutrients would probably be sufficient for all animal needs were it not
for the elimination of poisonous substances resulting from protein de-
generation."

The preceding cjuotation brings out very clearly the harmful effects
of an accumulation of uric acid upon the animal. This is only a special
case illustrating a general law, for except water the main end products
of metabolism are acid. There is thus a constant tendency for acid to
accumulate, as Henderson ('13a: 158-159; see also '13b) has said:
"This tendency toward acidity of reaction and the accumulation of acid
in the body is one of the inevitable characteristics of metabolism; the
constant resistance of the organism one of the fundamental regulatory
processes. Now it comes about through the carbonate equilbrium that
the stronger acids, as soon as they are formed, and wherever they are
formed, normally find an ample supply of bicarbonates at their dis-
posal, and accordingly react as follows .... The free carbonic acid
then passes out through the lungs, and the salt is excreted in the urine."

Recently Shelford ('13b, see also '14a) has summarized the phys-
iological effects of water-loss by evaporation and other methods. It
is probable that the carbonic acid excretion is retarded by drying, and
that by this means irritability may be increased.

It is not simply loss of water, but loss beyond certain limits that
interferes with the life of animals. Thus loss is not an unmixed evil,
because, in addition to removing excretions, evaporation is an impor-
tant factor in the control of temperature within the bodies of animals.
Loss of water also tends to concentrate the body fluids, and when this
loss brings about a relatively dry condition, such tissues are in a con-
dition which is favorable for the endurance of relatively extreme low
or high temperature (Davenport, '97:256-258), and even dryness
(see references, Adams, '13 : 98-99). This is a reason why it is dif-
ficult to distinguish, in nature, between the effects of aridity and tem-
perature extremes, and hence arise the puzzling interpretations of con-

102

tinental climates. These extreme conditions are characteristic of many
habitats.

It is readily seen how the general principles just summarized apply
to the land animals of the prairie. Many of these are active during the
day, live in the bare exposed places, or near the level of the vegetation,
where evaporation is greatest and water-loss is correspondingly large,
and feed upon the dry haylike vegetation. Others remain among the
humid layers of the vegetation or in the moist soil, and feed upon
juicy plants and other moist food. Predaceous and parasitic animals,
deriving their moisture from their prey, occupy both the dry and humid
situations. These are representative cases, between which there are a
large number of intergradations.

In the forest, where evaporation is more retarded than in the open,
a large number of animals live in the forest crown, at the forest mar-
gin, in glades, and in wood, of all degrees of dryness, and eat food
varying similarly from juicy leaves to dry wood. On the other hand,
some live in moist logs, among damp humus, or in the soil, and feed
upon dripping fungi or soggy wood. Many of these animals possess
little resistance to drying.

The optimum for prairie and forest animals thus involves a
dynamic balance between the intake of water and its loss by evapora-
tion and excretion.

ANIMAL ASSOCIATIONS OF THE PRAIRIE
AND THE FOREST

I. Introduction

In an earlier chapter of this paper the habitats and animals found
at the different stations were discussed, and in the preceding section
the general characteristics of the physical and vegetational environ-
ment of the prairie and forest have been described ynd summarized.
We are now in a better position to consider the relations of the inverte-
brates, not only to their physical environment, but also to the vege-
tation, and, furthermore the relations which these animals bear to one
another. We wish also to consider both the prairie and the forest as
separate units, and to see how the animals are related to their physical
and biological environment. As previously stated, the special locali-
ties studied were described by stations both to give a precise and con-
crete idea of the prairie and its animals, as now existing in a limited
area, and also to preserve as much of the local color as the data would
permit. I wish now to reexamine these animals from another stand-
point, that of the animal association as a unit. The prairie as a whole

103

is not homogeneous from this point of view ; it is a mosaic composed
of a number of minor social communities. Each of these smaller units,
however, is fairly homogeneous throughout.

Our present knowledge of these minor associations is imperfect,
and for this reason they are arranged in an order approximating that
which we might reasonably expect to be produced if the initial stage
were made to begin with a poorly or imperfectly drained area and to
advance progressively with corresponding vegetational changes, toward
a more perfect condition of drainage. Upon the prairie a perfect series
would include every stage from lakes, ponds, and swamps to well-
drained dry prairie. But cultivation and drainage have obliterated so
much, that now only very imperfect remnants exist in the vicinity of
Charleston. Although the sequence followed therefore does not in-
clude all stages of the process it is approximately genetic.

There are three essential features in every animal association, or
community; certain physical conditions; certain kinds of vegetation,
which also modify the physical conditions; and representative kinds of
animals. Occasionally an effort is made to divorce these, to separate
organisms from their normal habitat, but such an effort is deceptive,
for no organism can live for any considerable period without a normal
environment.

I have not attempted to treat these associations with equal fullness.
In the sections devoted to the description of the stations it was possi-
ble in some cases, on account of the uniform character of a station, to
describe the animal association rather fully. In such instances the
detailed account is not repeated. In other cases I have elaborated the
community relations more fully here than elsewhere. The descriptions
of the stations and the associations, and the annotated lists, are in-
tended to be mutually supplementary.

II. The Prairie Associations

I. Szvainp Prairie Association

The swamp prairie community lives in a habitat characterized by
shallow water, which stands approximately throughout the growing
season of the vegetation. The soil is black, and rich in vegetable de-
bris. The characteristic plants are bulrush (Scirpus), flags (Iris),
swamp milkweed (Asclepias incarnata), beggar-ticks (Bid ens), and
young growths both of willow (Salix) and cottonwood (Popnliis del-
toides). The abundant growth of vegetation and the wet soil are con-
ditions favorable for the production and accumulation of organic de-
bris, which tends to fill the depressions and to supplement the inwash

104

from the surrounding slopes. At the same time, burrowing animals,
particularly the crawfish, also bury debris and work over the soil. In
the Charleston area this community was developed at Station I, d, and
in part at I, g.

The representative animals of this community are those living in
the water, such as the prairie crawfish, Canibariis gracilis (PL
XXXVI), the snail Galha iirnhilicata, and such insects as the nine-
spot dragon-fly, Lihellula piilchella (PI. XXXVIII, fig. 2), and the
giant moscjuito, PsoropJiora ciliata, whose immature stages are spent
in the water. In addition to these are other representative species
whose presence is, to an important degree, conditioned by the pres-
ence of certain kinds of vegetation — such species, for example, as
those which feed upon the dogbane (Apocymim) , the brilliantly col-
ored beetle Chrysoclms aiiratiis; upon milkweed, the milkweed bugs
Lygccits kalrnii and Oncopeltus fasciatus (PI. XL, figs, i and 3), and
the milkweed beetle Tetraopes; and, finally, the rather varied series of
flower visitors feeding upon pollen or nectar, such as the soldier-beetle
(CJiauliognatlius pcnnsylvamcus) , Eiiplioria scpulchralis, and several
species of butterflies, moths, bees and wasps, including the honey-bee,
bumblebees, and carpenter-bee (Xylocopa virginica), and the common
rusty digger-wasp (Chlorion ichneumoneiim) . Visiting the same flow-
ers, but of predaceous habit, were found the ambush spider (Mismncna
aleatoria) and the ambush bug (Phyniafa fasciata). Small insects
were preyed upon by the dragon-flies (Libellnla piilchella ), and the
dragon-flies in turn were entangled in the webs of the garden spider
(Argiope aurantia).

No animals were taken on the flags, but Needham ('00) has made
an important study of the population inhabitating flags at Lake Forest,
Illinois, and shows that it is an extensive one. He gives an excellent
example showing how the injury by one insect paves the way for a
train or succession of others. For example: the ortalid fly Chcrtopsis
ccnea Wied. (PI. XVIII, fig. i), bores into the stem of the buds and
causes them to decay (Cf. Forbes, '05, p. 164; Walton, Ent. News,
Vol. 19, p. 298. 1908). This condition affords a favorable habitat for
a pomace-fly (Drosophila phalerata Meig.*), an oscinid (Oscinis
coxendix Fitch, Plate XVIII, figures 3 and 4), a beetle, parasitic
Hymenoptera, and, after the decaying buds were overgrown by fungus
threads, the bibionid fly Scatopse pulicaria Loew. This paper by Need-
ham is one of the very few in which the population of a plant has been
studied as a biotic community. Forbes ('90, pp. 68-69; 02, p. 444)
has shown that snout-beetles {Sphenophorus ochreus Lee, Plate

*Mr. J. E. Malloch informs me that Z>. phalerata is not an American species.

105

XVIII, figures 5, 6, and 7) breed in root-bulbs of Scirpiis, and that
these beetles eat the leaves of Phragmites. Webster ('90, pp 52-55)
observed these beetles feeding on the leaves of Scirpus and the larvse
feeding on its roots. I have found great numbers of these beetles cast
up on the beach of Lake Michigan. Evidently they breed in the
swamps about the lake, fall into it when on the wing, and are washed
ashore.

2. The Cottonwood Community

Ordinarily we are accustomed to think of the prairie as treeless,
and yet one large tree was relatively abundant upon the original prairie
of Illinois, particularly upon wet prairie, or, when pools were present,
even upon the uplands. This was the cottonwood, Popiilus deltoides.
These trees were often important landmarks when isolated ; and today
the large trees or their stumps are important guides in determining the
former extent of the prairie. In the region studied there were no large
mature cottonwoods, although saplings were present, but north of
Charleston in the adjacent fields mature trees were found. They grow
normally at the margins of wet places, as about prairie ponds and
swamps, or along the small ill-defined moist sags and small prairie
brooks. This tree is usually solitary or in irregular scattered rows
when along streams, and does not, as a rule, form clumps or groves.
This relatively isolated habit may be a factor in the comparatively
small number of invertebrates which are associated with it, or at least
in the amount of serious injury which they do to these trees upon the
prairie. Many of the larger trees are mutilated, or even destroyed by
lightning (Cf. Plummer, '12), and such injury favors entrance of in-
sects on account of the rupturing of the thick bark.

The galls on the leaves and twigs of the trees often attract atten-
tion. A large irregular gall on the ends of the twigs becomes conspic-
uous in winter. This is formed by the vagabond gall-louse, Pemphigus
ocstlitndi Ckll. (PI. XIX, fig. i) {vagabundiis Walsh, Ent. News,
Vol. 17, p. 34. 1906). I have found these galls abundant upon the
prairie at Bloomington, 111. At this same locality I found a large
bullet-like gall at the junction of the petiole and the leaf — that of Pem-
phigus popidicanlis Fitch (PI. XIX, fig. 2), and at Urbana, 111., on
other large prairie cottonwoods, a somewhat similar gall, on the side
of the petioles, caused by P. populi-transversiis Riley (PI. XIX, fig. 3).
I have also taken large caterpillars of the genus Apatela on leaves of
cottonwood, and September 3, at Urbana, upon its cultivated form, the
Carolina poplar, A. poptdi Riley (PI. XX, fig. 6). These caterpillars
have bodies covered by yellow hair penciled with black. At dusk
swarms of May-beetles (Lachnostcrna) can be seen and heard feeding

106

among the leaves of the cottonwood and the CaroHna poplar. It is
noteworthy that I have made these observations at Urbana, Illinois,
upon cottonwoods growing upon what was originally prairie.

Forbes ('07a) has shown, as the result of extensive collections of
]May-beetles from trees, that they have a decided preference for Caro-
lina poplar (p. 456) and willow. This same paper also contains im-
portant observations on the nocturnal flights to and from the forest,
from the normal habitat of the grubs, and from the daytime abode of
the beetles in the open fields. Wolcott ('14) has recently emphasized
the point that the grubs live only in open places in proximity to wood-
land where the beetles can secure food. These observations show very
clearly that May-beetles are animals primarily of the prairie or forest
margin, and probably lived upon the original prairie, scattered, where
cottonwoods or willows grew. A glance at the map of the prairie and
forest (frontispiece) shows that the marginal area was very extensive,
and must have furnished an optimum habitat for these beetles. This is
a good illustration of the fact that the cottonwood exerted an influence
upon the prairie far beyond its shadow.

In some localities another beetle (Melasorna scripta Fabr. ) feeds
upon the leaves of the cottonwood, and may become a serious pest to
poplars and willows, but I have not seen this species abundant on iso-
lated mature trees upon the prairie. I have taken these beetles (July
2) under cottonwoods at Bloomington, 111. Packard ('90, pp. 426-
474) has published a list of the insects known to feed upon Popuhis.

Willows (Salix) are frequently associated with the cottonwoods
upon the prairie, but, in marked contrast with these, they generally
grow in colonies and are eaten by a great variety of insects. Packard
('90, pp. 557-600) lists 186 species of insects on them, and Chitten-
den ('04, p. 63) extends the number to 380 species. Of course in any
given locality the number of species found will be relatively small, and
the number is further limited by the environmental conditions —
whether the land is upland or low and flooded. The degree of prox-
imity of willows and cottonwood is likely to influence the relative
abundance of the insects feeding upon these trees, since a large number
of insects which feed upon willow also feed upon the cottonwood. Col-
onies of willow are thus likely to become sources of infestation for
the cottonwood; this relation, however, is a mutual one. Walsh ('64)
and Heindel ('05) have published very interesting studies of the com-
munity life of the insect galls on Illinois willows. Cockerell ('97, pp.
770-771) has listed the scale insects found upon willows and poplars.

107

J. Swamp-grass Association

The prairie swamp-grasses, slough grass (Spartina), and wild rye
(Blymiis) were growing in relatively pure stands or colonies in de-
pressions which were dry in the late summer. The prolonged wetness
of the habitat and the dominance of the few kinds of grasses are char-
acteristic features of the environment of this association. These con-
ditions were found at Station I, a and c, north of Charleston. As these
stations were rather homogeneous and have already been discussed
somewhat fully, only a summary will be given here.

On account of the grassy vegetation the abundance of Orthoptera
is not surprising. Representative species are Melanoplus dijferen-
tialis, M. femur-rubrum, Scudderia texensis, Orchelimuni vidgarc,
Xiphidiuni strictimi, CEcanfhiis nigricornis, and CB. qiiadripunctatus.
Other representative animals are Argiope aurantia and the swamp fly
Tetanocera plumosa. The list of species is probably very incomplete;
during the wet season there are undoubtedly a number of aquatics ;
furthermore, there are still other species which feed upon Spartina and
Blymus, particularly some Hemiptera, and stem-inhabiting Hymenop-
tera, and certain Diptera. Thus Webster ('03a, pp. 10-13, 26, 32, 38)
has recorded a number of chalcids of the genus Isosoma which live
in the stems of Blymus virginiciis and canadensis. In this same paper
he discusses their parasitic and predaceous enemies (pp. 22, 27, 33).
A fly also breeds in Blymus, the greater wheat stem-maggot, Mer-
oinysa amcricana Fitch (PI. XX, figs. 1-5), as recorded by Fletcher
(1. c, p. 48). This species is of economic importance, having spread
from grasses to the cultivated grains. It has been studied in Illinois
by Forbes ('84). He found a fly parasite of this species, and Webster
reports a mite preying on it. Webster (1. c, p. 53) reports another
fly, Oscinis carbonaria Loew, bred from Blymus by Fletcher.

In another paper Webster ('03b) has published a list of insects in-
habiting the stems of B. canadensis and virginicus. Osborn and Ball
('97b, pp. 619, 622; '97a) have discussed the life histories of certain
grass-feeding Jassidce which feed upon Blymus. Osborn ('92, p. 129)
records a plant-louse, Myzocallis, from Blymus canadensis in Iowa,
and a species of leaf-hopper has been recorded by Osborn and Ball
('97b, p. 615) from Spartina. On the same plant, Osborn and Sirrine
('94, p. 897) record a plant-louse on the roots. In a list of the plant-
lice of the world and their food plants Patch ('12) lists a few from
Spartina. This same list includes (pp. 191-206) many grasses and
the associated aphids, those on Blymus on page 196.

108

4- Low Prairie Association

The moist black soil prairie, a degree removed from the wet or
swamp condition, with ground water in the spring relatively near the
surface, is fairly well characterized by the rosin-weed (Silphiiim) , par-
ticularly S. terehintJiinacenm. Other plants likely to be associated with
vS'. terebintJiinaceiiin are SUpJiinm lacimatuni and S. integrifoUum,
Bryngium yuccifoliinn, Lcpachys pinnata, and, to a less degree, Lac-
tuca canadensis.

In the Charleston area this condition is represented by Station I, a,
north of the town, and Station III, a, and in part b, east of the town.
The proximity of ground water is shown at Station I, e, by the pres-
ence of crawfish burrows, probably those of Cambarus gracilis. At
Station III the proximity of water was also evident where v?. terebin-
thinaceum was most abundant in the railway ditches. Such perennial
plants are indicative of the physical conditions for a period of years,
and are thus a fairly reliable index of average conditions — much more
so than the annuals.

It is difficult to decide which kinds of animals are characteristic of
this kind of prairie. Provisionally I am inclined to consider the fol-
lowing as being so: Cambarus gracilis; Argiope aurantia; the grass-
hoppers Bncoptolopluis sordidus, Mclanoplus differcntialis, M. fcniur-
rubrum, Scuddcria texensis, and Xiphidiuin strictum; CEcantlius nigri-
cornis; Phyniata fasciata; and asilids. The presence of Lcpachys was
clearly an important factor in determining the presence of Melissodes
obliqita and Epcolus concolor. At Station III, b, east of Charleston,
Bpicanta pennsylvanica and Boinbus pennsylvaniciis, aiiriconnis, and
inipaficns were taken on the flowers of Silphiuni tcrebiniliinacenm.

Robertson ('94, pp. 463-464; '96b, pp 176-177) has published lists
of insect visitors to the flowers of Silphiuni and Lcpachys ('94, pp.
468-469), at Carlinville, 111. Recently Shelf ord ('13a, p. 298) has
published a long list of animals inhabiting Silphiuni prairie near Chi-
cago. Forbes ('90, p. 75) has reported the snout-beetle RhyncJiites
hirfits Fabr. as feeding upon Silphiuni intcgrifoliiivn.

In a colony of prairie vegetation at Seymour, 111., which included
much Silphiuni and Bryngium, the following insects v/ere taken Octo-
ber 7 from the ball-like flower clusters of Bryngium yuccifolium: the
bugs Lygarus kalmii, TJiyanta custator Fabr., Buschistus variolarius,
and Trichopcpla scmivittata Say (No. 539, C. C. A.), the last named
in large numbers, the nymphs in several sizes as well as the adults, a
fact which suggests that both may hibernate upon the prairie. Rob-
ertson ('89, pp. 455-456) has summarized his collections of insects
from Bryngiuni and on Biiphorbia corollata ('96a, pp. 74-75).

109

Upon remnants of prairie vegetation growing at Urbana, Illinois,
I have found several kinds of insects centered about a wild lettuce,
Lactuca canadensis. Upon the upper, tender parts of this plant, the
plant-louse Macrosiphum riidheckicc Fitch, thrives late in the fall, in
very large numbers. Some seasons nearly every plant is infested. The
lice become so abundant upon these tender parts that the entire stem
for a distance of a few inches is completely covered. They migrate
upward with the growth of the stem and keep on the fresh, tender
parts. Among the plant-lice, and running about on the stem of the
plant, attending ants abound; eggs, larvae, and adults of lace-wing flies
(Chrysopa) also abound; and several species of coccinellids, syrphid
larvae, and a variety of small parasitic Hymenoptera are present.

5. Upland Prairie Association

The w^ell-drained prairie, a degree removed from the permanently
moist prairie, is fairly well represented by the physical and biological
conditions in which Bnphorbia corollata, Apocynum mediuin, and
Lactuca canadensis, are the representative plants. The plant ecologist
would consider the conditions favorable to mesophytic plants. In the
Charleston region these conditions are approximated at Station II,
where drainage has doubtless changed the area from a somewhat
moist, to its present well-drained, condition.

Representative animals of this community are as follows : Argiopc
aitrantia, Misumena aleatoria, BncoptolopJius sordidus, Melanopliis
hivittatus, M. dijferentialis, Orchelininni vidgare, Xiphidimn strictum,
Biischistus variolarius, Phyniata fasciata, Chaidiognathiis pennsylvan-
icus, Bpicauta niarginata and B. pcnnsylranica, RhipipJwrus diniidia-
tns and R. linibatus, Anunalo, Bxoprosopa fasciata, Fromachns verte-
hratus, Bonihus pennsylvanicns, and Myzine sexcincta.

On dry prairie at Mayview, 111., September 26, I found the plant-
louse Aphis asclepiadis Fitch on the leaves and stems of the dogbane
(Apocynum) and the lice attended by the ant Formica fusca L. A
beetle, Languria mozardi Latr., whose larva is a stem-borer, inhabits
Lactuca canadensis. Its life history and habits have been discussed
by Folsom ('09, pp. 178-184).

6. The Solidago Community

A common community in the late summer and early fall is centered
about the goldenrod (Solidago). This plant was not abundant or in
blossom at any of the stations studied in detail, but it grew in small
widely scattered colonies or clumps. Observations were made in two

110

colonies, north of Charleston, both west of Station I, a, and I, g. The
collections made (Nos. 20, 26, 42, 43) are as follows:

Ambush Bug Phymata fasciata 20, 26

Stink-bug Buschistus variolariiis 26

Black Blister-beetle Epicauta pennsylvanica 26

Noctuid moth Spragiieia leo 20, 26

Conopid fly Physoccphala sagittaria 26

Empidid fly Enipis claiisa 43

Halictid bee Halictus fasciatus 26

Myzinid wasp Myzine sexcincta 20, 26

Ant . Formica fuse a suhsericea 20

It is important to know that these collections from Solidago were
made just as the flowers were beginning to blossom. Collections a few
weeks later would probably have given many more kinds. It should
be noted, too, that all these plants were far out upon the prairie and
far from woodlands — a factor which may influence to some extent
the kinds of visitors. As a rule the lists which have been published
state little or nothing at all as to the conditions in which the plants
were growing. If this factor is neglected, the presence of some vis-
itors remains puzzling. Thus on some goldenrods the locust beetle,
Cyllene rohinicc, is abundant; but this is conditioned in part by the
proximity of the yellow locust, which is absent on the Charleston
prairie.

Phymata was found copulating upon the flower, and with an em-
pidid fly, Bmpis claiisa (No. 43), in its grasp. Two kinds of galls
formed by insects were found on this plant : one formed by the fly
Cecidomyia solidaginis (No. 43), which forms a rosette of leaves;
and the other the spindle-like stem-gall, formed by a^ small caterpillar,
Gnorinwschcina gaUcrsoUdaginis (No. 7462 Hankinson). September
20 the moth Scepsis fidvieollis Hiibn. was found in goldenrod flowers
near Station I, a. Its larva feeds on grass. A large noctuid larva,
Ciienllia aster oides Guen., was found in a mass of flowers. As the day
was cloudy and cool. Scepsis was resting or sleeping on the flower
masses, as were also the black wasp CJdorion atratiitn Lep., and Pol-
istes — both the light form variatus Cress., and the darker one, paUipes
Lep. On October 23, 1893, I found the curculionid Centrinophus
helvimis Casey (det. H. F. Wickham) on goldenrod at Bloomington,
111.

Needham ('98, pp. 29-40) has given a good popular account of
the insects associated with goldenrod, and Riley ('93, pp. 85-87) has
published an extensive list and given a number of observations on their
food habits.

Ill

Pierce ('04, pp. 173-188) has published a long list of bees found
visiting Solidago in Nebraska. He also mentions the following beetles :
Cliauliognathus pennsylvaniciis, Nemognatha imniaculata and A^
sparsa, Zonitis hilincata, Bpicauta pennsylvanica, and Myodites soli-
daginis Pierce. Myodites is a rhipiphorid beetle which appears to lay-
its eggs upon Solidago. Here the larva develops, and from here, by
attaching itself to different flower visitors, it is carried to their nests.
The nesting sites are often populated by several kinds of insects, a
social community, and thus the larva is thought to be carried in close
proximity to the bee Bpinomia, upon which it is parasitic. This bee
does not visit Solidago, but frequents the stmflower (Hclianthus), and
thus is only infested at the nest (see also Canadian Entomologist, Vol.
XXIV, 1902, p. 394). This is a good example of the complex rela-
tions existing among the animals of the prairie. Robertson ('94, p.
455) found Myodites fasciatiis Say on Solidago at Carlinville, III, and
he also lists (1. c, pp. 454-458) many species of insects which he found
on different species of goldenrod. As Bpinomia is not known from
Illinois it is probable that some other bee is host for Myodites.

y. Dry Prairie Grass Association

The dry prairie grass association includes those animals which live
on the driest of the black soil prairie among the tall prairie grasses
Andropogon and Sporobolus. Upon the original prairie this was
probably a relatively stable habitat.

About Charleston these grassy habitats occupied only very small
areas north of the town, at Station I, g (in part), and Station HI, b
(in part).

Representative animals of this community are the following: Argi-
ope aiirantia, Brachynemiirus ahdoniinalis, Chrysopa oculata, Syrbula
admirabilis, Bncoptolophiis sordidiis, Melanoplns differentialis, M.
femur-riibrum, Scudderia texensis, Orchelimiim vidgare, Conocepha-
lus, CBcantJiiis nigricornis and CH. 4-punctatus, Bnschistus variolarius,
Sinea diadcina, Phymata fasciata, Chaidiognathus pennsylvanicus,
Tetraopes tctraophthalmns, Rhipiphorus dimidiatus, Bxoprosopa fas-
ciata, Promachus vertebratits, Bombus pennsylvanicus, auricomiis, im-
patiens, fraternns, and separatus, Melissodes bimacidata, and Myzine
sexcincta.

Probably a number of insects breed in the roots and stems of An-
dropogon and Sporobolus, but none were secured.

Although Blymus has contributed many insect pests to cultivated
grains, it seems that Andropogon has not, if we except the chinch-bug
(Blissus leiicopterus Say). This insect was not related to Andropo-

112

gon as Isosoma is to Blyiniis, but this and other prairie grasses which
grow in bunches or stools evidently formed the optimum hibernating
quarters of these pests when they lived upon the original prairie
(Fitch, '56, p. 283; Marlatt, '94a; Schwarz, '05) and upon the sea-
shore. Osborn and Ball ('97a and '97b) have listed several grass-
feeding Jassidcc from Andropogon and Sporobolus. Osborn and Sir-
rine ('94, p. 897) found a plant-louse on the roots of Andropogon,
and Patch ('12, p. 191) lists Schizoneura corni Fabr. on A. furcatus.

8. A Milkweed Community

Bordering the gravelly ballast along the rails north of Charleston at
Station I (PI. II, fig. 2) may be seen a large-leaved plant, the common
milkweed (Asclepias syriaca). This plant flourishes along the track
in many places, and wherever it was found there tended to appear a
small but very well-defined animal community. To determine the com-
position of this social community, a few collections were made at vari-
ous points within Station I. That this milkweed is the hub of this
microcosm is clearly shown by the fact that no similar association was
found grouped around any other plant in the area, not even about the
other milkweeds, A. sullivantii, or A. incarnata. The collections are
numbered as follows : Nos. 27-30, 33, 34, and 154.

The terminal young and tender leaves of the plant are often densely
covered with the plant-louse Aphis asclepiadis Fitch (Nos. 28, 29),
and these lice are attended by the workers of the ant Formica fitsca
suhscricea Say (Nos. 30, 154). On another plant no plant-lice are
recorded, but upon it were found their common enemy, the nine-
spotted ladybird, Coccinclla p-notata; two species of ants (Formica
pallid e-fiiha schaufttssi incerta, and Myrmica rubra scahrinodis sabu-
leti) ; besides, running about on the leaves, the pretty, metallic, long-
legged flies Psilopus siplio (No. 27). They run with a singular rapid
glide, stop suddenly for a moment, and then continue their rapid pace.
Certain flies of this family are said to be predaceous, but I have never
seen Psilopus capture any small animal. On the same plant just men-
tioned a small bug, Harmostes reflexulus, was also taken ; and in the
flowers of this plant were hundreds of a small dark-colored empidid
fly, Bmpis claiisa (No. 27). Two other animals were found on this
plant; Zonitis bilineata Say (No. 33), and a jumping spider (attid),
which had in its jaws what appeared to be the remains of the beetle
Diabrotica 12-punctata (No. 34). Contrary to my usual experience,
these plants did not abound with milkweed beetles (Tetraopes) or with
the common milkweed bugs (Lygcciis kahnii and Oncopeltus fascia-
tus), which are usually numerous. The proximity of the fragrant

113

blossom of Asclepias incarnata may explain this paucity at this time
and place. The milkweed butterfly, Anosia plexippiis, is of course a
member of this community.

W. Hamilton Gibson ('oo, pp. 227-237) has discussed, in a very
interesting manner, the relations of this plant to its insect pollinators,
and calls attention to the variety of insects which are entrapped and
killed by its flowers. He also points out that the dogbane (Apocy-
mim) has a similar habit.

Robertson, our leading American authority on the relations of
flowers and insects, has published extensive lists of the flower visitors,
not only of A. syriaca (cormiti) but of other Illinois milkweeds
(Bot. Gaz., Vol. XI, pp. 262-269; Vol. XII, pp. 207-216, 244-250;
and Trans. St. Louis Acad. Sci., Vol. V, No. 3, pp. 569-577).

III. Relation of Prairie Animals to their Environment

The relation of prairie animals to the major features of their phys-
ical and biotic environment presents several facts of unusual interest.
On account of the relatively heavy precipitation during June, the slight
topographic relief of the region, and its imperfect drainage, unusually
large areas of the original black soil prairie are wet or swampy. Cer-
tain animals are able to tide over this early, unfavorable wet-summer
period because they are not fully roused from their winter inactivity ;
others, in their immature stages of development, require less food than
later; still others survive by migration to the drier uplands. At the
same time, other animals, preferring moist or wet habitats, flourish,
and then decline in numbers as the season advances. Toward August,
on account of the eastward migration of the continental peninsula of
aridity and intense evaporation, those animals whose activity is re-
tarded by the earlier wet season find the conditions progressively more
favorable, and thrive and grow accordingly. This is the acme of the
season for dry-prairie animals, and great numbers of slowly maturing
composite plants now make the landscape yellow with their flowers.
The Orthoptcra are now mature, and when flushed, or, when not
flushed, by their sounds, are noticeable. That these conditions cause
these animals to thrive, is only too evident during exceptionally dry
seasons, when the ordinary August drouth begins in July and extends
into September.

In the conditions just indicated, the imperfect drainage, the wet
season followed by the dry, we are touching closely upon the real causes
of the prairie. Yet to me it seems fruitless to search for the cause of
the Illinois prairie ; the causes are probably multiple. In the midst of
the Great Plains, the "short grass country" the causes of grass-land

114

may be relatively few, because the dominating conditions are so thor-
oughly established and extreme. But near the eastern margin of this
dominance, upon the prairies — the "long grass country" — the number
of limiting factors increases greatly, and even a relatively trivial local
influence is able to overcome the slight momentum which this domi-
nance possesses. In Illinois, then, the causes of the prairie biota, men-
tioning only the larger groups of influences, seem to be as follows : a,
a sandy character of the soil, resulting in sand prairie ; b, loam and
good drainage, resulting in black soil prairie ; c, very imperfect drain-
age, resulting in wet prairie. A shallow soil underlaid by rock might
also produce prairie, but I have not seen any large area of this kind in
Illinois.

We have, then, in the wetness and the dryness of the prairie two
of the important controlling influences upon the prairie associations.
On the prairie aquatic animals may thrive, particularly those which
develop early and mature rapidly, and possess some power to resist
or tide over the dry season, either as adults of non-aquatic habits by
estivation, or in some resistant immature stage. We can see how
aquatic animals, in this manner, are capable of enduring these extreme
conditions and remain numerous upon the prairie. Where crawfish
holes are abundant, many small aquatic animals are able to utilize them
and thus escape drying. Crawfish holes should be examined during
dry seasons with this idea in mind. On the other hand, the prairie
is inhabited by many animals which can not endure much moisture, and
live best in conditions of moderate or extreme dryness. These are the
kinds which find their optimum during the driest part of the season,
and in very dry years. When there is an abundance of moisture, some
of these, for example the chinch-bug, are particularly susceptible to
disease. The maximum development of this arid type as seen on the
Illinois sand prairie has been studied by Hart ('07) ; more recently by
one of my students, Vestal ('13b, '14) ; and about Chicago and north-
ern Indiana by Shelf ord ('13a). An examination of the lists of sand
invertebrates given by Hart (1. c, pp. 230-257) and Vestal ('13b,
pp. 14-60), in comparison with those for the black soil prairie at
Charleston, will show many differences, not only in kinds but also in
their relative abundance. Some allowance must also be made for the
fact that the animals of the black soil prairie are not as fully pre-
served as those of the sand areas.

I. The Black Soil Prairie Community

The soil population of both sand and black soil prairie has never
received thorough study, although observations from the sand areas

115

have been recorded by Hart, and his observations ampHfied by Vestal.
In the black soil area many observations have been made by Forbes
('94) on the life histories and habits of certain species of economic
importance, particularly those injuring corn and grasses in the soil. In
his studies are included many insects, such as elaterid larvae, aphids,
ants, and white-grubs. The physical conditions of life here yet await
careful investigation.

A very large number of the animals living on and above the sur-
face of the soil spend a part of their lives within it. Thus among the
Orthoptera, the acridiids lay their eggs in the soil — this is probablv
true of most of the beetles ; and even the parasitic animals often spend
most of their life in the soil with their hosts. This is true also of the
wasps and a great number of hibernating animals, and of a large num-
ber of grass-inhabiting, and other, Lepidoptera. Such characteristic
flies as the asilids and bombyliids spend much of their life in the soil,
as do many other flies, at least during their pupal period. It is very
probable that upon the original prairie a large number of noctuid and
crambid moths and tipulid and elaterid larvae inhabitated the prairie
sod, and with them, of course, were associated their enemies — preda-
ceous beetles, and parasitic flies and Hynicnoptcra. For an account of
grass-feeding crambids Felt ('94) and Fernald ('96) should be con-
sulted.

The stage of development, structure, and behavior of soil-inhabit-
ing animals are often quite different from those living above the sur-
face. Some kinds, as pupae or adults, have spines or setae, which enable
them to wriggle in the soil, as, for example, do the pupal asilids or the
adults of Myzine and Tipkia. Locomotion in such a dense medium
is attended by many difficulties, and it is not surprising that animals
living here have peculiarities of structure and behavior, and that a
large number are relatively sedentary.

In the discussion of the ventilation of habitats, attention was called
to the fact that soil-inhabiting animals probably possessed considera-
ble resistance to an abundance of COo and to a lack of oxygen. We
are all familiar with the abundance of earthworms, Liimhriciis and its
allies, crawling upon the surface and entrapped upon our walks and
pavements after prolonged rains. In these cases the saturation of the
soil has driven out the air. Apparently the earthworms are relatively
less resistant to the lack of oxygen than many other soil animals, for
they come to the surface in a much more marked degree. Since earth-
worms live in burrows, have an easy route to the surface, and are pos-
sessed of good powers of locomotion, they contrast strikingly with
many other sedentary soil animals. Bunge ('88, p. 566) found that
earthworms were able to survive one dav in an oxygen-free liquid.

116

Cameron ('13, p. 190) speaks of the resistance to drowning of elaterid
larvae as follows: "I myself have kept specimens of the larvae of
Agriotes lincatus, our commonest wireworm, in water for as long as
six days without their being drowned, but those which were thus
treated for a period of seven or eight days did not generally recover
from the deleterious effects of immersion. Leather- jackets and sur-
face caterpillars submitted to the same treatment succumbed in a much
shorter time, one to two days for the caterpillars, depending on their
state of development — much shorter time than this for very young
forms — and from one to three days in the case of leather- jackets, the
latter being in all cases fully mature."

Dr. R. D. Glasgow informs me that it is probable that the soil-
inhabiting white-grubs, Lachnostcrna, may be able to close their spira-
cles when the soil is saturated and thus resist drowning, as in the case
of the European Mclolontha (Cf. Henneguy, '04, p. 105 ; Packard, '98,
p. 442). With this closure of the spiracles there is probably corre-
lated a powerto resist a lack of oxygen and an excess of COo. In any
case, this is a subject worthy of experimental investigation. Cam-
eron ('13, pp. 197-199) has called attention to the marked resistance
to a lack of oxygen found in muscid (dipterous) larvae; they endure
submersion for long periods and recover rapidly. He says (1. c, p.
198) : "A faculty of resistance and power of adaptability to adverse
circumstances is of peculiar advantage to the insect inhabitants of the
soil, which, owing to the varying climates and atmospheric conditions,
are often subjected to the most severe extremes of heat and cold, w^et
and drouth. The more sluggish maggots of Diptcra have a greater
plasticity than the active larvae of predaceous Coleoptera. On consid-
ering these two orders by themselves, amongst Diptera the larvae of
Muscida have a greater power of resistance generally than the larvae
of Nematocerous and Brachypterous families, whilst among Coleop-
tera the grubs of RhyuclwpJwra are not so easily affected as those of
Carabidcc and StaphyUuidce and other active families. This is just
what we might expect, seeing that nature, which has deprived Dipter-
ous maggots and Weevil grubs of legs that they might readily escape
danger, has compensated them to some extent by endowing them with
a greater power of resistance to adverse conditions."

Upon the black soil prairie the snout-beetles Sphenophorus
abounded in the roots of swamp plants, where they were particularly
liable to submersion with varying rainfall. It is, however, possible that
this resistance may be entirely independent of the footless condition.

The optimum soil conditions for insects have thus been summa-
rized by Cameron ('13, p. 198) as follows: "Soils that are of a light
and open texture are, as we have already seen, the ones most fre-
quented by soil insects, all other conditions, such as those of food, being

117

equal A porous subsoil is also conducive to the well-being of

insect life, in that the rain can quickly penetrate, and, as it passes
through, air is drawn into the more superficial layers in order to take
its place. Hence a reason why soil insects are only rarely found in the
deeper subsoil; for the increased amount of moisture, together with the
decrease in aeration, is decidedly detrimental to their activities."

The density, moisture, solutions, and ventilation of the soil, its
fresh and decaying vegetation, make conditions possible both for a
population consisting of vegetable feeders and, preying largely upon
them, a series of predaceous and parasitic associates.

It is desirable that the prairie ground fauna should be made the ob-
ject of special investigation, particularly from the standpoint of soil
solutions, moisture content, ventilation, humus content, and the in-
fluence of the living vegetation. For this reason several papers are
here mentioned which will be valuable in such a study. Diem ('03)
has made an elaborate quantitative study of the ground fauna of the
Alps. He studied a variety of conditions, including pasture, meadows,
and coniferous forest soils. He describes his methods of study and
gives many references to the literature. Other papers which should be
studied in this connection are by Dendy ('95), Cameron ('13), Motter
('98), and particularly those by Holdhaus ('10, '11 a, 'lib). Banta's
('07) paper on cave animals will also prove valuable because of the
close relation of cave animals to those living in the smaller openings in
ordinary soil.

Near the soil surface, among the stools of grass and on the ground,
vegetable litter is most abundant, and humidity is high, evaporation
slow, and the temperature lower and also more equable than higher
up. It is in this layer that a vast number of animals hibernate, and
in it also many, active at night, are hidden during the day. In tliis
layer live the animals which feed largely on organic debris. Buml)le-
bees often build their nests at this level, or in depressions in the ground.
Some of our species of Bomhiis may nest deep in the soil and ventilate
the nest by vibrating their wings, as do certain European species ( Sla-
den, '12, pp. 47-49). This is a very interesting response to a subter-
ranean life and merits investigation.

2. The Prairie Vegetation Community

Above the surface of the soil, among the vegetation, quite another
environment exists. This varies greatly not only with the character of
the substratum but also with the character and density of the prairie
vegetation. The fertility of the black soil, and the rapidity with which
it is occupied by vegetation, makes areas of bare soil of short duration.

118

The prevailing condition is therefore one of dense vegetation. I know
of no detailed study of the amount of life which develops in this layer
of prairie vegetation. For this reason certain observations made in
meadows and pastures are of interest. McAtee ('07) examined a
grassy meadow and the surface of the soil for bird food, and a corre-
sponding area of four square feet of a forest floor. He concluded that
the population in a meadow is much more dense than that in a forest.
This conclusion, however, is not valid, as Banks ('07) has pointed out,
because the two areas are not strictly comparable ecologically. In the
meadow life is concentrated near the surface; in the forest it is
largely in the trees and not on the forest floor. Clearly the ecologically
comparable areas of the open and the forest are their subsurface soils,
the surface soil and the layer of vegetation, and the space above the
vegetational layer. As previously pointed out in this paper, the forest
should be looked upon as a very thick layer of vegetation. Another
estimate of the population of pasture vegetation has been made by
Osborn ('90, pp. 20-23). This is a rough estimate, but it shows that
there were about one million Jassidcu present per acre. He further
estimated that that the amount of vegetation per acre eaten by insects
amounted to about one half of that eaten by a cow. This example aids
one in understanding how it was possible for the insects of the origi-
nal prairie to influence the amount of food available for the buffalo,
particularly during dry seasons when there was limited grass growth,
and when grasshoppers throve in large numbers. In this layer of vege-
tation, in addition to the general feeders, eating almost any kind of
vegetation, there is a rather extensive population which has a restricted
diet, feeding upon a single food plant, or on only a few species. There
are a number of cases where, though an insect has several food plants,
all, or nearly all, belong to the same plant association, and often have
much the same geographic range. A good example of this among
prairie animals is the case of the plant-louse MacrosipJunn riidheckicc
Fitch, which lives on a variety of prairie plants ; as Vcrnonia, Solidago,
Bidcns, Ambrosia, Cirsimn, SUphinni, and Lactiica (Cf. Hunter, '01,
p. 116). The beetle Chrysochus and the bugs Lygccus kalniii and On-
copeltiis fasciatits are often found on Asclepias and Apocynum; Aphis
asclcpiadis lives on Asclepias and on Euphorbia. Though pollen- and
nectar-feeding insects often forage over many kinds of plants, some
of them have clearly defined preferences, almost amounting to limita-
tion to a single food plant. Thus the bee Melissodes obliqiia seeks
pollen largely from Lepachys pinnata, and the Pennsylvania soldier-
beetle, though very abundant on flowers, is not numerous in corn
fields even when pollen is excessively abundant.

119

Many kinds of insects are recorded as "sleeping" among rank
growths of vegetation and on flowers. In such places on cloudy or cool
days, late in the evening or in the early morning, insects are found at
rest and in a sluggish or torpid condition. The cause of this behavior
is not known. They may be "sleeping," or they may only have been
trapped there by a lowering of the temperature, as at sundown, when
their activity slowed down and they came to a rest on the last flower
visited. In this connection it should be recalled that it is near the gen-
eral level of the surface of the vegetation that the most extreme tem-
peratures are found, — the most warmth in the sun and the greatest
coolness at night. This is the main zone also of flowers visited by in-
sects.

In this same layer of vegetation is found the usual grouping of
vegetable feeders, scavengers, predators, and parasites. As the nectar-
drinkers visit the flowers, certain predators spring upon them, just as
the large members of the cat family seize their prey at the margins of
streams and lakes when the herbivores come to drink. Other preda-
ceous insects such as the wasps, robber-flies and dragon-flies, live
active lives and seek their prey on the wing.

Above the general surface of the prairie vegetation no inverte-
brates live permanently, unless the parasites, external and internal,
of the swifts and swallows can be so considered. Winged forms fre-
quent this region during flights in which they find food and mates.
Spiders, by their cottony "balloons," utilize the winds and are thus
transported. All of these are transients, and not permanent inhabi-
tants of the open area.

->

Interrelations ivithin the Prairie Association

In concluding this discussion of the conditions of life on the prairie,
we may profitably consider some parts of the network of interrelations
which bind together the animals and the environment. As the kinds of
animals and the number of factors involved are so numerous, only a
few selected animals will be considered. In this choice I have not lim-
ited myself solely to the kinds taken at Charleston, but have utilized
common and well known prairie animals. As representatives of the
soil-inhabiting forms the white-grubs and May-beetles (Lachnos-
terna) and the corn-field ant (Lasiiis niger americanus) have been
chosen; as representatives of those which live above the surface and
mainly among the vegetation the differential grasshopper and Boni-
biis have been chosen ; and as representatives of the active predators
and parasites, Promachns, Chlorion, Tiphia, and the parasitic fungi
Bmpiisa and Cordyceps. Statement of the available supply of water

120

and oxygen, the temperature, etc., is omitted for simplicity, not
because these matters are unimportant. Some of the main features
of these interrelations are summarized in the following diagram. Fig-
ure 1 6. This shows that the white-grubs living in the soil and devour-
ing the roots of plants are preyed upon in turn by an aggressive fun-
gus (Cordyccps) and by a wasp (Tiphia) — an external parasite; and
that Tiphia is parasitized in turn by Bxoprosopa and by the larva of
the small beetle Rhipiphorus. The adult May-beetles feed upon the
leaves of trees, and although many show a decided preference for trees
living in the open, as the cottonwood and willows, others feed largely
upon forest trees. Thus the prairie animals exert a direct influence
upon the forest community as well as upon the prairie. The differ-
ential grasshopper feeds upon the vegetation, and jumps or flies into
the webs of Argiope, where it may be killed even if it should not be
eaten. The eggs which this grasshopper lays in the soil are devoured
by the larvae of Chaiiliognathus and Bpicauta, and the adults are killed
by the fungus Bmpnsa, or mutilated by the mite Tromhidium — an ex-
ternal parasite (PI. XXI, figs, i and 2). The rusty digger-wasp,
CJdorion ichiieuiiwucmn, feeds upon the nectar and pollen of flowers,
and provisions its burrows in the ground for its larva with grasshop-
pers (Orchelimum) ; this larva, again, is probably devoured by the
small parasitic fly Metopia. The larvae of the soldier-beetle Chaidiog-
natJuis are predaceous, and eat other larvae ; thus they influence many
species; the adults frequent flowers as pollen-feeders. Although
Bpicauta devours eggs of grasshoppers during its larval stage it feeds
upon vegetation in the adult stage. The larvae of Bomhiis live upon
nectar and pollen supplied them by the female or worker, and the adult
is also a nectar- and pollen-feeder, Bomhus thus being solely sustained
by vegetation. They are preyed upon by a host of predaceous enemies,
as Phyniata and Proniaclius; and parasites, including the flies Fron-
tina, Brachycoma, probably Conops, and the false bumblebee (Psithy-
rus); their nests, moreover, form a habitation for a great variety of
insects, mites, and other animals too numerous to be put in the dia-
gram. These bees, then, on account of their large size, their large col-
onies, and the large amount of concentrated food which they amass at
the nest, combine to make themselves attractive to a great number of
animals, and become the hub of a busy microcosm, an extensive com-
munity of mutually interrelated kinds.

The root-louse of grass, Schizoneura panicola Thos. (Forbes, '94,
pp. 85-93), through the attention of several kinds of ants, Lasins niger
americamts Emery, L. flavus De G., L. inter jectiis Mayr, and Formica
schauftissi Mayr, is cared for from the egg to the adult stage; these
ants keep the plant-lice on fresh roots from which they suck their food.

121

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In return the ants secure honeydew and wax from the lice. A closely
related aphid, Schizoncura corni Fabr. lives from '"September until
June on the dogwood (Cornus), and from June until September on the
roots of certain grasses" (Forbes, 1. c, p. 89). This insect, upon the
original prairie, was probably an inhabitant of the forest margin, or
lived near moist places where dogwoods abounded. (This point should
be determined at some favorable locality. ) In such a complex, inter-
woven community as that of the prairie it is immaterial where one
takes up the thread of relations, for if followed carefully without
interruption it will lead one about, from one animal to another suc-
cessively, until the intimate life of every animal and plant in the com-
munity has been reached, and influenced to some extent. Thus the
animals living in the soil, at the surface, and among the vegetation are
bound together, not only by their changes of habitats, as when a sub-
terranean maggot matures and becomes a flower fly, but also by their
movements, as when an active wasp or grasshopper burrows in the
soil, so that there is a complex interpenetration of relations which ex-
tends to all depths, to all horizontal relations, and binds together the
entire social community.

In this discussion only the invertebrates have been considered, but
this phase of the subject should not be concluded without emphasiz-
ing the fact that a.11 the organisms of a region form a single biotic com-
munity, each member of which is related to all the others and to the
physical environment.

ly. The Forest Associations

/. Introduction

In a study of forest animals their relation to the physical and vege-
tational environment must be kept constantly in mind, in order that
their progressive changes may be clearly understood. If the woodland
animals and associations are considered broadly, it is possible to study
the progressive transformation of the habitats and associations by
agencies which erode the land and thus develop the drainage, and to
combine with this a study of the successive changes in the vegetation
(including vegetable products). In the Charleston region this trans-
formation includes the progressive invasion of the prairie by the for-
est. From this standpoint it is also possible to arrange the forest as-
sociations in a genetic series.

There is little doubt that this entire region was once treeless or
prairie, that in time the forest invaded it, mainly or almost exclusively
along the streams. Even at the time of settlement the forests had not
spread far from the larger streams ; but by normal forest extension and

123

drainage development the prairie was encroached upon and restricted.
The trees farthest from the streams, speaking in general terms, may be
looked upon as the pioneer guard of the extending forest. Such trees
are oaks and hickories of various kinds, which are hardy and able to
live on wet, acid, or very dry soils, as, for example, the shingle oak
(Qucrcns imhricaria) and post oak (Q. michaiLrii=minor) . In the
Charleston area all such forest remnants are so closely pastured that
they were not studied ; therefore our series is incomplete. The upland
forest in the Bates woods (Station IV, a) may be considered some-
what representative of a second stage in forest development. This,
however, is not a primeval condition, but one which has been modified
by man ; for example, the mature trees have been removed. It is, how-
ever, clearly an oak-hickory forest.

A third stage in forest development is found upon the bottom,
nearer the river, the most favorable habitat for tree growth in the re-
gion, where the red oak (Qiierciis rubra) and hard maple (Acer
sacchariim) form a dense, humid shady forest — a climax mesophytic
forest. With these changes in the vegetation there have been corre-
sponding changes in the physical environment. The relatively open
oak-hickory forests are dry, both in the air and in the ground ; they
are well lighted ; they are warmer and cooler relatively ; and they have
soil which contains less litter and humus. Fallen trees and stumps
decay more slowly on account of the dry environment. As the open
woods become closed by the development of a dense forest crown,
these conditions are changed in important ways : the woods become
progressively darker, more stable in temperature, more humid in air
and soil ; the litter and humus increase ; and all wood decays more
rapidly both on account of the moisture, fungi, etc., and the activity of
animals. The earlier stages in forest development result in the com-
bination of glade and grove — islands of open, and islands of trees — but
with the extension of the forest by its encroachment upon the glades
the forest crown becomes complete and continuous, and a climax for-
est has become established. These relations show what kind of factors
must be considered in striving to group forest habitats in a develop-
mental series.

The forest associations are here considered in the same sequence
as that given in the description of the forest stations, and for this
reason the discussion will be brief, being mainly intended to give a
uniform treatment to all the animal communities studied^ about
Charleston. A more general discussion of the ecological relations of
our common forest invertebrates follows.

124

2. Dry Upland (Querciis and Carya) Forest Association

The upland oak-hickory forest community is upon high well-
drained land. It is bordered by a ravine and a valley, so that the pre-
cipitation drains away rapidly. The soil, in contrast with that of the
black soil prairie, is a gray loam, containing little organic debris.
Through clearing, the woods have become relatively open, so that the
sunny spots are rather numerous. The characteristic vegetation con-
sists of oaks and hickories, such as white oak (Qiicrciis alba), black
oak (0. vchitina), shag-bark hickory (Carya ovata), pignut (C. gla-
bra); and of rose, raspberry, sassafras (Sassafras variifolinm) , sumac
(RJiiis glabra), young trees, horsemint (Monarda) everlasting (An-
tennaria) and tick-trefoil (Desmodiiim) . The conditions are those
of Station IV, a, the upland Bates woods, and the open ravine slopes,
lY,h.

Representative animals of this community, including numerous
ground-inhabiting Orthoptera — many of the acridiids being short-
winged forms — are Dicliromorpha viridis, Chloealtis conspersa,
SpJiaragcnion bolli, Mclanoplus atlanis, amplcctens, obovatipennis,
and sciiddcri, Scuddcria furcata, Microcentruni laurifoUiim, Orcheli-
muni cuticulare, Xipliidiitni neinorale, Nenwbius fasciatits and macn-
latus, Apitluis agitator, Cicindcla nnipunctata, Calosoiua scruta-
tor, Chrysochus auratus (on dogbane in an open area), Myrmeleoni-
dcr, and SphcurophtJialma. Several species of butterflies were seen on
the wing in the sunny openings. A number of cecidomyid and cyni-
pid galls on oaks and hickories are more characteristic of the upland
forest than of the lowland forest on account of paucity or absence
of white and black oaks and hickories upon the bottoms. Other
upland plants determine in a similar manner the presence of other
animals.

As a forest develops, upon what has previously been a treeless
tract, and as wood therefore becomes an available animal habitat, a
very complex factor is added to the environment. Not only is a log
food for certain animals, but also, if it lies upon the ground, it affords
conditions favorable for still others. It tends to conserve moisture
under it, and as it decays and disintegrates, fungi grow upon and in it;
hence other food is produced for animals which are not eaters of wood.
As decay progresses, furthermore, the log itself readily absorbs and re-
tains moisture, thus giving to some animals within it a habitat with
atmospheric conditions of relatively high humidity, in which land mol-
lusks, diplopods, etc., thrive. Such conditions furnish an important
factor in the extensive range of certain animals throughout several
kinds of forest ; for though the kinds of trees may change, nevertheless

125

when once the log habitat is developed certain animals are able to per-
sist. Nor is the log the only factor of this character in the forest;
the moist soil, abounding in vegetable debris, has a similar influence ;
and besides, when once a dense canopy is developed the retarded evap-
oration and the shade, with the accompanying reduction in heat rays,
have a marked influence. The presence of logs and vegetable
debris upon the forest floor determines to a very important degree
the presence of the land mollusks, diplopods, Vermes, Galerita janus,
and Meracantha contracta; it determines, upon the slopes (Station
IV, h,), the presence of Ischnoptera, MclanoHis, Passalns cornutiis,
and Scolecocampa liburna.; and it probably determines, too, many of
the ants on the upland and on the forest slopes. Among the forest
shrubby growth and tree trunks Bpeira verrucosa and Acrosoma
riigosa (and probably spinea) spread their webs and appear to thrive
only in deep shady woods. A large number of butterflies and moths
feed upon the foliage of forest trees, being thus distinctly arboreal, as
are also Cicada (nymph, subterranean), Diapheromera, Calosoma
scrutator (predaceous), Tremex cohmiba (and its parasite Thalessa
lunator), and CyrtopJiyllus perspicillafus. Gcotriipcs splendidns is a
ground scavenger. The presence of Ammopliila abhreviata is due to
the presence of numerous caterpillars on the foliage.

J. Artificial Glade Community in Lozvland Forest

In the dense humid lowland forest of the Bates woods (Station
IV, c) a small open area has been formed by cutting; an artificial
glade, as contrasted with a natural open forest. This may be consid-
ered an experimental glade. Although it is on the river bottom and
completely surrounded by a dense forest community, it is clearly not
related to that community, but rather to the open upland forest, and
for this reason is here interposed between the discussion of the upland
and lowland associations.

The glade was about 25 feet in diameter ; only on the north side,
where the sun had the best access, had brush (sassafras) made much
progress in closing the borders of this open area. It was therefore in
direct communication with the dense surrounding lowland forest.
Such a small glade permitted direct sunlight on the ground only dur-
ing the middle hours of the day, and it was during this time that ani-
mal life was most active. On account of the dense shade of the sur-
rounding forest there was little undergrowth, but in parts of the glade
there was a dense growth which covered the ground. It was com-
posed of grasses, large masses or colonies of Bupatorium caicstimim
in flower, Actinomeris altermfolia, with wood nettle (Laportea cana-

126

densis), and clearweed (Pilea purnila) surviving as relics of the low-
land forest vegetation.

Representative animals of this community are the following: Mi-
smnena aleatoria, Lycosa scutulata, Bpeira dorniciliorum, Aulacises
irrorata, Jalysits spinosus, Dichromorpha znridis, Melanoplus amplec-
tetts, gracilis, and sciidderi, Anihlycorypha rotimdifolia, Conoceph-
alus nehrascensis, OrcheUniuin ciiticulare and glaberrimum, Xiphidiuni
nemorale, Nenwbius fasciatus, Acanthocerus galeator, Autographa
precationis, Bpargyreus tityrns (larva on sassafras), Derotnyia dis-
color, Milesia ornata, and, apparently as wanderers from the forest,
Calopteron reticidatum, Thalessa lunator, and Pelecimis polytiirator.

4. Hinnid Loivland (Hard Maple and Red Oak)
Forest Association

This lowland forest community is upon a well-drained but moist
slope of the valley of the Embarras River. The soil is damp, and con-
tains a large. amount of vegetable debris. The forest canopy is com-
plete, and the forest is relatively dark. Representative trees are the
hard maple (Acer saccharum) , red oak (Qnerciis rubra), and the elm
(Uhnus americana) ; the herbaceous plants are nettle (Laportea cana-
densis) and the clearweed (Pilea pumila).

Representative animals are the various forest mollusks, Bpeira tri-
vittata, Acrosonia spinea and rugosa, Acarus serotincc, Bittacns stig-
inatcrus (and probably strigosus and apicalis), Asaphes vieninonius,
Calopteron tenninale, probably Thalessa lunator, Pelecimis polytura-
tor, and Tapinoina sessile and other ants. Boletotlierus hifurcus is
dependent upon the shelf-fungus Polyporus, which grows most abun-
dantly on decaying stumps and logs in moist woods. The species of
Bittacns are as representative of shady, moist woods as are the nettle
Laportea and the clearweed (Pilea). Such an insect as Bittacns might
live in the park-like groves of an open forest, but its optimum habitat
is in the dense climax forest. Perhaps the most striking contrast be-
tween the open and closed shady forest is due to the absence of nu-
merous Ortlwptera which are generally abundant in open grassy places.
That these forms are able to thrive on the bottoms when the proper
conditions are present is seen by their abundance in the glade in the
lowland forest. In the uplands also, Papilio and Polygonia frequent
the open spaces, but in the shady lowland forest the slow, low-flying
Bnodia and Cissia are the characteristic butterflies seen on wing.

127

[5- Animal Association of a Temporary Stream]

The prairie animal communities were arranged in an order to aid
in looking upon the prairie habitats as so many different degrees or
stages in the progress of drainage development, this being a dominant
physical environmental factor upon the prairie. Similarly, the forest
communities are easily arranged in a developmental sequence depend-
ent upon the combined influence of the progress of erosion and drain-
age and the advance of forest upon the prairie. Thus the prairie and
forest are given an orderly sequence, and the only remaining important
habitat, in the region examined, is that of the stream series.

Very little time was devoted to the study of the stream animals,
and mention of it is made here mainly because of this opportunity to
show the harmony and continuity of treatment which it is possible to
give to all the habitats and communities of a limited forested region.

This small temporary stream formed the southern boundary of the
area which was studied in the Bates woods. It formed Station IV, e,
and is an early stage in stream development. To understand just what
this means it is necessary to consider the processes which have been in
operation and which have reached the present stage of stream develop-
ment. This stream flows in a steep-sided ravine cut in the unconsoli-
dated glacial deposits which form the sides of the Embarras valley, a
ravine between 75 and 100 feet deep when it enters the valley, which
narrows rapidly, turns to the northwest, and soon ascends to the sur-
face of the upland oak-hickory forest. The upper parts and head end
of the ravine are dry, except during rains and soon -after ; but the lower
part may retain water in the basins for a number of days after rains.

The same conditions which we now find at the head of this ravine
once existed at the edge of the valley. That is, at one time there was
no ravine in this region. As the rainfall from the uplands flowed over
the edge of the valley it started a small gully; this, once formed, be-
came the trail for waters of other rains, each shower tending to cut
the ravine deeper and wider and to advance it into the upland. This
process has continued until now the head of the ravine has cut back
about one half of a mile. The unconsolidated debris is not composed
of homogeneous materials, and has therefore been washed away more
rapidly at some places than at others. In this manner pools have
formed where less resistant materials were, and between these pools,
over more resistant gravel or stone, miniature cascades or rapids have
been formed, the tendency thus being towards an alternation of pools
and cascades. In these pools Mr. T. L. Hankinson took a number of
vertebrates, and upon the surface of the pools were many water-stri-
ders, Gerris remigis. From the burrows along the margin of the

128

stream Mr. Hankinson secured Cambariis diogenes. Thus by the
growth of this ravine a new community is developing at this place —
that of a temporary stream.

In time such a stream will cut down to ground-water level, the
pools will become permanent, and a constant current will be main-
tained between the pools, and a permanent stream will become estab-
lished. The manner in which this ravine and stream grow, at the
expense of the upland forest, is an indication of how the upland for-
est may be changed and by degrees become converted into a lowland
forest and even into an aquatic habitat.

V. Relation of the Deciduous Forest Invertebrates to their

Environment

We have seen that the forest should be looked upon as a thick
layer of vegetation in its efifect upon the physical conditions which in-
fluence animal life. This thick layer is of relatively slow growth, and
in its early stage it is composed of shrubs and young trees. But "as
the vertical extent of the forest increases and the forest crown mi-
grates upward, the intervening trunk, bark and branch habitat ....
enlarges and the leaf-eating inhabitants of the forest crown rise up-
ward. This crown fauna retains or rather continues some of the char-
acteristics found at the marginal zone, with which it retains direct con-
tinuity" (Adams, '09, p. 162). In addition to this vertical upward mi-
gration of the forest crown, the forest also tends to spread laterally,
by arms or peninsulas of forest, which expand upon the open, or by
the excentric growth of groves, which in time fuse and form a contin-
uous forest. The original forest margin and adjacent prairie was
characterized by "groves", as they were commonly called by the early
settlers, and also by more or less open woods or "oak openings," which
are the homologs of the open oak forests yet found on the Illinois
sand areas. This interdigitation of forest and prairie produced penin-
sulas of forest extending into the prairie, peninsulas of prairie ex-
tending into the forest, islands of prairie surrounded by forest, and
islands of forest surrounded by prairie. Where the forest was advanc-
ing, the open places or glades are to be considered as prairie relics;
and when the prairie was for any reason encroaching on the forest the
forest is to be considered the relic. The glade and the grove are thus
comparable communities, and are to be considered as relics or pio-
neers according to the direction of advance of the local association.
The development of adequate drainage and all that is associated with
this process, the character of the soil, the extension or retreat of the
forest, the changes in composition of the forest, and the kinds of

129

animals composing the communities are the dominating influences in
the woodland environments. In the Charleston area the soils are loam,
and therefore sand need not be considered. The forests are of two
main types, the oak-hickory of the uplands and the red oak-maple
of the lowland. At present the forests are declining; in fact, the low-
land Bates forest has been converted into a corn field since these
studies were made.

The kinds of animals present in the woods are strikingly different
from those of the prairie, as is seen almost at a glance, and as is quite
clear by a comparison of the annotated lists of the prairie and forest
animals. Prolonged study will probably serve to enhance this differ-
ence. A small number are found both in the forest and upon the
prairie, but this is the marked exception. Furthermore, the open oak-
hickory woods, and the glade-like clearing which furnishes an open
habitat within the woods, contained a vast majority of the animals
found common to the prairie and the forest. These animals are to be
looked upon as pioneers (or relics) of the prairie, and are not to be
confused with the dense forest inhabitants. On a previous page atten-
tion was called to the vast importance of the marked discontinuity
which exists between the kinds of animals living in the open and in the
forest. This distinction is so marked as to merit comparison with the
contrast existing between land and fresh-water animals. Possibly
on land it ranks second only to this in its fundamental character. When
the same kind of animal lives both in the open and in the forest, it
often behaves differently in the two situations. It is significant that it
rec^uired more than a generation for the southern woodland human
pioneers of Illinois to change their behavior sufficiently for life on the
prairie. Undoubtedly there are many examples of just such changes
in behavior.

I. Forest Soil Community

The animals of our woodland soils have not been specially investi-
gated. Many observations on the life histories of soil invertebrates
have been recorded, but not as much is known of them as of prairie
soil animals because of the smaller numbers which attack cultivated
crops. Undoubtedly the native underground inhabitants of raspber-
ries, currants, blackberries, and other wild shrubs have continued to
thrive on the cultivated kinds (see Webster '93 for a paper on rasp-
berry and blackberry insects), and the same is true of the crab-apples
and the haws. Few subterranean animals, however, inhabiting these
shrubs and trees of the forest have been studied in detail, with the
notable exception of the periodical cicada. It is very probal^le that a
number of animals which lived in the prairie soil continue to do so in

130

the forest glades; and many ground-inhabiting Orthoptera in the for-
est oviposit in the soil as do their congeners on the prairie. On Isle
Royale, Michigan, I found that the carabid beetles which lived in the
openings were likely to extend into the coniferous forest in the humus
layer, which corresponds to this habitat in the open, and this is prob-
ably true to some degree in Illinois forests.

In the denser forest, in marked contrast with the prairie, there is
generally a large amount of litter on the forest floor. The prairie soils
are dark, but the surface contains a relatively smaller amount of or-
ganic materials comparable to forest litter. In the forest, however,
though the sub-surface soil is relatively light in color, the surface con-
tains much fresh and partially decayed organic debris.

McAtee ('07) has made a careful count of all the invertebrates
found upon an area of four square feet of the forest floor, at or near
the surface. This is the only quantitative study made of our forest
soil animals known to me. His observations were made during the
hibernating season.

Representative plant-feeding ground animals are the two cicadas
linnci and septendecim, which suck sap from the roots of trees. Their
underground enemies seem to be largely mites. The arboreal habit of
the adults subjects them to many enemies. The periodical cicada, as
the result of subterranean life, in the moist soil, displays little resist-
ance to drying, and when exposed to the air soon shrivels, as shown
by Marlatt ('07, p. 123). When conditions in the soil are unfavorable
(1. c, p. 96) as the period of emergence approaches, some individuals
respond by building a mud tube, similar to the crawfish chimneys,
which are closed with a plug of mud. That saturated ground seems
to be an unfavorable condition at this stage suggests that resistance
to the lack of oxygen decreases as the insect matures. Most of the
nymphs of this species live within less than two feet of the surface,
though some rather inconclusive observations indicate that the
nymphs have a wonderful resistance to submergence, as is shown
by the following quotation from Marlatt ('07, p. 125) : "A
curious feature in connection with the underground life of
this insect is the apparent ability to survive without injury in
soil which may have been flooded for a considerable period. Doctor
Smith records a case of this kind where a gentleman in Louisiana in
January, 181 8, built a milldam, thus overflowing some land. In March
of the following year the water was drawn off and 'in removing a hard
bed of pipe clay that had been covered with water all of this time some
6 feet deep the locusts were found in a fine healthy state, ready to make
their appearance above ground, that being the regular year of their
appearance.' Another case almost exactly similar is reported by Mr.

131

Barlow. In this instance the building of a dam resulted in the sub-
merging of the ground about an oak tree during several months of
every summer, ultimately resulting in the death of the tree. This went
on for several years, until the dam was washed away in a freshet, when
digging beneath the tree led to the discovery of the cicada larvae in
apparently healthy condition from 12 to 18 inches below the natural
surface of the ground. In both of these instances the ground may
have been nearly impervious, so that the water did not reach the insects
nor entirely kill all of the root growth in the submerged soil."

The roots of plants, and particularly those of trees, penetrate rather
deeply into the soil, but finally die, leaving a large amount of organic
substance in the soil. As the large roots decay, animals are able
through the tunnels made to penetrate rather deeply and to find organic
food, in the shape of wood and fungi. Hotter ('98, p. 225) performed
an interesting experiment which shows that wood buried three feet
below the surface and dug up after two or three months contained
spiders, mites, Thysanura, psocids, a beetle, and flies. Although this
wood was buried in a cemetery, it is not unlikely that woodland soils
commonly have such a fauna. Davenport ('03, pp. 22-23) has tabu-
lated the habitats of many Collenibola and shows that many species live
in damp soil, in sand, under bark, under stones, in caves, etc. — condi-
tions corresponding to the soil habitat. These insects are very sensi-
tive to moisture, and some are able to resist submergence in sea water
from twelve to sixteen hours per day. Davenport says (page 17) :
"During all but about six to eight hours of the day these air-breathers
are below the surface of the sand, during which time they must take in
relatively little oxygen." During certain seasons, when the soil is sat-
urated, such resistance must be of great value to its possessor. I know
of no extensive observations or experiments on the resistance of these
soil animals to carbonic acid, to the lack of oxygen, or to various com-
binations of these conditions.

That the soil conditions in glades and forests are different has
already been pointed out. We have below a good example of the
response of a forest animal to an artificial glade or clearing. A num-
ber of observations have also been made on the hastened rate of emer-
gence of the periodical cicada where the soil has been abnormally
warm, as in a hothouse (Schwarz, '90a, p. 230), or where the ground
has been warmed by flues (Marlatt, '07, p. 90), or where a forest has
been burned, and possibly the heat from the fire in combination with
its greater absorption of heat after the fire, has caused the cicadas to
emerge (Marlatt, '07, p. 94). In a forest glade, made by clearing.
Schwarz ('90a) found the cicadas emerging when none were found
in the surrounding woods. Concerning this discovery he remarks:

132

"Now, a clearing made in the midst of a dense forest forms a natural
hothouse, the soil receiving much more warmth on such places than in
the shady woods. We should thus not wonder to see the Cicada ap-
pear earlier on such cleared spaces than in the woods.'' There is there-
fore reason to expect the season to be more advanced in glades than
in the surrounding woods.

The peculiar fossorial fore legs of the cicada nymphs are marked
structural features associated with the subterranean habitat. Very
naturally, too, cleaning reactions are correlated with such a burrower,
whose legs become begrimed with the soil.

Near the surface of the soil the variety of animal life is greatly in-
creased. Not only forms which inhabit the soil regularly are present,
but many live here for short periods as adults or during some imma-
ture stage. It is not possible to draw a sharp line between the soil
community, the humus layer community, and the community of the
decayed and solid wood for these reasons : the slightly decomposed
organic debris on the surface is progressively renewed by leaves,
stems, branches, and animal remains, and is transformed below into
the humus layer; this also grades upward by all degrees, through
decaying wood into solid wood, and on to the living trees. The acid-
ity of leaves during the early stages of decay and their alkalinity at
an advanced stage is a fact of great importance, as has been shown
by Coville ('14). This suggests the paucity or absence of animals
in dense matted layers of decaying leaves.

In considering the animals that live on or near the surface of
the soil in Bates woods, certain species seem more characteristic of
rather bare mineral soils, others are more representative of open
oak-hickorv woods, and still others are representative of much
humus. The acridiid locusts found in these woods, such as Cliloealtis
conspcrsa and Mclanoplus amplcctens, are woodland rather than
prairie in their haunts, and are commonly found near the bare soil and
oviposit in it. Here live the woodland cricket Apithus, the tiger-beetle
Cicindda iinipunctata, the scavenger Gcotrupes splendidits, the mutillid
ant SphccroplithaUua, the wasp Psannuochares ccthiops and Lycosa;
and Arninophila ahhrcviata buries its eggs here in the soil.

Among the loose litter harvest spiders (Liohunmn) were found
running about, although they are not confined to these conditions, for,
like Calosoma scrutator, they climb trees. The crickets Nenwhiiis
found here seem to avoid bare soil. The larva of the beetle Mera-
cantha contracta was found among decaying leaves.

The animals living in the humus layer of the soil, and in the much
advanced stages of decayed wood, are not wholly identical, because in
the humus layer roots of living plants and fungi are so often available

133

for food. On the other hand, many of the inhabitant:^ of decayed logs,
as snails and slugs, use the log as a retreat and sally forth at night and
during moist weather to devour vegetation. Rotten wood also con-
tains many fungi affording fresh, living plant tissue.

Representative animals of the forest litter, especially of its humus
layer, appear to be certain millipeds, as Callipiis and Clcidogona. Cook
('i lb, p. 451 ) has said of them : "Nearly all the members of the group
have essentially the same habits and live in clearly similar environ-
ments. They pass their lives buried in the humus layer of the soil or
among the dead leaves or other decaying vegetable matter that fur-
nishes them food." Elsewhere he says ('iic, p. 625) : "In nature at
large the millipeds have a share in the beneficial work of reducing dead
plant material to humus. Prussic acid and other corrosive secretions
may aid in the precipitation of colloidal substances m the humus, in
addition to the protection that they give by rendering the millipeds dis-
tasteful to birds and other animals that otherwise might feed upon
them. The precipitation of colloids enables the millipeds to keep their
bodies clean and protects them against the clogging of their spiracles."
Diem ('03, pp. 383-386) gives a good summary of the habitats and
foods of certain European diplopods. I am inclined to consider the
layer of litter as the habitat of the immature panorpid Bittacns, of
which three species were found in the Bates woods. The adults fly
about among the low vegetation much after the manner of the Tipuli-
dcc, with which they are easily confused when on the wing. It is prob-
able that the larva of Panorpa confusa West, has habits similar to
those of Bittacus. I have taken the adult of this species but once — at
Bloomington, Illinois, August 23, 1892, in dense damp woods. The
larvae of Panorpa are predaceous, and this is probably true of Bit-
tacus. The ant Stigmatomma paUipes is another representative of
this community (cf. Wheeler, '05, p. 373), as are probably also a
number of tipulid larvae.

The animals of the humus layer appear to live much more active
lives than those deeper in the soil. This activity in itself allows them
a chance to secure the necessary supply of oxygen, which tends to be
deficient among the decaying vegetation; at the same time, moreover,
their movements must aid in the ventilation of the soil. It is of inter-
est to observe that millipeds abound in a habitat relatively deficient in
oxvgen, abounding in carbonic acid, and are producers of prussic acid
(HCN), whose physiologic effect is to inhibit oxidation and nutrition.
Roth (Diem, '03, p. 385) submerged some diplopods in water from six
to eight hours and thev survived. (For the marked resistance of ge-
ophiloids, see Ent. News, 24:121.) In nature they must often
meet with such conditions in the soil. One of the most abundant kinds

1B4

of myriapods in the debris on the forest floor is Spirobolus marghiatus
Say, taken in Urbana, 111., in the Brownfield woods October 15, 18,
and May 23 (many specimens), and in the Cottonwood forest October
8 and 13; at White Heath, III, May 26; at Riverside, III, August 23;
at Tonica, 111., in September; and at Bloomington, 111. This is the
common large brown diplopod, our largest myriapod. Another large
and abundant species is Fontaria virginiensis Dru. This is largely
brown dorsally, with marginal triangular yellow spots, yellow below.
A chilopod, Bothropolys multidentatus Newp., was taken in the
Brownfield woods October 18 ; and in woods at Monticello, 111., in June
(M. Waddell), with Otocryptops sexspinosiis Say. In the Brownfield
woods it was taken October 15 and 18; and here also Polydesmiis scr-
ratus Say was taken May 23. CaUipiis lactariiis Say was taken in the
Cottonwood forest previously mentioned, October 8 from decayed logs,
and in the Brownfield woods October 15, associated with Scytonotus
granulatus Say and the chilopod LitJiobius voracior Chamb. (No. 491,
C. C. A.). These predaceous kinds must be considered important
members of the humus and rotten-log communities, and are somewhat
comparaljle to the predaceous clerid beetles upon the living tree trunks
in their influence upon the community. They are, however, very sensi-
tive to moisture and live in a humid atmosphere among damp debris.
Shelford ('13b) has shown that Fontaria corriigata Wood is very
sensitve to moisture. Myriapoda are infested by a number of gre-
garine parasites (Ellis, '13, pp. 287-288).

The following statement loy Coville ('14, p. 337) is of much in-
terest : "The importance of myriapods, however, as contributing to
the formation of leafmold has not been adequately recognized. In
the canyon of the Potomac River, above W^ashington, on the steeper
talus slopes, especially those facing northward, the formation of alka-
line leafmold is in active progress. . . . Here during all the
warm weather the fallen leaves of the mixed hardwood forest are
occupied by an army of myriapods, the largest and most abundant
being a species known as Spirobolus marginaUis. . . . On one
occasion a thousand were picked up by Mr. H. S. Barber on an area
10 by 100 feet, without disturbing the leaves. On another occasion
an area 4 by 20 feet yielded 320 of these myriapods, the leaf litter in
this area being carefully searched. Everywhere are evidences of the
activity of these animals in the deposits of ground-up leaves and rot-
ten wood. Careful measurements of the work of the animals in cap-
tivity show that the excrement of the adults amounts to about half
a cubic centimeter each per day. It is estimated on the basis of the
moist weight of the material that these animals are contributing each

135

year to the formation of leafmold at the rate of more than 2 tons
per acre."

The burrows of earthworms aid in the ventilation of the soil and in
carrying down into it vegetable debris, as Darwin long ago observed.
In the blackened decayed leaves at Urbana, III, on November. 18, I
found enchytraeid worms abundant, and in the adjacent soil, below a
decayed log, a Diplocardia (No. 547, C. C. A.).

In the Brownfield woods at Urbana, among the dead leaves and in
logs during the cool season hibernating females of the white-faced hor-
net, Vespa macidata Linn. (PI. XXI, fig. 3) are often found. Females
were taken from among leaves or in decayed wood October 8, and 12
(in rotten wood), October 15 (No. 491, C. C. A.), and November 9.
The Bloomington records of hibernating females are April 23 and
October 18. In such situations two ichneumons have been taken in the
Brownfield woods : Hoplismemis nwridus Say on November 14, and
Ichneumon cincticornis Cress., November 9; also the two ground-
beetles Anisodactyhis interstitialis Say and Lehia grandis Hentz (PI.
XXI, fig. 4) on October 18; and CcuthophUus sp., Lehia grandis, Ga-
lerita jamis, the larva of M eracantlia contracta, and the large black
predaceous bug Melanolestes picipes H. S. (PI. XXII, figs, i and 2)
October 12, under bark and under logs. Melanolestes was also found
in the Cottonwood forest November 14, with the "slender-necked bug,"
Myodocha scrripcs Oliv. (PI. XXII, fig. 3). These examples show
how during the hibernating season many animals are to be expected
here which at other seasons live in other habitats. Vespa is arboreal,
as shown by the large nests seen in these woods.

Baker ('11, p. 149) has listed many mollusks found under fallen
logs and under bark in the forest of southern Michigan. As various
scavengers thrive in this zone, eating not only the vegetable debris, but
also the animals which die in it or fall upon it, the digestive peculiari-
ties of these animals are in part a response to the conditions of this
habitat. The animal carcasses which fall to the ground are compar-
able to the similar slowly falling remains which tend to accumulate
upon the bottom of bodies of standing water. The student of this
community will find of interest Dendy's ('95) paper on animals in
the soil, under stones and bark.

2. The Forest Fungus Community

Many fungi grow up through the humus layer and are food for a
great number of animals. Still other fungi grow only on and in wood. I
will not now attempt to emphasize this difference. The fleshy fungi are
very short-lived at the surface, and soon decay or are devoured by
various animals. A large number, if not most, of our land MoUusca

186

devour them. On a stump in the upland Bates woods Zonitoides
arborea, Pyramidula perspectiva, and Philomycns carolinensis were
found upon a felt-hke growth of fungi ; it is to be remembered, too,
that with the other snails lives the snail Circinaria which preys upon
them. At the time the Bates woods was examined, it was rather dry,
so that fungi were not abundant. No millipeds were found on fungi,
but Cook ('lib, p. 625) states that "The mouth parts of millipeds are
not adapted for biting or chewing, but are equipped with minute scrap-
ers and combs for collecting soft, decaying materials. Dead or dying
tissues are preferred. The only living plants that are regularly eaten
by millipeds are the fleshy fungi. Some of the native millipeds in the
vicinity of Washington, District of Columbia, feed to a considerable
extent upon the local species of Amanita, Russula, and Lactarius.
Damage is sometimes done to other plants when millipeds gain access
to wounded surfaces of roots or cuttings." A horned fungus beetle,
Boletothcrus bifurcus, living on Polyporus on stumps, was found in the
Bates woods.

At Urbana, 111., in a dense maple-bass wood forest (Brownfield)
November 14 I took a very large number of the small mycetophagid
beetle Triphylhis hiimeralis Kby. (No. 545, C. C. A.) on a shelf-
fungus, Polyporus tomentosus Fries, growing on a much decaved log.
On the under side of this same kind of fungus numerous tipulid flies
were found, some individuals evidently ovipositing. These were deter-
mined by Mr. J. R. Malloch as belonging to the genus Trichocera.
These are flies which thrive in the far north, as in Greenland. One
species, brumalis Fitch (Lintner's Second Report, p. 243) is found
common in forests in the winter season, and even when the tempera-
ture is below freezing they are on wing. Such northern forms are
likely to be active in winter or vernal farther south. On another shelf-
fungus, Dccdalia sp. taken at Urbana, 111., I found numerous speci-
mens of Arrhenoplita bicornis Oliv. (PI. XXIII, fig. 2). This is a
small greenish tenebrionid in which the males have two large horns on
the head. I have the following woodland fungus-beetles taken at
Bloomington, Illinois: Bndomychidcc — Aphorista vittata Fabr., April
14 (A. B. Wolcott) ; Brotylidcr — Tritoma- thoracica Say, June 23 (on
fungi) and July 26; T. biguttata Say (Sept. 21 ), Mcgalodacne fasciata
Fabr., March 7 (A. B. Wolcott) ; Nitidididcc — Phenolia grossa Fabr.
(July 26), Pallodes pallidus Beauv., July 2 (on gilled fungus) ; Myce-
topJiagidcc — Mycetophagus bipushdatus Mels. (April 27), M. puncta-
tus Say April 18, and June 23 (on fungi) ; Tcncbriotiida: — Platydema
mficorne Sturm. March 13 and June 23 (on fungi), Diaperis macnlata
Oliv. {hydni Fabr.) (PI. XXIII, fig. i) July 26; Melandryidcc —
Bustro pints bicolor Say, June 23 (on fungi), and B. tomentosus Say,

137

June 23 (on fungi). In the Brownfield woods at Urbana, III, Penthe
ohliquata Fabr. and P. pimelia Fabr. were taken under logs October
15 (No. 491, C. C. A.). Ulke ('02, p. 53) says. "Penthe, on fungi
growing on logs and stumps." Cratoparis lunatus Fabr. (Anthribidcc)
was taken April 5 and 23, Bloomington, III, and August at Havana,
Illinois. Figures of some of these fungus-beetles are given in Felt's
report ('06, pp. 494-498).

The general animal population of fungi is so extensive, including
mites, sow-bugs, myriapods, and mollusks, in addition to insects, that
no attempt will be made to summarize it here. The student of Illinois
fungus animals will find Moffat's paper ('09) on the Hymenomycetes
of the Chicago region very helpful. (Cf. von Schrenk and Spauld-
ing, '09.) A few references to zoological papers will aid the student
who wishes to give more attention to this interesting and increasingly
important economic subject, and a short list follows.

Busck ('02). Mushroom pests.

Hubbard ('92). Insects in Poly poms z'ohatiis Peck; and ('97)
on the ambrosia beetles.

Johannsen ('io-'i2). Mycetophilidae.

Malloch ('12). Phoridse in fungi.

Popenoe ('12). Mushroom pests.

Patch ('12). Aphids on fungi, page 179.

Ulke ('02). Notes on food habits of fungus-beetles, of which
there are many families, including SilpJiida:, Staphylinidcc,
Eitidoinychidcc, Brotylidcv, Mycetopliagidcr, Nitidididcc, Scar-
ahccidce, Tenehrionidce, Melandryidce, Scolytidcc, etc.

Jager ('74, I, pp. 245-246) and Moller ('67, pp. 59-60) have given
short lists of the German fungus insects.

The subject of fungus insects can not be dismissed without special
mention of the ambrosia beetles of the family Scolytidce. These small
beetles have been studied by Hubbard ('97), who showed that they
rear fungi in their tunnels in wood, these fungi furnishing nourish-
ment to the larvae and beetles. Each beetle seems to grow its own kind
of fungus. They belong to the following genera: Platypus, Xyleb-
orus, Corthylns, Monarthrmn, Xyloteres, and Gnathotrichus. The
beetles of the genus Corthylns live in a variety of hardwood trees,
including maple, sassafras, dogwood, etc., and attack living trees. The
ambrosia beetles are thus dependent upon fungi growing in tlie trees.
They furnish a very striking example of a mutually dependent asso-
ciational relationship. Hopkins ('99, '93a, '93b) has published much
valuable data on the life history, habitats, and enemies of these beetles.
A study of them as a biotic community would be very interesting and

188

valuable, since such a good foundation has already been built by Hub-
bard and Hopkins.

J. The Forest Undergroivth Community

Above the soil, in the layer of herbaceous and shrubby vegeta-
tion in the Bates woods, lives a considerably different assemblage of
animals from that in the soil. Running about over this vegetation, or
resting on it, are found the harvest-spiders, and in webs spread between
trees and shrubs are found Epeira insularis and verrucosa, and Acro-
soma spinea and riigosa.

In the Cottonwood forest at Urbana, cutting has made rather open
spaces so that there is considerable undergrowth, including much spice
bush (Benzoin) ; among these bushes two spiders thrive, Bpeira in-
sularis Hentz and B. douiicilioritm Hentz. The leaf -footed bug, Lep-
toglossus oppositiis Say (PI. XXH, fig. 4) also abounded on these
plants. Insularis is also in the Brownfield woods. The jumping
spider Phidippus audax Hentz, and Acrosonia rngosa were also taken
in the Cottonwood forest. In a dense shady flood-plain forest at Mun-
cie, Illinois, Acrosonia rngosa and Bpeira verrucosa and lahyrinthica
were taken August 3. The harvest-spiders Liobununi are largely
animal scavengers, but the true spiders are of course strictly pre-
daceous. The location of the spider-webs, near the ground, attests
the flight of insects upon which they depend for food. The numerous
snails feed to a large degree upon the herbaceous plants of this lower
layer, as do plant-feeding Hemiptera and the grass-eating Lcpidoptera,
including the woodland butterflies Bnodia and Cissia, other Lepidop-
tera, and Bveres, Autographa, Polygonia, and, possibly the katydid
Amblycoryph-a. In the shrub layer Bpeira domiciliorum, folded
among leaves, is a characteristic animal. It seems to thrive best in
more open woods than those in which Acrosonia abounds. Nettles
(Laportea) and clearweed (Pilea) were not searched for animals,
but were undoubtedly inhabited by a number of kinds. The same is
true of the shrubs. Young trees in this layer appear less liable to
attack by gall-producing insects than larger trees are.

The following insects feed upon woodland shrubs, and were taken
at Bloomington: Ceramhycidcc — Liopus alpha Say, June 18 (bred
from sumac by Felt, '06, p. 482), and taken by me on elm during
June; Liopus fascicidaris Harr. {xanthoxyli Shimer), June, re-
corded as from prickly ash, Zanthoxylum (Packard, '90, p. 659) ; and
Molor chits biniaculatus Say, copulating April 17, reported from dog-
wood, redbud, twigs of maple and hickory, (1. c, '90, p. 293, 424).
The curculionid Conotrachelus senicnlus Lee, was taken October 10,
1891, from the inside of a very ripe papaw at Bloomington; another

139

specimen was captured during August at Havana, 111. Felt ('06, p.
582) records seniciilus as from hickory and butternut. Attclabus
rhois Boh. was taken July 4, on hazelnut, at Bloomington. It is re-
corded from sumac, dogwood, alder, and oak.

For lists of Coccidcc living on woodland (and other) shrubs see
Cockerell ('97).

4. The Forest Crozvn Comynunity

Instead of next turning to the animals of decayed wood on the
forest floor, I wish to begin at the other end of a series, with the ani-
mals of the living tree, and then to follow an order which passes pro-
gressively through enfeebled, dying, fermenting, seasoned, and solid
wood to all stages of its decay. The decay of a fallen trunk commonly
begins with the sap-wood, thus loosening the bark, and extends in-
ward until the whole becomes soft or is changed to brown powdered
wood, which gradually changes to humus. This is a series of progres-
sive humification, and, speaking in general terms, follows the course
through which all forests tend to pass ; although fire, flood, and ani-
mals, including man, divert much wood from such a fate.

To investigate such a series fully is far beyond the scope of the
Charleston studies, and yet our material, supplemented to some de-
gree, may serve at least to outline one. The difficulties of studying
the animals of the forest crown are serious, and so far as known to
me no comprehensive work on this community has been done in this
country. Many members of it have been studied individually, but
the animals have not been studied as a community. About the
woodland insects a vast fund of facts has been accumulated in the
study of the economic problems of shade, fruit, and forest trees;
furthermore, investigations have shown that among the invertebrates
insects have a controlling or dominating influence in the forest. But
the relations of the other forest invertebrates to the forest crown have
received very little attenion from our students.

The animals of the forest crown, and particularly those of the
foliage, are more exposed to changes of temperature, moisture, wind,
and evaporation than those below the crown and protected by it. With-
in the crown there are, in fact, an upper, exposed part, and the lower,
protected part. Many of the animals of the forest crown live rela-
tively free from the influence of the substratum, as other animals in
the open water are similarly free from the influence of the bottom.
Others divide their time, part of it being spent in or on the earth, and
a part of it in the trees. Conditions of poor ventilation, darkness,
density of medium, relative stability, excess of moisture, and cor-
responding conditions in the soil, are here replaced by conditions of

140

good ventilation, intense light, and changing and a relatively dry
medium. The problems involved in these conditions vary accordingly.

The relative scarcity of molkisks and myriapods in trees is m
marked contrast with their abundance in habitats in proximity to
the soil. In the Bates woods the cherry-leaf gall-mite, Acariis, is
arboreal, but spiders are almost entirely absent. The w^alking-stick,
Diapheromera, is arboreal in part, but its eggs fall to the earth and
hatch there. The Severins ('lo) ha^'e shown that the emergence of
walking-sticks from the eggs is influenced to a very marked degree bv
moisture, dryness being distinctly injurious and moisture favorable.
The molting of the young animals seems similarly dependent upon
moisture, and may be prevented by keeping them in a "well-aerated
breeding-cage" (Severins, 'iic). This is another clear case of a
forest animal sensitive to moisture. To the fact that there is greater
moisture near the soil are therefore related the egg-laying habits and
the development of the immature insect, a development in marked
contrast with that of the strictly arboreal katydids. Of the katy-
dids, Microcentnmi and Cyrtophyllns are distinctly arboreal through-
out life, as the eggs are attached to the twigs, and they are relatively
independent of the ground. Curiously the Bates woods specimen of
CyrtophyUus was taken among low sprouts. Aniblycoryplia, how-
ever, lives near the ground. The cicadas are distinctly arboreal dur-
ing the imago stage. The larvae of Papilio tiirnits and cresphontes,
Bpargyrcus tityrus, Cressouia juglaudis (and parasite), Telca, ath-
eroma, Basilona, Halisidota, Datana, Nadata, Hetcrocauipa, Eus-
troina, YpsolopJius, and the slug caterpillar are all arboreal. Many
of these pupate on the branches or among the leaves and do not de-
scend to the earth. The sphingid Cressonia, however, pupates in the
soil. There is a marked tendency for the Lcpidoptcra to Ije com-
pletely arboreal. Even noctuid caterpillars such as Pcridroma saucia
and its allies, which live during the day on the ground, climb trees
at night (Packard, '90, p. 173; Slingerland, '95). Many of the
gall-flies are limited to certain kinds of trees and are arboreal, as, for
example, the several species of Cccidomyia found in the Bates woods.
The same is true of certain cynipid gall-makers, such as Holcaspis,
Ainpliiholips, and Andricus. It will be seen that the above-listed
kinds are largely defoliators and leaf-gall producers. Auunopliila is
a predator. Tragus and the small hymenopters (cocoons) on Cres-
sonia are parasitic.

Among the animals which live for a considerable part of their
lives in or on the soil and a part in the trees, are the two cicadas,
Calosoma, Cressonia, Aniuwphila, and certain ants, although no special
observations were made to learn to what degree the ants patrolled the

141

trees. The relatively large number of caterpillars present suggests
that in this woods they were attended by a large number of parasitic
flies and parasitic Hymenoptera in addition to predaceous insects.
The twig-pruners, Elaphidion, are referred to here because they be-
long to the crown commuity for at least a part of their lives. For
a summary of our knowledge of these beetles reference should be
made to Chittenden ('98 and '10,) and to Forbes ('11, pp. 50-53),
who gives a summary of their injury to oaks and hickories in Illi-
nois. The oak pruner, Blaphidion villosum Fabr. (PI. XXIII, figs.
3 and 4) was taken by me at Bloomington July 3. It is injurious to
hickory, maple, and other trees. The normal duration of the life
cycle appears to be one year, but in dry wood this period may be pro-
longed to four or more years (Hamilton, '87; Chittenden, '10, p.
5) — another example of the prolongation of life in dry wood. Mr.
W. P. Flint informs me that Oncideres cingulatiis Say is a common
Illinois beetle, which girdles hickory branches, and that in the dead
fallen branch its larva develops. It is reported from hickory and
basswood by Hopkins ('93b: 198.)

Additional defoliators of trees taken at Bloomington include
Macrobasis unicolor Kby. (PI. XXIV, fig. 2), taken June 27 on the
Kentucky coffee-tree, Gymnocladns. Other specimens were taken
June 4 and 12. Hamilton (Can. Ent., Vol. 21, p. 103) also records
this as defoliating locust. The larvse of the curculionid Conotrache-
liis elegans Say, taken September 5, is recorded as feeding on the
leaves of hickory. The imbricated snout-beetle, Bpicccrus imhrica-
tus Say (PI. XXIII, fig. i), was taken June 4, and, copulating,
June 27, at Bloomington. It has been recorded feeding upon the
leaves of wild cherry, plum, gooseberry, etc.

The nut-weevils may be properly considered as members of the
crown population. Of these Balanimis nasicus Say was taken August
I (on papaw) at Bloomington, and during September at Chicago.
This is recorded as from acorns, hazelnuts, and hickory-nuts. Bal-
animis nniformis Lee. was taken August 20, 21, and September 21
at Bloomington. This, too, is recorded as from acorns, as also is
B. carycu Horn, taken August 27. Miss Murtfeldt ('94) has ob-
served B. reniformis ovipositing in acorns and has described the
process. This weevil is associated and in competition with the acorn
codling-caterpillar, McHssopus latiferreana Walsm. These two in-
sects pave the way for a small caterpillar of the genus Gclcchia, and
for a second caterpillar, the larva of the acorn moth, Blastohasis
glandulella Riley, which feeds on the refuse within the acorn, and is
thus a scavenger. The debris of the predecessors is an essential for
the one that follows. Hamilton ('90) has given a good account of

142

the habits of Balaniiius (Cf. Chittenden, '08). On a previous page
mention is made of the habit of the May-beetles (LacJinostcrna) de-
foHating oaks.

The invertebrate animals of the forest crown are largely insects,
and for this reason some of the treatises on forest insects, and on cer-
tain families of Lepidoptcra, make excellent manuals for this as-
semblage. Thus Packard's "Forest Insects" ('90) and his mono-
graphs on the arboreal bombycine moths ('95; '05; '14) are very
essential. In his "Forest Insects" the various kinds of insects are
grouped according to the kind of tree and the part of the tree which
they inhabit, and thus one can readily find what is given concerning
those living upon or in the foliage, buds, fruits, twigs, etc. A some-
what similar arrangement is found in Felt's "Insects Affecting Park
and Woodland Trees" ('05, '06). The crown community varies with
the kind of trees composing it, as many kinds feed upon a relatively
small number of food plants, on allied kinds of plants, or on those of
members of the same plant association. The herbivorous species are
influenced in variety and abundance by the kind of vegetation ; their
predaceous and parasitic associates, however, are only indirectly in-
fluenced in this manner.

5. The Tree-Trunk Community

In an earlier section attention was called to the equable conditions
in tree trunks, and to the available moisture in the food of wood-
eating insects. The outer growing part of the tree contains the great-
est amount of water, insoluble starch, soluble sugar, and other food
materials ; the heart- wood, on the other hand, is dead and contains
only a small amount of water (see Roth, '95, p. 29). In view of these
relations it is but natural that the outer parts of living trunks should
be subject to attack by more animals than are the drier and less nour-
ishing inner parts. We should expect that young animals would thrive
best in the layers of the outer, moister wood, not only on account of
the softer wood being less difficult to chew, but also on account of
its greater nutriment and the larger supply of water in these layers.
The inner parts are thus protected not only by the outer layers, but
also by the general inability of many animals to digest dry wood.
Many of the insects which live in wood, particularl}^ in dry wood, re-
quire several 3^ears to attain maturity. This gradual rate of develop-
ment seems to be due in part to the slowness with which metabolic
water is produced by the growing larvae. There are many cases re-
corded in which developing larvae have apparently been delayed in
maturing for many years b}^ living indoors and in dry wood. Weis-
mann ('91. p. 48) has published an interesting case of Bitprestis splen-

143

dens which emerged from a desk which had been in use for thirty
years. He suggests that such prolonged Hves are a kind of starvation
sleep analogous to winter sleep. McNeil ('86) records that the beetle
Bburia quadrigeminata (PI. XXVIII, fig. 5) emerged from a door-
step in a house which had been built nineteen or twenty years, and
Packard ('90, pp. 687-688) records the emergence of the wood-
boring beetle Monohamimis confusor Kby., which came out of a piece
of pine furniture which had been in use "for fully fifteen years."
Felt ('05, p. 267) states that instances are recorded of Chioji cinctus
(PI. XXVIII, fig. 2) emerging from wood several years after the
furniture had been manufactured. The prolongation of the life cycle
of BlapJiidion villosum (PI. XXIII, figs. 3 and 4) in dry wood is
another case bearing upon this point. Other similar cases are known
which show that larval life is greatly prolonged in dry wood, or that
the adult in such conditions lives for many years. In such cases it is
not known just when the adult transformed.

Animals which live in living bark and living wood are in some
cases, with regard to moisture and to air, subject to peculiar conditions
brought about by the sap of the tree. In the case of hardwoods the
sap is watery, and in conifers the pitch or turpentine is gummy and
easily mires feeble insects, or suffocates them. Why is it that in hard-
woods, such as maple and box elder, all wood- and bark-boring in-
sects are not flooded in their burrows and drowned by the flow of sap
in the spring? I do not know how many factors are involved in this
problem. The gummy exudation on peach and cherry trees is evi-
dence of the influence of insects upon the flow of sap. Where sap
flows from trees many insects, particularly flies and Lepidoptera, are
attracted to and feed upon this fluid. Felt and Joutel ('04, p. 17)
state that the grubs of some members of the beetle genus Saperda
feed upon the sap, but they do not give the evidence for their opinion.

In the coniferous trees the flow of pitch has a marked influence
upon the bark-inhabiting scolytids. Hopkins ('99, pp. 404) says of
the pair of Dendroctomis frontalis, which work together to establish
the brood, that "In this operation in healthy living bark filled with
turpentine, it is necessary for one of the beetles to move back and
forth in the burrow continually in order to keep it open and push back
and dispose of the borings and inflowing turpentine. . . . From
the time they penetrate the outer layer of living bark there must nec-
essarily be an incessant struggle with the sticky, resinous mass which
is constantly flowing into the burrow and threatening to overcome
them." The larva of another bark-beetle, D. terebrans, is able to live
in this sap. Thus Hopkins (1. c, p. 418) says: "This social brood
chamber is often extended down towards or even into the bark of the

144

roots in such a manner as to hold the turpentine flowing into it. Thus
the larvae are often completely submerged in the viscid substance,
v^'hich does not appear to interfere w^ith their progress." There are
thus marked differences in these beetles in their response to sap. As
a result of utilization of the knowledge of this difference, the larvse
sensitive to an excess of sap may be killed in trees by diverting a large
amount of it into the infested bark. This plan was proposed and
practised by Robert on conifers as quoted by Packard ('90, pp. 29-
30) ; and by Hopkins ('99, p. 391) for the elm. By "cutting narrow
strips of bark from the trunks of infested elms, the Scolytids were
either killed or driven out by the increased vigor of the tree and the
greater flow of sap which it is well known will result from this treat-
ment."

The trunk of a tree is of such a substantial nature that it can not
be destroyed at once by animals. Such durability furnishes an oppor-
tunity to see how one kind of insect prepares the way for attack by
others, as is shown by the following examples. The elm borer, Sa-
pcrda tridcntata Oliv. (PI. XXIV, figs. 3 and 4), invades weakened
trees, and it is followed (Felt, '05, p. 70) by the weevils Magdalis
armicollis Say (PI. XXV, figs, i and 2) and M. barbita Say, Neo-
clyUts erythrocephulns Fabr., and, as a parasite of Sapcrda, Mclano-
hracon simplex Cress., and Bracon agrili Ashm., which is a parasite
of Neoclytus (1. c, p. 73). Four other insects have been found as-
sociated with Magdalis barbita (1. c, p. 74). Xylotrcchus colonus
Fabr. (PI. XXVIII, fig. 6) appears to be able to kill hickory, and
from such wood many insects have been reared by Felt ('05, p. 261).
Felt and Joutel ('04, p. 18) state that in hickories dying from injury
bv Scaly fits quadrispinosus Say (PI. XXV, fig. 3) the beetle Saperda
discoidca Fabr. follows, living under the bark.

The absence of woodland Ccranibycidar, Scolytidce, and Bupresti-
d(u in the Charleston collections eliminates the most important and
largest variety of insect inhabitants of tree trunks.* In addition to
the beetles which invade trunks, the large boring caterpillar, Prio-
noxvstus robinicT (cf. Packard '90, p. 53), and the horntail larva,
Treniex cohnnba, are able to do much injury. The caterpillar can

*I visited the Bates woods on June 8, 1914, and found a number of insects
in a recently cleared part of the upland area about a stump of a black oak (Q.
vclutina). Running about in the sun on the top of the stump was CJiri/sohothris fem-
orata Fabr., near the stump was a cerambj'cid, Stenosphenus notatus Oliv., and on
the bark, shaded by a vigorous growth of suckers, were the cockroach Isclinoptera
imvqualis Sauss.-Zehnt., the tenebrionid beetle Meracantha contracta Beauv., and the
otiorhynchid Fandeletejns hilaris Hbst. About the base of the stump was a large
funnel-shaped spider-web beneath which and in its meshes were remains of the fol-
lowing insects: Chion cinctns (cerambycid), Meracantha contracta, Chrysoiotkris
femorata (several specimens), an AgriUis, Passalus cornutus, and Laehnosterna.

145

kill living trees, but the horntail generally follows injury of some
kind. Within the tree trunk there is not the safety from enemies
which one might anticipate. A large number of wood-inhabiting im-
mature insects are footless, and have relatively small powers of loco-
motion. Their burrows are relatively small, so that when an enemy
once gains admission it can easily secure the owner. Tree trunks
infested with horntails often have a large number of females of Tha-
lessa on them. I have caught them literally by the handful in such
places. Many other parasitic Hynicnoptcra are easily taken upon
trees infested by boring larvae if watched carefully during the warm
parts of the day. Schwarz ('82) has called attention to a number
of beetles which live in the burrows of wood-boring insects. These
burrows may be invaded, not only while yet inhabited by their mak-
ers, but also after their abandonment. To find an insect in a burrow
is therefore not proof that the insect made it. A predaceous larva
which is reported to destroy bark- and wood-boring larvre is Alans
oculatus L. (PI. XVI, figs, i, 2, and 4). I have taken this larva in
the woods at White Heath, 111., May 26, and the beetle at Savanna,
111., May 30. The beetle was taken at Bloomington, 111., March 23
(A. B. Wolcott) ; in its hibernating cell in a rotten log in the Cot-
tonwood forest October 8 (No. 489, C. C. A.) ; and — an immature
larva — in the Brownfield woods May 23, Urbana, 111. Both the larva
and the beetle hibernate in logs. Hopkins ('04, p. 42) says of the
larva : "As a larva [it] preys upon numerous species of bark and
wood-boring insects in deciduous trees." Currie ('05, p. 102) says:
"The larvae prey upon and do much toward preventing the increase of
several of the destructive flat-headed borers (Buprcstidcc) in decidu-
ous trees." Snyder ('10, p. 8) reports the larva of Alans sp. "espe-
cially injurious" to decayed poles, and Lugger ('99, p. 130) states
that they live largely upon insects found in decayed wood. Evi-
dently the food habits of these larvae need investigation. Probably
other predaceous elaterid and trogositid larva; live in our trees.
Other predaceous beetles on trees are the following, taken at Bloom-
ington: Chariessa pilosa Forst., July 3, Clems qnadrigiittatns Oliv.
(PI. XXVI, fig. 3) lune 15, and Cv'matodcra haltcata Lee, July and
August 17. Hopkins ('93b, p. 187) reports that Chariessa pilosa
(PI. XXVI, fig. 6) is found under bark of walnut, and was taken
in a dead grape-vine, and reports also that it is predaceous. Felt
('06, p. 504) figures this species and reports it on trees infested
with borers.

The locust borer, Cyllene rohinicr Forst. (PI. XXVII, figs, i and
2), is a common insect "in manv localities, and the beetle is frequently
taken upon Solidago in the fall. The beetle was taken at Bloommg-

146

ton September 14 and October 2 (A. B. Wolcott), and on the prairie
at St. Joseph, 111., on flowers, September 26 (No. 310, C. C. A.).
Hopkins ('06, p. 8) has shown that although the larvae begin devel-
opment only in living wood, they are able to complete it in dry dead
wood, but in this case such conditions hasten development.

The apple borer Saperda Candida Fabr. (PI. XXVI, fig. 4) was
taken in the woods at Bloomington July 4. In the original forests it
probably bored in the wild crab apples and the haws (Cratcrgus). S.
tridentata Oliv., the elm borer, was also taken at Bloomington. This
is a serious pest to elms, and paves the way for Magdalis and Neocly-
his. Mr, W. P. Flint informs me that Saperda vestita Say is com-
mon throughout the state in the live bark of linden, and that Sinoxy-
lon hasilare Say lives mainly in weakened trees and in living wood.
He also tells me that Goes debilis Lee, G. tigrina DeG., and G. pid-
vendentns Hald., live in a variety of living trees.

The flat-headed apple-tree borer, Clirysobothris femorata Fabr.
(PI. XXVI, fig. 5), is known to attack the bark of enfeebled trees
and logs and stumps of oak, hickory, maple, basswood, and apple
(Hopkins, '93b, p. 183). The beetles were taken June 13, 25, 30,
and August 11, at Bloomington. Leptostylus acidiferus Say (PI.
XXVIII, fig. i) was taken April 17 in the same locality. Hopkins
('93b, p. 196) reports this insect infesting dying and dead maple- and
apple-trees. The larvae mine in the inner bark. Beutenmiiller ('96,
p. 79) states that it breeds under the bark of oak. The curculionid
Cryptorhynchiis parochus Hbst., is reported by Hopkins ('04, p. 34)
to mine as a larva in "the inner bark and sap wood of weakened and
recently dead walnut." It is also reported from butternut. Thirteen
specimens of this species were taken at Bloomington April 17. The
larvae of Romaleum atomarimn Dru. live in stumps and logs of re-
centlv dead oak (Hopkins, '04, p. 36), and are reported also from
harkberrv. The beetles were taken July 25 and August 8 at Bloom-
ington. Romaleum riifidum Hald. was taken at Charleston June 17.
This is reported from oak. The larvae of CJiion cinctus Dru. (PI.
XXVIII, fig. 2) are reported by Hopkins ('04, p. 36) to "mine the
inner bark and bore into the wood of trunk and branches of dying
and recently dead hickory, chestnut, oak, etc." This beetle was taken
at Urbana, and at Bloomington July 12. The larvae probably con-
tinue to live in the seasoned wood, as the beetles are recorded as
emerging from dry wood some years after furniture or lumber was
manufactured.

Certain species of insects live mainly in dead, though solid and
seasoned, wood, before decay causes any important changes; some
begin work in the living wood and continue in the dead wood; and

147

others begin in dead wood and continue there after it begins to de-
cay. Among the beetles which Hve in dead wood the hickory borer,
Cyllene carycu Gahan {pictus Auct.) is representative. This beetle
closely resembles the locust borer, but it appears in the spring and
early summer, rather than in the fall as does rohinics. I have taken
caryce at Bloomington April 20, 30, May 20, and June 20, and at
Urbana May 16. The larvae bore in dead branches and small trees of
hickory and mulberry, according to Hopkins ('93b, p. 194). Xylo-
trcchus colomis Fabr. (PI. XXVIII, fig. 6) lives in the bark and
wood of dying and dead timber of oak, hickory, elm, and ash (Hop-
kins, '93, p. 194). My Bloomington records of it are May 9, June
14, 25, and July i and 20. Bburia qiiadrigeminata Say (PI. XXVIII,
fig. 5) is a borer in ash and honey-locust (Packard, '90, pp. 541-
542), and has been taken on beech and elm (Hopkins, '93b, p. 193)
and in hickory. Bloomington records of it are July, August i (on
papaw), and August 28. Elsewhere mention has been made of its
long life in dry wood. Blaphidion miicronatiim Fabr. has been re-
corded by Chittenden ('98, p. 42) as emerging from dry wood as fol-
lows : "There is a divisional note on its having bred February 8,
1889, from a piece of dogwood (Cormis) which had been stored in
a carpenter shop some years to be used for hammer handles. The
larvae had worked principally under the bark where they produced
large and irregular channels, entering, when nearly full grown, the
solid wood, in which they transformed." It also lives in healthy liv-
ing wood. The larvae of Arhopalus fiilnnnaus Fabr. is reported to
live in the inner bark and sap-wood of oak. This was taken during
May at Bloomington, and Dicerca hirida Linn., a hickory borer, was
taken at Chicago August 8 and at Bloomington June 13.

The oak pruner, Blaphidion villosimi Fabr. girdles hickory
branches, which fall to the ground. From seasoned wood thus
formed Hamilton ('87) reared from branches one half to one inch
in diameter, the following beetles : "ClytantJms riiricola and alho-
fasciatus, Neoclytiis luscus and crythrocephaliis, Stenospheniis no-
tatns, etc." Such seasoned wood is particularly liable to attack,
according to Hopkins ('09, p. 66), by beetles of the family Lyctidcc
(cf. Kraus and Hopkins, '11). In such wood, too. white ants
(Termes) and carpenter-ants (Camponohis) will make extensive ex-
cavations. The northern brenthid. Bupsalis miniita Dru.. (PI.
XXVIII, figs. 3 and 4) occasionally lives in living weakened trees,
but is generally in dead wood. Hopkins ('93b, p. 207) records it as
from oak, elm', and beech, and Packard ('90, p. 69) as from white
oak. I have taken it at Bloomington June 15. 25 (copulating), and
July 2. Neoclytus liiscus Fabr., a hickory and ash borer, was taken

148

there October 15. The larvae of Neoclytus erythrocephaliis Fabr.
(PI. XXVIII, fig. 4) are associated in dead ehns with Magdalis
(Packard, '90, p. 228; Felt, '05, p. 70), and appear to follow injury
by Saperda tridcntata. In hickory, Neoclytus has been found as-
sociated with Xylotrechiis colonus Fabr., Chrysohothris femorata
Kahr., Catogenus rufus Fabr., and Tremex and Thalessa (Felt, 05,
p. 261). The cucujid Catogenus rufus was taken at Springfield July
20 by A. B. Wolcott. Liopus rariegatus Hald., taken at Blooming-
ton June 1 1 and July 22, is reported under the bark and from several
kinds of trees. The ceramb3^cid Smodicum ciicujiforme Say is also
reported from under bark, and was taken July 6 at Bloomington.
Calloidcs nohilis Say, reported from oak stumps and hickory, was
taken at Chicago in June. From oak also Purpuricenus lunncralis
Fabr. is reported. This was taken at Chicago, and Jvme 9 at Bloom-
ington. The rare lymexylid, Lymexylon sericeutn Harr., "a borer
in old oak wood," was taken at Bloomington July 2. The larva of
the flat-headed borer Dicer ca divaricata Say bores in the dead and
rotten wood of maple, cherry, etc. The beetles were taken May 9
and June 3 at Bloomington. Other wood borers whose records for
Bloomington should be given, are as follows : Leptura proxima Say,
a maple borer, June 13; Dorcaschema ivildii Uhler, an Osage-orange
and mulberry borer, June 19; Criocephalus ohsoletus Rand, July 14;
and Obcrea tripunctata Swed., whose larvae breed in twigs of cotton-
wood and blackberry, June 13 (Blatchley, '10, p. 1092).

6. The Decaying JVood Conununity

Thoroughly dry wood, or that submerged in water and thus shut
away from the air, remains sound for an indefinite period. In the
decay of wood, a certain amount of moisture, air, a favorable tem-
perature, fungi, and insects, are the main agents and conditions.
The fungi growing on wood remove the starch, sugar, and other
food materials, or they may dissolve the wood itself. This process
of course changes the character of the wood so that animals able to
derive sustenance from the solid wood now find it unsuitable for
their purpose ; and still other kinds, on the other hand, unable to
eat the solid wood, are now able to feed upon the softened product.

The rate of decay of trees varies greatly. The yellow locust (Ro-
hiuia) red cedar {Juniperus), mulberry {Morus), and hardy catalpa
(Catalpa) are very resistant. This catalpa is reported by von Schrenk
('02, p. 50) to serve as a railway tie for eighteen years and remain
sound ; as fence posts it has served from twenty-three to thirty-eight
years. Large stumps of white oak and walnut are also very durable.

149

On the other hand, cottonwood (Popidus), basswood {Tilia), and
silver maple (Acer saccharinum) decay rather rapidly. I have found
little definite information on the rate of decay of our trees. The
most definite information I have found concerning the durabil-
ity of wood in contact with the soil is in a study of fence posts
by Crumley ('lo). He shows that heartwood is particularly lial)le
to decay (1. c, pp. 613-614). He gives (pp. 634-635) the following
scale of durability, beginning with the most durable; Osage orange,
yellow locust, red cedar (woodland grown), mulberry, white cedar,
catalpa, chestnut, oak, and black ash. The following have poor dura-
bility: honey-locust, sassafras, black walnut (young trees; old trees
are durable), butternut, and elm. Red cedar growing "in the open
is about the same as oak in durability." These observations aid in
giving some idea of the relative rate of decay of logs and stumps in
contact with the soil. In the West, Knapp ('12, p. 7) has shown
that the upper part of the bole of fire-killed Douglas fir "deteriorates
more rapidly than the lower part because of the larger proportion
of sapwood. . . . Down tiuiber is less subject to insect attacks than
standing timber but decays more rapidly." Hopkins ('09, p. 128)
publishes a photograph of an Engelmann spruce forest, at an eleva-
tion of 10,000 feet on Pike's Peak, which was killed about 1853-56,
about fifty 5^ears previously; there were, however, still preserved on
the trunks, the markings of the beetles which killed the trees. The
rate of decay in warm moist regions is relatively more rapid than
that in cool and dry regions.

As wood decays it loses the characteristics which distinguish the
living and solid trees. For this reason we anticipate that animals
showing a preference for different kinds of trees are more charac-
teristic of the living and sound wood, and decline in numbers as
disintegration progresses, being replaced by the kinds which live in
and upon decaying wood. There is thus with the decay of wood a
progressive increase in the kinds of animals characteristic of humus.
This is true in general terms, for certain animals even show a pref-
erence for certain kinds of decayed wood, while others are general
feeders upon almost any kind of such wood. Hamilton ('85, p. 48)
has observed that "Cucujus clavipcs feeds on locust, maple, sycamore,
wild cherry, hickory, white oak, elm ; Clinidunn sculptile on spruce,
hemlock, tamarack, black oak, hickory, chestnut, ash, gum, poplar,
birch; Synchroa punctata on all species of oak, hickory, apple, cherry,
mulberry, Osage orange, chestnut ; Dendroidcs canadensis on nearly
everything."

The decay of wood begins when moisture and fungi are able
to gain entrance, as at some point of injury — an insect burrow, a

150

broken branch, a fire scar near the soil, etc. — and spreads from such
source. The time of year, and the method by which a tree is killed
will often have an important influence upon the kind of invasion by
animals. A tree which is killed and remains standing is not so liable
to rapid decay as one which lies upon the ground and becomes moist.
It is readily seen that there are a vast number of causes which oper-
ate to produce all degrees of decaying wood. A fallen hardwood
trunk and its stump are liable to begin decaying at the sap-wood
layer, just under the bark. The bark loosens; and moisture, fungi,
and animals mutually hasten each others' activities, and the processes
of disintegration. Lender such bark, in the Bates woods, were found
the following: Cjueens of the carpenter-ants {Camponotus) estab-
lishing their colonies ; the flat-bodied larvae of Pyrochroa; the large
Carolina slug {Philomyciis) ; the beetle Passaliis cormitiis; white
ants (Termes flavipcs) ; the rotten-log caterpillar {Scolccocauipa
lihurna) ; the snails Zonitoidcs arborca and Pyrainidiila perspectiva;
Polydcsmns, Galerita jouus, and a Mclanotus larva. These are fairly
representative kinds of animals of the log community at this stage
of development. It will be noted that the ants, the white ants, and
Galerita are predaceous, but that the remainder are probably sus-
tained largely by rotten wood, herbaceous plants, and fungi. With
the progressive radiate (when beginning within) or convergent (when
beginning without) growth of decay this animal community migrates
into the log or stump as its favorable habitat increases in area and
thickness. When this process has made considerable advance and
the log has become soft, the animals which began at the surface or
within are able to penetrate the entire log. This may be considered
an intermediate stage in the transformation of the log to humus.
This biotic community, composed of fungi and animals, commonly
begins its work at the surface (most frequentlv, in the case of fallen
trees, on the under side where the log touches the ground) and moves
progressively inward, transforming the log as it goes. In its wake
there follows a later stage of the transformation — the dark-colored
humus layer, composed of decayed wood, the dead bodies of animals,
and their excrement. The large number of years involved in such
a transformation makes it possible for many kinds of animals to find
this sort of habitat, — just as old artificial ponds are more fully stocked
with animals than newlv excavated ones. Slowly developing ani-
mals are thus able to live here, the conditions prevailing being at the
other extreme from those suited to a life in the ephemeral fungi.

As a fallen or standing trunk dries out. particularly upon the up-
per surface, if fallen, the bark often curls, cracks, and loosens from
the wood. In such a situation in the Cottonwood forest at Urbana,

151

the spider CoriracJme versicolor Keys, was taken by me March 23.
At times such places are relatively dry, and in them I have frequently
found, in large numbers, the tenebrionid beetle Nyctohates pcnmyl-
vanica DeG. This species was taken at Bloomington March 9 and
June 15. A similar-appearing relative, with enlarged femora, Mcri-
niis Icuz'is Oliv., was taken June 15 and July 29. When Nyctobates
is placed in a corked vial it proceeds to chew the cork (which is about
of the firmness of the bark and wood in which it lives) and makes a
fine sawdust. Nyctohates was taken by me November 18 under loose
dry bark of the sugar maple {Acer sacchanim) in the Cottonwood
forest (No. 549, C.C.A.). The March and November records of
this species clearly indicate that the beetle hibernates in the wood.
Scotobates calcaratiis Fabr. and Xylopimis saperdioides Oliv. are
other tenebrionids which live under bark. I have taken Scotobates
at Bloomington June 29 and July 2, and Xylopimis June 29, July 2
and 26. The cucujid beetle Brontes dubitts Fabr. was taken at Bloom-
ington March 9, April 5, July 25, 26, and September 21, and Cucujus
clavipes Fabr. (PI. XXVIII, fig. 8), whose larvae Smith reports to
be predatory, was taken March 6. Hopkins ('93b, p. 177) reports
both of these beetles from the bark of dead deciduous trees. Town-
send ('86, p. 66) reports both under the bark of decayed basswood,
and Packard ('90, p. 223) records clavipes from under oak bark.
Another common beetle, a spondylid, Parandra bninnea Fabr. (PI.
XXIX, figs. I, 2, and 5), I have taken from decayed wood at Bloom-
ington. The larvae, pupse, and beetles were found in rotten wood
July 23. and the beetles also on July 25, 26, and August 6. Hart
('it, p. 68) calls this the heart-wood borer on account of its methods
of boring in this part of several kinds of deciduous trees. It burrows
largely in rotten, and, also, according to Mr. W. P. Flint, in sound,
walnut heart-wood. In recent years Snyder ('11, p. 4) reports much
injury by it to telephone poles. He says : "The insect attacks poles
that are perfectly sound, but will work where the wood is decayed ;
it will not, however, work in wood that is 'sobby' (wet rot), or in
very 'doty' (punky) wood." As this injury is near the ground, the
invasion is probably begun in rotten wood by the young larva and ex-
tended later into the firm wood. This same author ('10, pp. 7-8)
lists several other insects associated in poles with Parandra. Clearly
this beetle is an inhabitant of wood in the early stages of decay. It
apparently does not kill trees, nor remain to the last in the log with
Passalus, but occupies an intermediate position. This is a repre-
sentative of a class of insects whose ecology has been rather slighted
in the past because of the economic conditions which permitted the
neglect of insects which were not supposed to be of much importance.

152

But with increased economic efficiency this class of insects which
hasten the decay of wood will receive more attention. Mr. W. P.
Flint informs me that in the southern part of Illinois the white ants
(Termes flavipes) and the ant Cremastogaster lineolata are very
active in decaying wood. Other inhabitants of damp rotten wood,
logs, and roots, are the larvse of the large scarabaeid Xyloryctes saty-
riis Fabr. I have taken them at Urbana, 111., October i, 12, and 15
in the Brownfield woods, and in the Cottonwood forest October 8.
Smith ('10, p. 321) reports the larva feeding in the roots of ash, and
Walsh (Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. 9, p. 287. 1863), from
the roots of grass. Osmoderma scabra Beauv. (PI. XXIX. fig. 4)
was taken at Bloomington, 111., July 26, and O. eremicola Knoch
(PI. XXIX, fig. 3) in June at Bloomington, and at Springfield, 111.,
in July by A. B. Wolcott. The larvae of both these species are known
to live in decaying wood ; the adults are found under the bark, and
according to Packard ('90, p. 283) in heart-wood. Prionus imbri-
cornis L. (PI. XXIX, fig. 6) lives under bark and in decaying wood.
One individual was taken at Bloomington July 22. Orthosoma
brunneuin Forst., another species with larval habits similar to Prionus,
was taken at the same place during July. It lives in a great variety
of decaying wood. The larvse of the common rose flower-beetle,
Trichius piger Fabr. (PI. XXIX, fig. 7), taken by me June 16, 18,
19, 22, 25, and July 7, and at Savanna, 111., May 30, live, accord-
ing to Smith ('10, p. 322), in "old oak stumps." The larvae of
Lucanus dama Thunb. (PI. XXXI, figs, i and 2) live in decaying
wood. The beetle was taken June 30, in July, and August i under
wood. The beetles of Dorcus parallcliis Say were taken May 12,
July 25, and August 6. Ceruchus piceiis Web. was taken April 5,
and one taken July 25 was covered with white fungus threads. The
larva of Dorcus and Ceruchus feed mainly or solely in rotten wood.
On Plate XXX the larva of Meracantha contracta is seen in its bur-
row in decayed wood. These insects from decayed wood are among
the most common of woodland insects.

In concluding this part on insects of rotten wood the following
papers should be mentioned, which will be of assistance to one pur-
suing this subject: Townsend ('86), on beetles in decaying bass-
wood; Packard ('90, pp. 222-223), o^i insects of decaying oak, (1. c,
pp. 283-284) in decaying elm, (p. 424) in decaying maple, and (p.
612) in hackberry; Felt ('06, pp. 484-494) on insects in decaying
wood and bark of deciduous trees; and Shelford ('13a, pp. 245-247)
on insects of decaying beech. Dury (Ent. News, Vol. 19, pp. 388-
389, 1908) states that he took over three hundred species of beetles

153

from a much decayed log; unfortunately, however, he does not pub-
lish the list.

Some of the animals which invade the log in its earliest stages
of decay continue to hold possession throughout the transformation.
Thus Passaliis arrives early, as soon as the bark begins to loosen,
and remains to a late stage in the process — when the log or stump
can easily be kicked to pieces. The rotten log caterpillar Scolccocampa
has a somewhat similar history in the log. When a log reaches such
a condition that it looks like brown meal, and is nearly level with the
surface of the ground, it may during the summer become so dry that
it affords a favorable haunt for myrmeleonid larvae ; probably the
ant-lion of Myrinclcon iininaculatus DeG., a woodland species.

In the foregoing manner the tree trunk decays and naturally sinks
lower and lower, the woody fibers disappear, the debris becomes
darker in color, the autumn leaves, twigs, and other litter of the
forest gradually add layer to layer, and finally the remains of the
log become blended with the humus of the forest floor. Thus is com-
pleted one of the most important cycles of transformation to be found
in the forest habitat. The following diagram. Figure 17, has been
prepared to show the general train or succession of insects correspond-
ing to these changes in the conditions in trees.

It will simplify this discussion of changes in the animal associa-
tions, caused either by changes in the character of the forest trees or
by changes in the woodland vegetable products, to state concisely the
main general factors involved in these changes. To explain zoological
facts it is often necessary to utilize the products of the allied sciences,
and the student may even be forced to make some investigations for
himself in these fields, because these sciences may not have especially
treated his specific problems. All relations become of zoological sig-
nificance, however, when they bear upon a zoological problem. The
major group of causes or processes which operate in such a way as to
initiate changes in forests may be grouped provisionally as follows.

1. Geological and physiographic processes: crustal movements
of the earth, as earthquakes ; the wearing down or erosion of the
land, as the mowing down of forests by landslides.

2. Climatic processes : wind storms, tornadoes, ice and sleet
storms, etc., which injure trees and destroy forests; lightning and
fires, — in brief, any climatic factor which is able to injure or kill
trees.

3. The processes of competition and succession of forest vege-
tation; based upon plant activities, as when an oak-hickory forest
is followed by a red oak-hard maple forest, or when fungi kill trees.
These causes are largely botanical problems.

154

155

4- Destruction of trees by animals: the processes of defolia-
tion, borings in branches, bark, trunk, or roots, and the girdling of
trees. Fires started by man, depending on the degree of destruction,
cause new cycles of succession. Both beavers and man build dams,
flood areas, and thus kill trees.

5. Combinations of physical and organic processes; the flood-
ing of river bottoms by driftwood rafts which become converted into
dams and thus submerge large areas.

Since it is most usual for these causes to act, not singly but in
various combinations, and since they also vary greatlv in their degrees
of influence, their operation is extremely complex. The drowning of
the forests along the Mississippi River through the sinking of the
land by the New Madrid earthquake, is a good example, showing how
a large tract of forest may be killed and much dead and decaved wood
formed, as has been shown by Fuller ('12) — (Plate XXXH). Tarr
and Martin ('12) have shown how destructive to forests the earth-
quakes are in Alaska. The influence of the New Madrid earthquake
upon animal life has not been investigated, but it is not too late even
today, after more than one hundred years, to make important studies
on this subject. On the other hand, the processes of erosion operate
more continuously than the periodic earthquakes, and tend to degrade
the land, lower the water-level, and to change the habitats in swamp
and other forests.

The results of climatic influences are seen in the amount of injury
done by sleet, which, weighing down the branches, breaks many of
them and leaves the fractured stubs as favorable points for attack
by fungi and insects. Webb ('09) has shown that when a tornado
passed through Mississippi and Louisiana the felled pine forests were
from one to three miles wide. Practically all of this timber became
infested with the larvse of Monohaimuus titillator Fabr. After a
severe frost in Florida the dead wood of the orange-trees became in-
fested bv wood-boring larva?, which spread from this wood to the
enfeebled living wood, as Hubbard (Howard, '95) observed. Light-
ning (Plummer, '12) kills and maims many trees, producing dead
wood, and through fires started in the same manner much more dam-
age is done. Hopkins ('09) considers that much of the iniurv at-
tributed to fire is primarily due to insects which made the dead and
dry fuel for the destructive fire work.

That competition among trees weakens some of them is well
known. This weakening makes them more susceptible to attack by
fungi and insects. In a forest where the shade-enduring trees can
shade out all competitors, the shrubs and trees which are intolerant
show just such a lack of resistance. As an example of this process

156

the following case may be cited : INIr. W. P. Flint informs me that
he has observed that shaded, suppressed white oaks in southern Illi-
nois are much more heavily infested bv the bark-louse Aspidiotiis
obscunis Comstock, and by the beetle Phymatodes varius Say than
are the vigorous trees.

Trees may be injured and killed by animals in many ways, as by
defoliating them, boring in the twigs, trunk, or roots, and by the de-
struction of the bark and sap-wood of the trunk. Of injuries caused
by insects the work of defoliators of hardwoods is one of the most
conspicuous kinds. Repeated defoliation of elms by the elm leaf-
beetle Galerucella luteola Miill. will, according to Felt ('05, p. 61),
so weaken a tree that Tremex coluniba finds suitable food in its dis-
eased and dying substance. With Tremex present its parasite Thalessa
also arrives. The maple borer, Plagionotiis speciosiis Say, may also
weaken a tree and pave the way for Tremex and Thalessa. A study
of the after effects of the prominent defoliators of shade and forest
trees, such as the fall w^eb-worm {Hyphantria cunea), the white-
marked tussock-moth {Hemerocanipa leucosfigiua, Plate XXXI, figs.
3, 4 and 5), the bag-worm {Tliyridopteryx epheniercrformis), the
larch saw-fly {Neiuatiis erichsonii), the gypsy moth {Portlietria
dispar), and the brown-tailed moth {Buproctis chrysorrhoca) , would
doubtless throw much light upon the details of successions caused by
insects. I have not been able to learn that this subject has been studied
carefully in this country. Such injuries are clearly not limited to
hardwoods, for many similar observations have been made in conif-
erous forests. Hewitt ('12, p. 20) has listed some of the beetles
which follow the defoliation of larches by the larch saw-fly. Hop-
kins ('OT, pp. 26-27) found that the spruces of New England were
being killed by the bark-beetle Dendroctomis piceaperda Hopkins;
that following the damage done came other beetles, such as Polyg-
ra pints rufipennis Kby., which attacks the weakened tops of the
trees, following the attack of its predecessors on the trunk or base;
and that also, following Dendroctomis, came Tetropiiim cinnamop-
ieriiin Kby., which mines in the dead trees. The yellow pines of the
West are killed by the bark-beetle Dendroctomis ponderosa, and this
is followed by many kinds of insects which live on the decaying bark
and wood, as Hopkins ('02, pp. 10—16) has shown. He also states
('OQ, p. 68) that in the Appalachian Mountains Dendroctomis fronta-
lis Zimm. killed a large part of the trees in an area "aggregating over
75,000 square miles." Such examples of multiple attack show the
complexity of the causes influencing forest life. When the great
amount of influence which insects are able to exert and do exert upon
forests is considered, the question is raised as to what may be their

157

influence in determining the kind of trees that compose what the
plant ecologists (Covvles and others) consider the cHmax forest of
eastern North America — the maple-beech forest. It has long been
known (Packard, '90, p. 515) that the beech has remarkably few in-
sect enemies, perhaps about fifty species being recorded. Its associate,
the hard maple (Acer sacchariim) , has many more, and the oaks and
hickories, which are largely absent from the climax forest and char-
acterize the changing stages preceding the climax, are preyed upon
by more insects than any other of our trees, their number possibly
equaling the sum total of all the other forest-tree insects.

A good example of the combined influence of physical and organic
factors is seen in the huge rafts of driftwood which have accumulated
in the Red River of Louisiana and Arkansas (Veatch, '06) — (Pis.
XXX and XXXIV) — on such an extensive scale that hundreds of
acres of the bottoms were flooded and the forests killed, producing
vast quantities of dead and decaying wood. With the opening of
the drainage canal, connecting Lake Michigan with the Illinois River,
the bottoms w^ere so flooded that willows, maples, cottonwoods, etc.,
on the lowest ground were killed along the river for many miles, and
presented a view similar to that shown on Plate XXXV. In this
manner vast quantities of dead and decaying wood have been made
available as food and habitat for wood-inhabiting invertebrates.

7. Interrelations within the Forest Association

The dependence of the animal upon the physical and organic en-
vironment is primarily a phase of the problem of maintenance. In
the forest these relations are so intricate, and involve the lives of so
many kinds of animals, that a forest, like the prairie, must be looked
upon as a mosaic composed of a vast number of smaller animal, or
biotic communities, each one not only interrelated at many angles
within itself, but similarly connected with the other communities of
the forest. Walsh ('64, pp. 549-550) has given us a graphic ac-
count, not of the forest as a whole but of one of its smallest units —
those which he found clustered about the galls of willow trees, the
willow leaf-gall community. He says :

"Nothing gives us a better idea of the prodigious exuberance of
Insect Life, and of the manner in which one insect is often dependent
upon another for its very existence, than to count up the species which
haunt, either habitually or occasionally, one of these Willow-galls,
and live either upon the substance of the gall itself or upon the bodies
of other insects that live upon the substance of the gall. In the single
gall S [alicis]. brassicoides n. sp. there dwell the Cecidomyia which

158

is the maker of the gall — four inquilinous Cecidomyia — an inquilinous
saw-fly (Hymenoptera) — five distinct species of Microlepidoptera,
some feeding on the external leaves of the gall, and some burrowing
into the heart of the cabbage, but scarcely ever penetrating into the
central cell, so as to destroy the larva that provides them with food
and lodging — two or three Coleoptera — a Psocus (Pseiidoneiiroptera)
— a Heteropterous insect found in several other willow-galls — an
Aphis which is also found on the leaves of the willow, but pecu-
liarly affects this gall — and preying on the Aphides the larva of
a Chrysopa (Neuroptera) and the larva of a Syrphide (Diptera) —
besides four or five species of Chalcididae, one Braconide Ichneumon
(Hymenoptera) and one Tachinide (Diptera), which prey on the
Cecidomyia and the Microlepidoptera — making altogether about two
dozen distinct species and representing every one of the eight Or-
ders. ... If this one little gall and the insect that produces it
were swept out of existence, how the whole world of insects would
be convulsed as by an earthquake ! How many species would be com-
pelled to resort for food to other sources, thereby grievously disar-
ranging the due balance of Insect Life! How many others would
probably perish from off the face of the earth, or be greatly reduced
in numbers ! Yet to the eye of the common observer this gall is noth-
ing but an unmeaning mass of leaves, of the origin and history of
which he knows nothing and cares nothing!"

With this conception of a community in mind it is only necessary
to refer to the following diagram (Fig. i8) to see how immaterial
it is as to where one begins to take up this thread of interrelations,
for sooner or later every animal and plant in the association will have
to be passed in review and its influence recognized as a response to
its conditions of life.

ECOLOGICALLY ANNOTATED LIST

I. Prairie Invertebrates

An exhaustive study of the animal ecology of a region or an as-
sociation must be based upon a thorough investigation of the ecolog-
ical relations of the individual animals composing it. An ideal an-
notated list in an ecological paper should, therefore, include for each
species a complete account of its life history, its behavior, its physi-
ology, and the structural features which would in any way contribute
to an understanding of the response of the animal to its organic and
inorganic environment. At present we have no such knowledge of
the animals of any locality or of any complex association of animals.

159

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160

In a preliminary study, like the present one, it is desirable to record
rather fully the observations made in the region studied, because
we have so few descriptions of the conditions of life on our prairies.
An effort has been made to give for each species the date of obser-
■vation or collection, the locality or "station" where found, observa-
tions on habits and life history, and the field numbers of the speci-
mens secured. These numbers illustrate how observations may be
accumulated, upon a large number of individuals, without the ob-
server's being familiar with them, or even knowing" their scientific
names.

It is really surprising how little is recorded about some of the
commonest animals of the prairie and forest in zoological literature.
Other animals, particularly those of economic importance, are
treated rather fully, but generally with little relation to their natural
eiivironment. In this list it has been considered desirable not to
give an extended account of each kind of animal, but to refer to
some of the most important literature concerning it, so that one may
gain some general idea of the ecological potentialities of each kind of
animal.

MOLLUSCA

4

Physid^
Physa gyrina Say.

Three half-grown young and an adult shell were taken among
swamp milkweed, Asclepias incaniata (Sta. I, ^), Aug. ii (No. 19).
All show distinct varices ; the last one formed on the adult shell is
very distinct. These scars mark a period of rest or slow growth
which was probably due to hibernation or the drying-up of the
swamp. Physa, as a rule, can not endure such extreme desiccation as
can Lyuuicca, and to that degree is indicative of a more permanent
water supply. Our specimens were all dead, but some of them so
recently that fly maggots came from them.

Lymn^id^

Galha uinhiUcata (C. B. Adams).

A single specimen of this small snail was taken among swamp
milkweeds (Sta. I, d) Aug. 11 (No. 18). Mr. F. C. Baker, who de-
termined the specimen, writes me that this is the first record of this
species for Illinois. Baker remarks ('ir, p. 240) that this species is
"abundant in still water in sheltered borders of rivers, in small
brooks, ditches, and streams, and in shallow overflows. Clings to
dead leaves or other submerged debris, or crawls over the muddy

161

bottom of its habitat, in shallow water. Associated with Galba
ohrussa, Aplexa hypnorum, and the small planorbes (Baker). In
ditches and brooks in pastures (True). Common in damp places
and in ditches along roads where water collects only in rainy weather
(Nylander)."

Our specimen was taken where the water was very shallow (only
a few inches deep) and overgrown with vegetation. This species ap-
pears to be a strictly shallow-water marginal form, and has consider-
able power of enduring desiccation.

CRUSTACEA

ASTACIDiE

Caiiiharus gracilis Bundy. Burrowing Prairie Crawfish. (PI. XXXVI.)
The prairie crawfish was abundant at Sta. I, d, on the wet parts
of the prairie. T. L. Hankinson dug some specimens from their
holes, which proved to be of this species. Specimens were captured
Apr. 23, 191 1, and Aug. 9, 1910 (No. 7442).

Crawfish burrows were observed to traverse the dense vellow
clay with which the railway embankment had been built over a
swampy place at Sta. I, d. Burrows were also observed at Sta. I, e,
among the colony of SUphium terebinthinaceum and Lepachys pin-
tiata, and also at Station I, g.

I have found the characteristic claw of this species on wet prairie
along the railway track at Mayview, 111. At this time, September 26,
19 1 2, burrows with fresh earth were numerous, far from anv stream.
(No. 482, C. C. A.)

Combanis diogcncs Girard. Diogenes Crawfish.

Crawfish of this species were taken by T. L. Hankinson at Sta.
I, d (No. 8047A). The presence of this chintney builder at this sta-
tion suggests that the numerous chimneys shown in Figure 2, Plate
IIIB are in part the work of this species though they are in part also
the work of gracilis.

AEACHNIDA

PhAIvANGIIDA

Phalangiid^

Liobnnum. politum Weed. Polished Harvest-spider. (Pl. XXXVII,
fig. 3.)
Two small phalangiids, both probably of this species, were found
under moist wood upon the prairie (Sta. I, ^) Aug. 8. Concerning

162

these specimens, Mr. Nathan Banks writes me that they are "young,
not fully colored, but probably Liobununi politum Weed."

Weed ('91) reports that this rather rare species occurs in fields
and forests, and is seldom found about buildings. He has found it
among river driftwood, and says ('92a, p. 267) : "It sometimes oc-
curs under boards in fields, and is often swept from grass and low
herbage." When disturbed it emits, as do others of its family, a
liquid with a pungent odor. Weed ('91) has made some observa-
tions on its breeding habits. He notes that in confinement it ate
plant-lice.

L. forniosiini Wood was taken by me upon the lodged drift-
wood of a small brook on the border of a forest at White Heath,
111., May 4, 191 1. (No. 505, CCA.) This species, according to
Weed ('89, p. 92), hibernates as an adult.

Arandida
Epeirid^

Argiopc auraiitia Lucas {^riparia Hentz). Common Garden Spider.
(PI. XXXVII, figs. I and 2.)
This is very abundant, and the most conspicuous spider on the
prairie. Found among the prairie grasses (Sta. I,**^) Aug. 8 and 12
(Nos. 6 and 39) ; in its web among goldenrod, Solidago (Sta. I),
Aug. 12 (No. 26); among the swamp grasses (Sta, I, a) Aug. 28
(No. 179) ; and among Ely nuts (Sta. I, c) Aug. 24 (No. 153) ;
from sweepings made in the colony of Lepachvs pinnata (Sta. I, e)
Aug. 12 (No. 40) ; and on the Loxa prairie (Sta. II) Aug. 13 (No.
49), Aug. 27 (No. 178), and Aug. 28 (No. 179); in an open
area in the upland Bates woods (Sta. IV, a) Aug. 17 (No. 93);
and in an open glade in the lowland forest (Sta. IV, c) Aug. 22
(No. 143). In its webs in the swamp-milkweed colony (Sta. I, ^)
Aug. 9 the large dragon-fly LihcUula pulehcUa Drury was found en-
trapped; a grasshopper, Mclanoplus differcntialis Thomas, was also
found entrapped (Sta. I, a) Aug. 28 (No. 179) ; and a large butter-
flv, Papilio polyxenes Fabr., was discovered (Sta. I, d) Aug. 12 (No.

45)-

The openness of an area rather than its prairie character appears

to determine the habitat of this spider. This is evidenced by its

presence in open spaces within the forest. It flourishes in gardens

for similar reasons. Years ago I found this species very abundant

in the late summer and fall at Bloomington, 111., in an asparagus bed,

after the plants had been allowed to grow up and form a rank mass

163

of vegetation. This species has received considerable study.
McCook ('90) and Porter ('06) record many observations on this
species. Howard ('92b) has discussed its hymenopterous parasites
and those of some other spiders.

No specimens of Argiopc traiisz'crsa Emerton, the transversely
black-and-yellow^-banded relative of aiirantia, were observed at
Charleston, although they are fairly abundant in colonies of prairie
vegetation near Urbana, e. g. at Mayview, 111., Sept. 26, and on Nov.
26, 191 1. I have seen this species only among colonies of prairie
vegetation along railway rights-of-way.

Thomisid.e

Misumciia alcatoria Hentz. Ambush Spider.

This crab-like flower spider was abundant upon flowers : on the
mountain mint, Pycnanthemiim flexiwsum (Sta. l,g), Aug. 8 (No.
6) ; on the mint, (Sta. I) with a giant bee-fly, Exoprosopa fasciata
Macq., Aug. 12 (No. 31); on the Loxa prairie (Sta. II) with the
same kind of fly, Aug. 13 (No. 47) ; on the prairie (Sta. I, g) on the
flower of the swamp milkweed, Asdcpias incarnata, Aug. 24 (No.
157) with a male bumblebee, Bonibus separatus Cress.; on Andropo-
gon (Sta. I, g) with a large immature female of ConocepJialiis, Aug.
24 (No. 1159) ; on the Loxa prairie (Sta. II) on flowers of Bryn-
giuni yiicci folium, Aug. 27 (No. 178) ; in the colony of Blymiis
(Sta. I, a) Aug. 28 (No. 179) ; and in the open glade of the low-
land Bates woods (Sta. IV, c) on the flowers of Bnpatoriuui avlcs-
tinum, with a very large syrphid fly, Milesia ornata Fabr. {=virgin-
iensis Drury), Aug. 26 (No. 184). These insects captured by the
spiders vary from about five to ten times the size of their captor. There
is considerable variation of color in this series of spiders.

It would be well worth while for some one to make a special
study of this spider, and give us an account of its methods of cap-
turing food and finding fresh flowers, with a full account of its life
history. McCook ('90, Vol. 2, pp. 367-369) gives some informa-
tion alDout the habits of an allied species of spider, but the account is
meager. Some observations on the breeding habits of this species
have been made by Montgomery ('09, p. 562); and Pearse ('11)
has recently published the results of an interesting study of the rela-
tion between the color of these spiders and the color of the flowers
they frequent. He conclud'^s thnt nitb' i^di tliis spider may change
its color slowly (from yellow to white), it does not do so witli
rapidity or in such a way as to match its surroundings, and, further,
that it does not seek an environment or a flower colored like itself.

164

He finds, however, that on zvhite flowers, ivJiite spiders occur gen-
erally, that on yellow flowers, yellow spiders occur, and also that
upon flowers of colors other than white and yellow, such as purple,
pink, and blue (p. 93), white spiders predominate.

Attid^
Pliidippiis sp.

This jumping spider was taken Aug. 12 (No. 34) on the common
milkweed, Asclepias syriaca, along the railway tracks (near Sta.
T, a), and when captured had in its jaws fragments of what seemed
to be Diabrotica 12-piinctata Oliv. ; but as the fragments were lost
during the process of capture, this determination was not made
certain.

ACARINA

Trombidiid^

Trouihidiiiui sp. Harvest-mites. Chiggers. (PI. XXI, figs, i and 2.)

These are the immature six-legged stage of a mite or mites which
when mature have eight legs. The young are parasitic on insects
(Banks, Proc. U. S. X"at. Mus., \''ol. 28, pp. 31-32, 1904) ; the
adults prey upon plant-lice and caterpillars ; one species also eats
locusts' eggs.

These mites were very abundant on the prairie north of Charles-
ton (Sta. I), and became such a pest that relief had to be sought
in a liberal application of flowers of sulphur to our legs and arms,
as is recommended by Chittenden ('06).

INSECTA
Odonata

LlBELLULID.^

Syuipctrnui ruhicunduluiii Say. Red-tailed Dragon-fly.

This dragon-fly was taken in the prairie grass zone (Sta. \, g)
Aug. 8 (No. 4.) It is one of our commonest kinds. The nymphs
live in small bodies of standing water. The adults forage for small
insects in open places, along hedge rows, and in open forest glades.
For the habitats of dragon-fly nymplis. reference should be made
to Needham (Bull. 68, N. Y. State ^lus., p. 275. 1903). William-
son ('00, pp. 235-236) has observed robber-flies carrying this species,
and has found this and other species of dragon-flies in the webs of
the spider Argiope.

165

Lihelhtla pitlchella Drury. Nine-spot Dragon-fly. (PI. XXXVIII,
fig. 2.)
Individuals were abundant in both colonies of swamp milkweeds
(Sta. I, d and g) and several were seen entrapped in webs of Argiopc
aiirantia (Sta. I, d) Aug. 9. This is one of the most abundant of
our large dragon-flies. It frequents small bodies of water and slug-
gish pond-like streams. Williamson has taken it also in the webs of
Argiopc. This large powerful insect is able to do considerable dam-
age to a spider-web and then make its escape. Among the milk-
weeds (Sta. I, d) an individual was seen by T. L. Hankinson to
escape from a web. This dragon-fly, like most of its kind, captures
small insects on wing; one kind, however, is reported to have dug a
cricket out of the ground (Psyche, Vol. V, p. 364. 1890).

Neuroptdra
Myrmeleonid^

Brachynemurns ahdominalis Say. Adult Ant-lion.

A single specimen was taken along the railway track north of
Charleston (near Sta. 1, g) Aug. 12 (No. 36). This is a species
which frequents dry habitats. The larva is unknown, but is prob-
ably predaceous — as other ant-lion larvae are and as the adult is sup-
posed to be.

Two adult females were taken July 19 and 20, 1907, at Cincin-
nati, Ohio, in my room, to which they were attracted by the electric
light. Another female was taken Aug. 8, 1901, at Gate City, Vir-
ginia (near Big Moccasin Gap). Determined by R. P. Currie.

Chrysopid^

Chrysopa ocidata Say. Lacewing. (PI. XXXVIII, fig. i.)

A single specimen of this insect was taken among prairie grasses
(Sta. I, ^) Aug. 12 (No. 44). The larvae feed upon plant-lice, and
the adults are also considered predaceous. Howard (Proc. Ent.
Soc, Wash., Vol. 2, pp. 123-125. 1893) has given a list of their
numerous hymenopterous parasites. Mr. T. L. Hankinson captured
one also (Sta. I) July 3, 191 1 (No. 7665). Fitch ('56) published
many observations on the members of this genus; and Marlatt ('94^1)
has written on the life history of this species.

166
Orthoptera

ACRIDIID/E

Syrhula admirahilis Uhler.

One specimen of this grasshopper was found in the tall prairie
grasses blue-stem Andropogon and Paniciim (Sta. I,^') Aug. 8 (No.
3). Morse ('04, p. 29) says this species frequents "open country"
and is "common in upland fields amiid Andropogon and other coarse
grasses."

Bncoptolophus sordidns Burm. Sordid Grasshopper. (PI. XXXIX,

^^- ^-^
One nymph of this species was taken in the prairie-grass colony

north of Charleston (Station 1, g) Aug. 12 (No. 44) ; another (No.

158) on Aug. 24 in the colony of Lcpachys pinnata (Sta. I, e) ; and

an adult (No. 48) Aug. 13 at Loxa (Sta. II, a) from the flowers of

Silphhmi in tegrifoliiini.

This is a species characteristic of dry open places, where the

vegetation is low. The peculiar snapping sound made by the male

when on wing is cjuite characteristic. (Cf. Hancock, '11, pp. 372-

373-)

Dissosteira Carolina Linn. Carolina Grasshopper. (PI. XXXIX,

A very reddish specimen of this species was taken in a cleared
bottom forest at River Mew Park, about three miles southeast of
Charleston, Aug. 19 (No. 95). Many specimens were observed in
the pasture above the "Rocks," on the Embarras River about three
miles east of Charleston. These individuals exhibited to a marked
degree the hovering, undulating flight which is so characteristic of
this species during the hot days of summer and early autumn. Town-
send (Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash., \'ol. i, pp. 266-267. 1890) has made
interesting observations on this habit, and finds that it is mostly the
males which participate in this courting ceremony, as he considers it.
There appears to be more or less of a gathering of individuals when
one of the locusts performs. There were perhaps half a dozen per-
forming in the colony observed at the "Rocks." Townsend (Can.
Ent., Vo\. 16, pp. 167-168. 1884) has considered this flight as re-
lated to breeding. Some one might study this subject with profit,
and determine its meaning. Poulton's paper "On the Courtship of
certain Acridiidse" (Trans. Ent. Soc. London, 1896, Pt. II, pp. 233-
252) might prove helpful in this connection.

This species seems to have been influenced by man to a marked
degree. Its original habitat appears to have been natural bare spots.

167

such as sandy beaches, banks of streams, sand-bars, and burned
areas. In a humid forested area such places are usually in isolated
patches, or in more or less continuous strips as along shores ; but
since the activities of man produce large cleared areas and bare
spots, such as roads, railways, and gardens, the favorable area of
habitat for this species has been vastly increased. Consult Han-
cock ('ii, pp. 340-347) for observations on the habits of this
species.

Schistocerca alutacea Harr. Leather-colored Grasshopper. (PI.
XXXIX, fig. 3.)
One specimen of this large grasshopper was taken cast of
Charleston, on the prairie which grades into the forest (Sta. Ill, a)
Aug. 15 (No. 59). Morse ('04, p. 39) and Hart ('06, p. 79) rec-
ognize that this species lives among a rank growth of vegetation
and brush. In general the local conditions are open or transitional,
and may be compared to those of a shrubby forest margin, and not
to those of the distant open prairie or to conditions within the for-
est. (Cf. Hancock, '11, pp. 366-370.)

Mclanoplus hiznttatiis Say. Two-striped Grasshopper. (PI. XL.

%• 3-)
This grasshopper was taken from flowers of the rattlesnake-
master, Bryugiiini yuccifoliitui, on the prairie at Loxa (Sta. II),
Aug. 13 (No. 55). It is a little surprising that it was so rare this
season on the prairie areas examined, as it is usually a common
species. Hancock ('11, pp. 356-359) has discussed this grasshopper.

Mclanoplus dijferentialis Thomas. Differential Grasshopper. (PI.
XXXIX, fig. 5, and PI. XL, fig. i.)

This species was generally common in open areas, especially on
the prairie, but was also found in open places in the forest. It was
very abundant in the colonies of swamp prairie grasses, Spartlna
and Hlymns (Sta. I, a), Aug. 28 (No. 179); in the upland prairie
grasses, as Andropogon and Panicuin (Sta. l,g), Aug. 12 (No. 39) ;
and in colonies of tepachys (Sta. I, c) Aug. 12 (No. 40); also at
Loxa on Silphimn integrifoluiin (Sta. II, a) Aug. 13 (No. 48).

This must be considered as one of the most common and char-
acteristic of prairie animals. Notwithstanding the destruction of
the original prairie,, its habitat has been perpetuated, particularly
upon waste and neglected areas, such as fence rows, roadsides, rail-
way rights-of-way, and vacant city lots.

168

Melanophis femur-riibrmn DeG. Red-legged Grasshopper. (PI.
XXXIX, fig. 2.)
This species also is one of the most common and generally dis-
tributed insects upon open areas. It was found among the prairie
grasses Andropogon and Sporoholus (Sta. I. g) Aug. 8 and I2 (Nos.
3 and 39) ; in the Lepachys colony (Sta. I, e) Aug. 12 (No. 40) ;
and in Blyinus and Spartina (Sta. I, a and c) Aug. 24 and 28
(Nos. 153, 179, and 180). As Hart ('06, p. 81) has remarked, it
is cornmon in cultivated areas. Cultivation appears to be distinctly
favorable to it ; differ entialis, on the other hand, seems to thrive best
in waste places.

LOCUSTID^

Scudderia texcnsis Sauss.-Pict. Texan Katydid.

This is the common and characteristic katydid of the prairie
areas. It was found (Sta. I, g) among the tall swamp milkweeds
Aug. 8 (No. 2) ; in the tall blue-stem Andropogon and in Panicum
Aug. 12 (No. 44) ; in the Lepachys colony (Sta. I, e) Aug. 12 (No.
40) ; and among the swamp prairie grasses Spartina and Blynuis
(Sta. I, a and c) Aug. 28 (Nos. 179 and 180). Consult Hancock,
'11, pp. 330-331, for the life history of this species.

Conocephohis sp., nymph.

A large female nymph was secured on blue-stem Andropogon
(Sta. I, g) Aug. 24 (No. 159), having been captured by a crab-
spider, Misumena aleatoria Hentz.

Orchelinmm vidgare Harr. Common Meadow Grasshopper. (PI.
XL, figs. 2 and 4.)
This grasshopper was taken east of Charleston on the flowers of
broad-leaved rosin-weed, Silphium terehintJnnaceum (Sta. Ill), Aug.
26 (No. 175) ; on the Loxa prairie (Sta. II) Aug. 27; on the flow-
ers of rattlesnake-master, Eryngimn yuccifoliuni (No. 178) ; and
on the prairie north of Charleston from the colonv of wild rye,
Blymus (Sta. I, a), Aug. 28 (No. 179). A scjueaking individual
(No. 180) captured here confirmed observations made in other
places — particularlv in the tall prairie grasses Andropogon and
Sporoholus (Sta. ^,g), where the first specimen (No. 3) was taken
Aug. 8. Nymphs, very probably of this species, were also in the
prairie grasses Andropogon and Sporoholus (Sta. 1, g) Aug. 8 (No.
3) ; and Aug. 28 (Nos. 179 and 180) in the swamp grasses Blyinus
and Spartina (Sta. I, a, c). This species is preeminently a tall-grass
frequenter, whose penetrating seeing during the sunny hours serves
to locate grass plots and low, rank weedy growths.

169

Blatchley ('03, p. 384) has observed the species feeding on small
moths, and once saw an individual on goldenrod eating a soldier-
beetle, ChaiiliognatJms pcnnsylvanicus DeG. Forbes ('05, p. 144)
reports that its food consists mainly of plant-lice, and leaves of grass,
fungus spores, and pollen. It is thus evident that it eats both animal
and vegetable food.

Xiphidhim attenuatiim Scudd. Lance-tailed Grasshopper. (PI. XL,

fig. /•)
On the prairie at Loxa (Sta. II), on flowers of the arrow-leaved

rosin-weed, Silphium integrifolium, a single individual of this species

was found Aug. 13 (No. 48).

According to Blatchley ('03, pp. 380-381) it frequents the coarse

vegetation bordering wet places. He also states that the eggs are

placed between the stems and leaves of "tall rank grasses."

Xiphidinm strictiim Scudd. Dorsal-striped Grasshopper. (PI. XL,

This prairie species was taken on prairie clover, Petalostemiim
(Sta. I, &), Aug. II (No. 21) ; in sweepings among the cone-flower,
Lcpachys piniiata (Sta. i,e), Aug. 20 (No. 40); on the mountain
mint Pycuanthcmiim flexiwsum (Sta. I) Aug. 12 (No. 35); on P.
flexiiosum or P. pilosiim (Sta. II) Aug. 13 (No. 57) ; among the
swamp grasses Blyinus and Spartina (Sta. I, a and c) Aug. 28 (Nos.
179, 180) ; on the Loxa prairie on Silphium integrifolium (Sta. II)
Aug. 13 (No. 48) ; and on purple prairie clover, Petalostciumu pur-
pur ewn (Sta. II), Aug. 13 (No. 50).

Forbes ('05, p. 147) gives its food as plant-lice, fungi, pollen
and, larp^ely, other vegetable tissues. He also states that it frequents
the "drier slopes in woods and weedy grounds" (p. 148).

Gryllid.^

Q^canthus nigricornis Walk. Black-horned Meadow Cricket. (PI.
XL, fig. 5, PI. XLI, figs. I and 2.)

This prairie cricket was taken in sweepings from the cone-flower
(Lcpachys piiinata) colony (Sta. 1, e) Aug. 12 (No. 40); on the
transitional prairie east of Charleston (Sta. Ill, &) Aug. 15 (No.
62) ; and from the swamp cord-grass, Spartina (Sta. I, a), Aug. 28
(No. 179).

Blatchley ('03, p. 451) says: "In August and September, nearly
every stalk of goldenrod and wild sunflower along roadsides, in open
fields or in fence corners, will have from one to a half dozen of these
insects upon its flowers or branches. It is also especially abundant

170

upon the tall weeds and bushes along the borders of lakes and ponds,
and in sloughs and damp ravines."

Blatchley (1. c, p. 452) made some incomplete observations on
the peculiar courting habits of this species, a subject which has been
elaborated by Hancock ('05). Hancock also describes the method
of oviposition. The female first gnaws the plant stem ; then bores a
hole and deposits an egg ; and next, again gnaws the stem. The eggs
are laid in stems of blackberry, goldenrod, and horseweed (Leptilon).

Houghton (Ent. News, Vol. 15, pp. 57-61. 1904) has published
interesting observations on the carnivorous habits of nymphs of
CE. niveiis DeG. Cf. Parrott and Fulton, '14.

Ashmead (Insect Life, Vol. 7, 241. 1894) reports that CE. nigri-
cornis ( fasciatns) is preyed upon by the wasp Chlorion harrisi Fernald
{Isodontia philadclphica St. Farg.).

Qicanthus quadripunctatus Beut. Four-spotted White Cricket.

This prairie species was found among the tall prairie grasses
blue-stem Andropogon and Panicimi (Sta. I, ^) Aug. 8 (No. 3);
and among the colony of cord grass, Spartina (Sta. I, a), Aug. 28
(No. 179).

Blatchley ('03, p. 453) reports it on "shrubbery and weeds in
fence-rows and gardens; and along roadsides." This indicates how
a prairie species adjusts itself to the conditions produced by man.
Parrott (Journ. Econom. Ent., Vol. 4, pp. 216-218. 191 1) gives
figures of the eggs of this species and describes its method of ovipo-
sition in raspberry stems.

Hemiptera

ClCADIDJE

Cicada dorsata Say. Prairie Cicada.

Although this species was not taken at Charleston, a single speci-
men (No. 185) was captured at Vera, Fayette county, 111., Septem-
ber I, on a giant stool of blue-stem Andropogon. Osborn (Proc.
Iowa Acad. Sci., Vol. 3, p. 194. 1896) reported one specimen from
Iowa; Woodworth, (Psyche, Vol. 5, p. 68. 1888) says: "On the
prairies, Illinois to Texas"; and IMacGillivray (Can. Ent., Vol. 33, p.
81. 1901) adds Missouri, Colorado, and New Mexico.

Membracid.e
Campylenchia ciirvata Fabr.

This bug was taken in sweepings made in the colony of cone-
fiower, Lcpachys pinnata (Sta. l,e), Aug. 12 (No. 40).

171

Jassid^
Flatynietopms frontalis Van D.

This leaf-hopper was taken in sweepings in the cone-flower col-
ony (Sta. l,e) Aug. 12 (No. 40).

Aphidid^

Microparsus variabilis Patch.

This plant-louse infests the leaves of the Canadian tick-trefoil,
Desnwdiiini canadense, and causes the leaves to curl. Quite a colony
of these plants found infested (near Sta. I, /) Aug. 24, were stunted
and deformed by these plant-lice (No. 160). Consult Patch (Ent.
News, Vol. 20, pp. 337-341. 1909) for a description of the insect
and a plate showing the injury which it causes; also Williams (Univ.
Studies, Univ. Neb., Vol. 10, p. 76, 1910) and Davis (ibid., Vol. 11,
p. 28. 1912).

Aphis asclepiadis Fitch. Milkweed Plant-louse.

Plant-lice of this species were abundant upon the younger ter-
minal leaves of the common milkweed, Asclcpias syriaca, along the
railway track north of Charleston (Sta. I) Aug. 12 (Nos. 28, 29,
and 154). Associated with them were workers of the ants Formica
fusca Linn. var. subsericea Say (Nos. 28, 29, and 154) and For-
mica fusca Linn. (No. 28). On a milkweed plant which lacked the
plant-lice were found associated another ant, Formica pallid e-fiilva
Latr., subsp. schouftissi Mayr, var. incerta Emery, and the metallic-
colored fly Psilopus sipJio Say.

At LTrbana, 111., a very abundant plant-louse on wild lettuce,
Lactiica canadensis, is Macrosiphuni rndbeckicc Fitch (det. by J. J.
Davis). The upper, tender branches of these plants are in the fall
covered with vast numbers of these lice, both wingless and winged.
That this species feeds upon a number of other prairie plants is a
point of much interest because of their distinctly prairie character.
It is reported from Vernonia, Solidago. Bidens, Ambrosia, Cirsimn,
Silphinui, and Cacalia (Thomas, Eighth Rep. State Ent. 111., p. 190.

[879).

Pentatomid>33

Biiscliistus variolariiis Beauv. (PI. XLI, fig. 3.)

This common plant-sucking bug was taken on flowers of the
swamp milkweed, Asclepias incarnata (Sta. I, d), Aug. 9 (No. 12) ;
from the blue-stem Andropogon colony (Sta. l,g), where a large
lobber-fly, Promachus vcrtcbratiis, was taken astride a grass stem
with one of these bugs in its grasp Aug. 12 (No. 39) ; at Station

172

I by T. L. Hankinson, July 3, 191 1 (No. 7665) ; on the Loxa prairie
(Sta. II), with insects from flowers of the purple prairie clover,
Petalostemum purpureum, Aug. 13 (No. 50) ; and on flowers of the
mountain mint Pycnanthemum pilosiim or P. flextiosum (Sta. II),
Aug. 13 (No. 52). Consult Forbes ('05, pp. 195, 261) for a sum-
mary of its life history, and references to literature. It feeds upon
a great variety of plants (Olsen. in Journ. N. Y. Ent. Soc, Vol. 20,
p. 53. 1912) and on soft-bodied insects.

Stirctrus ouchorago Fabr. (PI. XLI, fig. 5.)

This highly colored bug was taken, Aug. 23 (No. 146), not
upon the prairie proper but at the margin of the Bates woods (near
Sta. IV, a), where the clearing had been so complete that only
sprouts and young trees occurred, associated with many plants which
frequent open, sunny places, such as ironweed (Vernonia) and
Pycnanthcuium pilosiim.

This bug sometimes feeds upon the larv?e of the imported as-
paragus beetle, Crioceris asparagi (Chittenden, Circ. No. 102, Bur.
Ent., U. S. Dept. Agr., p. 6. 1908). This circular contains figures
of the nymph and adult. Olsen reports it as feeding upon cater-
pillars and beetle larvee and on the plants Asclepias and Rhus (Jour.
N. Y. Ent. Soc. \"ol. 20, pp. 55, 56. 1912).

Thyreocorid.e

Thyrcocoris puUcariiis Germ. Flea Negro-bug. (PI. XLII, fig. 2.)

This negro-bug was taken on the flowers of goldenrod, Solidago
(near Sta. I, a), Aug. 12 (No. 26). Forbes and Hart ('00, p. 100)
state that this insect abounds on Bidens, a plant which grew in great
abundance near the goldenrod referred to. Taken (Sta. I) by T. L.
Hankinson July 3, 191 1 (No. 7665).

Lyg^id.5:
Ligyrocoris sylvestris Linn.

This insect was taken while sweeping vegetation in the cone-
flower (Lepachys) colony (Sta. 1, e) Aug. 12 (No. 40).

Lygcrus kalniii Stal. Small Milkweed Bug. (PI. XLII, fig. i.)

This is one of the commonest insects found upon milkweeds of
the prairie. Specimens were taken on the flowers of the swamp
milkweed, Asclepias incarnata (Sta. l,g), Aug. 8 (No. i) ; on flow-
ers of the mountain mint, PyciiautJicniuuu flexiwsum (Sta. I, g) ,
Aug. 8 (No. 6); and on swamp milkweeds (Sta. 1, d) Aug. 9
(No. 12).

173

This is another common insect about which very little is known.
Its food plants and life history are worthy of study. I have taken
this species from Mar. 20 (adult, 1894) to Nov. 4 (adult, 1893) 'it
Bloomington, 111.; at Havana, 111., during August; and at Chicago
June 8 (1902). That it probably hibernates in the adult stage is
shown by the fact that I captured an adult as early as Mar. 22 at
Urbana, 111. This bug, like the squash-bug (Anasa), may have
an active migratory period in the fall, and only those individuals
survive the winter w4iich happen to be in favorable places w^hen the
cold weather sets in. I have captured this bug in the dense Brown-
field woods (Urbana), where it was crawling on a log Oct. 12 (No.
312, C.C.A.). Hart ('07, p. 237) records it from Asclepias cornuti
(--=A. syriaca) at Havana in the sand area, and also from Teheran,
Illinois.

Oncopeltiis fasciatus Dall. Large Milkweed Bug. (PI. XLII, fig. 3.)
This large red plant-bug I took but once — on flowers of the
swamp milkweed, Asclepias incarnata (Sta. l,g), Aug. 8 (No. i);
T. L. Hankinson, however, captured another specimen (Sta. I) July
3 1911 (No. 7665).

I have found it in years past abundant on prairie colonies of
milkweed at Bloomington, 111., from June into September, and at
Havana and Chicago during August. On Sept. 26, at Mayview, 111.,
along the railway among prairie plants this plant-bug was found on
dogbane (Apocyniim). A pale yellow color may replace the red.

CORElTfM

Harmostcs rcflcxiilns Say.

This bug w-as found in flowers of Asclepias syriaca along the
railway track (Sta. I) Aug. 12 (No. 27).

Eeduviid.e

Sinea diadcma Fabr. Rapacious Soldier-bug. (PI. XLI, fig. 4.)

One specimen of this bug was taken from the flowers of the
mountain mint, Pycnanthenmm flexuosum, in the prairie grass col-
ony (Sta. l.g). Aug. 8 (No. 6). I took it at St. Joseph, 111., in a
colony of prairie vegetation along the railway track Sept. 26, 191 t
(No.495^C.C.A.).

This bug preys upon caterpillars and many other insects. The
little we know of its life history has been recorded by Ashmead ('95,
Insect Life, Vol. 7, p. 321); its predaceous habits, however, have
attracted considerable attention from economic entomologists. For

174

numerous references to this phase see Caudell, Jour. N. Y. Ent. Soc,
1901, \'ol. g, p. 3. The young feed upon plant-hce.

Phymatid^

Phvinata fasciata Grav (icolffi Stal). Ambush or Stinging Bug.
(PI. XLII, fig. 4') "

This is one of the most abundant and characteristic of prairie
insects. It was taken from the flowers of the swamp milkweed.
Asclepias iucarnata (Sta. I, g), Aug. 8 (No. i); among the same
flowers, at Station \,d, Aug. 9; on goldenrod, Solidago (near Sta.
1,0-), Aug. II (No. 20); and again on goldenrod (Station I)
Aug. 12 (No. 43), in copula, and with an empidid fly in its clasp;
on flower of mountain mint, Pycnanthcmuni flcxitosmn (Sta. I),
Aug. II (No. 24); from goldenrod (Sta. I) Aug. 12 (No. 26);
in sweepings from the colony of LepacJiys pinnata (Sta. I, e) Aug.
12 (No. 40) ; from the flowers of the mountain mint, P. flexuosiiui,
on the Loxa prairie (Sta. II) Aug. 13, with a large beefly, Exo pro-
se pa fasciata, in its clutches (No. 57) ; on the following flowers
(Sta. II) Aug. 13 — rosinweed, Silphiuin integrifolium (No. 48),
mountain mint PycnanthcnuDU pilosimi and P. flexiiosum (No. 52),
Culver's-root, Veronica zirginica (No. 54), and rattlesnake-master,
Bryngiuni yuccifolinin (No. 55) ; in the partly cleared area north of
Bates woods (Sta. IV) in flowers of the mountain mint P. pilosuni
Aug. 23 (No. 146) ; and on the Loxa prairie, at telegraph pole No.
12323 (Sta. II), on the flowers of rattlesnake-master Aug. 27 (No.

178).

At May view, 111., in a colony of prairie vegetation, one speci-
men was taken by Miss Ruth Glasgow with the butterfly Pontia pro-
todicc Sept. 26, 1912; a second had captured a dusky plant-bug,
AdclpJiocoris rapidus Say. At the same time and place Miss Grace
Glasgow took from a flower another bug with the bee-fly Sparnopo-
liiis fidinis Wied. This fly is parasitic on white-grubs, LacJinosterna
(Forbes. '08. p. 161). Among prairie vegetation at St. Joseph, 111.,
Sept. 26, 191 1, I took from a flower an ambush bug with a large
cutworm moth, Fcltia suhgotJiica Haw. (No. 302, C.C.A.). (PI.
XLIII, figs. I and 2.)

Packard {^"J^, p. 211) records that Phyniata fasciata had been ob-
served feeding upon plant-lice on linden trees in Boston, and Walsh
(Amer. Ent., Vol. i, p. 141. 1869) states that it feeds habitually
upon bees and wasps, and shows skill in avoiding their sting. Cook
(Bee-keeper's Guide, ninth ed., pp. 323-324, 1883) reports that it
destroys plant-lice, caterpillars, beetles, butterflies, moths, bees, and

175

wasps. The ambush bug and the ambush spider {Misuuicna alea-
toria Hentz) are in active competition upon flowers for much the
same kind of food.

MlRID^

Adclphocoris rapidus Say. Dusky Leaf-bug. (PI. XLIT, figs. 5
and 6.)
This leaf-bug was taken from the flowers of the rattlesnake-
master, Eryngium yiiccifoliiim (Sta. 11, a), Aug. 13 (No. 55). It
was taken in a colony of prairie vegetation at Mayview, 111., Sept. 26,
1912, by Miss Ruth Glasgow, who found it captured by Phymata
fasciata. It feeds upon a large variety of plants.

Lygiis pratefisis Linn. Tarnished Plant-bug. (PI. XLIII, figs. 3
and 4. )
This common plant-bug was taken, copulating, from the fl.owers
of the swamp milkweed, Asdcpias incarnata (Sta. I, d), Aug. 9 (No.
12). It is a common fruit and garden pest. Consult Forbes ('05,
pp. 119, 263) for figures of this species and references to its life his-
tory and habits, and Crosby and Fernald ('14) for a very full account
of this species.

coleoptera

Carabid/e
LcptotracJicliis dorsalis Fabr.

This ground-beetle was taken in the Spartiiia colony on the
prairie north of Charleston (Sta. I, a) Aug. 28 (No. 179). It is
supposed to be predaceous. Its life history is not known to the
writer. Blatchley ('10, p. 138) records it as from "low herbs in
open woods", and Webster ('03b, p. 22) states that the larva of this
beetle destroys the larvae of Isosoma grande Riley in wheat fields.

Although no special effort was made to secure members of this
family of beetles from the prairie, where they must abound, it is sur-
prising that some members of the genus Harpalus were not so
abundant as to demand attention. More attention to the ground
fauna and less to that found on vegetation would doubtless have
given other results. Generally in this family the food habits are
predaceous, but there are exceptions, and these include kinds which
frequent open places. On September 25, 1900, the writer found
specimens of Harpalus caliginosus Fabr. feeding on the flowers or
seeds of ragweed, Ambrosia, which grew in a neglected field along
Holston River near Rogersville, Tenn., and at Rockford, Tenn., on
Sept. 25, 1901, similar observations were made upon Harpalus penn-
sylvaniciis DeG. Many years ago Webster ('80, p. 164) made simi-
lar observations on this species, and also found it eating wheat, timo-

176

thy seeds, the prairie grass Panicum crusgalli Linn., and even a small
beetle, Ips 4-giittatns Fabr. He also observed H. caliginosus feed-
ing upon seeds of ragweed. Ambrosia artemisiifolia. (See Forbes —
'80, pp. 156-157 and '83a, pp. 45-46 — for further observations upon
the food habits of the beetles of this genus.) Clarkson (Can. Ent.,
Vol. 17, p. 107, 1885) observed caliginosus feeding upon ragweed
on Long Island; and Hamilton (Can. Ent., Vol. 20, p. 62, 1888) re-
cords similar observations for this beetle and for pennsylvaniciis.
Both species are reported to injure strawberries. Coquillett (Insect
Life, Vol. 7, p. 228, 1894) observed caliginosus feeding upon a
grasshopper.

COCCINELLID^

Hippodamia parenthesis Say. .Parenthetical Ladybird.

This insect was taken only by T. L. Hankinson (Sta. I) July 3,
191 1 (No. 7665).

Coccinclla novemnotata Hbst. Nine-spotted Ladybird. (PI. XLIV,

%• 2).
This insect was taken on the common milkweed, Asclepias syri-
aca, (Sta. I) Aug. 12 (No. 27). This species is another example of
one of the commonest insects to which so little attention has been
given that we really have no full account of its life history and ecol-
ogy. Many scattered observations have been made, but none are ex-
tensive. Forbes examined the stomach contents of five specimens
and found that they had eaten plant-lice, fungus spores, and a few
lichen spores ('80, pp. 157-159, and '83a, pp. 53-54)-

Lampyrid^e

Clwuliognatluis pennsylvaniciis DeG. Soldier-beetle. (PI. XLIII,
figs. 5 and 6.)

This is one of the most abundant beetles found on flowers in late
summer and fall, particularly upon goldenrods (Solidago), and
other composites. The first specimens were taken in a cleared area,
with much sprout growth and open patches, where the mountain mint
Pycnanthemum pilosiun abounded, (near Sta. IV, a), Aug. 23 (No.
146). On the following day they were first found on the prairie —
copulating as usual — on the flowers of the swamp milkweed, Asclepias
incarnata (Sta. I, d), Aug. 24 (No. 156.)

They were taken from the flowers of the broad-leaved rosin-
weed, SilpJiiiim, terebinthinaceum, on the prairie east of Charleston
(Sta. Ill, b) Aug. 26 (No. 175), and on the Loxa prairie (Sta. II,

177

Pole No. 12323) on the flowers of the rattlesnalve-master, Bryngium
yuccifoliimi, Aug. 27 (No. 178).

According to Riley (Second Rep. U. S. Ent. Comm., p. 261.
1880) the eggs of this species are deposited on the ground in irregu-
lar bunches. He quotes Hubbard, who says that the larvae huddled
together when ready to moult, and that afterwards they became very
active. The insect passes the winter as a nearly mature larva, and
matures about August. The larvae are known to eat beetle larvae and
caterpillars; the adults feed upon nectar and pollen.

SCARAB.EID^

Liiiphoria scpiilchralis Fabr. Black Flower-beetle. (PI. XLIV,

fig- 4-) .

Only two specimens of this beetle were taken : one on the flowers
of the swamp milkweed, Asclepias incarnata (Sta. I, d), Aug. 24
(No. 156) ; the other from the flowers of Pycnanthemiun pilosum in
the cleared area bordering the upland Bates woods (Sta. IV^ a) Aug.
23 (No. 146). Blatchley ('10, p. 997) reports it at sap, on various
flowers, and especially on goldenrod ; and Webster has found it eat-
ing into kernels of corn (Insect Life, Vol. 3, p. 159).

B. inda (PI. XLIV, fig. 3) has been observed by Wheeler ('loa,
p. 384) to fly to an ants' nest and bury itself; he suggests that it may
live in such nests. Schwarz ('90b, p. 245) considers the inda larvae
abundant at Washington in nests of Formica integra. For the life his-
tory of this beetle see Chittenden (Bull. 19, N. S., Bur. Ent., U. S.
Dept. Agr., pp. 67-74. 1899).

Pelidnota punctata Linn. Spotted Grape Beetle. (PI. XLIII, fig. 5.)

Only one specimen of this beetle was taken. It was found upon
a prairie containing some forest relics, on a grape leaf (Sta. Ill, b)
Aug. 15 (No. 58). This insect is a forest or forest-margin insect; as is
indicated by the fact that the larva feeds upon the decaying roots
and stumps of oak and hickory. The adult devours leaves of the
grape and of the Virginia creeper (Cf. Riley, Third Rep. Insects
Mo., p. 78).

Cerambycid/e

Tetraopes tetraophthalmns Forst. Four-eyed Milkweed Beetle.

This is one of the commonest insects in the prairie parts of Illi-
nois. Nevertheless, though almost every schoolboy who ever made
a collection of insects has it in his collection, very little is known of
its habits or life history.

178

At Charleston it was taken Aug. 8 on flowers of the swamp milk-
weed, Asclcpias incarnata, at Sta. \, g (No. i) and at Sta. I, d (No.
12) ; on the flowers of the mountain mint Pycuantheuuim virgiiii-
'annrn (Sta. I) Aug. 12 (No. 35); and T. L. Hankinson took the
beetle (Sta. I) July 3, 191 1 (No. 7665).

Robertson (Trans. St. Louis Acad. Sci. A^ol. 5, p. 572. 1891)
states that this beetle and Epicauta vittata Fabr. gnaw the flowers of
the swamp milkweed; and in the same volume (p. 574) reports that
the rose-breasted grosbeak (Hahia ludoviciana) cleared these beetles
from A. syriaca in his yard. Beutenmiiller (Jour. N. Y. Ent. Soc,
\'ol. 4, p. 81. 1896) says that the larva bores into the roots and lower
parts of the stems of Asclcpias, and suggests that the other species
have similar habits.

Tetraopes femoratus Lee. (?) Milkweed Beetle.

A peculiar individual (No. i) was taken Aug. 8 on the swamp
milkweed Asclcpias incarnata (Sta. L d). Mr. C. A. Hart, who de-
termined the specimen, remarks that it "is very remarkable — thorax
of fenwratiis, antennae and pattern nearest to 4-ophtlialmus.''

Chrysomelid.e

CryptoccpJialus venustiis Fabr.

This leaf-beetle was taken from the flowers of prairie clover,
Petalostcmiim (Sta. L &). Aug. 11 (No. 21). Blatchley ('10, p.
1 123) states that it is found on the flowers of Erigcron in timothy
fields, on iron weed, and on wild sweet potato. Chittenden ('92,
p. 263) has observed the var. simplex Hald. on ragweed, Amhrosia
irifida, "dodging around the stem after the manner of a scjuirrel or
lizard on a tree-trunk The insect is a polyphagous leaf-eater."

ChrysocJuts aiirafus Fabr. Dogbane Beetle.

Only two specimens of this usually common metallic-green beetle
were seen and secured. One (No. 14) was taken Aug. 9 on the
dogbane or Indian hemp. Apocynuin incdiuni, growing among the
swamp milkweeds. Asclcpias incarnata (Sta. I, d) ; and the other on
dogbane in the upland part of Bates woods (Sta. IV, a), Aug. 20,
1910 (No. 103). Later, July 3. 191 1, T. L. Hankinson (Sta. I) also
secured this beetle (No. 7665). The food plant was abundant, but
the beetles appeared to be exceptionally rare. This is another widely
recognized but really little known insect. It is also found on the
leaves of milkweeds. Zabriskie (Jour. N. Y. Ent. Soc, \^ol. 3. p.
192. 1895) describes the egg-capsules of this species, which he found
early in July on fence posts, near plants of the spreading dogbane.

179

Apocynum androsccmifoliurn, and especially upon the under surface
of the leaves of this plant. A single ^gg is deposited within a conical
black mass, which is probably the excrement of the beetle. To this
note Beutenmiiller adds that "the larvae, after hatching drop to the
ground and live on the roots of the plant."

With so much of a clue, the complete life history of this species
ought to be worked out without much difficulty. Forbes once re-
ported this species injuring potato (Lintner, Fourth Report on the
Injurious and other Insects of the State of New York, p. 142).

Nodonota convexa Say.

This small leaf-beetle was taken in sweepings of vegetation in a
colony of the cone-flower, Lcpachys pinnata (Sta. 1,(7), Aug. t2
(No. 40). Blatchley ('10, p. 1149) states that it occurs in low-
places on ragweed. Ambrosia trifida. This cone-flower colony was
on rather low land containing crawfish holes.

Trirliabda tomentosa Linn.

This insect was taken at Station I by T. L. Hankinson July 3,
191 1 (No. 7665). It is common on Solidago. Schwarz (Am. Nat..
Vol. 17, p. 1289. 1883) reports it as a defoliator of prickly ash
(Zantlioxylmn).

Diabrotica 12-punctata Oliv. Southern Corn Root-worm. (PI.
XLV, fig. 3).
This common corn pest was taken in sweepings of the vegetation
in a colony of Lcpachys pinnata (Sta. I, c) Aug. 12 (No. 40), and
T. L. Hankinson captured it (Sta. I) July 3, 191 1 (No. 7665). A
few feet away w^as a large corn field. It was also taken on the
flowers of Brynginui vuccifoUuni on the prairie at Loxa (Sta. II)
Aug. 13 (No. 55). Here also a field of corn stood only a few feet
away.

Diabrotica longicornis Say. Western Corn Root-worm. (PI. XLV,
fig. I.)
This beetle was found upon the flower-masses of the mountain
mint Pycnanthcrmim pilosum, growing in a forest clearing (near
Sta. IV, a) Aug. 23 (No. 146). It feeds upon the silk and pollen
of corn, and probably on the corresponding parts of other plants.

Diabrotica atripcnnis Sav.

One specimen of this beetle was taken on the flowers of the
swamp milkweed, Asclcpias iiicaniata (Sta. l,d), Aug. 8 (No. i).
Very little appears to be recorded on this species except that it feeds
upon the pollen and silk of corn, the pollen of composites, and the
blossoms of beans (Forbes, '05, p. 189).

180

Meloidje

Zonitis hilineata Say. Two-lined Blister-beetle. (PI. XLIV, fig. i.)

This beetle was taken on the apical leaves of the common milk-
weed, Asclepias syriaca (Sta. I), Aiig. 12 (No. 33). Blatchley
('10. p. 1356) records it as from the flowers of the wild rose.

Bpicaitta Ji'ittata Fabr. Old-fashioned Potato Beetle or Striped
Blister-beetle. (PI. XLV, fig. 5.)

Several specimens were taken by T. L. Hankinson at Station I
July 3, 191 1 (No. 7665).

Bpicauta marginata Lee. Margined Blister-beetle. (PI. XLV, fig. 2.)

This beetle was taken at Station I by T. L. Hankinson only — July
3, 191 1 (No. 7665) ; it was taken also from the leaves of the rosin-
weed, Silphium integrifolimn, on the Loxa prairie (Sta. II) Aug. 13
(No. 48) ; from an open ravine in Bates woods (Sta. IV, h) Aug. 22
(No. 124) ; and in the lowland glade (Sta. IV, c) Aug. 22 (No. 143).
For accounts of the common Illinois species of blister-beetles see
Forbes and Hart ('00, pp. 487-490, and Forbes, '05, pp. 111-114).

Bpicauta pcnnsylvanica DeG. Black Blister-beetle.

This beetle was collected from flowers of goldenrod, Solidago
Sta. I, a), Aug. 12 (No. 26); on the Loxa prairie (Sta. II) from
flowers of the rosin-weed, Silphimn intcgri folium, Aug. 13 (No.
48) ; on flowers of Silphium tcrehinthinaceiim (Sta. Ill a), Aug. 20
(No. 119) ; in the cleared margin of Bates woods (near Sta. IV, a),
on flowers of Pycnanthemnm pilosum Aug. 23 (No. 146) ; again on
goldenrod, Solidago (near Sta. I, fl), Aug. 24 (No. 152) ; and from
the Loxa prairie on flowers of rattlesnake-master, Bryngium yucci-
folimn, (Sta. II. a) Aug. 27 (No. 178).

The larvae of this and some other species of blister-beetles prey
upon locusts' eggs. (Cf. Riley, First Rep. \J. S. Ent. Comm., p. 293.
1878.) The beetle lays its own eggs in the vicinity of the locusts'
eggs.

Rhipiphorid.;e

Rliipiphorus dimidiatus Fabr.

Five specimens of this mordellid-looking little beetle were taken
on flowers of the mountain mint Pycnanthemum flexuosum (Sta.
I, ^) Aug. 8 (No. 6) ; and three specimens on flowers of the moun-
tain mints P. flexuosum and P. pilosum on the Loxa prairie (Sta.
II) Aug. 13 (No. 52). Blatchley ('10, p. 1366) reports it as from
the flowers of P. linifoliuin Pursh.

181

These small beetles are black except the basal two-thirds of the
elytra, which are pale yellow. The larvae are parasitic on wasps, as
has been shown by Chapman for the European species paradoxus
(Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., Ser. 4, Vol. 5, p. 191, and Vol. 6, p. 314.
1870). The larvae undergo a very peculiar metamorphosis wliich is
related to their parasitic habit. It is desirable that the life histories
of the American species should be studied.

Ashmead (Psyche, Vol. 7, p. yy. 1894) reared this beetle from
the cells of the wasp Bumenes fratcrna Say. Riley (Sixth Rep. Ins.
Mo., p. 125. 1874) states that he bred Rhipiphorus pectinatus Fabr..
var. ventralis Fabr., from the cocoons of the wasp (Tiphia) which
preys upon the grubs of Lachfio sterna. Melander and Brues ('03,
p. 26) found another member of the same family of beetles, Myo-
dites fasciatiis Say, on wing over nests of Halictus. Pierce ('04)
has made a valuable study of the ecology of Myodites solidaginis,
giving particular attention to its host, a bee (Bpinomia triangulifera
Vachal). Pierce (I.e., p. 185) states that the tiger-beetle Cicindela
puncUilata Fabr. is an active enemy of Bpinomia and Myodites. I
have found this a very abundant beetle in open sunny places on bare
ground, as, for example, along a footpath through a timothy meadow
at Bloomington, 111. Such situations are the favorite haunts of many
burrowing Hymenoptera.

Rhipiphorus linihatus Fabr.

A single specimen was taken on the flower of the rattlesnake-
master, Brynginm ynccifolium, on the Loxa prairie (Sta. II, a) Aug.
27 (No. 178). This species is yellow, with black elytra, and a large
black spot on the dorsum of the prothorax. Blatchley ('10, p. 1367)
reports it from various composites. Robertson (Trans. St. Louis
Acad. Sci., Vol. 6, pp, 106, 107. 1892) reports this beetle from Car-
linville. 111., on the flowers of several species of Pycnanthemum, and
(idem. Vol. 5, p. 571) he also records it from milkweeds (Asclepias).

Rhynchitid^

Rhynchites crneus Boh.

This snout-beetle was taken on the prairie west of Loxa from
flowers of the rosin-weed, Silphiuiii iutcgrifolium (Sta. II), Aug.
13 (No. 48). It has been taken from other flowers (Pierce, '07, p.

250-

Galandrid^

Sphenophorus venatus Say {placidus Say). (PI. XLV, fig. 4.)

This "bill-bug" was taken from the colony of tall blue-stem An-
dropogon and foxtail, Panicum (Sta. l,g), Aug. 12 (No. 39).

182

Forbes ('03 — 22d Rep. State Ent. 111. — p. 8) gives a summary of what
is known of this species. It is a corn pest, has been found widely
dispersed in Illinois, and hibernates as an adult beetle. A tachinid
fly has been bred from the larva of .S'. robiistiis Horn. (Coquillett,
'97, p. 18.)

CURCULIONID.i:

Ccntrinus peniccllus Hbst.

This snout-beetle was taken on the flowers of goldenrod, Soli-
dago (near Sta. I, a), Aug. 12 (No. 26); another specimen was
taken from Sullivant's milkweed, Asclepias siillivantii (Sta. I), Aug.
12 (No. 41). Forbes and Hart ('00, p. 493) state that it has been
taken in the "latter part of July and August." It injures beet leaves,
but its early life history is not known.

Ccntrinus scitfcUiini-album Say.

This beetle was taken at Station I, July 3, 191 1. by T. L. Hank-
inson (No. 7665). It has been taken from a number of flowers in
which it fed upon pollen (Pierce, '07, p. 284). The larva of Cen-
trimis picumniis Hbst. has been found injuring Setaria (Webster, in
Insect Life, \^ol. I, p. 374. 1889).

LEriDOPTERA
Papiugnid^e

Papilio polyxcncs Fabr. Celery Butterfly.

This common butterfly was taken on wing along the railway
track near the swamp milkweed (Asclepias incaruata) colony (Sta.
I, d) Aug. 9 (No. 15), and from a web of the common garden
spider Argiopc aurantia, among these milkweeds (No. 45). Chitten-
den (Bull. 82, Bur. Ent. U. S. Dept. Agr., pp. 20-24. iQOQ) gives
a brief account of this common species which feeds upon umbellifers.
It was very abundant on parsley in the J. I. Bates garden (near
Sta. R', a)'Aug. 26 (No. 174).

PlERID^

Pontia rap(c Linn. Cabbage Butterfly. (PI. XLVI, fig. i.)

A mutilated specimen of this butterfly, which had been captured
bv a robber-flv, was secured bv E. N. Transeau (Sta. HI, h, Aug. 15 ;
No. 61).

Bnrynuts philodicc Godart.

This butterfly was taken on the flowers of Pycnanthcnuim pilo-
sitni in a cleared area bordering the Bates woods (near Sta. IV, a)

1S3

Aug. 23 (No. 146) ; and on flowers of the swamp milkweed, A. in-
carnata (Sta. I, d), Aug. 9 (No. 12).

Nymphalid^

Argynnis idalia Drury. Idalia Butterfly.

This species was taken from the flowers of the swamp milkweed,
A. incarnata (Sta. l,d), Aug. 12 (No. 37).

Anosia plcxippus L. Milkweed Butterfly. (PI. XLVI, fig. 3.)

This common butterfly was abundant upon the prairie at Sta-
tion I. It was observed copulating on willows at Sta. I, d, Aug. 9.
and when on wing was able to carry its mate, whose wings were
folded. It was observed on flowers of the thistle Cirsiiini discolor
at Station I (No. 155).

Lyc/t:nid.e

CJirysoplianiis tlwe Boisd. & Lee. Thoe Butterfly.

This butterfly was taken on flowers of the rattlesnake-master,
Bryngiuni yuccifoUiim, on the Loxa prairie (Sta. II) Aug. 13

(No. 55). '

The caterpillar feeds upon smartweeds (Polygonum) and dock
(Riimcx) , and also upon prickly ash, Zanthoxylum.

Sphingid.^

Heniaris diffinis Boisd. Honeysuckle Sphinx.

This hawk-moth was taken upon flowers of the swamp milkweed.
A. incarnata (Sta. I, rf), Aug. 12 (No. 32), and by T. L. Hankin-
son July 3, 191 1, at Station I (No. 7655). This moth flies during
bright daylight. The caterpillar lives on bush honeysuckle, snow-
berry, and feverwort.

Arctiid.e

Amrnalo eglenensis Clem, or tencra Hiibn.

This caterpillar was taken on dogbane, Apocyniim medium, on
the Loxa prairie (Sta. II) Aug. 13 (No. 53).

Bglcncnsis is reported to feed upon Asclcpias tuhcrosa and
Apocynum.

NOCTUID/T]

FJiodophora gaurcu Sm. and Abb.

This interesting larva was not taken at Charleston, but on the
prairie near Vera^ Fayette county. 111., on Gaura biennis Sept. i
(No. 186). This specimen was determined by W. T. M. Forbes. It

184

is of interest that this larva, which is recorded from the "Southern
and Southwestern States" and Colorado, was found on the prairie
of Illinois. It is another example illustrating the southwestern and
western affinities and origin of many elements in the prairie fauna.
Mr. C. A. Hart informs me that he took the moth at a light Sept. lo
and 17, 1909, at Urbana, and that it was taken at Pekin, 111., in August.

Spragiieia leo Guen.

This little moth was taken once on the flowers of Solidago (near'
Sta. I, a) Aug. II (No. 20) ; again, in a similar situation, Aug. 12
(No. 26) ; and a third time in the cleared area near the Bates woods
on the flowers of Pycnanthcuiiun pilosmn (Sta. IV, a) Aug. 23
(No. 146, two specimens).

Gelechhd^

Gnorimoschema gallccsolidaginis Kilty. (Caterpillar Gall) (PI. XLVI,

fig- 4-)

This common gall was taken by T. L. Hankinson on Solidago at
Sta. I, Aug. 8, 1910 (No. 7462).

Cf. Riley (First Rep. Ins. Mo., pp. 173-175. 1869) and Busck
(Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., Vol. 25, pp. 824-825. 1903).

DiPTERA
Cecidomyiid^

Cecidomyia solidaginis Loew. (Goldenrod Bunch Gall.) (PL
XLVI, fig. 5.)

This gall was taken on Solidago Aug. 12 at Sta. I (No. 42),
and by T. L. Hankinson at Sta. I, on Aug. 8, 1910 (No. 7462).
This gall forms a rosette or terminal bunch of leaves on Solidago.

Cecidomyia sp.

A willow cone-gall was found Sept. 13 by T. L. Hankinson on
willows at Sta. I. (Cf. Heindel, '05.)

CULICID^

Psorophora ciliata Fabr. Giant Mosquito or Gallinipper.

This is our largest species of mosquito. It was taken among the
swamp milkweeds, Asclepias incarnata (Sta. l,d), Aug. 10 (No.
73); and in the prairie grass colony (Sta. I, ^) Aug. 12 (No. 44).
Both of these places were near moist or wet areas. Individuals were
not abundant, although the species is particularly adapted to living
where the moisture is variable. jMorgan and Dupree (Bull. 40, Div.

185

Ent., U. S. Dept. Agr., p. 91. 1903) have concluded that all the eggs
do not hatch with the first rain after their deposition, but that hatch-
ing is completed with the alternation of wet and dry weather.

Mycetophilid^

Bugnoriste occidentalis Coq.

A single specimen of this small fly was taken on the flowers of
Solidago (Sta. I) Aug. 12 (No. 26). The specimen was determined
by J. R. Malloch. It had been previously recorded from goldenrod
flowers by Aldrich ('05, p. 148).

Sciara sp.

These small flies were taken from the flowers of the mountain
mint, Pycnanthemum fle.vuostmi (Sta. l,g), Aug. 8 (No. 6).

BOMBYLIIDiE

Bxoprosopa fasciata Macq. Giant Bee-fly.

This was one of the most abundant and characteristic insects of
the prairies and cleared areas, and belongs in the same class as the
red milkweed beetle (Tctraopes) and the milkweed bug. Lygcctis kal-
juii. It was taken from flower masses of the mountain mint Pycnan-
themum flexuositm (Sta. I, g) Aug. 8 (No. 6); on the flowers of
Verbena stricta Vent, (near Sta. I, a) Aug. 11 (No. 23) ; again from
P. flexiiosnm (Sta. I) Aug. 11 (No. 24); and on the flowers of
Liafris scariosa (Sta. 11, a) Aug. 27 (No. 176). Two specimens
had been captured by the flower spider Misnmcna alcatoria Hcntz :
one on flowers of the rosin-weed, Silphiuni integrifolinm (Sta. II),
Aug. 13 (No. 47), the other on flowers of the mountain mint Pycnan-
themum flexuosum (Sta. I) Aug. 12 (No. 31) ; and a third was cap-
tured by the ambush bug, Phymata fasciata Gray, on the flowers of
the mountain mint (Station II) Aug. 13 (No. 57).

This was a very common species on the prairie patches at Bloom-
ington. 111., July 26 to Aug. 23, and in pastures abounding in Verbena
at Kappa, 111, and Havana, III, in August. Graenicher ('10, pp. 94-
95) has listed "several species of flowers from which this fly has been
taken. It is probable that it preys upon some wasps, since a related
species, B. fascipcnnis Say, has been bred from the cocoons of the
white-grub wasp, Tiphia (Forbes, '08, p. 160).

Systa:chns vulgaris Loew.

In the cleared area bordering the Bates woods, on flowers of the
mountain mint Pycnanthemum pilosum (near Sta. IV, a), a specimen

186

of this bee-fly was taken Aug. 23 (No. 146). Graenicher ('10, p. 93)
has Hsted a variety of plants visited by this fly.

The habits of this species appear not to be known, but the larvse
of an alHed species, S. oreas O. S., preys upon the eggs of grasshoppers
(Riley, Second Rep. U. S. Ent. Comm., pp. 262-268. 1880). Shel-
ford ('13c) has found that Spogostylum anale Say is a parasite on the
larva of Cicindela. A related fly, Sparnopolius fuli'us, is parasitic
on the grubs of Laclinostcrna (Forbes, '08, p. 161). Holmes ('13)
has shown the relation of light to the hovering flight of Bomhylins.

Mydaid^

Mydas clavahis Drury. Giant fly.

A single specimen of this giant fly was taken on flowers of the
swamp milkweed, Asdepias incarnata (Station \,d), Ax\g. 9 (No.
12). I have taken this species at Chicago during July, and at Bloom-
ington, 111., on June 29.

Harris (Insects Injurious to Vegetation, p. 607. 1869) describes
briefly the larva and pupa; and Washburn (Tenth Ann. Rep. State
Ent. Minn., PI. II, fig. 15. 1905) gives a colored figure of the species.

The larvae of this family live in decaying wood and prey upon
insects, and the adults are also predaceous (Hubbard '85, p. 175).

Howard (Insect Book, p. 136) states that the larva of Mydas
fnlvipcs Walsh "lives in decaying sycamore trees and is probably
predatory on other insects living in such locations." He also states
that the adults are predaceous.

ASILID^

Deromyia sp.

This robber-flv was taken on the Loxa prairie (Sta. II) Aug. 13
(No. 51).

The larvae of some members of this familv feed upon rhubarb
roots (Harris, Ins. Inj. to Vegetation, p. 605. 1869), and others, as
Brax hastardi, are known to prey upon the eggs of grasshoppers
(Riley, First Rep. U. S. Ent. Comm., pp. 303-304, 317. 1878).
Adults of several species of robber-flies feed upon grasshoppers ;
others kill bees (Riley, Sec. Rep. Ins. Mo., pp. 1 21-124. 1870).

Proinachus vcrtehratiis Sav. \"ertebrated Robber-flv. (PI. XL\^I,
fig. 6.)
This is an abundant fly upon the prairie. A specimen was taken
on the Loxa prairie (Sta. II) Aug. 13 (No. 56) ; and on the prairie
east of Charleston (Sta. Ill, h) Aug. 15 (No. 62). Here a robber-
fl}' was seen with a cabbage butterfly, Pontia rapce (No. 61) ; since the

187

fly escaped, however, the species is not known. Another was found
astride a grass stem (Sta. I, g) with the stink-bug Buschistiis variola-
riiis grasped in its legs Aug. 12 (No. 39). Aug. 12, among the prairie
grasses (Sta. I, (/), a pair of these flies was taken copulating (No. 44).
Walsh (Am. Ent., Vol. I, pp. 140-141. 1869) states that Asihts preys
upon Polistes and Bonibiis, which it grasps by the head-end, to keep
out of the reach of the sting, from the bodies of which it sucks the
juices. It handles a harmless grasshopper very differently.

I have observed a large species of robber-fly at Havana, 111., which
hung suspended from grass while devouring its prey; and Aldrich
(Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash., Vol. 2, p. 147. 1893) observed a robber-fly
suspended by its fore feet, apparently asleep, holding a large beetle.
Cook (Bee-keepers' Guide, ninth ed., pp. 317-321. 1883) has seen a
species of robber-fly capture a tiger-beetle, Cicindela; many of these
flies furthermore prey upon the honey-bee. The introduction of this
bee into the prairie associciation must have had considerable influence
upon flower-frequenting insects, and especially upon the predaceous
kinds.

The capture of the cabbage butterfly by an asilid is another obser-
vation which Cook has recorded for Proctacanthns viilberti Macq.
(Asihts niissouricusis Riley). He says (1. c. p. 318) : "It has been ob-
served to kill cabbage butterflies by scores." Wallis (Can. Ent., Vol.
45' P- 135- 1913) observed this fly capturing Cicindela. Punnett
(Spolia Zeylanica, Vol. 7, pp. 13-15. 19 10) has recently shown that in
Ceylon robber-flies are important enemies of large butterflies. Procta-
canthus milbcrti has been observed to prey upon locusts (Riley, First
U. S. Ent. Comm.. p. 317. 1878). For an elaborate account of the
food and feeding habits of this family see Poulton, ('07).

As very little is known of the breeding habits of the American
species, the observations of Hubbard on the oviposition of Mallophora
orcina Wied. (Second Rep. U. S. Ent. Comm., p. 262. 1880) are of
interest. He saw a female of this Florida species bury its abdomen in
the ground, where it deposited five or six eggs at a depth of half to
two thirds of an inch. The eggs hatched in a week. Bra.v lateralis
Maccj. has been recorded as predaceous upon May-beetle larvse (Titus,
in Bull. 54. Bur. Ent., U. S. Dept. Agr., pp. 15-16). Titus gives fig-
ures of the larva and pupa.

D0LICHOPODID.E

Psilopus sipho Say. Metallic Milkweed Fly. (PI. XLVI, fig. 2.)

This pretty metallic-colored fly, observed by almost every field
student or collector, is one of our commonest insects. It runs rapidly

188

over the upper surface of the leaves of the common milkweed, Ascle-
pias syrioca^ and is so nimble that it requires a little care to catch it. A
large number of the flies were secured from the common milkweed
along the railway track (Sta. I) Aug. 12 (No. 27), and also on the
milkweeds infested with the plant-louse Aphis asclepiadis Fitch. Al-
though some species of Dolichopodidcc are said to be predaceous, I
have never seen this species attack any insect.

The peculiar breeding habits of some of the members of this fam-
ilv have been described by Aldrich (Am. Nat., V^ol. 28, p. 35-37.

1894).

Syephid^

Syrphus americanus Wied. (PI. XLVII, figs. 3, 4, and 5.)

This fly was taken along the railway track (Sta. I) Aug. 9 (No.
11). Its hum when on wing sounded much like that of the small yel-
low-jacket, Vcspa. Metcalf ('13, p. 55) found it feeding on aphids
infesting Phraguiites.

Certain syrphid larvae prey upon plant-lice, and the adults are
abundant on flowers, especially unbellifers, feeding on their nectar. For
good accounts of both larvae and adults consult Williston (Bull. 31,
U. S. Nat. Mus., pp. 269-272. 1886) and Metcalf ('13).

Mesogramma polituin Say. Corn Syrphid. (PI. XLVII, figs, i and 2.)
This syrphid was found in great numbers on the Loxa prairie (Sta.
II) Aug. 27 (No. 177).

The larvae are pollen feeders, as has been shown by an examination
of the contents of the alimentary canal (cf. Riley and Howard, Insect
Life, Vol. I, p. 6). Also consult Forbes ('05, p. 162), who figures the
species. Upon the original prairie the species probably fed on the pol-
len of various grasses or other plants.

Allograpta ohliqua Say. (PI. XLVII, figs. 6 and 7.)

This insect was taken on the Loxa prairie (Sta. II) in company
with great numbers oi Mesogramma polituin Say, Aug. 2^ (No. 177).
For figures of the larva, pupa, and adult see Washburn (Tenth Ann.
Rep. State Ent. IMinn., p. loi. 1905) and Metcalf ('13, p. 58). It
feeds upon aphids.

COXOPID.^

Physocephala sagittaria Say.

This insect was taken on the flowers of goldenrod, SoUdago (Sta.
I), Aug. 12 (No. 26). Also taken on a small-flowered aster at Ur-
bana. 111., Oct. 8. The larvae of this family are parasitic on other
insects. There is a figure of an allied species on Plate XLVIII, fig-
ure I.

189

Tachinid.^

Cistogaster iminaciilata Macq.

A single specimen of this fly was taken on the flower of rattlesnake-
master, Br yngium yucci folium (Sta. II) Aug. 13 (No. 55).

The larva is parasitic on lepidopterous larvae (Townsend, Psyche,
Vol. 6, p. 466. 193) ; and has been bred from the army-worm, Leiicania
unipuncta Haw. Two undetermined species of tachinids were taken
by T. L. Hankinson (Sta. I) July 3, 191 1 (No. 7665).

Trichopoda ruficauda V. d. W.

A single specimen of this fly was taken along the railway track
(Sta. I) Aug. 12 (No. 38).

An allied species, T. pemiipes Fabr., has been bred from the
squash-bug (Cook, Rep. Mich. State Board Agr., pp. 1 51-152. 1889),
and another, phunipes Fabr., has been bred from a grasshopper, Dis-
sostcira vcmista Stal (Coquillett, '97, p. 21).

SCIOMYZID^

Tctanoccra plumosa Loew. (PI. XLVIII, fig. 2.)

Taken in a colony of Spartina (Sta. I, a) Aug. 28 (No. 179).
This species is figured by Washburn (Tenth Ann. Rep. State Ent.
Minn., p. 121. 1905). The larvae of this family are aquatic. Need-
ham (Bull. 47, N. Y. State Mus., pp. 580-581, 592, PI. 14. 1901)
describes and figures T. pictipes Loew. (Cf. Shelford, '13a.)

Trypetid^e
Buaresta cequalis Loew.

This insect was taken in sweepings among a colony of the cone-
flower, Lepachys pinnata (Sta. I, e), Aug. 12 (No. 40). Marlatt (Ent.
News, Vol. I, p. 168) records the rearing of this fly from the seed-pod
of the cocklebur (Xanthium).

EmPIDID/E

Bnipis claiisa Coq.

A specimen of this fly was taken from a pair of copulating ambush
bugs, Phymata fasciata, on the flowers of Solidago (Sta. I) Aug. 12
(No. 43), and great numbers, so many that they darkened the flowers
on which they rested, were seen upon Asclepias syriaca (Sta. I) Aug.
12 (No. 27). The specimen was determined by J. R. Malloch.

McAtee (Ent. News, Vol. 20, pp. 359-361. 1909) gives an account
of the habits of Bmpididcc, and Schwarz (Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash., \'ol.
20, pp. 146-147. 1893) states that one kind captures small flies, and

190

suspended by its foreleg, eats its prey. This position when eating is a
curious habit, independently acquired by several predaceous insects, as
Biffacus. Vcspa, and certain Asilidcc.

Mr. Malloch has called my attention to British observations made
upon the peculiar habits of these flies. Thus Howlett ('07) has shown
that the male supplies the female with an insect for food during copu-
lation. These observations have been confirmed by Hamm ('08).
Poulton ('07) discusses the food habits of these flies in much detail.

Hymexoptera

Cynipid^

RJwditcs ncbitlosiis Bassett. (Rose Gall.)

This gall was taken on a wild rose, Rosa, in the mixed forest and
prairie colony east of Charleston (Sta. Ill, h) Aug. 15 (No. 60).

Braconid;e

An undetermined species was taken from the flowers of Pycnau-
thenuini pilosuui in the cleared area with sprout growth bordering the
Bates woods (near Sta. IV, a) Aug. 23 (No. 146).

FORMICID.^

Myriuica rubra Linn., subsp. scabrinodis Nyl., var. sabitlcti Meinert.

This ant was found upon the prairie on flowers of the common
milkweed, Asclepias syriaca (Sta. I), Aug. 12 (No. 27). It was asso-
ciated with Formica fusca subscricca Say and Formica pallid c-fiilva
schaufussi inccrta Emery.

Wheeler ('05. pp. 374, 384) regards this as one of the heath ants,
which "inhabit rather poor, sandy or gravelly soil exposed to the sun

and covered with a sparse growth of weeds or grasses It

nests in sandy or gravelly sunny places such as open pastures, road-
sides, etc." These requirements are admirably met by the conditions
along the gravelly and sandy road-bed of the railway where the milk-
weeds flourish.

Formica fusca Linn., var. subscricca Say.

This ant was found on flowers of the goldenrod, Solidago (near
Sta. I, c), Aug. II (No. 20); on leaves of the common milkweed
(Asclepias syriaca) infested with the plant-louse Aphis asclcpiadis
Fitch (Sta. I) Aug. 12 (No. 30) and again Aug. 24 (No. 154) ; and
in the upland Bates woods (Sta. IV, a) Aug. 26 (No. 163).

According to Wheeler ('loa, p. 458) this ant is enslaved by For-
mica sanguinea Latr. and the following subspecies : aserva Forel, ruhi-

191

cimda Emery, suhmida Emery, snhintegra Emery, and puherula
Emery. Wheeler has seen Formica sauguinca "plunder a suhscricea
nest nearly every day for a week or a fortnight." In raiding a nest
the ants carry off the larvae and pupse to their own nests, to serve as
slaves when matured.

Wheeler (1. c., p. 374) states that suhscricea mav live in a great
variety of situations — an unusual trait, but indicated in our collect-
ing by its presence in both forest and prairie.

Formica pallidc-fiik'a Latr., subsp. scJuuifussi Mayr, var. inccrta
Emery.

This common reddish ant was taken on the prairie from flowers
of the common milkweed, Asclcpias syriaca (Sta. I), Aug. 12 (No.
27) ; and on the Loxa prairie from flowers of the mountain mint
Pycnanthemiim pilosum or P. flcxuosum (Sta. II) Aug. 13 (No. 52).

This ant was associated on the milkweeds with Myrmica rubra
Linn., subsp. scabrinodis Nyl., var. sabuleti Meinert, and Formica
fuse a subs eric ea Emery.

Wheeler ('05, pp. 373, 374) lists this species as frequenting glades,
"open sunny woods, clearings, or borders of woods," and further adds
that the glade and field faunas are not separated by a sharp line, for
"Formica schaufussi, for example, seems to occur indifferently in
either station." That open patches in woods or glades often contain
ants which also frequent open places, is thus in harmony with a gen-
eral rule for this association, not only in the case of animals but also
of plants, so that it applies to the entire biota of such situations.

Wheeler ('loa. p. 393) lists a small wingless cricket, Myrmccophila
pergandei, as living with Formica pallide-fulra. These lick the sur-
faces of the ants, and seem to feed upon the products of the dry bath.

Wheeler says ('05, p. 400) that the food of schaufussi appears to
be "largely of the excrement of Aphides and the carcasses of insects."

Wheeler ( '04, pp. 347-348 ) states that the nests are usually found
under a stone, and that Formica difficilis Emery var. consocians
Wheeler is a temporary parasite upon incerta, but "only during the
incipient stages of colony formation" (p. 358). This is a temporary
parasitism of one colony upon another, during which the parasite mul-
tiplies and becomes strong enough, at the expense of its host, to estab-
lish a new independent colony. This is what Wheeler calls a "tem-
porary social parasite, a true cuckoo ant, which sponges on another
species only so long as necessary in order to gain a successful start
in life." Schwarz ('90b, p. 247) records several species of beetles as
living with schaufussi. Not only does this species suffer from tempo-
rary ant-parasites, but it mav be enslaved by some form of Amazon-

192

ant, as Polyergiis lucidus (Wheeler, 'loa, p. 482; Tanquary, '11,
p. 302).

MUTILLID/i:

Sph(rropJithalma sp. Velvet Ant.

This wasp was taken on the bare footpath at the margin of the
Bates upland woods (near Sta. IV, a) Aug. 23 (No. 151). It is prob-
ably parasitic in the nests of bees.

MyZINID/E

My:::ine scxcmcta Fabr.

This black-and-yellow-banded wasp was very abundant on flowers.
It was taken Aug. 8 (Sta. I, g) on flowers of Asclcpias incarnata (No.
i) and irom Pycnantheuiiun flexitosuui (No. 6) ; from the flowers of
goldenrod, Solidago (near Sta. I, a), Aug. 11 and 12 (Nos. 20 and
26).; by T. L. Hankinson (Sta. I) July 3, 191 1 (No. 7665) ; on flow-
ers of Pycnanthcimim (Sta. II) Aug. 13 (No. 52) ; and from the
flowers of Brynginm yuccifolmm (Sta. II) Aug. 13 (No. 55); and
from the cleared area bordering Bates woods (Sta. IV, a) Aug. 23
(No. 146).

Packard (Guide to the Study of Insects, 8th ed. p. 177. 1883)
states that this wasp flies "low over hot sandy places." This is one
of the species found by Banks* (Jour. N. Y. Ent. Soc, Vol. 10, p. 210,
1902) to sleep in grass, and by Brues (idem, Vol. 11, p. 229. 1903)
resting during the day and night upon plants.

ScoLnD.^
Scolia bicincta Fabr.

This hirsute black wasp, with two yellow transverse dorsal bands
on the abdomen, is represented in our series by four specimens. Three
of these were taken on flowers of Pycnantheuuim pilosinii from the
clearing bordering the upland portion of the Bates woods (near Sta.
IV, a) Aug. 23 (No. 146) ; the others, from an open space in the up-
land forest (Sta. IV, a) Aug. 26 (No. 163). I have also taken this
species at Bloomington, 111., Aug. 23, 1892, and Aug. 25, 1896.

Packard (Guide to the Study of Insects, 8th ed., p. 176. 1883)
states that in Europe Scolia bicincta burrows sixteen inches in sand
banks, and that it probably stores its nest with grasshoppers. Riley
(First Rep. U. S. Ent. Comm., p. 319. 1878) states that species of
Scolia are known to have the habit of stinging grasshoppers and
digging nests, provisioning these with grasshoppers, on which they
lay eggs as does the wasp CJilorion cyancnm Dahlb. (C. ccrrulciim
Drury). (Cf. with Kohl, Ann. des K. K. naturhist. Hof museums, Bd.

193

5, pp. 1 21-122. 1890.) Forbes ('08, pp. 157-160) has found that
Tiphia is parasitic upon the grub of the May-beetles (Lachnosterna).
The wasp crawls into the ground in search of the larva, stings it, and
lays its eggs upon it. It is not unlikely that Scolia has similar habits.
The sleeping habits of hiQincta and some other Hymenoptera have
been described by Banks (Journ. N. Y. Ent. Soc, vol. 10, pp. 127-130.
1902), Brues (idem. Vol. 11, pp. 228-230. 1903), and Bradley (Ann.
Ent. Soc. Amer., Vol. i, pp. 127-130).

Scolia tricincta Fabr.

One specimen was taken — in the clearing bordering the Bates
woods on flowers of Pycnanthemum pilosimi (Sta. IV, a) Aug. 23
(No. 146).

EUMENID^

Odyneriis vagus Sauss. Potter Mud-wasp.

An oval mud nest, about 18 mm. long and ip mm. in diameter, was
found on a stem of dogbane, Apocynnm mcdiiini (Sta. I), Aug. 12
(No. 46). The nest was placed in a vial; and later, a single wasp of
the above species came from an opening which was made at the point
where the mud cell was formerly attached to the plant.

This is a predatory wasp, which stores its nest with caterpillars
(Peckhams, in "Wasps, Social and Solitary," pp. 94-95. 1905).

Vespid^

Polistcs — probably variatus Cress.

A small nest was observed in a grassy area near Station l,e, but
was not secured. The adults feed the young with caterpillars and nec-
tar. See Enteman (Pop. Sci. Monthly, Vol. 61, pp. 339-351. 1902)
for an excellent account of the habits and life history of these social
wasps.

That these wasps will build their nests in an open area is of inter-
est, because the nests are so commonly found under eaves and on the
under side of roofs — situations which were originally lacking on the
prairie.

As Walsh stated, the social wasps do not store up food, because
"they feed their larvae personally from day to day."

PSAMMOCHARID^

Priocncnwidcs iinifasciatus Say {Priocncuns). Spider Wasp.

This wasp was taken in the cleared area bordering the Bates woods,
on flowers of Pycnanthemum pilosmn (near Sta. IV, a) Aug. 23 (No.
146).

194

A specimen was taken Aug. 21 at Bloomington, 111. The yellow
wings and antennae, and yellow subapical wing spot on the smoky
wings make this a conspicuous species. The family name Pompilida;
was formerly used for these wasps.

Sphecid/e
Ammophila nigricans Dahlb.

A single specimen was taken from the flowers of Pycnanthemum
flexnosuni (Sta. I) Aug. 11 (No. 24).

This is a very common Illinois species. I have taken it at Bloom-
ington from June 22 to September 9, at Havana during August, and
at Chicago, August 19 and 28. A specimen taken August 2 at Bloom-
ington, 111., was digging in the ground when captured.

Chlorion ichnenmoncuin Linn. (Sphex ichneumonea Fabr.). Rusty
Digger-wasp. (PI. L, fig. i.)

This insect, abundant on flowers of the swamp milkweed, Ascle-
pias incarnata, August 8, was taken on them at Sta. I, g, Aug. 8 (No.
i) and at Sta. l,d, Aug. 9 (No. 12); and on the mountain mint
PycnantJicnimn fle.vuositni (Sta. I) Aug. 8 (No. 6). It was also
taken by T. L. Hankinson July 3, 191 1 (No. 7665).

This is a very common insect on flowers in central Illinois. I have
found it abundant at Chicago during August; at Bloomington, 111.,
from June 24 to Oct. i ; at IMayview on Sept. 26 in a colony of prairie
vegetation.

Packard (Guide to the Study of Insects, pp. 167-168. 1870) tells
how these wasps dig holes four to six inches deep in gravel walks, and
after capturing long-horned grasshoppers, Orchclirnum vidgare or
O. gracile, and stinging and paralyzing them, proceed to bury them.
The tgg is deposited on the locust before the soil is scraped in. (Cf.
Walsh, Am. Ent., Vol. i, p. 126. 1869). For an excellent account of
the habits of this species constdt the Peckhams, "Instincts and Habits
of the Solitary Wasps" (1898). See Fernald ('06) for the recent
synonymy.

Chlorion pcuusylvanicmn Linn. Pennsylvania Digger-wasp.

This wasp was taken on the flowers of Bryngium yuccifolium
(Sta. II) Aug. 13 (No. 55). On Aug. 8, 1893, I captured a specimen
at Chicago. (Cf. Fernald, '06, p. 405.)

Chlorion horrisi H. T. Fernald {Isodontia philadclpJiica Auct.). Har-
ris's Digger-wasp.

One specimen of this wasp was taken on flowers of the mountain
mint Pycnantheniuni flexuosuni (Sta. I) Aug. 11 (No. 24).

195

I have also taken this species at Bloomington, 111., Aug. 21 and
Sept. 7 and 11.

This wasp has been known in North Carolina to build its nests
in the funnel-like bases of the leaves of the pitcher-plant Sarracenia
flaz'a (Jones, Ent. News, Vol. 15, p. 17 and PI. III. 1904), and
provisions its nest with QHcanthus. Ashmead (Insect Life, Vol. 7, p.
241. 1894) states that it "preys upon the cricket OEcantJnis fasciatus
Fitch."

Chloriou atratuvi Lepeletier {Priononyx atrata St. Farg. and Sphex
hninneipes Cress.). Black Digger-wasp.

This species was taken from the flowers of Bryngium yticcifolium
(Sta. II) Aug. 13 (No. 55). I have also taken it at Havana, 111.,
during August, and at Bloomington, 111., on September 3, 5, and 12.

In a colony of prairie vegetation near St. Joseph, 111., when out
with a class on an ecological excursion, Sept. 26, 191 1, I made some
interesting observations on this wasp. Along the Big Four railway
track between Mayview and St. Joseph, 111., fresh sand and gravel
had very recently been placed upon the road-bed. In this fresh sand
we observed a large black wasp, CJilorion atratuin, digging. The wasp
was about two thirds of her length in the hole when first observed,
and when captured later she was more than her length in the hole.
She would scratch out the sand so that it fell near the mouth of the
hole, and then come out and, standing over the pile, she would scrape
it far out of the way by rapid movements of her legs. Every now and
then she would come out of the hole with gravel in her jaws; several
of such samples were preserved. As the sand was loose the gravel
was of course not firmly imbedded. Of the small stones carried out
five of the largest range from one fourth to one half an inch in diam-
eter. In bulk each of these is larger than the thorax of the wasp.
Four small flies were seen to hover about the hole ; some which alighted
on small stones near by were captured by a member of the party and
proved to be small tachinids (No. 309, C.C.A.), which Mr. J. R.
Malloch determined to be Metopia Icucocepliala Rossi. (Cf. Cociuillett,
'97, p. 127.) Mr. Malloch also called my attention to recorded obser-
vations on other tachinid flies which inhabit the burrows of Hymenop-
tera in Great Britain, and are parasitic in habit (Malloch, 09). Hamm
('09b) has described how one of these flies, Setulia grisea Mg., follows
the females of Cerceris as she provisions her burrow with weevils.
Thev were observed to enter and to come out of the burrow. Me-
lander and Brues ('03, pp. 9, 20) state that M. leiicoccphala infests
the bee Halictus Ijy choosing "the moment when the incoming bee
pauses at her threshold quickly and quietly to oviposit on her pollen
mass and thus infect her ofi^spring." This fly has been reported to be

196

viviparous. Cf. Aldrich ('05, p. 476). The Peckhams ('98, p. 37) ob-
served a small fly at the burrows of CJilorion ichnciiinoncum. Brues
(Jour. N. Y. Ent. Soc, Vol. 11, p. 228. 1903) has observed this species
near Chicago sleeping in sweet clover. ( See also Bradley, in Ann. Ent.
Soc. Amer., Vol. i. pp. 127-130. 1908.)

For the habits of this species see the Peckhams, "Instincts and
Habits of the Solitary Wasps," pp. 171-173. This species provisions its
nest with the Carolina locust, Dissosteira Carolina. Coquillett (Insect
Life. Vol. 7, p. 228, 1894) says that this species shows a preference for
Melanopliis femur-rubrum DeG. in provisioning its nest.

Stizid^

Stilus hrevipennis Walsh. Digger-wasp.

A single specimen of this large wasp was taken on flowers of
PycuantJicmum flcxuosuin (Sta. I) Aug. 12 (No. 35) ; another was
taken by T. L. Hankinson (Sta. I) July 3. 191 1 (No. 7665).

Walsh (Am. Ent., Vol. i, p. 162. 1869) found this species on flow-
ers of the wild parsnip at Rock Island, 111. An allied wasp, Sphcciiis
speciosiis Drury, preys upon the cicada or dog-day harvest-fly, Cicada
pniiiiosa, on which it lays its egg and upon which its larva feeds. Con-
sult Riley (Insect Life, Vol. 4, pp. 248-252. 1891) for an excellent
account of this wasp. As Walsh infers, hrevipennis and speciosns prob-
ably have similar habits. A tachinid fly, Scnotainia trilineaia V. d.
W., has been bred from the nest of speciosns (Coquillett, '97, p. 20).

HaLICTID/E

Halictus obsciirus Rob.

A single specimen was taken — on the Loxa prairie from the flow-
ers of Bryngium ynccifolium (Sta. II) Aug. 13 (No. 55).

Halictus fasciatns Nyl.

This bee was taken Aug. 13 on the Loxa prairie (Sta. II) from
the flowers of SilpJmini integrifoliuni (No. 48) and from those of
Pycnanthemum flexiiosmn or P. pilosiini (No. 52) ; and on goldenrod,
Soli dago (Sta. I), Aug. 12 (No. 26).

Halictus virescens Fabr.

A single male of this small bee, with metallic green head and
thorax, was taken on flowers of verbena (Sta. I) Aug. 11 (No. 23).

NOMADID^

Bpeolus concolor Rob.

This species was taken on the heads of the cone-flower, Lepachys
pinnata (Sta. I, e), Aug. 8 (No. 8) ; very abundantly from flowers of

197

the mountain rnmt Pycuanthernuni' flcxuosmn (Sta. I, ^) Aug. 8 (No.
6) ; from flowers of Silphium intcgrifolimn (Sta. II) Aug. 13 (No.
48) ; and from flowers of Pycnanthcmnm flcxuosimi or pilosum (Sta.
II) Aug. 13 (No. 52).

It is said to be "parasitic on the species of Colletes," but Robertson
('99' PP- 35' 37) does not accept this view, and Ashmead (Psyche, Vol.
7, pp. 41-42. 1894) states that Bpeolus donatus Smith makes a nest
in the ground and provisions it with a honey-paste. He describes the
burrows, tgg, and larva.

Robertson has published keys to the Carlinville (111.) species of
Bpeolus (Can. Ent, Vol. 35, pp. 284-288. 1903).

EUCERID.E

Melissodcs aurigenia Cress.

A single female of this species was taken from flowers of ver-
bena ( near Sta. \,h) Aug. 11 (No. 23).

The homing behavior of this genus of bees has been studied by
Turner (Biol. Bull, Vol. 15, 247-258. 1908). He concludes that
memory is utilized.

Melissodes bimaculata St. Farg.

This bee was taken from the heads of the cone-flower, Lepachys
pinnata (Sta. I, e), Aug. 8 (No. 8) ; abundantly from flowers of the
mountain mint PycnantJicimiin fiexuosuin (Sta. I, ^) Aug. 8
(No. 6) ; on the Loxa prairie on flowers of the rosin-weed, Silphium
integrifolinm (Sta. II), Aug. 13 (No. 48; and on the cleared margin
of the Bates woods on flowers of the mountain mint, P. pilosum (Sta.
IV, a), Aug. 22 (No. 146).

Some observations on the "sleeping habits" of this bee and of other
Hymenoptcra have been made by Banks ( Journ. N. Y. Ent. Soc, Vol.
10, pp. 209-214. 1902). Graenicher ('05, p. 164) has recorded ob-
servations on the habits of M. trinodis Rob. and also on its bee para-
site Triepeolus. Ashmead (Psyche, Vol. 7, p. 25. 1894) found the
burrows of bimactdata eight inches deep in the soil.

Melissodes desponsa Smith.

This bee was taken on the cleared margin of the Bates woods on
flowers of the mountain mint Pycnanthemum pilosum (near Sta.
IV, a) Aug. 22 (No. 146).

Melissodcs ohliqua Say.

This bee was found abundant upon flowers of the cone-flower, Le-
pachys pinnata (Sta. I, e), Aug. 8 (No. 8) ; it was taken from flowers
of the white mint, Pycnanthemum flexuosum (Sta. I), Aug. 11 (No.

198

24) ; and a female was taken from the flowers of Silphiurn integri-
folium (Sta. I) Aug. 13 (No. 48). According to Robertson (Trans.
Acad. Sci. St. Louis, Vol. 6, p. 468. 1894) this bee is the most abun-
dant bee visitor to the cone-flower, and it also shows a marked prefer-
ence for this plant.

Megachilid^

Megachile mendica Cress. Leaf-cutting Bee.

A single specimen was taken on flowers of the swamp milkweed,
Asclcpias incarnata (Sta. l,g), Aug. 8 (No. i).

The habits of our leaf-cutting bees have received little attention,
although the circular areas which they cut from rose leaves are a fa-
miliar sight. Putnam (Proc. Essex Inst., Vol. 4, pp. 105-107. 1864)
describes the nests of Megachile centuncularis Linn., and Packard, one
of its hymenopterous parasites (idem, pp. 133-137).

Megachile hrevis Say. Short Leaf-cutting Bee.

A single female was taken by T. L. Hankinson (Sta. I) July 3,
191 1 (No. 7665). This species is known to use plum leaves for its
nest. Its habits have been briefly described by Reed (Sec. Rep. Ent.
Soc. Ont., pp. 24-26. 1872; Can. Ent., Vol. 3, pp. 210-21 1. 1871).
The nest is formed of a leaf which is wrapped about the disks cut from
the leaves, and is not in the ground or in cavities in wood as is the case
with many species. Packard (Jour. N. Y. Ent. Soc, Vol. 5, p. 109-
III. 1897) describes and gives figures of the immature stages of what
is possibly M. centuncularis Linn. See also Packard ('73), Ashmead
('92), and Howard ('92a).

Some of the species of this genus are parasitized by bees of the
genera Stelis and Caiioxys as has been shown by Graenicher ('05) ;
some also are parasitized by certain flies (Howard, in Proc. Ent. Soc.
Wash., Vol. 2, p. 248. 1893).

Xylocopid^

Xylocopa z'irginicaDrnry. Carpenter-bee. (PI. XLIX.)

Only four specimens of this bee were taken, and these were found
on flowers of the sw^imp milkweed, Asclcpias incarnata (Sta. I, (/),
Aug. 8 (No. i) and 24, (No. 156).

The carpenter-bee has much the appearance of a large bumblebee.
The female cuts tunnels in wood to make a nest for the young Pack-
ard has described the larva (Journ. N. Y. Ent. Soc, Vol. 5, p. 113.
1897). The same author records observations by Angus on the boring
habits of this species (Our Common Insects, pp. 21-24. ^^73)- He
found the larva of a bee-fly, Anthrax sinuosa Wied., parasitic on the

199

larva of the carpenter-bee. Felt, ('05, PI. 39, and '06, p. 484) has
given figures of the nest and has briefly described it. The burrows are
made in the seasoned lumber of houses, in telegraph poles, and in simi-
lar situations. On the prairie at Charleston, fence posts, telegraph
poles, and railway ties constitute the supply of wood available for nest-
ing purposes. It thus appears probable that this bee was not particu-
larly abundant on the original prairie, far from the forests or cotton-
woods, for such nesting habits imply a supply of wood for the bur-
rows. The larva is said to feed upon pollen, on which the eggs are
placed.

BOMBID^

Bontbus pennsylvanicus DeG. Pennsylvania Bumblebee.

This species was taken on the Loxa prairie from flowers of the
purple prairie clover, Petalostemnm piirpiireum (Sta. II), Aug. 13
(No. 50) ; on flowers of the mountain mint, Pyciiautliomtin pilosum
or P. flcxuosinii (Sta. II) Aug. 13 (No. 52) ; on flowers of the rattle-
snake-master, Bryngiuin yuccifoUuui (Sta. II), Aug. 13 (No. 553);
in an open glade in the lowland forest (Sta. IV, c) Aug. 22 (No.
143) ; on flowers of the thistle Cirsmm discolor (near Sta. I, d) Aug.
24 (No. 155) ; from the flowers of the broad-leaved rosin-weed, Sil-
phiiim terehinthinaceum (Sta. Ill, &), Aug. 26 (No. 175); and on
the prairie west of Loxa on the flowers of the blazing star, Liatris
scariosa (Sta. II), Aug. 27 (No. 176).

Banks (Jour. N. Y. Ent. Soc, Vol. 10, p. 212. 1902) has recorded
this species as sleeping on flowers.

The following papers on the habits and life history of the bumble-
bees will aid in the study of these neglected insects :

Coville, Notes on Bumble-Bees. Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash., Vol. i, pp.
197-202. (1890) — Putnam, Notes on the Habits of some Species of
Bumble Bees. Proc. Essex Inst., Vol. 4, pp. 98-104. (1864) — Packard
The Humble Bees of New England and their Parasites ; with notices
of a new species of Anthophorabia, and a new genus of Proctotrupidse.
Proc. Essex Inst., Vol. 4, pp. 107-140. (1865) — Marlatt, An Inge-
nious Method of Collecting Bombus and Apathus. Proc. Ent. Soc.
Wash., Vol. I, p. 216. (1890) — Howard, The Insect Book, (1904),
pp. 12-16; and Sladen, The Humble-Bee (1912). Marlatt describes
the use of a jug of w^ater in collecting bees from the nest. (This has
long been the common method of destroying these bees used by coun-
try boys and farmers of central Illinois.)

A very important systematic paper, which also contains much on
the life history and habits of the American Botnbidce has recently
been published by Franklin ('13).

200

A tachinid fly, Brachycoina davidsoni Coq. (Coquillett, '97, p.
10) has been bred from a larva of Bomhiis fcrvidus Fabr. The larva
of the syrphid fly Volucella lives as a scavenger in Bombus nests (Cf.
Metcalf, '13, p. 68). The conopid flies Physocephala and Conops are
parasitic on Bombus. A nematode parasite, SpJiccndaria bonibi, in-
fests hibernating queens. It has been found in B. pcnjisylvanicus, fer-
vidus, and consiinUis (Cf. Stiles '95).

Bombus auricomus Rob.

Two males of this species were taken from flowers of the large-
leaved rosin-weed, Silphiiun terebinthmaceum, on the prairie area
east of Charleston (Sta. Ill, b), Aug. 26 (No. 175). This bumble-
bee was also taken bv T. L. Hankinson (Sta. I) Julv 3, 191 1 (No.
7665). (Cf. Franklin, '13, Pt. I, p. 413.)

Bombus impaticns Cress. Impatient Bumblebee.

A sino-le female was taken from the flowers of the broad-leaved
rosin- weed, Silpliiuui terebintJiinaceum, east of Charleston (Sta.
Ill, b), Aug. 26 (No. 175).

Bombus f rat emus Smith.

Two females of this species were taken on flowers of the swamp
milkweed, Asclcpias iucaniata: one of them (No. i) at Station I, g,
Aug. 8; and the other (No. 12) at Station I, d, Aug. 9.

Bombus scparatus Cress.

This species was collected from the swamp milkweed, Asclcpias
incarnata, as follows : Station I, g, Aug. 8 (No. i) ; Station I, d, Aug.
9 (No. 12); Station l,d, Aug. 24 (No. 157) — the latter had been
captured by the flower spider Mismnena alcatoria Hentz ; and one
male from flowers of the horse mint, Monarda (Sta. I), Aug. 11
(No. 22).

Psithyrus variabilis Cress. False Bumblebee.

A single female was taken from the flowers of the horse mint,
Monarda (Sta. I), Aug. 11 (No. 22) ; and a male was taken on the
prairie west of Loxa from flowers of the blazing star, Liatris scar-
iosa (Sta. II), Aug. 27 (No. 176). These bees are parasitic in the
nests of Bombus. For an excellent account of the habits of the Brit-
ish species, Sladen ('12, pp. 59-72) should be consulted.

Apid^

Apis mellifera Linn. Honey-bee.

Workers of this species were extremely abundant on flowers of
the milkweed Asclcpias incarnata (Sta. I, and Sta. l,d,g) Aug. 8

201

(No. i). Milkweed flowers play a double role as food and enemy.
Robertson (Trans. St. Louis Acad. Sci., Vol. 5, p. 573) states that
honey-bees are frequently found hanging dead from the flowers of
the common milkweed, A. syriaca, and Gibson (Harper's Mag., Vol.
95' PP- 519-520. 1897) has found many of them entrapped by this
milkweed. Bees are not the only insects captured by this insect trap,
for Gibson found gnats, crane-flies, bugs, wasps, beetles, and small
butterflies hanging from the flowers. He also found that the dogbane
Apocymim thus captures moths.

n. Forest Invertebrates

MOLLUSCA
Helicid^

Polygyra albolabris Say. (PI. LI, figs. 2 and 3.)

A single adult dead shell (No. 91) of this woodland species was
found in the upland forest (Sta. IV, a). It is our largest species of
snail.

The natural history of our land-snails has received little attention,
but is worthy of careful study. The best account of the life history
and habits of this species is by Simpson ('01).

Polygyra claiisa Say.

A single dead immature shell was taken under a small decayed limb
on the ravine slope (Sta. IV, h) Aug. 26 (No. 164), associated with
many individuals of Pyramidiila pcrspcctiva, and one individual each
of Vitrea indcntata and V. rhoadsi.

Shimek ('01, p. 200) groups this species with those which frequent
"higher, more deeply shaded (often mossy and rocky) banks and
slopes, sometimes in deep woods."

CmciNARnD^

Circinaria concava Say. Predaceous Snail.

A large dead shell (No. 71) and several living specimens were
found in a decayed stump in the upland forest (Sta. IV, a). A young
individual (No. 113), diameter 6 mm., was taken Aug. 20 among the
vegetable debris washed from a ravine and deposited as a low fan in
the lowland forest (Sta. IV, c). With it were associated Vitrea in-
dcntata, and some kind of large snail eggs (No. 114). This is a car-
nivorous species.

202

ZONITID^

Vitrea indentata Say.

One specimen (No. 113) was taken Aug. 20, among a mass of
drifted rotten wood and dead leaves deposited at the mouth of a* ra-
vine in the lowland forest (Sta. IV, c), in company with a young speci-
men of the carnivorous Circinaria concava; and another (No. 140),
on Aug. 22, under leaves at the base of a ravine slope (Sta. IV, h),
in woods so dense that there was very little herbaceous vegetation, but
a thick ground cover of leaves and vegetable mold. The interesting
ant Stigniatonuna pallipes, Myrinica rubra scabrinodis scheiicki, and
the larva of Mcracantlia contracta were found here. Specimens were
also taken Aug. 26 (No. 164) under a small decayed limb on the
ravine slope (Sta. IV, ^) in company with Vitrea rhoadsi, Polygyra
ciansa, and Pyrainidula perspectiva.

Vitrea rhoadsi Pilsbry.

This snail was taken under a small damp decayed limb on a
wooded ravine slope (Sta. IV, h) in company with V. indentata,
Pyrainidula perspectiva, and Polygyra clausa (No. 64). Mr. F. C.
Baker informs me that this species has not previously been recorded
from Illinois.

Zonitoides arborea Say.

This snail was taken on a fungus wjiich was growing on a de-
cayed stump in the upland forest (Sta. IV, a) Aug. 17 (No. 71),
in company with the mollusks Pyramidula perspectiva, Circinaria
concava, and Philouiycus carolinensis, the ant Aphcenogaster fulva,
and the white ant Termes fiavipes. Also taken from a moist rotting
stump, on the slope of the valley (Sta. IV, h), Aug. 17 (No. 84),
in company with the snail P. perspectiz^a, the slug P. carolinensis,
newly established colonies of the ant Caniponotus herculeanus penn-
sylvanicus, and the beetle Passalus cornutus.

This snail appears to be mainly a species of the woodland, where
it occurs under decaying wood and vegetable debris.

Motter ('98, p. 219) records this species from an old grave. This
suggests a subterranean habit. (Cf. Baker, '11, p. 155.)

PhILOMYCID/E

Philoniycus carolinensis Bosc. Carolina Slug.

Several young specimens of this slug (No. 71), about 5 mm. long
when contracted in alcohol, were found (Sta. IV, a) Aug. 17 in the
upland forest on a well rotted stump overgrown in part by a felt-like
fungous growth. The finding of these young slugs and the finding

203

elsewhere in the forest of eggs, possibly of this species (Nos. 86
and 114), is of special interest. On the forested ravine slope (Sta.
IV, b) in another decaying stump, in which the bark was loosened
and the sap-wood quite decayed, soft, large examples of this slug
were found in abundance Aug. 17 (No. 89). They were associated
with newly established colonies of the carpenter-ant Camponotus
hcrciilcanus pennsylvanicus, and the horned Passalus, Passaliis cor-
iiutus (No. 85). The association of these three species is not an ac-
cident, but indicates clearly a certain stage in the decay of a log or
stump which is favorable to their development. Another colony
was found under the bark of an oak stump (Sta. IV, b) in which
the sap-wood had decayed, but the remainder of which was solid
though discolored. A very large individual and several young slugs
ranging in length from about half an inch to an inch and a half were
found in a cavity under the bark Aug. 22 (No. 125).

A batch of eggs, found with specimens No. 89, and presumably
of this species, was taken Aug. 17 (No. 86). These eggs, pearl-
like translucent spheres, twenty-two in number, were in a small clus-
ter. The other lot of eggs (No. 114) was taken Aug. 20 among
dead leaves and rotten-wood drift at the mouth of a ravine in the
lowland forest (Sta. IV, c), where Vitrca indentata was taken (No.
113). The large size of these eggs, which even when shriveled in
alcohol are over 2 mm. in diameter, the paucity of other large pul-
monates throughout these woods, the abundance of Philomyciis,
and the presence of small young at this season are indicative that
the eggs belong to this slug.

Little seems to be recorded concerning the life history of this
species or its habits. An individual kept by Binney (Bull. 28, U. S.
Nat. Mus., pp. 243-244. 1885) deposited thirty eggs June 30. These
hatched Jnly 10 and grew very rapidly. Baker ('02, p. 203) states
that it ascends trees to a "height of over fifty feet, and is most fre-
quently found under bark which has become 'started' ." He also
states that it is "solitary in habit." My own observations of this
species confirm his statement as to its preference for wood in which
the sap-wood has decayed, but I have often found several specimens
in close proximity, as was the case with specimens No. 89.

Endodontid^

Fyraniidula altcruata Say. Alternate Snail.

A single dead shell (No. 173) of this common species in forests,
was taken at the mouth of a ravine in the lowland forest (Sta. IV, c).

This is generally a woodland species. At Mackinaw Dells, along

204

the Mackinaw bottoms in Woodford county, 111., T have found large
numbers late in the fall hibernating in hollow trees about five feet
above the ground. A very large colony — perhaps several hundred
specimens — was once found some little distance from woods along a
moist railway embankment south of Bloomington. 111. Baker ('02,
p. 208) states that the eggs, from twenty to eighty, are laid early in
June and hatch in about thirty days.

Pyrarnidiila perspectiva Say.

The decayed stump in the upland forest (Sta. IV, a) which was
overgrown with a layer of fungus (see under P. carolincnsis) con-
tained Aug. 17, a very large number of young and adults of this
species (No. 71). The shell is distinguished by the large open um-
bilicus, which leaves the upper whorls exposed.

This is the most abundant mollusk in the forest. It was found
associated with Circinaria concava, Zonitoides arborea, and Phil-
oiJiyciis carolincnsis. In small cavities in the wood encrusted with
the fungus, large numbers of P. perspectiva were found crowded to-
gether. Apparently this snail fed upon the fungus, the moist surface
possibly adding attractiveness. In this stump was a large nest of
the ant Aphccnogastcr fidva (No. 79) and one of white ants. Vermes
flavipes (No. ^2). P. perspectiva was also taken from a decaying
stump on the wooded ravine slope (Sta. IV, h) Aug. 17 (No. 84) in
association with Zonitoides arborea, Philomycus carolincnsis, the ant
Camponotus hcrcideamis pennsylvanicns, and the beetle Passalus cor-
niitus; under decayed logs in the upland oak forest (Sta. IV, a) Aug.
17 (No. 88) ; and under a small much-decayed limb on the wooded
ravine slope (Sta. IV, b) Aug. 26 (No. 164) in company with Poly-
gyra clausa, Vitrea indentata, and Vitrea rhoadsi.

Shimek ('01, pp. 200, 202) says that this species is common on
shaded banks, under decaying logs, and lists it with those which fre-
quent "higher, more deeply shaded (often mossy and rocky) banks
and slopes, sometimes in deep woods."

CRUSTACEA

AsTAcro^

Cainbarus diogcnes Girard. Diogenes Crawfish.

This crawfish was taken Aug. 17, 191 1, in the south ravine (Sta.
IV, d), where Mr. Hankinson also took it in 19 10 in the following
situations: from a pool in the stream Aug. 17; from burrows, with
chimneys, in the bed of the stream, Aug. 20; and from under flat
stones in the bed of this stream, three specimens, Aug. 22.

205 •

For detailed accounts of the ecological relations of this species
see Ortmann ('06) and Harris ('03).

Cainhanis propinquus Girard. Neighborhood Crawfish.

This species also was taken from a small pool in the south ravine
(Sta. IV, d), Aug. 20, 19 10, by Hankinson.

Consult Ortmann ('06) and Harris ('03),

Canibarus iminnnis Hagen. Immune Crawfish.

This species was taken from pools in the temporary stream (Sta.
IV, d) by Hankinson Aug. 17 and 20, 1910.

Consult Harris ('03).

MYRIAPODA

Lysiopetalid^
Callipus lactarius Say.

This myriapod was taken among dead leaves and rotten wood in
the forest .bottom at the mouth of a ravine (Sta. IV, c) Aug. 20
(No. 113).

There is hardly a more neglected group of animals in Illinois than
the Myriapoda. The ecological relations of our American myriapods
offer a virgin field for study. A few observations upon the habitat
of the humus-inhabitating Texas species have been made by Cook
('iia, pp. 147-150).

Craspedosomid^

Cleidogona cccsioanmdata Wood.

This myriapod was taken under damp leaves on the lower slopes
of the lowland forest (Sta. IV, h) Aug. 22 (No. 140), associated
with the old-fashioned ant, Stigmatomma pallipes.

POLYDESMID^

Folydesmns sp.

This myriapod was taken under the bark of an oak stump in the
early stages of decay — all sap-wood being honeycombed; the remain-
der solid though discolored — (Sta. IV, h) Aug. 22 (No. 125), asso-
ciated with Philomyciis carolinensis.

ARACHNIDA
Phal,angiida
Phalangiid^

Liohiiniiin vittatum Say. Striped Harvest-spider.

One female was taken in the upland Bates forest, while running
about on the dry leaves lying around a decayed stump (Sta. IV, a)

206

Aug. 17 (No. 82), and two males were found in the same forest
Aug. 22 (No. 123).

Weed ('89, p. 87) states that this species is very abundant on
rocky ledges in parts of southern Illinois. He is of the opinion that
the winter is passed in the ^gg stage, and maturity is reached in
July. The young prefer grass, low vegetation, and piles of rubbish,
but when mature are found in a "great variety of situations," as in
the corn fields of the prairie parts of Illinois, in grasslands, among
brush, and in the forest ('92c, p. 1006).

h'lohnmim ventricosum Wood. (PI. LI, fig. i.)

Three specimens of this "daddy-long-legs" were taken in the up-
land Bates forest (Sta. IV, a) Aug. 22 (No. 123b)

The young of this species hibernate, and maturity is reached
early in June (Weed, '92b, p. 264). This is exceptional, as most
species of this group pass the winter in the ^%g stage. The food of
daddy-long-legs consists mainly of dead insects (Weed, '89, p. 80).

Liobiinuni grande Say. Stout Harvest-spider.

This stout-bodied and short-legged species was found running
about on dry leaves in the upland forest (Sta. IV, a) Aug. 17 (No.
82) ; and in a damp ravine (Sta. IV, h) Aug. 20 (No. iii).

Consult Weed ('92b and '93 )for descriptions and figures of this
species. Very little appears to be recorded about it.

Araneida
Epeirid^

Bpeira insidaris Hentz. Island Epeirid. (PI. LII, figs, i, 2, and 3.)
This spider was taken from a web stretched between trees in the

upland forest (Sta. IV, a), Aug. 16 (No. 70).

McCook ('89, \'ol. I, pp.117, 118, 273, 330, 337; '90, Vol. 2, pp.

20, 86-87, 208, 214, 289, 441, 453) records a number of interesting

observations on this spider. The Peckhams ('87) give an account of

their observations on its senses.

Bpeira domiciliornm Hentz. Tent Epeirid.

This spider was taken at the margin of the low, damp forest (Sta.
IV, c) Aug. 22 (No. 137) ; from the margin of a large web among
the branches of trees in the upland forest (Sta. IV, a) Aug. 26 (No.
167) ; and, on the same date, from the glade in the lowland forest
(Sta. IV, c), folded in a sassafras leaf (No. 173).

I have found the species at the margin of its webs, in a leafy tent,
in dense woodlands near Urbana, 111., in the Brownfield woods Oct.

207

1 8, and in the Cottonwood forest Oct. 13. It was abundant among
the leaves of a shrub — the spice-bush {Benzoin).

McCook ('89, Vol. I, pp 78-79, 116, 255, 288, 339, and '90, Vol.
2, pp. 86-88, 224, 334) records many observations on the habits of
this species, and, more recently. Porter ('06) has studied an allied
species.

Bpeira trivittata Keys. Three-lined Spider. (PI. LIII, figs, i and 2.)
A single specimen was taken on a web in the lowland forest ( Sta.
IV, c) Aug. 22 (No. 138).

Bpeira verrucosa Hentz. White-triangle Spider. (PI. LIII, figs. 3
and 4. )

This species was taken from webs stretched between trees in the
forest (Sta. IV) Aug. 16 (No. 70) ; and again at the same Station
Aug. 22 (No. 126). The individuals taken were always at the center
of their webs.

The peculiar whitish, leaf-like triangular area on the dorsal sur-
face of the abdomen is a striking pecularity of this species. It is as-
sociated in habitat with Acrosoma spinea Hentz, and A. rugosa
Hentz.

Acrosoma spinea Yitniz. Spined Spider. (PI. LIV, figs. 1-5.)

From webs connecting trees in the damp lowland forest (Sta.
IV, c) this spider was taken Aug. 22 (No. 138) and Aug. 26 (No.
J72) ; and another individual (No. 148) was taken Aug. 23 (Sta.
IV) from a small web on a low sassafras shrub within two feet of
the ground. It feigned death when placed in a vial, the hind legs
being closely applied to the abdomen, the others being folded against
the cephalothorax. The two large posterior spines on the abdomen
of this species make it conspicuous.

This is a representative forest-inhabiting species ; its web and
those of rugosa, generally placed at about the height of a man's head,
are often so abundant, at least during August, as to be bothersome
when one after another is swept from the trees by one's face. Be-
cause of the tension of these threads few persons care to have them
accumulate on the face.

McCook ('89, Vol. I, pp. 126-127) has recorded observations
on this species.

Acrosoma rugosa Hentz. (gracile Walck. ). Rugo.se Spider.

This spider was taken from webs connecting trees and shni1)s
in the upland forest (Sta. IV. a) Aug. 16 (No. 70) and Aug. 22 (No.
126); on a web in the forest (Sta. IV) Aug. 23 (No. 147), with
the apex of the ventral abdominal cone turned uppermost at the cen-

208

ter of the web; and from webs in the shady lowland forest (Sta.
IV, c) Aug. 26 (No. 172).

Montgomery ('03, pp. 1 19-120 and '09) has made observations
on the breeding habits of this species, and McCook ('89, Vol. i, pp.
64, 73, 125-127, 254, 338, and '90, \'ol. 2, pp. 285, 289, 375) describes
its webs and gives observations on its habits.

Lycosid^

Lycosa scutulata Hentz.

A single immature specimen was taken from the low vegetation
in an open glade in the lowland part of the ^Bates woods (Sta. IV, c)
Aug. 22 (No. 144).

For the breeding habits of this species see Montgomery ('03,
pp. 72-76).

Lycosa sp. ; young.

This spider was taken in the upland woods (Sta. IV, a), running
upon the ground, Aug. 23 (No. 150). Another undetermined species
was taken in the pathway entering the upland forest from the cleared
area (Sta. IV, a). This spider was dug from a burrow about two
inches deep, in the solid clay of the pathway, Aug. 22 (No. 142).

ACARINA

Erigphytd^

Acarus serotince Beut. Cherry-leaf Gall-mite. (PI. LV, fig. i.)

This small mite was taken in the lowland portion of the Bates
woods (Sta. IV, c) Aug. 20 (No. 116). It forms a gall on the upper
side of the leaves of the wild cherry, Pruniis serotina.

INSECT A

Platyptera

Termitid^

Termes flavipes Koll. White Ant. Termite. (PI. LV, fig. 2.)

A small well-decayed stump in the upland forest (Sta. lY, a) was
found Aug. 17 to contain a colony of these termites in large num-
bers— mainly workers but also some soldiers (Nos. ^2, 79). In close
proximity was a colony of the ant Aphccnogaster fulva. Some of
these ants (Nos. 74-76) w^ere observed to pick up termites and carry
them away as they do their own young when a nest is disturbed. A.

209

fiilva is known to relish the termites as food. A second colony of ter-
mites (No. 125) was found Aug. 22 under the bark of an oak stump
(Sta. IV, b), in the early stages of decay, when the sap-wood was
becoming honeycombed but the remainder of the wood was still solid.
The caterpillar Scolecocampa lihiirna was found in the same stump.

As white ants feed mainly upon woody and other vegetable ma-
terials, they are active agents in hastening the decay and destruction
of such substances, mainly in forested areas but also upon the prairie.

Two species have long been confused under the name of fiavipes,
and as the newly recognized one, virginicus Bks., may occur in ex-
treme southern Illinois, reference is made to it. (See Banks, Ent.
News, Vol. 18, pp. 392-393. 1907).

Neuroptera
Myrmeleonid^

An ant-lion was taken from its inverted funnel in the dust along
the path through the cleared area to the forest (near Sta. IV, a)
Aug. 29 (No. 183).

Although ant-lions are common in many localities and widely dis-
persed, little is really known of the ecology of the American species.
These insects reach their greatest abundance and diversity in the
arid regions of the west and southwest. In the eastern forested area
they are of much more local occurrence and are generally found in
the dust, particularly in sheltered places — as under an overhanging
cliff or even under the porches of houses, where the desirable protec-
tion from rain is afforded ; or, often, in the woods, in the powdery
dust that marks the final stages in the decay of a log. The log as
an animal habitat has an interesting life history and a corresponding
succession of animals. On the decay of the sap-wood, Camponotiis
and Philoinycus are among the early invaders of the log; the ant-
lion, present in its dust, is one of the latest. It should be noted that
these isolated, dry, dusty places are the situations in the humid
area which most nearly approach the conditions which on the plains,
and particularly on the desert, are of nearly continuous geographic
extent.

Mecaptera

Panorpid^

Bittaciis stigmaterits Say. Clear-winged Scorpion-fly.

The damp, shady lowland forest, with a ground cover composed
of nettles (Laportea canadensis) and clearweed (Pilca piunila),

210

would seem to furnish an ideal habitat for the genus Bittacus, but
only two specimens, a male and a female, were taken (Sta. IV, c)
Aug. 22 (No. 141).

The young and adults of this genus are predaceous. Brauer and
Felt have described the habits of some of the adults. They capture
small flies and other insects with their legs as they hang suspended.
The use of the legs for suspension and for the manipulation of their
food recalls somewhat similar methods used by other predaceous
insects, such as robber-flies (Asilidcc) and hornets (Vespa). Bittacus
may copulate while thus suspended and eating, as described and fig-
ured by Brauer. Either the first or second, or both pairs of legs may
be used for suspension.

The larvae are caterpillar-like, but in the case of our American
species none of them are known. The European species are preda-
ceous, and live upon the ground. According to Brauer a certain
amount of drying seems necessary to the hatching of the eggs. Some
species have been taken at light, where they preyed upon the congre-
gated insects. (See Hine, '01, p. 260, and Bull. No. 7, n. s., Div.
Ent., U. S. Dept. Agr., p. 86. 1897.) Papers by Brauer ('53, '55,
'62, '63, '71), Felt ('95), and others by Hine (98, '01), will be of the
greatest assistance to a student of this neglected group of insects.

Bittacus strigosus Hag. Spotted Crane-like Scorpion-fly.

This species was taken but once — June 28, 191 1, by T. L. Han-
kinson in the Bates woods (No. 7678). It was abundant south of
Bloomington Aug. 22, 1895, where B. stigrnateriis Say was also taken
July 16, 1896. These species are characteristic of dense woods.

Bittacus apicalis Uhler. Brown-tipped Scorpion-fly.

This insect was taken June 28, 191 1, in the Bates woods by T. L.
Kankinson (No. 7678). I have found this species very abundant in
dense shady woods south of Bloomington, 111. The brown tips of
the wings make it easily identifiable.

Orthoptera

Blattid^

IscJnwptcra sp.

This cockroach was found under leaves on the lower slopes of a
ravine (Sta. IV, b) leadmg to the lowland Aug. 22 (No. 140). Han-
cock ('11. pp. 416-418) discusses the habits and habitat of I. pennsyl-
vauica (PI. LVI, figs. 4 and 5.)

211

Phasmid^

Diaphcromcra fcmorata Say. Forest Walking-stick. (PI. LVI, fig. 6.)

These insects were abundant in the upland forest (Sta. IV, a) ;
the following observations were made on them. A fuscous male (No.
64) was taken Aug. 16 crawling on hickory. When disturbed it fell
to the ground and remained quiet. A female was taken at the base
of a tree in a resting position with the antennse closely applied and
stretched forward. On August 17 a nymph was taken in an open
area; Aug. 20 (No. 103), a large gray female; a copulating pair
(No. 134), in which the female was gray and the male fuscous; and,
finally, a small immature male (No. 163) in the before-mentioned
resting position, on hickory.

On the ravine slope (Sta. IV,h), memoranda are as follows:
Aug. 22 (No. 124a) three fuscous males, and a large gray female in
the resting position, and (No. 132), in copulation, a fuscous male
and a green female, the latter lacking the hind pair of legs. A green,
nearly mature nymph was taken in a wood-lot adjacent to the Bates
area Aug. 28 (No. 99). A large fuscous male was taken east of
Charleston on the Embarrass River at the "Rocks" Aug. 10 (No. 17).

This walking-stick is distinctly a forest-inhabiting insect, but we
have another, Baciinculiis hlatchleyi Caud., which frequents the
prairie, though it was not found about Charleston. Occasionally
fcmorata becomes of economic importance. Riley (Rep. U. S. Dept.
Agr., 1878, pp. 241-245) studied its life history and habits and found
that some predaceous bugs prey upon it. The Severins (Jour. Eco-
nomic Ent., Vol. 3, pp. 479-481. 19 10) have shown experimentally
that the hatching of the eggs is facilitated by moisture. T. T,. Hank-
inson found a phasmid nymph, about an inch long, June 28, 191 1, in
the woods (No. 7678).

The behavior of our species is wortliy of more attention than it
has received. In such a study, reference should be made to a sugges-
tive paper by Stockard on the "Habits, Reactions and Mating In-
stinct of the 'Walking-Stick' Aplopus Mayeri" (Pub. No. 103, Car-
negie Institution, pp. 43-59. 1908) ; or, if the color changes are
studied, Schleip's paper on "Der Farbenwechsel von Dixippus moro-
sus (Phasmidae)" (Zool. Jahrb. Bd. 30. Abt. Allgem. Zool. u. Phy-
siol., pp. 45-132. 1910) should be consulted. Cf. Caudell, Proc. U. S.
Nat. Mus., Vol. 26, pp. 863-885, 1903.

ACRIDIID^

Tettigidea lateralis Say. (PI. LVII, fig. 3.)

A grouse locust was found in the dry upland forest (Sta. IV, a)
on the ground Aug. 20 (No. 109).

212

Morse ('04, p. 16) states that this species has a preference for
"wet meadows and swales."

Tcftigidca parvipennis Morse. Short-winged Grouse Locust.

A single specimen was secured in the upland forest (Sta. IV^, a)
on dry leaves Aug. 22 (No. 122).

Hancock ('02, p. 149) found this species very abundant in moist,
dense woods.

Dichrornorpha ziridis Scudd. Short-winged Grasshopper. fPl. LV^II,

fig- 7-) ,

A green short-winged female was taken from the tall prairie
grass (Andropogon and Sporobohis) colony (Sta. I, ^) Aug. 12
(No. 39). The following were taken from the upland forest (Sta.
IV, a) : Aug. 16 (No. 67) on dry leaves, a nymph, a long-winged
male, and three short-winged females; Aug. 17 (No. 92) in an open
space, a copulating pair, botli of which were brow^n and short-winged,
and a brown short-winged female- (No. 93) ; Aug. 22 two more cop-
ulating pairs, one (No. 121) brown short-winged forms, the other
(No. 122) green short-winged individuals. In a glade in the low-
land forest where grasses, Bupatoriuui ccrlcsfinuiii, and young sas-
safras abounded (Sta. IV, c), a nymph, a brown short-winged fe-
male, and three males, two brown and one green, were taken Aug.
20 (No. 117), and on Aug. 22 a green female nymph and green and
brown short-winged males (No. 143) ; and on the slopes of the valley
(Sta. I\', b) a green short-winged female was secured Aug. 20
(No. no).

On account of the disparitv in the size of the sexes — the males
being much smaller than the females — it is possible for copulating
females to jump about and carry the males with them, the pair No.
121 affording an example.

According to Morse ('04, p. 19, 32) this is a forest and thicket
species which also frequents "tangled herbaceous growths whenever
found." In New England it frequents "grass fields on wet soil, near
the margins of ponds and streams ; in the South and Central States
it is more commonly found in rank herbage along ditches and streams,
and in the edge of moist woodlands. Its haunts are thus intermediate
in character between those of a campestral and sylvan species, and
so likewise are the structural adaptations presented by it, a very large
proportion of the females being brachypterous."

It will be noted that the Charleston series is mainly from the
forest area, only one individual coming from the true (moist) prairie;
also that the forest, even the upland part, is in close proximity to a

213

humid lowland forest tract. Hancock ('ii, pp. 297, 392-394) has
discussed the habitat of this species.

Chloealtis conspersa Harr. Sprinkled Grasshopper. (PI. LVII, fig. 6.)
This locust was taken from the ground, mainly among leaves, in
the upland forest (Sta. IV, a) Aug. 16 (No. 67); in sunny open
places Aug. 17 (No. 93) ; and along a path through the forest among
dry leaves Aug. 22 (No. 122).

Morse ('04, p. 19) considers this a forest, forest-margin, and
thicket species, and Hart ('06, p. 75) says it frequents "open woods
on ground encumbered with leaves, branches, and bushes." Consult
Scudder (Final Report upon the Geology of New Hampshire, Yo\.
I, pp. 371-372. 1874) for an account of the egg-laying habits of
this species; also Hancock ('11, pp. 347-351) for its habits.

Spharagenwn holli Scudd. Boll's Grasshopper. (PI. LVH, fig. 4.)

A male of this species was taken on the ground on leaves in the
upland forest (Sta. IV, a) Aug. 16 (No. 67); a dead female was
found clinging to the tip of a plant stem on the most open part of
the slope (Sta. IV, &) from the upland forest to the lowland Aug.
22 (No. 133) ; and a female was taken among leaves on the ground
in the upland forest (Sta. IV, a) Aug. 23 (No. 150). T. L. Hankin-
son found an adult and a nymph in the Bates woods June 28, 191 1
(No. 7678). (Cf. HancockV'ii, pp. 362-364.)

The positive heliotropism or negative geotropic response shown
in diseased grasshoppers is of interest. It may be caused either by a
fungous or bacterial disease. (Cf. Gillette, Bull. No. 6, n. s., Div. Ent.
U. S. Dept. Agr., pp. 89-93. 1896.)

Morse ('04, p. 15) considers this an exceptional ground-inhabiting
or geophilous species since it is "an inhabitant of xerophytic forests as
well as of open fields, and in the Southern States is found quite as
often in the forest as on the open plain."

Melanopliis differentialis Thomas. Differential Grasshopper.
Consult the list of prairie invertebrates, p. 167.

Mclanoplus atlanis Riley. Lesser Grasshopper. (PI. LVII, fig. 8.)

A single specimen was taken on the ground in the upland forest
(Sta. IV, a) Aug. 16 (No. 67). The open character of parts of this
dry forest affords favorable conditions for this species.

Morse ('04, pp. 19, 42) considers this a characteristic species
of open country, but "likely to be found anywhere." Hancock ('11,
pp. 415-416) has described the habitat of this species.

214

Melanophts aniplcctcns Scudd.

This locust and nymphs doubtfully regarded as of the same
species were taken from the ground, mainly among leaves, in the up-
land forest (Sta. I\', fl) Aug. i6 (No. 67); other collections are as
follows: in the glade in the lowland forest (Sta. IV, c) Aug. 20 (No.
117) ; on the open ravine slope (Sta. I\^, h) Aug. 22, a male (No.
124a) ; and on the same date, in the glade of the lowland forest (Sta.
IV, c), a nymph and an adult female (No. 143).

This is the largest of the short-winged locusts in the forest, and
an abundant species. IMorse ('04, pp. 19, 50, PI. 7) described its
haunts as in thickets, forest margins, open forests, and occasionally
in grassy clearings and fields.

Melanophts gracilis Bruner.

Two males were found Aug. 20 in a glade in the lowland forest
(Sta. R'', c) where there was a luxuriant cover of vegetation, and
nettles and Bupatorium carlestinuni abounded; and Aug. 22, in the
same location, one female was found (No. 143).

The wings are very rudimentary in this species. Hart ('06, p.
82) describes its habitat as follows: "On tall grasses and weeds in
ravines and about marshes, masses of wild vines along railroads,
weedv growths in the beds of small streams, and in like situations."
These conditions are found in open areas with an abundance of vege-
tation.

Melanophts ohovatipennis Blatch.

This small species, similar to scuddcri, was found in the upland
forest (Sta. l\ , a) Aug. 17 (No. 93). A nymph taken Aug. 22
from the forest (Sta. IV) is doubtfully regarded as of this species
(No. 124).

Hart ('06, p. 81) gives the habitat of this species as "High
wooded hillsides throughout Illinois." Blatchley ('03, p. 308) states
that it frequents '"for the most part, high, dry, open woods, espe-
cially those in which beech and oak trees predominate." He further
states that in a dry season it may be found associated with Dichro-
rnorpha viridis and Truxalis hrevicornis "among the reeds and tall
rank grasses near the borders of marshes."

Melanophts scitdderi Uhl. Scudder's Grasshopper.

A single female was found in the open glade in the lowland for-
est (Sta. IV, c) Aug. 20 (No. 117); and a nymph taken Aug. 22
from the open ravine slope (Sta. lA', h) is doubtfully referred to this
species (No. 124).

215

Hart ('06, p. 81) describes the habitat of this grasshopper as
"open woods and thickets, and along rail fences and roadsides."
Species which now characterize our open, partly cleared woodlands,
in the primeval forest probably frequented forest margins, bluffs,
and the borders of streams, or open patches in woods where a tree
had fallen, and similar situations. With a thinning out of the for-
est (up to a certain degree) their habitat is increased in area, but
when by clearing the woods disappear, their habitat vanishes.

LOCUSTID.E

Sciiddcria fitrcata Bruner. Forked Katydid. (PI. LVII, fig. 5.)

One female was taken in an open area in the upland forest on
low shrubs (Sta. IV, a) Aug. 20 (No. 109). Another specimen was
taken near Vera, Fayette county. 111., on a finely developed colony of
prairie vegetation among y^M^ro/70^o«, Sept. i (No. 185).

Blatchley ('03, p. 349) states that it is "most frequently seen on
the low bushes and trees about the margin of thickets and along
fence rows, but in the prairie country north [in Indiana] it frequents
coarse grasses and weeds."

Amhlycorypha rotitndifolia Scudd. Round-winged Katydid. (PI.
LVII, fig. 2.)
A single female of this species was taken in the glade in the low-
land forest (Sta. IV, c) Aug. 20 (No. 117); and also a freshly
emerged female (No. 143). Blatchley ('03, p. 352) states that this
is "more of a terrestrial species than ohlongifolia, being often seen
on the ground, or on clumps of tall grass and weeds which grow in
damp ravines." Hart ('06, p. 84) says that this species is found
"On grasses and weeds in damp ground."

Microcentruin laurifoliuni Linn. Angle-winged Katydid. (PI. LVII,
figs. I and 2.)

Males were found on hickory sprouts at the cleared margin of
the upland forest (near Sta. IV. a) Aug. 22 (No. 135). They
were chirping loudly, in the early afternoon, on sprouts less than
two feet high.

Cyrtophylliis perspicillatus Linn. Common Katydid. (PI. LVIII,
fig. I.)
One male was taken in the partly cleared area bordering the for-
est (near Sta. IV, a) Aug. 23 (No. 145). Here, among stump
sprouts of hickory, oak, and young sassafras, about two to three
feet high, stood this male stridulating in the sun at 2:30 p. m., but
the note did not seem exactly normal, that is, as when heard at night.

216

This species is so distinctly arboreal and nocturnal that I was sur-
prised to find it stridulating during the day, and so near the ground.
I have camped for days in a grove where these insects made a great
din at night, but found none on the low vegetation or on the ground
(as at Kappa, 111). Years ago a large colony flourished in Franklin
Park at Bloomington, 111.

€onocephalus nehrascensis Bruner. Nebraska Cone-nose.

A female was taken in the glade in the damp lowland forest ( Sta.
R^ c) Aug. 20 (No. 117).

The female of this species has been observed to oviposit "between
the stem and root-leaves of Andropogon" , a typical prairie plant, but
little appears to be recorded of its habitat. A large nymph of this genus,
and probably of this species (No. 159), was taken on the prairie
grass Andropogon (Sta. I, g) Aug. 24. It had been captured by the
crab-spider il!fmfm<?wa a/<?afona Hentz (No. 159).

Orchelimum cnticidare Redt.

A specimen was taken in the upland forest (Sta. IV, a) Aug. 16
(No. 67) ; another, from the open areas of the upland forest (Sta.
IV, a) Aug. 17 (No. 93) ; and a third, from the glade in the damp
lowland forest (Sta. IV, c) Aug. 22 (No. 143). All of these were
males.

OrcJicUjunin glaherriimnn Burm.

This insect was found in abundance in the glade in the lowland
forest (Sta. IV, c) Aug. 20 (No. 117), and a nymph was taken in
the same place Aug. 22 (No. 143).

The abundance of this species in this damp area, with its pro-
fusion of low vegetation, indicates that the conditions were fav-
orable.

Xipliidium nemoralc Scudd.

Nymphs and adults were found in the glade in the lowland for-
est (Sta. IV, c) Aug. 20 (No. 117) and Aug. 22 (No. 143) ; in the
openings in the upland forest (Sta. IV, a) Aug. 17 (No. 93), and
Aug. 20 (No. 103).

Blatchley ('03, p. 374) states that it abounds along the "borders
of dry, upland woods, fence rows, and roadsides, where it delights to
rest on the low shrubs, blackberry bushes, or coarse weeds usually
growing in such localities."

GRYLLIDiE

Nemohins fasciatus DeG. Striped Cricket. (PI. LVIII, fig. 6.)

Nymphs of this species were found in the upland forest on the

217

ground (Sta. IV, a) Aug. i6 (No. 67); in the upland forest area
also, in an open place, was found a short-winged male Aug. 17 (No.
93) ; along a path in the upland forest, among dry leaves, a short-
winged female was taken Aug. 22 (No. 122) ; and an abundance of
short-winged males and females, and nymphs (No. 143) were found
Aug. 22 in the glade in the lowland forest (Sta. IV, c).

This small cricket is generally abundant among the Htter on the
forest floor.

Nemohius maciilatus Blatch. Spotted Cricket.

A nymph was taken in the upland forest (Sta. IV, a) among
leaves Aug. 22 (No. 122).

Blatchley ('03, p. 425) states "It is found in low open woods,
usually in the vicinity of or beneath logs"; Hart, ('06, p. 89) states
that it is found "About logs and dead wood in sparse woods and near
streams."

/ipithus agitator Uhl. Woodland Cricket.

A nymph was taken from the open area in the upland forest ( Sta.
IV, a) Aug. 17 (No. 93) ; another from an open ravine slope (Sta.
IV, h) Aug. 22 (No. 124). No adults were secured.

Blatchley ('03, pp. 458-459) records this species as from forests,
noting its preference for prickly ash. It is also recorded as from
grape-vines and dense shrubbery. The females deposit eggs in the
twigs of the white elm, Uhniis americana Linn.

Hemiptera

ClCADID^

Cicada linnei Grossb. {Cicada tibiccn L. ). Dog-day Harvest-fly.
PI. LV, fig. 5.)

This insect was found at the cleared margin of the upland forest
(near Sta. IV, a) on low hickory sprouts Aug. 26 (No. 162).

It is said to rec|uire two years to mature. T. L. Hankinson re-
ports that Tibiccn septendecini L. (PI. LV, figs. 3 and and 4) was
found about Charleston in 1907, and branches scarred by the oviposit-
ing females were observed in the Bates forest (Sta. IV, a).

Felt ('05, pp. 237-238) describes the emergence of the adult
Tibiccn from the nymph skin. For the recent synonymy see Smith
and Grossbeck (Ent. News, Vol. 18. pp. 1 16-129. 1907).

Fulgorid.t:

Onncnis priiinosa Say (?). Mealy Flata. (PI. LVI, figs, i and 2.)
This insect was taken by T. L. Hankinson June 28, 191 1, in the

218

Bates woods (No. 7678). It appears to feed upon a large variety of
trees, shrubs, and herbaceous plants. Its normal habitat is probably
in open woods or the forest margin. Swezey ('04, pp. 8-9) gives
full references to the life history of this insect and a list of the food
plants.

Tettigoniellid.e

Aulacizes irrorata Fabr. (PI. LVI, fig. 3.)

A few specimens were taken, the collection data being as follows :
from an open glade in the lowland forest (Sta. IV, c) Aug. 20 (No.
117) ; and from the smaller branches of sassafras bushes (Sta. IV, c)
Aug. 22 (No. 143).

This insect is often taken on grapes, and in the South on cotton.
Sanderson (Bull. 57, Bur. Ent., U. S. Dept. Agr., p. 58. 1906)
describes briefly the egg-laying habits and figures the adult insect.

Gypona pectoralis Spangb.

This species was taken June 28, 191 1, in the Bates woods (Sta.
IV) by T. L. Hankinson (No. 7678).

Pentatomid^
Buschistus fissilis Uhl.

This bug was taken in Bates forest (Sta. IV) Aug. 22 (No.
124). It has been known to feed upon wheat (Webster, Rep. U. S.
Dept. Agr., 1885, p. 317). It also feeds upon corn, and on the moth
Alctia. It is parasitized by the proctotrypid Trissolcus cuscJiisti
Ashm. (Olsen, in Journ. N. Y. Ent. Soc, Vol. 20, p. 52. 1912).

Morniidca lit gens Fabr.

A nymph of this bug was taken by T. L. Hankinson in the Bates
woods (Sta. IV) June 28, 191 1 (No. 7678).

Hytnenarcys nervosa Say.

This insect was taken on the ground from among dead leaves and
decayed wood which had drifted to the mouth of a ravine in the low-
land forest (Sta. IV^, c) Aug. 20 (No. 113). In the South this insect
feeds upon cotton.

MlRID^

Lygns pratensis Linn. Tarnished Plant-bug.

This bug was taken in the Bates woods (Sta. IV) June 28, 191 1,
by T. L. Hankinson (No. 7678). See prairie list, page 175.

219

COREID^

Alydiis quinquespinosus Say.

This bug was taken by T. L. Hankinson June 28, 191 1, in the
Bates woods (No. 7678), and July 10 (No. 7693) on the under-
growth in the woods (Sta. IV).

Acanthoccriis galcator (Buflwctha) Fabr. (PI. LVI, fig. 8.)

Six large nymphs of this plant-bug were taken on the apical part
of a tall herb, Actinomeris alternifolia Linn., growing in the open
glade of the lowland forest (Sta. IV, c; PI. XIV) Aug. 29 (No. 182).
This bug has been reported to suck the juice from the plum, and
it injures the tender parts of orange plants. Hubbard (Insects Af-
fecting the Orange, U. S. Dept. Agr., Div. Ent., p. 163. 1885) gives
figures of the adult insect and describes briefly the eggs and young.
Forbes and Hart ('00, p. 445) have summarized the little that is
known of this insect.

Jalysus spinosus Say. Spined Stilt-bug. (PI. LVI, fig. 7.)

This bug was found Aug. 20 in the open glade of the lowland for-
est (Sta. IV, c), where there was a luxuriant growth of herbaceous
vegetation (No. 117). It was also taken (Sta. IV) by T. L. Hank-
inson June 28, 191 1 (No. 7678). Lugger reports it from oak woods.
It feeds upon plants.

Gerrid^

Gcrris rcmigis Say. Water-strider. (PI. L, fig. 2.)

This w^ater-strider was abundant in the pools of the small tem-
porary stream in the ravine bordering the southern part of the Bates
woods (Sta. IV, d) Aug. 22 (No. 129).
It is an important enemy of mosquito larvae.

EEDUVnD.?E

Sinea diadcina Fabr. Rapacious Soldier-bug.

A nymph of this predaceous bug was captured by T. L. Hankin-
son in the Bates woods (Sta. IV) June 28, 191 1 (No. 7678). See
list of prairie animals, page 173.

CoLi:oPTERA

ClCINDELID^

Cicindcla iinipnnctata Fabr. Woodland Tiger-beetle.

One specimen of this tiger-beetle was taken along the path through
the cleared area as it entered the forest (Sta. IV, a) Aug. 22 (No.
136).

220

Tiger-beetles are generally most abundant in open places, but this
beetle seems to be a woodland species like the brilliantly colored C.
sexguttata Fabr. Wickham ('99, pp. 210-21 1) records unipitnctata
from wooded areas. It is rare and difficult to catch, and is said to
be nocturnal in habit.

Carabid^

Calosonia scrutator Fabr. Caterpillar-hunter.

This common arboreal beetle was taken Aug. 16 (No. 64) in the
upland Bates wood (Sta. IV, a), where it attracted attention by the
rustling sound it made in crawling among the dry leaves on the
ground. Specimens of these beetles I could easily secure by remain-
ing quiet and listening for this rustling of the leaves. One specimen
was seen to crawl up the trunk of a small oak-tree, three or four inches
in diameter, for about seven feet. Another individual I took from
my neck. It may have fallen upon me from a tree, but more prob-
ably it climbed upon me as it does a tree. In woods adjacent to the
Bates forest, a caterpillar-hunter (No. 97) was found Aug. 20 with
what appeared to be the damp cast skin of some large bombycid larva,
which was also claimed by an ant, Camponotns herculeanus Linn.,
subsp. pciinsylvanicns DeG., var. ferrugineus Fabr. On the ravine
slope (Sta. IV, b) Aug. 20 T. L. Hankinson captured one of these
beetles (No. 100) with a caterpillar about an inch long, which it had
partly mangled in the thoracic region with its formidable jaws. On
the upper slopes of the ravine (Sta. IV, h) Aug. 23 another beetle
(No. 149) was found on the ground under a hickory tree, eating a
Datana larva. Along this same rather open forested slope another
individual was observed to run from the ground up the trunk of a
small white oak (six or seven inches in diameter) for three or four
feet, and then to return to the ground. The climbing individuals ob-
served took a relatively straight course up the trunk, making no ef-
fort to climb in a spiral direction, and made the descent head fore-
most.

At Bloomington, 111., while picking cherries I have taken the
beetle in trees. Although the arboreal habit is evidently very well
developed in this species, it is also very much at home on the ground.
The rapidity and apparent ease with which it ran over dry oak leaves
in the upland Bates woods surprised me.

The active foraging habits of this beetle are well shown by Her-
man's observations (Journ. Cincinnati Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. 21, p.
80. 1910) on its killing nestlings of the cardinal grosbeak (Cardin-
alis cardinalis) in bushes three feet from the ground. Harris (In-

221

sects Injurious to Vegetation, p. 470. 1869) states that it preys upon
canker-worms, both on the ground and by ascending trees.

Galerita janiis Fabr.

A specimen was found under the bark of a decaying log in the
upland Bates forest (Sta. IV, a) Aug. 23 (No. 171). This common
beetle is frequently found in such situations, and seems to have a
preference for relatively damp places. I have taken the adult as
early as March 23 under bark of logs in the sap-wood stage of decay
at Urbana, 111., where it was found associated with single dealated
females of Camponotus herctdeanus pennsylvaniciis, Passalus cornii-
tus, pyrochroid larvae, the caterpillar Scolecocampa liburna, and the
slug Philomyciis carolinensis.

This species is a fairly common one. I found it abundant at
Bloomington, 111., where it was taken April 15, May i, and June 22.

The larva has been described by Hubbard (Psyche, Vol. i, pp.
49-52. 1875).

COCCINELLID^

A species of lady-beetle was found upon a fungus growing on a
stump in the upland forest (Sta. IV, a) Aug. 17 (No. 8t). Asso-
ciated with the beetle on the fungus were large numbers of the snail
Pyramidiila perspectiva.

Elaterid^
Melanotiis sp.

A larva belonging to this genus (No. 125) was found Aug. 22
under the bark of a decaying stump (Sta. IV, &) in which the sap-
wood was destroyed, the remainder being sound though discolored.
It was associated with the slug Philomycus carolinensis and the
caterpillar Scolecocampa liburna.

Corymhites sp.

A larva belonging to this genus (No. 113) was found in drifted
leaves and dead wood at the mouth of a ravine in the lowland for-
est (Sta. IV, c).

AsapJics mcninonins Hbst.

This click-beetle was taken at the mouth of a ravine in the low-
land forest (Sta. IV, c) Aug. 20 (No. 113) in drift composed of
dead leaves and rotten wood.

Lampyrid^

Caloptcron tcrminale Say. Black-tipped Calopteron.

This interesting beetle was taken in the damp lowland forest (Sta.
IV, c) Aug. 26 (No. 173).

222

This species has been mentioned as an instance of mimicry because
of its resemblance in shape and color-pattern to the syntomid moth
Lycomorpha pholiis Drury. Both are found in damp shady woods.

Caloptcron reticulatiim Fabr. Reticulate Calopteron. (PI. LVIII,

fig- 4-)

A single specimen was taken — in the glade in the lowland forest
(Sta. IV, c) Aug. 22 (No. 143).

The larva and pupa of this species are described by Coquillett
(Can. Ent., Vol. 15, pp. 97-98. 1883). July 10 he found a pupa
"suspended by the hind end of its body beneath a log."

Photiiris pcnnsylvanica DeG. Pennsylvania Firefly. (PI. LVIII,

fig- 3-)

This large fireflv was taken June 28, 191 1, in the Bates woods
(Sta. IV) by T. L.'Hankinson (No. 7678).

McDermott ('10, '11) Knab ('05), and Mast ('12) should be
consulted for discussions on the natural history and ecology of our
fireflies. McDermott gives many observations on P. pcnnsylvanica.

Chaiiliognathus uiarginatus Fabr. Margined Soldier-beetle.

This predaceous beetle was taken June 28, 191 1, in the ,Bates
woods (Sta. IV) by T. L. Hankinson (No. 7678). (Cf. Lintner,
Fourth Rep. Injurious and other Ins. N. Y., 1888, pp. 74-88.) This
is a predaceous species in the larval stage, feeding on immature in-
sects. The adults feed on pollen (Riley, in Fifth Rep. Ins. Mo., p.

154- 1873)-

Tchphorus sp.

This was taken June 28, 191 1, in the Bates woods (Sta. IV) by
T. L. Hankinson (No. 7678). See T. bilincatus, PI. XLIV, fig. i.

LUCANID^

Passalus cornutus'FahT. Horned Passalus. (PI. LVIII, fig. 5.)

This common woodland beetle was found under the bark of a
decaying stump on the slope of a ravine (Sta. IV, b) Aug. 17 (No.
85). One specimen, with a chestnut thorax and yellowish wings,
had just shed the pupal skin. Another, a fully matured specimen,
carried a large colony of mites. Ewing (Univ. Studies, Univ. 111.,
Vol. 3, p. 24. 1909) states that nymphs of uropod mites are often
attached to insects for transportation. It has generally been as-
sumed that they are parasitic.

This Passalus seems to be one of the most common insects found
in decaying logs and stumps. I have found it very abundant at

223

Bloomington, 111. The beetles evidentl}^ hibernate, for I have taken
them at Urbana, 111., as late as October i8, and as early in the spring
as March 23.

This beetle invades logs and stumps as soon as the sap-wood be-
gins to be well decayed, and evidently advances into the log with the
progress of decay. As it invades logs in the sap-wood stage of decay,
il is often associated with nezvly founded colonies of the ant Cam-
ponotiis hcrcidcanus pennsylvanicus, pyrochroid larvae, the slug Phil-
oniyciis carolincnsis, and the caterpillar Scolecocampa libitrna. For
physiological studies of cormitiis see Schafer (Mich. Agr. Coll. Exper.
Sta., Tech. Bull. No. 11. 191 1).

Scarab/t:id^

Gcotrupcs splendid us Fabr. Splendid Dung-beetle.

This dung-beetle was dug from a hole, an inch or so below the
surface, in the hard clay of the pathway near the margin of the for-
est bordering the cleared area (Sta. IV, o) Aug. 22 (No. 120). As
cattle and horses were pastured in this forest, its presence is readily
accounted for.

Pelidnota punctata Linn. Spotted Grape Beetle.

Only one specimen of this beetle was taken. It was found on a
grape leaf (Sta. Ill, b) Aug. 15 (No. 58). This insect is primarily
a forest or forest-margin insect. The larva feeds upon the decaying
roots and stumps of oak and hickory. The adult devours leaves of
the grape and of the Virginia creeper.

Many undetermined scarab?eid larvae were found in a much-de-
cayed stump in the ravine near the small temporary stream (near
Sta. IV, d) Aug. 22 (No. 130).

Chrysomelid^

Chrysochus aiiratiis Fabr. Dogbane Beetle.

This characteristic species of the prairie (No. 103) was taken
Aug. 20 in an open place in the upland oak-hickory forest (Sta.
IV, a) on the dogbane Apoeynuni nieduun. See list of prairie inver-
tebrates, p. 178.

CryptocepJmlns mutahilis Mels.

This leaf-beetle was taken June 28, '1911. in the Bates woods
(Sta. IV) by T. L. Hankinson (No. 7678). It has been reported on
Ceanothus, Viburnum, hazel, and oak by J. B. Smith. Evidently this
is a woodland beetle.

224

Coptocycla clavata Fabr. Clubbed Tortoise-beetle.

This leaf-beetle was taken in the south ravine of the .Bates woods
(Sta. iy,h) by T. L. Hankinson June 28, 1911 (No. 7678). It
is known to injure the potato, tomato, eggplant, and bittersweet.
The larvse and adults feed upon the same kinds of plants (Lintner,
Sixth Rep. Injurious and other Ins. N. Y., pp. 126-127. 1890).

Tenebrionid^

Boletotheriis bifurcus Fabr. Horned Fungus-beetle. (PI. LIX, figs.
I, 2, and 3.)

This curious-looking beetle was found on the shelf-fungus Polyp-
orus in the lowland forest (Sta. IV, c) Aug. 26 (No. 173).

I have found this species very abundant near Bloomington, III.,
where at times it was difficult to find an example of Polyporus which
was not thoroughly honeycombed by the larvae of these beetles. A
single shelf has been found to contain several beetles. They were
generally discovered within galleries excavated within the fungus.
On July II in such a shelf I found larvse and pupae in abundance.
Other dates of capture are June 3 and July 6. Riley and Howard (In-
sect Life, Vol. 3, p. 335. 1891) also report it from Polyporus. Fig-
ures of the larva and pupa are given by Packard ('83, p. 474) and
descriptions by Gissler (On coleopterous larvse of the family Tene-
hrionida, Bull. Brooklyn Ent. Soc, Vol. i, pp. 85-88. 1878).

Meracantha contracta Beauv.

Larvse of this beetle were taken under dry leaves in the upland
forest (Sta. IV, a) Aug. 17 (No. 83) ; and others from under damp
leaves at the base of the wooded slopes of a ravine leading to the low-
land forest (Sta. IV, b) Aug. 22 (No. 140). The latter larvse were
associated with the ant Stigmatomma pallipes. These larvse are
often confused with wireworms (Blateridae).

I found the beetles occasionally in the forest at Bloomington, 111.,
June 1 3 ; and Aug. i on the papaw.

I have a specimen of this larva, in very rotten wood, showing
the sinuous larval boring (PI. XXX), from the Brownfield woods,
Urbana, 111. (March 9; collector, D. M. Brumfiel). Wickham has
described and figured the larva (Journ. N. Y. Ent. Soc, Vol. 4, pp.
119-121. 1896).

PYROCHROIDiE

Pyrocliroa sp.

A single specimen of a larva belonging to the above family was
taken August 22 (No. 130) in the ravine (Sta. IV, b) from under

225

the bark of a decaying stump, in company with numerous scarabseid
larvae. These larvae are very characteristic animals — under bark
when decay has loosened it from the sap-wood. The accompanying
figure (PI. LIX, fig. 4) shows the general appearance of this larva
and of an adult beetle. I found Dcndroidcs canadensis Latr. fairly
abundant at ^loomington, 111., July 25. Larvae belonging to this
family have been taken in the Brownfield woods, Urbana, 111., under
the bark of decaying trees. It is a representative animal species in
this habitat.

See Moody (Psyche, Vol. 3, p. 76. 1880) for descriptions of
pyrochroid larvae.

LEPIDOPTERA
PAPILIONIDiE

Papilio philcnor Linn. Philenor Butterfly. (PI. LIX, fig. 5.)

The caterpillar was found crawling upon the ground in the up-
land forest (Sta. IV, a) Aug. 16 (No. 69). Aug. 26 a larva (No.
166) which had attached itself to the stem of a prickly ash (Sta.
IV, h), was just entering upon the pupal stage, but had not yet cast
the larval skin.

The larva feeds upon Dutchman's pipe, Aristolochia — a plant
which was not observed in the forest.

Fapilio turnus Linn. Turnus Butterfly.

The butterfly was observed on wing Aug. 16 in the open glades
of the upland forest (Sta. IV, a).

The larva feeds upon Prunus and Liriodendron.

Fapilio crcspJwntes Cram. Cresphontes Butterfly.

The butterfly was observed in the open spaces of the upland
forest on wing Aug. 16.

The larva feeds upon Zanthoxylnm, Ptelea, Dictamnus, Citrus,
etc.

Papilio troilus Linn. Troilus Butterfly.

The butterfly was taken, on wing, from the open slope of the
south ravine (Sta. IV, 5) Aug. 22 (No. 161); and in the upland
forest (Sta. IV, a) Aug. 26 (No. 163).

The larva feeds upon sassafras and Laiirns.

Nymphalid^

Polygonia interrogationis Fabr.

The butterfly was taken in the open glade in the lowland forest
(Sta. IV, c) Aug. 20 (No. 117).

The larva feeds upon Hiimulus, Ulmiis, and Urtica.

226

AOAPETIDiE

Bnodia portlandia Fabr. Portlandia Butterfly.

This woodland butterfly was taken in the Bates woods (Sta. IV)
Aug. 15 (No. 63) and on June 28, 191 1 (No. 7678), by T. L. Han-
kinson.

The larva feeds upon grasses. Fiske ('01, pp. 33-34) gives a
good description of the haunts of this species. Years ago I found it
abundant near Bloomington (Orendorf Springs), 111., in dense, damp,
shady woods. It is as characteristic of shade as most species are of
sunshine.

Cissia curytns Fabr. Eurytus Butterfly.

This is also a woodland butterfly. It was taken in the Bates
woods by T. L. Hankinson June 28, 191 1 (No. 7678). The larva
feeds upon grass.

Lyc^nid.^
Bvcrcs coiuyntas Gdt.

This small blue butterfly was taken on the open upper slopes of
the wooded south ravine in the Bates forest (Sta. IV, &) Aug. 22
(No. 161).

The larva feeds upon red clover and Desmodiiim.

Hesperhd^

Bpargyreiis tityrus Fabr. Common Skipper.

This caterpillar was found in the open glade in the lowland for-
est (Sta. I\', c), folded within a leaf of sassafras, Aug. 26 (No.

I have taken this butterfly many times at Bloomington, 111. ; and
have found the larvse folded in leaves of the yellow locust, Robinia,
upon which they had evidently been feeding.

SPHINGIDiE

Cressonia jiiglandis Sm. and Abb.

This caterpillar was taken on low branches of the shell-bark hick-
ory, Carya ovata, in the upland forest (Sta. IV, a) Aug. 20 (No.
102).

The larva feeds upon walnut, ironwood, and hickory. Our speci-
men bore a large number of cocoons of a hymenopterous parasite.
When handled, this larva makes a peculiar squeaking sound (Bull.
54, Bur. Ent., U. S. Dept. Agr., p. 80. 1905).

227

SATURNnO^

Tclea polyphemus Cramer. American Silkworm. ( PI. LIX, fig. 6. )
This caterpillar was taken on the ground, under hickories and

white oaks on the forested slopes to the valley (Sta. IV, h) Aug. 26

(No. 163).

The larva feeds upon walnut, basswood, elm, maple, cherry, etc.

CERATOCAMPIDiE

atheroma regatis Fabr. Royal Walnut Moth ; Hickory Horned-devil
(larval name). (PI. LX, figs, i and 2.)

This larva was found on the valley slope (Sta. IV, h) on sumac
Aug. 16 (No. 68) ; and on walnut Aug. 20 (No. 108). This last
specimen was apparently fully mature.

The food plants of the larva are butternut, hickory, sycamore,
ash, and lilac. See Packard ('05, p. 130) for many figures and a
full description of this species.

Basiloiia imperialis Drury. Imperial Moth. (PI. LXI, Fig. i).

The larva of this species was found on the leaves of sassafras on
the forested slope to the lowland forest (Sta. IV,h) Aug. 20 (No.
106). It feeds upon a large number of forest trees including oak,
maple, wild cherry, walnut, hickory, and several conifers.

See Packard ('05, p. 125) for figures and full descriptions of
this species.

Arcthd.e

Halisidota tcsscllaris Sm. and Abb. (PI. LXI, fig. 4.)

These caterpillars were taken on hickory on the wooded slope to
the lowland (Sta. IV, b) Aug. 26 (No. 163) ; and, again, abundantly
(No. 168), in the upland forest (Sta. IV, a) on climbing buckwheat.
Polygonum convolvulus, which was entwined about a young walnut
or butternut. The yellow hairs and the tufts give this caterpillar a
striking appearance.

I have found moths of this species abundant at Bloomington, 111.
The food plants are recorded as maple, oak, hazel, and button-
wood. Though larvae were abundant upon leaves of the climbing
buckwheat, I did not observe them there eating it.

NOCTUID^

Autographa precationis Guen.

The moth was taken in the open glade in the lowland forest ( Sta.
IV, c) Aug. 22 (No. 143).

The larva feeds upon plantain, burdock, and dandelion.

228

Scolecocampa lihiirna Geyer. Rotten-log Caterpillar.

A single caterpillar (No. 125) was taken Aug. 22 upon the slope
of a wooded ravine (Sta. IV, b) under the bark of a stump in an
early stage of decay — the sap-wood honeycombed, but the remainder
solid though discolored. The larva, with its characteristic excrement,
was found in a cell excavated in the rotten sap-wood.

This is another species of animal which invades wood in the sap-
wood stage of decay and is so often associated with Philomycus
carolincusis, Passaliis cormitiis, and newly established colonies of
Caniponotiis licrcitleamis pciuisyk'anicus. The larva winters in logs,
as is evidenced by the fact that I found it in such situations late in fall
and early in spring (March 23) at Urbana, 111. The large ciuantity
of excrement often indicates the approximate location of the larva.
This larva has been described by Edwards and Elliot (Papilio, Vol.
3, p. 134. 1883). It has been found in chestnut, oak, and other kinds
of decaying logs. The ipoth is recorded in July. The pileated wood-
pecker, Phlocotomus pileatus, has been known to eat this caterpillar
(Beal, in Bull. 37, Biol. Surv., U. S. Dept. Agr., p. 34. 191 1). Smith
(Ann. Rep. N. Jersey State Mus., 1909, p. 471. 1910) states that the
larva is found in "decaying cherry, hickory, oak and chestnut
stumps."

N0TODONTID.E
Datana angnsii G. and R.

The caterpillar of this species was found on the valley slope (Sta.
I\^. h) on bitternut hickory, Carya microcarpa, Aug. 20 (No. 104) ;
in the upland forest (Sta. lY, a) on hickory Aug. 16 (No. 65) ; and
at the margin of this forest Aug. 26 (No. 162).

The food plants of the larva are walnut, hickory, linden, and birch.
Packard ('95, pp. iio-iii) describes and gives figures of the larva
and adult.

Nadata gibbosa Sm. and Abb. (PI. LXI, fig. 2.)

This larva was taken on white oak, Quercus alba, in a forested
ravine (Sta. I\^, b) Aug. 19 (No. 94) ; on leaves of the white oak,
upon which it had been feeding, in the upland forest (Sta. IV', a)
Aug. 26 (No. 169).

Packard ('95, pp. 142-146) gives figures of this species and
lists as food plants, oak, birch, and sugar plum. It is also reported
on maple.

Heterocampa guttizntta Walk ( ?). (PI. LXI, figs. 3 and 5.)

This larva (No. 127) was captured Aug. 22 by a digger-
wasp, Ammophila abbreviata Fabr. which was found dragging it
along the ground in the upland forest (Sta. \Y,a). See Packard

229

('95' PP- 230-235) for an account of this forest-inhabiting larva.

The larva of guttivitta is known to feed upon red maple, oak, and
viburnum.

Geometrid^

Bustroma divers'ilineata Huhn. (PI. LXII, fig, i.)

This span-worm moth was taken in the upland forest (Sta. IV, a)
Aug 26 (No. 163).

Packard (Monogr. Geometrid Moths, p. 128. 1876) states that
the larva feeds upon grape and Psedera. These are mainly forest
plants, and this is probably a woodland species.

Caberodes confiisaria Hiibn.

This moth was taken near the upper slope of the south ravine in
open woods (Sta. IV, h) Aug. 22 (No. 161).

The larva feeds upon Trifolium.

CoCHLIDnD^

Cochlidion or Lithacodes sp. Slug Caterpillar.

This curious larva was found on a stump on the wooded ravine
slope (Sta. IV, b) Aug. 26 (No. 165).

Gelechiid^

YpsolopJms ligidelhis Hiibn. (?)

These small moths were taken in the upland woods (Sta. IV, 0)
by T. L. Hankinson June 28, 191 1 (No. 7678). The larva is reported
on apple, pear, and plum.

DiPTERA
CECrDOMYIID^

Cecidomyia holotricha O. S. (Hairy Midge-gall.)

Abundant on the under side of hickory leaves (near Sta. IV)
Aug. 20 (No. 96) ; and on leaves of Carya ovata in the upland for-
est (Sta. IV, a) Aug. 26 (Nos. 107 and 170). These brownish,
hairy galls may cover large areas on the under side of some leaves.
See Cook '05, p. 840, or Beutenmiiller '04, p. 1.12.

Cecidomyia tiibicola O. S. (Hickory Tube-gall.)

Immature galls (No. 107) were found Aug. 20 in the upland
Bates woods (Sta. IV, a) on the lower side of leaves of Carya ovata.

230

Cecidoniyia carycccola O. S. (Hickory Seed-gall.)

This gall was taken on Carya ovata leaves in the upland forest
(Sta. IV, a) Aug. 20 (No. 107); and Aug. 26 (No. 170). Many
galls are formed on hickory and other trees by plant-lice (Cf. Per-
gande, '02).

AsiLIDzE

Dcroniyia discolor Loew.

This robber-fly was taken in an open area in the lowland forest
(Sta. IV, c) Aug. 20 (No. 117). Williston (Kingsley's Standard
Natural History, Vol. 2, pp. 418-419. 1884) states that most robber-
fiies "rest upon the ground, and fly up w^hen disturbed, with a quick
buzzing sound only to alight again a short distance ahead. All their
food, which consists wholly of other insects, is caught upon the
wing .... Other flies and Hymenoptera are usually their food,
but flying beetles, especially Cicmdelidcc, are often caught, and they
have even been known to seize and carry off large dragonflies. Not
only will they feed upon other Asilidcc, but the female frequently
resents the caresses of her mate by eating him up, especially if he is
foolish enough to put himself in her power. In an instance the
writer observed, a female seized a pair of her own species, and thrust-
ing her proboscis into the thorax of the male, carried them both off

together The larvse live chiefly under ground or in rotten

wood, especially in places infested with grubs of beetles upon which
they will feed. The young larvae will bore their way completely
within beetle larvae and remain enclosed until they have consumed
them. Many, however, are found where they evidently feed upon
rootlets or other vegetable substances. They undergo their trans-
formations in the ground. The pupae have the head provided with
tubercles, and on the abdominal segments there are also spiny pro-
tuberances and transverse rows of bristles, which aid the insects to
reach the surface when they are ready to escape as flies." Mar-
latt (Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash., Vol. 2, p. 82. 1893) observed D. dis-
color preying upon wasps of the genus Vcspa. By seizing the head
of the wasp it avoids being stung.

Deromyia umbrinus Loew.

A specimen of this large robber-fly was taken in the south ravine
(Sta. IV, d) by T. L. Hankinson, with the eucerid bee Mclissodes
pcrplexa Cresson in its grip, Aug. 22, 1910 (No. 7530).

231

Syrphid^

Chrysotoxum vcntricosmn Loew.

This wasp-like fly was found resting on a leaf in the upland for-
est (Sta. IV, a) Aug. 26 (No. 163).

Mesograjiiiua poUtuin Say. Corn Syrphid.

This fly was taken by T. L. Hankinson in the Bates woods (Sta.
IV) June 28, 191 1 (No. 7678). See the prairie list, p. 188.

Milesia ornata Fabr. Vespa-like Syrphid.

This beautiful large syrphid was taken on dogbane in an open
space in the upland forest (Sta. IV, a) Aug. 20 (No. 103) ; in the
open glade in the lowland forest (Sta. IV, c) Aug. 22 (No. 143);
and on Aug. 26 (No. 184) on the flowers of Bupatorimn caiestinum
in the clutches of the flower spider Misumeiia aleatoria Hentz. It
was also taken in the Bates woods by T. L. Hankinson June 28, 191 1
(No. 7678). Metcalf ('13, p. 73) quotes Verrall as follows con-
cerning the subfamily Milcsiiiicc: "What little is known about the
metamorphism shows that many species live in rotten wood or about
the sap flowing from injured tree trunks."

Hymenoptera

SlRICID^

Tremex columha Linn. Horntail ; Pigeon Tremex.

This species was taken on wing in the upland forest (Sta. IV, a)
Aug. 16 (No. 66) ; and on the open slope of a ravine (Sta. IV, h)
Aug. 22 (No. 132).

The larva bores in the trunks of trees, as oak, elm, sycamore, and
maple. Consult Packard ('90, pp. 379-381) for a description and
figure of the larva. The long-sting, Thalessa lunator, is an external
parasite upon this larva (see Riley, '88). I have taken normally
colored females at Bloomington, 111., July 25, Sept. 29, and Oct. 8.
Two abnormally colored individuals were taken in September, one
of them almost, and the other (taken Sept. 29) completely lacking
the usual black markings. A female was taken at Milmine, III, in
October. Consult Bradley ('13) for a key to the varieties of this
species of Tremex.

An interesting feature in the ecological relations of this species
is the fact that it appears to frequent only weakened, diseased, and
dying trees, and these, not as a primary invader, but as a trailer,
following insects which have done previous injury to the trees.
Felt ('05, p. 61) shows that in New York successive attacks of the

232

elm leaf -beetle, or injury by the sugar maple borer Plagionotus
speciosus Say, prepare the way for the horntail larva. Ecologically
considered, the leaf-beetle and the borer initiate a succession of in-
sect invasions into the tree trunk; Tremex follows, with its parasite
Thalcssa; and these in turn lead the way for still others ; thus a suc-
cession ojf insects is produced.

Cynipid^

Holcaspis globulus Fitch. (Oak Bullet Gall.)

This gall was taken on white oak, Qiiercus alba, in the upland
forest (Sta. IV, a) Aug. 26 (No. 170).

Consult Cook ('05) and Beutenmiiller ('04) for figures and de-
scriptions of various kinds of galls mentioned in this list.

AmpJiiholips confluens Harr. (Oak-apple or May-apple Gall.)

These galls were abundant upon the forest floor in the upland
Bates woods (Sta. IV, a) during August (No. loi). The galls grow
upon the leaves of several species of oaks (Quercus).

Amphibolips primus Walsh. (Acorn Plum Gall.) (PI. LXII, fig. 2.)
A single specimen of this gall was found on the slope of the south
ravine in Bates woods (Sta. TV,b) Aug. 22 (No. 131). Another
specimen came from the woods northeast of the Bates woods Aug.
20 (No. 96). It grows upon acorn cups.

Andricus claznila Bass. (White Oak Club Gall.) (PI. LXII, fig. 5.)

This gall, formed in the terminal bud, was common on white oak,
Quercus alba, in the upland Bates woods (Sta. IV, o) Aug. 26 (No.
170).

Andricus cornigcrus O. S. (Horned Knot Oak Gall.) (PI. LXII,

fig- 3-)
This gall occurred in very large numbers on the branches of

shingle oak, Quercus imbricaria, in a forest just northeast of the

Bates woods, Aug. 20 (No. 96). The galls are old and apparently

decaying.

Andricus lana Fitch. (Oak Wool Gall.) (PI. LXII, fig. 4.)

Two examples of this gall were found on leaves of white oak,
Quercus alba: one was taken near the Bates woods (Sta. IV) Aug.
20 (No. 96), and the other was found in the Bates woods (Sta. IV, a)
on the petiole of a leaf, Aug. 26 (No. 170).

Andricus seminator Harr. (Oak Seed-gall.) (PI. LXIII, fig. i.)

A single specimen of this gall was found upon Quercus alba
(Sta. IV, a) Aug. 20 (No. lOii). The cotton-like masses of this

233

gall are conspicuous. They may be tinged with red; when dry they
become brownish.

ICHNEUMONID^

Thalessa hinator Fabr. Lunate Long-sting.

A female ichneumon of this species was found on a tree trunk in
the open glade in the lowland forest (Sta. IV, c) Aug. 22 (No. 143).

The larva feeds, as an external parasite, upon the larva of the
horntail, Tremex coluniba, which was also found in the Bates woods
(Sta. IV). I found T. hinator-, both males and females, abundant
on shade trees at Bloomington, 111., October i, 1892, and also took it
July 26, 1895. Riley ('88) gives an excellent account of this species
accompanied by figures of the immature stages, and that of its host
as well.

Tragus obsidianator Brulle.

This black ichneumon with fulvous antennae was taken in the
Bates woods (Sta. IV) June 28, 191 1, by T. L. Hankinson (No.
7678). This wasp is known to be parasitic upon the larva of Papilio
polyccncs Fabr. {P. astcrias — Insect Life, Vol. i, p. 161) and
upon the caterpillar of Pyrrharctia Isabella ( ?). This species has been
taken in central Illinois during June and July (Weed, Psyche, Vol. 5, p.
52). (See also Riley, in Amer. Ent., Vol. 3, p. 134, 1880.)

Pelecinid^

Pelccimts polyturator Drnry. Black Longtail. (PI. LXIII, fig. 2.)

This remarkable looking insect was found in the glade of the
lowland forest (Sta. IV, c) Aug. 20 (No. 117) and Aug. 22 (No.
143). Other females were seen in this forest.

I have also taken this species at Bloomington, 111. At Evanston,
111., during July, 1910, this species was very abundant upon some
damp lawns. I have counted four or five females in sight at once.
They were often found upon blue-grass sod. The male of this
species is considered very rare. The only one which I ever captured
was taken July 29, 1910, at Evanston, 111. The larva is parasitic
upon the grub of the May-beetle, Lachnosterna (Forbes, Eighteenth
Rep. State Ent. Ill, p. 124. 1894). It may also prey upon other
scarabseid larvae inhabiting woodlands.

FORMICID^

Stigmatomma pallipes Hald. Old-fashioned Ant.

A single wingless queen and four pupae (No. 140) were taken
Aug. 22 near the base of a ravine slope (Sta. IV, h) in dense shaded

234

woods, almost devoid of herbaceous vegetation, but with a thick layer
of leaves, and other vegetable debris.

Wheeler (Biol. Bull., Vol. 2, pp. 56-69. 1901) considers this a
rather rare ant, although widely distributed over eastern North
America. It is subterranean in habit, and "does not come to the
surface even at night." Contrary to the habits of mcjst ants this
primitive species has retained the carnivorous habits of the ancestral
forms, and the young are fed on fragments of insects. They do not
feed one another, or the larvae by regurgitation, as do the specialized
species of ants. They thus furnish us a glimpse at the ancient his-
tory of ants. Wheeler ('05, pp 374-375) states that this species oc-
curs only in "rich, rather damp w^oods, under stones, leaf mould,
or more rarely under or in rotten logs."

A worker of Myrmica rubra Linn., subsp. scabrinodis Nyl., var.
schencki Emery (No. 140) was taken from the same patch of leaves.

Creinastogastcr lineolata Say. (PI. LXII, fig. 6.)

This ant w-as taken only once — in the upland part of the Bates
woods (Sta. IV, a) Aug. 20 (No. 118). Large numbers of the ants
were found in an oak-apple gall {Aniphibolips confincns Harr.)
lying on the forest flloor. XAHien I picked up the gall, many ants
came out and ran over my hand, biting vigorously.

This is essentially a ground and forest-inhabiting ant, which
forms nests in the soil, under stones, and in logs, stumps, etc. It
has the peculiar instinct to make a sort of temporary nest out of
debris to cover the aphids and coccids wdiich it attends (Wheeler,
Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., Vol. 22, pp. 1-18. 1906).

Several carnivorous staphylinid beetles of the genus Myrmedonia
have been taken in the nests of these ants (Wheeler, 'loa, p. 382;
Schwarz, '90b, p. 247).

Aphcrnogastcr fidva Roger.

A well-rotted stump in the upland Bates woods (Sta. IV, a) was
found Aug. 17 to contain a moist, felt-like layer of some fungous
growth, and on this was a large colony of snails (No. 71). In an
adjacent part of this stump was a small colony of white ants. Vermes
fuivipes Koll. (No. 72). A colony of ants which was in close prox-
imity to the white ants, proved to be A. fiiha Roger. As the gal-
leries were exposed by cutting up the stump, these ants were seen to
pick up the termites and carry them away, just as they do their own
young on similar occasions. Five pairs — the ant and the termite
which it carried — were preserved (Nos. 74-76, and 78-79). One
of the termites lacks a head. All of them were workers. Larvae
and naked pupae (No. 79) w^ere abundant in this nest, and workers
(No. 80) were abundant about the stump. On Aug. 22 another

235

colony of this ant (No. 125) was found under the bark of a decaying
oak stump (Sta. IV) in which the sap-wood was honeycombed, but
the remainder soHd, though discolored.

Forel (Psyche, Vol. 9, p. 237. 1901) remarks that Aphccnogas-
ter is "very fond of termites, and when one uncovers and scatters
about a nest of termites in a wood, they hasten to feast on the suc-
culent morsels." These observations suggest the possible fate of
the captured termites ; none of the ants were seen to eat them, how-
ever. In the absence of observations, the missing head mentioned
above may be variously accounted for.

This habit of carrying off termites has been observed in other
species of ants. Forbes (19th Rep. State Ent. 111., p. 198. 1896) re-
ports that near Carterville, Mason county. 111., Mr. John Marten
observed Formica schaiifiissi {^=Fortnica pallid c-fiih' a Linn., subsp.
scliaufitssi Mayr) to pick up and carry away the living termites
when its nest under a log in which termites abounded, was disturbed,
and McCook (Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1879, p. 155) has ob-
served similar behavior in the case of the mound-building ant, For-
mica exscctoidcs Forel.

The histerid beetle Hetcrriits hlaiichardi Schwarz has been found
in nests of this ant (Wheeler, 'loa, pp. 388, 389) ; and European ob-
servers have seen ants carrying and rolling them about. Consult
also Schwarz ('90b, 247) for a list of beetles found with this ant.

Wheeler ('loa, p. 206) lists A. fidva as a glade species which in
the forests utilizes logs and branches as substitutes for stones. (See
Wheeler, '05, pp. 372-373.)

Apharnogastcr tcnncssccnsis Mayr. Tennessee Ant.

A colony of this ant (No. 87) was taken Aug. 17 from a decaying
stump, situated on the slope (Sta. IV, b) from the upland forest to
the lowland on the river bottom.

According to Wheeler (Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., Vol. 20, 1904,
p. 362, and Vol. 21, 1905. p. 373) this species normally nests in dead
wood in rather open forests. He holds the opinion that the queen of
this species can not rear her own brood, and thus establish a new
colony, but must utilize a small or weak colony of the allied species
A. fulva Roger, which lives under stones. Thus the new colonies are
started under stones ; later, when they become numerous, they are
found in rotten wood. This, Wheeler concludes, indicates that they
"migrate away from the fulva workers." Tanquary ('11) has per-
formed some interesting experiments which show that queens of
tennesseensis are adopted by colonies of other ants, a result which
seems to confirm Wheeler's anticipation.

Schwarz ('90b, p. 247) records two beetles found with this ant.

236

Formica fusca Linn., var. subsericea Say.

This ant was taken in the upland Bates woods (Sta. IV, a) Aug.
26 (No. 163). See the list of prairie invertebrates, p. 190.

Myrmica rubra Linn., subsp. scabrinodis Nyl., var. schencki Emery.

This ant (No. 140) was found Aug. 22 under leaves in a small
ravine on a shady slope (Sta. IV, b) from the upland forest to the
valley bottoms. The soil under these leaves had been thoroughly tun-
neled by small mammals during the preceding winter, but recently the
leaves had not been disturbed. The soil was a mixture of sand, clay,
and vegetable debris, was moist, and contained few kinds of animals.
A single ant of this variety (No. 140) was taken while collecting spec-
imens of Stigmatomma pallipes.

This species is listed iDy Wheeler (Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., Vol.
2i> P- 373- 1905) as a field ant which prefers to nest in grassy pas-
tures and lawns, in situations exposed to the sun. Our specimen
was, therefore, found in an unusual habitat.

Tapinoma sessile Say. Cocoanut Ant.

This cocoanut ant, so called because of the odor of the workers,
which has been compared to that of decayed cocoanuts, was found
in the lowland part of the Bates woods, at the base of the slope to
the bottoms (Sta. IV, c) Aug. 22 (No. 139). A large colony was
found among the surface layers of dry dead leaves ; from it were se-
cured two c^ueens, vast numbers of eggs, and also larvre, pupae, and
workers. Wheeler ('05, pp. 373, 389) states that this ant usually
nests in open sunny woods, the borders of woods, and under stones,
logs, etc.

Schwarz ('90b, p. 247) records beetles as living with this ant.

Camponotus herculeanus Linn., subsp. pennsyhanicus DeG. Carpen-
ter Ant.
This species was taken from under the bark of a rotting stump
among a dense second-growth, on the valley slope (Sta. IV, b) be-
tween the upland and the lowland forest Aug. 17 (No. 84). This
stump was in that stage of decay so often utilized by the large Caro-
lina slug, Pliilomycus carolinensis, and the horned Passalus beetle,
Passaliis cornuhis. The colony was recently founded, for the dea-
lated female occupied a small cell excavated in the rotten sap-wood.
This colony consisted of four pupae and six larvae of different sizes.
Another colony was taken in the same stump, from the rotted sap-
wood zone, in company with the snail Pliilomycus carolinensis and
some kind of pulmonate snail eggs. This colony was in a more ad-
vanced stage than the preceding, about a dozen larvae, seven pupae,

237

and two adult workers being present, and about half a dozen ejrcrs
(No. 85).

Pricer ('08) has given an interesting account of the life history
and habits of this ant in Illinois. He states (p. 197) that the food
is largely the honeydew of plant-lice, but is supplemented by plant
juices and dead insects. He found a small staphylinid beetle, Xeno-
dusa cava, abundant in the nests.

I have found pennsylvanicns abundant at Bloomington, 111., and
represented as follows : by a male June 29 ; by a winged female in
June ; and by dealated females June 29 and July 2 and 25.

McCook ('83) has given an interesting account of the found-
ing of colonies of this ant. See also Wheeler, '06b, pp. 38-39, Plate
VIII, and 'lob, pp. 335-338, for further information concerning it.

Camponotus hercitlcaims Linn., subsp. pennsylvanicns DeG., var.
ferruginens Fabr.

This variety was taken a short distance to the northeast of the
Bates woods (Sta. IV) Aug. 20 (No. 97). Here the large ground-
beetle Calosoma scrutator was found running on the ground with
what appeared to be a bunch of greenish moss; a large reddish ant
also struggled for possession of the prize. Upon closer examination
it was found that the skin of some large lepidopterous larva was
the object desired. This skin, recently shed or moistened by a recent
rain, was a prize for both ferruginens and Calosoma.

A dead wingless ferruginens, covered with a fungus growth, was
found in a small cell excavated in the rotten wood of a decaying log
on the ravine slope (Sta. IV, b) Aug. 17 (No. 90). Apparently this
female had died before her colony developed. (See Pricer, '08;
Wheeler 'lob, pp. 338-339.)

I have found this form abundant at Bloomington, 111. Winged
females were taken July 26, dealated ones on July 25 and 26, and
males June 29, and July 9 and 25. On July 21, 1892, several males
were taken at night, being attracted to a lamp located near a small
brook.

A very large colony, numbering thousands of individuals, was
found May 26, under a well-decayed log, in a forest at White Heath,
111. It contained winged males, females, and workers. The winged
forms were present in vast numbers. The far-advanced condition of
decay of the log was in marked contrast with that in which the initial
colonies are usually found. During the years of development of
such a large colony the progress of decay will naturally make some
changes in the habitat; reciprocally the ants will doubtless tend to
monopolize the logs to the exclusion of some other animals, and

238

also facilitate the decay of the log by their activities. There is an
"orderly sequence" of changes in the developing colony, and a simi-
lar orderly seciuence of changes in the log habitat.

An ant colony in its development clearly illustrates the transfor-
mation from the individual to the associational phase of ecological
relations. Beginning with the fertilized female and her progeny,
the colony develops in size and in the division of labor among its
members ; until, finally, by the possible addition of slaves, commen-
sals, parasites, and even predaceous enemies, the colony or associa-
tion is built up in an orderly sequence, and the organisms adjust
themselves to one another and to the environment in general.

MUTILLID^

Sphccrophthahna sp. Velvet Ant.

This stinging, wingless velvet ant was taken at the margin of the
forest near the cleared area (Sta. IV, a) Aug. 23 (No. 151).

PSAMMOCHARID/E

Psanimochares ccthiops Cress. (Pompilus Fabr. J

This large black wasp was taken by T. L. Hankinson July 10,
191 1, in the Bates woods (No. 7693). It probably stores its nest
with spiders.

Sphecid.^

Amnwphila abbreviata Fabr. Short Caterpillar Wasp.

This wasp was taken on the open ravine slope (Sta. IV, h) Aug.
22 (No. 124). One example (No. 127) was running on the ground
in the upland forest (Sta. IV, a) with a quiescent bombycine cater-
pillar— probably Hcterocampa giittk'itta Walk. — in its grip.

I took this species of wasp at Bloomington, III, July 26. Its
copulating habits have been recorded, with figures, by Turner ('02).

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Hopkins, A. D.

'93a. Catalogue of West Virginia Scolytidse and their enemies.

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'99. Report on investigations to determine the cause of unhealthy
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'04. Catalogue of exhibits of insect enemies of forests and forest
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Hopkins, C. G., Mosier, J. G., Pettit, J. H., and Readhimer, J. E.

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Hopkins, C. G., and Pettit, J. H.

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Howard, L. O.

'91. The parasites of the Hemerobiinse. Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash.,

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'07. Note on the coupling of Bnipis borealis. Ent. Mo. Mag.
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'85. Insects affecting the orange. U. S. Dept. Agr., Div. Ent.
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'92. The inhabitants of a fungus. Can. Ent., 24:250-255,

'97. The ambrosia beetles of the United States. U. S. Dept.
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'01. The Aphididae of North America. Bull. Iowa Agr. Exper.
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'08. A synopsis of the genus Pemphigus, with notes on their
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'74. Deutschlands Thierwelt nach ihren Standorten eingetheilt,
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'09-12. The fungus gnats of North America. Parts I — IV,
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'95. Destructive effect of winds on sandy soils and light sandy-
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Knab, E.

'05. Observations on Lampyridae. Can. Ent., 37 : 238-239.

Knapp, J. B.

'12. Fire-killed Douglas fir: a study of its rate of deterioration,
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'11. A revision of the powder-post beetles of the family Lycti-
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'96. The water resources of Illinois. Ann. Rep. U. S. Geol.

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'06. The relation of desert plants to soil moisture and to evap-
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'99. Beetles (Coleoptera) injurious to fruit-producing plants.
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'83. How a carpenter ant cjueen founds a formicary. Proc.
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'10. A note on the light-emission of some American Lampyridae.
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'11. Some further observations on the light-emission of Ameri-
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'13a. Wells and subsoil water. U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Soils,
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'86. A remarkable case of longevity in a longicorn beetle (Bbu-
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'12. The range of evaporation and soil moisture in the oak-
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'09. Milt 0 gramma German, Mg., and Amaurosoma flavipes,

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Marlatt, C. L.

'94a. The hibernation of the chinch-bug. U. S. Dept. Agr.,

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'94b. The pear-tree Psylla in Maryland. U. S. Dept. Agr., Div.

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'12. Behavior of fire-flies (Photinus pyralis) with special ref-
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'03. Feathers beside the Styx. The Condor, 5 : 36-38.

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'13. The Syrphidae of Ohio. A biologic, economic, and syste-
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Miller, L.

'67. Die Abhangigkeit der Insekten von ihrer Umgebung.
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'10. Descriptive meteorology. 344 pp. New York.

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'04. Researches on North American Acridiidae. Carnegie Insti-
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'98. A contribution to the study of the fauna of the grave. A
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Murtfeldt, M. E.

'94. Acorn insects, primary and secondary. U. S. Dept. Agr.,
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Needham, J. G.

'98. Outdoor studies: a reading book of nature study. 90 pp.
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'06. The crawfishes of the State of Pennsylvania. Mem. Car-
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Osborn, H.

'90. Report on insects of the season in Iowa. U. S. Dept. Agr.,
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'92. Catalogue of the Hcmiptera of Iowa. Proc. Iowa Acad.
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'97a. Contributions to the hemipterous fauna of Iowa. Proc.
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'97b. Studies of the life histories of grass-feeding Jassidae.
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'94. Notes on injurious insects. Bull. Iowa Agr. Exper. Sta.,
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'82. Ueber das Betragen des calif ornischen fliigellosen Bittacus
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'73. Our common insects. 225 pp. Salem, Mass.

'83. Guide for the study of insects. Eighth ed. 715 pp. New
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'90. Insects injurious to forest and shade trees. Fifth Rep.
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'98. A text-book of entomology. 729 pp. New York.

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'12. Food plant catalogue of the Aphidae of the world. Part I.
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'87. Some observations on the mental powers of spiders. Journ.
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'98. On the instincts and habits of the solitary wasps. Bull.
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'04. Some hypermetamorphic beetles and their hymenopteroiis
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'12. Lightning in relation to forest fires. U. S. Dept. Agr.,
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'12. Insects injurious to mushrooms. Circ. No. 155, U. S. Dept.
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'72. Fourth annual report on the noxious, beneficial, and other
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'74. Sixth annual report on the noxious, beneficial, and other

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'93. Catalogue of the exhibit of economic entomology at the

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'89. Flowers and insects: Umbellifera^. Trans. Acad. Sci. St.
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'91. Flowers and insects, Asclepiadace?e to Scrophulariacese.
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'99. Flowers and insects. XIX. Bot. Gaz., 28: 27-45.

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Roth, F.

'95. Timber : An elementary discussion of the characteristics
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Ruthven, A. G.

'08. The faunal affinities of the prairie region of central North
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Schantz, H. L.

'11. Natural vegetation as an indicator of the capabilities of
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'02. The diseases of the hardy catalpa. U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur.
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Schrenk, H. v., and Spaulding, P.

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Schwarz, E. A.

'82. Wood-boring Coleoptera. Am. Nat., 16: 823-824.

'90a. Notes on Cicada septendecim in 1889. Proc. Ent. Soc.
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'90b. Myrmecophilous Coleoptera found in temperate North
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'05. The home of the chinch bug. U. S. Dept. Agr., Div. Ent.,
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'oi. Index to North American Orthoptera. Alphabetical index
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'10. The effect of moisture and dryness on the emergence from
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'iia. The life-history of the walking-stick, Diapheromera fem-
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'lie. A few suggestions on the care of the eggs and the rearing
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'11. Ecological succession. I. Stream fishes and the method of

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Shimek, B.

'01. The loess of Iowa City and vicinity. Bull. Lab. Nat. Hist.
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'10. Geology of Harrison and Monona counties. Ann. Rep.
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Simpson, G. B.

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Sladen, F. W. L.

'12. The humble-bee: its life-history and how to domesticate it,
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Slingerland, M. V.

'95. Climbing cutworms in Western New York. Bull. Cornell
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'00. The role of insects in the forest. Ann. Rep. State Geol.
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'10. The insects of New Jersey. Ann. Rep. N. J. State Mus.,
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Snyder, T. E.

'10. Damage to chestnut telephone and telegraph poles by wood-
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'11. Damage to telephone and telegraph poles by wood-boring
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'95, Spherularia bombi in America. Ent. News, 6: 248-250.

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'09. Catalogue of the described Scolytidsc of America, north of
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'04. A preliminary catalogue of the described species of the
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'11. Experiments on the adoption of Lasius, Formica and Poly-
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'12. The earthquakes at Yakutat Bay, Alaska, in September,
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'79. Eighth report of the state entomologist on the noxious and
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'86. Coleoptera found in dead trunks of Tilia americana L. in

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'06. Geology and underground water resources of northern
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'13a. Local distribution of grasshoppers in relation to plant as-
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'14. Internal relations of terrestrial associations. Am. Nat., 48:
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'64. On the insects, coleopterous, hymenopterous and dipterous,
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'09. Oecology of plants : an introduction to the study of plant
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'09. The southern pine sawyer. U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Ent.,
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'80. Notes upon the food of predaceous beetles. Bull. 111. State
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'90. Report of observations upon insects affecting grains. U. S.
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'93. Insects affecting the blackberry and raspberry. Bull. Ohio
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'03a. vSome insect inhabitants of the stems of Blymiis canaden-
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'89. A descriptive catalogue of the Phalangiinsc of Illinois.
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'91. The polished harvest spider. Am. Nat., 25:295-297.

'92a. Descriptions of new or little-known North American

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'93. A descriptive catalogue of the harvest-spiders (Phalangii-
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Weismann, A.

'91. The duration of life. Essays upon heredity and kindred
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'00. The habits of Ponera and Stigmatomma. Biol. Bull., 2 :

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'lob. The North American ants of the genus Camponotus Mayr.
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'12. The climate of Wisconsin and its relation to agriculture.
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Wickham, H. F.

'96. Description of the larva; of some heteromerous and rhyn-
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'10. The Aphididse of Nebraska. Univ. Studies, Univ. Neb.,
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Williamson, E. B.

'00. The dragonflies of Indiana. Twenty-fourth Ann. Rep.
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Wolcott, G. N.

'14. Notes on the life history and ecology of Tiphia inornata
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Woodruff, L. L.

'12. A summary of the results of certain physiological studies
on a pedigreed race of Paramaecium. Biochem. Bull., i :
396-412.

Yapp, R. H.

'09. On stratification in the vegetation of a marsh, and its rela-
tion to evaporation and temperature. Ann. Bot. 23: 275-319.

Zon, R.

'13. The relation of forests in the Atlantic plain to the humid-
itv of the central states and prairie region. Science, n. s.,
38 : 63-75.

Zon, R., and Graves, H. S.

'11. Light in relation to tree growth. U. S. Dept. Agr., Forest
Service, Bull. No. 92. 59 pp.

INDEX

Acanthocerus galeator, 64, 65, 126.
Acariiia, 164, 208.
Acarus serotiiia3, 126, 140, 208.
Acer sacchariiium, 149.

saccharum, 42, 62, 63, 123, 126, 151,
157.
Acorn codling-caterpillar, 141.

moth, 141.

plum gall, 61, 232.
Acorns, 141.

Acridiidffi, 115, 166, 211.
Acrosoma, 138.

gracile, 207.

rugosa, 58, 64, 65, 125, 126, 138,
207.

spinea, 64, 65, 125, 126, 138, 207.
Actinomeris alternifolia, 63, 125, 219.
Adelphocoris rapidus, 53, 174, 175.
Adiantum pedatum, 63.
AgapetidfE, 226.
Agrilus, 144.
Agriotes lineatus, 116.
Agropyron smithii, 39.
Alaus, 145.

oculatus, 145.
Alder, 77, 84, 139.
Aletia, 218.

Allograpta obliqua, 53, 188.
Alydus qiiinqnespinosus, 65, 219.
Amanita, 136.
Amazon-ant, 191.
Amblycorypha, 138, 140.

oblongifolia, 215.

rotundifolia, 64, 126, 215.
Ambrosia, 118, 171.

artemisiifolia, 176.

beetles, 137.

trifida, 178, 179.
Ambush bug, 45, 46, 48, 50, 52, 53,

104, 174, 185, 189.
Ammalo, 109.

eglenensis, 53, 183.

tenera, 53, 183.
Ammophila, 140.

abbreviata, 59, 62, 125, 132, 159,
228, 238.

nigricans, 52, 194.

Amphibolips, 140.

confluens, 232, 234.

prunus, 61, 232.
Andricus, 140.

clavula, 59, 232.

cornigerus, 65, 232.

lana, 59, 65, 232.

seminator, 232.
Andropogon, 40, 49, 55, 111, 160, 163,
167, 168, 169, 170, 171, 181, 212,
215, 216.

furcatus, 39, 49, 53, 112.

virginicu's, 39, 49, 53.
Anisodactylus interstitialis, 135.
Anosia plexippus, 45, 46, 47, 50, 51,

113, 183.
Ant, Amazon-, 191.

carpenter-, 62, 147, 150, 154, 203,
' 236.

cocoanut, 64, 236.

corn-field, 119.

-lion, 58, 165, 209.
prairie, 50.

old-fashioned, 61, 233.

rusty carpenter-, 62, 65.

Tennessee, 61, 235.

velvet, 192, 238.

white, 58, 61, 147, 150, 152, 154,
202, 204, 208, 234.
Antennaria, 124.

plantaginifolia, 57.
Anthrax sinuosa, 198.
Ants, 35, 125, 140, 171, 177.
Apatela, 105.

populi, 105.
Aphsenogaster, 235.

fulva, 59, 65, 159, 202, 204, 208,
234, 235.

tennesseensis, 61, 235.
Aphididie, 35, 171.
Aphids, 137, 188, 234.
Aphis, 158.

asclepiadis, 109, 112, 118, 171, 188,
190.
Aphorista vittata, 136.
Apidse, 200.
Apis mellifera, 45, 46, 47, 50, 51, 200.

266

Apithus, 132.

agitator, 58, 61, 124, 217.
Aplexa hypnorum, 161.
Aplopus mayeri, 211.
Apocvnum, 104, 109, 113, 118, 173,
183, 201.

androssemifolium, 179.

medium, 44, 45, 49, 57, 109, 178,
183, 193, 223.
Apple, 146, 149, 229.
Arachnida, 161, 205.
Araneida, 162, 206.
Arctiida3, 183, 227.
Argiope, 120, 164, 165.

aurantia, 42, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49,
50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 104, 107, 108,
109, 111, 121, 162, 165, 182.

Tiparia, 162.

transversa, 163.
Argynnis idalia, 45, 146, 183.
Arhopalus fulminans, 147.
Aristolochia, 225.
Army-worm, 189.
Arrhenoplita bicornis, 136.
Artemisia, 175.

Asaplies memnonius, 64, 126, 221.
Asclepias, 118, 172, 178, 181.

cornuti, 113, 173.

incarnata. 39. 44, 49, 103, 112, liS,
160, 163, 171, 172, 173, 174, 175,
176, 177, 178, 179, 182, 183, 184,
186, 192, 194, 198, 200.

sullivantii. 43. 49, 112, 182.

syriaca, 112, 104, 171, 173, 176, 178,
ISO, 188, 189, 190, 191, 201.

tuberosa, 183.
Ash, 77, 78, 147, 149, 152, 227.

black, 149.

prickly, 60, 63, 138, 179, 183, 217,
225.'
Asilida^, 48, 49, 108, 115, 186, 190,

210, 230.
Asilus, 187.

missouriensis, 187.
Asparagus beetle, imported, 172,
Aspidiotus obscurus, 156.
Astacida^, 161, 204.
Aster, 188.
Attelabus rkois, 139.
Attidse, 164.

Aulacizes irrorata, 64, 126, 218.
Autographa, 138.

precationis, 64, 126, 227.

B

Bacteria, 89, 90.
Bacunculus blatchleyi, 211.

Bag-worm, 154, 156.
Balaninus, 142.

caryte, 141.

nasicus, 141.

reniformis, 141.

uniformis, 141.
Bark-beetle, hickory, 154.
Basilona, 140.

imperialis, 64, 227.
Basswood or linden, 77, 136, 141, 146,

149, 151, 152, 174, 227, 228.
Beans, 179.
Beard grass, 53.
Bee, carpenter-, 45, 46, 104, 198, 199.

-fly, giant, 50, 52, 53, 185.

honey-, 45, 46, 50, 51, 104, 187, 200.

leaf -cutting, 50, 198.

moths, 100.

short leaf-cutting, 52, 198,
Beech, 76, 80, 85, 147, 152, 157, 214.
Bees, 186, 192.
Beet, 182.

Beggar-ticks, 53, 103.
Bellflower, 63.
Benzoin, 138, 207.
Bidens, 44, 103, 118, 171, 172.
Bill-bugs, 50.
Birch, 149, 228.
Birds, 100.
Bittacus, 62, 126, 133, 190.

apicalis, 126, 210.

stigmaterus, 64, 126, 209, 210.

strigosus, 126, 210.
Bitternut, 57, 60, 63, 228.
Bittersweet, 63, 224.
Blackberry, 129, 148, 170, 216.
Blastobasis glandulella, 141.
Blattida^, 210.
Blazing star, 199, 200.
Blissus leucopterus, 111.
Blister-beetle, black, 52, 53, 55, 180.

margined. 52, 53, 180.

striped. 180.

two-lined. 180.
Blister-beetles, 180.
Blue flag. 44, 103.

stem. 40. 53. 55, 166, 168, 169, 170,
171, 181.
Boletotherus. 159.

bifurcus. 64, 126, 136. 224.
Bombidfe. 199.

Bombus. 47. 51, 117. 119. 120, 121,
187, 200.

auricomus, 56. 108, 111. 200.

consimilis. 200.

fervidus. 200.

fraternus, 45, 46, 50, 111, 200.

267

Bombus — continued.

impatiens, 56, 108, 111, 200.

pennsylvanicus, 45, 46, 54, 56, 108,
109 111 199.

separatus,'45, 46, 50, 52, 111, 163,
200.
Bombycid, 220.
Bombyliidae, 115, 185.
Bombylius, 186.
Borer, elm, 146, 154.

flat-headed apjile-tree, 146.

heartwood, 154.

hickory, 147.

locust, 145, 154.

sugar-maple, 232.
Borers, wood, 99, 100.
Bothropolys multidentatus, 134.
Botrychium virginianum, 63.
Box 'elder, 143.
Brachycoma, 120.

davidsoni, 200.
Brachynemurus abdomiiialis, 50, 51,

ill, 165.
Bracon agrili, 144, 159.
Braconidse, 158, 190.
Branehiobdellidse, 66.
Brenthid, northern, 147.
Brontes dubius, 151.
Brown-tailed moth, 156.
Buck -brush, 63.
Buckwheat, climbing, 227.
Buflfalo, 118.

Bug. ambush, 45, 46, 48, 50, 52, 53,
104, 174, 185, 189.

chinch, 111, 114.

flea negro-, 172.

leaf-footed, 138.

milkweed, see milkweed bug.

plant-, see plant-bug.

slender-necked, 135.

squash-, 189.

stinging, 174.

stink-, 50, 51, 187.
Bulrush, 44, 103.
Bumblebee, false, 52, 54, 120, 200.

impatient, 56, 200.

Pennsylvania, 45, 54, 56, 199.
Bumblebees, 47, 117.
Buprestidfe, 144, 145.
Buprestis splendens, 142.
Burdock, 227.
Bush honeysuckle, 183.
Butterflies,"- 187.
Butterfly, cabbage, 56, 182, 186.

celery, 45, 182.

cresphontes, 225.

eurytus, 65, 226.

idalia, 45, 183.

Butterfly — continued.

milkweed, 45, 50, 183.

philenor, 59, 61, 225.

philodice, 45.

portlandia, 65, 226,

thoe, 53, 183.

troilus, 59, 61, 225.

turnus, 59, 225.
Butternut, 139, 146, 149, 227.
Buttonwood, 227.

C

Caberodes confusaria, 61, 229.
Cacalia, 171.
Calandridse, 181.
Callipus, 133.

lactarius, 64, 134, 205.
Calloides nobilis, 148.
Calopteron, black-tipped, 64, 221.

reticulate, 64, 222.

reticulatum, 64, 126, 222.

terminale, 64, 126, 221.
Calosoma, 140.

scrutator, 59, 61, 124, 125, 132, 159,
220, 237.
Gambarus, 48, 50, 51.

diogenes, 66, 128, 161, 204.

gracilis, 45, 47, 48, 104, 108, 161.
immunis, 66, 205.

propinquus, 66, 205.
Campanula americana, 63.
Camponotus, 147, 150, 209.

herculeanus, 154.

pennsylvanicus, 62, 202, 204, 221,
223, 228, 236.
ferrugineus, 62, 65, 220, 237.
Campostoma anomalum, 66.
Campylenchia curvata, 48, 170.
Cankerworms, 221.
Carabidae, 116, 130, 175, 221.
Cardinalis cardinalis, 220.
Carex, 44.
Carya, 124.

aiba, 40.

cordiformis, 57, 60, 63.

glabra, 40, 57, 60.

microcarpa, 228.

ovata, 40, 57, 60, 124, 229, 230.
Catalpa, 148.

hardy, 148.
Caterpillar-hunter, 59, 61, 220.

carpenter, 154.

gall, 184.

rotten-log, 61, 150, 153, 154, 228.

slug, 61, 140, 229.

-wasp, short, 59, 62, 238.
Caterpillars, 164, 193.

268

Catogenus rufus, 148.
Cattails, 80.
Ceanothus, 223.
Cecidomyia, 140, 157, 158, 184,

caryEecola, 59, 230.

holotricha, 59, 65, 229.

salicis-brassicoides, 157.

solidaginis, 110, 184.

tubicola, 59, 229.
Cecidomyiidae, 124, 184, 229.
Cedar, red, 148.

white, 149.
Celastrus scandens, 63.
Centrinophus helvinus, 110.
Centrinus penicellus, 52, 182.

picumnus, 182.

scutellum-album, 52, 182.
Ceranibycidse, 144, 177.
Ceratocampidse, 227.
Cerceris, 195.
Cercis canadensis, 60, 63.
Ceruelius piceiis, 152.
Ceuthophilus, 135.
Chaetopsis senea, 104.
Chalcididse, 158.
Chariessa pilosa, 145.
Chauliognathus, 120. 121.

marginatus, 65, 222.

pennsylvanieus, 45, 46, 47, 51, 53,
55, 56, 104, 109, 111, 169, 176.
Cherry, 143, 148, 149, 227, 228.

black, 63.

wild, 141, 149, 208. 227.
Chestnut, 146, 149, 228.
Chiggers, 45, 46, 52, 164.
Chinch-bug, 111, 114.
Chion cinctus, 143, 144, 146.
Chloealtis conspersa, 58, 124, 132.

213.
Chlorion, 119.

atratum, 49. 54, 110, 195.

cseruleum, 192.

cyaneum, 192.

harrisi, 52, 170, 194.

ichneumoneum, 45, 46, 47, 49, 50,
51, 52, 104, 120, 121, 194, 196.

pennsylvanicum, 49, 54, 194.
Chrysobothris femorata, 144, 146,

148.
Chrysochus, 118.

auratus, 45, 46, 47, 51, 59, 104, 124,
178, 223.
Chrysomelidaj, 178, 223.
Chrysopa, 109, 158.

oculata, 50, 51, 111, 165.
Chrysophanus thoe, 53, 183.
Chrysopidse, 165.

Chrysotoxum ventricosum, 59, 231.
Chub, creek, 65.
Cicada, 125.

dog-day, 58, 196, 217.

dorsata, 170.

linnei, 58, 130, 217.

periodical, 58, 129, 130, 131, 132.

prairie, 170.

pruinosa, 196.

tibicen, 217.
Cicadas, 140.
Cicadidas, 170, 217.
Cicindela, 186, 187.

punctulata, 181.

sexguttata, 220.

unipunctata, 59, 124, 132, 219.
Cicindelidai, 219, 230.
Circinaria concava, 58, 64, 136, 201.

202, 204.
CircinariidfB, 201.
Cirsium, 46, 118, 171.

discolor, 183, 199.
Cissia eurytus, 65, 126, 138, 159, 226.
Cistogaster immaculata, 54, 189.
Citheronia, 140.

regalis, 61, 227.
Citrus, 225.

Clearweed, 60, 62, 63, 126, 138, 209.
Cleidogona, 133.

csesioannulata, 61, 205.
Cleridae, 134.

Clerus quadriguttatus, 145.
Click-beetle, 221.
Clinidium sculptile, 149.
Clover, prairie, 169, 178.

purple prairie, 54, 169, 172, 199.

red, 226.

sweet, 196.
Clytanthus albofasciatus, 147.

ruricola, 147.
Coccidffi, 139, 234.
Coccinella novemnotata, 112, 176.
Coccinellidse. 59, 176, 221.
Coehlidiidse, 229.
Cochlidion, 61, 229.
Cocklebur, 49, 189.
Cockroach, 210.

woodland, 61.
Coelioxys, 198.

Coffee-tree, Kentucky, 63, 141.
Coleoptera, 116, 158, 175, 219.
Collembola, 131.
Colletes, 197.
Cone-flower, 39, 48, 49, 169, 170, 172,

179, 189, 196, 197, 198.
Cone-nose, Nebraska, 64, i:16.
Conifers, 86, 143, 144, 227.

269

Conocephalus, 50, 51, 111, 163, 168.

nebrascensis, 64, 126, 216.
Conopidffi, 188.
Conops, 120, 200.
Conotrachelus elegans, 141.

seniculus, 138.
Coptocycla clavata, 65, 224.
Cord grass, 39, 40, 167, 170.
Cordyceps, 119, 120, 121.
Coreida3, 173, 219.
Corirachne versicolor, 151.
Corixida}, 66.
Corn, 85, 177, 179, 182, 218.

root-worm, southern, 48, 53, 179.
western, 179.
Cornus, 122, 147.
Corthylus, 137.
Corymbites, 64, 221.
Cotton, 218.
Cottonwood, 76, 103, 105, 106, 120,

121, 148, 149, 157.
Couch grass, 39.
Crab-apple, 55, 56, 129, 146.
Crab-spider, see Spider, ambush,

crab-, or flower.
Crambidse, 115.
Cranberry, 77. 79, 84.
Crane-flies, 201.
Craspedosomidas, 205.
Cratfegus, 146.
Cratoparis lunatus, 137.
Crawfish, 35, 44, 66, 108, 114. 179.

burrowing prairie or prairie, 45,
104, 161.

Diogenes. 161, 204.

immune, 205.

leeches, 66.

neighborhood, 205.

prairie or burrowing prairie, 45,
104, 161.
Creek chub, 65.
Cremastogaster lineolata, 59, 152,

234.
Cressonia juglandis, 59, 140, 226.
Cricket, 165.

black-horned meadow, 42, 48, 55,
169.

four-spotted white, 42, 50, 170.

spotted. 58, 217.

striped, 58. 64, 216.

woodland, 58. 61, 132, 217.
Criocephalus obsoletus, 148.
Crioceris asparagi, 172.
Crustacea, 91, 162. 204.
Cryptocephalns mutabilis, 223.

venustus, 178.
simplex, 178.

Cryptorhynchus parochus, 146,
Cucujus clavipes, 149, 151.
Cucullia asteroides, 110.
Culicidse, 184,
Culver's root, 174.
Curculionidffi, 182.
Currant, 129.
Cyllene caryge, 147.

pictus, 147.

robiniaj, 110, 145, 147, 154.
Cymatodera balteata, 145.
Cynipidaj, 124, 190, 232.
Cyrtophyllus perspicillatus, 58, 125,
140, 159, 215.

D

Daddy-long-legs, 206.
Dfedalia, 136.
Dandelion, 227.
Datana, 140, 159, 220.

angusii, 59, 61, 228.
Dendroctonus frontalis, 143, 156.

piceaperda, 156.

ponderosa, 156.

terebrans, 143.
Dendroides, 154.

canadensis, 149, 225.
Deromyia, 53, 186.

discolor, 64, 126, 230.

umbrinus, 230.
Desmodium, 53, 124, 226.

canadense, 171.

grandiflorum. 63.

nudiflorum. 57.
Diabrotica atripennis, 45, 179.

12-punctata, 48, 49, 53, 112, 164,
179.

longicornis, 179.
Diaperis hydni, 136.

maculata, 136.
Diapheromera femorata, 58, 125, 140,

159, 211.
Dicerca divaricata, 148.

lurida, 147.
Dichromorpha viridis, 58, 61, 64, 124,

126, 212, 214.
Dictamnus, 225.
Digger-wasp, 52, 228.

black, 54, 194.

Harris's, 52, 194.

Pennsylvania, 54, 194.

ru.sty,"45, 46. .50, 52, 104, 120, 194.
Diplocardia, 135.
Diplopods. 124, 125, 133.
Diptera, 116, 184, 229.

270

Dissosteira Carolina, 166, 196.

venusta, 189.
Dixippus morosus, 211.
Dock, 183.

Dogbane, 44, 49, 57, 104, 109, 113,
124, 173, 178, 183, 193, 201, 223,
231.

beetle, 45, 59, 178, 223.

spreading. 178.
Dogwood, 122, 137, 138, 139, 147.
Dolichopodida3, 187, 188.
Dorcaschema wildii, 148.
Dorcus parallelus, 152.
Dragon-flies, 47, 119, 164, 165. 230.
Dragon-fly, nine-spot, 45, 50, 104, 165.

red-tailed, 50, 164.
Drop-seed, 49, 53.
Drosophila phalerata, 104.
Dung-beetle, splendid, 59.
Dutchman's pipe, 225.

E

Earthworms, 115, 135.

Eburia quadrigeminata, 143, 147.

Eggplant, 224.

Elaphidion, 141, 159.

mucronatum, 147.

villosum, 141, 143, 147.
Elateridse, 115, 145, 221, 224.
Elm, 40, 62, 63, 77, 126, 138, 144. 147,
148, 149, 152, 227, 231.

slippery, 63.

white, 40, 62, 217.
Elymus, 39, 41, 44, 107, 111, 162, 163,
167, 168, 169.

canadensis, 42, 109.

virginicus, 107.

submuticus, 42, 43.
Empididaj, 174, 189.
Empis clausa, 110, 112, 189.
Empusa, 119, 120, 121.
Enchytrffiids, 135.
Encoptolophus sordidus, 48, 50, 53,

54. 108, 109. Ill, 166.
Endodontida?, 203.
Enodia portlandia, 65, 126, 138, 159,

226.
Epargyreus tityrus, 64. 126, 140, 226.
Epeira domiciliorum, 64, 65, 126, 138,
206.

insularis, 58, 138, 206.

labyrinthica, 138.

trivittata, 64, 126. 207.

verrucosa, 58, 65, 125, 138, 207.
Epeirid, island, 58, 206.

tent, 64, 65, 206.

three-lined, 64.

Epeirida;, 162, 206.

Epeolus concolor, 48, 49, 50, 51, 54,

108, 196.
donatus, 197.

EpicEerus imbricatus, 141.
Epicauta, 120.

marginata, 52, 53, 54, 109, 180.

pennsylvanica, 52, 53, 54, 55, 108,

109, 110, 111, 180.
vittata, 52, 178, 180.

Epinomia, 111, 181.

triangulifera, 181.
Erax bastardi, 186.

lateralis, 187.
Erigeron, 178.
Eriophyidse, 208.
Eryngium yuccifolium, 53, 54, 86,

108, 163, 167, 168, 174, 175, 177,
179, 180, 181, 183, 189, 192, 194,
195, 196, 199.

Euaresta aequalis, 48, 49, 189.

Euceridse, 197.

Eugnoriste occidentalis, 185.

Eumenes fraterna, 181.

Eumenidse, 193.

Eupatorium coelestinum, 125, 163,

212, 214, 231.
Euphorbia, 74, 118.

corollata, 53, 55, 108, 109.
Euphoria inda, 177.

sepulchralis, 45, 46, 104, 177.
Euproctis chrysorrhoea, 156.
Eupsalis minuta, 147, 159.
Eurymus philodice, 45, 46, 182.
Euschistus fissilis, 65, 218.

variolarius. 45. 50, 51, 53, 54, 108,

109, 110, 111, 171, 187. '
Eustroma, 140.

diversilineata, 59, 229.
Eustrophus bicolor, 136.

tomentosus. 136.
Euthoctha galeator, 219.
Everes comyntas, 61, 138, 226.
Evergreens, 82, 85.
Everlasting, 57. 124.
Exoprosopa. 120.

fasciata, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 109, 111,
163, 174, 185.

fascipennis, 121, 185.

P

Feltia subgothica, 121, 174.
Fern, beech, 63.

maidenhair, 63.

rattlesnake, 63.
Feverwort, 183.
Fir, Douglas, 149.

271

Firefly, Pennsylvania, 65, 222.
Flag, blue, 4-i, 103, 104.
Flower-beetle, black, 45, 46, 177.

rose, 152.
Fontaria corrugata, 134.

virginiensis, 134.
Formica difficilis consocians, 191.
exsectoides, 235.
fusca, 109, 171.

subsericea, 59, 110, 112, 171, 190,
191, 236.
Integra, 177.

pallide-fulva schaufussi, 235.
pallide-fulva schaufussi incerta,

54, 112, 171, 190, 191.
sanguinea, 190, 191.
aserva, 190.
puberula, 191.
rubicunda, 190.
subintegra, 191.
subnuda, 191.
schaufussi, 120, 191, 235.
Formicida;, 190, 233.
Foxtail, 181.
Frogs, 45, 66.
Frontina, 120.
Fulgoridse, 217.
Fungi, 102, 135, 137, 149, 159, 221.

shelf, 224.
Fungus-beetle, horned, 64, 224.
Fungus-beetles, 137.

G

Galba obrussa, 161.

umbilicata, 45, 46, 47, 104, 160.
Galerita janus, 59, 125, 135, 150, 221.
Galerucella luteola, 156.
Galium circaezans, 63.

trifolium, 63.
Gall, acorn plum-, 61, 232.

caterpillar, 184.

-flies, 140.

goldenrod bunch, 184.

hairy midge, 65, 229.

hickory seed-, 230.

hickory tube-, 229.

horned knot oak-, 232.

-insects, 106.

-louse, vagabond, 105.

-mite, cherry-leaf, 64, 208.

oak-apple or May-apple, 232, 234.

oak bullet. 59, 232.

oak seed-, 232.

oak wool-, 59, 65, 232.

rose, 56, 190.

white oak club-, 59, 232.

willow cone,- 184.

willow leaf-, 158.

Gallinipper, 184.

Galls, 35.

Gaura biennis, 183,

Gelechia, 141.

Gelechiida3, 184, 229.

GeometridEe, 229.

Geophiloids, 133.

Geotrupes splendidus, 59, 125, 132,

223.
Gerridse, 219.

Gerris remigis, 66, 127, 219.
Giant fly, 45, 46, 186.
Guathotrichus, 137.
Gnorimoschenia gallsBSolidaginis, 110,

184.
Goes debilis, 146.
pulveruleutus, 146.
tigrina, 146, 154.
Goldenrod, 109, 110, 111, 102, 169,

170, 172, 174, 176, 177, 180, 182,

185, 188, 190, 192, 196.
bunch gall, 184.

Gooseberry, 63, 141.

Grape, 55, 56, 60, 63, 145, 177, 217,

218, 223, 229.
-beetle, spotted, 55, 177, 223.
Grass, 42, 43, 51, 74, 78, 121, 152,

162, 166, 173, 212, 226.
beard, 53.

cord, 39, 40, 169, 170.
couch, 39.
-root-louse, 120.
slough, 39, 41, 42, 107.
Grasshopper, Boll's, 58, 61, 213,
Carolina, 166, 196.
common meadow, 42, 44, 50, 53, 55,

58, 168.
differential, 42, 44, 48, 50, 53, 119,

167, 213.
dorsal-striped, 42, 44, 48, 52, 53,

169.
lance-tailed, 53, 169.
leather-colored, 55, 167.
lesser, 58, 213.

red-legged, 42, 44, 48, 50, 168.
Scudder's, 61, 64, 214.
short-winged, 58, 61, 64, 212.
sordid, 48, 50, 53, 166.
sprinkled, 58, 213.
two-striped or two-lined, 53, 167.
Grasshoppers or locusts, 47, 164, 180,

186, 187, 192, 213.
Green brier, 63.
Gregarina, 134.
Grosbeak, rose-oreasted, 178.
Grouse-locust, short-winged, 58, 212.
Grouse-locusts, 211.

272

Grvllida3, 169, 216.
Gum, 149.
Gymnocladus, 141.

dioica, 63.
Gypona pectoralis, 65, 218.
Gypsy moth, 156.

Habia ladoviciana, 178.
Hackberry, 75, 146, 152.
Halictidaj, 196.
Halictus, 181, 195.

fasciatus, 52, 54, 110, 196.

obscurus, 54, 196.

virescens, 52, 196.
Halisidota, 140.

tessellaris, 59, 61, 227.
Harmostes reflexulus, 52, 112, 173.
Harpalus, 175.

caliginosus, 175.

pennsvlvanicus, 175.
Harvest-fly, dog-day, 58, 196, 217.
Harvest-mites, 164.
Harvest-spider, polished, 161.

stout, 58, 61, 206.

striped, 205.
Harvest-spiders, 132, 138.
Haw, 129, 146.
Hazel, 139, 141, 223, 227.
Hedeoma pulegioides, 57.
Helianthus, 111.
Helicidffi, 201.

Hemaris diffinis, 45, 46, 183.
Hemerocampa leucostigma, 154, 156.
Hemiptera, 98, 138, 170, 217.
Hemlock, 149.
Hesperiidse, 226.
Hetserius blanchardi, 235.
Heterocampa, 140, 159.

guttivitta, 59, 228, 238.
Heteroptera, 158.

Hickorv, 40, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 74, 75,
76,"' 80, 87, 123. 124, 129, 138, 139,
141, 144, 146, 147, 148, 149, 157,
177, 211, 215, 217, 223, 226, 227,
228. 229. 230.

bark-beetle. 154.

bitternut. 57, 60, 63, 228.

-borer, 147.

horned-devil. 61, 227.

pignut, 57, 60, 124.

seed-gall. 230.

shagbark. 57, 60, 124.

shell-bark, 226.

tube-gall, 229.

Hippodamia parenthesis, 52, 176.
Holcaspis, 140.

globulus, 59, 232.
Honev-bee, 45, 46, 50, 51, 104, 187,
200.

-locust, 147, 149.
Honeysuckle, bush, 183.
Hoplismenus morulus, 135. '

Hornet, white-faced, 135.
Hornets, 210.

Horntail. 144, 154. 231, 233.
Horsemint, 57, 124, 200, 201.
Horseweed, 170.
Humulus, 225.

Hymenarcys nervosa, 64, 218.
Hvmenomvcetes, 137.
Hvmenopt'era, 115, 190, 231.

parasitic, 104, 109, 140, 141, 145,
163, 165, 198, 226.
Hyphantria cunea, 156.

Ichneumon cincticornis, 135.
Ichneumonidfe, 233.
Imperial moth, 64, 227.
Indian hemp, 178.

tobacco. 63.
Insecta, 100, 164, 208.
Ips 4-guttatus, 176.
Iris, 103.

versicolor, 44.
Ironweed, 172, 178.
Ironwood, 226.
Ischnoptera, 61, 125, 210.

insequalis, 144.

pennsylvanica, 210.
Isodontia philadelphica, 170, 194.
Isosoma, 107.

grande, 175.
Iw, five-leaved, or A^'irginia creeper.
57, 60. 63, 177, 223.

poison, 57.

J

Jalvsus spinosus, 64, 126. 219.
JassidJB, 107, 112, 118, 171.
Juglans nio-ra, 57, 60, 63.
Juniperus, 148.

K

Katydid, angle-winged, 58, 215.
common, 58. 215.
cone-nosed, 50.
forked, 58. 215.
round-winged, 64, 215.
Texan, 42, 44, 48, 50, 168.

273

Katydids, 140.

Kentucky coffee-tree, 63, 141.

Lacewing, 150, 165.

Lachnosterna, 105, 116, 121, 142, 144,

174, 181, 186, 193, 233.
Lactarius, 136.
Lactuca, 118.

canadensis, 48, 53, 55, 108, 109,
171.
Ladybird or lady-beetle, 52, 59, 221.

nine-spotted, 112, 176.

parenthetical, 176.
Lampyridse, 176, 221.
Languria mozardi, 109.
Laportea canadensis, 62, 63, 125, 126,

138, 209.
Larch, 156.
Lasius flavus, 120,

interjectus, 120.

niger americanus, 119, 120, 121.
Laurus, 225.

Leaf-beetle, elm, 156, 232.
Leaf-bug, dusky, 53, 175.
Leaf-cutting bee, 50, 52, 198.
Leaf-footed bug, 138.
Leather-jackets, 116.
Lebia grandis, 135.
Lepachys, 108.

pinnata, 39, 48, 49, 108, 118, 161,
162, 166, 167, 168, 169, 170, 172,
174, 179, 189, 196, 197.
Lepidoptera, 115, 138, 140, 182, 225.
Lepidopterous larvae, 35, 47.
Leptilon, 170.

Leptoglossus oppositus, 138.
Leptostylus aculiferus, 146.
Leptotrachelus dorsalis, 42, 175.
Leptura proxima, 148.
Lettuce, wild, 48, 53, 109, 171.
Leucania unipuncta, 189.
Liatris scariosa, 54, 185, 199, 200.
Libellula pulchella, 45, 50, 51, 104,

162, 165.
Libellulida;, 164.
Ligyrocoris sylvestris, 48, 172.
Lilac, 227.
Linden or basswood, 77, 136, 141, 146,

149, 151, 152, 174, 227, 228.
Liobunum, 132, 138.

grande, 58, 61, 206.

politum, 50, 51, 161.

ventricosum, 58, 206.

vittatum, 58, 205.

Liopus alpha, 138.

fascicularis, 138, 159.

variegatus, 148.

xanthoxyli, 138.
Liriodeudron, 225.
Lithacodes, 61.
Lithobius voracior, 134.
Lobelia inflata, 63.
Locust, 141, 149.

borer, 145, 154.

Carolina, 166, 196.

grouse-, see grouse-locust.

honey-, 147, 149.

yellow, 110, 148, 226.
Locustidffi, 51, 168, 215.
Locusts or grasshoppers, 47, 164, 180,

186, 187, 192, 213.
Long-sting, lunate, 64, 231, 233.
Long-tail, black, 64, 233.
Lucanidse, 222.
Lucanus dama, 152.
Lunibricus, 115.
Lycajnidffi, 183, 226.
Lycomorpha pholus, 222.
Lycopus, 44.
Lycosa, 58, 132, 208.

scutulata, 04, 126, 208.
Lycosidffi, 208.
Lyctidae, 147.
Lygffiidaj, 172.
Lygeeus kalmii, 45, 46, 50, 51, 104,

108, 112, 118, 172, 185.
Lygus pratensis, 45, 46, 65, 175, 218.
Lymexylon sericeum, 148.
Lymna?a, 160.
LymnfeidEe, 160.
Lysiopetalidse, 205.
Lythrum alatum, 44.

M

Macrobasis unicolor, 141.
Macrosiphuni rudbeckise, 109, 118,

17].
Magdalis, 146, 148.
armicollis, 144, 354.
barbita, 144.
Mallophora orcina, 187.
Maple, 76, 77, 80, 84, 129, 136, 137,
138, 141, 143, 146, 148, 149, 152,
157, 227, 228, 231.
hard or sugar, 40, 62, 63, 123, 126,

151, 157.
red, 229.
silver, 149.
May-beetles, 106, 119, 142, 187, 193,
233.

274

Meadow cricket, black-horued, 42,
48, 55, 169.

-grasshopper, common, 42, 44, 50,
53, 55, 58, 168.
Mealy flata, 65, 217.
Mecaptera, 209.
Megachile brevis, 52, 198.

centuncularis, 198.

mendica, 50, 198.
Megachilidffi, 198.
Megalodacne fasciata, 136.
Melanobracon simplex, 144, 159.
Melanolestes picipes, 135.
Melanoplus amplectens, 58, 64, 124,
126, 132.

atlanis, 58, 124, 213.

bivittatus. 53, 109, 167.

differentialis. 42, 43, 48, 50, 53, 54,

107, 108, 109, 111, 121, 162, 167,
168, 213.

femur-nibrum, 42, 43, 48, 50, 107,

108, 111, 168, 196.
gracilis, 64, 126, 214.
obovatipennis, 58, 65, 124, 214.
scudderi, 61, 64, 124, 126, 214.

Melanotus, 61, 125, 150, 221.
Melasoma scripta, 106.
Melissodes aurigenia, 197.

bimaculata, 48, 50, 51, 54, 111, 197.

desponsa, 197.

obliqua, 48, 49, 52, 54, 108, 118,
197.

perplexa, 230.

trinodis, 197.
Melissopus latiferreana, 141.
MeloidiB, ISO.
Melolontha, 116.
Membracidfe, 170.

Menispermiim canadense, 57, 60, 63.
Meracantha contracta, 59, 61, 125,
132, 135, 144, 152, 154, 202, 224.
Merinus Isevis, 151.
Meromyza americana, 107.
Mesogramma politum. 53, 54, 59, 65,

188.
Metopia, 120, 121.

leucocephala, 195.
Microcentrum, 140.

laiirifolinm. 58, 124, 215.
Microlepidoptera, 158.
]\1!icroparsiis variabilis. 171.
Midge-gall, hairv. 65, 229.
Milesia ornata, 59, 64, 126, 163, 231.

virginiensis, 163.
ISrilesiinas, 231.

Milkweed, 104, 112, 113, 172, 173,
178, 181.

Milkweed — continued.
beetle, 46, 104, 1£5.

four-eyed, 45, 50, 52, 177.
bug, small, 45, 50, 104, 172, 185.

large, 45, 50, 104, 173.
bugs, 104.
common, 112, 164, 171, 176, 180,

188, 190, 191, 201.
-fly, metallic, 187.
Sullivant's, 182.

swamp, 39, 44, 46, 49, 51, 103, 160,
162, 163, 165, 168, 171, 172, 173,
174, 175, 176, 177, 178, 179, 182,
183, 184, 186, 194, 198, 200.
Millipeds, 133, 136.
Mint, 163.

horse-, 57, 124, 200, 201.
mountain or white, 39, 50, 51, 163,
169, 172, 173, 174, 176, 178, 179,
180, 185, 191, 194, 197, 199.
Miridse, 175, 218.

Misumena aleatoria, 42, 43, 45, 46,
47, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 64, 104,
109, 121, 126, 163, 168, 175, 185,
200, 216, 231.
vatia, 47.
Mites, 120, 130, 131, 137.

uropod, 222.
Mollusea, 35, 124. 125, 126, 135, 137,

140, 160, 201.
Molorehus bimaculatus, 138.
Monarda bradburiana, 57, 124, 200.
Monarthrum, 137.
Monohammus confusor, 143.

titillator, 155.
Moonseed, 57, 60, 63.
Mormidea lugens, 65, 218.
Morus, 148.

rubra, 57, 60, 63.
Mosquito, giant, 45, 50, 51, 104, 184.
Mosquitoes, 219.
Moth, acorn, 141.
brown-tailed, 156.
gypsy, 156.
imperial, 64, 227.
royal walnut, 227.
Motiis, 169.

clothes, 99, 100.
Mud-wasp, potter, 193.
Mulberry, 57, 60, 63, 147, 148, 149.
Muscida^, 116.
Miishrooms, 137.
Mutillida^. 192. 238.
Mycetophagus bipustulatus, 136.

punctatus, 136.
Mycetophilidae, 137, 185.

275

Mydaidae, 186.

Mydas clavatus, 45, 46, 186,

fulvipes, 186.
Myodites, 52, 181.

fasciatus, 111, 181.

solidaginis. 111, 181.
Myodocha serripes, 135.
Myriapoda, 35, 134, 137, 140, 205.
Myrmecophila pergandei, 191.
Myrmedonia, 234.
Myi'meleon, 154.

immaculatus, 153.
Myrmeleonida3, 58, 124, 153, 165, 209.
Myrmica rubra scabrinodis sabuleti,
112, 190, 191.

rubra scabrinodis schencki, 61,

202, 234, 236.
Myzine, 115.

sexcincta, 50, 51, 54, 109, 110, 111,
192.
Myzinidae, 192.
Myzocallis, 107.

N

Nadata gibbosa, 59, 61, 140, 228.
Negro-bug, flea, 172.
Nematus erichsonii, 156.
Nemobius, 132.

fasciatus, 58, 64, 124, 126, 216.

maculatus, 58, 124, 217.
Nemognatha immaculata, 111.

sparsa, 111.
Neoelytus, 146, 148.

erythrocephalus, 144, 147, 148, 154,
159.

Inscus 14:T
Nettle, 'wood, 62, 63, 125, 126, 138,

209, 214.
Neuroptera, 165, 209.
Noctuida;, 115, 183, 227.
Nodonota convexa, 48, 179.
Nomadidfe, 196.
Notodontidffi, 228.
Nut-weevils, 141.
Nyctobates pennsylvanicus, 151.
Nymphalidse, 183," 225.

0

Oak, 40, 57, 58, 59, 74, 76, 77, SO, 87,
123, 124, 128, 139, 141, 142, 146,
147, 148, 149, 151, 152, 157, 177,

203, 205, 214, 215, 219, 220, 223,
227, 228, 229, 231, 232.

-apple gall, 232, 234.
black, 57, 60, 75, 144, 149.
bur, 77.

Oak — continued.

post, 123.

-pruuer, 141, 147.

red, 40, 57, 60, 62, 63, 123, 126, 129.

shingle, 63, 123, 232.

white, 57, 60, 78, 124, 147, 148, 156,
227, 228, 232.
Oberea tripunctata, 148.
Odonata, 164.
Odynerus, 49.

vagus, 52, 193.
CEcanthus, 42, 195.

fasciatus, 195.

nigricornis, 42, 48, 55, 107, 108,
111, 169.

niveus, 170.

quadripunctatus, 42, 50, 107, 111,
170.
Oncideres cingulatus, 141.
Oncopeltus fasciatus, 45, 46, 50, 51,

104, 112, 118, 173.
Orange, 155, 219.
Orchelimum, 120, 121.

cuticulare, 58, 04, 124, 126, 216.

glaberrimum, 42, 44, 64, 126, 216.

gracile, 194.

vulgare, 42, 44, 50, 53, 55, 56, 107,
109, 111, 168, 194.
Ormenis pruinosa, 65, 217.
Orthoptera, 42, 43, 44, 47, 49, 51, 107,

113, 124, 126, 130, 166, 210.
Orthosoma brunneum, 152.
Osage orange, 148, 149.
Oscinis carbonaria, 107.

coxendix, 104.
Osmoderma eremicola, 152.

scabra, 152.
Otocryptops sexspinosus, 134.

Pallodes pallidus, 136.
Pandeletejus hilaris, 144.
Panicum, 166, 167, 168, 170, 181.

crus-galli, 176.
Panorpa, 133.

confusa, 133.
Panorpidse, 209.
Papaw, 138, 141, 147, 224.
Papilio, 126.

asterias, 233.

cresphontes, 46, 140, 225.

philenor, 59, 61, 225.

polyxenes, 45, 46, 162, 182, 233.

troilus, 59, 61, 225.

turnus, 59, 140, 225.
Papilionida;, 182, 225.
Parandra brunnea, 151, 154.

276

Parsley, 182.
Parsnip, wild, 19b

Passalus cornutus, 12o, 144, 150, loi,
153, 154, 159, 202, 203, 204, 221,
2''2 228, 236.
horned, 61, 154, 203, 222, 236.
Peach, 143.
• Pear, 229.
PelecinidJE, 233.

Pelecinus poly turator,^ 64 126 233
Pelidnota punctata, 5o. 56, 177, IZ6.
Pemphigus oestlundi, 105.
populicaulis, 105.
populi-transversus, 105.
vagabundus, 105.
Pennyroyal, 57.
Pentatomidee, 171, 218.
Penthe obliquata, 137.

pimelia, 137.
Peridroma saucia, 140.
Petalostemum, 169, 178.

purpureum, 54, 169, 172, 199.
Phalangiida, 35, 161, 205.
Phalangiidse, 161, 205.
Phasmidfe. 211.

Phegopteris hexagonoptera, bd.
Phenolia grossa, 136.
Phidippns, 164.

audax, 138.
Philomycidfe. 202. _
Philomvcus carolinensis, 5.S. "^r "^'
S, 150, 202, 204, 205, 209, 221,

228, 236.
Phl(Potomus pileatus, 228.
Phoridfe, 137. ,

Photuris pennsylvanica, 65, ^^-.
Phragmites, 77, 80, 105, 188.
Phvmata, 120.

fasciata. 45, 46, 47, 48. 49 50, 51,
52 53; 54, 104. lOS. 109, 110. Ill,
121, 174, 175, 185, 189.
wolffi. 174.
Phvmatidse, 174.
Phymatodes varius. 156.
Physa gyrina, 50. 51, 160.
Physidse, 160.
Physocpphala. 200.

saeittarifi. 110, 188.
Pieridffi. 182.
Pigeon tremex, 59, 61, 231.

Pine. 76. 143. 155.

yellow, 156.
Pitcher-plant, 195.
Plagionotus sneciosus, 15b, ^-i —
Planorbis, 161.

Plantain, 227.
Plant-bug, dusky, 174._

tarnished, 45, 60, 1^^. 218
•Plant-lice, 47, 51, 107, 162, 164, 165,
169,174,176,188 230
Plant-louse, milkweed, 1/1. ^ee

Aphis asclepiadis.
Platvdema ruficorne, 136.
Platymetopius frontalis, 48, i/i.
Platyptera, 208.
Platypus, 137.
Plum, 141, 198, 219, 229.

sugar, 228.
Polistes, 48, 49, 187.
pallipes, 110.
iariatus, 110, 121, 193.
Polvdesmida', 205.
Polydesmus, 61, 150, 205.

serratus, 134.
Polyergus lucidus, 192.
Polvgonia. 126, 138.

interrogationis, 225.
Polygonum, 183.

convolvulus, 227.
Polygraphus rufipennis, 15b.
PolVevra albolabris, 58, 201.

clausa, 61, 201. 202, 204.
Polyporus, 126. 136, 224.
tomentosus. 136.
volvatus, 137.
Pompilidse, 194.
Pompilus ffthiops, 238.
Pontia protodice, 174.

rapffi. 56. 182, 186.
Poplar. 106. 149.

Carolina. 105, 106.
Populus. 106.

deltoides. 44, 103, 105, 149.
Porthetria dispar, 156.
Potato. 179. 224.

-beetle, old-fpshioned, 52, 180.
wild sweet, 178.
Prairie-dog. 100
Prifkly ash, 60, 63, 138, 1-9, 183, ^li,

00:5
Prlocnemoides unifasciatus^ 193.
Priocnemus nnifasciatus, 193.
Priononvx atrata. 195.
Prionoxvstus robinite. 144, 154:.
Prionus'imbricornis. ^-■
ProctacnnthuR milberti. 187.
Promachus. 119. 120. 121.

vertebrntus, 50, 51, 53, 56,
111, 171, 186.
Prunus. 225.

serotina, 208. ck ^•^9 g-^S

Psammochares aethiops, 65, 132, 2.i».

109,

277

PsammocharidEe, 193, 238.
Psedera, 229.

quinquefolia, 57, 60, 63.
Psilopus sipho, 112, 171, 187.
Psithyrus, 120.

variabilis, 52, 54, 200.
Psocids, 131.
Psocus, 158.
Psorophora ciliata, 45, 46, 47, 50, 104,

184.
Ptelea, 225.
Pulmonates, 236.
Purpuricenus hiimeralis, 148.
Pycnantliemum, 181, 192.

flexuosum, 39, 50, 163, 169, 172,
173, 174, 180, 185, 191, 192, 193,
194, 196, 197, 199.
linifolium, 180.

pilosum, 169, 172, 174, 176, 177, 179,
180, 182, 184, 185, 190, 191, 192,
193, 196, 197. 199.
virginianum, 178.
Pyramidula alternata, 64, 203.

perspectiva, 58, 61, 136, 150, 201,
202, 204, 221.
Pyrochroa, 150, 154. 224.
Pyrochroida?, 221, 223, 224.
Pyrrharctia Isabella, 233.

Q

Quercus, 124, 232.

alba, 40, 57, 60, 124, 228, 232.

imbricaria, 63, 123, 232.

michauxii 123.

minor, 123.

rubra, 40, 57, 60, 62, 63, 123, 126.

velutina, 40, 57, 60, 75, 124, 144.

E

Eagweed, 175, 178, 179.
Eail, Carolina, 45.
Eana, 45.

Easpberry, 57, 124, 129, 170.
Eattlesnake-master, 53, 167, 168, 174,
175, 177, 180. 181, 183, 189, 199.
Eedbud. 60, 63, 138.
Eeduviida?, 173, 219.
Eeptiles, 100.
Ehipiphoridse, ISO.
Ehipiphorus, 120, 121.

dimidiatiis, 50, 51, 52, 53, 109, 111,
ISO.

limbatus, 53. 109, 181.

paradoxus, ISl.

pectinatus ventralis, 181.

Ehodites nebulosus, 56, 190.
Ehodophora gaurse, 183.
Ehubarb, 186.
Ehus, 172.

glabra, 57, 60, 124.

toxicodendron, 57.
Eliyncliites aeneus, 53, 54, 181.

hirtus, 108.
Ehynchitidaj, 181.
Ehynchophora, 116.
Eibes cynosbati, 63.
Eobber-fly, vertebrated, 50, 53, 56,

171, 186.
Eobber-flies, 49, 119, 164, 182, 186,

187, 210, 230.
Eobinia, 148, 226.
Eomaleum atomarium, 146.

rufulum, 146.
Eoot-louse, grass, 120.
Eosa, 57, 190.
Eose, 57, 124, 198.

wild, 180, 190.
Eose-breasted grosbeak, 178.
Eosin-weed, 39, 40, 48, 53, 108, 174,
180, 181, 185, 197.

arrow-leaved, 169.

broad- or large-leaved, 55, 168, 176,
199, 200.

cup-leaved, 54.
Eotten-log caterpillar, 61, 150, 153,

154, 228.
Eubus, 57.
Eumex, 183.
Eussula. 136.
Eye, wild, 39, 41, 42, 43, 107, 168.

S

Salamanders, 06.
Salix, 44, 103, 106.
Saperda, 143.

Candida, 146.

discoidea, 144.

tridentata, 144, 146, 148, 154, 159.

vestita, 146.
Sarracenia flava, 195.
Sassafras, 57, 60, 124, 125, 126, 127,
149, 212, 215, 218, 225, 226, 227.

variifolium, 57, 60, 124.
Saturniidaj, 227.
Saw-fly, 158.

larch, 156.
Scale insects, 106.
ScarabffiidfP, 177, 223, 225, 233.
Scatopse pulicaria, 104.
Scepsis fulvicollis, 110.
Scliistocerca alutacea, 55, 56, 167.

278

153,

Schizoneura corni, 112, 122.

panicola, 120, 121.
Sciara, 50, 185.
Sciomvzida^, 42, 43, 189.
Scirpus, 44, 103, 105.
Scolecocampa liburna 125, l&u,
154, 159, 209, 221, 223, 228.

Scolia, 192.

bicincta, 192.

tricincta, 193.
ScoliidiB, 192.
Scolytidae, 137, 144.
Scolytus quadrispmosus, 144,

159.

Scorpion flies, 62. -, om

Scorpion-fly, brown-tipped, 210.
clear-winged, 64, 20 J.
spotted crane-like, 210.
Scotobates calcaratus, 151.
Scudderia texensis, 42, 44, 4S,

107, 108, 111, 168.
Scytonotus granulatus, 134.

Sedge, 44.

Semotilus atromacnlatus. bO.
Senotainia trilineata, 196.
Serpents, 100.
Setaria, 182.
Setiilia grisea, 195.
Shelf-fungns, 224.
Silkworm, American, 61, ^-i'.
Silphium, 86, 108, 118, 171.
inte<Trifolium, 48, 54, 108, 166,
ife, 174, 180, 181, 185, 196,
198.
laciniatum, 53, 108.
terebintliinaceum. 39. 40, 4»,
56, 108, 161, 168, 176, 180,
200. ^_ _^

Sinea diadema, 50, 51, 6o, 111,

219.
Sinoxylon basilare, 146.

Siricidfe, 231.

Skipper, common, 64. 226.

Sing, Carolina, 58, 61, 150, 202,

caterpillar, 61, 140, 229.
Slugs, 133.
Smartweed, 183.
Smilax, 55, 56, 63.
Smodicnm cucu.iiforme, 148.
Snail, alternate, 64, 203.
predaceous, 58, 64, 201.
Snails, 133, 138, 160.
Snont-beetle, imbricated, 141.
Snowberry, 183.

Soldier-beetle, 45, 46, 53, 5&,
169, 176.
margined, 65, 222.

154,

50,

167,
197,

55,
199,

173,

236.

104,

Soldier-beetle-oontinued.

Pennsylvania, 45, 4b, 53, 55, 104,
118, 169, 176.
beetles, 120.
-bug, rapacious, 50, 51, 65, IM,

919
Solicfag;, 109, 110, 111, 118, 145, 162

171 17'' 174, 176, 179, 180, l»z,

isl: isii^iss; 189; 190, 192, i96.

Sow-bugs, 137.
Span-worm, 229.
Sparganium, 43.

Sparnopolius fulvus, If- 1'* 186
Spartina, 39, 40, 41, 43, 44, 107, 167,
168, 169, 170, 175, 189.
micliauxiana, 41.
Spha^ropMhalma, 59, 124, 132, 192,

238.
Splia?rularia bombi, 200.
Sphagnum, 79
Spharagemon bolli, 58, 61, IZ-i, ^lo.

Spbecida?, 194, 238.
Spliecius speciosus, 19b.
Splienopliorus, 116.
oclireus, 104.
placidus, 181.
robustus, 182.
venatus. 181.
Sphex brunneipes, 195.

ichneumonea, 194.
SphingidaN 183, 226.
Sphinx, honeysuckle, 45, 46, 183.
Spice-bush, 138, 207

Spider, ambush, <^^-^^' ^^^o'^^T'ior
^ 43 45, 46, 50, 51, 52, 53, 64, 104,
163, 168, 'l75, 200, 216 23L
common garden, 42, 44 45, 48, 50,

52, 53, 104, 162, 182.
ground, 58, 64.
harvest-, see harvest-spider.

island. 58. „ ,^-

lumping. 112. 138, 164.

rugose, 58, 64. 65. 207.

spined, 64. 65. 207.

three-lined. 207.

wast). 65, 193.

.-bi?e-triangle. 58, 65 207^
Spiders. 119, 131, 138, 140 238.
Spirobolus marginatus lo4.
Spogostylum anale 186.
Sporobolus, 49, HI, 112. 1<^8, 212.

cryptandrus, 39, 49, 53.
Spragueia leo, 110, 184.
Spruce, 149, 156.
Engelmann, 149.
I Spurge, flowering, 53, 55.

I Squash-bug, 189.

279

Staphyliiiidae, 116.

Stelis, 198.

Stenosplienus notatus, 144, 147.

Stigmatomma pallipes, 61, 133, 202,

205, 224, 233, 236.
Stilt-bug, spined, 64, 219.
Stink-bug, 50, 51, 187.
Stiretrus anchorago, 172.
Stizidaj, 199.

Stizus brevipennis, 52, 196.
Stone-roller, 66.
Strawberry, 176.
Strepsiptera, 49.
Sumac, 55, 56, 57, 60, 124, 138, 139,

227.
Sunflo^Ycr, 111.

wild, 169.
Sweet potato, wild, 178.
Sycamore, 149, 186, 227, 231.
Sympetrum rubicundulum, 50, 51,

164.
Symphoricarpos orbiculatus, 63.
Synchroa punctata, 149.
Syrbula admirabilis, 50, 111, 166.
Syrphid, American, 52.

corn, 53, 59, 65, 188.

Vespa-like, 59, 64, 231.
Syrphidae, 158, 188, 231.
Syrphus americanus, 52, 188, 231.
Systcechus oreas, 186.

vulgaris, 185.

T

TacliinidJE, 158, 182, 189, 195.
Tamarack, 149.

Tapinoma sessile, 64, 126, 236.
Telea, 140.

polyphemus, 61, 227.
Telephorus, 65. 222.

bilineatus, 222.
Tenebrionidas, 224.
Termes, 125, 147.

flavipes, 58, 61, 150, 152, 154, 159,
202, 204, 208, 234.

virginicus, 209.
Termites, 208, 234.
Termitidfe, 208.
Tetanoeera pictipes, 43, 189.

plumosa, 42. 43, 107. 189.
Tetraopes, 104, 112, 185.

femoratus, 45, 46, 47, 178.

tetraophthalmus, 45, 46, 47, 50, 51,
52, 111, 177, 178.
Tetropium cinnamopterum, 156.
Tettigidea lateralis, 58, 211.

parvipennis, 58, 212.
Tettigoniellidae, 218.

Thalessa, 145, 148, 156.

lunator, 125, 126, 159, 231, 232, 233.
Thistle, 199.
Thomisidaj, 163.
Thyanta custator, 108.
Thyreocoridse, 172.
Thyreocoris pulicarius, 172.
Thyridopteryx ephemeraeformis, 152,

154.
Thysanura, 131.

Tibicen septendecim, 58, 130, 217.
Tick-trefoil, 57, 63, 124.

Canadian, 171.
Tiger-beetle, woodland, 59, 219.
Tiger beetles, 132, 187, 220.
Tilia, 149.
Timothy, 175, 178.
Tiphia, 115, 119, 120, 121, 181, 185,

193.
Tipulidae, 115, 133.
Toads, 66.
Tomato, 224.

Tortoise-beetle, clubbed, 65, 224.
Tremex columba, 59, 61, 125, 144,

148, 154, 156. 159, 231, 233.
Trichius piger, 152.
Trichocera, 136, 159.

brumalis, 136.
Trichopepla semivittata, 108.
Trichopoda pennipes, 189.
plumipes, 189.
ruficauda, 52, 189.
Triepeolus, 197.
Trifolium, 229.
Triphyllus humeralis, 136.
Trirhabda tomentosa, 52, 179.
Trissolcus euschisti, 218.
Tritoma biguttata, 136.

thoracica, 136.
Trogositids, 145.
Trogus, 140.

obsidianator, 65, 233.
Trombidiidfe, 164.

Trombidium, 45, 46, 52, 120, 121, 164.
Truxalis brevicornis, 214.
Trypetidse, 189.
Twig-pruners, 141.
Tussock-moth, white-marked, 154,

156.
Typha, 80.

U
Ulmus, 225.

americana, 40, 62, 63, 126, 217.
fulva, 63.
Umbellifers, 182, 188.
Uropod mites, 222.
Urtica, 225.

280

Verbena, 185, 196, 197.

stricta, 185.
Vernonia, 118, 171, 172.
Veronica virginica, 174.
Vespa, 135, 190, 210, 230.

maculata, 135.
Vespidse, 193.
Viburnum, 223, 229.
Virginia creeper or five-leaved ivy, 57,

60, 63, 177, 223.
Vitis cinerea, 60, 63.
Vitrea indentata, 61, 64, 201, 202,
203, 204.

rhoadsi, 61, 201, 202, 204.
Volucella, 200.

W

Walking-stick, forest, 58, 140, 211.
Walnut, 57, 60, 63, 145, 146, 148, 151,
226, 227, 228.

black, 149.

moth, royal, 227.
Wasp, digger-, see digger-wasp.

potter mud-, 193.

solitary, 52.

spider, 65, 193.

white-grub, 185.
Wasps, 119, 181, 185.
Water horehound, 44.

-strider, 66, 127, 219.
Web-worm, fall, 156.
Weevils, 195.

grain, 99, 100.

nut-, 141.
Wheat, 175, 218.

-stem maggot, greater, 107.

White ant, 58, 61, 147, 150, 152, 154,

202, 204, 208, 234.
-grubs, 116, 119.
Willow, 44, 47, 49, 103, 106, 120, 121,

157, 158.
Wireworms, 224.
Woodpecker, pileated, 228.

Xanthium, 49, 189.

Xenodusa cava, 237.

Xiphidium attenuatum, 53, 54, 169.

nemorale, 58, 64, 124, 126, 216.

strictum, 42, 44, 48, 52, 53, 54, 107,
108, 109, 169.
Xyleborus, 137.
Xylocopa virginica, 45, 46, 47, 104,

198.
XylocopidaB, 198.
Xylopinus saperdioides, 151.
Xylorj^ctes satyrus, 152.
Xyloteres, 137.

Xylotrechus colonus, 144, 147, 148,
154.

undulatus, 154.

Ypsolophus, 140.

ligulellus, 59, 65, 229.

Zanthoxvlum, 60, 63, 138, 179, 183,

225."
ZonitidEe, 202.

Zonitis bilineata. 111, 112, 180.
Zonitoides arborea, 58, 61, 136, 150,

202, 204.

Plate I

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o

a

Plate II

Fig. 1. Colony of swamp grass {Elymus Tirgiiiiciis), Station I, c.

Fig. 2. General view, to the right of the railway track, from Station I, ii', toward I,^. On the
bare foreground are plants of Asclepias syriaca. (Photograph, T. L. Hankinson.)

PLATI5 III

Fig. 1. Swampy area with colony of swamp milkweed {AscUpias nicariiaUi), Station I, d.
(Photograph, T. L. HanUinson.)

?!*^<"'

Fig. 2. (General view of Station I,^, a colony of swamp milkweed {Asclnpias incarnata) in a
ditch parallel to the rails, and ol blue stem (Andropooon) and drop-seed (Sporoboliis). Photo-
graph, T. L. Hankinson.)

Plate IIIA

Fig-. 1. Flowers of the swamp milkweed {Asrlcpias iiicarnata) at Station I, d. These were the
favoiite haunts of manv flower-visiting- insects. (Photograph, T. L. Hankinson.)

Fig-. 2. Crawfish chimney at Station I, i/, Charleston. III. Probably formed bv Cambarus gracilis
or diogeiies. (Photograph by T. L. Hankinson.)

Plate IIIB

Fip. 1. Crawfish chimney at Station I, Charleston, 111. Probably formed by Cambann' grua'/is or
diogenes. (Photograph by T. L,. Hankinson.)

Fig'. 2. General view at Station I. cf, showing numerous crawfish chimneys, probably formed by
Camharjis gracilis or diogefics. (Photograph by T. L. Hankinson.)

Pl.AT^ IV

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Fig. 1. Colony of mountain mint (Pyciianthcmnm flexiiosuin^ at Station I, o. Tlie large
upturned leaves are those of Asclepias sldlivuulii. (Photograph by T. ly. Harikinson.)

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General view of Station I, x>, April 23, 1911, showing the submerged condition. (Photograph
by T. L. Hankinson.)

Plate; V

General view of Station I, e. showing a colonv of Leparhys pinnata (the black dots on the Hower
heads) anJ rosinweed (Silphinin terebinthiaaci'iim) and Lactiica canadensis. (Pliotograph, T. L.
Hankinson.)

Plate VI

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Plat^ VIII

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Plate X

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Fig. 1. General view of the Bates woods. Station IV, looking to the south, August, 1910.
(Photograph, C. C. Adams.)

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Fig. 2. General view of the same area after clearing. June 8, 1914. (Photograph, T. L.
Hankinson.)

Pirate XI

Pirate XII

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PI.ATE XIII

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Plate XIV

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Plat^ XVI

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Fig-. 1. Marg-in of the artificial glade in the lowland forest of Bates woods, Station IV, c.
The ground cover is largely clearweed (Pilea). (Photograph, C. C. Adams.)

Fig-. 2. Detail of vegetation in and at the margin of the artificial glade in the lowland Bates
forest, Station IV, c. See Plate XIV for another view of the gladt-. (Photograph, C. C. Adams )

Plate XVII

Fig-. 1. General view of the ravine with temporary stream, which bounded the
Bates woods on the south, Station IV, d. (Photograph, T. L. Hankinson.)

Fig. 2. A pool in the temporary stream in the south ravine, Bates woods, Station IV, d.
graph, T. L,. Hankinson.)

(Photo-

Plate XVIII

Fig. 1. Stalk-maggot, Clicetopsis cenea: a, larva, h, pupariuni; c, adult.

Enlarged as indicated. (Howard, Ins. Life.)
Frit-fiy. Oscinis coxendix, pupariuni. Enlarged. (Washburn,

Rep. State Ent. Minn.)
The same, larva. Enlarged. (Washbui'n. 1. c.)
The same, adult. Enlarged. (Washburn, 1. e.)
Bill-bug, SplienoplioruH ochreus, dorsal view. Enlarged 2I/3

times.
The same, side view. Enlarged 21/3 times.
The same, larva, side view. Enlarged.

Fig.

2

Fig.

3

Fig.

4

Fig.

5

Fig.

6

Fig.

7

Plate XVIII

Plate XIX

Fig. 1. Gall on Populus caused by Pempliigus oestlundi. (Cook, Rep.
Iiid. Dept. Gcol. and Nat. Res.)

Fig. 2. Poplar Leaf Gall-louse, PempJiiyus popuUcauUs, and its gall:
a, incipient gall on under side of leaf; h, gall from the
upper side of the leaf ; e, mature gall, showing aperture ; d
and f, incipient double galls; /, wingless female; g, winged
insect — / and g enlarged as indicated. (Riley, Amer. Ent.)

Fig. 3. Poplar transvei'se gall and louse, Pemphigus populi-fransver-
su.s: a, gall on Popidus leaf; h, gall showing aperture; c,
winged female louse; d, antenna of winged female. En-
larged as indicated. (Riley.)

Plate XX

Fig. 1. The Wheat Bulb Worm, Meroynyza amcricnna, adult fly. Mag-
nified twelve diameters.

Pig. 2. Larva of same. Magnified sixteen diameters.

Fig. 3. Work of larva {a), larva (&), and i)upa (c) of same. (Riley,
Rep. State Ent. Mo.)

Fig. 4. Pupa of same, dorsal view.

Fig. 5. Pupa of same enclosed in puparium. Magnified thirty diameters.

Fig. 6. Cottonwood Dagger Caterpillar, Apatcla populi. (Riley, Rep.
State Ent. Mo.)

PI.ATE XX

Plate XXI

Fig. 1. Red Loeust-mite, Tromhidium locusi<innn : a, mature larva on
wing of locust ; h, pupa ; c, adult male ; d, adult female ; e,
pupal claw and thumb ; /, pedal claw ; g, one of the barbed
hairs; 7;, striations on the larval skin; c and d enlarged as
indicated. (Riley. Rep. U. S. Ent. Comm.)

Fig. 2. The same: a, female with her eggs; h, newly hatched larva (nat-
ural size indicated by dot within the circle) ; e, egg; d and
e, empty egg-shells. (Riley, I.e.)

Fig. 3. "White-faced Hornet. Tcspfi macidafd. (J. B. Smith. Ins. of
X.J.)

Fig. 4. Ground-beetle, Lehia yraudis. (After Felt, Mem. X. Y. State
Mus.)

Plate XXI

Plate XXII

Fig. 1. Black Pirate, Mchmolestes picipes, male. Enlarged. (Lugger,

Rep. Eiit. Minn. Exp. Sta.)
Fig. 2. The same, female. Enlarged. (Lngger. I.e.)
Fig. 3. Mfjodoclui scr)-ipes. Enlarged. (Lugger, 1. c.)
Fig. 4. Leaf -footed Bug, Lepfoglossus oppositus. (Chittenden, Bull.

Bur. Ent. U. S. Dept. Agr.)

PLATI5 XXII

^^"X

Plate XXIII

Fig. 1. Diaperis maculata: a, larva; h, beetle; c, head of larva; d, leg

of larva ; c, antenna of beetle. (Riley.)
Fig. 2. (xi'een Horned Fungus-beetle, Arrlienopliia hicornis. Enlarged.

(After Felt, Mem. N. Y. State Miis.)
Fig. 3. Twig-pi'uner. Ehtpliidion villosuni, beetle. Enlarged.
Fig. 4. The same, larva. Enlarged.

Plate XXIII

Plate XXIV

Fig. ]. Imbricated Snout-beetle, Epicarus inih7'icatKs: a, dorsal view of
beetle ; h, side view of same ; c, larva, dorsal view ; d, side
view of same; e and /, egg and egg mass. (Chittenden,
Bull. Bur. Ent. U. S. Dept. Agr.)

Fig. 2. Gray Blister-beetle, Macrohasis iDticolor. Enlarged as indicated.
(Bruner, Bull. Nebr. Exp. Sla.)

Fig. 3. The Elm Borer. Saperda trideniata, larva. Enlarged.

Fig. 4. The same, beetle. Enlarged.

Plate; XXIV

Plate XXV

Fig. 1. Reddish Elm Snout -beetle, Magdalis armicollis: beetle, larva,
and pupa. Enlarged eight diameters.

Fig. 2. Burrow showing ^^^ of Magdalis armicollis. Enlarged three
diameters.

Fig. 3. Hickory Bark-beetle. Scoljjtus ■i-spinosus : 1 and 2, work; 3,
beetle, enlarged and natural size ; 4, larva, side view, en-
larged and natural size ; 5, pupa, ventral view, enlarged as
indicated ; 6, Magdalis armicollis, punctuation of elytra.
(Riley, Rep. State Ent. Mo.)

Plate XXV

Plate XXVI

Fig. 1. Larva of Eyed Elater, Alaiis oculatus.

Fig. 2. Beetle of same. (After Harris, Iiis. Iiij. Veg.)

Fig. 3. Clerid beetle, Clems quadriguttatus. Enlarged. (After Felt,
Mem. N. Y. State Mus.)

Fig. 4. Larva of Eyed Elater, AJ<nis oculatus, oblique view, to show
apex of abdomen.

Fig. 5. Flat-headed Apple-tree borer, " Clirysohotliris femorata : a,
larva ; h, beetle ; c, head of male beetle ; d, ventral view of
pupa. (Chittenden, Circ. Bur. Ent. U. S. Dept. Agr.)

Fig. 6. Clerid beetle, Charicssa pilosa (enlarged), with antenna of fe-
male. (After Felt, Mem. N. Y. State Mus.)

Fig. 7. Round-headed Apple-tree Borer, Sapcrda Candida: a, larva, side
view ; h, lai'\^a, dorsal view ; c, beetle ; d, pupa. (Chittenden,
Circ. Bur. Ent. U. S. Dept. Agr.)

Platk XXVI

«t;

. 1^

JoojIl.

Plate XXVII

Fig. 1. Locust-borer, Cyllene rohinkr, adult: a, male; h, female. En-
larged as indicated. (Hopkins, Bull. Bur. Ent. U. S. Dept.

AgT.)

Fig. 2. The same, pupa : a, ventral end ; h, dorsal view. Enlarged as in-
dicated. (Hopkins, 1. e.)

PI.ATI- XXVII

Plate XXVIII

Fig. 1. Cerambycid beetle, Lepiostylus aculiferiis. (Blatehley, Coleopt.

of iiid.)
Fig. 2. Banded Hickory Borer, Cliion cincfits, adult.

Northern Brenthian, Eiipsolis inhnitd, male. (After Felt, Mem.
N. Y. State Mus.)

The same, female. (After Felt, 1. c)

Twin-spotted Ebiiria, Ehurui i-gcminnfa. (Blatehley, Coleopt.
oflnd.)

Rustic Borer, Xylotreclius colonus, adult. Enlarged.

( -erambycid beetle, Neoclytus erythroceplialus. Enlarged.

Red (Aicujid, Cucujus davipes: a, larva; h, beetle; c, apex of
larval abdomen (enlarged) ; (/, head of larva ; e, side view of
apex of lai'val abdomoi. Larva and beetle enlarged as indi-
cated. (Riley.)

Fig.

3

Fig.

4

Fig.

5,

Fig.

6

Fig.

7,

Fig.

8

PI.ATK XXVIII

• fot^ T ( 1.

pfe4

,\

v./

c

d^

Plate XXIX

Fig. 1. Heart-wood Borer, Parandra hriinyiea, adult male. Enlarged.

Fig. 2. The same : a, larva (enlarged as indicated) ; h, side view of head-
end of larva; c, elypens and lahrnm. (Snyder, Bull. Bur.
Ent. U. S. Dept. Agr.)

Fig. 3. Leather-beetle, Osmoderma eremicola. (After Harris. Ins. Inj.
Veg.) ■ _ •

Fig. 4. Rough Leather-beetle, Osmoderyna scalira. (After Harris. 1. c.)

Fig. 5. Heart-wood Borer, Parandra hrunnea, pu])a, ventral view. En-
larged as indicated. (Snyder, Bull. Bur. Ent. U. S. Dept.
Agr.)

Fig. 6. Cerambycid beetle, Prionus imhricornis, male.

Fig. 7. Rose Flower-beetle, Trichius piger: male (enlarged), and female
fore leg. (Chittenden, Bull. Bur. Ent. U. S. Dept. Agr.)

Plate XXIX

Plate XXX

Larva of the beetle Meracantha contractu in its burrow in mucli-deoayed wood. Photo-
graph, P. A. Glenn.)

Fig.

1.

Fig.

2.

Fig.

3.

Fig.

4.

Fig.

5.

Plate XXXI

Pinching Bug. Lucduus dama. (Packard, Guide to Study of

Ins.)
The same: cocoon and side view of larva. (Packard, 1. c.)
White-marked Tussock-moth, Hemerocampa leucostigma, larva.
The same, male moth.
The same: wingless female moth and egg masses. (Britton, Rep.

State Ent. Conn.)

Plate XXXI

fZKP

Plate; XXXII

View of dead timber, much of it hardwood, Reelfoot Lake, Tenn., killed by sub-
mergence caused by the sinking of the land during the New Madrid earthrjuake in
1811 (cf. Fuller 12). (Photograph loaned by U. S. Geol. Survey.)

Plate XXXIII

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PI.ATR XXX I\-

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bs

a

o

o

•a

V

E

Plate XXXV

Trees killed along- the shores of the illiiiois River bv the permanent rise caused
by water from Lake Michigan. Near the upper end of Quiver Lake, Havana, 111.,
August, 1909. (Photograph, C. C. Adams.)

Pirate XXXVI

Prairie Crawfisli, Lambarus gracilis: male (left), female (right), voutifr (below). (Photo-
graph loaned by Nellie Rietz Taylor.)

Plate XXXVII
Prairie Species

Fig. 1. Female Garden Spider, Argiopc (nirdntia, in the middle of its
web. Natural size. (Emerton. ( "ommon Spiders.)

Fig. 2. Egg eoeuon of same in marsh grass. Natural size. (Emerton,
I.e.)

Fig. 3. Polished Harvest-s])ider. Liolinnum poIilii})t, male. Natural size.
(Weed. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus.)

Plate XXXVII

Plate XXXVIII
Prairie Species

Fig'. 1. Lacewing, Clirysopa ocuhitd : a, egg'; /, larva; c, tarsus of larva ;
d, larva feeding upon an insect ; e, egg-shell ; /, adult lace-
wing; <j, head of adult; //, adult, natural size. (Chittenden,
Bur. Ent. U. S. Dept. Agr.)

Fig. 2. Nine-spot Dragon-ily. Lihellula pulchdla, resting on swamp
])lants at Station I, d. (Photograph, T. L. Hankinson.)

Platk XXXVIII

Plate XXXIX

Prairie Species

Fig. 1. Sordid Grasshopper, Encopfoloplius sordidus, male. (Lugger,

Rep. Ent. Minn. Exp. Sta.)
Fig. 2. Red-legged Grasshopper, Melanoplus femur-ruhrum. (Riley.)
Fig. 3. Leather-colored Grasshopper, ScJiisfocerca alutacea. (Lugger,

I.e.)
Fig. 4. Carolina Grasshopper, Dissosteira Carolina. (Lugger. 1. e.)
Fig. 5. Differential Grasshopper. Melanoplus differenfialis, male. (Lug-
ger, 1. e.)

PI.ATE XXXIX

Plate XL
Prairie Species

Fig. 1. Differential Grasslioi)pcr, Melanophis differ entialis, female.
(Riley.)

Fig. 2. Common Meadow Grasshopper, OrclieUmum vulgare, female.
Enlarged as indicated. (Lugger, Rep. Ent. Minn. Exp.
Sta.)

Fig. 3. Two-striped Grasshopper, Meltniopla.s blviltaias, female.
(Riley.)

Fig. 4. Common ^Meadow Grasshopper, OrcJielimum vulgare, male. En-
larged as indicated. (Lugger, 1. c.)

Fig. 5. ]\Ieadow ('ricket, Q^canilins, eggs and punctures: a, stem show-
ing ])unctures; h, twig split to show eggs; c, a single egg;
d, cap of egg enlarged. (Riley, Rep. State Ent. ]\Io.)

Fig. 6. Dorsal-striped Grasshopper, Xipliidium strictum, female.

Fig. 7. Lance-tail Grasshopper, Xipliidiion attcnuai am, female. En-
larged as indicated. (Lugger, I.e.)

Pirate; XL

Plate XLI
Prairie Species

Fig. 1. Black-horned ]\Icadow Cricket, OEcantlius nigricornis, female,
enlarged as indicated (Lugger, Rep. Ent. Minn. Exp.
Sta.) ; and basal joints of antennae of CE. 7iigricornis (left)
and quadripunctatus (right) (after Hart, Ent. News).

Fig. 2. The same, male. (Lugger, Rep. Ent. Minn. Exp. Sta.)

Fig. o. Stink-bug, Ei(schistus variolarius.

Fig. 4. Rapacious Soldier-lnig, Sinea diadema. Enlarged as indicated.
(Riley, Rep. State Ent. Mo.)

Fig. 5. Stiretriis ancliorago: <i, adult; h, nymph. (Riley, Bur. Ent.
U. S. Dept. Agr.)

Plate XLI

xl Lr

w^—^i

Plate XLII

Prairie Species

Small Milkweed Bug, Lyga'us l-almii. Enlarged.

Flea Negro-bug, Tliyreocoris pulicarius. Enlarged.

Large Milkweed Bug, Oncopeltus fasciatus. (Uhler, Standard

Nat. Hist.)
Ambush Bug, PlitinutUi fasciafa: a, dorsal view; h, side view;
c, front elasi)ing leg; d, sucking beak. (Riley, Bur. Ent.
U. S. Dept. Agr.)
Fig. 5. Dusky Leaf-bug, Adclpliocoris rapidus, nymph.
Fig. 6. The same, adult.

Fig.

1

Fig.

2

Fig.

o
O,

Fig.

4

Plate XLII

Plate XLIII
Prairie Species

Fig'. 1. Dingy Cutworm, Feltia suhgotliica, dorsal and lateral views.

Fig. 2. Moth of same, Avith wings spread and with wings folded. (Riley.
Rep. State Ent. Mo.)

Fig. 3. Tarnished Plant-bng, Lygus pratensis.

Fig. 4. Nymph of same.

Fig. 5. Pennsylvania Soldier-beetle, Cliauliocjnatlius pennsylvanicus :
a, larva; h, head of larva (enlarged) ; c, d, e, f, g, and h,
structural details of larva. (Riley, Rep. State Ent. Mo.)

Fig. 6. Adult of same. (Riley. 1. e.)

Plate XLIII

jv

m

\:

Plate XLIV

Prairie Species

Fig. 1. Two-lined Soldier-beetle, Telepliorus hilineatus: a, larva; &,
head of larva; c, beetle. (Kiley, Rep. State Ent. Mo.)

Fig. 2. Xine-spotted Ladybird, Coccinella novemnotata. (After Felt,
Mem. X. Y. State Miis.)

Fig. 3. Indian Cctonia. Eupliorla i)i<](i: <t, beetle; 6, egg; c, young
larva ; (/, mature larva ; e, pu])a. About twiee natiii'al size.
(Chittenden. Bull. Bui-. Ent. U. S. Dept. Agr.)

Fig. 4. Blaek Flower-beetle. Eiiplwria nepulciindis. Enlarged.

Fig. 5. Spotted Grape Beetle. Pelidnota punctata: a, larva; h, pupa in
its eell ; r, beetle: (/, tip of larval abdomen; e, antenna of
larva : /. leg of larva. (Riley, Rep. State Ent. Mo.)

PI.ATE XLIV

Plate XLV

Prairie Species

Fig. 1. "Western Corn Eoot-worm beetle, Diahroticn longicornis. En-

Fig. 2. Margined Blister-beetle. Epicaufn mnrginaia.

Fig. 3. Southern Corn Eoot-Avorm beetle. Diahrofica 12-punciafa. En-
larged.

Fig. 4. Bill-bug, Splienopliorus. venatus.

Fig. 5. Striped Blister-ljeetle, Epicauta vittata : a, female beetle; &,
eggs; c, young (triangulin) larva; (/, second oi- earaboid
stage; e, contracted scaraba-oid stage, natural size: /,
scaraba'oid stage; r/, coarctate larva, or winter stage.
Chittenden. Bull. Bur. Ent. U. S. De])t. Agr. ; b-g, after
Riley, Trans. St. Louis Acad. Sci.)

PI.ATIC XLV

/

Plate XL VI
Prairie Species

Fig. 1. ( 'abbagv-wonn ButtiTlly, Po)itia r(ip<r, feniale. (Riley, Rep.
State Ent. Mo.)

Fig. 2. Metallic Milkweed Fly, Psilopus siplio, male. Enlarged. (Wash-
burn, Rep. State Ent. Minn.)

Fig. 3. ]\Iilkweed Butterfly larva, Aiiosia plexippus. (Riley, Rep. State
Ent. Mo.)

Fig. 4. Caterpillar Gall, (inorimusckcDui gallasoliduginis. (Cook, Rep.
Ind. Dept. Geol. and Nat. Res.)

Fig. 5. Goldenrod Bunch Gall, formed by the midge Cecidomyia soli-
daginis. (Beutcnmiillcr, Amer. Mus. Journ.)

Fig. 6. Vertebrated Robber-fly, Promaclius vertchratus, male. (Wash-
burn. Rep. State Ent. Minn.)

PI.ATE XLVI

Fig.

1

Fig.

o

Fig.

O

Fig.

4

Fig.

.")

Fig.

()

Fig.

(

Plate XL VII

Prairie Species

Corn Syrphid Fly. Mesogramma poliium. Enlarged.
Larva of same. Enlarged. (Sanderson. Kep. Del. Exp. Sta.)
iSyrphid tiy, Syrpliiis americanus. (Metcalf, Bull. Ohio Biol.

Surv. )
Puparium of same. (Metealf. 1. e.)
Larva of same. (Metcalf. 1. c.)
Syrphid fly, Allograpta ohliqua. (Metealf. 1. c.)
Jjarva of same. (IMetealf, 1. e.)

PI.ATE XLVII

a.

i

,h^'

a---/

i

K""' ^4

u

Plate XL VIII
Prairie Species

Fig. 1. Conopid fly, PhysoccpJiala tibialis, and side view of head.

(Washburn, Rep. State Ent. Minn.)
Fig. 2. Sciomyzid fly, Tetanocera plumosa, and profile of antenna.

(After Washburn, 1. c.)

PI.ATE XLVIII

PI.ATE XLIX

Carpenter-bee, Xylocopa vti-giiiica: the Dee and its tunnels in wood. (After Felt
Mem. N. Y. State Mus.)

Plate L
Prairie Species

Fig. 1. Rusty Digger-wasp, Clilorion icJiyieiwiorieum. (J. B. Smith, Ins.

of N. J.)
Fig. 2. Water-strider, Gerris remigis. (Lugger, Eep. Ent. Minn, Exp.

Sta.)

PivATE L

Plate LI

Forest Species

Fig. 1. Harvest-spider, Liohioiuni ventricosum. (Weed, Proc. U. S.

Nat. Mus.)
Fig. 2. Forest Snail, Pohjgyra alholahris, dorsal view. (Simpson.)
Fig. o. The same, lateral view. (Simpson.)

Platk LI

.y

Plate LII
Forest Species

Fig. 1. Island p]pcirid, Epeira insuhwis, iimle. (Emerton, Common

Spiders.)
Fig. 2. The same, female. Twice enlarged. (Emerton, 1. c.)
Fig. 3. Welj of Epeira insularis, with nest above, among leaves. One

third natural size. (Emerton, I.e.)

PI.ATE LII

Plate LI II
Forest Species

Fii>-. 1. Tlircc'-lined Epeirid. Epcira frivillula, male. Enlarged four

times. (Emerton, (ummon Spiders.)
Fig. 2. The same, female. Enlarged four times. (Emerton, 1. c.)
Fig. 3. White-triangle Spider, Epeira verrucosa, male. Enlarged twice.

(Emerton. 1. e.)
Fig. 4. The same, female. Enlarged twice. ( Eniei'ton, 1. c.)

Pirate; LIU

Plate LIV
Forest Species

Fig. 1. Rugose Spider, Acrosoma rugosa, female. Enlarged four times.

(Emerton, Common Spiders.)
Fig. 2. Lycosid spider, Lycosa scutulata, female. Twice enlarged.

(Emerton. 1. e.)
Fig. 3. Spined Spider, Acrosoma spinea, male. Enlarged four times.

(Emerton, 1. e.)
Fig. 4. The same, female. Enlarged four times. (Emerton, I.e.)
Fig. 5. AVcb of Spined Spider, Acrosoma spinea. (Emerton, 1. e.)

Plate LIV

Plate LV

Forest Species

Fig. J. Galls of riierry-leaf Gall-initc. A(:iir\is serotina'. (Beutenmiiller,
Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist.)

Fig-. 2. White Ant, Termes flavipes: a, queen; h, young of winged fe-
male; c, worker; d, soldier. All enlarged as indicated.
(After Marlatt, Bull. Bur. Ent. U. S. Dej)t. Agr. )

Fig. o. Periodical Cicada, Tibicen sepieyidecim. Young nymph, newly
hatched. Greatly enlarged. (Lugger, Re]). Ent. ^linn.
Exp. Sta.)

Fig. 4. The same: A, male, typical foi'm (natural size) ; r. d. genital
hooks of same (enlarged) ; (/, sounding apparatus: B, male
of small form [cassinii), natural size; c, f, genital hooks
(enlarged). (Lugger, 1. e.)
Dog-day Harvest-fly, Cicada Jinnd, male. (Lugger, I.e.)

^ig. 5.

Platk LV

Plate LVI

Forest Species

Fig. 1. Mealy Flata, Ormenis pruinosa. Enlarged as indicated. (Riley,

Rep. State Ent. Mo.)
Fig. 2. Eggs of same: a, form and arrangement of the eggs; h, inser-
tion in twig ; c, row of eggs in tAvig. Enlarged. (Riley, 1. c. i
Fig. 3. Leaf-hopper, Aulacizes irrorata. Much enlarged. (Sanderson,

Bull. Bur. Ent. U. S. Dept. Agr.)
Fig. 4. Pennsylvania Coekroaeh, Isclinoptera pcnnsylvanica, male. En-
larged as indicated. (Blatehley, Rep. Ind. Dept. Geol. and
Nat. Res.)
Fig. 5. The same, female. (Blatehley, 1. c.)

Forest Walking-stick, D iaplicromera femorata, male. (Lugger,

Rep. Ent. Minn. Exp. Sta.)
Spined Stilt-bug, Jahjsus spinosus. (Lugger, 1. c.)
Plant-bug, Aaniiliocerus gaJeator.

Fig.

6

Fig.

7,

Fig.

8

Pirate; LVI

Plate LVII
Forest Species

Fig. 1. Common Katydid, CyrfopliyUus perspicillatus, male. (Lugger.

Rep. Ent. Minn. Exp. Sta.)
Fig. 2. Roiind-wingcd Katydid, Amhhjcoi'iiplui rot mid if alia ; h, apex of

ovipositor (enlarged). (Riley, Rep. State Ent. ]Mo.)
Fig. 3. Grouse Loeust, Tettiyidea lateralis. Enlarged as indicated.

(Lugger, Rep. Ent. jMinn. Exp. Sta.)
Fig. 4. Boll's Grasshopper, Spliaragenion holli, male. Enlarged as in-
dicated. (Lugger, 1. c.)
Fig. 5. Foi-kcd Katydid, Scudderia f areata, male. (Lugger, 1. c.)
Fig. 6. S])rinkk'd Grasshoi)per, Cldoealtis coiispersa, female. (Lugger,

I.e.)
Fig. i. Sliort-w iiiged Gi'asshopper, Dicliromorplui viridis. Enlarged as

indicated. (Lugger, 1. c.)
Fig. 8. Lesser Grassho])per, Melanophis afhais, female. Enlarged as

indicated. (Lugger, I.e.)

PLATI5 LVII

Plate LVIII
Forest Species

Fig. 1. Angle-winged Katydid, Microcentrum laurifolium, male.
(Riley, Rep. State Ent. Mo.)

Fig. 2. Female of same, ovipositing. (Riley, I.e.)

Fig. 3. Firefly, Plioturis penjisylvanica: a, larva (enlarged as indi-
cated) ; h, leg of larva (enlarged) ; c, beetle. (J. B. Smith,
Ins. of N. J.)

Fig. 4. Reticulate Calopteron, Calopteron reticulatum. (Blatcliley, Co-
leopt. of Ind.)

Fig. 5. Horned Passalus, Passalus cornutus : a, larva ; h, pupa, from
side ; c, beetle ; d, ventral view of legs ; e, rudimentary hind
leg of larva. (Riley, Rep. State Ent. Mo.)

Fig. 6. Striped Cricket, Nemohius fasciatus, form vittatus, female.
(Lugger, Rep. Ent. Minn. Exp. Sta.)

Plate LVIII

^"""^a^ ^

Plate LIX

Forest Species

Fig. 1. Horned Fungus-beetle, Bolefofherus hifurcus. Dorsal view of

male (enlarged). (After Felt, Mem. N. Y. State Mus.)
Fig. 2. The same, dorsal view of female (enlarged). (After Felt, I.e.)
Fig. 3. The same, side view of male (enlarged). (After Felt, 1. c.)
Fig. 4. Dendroides canadensis: a, larva (enlarged as indicated); h,
pupa (enlarged as indicated) ; c, female beetle (enlarged as
indicated) ; d, enlarged anal fork of larva; /, antenna of
male (enlarged). (Le Baron, Rep. State Ent. 111.)
Fig. 5. Papilio pliilenor, caterpillar. (Riley, Rep. State Ent. Mo.)
Fig. 6. American Silkworm Moth, Telea pohjpliemus. (After Felt,
Mem. N. Y. State Mus.)

PI.ATE LIX

Plate LX

Forest Species

Fig. 1. Hickory Horned-devil, the larva of Citlieronia regnlis. (After

Packard, Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci.)
Fig. 2. Royal Walnut Moth, Citlieronia regalis. (After Felt, Mem. N,

Y. State Mus.)

Pi^ate; LX

Plate LXI

Forest Species

Fig. 1. Imperial Moth, Basilonn l))ipcri(ilis. (After Felt, ^lein. N. Y.

State :\riis.)
Fig. 2. Nadnfa gihhosa, moth. (After Packard, Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci.)
Fig. 3. Hctcrocampd giitfivitta, male moth. (After Packard, JVIem. Nat.

Acad. Sci.)
Fig. 4. llulisidota tessellaris, moth.
Fig. 5. Hetej'ocmnpa guttivitia, female moth. (After Packard, Mem.

Nat. Acad. Sci.)

Plate LXI

y

A4-'

J

Plate LXII

Forest Species

Fig. 1. Spanworm moth, Eustroma diversilineata.

Fig. 2. Acorn Plum-gall, Ampliiholips primus. (Beutenmiiller, Amer.

Mus. Journ.)
Fig. 3. Horned Knot Oak-gall, Andricus cornigerus. (Bcntenmiiller,

Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist.)
Fig. 4. Oak Wool-gall. Andricus lana. (Beutenmiiller, 1. c.)
Fig. 5. White Oak Club-gall, Andricus clavida. (Beutenmiiller, I.e.)
Fig. 6 Ant. Cremasiogaster lineolata, worker.

PI.ATI3 LXII

Fig.

1.

Fig.

2.

Fig.

3.

Fig.

4.

Fig.

5.

Fig.

6

Plate LXII

Forest Species

Spanworm moth, Eustroma diversilineata.

Acorn Plum-gall, Ampliiholips prunus. (Bcutenmiiller, Amer.

Mus. Jonrn.)
Honied Knot Oak-gall, Andricus cornigerus. (Bcutenmiiller,

Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist.)
Oak Wool-gall, Andricus lana. (Beutenmiiller, 1. c.)
White Oak Club-gall, Andricus clavula. (Beutenmiiller, 1. c.)
Ant. Cremasiogaster lineolata, worker.

PI.ATI5 LXII

Plate LXIII
Forest Species

Fig. 1. Oak Seed-gall. Andricus seminator. (Cook, Rep. Ind. Dcpt.

Geol. and Nat. Res.)
Fig. 2. Blaek Longtail,Ff'Ze«nu.s- polyiuraior : a, male; 5, female. (J. B.

Smith, Ins. of N. J.)

Plate LXIII

/"vV7''^i

Bulletin

OK THE

Illinois State Laboratory

OF

Natural History

Urbana, Illinois, U. S. A.

STEPHEN A. FORBES, Ph. D., LL. D.,
Director

Vol. XL September, 1915 Article III.

THE VERTEBRATE LIFE OF CERTAIN PRAIRIE AND FOREST
REGIONS NEAR CHARLESTON, ILLINOIS

BY

T. L. Hankinson

Bulletin

OF THK

Illinois State Laboratory

OF

Natural History

Urbana, Illinois, U. S. A.

STEPHEN A. FORBES, Ph. D., LL,. D.,
Director

Vol. XI. September, 1915 Article III.

THE VERTEBRATE LIFE OF CERTAIN PRAIRIE AND FOREST
REGIONS NEAR CHARLESTON, ILLINOIS

BY

T. L. Hankinson

CONTENTS

Page

Introduction £81

The prairie area, Station 1 282

Amphibians and reptiles 284

Birds 284

Mammals 288

Kelation of the prairie vertebrates to their environment 289

The forest area, Station II 291

Fish, amphibians and reptiles 293

Birds 294

Mammals 297

Supplementary list of birds 298

Supplementary list of mammals 299

Relation of the woodland vertebrates to their environment 299

Summary and conclusions 301

Article III. — The Vertebrate Life of certain Prairie and For-
est Regions near Charleston, Illinois. By T. L. Hankinson.

Introduction

During August, 19 lo, a study was made of the biological condi-
tions of a piece of prairie and a piece of woodland near Charleston,
Coles County, Illinois, by Mr. Charles C. Adams, of the University
of Illinois, who studied the invertebrates; by Mr. E. N. Transeau,
of the Eastern Illinois State Normal School, at Charleston, who
studied the plants ; and by the writer, who' gave particular attention
to the vertebrate life. Embodied in this paper are the notes taken
at this time on the vertebrates, together with other notes on verte-
brates taken during occasional visits to the places since then.

The two areas chosen for the work here reported are located as
follows. The prairie, in section 35, township 13 N., range 9 E., is a
bit of right-of-way of the Toledo, St. Louis and Western Railroad,
about two miles north of the center of the city of Charleston, extend-
ing some sixteen hundred feet along the east side of the track, just
north of the east and west wagon-road which here crosses the rail-
road. This place will be frequently referred to in this paper as Sta-
tion I. The woodland, chiefly in section 5, township 12 N., range
10 E., is about three and a half miles northeast of the center of
Charleston and covers about one hundred and sixty acres of the farm
owned by Mr. J. I. Bates. We called this Bates woods — Station II
of diis paper. These two areas are shown on the map, Plate EXIV.

In selecting areas for special study, an attempt was made to get
those as little disturbed by man as possible and representing at the
same time the two prevailing types of country about Charleston,
namely, forest and prairie. Such conditions are hard to find in a
region so extensively cultivated as Coles County. In a part of the
country of this character the most extensive representations of origi-
nal prairie features are usually along railway rights-of-way. This
fact governed us in the selection of Station I as representative
prairie. As representative forest. Bates woods (Station II) was
chosen, because it seemed less disturbed than any other piece of for-
est available for study.

282

To one or the other of these stations almost daily visits were
made during August, 1910. The writer's data were obtained chiefly
by watching animals. It was possible to identify most of the birds
positively without shooting them. Binocular field-glasses constituted
the most useful instrument for the work. For small mammals,
furthermore, considerable trapping was done. The results of the
efforts to find vertebrates, made by the writer and by his co-workers
(incidentally — while doing their special parts of the field work),
were on the whole disappointing. Yet the methods seemed little at
fault, for they were of a well-tested kind. It is very evident that
vertebrates were not present in any considerable numbers, either as
individuals or species, in either of the regions. Hence this contribu-
tion on the vertebrate life of tlie two areas is unimportant as com-
pared with the other parts of the report on the life of this region.

The writer is under considerable obligation to Mr. C. B. Cory
for naming a few birds and mammals for him ; to Mr. A. G. Ruth-
ven for naming amphibians and reptiles ; and to his collaborators in
the field, Mr. E. N. Transeau and Mr. C. C. Adams, both of whom
gave him information and other help in doing the work on verte-
brates.

The Prairie Area, Station I

The prairie region studied, lies, as before stated, along the Toledo,
St. Louis and Western Railroad (known as the Clover Leaf Road).
It is approximately sixteen hundred feet long by forty feet in width.
A line of telegraph poles, placed two hundred feet apart and sup-
porting five wires, runs the length of it. Plates LXV, LXVI, and
LXVII, Fig. I, will give one a general idea of the place.

The surface of the area is uneven. Near its middle is a marked
depression, a few hundred feet in length and with a bottom five or
six feet below the railroad-track bed. This is a west extension of
a large piece of low ground comprising eight or nine acres of the
field just east of the area studied. Commonly the ground here is
wet, and it may be covered with water, forming a pool with its west
margin at Station I. Marsh conditions may also develop here, which
probably resemble those that were prevalent in the large prairie
marshes or sloughs that existed in much of the region north of
Charleston before the days of ditching and tile drains. This low,
commonly wet area will be referred to in this paper as Substation d.
The main part of the low region in the field east of the station is
sometimes a large mud flat with black soil, which on drying becomes
much cracked. Plate LXV, Fig. 2 ; Plate LX\a, Fig. i ; Plate LXVII,
Fig. 2; Plate LXVIII; Plate LXIX, Fig. i; and Plate LXXI,

283

Fig. I, — all show parts of this low-ground area under different con-
ditions and from different points of view.

On both north and south sides of Substation d, the ground is
high and level, but at the north end of Station I the ground is low
but without conspicuous marsh conditions. Early in the spring,
however, there are shallow pools here. Plate LXVI, Fig. 2, and
Plate LXVII, Fig. i show the south portion of the station, and
Fig. I, Plate LXXII, shows the north part.

The whole area has a black, stiff, clay soil, except for a narrow,
artificial ridge of gravel near the track in places ; indeed, the natural
topography appears to have been little disturbed by the railway con-
struction work, which began about 1880. The ground of the station
is almost entirely covered with vegetation, chiefly herbaceous in
character. There is a large willow (Salix) patch at Substation d and
a smaller one near the north end of the station. Saplings of cotton-
wood (Populiis deltoides) are scattered over parts of the region, and
small cherry-trees are numerous about the south end. In August,
19 10, conspicuous herbs on the high ground were goldenrod (Soli-
dago), rosin-weed (SUphium), cone-flower (Lepachys pinnata),
mountain mint (Pyciianthemum virginianum) , and flowering spurge
(Buphorhia corollata) ; and there were also a number of grasses and
sedges, that in some cases formed tall, thick growths. On the low
ground, swamp milkweed (Asclepias incarnata) , rushes (Scirpus),
flags (Iris), and the tall reed grass were prominent.

The fields adjoining Station I are cultivated. They were planted
with Indian corn during the period of observation, but in 19 13 a
large piece of broom-corn lay adjacent to the north half of the sta-
tion. Figure I, Plate LXX, shows a part of this. Because attempts
to grow Indian corn on the piece of low ground where there is often
much water have been almost failures, this has been a nearly open
area with a few sickly corn plants here and there and with many
weeds. (See Plate LXVIII, Fig. 2.) Along the road just south
of the station and running at right angles to it is a row of cherry
trees and a few Osage orange trees. (See Plate LXVI, Fig. 2, and
Plate LXX, Fig. 2.) The field some six hundred feet east of the
north part of the station surrounds a piece of uncultivated land cov-
ering between two and three acres. It is a small swamp with stand-
ing water a good part of the time — one of the few bits of undrained
prairie lowland left in the region about Charleston, and undoubtedly
a remnant of a much larger prairie slough. Vegetation is so abun-
dant here that the swamp looks like a compact bush patch with a few.
Cottonwood trees at its middle, and with a broad zone of grass,
sedge, and other low herbs forming its border. Figure i, Plate LXX,

284

shows this bit of swamp; it can also be seen in the far background
just to the right of the foremost telegraph pole in Figure i, Plate
LXXI. A short distance south of this little swamp, out in the field,
is a large, isolated, naked, and burnt dead stub of a tree, forming a
conspicuous landmark (Plate LXXI, Fig. 2).

Viertebrates were not numerous at Station I, and at few times
w^ere there so many as to constitute a conspicuous feature of the
area, the kinds present being usually represented by merely a few
individuals. Only thirty-five species were found at the station or
in its immediate vicinity. A list of these, with brief notes of their
occurrence, follows.

AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES

Chorophiliis nigritns (LeConte). Swamp Tree-frog.

Conspicuous by its call in early spring about the temporary pond
at Substation d and about the small shallow pools at the north end
of the station (PI. LXXII, Fig. i). Eggs of the species were found
at this place April 23, 191 1.

Rana pipiens Shreber. Common Frog.

A few specimens were seen in early spring about the low ground
at Substation d, and in the pools here in early spring where they un-
doubtedly breed. Eggs were found in the temporary pools at the
north end of the station (PI. LXXII, Fig. i). A large example of
this species was found in the stomach of a garter snake (see below)
November 24, 1913. The frog, its hind legs included, was about
eight inches long.

Thoiiiiwphis sirtalis (Linn.). Garter Snake.

Two of these snakes were taken by the writer; one of them small
(March 30, 191 3), and one large, measuring twenty-nine inches in
length (November 24, 191 3). This large snake is the one that ate
the leopard frog spoken of above. It is shown in Figure 2, Plate
LXXII, as it appeared before it was captured.

BIRDS

Butorides z'irescens virescens (Linn.). Little Green Heron.

One was seen, resting on the fence between the right-of-way and
the corn field, July 31, 1912.

Rallus elegans Aud. King Rail.

One was flushed from the high grass of the low ground of Sub-
station d on August I, 191 2, and another on May 18, 191 3.

285

Porzana Carolina (Linn.). Sora Rail.

Frequently flushed during the field work in August, 19 lO, from
the grass-covered low ground of Substation d.

Totamts flaz'ipes (Gmel.)? Lesser Yellowlegs.

One was seen at the mud flat in the field east of the station in
August, 19 10. It is possible that this may have been the greater
yellowlegs, Totaniis mdanolencus (Gmel.).

Hclodromas solitariiis solitarius (Wils.). Solitary Sandpiper.

Common about the mud flat of the field east of the station in
August, 19 10.

Oxyechus vocifenis vocifcrus (Linn.). Killdeer.

Common about the pools and mud flats whenever these existed.

Colinus virginianus virginianiis (Linn.). Bob-white.

Two of these birds were flushed from the right of way July 3,
191 1. A small covey flew up from the broom-corn stubble just east
of the station on November 4, 191 3.

Zenaidura macroiira carolinensis (Linn.). Mourning Dove.

Frequently seen resting on the telegraph wire over the station
and occasionally seen on the ground.

Circus Imdsonius (Linn.). Marsh Hawk.

One was seen flying over the fields near the station in August,

1910. It is common in the prairie region north of Charleston.

Falco sparverius sparvcrms Linn. Sparrow Hawk.

One was seen resting on a telegraph pole at the station, July 3,

191 1. They are common along the Clover Leaf right-of-way.

Melancrpcs erytJiroccphalus (Linn.). Red-headed Woodpecker.

One was seen about the telegraph poles of the station August 8,
19 10. Also seen about the cottonwoods of the small swamp east of
the station.

Colapics auratus luteus .Bangs. Flicker.

Common about corn fields, and frequently seen on fences border-
ing those in the vicinity of the station. A nest was found in the
small swamp east of the station in May, 1914.

Tyrannus tyranmts (Linn.). Kingbird.

Frequently seen on the wires. On August 8, 19 10, one was seen
chasing a marsh hawk near the station. Kingbirds were noted in the
small swamp east of the station.

286

Cyanocitta cristata cristata (Linn.). Blue Jay.

A few were seen about the wild cherry-trees along the road just
south of the station.

Corvus hrachyrhynchos hrachyrhynchos Brehm. American Crow.

Often seen flying over the station and in the adjacent corn fields.
A few were noted on the railroad track at the station in July, 191 1.

Agelains phocniceiis phccniceiis (Linn.). Red-winged Blackbird.

The most often seen bird at the station and the only one actually
found nesting there. On May 18, 19 13, a nest with three eggs was
found about two feet above the marshy ground of substation d, in
some rushes (Scirpus robustiis) to which the nest was attached (PI.
LXIX, Fig. 2). Seven red-winged blackbirds' nests were located by
the writer on May 21, 19 14, in the thick willows of the willow zone
of the small swamp east of the station (PI. LXX, Fig. i). They
were placed five to eight feet up in the willows, and five that were
examined internally contained eggs, one to four in number.

Quiscahis quiscula ccneus Ridgw. Bronzed Crackle or Crow Black-
bird.
Abundant ; often in large flocks about the corn fields in the region
around the station in late summer and early fall. A number were
seen feeding on the ground at the station April 23, 191 1, and July
31, 1912. On May 21, 1914, a dozen or more of these blackbirds
were seen following a harrow in the field east of the station — un-
doubtedly after grubworms that were being turned up here in large
numbers; the writer, in fact, saw a bird pick one up.

Sturnella magna magna (Linn.). Meadowlark.

Not common at the station or in its immediate vicinity, though a
few were seen resting on the wires. Meadowlarks are most common
in the Charleston region in grassy meadows, and comparatively few
are seen about cultivated fields like those in the neighborhood of Sta-
tion L They seem to avoid railway rights-of-way. The writer,
however, found a nest of the species with four eggs within a dozen
feet of the Clover Leaf track on a grassy part of the right-of-way,
some ten miles north of Charleston, on May i, 19 14.

Passer domesticiis domesticus (Linn.). English Sparrow.

Common at the south end of Station I, about the fences, trees,
shrubs, and overhead wires.

Astragalinus tristis tristis (Linn.). Goldfinch.

Common at the station and its vicinity in the fall when weed
seeds were common ; they were not seen here at other seasons.

287

Spizella monticola monticola (Gmel.). Tree Sparrow.

Common about the broom-corn near the station and in the small
swamp east of it, during the fall of 191 3 and winter of 1913-14.
They probably visited the station at times where conditions were
favorable for them.

Melospha melodia melodia (Wils.). Song Sparrow.

A few of these birds were seen at the station and sometimes they
were heard singing there.

Passerina cyanea (Linn.). Indigo Bunting.

Seen at the station August 11, 1910; a male was on a telegraph
wire.

Hirundo erythrogaster (Bodd.). Barn Swallow.
Seen flying about the station in August, 19 10.

Lanius liidozncianus migrans Palmer. Migrant Shrike.

Shrikes were frequently seen at the station, resting on the wires
or tops of telegraph poles, where they appeared to be watching for
prey below. One was seen to drop down from the wire and capture
a monarch butterfly. In the winter shrikes are sometimes seen at
other places along the Clover Leaf Railroad; and in all probability
they visited the station then. One specimen obtained in August,
19 10, was L. liidoznciamis migratis. The writer is not certain that
all the shrikes seen belonged to the subspecies migrans; some may
have been loggerhead shrikes, Lanius ludozicianus hudsonius Linn.

Dendroica coronata (Linn.). Myrtle Warbler.

Occasionally seen in fall about the bushy and weedy roadside
near the south end of the station.

Geothlypis trie has trie has (Linn.). Maryland Yellow-throat.

A male yellow-throat was seen, and heard singing about the wil-
low patch of the low ground in the summer of 191 1 and in May,
19 1 3. A nest was probably present, although the writer was unable
to find it.

Toxostomu rufum (Linn.). ,Brown Thrasher.

Not a regular inhabitant of the station ; only one seen (April 23,
191 1 ), and this was on the fence.

Planesticus migratorins migratorius (Linn.). Robin.

Common at the south end of the station; many seen at times
resting on the wires. Probably attracted by the wild cherries near
this place.

288

MAMMALS

Mus musculus (Linn.). House Mouse.

One was caught in a trap set on the low ground (Substation d),
in a patch of swamp milkweed.

Peromysciis jnauiculatus bairdi (Hoy and Kennicott). White-footed
Prairie Mouse.
Caught on the high ground in a patch of wild sunflowers, in a
mouse trap baited with apple.

Sylvilagiis floridanus mearnsi (Allen). Common Rabbit.

Rabbits were very common here during the spring and summer
of 191 3. They would frecjuently jump up from their resting places
in the herbage of the low ground. Many were present in the fields
about the station. The animal is abundant in the prairie region
north of Charleston.

Blarina parva (Say). Small Short-tailed Shrew.

One was found drowned in an old well at the edge of the small
piece of swamp just east of the station, on March 16, 1914.

Besides the vertebrates just listed, a number of others certainly
inhabit the piece of right-of-way, and the above record probably in-
cludes only a small fraction of those actually present. Some species
of birds that were probably overlooked are the Wilson's snipe, and
one or more kinds of wild ducks. The former has been flushed in
places about Charleston similar to Substation d; and on October 30,
191 1, the writer saw, from a train, a wild duck fly up from the pool
which has its west margin at this station. Hunters say that ducks
visit this place in spring and autumn whenever water is present there.

Little was learned concerning the kinds of mammals at Station L
A number of burrows on the high ground of the station appeared to
be gopher burrows. From Mr. F. E. Wood's published notes on the
mammals of Champaign County* — a county less than twenty miles
north of Coles County — and from data on these forms obtained from
the writer's observations about Charleston, it appears that the fol-
lowing belong to the fauna of the piece of prairie under consider-
ation, either as occasional visitors or as permanent inhabitants.

*A Study of the Mammals of Champaign County, Illinois. Bull. 111. State Lab.
Nat. Hist., Vol. VIII, Article V (1910), pages 501-613.

289

Common Names Scientific Names

Striped Gopher CitcUus tridecemlineatus (Mitch-

Gray Gopher CitcUus frankluii (Sabine)
Prairie Meadow-mouse Microtus austerus (LeConte)
Skunk Mephitis mesomelas avia (Bangs)
Weasel Putorius noveboracensis Emmons
Short-tailed Shrew Blarina hrevicaiida Say-
Common Mole Scalops aquaticus machrinus

(Rafinesque)

RElvATlON OF THE PRAIRIE VERTEBRATES TO THEIR ENVIRONMENT

The influences that seemed to be the most important in determin-
ing the character of the vertebrate fauna of Station I were its size,
its topography, its climatic conditions, its vegetation, its invertebrates,
the interactions of the vertebrates themselves, and certain features in
the country surrounding the station.

The small size of the area studied was undoubtedly an important
factor in giving the place a small vertebrate fauna. Any favorable
feature for a particular species in the way of food, shelter, nesting
place, and so on, could not be extensive enough to attract many indi-
viduals of the species.

The topography was of such a character that a diversity of con-
ditions, chiefly hydrographic and vegetal, were brought about. A
varied fauna was thus produced, with some animals that were strictly
aquatic and others that were entirely terrestrial.

The weather has a marked effect on the vertebrate life. In win-
ter little activity is manifest, though a few roving winter birds may
search about the dead but standing herbs for seeds ; shrikes and
sparrow-hawks may rest on the wires ; and a few rabbits may hide in
the dead, ground vegetation. In spring the wet weather, that usually
comes, causes the forming of pools where amphibians breed. In dif-
ferent summers the amount and frequency of rainfall differs greatly.
In 1910 and in 1912, small pools or areas of wet ground were pres-
ent most of the time, and aquatic or partly aquatic animals were
prominent through the season; but in the summers of 191 1 and 1913,
dry weather prevailed, and water animals, except crawfish in burrows,
seemed to be entirely absent. The appearance and slow disappear-
ance of the pools, especially of the large pool, bring about a succes-
sion of animal habitats — pond changing to mud flat and the latter to
low, dry, cracked ground with scant vegetation. Each of these has

290

its characteristic animal community. Figure 2, Plate LXVII and
Plate LXVIII show conditions in this series. Autumn weather has
been very diverse in character since the observations began. In No-
vember, 191 3, very unusual conditions, like those of early spring,
prevailed. The air was w^arm and balmy; the fields were green;
and flying insects were much in evidence. At this time, November
24, 19 1 3, a garter snake was captured on the high ground at the sta-
tion. It was very active, and it had just swallowed a large leopard
frog.

The plant life of this prairie area is probably the most important
factor in determining its vertebrates, since it not only furnishes them
food, in the shape of seeds, fruits, roots, leaves, and insects, but also
affords them shelter, seclusion, and concealment while they are rest-
ing, feeding, and nesting. A few instances of these latter uses of
plants to vertebrates were observed : rabbits were found hiding among
the plants ; a king rail concealed itself so effectively in a small patch
of rushes that much searching did not reveal it ; a red-winged black-
bird's nest was attached to rush leaves, which not only supported the
nest but concealed it (PI. LXIX, Fig. 2).

Vertebrates were in all probability attracted to the station by in-
sects and other invertebrates which furnish them food, yet meager
data on this point was obtained, for few were seen feeding. A shrike
caught a monarch butterfly while being watched by the writer, and a
shrike which was killed contained many insect fragments, chiefly of
grasshoppers and other Orthoptera. Bronzed grackles were seen
searching for grubworms behind a harrow that was being used in
the field just east of Station I, May 21, 1914. In fact, most of the
birds seen at the station were well-known insect eaters.

Vertebrates have a marked influence on each other, and their
interactions have much to do with the character of the vertebrate
fauna at Station I. Few facts concerning these interrelations
could be obtained, however, because of the meagerness of the field
work done. A kingbird was seen chasing a marsh hawk over the
fields near the station ; a red-winged blackbird appeared to be trying
to drive away a sparrow-hawk that was about the telegraph poles at
the station; and, as previously stated, a garter snake was found,
which had swallowed a large frog. Shrikes and sparrow-hawks seen
along the railroad here and elsewhere in winter are in all probability
hunting for mice. Man produces at this station a marked effect on
the vertebrates of a lower order than himself. During the hunting
season, hunters were often seen at the station or near it looking for
rabbits, bob-whites, or ducks; and judging "from the many empty
shot-shells found lying on the ground, some game is found by gun-

291

ners here. Railway workmen cut the weeds and shrubbery and
sometimes burn over the region in the fall. Trains passing also dis-
turb the animal life. On the other hand, the telegraph line consti-
tutes a very attractive feature for birds. Eight of the twenty-nine
species of birds that were seen at or near the station were noted only
on the wires and poles, which appeared to be the one feature of the
place to bring them there, and a majority of all the individual birds
noted were upon the poles or wires.

The vertebrate life of Station I is influenced considerably by the
nature of the region about it. From neighboring corn fields, where
they fed, blackbirds would come and gather in large numbers on the
telegraph wires ; and birds attracted to roadside cherry-trees near
the south end of the station also used wires near by as a resting place.
Beneath the wires and along fences in the neighborhood of this row
of trees many small cherry-trees had sprung up, in all probability
from cherry-stones dropped by the birds (PI. LXVII, Fig. i, and
PI. LXX, Fig. 2). In the former figure there are no trees visible un-
der the wire, those formerly there having been cut away by railroad
employees, but there are cherry-trees visible along the fence. Were
it not for the destructive activities of man, the south part of the
station would soon develop into a small cherry thicket, having its
origin in cherry-stones dropped there by the birds. A tall naked stub
in the field a few hundred feet east of the middle of the station was
a kind of headquarters for woodpeckers, ten nesting-holes being
counted in it (PI. LXXI, Fig. 2).

The small piece of swamp a short distance east of the station
may have been responsible for the presence, at the station, of red-
winged blackbirds, the green heron, and the rails. All of these birds
frequent such places in the Charleston region, and red-winged black-
birds nest there in considerable numbers. A green heron's nest was
found in a little swamp similar to this one but some two miles north-
west of it. A flicker's nest was found in this swamp May 21, 1914.

The Forest Area, Station II

As stated above, the piece of woods studied is about three and a
half miles northeast of Charleston, perhaps a quarter of a mile north
of the Big Four railroad and a few rods west of the Embarras River.

The topography of the woods is much varied. A part of the
woods is on the west slope of the Embarras valley, and other por-
tions are on the high ground and on the low ground adjacent to this
slope; besides, two rather complex ravine systems cut up the woods
considerably. There are, then, four rather distinct kinds of region in

292

the woods: (i) high, comparatively level ground; (2) low, river-
bottom woods ; (3) slopes; and (4) ravine bottoms. A small, tem-
porary stream is in the south ravine. At the time that our field work
was started, trees covered the region quite evenly except in a few small
glades and about the west margin, where, over a few acres, consider-
able wood-cutting had been done. There was much diversity in the
height of trees, and a number of kinds were present.

On the upland were chiefly oaks (Quercus) and hickories
(Carya), but walnut (Jiiglans), mulberry (Moms rubra), and su-
mac (Rhus glabra) were also present, as well as other species. On
the river bottom were maples (Acer), elms (Ulmiis), red oak (Quer-
cus rubra), wild cherry (Prunus serotiiia), coffee-tree (Gymnocladus
dioica), walnut, mulberry, bitternut hickory (Carya cordiformis),
and redbud (Cercis canadensis). Climbing plants, notably wild grape
(Vitis cinerea), >were common, especially in the low woods. Under-
growth was unequally developed ; in the upland woods in some places
the ground had little else than dead leaves and fallen twigs upon it
(see PI. LXXIII), while in other places, there were many bushes
(PI. LXXIV). Herbage was scant on the forest floor in the upland
woods but formed an abundant growth in the bottom woods (see
PI. LXXV).

The little stream, which runs in an easterly direction, taking a
tortuous course through the south part of the woods, is an important
animal habitat; and it brings to the station a number of aquatic
vertebrates. For a good part of its course in the woods, it flows
through a ravine (PI. LXXVI). In the southeast corner of the
woods, however, it passes through a piece of low and level ground
where it is less shaded, and its banks have rank herbage. Farther
up stream, in the thicker woods, the banks have little low vegetation
on them and are covered chiefly with dead leaves, brush or other
forest debris. Figure i, Plate LXXVII, shows a part of the stream
in the lower, southeast corner of Bates woods. Throughout its
course, the stream is a series of clear, shallow pools connected by
narrow rills trickling over deposits of sand and gravel in the stream
bed. In the lower part of its course, east of Bates woods and on the
river flood-plain, the bed of the stream is ordinarily dry. Aquatic
plants, except some algae (chiefly Spirogyra, Oscillatoria, and dia-
toms) were absent. Water-striders (Gerris) and small crawfish
(Cainbarus) were the only invertebrates noted in conspicuous num-
bers by the writer.

The country about Bates woods, which was an important factor
in determining the nature of its fauna, is rough and hilly. It was,
for the most part, originally forested, but now it is largely cleared

293

and cultivated. Corn is the prevailing crop grown upon it. Plate
LXXVII, Figure 2, and Plate LXXIX show features of the country
^bout the woods.

Birds were the most conspicuous of the vertebrates of Bates
woods, but they appeared to have a decided preference for the margin
of the upland woods at the time (August, 1910) Mdien most of the
field work was done. Plate LXXVIII is typical of the upland wood-
land margin where most of the birds were found.

Many vertebrates besides birds were undoubtedly present in the
woods, but few notes were obtained on them. Two species of fish,
represented by only a few individuals, were in the stream, and some
amphibians were found at this place. Only one species of reptile was
found, the box-turtle. Mammals seemed scarce, and much trapping
brought scanty results. The almost complete absence of squirrels in
woods which have food and shelter in abundance for them, is due,
as I was told, to certain gunners.

An annotated list of the vertebrates found by the writer in Bates
woods follows.

FISH, AMPHIBIANS AND RE^PTlLES

Campostonia anoinalum (Rafinesque). Stone-roller.

A small example, two and a half inches long, was caught in the
ravine stream in August, 19 10.

Semotihis atromaciilatiis (Mitchill). Horned Dace.

Small specimens, one to nearly two inches long, were present in
small numbers in a few of the shallow pools in the lower part of the
south ravine woods during August, 191 o. They were in the deep-
est of the few shallow pools here. When disturbed they would hide
under stones or under the bank. Freshets following hard rains in
August, 1910, seemed to clean these and other fish out of the stream,
for none have been found in it since.

An examination of the intestinal contents of a few of these little
dace, revealed various objects, but chiefly insect fragments, including
parts of beetles, gnat larvae, and ants. Copepods and green alga fila-
ments were also present. These dace were seen trying to capture
grasshoppers and other insects that had fallen on the water surface.

Dcsinognatlius fitsca Rafinesque. Dusky Salamander.

Larvae of this species were frequently found in the shallow, stony-
bottomed pools of the stream, where it flowed through the deeper and
well-shaded part of the ravine in the woods.

Bufo americanus Le Conte. Common Toad.

A few small toads were noted along the bank of the lower, less-
shaded part of the creek in the woods.

294

Hyla versicolor Le Conte. Common Tree-toad.

One specimen was taken in Bates woods by Mr. Adams.

Rana catesheana (Shaw). Bullfrog.

A large specimen was taken in the pool close to the fence in the
lower part of the stream in the woods. The pool is shown in Fig-
ure I, Plate LXXVII. In the stomach of this frog were remains of
grasshoppers, ground-beetles, snails, and crawfish (Cambarus diog-
enes).

Terrapene Carolina (Linn.). Box-turtle.

Two box-turtles were found on the north slope of the south
ravine by Mr. Adams. One was too small to be identified with cer-
tainty, but the other was undoubtedly this species.

BIRDS

Butorides virescens virescens (Linn.). Little Green Heron.

Common along the Embarras l^iver near Bates woods ; also fre-
quently seen about some small ponds in a piece of woods continuous
with Bates woods.

Cathartes aura septentrionalis Wied. Turkey Vulture.

Birds of this species were seen flying low over the woods in
August, 19 1 o. They are common in the Charleston region, especially
along the Embarras bottoms.

Accipiter cooperi ( Bonap. ) ? Cooper's Hawk.

A hawk that resembled this species flew from the trees in the
south ravine on April 4, 19 14.

Coccyzus americanus aniericamis (Linn.). Yellow-billed Cuckoo.

Common about the upland woods; none seen in the low, bottom
woods.

Ceryle alcyon (Linn.). Belted Kingfisher.

Common about the "Big Four ponds" just south of Bates woods,
which are in a piece of woods similar to Bates woods.

Dryobates rillosus z'illosits (Linn.). Hairy Woodpecker.
One specimen was seen in the upland woods April 4, 19 14.

Dryobates pubescens mediamis (Swains.). Downy Woodpecker.

Common in both high and low woods but most often seen in the
latter.

Centurus carolinus (Linn.). Red-bellied Woodpecker.

Often seen in the upland woods in August, where it was fre-
quently noisy.

295

Sphyrapiciis variiis varius (Linn.). Yellow-bellied Sapsucker.

This species was noted in April, 1914, about the few trees which
remain of the upland woods.

Colaptcs auratns liiteiis Bangs. Northern Flicker.

Common about the margins of the upland woods in August, 1910.
It appeared to limit itself strictly to regions of this character and to
avoid the thick interior woods.

ArcJiiloclius coliihris (Linn.). Ruby-throated Hummingbird.

Seen resting in the foliage region of the upland woods in August,
1910.

Myiarchus crinitus (Linn.). Crested Flycatcher.

Common in the woods on both high and low ground, confining
itself mostly to the "upper story" of the woods, that is, the foliage
region.

Myriochanes vireiis (Linn.). Wood Pewee.

Common ; f recjuently heard ; chiefly in the upland woods.

Brnpidonax virescens (Vieill.). Acadian Flycatcher.
Common in the upland woods.

Cyanocitta cristata cristata (Linn.). Blue Jay.

Very common ; busy feeding on acorns. Few calls were uttered,
and the presence of the bird was usually revealed by the oft-repeated
noise of dropping acorns in some particular part of the woods.

Corvus hrachyrhynchos brachyrhynchos Brehm. American Crow.
LTncommon, though a few were noted.

Astragalimis tristis tristis (Linn.). Goldfinch.

Very common and singing about the tops of the high trees along
the south edge of the woods in August, 1910.

Zonotrichia alhicollis (Gmel.). White-throated Sparrow.

Common in Bates woods in late spring and early fall during
migrations.

Spicclla pusilla piisiUa (Wils.). Field Sparrow.

Abundant in the bushy growth near the upland woods, to the edge
of which it frequently went. Plate LXXVIII shows a typical habi-
tat.

J unco hyemalis hycmalis (Linn.). Slate-colored Junco.

Seen in August, 19 10, along the east edge of the low woods.
Abundant and singing on April 4, 19 14, in the remnant of the up-
land woods.

296

Melospiza mclodia mclodia (Wils.). Song Sparrow.
A few individuals were noted. Uncommon.

Pipilo erythrophthalmiis erythrophthalnuis (Linn.). Towhee.
A few specimens were seen in the low woods.

Cardinalis cardinalis cardinalis (Linn.). Cardinal.

Often heard in various parts of the woods both low and high; a
few were seen.

Zmnelodia ludoviciana (Linn.). Rose-breasted Grosbeak.

One specimen was noted in the low woods in August, 19 lO.
Probably more common than it seemed to be, on account of its silence
at this time of year.

Passcrina cyanca (Linn.). Indigo Bunting.

Common and singing almost constantly during the August days
in the shrubby growth on the upland near the woods. None seen or
heard in the woods.

Piranga crythrouiclas \^ieill. Scarlet Tanager.

A few individuals were noted in the interior of the woods.

Piranga rubra rubra (Linn.). Summer Tanager.

A few specimens were seen and heard about the edges of the
woods.

Sciurus sp. Water-thrush.

A water-thrush was seen in the south ravine on May 24, 191 1.
A good enough view could not be obtained to determine the species.

Icteria Z'irens z'ircus (Linn.). Yellow-breasted Chat.
A few individuals were noted in the woods.

Muiofilta varia (Linn.). Black and White Warbler.

Several birds of this species were seen in the upland woods dur-
ing August, 1910.

SctopJiaga ruticilla (Linn.). Redstart.

A few individuals were seen; probably common.

TJiryotJiorus ludoz'icianits ludovicianus (Lath.). Carolina Wren.
One specimen was found in the low forest.

Bccolophus bicolor (Linn.) Tufted Titmouse.

Common in the woods at all seasons. Lives chiefly in the foliage
region, but comes frequently to the undergrowth, and is often seen
on the ground.

297

Penthestes atricapilliis atricapilhis (Linn.). Chickadee.

Common in the woods; seen chieHy in the uphmd woods.

Polio ptila cccritlea cccriilca (Linn.). Bhie-grey Gnatcatcher.
A few specimens were noted in August, 1910.

Planesticus migratoriiis niigratoriiis (Linn.). Robin.

A few robins were seen in the woods. They did not appear to
be common.

Sialia sialis sialis (Linn.). Bluebird.

Common in April, 19 14, about the few trees left standing after
the removal of most of the upland woods.

MAMMALS

Taniias striatits (Linn.)? Chipmunk.

One chipmunk was seen in the remnant of the upland woods in
June, 19 14. Since Wood records the subspecies hysteri in Cham-
paign County, it is possible that this may be T. striatiis hysteri (Rich-
ardson).

Sciurus nigcr riifiventcr ( Geoff roy) ? Fox Squirrel.

A squirrel that was in all probability this species, but which may
possibly have been a gray squirrel, was seen in the upland woods in
August, 19 10.

The foregoing list includes all the vertebrates seen by the writer
in Bates woods during the field trips made to the region. It certainly
comes far from including all those that were in the woods since the
field studies were started in August, 19 10. Most of the writer's ob-
servations were made in late summer, when birds are seen with diffi-
culty because of their comparative silence. Poor success was ob-
tained in making mammal collections, although methods were used
that the waiter has employed with considerable success in places simi-
lar to Bates woods. It is very probable that mammals are actually
scarce there.

It is remarkable that no examples of the common rabbit (Sylvila-
giis floridamis mcarusi) were found, for the species is very abun-
dantly represented about Charleston in both wooded and prairie
regions. Another notable fact is that no snakes were observed, for
they are frequently though not commonly found in other woodlands
about Charleston.

Other vertebrates that in all probability belong to the Bates woods'
fauna, according to the writer's observations in similar woodlands
about Charleston and according to reliable testimony, are given in the
list below. Still other species may live in the woods or visit it oc-

298

casionally, but their occurrence can not be so clearly vouched for as
those in the following list.

SUPPLEMENTARY LIST OF BIRDS

Common Names
Black-crowned Night Heron

Bob-white

Sharp-shinned Hawk
Red-tailed Hawk
Red-shouldered Hawk
Sparrow Hawk

Barred Owl
Screech Owl
Great Horned Owl

Black-billed Cuckoo

Red-headed Woodpecker

Whippoorwill

Kingbird
Cowbird

Baltimore Oriole
Bronzed Crackle
Purple Finch

Lark Sparrow

White-crowned Sparrow

Tree Sparrow

Fox Sparrow
Cedar Waxwing
Myrtle Warbler
Catbird

Brown Thrasher
Brown Creeper

Scientific Names

Nycticorax nycticorax nccvius

'(Bodd.)
Colinus z'irginianus virginianus

(Linn.)
Accipiter velox (Wils.)
Bit f CO horealis horealis (Gmel.)
Bittco lineatiis lineatus (Gmel.)
Falco sparvcrius sparveriiis

Linn.
Strix varia varia Barton.
Otus asio asio (Linn.)
Bubo virginianus virginianus

(Gmel.)
Coccyziis erythrophthalmus

(Wils.)
Melanerpes erythrocephaliis

(Linn.)
Antrostoiuus vociferns vociferus

(Wils.)
Tyr annus tyrannns (Linn.)
Molothrus atcr ater (Bodd.)
Icterus galbula (Linn.)
Quiscalus quiscula ccncus Ridgw.
Carpodacus purpurcus purpureas

(Gmel.)
Chondestes grammacus gramma-

cus (Say)
Zonotrichia leucophrys leuco-

phrys (Forst. )
Spizella monticola monticola

(Gmel.)
Passcrella iliaca iliaca (Merr.)
Bomhy cilia ccdrorum Vieill.
Dendroica coronota (Linn.)
Duniefclla carolinensis (Linn.)
Toxostonia rufmn (Linn.)
Ccrthia faniiliaris americana

( Bonap. )

299

Golden-crowned Kinglet Regitliis satrapa satrapa Licht.

Ruby-crowned Kinglet Rcgulus calendula calendula

(Linn.)
Wood Thrush Hylocichla mustelina (Gmel.)

Hermit Thrush Hylocichla guttata pallasi (Csh.)

supple;me;ntary list of mammals

Opossum . Didelphys virginiana Kerr.

Fox Scjuirrel Sciurns niger rufiventer (Geof-

Gray Squirrel Sciurus carolinensis Gmel.

Chipmunk Tamias striatus hysteri (Rich-

ardson)
Flying Squirrel Sciuropterus volans (Linn.)

House Mouse Mus nmsculus Linn.

Mole Mouse Micro tits pinetorum scalopsoides

(Aud. and Piach.)
Muskrat _ fiber aibcthicus (Linn.)

Common Rabbit Sylvilagns floridanus niearnsi (Al-

len)
Raccoon Pro cyan lotor (Linn.)

Skunk McpJiitis mcsojnelas avia (Bangs)

Weasel Putorius novehoracensis Emmons

Smaller Shrew Blarina parva (Say)

Common Mole . Scalopus aquaticus machrimis

(Rafinesque)

RELATION OF THE WOODLAND VLRTKBRATFS
TO THEIR ENVIRONMENT

The principal factors that influence the vertebrates of Bates woods
are similar to those which are influential in determining the character
of the vertebrates of the prairie area (Station I) : vegetation, topo-
graphy of the region, climatic conditions, invertebrates, the verte-
brates themselves, and the surrounding region.

The vegetation of the woods affects vertebrates directly by giving
them places of concealment from their enemies and shelter from the
elements, and also by furnishing them with food to a certain extent.
The food thus provided by the plants of Bates woods is chiefly fruit.
There are many plants there that bear fruits known to be acceptable
to birds, important among which are the following : mulberry, sassa-
fras, poison-ivy, smilax, blackberry, sumac, wild grape, wild cherry,
June-berry, pokeberry, woodbine, flowering dogwood, bayberry, and

300

oaks of various kinds. Meager data were obtained on the feeding of
birds upon fruit, for it was very difficult to see them eating on ac-
count of the foliage and their wariness; furthermore, fruit-eating
birds were not present in numbers proportionate to the amount of fruit
there for them. This illustrates a condition very conspicuous in the
Charleston region generally — plenty of bird food but few birds to
avail themselves of it. The marked decrease in numbers of wild
native birds about Charleston during some ten years of the writer's
observations in the region, is undoubtedly due to other causes than to
a scarcity of food. Blue jays and tufted titmice were seen in Bates
woods pecking acorns or carrying them.

The environmental conditions in the woods were diversified by
the character of the topography. There were marked differences in
the fauna of the upland and lowland woods ; some birds preferred
one to the other. The ravine with the small stream also had certain
vertebrates not found elsewhere in the woods.

Some observations were made on the effect of climatic conditions
on the vertebrates of the woods. The temperature of the air and
water in the woods, and the amount of moisture in the air are features
that undoubtedly affect the vertebrate life, directly or indirectly, by
determining the character of food, shelter, and other environmental
features present. These factors are the chief ones in bringing about
the marked seasonal differences in faunal conditions and in giving
rise to a variety of animal habitats and hence to a variety of forms
ranging from strictly aquatic animals to those living in arid situations.
Some animals were found that live continually in the shade ; others
were found that are attracted by bright sunlight. A dynamic climatic
feature was noticed in August, 1910, when a hard rain produced such
a torrent in the creek that the few fish in it were seemingly all car-
ried out of it, not again to return. Thus in a few hours a rain pro-
duced a marked and apparently permanent faunal change.

The invertebrates had a powerful effect on the vertebrate life of
Bates woods, being food for the majority of the vertebrates found
there. Some insectivorous birds common in Bates woods are the
yellow-billed cuckoo, downy woodpecker, red-bellied woodpecker,
crested flycatcher, wood pewee, Acadian flycatcher, red-eyed vireo,
and tufted titmouse. The large bullfrog captured in the stream had
been eating small crawfish. Grasshopper fragments were found in the
stomach of a small toad caught along the stream.

Little information was obtained concerning the influence of the
species of vertebrates on each other. A few hawks were noted, which
undoubtedly prey upon other vertebrates in the woods, yet none were
seen hunting there. Vertebrates may also affect each other through

301

competition for food, yet so much food was present in the form of
insects and fruit, that this was probably an unimportant factor. Man
has done much to change the character of the vertebrate hfe of the
woods. Hunters frequently visit the place with the result that game
(squirrels, rabbits, bob-whites) has become very scarce there. Dur-
ing the last two years, furthermore, man has almost destroyed this
as a habitat for wood-loving animals by timber-cutting. A little of
the upland woods is left and most of that on the Embarras slope;
practically all of the lowland woods is removed. Plate LXXIX
shows some of the conditions as they now (1914) are. The timber
in the lower part of the south ravine has not been much disturbed.
Here, in the spring of 19 14, many maples (Acer saccharum) were
tapped for sap.

Insufficient data were obtained concerning the effect of the sur-
rounding region upon the vertebrate life of Bates woods. All the
species found there live normally in woodland regions. Though birds
undoubtedly carry fruits and seeds of the plants in the woods to the
more open region about it, thus tending to extend the wooded area,
neverthless the counteracting .operations of man prevent their doing
much in this way.

Summary and Conclusions

When a careful search in a very typical part of central Illinois
for regions with features like those of the original prairies and for-
ests reveals no better places than the piece of Clover Leaf right-of-
way (Station I) and the small piece of woods (Station II), and when
we note that both of these have become so modified since our work
began in 1910 that they are no longer of special interest, biologically,
we are once more made aware of the importance of studying any
remnants of wild uncultivated Illinois land, or any areas having con-
ditions similar to these, in order that we may have a few facts, at
least, concerning the history of our interesting fauna.

Station I, although it appeared to have more primitive conditions
than any other piece of ground near Charleston, had a vertebrate
fauna very different from that of the old, uncultivated prairies, ac-
cording to the little information available concerning the life of the
latter. Some idea of this prairie life is given by C. E. Wilson, who,
in writing of the prairies of Coles County,* tells of the buffalo that
used to live there and the great number of prairie wolves that did
much damage during the period of the early settlement of the county.

*History of Coles County, Illinois, in Historical Encyclopedia of Illinois. Mun-
sell Publishing Co., Chicago. 1906.

302

He writes of the wild fowl coming each spring to the prairie ponds
"in countless thousands", a number of them remaining to breed.
Prairie chickens were numerous, as well as some other prairie verte-
brates that are now very scarce. Snakes, including rattlesnakes, were
very prevalent. In all probability the latter are now exterminated on
the prairies in the part of Illinois which includes Charleston.

Robert Ridgway gives an interesting account of the bird life of
a piece of prairie near Olney, some forty miles south of Charleston.*
Ninety-five species were observed by him. Some of these not now
existing about Charleston, unless in very small numbers, are Hens-
low's bunting, black terns, marsh wrens (both species), ravens,
swallow-tailed kites, and blue kites. His description makes it very
evident that no bit of uncultivated' prairie-land like the one of this
study can at present have a bird fauna of the same aspect as that of
the prairies as they used to be in this part of the country.

The vertebrate fauna of Station I was of a composite nature in
that it was made up of aquatic, semi-ac|uatic, woodland, and prairie
forms. It was somewhat surprising to find the prairie forms com-
paratively scarce. For example, the prairie birds (those that feed and
breed in the open field) were for the most part absent at Station I.
Examples of these, scarce or absent at Station I but common in the
Charleston region, are the meadowlark, horned lark, grasshopper
sparrow, savanna sparrow, dickcissel, bobolink, upland plover, and
pectoral sandpiper.

The piece of right-of-way appeared to be visited by birds some-
what incidentally in going to and from places more attractive to them
in the neighborhood, — the corn fields, the bit of swamp, and the row
of cherry trees. The feature of the right-of-way that brought most
of the birds there seemed to be the telegraph wires, for these formed
perches and convenient lookouts. Furthermore, whenever standing
water, another attractive feature, appeared at the station, aquatic
forms were quick to visit it.

The abundance of varied herbage, with its edible fruits, seeds,
and many insect associates, did not appear to be an important factor
in determining the character of the vertebrate life of Station I. This
was- probably due to disturbing features at the place, to its small area,
and to better feeding-grounds near by.

Bates woods (Station II) was a very desirable piece of woods for
our study because of its primitive state and the fact that it presented
three kinds of forest conditions, each with a rather distinct fauna.

*Prairie Birds of Southern Illinois, American Naturalist, 1873, pages 197-203.

These were (i) wooded upland, (2) low, wooded, bottom-land, and
(3) a wooded ravine with a small stream.

There was an ai)parent scarcity here of reptile and mammal life
that could not be fully accounted for.

Birds, at least in late summer, preferred the upland to the low-
land woods, and the margins, especially when bushy, to the interior.

Food for birds and squirrels was abundant in Bates woods,
enough to support many more of these creatures than were present.
Competition for food, thus, was in all probability, an unimportant
factor in determining the character of the vertebrate fauna.

Game animals were scarce in the woods, undoubtedly because of
excessive hunting.

The vertebrate fauna of Bates woods has undergone decided
changes, due to environmental transformations brought about chiefly
by man. Wilson in his "History of Coles County", mentions the
following vertebrates, now absent, which used to be in the wooded
jjart of tlie county : panther, wildcat, black timber wolf, large gray
wolf, bear, deer, badger, wild turkey, wild pigeon, Carolina parokeet,
and ruffed grouse.

Platk LXIV

■a
c

" •«.

o
a

PI.ATE LXV

Fig-. 1. Station I. Looking nortlieast over the north portion of the station.

upricfcT-^^t^^ln.

»a'.«- V - ■ «.'»lfei/t:

Fig-. 2. Station I. Loolving northeast over most of the station from the south end of it.

Plate LXVI

Fig. 1. Station I. Looking south, showin^f in the foreground the low-ground region,
substation d, in November, 1913.

Fig. 2. Station I. Looking south over the liigh-grouiid region south of substation ■/.
November, 1913.

Plate LXVII

Fig. 1. Station I. Lookiiifr northeast over the south portion, showing wild cherry-trees
along- the fence. January. 19l4.

Fig-. 2. Station I. Looking northeast over most of the station, showing flooded condi-
tion of the low-ground region in March, 1913.

Plate LX\'III

T3?rr

• 'V

;?•. '^

I

/ ^

•'*.

Fig. 1. Station I. Looking east from the railway track across the flooded field adja-
cent to the station on the east. March, 1413.

Fig. 2. Border of a recent mud flat at the edge of the piece of right-of-way, Station L
August, 1913.

Plate LXIX

Fig. 1. Station I. Looking- southeast over tlie milkweed patch of the low ground, sub-
station (/, August, 1910.

Fig-. 2. Station I Looking- -west toward the railway-track bed, showing willows, rushes,
and other plants forming nesting habitat of the red-winged blackbird (nest close to the
handkerchief). May, 1913.

Plate LXX

Fig-. 1 Small swamp east of Station I, a short distance in the field. Broom-corn stub-
ble in the foreground. January, 1914.

Fig-. 3. Row of wild cherry-trees (some Osag^e orang-e trees intermixed) along the road
just south of Station I. January, 1914.

Plate LXXI

- h'

■■*'.itK««Saate

^^^Wtt,;;

^■^^

■ '3

&:^> ^- 1- .-jk.

Fig-. 1. Station I, substation i/, looking- northeast, November, 1<»13. Small swamp
shown to the rif^-ht, on the horizon line.

Pig. 2. Dead tree, east of Station I, in field. January, 1914.

Plate LXXII

Fig. I. Station I. Small temporary poo! at the north end of the station in April, 1011.
I<ooking- northeast.

Fig-. 2. Garter snake, 77/«;k«o///« *-//•/«/«, at Station I. November 24, 1913.

Plate LXXIII

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Plate LXXIV

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Plate LXXV

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73

Plate LXXVI

PifiT 1- Station II. South ravine of woods. Looking' northwest, up the ravine,
April. l'U4.

Fig-. 2. Station II. Lower part of south ravine of woods. Looking west, up tlie
ravine. August, 1912.

Plate LXXVII

Fig. 1. Station II. Lower part of woodland stream just below the ravine. Looking soutliwest,
upstream. August, 1910.

Fig. 2. Station II. Bates woods, looking north from the Big Four railroad track.

Plate LXXVIII

t!JD

H

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be

t3
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(3

Plate LXXIX

jj^g^

Fig. 1. Station II. Bates woods, looking- southeast, sliowiag- remnant of upland woods
and stump-field with a few scattered trees where the lowland woods stood. Taken June, l'il4.

Fig-. 2. Station II, River region northeast of Bates woods, and corn
field and potato patch (in foregiound) where the lowland woods stood.
Taken September, 1913.

Bulletin

OF THE

Illinois State Laboratory

OF

Natural History

Urbana, Illinois, U. S. A.

STEPHI^N A. FORBES, Ph.D., LL.D.,
Director

Vol. XI. December, 1915 Article IV.

SOME ADDITIONAL, RECORDS OF CHIRONOMID^ FOR ILLINOIS
AND NOTES ON OTHER ILLINOIS DIPTERA

BY

John R. Malloch

Bulletin

OF THE

Illinois State Laboratory

ov

Natural History

Urbana, Illinois, U. S. A.

STEPHEN A. FORBES, Ph.D., EL.D.,
Director

Vol. XI. December, 1915 Article IV.

SOME ADDITIONAL RECORDS OF CHIRONOMID^ FOR ILLINOIS
AND NOTES ON OTHER ILLINOIS DIPTERA

BY

John R. Malloch

CONTENTS

PAGE

Notes ou blood-sucking Ceratopugoninw 306-309

CuUcoides guttipennis Coquillett 306

Culicoides stellifer Coquillett 307

CuUcoides sanguisugtis Coquillett 307

CuUcoides hccmatopotus Malloch 308

CuUcoides higuttatus Coquillett '. 308

PseudocuUcoides griseus Coquillett 309

Ceratopogon peregrinus Johaniisen. ; 309

Additions to list of Illinois Chironomidw 310-317

Ceratopogo iiincv : —

Ncoceratopogon, n. gen 310

Neoceratopogon hellus Coquillett 310

Forcipoinyia elega)itula, n. sp 311

Euforcipomyia, n. gen 312

Key to species 313

Euforcipomyia liirtipennis, n. sp 313

Euforcipomyia longitarsis, n. sp 314

Euforcipo-rnyia fusicornis Coquillett 314

J okannsenomyia albibasis, n. sp 315

Prohezzia infuscaia, n. sp 316

Tanypinw. —

Tanypus carneus Fabrieius 817

Descriptions of males of Ceratopogonince previously unknown 317-319

Johannsenomyia argentata Loew 317

Prohezzia palUdn Malloch 318

Immature stages of some Illinois Diptera, and biological notes 319-324

Sciaridw. —

Sciara sp.? 320

MycetopMUdce : —

Mycetobia divergens Walker 321

Predaceous and Parasitic Orthorrhapha 324-342

Key to pupae 325

BombyUidw 3i:7

Spogostyhhm anale Say 328

Exoprosopa fasciata Macquart? 329

Exoprosopa fascipennis Say 330

SparnopoUus fulvus Wiedemann 331

Anthrax lateraUs Say 332

Anthrax hypomelas Macquart 334

Therevidw : —

Psilocephala hwmorrhoidaUs Macquart 334

Mydaidw. —

Mydas clavatus Drury 336

AsiUdw. —

Promachus vertebratus Say 337

Deromyia winthemi Wiedemann 338

Proctacanthus milberti Macquart? 339

Asihis notatus Wiedemann 340

Cyrtidw 341

Onoodes costatus Loew 341

PAGE

Phytophagous and other Cyclorrhaphn 342-352

Stjrpliida' " 342

Tropidia quadrata Say 343

Brachypalpus frontosus- Locw 343

Ceria wlllistoni Kahl 344

Epltydridw. —

Hydrellia scapularis Loew 345

DrosopMUdir 346

Dro.sopJiila (Scaptomysa) adusia Loew 347

Drosopliila dimidiata Loew 348

A(/romyzid<r 348

Agromyza pruni Grosseubacher 349

Agromyza tiliw Coiulen 351

Agromyza angulata Loew 351

Descriptions of New Illinois Diptern 352-363

Flioridiv. —

Pluiyphora fiavofemorata, ii. "^p 353

A ntho myidw. —

PogoHomyia ftavinervif, n. sji 356

Gvomyzidd': —

ApJuiniosoma (]uadriviH tiium , ii. sji 357

Agromyzidw: —

Agromyza aprilina, n. sp 359

Cldoropidw. —

Gaurux Loew 360

Key to species 360

Gaurax flaviduhts, n. sp 361

Ganrax jHillidipes, ii. sp 362

Gaurax iniernipUts, n. s]i 363

Article; IV. — Sonic Additional Records of Chirononiidcc for Illi-
nois and Notes on other Illinois Diptcra. By J. R. Malloch.

In a previous paper, Article 6 of Volume X of this Bulletin, I indi-
cated that despite the fact that our state list of species of Chironoinidcc
is larger than any list yet published for any other state in the Union it
could not be considered as a complete list of all the species occurring in
Illinois. The greater portion of the material upon which the previous
paper was based consisted of species collected by Mr. C. A. Hart and
the writer during 1914, and containing, as it did, but a small series of
collections from a number of scattered localities it could not be expect-
ed to include all of our species. Being aware of this fact and desirous
of obtaining as many species as possible, the w^riter during the present
year has devoted most of his spare time to collecting in the vicinity of
White Fleath, on the Sangamon River, with a view to completing the
series of Ccratopogonince in the collection in so far as that particular
locality is concerned. No material from this part of the Sangamon
River was contained in that previously studied, though many of the
species were obtained near Monticello, which is but a few miles down
river from this point.

An attempt was also made to disc(^ver what species attacked man
and at what particular time and in w'hat situations. The writer en-
dured considerable discomfort in his investigations, as mosquitoes
were very numerous and bit very severely upon every occasion that he
visited the river. In addition to the mosquitoes the writer had upon
one occasion the experience of being bitten by the nymph of a capsid.
It is not possible at present to determine the species of this insect be-
yond the fact that it is certainly not Lygus [^ratcnsis — a species which
I have seen in the act of biting at Chain Bridge, Va., and which is
recognized as having that proclivity.

Another source of annoyance was provided by the females of a
small black l:)ee {Halictus sp. ), which persistently settled u[)on the bare
arms, evidently attracted by the perspiration. On two clays this species
occurred' in fair numbers and was very annoying, settling on the arms
and being with difficulty brushed off. Judging from the actions of the
insects they were sucking up the small particles of perspiration.

306

The worst discomfort experienced during 191 5 at White Heath
was that provided by "chiggers" (Trombidium sp. ), which were in
abundance — an unusual occurrence in this part of the state.

As the collection of Cliirononiidcc was but an incident in a rather
overcrowded program, I found it impossible to do any work on the
early stages of the aquatic forms, and the additional data obtained
refer only to the habits of the imagines and to certain species which
are either new to science or are not included in my previous paper.

Notes on Blood-sucking Ceratopogonin.^

In my previous paper I listed as blood-sucking species, Cidicoides
varipcnnis, C. sanguisiigus, C. hccmatopotus, and C. giittipenms, the
first two biting both man and cattle, the third biting man, and the last
biting a horse. Before listing my records for this year it may be of
interest to mention those given by Pratt in 1907 for this group*.

He lists six species as blood-sucking, viz., Ccratopogon gutiipennis,
C. sanguisuga, C. stellifcr, C. varipcnnis , C. ductus, and C. iinicolor.
All of these species were described by Coquillett, who placed them in
the genus Ccratopogon (sens. lat.). All but nnicolor belong to Culi-
coidcs. The generic position of iinicolor is uncertain. It will be seen
from a comparison of the two lists that four species recorded by Pratt
are also in the Illinois list. This year, I have been able to find several
additional biting species.

CuucoiDES GUTTiPENNis Coquillettf

In 191 4 I did not succeed in obtaining specimens of this species
attacking man, although well aware that it was considered as one of
the most persistent biters in the genus. This year, however, upon dif-
ferent dates, I have obtained a large number of specimens in the act of
biting. I found that by exposing the bare arm and settling quietly down
by the side of the river I could readily obtain any number of specimens
of this species. The exposed part, however, was not most subject to
attack, as the insects appeared to settle much more readily upon the
clothes, especially upon the legs, and almost invariably made their way
up between the legs, or, when one was in a sitting posture, directed
their efforts towards the under surface and particularly at the back of
the knee if the leg were drawn up. It is obvious, of course, that in

*"Notes on 'Pimkies'," Some Miscellaneous Eesults of the Work of the Bureau
of Entomology— IX, Bull, 64, Part III, Bur. Ent., TJ. S. Dept. Agr. pp. 23-28.

t Citation to original publication is given only when species is not included in my
previous paper.

307

attacking cattle the most vulnerable portions are best calculated to
yield the best results to these small insects with their rather short
mouth-parts, and that the most vulnerable parts are those near the
upper extremities of the legs. I have found in the case of Siuinliidcc,
or black flies, that while they may be found upon almost any part of
the body of a cow or horse they are more often found on the under
surface of the body close to the leg or, in the case of the horse particu-
larly, inside the ear — the most vulnerable spots.

The blood-sucking species of Ccrato/^ogoiiincu are mostly crepuscu-
lar in habit, and in most cases I found that during May and June the
greatest numbers occurred after five o'clock in the afternoon, continu-
ing active .until 8 p. m. at least, this being the latest hour that it was
possible for me to make observations. From experience at other times
and in other localities I know, however, that the insects bite as late as
lo p. m. The earliest hour at which I found guttipcnnis biting was i
p. m. On this occasion the sun was shining, but an hour or so later a
short thunder storm occurred, the weather conditions very probably
being responsible for the unusual occurrence of the species.

When in the act of biting it was not always easy to capture this
species in a cyanide vial, as the insects were very readily disturbed,
which is not the case with the smaller species, higiittatiis and san-
giiisugiis.

May 9, only one specimen was taken; on May 15 but two; while
on May 30, thirty-five specimens were collected, all in the act of biting.
On the first two dates bigiittatus was the commonest species. On vari-
ous dates in June and July guttipennis was found to occur commonly,
but no large collection was made.

In my paper previously referred to I stated that the early stages of
guttipcnnis were undescribed. Lest there should be any misunder-
standing on this point it may be pertinent to indicate that meaningless
figures of the larva and pupa accompanied by absolutely inadequate
descriptions are given by Pratt in his paper referred to on a previous
page.

CuucoiDES STELiviFER Coquillett

Two specimens of this species were taken in the act of biting the
writer, August 8, 191 5, on bank of Sangamon River, near White
Heath.

CuucoiDES SANGuisuGus Coquillctt

This species is found commonly in Urbana, large numbers of both
sexes being taken on windows of stores in the city after the lights are
turned on. I have also taken many specimens on the inner side of win-

308

dows of the Natural History Building of the University of Illinois,
especially in the basement on windows close to the outer doors. Only
three specimens of the species were taken in the act of biting on the
dates that collections were made at White Heath, two of these being
taken at the Sangamon River May 30, and the other at the railroad
station in the town over a mile from the river. It appears from the
rate of occurrence of this species in our collections that sanguisiigiis is
more common in towns than giittipennis or varipennis.

CuucoiDEs H^MATOPOTus Malloch

This species occurred along with giittipennis but in smaller num-
bers. It was taken biting on May 6, 9, and 30, and June' 6. Some
specimens were taken on windows of the Natural History Building
also. Its biting habits are similar to those of giittipennis. The bite of
both is less severe than that of varipennis.

CULICOIDES BIGUTTATUS Cociuillctt

Ccratopogon biguttatus Coqiiillett, Pioc. U. S. Nat. Mas., Vol. 23, p. 604.

This species is an addition to the Illinois list, the only specimens I
had when I wrote my previous paper being from Virginia.

As an aid to the identification of the species it is necessary to indi-
cate that in my key to the Illinois species* biguttatus will run down to
No. 6. To include it, it is necessary to change the wording to read as
follows :

6. Spots on wiiifjs indistinct; inesoiiotiuii williout well-defined mark-
ings 6a

— Spots on wing rounded, clearly defined ; iiiesonotnm with well-de-

fined bi'own markings 7

6a. Wings with only 2 clear spots, one over cross vein ;nid the other at
apex of third ' biguttatus.

— Wings Avith several ill-defined clear marks in the ])osterior and anal

cells along wing margin in addition to those over cross vein and at
apex of third sanguisugus.

CcKjuillett originally descrijjed biguttatus from specimens obtained
in the District of Columbia. In Illinois the species occurred on the
same dates as guttipennis and at the same place. The largest number
taken biting on any one day was thirteen on May 15. This species
attaches itself more firmly to the skin than does giittipennis and can be
taken much more easily by inverting the cyanide vial over it when in

*Bull. III. State Lab. Nat. Hist., Vol. 10, Art. 6, p. 296.

309

the act' of biting. In some cases the specimen succumbed to the fumes
without relaxing its hold and had to be pried off. I took a single
female on a window in the Natural History Building at Urbana July

25. 1915-

PsEUDOcuucoiDES GRisEus Coquillett

Ceratopogon griseus Coquillett, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., Vol. 23, 1901, p. 602.

A single specimen of this species was taken biting, on the bank of
Sangamon River near White Heath on May 9.

I have a suspicion that the species which I described as P. major*
may be synonymous with griseus, but desire to obtain further material
before definitely deciding, as I am of the opinion that tliere are several
closely allied species in this genus, the differentiation of which will
require careful study of a large amount of material.

There is no previous record of griseus biting man.

Ceratopogon perEGrinus Johannsen

July 7, while collecting on tree trunks and limbs after a period of
rain, I discovered a dead worm lodged on a branch of a cypress tree,
its location and condition indicating that it had been dropped by a bird.
When first seen there were several specimens of Ceratopogon pere-
grinns engaged in feeding upon it in company with a species of
AphiocJicuta and a female of Lonclicca polita Say. This occurred about
noon, and about a dozen specimens in all were taken. One specimen
that had just arrived and had only begun to feed, had the abdomen
normal in size, but those that had been feeding for some time had the
abdomen greatly distended. It was observed that all the specimens
were females, and in one case the insect was seen inserting its probos-
cis in the minute drops of moisture on the leaves.

This species is very common both indoors and outdoors through-
out the locality collected over, but no records of feeding habits other
than the above have been obtained. An attempt was made to ascertain
if the species would bite man by confining the females on the bare skin
of the arm, but although this method has proven successful with some
Siniuliidcc that are not particularly prone to that habit it was unsuc-
cessful with peregrinus. It may be of interest to mention that attempts
to persuade several species of Forciponiyia to bite by allowing them
to settle on the hands and arm and also by confining them on the skin
by inverting a vessel over them, proved failures. I have not discovered
any species of this genus attacking man or cattle.

"Loe. cit., p. 311.

310

Additions to List of Illinois Chironomid^

Several of the species which were taken this year are new to
science ; others are new to the state hst ; while in some cases the males
of known species are described herein for the first time, and in one
instance the female is thus dealt with. In all instances care has been
taken to indicate the characters by means of which the additions to our
list may be separated from those already recorded by the writer. In
considering the number of additions to the Illinois list it is necessary
to include CiiUcoidcs bigitttatns previously mentioned.

CERATOPOGONIN^
Neoceratopogon, n. gen.

This genus is erected for the reception of Ccratopogon hclhis Co-
quillett, a species unknown to me when my previous paper was written.

Generic characters: male. — Eyes narrowly separated above; an-
tennae elongate, plumose, apical 3 joints much longer than the preced-
ing flagellar joints; legs slender; third hind tarsal joint short, slightly
longer than fourth, the latter obcordate and with the third very slightly
longer than fifth; claws small, slender, simple, subequal; empodium
indistinguishable ; wings with distinct hairs as in Ccratopogon; first
and third veins fused, not connected by a cross vein as in Ceratopo-
gon; media petiolate.

Female. — Eyes narrowly separated above ; antennas elongate, basal
flagellar joints elongate, not nearly transverse as in Ccratopogon, apical
five joints distinctly longer than preceding joints ; tarsal claws unecjual
in size, the inner twice as long as the outer.

Type of genus, Ccratopogon helliis Coquillett.

Neoceratopogon beelus Coquillett

Ceratopogon lellus Coquillett, Proc. U. S. Nat. Miis., Vol. 25, 1902, p. 87. $

Female. — Yellowish white, opaque. Face brownish ; upper part of
head covered with white pruinescence ; antennae elongate and mouth
parts brownish or yellowish. Disc of mesonotum covered with whitish
pruinescence ; a small brown spot at base of each discal hair ; scutellum
whitish, a black or brown streak on center; postnotum yellow. Abdo-
men yellowish or white above, fuscous on venter. Legs white, marked
with fuscous or brown as follows : entire coxae and trochanters, a
broad median band on all femora and a very narrow one at apices ; a
narrow band near base on all tibice, a broad median band on fore pair,

311

a narrow one beyond middle on mid pair, a narrow one before and
another beyond middle on hind pair, and the apices of all pairs, apices
of tarsal joints, and whole of basal joint of hind tarsi. Wings with
8 small deep black spots as follows : on cross vein (sometimes paired),
at apex of third vein, below middle of petiole of cubitus, near base of
posterior branch of media and near apices of each branch of that vein
and of cubitus. Halteres whitish, knob with a black spot.

Antennae about 1.5 as long as head and thorax combined. Thoracic
dorsum and scutellum with sparse rather long hairs. Legs slender;
basal joint of hind tarsi slightly shorter than the remaining joints
combined.

Male. — Agrees with the female in color.

Hypopygium large, projecting apical portion of lateral arm slen-
der, curved.

Length, 1-1.5 mm.

Illinois locality, Urbana, July 5-7, 19 15, several females at rest on
cypress tree on university campus, one in Natural History Building,
and one male on cypress tree ; one female August 27, on cypress tree
(J. R. Malloch).

This genus will run down to the second section of caption 3 in the
key to genera of Ccratopogonince in my paper, and may be separated
from Ceratopogon, the genus there included, by the fusion of the first
and third veins of the wing, the absence of empodia, and the unequal
tarsal claws in the female.

The early stages are unknown.

FoRCiPOMYiA e;i,EGanTui.a, n. sp.

Female. — Pale yellow, marked with deep black. Head yellow,
upper portion of back of head and the antennal flagellum fuscous, eyes
black. Mesonotum slightly shining, with 3 glossy black vittae, the
median one bifid posteriorly and ending slightly beyond middle of disc,
the lateral pair abbreviated and conspicuously broadened anteriorly,
not extending to posterior margin ; pleurae with 3 shining black spots,
one between fore and mid coxae, directly above it, the upper ex-
tremity of which does not reach upper margin of pleurae, and a third
below wing base ; scutellum and postnotum glossy black. Abdomen
slightly shining, dorsum with anterior half of segments 2-5 and the
whole of segment 6 blackened ; venter yellow, blackened at apex. Legs
whitish yellow, apical fourth of hind femora deep black. Wings
grayish, surface hairs fuscous with the exception of a rather large
patch over the apex of the third vein which is yellowish white. Hal-

312

teres pale yellow. Hairs on body and legs yellow, lanceolate hairs on
the latter fuscous.

Eyes distinctly separated above; antennal flagellum with basal
joints moniliform, sensory hairs of moderate length, thicker than the
ordinary surface hairs. Mesonotum and scutellum with rather numer-
ous long hairs. Legs with conspicuous hairs, all tibiae with a dorsal
series of lanceolate upright scales ; basal joint of hind tarsi one fifth
shorter than second; empodia distinct. Third vein ends at middle of
wing.

Male. — Agrees in color with female.

The legs are devoid of the lanceolate hairs ; the apical 4 antennal
joints are elongated ; the hypopygium is large and very similar to that
of spcciilaris; in other respects similar to female.

Length, .75 mm.

Type locality, Urbana, 111., June 28, and August 5, 19 15, taken on
window in basement of Natural History Building, LTniversity of Illi-
nois, by the writer. Allotype, August 12, 1915; same situation.

The type specimen has a large mite about two thirds as long as the
abdomen, firmly attached to it near the base.

The female of this species will run down to caption 3 in my key to
the Illinois species of this genus (p. 312), but may be readilv separated
from both species therein by the difference in coloration, and from
cilipcs by the possession of lanceolate scales on the fore tibiae. The
male can be separated from all others in my preceding paper by the
yellow thorax with its conspicuous glossy black vittse.

One female had a numljer of extruded eggs attached to the apex of
abdomen. They are white, about three times as long as thick, slightly
rounded at the extremities, and slightly curved in outline. They are
closely attached to each other on their longer sides.

EuFORCiPOMYiA, n. gen.

Distinguished from Forcipomyia by having the basal joint of hind
tarsi much longer than the second, and from Pscudocitlicoides by the
different structure of the antenna?, which is similar to that of For-
cipouiyia. In Pscudociilicoidcs the antenna of the female has the fla-
gellar joints very appreciably constricted at apices, especially the apical
5, while in Forcipomyia and the present genus the joints are but
slightly constricted and for a very short distance, never having a coni-
cal appearance as in Pseudocidicoidcs.

The wings are densely haired, but the hairs are slender and rather
upright, more resembling those on the wings of Pseudocidicoidcs than
on Forcipomyia. The first vein runs close to the third and is con-

313

nected with it by a cross vein and the media is petiolate. Empodia
distinct.

Type of genus, Bnforcipomyia hirtipennis, n. sp.

Key to Species

1. Basal joint of hind tarsus not twice as long as second (22 : 15) ....

Mrtipennis.

— Basal joint of hind tarsus at least twice as long as second 2

2. The short joints of antennal flagellmn longer than broad, distinctly

narrowed at bases, the segmentation very distinct ; basal joint of
hind tarsus twice as long as second (40 : 20) longitarsis.

— The short joints of antennal flagellmn broader than long, closely

fused, the segmentation indistinct; basal joint of hind tarsus about
2.5 times as long as second (37 : 15) fusicornis.

EUFORCIPOMYIA HIRTIPENNIS, H. Sp.

Female. — Black, shining; abdomen more brownish, subopaque.
Antennae and mouth parts brownish. Legs yellow. Wings slightly
grayish, covered with brown hairs. Halteres yellow. Hairs through-
out on body and legs yellow.

Eyes slightly separated ; antenna longer than head and thorax com-
bined, the divisions between joints distinct throughout, basal 9 flagel-
lar joints subequal in length, distinctly but not greatly longer than
broad, hairs of moderate length, sensory organs longer than length of
joints, slightly curv^ed, apical 5 joints elongated, stout, their combined
lengths less than that of basal 9, apex of last joint produced in the
form of a short thorn. Thorax with long and rather sparse slender
hairs, those on margin of scutellum very long. Abdomen with sparse
short hairs. Legs of moderate strength; hind tibia and hind tarsus
subequal in length; basal joint of hind tarsi about 1.5 as long as second
(22: 15); third joint slightly shorter than fourth, fourth and fifth
subequal ; claws small, subequal, simple ; empodium as long as claws,
fringed ; surfaces of femora and tibiae with numerous long hairs.
Third vein ending a little beyond middle of wing, first ending one
third from apex of third, connected with the latter by a cross vein at
its middle ; media with very short petiole, base of posterior branch in-
distinct; surface of wing with numerous microscopic upright hairs in
addition to the long subdepressed hairs.

Length, .5 mm.

Type locality, Urbana, 111., June 30, 191 5, taken by the writer on
the windows of the basement of the Natural History Building.

Nothing is known of the early stages or of the habits of the imago.

314

EuFORCIPOMYIA I^ONGlTARSIS, n. sp.

Female. — Fuscous. Mesonotum shining; pleurae reddish brown.
Legs testaceous or yellowish. Hairs on body and legs yellow ; on
wings brown.

Eyes contiguous; antenna about as long as head and thorax to-
gether, basal joints of flagellum longer than broad, narrowed at bases
and more distinctly so at apices, apical 5 joints elongated; palpi 5-
jointed. Mesonotum with pale decumbent hairs, those on lateral and
posterior margins very long; scutellar hairs numerous, long and con-
spicuous. Abdomen with pale yellow hairs, those near the posterior
lateral angles very long. Legs of moderate strength, with numerous
slender hairs, those on dorsal surface of tibi?e very long; hind tibia
about three fourths as long as hind tarsus ; basal joint of hind tarsi
twice as long as second, proportions of the first three joints, 40, 20,
15; empodium as long as claws. Wings densely haired throughout
their entire surface; costa ending slightly before middle of wing; first
and third veins almost fused basally, the former ending about two
fifths from apex of latter; cubitus forking slightly beyond apex of
third vein.

Length, .75 mm.

Type locality, Urbana, III., August 24, 19 15, on basement window
in Natural History Building, University of Illinois (J. R. Malloch).

Early stages and habits of adult unknown.

EuFORCIPOMYIA FUSICORNIS CoCjuillett
Ceratopogon fusicornis Coqnillett, Jour. N. Y. Ent. Soc, Vol. 23, 1905, p. 63.

Female. — Differs from liirtipcnnis in having the mesonotum with
distinct brownish pruinescence, the antennae almost black, and the legs
brownish.

Eyes distinctly separated above ; antenna not longer than head and
thorax combined, basal joints of flagellum very distinctly shorter than
broad, rather closely fused; apical five joints elongated. Mesonotum
with sparse subdepressed golden hairs and a few longer upright ones
intermixed. Legs of moderate strength; basal joint of hind tarsi
about two and a half times as long as second (37: 15), third dis-
tinctly shorter than second, fourth shorter than fifth; claws small,
simple, ec|ual ; empodia as long as claws, fringed. Third vein ending
distinctly beyond middle of wing, first slightly beyond middle of third,
third and first almost fused; otherwise wings as in hirtipennis.

315

Length, .5 mm.

Type locality, Florida. I have seen a specimen from Beltsville,
Md., July 4, 191 5 (W. L. McAtee), which was taken attacking
ChaiiUodes sp.

This species resembles rather closely some species of Ceratopogon
but differs noticeably in possessing the long surface hairs in addition
to the short upright ones on the wings. Several species of Forcipomyia
have been recorded as attacking insects, and in the present paper I
record a species of Ceratopogon feeding upon a worm.

Fiisicornis has not been taken in Illinois and is added here for con-
venience of reference.

JOHANNSENOMYIA AI^BIBASIS, U. Sp.

Female. — Glossy black. Head black, face yellow, palpi pale yel-
low, proboscis reddish yellow. Thorax entirely glossy black, without
pruinescence and with inconspicuous dark hairs which are very sparse
on center of mesonotum. Abdomen shining, black apically, the basal
2 or 3 segments whitish. Legs yellowish white, blackened narrowly
on fore knees and apices of fore and mid tibiae, broadly on apices of
mid and hind femora and hind tibia?, the latter sometimes with dark
suffusion to near base, apical joint of all tarsi black. Wings clear,
veins of the basal half very pale, darker from middle to apex. Hal-
teres yellowish, knob black.

Eyes distinctly separated above, antenna slightly longer than head
and thorax together, second joint not much swollen, basal eight joints
of flagellum distinctly longer than broad, apical five joints much more
elongated than preceding joints. Legs slender, without spines or setu-
lose hairs; fifth tarsal joint on all legs with 4 or 5 pairs of rather long
ventral spines ; tarsal claws long, subequal, each with short subbasal
tooth. Wings of moderate width; third vein ends about one fifth
from apex; first ends at two. fifths from base of third, its last section
distinctly shorter than the preceding one ; media forks before cross
vein ; cubitus slightly beyond cross vein.

Male. — Differs from the female in having the antennae yellowish,
with dark plumes ; the coxae brownish, and the fore knees more notice-
ably blackened ; the third vein ending slightly over three fourths from
base of wing; the fifth tarsal joint without ventral spines; the tarsal
claws much smaller and without the subbasal tooth.

Length : female, 2.5 mm. ; male, 2 mm.

Type locality. White Heath, 111., May 8-30, 1915 (J. R. Malloch).

316

This species will in the case of the female run down to section 13
in my key to the species of this genus in my recently published paper
on the Chironomidse of Illinois*, but is readily separated from the
two species there given by the color. The male will run down to sec-
tion 8 in the same key, but may also be separated from the two species
with dark halteres by the color as well as several structural characters.

The species was very common at rest on the under side of leaves
of trees and bushes bordering the Sangamon River. The male bears
a striking resemblance to that of Prohc:;da pallida which occurred
along with it.

Probezzia infuscata, n. sp.

Pcinalc. — Head black, face, proboscis, and palpi brownish yellow;
basal half of antenna: pale yellow, apical half fuscous. Thorax glossy
black, without any traces of pruinescence. Abdomen white or creamy,
apical half infuscated except the 2 apical segments, which are whitish.
Legs yellow, mid and hind coxae fuscous, apical two fifths of femora,
entire tibiae, and apical two tarsal joints of all legs black. Wings,
including the veins, whitish on basal half, apical half slightly infus-
cated, the veins blackish. Halteres brown, knobs black. Antennal
hairs pale ; thoracic setuloe black.

Eyes-distinctly separated; second antennal joint rather small; basal
flagellar joint nearly twice as long as second, all flagellar joints con-
spicuously longer than their diameter, entire length of antenna about
one and a half times as long as head and thorax combined. Thoracic
dorsum smooth, setulae short and sparse; scutellar bristles short.
Abd(/men stout, without noticeable hairs. Legs slender, femora
slightly swollen on apical third ; tibiae with rather noticeable setulose
hairs; fourth tarsal joint of all legs obcordate; fifth joint with two
series of ventral bristles; claws of moderate size, subequal, each with
short subbasal tooth. Third vein ending slightly before apex of wing,
first at two fifths from base of third; cubitus forking slightly proxi-
mad of cross Vein.

Male. — Agrees with the female in color except that the abdomen
is blackened from the base of third segment to apex with the exception
of the hypopygium, which is yellowish. The wings are also less notice-
ably infuscated. The antennal plumes are yellowish white.

The second antennal joint is considerably larger than in the female
and black in color. The fifth tarsal joint has no spines on the ventral
surface ; the claws are smaller and have no subbasal tooth. The third
vein ends at five sixths the wing length, the first beyond middle of
third, and cubitus forks under the cross vein.

*Bnll. 111. state Lab. Nat. Hist., Art. 6, Vol. 10, May, 1915.

317

Length: female, 4.5 mm. ; male. 3-3.5 mm.

Type locality, White Heath, 111., on bank of Sangamon River, May
9, 16, and 30, 191 5 (J. R. Malloch).

The female of this species will run down to section 8 in my key to
the species of Probezzia in the paper previously mentioned, and may
be separated from alhiventris, the only other described species with
black halteres, by the infuscated abdomen, differently colored legs,
and infuscated wings. The male will run down to section 14, and is
readily separated from the species included therein by the dark hal-
teres. The male of alhiventris is not known, but must closely resemble
that of infiiscata.

The early stages and the habits of the imago are unknown.

TANYPIN.^

Tanypus carne;us Fabricius

The only Illinois records I had of this species when I wrote my
paper was that of a larva from the Illinois River. On June 18, 191 5,
I took a male imago on a window in the basement of the Natural His-
tory Building of the University of Illinois, at Urbana, which agrees
with the description of the species in almost all respects, the only de-
parture being in the color of the abdomen, which has a broad dark
brown anterior band on all segments but the fourth, the latter being
entirely whitish yellow. Single examples of the female were taken on
July 21 and August 13. I have no doubt as to the identity of the
species.

Descriptions of Males of Ceratopogonin^
previously unknown

JOHANNSKNOMYIA ARGENTATA LoCW

Male. — Glossy black. Head black, basal portion of flagellum of
antennae and their plumes fuscous, the latter with a whitish luster
when viewed from certain angles ; mouth parts brownish. Mesonotum
without distinct pruinescence. Abdomen in some specimens with a
faint hoary pruinescence when viewed from behind. Legs yellowish,
mid and hind coxjc, apices of fore femora narrowly, of mid femora
broadly, and almost the whole of hind femora, blackened, as also are
the bases and apices of fore and mid tibiae, the entire hind tibiae, the
apices of the basal four tarsal joints, and the whole of the fifth joint
of all legs. Wings slightly grayish, radius and basal portion of upper
fork of media blacker than other veins. Halteres black.

318

E.yes distinctly separated above; antennae extending to beyond
middle of abdomen. Hypopygium small, recurved, apical portion of
lateral arm short and stout. Legs slender; fifth tarsal joint of
hind legs with 2—3 pairs of ventral thorns, the other legs unarmed;
tarsal claws short, subeciual, with short basal tooth. Third vein end-
ing at about four fifths the wing length, first slightly before middle of
third.

Length, 2.5 mm.

Locality, White Heath, 111., May 30, and July 11, 1915, on bank
of Sangamon River (J. R. Malloch). I have also taken females of
this species at White Heath June 26 and July 11, and Mr. Hart took
it at St. Joseph June 27, 191 5. neither of these localities being included
in my previous paper.

The male of this species was unknown when I wrote my paper on
the family, and this is the first published description oi that sex. In
my key to the genus it will run down to section 13 ; and from both the
species contained therein it may be separated by the long antennae and
by its having only the hind tarsi with the fifth joint spined ventrally.

Probezzia pai,i,ida Malloch

Male. — Head brownish, eyes black, antennae yellowish, plumes
pale yellow, mouth parts almost white. Thorax varying from dark
brown to deep black, shining. Abdomen white, apical half black or
brown, hypopygium yellow. Legs almost white, last tarsal joint black.
Wings white, veins pale yellow. Halteres yellow.

Eyes separated above ; antenna longer than head and thorax com-
bined. Mesonotum with four longitudinal rows of rather strong up-
right setulose hairs. Hypopygium rather large, not recurved, apical
portion of lateral arm shorter than basal, strong and stout, clawlike.
Legs of normal strength; fifth tarsal joint unarmed; claws small, sub-
equal, simple. Third vein ending about four fifths from base of wing,
first slightly before middle of third.

Length, 1.5 mm.

Locahty, White Heath, 111., May 9 and 16, 191 5 (J. R. Malloch).
A large series of this sex was taken on the under side of leaves of
bushes and trees on the bank of the Sangamon River on the last-
named date. The day was very windy, and the insects were resting on
the sheltered side of the plants. I took two females also at White
Heath on May 16, one of them from a spider's web; it was still alive
when taken.

The male of pallida will run down to section 10 in my key to the
species of this genus. It may be separated from all the species therein

319

by the fact that the legs are whitish and the fiftii joint of all tarsi deep
black. The other six species all have a greater proportion of the
legs blackened.

I had a slight doubt about the identity of this sex as the male of
pallida when I wrote the description, but since then I have examined
a series of both sexes which were reared by Mr. R. A. Muttkowski
from larvae obtained in Wisconsin, and find that despite the unusual
difference in color it is undoubtedly the male of pallida. I understand
from Mr. Muttkowski that he is preparing descriptions of the early
stages of this and several other species for publication.

Immature Stages of some Illinois Diptera,
AND Biological Notes

Not infrequently larvae or pupae of Diptera are submitted to the
office of the State Entomologist for identification, and ciuite often it
has been impossible for those in charge of this branch of the work to
give names for the species involved. The immature stages of Diptera
are comparatively little known, and very often entomologists who have
succeeded in rearing species from either the larval or pupal stage neg-
lect to make descriptions that will serve to identify the species in those
stages upon any subsec|uent occasion; or the written description or
figures are so inaccurate or vague that they serve only to give a gen-
eral idea of the appearance of the species. It is the purpose of the
present writer to describe in detail a number of species which have
been reared by members of the office staff here or by himself, and to
figure the principal features of each so that it may be possible for
students to recognize the species when occasion arises.

Of the species described herein, Psiloccphala hccmorrhoidalis Mac-
quart is predaceous on wireworms, while the species of Asilidcc and
Mydaidcc are also predaceous upon subterranean larvae, and are of
considerable economic importance. The species of MydaidcE is preda-
ceous upon larvae which burrow in rotten tree-stumps. The species of
Bonihyliidcc dealt with are parasites, those of Anthrax being recorded
as internal parasites upon Lepidoptcra; Bxoprosopa fascipennis is
parasitic upon Tiphia spp., which are themselves parasitic in larvae of
Lachnosterna spp. ; Spogostylum anale and Sparnopolius fidvus are
ectoparasitic upon larvae of Cincindcla and Lachnosterna respectively.
The habits of Bxoprosopa fasciata are not known to me, while no
record is available that indicates whether fascipennis is an internal or
external parasite. The species of Mycetophilidcc described, Mycetobia
divergens, has been recorded as attacking the trunks of fruit trees, but

320

it certainly does not do so unless there is an injury, and then it feeds,
not upon the wood but upon the exuding sap and attendant fungus.
The genus is of interest, however, because it is an exception to the
general rule in Mycctopliilidcr in respect to its respiratory system. A
description of the larva and pupa of a species of Sciara is given herein
which serves to show the differences between the peripneustic and
amphipneustic types of larvae.

SCIARID.^
Sciara sp. ?

Larva. — Length, 7-8 mm. White, semitransparent ; head glossy
black ; alimentary canal showing brownish on about two thirds of its
length; ventral view of head as in Figure i, Plate LXXX ; mandibles
(Fig. 8) showing but slightly above maxillary lobe; antennae in the
form of a circular clear area, not protuberant ; median dorsal sclerite
with 14 small round clear spots arranged as in Figure 10, Plate
LXXX ; hypopharynx as in same figure. First ganglion enclosed in
head ; two tracheal trunks emanating from each side of head, connect-
ed at prothoracic spiracle (Fig. 3), there being beyond that point only
one main trunk on each side ; in addition to the prothoracic spiracle 9
other spiracles are present on the succeeding segments (Fig. 2), the
fir.st and last of which appear to be closed ; body without surface hairs.

Pupa (PI. LXXX, Fig. 4). — Length, 3-5 mm. Whitish or slightly
yellowish. Entire body without hairs, the usual pair on upper margin
of head almost indistinguishable. Prothoracic respiratory organ
rounded, not raised, stigmatiform. Abdominal segments 1-7 with dis-
tinct spiracles, apical 2 without spiracles.

A number of larvae of this species were sent here for identification
from Danville, 111., at the end of July, 191 5, with the information that
they had been found traveling over a path in a ropelike mass. Un-
fortunately an attempt to rear the species failed, so that it is not pos-
sible to give a specific identification. It is, however, evident that it is
the same species recorded by Felt as occurring at Franklin, N. Y.*

The occurrence of so-called "snakeworms" in their peculiar rope-
like processions has been recorded at different times by several ento-
mologists in America, and they have been known as occurring in
Europe for many years. Various causes have been assigned as respon-
sible for the larvae's migrating en masse ; but the most probable cause
is that of heavy or continued rain penetrating their habitat in the earth

*Sixteenth Eep. State Ent. N. Y., 1901, p. 992.

321

and forcing them to get to the surface in much the same manner as
earthworms. Whether we have a numher of species in America that
are addicted to this hahit, or only one, remains to be discovered. Most
of the species of the family feed upon decaying vegetable matter.

MYCETOPHILID^
Myce;tobia divergens Walker

Mijcctobia divergent Walker, Ins. Saund., Diptera, Pt. 1, 1856, p. 418.
Mycetophila persica Biley, Prairie Farmer, June 15, 1867, Vol. 35 (n. s., 5),

No. 19, p. 397.
Mycetobia sordida Packard, Guide to Study of Insects, 1869, p. 388.
Myceiobia marginalis Adams, Kans. Univ. Sci. Bull., Vol. 2, No. 2, 1903, p. 21.

Larva (PI. LXXX, Fig. 12). — Length, 9-1 1 mm. White, semi-
transparent. Head brownish, eye-spots black, surrounded by paler
color. Thoracic segments with brown markings of variable extent
and depth, pattern on dorsum generally as in figure ; laterally the pale
markings are generally in the form of an irregular vertical stripe on
middle of segments and a pale posterior margin, those on prothoracic
segment being usually connected on upper portions, whereas on the
other two segments they are separated throughout their length ; the
pale markings of the lateral areas are continued over the ventral sur-
face for a short distance, and there are also two wedge-shaped pale
marks extending from the posterior margin of each segment which are
usually short on the prothoracic segment and much longer and broader
on the other two segments. Abdomen without brown marks.

Head about 1.5 as long as broad, tapering slightly anteriorly;
labrum protruding, its ventral surface densely covered with fine down-
wardly directed hairs; mandibles as in Figure 11; labial plate as in
Figure 13; maxillse stout, of moderate length, with short papillae; sur-
face of head wnth a few short hairs. Prothoracic respiratory organs
(Figs. 5 and 6) slightly raised above level of segment, their margins
rugose; trachea connected by a stout transverse trunk at division of
first and second thoracic segments ; immediately behind the spiracular
opening is a strong branch which is subdivided near its base, one of
the divisions being directed forward, entering the head, the other
directed backward; abdomen without' spiracles, the lateral tracheal
branches bifurcate, without the normal terminal connection with the
outer wall of abdomen ; apices of the two main parallel tracheal trunks
slightly projecting beyond surface of last segment in life, retracted in
dead specimens, their apical margins with a number of weak radiating
hairs.

322

Pupa (PI. LXXX, Fig. 7). — Length, 5-7 mm. Pale yellowish
brown, opaque. Head with two short hairs on upper anterior margin.
Prothoracic respiratory organs short and stout, situated well forward.
Integument of entire pupa with microscopic reticulations. Thorax with
numerous short hairs or spinules arranged as shown in figure. Abdo-
men with numerous stout spinules or small thorns as shown in figure,
the dorsal arrangement of which is as shown in Figure 9, as is also the
apical armature of abdomen ; spiracles not distinguishable.

Larvae of this species were abundant on tree trunks, where through
injury the sap was exuding, at Urbana, in July, August, and Septem-
ber, 191 5. Many imagines were reared from larvse obtained from the
trunk of a mulberry tree, and on the campus of the LTniversity of Illi-
nois there were several elm trees on which the larvae were common. In
the case of all trees upon which I found the species it is noteworthy
that there was a fungous growth over the surface where the exuda-
tion occurred, and in this the larvae moved with considerable facility.
They bear a striking resemblance to the larvae of aquatic Ceratopogo-
nincc and progress by the same selrpentine motion as do those larvae. The
larval skin is not generally entirely freed from the pupa at transforma-
tion, the apical half of the pupal abdomen being enclosed in it, the head
of the larva lying close to the ventral surface of the abdomen. The
pupa, just before the emergence of the imago, makes its appearance at
the surface of the matter in which it is buried, having been previously
visible only through the presence of the small respiratory organs,
which generally pierce the upper layer of the covering. I found that
the pupae when removed from their normal position in the semi-liquid
matter can regain that position by means of a rotary motion of the
i)ody, entering, tail first, until all but the apices of the thoracic respira-
tory organs are enveloped. LTnder natural conditions they pupate un-
der the loose bark and possibly in this way cause very slight injury.

No damage is done to the trees by the presence of the larvae so far
as I can discover, and they are present only in those trees where an
injury causes an exudation of sap. It is not impossible that they may
have an irritating effect upon the wound other than that suggested
above, but I doubt it. They feed upon the liquid exudation and not
upon the fiber of the tree, and I reared many examples after the larvse
had been removed from the trees for over a month, their only food
being that provided by the fungous matter collected along with them.
I have observed that the first cold weather, not frost, proves fatal to
most of the larvae.

Of parasites I found only a small worm which moved freely about
in the interior of the body of the larva. In form this resembles a

323

nematode, but having had so far no opportunity of submitting it to an
authority on the group I can not present any definite information as to
its identity.

The following observations regarding the family status of the
genus may be of interest to students of the Ncmocera.

The genus Mycetohia presents in the larval stage what, judging
from our present very meager knowledge of the family, is a departure
from the normal mycetophilid respiratory system in having no lateral
abdominal spiracles. In fact the lateral tracheal branches simply fork
and have no terminal extension which would seem to indicate the re-
cent possession of abdominal spiracles. This is not, to my mind, in-
compatible with their position in this family, though there are some
writers who may differ from me upon this point, — e. g. Osten Sacken,
who considered that the genus does not belong to the MycetopJiilidcc
because of the closed spiracles. In this connection it seems necessary
to mention a recent paper dealing in an arbitrary manner with the
classification of this group.* In the paper referred to there is a sum-
mary of facts deduced from the writings of investigators, principally
Brauer, unsupported by any other data in possession of the compiler,
by means of which the latter endeavors to outline what he considers to
be a natural classification of the families in the group. I have the con-
viction that a natural classification can only be arrived at by a careful
consideration of the characters possessed by all stages taken in con-
junction with their mode of life. It is impossible, to my mind, to
arrive at a decision as to the importance of certain organs as a means
of classification unless we know how the species live, what is the im-
portance of the organs in the habitat, and, finally, to what extent a
departure from a certain mode of life may affect one set of organs in
comparison with others that seem to be of less fundamental signifi-
cance. That we may, and do, find species in a family with certain or-
gans functional which in others are vestigial or even absent, is not suf-
ficient reason for the separation of such species into different families,
and though the respiratory system is of more importance probably
than any other one character, I consider that it is absurd to lay down
any rule of classification based upon that one character, which is admit-
tedly variable in most groups of insects, especially in view of the fact
that we are unacquainted with probably ninety-five per cent, of the
species included, in so far as their larval stages are concerned.

Another, and most reprehensible attitude is that taken by the writer
previously referred to when he discounts the evidence brought for-

*The Nemocera not a Natural Group of Diptera. Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer., Vol. 8,
1915, p. 93.

324

ward by some investigators that Mycetohia pallipcs has an amphip-
neustic larva with the statement that although he has not seen the larva
he nevertheless believes "that the supposed difference rests upon an
error of observation." Thus the careful work of real investigators is
ignominiously thrust aside because this writer considers that the facts
given, not being in conformity with his ideas and consonant with his
unwarranted deductions, are necessarily erroneous. Psychological
classifications are not reliable ; and while they are at time interesting
reading the real factors in classification must first be more fully inves-
tigated before any safe ground for deductions as to relationships c^f
families is provided.. Notwithstanding the absence of functional ab-
dominal spiracles, we may with an easy mind retain Mycetohia in the
Mycetoplvilidcc, and it is not improbable that further investigation will
prove that it is not the only genus which presents such a departure
from what is now considered the normal condition in the family. In
fact, the European species Polylcpta Icptogastcr Winncrtz has been
proven by Schmitz to be a departure in a more remarkable manner
than is the present species.*

It is not necessary that I should deal with this paper here, but as it
appeared three years before the note on classification wiiich has been
referred to, and as the genus Polylepta occurs in North America it is
obvious that mention of it at least is not out of place in the present
connection.

Predaceous and Parasitic ORTHORRHArHA

(BoTubyliichc, Mydaidcc, Asilidcc, Tlicrciidcc, and Cyrtidcc)

It may seem a little presumptuous to formulate a method for the
separation of the next seven genera dealt with upon the slender basis
afforded by the species available to me, but it is not improbable that the
characters which separate these may be found serviceable in the sepa-
ration of others as yet unknown to me, and a key is given herewith
which sets forth the structural differences observed that are consid-
ered as probably of generic value. It is essential to a better under-
standing of generic relations, not only of the genera here dealt with
but of all genera in the so-called Nemoccra, that a knowledge of the
early stages be obtained. It is also necessary that entomologists who
may be in possession of materials or data, or may later have either,
should place whatever they have upon record as an aid to the elucida-
tion of the problems connected with the classification of the group, it

*Biologi!-(:-h-;uiatoinisehe Ihitersiiehiingeii an eiiier hohlenbcwolniendeii Myccto-
philidenlarve, Polt/lepta leptogaster Winn. Natuurhistorisch Genootschap in Limburg.
Jaarboeck, 1912, 4th Note.

325

being absolutely impossible for any one man, or even for a few men, to
cover all the ground in a satisfactory manner.

The key presented herewith is based upon species in the collection
of this Laboratory with one exception, and gives a synopsis of the
characters which I have used in separating them. There are in the
series examples of the following families: Bombyliidcc, Mydaidce,
Asilidcc, and Therevidce. The pupc'E of all these families, as far as I
am aware, bear a strong resemblance to those of Tabanidcr, but the
pupae of the latter differ noticeably, as far as I have seen, in having no
long thornlike cephalic processes, the protuberances being short and
not heavily chitinized. The use of the cephalic armature by the
Asilidcu and their allies in digging their way out of the ground necessi-
tates that those organs be strong, as the species often must burrow
through rather hard dry soil, while the Tabanidcc, being for the most
part species which live in water or in moist situations, do not require
such powerful organs to assist in their emergence from their pupal
habitat. The abdomen in all the species included in the key is armed
upon each segment with a median transverse series of thorns, or hairs
and thorns in alternation. This feature is somewhat similar to that
presented by the pupae of the Tahanidar, but the apical segment differs
considerably in the two groups, while the species of Tabanus have
usually the transverse thorns or hairs in a double row, the anterior one
consisting of shorter and stronger thorns than the posterior one.

The pupse of the only two species of Cyrtidcc that I have seen, one
of which is described in the present paper, differ very considerably
from those of the grou]) included in the key, and also from the Taban-
idcr, in having the head and abdomen without thorns or bristles, and
the abdominal spiracles reduced in number, there being not more than
five pairs.

Key to Pup^

ft

1. Head with but two thorns, abdominal spiracles conspicuously ele-

vated, thornlikc Psiloccpliala lunnorrlwidalis (p. 334).

— Head with more than 2 thoi-ns, al)dominal spiracles reniform, not
conspicuously elevated 2

2. Dorsal abdominal segments with a transverse series of short flattened

thorns on middle of each segment, and alternating long, slender,
slightly eui'led hairs; sometimes the short thoi-ns are bent upward
at right angles at bases and ai)iecs* (Bonihyliidw) 3

*In all eases that I have seen these short thorns have the appearance of being
attached to the abdomen, rather than of being a part of it as is the case in the other
pupae dealt with here.

326

— Dorsal abdominal segments without long slender curled hairs, the

transverse series consisting of strongly chitinized thorns which
alternate in size 8

3. The short stout thorns on abdominal segments 2 to 4 bent upward

at right angles at bases and apices ; armature of head consisting of
a lunate series of 4 strong thorns on upper margin the bases of
which are contiguous, and 2 shorter, downwardly directed thorns
on middle near lower margin Spogostylum anale (p. 328).

— The short stout thorns on abdominal segments either bent up at

apices only and the armature of head not as above, or if the short
thorns are bent up both at bases and apices the head armature con-
sists of 8 thorns 4

4. Upper pair of cephalic thorns slender, widely separated at base. . .5

— Upper pair of cephalic thorns very stout, contiguous at base

{Anilirax) 7

5. The short abdominal thorns bent upward at right angles at bases

and apices Exoprosopa fasciata? (p. 329).

— ■ The short abdominal thorns not bent up at base, only so at apices
6

6. Lateral pair of cephalic thorns contiguous at base, the loAver one

without basal protuberance or hairs

Exoprosopa fascipennis (p. 330) .

— Lateral pair of cephalic thorns rather widely separated at base, the

lower one with a short wartlike protuberance at base on under side
which has upon it 2 or 3 hairs Sparnopolius fulvus (p. 331).

7. Upper pair of cephalic thorns simple, without a small tooth at base

on outer side; viewed laterally the middle one of the 3 caudal
thorns on each side is much smaller than the lower one, sometimes
indistinguishable Anilirax liypomelas (p. 334).

— Upper pair of cephalic thorns each with a small tooth on outer side

at base ; viewed laterally the middle one of the 3 caudal thorns on

each side is about as large as the lower one

Anilirax lateralis (p. 332) .

8. Upper pair of cephalic thorns directed outward and slightl}^ up-

ward ; apices of wing sheaths extending beyond apices of sheaths
of middle legs My das clavaius (p. 336) .

— Upper pair of cephalic thorns directed forward and slightly down-

ward ; apices of wing sheaths not extending beyond apices of
sheaths of middle legs {Asilidoi) 9

9. Prothoracic spiracle merely a rugose area, without well-defined reni-

form portion ; abdominal spiracles very large

Promaclius vertehratus (p. 337) .

— Prothoracic spiracles rugose, but with a well-defined reniform area

which is distinctly elevated 10

10. Apices of sheaths of fore legs extending very distinctly caudad of
apices of wing sheaths Deromyia wintJiemi (p. 338).

327

— Apices of sheaths of fore legs not extending to apices of wing sheaths

11

11. Middle of wing sheath with a small distinctly raised area; apical ab-
dominal segment truncated, the upper pair of thorns directed
uijward ProctacantJius milherti (p. 339) .

— Middle of wing sheath without raised area; apical abdominal seg-

ment not truncated, the upper pair of thorns directed backward
and slightly curved downward Asilus notatus (p. 340).

I have not included any species in the key of which I have not ex-
amined specimens, preferring not to use descriptions which I miglit
misinterpret. I have, however, indicated in the text characters whicli
appear to be available for the separation of Systaxhns or ens from B-v-
oprosopa fasciata and Apliwhantus vitis from Sparnopolius fulviis.

Brax lateralis Macquart has been recorded by Titus as predaceous
upon Ligyrus spp.* Unfortunately the figures and descriptions of the
larva and pupa given by him are too vague to permit my discovering
their distinctive generic characters.

BOMBYLIID^

Many species of this family have been reared both in North Amer-
ica and in Europe, and the larvae have been found to be predaceous or
parasitic in all cases put upon record. Wilhston gives a summary of
tlieir larval habitsf. Apha-bantns and Systaxhns are predaceous on
egg-masses of the locust Calopteniis spretiis. Anthrax is recorded as
parasitic upon three genera of Hymenoptcra — Mcgacliile, Osmia, and
Odynerus — and three genera of Lepidoptcra — Mamestra, Noctna, and
Agrotis; Spogostyliiin upon four genera of Hymenoptcra — PclopTus,
McgacJulc, Ceuwnus, and Osmia — and two genera of Coleoptera —
Cicindcla and Calicodoma; Bomhylius upon the hymenopterous genera
Andrena and Colletcs; Toxophora upon the hymenopteran Bumenes;
and Systroptis on the lepidopteran Limacodes; while Callostoma is
predaceous on the egg-masses of the locust Caloptenns italiccu.

Vassiliew, in a short note on the biology of some European species
of Anthrax, records the occurrence of niorio Linn, and vclutina Fall,
as secondary parasites of Masycera sylvatica Fall., a tachinid parasite
of Dendrolinus pini Linn. J

*Some Miscellaneous Eesults of the Work of the Bureau of Entomology. Bull. 53,
Bur. Ent., U. S. Dept. Agr., 1905, p. 15.

' tManual of North American Diptera, p. 213. 1908.

JBeitrag zur Biologic der Gattung Anthrax Scop. (Fam. Bombyliidae.), Zeitschr.
fur Wiss. Insektenbiol., Bd. 1, Heft 4, p. 174. 1905.

328
Spogostylum analk Say

Anthrax anale Say, Jonr. Aead. Nat. Sci. Phil., Vol. 3, 1823, p. 45.

Larva. — Length, 12-14 mm. White. Head small and inconspicu-
ous (PI. LXXXIII. Fig. i), retracted within the first thoracic segment
to the point marked X in figure ; mandibles strong, slightly serrated on
latero-ventral surfaces, curved downward ; dorsal surface of head
with 5 strong hairs arranged as in figure. Thoracic and abdominal
segments with strongly defined incisions between them ; prothoracic
spiracle large; abdomen without noticeable spiracles (in preserved ex-
amples) ; apical abdominal segment conspicuously attenuated, pro-
duced in the form of a short point; no surface hairs on abdomen or
thorax.

Pit pa. — Length, 12 mm. Testaceous. Head with the upper arma-
ture consisting of 4 strong thorns in a crescentic series, their bases con-
nected, and 2 smaller downwardly directed thorns near ventral sur-
face on median line as shown in Figure 9, Plate LXXXHI ; 6 long
hairs on head, 4 at bases of upper thorns and 2 at bases of the median
pair. Thorax with 4 long hairs, 2 above base of wing-sheath and 2
closely placed ones about midway between them and the dorso-median
line in transverse line with them ; prothoracic spiracle distinct. First
abdominal segment with a transverse series of long closely placed
slightly curled hairs anterior to middle from a little distance on each
side of median line to a point more than midway to spiracle, the series
broadly interrupted in the middle, and this area without the short bris-
tles present in Anthrax and Bxoprosopa; posterior to the spiracle on
first segment are about 6 remarkably long hairs directed outward and
slightly forward ; segments 2 to 4 with the transverse armature con-
sisting of long hairs alternating with short bristles, the apices and
bases of the latter bent upward at right angles (Fig. 2) ; armature of
segments 5 to 8 consisting of long hairs, the series except on segment
8 usually with short, straight, alternating bristles ; spiracles small but
distinct on segments i to 7 ; apical segment with 2 slender slightly
curved thorns (PI. LXXXHL Figs. 8 and 10) ; armature of segments
pc^sterior to spiracles consisting of very long hairs, that of ventral seg-
ments of transverse series of moderately long hairs which are discon-
tinued on middle of segments.

The larvae and pupse from which the foregoing descriptions are
drawn, are those obtained by Dr. V. E. Shelford near Chicago, and
which were used by him as a 1)asis for his paper on the species.* Dr.

*The Life-history of a Bee-fly (Spogostylum anale Say) Parasite of the Larva
of a Tiger Beetle {Cicindela .^eutellaris Say var. lecontei Halt!.). Ann. Ent. Soc.
Amer., Vol. 6, No. 2, 1913, p. 213.

329

Shelford kindly permitted me to use his material. The species is ecto-
parasitic.

The species is represented in the collection here hv imagines from
the following Illinois localities : Pekin. Ouincy, Algonquin, Cedar
Lake, Clay City, Grafton, Thebes, and Mt. Carmel. There is also a
specimen from St. Louis, Mo. The dates of occurrence are in August
with the exception of the example from Mt. Carmel, which is given as
liaving been taken June lo or ii — a rather unusual date if correct.
Dr. Shelford gives a summary of localities for the species in his paper
from .data obtained from dipterologists.

ExoPROSOPA FASCiATA Maccjuart ?

Exoprosopa fasciata Macquart, Dipt. Exot., Vol. 2, Pt. 1, 1838, p. 51.

Pupa. — Length, 20 mm. Testaceous yellow, thorns and wing
sheaths dark brown. Head with 8 strong thorns; upper median pair
widely separated at base ; lateral view of head as in Figure 6, Plate
LXXXIII ; lateral pair of thorns slender and elongated ; 2 strong hairs
at base of each of the upper thorns, one above the base of each of the
lower median pair and slightly laterad of them, and one close to suture
between head and thorax, slightly above level of lower thorns. Thorax
with the usual 4 hairs, a widely placed pair above wing base and an-
other pair closely placed midway between wing base and dorso-median
line and distinctly caudad of the posterior one of the former pair;
wing sheath with a distinct, bifid, wartlike protuberance close to costal
margin near base ; apices of middle leg-sheaths projecting distinctly be-
yond apices of wing sheaths ; prothoracic spiracle with well-defined
rugose reniform area. Abdominal segments 2 to 6 with the bases and
apices of the short thorns of the transverse series turned up at right
angles (PI. LXXXIH, Fig. 3) ; first segment with a transverse series
of long curled hairs which does not extend over the median line and is
discontinued about two thirds of the distance to spiracle; posterior to
the spiracle is a series of about 8 long hairs which are distinctly
shorter than those of the segment above; spiracles of moderate size,
margins rugose; apical segment as in Figures 4 and 11.

The pupal exuvium from which the foregoing description was
drawn was found in a garden in Urbana by Miss E. Mosher, August,
1914. There is little doubt about the identity of the species, although
the imago was not directly associated with the specimen, for the large
size and dark-colored wings, coupled with the fact that fasciata is the
only common species that agrees in these respects occurring at this
time here, make it very probable that the identification is correct.

3B0

The species is represented in the collection here by imagines from
the following Illinois localities : Lake County, Algonquin, Waterman,
Milan, Bloomington, Normal, Pekin, Forest City, Havana, Cham-
paign, Urbana, IMeredosia, Camp Point, Belleville, Dubois, Grand Tow-
er, Alto Pass, and Metropolis, the dates of collection ranging from
July 12 to August 31. The species is a very common one and probably
occurs throughout the entire state. There is also in the collection one
specimen from New Harmony, Ind., taken September 2, and one from
Delaware Co., Pa. I have taken the species at White Heath, 111., on
two species of Monarda and on Hcliantlius in August.

The pupa wdiich I have associated w'ith this species bears a strik-
ing similarity to that figured by Riley for Systaxhtis oreus, differing
however in the dark color of the wing cases and in their being com-
paratively shorter, not extending to the apex of the second abdominal
segment, whereas in Systocchus oreus they extend to apex of third.
There is also an evident distinction in the structure of the dorsum of
the apical segment.

ExoPROSOPA FASCiPENNis Say

Anthrax fascipennis Say, Keating 's Narrative of an Expedition to the Source of
St. Peter's River, etc., Appendix, p. 373. 1824.

Pupa (PL LXXXI, Fig. 4). — Length, 16 mm. Pale testaceous,
slightly shining, thorns on head black-brown. L^pper pair of cephalic
thorns directed forward and very slightly downward, widely separated
at base, parallel; below the level of these thorns on each side, on a
raised base, are two stout thorns, the inner one long and directed almost
straight forward, the outer much shorter, slightly curved, and directed
outward ; on each side of median line of lower margin of front is a
stout thorn, the bases of the thorns connected (PI. LXXXI, Fig. 5) ; in
addition to the thorns there are 6 long slender hairs on the head capsule,
as shown in the figure, visible from in front, and one on each side close
to the suture between head and thorax, located near base of the sheath
containing mouth parts. Thorax with a pair of closely placed hairs on
disc on each side of median line, and a pair more widely placed, above
base of wing ; wing sheath with a sharp tubercle about one third from
base, near costal margin. First abdominal segment with a transverse
series of 5 or 6 short, thick thorns occupying the central portion of an-
terior margin, and 6 long curved hairs on each side of these in con-
tinuation of the transverse series which extends over midway from
median line to spiracle; posterior to spiracle are about 7 long hairs;
segments 2 to 7 with a regular transverse median series of flattened
thorns, as shown in Figures i and 2, Plate LXXXI ; on segments 2 and

331

3 there are no alternating slender hairs between the median 6 or 8
thorns and the hairs are rather weak when present ; on segment 4 these
hairs are not present between the median 4 thorns ; on the other seg-
ments, 5 to 7, they are present on the wliole series; segment 8 has
about 6 short stout thorns in the transverse series between which, ex-
cept in the case of the central pair, there are alternating long hairs;
lateral aspect of pupa as shown in Figure 4; apical segment of abdo-
men with a parallel pair of stout upwardly and backwardly directed
thorns which are broad at base and have each a small subbasal tooth.

The pupal exuvium from which the above description was drawn
is that of a specimen reared from Tiphia sp. collected at Elliott, 111.,
April 27, 1906, and which emerged July 17, 1906. There are in the
collection of this Laboratory a large number of specimens of exuvia of
pupai that were obtained at Elliott and Mackinaw, 111., the imagines
emerging on various dates between July 17 and August 8. Some
which produced imagines of the parasites were collected September 30.
This species is a hyperparasite affecting Tiphia species which are para-
sitic upon Lachnosterna species.

The species is generally distributed throughout the state, occurring
from the beginning of July till the end of September. Imagines are in
the laboratory collection from the following Illinois localities : Algon-
quin, Savanna, Havana, Pekin, Urbana, Champaign, Normal, Albion,
Carlinville,Clay City, Bridgewater, Williams Mountain, Herod, Grand
Tower, Alto Pass, Teheran, and Metropolis. There is also a specimen
from Westville, N. J.

SPARN0P01.IUS FUI.VUS Wiedemann

Bombylius fulvus, Wiedemann, Dipt. Exot., 1821, p. 172.

Bombylius I'licrminieri Macqiiart, Dipt. Exot., A^ol. 2, Pt. 1, 1841, p. 103.

Bomhylius hrevirostris Macquart, 1. e.

Sparnopolius fulvus (Wiedemann) Loew, Neue Beitr., Vol. 3, 1855, p. 43.

Pupa. — Length 11-12 mm. Yellowish testaceous, slightly shining.
Surface smooth. Head with upper pair of thorns widely separated at
base ; lateral pair separated by about as great a distance as the length
of the lower thorn, the base of the latter with a slight tubercle on lower
surface upon which there are two hairs (PI. LXXXIII, Fig. 7) ; the
pair of thorns on median line of lower portion of head of moderate
size, directed downward, and rather widely separated basally; the
normal 8 cephalic hairs present. Prothoracic spiracle rather small, dis-
tinctly elevated, its apex with narrow rugose rim ; mesothorax with 3
hairs, 2 above the base of wing sheath and one midway between that

332

point and median line, slightly caudad of the posterior one of the pre-
ceding pair; in front of wing base is a slight gibbosity which has no
elevated thornlike points ; wing sheath without a raised area on sur-
face; apices of sheaths of mid tarsi extending to base of last joint of
hind pair and distinctly beyond apices of wing sheaths ; apices of
sheaths of fore tarsi extending to apices of wing sheaths. First
abdominal segment wnth about 6 widely placed weak hairs in a
transverse row near anterior margin ; segments 2 to 8 each with a
transverse series of short stout bristles with alternating slender
and, in comparison with other species, short hairs, the bristles
on all segments turned upward at apices, most distinctly so on seg-
ments 3 to 5 ; spiracles small but very distinct, similar to that of protho-
rax, present on segments i to / ; posterior to the spiracle on each seg-
ment there are 3 moderately long hairs; apical segment as in Figure 5,
Plate LXXXIII ; ventral segments each with a transverse pair of rather
long slender hairs on each side near middle, the one farthest from
lateral margin about midway between that point and median line, the
other midway betw^een it and the lateral margin.

The specimens from which the foregoing description was drawn
are those mentioned Ijy Dr. Forbes in his Thirteenth Report* as hav-
ing been reared from larvae of Lachnosterna, upon which they are ec-
toparasitic.

Imagines are in the collection here from the following Illinois local-
ities : Effingham, Neoga, Urbana, and Algonquin, the dates of occur-
rence being in August and September.

In Riley's figure of Aplurbantiis iinis the apices of the wing sheaths
do not extend beyond the apex of the second tarsal joint, the wing
sheath has a small protuberance about one third from l)ase near the
costa, and there are more than 2 hairs on each side of each ventral
segment.

AxVTHRAX LATERALIS Say
Anthrax Jateralw Say, Jour. Acad. Xat. Sci. Phil., Vol. 3, 1823, p. 42.

Pupa. — Length, 14 mm. Testaceous yellow, shining. General
habitus similar to that of Bxoprosopa fascipennis. Head with the
pair of strong upper tliorns contiguous at base, their upper surfaces
with a flattened area (PI. LXXXI, Figs 16, 17, and 21) ; below these
thorns on each side is a slightly swollen area upon which is a single
small tubercle ; on the median line considerably below the level of the
lateral tubercles is a pair of small sharp points, best seen when viewed

*Twenty-fourth Report of the State Entomologist on the Noxions and Beneficial
In&eets of tlie State of Illinois, 1908, p. 161.

333

from the side (PI. LXXXI, Fig. i6), near the bases of which is a single
long hair on each side; on each side near base of the upper pair of
large thorns is a single long hair and another above base of each thorn.
Thorax and wing sheaths without tubercles ; the pair of hairs above
wing base present, the discal hair indistinguishable. Abdomen with
spiracles very small ; first segment with about 6 short, stout brown
thorns on median sixth slightly beyond base, and on each side of these
but slightly more cephalad a closely placed series of about 20 long,
slender curled hairs, reaching about two thirds of the distance from
median line to spiracle ; posterior to the spiracle are about 6 long hairs ;
segments 2 to 7 with a transverse median comblike series of stout
brown thorns, interspersed with long slender hairs at about every
fourth or fifth one (PI. LXXXI, Figs. 3 and 8) ; eighth segment with
a pair of closely placed thorns on each side of the median line, between
each pair of which is a single slender hair (Fig. 19) ; apex of abdo-
men with 3 thorns on each side (Fig. 19) ; post-spiracular hairs 8-9
in number; each ventral segment with 6-8 hairs on each side of
median line in a transverse series.

The pupal exuvium from which this description was drawn is that
of a specimen that was reared from a larva parasitic in a pupa of a
noctuid moth which was obtained at the Devil's Hole near Havana,
111., June 8, 1905, the parasite emerging July i, 1905.

Imagines in the laboratory collection are from the following Illi-
nois localities : Algonquin, Savanna, Milo, Urbana, Champaign, Long
Lake, and Kappa. There is also a specimen in the collection from
Jamesburg, N. J., and one from San Bernardino, Cal. The dates of
occurrence range from June 10 to August 11.

No other specimens in the collection bear any .records of life
history.

Anthrax altcrnata Say has been reared from an undetermined noc-
tuid larva* by Gillette, and recorded by Riley and Howard. In the
same paper Anthrax hyponielas Maccjuart is recorded as having been
reared from a pupa of Agrotis hcrilis by Webster, and A. niolitor
Loew from a pupa of a noctuid resembling Tccniocanipa riifiila. Zet-
lerstedt, in 1842, stated that the group to which lateralis belongs, de-
posits eggs upon lepidopterous larvae. Glover, in the Agricultural Re-
port for 1866, mentions that "an Anthrax has been bred from the
chrysalis of a moth."t

*Inseet Life, Vol. 2, 1890, p. 353.
tLoc cit., p. 354.

334

Anthrax hypomei^as Macquart

Anthrax hypomelas Macquart, Dipt. Exot., Vol. 2, Pt. 1, 1838, p. 76.

Pupa. — Length, 14 mm. Pale testaceous, slightly shining; thorns
on head and on abdomen dark brown. Upper pair of cephalic thorns
contiguous for two thirds of their length (PI. LXXXI, Fig. 22), lat-
eral thorn flattened, simple, the pair on median line near lower margin
contiguous, a small fine hair on each side of the latter pair, a longer
hair on each side of the upper pair of thorns and another above the
base of each thorn (Fig. 20). Thorax without protuberances; a pair
of small fine hairs above the base of wing cases, and another pair on
each side of median line about middle of thorax. Abdomen similar to
that of A. lateralis, differing only in having apical armature as in Fig-
ure 18, the median tooth having more the appearance of a small proc-
ess on base of upper one than of a separate tooth, or occasionally
almost indistinguishable.

As mentioned under the previous species, hypomelas has been re-
corded by Riley and Howard, but the figure given in the paper is not
clear enough in detail to permit of its specific characters being recog-
nized although the general habitus is unmistakable.

The specimens of hypomelas pupse that I have seen include one,
without label data, obtained from the Ohio Agricultural Experiment
Station, Wooster, Ohio, with the statement that it had been reared at
VVooster in 1907, and two in this Laboratory.

The pupal exuvia last referred to are those of specimens reared
from Feltia jacidifera at Urbana, 111. The larvae of the moth were ob-
tained June 8, 1 90 1, and the parasites emerged September 14 of that
year from the pupae of the host.

Specimens of the imago are in the collection here from the follow-
ing localities: Havana, 111., September 5, 1905; Urbana,, 111., Sep-
tember 21, 1890 (C. A. Hart); Grand Forks, N. Dak., July and
August, 1890, (Miss M. J. Snyder) ; and Westville, N. J., September
9, 1901.

THEREVID^

Psii,ocEPHAi,A H^MORRHOiDAEis Macquart

Thereva hwrnorrJi^idalis Macquart, Dipt. Exot., Vol. 2, Pt. 1, 1841, p. 26.

Larva. (PI. LXXXI, Fig. 10).— Length, 22 mm. White. Head
Ijrown, black on posterior margin of dorsal surface. Dorsal sclerite
with a long slightly curved hair on each side one third from posterior
margin; dorsal and ventral sclerites separated laterally by a rather
broad membranous stripe, near the anterior extremity of which is a

335

very long hair directed downward and curving slightly forward, and
about the middle there is a similar hair, as shown in Figure 9. In-
ternally there are 2 strong rods connected with the mandibles, and
attached to the posterior margin of the dorsal sclerite is a strong rod,
dilated posteriorly, which runs to the posterior margin of the first
thoracic segment internally. Thoracic segments each with a long
curved hair near the middle on sides, prothoracic respiratory organ
short, located close to posterior margin of segment. Abdomen with
segments as in Figure 10, the pattern shown being probably caused by
the spines of the pupa showing through ; surface without hairs except
on last segment, where there are 2 pairs, one on the dorsum and the
other on the venter; apex bifid (Fig. 10, a).

Pupa. (PI. LXXXI, Figs. 11 and 12). — Length, 9 mm. Yellowish
white. Surface of integument of body slightly wrinkled. Head and
thorax in lateral aspect as in Figure 15, thorn on wing base remark-
ably long and slender. Thoracic respiratory organ tubelike, the ab-
dominal spiracles almost identical with it in form, their apices present-
ing to the eye the appearance of small rounded openings. Apex of ab-
domen with 2 long curved spines directed sHghtly upward (Fig. 13).

This species was found by D. K. McMillan, the field assistant of
this office for northern Illinois, commonly in truck gardens infested
with wirew^orms, upon which it feeds in the larval stage. I have seen
the larvae occasionally in wheat fields, and the adult is represented in
the laboratory collection from the following localities : Algonquin,
June to August (Nason) ; Havana, August 18, 1904 (Hart and
Brown) ; Piper City, July 27, 1888 (Marten) ; Grand Tower, August
25, 1889 (Hart) ; Urbana, July 21, 1899 (Hart), and June 14, 1915,
on flowers of wild parsnip (Hart and Malloch) ; Champaign, July 14,
1899 (Hart); McHenry, July 31, 1884 (Webster); Philo, June 3,
1887, from pupa found in sod corn (Hart); West Union, May 24,
1884; Waterman, July 27, 1883 (Webster); Monticello, June 28,
19 14 (Hart and Malloch), — all in Illinois; Jamesburg, N. J., July 4,
1893.

The larvae of this family are recognizable by the peculiar sub-
division of the abdominal segments, as shown in the figure (10) here-
with, which gives them the appearance of having 20 segments. In
some other families there is a similar subdivision, for example in
Mycetophilidce (see Mycetobia, PI. LXXX, Fig. 12), but the subdivi-
sion is of a different character, the short portion of the segments being
appreciably shorter than the anterior portion is in Psilocephala. This
species and probably allied species are no doubt of considerable eco-

336

nomic importance as enemies of wireworms, and it seems strange that
nothing has been pubHshed in America regarding this habit.

In Europe several species have been reared, and all are credited
with being predaceous enemies of insects in the larval stage. A fairly
complete summary of the European investigations has been given by
Lundbeck in "Diptera Danica", Part 2 (1908), p. 137. In this paper
mention is made of the fact that occasionally the larvae of Therevidcu
may devour their own kind — a fact that comes within the knowledge
of the present writer from his experience in rearing Psiloccpliala, the
reason for the cannibalism being the lack of other food.

MYDAID^
Mydas cIvAvatus Drury

Musca clavatus Drury, Illustrations of Natural History, Vol. 1, p. 103, 1770.

Pupa (PI. LXXXII, Fig. 9). — Length, 36 mm. Reddish brown,
subopaque. Surface of head and thorax coarsely rugose, that of ab-
domen rather finely and regularly rugose. Thorns of head rugose to
apices, lateral cephalic thorn as in Figure 16. Front of head as in
Figure 10; lateral aspect as in Figure 15. Thorax with a bifid humeral
tubercle, the one on wing-base with a single flattened thornlike process.
First abdominal segment with the thorns (Fig. 21) directed forward
and located close to anterior margin, succeeding segments with the
thorns rather smaller, directed backward, and located caudad of the
transverse median line of the segments, the portion of each segment
caudad of the thorns declivitous and honeycombed, the anterior por-
tion irregularly rugose; apical segment with 2 slightly curved proc-
esses which are a little upcurved (Fig. 8) ; spiracles as in Figure 23.

The specimen from which the above description was drawn, was
obtained at White Heath, 111., May 26, 19 10, as a larva in a rotten
tree-stump, the adult emerged July 18, 19 10 (A. G. Vestal). The
writer obtained a pupa under a rotten tree-stump at Kinderhook, 111.,
in June, 1914. The laboratory collection contains imagines from the
following Illinois localities: Urbana, July 4, 1914 (Malloch) and
August 3, 1909 (Hart) ; Champaign, August 13, 1892 (Hucke) ; Al-
bion, July 12, 1888 (Marten) ; Havana, July 13, 1897 (Hart and
Brown) ; Alto Pass, August 2-/, 1889 (Hart) ; Pinkstaff, July i, 19 11
(Glenn); Monticello, July 2, 1914 (Hart and Malloch); Muncie,
July 5, 1914 (Hart and Malloch) ; and Bloomington, July 26, 1895.

The specimens taken at Muncie were mostly captured on flowers of
milkweed, several being taken with the fingers — a proceeding which
generally results in the captor's discovering that the insect can pinch

337

rather severely with the hind femora aiul tihige. So far I have failed
to find the larva, no opportunity offering to search for it, but from
the fact that many imagines were found on cut-over land where the
old tree-stumps remained, upon which the insects often settled, I be-
lieve that larv?e must be common in the various localities where I have
seen the imagines.

The larva has been recorded as feeding upon the larvae of insects
in (^Id tree-stumps, and the imago has also been recorded as predaceous.
I am unable to confirm the last record, as all the specimens taken
by both Mr. Hart and myself were upon flowers or at rest upon tree-
stumps. It is not impossible that the species is predaceous, but from
personal ol)servation and an examinatian of the mouth parts, which
differ essentially from those of Proctacantluis and allied forms, I infer
that if it is predaceous it is rarely so and must be only in cases where
the prey is soft-bodied. It is necessary that exact observations be
made to determine the facts of the case, negative evidence such as I
am in possession of being inconclusive.

ASILIDiE
Promachus v^rte;bratus Say

Asilus vcrtehratus Say, Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil., Vol. 3, 1823, p. 47.

Larva (PI. LXXXII, Fig. 12). — Length, averaging 40 mm. (pre-
served specimens). White, head and spiracles brown. Head with 10
long hairs, 5 ventral and 5 dorsal, as shown in Figures 24 and 25 ;
mandibles opposed, long and stout; maxillary palpi of moderate size;
antennae very small. Each thoracic segment with 2 hairs, one on each
side on ventral surface ; prothoracic respiratory organ located near
posterior margin on side; anal respiratory organs (Fig. 13) located in
a depression on portion anterior to last segment (8th abdominal seg-
ment?), the latter with 8 long hairs, 4 ventral and 4 dorsal (Figs. 11
and 14).

The larva here described is without doubt that of vcrtchrahis, al-
though no direct connection has been established between it and the
imago. There is in the collection, however, a poorly preserved speci-
men that agrees in all particulars with the above, which is one of sev-
eral specimens obtained by J. J. Davis, the others being reared and pro-
ducing imagines of vcrtehratus. The larva is found not uncommonly
in spring where ploughing is being done.

Pupa. — Length, 2y mm. Yellowish 1)rown, head and thorax shin-
ing, abdomen subopaque. Head similar to that of Asilus notatus (PI.

838

LXXXI, Figs. 6 and 7), lateral cephalic thorns as in Figure 4, Plate
LXXXII. Thorax differs from that of notatiis in having near the
base of the wing sheath, in longitudinal line with the bifid tubercle at
base of posterior leg sheath (Fig. 5), a sharp-poinled tubercle, and
midway from base to apex of wing case, on its median line, 2 small
wartlike protuberances on a common base. Abdominal spiracles c-
shaped, very similar to those of Mydas davatus, the open side directed
cephalad ; the abdominal armature (Fig. 20) similar to that of Asilus
notatiis, differing noticeably only on the apical two segments, the
penultimate segment in vcrtehratiis having strong thorns on dorsum
as on other segments, while in notatiis there are only hairs similar to
those of the ventral segments; the difference in the apical segments of
the two species is shown in Figure 14, Plate LXXXI, and Figure 2,
Plate LXXXII.

The pupa from which the above description was drawn resulted
from a larva obtained at Havana, 111., April 24, 1905, and the imago
emerged July 24, 1905.

The larva is predaceous, feeding upon the larvae of Lachnostcrna,
and the species is distributed throughout the entire state, though not
very common in most localities.

Deromyia winthemi Wiedemann

Dasypogon winthemi Wiedemann, Dipt. Exot., 1821, p. 223.

Diogmites miselliis Loew, Berl. Ent. Zeitschr., 1866, p. 22.

Dcromyia winthemi Van der Wulp, Tijdsch. v. Ent., Vol. 25, 1883, p. 93.

Pupa. — Length, 20-25 '^^'^i- Brownish yellow, distinctly shining;
thorns dark brown. Upper pair of cephalic thorns directed forward
and curved slightly downward, distance between them distinctly
greater than that between them and upper one of the 3 lateral thorns ;
lateral thorns as in Figure 16, Plate LXXX, the lower one without
basal projection. Prothoracic spiracle reniform apically, distinctly
elevated ; a distinct wartlike swelling on disc of thorax just above
wing base ; the pair of thorns in front of wing base on lateral margin
of disc of thorax very long, curved backward at their middle (Fig.
14) ; wing cases without central protuberances, their apices in vertical
line with second abdominal spiracle and much proximad of apices of
sheaths of fore legs. Abdomen with transverse rugae except on por-
tion of first segment anterior to the transverse series of thorns, where
the rugae are longitudinal ; armature of abdomen rather variable, nor-
mally as follows : first segment with a transverse series of stout
thorns near anterior margin, which are broadest at middle, stand up-

339

right, and are slightly bent caiidad near apices, several of the thorns
being occasionally bifid apically; segments 2 to 7 each with a median
transverse series of thorns which alternate in size, the shorter ones
being generally stouter and very often bifid on middle portion of
series ; eighth segment with a much weaker transverse series than the
others ; posterior to the spiracle on first segment is a series of from 6
to 8 long hairlike bristles; spiracles conspicuous, raised, reniform;
armature of ventral segments consisting of a transverse series of weak
closely placed hair-like bristles at apical third of each segment except
the eighth, which has a series on each side at middle extending from
lateral margin halfway to median line ; ventral surface without rugae,
apical segment as in Figure 15.

The foregoing description was drawn from specimens found by
W. P. Flint, of the State Entomologist's office, in a garden at Spring-
field, 111., August 6-8, 191 5. One specimen of each sex was reared.

Imagines of this species are in the collection here from Grand
Tower, Murphysboro, and St. Francisville, the dates ranging from
July 25 to August 2. I took a single specimen on the south campus of
the University here August 28, 191 5.

Proctacanthus mii,be;rti Macquart ?

Proctacanthus milberti Macquart, Dipt. Exot., Vol. 1, Pt. 2, 1838, p. 124.

Pupa. — Length, 25 mm. Pale yellowish brown. Armature of
head similar to that of Promachus vertehratus, differing in having the
pair of anterior, forwardly directed thorns smaller and more widely
separated at base and the lateral trifid process without distinct angle
on base of lower thorn (PI. LXXXII, Fig. 6). The pair of thorns at
base of posterior leg sheath (PI. LXXXII, Fig. 7) are longer and
more slender than in vertehratus; the tubercle on base of wing sheath
is absent, and a single wart is present on the swelling on middle of the
sheath. First abdominal segment with a transverse series of long slen-
der spines, about 18 in number, which are directed slightly forward,
their points slightly recurved, the series occupying two thirds of the
length on each side between the median line and the spiracle ; between
some of the long spines there is sometimes a smaller spine ; posterior
to the first spiracle are about 7 long hairs (Fig. 22) — 3 in Asilus no-
tatus and Promachus vertehratus ; segments 2 to 7 each with a trans-
verse median series of long slender spines alternating with shorter
stout thorns which are single, bifid, or paired (Fig. 19) ; eighth seg-
ment with a transverse series of spines which are of irregular sizes and
unevenly arranged; apical segment with a long slender upwardly

340

directed spine on each posterior dorso-lateral angle, and a small wart-
like process about midway between the base of that and the ventral
line (Figs, i and 3).

The specimens from which the above description was drawn are
two empty pupa skins obtained by Mr. Hart at Beach, 111., August 24,
1906. It is not certain that the pupa is that of milherti, as the species
was not reared, but imagines were obtained at the same time and place,
and as this was the only species of such large size that was found I
assume that the pupa very probably belongs to it.

The species is very probal)ly predaceous in the larval stage upon
larvse of burrowing insects.

Illinois localities represented by material in laboratory collection:
Jonesboro, Beach, Havana, Forest City, Jacksonville, Alto Pass,
Grafton, Grand Tower, Dubois, Oakville, Edgewood, Metropolis, Al-
bion, Carbondale, and Litchfield. Dates of occurrence range from
August 8 to September 23.

AsiLUS NOTATus Wiedemann

Asilus notatus Wiedemann, Aiiss. Zweifl. Ins., Vol. 1, 1828, -p. 451.

Pupa (PI. LXXXI, Fig. 7). — Length, 12 mm. Brownish yellow,
slightly shining. Head distinctly shining, integument without distinct
wrinkles; a pair of strong thornlike projections on anterior cephalic
surface (Fig. 6) which are rather irregularly longitudinally rugose at
base, smooth and highly polished at apices ; on each side of the head,
almost in vertical line with these thorns and located on the latero-
ventral region there is a tridentate process of a similar nature to the
thorns (PI. LXXXII, Fig. 18), the posterior one having a slight scale-
like process near its base. Thorax with faint indications of wrinkling
on the surface and 3 wartlike projections on each side (as shown in PI.
LXXXI, Fig. 7), the lo\ver one, at base of sheath of posterior leg, hav-
ing 2 distinct sharp thorns at the apex (PI. LXXXII, Fig. 17). Abdo-
men with surface of all segments wrinkled; first segment with 10 long
upright brown thorns (PI. LXXXI, Fig. 7), the apices of which are
directed slightly backward, near the anterior margin on dorsum, the dis-
tance from the central one to the outer one being about equal to the dis-
tance from the latter to the spiracle ; posterior to the spiracle are 3 long
fine hairs, otherwise the segment is bare; second to sixth segments each
with a transverse median row of stout brown thorns alternating large
and small in size, extending from median line midway to spiracle on
each side, being replaced at this point by a series of long fine hairs
which are carried below the level of the spiracles and almost join the
ventral series ; seventh segment with the dorsal series located nearer to

341

the posterior margin than on the other segments, the bristles of almost
an equal size, otherwise as preceding segments; eighth segment with-
out dorsal thorns, only the long hairs present on lateral region ; apical
segment as in Figure 14, Plate LXXXI ; ventral segments each with a
transverse row of long rather irregular hairs near the posterior mar-
gin except in the case of the eighth, which has the series on the trans-
verse median line.

This description is taken from a specimen obtained by the writer
on the bank of the Sangamon River near White Heath, May, 19 15.
It was found in rather sandy soil at a depth of about 6 inches. The
specimen which emerged is a male. The imagines were remarkably
common in the forestry belonging to the University of Illinois, at
Urbana, on June 20, 191 5. The larva, which is predaceous, was not
obtained. The species is common and generally distributed through-
out the state, being probably our commonest species of the genus.

CYRTID^

Unfortunately I have of this family but a single pupal exuvium of
one species, and that is in rather poor condition. It proves, however,
to be cpite different structurally from exuvia in the preceding group,
having neither strong hairs nor thorns on any part of head, thorax, or
abdomen, thus differing markedly from those herein described and
from the Tahanidcr, the latter having armature on the abdomen very
similar to the asilid group.

It is unfortunate that in the case of the only reared specimen avail-
able here no record is given of the circumstances under which the pupa
was obtained. Species of allied genera have been found to be parasitic
in spiders, or to feed upon their eggs. Mr. J. L. King has obtained the
larva and pupa of a species of Pterodontia in Ohio. The pupa differs
from that of Oncodcs in possessing only 3 pairs of raised abdominal
spiracles.

Oncodes costatus Loew

Oncodes costatus Loew, Berl. Ent. Zeitschr., 1869, p. 165.

Pupa. — Length, 5 mm. White, shining. Head smjdl. without dis-
coverable prt^tuberances or hairs (poorly preserved). Thorax with a
wartlike protuberance on each side of disc anteriorly, indicating the
location of the openings of the prothoracic respiratory organs. Abdo-
men with a wartlike protuberance on spiracular areas of segments i to
4, segment 5 without protuberance, the spiracle distinguishable, re-
maining segments without distinct spiracle ; apex of abdomen blunt,
last segment slightly protuberant but without armature of any kind,

342

as is the entire abdomen except for the spiracular protuberances (PI.
LXXXI, Fig. 23).

A single specimen of the pupal exuvium of this species is in the col-
lection here. It is unfortunately in rather poor condition, being im-
paled upon the pin which bears the imago. The locality is Urbana,
111., June 25, 1904 (Hart and Kegley). Additional Illinois localities
(for imagines) are as follows: Carbondale, May 30, 1904, jarred
from an apple tree at night (Taylor), and Odin, June 2, 1909, a large
series on dead twigs of elm, and one without data, June 23, 1909,
from same locality (Hart).

There is a considerable difference in the color of some of the speci-
mens, some having the humeri and scutellum yellowish while others
have those parts quite dark, almost like disc of thorax. I am not at all
certain that we have as many species in North America as the listed
names indicate, as color, which has been exclusively used as a specific
separation, appears to be cjuite unreliable.

Phytophagous and other Cyclorrhapha

SYRPHID^

In this paper I describe the larva and puparium of one species
of SyrpJiidcc and the puparia of two others. Two of these have been
previously described by other writers, but very briefly.

Metcalf has described and figured the early stages of ten species
of Syrplndcc from Ohio, one of which is not determined specifically*.
All of the named species described in his paper occur in Illinois. It
is opportune to notice the occurrence in this state of a parasite of Al-
lograpta obliqua Say, which did not occur in connection with Metcalf's
work on that species in Ohio. This species belongs to the chalcid
genus Bothriothorax, and is at present undescribed, according to A. A.
Girault to whom the species was submitted. Four examples of each
sex of the parasite were reared by the writer from a single larva. The
parasites completed their metamorphoses within their host, emerging
through a single exit-hole in its skin. This does not coincide with
Hubbard's observation on the chalcid parasites of Baccha babista
quoted by Metcalf t, which emerged through a number of holes in the
puparium. Metcalf reared the icheumonid Bassits Icctatorius Fabri-
cius, from Allograpta obliqua. The chalcid Bothriothorax pcculiaris
Howard, has been recorded bv Smith as a parasite of syrphid puparia.

*Svrphi(la- of Ohio, Bull. 1, Ohio Biol. Surv., published as No. 31, Vol. 17, Ohio
State Univ. Bull. 1913.
tLoc. cit., p. 51.

343
Tropidia quadrat a Say

Xylota quadrata Say, Am. Entom., Vol. 1, PI. VIII; Compl. Works, Vol. 1, p. 14.

Pupariuui (PI. LXXXIII, Fig. 17). — Length, 9 mm. Testaceous
yellow. Entire body opaque, covered with very short closely placed
pale hairs. Lower part of the lidlike anterior portion with 8 small
blackish thorns, 4 in a semicircle close to the lower extremity, 2
slightly higher placed, about midway between median line and lateral
suture, and 2 close to suture, about midway between lower extremity
and the median cross-suture ; 2 strong thorns on each ventro-lateral
margin close to anterior margin of pupa; anterior respiratory organ
(Fig. 18) covered with small glossy knoblike swellings. Posterior ex-
tremity with 3 thorns close to ventro-lateral margin ; posterior respira-
tory organ as shown in Figure 19, Plate LXXXIIL

The pupal exuvium from which the above description was drawn,
is that of a male which bears the number 13549. The puparium was
found floating in the water at Flag Lake, near Havana, 111., August 3,
1895. Several were found on August 3 and 5, but only one imago-
emerged (August 14). Two specimens, evidently newly pupated,
were found by Mr. Hart in a Sagittaria belt which had but recently
become inundated.

Imagines in the collection here are from the following localities :
Algoncjuin, Chicago, Champaign, and Urbana, the dates ranging from
May 25 to July 17. There are also 2 specimens in the collection from
Westville, N. J., taken August 16.

The early stages of the members of this genus have not previously
been described, and the larval habits are unrecorded.

Brachypai^pus frontosus Loew

Brachypalpus frontosus Loew, Berl. Ent. Zeitschr., 1872, p. 83.

Larva (PI. LXXXIII, Fig. 12). — Length, 17 mm. White, with
the prothoracic thorns and setulae dark brown, anal respiratory organ
pale brown. Surface of entire body with closely placed, stout, small,
pale hairs. Front view of head and prothorax as in Figure 14; antennse
of moderate size, apices with two circular sensory organs; anterior
margin of prothorax with 3—4 transverse rows of blackish thornlike
processes which are recurved apically, the upper or posterior one
strongest ; prothorax with a strong outwardly directed, backwardly
curved thorn on each side and a small respiratory organ slightly nearer
to median line; each segment with 10 slight carinse, 4 on dorsum, one
on each dorso-lateral angle, one on middle of each lateral surface, and
one on each ventro-lateral angle, each carina with a group of hairs at

844

middle of each segment, the bases of the hairs being generally fused;
hairs on remainder of surface shorter than those on carinas, and occa-
sionally pairs are fused on lateral surfaces; ventral surface with 7
pairs of conspicuous pseudopods, all of which are armed on apices of
posterior surfaces with about 4 series of short blackish recurved
thorns, the apical row being strongest; apex of abdomen as in Fig-
ure 12.

Piiparium (PI. LXXXIII, Fig .13). — Length of body 11 mm.,
caudal process, 5 mm. Yellowish brown, slightly shining. Surface as
in larva except that the hairs are less conspicuous, the carinse are indis-
tinguishable, and the rugae are much more numerous, as shown in Fig-
ure 13. The head is entirely retracted and the prothoracic thorns and
respiratory organs are brought almost to the antero-ventral margin
(Fig. 15) ; the pair of pupal respiratory processes, so conspicuous In
Tropidia quadrata, are represented by slight callosities of the surface
which are barely distinguishable ; ventral pseudopods much less con-
spicuous than in larva ; apical process distinctly broader than high.

The material from which the foregoing descriptions were drawn,
was obtained near Urbana, 111., under bark on a rotten tree-stump.
The specimens reared are recorded as pupating March 5 and emerging
March 19 and 21.

Imagines in the laboratory collection are from the following Illi-
nois localities : Algonquin, Carlinville, and Urbana, the last-men-
tioned taken on April 20 ; the others without dates.

The only previous American record of the larval habits that I
know of is that by Keen.*

I know of no previous description of the larva; the pupa has been
very briefly described by Parker, f

Ceria wilustoni Kahl

(feria willistonii Kahl, Kans. Univ. Quart., Vol. 6, 1897, p. 141.

Pupariiim (PI. LXXXIII, Fig. 16). — Length of body 10 mm.,
apical process 4 mm. Yellowish white, mottled with brown or black-
ish, opaque. (Anterior portion with respiratory organs missing.) Sur-
face covered with microscopic pale hairs. Dorsum with a median
longitudinal series of paired wartlike tubercles extending nearly to
apex, 6 pairs in all; apices of tubercles with a few short setulose hairs;
dorso-lateral margin with a single longitudinal series of 6 wartlike
tubercles, each of which is slightly caudad of the corresponding sub-

*Can. Ent., Vol. 16, 1884, p. 147.

tProc. Eut. Soc. Wash., Vol. 17, 1915, p. 147.

345

median one, and is similarly armed at apex; between the submedian
and dorso-lateral warts is a longitudinal series of much smaller ones in
direct line with the others, and on the upper margin of lateral area is a
similar series of small warts, the whole forming a diagonal series on
each side of the 6 segments; medio-lateral line with a pair of small
warts on middle of each segment, the anterior one of each pair white,
with a conspicuous small brown spot ventrad of it, and located almost
vertically midway between the warts of the series dorsad of it ; on the
ventro-lateral line is a single wart on each segment, located in direct
vertical line between the pair in medio-lateral series ; ventral segments

1 to 4 each with a small slightly raised circular area on each side of the
median line, each area being crowned with numerous dark brown setu-
lose hairs; the remaining segments somewhat flattened and slightly
fused, without the well-defined circular areas of the anterior 4, though
still discernible, and without the setulose hairs ; apical 2 segments each
with a transverse series of 4 thornlike processes, 2 on the marginal and

2 on the submarginal line ; apical process about 7 times as long as thick,
shining brown, transversely oval in cross-section.

The pupal exuvium from which the above description was drawn,
is that of a male. The pupa was obtained in a wood at Urbana, 111.,
May 12, 1888, by Mr. Hart, and the imago emerged 3 days later.

Banks records the species from Falls Church, Va., where he ob-
tained the pupa on oak bark about the middle of March, the imago
emerging March 27. He has briefly described the puparium,* and
states that the larvae of Ccria are said to feed in flowing sap of trees.
No data on the food habits are on file in this Laboratory.

C. zuillistoni has been given by some authors as a synonym of C.
signifer Loew. The puparium of signifer is briefly described by C.
W. Johnson. t It was found by Dr. Skinner near Bala, Pa., on an oak
leaf. It is not possible to decide from the description whether it is
identical with that here described.

The localities from which signifer has been recorded include
Mexico, Florida, and Texas ; willistoni was described from Kansas.

EPHYDRID^
HydrkIvUA scapularis Loew

Hydrcllia scapularis Loew, Mon. N. Amer. Dipt., Vol. 1, 1862, p. 153.

Larva. — Not preserved, the following characters being ascertained
from an" examination of the puparium. Anterior and posterior mar-

*Ent. News, Vol. 4, 1893, p. 91.

tProc. Ent. Soc. Wash., Vol. 5, 1903, p. 310.

346

gins of dorsal segments except the apical 3 with numerous short setulse
which are irregularly arranged ; ventral segments with similar setulae,
which are arranged in distinct transverse series which extend well on
to the disc of the segments ; antepenultimate segment with a large
transverse patch of these setulae on disc (PI. LXXXIII, Fig. 16).

Puparium (PI. LXXXIV, Fig. 13). — Length, 4 mm. Yellowish
brown. Anterior respiratory organs absent. Segments with similar
• armature to that of larva. Apical segment armed with 2 sharp proc-
esses which pierce the outer membrane of the leaf in which the
puparium is enclosed, and connected with these processes, which are
evidently the posterior spiracles, are 2 tracheae which run forward and
presumably connect with the pupal envelope, although the point of
connection is not discernible in the specimen before me.

The above description was drawn from specimens obtained by Mr.
Hart and the writer at Grand Tower in April, 1914. The larvae were
mining the leaves of a species of Panicum growing in a small stream,
many of the mines being below the water level.

Two specimens of a hymenopterous parasite were reared, both
males. One specimen was submitted to Mr. A. B. Gahan, who identi-
fied it as Gyrocampa, n. sp. He considered it inadvisable to describe a
new species from the male only.

Scapularis is generally distributed throughout the state. There is
a previous record of the larva mining leaves of Hordeum by Webster
and Parks.* Several European species of the genus have been record-
ed as phytophagous, but so far this is the only North American species
on record.

DROSOPHILID^

The imagines of many species of Drosophila are numerous
throughout Illinois during the greater portion of the year, and may be
seen in large numbers on the inside of windows of fruit-stores and
delicatessen stores, as well as in cafes and restaurants, where they are
readily detected, flying over various foods, by their slow and steady
flight. The principal food of the larvae consists of decaying vegetable
matter, exuding sap on trees, and fungi. A few species are found
mining leaves of cruciferous plants, and several attack injured fruit.

I am unable to indicate characters for distinguishing the larvae of
the family from allied acalypterates because of the paucity of my ma-
terial. The larvae vary very considerably within the genus Drosophila
as at present limited, and the puparia vary even more in structure ; in
fact there is more difference between the pupae of certain species of

*Jour. Agr. Eesearch, Vol. 1, 1913, p. 84,

347

Drosophila than there is between the pupae of different genera in some
other famihes.

One species that I have reared has a larva that is capable of jump-
ing much as do the larvae of most Cccidoinyidcc. One specimen cov-
ered a distance of over 5 inches at a single leap. I expect to deal with
this and other species of the family in a subsequent paper.

Drosophila (Scaptomyza) adusta Loew

Drosophila adusta Loew, Berl. Ent. Zeitschr., 1862, p. 231.

Puparium (PI. LXXXIV, Fig. i). — Length, 1.5 mm. Reddish
brown. Cephalic extremity with two long tapering respiratory proc-
esses, the trachea of which may be seen traversing the area of the
sunken or flattened portion of puparium. Ventral surfaces of abdom-
inal segments with numerous very minute setulae, arranged in rather
irregular transverse series. Caudal projections whitish, rounded
apically and with weak apical hairs. Dorsal surface of abdominal seg-
ments armed with setulae similar to those of ventral surface.

The specimen from which the foregoing description was drawn,
was obtained from sap exuding from a mulberry tree at Urbana, 111.,
July 3, 191 5. It was unrecognized in the larval stage, but the pupa
was readily separated from the other species before the adult emerged.

Chittenden has recorded this species, as Scaptomyza adusta, min-
ing leaves of cabbage, etc.*.

The habits of the species of this group (Scaptomyza) are but im-
perfectly known, but it seems strange that the same species should be
in the larval stage both a leaf-miner and a frequenter of sap of the
nature in which I found it. I have seen a very large series of Scap-
tomyza, reared by Mr. A. B. Gahan, at College Park, Md., from cru-
ciferous plants, cabbage and turnip, which led me to conclude when I
examined them that the species fiaveola and graminum were synony-
mous, the series presenting all gradations of thoracic coloration from
unicolorous ferruginous to ferruginous with a brown central vitta, and
from unicolorous grayish to gray with a dark brown central vitta. It
is also worthy of note that in the specimens with unicolorous thorax
the setulose discal hairs were arranged rather regularly over the entire
surface, whereas in those with the vittate thorax the setulae were
arranged in a single longitudinal series along the margins of the cen-
tral vitta, and the area beyond these was almost or entirely devoid of
setulae. To arrive at a definite decision as to the distinctness of the
forms it would be requisite to rear a series from the eggs.

*Bull. 33, u. s., Div. Ent. Dept. Agr., 1902, p. 76.

348
DrosophiIvA dimidiata Loew

Drosophila dimidiata Loew, Berl. Ent. Zeitschr., 1862, p. 230.

Pupariuin. — Length, 2 mm. Pale reddish yellow, slightly shining.
General habitus similar to that of Drosophila adusfa. Anterior respira-
tory organs about three times as long as their diameter, terminating in
numerous fine hairs (PI. LXXXIV, Fig. 5). Surface of abdomen
with the usual transverse bands of short setulse ; apex of abdomen with
a scalelike projection as shown in Figures 6 and 7, Plate LXXXIV;
above the base of the apical pair of respiratory processes is a pair of
small tubercles; cephalad of the scalelike process the surface of the ab-
domen is broken by 2 or 3 narrow but deep depressions.

The exuvia from which the above description was drawn are those
of adults reared from larvae obtained by Mr. Hart and the writer at
Havana, 111., November 16, 191 3. The larvae were found feeding in
fungus on the trunk of a fallen decaying tree on the bank of the Illi-
nois River. The imagines emerged November 21, 1913.

This species was originally described from imagines obtained in
Illinois by Le Baron. Aldrich in his "Catalogue of North American
Diptera", 1905, gives only the original locality. It is one of the com-
monest species at Urbana, occurring on windows in the Natural His-
tory Building, and on fungi on the campus of the LTniversity during
the summer. Professor Aldrich informs me that he has taken the
species at Lafayette, Ind.

AGROMYZID^

The larval habits of the species contained in the genus Agromyza
are similar in that all those known are phytophagous, but they differ
in the point of attack which they select, some mining in leaves, and
others in the roots or in the stem. All so far reported are internal
feeders, and several are of economic importance, two of the latter class
recently discovered being Agromysa pruinosa Coquillett — mining the
cambium layer of birch — and A. priini Grossenbacher, mining the cam-
bium of Primns. The last-named species I describe in the present
paper. It has not been taken in this state, but almost certainly occurs
here. As the original description is very brief and not readily acces-
sible to entomologists I take the opportunity of re-describing it from
material kindly supplied me by Mr. Grossenbacher, who reared the
species.

There are a large number of very closely allied species in the genus
Agromyza, and much careful w'ork upon the early stages and food
habits is necessary before we shall be able to decide just how many dis-

349

tinct species we have in North America. In this branch of the work
there is a splendid opening for original and valuable investigation.

Agromyza pruni Grossenbacher

Afiromii~<i pruni Grossenbaeher, Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, Vol. 42, 1915, p. 235.

Larva, full-grown (PI. LXXXIV, Fig. 8). — Length, 11-13 mm.
White, semitransparent, mouth hooks black. Prothoracic segment
longer than succeeding one, head parts retracted within prothorax ( PI.
LXXXIV, Fig. 9), prothoracic respiratory organs indistinguishable
except in one larva which had evidently been near the point of pupat-
ing. First abdominal segment longer than the two preceding thoracic
segments together and shorter than second abdominal ; segments 2 to 5
subequal in length ; 6 shorter than 5 ; 7 and 8 together about equal to
6 ; integument of thoracic segments with numerous microscopic puncti-
form marks which are only visible under a very high magnification;
abdominal segments with microscopic setulse at the incisions, on their
anterior margins, those on segments i to 5 consisting of one or two
series which, like those of the apical segments, do not extend entirely
round the body; segment 6 with 3 or 4 series, segment 7 with 6 or 7,
apical segment with 8-9 ; anal respiratory organs rather conspicuous,
ending in 3 short branches.

Piipariuin (PI. LXXXIV, Fig. 10). — Length, 5 mm. Testaceous,
slightly shining. Anterior respiratory organs very small. Abdominal
segmentation not deep ; segments with weak transverse rugae ; anal ven-
tral orifice marked by a black spot ; anal respiratory organs small, but
slightly protruded.

Imago: male and female. — Black. Head black, anterior portion of
Irons, the antennae, and palpi brown. Legs black, fore tibiae and tarsi
and apices of mid and hind tarsi yellowish (alcoholic specimens).

Frons over one third the head-width; orbits differentiated, each
about one fourth the width of center stripe ; 5 pairs of orbital bristles
present, their length decreasing anteriorly; antennae of moderate size,
third joint rounded apically, pilosity short, arista slender, almost bare,
the entire length about ecjual to that of frons ; face concave ; cheek nar-
row, about one sixth as high as eye, marginal bristles of moderate
strength, not numerous, vibrissa well differentiated ; eye nearly twice as
high as long; palpi of moderate size. Mesonotum with 4 pairs of
dorso-central l)ristles, the two anterior pairs reduced in size, the fore-
most pair well in front of suture ; the pair of bristles between the pos-
terior pair of dorso-centrals half as long as the latter; disc with numer-
ous short setulae. Abdomen stout ; male hypopygium small, very much

350

like that of parvicornis; female ovipositor very conspicuous, as long as
preceding segment of abdomen, of almost equal diameter throughout
its length; surface with short hairs (PI. LXXXIV, Fig. ii). Legs of
moderate strength; mid-tibial bristles small. Wings of moderate
width ; costa to slightly beyond apex of third vein ; inner cross-vein be-
low end of first vein; outer cross-vein less than its own length from
inner, slightl}" bent, its upper extremity nearer apex of wing than its
lower; last section of fourth vein about lo times as long as preceding
section; last section of fifth about i^ times as long as preceding sec-
tion.

Length, 3.5-4 mm.

The life history of this species has been dealt with by its describer
in the bulletin cited under the species name in the present paper, it being
an elaboration of his report upon the same species in a previous paper.*

The three species of Agroinyza known to cause medullary spots in
wood of trees are carbonaria Zetterstedt, a European species; pruinosa
Coquillett, occurring in the cambium of river birch; and the present
species, found in the cambium of Prumis avium, and domestica. In
Grossenbacher's first paper above cited he states that Cratcrgiis is also
attacked, while Sali.v is not. In his last paper he makes mention only
of the species of Prnnus, and gives his agromyzid a name that leads me
to infer that he considers it as a Prunus-infesting species exclusively.

I have recorded Agroniysa pruinosa from Illinoisf, and it is very
probable that A. pniiii occurs in suital)le localities. LJp to the present
I have been unable to devote time to a search for the species.

I have drawn the larva and puparium of Agromyza parvicornis
Loew (PI. LXXXIV, Figs. 14 and 15) to show the normal reduction
in size due to the induration of the larval skin in pupation in Agromyza.

The imago of prnni will run down to section 16 in my key to the
North American species of this genusj if the frons is considered as
partlv reddish, the cross veins being close together. It is readily sepa-
rated from both of the species in that section by its robust build and
the possession of 4 pairs of dorso-central bristles. The species has
much the same appearance as pruinosa, but differs in venation, etc.,
while the food plant and larval and pupal characters are quite enough
to separate them specifically. The difference in venation will separate
it from aprilina.

*Medullarv spots: a contribution to the life historv of some cambium miners.
Tech. Bull. 15,' N. Y. Agr. Exper, Sta., pp. 47-65. 1910."^

fCan. Ent., Vol. 47, 1915, p. 15.

tAnn. Ent. Soc. Amer., Vol. 6, 1913, p. 271.

351

Agromyza tiu^ Coiiden
Agromyza tiliw Couden, Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash., Vol. 9, 1908, p. 34.

Puparium. — Length, 2.5 mm. Yellowish white, shining. Seg-
ments poorly defined but distinguishable ; surface without hairs or pro-
tuberance except the anterior and anal respiratory organs. Anterior
respiratory organs of moderate length (PI. LXXXIV, Fig. 18), located
on dorsum of first segment, separated from each other by less distance
than the length of one of the organs. Anal respiratory organs shorter
and comparatively stouter than anterior pair (PI. LXXXIV, Fig. 19) ;
anal orifice distinct, a few fine irregular reticulated lines on dorsum
cephalad of the orifice.

The puparium from which the above description is drawn is one of
a lot collected by J. J. Davis at Chicago October 6, 1908, the imagines
emerging May 24, 1909. The species makes galls on twigs of linden
trees. Besides these specimens there are several in the collection here
which were reared by Marten several years ago at Urbana. The galls,
"at base of leaf petioles of basswood", were obtained September 27,
1 89 1, and the imagines emerged May 2, 1892. Originally figured and
described from Missouri, and recorded as making galls on linden. I
subsequently recorded the species from Veitch, Va., and doubtfully
from Delaware County, Pa.*

Agromyza anguIvATa Loew

Agromyza angulata Loew, Berl. Ent. Zeitschr., 1869, p. 47.

Larva. — Length, 1.75 mm. Pale greenish or whitish. Segments
laterally conspicuously swollen, the incisions between them deep, so
that viewed from above the whole larva presents a somewhat monili-
form appearance; viewed from the side the larva is not so thick as
across the dorsum and the segments present a more even surface with
little indication of swellings or constrictions. Mouth parts black and
of moderate size ; armature consisting of 4 hooks, one at apex, a trans-
verse pair slightly caudad of it, followed by another one at the lower
posterior angle of the anterior face. Prothoracic respiratory organs
very small and inconspicuous (PI. LXXXIV, Fig. 2). Segments
throughout with microscopic wartlike processes, which are rather
widely separated on the surfaces of the swollen portions ; apex of abdo-
men as in Figure 3, Plate LXXXIV.

Puparium (PI. LXXXIV, Fig. 12). — Length, 1.25 mm. Glossy
black, with purple or violaceous reflections, especially in the depres-

*Aiiii. Ent. Soc. Amer., Vol. 6, 1913, p. 327

352

sions and on the posterior 3 segments. Surface with similar processes
to those of the larva, but almost indistinguishable because of the
ground-color. Prothoracic respiratory organs very small. Depressions
on body very deep, those on dorsum very conspicuous, slightly cres-
centic in shape. Apex of abdomen similar to that of larva except that
in hardening the projecting portions are contracted considerably and
are less clearly distinguishable.

Reared from leaves of Sctaria glaiica, the larvae occurring in the
apical 6 inches of the leaf, usually 4 or more in each mine. In com-
pany with another species angulata was found to be present on vacant
lots both in Urbana and Champaign in July and August, 191 5, their
work showing up readily because of the conspicuous whitening of the
tips of the affected leaves. Angulata has previously been recorded as
attacking timothy grass*, and it will also feed on wheat. A summary
of investigations of the habits and life history of this species, with
figures of the imago and puparium, are given by Webster and Parks. f

Descriptions of New Illinois Diptera

In the course of the year it frequently happens that specimens are
taken in general collections, or in connection with other work, which
belong to undescribed species. Often these species are of economic
importance, and usually they are small forms which are readily over-
looked in the field. It is considered necessary in the interests of
students of the represented order to place the occurrence of such species
upon record ; to give adequate descriptions of them ; and to indicate
their relationships with already described species. Isolated descriptions
of new species unless very full are often useless for the purpose of
identification because of their inadequate nature or the omission of
the essential characters by means of which the species of the genus are
separated. Many species have been described by writers who were
unacquainted with congeneric species, and because of tliis ignorance
they either did not compare their so-called new species with those
already descril)ed, or they compared it with some species to which it
bore but a faint resemblance. The present writer in all cases compares
the new species he describes with the forms most closely related, not
because he presumes to set an example but because he considers it his
duty to do so.

*M,all()(-h. — A Revision of the species in Agromyza Fallen, and Cerodontha Eon-
dani, Ann. Ent. See. Amer., Vol. 6, No. 3, 1913, p. 304.

tThe Serpentine Leaf-miner, Jour. Agr. Research, Vol. 1, No. 1, Oct. 10, 1013,
pp. 83-84.

353

PHORID^
Platyphora fi.avof'Emorata, n. sp.

Male. — Black. Head black, frons highly polished ; antenna; ful-
vous, third joint brown at apex, arista black ; palpi fulvous. Thorax
glossy black, upper portion of pleurae, especially posteriorly, brownish ;
scutellum dull black, the surface shagreened. Abdomen black, dis-
tinctly shining throughout, surface with very faint indications of pru-
inescence. Legs yellow, mid and hind coxse infuscated at bases; all
tibiae infuscated, the depth of the infuscation increasing from near base
to apices ; tarsi fuscous. Wings clear, thick veins fuscous. Halteres
yellow, apices of stems and the knobs black.

Frons about 1.5 as wide as its length at center, the length slightly
less at eye margin than at center, surface with numerous short decum-
bent hairs, those at vertex slightly longer than those on disc ; distance
between the posterior ocelli about twice that between either of these
and the median one; basal antennal joint rather elongate; third joint
about 1.5 as long as broad, rounded at apex; arista subapical, bare,
very slender, basal joint very short, slightly swollen; cheeks with 4-5
forwardly and slightly downwardly directed bristles ; palpi very small,
armed with several stout apical setute. Mesonotum broader than long,
disc with short hairs and without dorso-central macrochsetae, scutellum
about twice as broad as its length at center, margin with a number of
decumbent setulose hairs which lie along the edge and give it the ap-
pearance of having a rim ; disc distinctly shagreened. Abdomen with
second segment longer than either of the 3 following segments, 6th
longer than 4+5, its lateral surfaces with short hairs; surfaces of ab-
dominal segments minutely shagreened ; hypopygium small, surface of
dorsal plate shagreened. Legs stout ; fore coxae stout, over two thirds
as long as fore femora, their anterior surfaces with setulose hairs
which become longer and stronger towards apices of coxae ; fore tibia
p.bout two thirds as long as femur, and distinctly longer than basal
joint of tarsi (17:10) ; fore tarsi dilated, especially the basal joint,
which is distinctly wider at apex than is the tibia ; second tarsal joint
appreciably longer than third ; mid tibiae with 2—3 apical setulae , hind
tibiae with short decumbent setulae on ventral surfaces, so arranged that
they appear like irregular longitudinal rugae ; apices with 2-3 short
setulae and one longer bristle ; mid and hind tarsi slender, basal joint
of each with a few short downwardly directed setulae on ventral sur-
faces. Costa extending to middle of wing; third vein swollen, thicker
than costal vein excepting apical part of latter, setulose throughout;
second vein distinct, setulose ; first vein swollen at apex, extending be-

354

yond base of second ; costal setulse about equal to diameter of costal
vein; veins 4 and 5 very distinctly divergent at apices; greatest dis-
tance from vein 7 to margin of wing equal to greatest distance from
vein 4 to margin.

Female. — Reddish yellow. Eyes black ; f rons with a slight pearl-
aceous iridescence, antennae and palpi concolorous with head. Thorax
similar in color to upper part of head. Abdomen dorsally darker than
thorax, becoming dark brown or fuscous at apex, the iridescence very
distinct, especially at base ; ventral surface opaque black except at ex-
treme base. Legs reddish yellow, the short setulose hairs on tibise and
tarsi giving them a slight fuscous color.

Ocelli indistinguishable; width of frons less than twice its length
at center, anterior outline convex; eyes very small, each about one
tenth the width of frons seen from aboA^e ; surface of frons with sparse
microscopic hairs; antennae smaller than in the male, shape similar;
arista with very slight pale pubescence; palpi almost as large as third
antennal joint, with apical setulge as in male; cheek with 2 distinct
groups of setulae, one extending from middle to eye margin and con-
sisting of 3 strong setulse and several weak hairs, the other located on
mouth margin and consisting of 3 strong setulae. Mesothorax
slightly over 1.5 as broad as long; disc with very weak setulae, lateral
margins more strongly setulose ; posterior outline slightly emarginate ;
appearance of dorsum as in Figure 17, Plate LXXXIV. Abdomen
with 6 distinct segments, undifferentiated from thorax except by the
transverse suture, its dorsal level and lateral margins similar to those
of thorax; fourth segment slightly elongated, its posterior margin
broadly and slightly concave ; surfaces of all segments with weak set-
ulae. Legs rather short and stout ; fore tarsi short and distinctly dilat-
ed, basal joint as long as next two together and less than half as long
as tibia; armature of legs as in male except that the mid tibiae have a
long apical spur. Wings and halteres absent.

Length: male, 1.7 mm.; female, i mm.

Type locality, White Heath, 111.. August 22, 191 5 — a pair taken
in copula on a sandy bank along the Illinois Central Railroad between
White Heath and the Sangamon River by the writer.

The male of this species bears a strong resemblance to coloradensis
Brues*, differing noticeablv however in wing venation, which in flavo-
femorata is similar to that of enrynota, which Brues described at the
same time. In separating the males of the three North American
species the following key will be found useful.

*Psyehe, Vol. 21, 1914, p. 79.

355

1. Veins 4 and 5 almost parallel apically coloradensis.

— Veins 4 and 5 very distinctly divergent apically 2

2. Legs and antenna? black; scutelluin polished; basal joint of fore

tarsi almost as long as fore tibise eurynota.

— Legs and antennae yellowish, more or less inf uscated apically ; scutel-

lum subopaque, shagreened, basal joint of fore tarsi not two thirds
as long as fore tibiae flavofemorata.

The genus Platyphora was described by Verrall in 1877 with the
genotype lubbocki Verrall, a myrmecophilous species found in Britain''',
Nothing was known of the female of the species for a number of
years. In 1890 Meinert described the genus Ainigmatias-'f with the
genotype hlattoides Meinert. Mik suggested in 1898I that Mnig-
matias was the female of Platyphora. The most definite statement
concerning the relations of the genera is that published by Donis-
thrope.§ In this paper it is stated definitely that the genera are synony-
mous, Platyphora being simply the winged male and Mnigmatias the
apterous female of the same genus. This decision was arrived at from
data obtained in connection with observations made on ants' nests in
which the species of Platyphora occur. I am not aware of any copulat-
ing record having been made prior to that in the present paper, the de-
cision as to the specific identity of the European species resting upon
the fact that only males of Platyphora and only females of A^nig-
matias were obtainable, and that both occurred in the immature stages
in the same nests. The record now published confirms the previous
one by Donisthorpe, if such confirmation were required.

Coquillett described as a male a female discovered in Arizona. 1|
This species, schzvarzi Coquillett, is very similar to flavofemorata, and
a comparison of the foregoing description with Coquillett's type will
be necessary to discover specific differences, although his description
seems to indicate that the two are distinct. It is pertinent to indicate
here that the females of neither of the species described by Brues are
known.

In the case of flavofemorata the species was found on a sandy bank
where there were numerous ants' nests. The male was running about
fairly rapidly, and it was only after I had inverted a cyanide bottle
over it that I discovered the attached female. The latter was carried
apparently curled forward under the abdomen of the male and was

*Jour. Linn. Soc. Lond., Zool., Vol. 13, 1877, p. 259.
tEntom. Meddel., Vol. 2, 1890, p. 213.
tWien Ent. Zeit., Vol. 17, 1898, p. 204.
§Ent. Eec, Vol. 26, 1914, p. 276.
||Can. Ent., Vol. 35, 1903, p. 21.

856

quite invisible from above on account of the rather large wings of the
male, which were folded closely over the abdomen. It is quite possible
that it is by this means that the females find their way from one nest
to another, as they are themselves not well adapted to do so.

Coquillett's species is recorded as occurring in a situation where no
ants' nests were within easy reach.

ANTHOMYID.g^

POGONOMYIA Fl^AVINERVIS, n. sp.

Male. — Glossy black. Frontal and facial orbits slightly brownish,
covered with dense silvery pilosity. Thorax with slight, but distinct,
grayish pruinescence, which when viewed from in front gives the disc
the appearance of being trivittate anteriorly. Abdomen when viewed
from behind distinctly gray pruinescent on sides, leaving only a rather
narrow dorso-central black line which is more or less interrupted at
apex of each segment. Legs black. Wings slightly tinged with yellow,
all veins yellow, costa with black setulose hairs. Calyptra^ whitish,
margins yellowish. Halteres brown, knobs dark brown.

Eyes distinctly separated, orbits each about as wide as central stripe
at narrowest part of f rons ; f rons at narrowest part as wide as distance
between outer margins of the posterior ocelli ; the strong pair of ver-
tical macrocha:tai much more conspicuous than the postocular bristles ;
arista short-haired ; head otherwise similar to that of alpicola. Thorax
with the macrochsetse and hairs as in alpicola but much weaker. Abdo-
men rather narrow and distinctly tapering apically, the macrocha:?ta:
and hairs much less conspicuous than in alpicola. Legs with the arma-
ture much as in alpicola; mid femora with the antero-ventral surface
armed with a series of 8-9 bristles, which begins before middle and ex-
tends to apex, the longest bristle being slightly beyond the middle of
the series ; postero-ventral surface with a series of 8-9 longer and
more hairlike bristles extending from l)ase to a point about one third
from apex, the bristles increasing in length from base to apex of series;
hind femora with the series of bristles on antero-ventral surfaces much
less numerous than in alpicola; postero-ventral surface with a single
long slender bristle about one third from apex (two smaller and weak-
er ones in alpicola) ; hind tibiae with armature like that of alpicola ex-
cept that the bristles are distinctly weaker. Wing venation similar to
that of alpicola.

Female. — Agrees in color with the male except that the abdomen is
almost entirely glossy black.

357

Eyes separated by slightly less than one third the head-width, orbits
each about half as wide as central stripe at its narrowest point; decus-
sate frontal bristles slender. Abdomen much broader than in male.
Legs stouter than in male ; mid femora with a stout bristle about one
fourth from base on the antero-ventral surface which is appreciably
shorter than the diameter of the femur (in alpicola this bristle is more
slender and much longer than the diameter of the femur). Third and
fourth wing-veins slightly convergent apically.

Length, 5.5-7 mm.

Type locality, Algonquin (Nason).

The type series consists of one male and three females, two bear-
ing Algonquin labels (one with the date May 24, 1895), ^^^^^ ^^^
labeled N. 111., one of the latter also bearing Stein's label "Pogono-
iiiyia n. sp.", and presumably the species referred to by him in Berliner
Entomologische Zeitschrift*. Subsequently Stein referred to the
species a specimen from Wisconsin, but as he had only seen females
he did not describe the species.

The foregoing description should serve to separate alpicola Ron-
dani, and flavincrvis. I have not seen atcrriiua Van der Wulp, which
was described from Mexico, but it must be very similar to alpicola if
not identical with it. I have both sexes of alpicola from Moscow,
Idaho, May 22, 1913 (J. M. Aldrich).

GEOMYZID^

Aphaniosoma quadrivittatum, n. sp.

Female. — Opaque yellow. Head yellow with the exception of a
small spot surrounding the ocelli and a small area round the connection
between the head and thorax, which are black ; eyes iridescent green
in life. Mesonotum with four blackish gray vitta?, the center pair in-
distinctly connected with a similarly colored spot on center of anterior
margin at connection of head and thorax, lateral pair discontinued at
humeri, posteriorly all four vitta^ being discontinued slightly beyond
middle of disc, the lateral pair slightly exceeding the median pair in
length ; lower portion of sternopleura slightly darkened ; postnotum
blackened on lower half. Abdomen pale yellow, each segment with a
conspicuous blackish brown cross-band on basal portion which is broad
on median line and narrows towards each lateral margin. Legs yellow.
Wings clear, veins yellow. Halteres yellow. Bristles on head and
thorax black, surface hairs yellow.

*Vol. 42, 1897, p. 170.

858

Head slightly higher than long; face concave in center; upper half
of back of head concave; post-vertical bristles very weak, cruciate;
frons in profile slightly buccate, viewed from above nearly one half
the width of head, slightly narrowed anteriorly; orbit not differen-
tiated from center stripe ; two distinct orbital bristles present on each
side which are slightly reclinate and of moderate size ; anterior to the
lower one is a short setula ; ocellar bristles f orwardly directed, diverg-
ent; surface of center stripe with numerous short setulose hairs; an-
tennae rather small, third joint rounded, arista almost as long as frons,
bare ; cheeks with numerous rather distinct hairs and 2—3 stronger
bristles along mouth margin anteriorly; cheek at middle half as high
as eye, the latter slightly longer than high. Mesonotum with 2 pairs
of widely separated dorso-central bristles, the anterior pair much
weaker than the posterior and preceded by a closely placed series of
short setulse which extend along the inner margin of the lateral vittse
almost to anterior margin of disc; acrostichals two-rowed anteriorly,
irregularly four-rowed posteriorly; no bristles between posterior
dorso-centrals ; scutellum slightly flattened on disc, 4 subequal mar-
ginal bristles present, the posterior pair located on margin very close
to base. Abdomen slightly elongated, pointed at apex. Legs rather
slender ; tibiae without preapical bristle. Wings narrow, auxiliary vein
complete but indistinct ; costa unbroken, first division one fifth as long
as second ; second vein distinctly arcuate, the cell between it and third
vein conspicuously narrowed apically; inner cross-vein about as far
beyond apex of first as it is in front of outer cross-vein ; outer cross-
vein short, not much longer than inner; last section of fourth vein four
times as long as penultimate; last section of fifth, one and a half times
as long as penultimate.

Length, 2 mm.

Type locality, Urbana, III., June 19 to July 9, 191 5 ; on window in
Natural History Building, University of Illinois (J. R. Malloch).

The range of variation in color in this species includes forms in
which the back of the head is entirely gray, and the dorsum of thorax
and abdomen almost entirely blackish gray.

The genus Aphantosoma was described by Becker in 1903*, who
distinguished it from Chyroniyia by the concave occiput, the latter
genus having the occiput convex. The characters of the two genera
are very similar, but the shape of the head should readily separate
them. The Egyptian species, approximatum Becker, differs from the
above species in having the disc of the mesonotum opaque gray dusted
and the pleurae with gray spots. It is also considerably smaller —
•5-75 mm.

"Aegyptische Dipteren. Mitt. Zool. Mus. Berlin, II Bd., 3 Hft.

359

AGROMYZID^
Agromyza aprii^ina^ n. sp.

Female. — Glossy black. Frons opaque black, orbits and ocellar
triangle glossy; lunula yellowish; face and cheeks opac{ue, slightly
dusted with grayish pruinescence ; antennae, palpi, and proboscis black.
Thorax highly polished without trace of pruinescence'; scutellum as
disc of mesonotum. Abdomen as thorax, with a slight metallic blue
sheen towards apex. Legs entirely black. Squamae and fringes whit-
ish. Halteres yellow, knobs white.

Head in profile as in Figure 4, Plate LXXXIV, frons over one
third the head-width, parallel-sided, orbits narrow, each about one fifth
as wide as center stripe, five moderately strong orbital bristles present,
which decrease slightly in strength towards anterior margin, orbits
otherwise bare; frontal triangle distinct, rather broad and short, not
extending midway to anterior margin ; antennae of average size, third
joint distinctly, but not greatly, longer than broad; arista swollen at
base, bare, its length exceeding that of anterior width of frons by about
one fourth; face and cheeks as shown in figure of profile. Mesonotum
with 4 pairs of dorso-central bristles, which decrease in size anteriorly,
the foremost pair being but little stronger than the strong discal hairs
of which there are about 6 irregular rows between the anterior dorso-
centrals ; the pair of bristles between the posterior pair of dorso-cen-
trals distinct. Abdomen elongate, discal hairs numerous and rather
strong; ovipositor stout and of moderate length. Legs normal in
length and in form; mid tibiae with the posterior pair of bristles
distinct. Costa extending slightly beyond third vein; outer cross-vein
slightly beyond middle of wing and a little more than its own length
from inner; inner cross-vein beyond end of first vein and two fifths
from apex of discal cell ; last section of fourth vein four times as long
as penultimate section ; last section of fifth five sixths as long as penul-
timate; auxiliary vein complete; sixth A^ein extending nearly to wing
margin.

Male. — Agrees with the female in color.

Differs from the female in the case of one specimen in having the
outer cross-vein at one seventh of the distance from inner cross-vein
to wing margin.

Length: female, 3-3.5 mm.; male, 2.5 mm.

Type locality, Cottonwood grove, Urbana, III, April 16-20, 191 5
(J. R. Malloch).

In the key to the species of Agromyza in my paper in the Annals
of the Entomological Society of America this species will run down

360

to caption 15. Including suhnigripes {=mgripcs Schiner ncc Meigen)
there are four species occurring in North America that fall here ; they
may be separated thus :

a. Squamae gray, fringes brown suhnigripes Malloch.

— • Squamae and fringes Avhitish aa

aa. Cross veins separated by about the length of outer eross-vein

aprilina, n. sp.

— Cross veins separated by about twice the length of outer cross-

vein aaa

aaa. Arista almost bare ; occiput not projecting on upper half

ahhrcviaia Malloch.

— Arista distinctly pubescent ; occiput projecting on upper half

kincaidi Malloch.

CHLOROPID.E
Gaurax Loew

I recently described two new species of the genus Caurax and pub-
lished a synoptic key to the North American species*. Since sending
that paper in for publication I have found three species which are evi-
dently undescribed, and in presenting descriptions of these I feel that
it becomes necessary to publish an enlarged synopsis of the species so
that students may the more readily recognize the new forms.

I have not found any of the early stages of the species; most of the
imagines occurring on tree-trunks and limbs. Several examples of
dorsaUs Loew were taken on windows of the basement in the Natural
History Building of the University of Illinois.

In the case of the specimens of montanus Coquillett which I took
here the apices of the hind femora are slightly brownish, a character
possessed by the type also, though omitted in the original description.

Key to Species.

1. Wings not entirely hyaline, either with a black spot at apex of sec-

ond vein, or with a distinct dark mark or inf uscation on disc .... 2

— Wings entirely hyaline 7

2. Wings with a small black spot at apex of second vein (Toronto, Can.)

pseudostigma Johnson.

— Wings with a much greater portion blackened 3

3. Thorax and scutellum entirely yellow ; a large black mark occupying

the area of the wings from middle of second vein between costa
and third vein and a small portion of the apex of the cell posterior
to third (111.) flavididus, n. sp.

*Proe. Ent. Soc. Wash., Vol. 17, 1915, p. 159.

361

— Thorax with at least bhick diseal marks ; wings marked otherwise

than as above 4

4. Thorax and seutellum black 5

— Ground color of thorax yellow, disc with black marks, seutellum

yellow 6

5. Setulose hairs on f rons and cheeks black ; wings with very distinct

infuscation, which extends to base and is most distinct in cell

bounded by first vein and costa ; legs entirely yellow (111.)

pallidipes, n. sp.

— Setulose hairs on f rons and cheeks yellow ; wings with rather indis-

tinct infuscation, which does not extend to base ; legs yellow, hind
femora and tibiae largely black (111.) fumipennis Malloch.

6. Sides of mesonotum near anterior angles with a white spot (111.) . . .

splendidus Malloch.

— Sides of mesonotum without a white spot (Mass.)

ohscuripennis Johnson.

7. Thorax and seutellum glossy black ; apical half of hind femora black,

the remainder of legs yellow (La.) pilosidns Becker.

— Either disc of mesonotum or the seutellum yellow; legs not as above

8

8. Halteres yellow 9

— • Halteres black 11

9. Seutellum black, disc of mesonotum yellow, with a posteriorly tri-

dentate black mark which covers almost the entire disc (Pa., 111.,
N. H.) dorsalis Loew.

— Seutellum yellow, with brownish marks upon the disc 10

10. Disc of mesonotum with 3 confluent black vittae, forming a large dis-

eal mark, rarely nan'owly separated ; seutellum with a ])asal l)lack
mark on each side (N. H.) epliit^pmm. Zetterstedt.

— Disc of mesonotum with 3 black spots, the rudiments of the normal

vittae, beyond middle; seutellum with a large brownish mark on
disc (111.) interrupins, n. sp.

11. Legs entirely yellow or with only a faint brownish mark at apices of

hind femora (N. H., Vt., 111.) montanus Coquillett.

— Legs with distinct, deep black marks 12

12. Thorax glossy black, lower half of pleurae and the seutellum yellow

(111.) apicalis Malloch.

Thorax and seutellum yellow, disc of the former with black marks
(Pa.) festivus Loew.

Gaurax fi,avidui.us, n. sp.

Male. — Yellow, subopaque. Head yellow, ocellar region, inner
upper mouth-margin, and back of head black. Thorax yellow, a black
central spot on pleurae and a similarly colored transverse one on mid-
dle of postnotum. Abdomen yellow, infuscated on sides of first seg-

362

ment and entire dorsum of other segments; venter yellowish. Legs
yellow, mid and hind tibiae with a brownish black spotlike mark on
dorsal surfaces near base. Wings with a large black mark covering
the entire area anterior to third vein from middle of second to apex of
third and extending slightly posterior to third near its apex; veins
black. Halteres yellow. Setulose hairs on head and thorax black, the
weak hairs pale yellow.

Frons over one third the head-width, triangle poorly defined; an-
tennae small, third joint rounded apically, slightly pilose ; arista short-
haired; cheek linear; eyes sparsely haired. Surface of mesonotum
with weak hairs; apical pair of scutellar bristles distinctly stronger
than basal. Abdomen rather slender; hypopygium of moderate size,
recurved. Legs normal. Third costal division of wing about three
fourths as long as second ; veins 3 and 4 parallel, the latter ending in
wing tip.

Length, i mm.

Type locality, Urbana, 111., July 4, 19 15, at rest on cypress limb
(J. R. Malloch).

Differs from any described species of the genus in the wing mark-

mgs.

Gaurax pai,i,idipes_, n. sp.

Male. — Black, shining. Head yellowish brown; frons opaque
black-brown, triangle glossy black; antennae brownish; arista fuscous;
palpi dusky yellow ; back of head black. Thorax and abdomen shining
black, the latter slightly yellowish at base. Legs entirely yellow.
Wings with a very distinct infuscation on anterior basal half, which
fades out before apex of third vein; veins black. Halteres yellow,
knob black. Hairs and bristles on head black ; bristles on thorax yel-
low ; hairs on thorax and abdomen white.

Head short and broad ; frons one half the width of head, triangle
well defined and very large, filling almost the entire frons ; lateral and
vertical setulae strong; antennae large, third joint very hairy; arista
slender, short-haired; marginal hairs on cheek strong; eyes very dis-
tinctly haired. Mesonotum rather densely covered with long white
hairs ; scutellum with similar hairs and 4 marginal bristles, the apical
pair strongest. Abdomen short and broad. Legs of moderate strength.
Third costal division of wing two thirds as long as second ; veins 3 and
4 parallel, the latter ending in wing tip.

Length, 1.5 mm.

Type locality, Urbana, 111., July 4, 191 5, at rest on cypress limb
(]. R. Malloch).

363

Differs from fumipennis Malloch in having the legs entirely yellow
and the infiiscation of the wings carried to the base.

Gaurax interruptus, n. sp.

Female. — Ochreous yellow, slightly shining. Head yellow, ocellar
region, inner upper mouth-margin, and back of head black, arista
brownish. Mesonotum with the three vittse faintly indicated anteri-
orly, black on posterior third from transverse median line of disc mid-
way to posterior margin ; pleurae with a large glossy black central spot
and the upper margin narrowly black; scutellum brownish black except
the margin; postnotum yellow above, black below. Abdomen black
dorsally, segments paler on anterior margins, venter yellow. Legs yel-
low. Wings hyaline, veins grayish. Halteres yellow, knobs white.
Bristles on head and thorax black, hairs yellowish.

Frons opaque, over one third the width of head, surface with
numerous setulose hairs, those on vertex, lateral margins, and a pair
on center of anterior margin strong; antennae rather small, arista
short-haired; eyes sparsely haired; triangle poorly defined. Mesono-
tum with less noticeable surface hairs than in most species of the
genus; scutellum with short discal hairs and 4 marginal bristles, the
apical pair strong. Abdomen and legs normal. Third costal division
of wing about four fifths as long as second; veins 3 and 4 subparallel,
the latter ending in wing tip.

Length, i mm.

Type locality, Urbana, 111., July 5, 191 5, at rest on cypress tree
trunk (J. R. Malloch).

This species is separable from ephippium by the interrupted tho-
racic vittse, and the discal spot on scutellum.

Urbana, IHinois, December 3, 1915.

Plate LXXX

Lnrvdl and Pupal Details of Sciara, Mycetohia, and Deromyia

Fig. 1. Sciara sp., larva, ventral view of head: a, antenna; lah, labium;
mx, maxillffi ; Ih, labnim ; m, mandible.
2. The same, abdominal trachea and spiracle of larva.
The same, prothoracic trachea and spiracle of larva.
The same, latero-ventral view of pupa.
Mycefohia divergcns, prothoracic spiracle of larva.
The same, portion of head and prothorax showing trachea and

spiracle of larva.
Mycetohia divergens, lateral view of pupa.
Sciara sp., mandible of larva.

3Iycetohia divergens, dorsal view of apical segments of pupa.
Sciara sp., clypeus and hy])oi)harynx of lai'va.
Mycetohia divergens, mandible of larva.
Fig. 12. The same, dorsal view of larva.
Fig. 13. The same, labial plate of larva.

Fig. 14. Deromyia wintliemi, thorns at base of wing of pupa.
Fig. 15. The same, lateral view of eighth and ninth segments of abdo-
men of pupa.
Fig. 16. The same, side view of lateral cephalic thorns of pupa.

Fig.

2

Fig.

3

Fig.

4

Fig.

5,

Fig.

6

Fig.

7,

Fig.

8,

Fig.

9,

Fig.

10.

Fig.

11.

Plate LXXX

T?r?»

UrIiWiii-iJfii.i ^ii.

12

16

Fig.

1

Fig.

2

Fig.

3

Fig.

4

Fig.

5

Fig.

6

Fig.

7

Fig.

8

Fig.

9

Plate LXXXI

Larval and Pupal Details of Bomhyliidw, Asilidcc,
Tlierevida', and Cyrtidoi

Exoprosopa fascipennis, pupal abdominal dorsal bristles, dorsal

view.
The same, lateral view.

Antlirax lateralis, pupal abdominal dorsal bristles, lateral view.
Exoprosopa fascipennis, lateral view of pupa.
The same, front view of head of pupa.
Asilus not at us, lateral view of head and thorax of pupa.
The same, dorsal vieAV of pupa.

Antlirax lateralis, pupal abdominal dorsal bristles, dorsal view.
Psilocepliala luvmorrlioidalis, larval head, lateral view: a, an-
tenna; m, mandible; 2^^% posterior rods.
Fig. 10. The same, lateral view of larva : sj), prothoracic spiracle ; 1-6,
al)dominal segments one to six; a, dorsal view of apex of
abdomen.
Fig. 11. Psilocepliala Jicemorrlwidalis, ventral view of pupa.
Fig. 12. The same, dorsal view.

Fig. 13. The same, lateral view of apex of abdomen of pupa.
Fig. 14. Asilus nofatus, lateral view of apex of abdomen of pupa.
Fig. 15. Psilocepliala luemorrlioidalis, lateral view of head and thorax of

pupa.
Fig. 16. Antlirax lateralis, lateral view of head of pupa.
Fig. 17. The same, front view of head of pupa.
Fig. 18. Antlirax liijpomclas, lateral view of apical segments of abdomen

of pupa.
Fig. 19. Antlirax lateralis, same as above.
Fig. 20. Antlirax liypomelas, lateral view of head of pupa.
Fig. 21. Antlirax lateralis, dorsal view of head of pupa.
Fig. 22. Antlirax liypomelas, same as above.
Fig. 23. Oncodes costains, lateral view of abdomen of pupa.

PI.ATK LXXXI

Plate LXXXII

Larvdl and Pupal Details of Asilida' and Mydaidw

Fig. 1. Proctacantliiis milherfi, ninth abdominal segment of pupa.
Fig. 2. Promaclnis verfehrafus, seventh, eighth, and ]iinth abdominal

segments of pupa.
Fig. 3. Proctacantlius milhcrtl, end view of ninth segment of abdomen
of pupa.

Promachus vertehrains, side view of lateral eephalie thorn of
pupa.

The same, thorns at base of Aving-ease of pupa.

Proclacaiillius milherti, side view of lateral eephalie thorns of
pupa.

The same, thoi'iis at base of wing-ease of pupa.

Ali/das clavafiis;, doi'sal view of apex of abdomen of pupa.

The same, lateral view of pupa.

The same, front view of head of ]ni])a.

Promaclins vertehratus, ventral view of apex of abdomen of
larva.

The same, lateral view of larva.

The same, posterior spiracle of larva.

The same, dorsal view of apex of abdomen of larva.

My das clavafus, lateral view of head of pupa.

The same, side view of lateral eephalie thorn of pupa.

Asilas nolafus, IIkh'h at base of Aving-case of pupa.

The same, side view of lateral eephalie thorn of pupa.

Proctacantlius milherti, dorsal abdominal thoi'iis of pupa.

Promaclins vertehratus, same as above.

My das clavatus, same as above.

Proctacantlius milherti, spiracular area of first abdominal seg-
ment of pupa.
Fig. 23. Mydas clavatus, abdominal spiracle of pupa.
Fig. 24. Promaclins vertehratns, dorsal view of head of larva.
Fig. 25. The same, ventral view of head of larva.

Fig.

4

Fig.

5,

Fig.

G,

Fig.

7.

Fig.

8,

Fig.

9

Fig.

10

Fig.

11

Fig.

]2

Fig.

13

Fig.

14

Fig.

If)

Fig.

16

Fig.

17

Fig.

18

Fig.

19

Fig.

20

Fig.

21

Fig.

22

Platk LXXXII

11

19

15

lf|W|W

16

17

10

13

18

m/pSff^ff/^'/^Wf

Plate LXXXIII
Larval and Pupal Details of Bomhyliida' and Sijrpliidce

Fig. 1. Spogostylum anale, dorsal view of head of larva. Retracted

within prothoraeie segment to point marked X.
Fig. 2. Spogostylum anale, dorsal abdominal bristles of pupa.
Fig. 3. Exoprosopa fasciata, same as above.
Fig. 4. The same, lateral view of apex of abdomen of pupa.
Fig. 5. Sparnopolius fulvus, same as above.
Fig. 6. Exoprosopa fasciata, lateral view of head of pupa.
Fig. 7. Sparnopolius fulvus, same as above.

Fig. 8. Spogostylum anale, dorsal view of apex of abdomen of pnpa.
Fig. 9. The same, lateral view of head of pnpa.
Fig. 10. The same, lateral view of apex of abdomen of pnpa.
Fig. 11. Exoprosopa fasciata, dorsal view of apex of abdomen of pupa.
Fig. 12. Bracliypalpus frontosus, dorsal view of larva.
Fig. 13. Bracliypalpus frontosus, lateral view of puparium.
Fig. 14. Bracliypalpus frontosus, front view of head and prothorax of

larva.
Fig. 15. Bracliypalpus frontosus, puparium, front view of lower margin

of cephalic extremity, showing the remarkable change in

position of the prothoraeie thorns.
Fig. 16. Ceria willistoni, lateral view of puparium, anterior portion

missing.
Fig. 17. Tropidia cjuadrata, lateral view of pui)arium.
Fig. 18. The same, anterior respiratory organ of puparium.
Fig. 19. The same, dorsal view of apex of abdomen of puparium.

Pirate LXXXIII

10

11

15

16

18

17

Plate LXXXIV

Larva], Pupal, and Tmafjlnal Details of Dipfcra

Fig

Fig
Fig
Fig
Fig
Fig
Fig
Fig
Fig
Fig

1. Brosopliila adusta, dorsal view of piiparium.

2. Agromyza angulafa, prothoracic respiratory organ of larva.

3. The same, dorsal view of apex of abdomen of larva,
-t. Agromyza aprilina, lateral view of head of imago.

5. Brosopliila dimidiata, dorsal view of cephalic end of piiparium.

6. The same, dorsal view of apex of abdomen of puparium.

7. The same, lateral view of apex of abdomen of puparium.

8. Agromyza pruni, lateral view of larva.

9. The same, lateral view of head parts of larva, more enlarged.
10. Agromyza pruni, puparium, lateral view with dorsal and ven-
tral views of apex of abdomen. The larva and puparium
are drawn to the same scale and show the remarkable reduc-
tion in size due to the induration of the larval skin.

Fig. 11. Agromyza jyruni, dorsal view of apex of abdomen of female of

imago.

Fig. 12. Agromyza angnla.fa, lateral view of puparium.

Fig. 13. Hydrcllia scapidaris, dorsal view of puparium, showing enclosed

imago.

Fig. 14. Agromyza parvicornis, lateral view of larva.

Fig. 15. Agromyza parvkorim, puparium, lateral view and enlarged
view of apex of abdomen. Drawn to same scale to show
comparative reduction in size in pupal stage.

Fig. 16. Hydrcllia scapidaris, antepenultimate ventral segment of larva.

Fig. 17. Plafypliora fiavofcmorata, imago, dorsal view of head and tho-
rax: 1\, head; sp, spiracle; pr, prothorax ; m, mesothorax; ol,
overlapping portion of mesothorax ; pn, postnotum.

Fig. 18. Agromyza iilice, prothoracic respiratory organ of puparium.

Fig. 19. The same, ventral view of apex of abdomen of puparium.

Plats LXXXIV

11

i-J

Jk

biiiJ.J..JyJ-4J

10

12

13

18

19

Bulletin

OV THE

Illinois State Laboratory

OF

Natural History

Urbana, Illinois, U. S. A.

STEPHEN A. FORBES, Ph.D., E.UD.,
Director

Vol. XI. February, 1916 Article V.

PHYL^EOPHAGA HARRIS (LACHNOSTERNA HOPE): A REVISION OP
THE SYNONYMY, AND ONE NEW NAME,

BY

Robert D. Glasgow, Ph.D.

ARTICI.E V. — Phyllophaga Harris {Lachnosterna Hope) : A Re-
vision of the Synonymy, and one New Name. By Robert D. Glas-
gow, Ph.D.

In few genera of equal economic importance has greater confusion
existed, either in collections or in the published work on the group,
than in the assemblage of species known to American and English
entomologists as Lachnosterna Hope, and to European entomologists
as Ancvlonvcha, Deiean.

ERRATA

Page 373, after line lo, insert 53a, snhpruinosa Casey, 1884, p. 38.

Page 375, after submucida Le Conte, 48, insert siibpruinosa Casey,
53a.

Page 377, after line 7, insert 1884. Casey, Thomas L. Contribu-
tions to the Descriptive and Systematic Coleopterology of North
America. Part i.

Page 377, line 27, for sensu lata read sensu lato.

»^^w.v^».o xiii,^ .j^^ii iiiaiac 111 Luu lew locanties, particularly in too few
localities that have a critical significance for the group, and the deter-
minations in the published lists, based usually upon external characters
alone, were too frequently inaccurate to make even the existing rec-
ords available for the proposed studies.

The w^ork of Dr. George H. Horn (1887) on Phyllophaga is more
complete and more nearly monographic in nature than that of any
other author; yet Dr. Horn says of the group: " It is not surprising
that attention has not been given to the species as the literature at
present available does nt^t give great assistance, and in my oicii case
there was almost equal difficulty in arriving at a correct determination
of the species with the types for comparison along with the literature."
And again, Dr. Horn says : "Lachnosterna is certainly one of the

most difficult genera in our fauna ".*

"Italics l)y present author.

ARTICI.E V. — Phyllophaga Harris {Lachnosterna Hope) : A Re-
vision of the Synonymy, and one Neiv Name. By Robert D. Gi.as-
cow. Ph.D.

In few genera of equal economic importance has greater confusion
existed, either in collections or in the published work on the group,
than in the assemblage of species known to American and English
entomologists as Lachnosterna Hope, and to European entomologists
as Ancylonycha Dejean.

JSome years ago the writer turned to this group hoping to make it
the basis for a study of some of the problems relating to the origin
or source, the diversification, and the dispersal of animal forms in
North America. The group offers material that is unsurpassed for
such a study. It has a wide distribution, and comprises a great num-
ber of species which are relatively sedentary, of large size, and usually
abundant wherever they occur. Moreover, it includes a large and
compact series of species which are peculiar to the region selected
for study.

It appeared very early, however, that sufficient data were not yet
available to warrant such a treatment of the group. Exhaustive col-
lections had been made in too few localities, particularly in too few
localities that have a critical significance for the group, and the deter-
minations in the published lists, based usually upon external characters
alone, were too frequently inaccurate to make even the existing rec-
ords available for the proposed studies.

The work of Dr. George H. Horn (1887) on Phyllophaga is more
complete and more nearly monographic in nature than that f)f anv
other author; yet Dr. Horn savs of the group: " It is not surprising
that attention has not been given to the species as the literature at
present available does not give great assistance, and in my own case
there was almost equal difficulty in arriving at a correct determination
of the species 7vith the types for comparison along with the literature."
And again. Dr. Horn says : ''Lachnosterna is certainly one of the
most difficult genera in our fauna ".*

Itiilit's by piosent author.

366

Shortly after the pubHcation of Horn's "Revision," which was
based upon external characters alone, a notable contribution to our
knowledge of Phyllophaga was made by John B. Smith (1889), who
demonstrated the great taxonomic value of the genital characters in
the group, and published a series of figures showing these characters
for the various species. Smith's figures have been immensely useful
to entomologists who have used these characters, but unfortunately,
they were designed to supplement Horn's work rather than for in-
dependent use, and were published without any accompanying synoptic
tables. For this reason they are available only indirectly, through the
index, for verifying determinations based upon external characters
made first from Horn's tables, and they have not been used as gen-
erally as they should have been.

Smith's work was based upon that of Horn, and made no advance
in nomenclatural accuracy such as the use of the genital characters
had made possible, for, as Smith states in his introduction, he had
no opportunity to verify by reference to the types Horn's determina-
tions of the species described by earlier authors. The insufficiency of
the external characters when used alone, makes it no reflection upon
the thoroughness of Horn's work to say that these determinations
were not always correct, and, indeed. Dr. Horn's statements quoted
above show that he freely admitted such a possibility himself.

Since our present unsatisfactory knowledge of Phyllophaga is due
primarily to the lack of means for the ready and accurate determina-
tion of the species, the writer determined, as the first step toward the
accomplishment of his original purpose, to make a thorough systematic
study of the group, and to prepare tables and figures such that collect-
ors anywhere may make accurate determinations of their species with
ease and certainty. In this way it is hoped so to encourage the study
of the group that local lists may multiply rapidly and accurate data
increase, until the group may serve, possibly in a few years, as a
basis for the biological generalizations to which it promises to lend
itself so effectively.

Because of the more urgent need for such a treatment of the
*'May beetles" of that region, and because it was desired to stimulate
collecting there as early as possible, the species of the United States
and Canada were taken up first; but it is hoped to extend the work
as rapidly as circumstances may permit, to include the entire range
of the group.

This preliminary paper is designed to indicate the progress of the
work, and to present at once the changes in synonymy that a thorough
study of the types has shown to be necessary.

367

All of the types of North American species known still to be in
existence have been located, and as far as possible all determinations
}iave been verified by studies of the genital characters in the actual
t) pe specimens. The writer has personally dissected and remounted
all of the type specimens of this group in American museums, and has
carefully studied and sketched the genital characters in these types.
The Burmeister types, which belong to the museum of the University
at Halle, were sent by Dr. Otto Taschenberg to the University of
Illinois, to be remounted and studied by the writer; while the re-
maining types in foreign museums were remounted by members of
the respective museum staffs, and carefully prepared drawings of the
genital structures sent to the University of Illinois for use in the
present studies.

Of the types not yet known to the writer, either directly or through
drawings of the genital characters prepared for these studies, those
of the earlier authors apparently have been lost, while those of the
more recent authors are in private collections that have not yet
been conveniently accessible. The species of the latter group, however,
are all well known to the writer, while, fortunately, those of the first
group usually are so strongly marked in one way or another as to
leave little doubt that they have been correctly identified.

It is needless to say that the results reported here would have been
impossible but for the uniform courtesy, the hearty encouragement,
and the ready assistance that have been experienced from the begin-
ning of these studies.. Permission to dissect priceless type specimens
has everywhere been freely granted, and numerous collectors have
generously cooperated in the work. Full acknowledgments will be
made in a later paper, but it would be out of place to present even
these preliminary results without naming the men who primarily have
made this work possible.

Preeminent among these, the writer deems it an honor, as it is a
pleasure, to acknowledge his profound indebtedness to Dr. S. A.
Forbes. Dr. Forbes generously placed at his disposal all of the col-
lections of "May beetles" (over 100,000 specimens) and all of the
data relating to the group which belong to the Ofifice of the Illinois
State Entomologist and to the Illinois State Laboratory of Natural
History; through a special commission for the State Entomologist's
Office, Dr. Forbes made it possible for the writer to visit all of the
American museums where types of PhyllopJiaga are deposited, and
he lent his influence to aid in securing the privilege of making dis-
sections of these type specimens ; and, finally, while in Europe, after

368

the meeting at London of the Second International Entomological
Congress, Dr. Forbes visited the museums at London, Paris, and
Berlin, where he personally made arrangements to have all of the
types of North American Pliyllopliaga at these institutions dissected,
and drawings of the genital structures prepared for these studies —
an arrangement that was later extended by correspondence to include
all of these types known to be in foreign museums. Indeed, the re-
sults accomplished thus far have been possible only through the con-
tinued interest and encouragement and material assistance with which
Dr. Forbes has followed each step of the work; and any credit that
may be due for these results belongs to Dr. Forbes cjuite as much as to
the writer.

Special acknowledgments are due to Dr. Otto Taschenberg, of the
University at Halle, who, as stated before, generously sent the Bur-
meister types all the way to America, in order that they might be
examined directly for these studies.

For directing the dissection of type specimens under their charge
and.3li^the preparation of drawings of the genital structures for these
studies, the writer is deeply indebted to Mr. Charles J. Gahan. of the
British Museum of Natural Historv. to M. Pierre Lesne. of the
Museum d'Histoire Naturelle de Paris, to Dr. Richard Heymons, of
Berlin L^niversity, to Dr. Karl Brandt, of the University at Kiel, and
tv^ Dr. B. Y. Sjoestedt, of the Naturhistoriska Riksmuseum at Stock-
holm.

The Graduate School of the L^niversity of Illinois has made liberal
grants of money for the purchase of collections and to defray the
cost of the drawings made from the types in foreign museums.

The late Dr. John B. Smith generously placed his private collection
of "May beetles" unreservedly at the writer's disposal, with instruc-
tions to use the material it contained in an}- wa}- that might advance
the work.

For the privilege of dissecting type specimens, for the loan of
valuable material, and for innumerable courtesies, the writer is deeplv
indebted also, to Dr. L. O. Howard ; to Mr. J. C. Crawford, Mr. E. A.
Schwarz, and ]\Ir. H. S. Barber, of the L^nited States National Mu-
seum; to Dr. Henry Skinner and Mr. E. T. Cresson, Jr., of the Mu-
seum of the Academy of Natural Sciences (^f Philadelphia ; to Mr.
Charles Schaeffer, of the Museum of the Brooklyn Institute of Arts
and Sciences ; and to Mr. Samuel Henshaw, of the Museum of Com-
pc'irative Zoology at Harvard L'niversity.

Special acknowledgments are due to Mr. E. A. Schwarz, Mr.

369

11. S. Barber, and Mr. Samuel Henshaw for assistance in locating
obscure references and references in rare and relatively inaccessible
publications, and to Mr. A. N. Caudell, for assistance in solving many
of the difificult nomenclatural problems encountered in the course of
the work.

And, finally, the writer wishes to acknowledge his particular in-
debtedness to Mr. E. A. Schwarz, for many invaluable suggestions
and data relating to PhyllopJiaga, drawn from a wealth of entomolog-
ical knowledge and experience that is probably unsurpassed.

The name Phyllophaga was proposed by Thaddeus W. Harris in
1826, in the following words: "The genus Melolontha as constituted
by Fabricius contains a vast number of species, differing greatly in
external appearance, and somewhat in modes of life. Fabricius de-
scribes 149 species, and Schoenherr, after separating those which con-
stitute the modern genera Anisonyx, Glaphyrus, Amphicoma, Rutela,
and Hoplia, enumerates 226 species of Melolontha, to which additions
are constantly making from the discovery of new species. Hence the
genus requires further subdivision. The bases of these subgenera
have been pointed out by Latreille, Knoch, and Schoenherr, and some
have already been established. 1 would restrict the name of Melolontha
to those species which have more than three lamellje to the club of the
antennae, like the vulgaris of Europe, and of which we have an in-
digenous example in the M. dcciuilineata of Say (M. occidentalis
Herbst ?). Our common species qiiercina, hirsuta, hirticula, balia,
and some others might receive the generic name Phyllophaga* M.
vespertina, sericea, and iricolor would form another subgenus which
might be called Stilbolemma, unless they are included in Serica Mac-
Leay, or Omaloplia of Megerle ; the characters of their genera I have
not seen. M. pilosicollis, longitarsa, and moesta of Knoch and Say
should each constitute a subgenus. The latter (with M. sordida and
frondicola Say?) belongs to Kirby's genus Apogonia. From the
singular manner in which the nails are divided at tip, I would call
the linearis of Schoenherr Dichelonyx." (Massachusetts Agricultural
Journal and Repository, V^ol. X (1826), p. 6, note.)

Of the other two names referred to at the beginning of this article,
Ancylonycha Dejean was first used in 1833 (Catalogue des Coleop-
teres de la collection de M. le Comte Dejean), while Lachnosterna
Hope was not coined until 1837 (Hope, The Coleopterist's Manual,
containing the Lamellicorn Beetles of Linnaeus and Fabricius).

Le Conte was familiar with all three of these names, but he re-
jected both Phyllophaga Harris and Ancylonycha Dejean, and adopted

"Ttalios I1V present anthor.

370

Lachnostcrna Hope, because neither of the earlier names was sup-
ported by a technical description that would indicate the limits of the
genus.

The name Phyllophaga is adopted by the writer on the ground
that its validity was fully established by its publication in connection
with a series of valid specific names — a position that is fully endorsed
by Messrs. Caudell and Banks, and by many other entomologists to
whom the question has been submitted — and in the absence of a desig-
nated genotype, the species liirticiila Knoch is here proposed as the
type of the genus.

The name Phyllophaga has been proposed several times for genera
in widelv diverse groups of animals, but the earhest use of this name
known to the writer, aside from its use by Harris as cited above, is
that of Robineau-Desvoidy, who, in 1830, proposed this name for a
genus of Diptera.

The status of the various names that have been proposed for new
genera to be formed at the expense of Phyllophaga, but which were
all suppressed by Horn, will be reserved for discussion in a later
paper, sihce any consideration of these names would involve inter-
pretations of relationship that would be out of place here.

In several instances in the following list, names indicated as syno-
nyms represent geographic races or varieties; but it has seemed best
not to attempt to indicate the status of such names until they may be
discussed more fully than would be possible here.

In this list two exclamation points before a name indicate that the
writer has personally studied the genital characters in the type speci-
men, while a single exclamation point before a name indicates that,
although the writer has not seen the type specimen himself, the type
has been dissected, and drawings of the genital characters prepared
for these studies.

Synonymy of the Phyllophaga of the
United States and Canada*

1. \ ferzida Fabricius, 1781, p. 36.

! quercina Knoch, 1801, p. 74.
Warcuata Smith, 1888, p. 183.

2. ! tristis Fabricius, 1781, p. 39.

pilosicollis Knoch, 1801, p. 85.

3. crcmilata Froelich, 1792, p. 94.

georgicana Gyllenhal, 181 7, p. yy.

'The arrangement is clironological.

371

4- ///jca Froelich, 1/92, p. 99-

I fervens Gyllenhal, 1817, p. 74.

5. ! quercus Knoch, 1801, p. ^2.

6. \ ilicis Knoch, 1801, p. 75.

porcina Hentz, 1830, p. 256.
W finihriata Burmeister, 1855, p. 326.
!! ciliata Le Conte, 1856, p. 253.

7. ! micans Knoch, r8oi, p. yy.

8. ! hirsuta Knoch, 1801, p. 78.

9. ! hirticiila Knoch, 1801, p. 79.

10. knochii Schoenherr and Gyllenhal. 181 7, p. 75.

11. longitarsa Say, 1824, p. 241.

12. lanceolata Say, 1824, p. 242.

13. halia Say, 1825, p. 194.

Wcomata Burmeister, 1855, p. 337.

14. cphilida Say, 1825, p. 196.

!! hiirmeistcri Le Conte, 1856, p. 242.

15. ! drakii Kirby, 1837, P- i33-

!! consimilis Le Conte, 1850, p. 226.
! ! grandis Smith, 1888, p. 181.

16. Wfraterna Harris, 1842, p. 29.

Wcognata Burmeister, 1855, p. 323.

17. !! pntuiiia Le Conte, 1856, p. 251.

pruinosa WMdshe'imer, 1846, p. 139.

18. ritgosa Melsheimer, 1846, p. 140.

19. !! anxia Le Conte, (March,) 1850, p. 226.

! hrcvicollis Blanchard, (April 25,) 1850, p. 132.

\ piincticollis ^X^iuzh^vd, (April 25,) 1850, p. 133.
!! cepJialica Le Conte, 1856, p. 245.

! nninotata Walker, 1866, p. 323.
Wduhia Smith, 1888, p. 183.
!! insperata Smith, 1889, p. 93.
Walpina Linell, 1897, P- 7^^-

20. ! ! fittilis Le Conte, 1850, p. 226.

\\ gihbosa Burmeister, 1855, p. 324.
! ! decidiia Le Conte, 1856, p. 246.
! ! serricornis Le Conte, 1856, p. 247.

21. [profunda Blanchard, 1850, p. 132.

Whiimprcssa Smith, 1889, p. 97.
\\ grandior Linell, 1897, P- 7-7-

22. ! uniforniis Blanchard, 1850, p. 133.

Carolina Fall, 19 12, p. 43.

372

2T^. ! crassissima Blanchard, 1850, p. 133.
!! obesa Le Conte, 1856, p. 251.
!! rohiista Le Conte, 1856, p. 257.
\\ geuerosa Horn, 1887, p. 222.

24. glaherrima Blanchard, 1850, p. 136.

25. ! cMffinis Blanchard, 1850, p. 138.

llconiatis Burmeister, 1855, p. 358.
\\ soro7ia Le Conte, 1856, p. 246.
!! rufiola Le Conte, 1856, p. 256.

26. !! cribrosa Le Conte, 1854, p. 231.

!! ventricosa Le Conte, 1854, p. 440.

27. M ceqiuilis Le Conte, 1854, p. 440.

28. Wforsteri Burmeister, 1855, p. 325.

\\ sernicribraki Le Conte, 1856, p. 247.
! ! Ingubris Le Conte, 1856, p. 248.
Wliitesccns Le Conte, 1856, p. 249.
\\ politida Horn, 1887, p. 248.
!! nova Smith, 1889, p. 95.

29. W albina Burmeister, 1855, P- S^^-

30. crinita Burmeister, 1855, p. 359.

\\ glabripeunis Le Conte, 1856, p. 260.

31. W pninnncidina Burmeister, 1855, p. 360.

W cerasina Le Conte, 1856, p. 241.

32. \\ gracilis Burmeister, 1855, p. 361.

! ! volvula Le Conte, 1856, p. 235.
!! inaiui Le Conte, 1856, p. 242.

33. !! dispar Burmeister, 1855, p. 361.

!! boops Horn, 1887, p. 284.

34. ! ! farcta Le Conte, 1856, p. 238.

35. !! torta Le Conte, 1856, p. 239.

36. \\ frontalis Le Conte, 1856, p. 239.
T^y. W latifrons Le Conte, 1856, p. 241.

38. \l congriui Le Conte, 1856, p. 243.

39. \l corrosa Le Conte, 1856, p. 249.

! ! affinis Le Conte, 1856, p. 252.

40. !! calccata Le Conte, 1856, p. 250.

41. l\ Diarginalis Le Conte, 1856, p. 250.

42. \\ siibtonsa Le Conte, 1856, p. 254.

43. ! ! vilifrons Le Conte, 1856, p. 255.

! ! hirticeps Le Conte, 1856. p. 255.

44. !! nitida Le Conte, 1856, p. 256.

Wlimula Horn, 1887, p. 264.

\\ iniioininata Smith. 1889, p. 98.

45-

46.

47-
48.

49-
SO.

51-
52.
53-
54.
55-
56.

57.

58-

59-
60.

61.

62.

63-
64.

65-
66.

67.

68.
69.
70.

71.

72.

73-
74-

75-
76.

77-
78.

79-
80.

81.
82.

83.

373

clypeata Horn, 1887, p. 145.

Wintcgra \\ Le Conte, 1856, p. 258.
parz'idens Le Conte, 1856, p. 259.
rubiginosa Le Conte, 1856, p. 259.
submiicida Le Conte, 1856, p. 260.
glabriada Le Conte, 1856, p. 260.
dcbilis Le Conte, 1856, p. 262.
errans Le Conte, i860, p. 283.
macidicollis Le Conte, 1863, p. 76.
nitidula Le Conte, 1863, p. yy.
cleniens Horn, 1887, p. 144.
Jiamata Horn, 1887, p. 220.
prcctcruussa Horn, 1887, p. 223.

Wdefinita Smith, 1888, p. 501.
hirtiventris Horn, 1887, p. 231.
postrenia Horn, 1887, p. 233.
inversa Horn, 1887, p. 241.
bipartita Horn, 1887, p. 242.
vclicuiens Horn, 1887, p. 244.
bar da Horn, 1887, p. 248.
spreta Horn, 1887, p. 250.
infidelis Horn, 1887, p. 253.
luchiosa Horn, 1887, p. 254.
scittda Horn, 1887, p. 256.
iinplicita Horn, 1887, p. 262.

!! minor Linell, 1897, p. 728.
delata Horn, 1887, p. 267.
(Timtla Horn, 1887, p. 271.
arcta Horn, 1887, p. 271.
vetiita Horn, 1887, p. 274.
fucata Horn, 1887, p. 278.
exorata Horn, 1887, p. 278.
ignava Horn, 1887, p. 280.
iuepta Horn, 1887, p. 282.
affabilis Horn, 1887, p. 283.
ecostata Horn, 1887, p. 284.
lenis Horn, 1887, p. 287.
hcterodoxa Horn, 1887, p. 289.
tiisa Horn, 1887, p. 290.
idkci Smith, 1889, p. 94.
quadra ta Smith, 1889, p. 94.
hornii Smith, 1889, p. 95.

374

84

85
86

87
88

89
90

91

92

93

94
95

' \ loiigispina Smith, 1889, P- 97-
! antemiata Smith, 1889, p. 99.
! elongata Linell, 1897, P- 7^5-
! parva Linell, 1897, p. 726.
! riigosioides Linell, 1897, p. 728,
! karlsioci Linell, 1898, p. 400.

epigcua Wickham, 1903, p. 71.
! arkansaiia Schaeffer, 1906, p. 257,

lenta Fall, 1908, p. 162.
! pygidialis Schaeffer, 1906, p. 257.
! latidens Schaeffer, 1906, p. 258.

lohata Fall, 1908, p. 163.
\ gcorgiaua Schaeffer, 1909, p. 382.'

Alphabetical List of Foregoing Names

NO.

cemida Horn 69.

(vqualis Le Conte 27.

offahilis Horn 76.

affinis Le Conte 39.

alhina Burmeister 29.

alpina Linell 19.

antennata Smith 85.

anxia Le Conte 19.

arcta Horn 70.

arcuata Smith 1.

arkansana Schaeffer 91.

halia Say 13.

harda Horn 62.

hiimpressa Smith 21.

hi partita Horn 60.

hoops Horn 33.

hrevicolUs Blanchard 19.

hurmcisteri Le Conte 14.

calceata Le Conte 40.

Carolina Fall 22.

^cerasina Le Conte 31.

cepJialica Le Conte 19.

ciliata Le Conte 6.

Clemens Horn 54.

clypeata Horn 45.

cognata Burmeister 16.

comata Burmeister 13.

comans Burmeister 25.

NO.

congrua Le Conte 38.

consimilis Le Conte 15.

corrosa Le Conte 39.

crassissinia Blanchard 23

crenulata Froelich 3.

crihrosa Le Conte 26.

crinita Burmeister 30.

dehilis Le Conte 50.

decidua Le Conte 20.

definita Spiith 56.

delata Horn 68.

diffinis Blanchard 25.

dispar Burmeister 33.

drakii Kirby 15.

duhia Smith 19.

ecostata Horn 77.

elongata Linell 86.

epliilida Say 14.

epigcea "Wickham 90.

errans Le Conte 51.

exorata Horn 73.

f arcta Le Conte 34.

fervens Gyll6nhal 4.

fervida Fabricius 1 .

fimhriata Burmeister 6.

forsteri Burmeister 28.

fraterna Harris 16.

frontalis Le Conte 3G.

375

NO.

fucata Horn 72.

fusca Froelich 4.

futilis Le Conte 20.

generosa Horn 2.-i.

georgiana Schaeffer 95.

georgicana Gyllenhal 3.

gihhosa Burmeister 20.

glaherrima Blanehard 24.

glahricula Le Conte +9.

glahripennis Le Conte 30.

gracilis Burmeister 32.

grandior Linell 21.

grandis Smith 15.

liamata Horn 55.

lieterodoxa Horn 79.

liirsuta Knoch 8.

liirticeps Le Conte 43.

liirticula Knoch 9.

liirtivenfris Horn 57.

liornii Smith '. 83.

ignnva Horn 74.

ilicis Knoch 6.

implicHa Horn 67.

inana Le Conte 32.

inepta Horn 75.

infidelis Horn 64.

innominata Smith 44.

insperata Smith 19.

integra Le Conte 45.

inversa Horn 59.

karlsioei Linell 89.

knocliii Schoenherr and

Gyllenhal 10.

lanceolaia Say 12.

latidens Schaeffer 93.

latifrons Le Conte 37.

lenis Horn 78.

lenta Fall 91.

limula Horn 44.

lohota Fall 94.

longispina Smith 84.

longifarsa Say 11-

luctuosa Horn 65.

Inguhris Le Conte 28.

lutescens Le Conte 28.

macidicollis Le Conte 52.

NO.

marginalis Le Conte 41.

micans Knoch 7.

minor Linell 67.

nitida Le Conte 44.

nitidida Le Conte 53.

nova Smith 28.

ohesa Le Conte 23.

parva Linell 87.

parvidens Le Conte 46.

pilosicoUis Knoch 2.

politida Horn 28.

porcina Hentz 6.

postrema Horn 58.

prcetermissa Horn 56.

profunda Blanehard 21.

pruinosa Melsheimer 17.

prunina Le Conte 17.

prnnunculina Burmeister .... 31.

puncticollis Blanehard 19.

pygidialis Schaeffer 92.

quadrata Smith 82.

quercina Knoch 1.

quercus Knoch *5.

rohusta Le Conte 23.

ruhiginosa Le Conte 47.

rufiola Le Conte 25.

rugosa Melsheimer 18.

rugosioides Linell 88.

scitula Horn 66.

semicrihrata Le Conte 28.

serricornis Le Conte 20.

sororia Le Conte 25.

spreia Horn 63.

suhmucida Le Conte 48.

subtonsa Le Conte 42.

torta Le Conte 35.

tristis Fabrieius 2.

tusa Horn 80.

ulkei Smith 81.

nniformis Blanehard 22.

uninotata Walker 19.

vehemens Horn 61.

ventricosa Le Conte 26.

vetula Horn 71.

vilifrons Le Conte 43.

volvula Le Conte 32.

376

A List of thk Publications Containing Original Descriptions
. OF Phyllophaga of the United States and Canada

1 78 1. Fabricius, Johann Christian.

Species Insectorum, Tomus I.
1792. Froelich, Jos. Aloys.

Der Nattirforscher, Stueck 26, pp. 68-165.
1 80 1. Knoch, August Wilhelm,

Neue Beytraege zur Insectenkunde, Theil i.
181 7. Gyllenhal, Leonhard.

Synon3miia Insectorum (Schoenherr), Band i, Theil 3, Ap-
pendix.
181 7. Schoenherr, Carl Johan, and Gyllenhal, Leonhard.

Synonymia Insectorum (Schoenherr), Band i, Theil 3.
Appendix.

1824. Say, Thomas.

Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil., V^ol. 3, Part 2, pp. 238-282.

1825. Say, Thomas.

Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil., Vol. 5, Part i, pp. 160-204.
1S30. Hentz, Nicholas Marcel.

, Trans. Am. Phil. Soc. Vol. 3, N.S., pp. 253-258.

1837. Kirby, William.

Fauna Boreali-Americana (Richardson, J.), Part 4,
The Insects.
1842. Harris, Thaddeus William.

Insects Injurious to Vegetation, ist edition.
1846. Melsheimer, Frederick Ernst.

Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil., Vol. 2, 1844-45. PP- 134-160.
1850. Le Conte, John L.

Lake Superior, its Physical Character, Vegetation, and
Animals (Agassiz), pp. 201-242.
1850. Blanchard, fimile.

Catalogue de la Collection Entomologique du Museum d'His-
toire Naturelle 'de Paris (Milne-Edwards, M.), Tome I.
1854. Le Conte, John L.

Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil, Vol. 6, 1852, pp. 226-235.

1854. Le Conte, John L.

Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil., Vol. 6, 1852, pp. 439-448.

1855. Burmeister. Hermann.

Handbuch der Entomologie, Band 4, Abth. 2.

1856. Le Conte, John L.

Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil., Ser. 2, Vol. 3, pp. 225-288.

077

i860. Le Conte, John L.

Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil., 1859, pp. 281-293.
1863. Le Conte, John L.

New Species of North American Coleoptera, Part I.
1866. Walker, Francis.

The Naturalist in Vancouver Island and Piritish Columbia,
Vol. 2.
1887. Horn, George H.

Entomologica Americana, Vol. 3, Nov. 1887, pp. 141-145.

1887. Horn, George H.

Trans. Am. Ent. Soc, Vol. 14, Dec. 1887, pp. 209-296.

1888. Smith, John B.

Insect Life, Vol. i, Dec. 1888, pp. 180-185.

1889. Smith, John B.

Entomologica Americana, Vol. 5, Mav, 1889, pp. 93-99.
f889. Smith, John B.

Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., Vol. 11, 1888. pp. 481-525.

1897. Linell, Martin L.

Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., Vol.. 18, 1896, pp. 721-731.

1898. Linell, Martin L.

Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. Vol. 19, 1897, PP- 393-40I-
1903. VVickham, H. F.

Can. Ent., Vol. 35, March, 1903, pp. 67-74.
1906. Schaeffer, Charles.

Trans. Am. Ent. Soc, Vol. 32, pp. 249-266.

1908. Fall, H. C.

Entomological News, Vol. 19, April. 1908, pp. 159-164.

1909. Schaeffer, Charles.

Science Bulletin, Brooklvn Institute Museum, Vol. i. No. 15.
191 2. Fall, H. C.

Can. Ent., Vol. 44, Feb. 19 12, pp. 40-48.

This occasion is taken to propose a much needed name for an un-
described species that is abundant in southern Illinois in midsummer;
so abundant that it ranks high among the species of Phylloplwga
whose numbers give them marked economic importance. The writer
takes pleasure in naming this important Illinois species after his in-
structor and friend. Dr. S. A. Forbes. The name proposed seems pe-
culiarly appropriate in view of the notable contributions made by Dr.
Forbes to our knowledge of the biological and economic relations of
the species of Phylloplmga that occur in Illinois.

378

Phyllophaga forbesi, n. sp.

Moderately elongate, subcylindrical, rufotestaceotis, moderately
shining. Clypeus broadly emarginate, moderately reflexed; both cly-
peus and front rather coarsely and very closely punctate. Prothorax
one half broader than long; sides arcuate, nearly parallel posteriorly,
narrowed in front, margins entire ; surface much less closely punctate
than front, with an indistinct fovea on each side in front of middle.
Elytra more closely and deeply punctate than prothorax, discal costae
feeble. Pygidium of male broader than long, surface irregularly
wrinkled, vaguely punctate; of female, smoother, less vaguely punc-
tate, nearly as long as broad. Metasternum closely and finely punc-
tate, hairs short and sparse. Abdomen finely, faintly, and sparsely
punctate, nearly smooth at middle. Claws strong, slightly intramedian
in male, median in female. Hind tarsi similar in both sexes.

Length 14-17 mm.

Male. — Antennae 10- jointed, club a little shorter than the stem.
Abdomen broadly concave, penultimate segment feebly emarginate at
middle, with a roughened space in front of the faint emargination ;
last segment deeply emarginate, with an obtuse or rounded cusp at
each side of the emargination, the middle of the segment abruptly de-
pressed, the depressed area but little roughened, and with a distinct
transverse ridge at posterior margin. Fixed spur of hind tibiae short
and narrow, outer spur long and slender.

Female. — Club of antennae much shorter than the funiculus. Spurs
of hind tibiae slender.

Many specimens. Abundant in southern Illinois in late June, July,
and early August.

This species is very nearly allied to epJiilida Say and unifonuis
Blanchard {Carolina Fall). It resembles both of these species in all
of the more obvious characters, and is rather common in collections in
the ephilida series. It may be assumed that specimens bearing an
Illinois label, and properly placed in the ephilida series, are of this
species ; since ephilida Say does not occur in Illinois.

While this species is not easily separated from ephilida bv the ex-
ternal characters alone, the genital characters of the two species are
strikingly different. The male genital structures are symmetrical in
both species. In the apical portion of these structures, however, in eph-
ilida the ventral margins are entire, the ventro-distal angles are pro-
duced to form elongate, rounded lobes, and there is a very characteris-
tic pair of long, slender, curved processes that arise from the dorso-
lateral margins of the distal opening and extend distad, in a general

379

ventro-mesal direction ; while in the species here described, the slender,
curved processes of epliilida apparently have no counterpart, the
rounded, ventro-distal lobes are broad and not elongate as in ephilida,
and in this species, there is a pair of broad, angulate lobes not present
in ephilida, which are apparently developed from the ventral margins,
and which bear each a short, straight, slender process, which extends
directly mesad from its point of origin. The females of this species
are readily separated from those of ephilida and iiniformis by the
pubic process. This structure has approximately the same length and
the same general form in these three species, but in the Illinois species
it is broader than in either of the other two.

The foregoing will serve to indicate the general plan of the writer's
work on Phyllophaga, and will make immediately available some of the
results already obtained. It is hoped that the names given here will
be useful to those who contemplate publishing on the group before the
completed synopsis may appear.

The writer is now prepared to give determinations of any "May
beetle" material from the United States and Canada, and will be glad
to do anything in his power to encourage greater activity in the study
of the group. He will gladly determine and report promptly on any
collections that may be submitted to him if mounted with the genital
structures exposed. Unmounted material, however, or mounted col-
lections that do not have the genital structures exposed, can be ac-
cepted only with the understanding that they will be determined as
leisure from other duties may permit the time-consuming manipula-
tion that such material requires.

A large series of exotic species of Pliyllophaga, sensti lata, is now
being worked over. This series belongs to the United States National
Museum, and includes species from the West Indies, Mexico, Central
America, South America, Eastern and Southern Asia, and islands of
the Pacific and Indian Oceans. It is hoped that studies of this ma-
terial will suggest a grouping of the North American species that will
represent natural relationships more successfully than might be pos-
sible from a study of the North American species alone.

Any criticisms or suggestions from other workers that may con-
tribute to the completeness, or the thoroughness, or the usableness of
the forthcoming paper will be welcome.

Issued Feb. 4, 1916.

Bulletin

OF The

Illinois State Laboratory

OF

Natural History

Urbana, Illinois, U. S. A.

STEPHEN A. FORBES, Ph.D., U U D.,
Director

Vol. XI, March, 1917 Article VL

AN EXPERIMENTAE STUDY OF THE EFFECTS OF

GAS WASTE UPON FISHES, WITH ESPECIAL,

REFERENCE TO STREAM POEEUTION

BY

Victor E, Shelford, Ph. D.

Bulletin

OF THE

Illinois State Laboratory

OF

Natural History

Urbana, Illinois, U. S. A.

STEPHEN A. FORBES, Ph D., L,. E. D ,
Director

Vol. XI. March, 1917 Article VI.

AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF THE EFFECTS OF

GAS WASTE UPON FISHES, WITH ESPECIAL,

REFERENCE TO STREAM POLLUTION

BY

Victor E. Shelford, Ph. D.

CONTENTS

PACK

I. Introduction 381

II. Statement of Fish and Gas-waste Pollution Problem 381

III. Material and Methods 383

1. Character of University of Illinois Water 383

2. Treatment for keeping Fishes Alive 384

3. Difficulties to be Guarded against in Fish Experiments 385

4. Fishes used 387

IV. Gas Waste — Its Character and Constituents 358

V. Toxicity of Waste 389

1. Methods of Experimenting 390

2. Toxicity of Waste and Tar 391

3. Toxicity of Illuminating Gas and Constituent Gas-mixtures 392

4. Reactions of Fishes to Waste 392

VI. Toxicity of Illuminating Gas Waste Constituents 394

VII. General Discussion 406

VIII. Summary 409

IX. Acknowledgments 410

X. Literature Consulted 410

Article VI. — An Experimental Study of the Effects of Gas
Waste upon Fishes, zvith Especial Reference to Stream Pollution.
By Victor E. Shelford.

I. Introduction.

The products of destructive distillation of coal include an innum-
erable series of substances representing most of the important groups
of organic compounds ranging from gases to solids. In the manu-
facture of illuminating gas all these substances are thrown into
streams in varying amounts, depending upon the manner of treating
by-products. The gases and volatile products are in solution in water
used in washing the gas, and are often introduced into waterways.
By-products, except the heavy tars, are often thrown away. This is
especially true in the case of the smaller plants where the quantity is
insufficient to make the further treatment of it profitable. Thus in
many plants only the heavy tars are saved, the gas liquor drip from
the mains and holders being dumped into waterways without the re-
moval of even ammonia. The immense commercial value of these
wasted products has been more generally appreciated since the out-
break of the European war, which cut off the large supply of foreign
dyes and important organic compounds and increased the demand for
such products as may be used in the manufacture of explosives. The
value of these wasted products should be sufficient to prevent their
wastage, but their injurious effect upon fishes and other life of streams
generally is itself sufficient to justify the prohibition of pollution by
this means.

II. Statement of the Fish and Gas-waste Pollution Problem.

The gas waste problem is concerned with the effects upon fishes of
the gas liquor untreated, the effect after the removal of the heavy tar,
the effect of tar, the effect of gas-washing water, and that of lime, etc.
from the purifiers. It is the purpose of this paper to show that essen-
tially all the products of the distillation of coal are very toxic to fishes,
some of the most toxic being those which are commonly regarded as
"insoluble" in water. From the standpoint of fishes the waste problem
is concerned with the reactions of fishes when encountering the pol-

382

luted waters. The reactions of fishes to the results of contamination
with natural organic matter, such as decomposing bodies of plants
and animals, are generally advantageous, as the fish turn away from
the polluted area. The result of this investigation shows that in the
case of gas wastes the reactions are usually disadvantageous, — the
fishes swim into the polluting substances without recognizing them or
turning back from them even when their toxicity is such as to cause
death within a short period. The detrimental character of gas wastes
is thus increased many fold.

The toxicity of waste differs for different species of fish and is
greatest for the more valuable fishes as indicated by Dr. Wells' work
(Article VII of this volume). It will be shown to be generally greater
for the smaller and younger fishes. The writer's investigations will
show that this rule holds good down to the youngest fry studied.
Sollmann ( '06) found some evidence that the eggs and newly hatched
embryos of marine Fund ill us are more resistant to poisons than the
adults. He however seems to ([uestion his results in this respect
because of the long exposure in the poison solutions and small c|uan-
tity of .the solution in proportion to the size and total oxygen demand
and excretory output of the adult fish. Child's work with phenyl
urethane which was done after long experience in the use of such
poisons showed that in marine Fundulus the resistance declined rapid-
ly from a maximum in the two-cell stage of the tgg, to the time of
hatching. In Tautogolahris the resistance fell from a survival time of
675 minutes sc^on after fertilization to 15 minutes at the time the heart
began to beat and rose to 20 minutes at the time of hatching, when
the experiments were discontinued. The resistance of the eggs and
embryos of fresh water fishes has not been studied and compared with
that of the adults, but there is every evidence that the rule reported
here will hold good throughout the age and size series beginning about
the time of hatching. The most sensitive period must be determined
before the minimum fatal quantity can be established with anv cer-
tainty. For this reason no attempt has herein been made to determine
.the minimum which will prove fatal to the fishes studied. Dr. Wells
has found that the resistance of some fishes to various factors varies
greatly with the time of year. The lowest point comes between the
middle of June and the last of July when such fishes as the cvpfinids
can hardly be taken from the water before death sets in. From this
time the resistance slowly rises until September. Then the rise be-
comes more rapid and reaches its highest point in March and April,
when all the fishes are exceedingly resistant. With the onset of the
breeding season the resistance falls, though whether or not it con-

38ii

tinues to fall until the period is well passed has not heen determined.
The effects on the breeding operations while of paramount importance
have not been touched in this investigation. In this work no experi-
ments were performed between June 8 and Aug. i8.

In the course of the investigation the working out of the toxicity
of the different compounds has been rendered essential, first because
of their general occurrence as by-products and secondly because va-
rious methods of treatment remove some compounds and not others.
This toxicity is further of interest in connection with the effects of
these compounds as drugs and poisons. The recent use of gold fishes,
frogs, etc. as means of standardizing drugs, such as digitalis, renders
these data of interest to the pharmacist and legal toxicologist. The
timed killing of upwards of 1,500 fishes has, it is hoped, made clear
some facts and methods which may be useful in the study of these
problems wdth domesticated species such as gold fish.

III. MateriaIv and Methods.

The character of the water used is of much importance in the study
of toxicity of polluting substances. The loss of oxygen and accumula-
tion of waste matter in standing water renders experiments conducted
wdth it open to criticism and necessitates the use of a short period to
death in comparatively high concentrations of the drugs as a criterion
in determining relative toxicity. It further necessitates the running
of control experiments in running water. Experiments in running
water are usually necessary in the case of gases. Toxicity is frequent-
ly different in distilled water and tap water.

I. the; character OE university of ILEINOIS WATER, AND OTHER

W^ATER PROBLEMS.

The water supply of the University comes from deep wells and
the salts are nearly all present in the form of carbonates instead of a
mixture of carbonates, chlorides, and sulphates as is the case in waters
where fish normally occur. It also contains about twice as much
magnesium and calcium and eight times as much iron as is commonly
present in such waters. As it comes from the tap the university water
contains no oxygen and about iScc. per liter of carbon dioxide. The
lack of oxygen alone makes it unsuitable for fishes, and the presence
of so much carbon dioxide renders it wholly unfit for them. Fishes
die in it quickly. The mortality among fishes brought in from streams
was very great when this water was used in aquaria in which they
were kept.

384

2. TREATMENT FOR KEEPING FISHES ALIVE-

Treatment A

The water in this case was boiled in an apparatus (Fig. i) which
continuously boils and cools it, being run through at the rate of 500
cc. per minute. This removed all of the readily precipitable iron and
the excess of magnesium and calcium, thus reducing the total solids
to about what one commonly finds in the average stream; but the
water so treated still differed from stream w^ater in that the salts pres-
ent were nearly all carbonates, instead of a mixture of carbonates,
chlorides, and sulphates, and decidedly alkaline. The water was
aerated after boiling. The mortality became markedly less among
fishes when they were first brought in. but on the whole it was not less
than in water which received Treatment B.

Treatment B

In this treatment the water was aerated in an aerating device, so
as to give air saturation. This removed nearly all the free carbon
dioxide and rendered the water alkaline. In this the fishes lived fairly
well but became very sluggish, so that they were not suitable for be-
havior experiments.

Treatment C

Thinking that the above sluggishness might be due to the absence
of sulphates and the presence of carbonates only, a small quantity of
sulphuric acid was added to the water. This rendered it acid by dis-
placing some of the carbonic acid in the carbonates with the sulphate
radical. This treatment proved beneficial, but the requisite manipu-
lation was cumbersome.

Treatment D

For this treatment aerated water and direct tap water were run,
half and half, into the aquaria. This rendered the fishes active and
suitable for behavior experiments and the difficulties of manipulation
were reduced. Later a less complete aeration in the aerating device
shown in figure i was found to give equivalent results, and fishes
lived unusually well for months without attention. In this the water
was treated by running down twelve feet of incline at a rate of about
two liters per minute. It then usually contained sufficient oxygen to
support fishes and from 1-3 cc. of free CO2 per liter, and had lost
much of its iron and a little of its excess magnesium and calcium.

385

3- DiFFlCUIvTiES TO BE GUARDED AGAINST IN FISH EXPERIMENTS.

a. Character of Water.

At the beginning of the work Dr. Wells ('15 and '15a) undertook
a careful study of the relation of fishes to salts, acids, and alkalies.
In general he found that carbonates do not have detrimental effects
upon fishes when the water is acid. He further found many minor
complications in connection with different salts which occur in some
waters but none of these occurred in the water used. His findings
relative to acidity, alkalinity, etc. are of general application and may
be summarized as follows:

Water which is consistently slightly alkaline lessens the activity
of fishes and the mortality is high. N/ioo alkalinity, KOH, (56 pts.
per m.) kills them in a few hours.

Neutral water also seems to be toxic to the fishes, and they become
less and less active until death may occur.

An optimum acidity is obvious. 2-6 cc. of CO^ per liter, (4-12
pts. per m. ) seems to be the proper acid concentration for many fresh
water fishes. Higher concentrations prove fatal very soon, though
fishes will live for some time in 10-20 cc. per liter (20-40 pts. per m.)
of carbon dioxide. N/io,ooo H2SO4, (4.9 pts. per m.) is fatal in a
day or so, but N/20,000 H0SO4, (2.4 pts. per m.) seems to be near
their optimum as they live in this concentration for a long time.

Fishes react very definitely to exceedingly small concentrations of
hydrogen and hydroxyl ions. Fresh-water fishes in a gradient which
is slightly acid at one end and neutral near the middle and slightly
alkaline at the other end will spend most of their time in the acid end,
turning back from the alkaline end at a point just on the acid side of
neutrality. The concentration here when tested shows that they turn
back when the acid concentration falls below N/ 12,000 carbonic acid
(3.5 pts. per m.).

In a gradient where the fishes may select between alkalinity and
neutrality they avoid the neutral water to some extent and spend the
greater part of the time in slightly alkaline water.

b. Quantity of Water.

In the aquaria suckers, small-mouthed and large-mouthed black
bass died frequently when the flow of water was small and the depth
in the aquaria more than 6 inches. This was probably due to insuf-
ficient oxygen. When the amount of water in the aquaria was small
and the flow sluggish as was the case when the water was 2 or 3 inches

386

deep the greatest mortality was among the darters and the minnows
(Notropis and Pinieplmles). These died in numbers in the aquaria,
no darters at all being kept alive. After a number of trials a series of
experiments was performed to demonstrate the cause of the death of
the fishes (darters, Bthcostoma cocnilcu-iii, and minnows, Pinicphalcs
notatus). The procedure was as follows:

Twenty-two 5 in. x 8 in. battery jars were set in a water bath, — the
tank into which and out of which tap water flowed, — ready for filling
with water modified variously, by boiling, aeration, and the addition
of various substances as shown in Table I. Minnows and darters were
given separate jars.

The following table shows the results.

Table I

Average Life up to Ten Days.

Tico individuals in each condition except where othenvise stated.

750 cc. H,0

Darters

Minnows

Days alive

Days alive

Boiled alkaline

8
5

2^^

6
10

6
10

6 (6 fish)

V^ (8 fish)

1/48

10

Eoiled acid

Aerated, — alkaline to neutral

Aerated acid

Iron precipitate, aerated

Iron precipitate, not aerated

Creek water, standing

Creek water, aerated

Creek water, standing

Direct tap water

8
10

6 smaller died first
10
10
omitted

6

*i/48

These experiments should be repeated but were sufficient to indi-
cate the proper precaution as to quantity of water and rate of flow.
As they stand they indicate that the addition of sulphuric acid in the
quantity given does not improve living conditions in the boiled water
for either darters or minnows. In the case of the aerated water the
results are contradictory. Iron sediment does not seem to be a factor
causing death. The number of fish to a given amount of water ap-
pears very important, and indicates that the losses were in part due
to an insufficient flow through the aquaria. The fishes evidently add
some waste products to the water which are of a non-gaseous charac-
ter and thus are not removed. It appears that there should be about
one liter of zvater for each gram of fish in the case of the two species
studied. Less is doubtless sufficient for many species though it was
thought best to use 4 liters of H2O in which to kill a 4-6 gram sun-
fish in a bottle.

387

c. The Transportation of Fishes.

In collecting fishes for such experimental work .they may be se-
cured and brought to the laboratory in numbers if only a very small
quantity of water is used. In general it is best to allow the dorsal fins
of sunfish, basses, crappies, and suckers to protrude from the water.
Minnows on the other hand, live best in about 3 inches of water. In
this way many fishes may be safely brought in without the usual
I^.bor of carrying a quantity of water.

4. FISHES USED.

The fishes used in this experiment belong to the species mentioned
below.

Common name

Orange-spotted sunfish
Blue-spotted sunfish
Blue-gill

Long-eared sunfish
Rock bass

Small-mouthed black bass
Large-mouthed black bass
Blunt-nosed minnow

Steel-colored minnow
Common shiner
Golden shiner
Common sucker
Bullheads
Brook silverside
Rainbow darter

Scientific name
Lepomis humilis Gir.
Lepomis cyanellus Raf .
Lepomis pallidiis Mit.
Lepomis megalotis Raf.
Amhloplites riipestris Raf.
Microptenis dolomieii Lac.
Micropterus salmoides Lac.
Pi me p hales notatns Raf.

Notropis zuhipplii Gir.
Notropns corniitus Mit.
Ahramis crysoleuca Mit.
Catostomus comniersonii Lac.
Amciurus nchidosns LeS.
Labidesthes sicculus Cope
Btheostoma coerulenm St.

Abundance

Abundant

Common

Common

Common

Common

Common

Common

Very

common

Abundant

Abundant

Abundant

Common

Common

Occasional

Common

The small sunfish, Lepomis humilis, was used as a standard fish.
It is only about 4" long when adult, is widely distributed in Illi-
nois and without value as a food fish. A suf^cient number of other
fishes were studied to make its relative sensitiveness clear, and min-
nows and one of the basses were nearly always used in reaction ex-
periments. Minnows were used also to show toxicity.

The condition of individual fishes is also a matter of importance.
In a few cases fishes with obvious external protozoan parasites were
killed in coal-tar products, and in every case they died sooner than the

388

normal fish. Thus in detailed work it is important to open and exam-
ine all fishes dying sooner than other fish of the same size.

When fishes are brought into the laboratory they do not ordi-
narily take food and are often not well-fed or in a semi-starved state
when the experiments are performed. Wells found that in the case
of salts the resistance to adverse conditions is slightly increased by
starvation. To test this, fishes were kept in the aquaria from May
15 to Aug. 23. All died but six; those which died being their only
source of food. On Aug. 23 fishes recently caught were compared with
the starved ones. The starved fishes were from 3 to 3^/ inches long
(7-9 cm.) and had an average weight of 7.6 gm. while fishes of this
length collected from the streams weighed twice as much. In the
fresh waste the starved fish died somewhat sooner on the average
though the time erf some individuals of about the same length as the
well-fed individuals was almost the same as the latter. In aerated
waste the starved fishes lived longest. On account of the small num-
ber (six) of starved fishes available the experiment could not be car-
ried out on a large enough scale to establish significant averages but
there was nothing to indicate that any important differences existed.

IV. Gas-Waste — Its Character and Constituents.

The waste of the Champaign gas plant consists of what is known
as the "drip", which accumulates in the bottom of the holders and in
the pipes leading to and from them, also in the mains throughout the
town. It consists of water with illuminating gases and other coal
products in solution. On the surface of this water a light tar floats,
while some heavy tar may rest at the bottom.

The waste is pumped from the inlet and outlet of the holder onto
the ground beside the tank, and is alleged to flow into the Boneyard
Creek in wet w^eather. The light tar is used by the gas-works people
for paint, for which purpose it appears to have some value. It dries
hard and rather quickly. The heavy tar is removed but as is the usual
case with small plants, everything else is thrown away.

Coal-tar is an excessively complex mixture of chemical compounds
many of which occur in its distillation between naphthalene on the
one hand and anthracene on the other. It contains nitrogenous com-
pounds, chieflv of a basic nature. The usual constituents of the waste
and tar varies with the coal used, the temperature and the method of
washing and testing the gases etc. during the process of manufacture
and the amount of water gas added.

These constituents may be classified and described as follows
(Lunge *oo).

389

A. Nitrogcnized Coinponnds.

Of this group ammonia and its salts are of constant occurrence.
The voktme of ammonia in the drip from the Champaign holder inlet
is usually about 200% of the volume of lic[uid. The salts are aljundant
in all parts of an ordinary plant. Such well known compounds as
ethylamine, aniline, pyridine, and quinoline belong to this group.

B. Sulphuretted Compounds.

To this group belong such well known compounds as hydrogen
sulphide, sulphur dioxide and carbon bisulphide, and the less well
known licjuid thiophene, which is common as an impuritv in benzene.
All are very poisonous.

C. Oxygenized Compounds.

In this group are included such well known substances as acetone,
acetic and benzoic acids, and phenol and the cresols.

D. Hydrocarbons. ^

To this group belong the solids phenanthrene, anthracene, naphtha-
lene, and the volatile licjuids, xylene, toluene, benzene, etc. The gases
are numerous, including acetylene, ethylene, and methane.

E. Carbon Oxides.

These are the two well known gases carbon dioxide and monoxide.

Gas waste from plants which remove only the heavy tar may be
regarded as containing all of these compounds. The dissolved gases
of course escape into the air but are held in great quantity and given
off slowly from the tarry materials.

V. Toxicity of Wastes from the Champaign Plant.

The toxicity of different samples differs greatly, some samples be-
mg ten or twelve times as toxic as others. This depends upon the
interval since the main was pumped and whether it comes from the
inlet or the outlet to the holder. Attempts were made to determine
the toxicity of waste by means of indicators and acid. There appears
to be no relation between the amount of normal acid required to pro-
duce a red color with methyl orange and toxicity to fish. The same
difficulty was encountered when normal alkali was used. Likewise

mo

the amount of iodine absorbed appeared to bear no definite relation
to toxicity. It is probably best to determine the toxicity of waste with
fishes rather than by chemical means.

I. METHODS OF EXPERIMENTING WITH WASTE.

a. Standing water.

Battery jars 5 inches in diameter and 8 inches deep are filled to a
depth of 4 inches (10 cm.) with waste diluted for use. This gave
2,000 cc. of liquid with 113 sq. cm. of exposed surface and gave con-
ditions under which one or two fishes would live for days. This
method simulated in a general way the conditions in polluted standing
water. The period of toxicity determination being one or two hours
the method was free from serious objections.

h. Running Water Method.

A bottle with a very w^ide neck, holding a liter is fitted with a rub-
ber stopper in which are three holes (M. Fig. i). A 12 liter aspira-
tor bottle (Fig. I W) with stopper lubulature is closed at the bottom
aperture and filled with waste about ten times as strong as is required
for the experiment at hand. One part of the diluted waste is run into
the bottle through one opening in the three holed rubber stopper, while
9 parts of water are introduced through another. The water flows
from this bottle into a larger bottle holding about three liters, in which
the fishes were confined. The flows were set with pinch cocks on
rubber tubing and adjusted from time to time. The flows used varied
from time to time but usually were between 100 to 300 cc. per minute.
The object was to secure definite concentrations rather than definite
flows, as all that is necessary is to change the water often and simulate
the conditions in running streams. The temperature of such experi-
ments was usually i/°C.

c. Bottle method.

For determining the exact toxicity of any sample of waste when
unexposed to the air it is necessary to proceed in an entirely different
way. A bottle with a wide mouth, holding a little more than four
liters, is supplied with a close fitting rubber stopper. It is first filled
with water to the four liter mark scratched on the outside. A definite
amount of w^aste is then run in from a burette or Mohr's pipette. The
bottle is then shaken until all of the substance is in solution. The
free air space, which should not exceed 2% of the volume of the

391

water, serves when the bottle is laid on its side to show any undis-
solved substance lighter than the water, thus making the method later
applicable to the light slightly soluble constituents of waste. The
temperature of such experiments was usually 20°C.

2. TOXICITY OF WASTE AND TAR.

The toxicity of waste from the Champaign plant varies so that a
general statement as to the toxicity can hardly be made. In general
the greater the amount of tar the more toxic the waste. The most
toxic sample contained much tar. Eight hundredths of a cc. of the
waste was introduced from a Mohr pipette into four liters of water
in a four liter bottle. The water was shaken until all the waste had
gone into solution excepting a slight tarry film on the sides of the bot-
tle near the surface of the water. It is impossible to say how much
of the substance actually went into solution, but assuming that half of
it did, it may be safely said that ten to twenty parts per million of
this waste killed a 4-5 gram Lcpomis liitiuilis in an hour, while twice
that amount killed such fishes in from ten to thirty-five minutes. An-
other sample with less tar killed fishes of the same size in five hours
when 1,000 parts per million were present.

A small amount of tar was rubbed on the sides of several full
grown Lepornis Jiiimilis and the fishes left in open acjuaria ; all died
in from one to nineteen hours.

A small amount of tar was rubbed in the mouths and on the sides of
several suckers and orange-spotted sunfishes in open aquaria. All died
in from one to nineteen hours. Marsh ('07) found tar very toxic to
perch and bass.

Aerating and boiling removed toxic constituents of the waste. For
example, a sample of waste was treated as follows :

1. Fresh waste was added to 99 times its volume of aerated
water as quickly as possible, and the small space above the water in
the large bottle was filled with illuminating gas.

2. Some of the same waste was aerated by pouring from one
beaker to another for three minutes. This was added to 99 parts of
water and corked.

3. Some of the same waste was boiled vigorously for several
minutes, until all odor of ammonia was removed, and added to 99
parts of aerated water.

The effect of these treatments is illustrated by the following ex-
periment which is one of many. A liter of each of the three kinds of
waste was put into each of three battery jars and 4-5 gm. orange-
spotted sunfishes placed in them. They survived as follows :

392

Fresh Aerated Boiled

The fishes lived. .23 minutes 81 minutes 150 minutes

These samples of waste were kept in loosely stoppered bottles
for nearly a year and still showed differences of lesser magnitude.

The fractional distillation of tar yields various different sub-
stances. One of these distilled off at 26o°-290°C., which gives heavy
constituents only, was supplied by the Department of Chemistry and
proved very toxic.

1000 pts. per million (by volume), not all in sol., killed various fishes in 5-10 min.

250 '' " '' '' '' }>})!}}? r> }! yy } t If). "A ''

125 '' '' " '' '' 1 1 T> 1 1 1 ■) !> >j >> !> 25-40 "

90 " " " " " >> yy y' y> " Lepomishumilis " 40-60 "

|"0 '' '' '' '' '' }}!>}}}) !) ?} ;> }> 55-60 ''

Since apparently not more than half of these amounts went into
solution and tarry film adhered to the bottle, the heavier parts of the
tar are very toxic and remain so for long periods.

3. TOXICITY OF ILLUMINATING GAS AND CONSTITUENT GAS-MIXTURES.

As shown by Marsh ('07), illuminating gas is very toxic to fishes.
It is difficult to determine how much gas is required to produce fatal
results in a sufficiently short time as the constituent gases go into solu-
tion with different rapidity and the constituents in a given sample of
dissolved gas are difficult to determine, so that no attempt was made
to analyze them. The illuminating gas was introduced from an in-
verted bottle (U) as shown in figure i. The gas was led into a bottle
by displacing water and the bottle stoppered with a two hole rubber
stopper wired in place and containing one tube reaching to the bottom
and another passing through the cork only. A valve leaking by drops
was attached to the short arm and the water thus forced into the bot-
tle, drop by drop. The gas was accordingly forced into the cooling
and solution coils of the apparatus, much of it going into solution,
but a quantity passing through to the mixing bottle and collecting,
where it was allowed to escape from time to time.

A mixture of ethylene 30 cc. per liter, carbon monoxide approxi-
mately 6 cc. per liter and sulphur dioxide about 33 cc. per liter killed
the standard fish in 15 minutes.

4. REACTIONS OF FISHES TO WASTE.

Much of the danger to fishes from pollution of streams, especially
where the pollution is local, is determined by the reactions of the fishes

393

to the polluting substances. Fishes turn away from dangerous sub-
stances which are normally found in their usual environment, but
with strange and unusual substances such as are thrown into streams
by gas-works and other industrial plants, they frequently enter and
follow up to points where the concentrations are fatal, or fail to recog-
nize the dangerous substance at all and often stay in it until they are
intoxicated and finally die there. (Chart II, graphs 8-11; Chart V,
graph 60. )

Conditiotis and Methods of Study.

The experiments were performed in a gradient tank (N), figure
I. The tank used in these experiments was 122.3 cm. long, 15 cm.
wide, 13 cm. deep. The front wall was of plate glass and a plate
glass top was used at times. Water of two kinds, normal and polluted,
was used in the experiments. One kind was allowed to flow into one
end at a definite rate and another kind into the other end at the same
rate. It flowed out at the middle at the top and at the bottom so
that the two kinds of water met at the center. The outflow at the
center did not of course prevent the mixing of the two kinds of water
and thus the middle section, equal to one half or one third of the
tank was a gradient between two kinds of water. The water entered
both ends at the same rate (usually 600 cc. per minute) through tees
the cross-bars of which contained a number of small holes. The
cross-bars of the tees were at the center of the ends of the tank behind
screens. The drain openings were located at the center near the top
and in the bottom. The outer openings of the drain tubes were at
the level of the water in the tank. We found no evidence that fishes
reacted to the slight current produced by the water flowing in at the
ends and drifting toward the center and out through the drains.
Since each half of the tank held about 9 liters, it required 15 minutes
to fill it or to replace all of the water in one of the halves. The tank
was enclosed under a dark hood. Two electric lights were fixed in
the rear and above the center of the two halves, i.e., above a point
midway between the screen partition and the center drain. The light
was 15-20 cm. above the surface of the water which was 13 cm. deep.
The experiments were observed through openings in the hood above
the lights or through the glass side late at night. Fishes do not ustial-
ly note objects separated from them by a light.

Water differing as little as possible from that in which the fishes
usually live was used for control readings. Controls were observed
and conditions in the two ends of these were the same either because
the water introduced at the two ends was alike or because no water

394 .

was run into either end (standing water). In the controls (Chart I)
the fishes usually swam from end to end in a rather symmetrical
fashion, and thus comparing these movements with those occurring
when the fishes encountered differences in water, we are able to de-
termine the reactions of the fishes to the differences.

When the differences between the solutes at the two ends of the
tank were not great we found by chemical tests that the central portion
of the tank was a gradient between the characteristic waters intro-
duced at the two ends. Usually the end thirds were essentially like
the inflowing water. When the difference in concentration was great
the region of the gradient was proportionally longer and the ends with
the inflowing concentrations correspondingly shorter. When the dif-
ference in concentration was very great the entire tank was gradient.
For an experiment a fish was placed in a dish containing enough
water to barely cover it and set above the tank. When all was in
readiness the fish was liberated in the center of the tank. Marks on
the sides divided the tank into thirds. The fish nearly always swims
back and forth, apparently exploring the tank. The movements of
the fish were recorded graphically as shown in Chart I.

For this purpose sheets of ruled paper were used. Four vertical
double rulings corresponded to the thirds and two ends of the tank.
Distance from right to left was taken to represent the length of the
tank, vertical distance to represent time and the graphs drawn to scale.
The width of the tank was ignored. The graphs on the following
pages are copies of the originals. The experiments were conducted
with water at about I7°C.

Before or after the experiment, the headings of the sheets were
filled with data regarding the kind, size, and previous history of the
fish, the conditions in the tank, concentration of the solutes and other
significant data. The fish was observed continuously for twenty or
more minutes. Fishes are positive to waste in all concentrations tried.

Fishes are positive or indefinite to illuminating gas, and to com-
binations of the most important illuminating gas constituents in both
acid water with 2-3 cc. of oxygen per liter and in alkaline water at
oxygen saturation (Chart II, graphs 11 and 12; Chart V, graphs 53
and 54).

VI. The Toxicity of Illuminating Gas Waste Constituents.

The following table shows the relative toxicity of the chief con-
stituents of gas-waste arranged according to the outline on p. 389.
On the pages following it are given occurrence of the substance, the
method of work, physiological effect, and the reactions of fishes. The

395

experiments were performed in the kind of water in which the fish had
been Hving, containing about 3 cc. per hter of oxygen and 4-6 cc. per
liter of COo. Some experiments were carried on in running water,
some in jars exposed to the air, as described on page 390, and in case of
volatile substances the amount required to kill a standard fish in an
hour was determined in a corked four-liter bottle as described on
the same page.

Table II

Showing the Relative Toxicity of Various Products Associated with the

Manufacture of Coal Gas. The Toxicities are Based on the Amount

of the Substance Required to Kill in One Hour a Small

Sunfish (Lepomis humilis) Weighing 4-6 Grams.

The values given are approximately correct within the limits stated.
Temperature 20° C except in the case of gases where it was 16-17° C.

Substance

Solid, gm. per 1.,
Liquid, cc. per 1.,
or Gas, cc. per 1.

Parts per
Million

Remarks

A. Nitrogenized Compounds.

Ammonia

Ammonium Carbonate . . . .

Ammonium Chloride

Ammonium Sulphate

Ammonium Sulphocyanate
Ammonium Ferrocyanide .

Ethylamine

Aniline

Pyridine

Quinoline

Isoquinoline

Pyrrol

B. Sulphuretted Compounds

Hydrogen Sulphide

Sulphur Dioxide

Carbon Bisulphide

Thiophene

C. Oxygenized Compounds
Acetone

Benzoic Acid

Phenol (Carbolic Acid) . .

Orthocresol

Paracresol

Metacresol

NH,

Gas

(NH,)„C03 Solid

NH, CI ISolid

(NH,) J SO J Solid

KNHJNCSSolid

(NH,),

Fe(CN),

NH,(C,H,)

C,H,N
C5H5N

C»H,N

C^H^N
C,H,N

H,S

SO,

cs,

C,H,S
C3H,0
CHjOj

CeHeO

C,H,0
C,H,0
C,H,0

Solid

Liquid

Liquid
Liquid
Liquid

Liquid

Liquid

Gas
Gas
Liquid
Liquid

Liquid

Solid
Solid
Solid
Solid
Liquid

8.000-10.000 cc.
0.600-0.800 gn\.
0.700-0.800 gm.
0.420-0.500 gm.
0.280-0.300 gm.
0.150-0.200 gm.

1.000-1.100 cc.
1.500-1.600 cc.
0.048-0.052 cc.

0.060

cc.

3.250-3.500 cc.
5.500-6.600 cc.
0.090-0.100 cc.
0.025 cc.

18.000-19.000 cc.

0.550-0.570 gm.
0.07-0.075 gm.
0.055-0.065 gm.
0.080-0.090 gm.
0.120-0.130 cc.

7-8
600-800
700-800
420-500
280-300
150-200

400-800

1020-1122

1477-1576

52-56

65

4.9-5.3
16-19

100-127
27

14,250-
15,050
550-570
70-75
55-65
80-90

Spasms common

Not accurately deter-
mined

Paralyzes ; death point
determined by me-
chanical stimulation

Not studied; unavail-
able

Larger fishes die first

396

Table II — Continued

Substance

Solid, gm. per 1.,
Liquid, cc. per 1.,
or Gas, cc. per 1.

Parts per
I Million

Eemarka

D. Hydrocarbons
Phenanthrene. . . .

Anthracene

Naphthalene

Xylene

Toluene

Benzene.

Acetylene

Amylene

Ethylene ,. . .

Methane

E. Carbon Oxides
Carbon Monoxide
Carbon Dioxide. .

F. Mixtures

Tar Acid

Illuminating Gas.

Waste

Waste

Boiled Waste. . . .

Aerated Waste. . .

Tar

4H,

H-fcllO

c

c

CinH;^

CsHio
CjHg

C3,
C-Hj

c;h,o

C,H,
CH,

CO
COj

Solid 0.001-0.002

Solid

Solid 0.004-0.005

Liquid 0.055-0.056

Liquid 0.070-0.080

Liquid! 0.040-0.042

Gas I Sat. sol.

Liquid

Gas

Gas

Gas
Gas

Liquid

Gas

Liquid

Liquid
Liquid

Liquid

Liquid

1.000-1.250
18.00-20.00

cc.
cc.
cc.

cc.
cc.

16.00 cc.

0.07 cc.

0.020-0.040 cc.
0.002 cc.

1-2

4-5
47-48
61-65
35-37

655-693
22-25

75

70

20-40

Baled "insoluble"
Only slightly toxic?
Bated "insoluble"
Bated ' ' insoluble ' '
Bated ' ' insoluble ' '
Bated "insoluble"
No deaths

Not toxic — only one
Labidesthes sicculus
died

See Wells ' Art.

Pts. per million by
volume

Amount not deter-
mined

Amount not deter-
mined

To kill in 24 hours

Toxicity less than
aerated

Toxicity less than
unboiled

Bubbed on lishes, kills
in 18 hrs.

Ammonia.

The amount of ammonia in gas-waste from which it has not been
commercially removed is great. Champaign-Urbana Gas-works' waste
pumped from the holder intake showed about 200% voluine in waste
not containing tar and 400% A'olume in waste containing a small
amount of tar. No ammonia is recovered at this plant. The intake
and outlet are pumped out daily, or two or three times per week. This
waste is pumped onto the ground and finds its way into a small stream.
A solution approximately half normal (8.517 gm. per 1.) was made
and dilutions of this were made up quickly in 500 cc, of distilled water
in 750 cc. wide-mouthed glass-stoppered bottles. Fishes were quickly
dropped in and after they had died and the time to death was noted
the solution was titrated with a standard acid and litmus indicator.
When the killing concentration was determined approximately a solu-
tion was made up and the results verified in the 4-liter bottle.

397

In man ammonia causes comatose conditions or delirium and dys-
pnoea, death coming very suddenly (Witthaus and Becker). In
frogs and mammals it causes increased reflex irritability which may be
followed by tetanic convulsions (Cushny). When first placed in am-
monia solution which will produce death in an hour or less, fishes are
often much stimulated, the head often floating low^er than the rest of
the body. Erratic movements follow after a time and the fish usually
turns over in convulsion and remains comparatively still with peculiar
twitchings of the tail and fins until death. Ammonia is less toxic in
distilled water than in water with carbonates. Five parts per million
is fatal to fishes. Weigelt found that o.i% solution killed tench in 45
minutes.

Fishes do not ordinarily turn back when they encounter ammonia,
but swim into it without giving any of the avoiding reactions which
characterize the movements of fishes with reference to such environ-
mental substances as carbon dioxide. The reaction is usually indefinite
or indifferent (Shelford and Allee, Wells). Pimeplialcs was positive
to it in alkaline water; Lcponiis Jiiiuiilis, Notropis and Ahrauiis
crysolcuca were positive to fatal concentrations in acid and in alkaline
water (4-6 cc. per 1. of COo). Wells found that in very strong con-
centrations the fish selected a point in the gradient tank near the centre
and avoided both ends but the concentration of ammonia in the part
of the tank selected was such as to cause the death of the fishes in a
short time (Chart II, graphs 14 and 15 ; Chart V, graph 55).

Animoniiini carbonate.

It is present in quantity in liquors from all parts of the manufactur-
ing plant, most abundantly from the last condenser and washers. A
solution of 20 gm. per liter was prepared and its actual strength deter-
mined by titrating with standard hydrochloric acid and methyl orange
indicator. Its general effects are similar to ammonia. Erratic move-
ment occurs oftener than in the case of ammonia. Fishes are usually
positive to strong concentrations, e. g., i gm. per liter, but they do not
act with precision as in the case of other alkalies (Chart II, graph 16).

Ammonium chloride.

It is abundant in the liquor from all parts of an ordinary plant
(Lunge 3d ed., 741).

A solution was made by dissolving 8 gm. per liter of water. The
solution was tested by adding a definite cjuantity of NaOH to a known
amount of the solution and iDoiling until the vapor did not turn litmus
blue. The remaining free alkali was titrated with standard acid and

398

methyl orange indicator. It tends to paralyze the terminations of the
motor nerves of the frog. In the case of fishes, it shows no important
differences from ammonia. Reactions are usually positive to strong
concentrations and negative to weak ones (Chart II, graph 17).

Ammonium sulphate.

It is present in waste in small quantities. A solution was made
and tested as in the case of ammonium chloride. It is much less toxic
than the carbonate. Its toxicit}- is greatest in the presence of car-
bonates (Wells '15). When all the carbonates have been transformed
into sulphates it becomes less toxic. Fishes are positive in reaction to
fatal concentrations and negative to weak concentrations (Chart II,
graph 18).

Ammonium sulphocyanate.

It occurs in some quantities in first condensers and washers. A
solution was made by weighing out the salt and dissolving it in dis-
tilled water. The strength of the solution was determined by adding
a strong alkali and distilling off the ammonia into standard acid and
titrating with standard alkali. It is much more toxic than the chloride.
The fish showed no striking symptoms. Fishes are positive to fatal
concentrations (Chart II, graphs 19 and 20).

Ammonium ferrocyanide.

It occurs in small quantities in liquor from last condensers. The
general method of experimentation and determination was the same
as in the case of ammonium sulphoc3^anate. The physiological effects
are not striking on the fishes. Fishes are positive to fatal concentra-
tions (Chart III, graph 21).

Bthylamine.

Five grams of Kahlbaum's hermetically sealed product was broken
into two liters of water but with an obvious loss. Dilutions from this
were made and tested. Its effect appears to be in a general way like
that of ammonia. Fishes were positive in a single experiment (Chart
III, graph 22).

Aniline.

A sample of Kahlbaum's, slightly brown, was used, the proper dilu-
tions being made by adding a small quantity from a burette to 4 liters

399

of water. In man it causes prostration, giddiness, vomiting, and
neuralgic pains. In fish it produces anesthesia. There is a consider-
able stimulation at first, quickly followed by trembling of the fins and
some erratic movements. The fishes turn upon their sides in two
minutes. They may live for hours, with their fins and gills moving
slightly. Five cc. per liter of water in the open battery jar killed fishes
after the mixture had been standing three days. Fishes are indefinite
or positive to the concentration used (.08-. 12 cc. per liter) (Chart
III, graph 23).

Pyridine.

It occurs in coal-tars, crude benzene, toluene, etc. In man it causes
paralysis of the motor centers and nerves, and movements become
weak and unsteady. Death follows from a failure of respiration
(U.S.D. ). The efifects on fishes are similar to those of many other
substances. Heavy respiration is usually noted early and they usually
die with opercles and mouth closed probably through failure of respir-
atory movements. Fishes are positive or indefinite in all cases studied
(Chart III, graph 24).

Qtnnoline.

It occurs in coal-tar. It is a powerful antipyretic but causes general
collapse. In .025 cc. per liter of water fish usually turn on their sides
in 10-15 minutes and continue to move their fins and gills for many
hours. In strong concentrations fishes are very c|uickly paralyzed and
there is some difficulty in determining when theV die, as movements
of the mouth and opercles cease long before death occurs. If the fish
are removed and handled roughly life may be detected by a general
body movement.

A solution of it turns pink on standing and its toxicity gradually
falls off on exposure to air. A solution which killed fishes in 2 min-
utes Nov. I, killed them in i hour Nov. 13 and after several days on
Dec. 10.

Fishes are usually negative in reaction to both fatal and more
dilute solutions, though the standard fish was positive in two cases
(Chart III, graph 25).

Isoqninoline.

Its toxic effect differs but little from quinoline. The reactions of
fishes are strikingly different, being usually positive instead of uni-
formly negative as in the case of quinoline (Chart III, graph 26).

400

Pyrrol.

This compound was not studied as none could be obtained.

Hydrogen sulphide.

This gas occurs in iUuminating gas and in sokition in waste. It
occurs also in the decomposition of organic matter in water and forms
an important part of the gas generated in connection with sewage con-
tamination. It occurs in small quantity at the bottom of lakes (Birge
and Juday, 'ii) but is a* very important gas in salt lakes especially
those with a thermocline and in thermocline arms of the sea. j\Iarine
organisms thus often encounter it, fresh water organisms only in small
cjuantities. For experimental purposes it was generated in a Kipp
generator of large size by the action of hydrochloric acid on iron sul-
phide. The generator afforded sufficient pressure to force it through
the mixing bottle direct. It was determined with standard iodine.
Fifty cc. were drawn from the mixing bottle with a 50 cc. pipette and
introduced into an Erlenmeyer flask as c^uickly as possible and N/ioo
iodine quickly added until a brown color was obtained. The mixture
was then carefully titrated with N/ioo sodium thiosulphate which
had been corrected until it was essentially the equivalent of the iodine,
and the amount of thiosulphate used was deducted from the amount
of iodine put into the flask. When greater accuracy was desired the
determination was repeated, iodine was placed in the flask and the 50
cc. of H^S water added to the excess of iodine beneath the surface
and contact with the air essentially prevented. These determinations
should be made with great care as slight differences in manipulation
gave very variable results in the fish-killing experiments, with concen-
tration which differed only in the error caused by slightly different
exposures to the air in rapid manipulation.

When much diluted it produces nausea, pain in the head, and great
general weakness, followed by coma. In concentrated solutions it
produces loss of consciousness very quickly. In fishes the symptoms
do not appear more quickly than in the case in solutions of other sub-
stances. It is more toxic when accompanied by little oxygen. Two cc.
per liter are fatal to fishes. Water in a battery jar exposed to the air
with 4 cc. per liter at the beginning killed fishes in 18-24 hours; mean-
while the concentration fell to less than two cc. per liter and the life of
the fishes was prolonged by access to the surface. Hardy species of
fish live in 1-1.8 cc. per liter without apparent injury. Weigelt found
weak solutions fatal to tench.

Fishes are often positive to a weak concentration which would pro-
duce death in a few days, but are negative to strong concentrations as

401

a rule. When in solution the gas forms a very weak acid which would
tend to cause fishes to react positively especially in alkaline water. The
negative reactions are less definite than to carbon dioxide and other
stimuli often encountered in natural environments of the fishes (Chart
III, graphs 27 and 28).

Sulphur dioxide.

This gas was determined in the Champaign waste which showed
in sample without tar 13.84 cc. per liter and sample with tar 56.21 cc.
per liter. For the experimental work a tank of Kahlbaum's compressed
gas was obtained from the University of Illinois chemical store room
and the tank was attached to the gas introducer direct.

It is very irritating to the mucous membrane and the respiratory
tract. It is generated in the burning of sulphur and its characteristic
odor is familiar. In the case of fishes, gulping or other similar move-
ments indicates its irritating character. Their respiration is usually
heavy and they swim around in an intoxicated state for some time be-
fore death. A strong solution killed fishes after standing in a battery
jar for over two weeks. Weigelt found that 0.0005% solution killed
trout in a little more than one hour.

Fishes are usually negative to higher concentrations from 10 to
500 cc. per liter which produce death in a few minutes, but are quite
generally positive to concentrations which are fatal in an hour (Chart
III, graphs 29 and 30).

Carbon bisulphide.

It occurs commonly in crude benzene, and in the tars and other
residuals. Known quantities were dissolved in 4 liters of water. It
is a powerful poison to man, the vapor producing hysterical neurosis
and the liquid taken internally produces unconsciousness quickly. In
the case of fishes the symptoms are not markedly different from those
caused by a number of other substances ; they appear to become in-
toxicated rather slowly.

In .05 cc. per liter of water fishes were intoxicated but recovered
after an hour and a half. The experiment was performed in a closed
bottle so that evaporation could hardly be responsible. It is possible
that the substance was absorbed or rendered harmless by some tissue
such as fat.

Two species of sunfish were tried in the gradient tank and both
were positive to fatal concentration while the minnow (Pimephales)
was negative (Chart III, graph 29 and 30).

402

Thiophene.

It occurs as an impurity in commercial benzene. It is not par-
ticularly poisonous to man. In a one hour fatal concentration fishes
are intoxicated showing signs of stimulation and some staggering
after about 20 minutes. These symptoms were followed by intoxica-
tion. Sunfishes, basses and minnows were all positive to fatal con-
centrations (Chart III, graphs 33 and 34).

Acetone.

It occurs in connection with benzene (Lunge 3d ed, pp. 176).
For the fish experiments it was added to the water and the final ex-
periments performed in a four-liter bottle. It is only slightly poison-
ous to man and least toxic to fishes of the compounds studied. Fishes
of various sorts are positive to it, particularly to the weaker concen-
trations (Chart IV, graph 35).

Benzoic acid.

It occurs as a residual in the manufacture of phenol, and in coal
tar "oils". It is less toxic than most other coal tar products. It ap-
pears to be only slightly poisonous to man. The dry powder was
weighed and dissolved in water. Fishes of various sorts are negative
to it (Chart IV, graph 36).

Phenols and the Cresols.

According to Witthaus and Becker, 5% solution of any of these
coagulates protein, narcotizes partially and finally paralyzes the ner-
vous system. It occurs in coal-tar and in gas-liquor and is one of the
sources of the toxicity of wastes. For the work on fishes the solid
crystals were melted, one cc. was accurately measured, and added to
a liter of water, and dilutions made from this solution, which was
kept tightly corked.

Phenol is a powerful irritant, producing stupor and shallow ir-
regular breathing in man when taken in small quantities. Larger
quantities are rapidly fatal. Strong concentrations such as i cc. per
liter are very rapidly fatal to fishes, but solutions of ^ to % this
amount kill standard fishes only after one hour or more. In such
solutions the fishes make a few erratic movements, turn on their sides
and remain for a long period with faint respiratory movements and
slight swimming movements of the fins. Fishes dying in it are char-
acterized by a gaping condition of the gills which is common if

403

not general among fishes dying in waste. This is probably due to the
irritating character of the substance. The toxicity of the water con-
taining it is retained for several weeks, depending on the concentra-
tion at the beginning. Sixty-five parts per million will still produce
fatal results after a month's exposure in the battery jars. Weigelt
killed a tench in a 0.05% solution in 15 hours. Hofer ('99) obtained
results which more nearly resemble' mine.

Several species of fish which were tried in the gradient tank gave
positive reactions to concentrations which would kill them in two or
three hours (in both acid and alkaline water). Orange-spotted sun-
fish are indifferent to very weak concentrations (Chart IV, graph 37;
Chart V, graph 57).

Crcsols.

Orthocresol is less caustic than phenol but was found to be more
poisonous to fishes. Fishes of various sorts were negative or indefinite
to concentrations about twice that recjuired to kill them in an hour,
but were sometimes positive to weaker fatal concentrations ( Chart IV,
graph 38).

Paracrcsol is a little less toxic than phenol. A solution which
killed small fishes in 20 minutes, killed similar fishes in less than 12
hours after 2 months exposure to air in a 5x8 battery jar. Fishes
were uniformly positive or indifferent in both strong concentrations
and very weak ones (Chart IV, graph 39; Chart V, graph 56).

Mctacresol is least toxic of the four representatives of the group.
The erratic convulsive movements often occur when intoxication sets
in. Various fishes are variable in their reaction to fatal concentra-
tions, but commonly when negative at the beginning of the experiment
the protective reaction breaks down due to the paralyzing of the sen-
sory nerve endings (Chart IV, graph 40).

Phenanthrene.

It is found in the last fractions of the distillation of coal tar "oils".

For the experiments on fishes a quantity of it was placed in a five
gallon bottle of tap-water and warmed and shaken from time to time
during several days. This solution was used for most of the fish ex-
periments. In December, 1915, two liters of distilled water were
placed in each of three bottles. Phenanthrene was added to one to
make 100 mg. per liter, to another to make 5 mg. per liter, and to the
third to make 2.5 mg. per liter. These were allowed to stand with
occasional shaking till August, 1916. At this time there were still

404

crystals in the lOO mg. and 5 mg. bottles but none in the 2.5 mg. bottle.
The water in the bottle containing 5 mg. per liter killed fishes in a
somewhat longer time than the tap water solution but since the fishes
available were larger and many substances are commonly less toxic in
distilled water, the experiments were taken to indicate the approx-
imate toxicity given in the table. One half gram of phenanthrene and
one cc. of quinoline in two liters of water exposed to air proved fatal
a month after being placed in solution.

Fishes are usually positive or indefinite to saturated solutions of
phenanthrene (Chart IV, graph 41).

Anthracene appeared not to be toxic to fishes.

Naphthalene.

Ordinary tar contains 5-10%. of naphthalene. It is commonly said
to be insoluble, but evidently about 5 parts per million may be dis-
solved. The experiment of adding definite quantities to distilled water
was conducted in the same manner as in the case of phenanthrene ; no
crystals were left in the bottle with 5 milligrams per liter.

In man it causes delirious intoxication. There are no violent
symptoms in fishes; they are gradually intoxicated, turn on their sides
and die without special symptoms or erratic movements.

It is very much more toxic in tap water containing much carbon-
ate than in distilled water. Most fishes die in about half the time in
saturated tap water as in distilled. Fishes are usually positive to
naphthalene (Chart IV, graph 43, and Chart V, graph 58) but occa-
sionally negative (Chart IV, graph 42).

Xylene.

It is present in coal-tar distillates. The experiments with fishes
were performed in the four-liter bottle, which was laid on its side
after the xVlene was added and shaken until the surface film of the
exposed portion was free from droplets of the substance.

It is more toxic to man than benzene or toluene. To fishes it is
more toxic than toluene and less toxic than benzene. Fishes are
gradually intoxicated in less than 50 parts per million, frequently mak-
ing erratic movements, jumping up in the gradient tank, etc. They
usually lie on their sides until death ensues. In nearly every case
fishes are positive to it. Two species of sunfish were positive to it
and remained in the stronger solution until intoxicated (Chart IV,
graph 44).

405

Tolu

cue.

It occurs in coal-tar and has almost the same effect upon fishes as
xylene, but is a little less toxic. The reactions of fishes were almost
invariably positive to fatal concentrations (Chart IV, graph 45;
Chart \^, graph 59).

Benzene.

Benzene occurs in coal-tar and is more toxic to fishes than either
toluene or xylene. In man it causes convulsions, rapid respiration,
coma and lowered temperature. In the case of fishes it intoxicates
them rapidly. These is considerable erratic movement and death en-
sues much as in the case of toluene or xylene. Fishes are commonly
negative or indifferent to benzene, their reactions to it thus differing
from the reactions to the other substances. They often jump out of
the gradient tank (Chart IV, graphs 46 and 47).

Acetylene.

It occurs in illuminating gas but is only slightly poisonous to man.
A nearly saturated solution in running water anesthetized fishes but
they recovered as soon as the amount was reduced. Fishes are usual-
ly positive to it.

BtJiylene.

A determination of samples of Champaign waste showed 200-300
cc. per liter in solution. The ethylene used was made by heating ethyl
alcohol and sulphuric acid and washing in alkali and water. Fishes
are anesthetized, lose ecjuilibrium gradually, and die without violent
symptoms.

18 cc. per liter of ethylene (18 pts. per million), in running water,
oxygen at saturation, kills 3-4 gram orange-spotted sunfish in one
hour.

30 cc. per liter (30 pts. per million), and oxygen 2.25 cc. kills 3
gram orange-spotted sunfish in 24 minutes; 3 grams Noiropis in 14
minutes ; 3 gram Pimephales in 30 minutes.

In standing water exposed to the air in battery jars, such water
killed fishes as follows :

406

Table III

Hours of exposure
to the air

Fish species

Weight

Time to death

0-2
0-2

Orange-spotted sunfish
Pimephales

4 grams
1.8 "

53 minutes
16-30 "

2-4
2-4

Orange-spotted sunfish
Pimephales

4.2 "
1.4 "

90 "
22 "

4-6

Pimephales

1.3 "

38-45 "

19-24

Orange-spotted sunfish*
Pimephales

4.0 "
1.3 "

19-24

100 "

• Aflfected but did not die.

In nearly all the experiments tried the fishes were positive in re-
action to ethylene, often being overcome in the gradient, and even dy-
ing without showing any avoidance of the ethylene water. 2, 30, and
60 cc. per liter (2, 30, and 60 pts. per million) were tried with similar
results ; the only suggestion of a negative reaction came in the lowest
concentration (Chart V, graph 50).

Amylene.

It occurs In coal-tar but only in small Cjuantities. Amylene was
once used as an anesthetic but was found to be dangerous. It acts as an
anesthetic on fishes. \'arious fishes are positive to it in all concentra-
tions tried (Chart Y, graphs 48 and 49). '

Methane.

Methane is one of the most abundant constituents of illuminating
gas. It was made by the action of soda lime on sodium acetate and
washed in water. Crocker found that methane made that way was
not toxic to plants while other methods yielded toxic products.

It is not toxic to man and no toxic effects were noted for fishes
except in the case of a single specimen of Lahidesthes siccithis.

VII. General. Discussion.

I. TOXICITY AND SIZE.

One of the A'^ery important questions arising in connection with the
toxicity of substances to fish is the relation of age and size of the
fishes to their resistance to the substance. In general, with the ma-
jority of compounds studied the largest fishes survived longest. While

407

this is true, there is, however, much variation, and some of the largest
fishes died first.

A number of compounds show still further irregularity and in the
cresols the larger fishes are very often first to die. In carbon bisul-
phide this appears to be the rule with the concentrations studied. In
the case of naphthalene the larger fishes usually die first. Xylene, ben-
zene, and toluene show considerable variation in this respect though
the results with a given concentration and given weight of fish are

particularlv constant.

Table IV

Shoioing typical results of lillinf/ Lepomis humilis in various compounds. In sulphur
dioxide the smaller fishes die first. In xylene there in some variation and in carbon
bisulphide the larger appear to die first as a rule.

Compound

Concentration

Weight

Time to death
in minutes

Sulphur dioxide

lice, per 1.

1.5 gm.
4.3 gm.
6.0 gm.

13

15

20

37cc. per 1.

3.0 gm.
4.0 gm.
9.4 gm.

8
14

25

Xylene

1/4 saturated
Running water

4.1 gm.
6.0 gm.

8.3 gm.

30
35

alive at 60

Vs saturated
Eunning water

2.0 gm.

6.2 gm.

17.0 gm.

90
98

80

Carbon bisulphide

.065 cc. per 1. 7.5 gm.

4.0 gm.

25
80

In the case of carbon dioxide and low oxygen, Wells ('13), found
that the results of dividing the time to death by the weight of the
fishes, secured as the time to kill a gram of fish, not a constant but a
value which increased rather regularly in most cases, as the size of the
fish decreased. In the case of the coal-tar products there is much more
irregularity than in the case of the conditions studied by Wells.

Since the smallest individuals of given species usually die quickest
the importance of contamination is greatest in connection with the
younger stages. The effect upon the development of eggs is likely to
be great. Gortner and Banta found that various phenolic compounds
killed the eggs of frogs and other amphibians in concentration as low
as 50 parts per million. The critical point for further study is in
connection with the most sensitive stage. This is the weakest link in
the life-history chain, and represents its strength. It is the stage on
which minimum fatal concentration must he zuorked out.

408

TOXICITY AND SPECIES.

This is best determined with the use of low oxygen and carbon
dioxide and the data presented by Dr. Wells in the next article in
this volume shows such differences based largely on his experiments
along this line. In a general way the relative resistance of the dif-
ferent species to coal-tar products is similar to that given in his table.
According to our general experience with the orange-spotted sunfish
it should be rated at 12 in Dr. Wells' table. There are, however, some
outstanding exceptions. To the coal-tar products suckers are general-
ly about as resistant as the orange-spotted sunfish, and while in most
substances the green sunfish is more resistant than the orange-spotted,
it is less resistant to some of the phenolic compounds.

3. FISH REACTIONS TO POLEUTING SUBSTANCES.

The study of the behavior of fishes with reference to polluting
substances is a departure from the usual method of study of such re-
lations. The graphs on the charts show that fishes are as a rule indefi-
nite or positive to the substances which are not regularly encountered
in their environments. In other words thev swim into the poisonous
solution without detecting it and turning back as they do in the case
of low oxygen and much carbon dioxide. They may go directly into
it without noting it, and after being for a brief time in the solution
they very generally avoid the pure water which is identical witii that
in which they have been living for months even though the solution
chosen caused death. In some cases fishes at the beginning tend to
avoid the modified water, but soon, usually after a brief contact with
the solution, begin to turn back from the pure water, having very
cjuickly formed a preference or "habit" w'hich keeps them in the
poisonous solution. Peculiarities of bchaz ior occur in some cases with
reference to particular concentrations.

The behavior results are of the greatest significance to the pollu-
tion cj[uestion for since fishes are positive to fatal concentrations of
the vast majority of organic compounds introduced into streams by
gas-works, the tendency must be for them to enter rather than avoid
the portions of streams so contaminated, making the loss very much
greater than it would otherwise be. The peculiarities of the reactions
to the various poisons is suggestive of a possibility of investigating
the physiological effects of habit-forming drugs. It is possible that
detailed study of these reactions might show why habit-forming drugs
produce a demand for more of the same drug, when several small
quantities have been taken..

409

4- TREATMENT OF BY-PRODUCTS OF THE) MANUFACTURE) OF COAL-GAS.

The great toxicity of nearly all the representatives of the chief
groups of compounds occurring as by-products of the manufacture
of coal-gas render it inadvisable to permit the pollution of streams
with any of these compounds. Attention is especially directed to the
fact that the compounds commonly reckoned as insoluble in water by
industrial chemists are among the most deadly. Further it must be
noted that the volatile and gaseous products such as ethylene, carbon
monoxide, benzene, xylene, etc., which doubtless go into solution in
the water which is used for washing gases during manufacture, and
which are least likely to be suspected of being detrimental, are among
the most poisonous compounds and probably the most universally
thrown into streams. Marsh ('07) has shown further that effluent
from an ammonia sludge-bed, lime and iron oxide from purifiers and
residuals from water-gas are very toxic.

In general the experiments leave no doubt but that earnest effort
should be made to prevent the introduction of anything whatsoever
in the way of coal-gas products into stream and bodies of water. No
matter what method of treating the wastes may be devised the general
toxicity of the entire series of compounds makes it certain that much
damage will result from pollution with the residues of any form of
treatment. In general however the damage to fishes will be greatest
in connection with the smaller plants which ordinarily save only the
heavy tar or at most tar and ammonia. If the government cannot
compel gas manufacturers to make their valuable but poisonous by-
products into something useful, it can at least make such an industry
advisable by preventing the addition of these waste materials to
streams, and if necessary conduct investigations into methods for the
profitable disposal of the entire series of these by-products.

VIII. Summary.

1. Illuminating gas, gas-liquor, and thirty-one out of thirty-four
representatives of the chief groups of compounds found in gas and
gas-liquor are very toxic to fishes. From one to fifteen hundred parts
per million are fatal to an orange-spotted sunfish in one hour.

(P-39I-)

2. As a rule the smaller fishes are more readily affected than the

larger, down to the smallest fry studied; the minimum amount of the
various substances required to kill fishes must be established by using
the most sensitive stages, which are probably the smallest fry.
(P. 407.)

410

3- Fishes usually react positively to the compounds and mixtures
studied; i.e., enter the polluted water from the pure water readily and
turn back into the polluted water when pure water is encountered.
The danger to fishes is increased greatly thereby. Fishes often de-
velop a "preference" for the polluted water after a number of trials
of both kinds. (P. 397.)

4. On account of the extreme toxicity of gases such as CO and
ethylene, and of benzene and other volatile matter, water which has
been in contact with gases should not be introduced into streams.
(See Article VII, also pp. 395 and 409.)

5. Various types of manufacturing and by-product recovering
plants, while they remove different substances do not leave a harmless
residue; on account of the fact that the very toxic substances such as
carbon monoxide, benzene, and naphthalene differ widely in their prop-
erties, residues from all such plants will be almost certain to be toxic.

(P-395-)

6. The results thus far obtained may throw some light on the

poisonous effect of the various compounds from the pharmaceutical
standpoint, and may be of assistance in the matter of standardization
of drugs with fishes.

IX. ACKNOWLKDGMEXTS.

The writer is indebted to the State Water Survey for analyses of
water made at the beginning of his work. He is further much in-
debted to various members of the Department of Chemistry of the
University of Illinois, particularly to Dr. C. G. Derick, now of the
Research Laboratory of the Schoellkopf Aniline and Chemical ^^^orks,
Inc., Dr. H. J. Broderson, and Dr. G. D. Beal, for extended advice
and suitable chemicals.

X. Literature consulted.

Beacall, T., Seibert, F. M., and Robertson, I. W.

'15. Dyestuffs and coal-tar products, their chemistry, manufac-
ture, and application. Crosby Lockwood and Son, London.

Birge, E. A., and Juday, Chancey.

'04. The inland lakes of Wisconsin. The dissolved gases of the
water and their biological significance. Bull. Wis. Geol. and
Xat, Hist. Surv., No. XXII; Sci. Ser., No. 7.

Burrell, Geo., and others.

'14. Relative effects of carbon monoxid on small animals. Dept.
Interior, Bur. Mines, Tech. Paper No. 62.

411

Child, C. M.

'15. Senescence and rejuvenescence. Univ. of Chicago Press,
Chicago.

Ciishny, A. R.

'01. Textbook of pharmacology and therapeutics. Lea Brothers
and Co., Phila.

Frankel, S.

'06. Die Arzneimittel-Synthese — etc. Julius Springer, Berlin.

Giacosa, Piero.

'04. Sul compartamento dell'ossido di carbonio neU'organismo.
Atti R. Accad. Sci. Torino, 39:421-428. Abstract, Jour.
Chem. Soc. Abs. Papers, Vol. 86, Pt. II, p. 429*.

Gortner, R. A., and Banta, A. M.

'14. Notes on the toxicity of dilute solutions of certain phenolic
compounds as indicated by their efifect on amphibian eggs and
embryos — etc. Biochem. Bull., 3:357-368.

Konig, J.

'99. Verunreinigung der Gewasser.

Konig, J., and Hasenbaumer, J.

'02. Einfluss von schwefliger Saure auf Pflanzen und Fische.
Fiihling's landw. Zeit., 51:853-856; 893-895. Abstracts:
Bied. Centr., 1903, 32:535-536; Jour. Chem. Soc. Abs. Papers,
Vol. 84, Pt. II, p. 748*.

Lederer, A.

'13. Some observations on the formation of hydrogen sulphide
in sewage. Am. Jour. Pub. Health, 3: 552-561.

Lunge, G.

'00. Coal-tar and ammonia, ed. 3. Gurney and Jackson, London.

Marsh, M. C.

'07. The effect of some industrial wastes on fishes. LT. S. Geol.
Surv., Water Supply and Irrigation Paper, No. 192 : 337-348.

May, Percy.

'11. The chemistry of synthetic drugs. Longmans, Green and
Co., London.

Phelps, E. B.

'09. The pollution of streams by sulphite pulp waste : a study of
possible remedies. U. S. Geol. Surv., Water-Supply Paper

*Only this abstract consulted.

412

226. (Contains list of Survey publications on stream pollu-
tion.)

Shelford, V. E., and Allee, W. C.

'13. The reactions of fishes to gradients of dissolved atmospheric
gases. Jour. Exper. Zool., 14:207-266.

'14. Rapid modification of the behavior of fishes by contact with
modified water. Jour. An. Behav., 4: 1-3 1.

Shelford, V. E., and Powers, E. B.

'15. An experimental study of the movements of herring and
other marine fishes. Biol. Bull., 28: 315-334.

Sollmann, T.

'06. The effects of a series of poisons on adult and embryonic
funduli. Am. Jour. Physiol., 16: 1-46.

Weigelt, C.

'03. L'assainissement et le Repeuplement des Rivieres. Memoires
couronnes et autres memoires de I'Acad. Roy. de Belgique, T.
LXIV. (Translation from the German.)

Wells. M. M.

'13. The resistance of fishes to different concentrations and com-
binations of oxygen and carbon dioxide. Biol. Bull, 25 : 323-

347-

'15. Reactions and resistance of fishes in their natural environ-
ment to acidity, alkalinity and neutrality. Biol. Bull., 29 : 221-

257-
'15a. The reaction and resistance of fishes in their natural en-
vironment to salts. Jour. Exper. Zool., 19: 243-283.

White. G. F., and Thomas, Adrian.

'12. Studies on the absorption of metallic salts by fish in their
natural habitat. I. Absorption of copper by Fiindulus Iieter-
oclitiis. Jour. Biol. Chem., 11:381-386.

Witthaus, R. A., and Becker, T. C.

'11. Medical jurisprudence, forensic medicine, and toxicology,
ed. 2. Wm. Wood and Co., New York.

Wood, H. C, Remington, J. P., and Sadtler. S. P.

'07. The Dispensatory of the United States of America, 19th ed.
Lippincott and Co., Phila.

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Chart I.

The graphs ou this chart show the movemeuts of fishes in the gradient tank
^vhen no contaminating substance has been added at the end, and the water is there-
fore of equal purity throughout. Graphs 1-5 have been previously published.

The gradient tank is shown in Figure 1, X, on preceding page. This is a diagram
of a longitudinal section of the lank. The left hand end was used for the introduction
of water such as the fishes were taken from and the right hand end was used for
the introduction of water to which the substance being tested had been added. The
water was introduced through a number of small openings in pipes which extended
crosswise at each end of the tank, midway between top and bottom. The water
flowed out at the center from both top and bottom. This gave pure water at the
left hand end and usually in the case of dissolved solids and liquids, throughout
about one third of the tank while the approximate full concentration of the polluting
substance extended throughout the right hand third. The central third contained
a mixture in which the concentration of the substance added at the right decreased
from right to left. The central portion of the tank was accordingly a gradient
between the two kinds of water introduced into the ends. The fishes introduced into
the tank usually swim from end to end. The record of the movements of the fish
was made by tracing their longitudinal movements in the tank on paper with reference
to a time scale. Thus in Graph 1 the fish passed from the center to the left end and
l)ack to the right end during the first minute.

Graph 1 shows the longitudinal movements of a river chub made up as a com-
posite of a number of such graphs to show that on the whole no more time was
spent in one end of the tank than in the other.

Graph 2 shows the movements of two individuals of the green sunfish. Where
the broken line appears, the t\^■o were moving separately. It will be noted that
fishes made long stays in the ends but usually moved back and forth nearly always
without turning back at the center.

Graph 3 shows the movements of a golden shiner in a uniform tank. It will
be noted that the fish rarely turns around except at the end.

Graph 4 shows the movements of a specimen of Notropis. There was little
activity and the fish turned back at the center once.

Graph 5 shows the movements of a specimen of rock bass.

Graph 6 shows the movements of a specimen of the orange-spotted sunfish.
This species often turned before reaching the end of the tank but the number of
turnings in the central third were the same from each direction.

Graph 7 shows the movements of a long-eared sunfish. It sometimes turned
near the center, but about the same number of times from each end.

Chart I.

Chart II.

The relations of tank length to time scale is the same as in Chart I. In the
case of this and all the charts which follow, the polluting substaneie was introduced
into the right hand end of the gi-adient tank and is accordingly shown, at the right
side of the graphs. The vertical broken lines are intended to indicate the location
of thirds of the tank length. The solid black area at the right between the two
lines at the head of each graph is intended to show the part of the tank in which
the polluted water is full strength and the narrowing of this black area from right
to left in the middle third is intended to indicate the region of principal gradient.
The unpolluted water contained about 5 cc. CO, per liter. X indicates that the fish
became intoxicated; the arrow that it Avas driven.

Graph S shows the positive reaction of an orange-spotted sunfish to 1 part of
weak waste to 25 parts of water. The fishes avoided the normal water and remained
most of the time ill the high concentration and gradient.

Graph 9 shows the reaction of the golden shiner to waste, 1 part in 100 of
water, which killed the standard fish in a little more than one hour. In this case
the fish avoided the unpolluted water and did not enter it at all until driven as indi-
cated by the arrow.

Graph 10 shows the reaction of an orange-spotted sunfish to the same solution
as was used in the case of graph 8. In this case the fish was negative, showing that
there is some variation in the reaction.

Graph 11 shows the reaction of a minnow (Pimephales) , indicated by the broken
line. The fish was negative for a time but became intoxicated after a little more
than two minutes and then remained positive after being driven into the strongest
solution.

Graph 12 shows the reaction of an orange-spotted sunfish to illuminating gas.
There was little activity and one fish remained in the clear water while the other
remained in the polluted water during the period of observation. The amount of
illuminating gas was not determined ; much more was forced into the water Ihan
would go into solution in the pipe of the lower cooler (Fig. 1, preceding Chart I).

Graph 13 shows the reaction of a large-mouthed black bass to illuminating gas
under the same conditions as in graph 12. The fish was driven into the stronger
solution of gas and reacted positively thereafter.

Graph 14 shows the reaction of the golden shiner to a solution of ammonia which
would prove fatal in a short time. The fish on the whole remained most of the
time in the part of the tank containing a somewhat diluted solution but gave no
avoiding reactions.

Graph 15 shows the positive reaction of a minnow (Xotropis) to ammonia
solution under the same conditions as graph 14. In this case the fish was clearly
positive.

Graph 16 shows the positive reaction of two individuals of Notropis to a solution
of approximately one gram per liter of NH. (CO), which kills such fishes in less
than an hour.

Graph 17 shows a decidedly positive reaction of a rock bass to approximately 1
gram per liter of ammonium chloride. The experiment continued for 10 minutes after
the portion shown without change of result.

Graph 18 shows the reaction of a rock bass to 0.7 gram of ammonium sulphate
I>er liter. The fish rested in the polluted water throughout the greater part of the
time and turned back when a decreased concentration was encountered.

Graph 19 shows the reaction of a minnow (PiinepJiales) to approximately 0.25
gram of ammonium sulphocyanate (sulphocyanide) per liter. The fish moved back
and forth actively and turned back regularly from a pure water.

Graph 20 shows the reaction of a full-grown rock bass to the same concentration
as in Graph 19. The fish was driven into the pure water at the end of seven minutes
but soon returned to the polluted portion.

Chart II.

Aaanoniiuo
Sulphocyanide

Chart III.

Graph 21 shows the reaction of a minnow (Notropis) to approximately 0.25
gram of ammonium ferrocyanide per liter. The fish was active and swam back and
forth turning back from the pure water repeatedly.

Graph 22 shows a slight preference on the part of an orange-spotted sunfish for
water containing ethylamine.

Graph 23 shows the indifference of two orange-spotted sunfishes to about one-
tenth cc. of aniline per liter.

Graph 24 shows the marked activity of two individuals of Notropis in a pyridine
gradient and their repeated avoidance of the pure water throughout the experiment.

Graph 25 shows the marked negative reaction of the minnow (Pimephales) and
long-eared sunfish to 0.16 cc. of quinoline per liter.

Graph 26 shows a marked negative reaction of a minnow (Notropis) to a weak
solution of isoquinoline. In the case of both quinoline and isoquinoline the fishes
were active and turned back from the polluted water; the rule for the former, and
the exception for the latter.

Graph 27 shows the negative reaction of a minnow (Pimephales) to water con-
taining 8 cc. per liter of hydrogen sulphide. The fish became intoxicated at the
end of five minutes as indicated by the X in the graph.

Graph 28 shows the positive reaction of a full-grown rock bass to two cc. per
liter of hydrogen sulphide. The pure water was encountered repeatedly and re-
peatedly avoided.

Graph 29 shows the reaction of two orange-spotted sunfishes to approximately
500 cc. of sulphur dioxide per liter. The fishes spent the greater part of the time
in the central part of the tank.

Graph 30 shows the positive reaction of two orange-spotted sunfishes to 5 cc. of
sulphur dioxide per liter.

Graph 31 shows the positive reaction of a long-eared sunfish to water containing
less than 1 cc. per liter of carbon disulphide.

Graph 32 shows the reaction of a minnow (Pimephales) under the same con-
ditions as graph 31. The fish was positive during the first seven minutes and nega-
tive during the last three.

Graph 33 shows the positive reaction of a rock bass to a fatal concentration of
thiophene.

Graph 34 shows an equally positive reaction of a long-eared sunfish.

Chart J II.

21

Aousonluffl

23

25

„ 27
. ., , Hydrogen
*"^3.1n< (tulnollne Sulphide

59
Sulphur
Dioxitte

31

Carbon

Bisulphide

33
Thioptaone

«... - Hydrogen Sulphur

SthylMlne Pyrialn« I»oqulnolln« Sulphide Dloii,!.

Car DO n
Sulphide

Thiophene

Chart IV.

Graph 35 shows the positive reaction of two minnows (Pimephales) to water
containing 2% ce. per liter of acetone. The fishes turned back repeatedly from the
pure water.

Graph 36 shows the decidedly negative reaction of a minnow (Pimephales) to
water containing a fatal concentration of benzoic acid.

Graph 37 shows the reaction of a green sunfish to water containing 0.5 cc. per
liter of phenol. The fish was markedly positive to the phenol during the first ten
minutes, when the activity increased, probably due to its irritating effects. The
greater part of the time was spent in the phenol however.

Graph 38 shows the reaction of a full-grown rock bass to a23proximately 0.1 cc.
per liter of orthocresol, which would prove fatal to the fish in an hour or more.
When the fish entered the polluted water the first time it did not recognize it at all.
It gave no avoiding reaction. Later it moved toward the weaker solution and turned
back again into the stronger solution. After becoming partially intoxicated, it moved
into the pure water but returned to the fatal solution again and was completely over-
come there.

Graph 39 shows the reaction of an orange-spotted sunfish to 0.3 cc. paracresol
per liter — about three times as much as is required to kill one of the fishes in one
hour. It is to be noted in particular that the fish after trying the pure water twice,
gradually avoided it more and more until it finally came to rest in the strongest
solution of paracresol.

Graph 40 shows the reaction of two orange-spotted sunfishes to 0.12 cc. of
metacresol, sufficient to kill them in an hour. One fish was negative and the other
positive. The fish which happened to enter the polluted water at first became
intoxicated and remained positive thereafter. Fishes arc often negative to meta-
cresol.

Graph 41 shows the reaction of an adult rock bass to a saturated solution of
phenauthrene. Fishes are often indefinite to this substance.

Graph 42 shows the negative reaction of an adult rock bass to a saturated solu-
tion of naphthalene.

Graph 43 shows the positive reaction of an individual orange-spotted sunfish to
a saturated solution of naphthalene. Fishes are generally positive to this deadly
substance.

Graph 44 shows the reaction of an adult rock bass to a mixture of pure water
3 parts and water saturated with xylene 1 part. The fish was decidedly positive and
vv'as soon intoxicated.

Graph 45 shows the reaction of a minnow (Notropis) to water containing ap-
proximately 0.08 cc. per liter of toluene. The fish is decidedly positive, though this
concentration would kill it in less than an hour.

Graph 46 shows the reaction of two orange-spotted sunfishes to 0.04 cc. of ben-
zene per liter — sufficient to kill them in an hour. In this experiment the fishes
avoided the ]iure water and finally came to rest in the center.

Graph 47 shows the reaction of a orange-spotted sunfish and a rock bass to a
slightly weaker concentration of benzene than was used in the case of graph 46. In
this case the fishes both finally avoided the polluted water.

Chart IV.

35
Aoetona

37 38 40 42 44

Phanol Ortbooraiol Motacraaol Uaptathalana Xjrlana

45
Benzene

Chakt V.

Graph 48 shows the positive reaction of an orange-spotted sunfish to 0.22 cc. of
amylene. Eeactions to this drug arc usually positive.

Graph 49 shows the positive reaction of two minnows (Notropis) to amylene
in which they appear to have selected an optimum concentration, near the center.

Graph 50 shows the reaction of a large-mouthed black bass to water contaiTiing
34.4 cc. of ethylene per liter. It is clearly positive, though this concentration would
kill the fish in less than an hour.

Graph 51 shows the reaction of a minnow (Notropis) to water containing about
ten cc. per liter of acetylene. The reaction is clearly positive though the gas is not
fatal.

Graph 52 shows the reaction of an orange-spotted sunfish to about ten cc. of
acetylene per liter; the reaction is clearly positive.

Graph 53 shows the reaction of three orange-spotted sunfishes to a mixture of
carbon monoxide (1.4 cc. per liter) and ethylene (9.6 ce. of ethylene).

Graph 54 shows the reaction of two suckers to the same solution as in graph 53.

Graph 55 shows the reaction of an individual (Abrarnis) to ammonia in alkaline
vater. The fish was positive, as in acid water. ,

Graph 56 shows the reaction of a large-mouthed black bass to paraeresol in
alkaline water. The general result is the same as in acid water.

Graph 57 shows the reaction of an orange-spotted sunfish to orthocresol in alka-
line water. The fish was positive, as in the acid water.

Graph 57 shows the reaction of an orange-spotted sunfish to phenol in alkaline
water. This and other fishes are positive, as in acid water.

Graph 58 shows the positive reaction of an orange-spotted sunfish to naphthalene
in alkaline water.

Graph 59 shows the positive reaction of a large-mouthed black bass to toluene
in alkaline water.

Graph 60 shows the positive reaction of a blue-gill to gas waste in alkaline water.

Chart V.

48
Amylene

^

50 51 53 §5

Bthyl»n» Acetylene C 0 4 CjH^ ^/liiimonle

57
Phenol

59
Toluene

Bulletin

OF THE

Illinois State Laboratory

OF

Natural History

Urbana, Illinois, U. S. A.

STEPHEN A. FORBES, Ph. D., L. E. D.,
Director

Vol. XI. November, 1917 Article VII.

SOME EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS

BY

Walter B. McDougall, Ph. D.

Bulletin

OF THE

Illinois State Laboratory

OF

Natural History

Urbana, Illinois, U. S. A.

STEPHEN A. FORBES, Ph. D., L,. E. D.,
Director

Vol. XI. November, 1917 Article VII.

SOME EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS

BY

Walter B. McDougall, Ph. D.

CONTENTS

PAGE

Introduction 413

Mushrooms and toadstools 414

The mushroom plant 414

Life history and development 414

Structure of a mushroom 417

Spore production and lilieration 417

Other tj'pes of mushrooms 419

The ecology of mushrooms 420

Dissemination 420

Gravity 421

Air 421

Heat 421

Light 422

Substratum 422

Water 422

Parasites and saprophytes 423

Myeorrhizas 424

Animal relations 425

Diseases 427

Fairy rings 427

Luminosity 427

Mushroom growing 429

Food value of mushrooms 430

Poisonous properties of mushrooms 430

Collecting ^\■ild mushrooms 431

The piepaiation of mushrooms for the table 433

The classitication of mushrooms 435

Use of the key 436

Key to genera of gill fungi 437

Descriptions of species 440

Eeferenees 554

Index to 555

ARTICI.E \ II. — Sonic Edible and Poisonous Mushrooms. By
Wai^tiIr B. McDougai.Iv, Ph.D.

Introduction

The interest in wild niushrooms and the number of people who
collect wild mushrooms for the table are increasing rapidly. Numer-
ous inquiries are received by the Ijotany department of the University
of Illinois each season concerning the identification and edibilitv of
various species. At the same time, whenever there is a good mushroom
season, the newspapers report an increasing number of cases of mush-
room poisoning. These facts indicate the great desirability of a wider
dissemination of the knowledge necessary to distinguish intelligently
the common edible and poisonous mushrooms. It was with these facts
in mind that it w^as decided to prepare, for the people of the state,
photographs and descriptions of a limited number of species, in the
hope that it might help our friends to make use of the abundance of
excellent food material that annually goes to waste in the fields and
w^oods, without risking their lives in the act.

The majority of the species included here were collected in Cham-
paign county in the vicinity of Urbana. Aid received from the State
Laboratory of Natural History, however, has enabled me to do some
collecting in Jackson, Union, and Wabash counties. I have indicated,
after the description of each species, in what counties it has been col-
lected. The fact that a species has not been collected in a certain place,
•however, does not indicate that it does not occur there, since nearly
every species included is likely to be found in any part of the state, as
w-ell as in adjoining states.

Some of the photographs are natural size; others are somewhat
reduced. In nearly every photograph there is a scale which will en-
able one to see at a glance the relative size of the objects. The scale
used is ruled according to the metric system, and the figures on it,
therefore, indicate centimeters and not inches. Those who are not
familiar with the metric system will not be inconvenienced by this if
they merely remember that two and one-half centimeters very nearly
ec|ual an inch.

413

414

Mushrooms and Toadstools

Every botanist is asked frequently how to tell a mushroom from
a toadstool. As a matter of fact there is no difference between a
mushroom and a toadstool. Every fungus that produces a fleshy or
woody or jelly-like fruit-body which is large enough to be studied
without a microscope may be called a mushroom, or it may be called
a toadstool. Personally 1 prefer to call them mushrooms. There are
hundreds of kinds of mushrooms, very many of which are edible, and
many not edible, but only a few of which are poisonous. The question
then should be, not how to tell a mushroom from a toadstool, but how
to tell edible from poisonous mushrooms, or edible from poisonous
toadstools. The answer is practically the same as it would be if the
question were how to tell sweet apples from sour apples without tast-
ing. One must learn the botanical characters of each kind, and learn
them so well that he recognizes the various kinds at sight as easily as
he recognizes the members of his own family. It cannot be too
strongly emphasized that there is no such thing as a "rule" by which
the edible kinds may be distinguished from the poisonous. It must
be remembered that mushrooms are the fruits of fungus plants, and
it is no more difficult to learn fifty kinds of mushrooms than it is to
learn fifty kinds of trees or fifty kinds of birds. A child on being
introduced to different kinds of fruits for the first time may mistake
a pear for an apple, but after he has once learned them he does not
make that mistake. Neither will one mistake one kind of mushroom
for another after he has once learned them; but no one should eat
any kind of mushroom until he has learned to recognize it at sight
and to call it by name.

Thiv Mushroom Plant

LIFE history and DEVELOPMENT

The vegetative part of the mushroom plant, in most cases, growls
entirely within the substratum or material on which it lives. This
material may be the soil, or rotten wood, or the bark or wood of a
living tree, depending on the kind of mushroom. This vegetative part
of the plant consists of a network of branched threadlike structures
called hyphae, the whole mass of hyphae taken together being called
the mycelium. The spawn which can be purchased from seedsmen con-
sists of this mycelium mixed with the soil and manure in which the
plant grew.

The life history of the fungus plant begins, not in a seed, but in a
spore. A single spore is usually too small to be seen with the naked
eye, and consists of a tiny bit of living protoplasm enclosed within a

415

membrane or wall as an egg is enclosed in its shell. The spore is very
light and may float about in the air for a very long time, or may be
carried by the wind for many miles. When, however, it chances to
fall upon a suitable substratum, which is sufficiently moist and warm,
it germinates, that is, a little threadlike hypha grows out from one
side and into the substratum, and there it continues to grow and
branch and forms the mycelium or plant body.

The mycelium sometimes grows cjuite rapidly, but sometimes rather
slowly, and it may take weeks or months or even years for it to mature
sufficiently to be ready to produce fruit. When it has matured and
the conditions for fruiting are suitable, if it happens to be a fungus
that produces umbrella-shaped mushrooms, little knots or knobs ap-
pear, here and there, on the threads of the mycelium. These are very
small at first but they gradually enlarge and finally become large
enough so that they begin to project above the surface of the soil or
other substratum. These structures are developing fruit-bodies or
mushrooms, and in this very young stage they are spoken of as "but-
tons" or button stages. If we were to cut one of these buttons in
two, lengthwise, we would find that it is already a little umbrella, but
the umbrella is closed and is entirely covered with a membrane or
veil which is called the outer or universal veil. Page 416 shows several
stages in the development of one of these buttons into a mushroom.
The species sht^wn there is Amanita vcnia, "the destroying angel", a
very pretty but deadly-poison plant. It will be seen from the photo-
graph that as the button grows the outer veil, after being stretched
to its limit, is broken. In this species it splits at the top and remains
at the base of the stem as a cup-like structure, sometimes called the
"death-cup", but more properly called the volva. The great majority
of mushrooms, however, do not have a volva, because the outer veil
is torn loose at the bottom and remains wholly or in part on the top
of the mushroom, or is so thin and delicate that it disappears entirely,
and no trace of it can be seen.

There is a second veil, called the inner veil, which extends from
the outer edge of the top part of the mushroom to near the upper end
of the stem. When the umbrella opens up, this veil is stretched to its
limit and finally gives way. In the case of Amanita vcrna, and a
large number of other species, it is always torn loose at its outer edge
and remains on the stem, forming a ring around the stem. In some
species, however, it tears loose from the stem and clings to the outer
edge of the umbrella, and in a very large number of species it is so
delicate that it very quickly shrivels away and is rarely seen at all.
The fate of these two veils, as the mushroom develops, is very im-
portant, as we shall see later, in the classification of mushrooms.

416
Plate LXXXV

a

CO

o

CI.

CD

C

cf

^

CM

P
Cf<3

CD

pa

05

O

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417

structure;

Let us now examine a little more closely the structure of a mature
mushroom of the umbrella type. We find that it consists of a stem,
or stipe, and an expanded portion which is called the cap, or pileus.
If our mushroom happens to be an Amanita it will have also a cup-
like structure, or volva, at the base of the stem, and a ring, or annulus,
farther up on the stem. There are some kinds of mushrooms which
have a volva but no ring, others which have a ring but no volva, and
many which have no ring and no volva. Also the character of these
structures, w^hen present, differs greatly in different kinds of mush-
rooms. The ring may be very large and thick and conspicuous, or
very small, delicate, and inconspicuous. Again, the volva, in some
cases, is not at all cup-like, but clings to the base of the stem like a
close sheath, or it may be broken up and appear as patches on the lower
end of the stem.

We see also that on the under side of the cap there are numerous
thin, bladelike structures which extend from the stem to the margin
of the cap. These are called the gills or lamellae.

If, now, we should cut a very thin slice from any part of the stem
or cap and examine it with a strong magnifying-glass or a microscope,
we should find that it is made up of a large number of threadlike
hyphae similar to those that compose the mycelium, but that they are
crow^ded so close together that they form a compact body.

The spores of the mushroom are produced on the sides of the gills.
An examination of the surface of one of the gills under sufficient
magnification would show us that certain of the hyphae which end
there are modified into club-shaped structures, each club having four
tiny projections at its end. At the end of each of these little pro-
jections a spore is borne. The club-shaped structure on which the
spores are produced is called a basidium, and all fungi which produce
their spores on basidia are called Basidiomycetes. (See Fig. i.)
Usually also there are present on the surface of the gills larger and
longer club-shaped bodies called cystidia. These project much farther
than the basidia and, at least in some kinds of mushrooms, serve to
prevent the gills from getting too close together, and thus insure for
the spores sufficient room to develop and be liberated.

SPORE PRODUCTION AND LIBERATION

The spores, as we said, are produced on structures called basidia.
These basidia are microscopic in size, so that there Is room for a
very large number on each gill, and, since each basidium usually pro-
duces four spores, the spores are produced In very great numbers.

418

According to Professor Biiller, of the University of Manitoba, a sin-
gle large specimen of the cultivated mushroom, or meadow mushroom,
Agariciis caiiipcstris, may produce as many as 1,800,000,000 spores,
vhile a large shaggy-mane mushroom has been estimated to produce
5,240,000,000 spores. But some other kinds of mushrooms do even
better, since a single giant puffball may produce as many as 7,000,000,-
000,000 spores. Of course such a production allows for an immense
waste, and it is probable that not more than one in 20,000,000, and
perhaps much fewer than that, ever succeeds in growing.

Fig. 1. Cross-section of a very small portion of a gill, showing hyphae, aj basidia,
1) ; spores, c; and a cystidium, d. Greatly enlarged.

When the spores are mature they are discharged forcibly from the
basidia. They are projected outward at right angles to the surface of
the gill for a distance ecjual to something less than one-half the dis-
tance between two adjacent gills. This gives them a clear pathway
to fall downward.

Certain kinds of mushrooms have a special means of making sure
of the proper liberation of their spores. In the shagg\-mane mush-
room (page 479), for instance, and in others belonging to the same
group, the gills are very close together, but at maturity they deliquesce
or dissolve into an inky fluid. This is in no sense comparable to
the dissolving of chemical substances, but is a process of auto-digestion
(self -digestion). The spores on these gills mature in a very definite
order, beginning at the lower ends of the gills and ripening progres-
sively upward. As the cap begins to open up and becomes bell-shaped,
the lower ends of the gills are slightly separated from each other.

419

There the spores mature and fall, and at once auto-digestion sets in
and removes the now useless parts of the gills, thus leaving a clear
path for the fall of the spores from higher up. This continues until
all the spores have fallen and the gills have entirely dissolved.

Other Types of Mushrooms.

So far we have heen talking only of the umhrella type of mush-
room. There are, however, a number of other types of fungi that
are just as truly mushrooms and among which there are some valuable
edible kinds. The oyster mushroom, Plcurotits ostrcafiis (page 529),
for instance, has gills, but instead of being umbrella-like it is shelf-
like and is attached at one side to the wood on which it grows. There
are also a large number of shelf-like mushrooms which do not have
gills at all, but, instead, we find on the under side of the shelf a large
number of little pores or tubes. The spores are produced on the inner
surface of these tubes. They are produced on basidia, just as in the
gill fungi, so that if one were to examine the inner surface of one of
the tubes, sufficiently magnified, it would look very much like the
surface of a gill. Many of these pore fungi are woody or leathery
and tough, and therefore not good to eat, but a few of them are fleshy
and tender and very good. There are also a large number of fungi
that are umbrella-shaped but have pores instead of gills. These are
mostly fleshy and tender, some of them being edible and some of them
poisonous.

There are a number of other groups of mushrooms that produce
their spores on basidia. Among these are the hedgehog fungi (page
543) and the club fungi (page 541 ). The hedgehog fungi are so called
because they bear many spinelike branches on the surface of which
the spores are produced. These spines always hang downward, no
matter in what position the fungus is growing, and this fact serves
to distinguish the hedgehog fungi from the club fungi, since in the
latter the branches always project upward.

Still another important group of mushrooms is the puffball group
(page 545). These are particularly safe for beginners to use on the
table since there are no poisonous ones among them. The larger kinds
are all excellent if used while they are still pure white all the way
through. They must always be cut in two and examined before using.
however, since if one has begun to darken inside, although it will not
be poisonous, it will be very bitter and will spoil a whole dishful. The
spores of a puffball are produced on basidia that are scattered through
the greater part of the interior of the mushroom, and when they are
mature they can easily be "puffed" out by pressing on the sides of the
puffball.

420

All of the groups of the mushrooms so far mentioned produce their
spores on basidia and are, therefore, Basidiomycetes. There is an-
other very large group of fungi, which includes a few mushrooms,
which produces its spores in a very different way. This is the group
of sac fungi or Ascomycetes, so called because their spores are pro-
duced within little sac-like structures. A great majority of the sac
fungi have very small fruit bodies and grow as parasites on other
plants. These are very important and very interesting as the causes
of plant diseases, but they are not mushrooms. A familiar example
of a mushroom belonging to this group is the morel (page 547), the
sponge-like mushroom which is collected for the table by so many
people in early spring. If we were to cut a very thin slice at right
angles to the surface of a morel and examine it with a microscope we
should find a large number of little elongated sacs, each one containing
eight spores. These sacs are scattered thickly over the whole surface
of the cap. There are several other types of mushrooms belonging to
the sac-fungi group, some of them edible and a few of them slightly
poisonous. The "truffles", which are so highly prized in certain
European countries, are sac fungi.

The Ecology of Mushrooms

By the ecology of plants we mean their relations to the environ-
m.ent in which they live. No fungus can ever go through its entire
life history wholly independent of other living or dead organisms, nor
without being greatly affected by heat, light, water, character of soil
or other substratum, etc. The study of these various interrelations
is not only extremely interesting but is necessary to a proper under-
standing of the life of mushrooms.

Dissemination. — \w important ecological consideration is that of
the methods Ijy which the spores are scattered. As we have said, thj
spores are discharged forcibly, but in the case of the gill fungi, it is
merely to get them away from the gill so that they can fall freely,
and they need to be scattered by some external means. This is in most
cases done by the wind. The spores of a mushroom are exceedingly
light and the slightest air-current is enough to carry them away. For
this reason very few of the spores fall below or near the fruit body
that produces them. Practically all of them are caught up by air cur-
rents before they reach the ground, even in the case of short-stemmed
mushrooms, and they may be carried by the wind for many miles.
This is undoubtedly the most important means of spore dissemination.
Spores often stick to the bodies of slugs, and other small animals that
feed upon the mushrooms, and are disseminated in that way, but that
is a method of minor importance.

421

There is another method of dissemination that may be of consid-
erable importance. Since the spores are produced in such great num-
bers they must become scattered over the vegetation nearly every-
where, and herbivorous animals must eat them by the thousands. Cer-
tain kinds of mushrooms grow only on dung and it has been proven
that in some of these, at least, the spores are not able to germinate
until they have passed through the alimentary canal of some animal.
The animal, therefore, by eating the spores, not only prepares them
for germination but deposits them in a place suitable for their growth.
An interesting case of this type of dissemination is found in a little
fungus called Pilobolus. Piloholus is too small to be called a mushroom
but it is a very interesting plant. It grows only on dung, and when
its spores are mature it hurls them with such force that they are thrown
clear off from the dung pile and on to the surrounding grass. These
spores can never grow on the grass, but, if they are eaten by some
herbivorous animal along with the grass, they are much more certain
to be deposited in a favorable place for growth than if they were sim-
ply blown about by the wind.

Gravity. — The force of gravity and its effect on plants is practi-
cally the same all over the surface of the earth. For this reason it is
of more interest from a physiological than from an ecological point of
view. But it will be of interest to note here, in passing, the importance
of the way in which it affects mushrooms. It is the force of gravity
which causes the stems of flowering plants to grow upward and the
roots to grow downward. Likewise it causes the umbrella type of
mushroom to grow upright and with its cap horizontal. If the mush-
room encounters an obstacle as it comes up, or if grows from the side
of a tree or stump, the stem always curves in such a way as to bring
the cap into a horizontal position. The significance of this fact is that
if the cap is not horizontal, so that the gills are vertical, the spores,
when they fall, will strike against the sides of the gills, and when
they do that they always stick fast and never fall off. So sensitive
are the gills themselves to the force of gravity that if a cap is laid on
a table with one side raised higher than the other by an object placed
under it, the gills will gradually move in such a way as to bring them-
selves into as nearly a vertical position as possible.

Air. — The composition of the atmosphere, that is, the relative
amounts of the different gases, and the dust particles in it, is of con-
siderable importance to some kinds of plants, but ordinarily it is not
of any great importance in connection with mushrooms.

Heat. — A certain amount of heat is necessary for the growth of
any plant. There are very few kinds of mushrooms that ever grow
at all during the winter. There are many kinds, however, that are

422

found only in early spring, others that occur only during the warmer
part of the summer, and still others that grow only in autumn, while
there are some that occur throughout the growing season. Also, there
are many species that are found (jnly in the warm countries of the
tropics, while others occur only in temperate or colder regions. How-
ever, it is very difficult to say whether these differences are due pri-
marily to heat or not. There are so many causes acting on plants at
the same time that it is often impossihle to single them out without
performing control-experiments, and we are very apt to ascribe cer-
tain effects to heat when they really are due primarily to other causes.
The differences between spring and summer or spring and autumn
mushrooms are probably not due primarily to temperature, though the
differences between tropical and cold-climate species may be.

Light. — Light is not nearly so important to mushrooms as it is to
green plants. In fact most fungi grow better in the dark than in the
light. There are, however, many species that grow only in the shade
of other plants, while others grow only in open sunny places. The
difference in the amount of light is probably not the only reason for
this, but, in some cases, it may be the principal one. Many kinds of
mushrooms, too, grow very well in the dark but cannot produce per-
fect fruit-bodies unless they have light. The fact that fungi can grow
in the dark makes it possible for them to flourish in places where no
other plants can exist. In underground caves, mines, etc., certain
kinds of fungi are practically the only plant life.

Suhstratuui. — The material on which a fungus grows, whether it
be soil, wood. bark, dead leaves, or other substance, is spoken of as
the substratum. There is scarcely anv kind of substratum that is not
suitable for some kinds of fungi, but many of the mushrooms arc
limited to very definite kinds of substratum. There are a number of
species, for instance, that grow only on dung; others that are found
only on leaf-mold or rich humus in woods ; while still others prefer
the soil of pastures, lawns, etc. There are many kinds, too, that oc-
cur only on wood, and, of these some are cjuite cosmopolitan and
grow on various kinds of wood, while others are found only on the
wood of a particular kind of tree. A number of mushrooms spend
their lives as parasites on other living plants, but these will be spoken
of again later.

Water. — As is the case with nearlv all ])lants, water is one of the
most important factors affecting the life of mushrooms. Plants are
often separated into three groups based on the relative amount of water
necessary for their successful growth. Those plants that can g-et along
with a very small amount of water are called xerophytes, while those
that require a very large amount are called hydrophytes, and those

423

that flourish best when supplied with a medium amount of water are
called mesophytes.

We are apt to think of all fungi as requiring a great deal of water
for their best development. That is true of a large number of fungi
but by no means of all. The great majority of mushrooms are meso-
phytes, while others, especially some of the shelving forms that grow
on wood, are pronounced xerophytes. Practically all of these require
an abundance of water for the development of their fruit bodies but
they do not flourish in a soil that is continuously saturated with water.
For this reason one often finds that in a wood of which part is very
low land and part higher land many more kinds of mushrooms are
found on the higher land than on the low land. Nevertheless in the
case of most mushrooms no fruit bodies are developed except during
rainy weather so that a wet season is always a good mushroom season.
Although some of the smaller mushrooms do literally "spring up over
night", the most of those that are large enough to be worth collecting
for the table require at least two or three days for their development.
During a dry season, therefore, a single rain is not likely to bring us
a' good crop of mushrooms. It must be followed within one or two
days by a second or third in order to complete the development of
those fruit bodies that w^re started by the first shower, and the very
best time for mushrooms is when it rains a little every day or two.

Parasites and Saprophytes. — Plants which are green, or have green
parts, such as grasses, trees, etc., make little if any use of ready-formed
foods. They manufacture their own foods from the carbon dioxide
of the air, water, and mineral salts obtained from the soil. But plants
which have no "leaf green", as the fungi, cannot do this. Such plants
may live upon, and get their food from, other living plants or animals,
in which case they are called parasites, or they may live on the dead
remains of plants and animals, and are then called saprophytes.

A considerable number of our mushrooms are quite destructive
parasites. The heart-rots of forest trees are in most cases due to the
growth of the mycelium of certain shelving mushrooms. There are
also a few kinds, such as Ar miliaria luellea (page 489), which are
parasitic on the roots of trees, and sometimes kill the trees which
they attack. Many of the umbrella type of mushroom, as well as some
puffballs, are more or less harmless parasites on the roots of trees and
other plants, causing the production of structures known as mycor-
rhizas. These will be discussed presently. There are also a number
of mushrooms that are parasitic on other mushrooms. The common-
est of these, perhaps, is Stropharia epiuiyces (page 495), which is a
parasite on the shaggy-mane (page 479) and the inky-cap (page 481)
mushrooms. This plant never grows independently on the ground

424

and it has never been found on any other than these two mushrooms.
It is probable that some time in the past it grew on the ground side
by side with, and in competition with, the shaggy-mane and inky-cap,
but in some way it gained the mastery over its "tender and tasty neigh-
bors" and forced them to supply it with food, but by doing so it has
made itself entirely dependent upon them. There are a few other
species that grow as parasites on other mushrooms, but they are not
often found.

Many of the wood-destroying mushrooms are parasitic for a part
of their life and saprophytic during the remainder. That is, they
start their life history in a living tree, but after the tree has been killed
thev continue to live upon it. These fungi are often spoken of as
wound parasites, because the only way they can ever get a start in a
tree is through a wound, caused by the breaking off of a limb or by
other means. No tree would ever become affected with a heart-rot
if it were never wounded or if its wounds were always properly taken
care of, and one of the main objects of modern tree-surgery is to
prevent mushroom spores from getting into the wounds of trees to
grow and produce diseases.

There are also some wood-destroying fungi that live only sap-
rophvtically. Lcntinus Icpidcus, for instance, is an umbrella-shaped
mushroom which is very fond of growing on railroad ties. It used
to cause a great deal of damage until the railroad men learned how
to treat their ties with chemical preservatives which make them unfit
for mushroom food. The umbrella-shaped mushrooms as a group
have always been considered as pure saprophytes. Certainly very
many of them are, but it is probable that manv more than was form-
erly thought are at least partly parasitic.

Mycorrhiaas. — Remarkably interesting structures frr)m an ecolog-
ical point of view are the so-called mvcorrhizas. A mycorrhiza is a
combination of root and fungus, that is, it is a root with a fungus
either growing inside of it (endotrophic mycorrhiza) or growing on
the outside and entirely covering it with a coat of mycelium (ecto-
trophic mycorrhiza). Only the verv smallest rootlets can form my-
corrhizas, because they are attacked by the fungus very soon after the
rootlet is produced and the rootlet is alwavs killed within a year, so
that the mycorrhizas are never more than a vear old.

In the case of those mvcorrhizas in which the fungus is inside of
the root, the fungus is usuallv parasitic on the root for a time and
has very much the best of the bargain. Later f»n, however, the fungus
gets tired of the struggle and the root gradually gets the upper hand
and finally succeeds in digesting and devouring the fungus. Some of
our forest trees, especiallv the maples, have this type of mycorrhiza

425

as also have many other plants, such as the orchids. Indeed, many of
the orchids have become entirely dependent upon the mycorrhizal
fungi. In some orchids the seeds will not germinate except in the
presence of the proper fungus, while in others the seeds will germinate
but the seedlings never grow beyond a certain stage unless they be-
come associated with the fungus. The kinds of fungi that cause this
type of mycorrhiza is in most cases not known, because their fruit
bodies have not been seen. Only a few of those associated with the
orchids have been identified and in no case were they found to be
mushrooms.

The other tvpe of mycorrhiza (ectotrophic), in which the mycelium
of the fungus is mostly on the outside of the root, is found on many
of our forest trees, such as ash, hickory, beech, linden, etc., as well as
on many shrubs and herbaceous plants. These mycorrhizas were until
recently not very well understood. They were first described about
thirty years ago and for a long time after that it was thought that
they were of great importance to the plants on which they occur, in
that they helped to absorb from the soil certain materials which the
plants would otherwise be unable to get. It is now believed, how-
ever, that they are of no benefit in any way to the plants on which
they occur. The fungus is merely a parasite on the root. Ordinarily
these parasites are cfuite harmless to a tree because only a small per-
centage of its roots are affected, and it really does not sufi^er any
more than it would if we were to cut ofi a few of its roots or pull
off a few of its leaves.

It seems likely, therefore, that these mycorrhizas are of much more
importance in the life of the fungi which cause them than they are
to the plants on which they are found. It is now known that most
if not all of the ectotrophic mycorrhizas are caused by mushrooms . It
is probable that very many of our late summer and fall mushroomS:
especially those which grow in the woods, are capable of forming
mycorrhizas on the roots of trees. The fruit bodies of these mush-
rooms are usually produced soon after the mycelium becomes attached
to the roots, and it is possible that the fungi have great need of the
particular kind of food that they get from the roots for the develop-
ment of the fruit bodies.

Any one can observe these mycorrhizas by digging up some of the
roots of trees growing in the woods in the fall of the year. They
appear as little clusters of short, stubby root-branches, usually white
or whitish, but sometimes colored — brown, yellow, red, etc.

Auiinal Relations. — We have alreadv spoken of the ways in which
animals aid in the scattering of mushroom spores. There are a num-
ber of other ways in which animals affect the life of mushrooms. Chief

426

among these perhaps is the destruction of the fruit bodies. Many
animals feed upon mushrooms. Sheep, for instance, are very fond
of certain kinds, especially the larger puffballs. Rabbits, also, make
use of these delicacies whenever they get a chance, and it is said that
turtles are quite fond of varying their diet by eating mushrooms.
Slugs habitually feed upon various kinds of mushrooms, as likewise
do crickets.

But the greatest amount of destruction is brought about by still
smaller animals. Maggots, which are the young of small flies or gnats,
are sometimes very destructive in beds of cultivated mushrooms. The
eggs of these insects are usually laid just at the top of the stem where
it is attached to the cap. They hatch in about three days, and at once
bore into the mushroom and riddle it in a short time. Seven to ten
days later they burrow into the ground, and after spending from four
to seven days there they emerge as adult gnats, and each one lays
about one thousand eggs for the next generation. So abundant are
these gnats that in hot weather there are certain kinds of wild mush-
rooms that become infested so quicklv that it is almost impossible to
collect any that are fit to eat.

Mushroom mites are sometimes troublesome. These little insects
are closely related to the cheese mites and they multiply even more
rapidly. It is very difficult for mushroom-growers to get rid of them
because they cling to the bodies of flying insects and are thus carried
from place to place.

A very interesting interrelation of mushrooms and animals is
found in certain tropical countries. Occasionally while one is walking
through a tropical forest he sees in front of him a distinct green line
which seems to be in motion. Closer examination shows this to be
composed of a large number of ants marching single file and each one
carrying over his back a piece of green leaf. These are leaf-cutting
ants, or "umbrella ants" as thev are sometimes called because of their
habit of carrying pieces of leaves over their backs. They have made
a visit to some tree and are now returning to their nest for the pur-
pose of making a garden. The pieces of leaves will be chewed to a
pulp and then spread out over a place that has been thoroughly cleaned
off. On this they will plant the mycelium of a mushroom and in a
few days they will have an excellent mushroom garden. These ants
take good care of their garden, weeding out undesirable fungi, and
in return they obtain an ainmdant supply of food. The mushroom
which they cultivate is called Rocifcs gongylopJiora and is one of the
umbrella type of gill fungi. Usually, however, the ants do not allow
it to produce fruit bodies. Years of cultivation has caused the fungus
to produce abnormal outgrowths — little, upright, club-shaped bodies —

427

on its mycelium, and these are what the ants eat. Whenever the
mushroom is allowed to fruit it is necessary to clean off the garden
and start over again.

Diseases. — There are not very many diseases of mushrooms other
than those due to animals. One, which is sometimes quite serious
among cultivated mushrooms, is called the mycogone disease. It is
due to one of the sac- fungus parasites, and causes the mushrooms to
become deformed and unfit for market. A similar disease attacks a
number of wild mushrooms.

A very peculiar and interesting disease is found on Lentinus tigrinus
(page 428), a gill fungus which grows on rotten wood. It is due to
a parasitic mold which grows over the gill-surface to such an extent
that the gills, usually, are entirely hidden. So common are the dis-
eased forms of this mushroom that it was formerly thought to be a
perfectly normal condition. Recently, however, in some unpublished
studies by one of my students, Miss Esther Young, it has been shown
that it is a disease due to a species of mold belonging to the genus
Sporotrichum.

Quite recently a disease of cultivated mushrooms due to a species
of bacterium has been reported.

Fairy rings. — Certain mushrooms are often found growing in defi-
nite rings a few feet to twenty or more feet in diameter. These have
been known as fairy rings because long ago it was believed that when
the fairies danced around in circles during the night a mushroom
sprang up in each place where a fairy stepped. The cause of the rings
is that the mycelium which starts from a spore grows out in all direc-
tions forming a circular patch of mycelium but as it grows it produces
certain toxic substances which in time kill the older portions of the
plant. Each year the mycelium advances a little and produces a crop
of mushrooms so that the fairy ring increases in size from year to
year. Such fairy rings are commonly formed by Marasmius oread es,
Agaricus silvieola (page 473) and Lepiota Morgaui (page 459), and
sometimes by the giant puffball.

Luminosity. — The phenomenon of luminositv in living beings has
been observed for a long time, though it is still not well understood.
The fireflies that flit about just after sundown of a summer's evening
are well known to every one. The light emitted bv them is of short
duration. Among the fungi there are certain species that emit light
continuously, under proper conditions, for days or weeks. Most con-
spicuous among these is Clitocyhc illudens (page 513), an orange-
colored mushroom that grows in clusters about old stumps. The gill-
surface of this mushroom is nearly always luminous, as can be ob-

428

PI.ATK LXXXVI

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served after dark or by taking the fruit bodies into a dark room. The
mycelium of this plant is also luminescent, so that broken pieces of
wood containing the mycelium often glow. The mycelium of Aniiil-
laria mellca (page 489) often causes rotten wood to glow in the same
way.

Recently a Japanese species of Plciirotiis, the genus to which our
oyster mushroom (page 529) belongs, has been reported as luminous.
Only the gill-surface glows, but it is said that several of the fruit-
bodi.es together can emit enough light to enable one to read by it.

Mushroom-growing

Mushrooms have been grown for market in European countries,
especially in France and England, for a very long time. In more re-
cent years they have been grown on an increasingly large scale in this
country, so that now one can purchase mushrooms in the market at
any time at prices usually ranging from fifty cents to one dollar a
pound. These are grown mostly in specially constructed mushroom-
houses or in greenhouses, but any one who has a well ventilated cellar
may grow mushrooms provided he can control the temperature to a
certain extent. The temperature should be kept between 50° and 60° F.
If it gets colder than this the spawn will not grow, while if it gets
much warmer the spawn or the growing crop will mold.

In making up mushroom beds well-cured manure from a horse
stable should be used. The manure must be cured without allowing
it to dry out or burn, but, also, it must not become too wet. When it
is placed in the bed it should be quite damp but not wet, and should
be evenly distributed and packed rather firmly to a depth of about six:
to ten inches. After allowing several days for the temperature to
become adjusted the bed will be ready to receive the spawn.

Spawn, which consists of the mycelium of a mushroom mixed
with the substratum in which it grew, can be purchased from seed-
houses in brick form. Each brick should be broken into eight or ten
pieces and the pieces planted about a foot apart in the manure, being
covered to a depth of one or two inches. From one to two weeks
after planting the spawn will be seen to be growing and spreading.
The bed should then be covered with about an inch of well-sifted,
moist, light garden-soil.

The amount of moisture present is very important. The air sur-
rounding the beds ought to be nearly saturated with moisture con-
stantly, and for this reason the beds must be protected from drafts
which would blow the moisture away. If the manure had the proper
amount of moisture in it when it was put in, the beds probably will
not need watering for several weeks. They must be watched closely

430

however, and when they begin to dry up water should be appHed in
a fine spray on and around the beds.

The first crop of mushrooms may be expected in about one and
one-half or two months after spawning, and one should be able to pick
some every day or two for two or three months. They should be
picked before the inner veil breaks and sent to market immediately.
Wlien all precautions have been taken, however, there may be "crop
failures" due to the presence of mushroom mites, which may destroy
the mvcelium as fast as it grows from the spawn, or to animal or
plant parasites. When a bed has ceased to produce, the material of
which it is made up must be entirely cleaned out and the bed remade
with new material.

Food Value of Mushrooms

The value of mushrooms as articles of food lies chiefly in their
flavors. If we were to measure their food-value by the amount of
energy that can 1)e obtained from them, they would not rank very
liigh. On that basis the food-value of the cultivated mushroom is
just about the same as that of cabbage, less than one-half that of pota-
toes, or about one-twelfth that of wheat flour. Oysters have a food-
value considerably less than that of potatoes but nevertheless most of
us enjoy oysters because of their flavor, and most of us can enjoy
mushrooms as soon as we learn a few species so that we can eat them
without fearing that they will end our earthly existence. The market
price of mushrooms is prohibitive to the great mass of people, but
there are tons of excellent wild species which are allt^wed to decay in
the woods and fields every year. These will furnish variety and flavor
to the daily menus of thousands of families, at a cost only of the time
taken to collect them, as soon as people have learned to distinguish
them one from another.

Poisonous Properties of Mushrooms

The genus Ainaiiita is by far the most dangerous group of mush-
rooms. Amanita vcrna (page 449) and its very near relative Amanita
phalloidcs h^xe probably caused more deaths in this country than any
other species. The active poison in these and closely related species
is known as the Amanita toxin. Its chemical nature is not yet under-
stood and no antidote for it is known. The clinical symptoms in
poisoning by these mushrooms are practically always the same. For
six to fifteen hours after the mushrooms have been eaten no discom-
fort is felt. The patient is then suddenly seized by a severe abdominal
pain, cramp-like in character and accompanied by vomiting. Parox-
ysms of pain and vomiting alternate with periods of remission, and

431

the loss of strength is very rapid. Death usually occurs in four to
six days in children and in eight to ten days in adults, but if large
quantities of the fungus are eaten, death may occur within forty-eight
hours. One or two specimens are often enough to cause death. There
is no satisfactory method of treatment. Of course medical advice
should be obtained as soon as possible and every effort made to rid
the alimentary canal -of the poisonous material, but the absorption of
the poison takes place so rapidly that even when the first symptoms
appear it mav be too late to save the patient. Stimulants should be
emploved freely in the hope of tiding the patient over the periods of
weakness, and narcotics should be used to relieve the intense pains.
Atropin has no effect at all on this poison.

Another group of Amanitas, to which belongs Ajuaiiifa cotJuirnata
(page 451), are entirely different in their poisonous properties. They
are deadly poison, but in one respect they are not so bad as the other
group, for there is an antidote for the poison. The poison is an al-
kaloid known as muscarin, and atropin is a perfect physiological anti-
dote for it. The clinical s^■mpt()ms are quite different from those in
the case of Amanita I'crna. The first signs of trouble usually appear
in one to five hours. The i)atient shows excessive salivation and per-
spiration, a flow of tears, and vomiting. Mental symptoms are also
present, particularlv giddiness with confusion of ideas, and, sometimes,
delirium and violent convulsions. Atropin should 1)e given at once
and in large doses, and at the same time the alimentary canal should
be emptied of the ingested material as cjuickly as possible. Prompt
action on the part of a competent physician shoidd in most cases save
the patient.

Other poisonous mushrooms, such as Clitocybc illiidciis (page 513)
and Lcf^iota Morgani (page 459), are usually not so dangerous as the
Amanitas, and a physician, if called within a reasonable time, will,
as a rule, be able to effect a cure.

Coi.i,KCTiNG W11.D Mushrooms

The first and most imi)ortant thing, to be remem!)ered by the per-
son who is going to collect wild mushrooms for the table is that he
must collect only such species as he is perfectly familiar with, and
only such specimens as he is perfectly sure belong to one of those
species. Any one who will accept a mushroom merely because the
gills are pink or because the "skin" of the cap will peel off, or merely
because it is growing along with a well-known species or in a place
where a well-known species has previouslv been collected, has no
business collecting for the table, for he is certain, sooner or later, to
get some poisonous specimens mixed in with the good ones. But

432

any one who is willing to use common sense, and reject all specimens
that he is not sure of, may keep his table supplied with mushrooms
witli absolutely no danger; with no more risk than he takes when he
goes into the vegetable garden and selects carrots, beets, and radishes,
but rejects the wild parsnip which may grow as a weed there.

The beginner should collect at first only three or four of the more
easily distinguishable species, such as MorchcUa conica (page 547),
Coprinus coiuaius (page 479), Agaricus campcstris (page 466), and
the larger puffballs. Soon he will learn to distinguish also the other
species of Coprinus and Agaricus. Then gradually he will add such
species as Pleurotus ostrcatus (page 529), Plutcus ccrvimis (page
487), some of the Lepiotas, etc., and he will be surprised to see how
soon he will have two or three dozen excellent edible species on his list.

The very best time to go mushroom-collecting, if convenient, is
early in the morning, since at that time all those which have opened
up during the night are fresh and free from insect infestations. The
only thing that is at all essential for the work of collecting is a basket
to carry the specimens in. It is well, however, to take along a garden
trowel, and to get into the habit of digging up the mushrooms instead
of "picking" them. This is because there are some species which even
the expert cannot recognize unless he has the whole of the stem. If
the mushroom is picked or broken off aljove ground one of the most
evident earmarks for identification, the volva (page 415), may be left
liehind in the soil.

All mushrooms that are not perfectly fresh should be rejected.
Many cases of so-called mild mushroom-poisoning have been caused
Ijy the foolish eating of specimens infested by larvae. "Tainted"
mushrooms are as unwholesome as "tainted" meat. No one would
expect a leg of mutton which had 1)een exposed in the woods for
two or three days during hot weather to be fit to eat. No more
should be expected of mushrooms, for although many of them will
keep for a considerable time when the weather is cool, in warm weather
they very soon become unfit for food.

While collecting the known edible species for the table many beau-
tiful and interesting fungi will be found which are not discussed in
this article. If one becomes interested in knowing what they are he
must obtain one or more of the larger books mentioned on page 554.
If there are some which cannot be identified with the aid of those
books then it is permissible to send specimens to a known authority
for identification. When this is done the specimens should always
be accompanied by a letter giving full information as to the appear-
ance of the fresh specimen, their place and manner of growth, etc.
The specimens should be wrapped in oiled paper, or groceryman's

433

butter-paper, placed in a box, and mailed at once. Another way, which
in some cases will serve even better, is to photograph the fresh speci-
men and then dry it, sending both the dried specimen and a copy of
the photograph with the letter.

Whoever will learn a few species of mushrooms and begin col-
lecting them for use will receive double remuneration for his time,
for he will not only obtain excellent food absolutely free, but will get
also the increased healthfulness that comes from stimulating walks
in the open air. For any one who has already learned to love walking
in the woods and fields there is no group of organisms that can fur-
nish a more fascinating study than these lowly plants. The variety
of form, color, and beauty is practically unlimited, and he who has
never made a special study of any group of organisms can hardly
realize the ecstatic pleasure with which the mycologist greets the
first appearance each season of his old friends among the mushrooms,
or with what unbounded joy he makes the acquaintance of species,
to him, new or rare.

The: Preparation of Mushrooms for the Tablf^

All mushrooms should be thoroughly washed, but they should be
washed quickly and in cold water only, since warm water or a pro-
longed soaking in water injures the flavor of many kinds. All speci-
mens that are not perfectly fresh or that are in the least infested with
insects should be thrown away. A few kinds should be peeled, but
as a rule peeling removes some of the best flavored parts. The stems
of most species should be removed, though if the stems are very tender
there is no reason why they should not be used. Mushrooms should
not be kept long in a fresh condition. If they cannot be used at once
they should be partly cooked and placed in the ice box, the cooking
to l3e finished later.

As a rule mushrooms may be used in any way that oysters are
used, or they may be cooked along with oysters, meat, poultry, or
vegetables, or used as flavoring for soups and sauces, or for stuffing
peppers. The better-flavored species should be cooked simply and
seasoned lightly, while those of poorer quality may be improved by
more elaborate cooking and more thorough seasoning. A few species
that are slightly bitter when raw should be parboiled.

The majority of mushrooms, perhaps, are best simply broiled or
fried. To broil, the caps are placed, gills up, on a very hot broiling
iron, sprinkled with pepper and salt, and a liberal piece of butter is
placed on the gills. When the butter is all melted the caps are turned
over for a minute or two and then served hot on toast. To fry, place
the caps in very hot butter or oil, fry about three minutes, and serve

434

on hot buttered toast with a sauce of lemon juice, mehed butter, salt,
and pepper.

Some mushrooms are better baked or stewed. To bake, line the
baking dish with thin slices of toast, fill with layers of mushrooms,
seasoning each layer with salt, pepper, and butter, and bake for fifteen
minutes or longer according to the species. To stew the tougher
species, boil them in water until they are tender, then pour off most
of the water, add milk and stew a few minutes longer, season with
salt, pepper, and butter, thicken with flour or corn-starch, and serve
hot.

The following recipes are selected from Bulletin No. 175 of the
United States Department of Agriculture : —

Fried Mitslirooiiis.-~Be3.t the yolk of an egg with a tablespoonful
of water, and season with pepper and salt. In this, dip each cap and
then dip into fine cracker crum1)s or corn meal. Ha\'e butter or cook-
ing oil very hot in a frying-pan. Fry >lowly on each side five minutes.
A sauce can he made l)y thickening the butter or oil with flour and
adding milk or cream. If desired, serve on toa.st. A smooth, thin
tomato sauce is also excellent.

Miis/iroorns baked ivith Tomatoes. — In a baking dish arrange small
round slices of buttered toast ; upon each piece place a rather thin slice
of peeled tomat(», salted and peppered : upon each slice of tomato place
a fine, thick mushroom, gill side up ; in the center of each mushroom
put a generous piece of butter, season with salt and pepper. Cover the
dish and bake in a hot oven ten minutes; then uncover and bake for
an additional five or ten minutes, as the mushrooms seem to require.

Peppers stuffed leitJi Mus/irooiiis. — Cut the stem end of the peppers
and carefully remove all seeds and the white membrane ; chop or
break the mushrooms into small pieces, season with pepper and salt,
press firmly into the peppers, and put a good-sized lump of butter on
top of each. The water adhering to the mushrooms after washing
will furnish sufficient moisture for their cooking. Arrange the peppers
on end in a leaking dish, haxing water, witli salt, pepper, and butter,
poured in to the depth of aljout an inch. Place the dish in a hot oven,
cook covered fifteen minutes; then uncover and baste and cook for
ten or fifteen minutes longer, or until the peppers are perfectlv tender.
An addition of chopped cooked chicken or veal to the mushrooms is a
pleasing variation.

Mnshrooiiis and Cheese. — Butter a baking dish, place in layers
mushrooms broken in small pieces, bread crumbs, grated cheese, salt,
pepper, and bits of butter. Continue until dish is filled, letting the
top layer be a thin sprinkling of cheese. Cover and cook in oven for
twenty minutes; remove cover for five minutes before serving.

435

Mushroom Patties. — Cut the mushrooms into small pieces, cook
slowly in butter until tender, add cream or milk, pepper, and salt, and
thicken with flour. Fill the reheated patty shells.

The Classification of Mushrooms

The true fungi, excluding bacteria and slime-molds, are usually
grouped into three classes, the Phycomycetes, which includes the com-
mon molds, the Ascomycetes or sac fungi, and the Basidiomycetes.
With the first of these classes we are not concerned since it does not
include any fungi with fruit bodies large enough to be called mush-
rooms.

The second class, that of the sac fungi, includes a very large num-
ber of species that are important as the causes of plant diseases but
are too small to be called mushrooms, and a relatively few species that
may be called mushrooms. The only edil^le ones that are common in
this state are the morels and some of their near relatives and a few
of the larger cup-fungi (see page 553).

The third class, that of the basidia-producing fungi, is predomi-
nantly the mushroom group. The five groups of this class, to which
most of our edible mushrooms belong, are the puffballs (page 545).
the pore fungi (page 535), the hedgehog fungi (page 543), the cluli
fungi (page 541), and the gill fungi. Bv far the greater number of
both the edible and the poisonous forms are gill fungi. For this rea-
son we need to consider a little further the way of classifying these.
First, however, it will be necessary to understand the naming of mush-
rooms.

It will be noticed that whenever we have mentioned the scientific
name of a mushroom we have used two words. This is because it is a
rule among botanists that every plant shall be given a name which con-
sists of two Latin or Greek words, or other words in Latin form, the
first of which is the genus or group name and the second of which is
the species or individual name. All those mushrooms that are indenti-
cally the same kind are given the same individual or species name, and
then all of those species that seem to be closely related are grouped to-
gether and given the same genus name. Therefore, just as there may
be a number of liumnn indixidurds all having the same "group" name,
as Tom Jones, Sam Jones, and John Jones, so there may be a number
of species of mushrooms all having the same genus name, as Agariciis
caiupcstris, Agaricus arvcnsis, Agariciis silz'icola, etc. The name of
the plant is usually followed by the name or initials of the person who
first described the species, as Agariciis campcstris Linn.

The various genera of gill fungi are distinguished from each other,
in part, by the color of the spores. In some genera the spores are

436

white, in others they are pink, in others some shade of yellow or rust-
color, in others purple-brown, and in still others they are black. A
single spore of any mushroom is too small to be seen with the naked
eye, but when a sufficient mass of them is obtained the color can readily
be recognized. If the stem is removed from a fresh mushroom and
the cap is placed, gills down, on a sheet of paper and covered with
an inverted tumbler the spores will fall to the paper in great numbers,
and within an hour or so an impression of the gill surface, consisting
entirely of spores, will be formed on the paper. Such an impression
is called a spore print (Fig. 2). One of the first things to do, then,
when the genus of a species is in doubt, is to make a spore print to
determine the color of the spores.

Fig. 2. Spore print of Collyhia radicata.

, ' Use of the Key

In the key to the gill fungi on page 437 the genera are arranged in
columns according to the spore color, and in the first column some
other differences between genera are tabulated. Suppose now that on
our first collecting trip we find a cluster of orange-colored mushrooms.
We probably have seen the same kind before but we do not know its
name. We at once cut the stem from one specimen and place the cap,
gills down, on a piece of white paper and invert a tumbler over it. If we
can spare another specimen we arrange it in the same way on a piece
of black paper. Then with a specimen in hand, we turn to the key.
At the beginning of the kev we find, "I. Flesh vesiculose". and three

487

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438

lines below, "II. Flesh not vesiciilose". We cannot determine whether
the flesh is vesiculose or not without a microscope. But this fact need
not worry us, for this is the only place in the key that seems to require
the use of a microscope and we can easily dispense with it here. There
are only two genera, Lactarius and Russiila, that have vesiculose flesh.
The first of these can easily be distinguished from all other genera
by the presence of an abundance of juice, usually milky but sometimes
colored, which exudes whenever the plant is wounded. The members
of the other genus, Russula, are so characteristic in appearance (see
page 445) that after we have collected a few of them we are not likely
to mistake them for anv other genus. We will remember also tliat
the species of Lacfariiis anil Russula are all midsummer plants, very
few of them being found before July or after August.

We easily decide, therefore, that our plant does not l^elong to
either of the above genera and we turn to the next line after "II. Flesh
not vesiculose", which is "i. Stem central". Clear at the end of the
key we find the c<irrcs[jiinding "2. Stem eccentric or aljsent" ; but
we see at once that our plant has a stem which is very nearly if not
exactly at the center, and we look at the next line ''A. Gills free".
A few lines below is the corresponding "/^. Gills attached". The
meaning is, free from or attached to the stem. On examining our
plant we find that the gills are not free from the stem and we turn
to the line following "/i. Gills attached" which is "a. Stem fleshv".
Further down we find the corresponding "/>. Stem cartilaginous".
This difference is sometimes rather difficult to determine, but if we
break one of the fresh stems we find that it does not snap off like a
piece of cartilage but seems to be tough, fleshv, and fibrous, and we
look at the next two lines following "a. Stem fleshy". These are
"A. Ring present" and "P). Ring absent". Since our plant has no ring
on the stem we turn to the next two lines, "a. Gills adnate or sinuate"
and "1). Gills mostly decurrent". Adnate means attached squarely
against the stem, sinuate means attached to the stem and having a
distinct notch at the stem-end, and decurrent means attached t(^ the
stem and extending down some distance on it. Since the gills of our
plant are distinctly decurrent we turn to the next two lines, "i. Gills
much forked" and "2. Gills not much forked". An examination of
the gills of our plant shows that thev are very seldom forked or
branched, therefore the plant must belong either to the genus CUtocyhc
or the genus Flaninntla, de])ending on the color of the spores. Turning
now to our spore print we find that the spores are white and we know
that we have a Clifocybc. We now read over the descriptions and
examine the photographs of the different species of Clifocybc and

439

easily determine that this orange-colored one is Clitocybc illndens and
is not edible.

It must not be supposed that this key to the genera is in any sense
complete. It includes all the genera represented in this article, and
a few others, but in order to make it as little complex as possible a
considerable number of less common genera have been left out.

440

The; Peppery Lactarius (Edibee)
Lactarius piperatus Fries

The genus name Lactarius is derived from the word lac meaning
milk, and the species name piperatus is derived from the word piper
meaning pepper. The name is very appropriate for this mushroom, for
whenever any portion of the cap, especially the gills, is wounded, there
exudes from the wound an abundance of milky juice which is very
peppery to the taste.

Lactarius piperatus is usually the commonest species of the genus.
It occurs on the ground in woods from July to October, and is a
readily distinguished species.

The cap is at first convex, then expanded and somewhat depressed
in the middle, and when fully mature it may be funnel-shaped. It is
entirely white, smooth, even on the margin, and ciuite regular in shape.
The cap is usually from 5 to 15 cm. (2 to 6 inches) broad.

The gills are very narrow and very much crowded. They are
white or cream color and are attached to the stem, either adnate or
decurrent. The gills are unequal in length and some of them are
forked. The abundant white milk does not change color on exposure
to the air. The gills, however, are sometimes spotted with yellow.
The spores are white.

The stem is solid, smooth, and white. It is cylindrical or somewhat
tapering downward, and from 2.5 to 5 cm. (i to 2 inches) long.
There is no ring and no volva.

Many people are afraid of this species because of its peppery taste.
This c{uality entirely disappears with cooking, however, and the plant
is perfectly harmless although it is not a general favorite with mush-
room eaters. The following interesting paragraphs are ciuoted from
Mcllvaine :

"L. piperatus is a readily distinguished species. It is very com-
mon. In 1 88 1, after an extensive forest fire in the West Virginia
forests, I saw miles of the blackened district made white by a growth
of this fungus. It was the phenomenal growth which first attracted
my attention to toadstools. I collected it then in quantity and used it,
with good results, as a fertilizer on impoverished ground.

"It has been eaten for many years in most countries, yet a few
writers continue to warn against it. It is the representative fungus
of its class — meaty, coarse, fair flavor. It is edible and is good food
when one is hungrv and cannot get better. It is best used as an ab-
sorbent of gravies."

Collected in Jackson and Union counties.

441

PI.ATK LXXXVII

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442

The Orange-brown Lactarius (EdibeE)
Lactarius voleiiius Fries

Lactarius volcuius is a common and widely distributed species
whicli often is c|uite abundant. It grows in damp woods from July to
September, and when one specimen is found others are likely to be
found near by. It grows under the same conditions and often along
with Lactarius pipcratus. The ground in the woods on the sandstone
hillsides of Union and Jackson counties was fairly covered with these
two species during the early part of July, 191 6. This plant contains
an abundance of white milky juice which flows out rapidly and falls
from the plant in drops whenever the cap, gills, or stem are wounded.
Unlike the milk of Lactarius pipcratus, this is not at all bitter but is
quite pleasant to the taste. It becomes cjuite sticky as it dries.

The cap is 5 to 12 cm. (2 to 5 inches) broad, at first convex, then
expanded and plane, or with a slight elevation at the center. Old
plants are sometimes depressed at the center. The surface is smooth
or wrinkled. The color varies from dull orange to brown. The flesh
is white, and (|uite thick and firm.

The gills are close together, white or sometimes yellowish, and
attached scpiarely to the stem or slightlv decurrent on it. The spores
are white.

The stem is 3 to 10 cm. ( i to 4 inches) long, solid, hard, and
often curved. The stem is colored like the cap but lighter. There
is no ring and no volva.

This mushroom has long been known as an edible one and is con-
sidered excellent.

Collected in lackson and Union counties.

443

PI.ATK LXXXVIII

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444

The Green Russuea (Edible)
Riissitla z'ircsccus Fries

The green Russula occurs on the ground in the woods or some-
times in pastures or clearings that have never been plowed, but al-
ways in the vicinity of trees.

The cap is 5 to 10 cm. (2 to 4 inches) broad, at first nearly round,
then convex, and finally flat. In old specimens it is often depressed
in the middle. It is usually dry, rather thick and firm, but cjuite
brittle so that it is very easily broken. The surface is green — a shade
of green that reminds one of green cheese — with more or less regular,
somewhat angular patches of a deeper green. The color is usually
more pronounced toward the center of the cap, the center often being
cjuite dark green and the color fading out toward the margin, which
may be yellowish white. Occasionally specimens are found which have
very little of the green color, this being replaced by yellowish white.
In mature specimens the margin of the cap is somewhat striate. The
taste of the raw flesh is mild and pleasant.

The gills are white, rather thin and narrow, and crowded. They
are nearly free from the stem though usually not quite. Some of
them are forked and others not, and there are usually some shorter
ones intermixed with the others. The gills are very brittle, being easily
broken to pieces. The spores are white.

The stem is stout and usually shorter than the diameter of the cap.
It is smooth, white, and solid at first, but usually becoming spongy.
There is no ring and no volva.

This mushroom usually occurs singly though several may occur
very close together. It should be looked for during July and August.
It is a great favorite with squirrels and slugs, and the tortoise is .said
also to appreciate its sweet, nutty flavor. I consider it one of the best
and most delicious of edible species.

Collected in Champaign and Union counties.

445

PI.ATE LXXXIX

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446

The; S1.1GHT1.Y I1.1.-SMEL1.1XG RussuLA (Not Edibi^e;)
Riissitla foctcntula Peck

This mushroom iisuall_y occurs in the woods, often among fallen
leaves, though I have found occasional specimens under trees on lawns.
The specimens from which the accompanying photograph was made
were collected among white oak trees in the "forestry", an artificial
wood-lot on the campus of the University of Illinois.

This species is very easily recognized. The cap is nearly spherical
at first, but when fully expanded is flat or somewhat depressed in the
middle. It is rather thin, smooth but cjuite viscid, and conspicuously
striate on the margin. The color is reddish yellow. The odor is like
that of bitter almonds, and the taste is slightly bitter. The cap is
4 to 8 cm. (1.5 to 3 inches) broad.

The gills are thin and narrow and quite close together. They are
attached to the stem but sometimes are very nearly free from it, and
are whitish in color but not pure white. The spores are very pale
yellow when collected in mass.

The stem is firm and smooth and often hollow. It is white or
yellowish white in color but is usually stained with reddish brown
spots at the base. The stem is usually from 2.5 to 5 cm. ( i to 2
inches) long. There is no ring and no volva.

R. foctcntula was described by Dr. Peck in 1906 from specimens
collected in New York. It seems not to have been found commonly
elsewhere but it is common at Urbana and undoubtedly it occurs in
other parts of the state as well. It may be looked for from the middle
of June until late in August. It usually occurs singly, that is, not in
dense clusters, although a considerable number of specimens may be
found on a very small area.

An interesting thing al)out this mushroom is that it forms ecto-
trophic mycorrhizas (see page 424) on the roots of the white oak
{Oucrcus alba). The genus Riissitla contains a large number of
species all of which produce their fruit bodies during the summer, and
it is probable that a number of them are capable of producing my-
corrhizas. R. foctcntula, however, is only the second one of the genus
to be definitely reported as a mycorrhiza-former.

This species is not poisonous but it is not classed as edible because
it has not only a disagreeable odor but a disagreeable taste as well,
and would spoil the taste of any other mushrooms with which it might
be cooked.

Collected in Champaign county.

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448

The Spring Amanita (Poisonous)
Amanita z'crna Bull.

This mushroom is deadly poison. It has probably caused more
deaths in this country than any other one species and possibly more
than all other poisonous species together. This, together with the
pure white color of the plant, has won for it the name "the destroying
angel".

The whole plant is pure white. The cap is smooth, ovate at first
and then expanded, and somewhat sticky when moist. It is from 2.5
to 10 cm. ( I to 4 inches) broad. The margin is smooth. The gills
are free from the stem. The spores are white and very abundant.

The stem is smooth, often hollow or merely stuffed, and from 5
to 20 cm. (2 to 8 inches) long. It is usually bulbous at the base. The
ring forms a broad collar high uj) on the stem. Nearly mature speci-
mens are often found with the inner veil still stretched from the stem
to the margin of the cap, thus completely covering the gills, but
eventually it is torn away from the cap and falls loosely about the
stem to form the broad collar. The volva is very conspicuous, with
a prominent free edge, and hugs the bulbous base of the stem rather
closely.

This very attractive appearing mushroom usually occurs in the
woods and sometimes is quite common. It should be very carefully
learned and as carefully avoided when collecting mushrooms for the
table. It may be found thoughout the season from May to November.

The active poison in this and closely related species is not well
understood and no antidote for it is known. The symptoms of poi-
soning when specimens of this mushroom have been eaten are practi-
cally always the same. No discomfort is felt until six to fifteen hours
have passed, when the patient is suddenly seized with a severe abdom-
inal pain, crami)-like in character and accompanied by vomiting. Pe-
riods of pain and vomiting alternate with periods of remission, and
loss of strength is very rapid. Death usually occurs in four to six
days in children and eight to ten davs in adults, but if large quanti-
ties of the fungus have been eaten death may occur within forty-eight
hours. There is no satisfactorv method of treatment. Medical advice
should be obtained as soon as possible and every effort made to rid the
alimentary canal of the poisonous material, but the absorption of the
poison takes place so rapidly that even when the first symptoms appear
it may be too late to save the patient. Stimulants should be employed
freely in the hope of tiding the patient over the periods of weakness,
and narcotics should be used to relieve the intense pain. Atropin has
no effect at all on this poison and should not be depended on.

Collected in Champaign and Union counties.

Anianita phnlloidcs, also poisonous, is closelv related to A. I'cnia
and is very much like if except that the cap is dark colored.

449
PI.ATE XCI

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450

The Bootkd Amanita (Poisoxous)
Auianita cotliiirnata Atkinson

The booted Amanita is a very pretty plant and occurs from August
to October. It seems to prefer hills and highlands, or mountainous
regions. The specimens from which the photograph was made were
found on the higher land northeast of Crystal Lake Park, Urbana.

The pileus is fleshy but quite thin, at first nearly globose, then
hemispherical to convex, and finally expanded. When specimens are
very old the margin may be elevated. The pileus is usually white,
though specimens may be found which are yellowish or tawny olive
in the center. It is quite sticky when moist, and is covered with
numerous, white, floccose scales which may wash off in heavy rains.
The margin is finely striate. The pileus is from 5 to 15 cm. (2 to 6
inches) broad.

The gills are free, rounded next to the stem, and quite remote
from it. They are always white. The edge of the gills is sometimes
eroded or frazzly. The spores are white and very abundant.

The stem is cylindrical, even, and bulbous at the base. The volva
is adnate to the bull), but just above the bulb the stem is margined by
a roll of the volva, and this often looks as if it had been sewed at the
top like the rolled edge of a garment. The stem is usually hollow
even when quite young, and the surface is floccose, scaly, or sometimes
nearly smooth. The ring is thin and membranous, and is usually a
little above the middle of the stem. The stem is 5 to 15 cm. (2 to 6
inches) long.

The plant is very poisonous and sometimes occurs quite abundantly,
but with the aid of the photograph and description here given, there
should be no difficulty in distinguishing it from any edible species.

Atropin is a natural physiological antidote for the poison (mus-
carin) which occurs in this and several closely related species. When
specimens of this mushroom have been eaten, the first signs of trouble
are likely to appear in from one to five hours. The patient will show
excessive perspiration and respiration accompanied by vomiting. Atro-
pin should be given at once, by a physician, and in large doses, while
at the same time every effort should be made to free the alimentary
canal of the poisonous material. While poisoning by this mushroom
is often fatal, yet it is not hopeless, and prompt action should in most
cases save the patient.

Collected in Champaign county.

451
Plate XCII

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452

The W'arted Amanita (Poisonous)
Amanita solitaria Bull.

Amanita solitaria is a very variable species whioh is widely dis-
tributed. It often occurs solitary, as its name implies, though not al-
ways. It grows sometimes in open woods, sometimes in grassy places,
and the specimens from which the accompanying photograph was made
grew on bare sand in the southeastern part of Kankakee county, Illi-
nois. The forms which occur in these various habitats are so different
that they have often been described as different species, but they all
agree in having the stem elongated below into a root-like base and
in being more or less scaly.

The cap when fully expanded is 5 to 15 cm. (2 to 6 inches) broad.
In the button stage it is nearlv spherical and as it opens up it becomes
hemispherical, then convex, and finally nearly flat. It is usually white
or nearly so. The surface is always somewhat scaly and may be very
much so. The scales are sometimes large and pointed and close to-
gether, so that the cap resembles a pine cone. These large scales rub off
easily and stick to the hands when the plant is handled, or they may be
washed off by rains. In other jjlants the scales are smaller and in
some cases are reduced to mere granules, or to flat i)atches. The flesh
is white and has rather a strong odor.

The gills are white, free from the stem or attached to it by the
upper angle, rather narrow, and (juite close together. The spores are
white.

The .stem is 5 to 20 cm. (2 to 8 inches) long, sometimes enlarged
toward the base, and usually rooting deep in the soil. The surface
of the stem may be smooth or mealy, or scaly like the cap.

The ring is white. It is near the top of the stem and is quite
fragile so that it is often much torn. Sometimes the inner veil, in-
stead of forming a ring, is torn off from the stem and clings to the
margin of the cap, or it may disappear entirely.

The volva is white and fragile so that it often breaks up and
disappears.

Amanita solitaria has been reported as edible by a number of
authors, but a small quantity of the deadly Amanita toxin, the same
poison that is present in Anmnita vcrna, has been found in this plant.
For this reason it should by all means be classed as poisonous and
should never be eaten.

Collected in Kankakee county.

453
Plate XCIII

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454

The Sheathed Amanitopsis (Edibee)
Anianitopsis vaginata (Bull.) Roz,

This mushroom occurs in the woods or in groves under trees and
is quite common. Occasionally it occurs in open pastures or stubble-
fields. It is edible, but there is a very poisonous species of Aniaiiita,
Amanita spreta, which looks very much like this mushroom except
that the Amanita has a ring on the stem and the Amanitopsis has not.
For this reason no one should eat Anianitopsis vaginata until he is
very thoroughly familiar with it, especially since the ring of Amanita
spreta occasionally is lost, in which case the plant looks very much
like Anmnitopsis.

The cap of Anianitopsis vaginata is from 3 to 8 cm. ( i to 3
inches) broad, at first bell-shaped but finally expands until it is nearly
flat. The margin is thin and deeply striate, that is, it is marked by
conspicuous furrow's and ridges. The color of the surface may be
gray, mouse-color, brown, yellowish, or white, but the flesh is always
white.

The gills are white or whitish and free from the stem, and the
spores are white.

The stem is cylindrical, tapering upward somewhat, but not bulb-
ous at the base, and is from 8 to 15 cm. (3 to 6 inches) long. The
stem may be smooth or covered with small scales or downy particles.
Sometimes in dry weather the outer layer of the stem splits in such
a way as to form large scales. The stem is either hollow or stuffed
with a cottony pith. There is no ring. The volva is thin and fragile
but prominent. It forms a large close sheath about the cylindrical
base of the stem but is free from the stem except at the lower portion.
If the plant is pulled up instead of being dug, the volva is very likely
to be pulled off and remain in the ground, in which case the plant
might easily be mistaken for some mushroom which lacks a volva.

Amanitopsis vaginata is a very pretty plant and some mushroom-
eaters are very fond of it. The whole plant is very fragile and brittle
and the flesh is thin, and since there is some danger of mistaking it
for poisonous species of Amanita I do not recommend it. It may be
found from June to November.

Collected in Champaign, Jackson, and Union counties.

455
Pi.AT^ XCIV

Amanitopsis vaginata. Edible.

456

The Silky Volvaria (Edible)
Volvaria boiubycina (Pers.) Fries

This beautiful mushroom is likely to be found in any locality, al-
though usually not manv specimens are found at a time. It grows on
decaying wood of logs, stumps, wounded trees, etc. It occurs most
frequently on maple and box-elder but occasionally it is found on
oak, beech, and other trees. It may be looked for from June to Octo-
ber but it is more likely to be found during the latter part of this pe-
riod. This is a very large and very attractive mushroom, occurring
usually. onlv one in a place, but sometimes two or more growing close
together.

The cap is from 5 to 20 cm. (2 to 8 inches) broad, at first globose,
then bell-shaped and finally convex. It is of a beautiful wdiite color
and the entire surface is covered with numerous silky hairs which
stand out in the form of soft down. In older specimens the surface
mav become more or less scaly and may finally become smooth at the
apex. The flesh is white and not very thick.

The gills are free from the stem, crowded close together, very
broad along the middle, and flesh-colored. They are often toothed or
ragged along the edge and do not extend (|uite to the margin of the
cap. The spores are rosy pink in mass.

The stem is 7 to 15 cm. (3 tO' 6 inches) long, white in color, solid
and smooth, and tapers evenly from the base to the top. When the
mushroom grows on the top of a log the stem is straight, l)ut if it
grows on the side of a stum[) or tree-trunk the stem cur\es in such a
way as to bring the cap into a horizontal position.

There is no ring but there is a volva. In this respect the genus
Volvaria corresponds with the genus Ainanitopsis, but it differs from
that genus in the color of the spores. The volva is very large and
thick and is usually somewhat sticky. The genus name Volvaria,
which means a wrapper, was originally gi\en to this plant because
of the large bag-like volva.

Collected in Champaign county.

457
PI.ATI5 XCV

Volvaria homhycina. Edible.

458

The Greex-gili. Mushroom (Poisonous)
Lepiota Morgani Peck

This is one of the largest and handsomest of mushrooms. It oc-
curs in pastures and other open grassy places or in gardens and is
sometimes cjuite abundant. It may be looked for from June to Octo-
ber, and will be found very easy to recognize. It often forms well-
marked fairy rings a rod or more in diameter.

The cap is from lo to 30 cm. (4 to 12 inches) broad, rather soft
and fleshy, nearly globose at first, then expanded and sometimes de-
pressed in the middle. The predominant color of the cap is white, but
it is ccjvered by a brownish cuticle which l)reaks up into scales except
at the center. The flesh of both the cap and the stem is white, but
when it is cut or bruised it changes to reddish and then to yellowish.

The gills are close together, quite broad, and entirely free from
the stem. They are at first white, but when mature they are green.
The spores are green when they are first shed but after exposure to
the light for some time they gradually become yellow.

The stem is firm, cylindrical but more or less bulbous at the base,
or sometimes tapering slightly upwards, and smooth. It is whitish
but tinged with brown, and is from 15 to 20 cm. (6 to 8 inches) long.
The ring is rather large and conspicuous and is usually movable on
the stem. There is no volva.

This plant is not closely related to any other Lepiotas. It merely
happened to be placed in this genus because there is no green-spored
group and therefore no place for it. It is perhaps unfortunate that
it was placed here for it has given a bad reputation to a really very
dependable genus. Many people are afraid to eat any Lepiotas be-
cause they have heard that Lepiota Morgani is poisonous, but, in
truth, there are no common species of Lepiota other than this one that
are not perfectly safe, and the only shadow upon the good name of
the genus has been cast by this green-spored mushroom which prob-
ably ought not to be in this genus at all.

It is said that some persons can eat Lepiota Morgani with perfect
safety, but since it is poisonous to some it should be carefully avoided.

Collected in Champaign county.

459
Plate XCVI

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4G0

The; Crested Lepiota (Edibee)
Lcpiota crisfata A. & S.

The crested Lepiota is a small plant, but it is conimun and often
occurs very abundantly. It is found in the woods under trees, usually
among dead leaves, and is often especially al)undant along the borders
of woods and in other grassy but somewhat shaded places. It occurs
either in clusters or scattered, and may be looked for from May to
September.

The pileus is somewhat flesh}- but rather thin, at first l^ell-shaped
or convex, then expanded and nearly plane. The surface is at first
entirelv dull reddish or reddisli I)rown, l)ut the cuticle soon l)reaks up
into reddish or reddish brown scales, and the background of the sur-
face is then white. The scales are often arranged in a concentric man-
ner. They are far apart at the margin and progressively more numer-
ous toward the center. The center of the cap remains smooth and
uniformly reddish brown because it does not expand so much at this
point and therefore does not crack. This gi\es the cap a crested ap-
pearance. The cap is from 1.5 to 4 cm. (.5 to 1.5 inches) broad.

The gills are white, and free from the stem but quite close to it.
They are narrow and crowded close together. The spores are white.

The stem is whitish, slender, cylindrical, and hollow. It is usually
smooth but sometimes has silky fibers on it, and is from 2.5 to 5 cm.
(i to 2 inches) long. The ring is small and white and sometimes
breaks up and disappears. There is no volva. The white mycelium
is often quite conspicuous and may be traced for three inches or more
from the base of the stem.

This plant has a rather strong odor which is somewhat offensive ;
when cof^ked it is of good consistencv and is sweet and pleasing to the
taste. Although it is a verv small mushroom, when it can be found
in abundance it is well worth collecting.

Collected in Champaign and \\"abash counties.

461

Plate XCVII

462

The Graixy Lepiota (Edible)
Lcpiota granulosa Batsch

This is a small mushroom which occurs abundantly in the woods
and in waste places during damp warm weather from August to
October.

The cap is 1.5 to 6 cm. (.5 to 2.5 inches) broad, at first convex
but becoming nearly plane, and sometimes has a slight elevation in
the middle. The surface of the cap is made rough by numerous granu-
lar or bran-like scales and is often radiately wrinkled. The color is
rusty yellow or reddish brown l)ut becomes paler with age. The flesh
is white or sometimes tinged with red.

The gills are close together, rounded at the end next to the stem,
and close to the stem. They are nearly free from the stem but usually
appear slightly attached to it, dilTering in this respect from most
Lepiotas since it is characteristic of the genus to have the gills en-
tirely free from the stem. The spores are white.

The stem is 2.5 to 6 cm. ( i to 2.5 inches) long, cylindrical or
sometimes slightly thickened at the base. It is smooth and wdiite above
the ring, l)ut l)elow the ring it is colored and covered with granular
scales like the cap. The ring is very slight, being little more than the
abrupt termination of the scaly covering of the stem, and sometimes
it disappears entirely. There is no volva.

There is a variety of this plant which is pure white at first, later
partly turning red, and when dried becoming entirely red-tinged.
There is also a variety which persistently remains pure white.

Although this is a small species a considerable number of individ-
uals are often found on a small area, and since they are quite fleshy
for their size and are of pleasing quality, they are well worth collect-
ing when they can be found in any abundance. It is best to remove
the stems and use only the caps.

Collected in Champaign county.

463

Plate XCVIII

si

464

The Smooth Leptota (Kdibee)
Lc/^iofa iiaiiciiia Fries

This beautiful and excellent niushrooni occurs in grassy places
such as pastures, along roadsides, and sometimes on lawns, from June
to November, but is usually most abundant during the latter part of
the summer. In some years it is extremely abundant, while in others
it is rather scarce. I have seen acres of ground white with it where
for several vears previouslv only occasional specimens had been found.
Manv people are afraid of this mushroom because of its minor re-
semljlances to some of the poisonous Amanitas, but when one once
becomes familiar with the characters and appearance of the plant there
is no reason for making a mistake in collecting it.

The cap is soft but very fleshy and thick. It is at first globose,
then expanded and nearly flat or with a blunt umbo or elevation in
the center. The surface is smooth and snowy white or smoky white,
and the flesh is thick and white. The cap is 5 to 10 cm. (2 to 4 inches)
broad and usually very regular in shape.

The gills are somewhat crowded and entirely free from the stem.
Thev are pure white or sometimes pinkish brown in very old speci-
mens. The spores are white.

The stem is white, smooth or with fine fibers on its surface, en-
larged at the base and tapering somewhat upward. It is from 5 to
10 cm. (2 to 4 inches) long. The ring is rather thin and delicate but
distinct and conspicuous. It is sometimes lost in old specimens, but
usually some remnants of it can be ffumd. There is no volva.

This mushroom can l)e used in any way in which the common cul-
tivated mushroom is used and will be foimd just as good. It probably
could be cultivatetl for market just as profitably as is Agariciis ccnu-
pcstris and its appearance is even more inviting. Its taste even when
uncooked is mild and i)leasant. The surface of the ca^) has a sort of
kid-leather texture which is unmistakal)le when one once becomes fa-
miliar with it. \e\ertheless it nnist be remembered that Lcpiota
naiiciiui reseml:)les in some respects the deadlv Amanita, and one can-
not exercise too great care in collecting and using only specimens that
can be identified with absolute certainty.

Collected in Chami)ai2fn count v.

405
Plate XCIX

466

The Meadow Mushroom (Edibee)

Agaricus cam pest r is Linn.

Agaricus cauipcstris is the common "pink-gill mushroom" that is
alwavs obtainable in the market either fresh or in cans. Some people
call this a mushroom and all others toadstools, erroneously thinking
that this is the only one that is good to eat. It is produced in culti-
vation in great quantities not only in this country but in several others,
especially France. Japan, and China. It is said that as many as 75
tons are annually produced in Chicago alone.

This mushroom occurs wild also, and is probably more widely
known and collected for food than any other. It grows in fields and
pastures and in lawns and along roadsides from July to October.

The cap is 4 to 12 cm. ( 1.5 to 5 inches) broad, at first somewhat
globular, then round-convex, and, finally, expanded and nearly flat.
The surface is at first nearly smooth but has a soft silky appearance
because of numerous loose fibers. As the mushroom becomes older
the surface sometimes liccomes more or less scaly. The color varies
from white to creamv white or light brown. The flesh is white. The
margin of the cap extends somewhat beyond the ends of the gills.

The gills are close together, free from the stem, and rounded at
the inner end. They are for some time hidden by the inner veil. When
they are first revealed by the separation of the veil they are pink in
color, but as the spores mature the gills graduallv become purple-
brown or blackish brown. The spores are dark brown or nearly black
with a purple tinge.

The stem is 3 to 10 cm. ( i to 4 inches) long, nearly cylindrical
or tapering somewhat toward the lower end, and white or whitish in
color. The inner veil from which the ring is formed is white, silky,
and very thin and frail. Often-a part (»f it remains as fragments on
the edge of the cap, while the ring which is formed from it on the
stem is so frail that it shrivels as the mushroom matures and some-
times disappears entirely. There is no volva.

Although these mushrooms can be purchased in the market at any
time at from fifty cents to one dollar a pound, any one who will take
the trouble to learn the distinguishing characteristics of this and a few
other species can keep his table supplied throughout the growing sea-
son at a cost only of the time it takes to collect them.

Collected in Champaign county.

467

PI.ATE C

o

o

»< f;nii.

468

Thk Flat-cap Mushroom (Edible)
Agariciis l^lacoinyccs Peck

Agaricus f^lacoiiiyccs occurs in lawns, parks, and the borders of
woods from June to September. It is sometimes said to be associated
with hemlock trees, l)ut I find it abundantly at Urbana where hemlock
does not occur, and. indeed sometimes it is not associated with any
kind of tree, being found in open grassy places.

The cap is 5 to 12 cm. (2 to 5 inches) broad and rather thin. It
is at first broadly ovate, then convex, and finally, when fully expanded,
it is quite flat. In voung specimens the surface is (juite uniform brown
in color, but as the cap expands the surface layer breaks up into nu-
merous small brown scales and the ground-color then becomes white
or vellowish white except at the center, where there is always a cir-
cular patch that is nearly smooth and uniformly brown.

The gills are close together and free from the stem. They are at
first white but verv soon become pink, and when old they are blackish
l)ro\vn. The spores are l)lackish brown with a tinge of puri)le.

The stem is 5 to 15 cm. ( 2 to 6 inches) long, rather slender, some-
times hollow, and somewhat bulbous at the base. It is white or whit-
ish, luit the l)ulb is sometimes tinged with yellow. The inner veil is
quite interesting. It is double, that is, it consists of two layers, loosely
joined together by threads. In young specimens it is found stretched
from the margin of the cap to the stem. As the cap expands, the
lower layer is usually torn into quite regular radiating portions. Later
the upper portion is torn loose from the cap and the whole forms a
broad ring on the stem. There is no \'ol\a.

This is a very prettv mushroom, and while the caps are rather thin
they are of excellent flavor and can be used in any way in which the
cultivated mushroom is used.

Collected in Champaign county.

469
PI.ATE CI

470

The F1E1.D OR Horse AIushroom (Edibi^e)
Agaricus ari'cnsis Schaeff.

The field mushroom, or horse mushronm. occur? in fields or pas-
tures, or under trees on lawns, or in the horders of woods. I have
found it frec^uently on several different lawns in the city of Urbana.

The pileus is smooth and dry, the surface sometimes more or less
cracked in age, white or sometimes slightly yellowish, convex or con-
ical, bell-shaped, and finally expanded. It is 5 to 15 cm. (2 to 6
inches) broad. It is usually cjuite thick and firm.

The gills are quite crowded, free from the stem, and usually broader
toward the stem. When very young they are whitish, but as the spores
mature they become jjinkish and finally blackish brown. The spores
are dark purple-brown when viewed in mass.

The stem is stout, nearh- cylindrical or somewhat thickened at the
base, smooth, hollow or stuffed, and 5 to 12 cm. ( 2 t(j 5 inches) long.

The ring is rather large and thick and is double, that is, it con-
sists of two parts, the upper part being membranous, and the lower
part much thicker, often yellowish, and usually split radially so that
it remains as patches on the lower surface of the upper meml)rane. In
this respect the horse mushroom resembles A. silz'icola and .1. pla-
coiiiyccs, to both of which it is closely related.

When the stem is first cut there often exudes from the wound a
yellowish liquid, and the whole ])lant usuallv becomes yellowish when
dried.

This plant grows much larger than .U/aricus cam/^cstris, and will
be found delicious if used in an\- wa\- in whicli that mushroom is used.
It may be looked for from Jul\- to September. It sometimes occurs
in large fairv rings, and sometimes is found in considerable (juantities.
Even if only a few specimens are found, they may be utilized very
well by frying the caps cpiickly in a liberal supjdy of butter and serving
on pieces of hot buttered toast.

Like many other mushrooms, Agaricus ari'CJisis often seems to be
partial to the vicinity of trees, though no mycorrhizal or other con-
nection with the trees has vet been demonstrated.

Collected in Champaign county.

471

Plate CII

Co

a.

I—"

472

Thk Syi^van Mushroom (Edible)
Agaricits silz'icola Vht.

Agaricus silz'icola is a pretty and interesting" mushroom which is
very closely related to Agaricits arz'ciisis, l^ut it is not found in similar
places. It occurs mostly in the woods, though it is said to occur some-
times in groves or under trees near woods. It may be looked for from
July to October.

The cap is 5 to 15 cm. (2 to 6 inches) broad. It is convex and
ihen expanded and nearly flat, but often with a broad elevation or
umbo at the center. It is rather thin and brittle but quite fleshy. The
surface is smooth and shining white, but sometimes tinged with yel-
]<iw. and occasionally with a tinge of pink at the center. The flesh is
whitish or tinged with pink.

The gills are close together, thin, tapering somewhat toward each
end, entirely free from the stem and quite distant from it. The end
toward the stem is somewhat rounded. The gills are at first white,
l)ut they very soon become pink and then blackish brown.

The stem is rather slender in comparison with the size of the cap
and ranges from 5 to 20 cm. (4 to 8 inches) in length. It is smooth
and white, except that it is often vellowish at the lower end and often
becomes stained with yellow when dried. The stem is nearly cvlindri-
cal but is rather abrui)tly enlarged at the base int(^ a Indb. The ring
is usually thin, delicate and membranous, though sometimes it is
thicker, and is easily torn, I)ut it is broad and conspicuous and some-
times double like that of ./. arz-cnsis and A. placoiuyccs. It is either
whitish or yellowish. There is no volva.

This is a very graceful and attractive plant. It is intimately asso-
ciated with trees, although no mycorrhizal or other connection with
the trees has been discovered. It sometimes forms very perfect fairy
rings. I have seen rings of this mushroom 15 feet or more in diameter
extending around a tree in the woods, with'the tree nearly at the center.

The taste of A. silz'icola is high-flavored and spicy. It is an ex-
cellent mushroom to cook with meat and is said to be one of the best
for making catsup. For those who prefer strong flavors in mush-
rooms, it will improve a dish of anv mild-flavored species with which
it is mixed.

Collected in Champaign county.

473
Pirate CIII

a

o
si

O

t?d

o

474

Rodman's AIuspiroom (Edible)
Agariciis Roduiajii Fries

Agaricits Rodiuani is a very interesting mushroom because of its
peculiar choice of a place to grow. It occurs only along the streets
of cities, usually between the curl)ing and the walk or outside of the
curbing if the street is not paved. 1 have found it in Urbana in per-
fectly bare hard soil just outside of the wagontrack on an unpaved
street. More usually, however, it is found in grassy places. It is
usually found during May and June though occasionally it occurs also
in autumn.

The cap is at first rounded, then con\'ex, and finally nearly plane.
It is very firm and compact, thick, and heavy. The surface is smooth,
or sometimes slightly cracked at the center, and white. Occasionally
it becomes yellowish at the center. The flesh is wliite. The cap is
5 to lo cm. (2 to 4 inches) broad.

The gills are close together and narrower than in most species of
Agariciis. They are free from the stem but reach clear to it and are
rounded at that end. When very young they are white, but they soon
become pink or reddish pink aiul when old are blackish brown. The
spores are dark purple-brown.

The stem is short. 2 to 6 cm. ( i to 2.5 inches). It is solid, nearly
cylindrical, and not at all bulbous. Below the ring it is smooth and
white, but above the ring it is often scurfy or covered with mealy
scales.

The ring is very peculiar and characteristic. It is very thick and
so completely double that it appears as two distinct rings on the stem.
This is probably due to the fact that the very thick veil is at first
attached to both the inner and (juter surfaces of the edge of the cap
and when it is broken loose from the cap it remains as a double ring
on the stem. There is no volva.

The flesh of this mushroom is very firm and meaty, but it is crisp
and not at all tough and its flavor is very agreeable. It is highly prized
by some people who are familiar with its qualities.

Collected in Champaign county.

to

475
Pl^ATE CIV

■Hi

476

The Seighti^y Red Mushroom (Edible)
Agaricus subriifcsccus Peck

This is one of the prettiest of the large mushrooms. It occurs in
woods and groves from June to September. It is said to occur also
in greenhouses. According to Dr. Mcllvaine it is an easy species to
cultivate and has a number of advantages over Agaricus canipcstris
tor that purpose. It is very productive and keeps very well.

The cap is 7 to 12 cm. (3 to 5 inches) broad, at first nearly hemi-
spherical and a single specimen growing alone is usually very perfect
and regular in shape. The plant also occurs in clusters, however, and
in that case the caps are somewhat irregular from mutual pressure.
Later, as the ca^) expands, it becomes convex or somewhat flattened.
The surface is covered with numerous silky hairs and minute scales.
The color is light reddish brown. At the center the surface is usually
smooth and a little darker in color. The flesh is white and has a flavor
like that of almonds.

The gills are at first white, then pink, and finally blackish brown.
They are entirely free from the stem.

The stem is 7 to 12 cm. (3 to 5 inches) long, white, and nearly
cylindrical, but usually somewhat bull)ous at the base. The stem is
whitish, and somewhat scaly below the ring. The ring is thick and
conspicuous, and scaly on the under side. There is no volva. The
mycelium is white and often forms long root-like branches extending
into the soil from the lower end of the stem.

This is considered an excellent edible species. There seems to be
no doubt that the plants we have at Urbana are identical with those
described by Peck from New York State. Wliether they are also
identical with Agaricus silz'aticus, reported by MofTatt from the Chi-
cago region, I am not certain.

Collected in Champaign county.

477
PI.ATE CV

^

si

O

478

The Shaggy-mane Mushroom (Edible)
Coprimis coma fits Fries

The shaggy-mane nuisliroom is a handsome plant which can
scarcely l)e mistaken for anything else when one has once seen it. In
fact the photograph alone is enough to identify it. It occurs in lawns,
parks, and other grassy places, especially if the soil is richly manured.
It grows either singly or in clusters, and may he looked for in wet,
warm weather from May to late autumn. The fruit bodies grow very
ra[)idly, so that one is likely to find a basketful waiting fnr him to col-
lect them for breakfast, some ninrning in a place where there was not
a sign of any the night before.

The caj) is 5 to 15 cm. (2 to 6 inches) broad, soft-fleshy, moist,
at first oblong or cylindrical and then bell-sha[)ed, but seldom ex-
panded. As it matures it usually splits at the margin along the lines
of the gills. In very young specimens the surface is spotted with dark
Im'owu and white, due to the fact that the outer layer, which is dark
brown, is torn and separated into i)atches or scales so that the white
beneath shows l)etween them. As the cap elongates, the brown patches
become farther and farther apart, so that the mature plant is nearly
all white.

The gills are broad, free from the stem, and crowded close to-
gether. They are at first white, but when the spores begin to ripen
the gills becr)me dark, then black, and fmallv they dissolve into an
inky fluid which falls from the ca[) in drops. The spores are black.

The stem is sometimes very short but may be as much as 25 cm.
(10 inches) long, the u|)per portion being concealed within the cap.
It is nearly cylindrical, but usually tapers slightlv u[)ward, and is some-
times 1)ulbous at the base. It is hollow, brittle, smooth or with some
loose fibers on the surface, white or nearly so, and verv easilv pulled
out of the cap. The ring is thin and usually movable. In mature
plants it is apt to be found lying on the ground at the base of the stem
or it may have disappeared altogether. There is no volva.

This is a most excellent edible species. Many people consider it
much better than the cultivated mushroom. It is one of the best for
stewing or for cooking with meat.

Collected in Champaign county.

479

Plate CVI

<s>.
;^

Co

Of.

Co

a.

I— '•

480

The Ixky-cap Mushroom (Edibi^e)
Cof^rinus atraiiiciifariiis (Bull.) Fries

The inky-cap is not so pretty as the shaggy-mane, but it occurs
under much the same conditions in lawns, parks, and other grassy
places, especially if the soil has been richly manured. It grows either
singly or in clusters,' sometimes only two or three in a cluster but more
often ten to twenty or more. The growth of a large cluster of these
mushrooms exhibits consideral^le force, and will lift a very firmly
sodded soil.

The cap is 3 to 10 cm. ( i to 4 inches) broad. It is at first egg-
shaped or oval but it becomes expanded as it melts away into an inky
fluid. The cap is soft and very tender and the surface is either smooth
or scaly. The margin is usually more or less conspicuously ribbed
and often is irregul.'irlv notched. The color varies from silvery gray
to smoky brown.

The gills are broad and very close together. They are at first
creamy white, then pinkish gray, and finally they become black and
dissolve into an inky fluid. This melting away of the gills has been
shown to l)e necessary for the liberation of the spores. The spores
are black.

The stem is rather slender, 5 to 12 cm. ( 2 to 5 inches) long, hol-
low, smooth, and tapers somewhat upward. It separates from the cap
very easily. The ring is rather slight, consisting only of an irregular
elevation of threads near the base of the stem. Often it is washed off
by rains and disappears altogether.

Although this mushroom is not so attractive as the shaggy-mane,
it is more highly flavored and is considered an excellent species for
stewing. Like all species of the genus Coprimis it is very easily di-
gested. It should be cooked as soon as gathered, for its keeping quali-
ties are very poor. It ma}- be looked for after rains from May until
late in the autumn.

Collected in Champaign county.

481
PI.ATE CVII

o

"SI.

Co

c-f.
?5-

<»

^
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a

482

The Glistening Coprinus (Edible)
Copri lilts iiiicaccus (Bull.) Fries

Coprinus iiiicacciis may be found during wet weather from early
spring until frost. It occurs at the bases of trees, stumps, posts, etc.,
or in grassy places where dead roots or sticks are buried in the soil.
It is very common, and it is often possible to collect a basketful while
walking around a city block. It usually grows in dense clusters with
from ten to as many as a hundred or more in a cluster, though some-
times the plants are scattered on lawns or other grassy places.

The cap is 2 to 5 cm. ( i to 2 inches) in diameter and rather thin.
It is at first ovate, then bell-shaped, and if the weather is not too damp
it may become expanded, but in wet weather it is apt to dissolve into
an inky fluid before becoming fully expanded. It is yellowish brown
or tan in color, and the surface is marked by prominent striations ex-
tending from near the center to the margin. In young specimens the
surface also bears numerous small shining scales which glisten in the
light like particles of mica, and because of which the species name
luicaceiis is given to the plant. In older specimens these scales are apt
to disappear entirely.

The gills are narrow, crowded close together, and free from the
stem. They are at first whitish, then darker, and finally black. In
damp weather they dissolve into an inky fluid but in dry weather they
often remain intact and 1)ecome dry. The spores are black or some-
times dark brown.

The stem is 3 to 10 cm. (i to 4 inches) long, rather slender and
fragile, and hollow. It is nearly cylindrical in shape and smooth or
somewhat silky on the surface. The ring is of the same type as that
of Coprinus atranicntarius, but it is very delicate and easily lost, so
that it is seldom seen except in very young specimens that have not
been washed by rains. There is no volva.

All species of the genus Coprinus are very easily digestible, and
the glistening Coprinus has been said to be the mo.st easily digestible
mushroom that grows.

Collected in Champaign and ^^^abash counties.

483
Plate CVIII

Ci

a
o

Co

a.
ct;

484

The SroTTED Coprixus (Edibee)
Copriiius cbiilbosiis Peck

This handsome plant occurs in the woods on and around decaying
stumps and logs from May to October. It grows in large clusters and
its numerous spotted caps give it a very striking appearance when
one comes upon it suddenly on stepping over a rotten log or passing
around a decaying stump. It is a common mushroom and often is
very abundant.

The cap is 2 to 7 cm. (i to 3 inches) broad, at first ovate, then
bell-shaped, and sometimes expanded, but it usually dissolves into an
inky fluid. It is fleshy but rather thin and fragile. In very young
specimens the surface is uniformly brownish or straw-color, but the
outer layer very soon breaks up into large, irregular scales or patches,
exposing the smooth white surface of the cap and giving it the spotted
appearance.

The gills are broad, crowded close together, and free from the
stem. They are at first white or bluish white, then brown, and finally
black, soon dissolving into an inky fluid. The spores are black.

The stem is 7 to 12 cm. (3 to 5 inches) long, nearly cylindrical,
or tapering slightly upward. It is hollow and brittle, smooth, or
nearly so, and white on the surface, and usually has white branching
strands of mycelium extending from the base. The ring is slight like
that of Coprinus afraiucufarius, to which this species is closely related.
There is no volva.

Coprinus ebulbosiis is perhaps not quite so good as C. atramentarius
but it is very good and well worth collecting. All coprini will be
found very good if prepared in the same way as fried oysters.

Collected in Champaign county.

485

PI.ATE CIX

Co
Ob

O

Co

486

The Fawx-colored Peuteus (Edibee)
Pint cits ccrz'iinis Schaeff.

Plutcus cervinus is a very common and widely distril^uted mush-
room which occurs from early spring until late autumn. It occurs on
logs, stumps, etc., and also on the ground where roots or decaying
wood is buried. Often successive crops are found in the same place
week after week throughout the growing season. The plant is said
to occur also on old sawdust piles.

The cap is 5 to 15 cm. (2 to 6 inches) broad, at first bell-shaped,
then convex, and finally nearly flat. It is fleshy but quite fragile. The
color and character of the surface are very variable. It is usually
smooth or with only a few loose fibers, Init sometimes the central
portion is covered with minute hairs. In wet weather the surface is
often somewhat sticky. The color varies from light brown to black-
ish brown, but occasionally specimens are found that are yellowish or
even white. The flesh is white.

The gills are l)road, close together but not greatly crowded, and
free from the stem. They are at first white but become flesh-colored
or pink as the spores mature. The spores are light pink.

The stem is 7 to 15 cm. (3 to 6 inches) long, solid and firm ])ut
rather brittle, and tapers slightly upward. It is usually white, with
dark fibers or streaks on the surface, but sometimes it is colored like
the cap. The stem is very easily removed from the cap. There is no
ring and no volva. When the plant grows from the side of a stump
or log the stem is apt to be curved in such a wav as to bring the cap
into a horizontal position.

Plutcus ccrz'iuus is one of the earliest of the larger mushrooms and
is also one of the best. It is a great favorite on mv own table. Fried
in butter and served hot on toast it is delicious.

Collected in Champaign, Jackson, and Union counties.

487
Pirate: CX

^

Co

I— '•

488

Thi; H0NEY-C01.0RED Mushroom (Edibi^e;)
Armillaria mcllea Vahl.

AniiiUaria uicUca is a very common and widely distributed mush-
room which occurs in late summer and autumn. It grows at the bases
of stumps and dead trees or from buried roots or from the living roots
of trees. It is usually found in clusters, the number of individuals in
eacli varying from a few to very many. It is a very variable species,
so that the description of any one specimen is not likely to apply very
well to the next specimen found, and a beginner is apt to collect a
half-dozen specimens of this plant from different places and think he
has as many species ; yet the plant has an individuality which, when
one is once familiar with it, is not likely to be mistaken in any of its
forms.

The cap is 3 to 10 cm. ( i to 4 inches) broad, oval or convex at
first and then nearly flat, but usually with a slight elevation in the cen-
ter. The color varies from honey-color to nearly white, or it may be
yellowish or reddish brown. Usually the central portion is adorned
wath erect, pointed, brown or black scales, while the margin is free
from scales but is striate, especially in old specimens. Occasionally
however, the entire cap is smooth. The flesh is white or whitish.

The gills are attached to the stem either scjuarely (adnate) or ex-
tending down the stem (decurrent). They are at first white, but,
when older, are often stained with brown or rust-colored spots. The
spores are white and very abundant.

The stem is 3 to 15 cm. ( i to 6 inches) long, and smooth or some-
what scaly. It is somewhat elastic and spongy or hollow within. The
color is as variable as that of the cap, but the stem is usually some-
what darker toward the base. The ring is also very variable. It may
be quite thick and persistent or very thin and membranous, and some-
times it disappears entirely. There is no volva. The mycelium often
forms rope-like strands which are at first white but later become dark
colored. They can usually be found by digging carefully where the
fruit bodies are growing.

This mushroom is sometimes a serious parasite on the roots of
trees. It is not ranked among the best of edible species because it is
somewhat tough and not very high-flavored. The caps are meaty,
however, and when chopped into small pieces they make good patties
and croc|uettes. They are also useful for seasoning the gravies of
various meats.

Collected in Champaign county.

TO
Si

a.

f— «•

cr

CD

489
Plate CXI

y

f

vc-

/

490

The Hard Phoeiota (Edible)
Plwliota dura Bolt.

Pholiota dura occurs from May to October in pastures, lawns,
parks, and other grassy places, and sometimes is quite common. The
best time to look for it is during or after a few days cf rainy weather.

The cap is 3 to 10 cm. ( i to 4 inches) broad. It is fleshy but firm,
at first convex, then expanded and nearly flat or sometimes with an
elevation at the center. The surface is at first even and smooth or
nearly so, and often moist but not sticky. Later the surface becomes
cracked into irregular patches. The color is whitish, though not a
clear white, being tinged with yellow or tan. In mature specimens the
margin is often turned upward.

The gills are attached to the stem either sc[uarely or with a short
tooth extending down the stem. They are quite broad and close to-
gether, and unequal in length, that is, short ones are interspersed
among the longer ones. They are at first creamy white, then rusty
brown, but with the edge often remaining white. The edge of the
gills is often serrate or toothed. The spores are rusty brown in mass.

The stem is 5 to 10 cm. (2 to 4 inches) broad, rather slender,
usually hollow, whitish or flesh-color, and smooth or nearly so. The
stem is usually nearly straight, but sometimes in very wet weather the
cap becomes too heavy for the stem and bends it over. Later, as it
dries out, the response to gravitv causes the stem to grow in such a
way as to bring the cap into a horizontal position. If this is repeated
several times, because of subsequent showers, the stem may have very
peculiar crooks and curves.

In young specimens the inner veil is stretched from the stem to the
margin of the cap. When it breaks it either tears away from the cap
and forms a very definite ring on the stem, or it tears away from the
stem and remains clinging to the margin of the cap, thus forming no
ring at all. There is no \'olva.

Pholiota praccox, in which the surface of the cap remains smooth,
is very closelv related to this species. Both are good to eat.

Collected in Champaign county.

491
Pirate CXII

492

Thk Scaly Pholiota (Edibi^e;)
Phuliota squarrusa Bull.

This handsome and conspicuous mushroom occurs in small or large
clusters on the trunks uf trees, stumps, etc. or on the ground where
there are buried roots or other decaying wood. It is often c|uite com-
mon and may be looked for from jidy to December, though it is
usually not abundant until after the middle of August. It is easily
identitied and can cjften be seen from a considerable distance, especially
in the latter part of the season after the leaves have fallen.

The cap is 3 to 12 cm. (1 t(^ 5 inches) broad, fleshy, convex to
bell-shaped and then flattened, or sometimes with the margin upturned,
and usual!}- with a prominent elcAation at the center. The surface is
dry, and the ground-color- is yellowish or rusty but covered bv' numer-
ous persistent dark brown scales. The flesh is rather thin, quite com-
pact, and pale yellow in color.

The gills are rather narrow, close together, attached t(j the stem
and with a tooth decurrent on the stem. They are at first yellowish
or olive and later become rusty brown. The spores are rust-color.

The stem is 7 to 20 cm. (3 to 8 inches) long, nearlv cylindrical
but often tapering to a rather small base. The color is the same as
that of the cap and the stem is clothed with scales, like those of the
cap, up as far as the ring. The ring is near the top of the stem, downy
and sometimes ragged, and of the same color as the scales. There is
no volva.

The odor of this plant is sometimes rather disagreeable, but in
some specimens it is scarcely noticeable. The taste of the young caps
is sweet and mealv. As thev Ijecome more mature thev are less pala-
table, and should be used, therefore, when young. The young cap'^
when cooked are of excellent flavor.

Collected in Champaign county.

493
Plate CXIII

o

Gj

ro

i^

^'^A

i W^.

494

The Parasitic Stropharia (Ediblk)
StropJiaria cpiiiiyccs (Peck) Atkinson

There is some dispute as to what is the correct name for this very
interesting mushroom, but the dispute can scarcely be settled until
some one makes a thorough study of the development of the fruit
bodies, and for the present, therefore, the above name will serve as
well as any.

This plant is usually not very common but it has occured abun-
dantly during the seasons of 1914 and 191 5 in the vicinity of Urbana.
It is of especial interest because it is parasitic on the shaggy-mane
mushroom {Coprinus coniatus). It has also been reported as occur-
ing on the inky-cap mushroom {Coprimis atrmnentarius) . The host
plant is so deformed that it requires careful observation to determine
to what species it belongs. It is usually irregularly top-shaped with
the center deeply depressed, and the parasitic Stropharia grows from
the bottom of this depression. It occurs either singly or in clusters,
and may be looked for whenever and wherever the shaggy-mane or
the inky-cap occurs.

The cap is 2 to 7 cm. (i to 3 inches) broad, at first rounded, then
convex, and finally expanded, fleshy, thin at the margin, but ciuite
thick toward the center. The color is dirty white, sometimes becoming
darker with age, and the surface is covered with numerous downy
scales. Fragments of the inner veil are often found hanging to the
margin of the cap.

The gills are attached to the stem but ha\c a tendency to break
away from it at maturity. They are at first gray, then dark brown.
The spores are blackish with a purplish tinge.

The stem is 3 to 8 cm. ( i to 3 inches) long, fleshy, soft, and col-
ored like the cap. The ring is near the base of the stem and is very
delicate, sometimes scarcely noticeable. There is no volva.

This is an excellent edible species. The taste is exactly like that
of the mushroom on which it grows. For this reason, any one who
is fond of the fla\'or of the shaggy-mane and yet prefers his mush-
rooms plain-fried, may consider himself very fortunate if he finds the
parasitic Stropharia, since the coprini are not firm enough to fry nicely
while Stropharia cpiiiiyccs is.

Collected in Champaign count v.

495
Plate CXIV

0<5

h- !•

W
>—•
CO

496

The Semigi^obose; Stropharia (Edibee)
SfroMuiria sciiiiglohafa Batsch

This is a common and widely distributed mushroom. It grows on
dung and on the ground on rich lawns, pastures, and other grassy-
places which have been recently manured, and may be looked for dur-
ing wet weather from April to November. The plants are usually
scattered, but sometimes grow in clusters, and occasionally two or
three may be found joined together at the base.

The cap is i to 7 cm. (.5 to 3 inches) broad. In the smaller speci-
mens the cap is almost perfectly hemispherical; in larger specimens
it is more nearly flat. It is smooth but sticky when moist. It is rather
thin at the margin I)ut thicker and fleshy at the center, and the color
is usually light vellow though occasionally it is nearly wdiite or ciuite
dark.

The gills are very Ijroad and are attached squarely against the stem.
They become nearly black but are sometimes more or less mottled with
lighter and darker spots. The spores are blackish purple.

The stem is 3 to 12 cm. (i to 5 inches) long, slender and hollow-
but firm, cylindrical, straight, sometimes slightly l)ull)ous at the base,
smooth, but sometimes stickv. The color is usually yellow-ish, but
like that of the cap it varies from whitish to quite dark, and is often
powdered with the dark spores. The ring is somewhat above the
middle of the stem and when moist it is sticky or gummy. There is
no volva.

The variation in size of this plant is quite remarkable. If one who
does not know the plant were to find only the largest and the smallest
specimens shown in the photograph he would scarcel}- think them be-
longing to the same species, but with the whole series before us it is
easy to see that thev are really all the same.

Although this mushroom has never become very popular for table
use, the caps, when cooked, are really very good.

Collected in Champaign county.

497
Plate CXV

O

o

498

The ^\'HITE Trichoeoma (Edible)
Tricholouia albiini Schaeff.

This mushroom grows on the ground in woods, either singly or
in ckisters, from August to October, and is quite common.

The cap is 5 to 10 cm. (2 to 4 inches) broad, quite thick and fleshy
Ijut a Httle tough, and usually entirely white though sometimes tinged
with yell(jw toward the center. It is at first convex, but becomes flat
and finally depressed at the center. The surface is smooth and dry.
The margin in young specimens is turned inward, but in older speci-
mens it is straight. The flesh is white, without any decided odor, but
with a slightly bitter taste.

The gills are attached to the stem and either have a distinct notch
or are merely rounded at the stem end. They are somewhat crowded,
quite broad, and white in color. The spores are white.

The stem is 5 to 10 cm. (2 to 4 inches) long, solid, firm, smooth,
and white in color. There is no annulus and no volva.

The genus Tricholouia does not give us any very excellent edible
species. T. album is perhaps as good as any of them. The bitter,
unpleasant taste of the raw flesh is entirely overcome in cooking, and
the plant is very good for soups or for patties.

Another species of Tricholouia that is likely to be found, is T.
pcrsonatiiiu, which is easily recognized by the lilac or violet-tinged
color of the cap and stem and the violet color of the gills. It is con-
sidered better than T. olhiiiii bv some people.

Collected in Champaign coiintv.

499
Plate CXVI

S5

Si

ct;

500

Thi-: W'KKrixc; IlVi H^.i.oMA (Kdiblk)
1 1 xj^liolouia lacryuial'Unilitui b'ries

Hypholouia lacryuiabuiuluui may be lodkcd for in suitable weather
from July to October. It grows in wet places along ditches, under
bridges, in borders of woods, and in open grassy places. Tlie plants
are sometimes scattered, but more often they grow in dense clusters
of a few to man\- individual-. It i-^ -aid lo occur sometimes (»n de-
cayed wood.

The cap is 2 to 8 cm. ( i to 3 inche.sj brixid. It is at hrsl C(jn\ex,
then expanded, often with a l)road elevation of the central portion, and
usually with irregular, radiating wrinkles. The surface is covered
witli silky threads or scales, whicli. ho\\e\er. are sometimes washed
off bv rains. The color is light or dark )ellowish, darker at the center
and becoming darker with age. C^ld s])ecimens are often stained black
where spores have fallen u[)on them or ha\e been washed upon them
by rains. The flesh is soft and brittle and whitish, Init S(»metimes
tinged with yellow or ])ro\vn.

The gills are attached squarely against the stem and arc usually
notched (sinuate). They are at first wliitish or light yellowish, but
soon become darker and spotted with black or brown as the spores
mature. The (:(\'ji,(:, however, remains wliitish. In the morning or in
wet weather minute drop- of moi-iure are formed on the edges of
the gills, which accounts for tlu' common name — "The Weeping Hy-
pholoma". The spores are bro\\ni-h purple.

The stem is 3 to 8 cm. (1 to 3 inche- ) kmg. straight or curved,
colored like the cap, -omewhat >cal\' a- far a- the attachment of the
veil, and smooth al)o\e. The inner \eil i> hairy and rather delicate.
It remains clinging to the margin of the cap, for the most part, and
disa])pears with age.

Since this mushroom grows in dense clusters the caps are often
made irregular from mutual pressure. The plant seems not to have
been found abimdanlly in most regions, but it was very common at
Urbana during the season of 191 5. I have been unable to find any
definite record of its edibility. I have eaten freely of it, however, and
while I do not consider it one of the best of mushrooms, it is per-
fectly safe and compares very well with other species of Hyp/ioloina.

Collected in Champaign county.

501

PI.ATE CXVII

o

a

502

The; AprENDicui^ATE Hyphoi^oma (Ediblt^)
H\p]}olouia af^pciidiciilatiim Bull.

Hypliolouia appcndiciilatuui occurs from ]\Iay to October in lawns,
gardens, pastures, etc., and also in the woods. It is usually found in
the immediate vicinity of trees or bushes, though not always. The
plants grow either scattered or clustered and sometimes are very abun-
dant.

The cap is 3 to 8 cm. ( i to 3 inches ) broad. It is thin and fragile,
at first convex, then expanded, and often with radiating wrinkles on
the surface. The color is whitish, often yellowish toward the center,
and the thin margin is sometimes tinged with purple. The margin is
sometimes wavv and is often adorned with fragments of the white,
woolly veil. When dry the cap is opaque, and when moist it is nearly
transparent. In dry weather it often splits radially.

The gills are thin, narrow, close together, and attached to the stem.
They are at first whitish but l)ecome purplish I)rown as the spores
mature. The edges are often uneven. The spores are purple-brown.

The stem is 3 to 10 cm. (T to 4 inches) long, cylindrical, usually
straight, slender, hollow, easily splitting, white, and smooth or slightly
scurfy toward the top. There is no ring normally, and no volva.
Sometimes, however, the veil remains partly or entirely on the stem,,
forming a more or less definite ring.

The plant is small Init its abundance often makes up for its small
size. The caps are verv tender and good.

Hypliolouia Candollcaniiui and Hypholouia inccrtum are both
closely related to H. appcndicitlatuin if not identical with it. It is, at
least, not a serious thing to mistake one for another of these three
species when collecting for the table, since all are equally good.

Collected in Champaign county.

503

Plate CXVIII

o

Cli

a>

504

The Edible Chanterelle (Edible)
CantJiarcllus cibarius Fries

CantliarcUus cibarius grows nn the ground in woods from Tune to
September. It is widely distributed and often very abundant in mid-
summer of a rainy year.

The cap is 5 to 10 cm. (2 to 4 inches) broad, fleshy, rather thick,
at first convex and with the margin incurved, then flat, and finally
somewhat funnel-shaped. It is firm, with a smooth surface, but often
quite irregular, with its margin wavy, and sometimes more or less one-
sided, that is, with one side developed more than the other. The color
is rich egg-yellow. The flesh is white, peppery to the taste when raw.
and usually with a faint odor of apricots.

The gills are thick but so narrow that they appear like swollen
veins. Thev are quite far apart, usuall}- crookeil, and fork or run into
each other irregularlv and extend down the stem somewhat (decur-
rent). They are colored like the cap. The spores are white or faintly
yellowish.

The stem is short, firm and solid, smr)oth, often tapering dow-n-
ward, sometimes curved, and colored like the cap but usually a shade
lighter. There is no ring and no volva.

This plant is highlv prized everywhere as an edible species. The
peppery taste of the fresh plants entirely disappears on cooking.

There is another plant, C rater cUits cantliarcUus, which grows in
the same situations as the edible chanterelle, often rii^ht along with it,
and which verv closelv resembles it. The color, taste, and odor are
the same. The Craterellus is classified in an entirely different family,
however, because of the fact that it has no gills, the under side of the
cap being perfectly smooth. Rut intermediate forms occur which are
verv difiicult to classifv, and there is some question whether the two
plants are mA really the same. At any rate both are equally good to
eat, so that no harm can come from mistaking the one for the other.
The photograph opposite this i)age shows both plants. The figure at
the right is Craterellus eautharellus, the middle specimen is Cantharcl-
Ins cibarius, while the two at the left are intermediate forms, which,
liowever, would be called, bv most collectors, Cautharcllus cibarius.

Collected in Champaign, Jackson, and Union counties.

505
Plate CXIX

o

a I

TO
TO

a
a

t— ' •

506

The Fai^se Chanterelle (Seightey Poisonous)
CaiitharcUiis aiiraiitiaciis Fries

The false chanterelle is a common and widely distributed species
which grows in the woods on the ground, or on n itten wood, from
July to October. It is easily recognized by its orange-colored cap, and
by the yellow gills — which are very regularly forked

The cap is 2 to 7 cm. ( i to 3 inches) bruad, fleshy and soft, con-
vex, then expanded and plane, and finally funnel-shaped. The margin
is plane and even, or wavy and incur\ ed — strongly so in young plants.
The color varies from yellow to orange or even brownish, especially
toward the center. The surface is smooth or slightly hairy, the hairs
short and silky, especially toward the center. The flesh is slightly
3'ellowish.

The gills are thin, blunt on the edge, ch^se together, straight and
regularly forked several limes, and decurrent on the stem. The color
N'aries from yellow to orange. The spores are white.

The stem is somewhat lighter colored than the cap. It is at first
solid, then spongy and stuft'etl with a cottony substance, or sometimes
hollow, usually tapering slight 1\- upward, smooth, and often curved.
There is no ring and no volva.

Although CaniJiarclbis aurantiacits has been eaten by a number
of people in this country with no evil results, yet it has generally been
considered poisonous, especiallv in Europe, and. therefore, for the
present at least, it had better be left alone.

Another species of CantharcUus that is apt to be found, is C. ciu-
iiabarimis. This is a small plant and very prett\-. the whole plant be-
ing deep cinnabar-red. The gills are narrow, blunt on the edge, far
apart, and branched. This species is edible.

Collected in Champaign, Jackson, and Union counties.

507

PI.ATE CXX

S5
ffi)

O

O
o

y

508

The SwEET-sMEi.uxCx Ceitocybe (Edible)
CUtocyhc odora Bull.

Clitocyhe odora is very easy to identify because of the olive-green
color and the pleasant spicy odor. It grows in grassy places in the
woods or on dead leaves or twigs from August to October. The
plants are either scattered or clustered.

The cap is 2 to 7 cm. (i to 3 inches) broad, fleshy but tough, at
first convex but soon becoming plane or nearly so. The flesh is cjuite
thick and whitish, while the surface is olive-green, the color fading
more or less with age. The surface is smooth and even, though the
margin is often slightly downy. The cap is usually Ciuite regular,
though the margin is sometimes wavy.

The gills are broad, rather close together, and attached to the stem,
either adnate or slightly decurrent. The color is white or greenish.
The spores are white.

The stem is 2 to 5 cm. ( i to 2 inches) long, cylindrical or some-
what thickened at the base, solid, stuffed, or hollow. It is at first
somewhat downy, but soon becomes smooth, though the base is usually
covered with white filaments. The color of the stem varies from white
to green. There is no ring and no vdlva.

The anise-like odor of this mushroom is very persistent, and the
taste is very spicy. While the flavor is pleasant it is rather strong, but
if a few specimens are cooked along with other plants that are not
so strong in flavor, they are excellent.

When the plants are dried the green color fades, but the odor is
said to persist for several years.

Collected in Champaign county.

509
Plate CXXI

O

o

a.

510

The: MANi'-CAP Ci^itocybe (Edible)
Clitocybc jiuiUiccps Peck

Clitocybc mulficcps is common and sometimes very abundant. It
grows on the ground, usually in grassy places, in clusters of from ten
to as many as one hundred individuals. It may be looked for from
May to October, though it is not likely to be found during midsummer.

The cap is 3 to 7 cm. ( i Uj 3 inches) broad. It is fleshy, although
the flesh is not very thick except at the center, and very firm. It is
convex, or sometimes nearly flat, and often irregular from mutual
pressure. The color varies from whitish to yellowish gray or brown.
The surface is smooth or sometimes slightly silky toward the center,
and is moist in wet weather. The flesh is white and when uncooked
it has an oily taste which is somewhat disagreeable.

The gills are whitish, close together, narrow at each end. and at-
tached to the stem either adnate or slightly decurrent. The spores
are white.

The stem is 5 to 10 cm. (2 to 4 inches) long, cylindrical, or some-
what thickened at the base, firm but more or less elastic, smooth on the
outside but sometimes covered with a powdered substance toward the
top, and lidllow or stuffed with a cottony substance within. Tliere is
no ring and no volva.

The spring clusters of this mushroom are said to be more tender
and of better flavor than those appearing in autumn. Some people are
very fond of the many-cap Clitocybc while others do not like it.

Collected in Champaign county.

511

PI.ATE CXXII

O

Co

I— I*

a;
o

512

The Deceiving Ceitocvbe (Not Edibee)
Clitocyhc ilhidcns Schw.

This very beautiful mushroom grows about the bases of stumps
and dead trees, or from underground roots, from July to October. It
usually grows in clusters of from ten to fifty individuals and some-
times is very abundant. The deep, bright yellow color of the entire
plant makes the clusters conspicuous from a considerable distance.

The cap is 7 to 20 cm. (3 to 8 inches) broad, convex or nearly
plane, or sometimes somewhat funnel-shaped, but usuallv with a small
elevation at the center. It is smooth and often quite irregular in shape.
The color is Ijright yellow or orange-vellow. In old plants the color
is sometimes brownish. The flesh is thick at the center, but thin to-
ward the margin. It is whitish or yellow and has a strong odor and
a disagreeable taste.

The gills are yellow, not crowded, narrowed toward each end, and
unec|ually decurrent, that is, some of them extend down the stem for
consideral)le distance and others not so far. Some of them are
branched. The si)ores are white.

The stem is 7 to 20 cm. (3 to 8 inches) long, and tapers toward
the base. It is firm, solid, smooth, and colored like the cap, or some-
times brownish toward the base. There is no ring and no volva.

It is too bad that this attractive plant is not edible, since it is often
so abundant that one could easilv collect several bushels. While it is
not deadly poisonous, most people are made ill l)y eating it, and it
should, therefore, be avoided.

An interesting thing about this mushroom is that it is phosphor-
escent, that is, when fresh specimens are placed in a dark room they
emit a glowing light. For this reason the plant is sometimes called
"Jj^ck-o-lantern".

Collected in Champaign countv.

513

Plate CXXIII

^ — J

^

SO

O

w

o

GO

514

The Purplish Laccaria (Edible)
Laccaria {or CUtocybc) oclirol^urpurca Berk.

The genus Laccaria is very closely related to the genus CUtocybc;
the species of both genera were formerly placed together in the genus
CUtocybc, but the species of Laccaria all have a peculiar general ap-
pearance by which one can recognize them and distinguish them from
Clitocvbc at a glance when one of them has once been learned.

The purplish Laccaria occurs from July to September in open
grassy or bushy places and in woods. It grows either solitary or in
groups and clusters, and is quite common and sometimes abundant.

The cap is 5 to 10 cm. (2 to 4 inches) broad, fleshy but firm and
tough, at first nearly hemispherical or convex and with the margin
curved in toward the stem, later becoming nearly plane or slightly
depressed at the center. It is often very irregular. When the cap is
moist the color is purplish brown, but when dry it is much lighter and
gray or pale yellowish.

The gills are broad, thick, rather far apart, and attached to the
stem, either adnate or decurrent. They are purplish in color. The
spores are white, sometimes with a slight tinge of lilac or yellow when
viewed in mass.

The stem is 3 to 10 cm. ( i to 4 inches) long. It is very variable
being nearly cylindrical, or thicker in the middle, or thicker at each
end. It is fibrous and solid, and colored like the cap, but usually paler.
There is no ring and no volva.

This mushroom is very variable in size and shape. Although it is
a tough plant it cooks tender and can be used to good advantage in
patties or croquettes. It is a good keeper and is not so readily at-
tacked by insects as many other mushrooms.

There seems to be little doubt that Laccaria ochropurpurea forms
mycorrhizas with the roots of the white oak and perhaps also with
the American elm.

Collected in Champaign county.

515

Pl^ATE CXXIV

o

a-

•—I

o

516

The RouTixc Cui.uvHiA (Edible;)
Collybia radicata Rehl.

Collyhia radicata is a very common and widely distributed mush-
room, and one that is easily recognized. It grows on the ground in
woods or groves or sometimes on lawns and other grassy places. It
is often found near stumps and sometimes grows upon rotten stumps
or logs. It grows singiv, l)ut usually when a specimen is found a
number of others will be found within a short distance. This mush-
room may be found in suitable weather from May to October.

The cap is 3 to 10 cm. (i to 4 inches) broad, fleshy but rather
thin, at first convex, then flat or with the margin upturned in old
plants, and sometimes with an elevation (uml)o) at the center. The
surface is smooth but often wrinkled, especially toward the center, and
when moist it is sticky (viscid). The color varies from nearly white
in some of the smaller specimens to gray or brown in larger ones. The
flesh is pure white, rather thin, and tough-elastic.

The gills are snow-white, broad, unequal in length, rather far apart,
and attached to the stem at the upper angle. The spores are pure
white and very abundant. A very perfect spore-print can often be
made from this mushroom in a few minutes.

The stem is 10 to 20 cm. (4 to 8 inches) long, colored like the
cap, or sometimes ])aler and usually white at the upper end. It tapers
gradually upward, and at the lower end it is somewhat enlarged and
then tapers off into a long, slender, root-like structure in the ground.
It is this character that gives the plant its specific name. The stem is
firm, often twisted, and smooth but often striate or grooved.

This is a very attractive and clean-looking species. The caps, when
fried, are sw^eet and pleasing to the taste.

Collected in Champaign, Jackson, and Union counties.

517

Plate CXXV

Collyhia radicata. Edible,

518

The Broad-gieekd Coleybia (Edibi^k)
CoUyhia platyphylla Fries

Collvbia platypJiylla is a large, stout mushroom which grows from
June to October on rotten logs or on the ground near rotten logs or
stumps. It is found mostly in the woods but occasionally also in open
pastures, especially in recently cleared fields.

The cap is 7 to 15 cm. (3 to 6 inches) broad, at first convex but
soon expanded and nearly flat or with the margin upturned, fleshy,
l}ut thin and fragile. The surface appears watery when moist and
usually is streaked with fine dark hairs, but the ground-color is brown
or gray or sometimes nearly white. The flesh is white. The cap is
sometimes cjuite irregular and the stem is not always exactly in the
center. The thin margin is often split in various places.

The gills are very broad, as much as a half inch or more some-
times. They are soft and white, not \'ery close together, and are at-
tached to the stem 1)v the upper angle. In old plants the gills are
usually broken or cracked more or less. The spores are white.

The stem is 7 to 12 cm. (3 to 5 inches) long, rather soft, stuffed
with a cottony substance, nearly cvlindrical, more or less streaked
with fibers but otherwise smooth, whitish, and sometimes slightly
powdered at the upper end. There is no ring and no volva. The
mycelium is very abundant and extends from the base of the stem in
root-like or cord-like strands, though not at all like the root of Col-
lybia radicata.

When fresh and in good condition the caps taste well, though they
are not so pleasant-flavored as some other species of Collybia. They
must be well cooked or the taste will be slightly bitter.

Collected in Champaign county.

519

Pl^ATE CXXVI

-Si.

I— I

520

The Velvet-stemmed Coeeybia (Edibee)
Collybia velutipcs Curt.

Collybia Tclntipcs is particularly interesting because it grows nearly
the whole year round. It has been found in good condition in every
month of the year. It grow-s on stumps, logs, roots in the ground,
earth that has a great deal of wood material in it, and also on the
trunks of living trees. It is common and plentiful, and while the
heavier crop usually appears from September to November it is often
abundant in the spring, and likely to be found at any time.

The cap is 3 to 8 cm. ( i to 3 inches) broad, at first convex but
soon becoming plane, fleshy and moderately thick at the center but
thin toward the margin, often irregular and sometimes eccentric, that
is, with the stem not exactly at the center. The surface is smooth,
ciuite sticky or viscid wdien moist, and somewdiat striate at the margin.
The color is yellow^ or brow'nish yellows sometimes paler toward the
margin. The flesh is soft and watery and slightly yellowish in color.

The gills are cpiite broad, and rounded at the end next to the stem.
They are very nearly free from the stem but are slightly attached by
the upper angle. They are not close together and are very unequal in
length. The color of the gills is pale ycll(»w or tan. The spores are
white.

The stem is 3 to 8 cm. (i to 3 inches) long, tough, often twisted,
sometimes curved, hollow or stuffed with fibers. The surface of the
stem is whitish when young, but soon becomes dark brown or black
and densely velvety with fine black threads. This velvety covering of
the stem makes the plant easy to identify. There is no ring and no
volva.

Collvbia z'chitipcs sometimes grows singly or scattered and some-
times in clusters, often very dense clusters of from three or four to
twenty or more individuals.

Although this mushroom is not a true parasite on living trees, it
i>-> said to do considerable damage sometimes. The mycelium grows
mostly just beneath the bark, and by its continual growth it gradually
pries the bark away from the w-ood, and may even cause the bark to
fall away, leaving the trunk bare.

Although this is not one of the best mushrooms for the table it
is considered excellent bv some, and, because of its plenti fulness, it
is a valuable one to know.

Collected in Champaign county.

521

PI.ATE CXXVII

CIS

t>3

522

The Oak-i,oving Coi<IvYbia (Edible;)
Collybia dryopJiila Bull.

Although Collybia dryophila is called the oak-loving Collvbia it
grows not only under oak trees but under most any kind of tree in
the woods as well as in open places. It is a very common plant and
so variable that it is very difficult to describe it in such a way as to
include all its forms. It is found in suitalile weather from Mav to
October, and grows either singly or in clusters.

The cap is 3 to 8 cm. ( i to 3 inches) broad, convex or plane, or
sometimes depressed in the center and with the margin upturned. The
color varies from brown to ba\-red or tan and usuallv becomes paler
v>-ith age. The cap is tough, slightly fleshy but thin, and sometimes
irregular in shape. The surface is normally smooth but sometimes
there are abnormal outgrowths of tissue upon it. The flesh is thin
and white.

The gills are very narrow, crowded close together, and verv nearly
free from the stem but slightly attached l)v the upper angle (adnexed).
They are white or whitish or sometimes yellowish.

The stem is 3 to 8 cm. ( i to 3 inches) long, cylindrical or some-
what thickened at the base, tirm and tough, smooth, hollow, usually
colored like the cap but sometimes inclining more to reddish. There
is no ring and no volva.

This is considered an excellent mushroom by some, but perhaps
the greatest thing in its favor is its plenti fulness. One foreign author,
years ago, reported a case in which illness was caused by eating Col-
lybia dryopliila, but it has been eaten for years in this country and has
not been known to make any one ill. It may therefore be considered
perfectly safe provided it is fresh and in good condition.

Collected in Champaign county.

523

PI.ATE CXXVIII

o

r — I

a"

o
i^-^

n ■

^mfSTjMI^'' '

fttX^ifSS^'if

524

The Peaked-cap Mycena (Edible)
Mycena galericidata Scop.

This pretty little mushroom grows from late spring until frost on
dead logs, stumps, sticks, etc., in the woods. It is common and some-
times very abundant. It usually grows in dense clusters of many in-
dividuals with the hairy bases of the stems glued together, though
sometimes larger specimens are found growing singly. The plant is
somewhat variable and therefore not so easily identified as some other
mushrooms. The accompanying photograph is very characteristic,
however, and with its aid, recognition of the plant should not be diffi-
cult.

The cap is i to 4 cm. (.5 to 1.5 inches) broad, at first conical or
bell-shaped, then expanded and often with a prominent elevation
(umbo) at the center. The surface is dry and smooth but striate
(streaked with lines) from the margin to the umbo. The color is
variable but is usually some shade of brown, though occasionally it
is gray or whitish.

The gills are attached to the stem squarely, but with a decurrent
tooth, and are connected with each other by veins. They are not close
together, and the edges are either entire or toothed. The color is white
or gray or flesh-colored. The spores are white.

The stem is 5 to 12 cm. (2 to 5 inches) long, rigid, hollow, tough,
straight or curved, slender, and with a smooth polished surface except
at the base, where it is covered thickly with short white hairs.

This mushroom is especially rich in protein. When young the caps
and stems may be cooked together and will be found to have a pleas-
ing and delicate flavor. If, after washing, they are allowed to stew
slowly in their own fluids for about ten minutes, and are then seasoned
with pepper, salt, and butter, they are excellent.

Mycena liaciuatopa is a common plant which has very much the
same appearance and habits as M. galericidata but is distinguished by
its blood-red juice. The edible qualities of the two species are the
same.

Collected in Champaign county.

525

Plate CXXIX

«>

a

Ci
<^ — J

a

526

Thk Slender Gai^era. Edibi^e
Galcra tciicra Schaeff.

This little plant is common on lawns and pastures during wet
weather from ^lay to November. It usually grows scattered rather
than clustered, and springs up C|uickly, so that one sometimes goes
out in the morning and finds the lawn speckled with the delicate little
plants.

The cap is bell-shaped and i to 2.5 cm. (.5 to i inch) high. When
moist the cup is pale rust-color or brown, Ijut as it dries off in the sun
it becomes lighter colored. It is commonly smooth but occasionally
one finds specimens that are covered with very fine, short, silky hairs.
When the cap is damp it is usually slightly striate, the striation lines
disappearing as the cap dries.

The gills are attached scjuarely against the stem in the top of the
I)ell-shaped cap. They are close together, rather broad, and cinnamon-
brown in color but with the edges usually whitish. The edges of the
gills are sometimes more or less toothed or notched. The spores are
dark rust-color.

The stem is usually 7 to 10 cm. (3 to 4 inches) long, straight,
slender and fragile, hollow, and nearly the same color as the cap. It
is usually somewhat shining and more or less striate toward the top.
There is no ring and no volva.

This is rather a small plant to collect for the table, but sometimes
its abundance makes up for its small size. The caps are tender and
of good flavor. Cooked along with other mushrooms, it is a pleasing
addition.

Collected in Champaign county.

527

Pl,AT^ CXXX

V

i^'

r

«»«►

528

Thk Oyster Mushroom (Edible)
Plciiroius ostrcatns Jacq.

This plant is called the oyster mushroom because the shape of the
plant sometimes resembles the outline of an oyster-shell. It grows
from May to December on dead trunks and branches of trees, or some-
times from wounds of living trees, usually in crowded clusters of
several individuals with the caps overlapping each other. It is some-
times practically stemless, but other specimens may have a very defi-
nite stem, which, however, is always lateral, that is, at one side of
the cap rather than at the center. The shape of the plant depends
largely on its position. Plants growing from the upper side of a fallen
log are cjuite different in shape from those growing from the side of
the trunk or stump, since, wherever they grow, they must bring the
gills into a horizontal or nearly horizontal position in order that the
spores may be liberated. Plcuroius ostrcatns is a very common and
often abundant mushroom, and one that is very easy for the beginner
to identify.

The cap is 5 to 20 cm. (2 to 8 inches) broad, soft and fleshy, cpilte
thin at the margin, l)ut thicker toward the place of attachment. It
may be attached directly to the w^ood at one side or it may be nar-
rowed into a short stem, and it is broadest at the outer extremity. It
is usuallv depressed on the upper side near the place of attachment,
and the margin is often incurved. The surface is moist or dry and
smooth, l)ut sometimes more or less torn into scale-like appendages.
The color varies from white to gray or brown. The flesh is white.

The gills are broad, white, not much crowded, and when a stem is
present thev run out on it (decurrent) and narrow out into vein-like
lines which branch and connect with each other. The spores are white
or pale lilac.

The stem when present is short, firm, white, usually thickened up-
ward, and often hairy at the Ix'ise. There is no ring and no volva.

This mushroom is a favorite with many mushroom-eaters, but only
young plants should be used and thev must be carefully and thoroughly
cooked or they will be tough. When dipped in beaten tgg, then in
bread crumbs, and fried in verv hot fat, they are excellent.

Collected in Champaign and Union counties.

529

Plate CXXXI

o

Co
TO

I— I

530

The Elm Pleurotus (Edibee)
Flcurotus ulmariiis Bull.

The elm Pleurotus is so called because it is often found growing
on elm trees and logs. It is not confined to elms, however, but is found
on many kinds of trees. At Urbana it is much more common on box-
elder (ash-leaved maple) than on elm. It grows from the sides of
trees, where branches have been broken off or the trees have been
wounded from some other cause, from September until winter. It is
more likelv to be found in or near cities than in the country. This is
a large plant and is easily distinguished from the oyster mushroom by
its lon,g stem, which is usually attached near the center, and l)y the
gills, which are rounded or notched at the end next to the stem instead
of decurrent. The plants usually grow singly, but several may be
found on the same tree and sometimes they are more or less clustered.

The cap is 5 to 15 cm. (2 to 6 inches) broad, fleshy but firm and
compact, at first convex and with the margin incurved, then flat or
nearly so, always horizontal no matter what the position of the stem
may be, smooth but often with the surface more or less cracked, white
or whitish and sometimes tinged with red, yellow, or brown, and
usually becoming darker and shining wlien old. The flesh is thick,
firm, rather tough, and pure white.

The gills are broad, but narrower at each end. notched or rounded
at the inner end. attached to the .stem by the upper angle (adnexed),
rather close together, white or whitish. The spores are white.

The stem is 2.5 to 10 cm. ( i to 4 inches) long, stout, solid, straight
or curved according to the place of growth, more or less eccentric but
often very nearlv, if not quite, central, often somewhat thickened at
the base, smooth, or somewhat downy with short hairs, especially at
the base. The stem is white and tliere is no ring and no volva.

The elm Pleurotus has l)een known as an edible mushroom for a
long time and is cr)nsidered excellent by many people. It does not
become infested with insects nearly so quickly as the oyster mushroom,
and it can easily be dried and kept for winter use. Like all tree mush-
rooms it should be eaten when young, since old specimens are rathe-
tough.

Although this mushroom grows on living trees, it seems to feed
only on the dead portions of the bark and wood, and its growth ap-
pears to do no harm to the tree.

Collected in Champaign county.

531

PI.ATK CXXXII

?5

cr
I— I
o

532

The Nest-cap Ceaudopus (Edibee)
Claudopus uidulans Pers.

Claiidopiis uidulans is a very pretty plant which grows on dead
branches, tree trunks, stumps, and logs during autumn. It is widely
distributed and sometimes one finds a log almost completely covered
with the beautiful yellow caps. The plant is closely related to the
genus Plcurotus, which it closely resembles but from which it differs
in the color of the spores. It is usually sessile, that is, there is no
stem and the cap is attached to the w^ood by one side like a shelf,
though sometimes it is narrowed into a very short stem. The plants
often grow very close together and so overlap one another.

The caps are 2 to 8 cm. ( i to 3 inches) broad, nearly round or
somewhat kidney-shaped, and in young specimens the margin is rolled
inward. The surface is c^uite hairy or downy, especially tow?ard the
margin, and is rich yellow in color.

The gills are broad, quite close together, and bright orange-yellow
in color, so that the lower surface of a group of caps may be even
more beautiful than the upper surface. The spores are pink.

The odor of this plant is rather strong and somewhat disagreeable,
closely resembling the freshly removed intestines of swine. The flavor
is mild and pleasant but the flesh is generally somewhat tough so that
it must be well cooked.

Collected in Champaign county.

533

Platd CXXXIII

534

The Coxe-IvIke Mushroom (EdibeE)
Strobiloiiiyccs sfrobilaceiis Berk.

The peculiar name of this plant refers to the cone-like appearance
of the cap, and the plant is very easily recognized by this character.
This plant is a basidiomycete, that is, it produces its spores on the
ends of club-shaped basidia, just as do the gill-bearing mushrooms, but
instead of having gills on the under side of the cap it has little pores
or tubes, and the basidia making up the hymenium are arranged on
the inner surface of these tubes. It grows on the ground in woods
from July to September.

The cap is 5 to 10 cm. (2 to 4 inches) broad, hemisi)herical or
nearly so, dry, and very shaggy owing to numerous thick, coarse,
hairy scales, of a blackish color, which project from the surface. The
flesh is very interesting. It is thick and of a whitish color, but when
it is cut or w^ounded in anv wav it quicklv changes to red and then to
black.

The layer of tubes does not separate easily from the flesh; a char-
acter which separates this plant from the genus Boletus. The tube
layer is attached to the stem (adnate) and whitish, becoming brown
or blackish in old plants. The mouths of the tubes are large in com-
parison with those of sc^ne other pore-mushrooms, and angular, and
when they are bruised they change color just as the flesh of the cap
does. The spores are dark brown or l)lackish when viewed in mass.

The stem is 8 to 15 cm. (3 to 6 inches) long, nearly even or some-
times tapering slightly ui;ward, often grooved near the top, and very
shaggy, having soft scales similar to those on the cap.

Before cooking this mushroom the stem should be removed, the
scales cut away from the cap, and unless the tubes are very firm and
fresh they, too, should be removed. The thick flesh that remains will
cook well by any method. It has a rather strong taste, but is a great
favorite with some people. Usually it is not very common, but occa-
sionally one finds a troop that will make a good meal. Its appearance
is so unique and its color-changes are so interesting that it is alwa3'S a
pleasure to find it.

Collected in Champaign and Union counties.

535

Pi.A'ri5 CXXXIV

i^

o

Co
O

o

l>5

I— !•

I — 1

CD

_ii£»

536

The Branched Poeyporus (Edibee)
Polyporus frondosus Fries

This is one of the pore fungi which is not very common but is apt
to be found in any locaHty, and it grows so large that a single speci-
men is often enough for several meals. It grows at the bases of stumps
and dead trees or from their roots, and also from the roots of living
trees of oak and chestnut, sometimes killing the trees which it attacks.
It may be looked for from September to frost.

The whole plant is 15 to 60 cm. (6 inches to 2 feet) broad, and is
very much branched, so that it appears to be made up of a large num-
ber of flattened, leaf-like caps. The separate caps are 2 to 5 cm. (i
to 2 inches) broad, irregular in shape, often curved, furrowed, etc.,
and gray or brownish in color. The surface is slightly hairy, the
hairs very short. The tubes on the under sides of the caps are whitish,
and their mouths are round and regular in young plants but become
irregular in size and shape as the plant matures. The flesh is white.
The stem is white and very much branched.

Young plants are tender and good when broiled or fried. Older
plants must be very thoroughly cooked. It is best to stew them first
and then fry or broil.

Another large Polyporus which is apt to be found, is P. sulphnreus
(Bull.) Fries, the sulphur-colored Polyporus, which is more common
than P. frondosus and is highly prized by many people. The whole
plant is sul[)hur-yell()w, though the upper surface is usually darker,
and often inclines to orange-color. It grows on living or dead trees,
stumps, etc., sometimes causing a serious heart-rot of living trees. It
is usually composed of several shelf-like, or fan-like caps grown to-
gether, the whole cluster becoming a foot or more across. Fresh
young plants are excellent broiled, or they may be cut into small pieces
and stewed slowly and thoroughly.

Collected in Champaign county.

537

PI.ATE CXXXV

C/3

o

Co

CI.

538

The; Porous Boletinus (Edible)
Bolctiiuts porosiis (Berk.) Peck

Bolctinus porosns is another mushroom belonging to the family of
pore fungi or Polyporaceae. It is seen to be separate from two closely
related genera, Boletus and Polyporus, by noting the following facts.
In Boletus the flesh is very soft and the pore-layer can easily be sep-
arated from the flesh. In Polyporus the flesh is tough and the pore-
layer cannot easily be separated from the flesh. Bolctinus resembles
Polyporus in that the tube layer is not easily separable from the flesh,
but it resembles Boletus in having very soft flesh.

Bolctinus porosns grows on damp ground, in the woods and in
open places, from July to September. It is often locally Cjuite abun-
dant, and often grows in troops, so that if one is found others are
likely to be found near by.

The cap is 5 to 12 cm. (2 to 5 inches) broad, dry or moist and
sticky, usually shining, smooth, and reddish-brown or yellowish-brown
in color. The margin is thin, (|uite even, and usually turned inward.
The shape of the cap is somewhat irregular and often is nearly kidney-
shaped.

The pore surface is yellow. The pores are large and angular but
very shallow, and are arranged more or less in radiating rows. Some
of the partitions are more prominent than others, appearing somewhat
like gills that branch, and are connected by cross partitions of less
prominence. The spores are brownish yellow.

The stem is 2 to 7 cm. (.5 to 1.5 inches) long and is attached to
one side of the cap. It is colored like the cap, into which it gradually
expands, and it is prominentlv reticulated at the top bv the decurrent
walls of the tubes. The stem is quite tough.

Old plants sometimes have a disagreeable odor, but when young
and fresh the odor and taste are pleasant and the plants make an ex-
cellent dish.

Collected in Champaign county.

539

Pr.ATE CXXXVI

o
o

a.

540

The Crested Ceavaria (Edible)
Clavaria cristata Pers.

This mushroom belongs to the family of club fungi or Clavariaceae.
The club fungi resemble the hedgehog fungi in that the spore-bearing
surface, or hymenium. covers the entire outside of the branches, but
in the hedgehog fungi the branches hang downward, while in the club
fungi they always project upward.

There are many kinds of club fungi, scjme of which are simply
club-shaped and unbranched. while others are very much branched.
Some are bright-colored and very Ix-autiful. All (»f the branched fr)rms
are good to eat.

Clavaria cristata grows from 3 to 12 cm. ( i to 5 inches) high. It
is whitish in color, and has a short, stout stem, and tufts of numerous,
irregular branches which are more or less flattened toward the top.
The ends of the branches are forked and divided into moose-horn-like
tips. The crested Clavaria grows in the woods in rainy weather from
June to October.

Another species that is common in the state is Clavaria pyxidata
Pers. It closely resembles Clavaria cristata in general appearance but
is easily distinguished by the fact tliat the ends of the branches are
cup-shaped instead of pointed.

Either of these species is excellent for soups, stews, or patties.
They should Ije cut uj) into short pieces. Thev remind one of noodles
or macaroni. If stewed they must be cooked slowly and thoroughly
or they will be tough. When fried in butter thev are crisp and good.

Collected in Champaign and Wabash counties.

541

Pr.ATK CXXXVII

542

Tni; C0RA1.-UKE; Mushroom (Edibi^e)
Hydnum coralloidcs Scop.

Hydnum coralloidcs is perhaps the most beautiful fungus that na-
ture has produced. Ehas Fries, a Swedish botanist, was the man who
laid the foundation for the study of the higher fungi, and it is said
that it was the great beauty of the coral-like mushroom that inspired
him, while a mere boy, to determine to devote his life to a study of
these plants.

This mushroom belongs to the family Hydnaceae or hedgehog
fungi, so called because the spore-bearing basidia are borne on the
surface of spinelike projections which are always directed toward the
earth. This character separates the hedgehog fungi from the club
fungi or Clavariaceae, since, although the spore-bearing surface is
similar in the two families, in the club fungi the branches always pro-
ject upward, while in the hedgehog fungi they project downward.

Hydmnn coralloidcs grows on rotten logs, branches, etc., in the
woods from August to frost. The large, pure white tufts arise from
a common stem which divides into many branches and then subdivides
successively into long graceful shoots. The spines are scattered over
the under surface of these branches and hang down for 3 to 6 mm.
{}i to % inch).

This is considered an excellent edible species. Since the Hydnums
are sometimes slightly bitter it is best to boil them for just a moment
and throw the water away, then stew slowly. They are excellent for
crocjuettes.

Other species of Hydnum that are apt to be found, and that are
just as good to eat, are Hydnum caput-ursi Fries, the "bear's-head
Hydnum", which produces long white spines grouped at the ends of
branches, the spines being much longer than those of the coral Hyd-
num, and Hydmi-m crinaccum Bull., the "hedgehog Hydnum", which
forms a large unbranched mass with long, straight spines hanging
down from its sides.

Collected in Champaign county.

543

Platk CXXXVIII

fa5

544

The Gemmed Puffbaee (Edibee)

Lycopcrdon gcmuiatuui Batsch

This little puffball is very common and is widely distributed
throughout the world. It usually grows on the ground either in the
woods or in open places. When young the whole plant is white both
inside and out. It is usually 3 to 7 cm. (i to 3 inches) high and
3 to 5 cm. ( I to 2 inches) broad, and is easily recognized by its shape,,
which is like a top, and by the erect scales, which are of two sizes,
the larger ones later falling away and leaving circular scars on the
surface.

There is never anv danger in eating puffballs, since none of them
are poisonous. They should always be cut open, however, to see that
they are pure white within, since as soon as they begin to be colored
thev are not good. The gemmed puffball. while it is eaten in cjuanti-
ties by some people, is not one of the best. Some of the larger puff-
balls are much better.

LycQpcrdoii cyutJiifoniic Busc. is a somewhat pear-shaped puffball,
rounded above and tapering below to a stout Ijase. It grows in pas-
tures and other grassy places, or sometimes in cultivated fields, and
is from 7 to 15 cm. (3 to 6 inches) in diameter. It is a most excellent
mushroom for the table.

Perhaps even better than the al)o\e. but not so common, is Calvatia
yigantca Batsch. the giant puft'ball. This plant is a rounded mass
resting on the gr( mnd and attached by cords of mycelium. It is usuall;.'
20 to 40 cm. (8 to 16 inches) in diameter, l)ut occasionally it gets
much larger than that. It is the largest fungus knov, n. It should be
peeled, sliced, and broiled or fried.

Collected in Champaign and L^nion counties.

545

Plate CXXXIX

CI.

h- '•

ct;

546

The Common jMorfx (Edible)
MorchcUa conic a Pers.

The morels belong to the group of fungi known as Ascomycetes,
and instead of producing their spores on the ends of club-shaped hy-
phae, or basidia, they produce them on the inside of little sac-like
bodies called asci, (see page 420). The hymenium is composed of
thousands of these sacs, or asci, placed close together, and the hymen-
ium covers the entire outer surface of the cap.

The morels occur on the ground in early spring, from April to
June. They are all edible and are very easy to recognize. The plant
consists of two parts, the cap and the stem. The cap is covered with
broad irregular pits separated from each other by a network of narrow
ridges. The stem is usually quite thick and stout, and both the stem
and cap are hollow.

MorchcUa conica is 5 to 15 cm. (2 to 6 inches) high and the cap
is 2.5 to 5 cm. ( I to 2 inches) thick at its broadest part. The cap is
elongated and more or less pointed al the upper end. The pits are
arranged more or less in vertical rows. They are usually longer than
broad but often are quite irregular in shape.

There are several other species closely resembling .1/. conica that
are apt to be found in Illinois, but since they are all equally good to
eat no harm can come from mistaking one for another of them.

The morels should always be carefully washed before cooking.
Simply fried in butter they are delicious, or they may be stuffed and
baked.

Collected in Champaign county.

547

Pl.ATl^ CXL

Ob

t— '•

^-^-Wi^c;^;/

548

Thk Hai.f-frke MorkIv (Edibi^k)
Morchclla scniilihera D. C.

The half-free morel is so called because the lower half of the bell-
shaped cap is free from the stem. It is included here because it dif-
fers so greatly from Morc/iclla coiiica and yet is apt to be found
growing right along with that species. The cap is rarely more than
2 or 3 cm. (i inch) long and is usually much shorter than the stem.
The pits on the surface of the cap are considerably longer than broad.
The cap is usually considerably pointed at the top but deformed speci-
mens occur in which it is hemispherical and very blunt at the apex.
The stem is white or whitish, usually more or less mealy, hollow, and
often somewhat swollen at the base. The whole plant is 5 to 10 cm.
(2 to 4 inches) high. It mav be used in any way in which the other
morels are used. Morels shcndd not be gathered immediately after
rains as they are then water-soaked and soon spoil.

Collected in Champaign county.

549

Plat]5 CXLI

^

C/5

(55

I—'

CO

.(?-

./^

550

The Browx Gykomitra (Edibli;)
Gyrouiitra bniiiuca Underwood

The genus Gvromitra is closely related to the genus MorcJiella and
produces its spores in the same way, but instead of having pits on the
surface of the cap, as do the morels, it has wrinkles and plaits or folds
which make the cap appear more or less brain-like.

Gyrouiitra briinuca is a stout, fleshy plant with a distinct stem, and
a broad, much-twisted, and folded cap. It grows in the woods in
early spring at the same time and under the same conditions as the
morels. The whole plant is 7 to 12 cm. (3 to 5 inches) high. The
stem is thick, somewhat spongy, hollow but solid at the base, usually
with an irregular surface, and clear white in color.

The cap is 5 to 12 cm. ( 2 to 4 inches) broad in the widest diameter
and somewhat narrower the other way. It is attached closely to the
stem in various places, and is rich chocolate-brown above and white
beneath. It is tender and fragile and has a good flavor. It should be
cooked in the same wav as morels.

Another species which is occasionally found in the state is Gyrouii-
tra csculcnta Fries. This is a somewhat larger plant and the brown
cap is much mr)re brain-like in appearance. Although this plant has
frec|uently been eaten with no bad results vet it has in some way ac-
r[uired a bad reputation, and, therefore, for the present at least, it had
better be left alone.

Collected in Champaign county.

551
Pl.AT^ CXLII

a

H

o

552

The Recurved Peziza (Edibee)
Pc;:i:;a rcpaiida \\'ahl.

This cup-shaped plant grows in m(3ist woods, either on old rotten
logs or on the ground, from ]\Iay to October.

The cups are 3 to 10 cm. (i to 4 inches) in diameter and grow
either scattered or clustered. When very small they appear like little
white knobs. These grow into hollow spheres each with an opening
at the top. The sphere then expands and becomes cup-shaped or
saucer-shaped and then nearly flat with the edge more or less split
and wavy and sometimes drooping or curved backward. Below, the
cup is narrowed into a short, stout stem which is sometimes rooting.
The inner surface of the cup is pale brown or dark brown and more
or less wrinkled toward the center. The outer surface is whitish.

Peziza hadia Pers., the brown Peziza. is another common cup-
fungus which is of good size and edible. It is not quite so large as
P. rcpanda and the entire plant is Ijrown. though somewhat darker
inside than outside.

Neither of these species is considered first-class for culinary pur-
poses, but when one cannot get better they are worth collecting. If
they are to be stewed they must be cut into small pieces and cooked
slowh'. They are said to have more flavor when fried crisp in butter.

Collected in Champaign county.

553

Platk CXLIII

■'^'t^'-^^ " 't

554

References to Literature

The following publications have been used in the preparation of
this bulletin and will be found helpful to any one who wishes to know
a larger number of mushrooms than are included here.

Clements, F. C.

'lo. Minnesota mushrooms. Minn. Plant Studies, No. 4.

Hard, M. E.

'08. Mushrooms, edible and otherwise.

Mcllvaine, Chas., and MacAdam, R. K.
'00. One thousand American fungi.

Marshall, Nina L.

'01. The mushroom book.

Moffatt, W. S.

'09. The higher fungi of the Chicago region. Bull. VII, Part i,
Nat. Hist. Surv., Chicago Acad. Sci.

Peck, C. H.

'70-12. Reports of the State Botanist. Bulletins New York
State Education Dept.

555

INDEX

PAGE

Agaricus arvensis 470

Agaiiciis campestris 4(36

Agaricus placomyces 468

Agaricus Rodman i 474

Agaricus silvicola 472

Agaricus subrufescens 476

Amanita cothurnata 450

Amanita phalloiiles 448

Amanita solitaria 452

Amanita verna 448

Amanita verna (develoiament) . . . 416

Amanitopsis vaginata 454

Armillaria mellea 488

Boletinus porosus 538

Calvatia gigantea 544

Cantharellus aurantiacus 506

Cantharollus cibarius 504

Cantharellus einnabariuus 506

Claudopus nidrilans 532

Clavaria cristata 540

Clavaria pyxidata 540

Clitocj'be illudens 512

Clitocybe multiceps 510

Clitocylie ochropurpurca 514

Clitocybe odora 508

Collybia dryophila 522

Collybia platyphylla 518

Collybia radicata 516

Collybia velutipes 520

Coprinus atramentarius 480

Coprinus comatus 478

Coprinus ebulbosus 484

Coprinus micaceus 482

Craterellus cantharellus 504

Galera tenera 526

Gyromitra brunnea 550

Gyromitra esculenta 550

Hydnum caput-ursi 542

PAGE

Hydnum coralloides 542

Hydnum erinaecum 542

Hypholonia appendiculatum 502

Hypholoma Candollcanum 502

Hypholoma incertum 502

Hypholoma lacrymabundum 500

Laeearia ochro]nnpurea 514

Laetarius piperatus 440

Laetarius volemus 442

Lentinus tigrinus 428

Lepiota cristata 460

Lepiota granulosa 462

Lepiota Morgani 458

Lepiota naucina 464

Lycoperdon eyathiforme 544

Lycoperdon gemmatum 544

Morchella coniea 546

Morehella semilibera 548

Mycena galericulata 521

Mycena haematopa 524

Peziza badia 552

Peziza repanda 552

Pholiota dura 490

Pholiota praecox 490

Pholiota squarrosa 492

Pleurotus ostreatus 528

Pleurotus ulmarius 530

Pluteus cervinus 486

Polyporus frondosus 530

Polyjiorus sulphureus 536

Russula foetentula 446

Eussula virescens 444

Strobilomyces strobilaceus 534

Stropharia epimyces 494

Stropharia semiglobata 496

Tricholonia all)um 498

Trichctloma ]ieisonatum 498

A'olvaria bombycina 456

Bulletin

OP THE

Illinois State Laboratory

OF

Natural History

Urbana, Illinois, U. S. A.

STEPHEN A. FORBES, Ph.D., LL.D.,
Director

Vol. XI. May, 1918 Articles VIII-X.

ART. VIII. TH-E REACTIONS AND RESISTANCE OF FISHES TO
CARBON DIOXIDE AND CARBON MONOXIDE

BY
Morris M. Wells, Ph.D.

ART. IX. EQUIPMENT FOR MAINTAINING A FLOW OF OXYGEN-
FREE WATER, AND FOR CONTROLLING GAS CONTENT

BY
Victor E. Shelford, Ph.D.

ART. X. A collecting BOTTLE ESPECIALLY ADAPTED FOR THE QUAN-
TITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE DETERMINATION OF DISSOLVED
GASES, PARTICULARLY VERY SMALL QUANTITIES OF OXYGEN

BY

Edwin B. Powers, M. A.

Bulletin

OF THE

Illinois State Laboratory

OP

Natural History

Urbana, Jllinois, U. S. a.

STEPHEN A. FORBES, Ph.D., LL.D.,

Director

Vol. XI. May, 1918 Articles VIII-X.

ART. VIII. THE REACTIONS AND RESISTANCE OF FISHES TO
CARBON DIOXIDE AND CARBON MONOXIDE

BY

Morris M. Wells, Ph.D.

ART. IX. EQUIPMENT FOR MAINTAINING A FLOW OF OXYGEN-
FREE WATER, AND FOR CONTROLLING GAS CONTENT

BY
Victor E. Shelford, Ph.D.

ART. X. A COLLECTING BOTTLE ESPECIALLY ADAPTED FOR THE QUAN-
TITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE DETERMINATION OF DISSOLVED
GASES, PARTICULARLY VERY SMALL QUANTITIES OF OXYGEN

BY
Edwin B. Powers, M. A.

Article VIII. — The Reactions and Resistance of Fishes to Car-
bon Dioxide and Carbon Monoxide."^ By Morris M. Wells.

Introduction

Carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide are both present in the waste
that is diverted into natural waters by many works where iHuminaiing
gas is manufactured and, since the waste as a whole is known to be
exceedingly poisonous to ac^uatic organisms, the role played in its toxic
action by the two gases in question was investigated at the time that
the many other organic substances of which the waste is composed
were studied by Shelford.f The investigation has shown that both of
the gases are poisonous to fresh- water fishes .even when present in
the water in relatively small proportions, but the monoxide has been
found to be by far the more deadly of the two.

Carbon dioxide is present normally in the natural habitats of
practically all fresh-water organisms, but its toxicity does not mani-
fest itself unless it occurs in concentrations which are high as com-
pared with lethal concentrations of carbon monoxide. At a concen-
tration of lo c.c. per liter, carbon dioxide will quickly prove fatal
to the more sensitive fishes; and it is doubtful if there are any fresh-
water fishes that could continue to live in water where the carbon-
dioxide content averaged as high as 6 c.c. per liter throughout the
year. On the other hand, there is evidence that a certain small con-
centration of carbon dioxide, that is, a certain degree of acidity, is
beneficial, if not actually essential to the continued existence of some,
and perhaps many, fresh-water fishes. It would not be at all safe
to assume that all fresh-water organisms require an environment
whose reaction (to phenolphthalein) is slightly acid, for it is known
from investigation that certain organisms, as the plankton in fresh-
water lakes, seem actually to prefer alkalinity to acidity. Further-
more, there are many cases on record where fishes that normally live
in water that is slightly acid from the presence of COo have continued

*Contributions from the Zoological Laboratory of the University of Illinois, No.
107.

tAii Experimental Study of the Effects of Gas Wa.stc' upon Fishes, with Especial
Reference to Stream Pollution. Bv V. E. Shelfovd. Bull. 111. State Lab. Nat. Hist.,
Vol. XI, Art. VI, pp. 381-410. 1917.

557

558

to live more or less normally in water that had become alkaline either
from treatment or from the using up of the COo, both free and half
bound, by the algae growing in the water. However, it is still to
be demonstrated that there are any species of truly fresh-water fishes
that can reproduce successfully in water that is decidedly alkaline to
phenolphthalein throughout the year.

It should not be concluded that, since a certain small amount of
CO2 seems to make the water more acceptable to certain fresh-water
organisms, it will be well to add this gas to natural waters, for all the
carbon dioxide that is necessary to organisms living in nature is pro-
duced in the natural waters by the decomposition of organic materials
contained therein; and, in fact, the processes of decay often raise the
concentration of carbon dioxide to a point where it is detrimental,
and even fatal, to the aquatic inhabitants of the water. The addition
of anv substance, therefore, which will increase the amount of carbon
dioxide in these waters, must be looked upon as detrimental ; and it is
certain that were carbon dioxide the only toxic substance contained
in gas-house waste, the effect of this waste upon the aquatic organisms
would still need to be regarded with suspicion, for while the more
hardv organisms might survive its presence the less resistant species
would be sure to fare badly, at least near the point of introduction.

Carbon monoxide — which differs from the dioxide in that the car-
bon atom in the monoxide is holding in combination but one oxygen
atom instead of two and is, therefore, chemically speaking, unsat-
urated— is a VvcU-known poisonous gas^ and its frightfully deadly
effect when present in the atmosphere in even exceedingly small
quantities has been vividly demonstrated by many investigators. Two
to three per cent, of carbon monoxide in the air breathed by a mouse
will cause the death of the animal in from one to two minutes. The
familiar poisonous effects of illuminating gas are largely due to the
comparatively large per cent, of carbon monoxide which it contains.

The investigation of the toxic properties of the two gases in ques-
tion was carried on as follows. The work with carbon dioxide as
summarily presented here has been carried on since 19 12, partly at the
University of Chicago and partly at the University of Illinois. The
carbon-monoxide investigations have all been carried on in the labora-
tory of the State Laboratory of Natural History at the University of
Illinois, and with facilities which constitute a part of the equipment
of the \'ivarium. The results show that both gases are toxic to
fresh-water fishes in the concentrations which would result from the
introduction of gas-house wastes into natural waters, and that carbon
monoxide is by far the more deadly, killing the most resistant fishes

559

in concentrations that would be negligible or beneficial in the case of
carbon dioxide.

Propertiks of the Gases

Carbon monoxide is lighter than air, having a specific gravity of
0.967. It is odorless, tasteless, and colorless, burns with a char-
acteristic pale blue flame, forming carbon dioxide, and is only slightly
soluble in water, 23.1 c.c. dissolving in a liter at 20°C.

Carbon dioxide is heavier than air (specific gravity 1.5 19), is
odorless, has a decidedly acid taste, is colorless at ordinary tempera-
tures, and will not burn, since the carbon atom already holds in com-
bination all the oxygen with which it has the power to combine. It is
very soluble in water, a liter of water at ordinary temperatures hold-
ing in combination almost a liter of the gas. The carbon dioxide does
not simply dissolve in the water, but unites with it to form carbonic
acid (C02+H20=H2C03).

Methods and Materials

Two types of experiments have been made, one to determine the
resistance of the fishes to the gases in various concentrations, another
to determine the reactions of the fishes to the gases in the gradient.,
The latter type gives the fishes an opportunity to select or reject the
water containing the gas. The fishes were collected in the small
streams of northern Illinois, fifteen to twenty different species having
been tested more or less fully.

Resistance Bxperiments. — A paper (Wells, '13) has already been
published which gives the detailed methods and observations concern-
ing the resistance of fresh-water fishes to carbon dioxide. Briefly,
the experiments were made as follows : — A stream of water flowing
at a rate of from 500 — 600 c.c. per minute was passed through two
experimental bottles having a capacity of seven and three liters re-
spectively. The gas was introduced into the flow at a point far enough
away to allow it to dissolve before it reached the bottles. The exact
concentrations of CO2 in the experiments was determined by titration
of samples collected as the water flowed out of the experimental bottles.
These determinations were made at regular intervals throughout each
experiment.

The resistance experiments with carbon monoxide were made much
as were those just described for carbon dioxide. The method of
determining the concentration of the gas in the collected samples was
that described in Hempel's "Gas Analysis".* The gas was boiled off
and absorbed with a hydrochloric acid solution of cuprous chloride.

*Hempers "Gas Analysis," 1910 edition, p. 203.

560

Carbon dioxide can be bought in tanks and used directly from them,
but it is necessary to make the monoxide. This was done by the com-
mon method of heating oxaHc acid with five to six times its weight
of concentrated sulphuric acid. In the reaction both the dioxide and
the monoxide are formed ; the dioxide is removed by passing the gas
through two wash bottles containing concentrated NaOH, and the
gas remaining was also led through two wash bottles containing dis-
tilled water before it was collected in large 20-liter bottles over water.
Analysis of the gas showed it to be 95 per cent. CO and 5 per cent,
atmospheric gases in the proportion in whicl\ they dissolve in water
from the atmosphere. These latter gases must have come out of tlie
Vvater over which the CO was collected. The generation of the gas
and the experiments were performed with a canary bird at hand, the
gas being particularly poisonous to birds.

Figure I illustrates the method used in introducing the CO into
the water that flowed through the experimental bottles. The method
may be useful wherever the introduction of small amounts of any
substance, especially a volatile one, into a stream of running water
is desired. It reduces the exposure to the atmosphere to a minimum,
and the concentration can thus be kept relatively constant. The steps
in introducing the CO were as follows: — (i) Water from J was
siphoned into A. which was already full of CO. The clamp between
A and B was kept closed, and thus the water in A was subjected to
some pressure. After some hours the water was found to be satu-
rated with CO. (2) B was now lowered, and the pinch clamp be-
tween A and B was loosened. The water in A now ran into B, dis-
placing the air through the glass tube leading to the top of B. More
water from J flowed into A at the same time; but if the exchange
was made rather slowly, practically no mixing took place and analysis
showed the water in B to be saturated or even slightly supersaturated
with CO. (3) The clamp between A and B was closed, B was
raised to the position shown in the figure, and the clamp between B
and the burette was opened. The water now ascended in the burette
till it reached the level of the water in B. (4) By opening the burette
cock the saturated water was now run into the glass tee at C, where
it mixed with the tap water. The rate of flow from the burette was
determined by counting the drops per minute, the number of drops
per c.c. having previously been determined. (5) The mixture then
flowed through the experimental bottles of which D is the first. (6)
Finally, as has been stated before, the actual concentration of gas in
the water in the experiment was determined by analysis.

561

1 M.I. 1. 1. I.M.I. i.iiiiiii.M.M.rrmTTTT

562

The fishes were left in the experimental bottles until dead, and
the time between introduction and death (dying time) is the basis of
a comparison of the relative resistances of the different species. Table
I is a summary of nine experiments in which four different concen-
trations of CO were used.

Table T

ShO'wing the relative resistance of several species of fishes to different concen-
trations of carbon monoxide. The concentration of the CO solution which flowed
through the experimental bottles is expressed in c.c. per liter.

Species of fish

Weight
offish

in
grams

CO

1.2 c.c.
per liter

CO

3.8 c.c.
per liter

CO

6 c.c.
per liter

CO
11.7 c.c.
per liter

Moxostoma aureolvm
(Red-horse)

Notropis Mennius

(Straw-colored minnow)

Pimcphales notatus
(Blunt-nosed minnow)

Lepomis humilis

(Orange-spotted sunfish)

Lepomis cyanellns
(Green sunfish)

Ameiurus melas
(Black bullhead)

10—15

2—4

1—1.5

2—6

2—4

20.5

Ihr,

1 hr., 55 min.

5 hr., 40 min.

6 hr., 10 min.

45 min.
1 hr., 20 min.

4 hr., 5 min.

5 hr., 25 min.

28 min.

28 min.

1 hr., 5 min.

5 hr., 51 min.

10 min.

45 min.
4 hr., 5 min.
9 hr., 55 min.

This table shows the high toxicity of water which contains even
small amounts of carbon monoxide in solution, and that stronger con-
centrations are proportionately more deadly. From the results of a
large number of similar experiments with COo (Wells, '13) it is
evident that a concentration of from 75-100 c.c. per liter of carbon
dioxide is required to equal the killing effectiveness of i c.c. per liter
of carbon monoxide.

Water which contains lethal amounts of CO2 in solution will soon
lose its toxicity if exposed to the atmosphere for a comparatively
short time. The CO2 passes into the atmosphere until there is equilib-
rium between the gas in the atmosphere and in the water. Since the
atmosphere ordinarily contains but minute amounts of CO2, prac-
tically all of the gas will pass from the water; a solution containing
100 c.c. COo per liter will lose all but i to 2 c.c. per liter within two or
three hours.

Normally, the atmosphere does not contain even a trace of CO,
and it would appear, therefore, that water containing small quantities

563

of this gas would rapidly lose its toxicity when exposed in open dishes.
This was found not to be the case, however, for a saturated solution
of CO did not lose its toxic properties even after two weeks' exposure.
A liter of the saturated solution from A (Fig. i) was placed in each
of four 5 in. X 8 in. battery jars and the jars were set in a stream
of running water to keep the temperature constant at i8° C. A liter
of tap water was placed in a fifth jar and set beside the other jars.
Two small fish {Lcpomis Jiimiilis) weighing between 3.5 and 8 grams
each were placed in each jar. In the CO solution the fishes died
very quickly, while those in the tap water continued to swim about
normally. The dead fishes were removed at once and other indi-
viduals of the same size and species (except as noted) were placed in
the jars at intervals during the next two weeks. All of the fishes
placed in the CO solutions died, while the control pair was normal
throughout the entire time and for two weeks afterward, when they
were removed.

Table II shows the procedure in one of the experiments.

Table II

Showing the rate at which a liter of a saturated solution of carton monoxide
loses its toxic properties when exposed to the atmosphere in a 5X8 inch battery-jar.
Fishes used, Lepomis Mimilis. Tivo individuals placed in the jar each time.

Time

Weight of fish
in grams

Dying time

Age of solution

at beginning of

experiment

Nov. 22, 11:30 a. m.

4.0
6.7

16 min.
25 "

Fresh

Nov. 22, 12:05 p. m.

5.4
7.3

45 min.
45 "

35 minutes
35 "

Nov. 22, 3:34 p. m.

4.6

4.8

1 hr., 1 min.
1 " 1 "

4 hr., 4 min.

4 << 4 ««

Nov. 22, 7:58 p. m.

5.0
5.3

1 hr., 42 min.
1 " 42 "

8 hr., 28 min.

8 " 28 "

Nov, 23

4.1

7.2

1 hr., 1 min.
1 " 27 "

1 day
1 "

Nov. 24

3.5
4.0

4 hr., 40 min.

5 " 15 "

2 days
2 "

Nov. 25

5.6
6.0

5 hr., 45 min.

6 days*

3 days
3 "

Nov. 26

5.0
5.9

5 da., 8hr.

5 " 18 "

4 days
4 "

Dec. 5

4.0

Ihr., 30min.

13 days

*This fish was Lepomis cyanellus, which is a more hardy fish than L. humilis.

564

It will be noted that the solution became less deadly as time passed,
yet the fishes placed in it on the fourth day were dead on the ninth
day. The explanation for the rapid death of the fish on the thirteenth
day is not clear. The last of the other fishes was removed on the
ninth dav and the water was then not disturbed till the thirteenth day.
During these four intervening days the water seems to have gained
in toxicitv. The tests were not carried further because the stock of
fishes was nearly exhausted. The solutions in the other jars all
showed the same remarkable retention of toxicity, but none of them
vras left undisturbed for several days and then retested, as it was not
thought that such treatment would have any effect other than a further
gradual diminishing of the toxicity.

It is quite evident that solutions of CO do not behave as one
might expect w^ere the gas simply in solution in the water, and it is
hard to account for the tenacity with which these solutions maintain
their toxicity except by supposing that the gas forms some irreversible
or slowlv reversible compound with the water itself, or with some
substance in solution or suspension in it. In any event, it is certain
that the addition of even minute amounts of CO to natural waters
introduces a serious menace to the life of the organisms therein. The
extremely toxic effect of very small concentrations of the gas, together
with the fact that water once poisoned with it is slow to resume its
normal condition, makes this gas a source of grave danger to aquatic
life wherever introduced into natural waters.

Reaction Experiments. — Shelford and Allee (14) showed that
fresh-w'ater fishes are very sensitive to carbon dioxide in a gradient
and that they will turn back quite definitely from small concentrations
of the gas. I have shown further (Wells, '15) that fresh-water
fishes tend to select a concentratiin of carbon dioxide that for most
species varies between i and 6 c.c. COo per liter. Shelford ('14) has
pointed out that carbon dioxide may be used as an index to the suit-
ability of bodies of w-ater for fishes.

To determine whether or not fishes detect carbon monoxide and
react to it in a gradient, a series of thirty-five experiments was run in
which ten species of fishes were tried out. The amount of CO intro-
duced into the treated end of the gradient varied from .5 to i c.c.
per liter. Higher concentrations were tried, but they killed the fishes
so rapidly that no results could be obtained with them. With the
lower concentrations some very interesting results were obtained.
There was no indication upon the part of the fishes that they detected
the presence of the CO with any precision, and most of the records
(made by graphing the movements of the fishes to a time scale) show

565

a decided preference for the CO or treated water. (See Chart I) This
does not mean that the fishes were overcome in this end and thus
showed an apparent preference only, for the graphs show that in many
cases they swam ciuite reguhirly back and forth from one end of the
tank ti^ the other but spent the greater part of the time in the CO
water. In some instances they actually turned back from the tap
water.

This preference for treated water over the tap water was noted
in a series of experiments made later with salts, and at that time it
was found that the acidity of the tap water, due to the presence in
it of 1 8 c.c. per liter of carbon dioxide, was the cause of the nega-
tive reaction of the fishes (see Wells, 'i.Sa)- When the salt ex-
periments were made in aerated tap water in which the COo was
diminished to 5 c.c. per liter, normal results were obtained. In the
carbon-monoxide experiments the fishes were evidently negative to
the tap water because of its acidity, which, though comparatively low,
was more stimulating to them than was the much more highly fatal
concentration of CO. Furthermore, it would seem that the CO
antagonized to some extent the action of the COo, for otherwise the
fishes would not have shown a preference for the CO end of the
gradient unless they are actually positive to CO solutions in spite of
their fatal effect. That such selection of fatal environments may
actually occur is not impossible, but it would not be safe so to con-
clude until the acid factor, referred to above, has been eliminated, and
this has not yet been done. However, it is safe to say that CO in solu-
tion produces no avoiding reaction upon the part of the fishes used,
and for this reason its introduction into natural waters would be
doubly dangerous to fishes inhabiting them.

Generai, Resistance of Fishes

Whether or not a particular species can persist in a given environ-
ment depends, so far as the organism is concerned, upon its ability
to detect detrimental changes in the environment and to react to them,
and upon its power of resisting such hurtful factors as can not be
avoided by the proper reaction. These factors of reaction and resis-
tance can never be entirely separated, but their relative importance
varies widely with different species. Attached or sluggish organisms
m_ust depend to a great extent upon their powers of resistance to
tide them over a period of unfavorable conditions ; highly active organ-
isms, on the other hand, may seldom find it necessary to put their
resistance powers to the test, for they can move away from the dis-
turbing conditions if these do not cover too large an area. It is

566

probable that the reactions of most fishes have more to do with their
persistence in natural environments than does their power of resis-
tance, for the appearance of adverse conditions in natural waters is
seldom so general or so sudden that fishes can not escape, by the
proper reactions, at least sufficiently for survival, and observation
and experiment indicate that most fishes will so react.

Although the exact relation between reaction and resistance in
organisms is not clear, as a general rule, those organisms which show
but little power of resistance to adverse environmental changes are
for the most part quite sensitive and quick to react to such changes,
while the more resistant species frequently show little or no signs
of definite reaction to the detrimental factor.

The resistance of fishes to hurtful conditions varies with the
species, with age (or size and weight), with the individual (that is
with physiological state), and with the season. Practically all of the
fishes worked with are least resistant just after the breeding season,
or in the months of June, July, and August (see Wells, 'i6). In
September the curve of resistance begins to run up, and it continues
to rise throughout the winter months, reaching its maximum in March,
April, and May — that is, at the beginning of the breeding season or
just before. The relative resistance of species does not seem to vary
greatly with the season. Just how much species vary in their rela-
tive resistance to different harmful factors is a matter for further
investigation. The work so far, however, indicates that if species i
is more resistant than species 2 to factor a, it is fairly safe to con-
clude th.'it it will show a greater resistance to factor b also. In
Table III an attempt has been made to arrange the more common
species of northern Illinois fishes according to their powers of resis-
tance to detrimental environmental factors in general. Such an ar-
rangement must at this time be considered more or less tentative be-
cause of the large number of unsolved questions concerning fish resis-
tance in general, but the list as given will prove suggestive.

In the table the least resistant species is placed at the head of
the list and given an arbitrary resistance value of i. The succeeding
species show an increasing resistance to lethal factors and their rela-
tive resistance is indicated by the figure in the middle column. The
third column indicates the environments where each species is most
likely to be found.

567

Table III

Indicating the relative resistance of the more common species of fishes to ie
taken i7i the waters of Northern Illinois, together with data as to the best type
of ecological environment for each species. In column 2 the resistance of the least
resistant species is arbitrarily taken to he unity.

Species of fish

Relative
resistance

Best place to collect

Labidesthes sicculus
(Brook silverside)

1

Small rivers and clear shallow lakes.
Prefers sandy bottom

Etheostoma coerulewm
(Eainbow darter)

2

Among the stones in the ripples of creeks
and small rivers

Moxostomia aureolum
(Red-horse)

2.3

Sandy-bottomed pools in creeks and small
rivers

Catostomus commersonii
(Common sucker)

2.4

Lake Michigan and pools in creeks and
small rivers. Prefers bottoms contain-
ing some sand.

Notropis atherinoides
(Shiner)

3.0

Common in Lake Michigan. Other larger
lakes and rivers.

Semotilus atrom,aculatus
(Horned dace)

4.0

The headwaters of small creeks. In vegeta-
tion along bank.

Chrosomus erythrogaster
(Red-bellied dace)

5.0

Small clear creeks. Along with horned
dace but does not go up stream as far.
Often in vegetation along bank.

Micropterus dolomieu

(Small-mouthed black bass)

5.0

Swift streams; clean bottom.
Small deep lakes; cold water.

Micropterus salmoides

(Large-mouthed black bass)

6.0

Sluggish rivers and small shallow lakes
with mud bottom.

Pimephales notatus
(Blunt-nosed minnow)

6.0

Pools, mud bottom, in creeks and small
rivers.

Eybopsis kentucTciensis
(River chub)

7.0

Creeks and small rivers. Swifter parts
of pools.

Notropis cornutus
(Common shiner)

7.0

Creeks and small rivers. Swifter parts
of pools.

Pomoxis annularis
(White crappie)

8.0

Wide distribution. Abundant in ponds,
lagoons, and all sluggish water.

Pomoxis sparoides

(Black crappie, Calico bass)

8.0
10.0

Practically same location as for white
crappie.

Ambloiplites rupestris
(Rock bass)

Clean-bottomed pools with rocks.
Creeks and small rivers.

Perca flavescens

(Yellow or American perch)

10.0

Abundant in Lake Mich. Also in larger
rivers but not in creeks.

Lepoi7iis cyanellus

(Blue-spotted sunfish)
Ameiurus melas

(Black bullhead)

15.0

45.0

Pools in creeks. Often with mud bottom.

Ponds; pools in small creeks.
Mud bottom among vegetation.

While in Table III only eighteen species of fishes are listed, the
comparative resistance of other species may be estimated by compar-
ing their resistance with that of some one of the listed species. By

568

«

placing a species of unknown resistance in an experiment with one of
the species given in Table III one may obtain results that will make
it possible for him to compare the resistance of the unknown species
with that of any of the species listed. It should be pointed out also,
that fishes of the same large taxonomic group have in general a similar
power of resisting detrimental factors. Thus, the darters are a group
possessing for the most part a low ability to resist untoward condi-
tions. The minnows (Cyprinidae) are fairly resistant as a group; the
sunfishes are more resistant than the minnows ; and the catfishes are
notably our most resistant group of fresh-water fishes. The place of
an untried species in the resistance table can be reckoned more or less
accurately by placing it with the listed representatives of the taxonomic
group to which it belongs.

From column 3 (Table III) it will be seen that the resistance of
the fishes is rather closely correlated with the type of environment
which they inhabit. The more resistant species are found in ponds,
shallow, muddy-bottomed lakes, or in the stagnant pools of streams.
These are the fishes which one sees in aquaria. They are able to with-
stand increased temperature and wide fluctuation in the oxygen and
carbon-dioxide content of the water, and to some extent are able to
live in the presence of the excretory products of their own metabolism.
The stream fishes proper can not do this, and therefore die when placed
for any length of time in standing water.

Summary

1. The introduction of either carbon dioxide or carbon monoxide
into fish waters is certain to prove detrimental to the acjuatic organ-
isms, and especially to the fishes present in the water.

2. Both carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide are poisonous to
fishes. Of the two gases, the monoxide is by far the more deadly.

3. Fishes are very sensitive to small changes in the carbon-dioxide
content of the water, and tend to avoid detrimental concentrations of
this gas by a very definite turning back from them. Fishes do not
appear to detect the presence of carbon monoxide in the water, and
will swim into concentrations of this gas that kill ihem in a few
minutes.

4. In general, the resistance of fishes is correlated with the en-
vironment in which they are found. The more resistant species are
found in ponds and shallow lakes while the least resistant fishes occur
in the swift streams and in cold, deep lakes.

569

BiBUOGRAPHY

Shelford, V. E.

'14. Suggestions as to indices of the suitability of bodies of water
for fishes. Trans. Am. Fisheries Soc., 1914:1-14.
Shelford, V. E., and Allee, W. C.

'14. Rapid modification of behavior of fishes by contact with
modified water. Jour. An. Behav., 4:1-30.
Wells, M. M.

'13. The resistance of fishes to different concentrations and com-
binations of carbon dioxide and oxygen. Biol. Bull., 25 :

323-347-

'15. Reactions and resistance of fishes in their natural environ-
ment, to acidity, alkalinity and neutrality. Biol. Bull., 29:
221-257.

'15a. The reactions and resistance of fishes in their natural en-
vironment to salts. Jour. Exper. Zool., 19:243-283.

'16. Starvation and the resistance of fishes to lack of oxygen
and to KCN. Biol. Bull., 31:441-452.

570

Chaet I

Graph 1 shows the reaction of a small-monthed l^lack bass to water containing
35 c.c. per liter of carbon dioxide introduced at the right-hand end. The fish avoided
it sharply, stajing very close to the left end, where the carbon dioxide was only
3 c.c. per liter.

Graph 2 shows the reaction of an individual of the tadpole-cat (Schilbeodes
gyrimis) to carbon dioxide of the same concentration as in the case of Graph 1.
It will be noted that while the fish was negative to the higher concentration, more
excursions were made into the higher concentration, and more time was spent there
than in the case of the small-mouthed black bass. The tadpole-cat ranks with the
rest of the bullhead group in having a high resistance to adverse conditions.

Graph 3 shows the reaction of a small-mouthed black bass to 0.5 c.c. of carbon
monoxide per liter in the right-hand end of the gradient tank. The reaction is
reversed as compared with that to carbon dioxide. The avoidance of the pure water
is striking.

Graph 4 shows the reaction of the black bullhead to 0.5 c.c. per liter of carbon
monoxide. The iish becomes slightly positive at the end of three minutes, and is
increasingly so as time goes on, indicating that the preference for the monoxide
increases with time.

Graph 5 shows the movement of a specimen of a black bullhead when there
is no difference between the two ends of the tank.

571

ARTICI.E IX. — Bquipmcnt for maintaining a Plow of O.vygcn-frec
Water, and for controlling Gas Content* By Victor E. Shelford.

In Article VI of this volume a piece of apparatus for controlling
gas content and adding gases and fluids to water is described by the
present writer. His earlier work, as well as that reported by Dr. Wells
in Article VIII, was done with that apparatus on a water table of
temporary construction, but the table and the apparatus have both
been replaced by the permanent structures herein described. The new
equipment consists of a large drain-table (13), shown in the lower
part of the accompanying figure, with the boilers on the floor above.
The drain table is provided with double-decked towers nine feet high,
for supporting bottles, tanks, etc. in the manner indicated in articles
VI and VIII of this volume. Aside from possessing many advantages
in the control of conditions where fluids and gases are added, the new
apparatus has great advantages in the control of oxygen content, as
continuous flow is insured, and with aerating troughs of various
lengths almost any amount of oxygen can be obtained in running
water. The other apparatusf used gas heat for boiling and could de-
liver not more than 100 c.c. of oxygen-free water per minute, and this
amount was not certain to be free from oxygen continuously. The
new piece of apparatus delivers a liter of water per minute and could
probably deliver a maximum of four or five liters per minute.

It uses high pressure steam for boiling the water and deliv-
ers it with the temperature brought down to that of the water sup-
ply. We may accordingly follow the course of the water supply from
the supply pipe to the exit from the cooling coil. Water is introduced
into the first boiler, No. i, from the supply pipe at the right of the
upper group of apparatus. It is passed through a Schutte & Koerting
i^" strainer to an inclosed float cock, No. 9. This float cock, a stock
article on the market, maintains water at a definite level in both tank

*The apparatus described in this article was developed in connection with the
work on stream pollution done by the author and described in Article 6 of this volume;
the new apparatus was provided by the University of Illinois in the new Vivarium
Building to supersede the piece described in that article. The drawing was provided
by the Department of Zoology.

tSee Shelford and Allee, Journal of Experimental Zoology, Vol. 14, pp. 207-266.
1913.

573

574

MiMpMM

575

No. I and tank No. 2. Tank No. i is a water-heater containing a
steam coil and vented by two large pipes connected with the flue. A
large amount of steam and gas is given off from the water escape
from this tank. Tank No. i is connected with tank No. 2 by a two-
inch pipe containing a valve which makes possible the draining of
one tank without draining the other. The water being withdrawn
from tank No. 2, flows from No. i to No. 2 and is boiled for a long
time in the latter, which measures 2X2X4 ft. and is supplied with a
six-inch vent in a large cover. The water leaves tank No. 2 at the left
through a dirt trap, No. 7, and passes through the floor to the room
below. The discharge line can be flushed with university water from
CW. The steam used is high pressure — usually 90 pounds — but may
be reduced to 25 or 30 pounds by a pressure-reducing valve, No. 8;
the steam traps. No. 6, remove the condensation.

After passing through the floor the water goes through a cooler.
No. II, made from block-tin pipe (black iron return bends at the
ends) placed inside lyi" pipes connected with each other by cooler tees,
the cooling water flowing into the cooler at the point where the boiled
water leaves it. In the middle of the coil are three gas introducers
(12), which are modified beer air-purifiers made by Bishop, Babcock,
and Becker, the gas being introduced into the chambers, through which
the water flows, through blocks of basswood, thus dividing it into very
small bubbles. Oxygen, carbon dioxide, and nitrogen have been in-
troduced.

The water is delivered "at the ends of a drain table. Tank No. 3
is used for securing water which is saturated with oxygen under
atmospheric conditions in quantity sufficient to run through a number
of bottles containing animals. Tank No. 4 is for aerating the univer-
sity water-supply by running it down crimped inclines and through
two chambers where the iron which is precipitated is removed. This
water is stored in tank No. 5. Two tanks like Nos. 4 and 5 are pro-
vided above tank No. 3, with the controlling float-cock in No. 3, so
that water may be partially aerated and delivered to No. 3, where com-
pressed air forced into it renders it very alkaline and saturated with
oxygen. The drain table is supplied with water from tanks Nos. 3
and 5 and from the university supply marked CW, and alsi^ witli
air (A).

Article X. — A Collecting Bottle especially adapted for the Quan-
titative and Qualitative Determination of Dissolved Gases, particularly
very Small Quantities of Oxygen."^ By Edwin B. Powf.rs.

One of the sources of error in the Winkler method for the de-
termination of dissolved oxygen in water, especially where the oxygen
content is low, is the diffusion of oxygen into the water before and
during the introduction of the chemicals. Another source of error is
the mixing of the manganous chloride with the potassium iodide-
alkali solution at the surface of the water, the chemicals adhering to
the pipettes introducing these reagents having washed off at the top
of the bottle, where they react with the oxygen present. In recent
work involving the oxygen-free water apparatus described by Shelford
in the preceding article of this volume, it was found especially de-
sirable to eliminate the above sources of error. This was accomplished

a c

*This bottle was devised primarily for the study of the oxygon requirements of
crayfishes, with a view to their use as index organisms.

577

578

by a special bottle which allows the collecting of samples and the in-
troduction of the chemicals without exposing the samples to air during
the operation.

The apparatus shown in the accompanying figure is composed of a
bottle having an inlet, a, at bottom and an outlet, b, at top. When the
bottle is filled the inlet is clamped off at c. The manganous solution is
introduced through the burette d and the potassium iodide-alkali solu-
tion through the burette e. The burettes d and e are supplied with a
two-way stop-cock at /. The displaced water is allowed to pass out at
the outlet b, which is kept open to equalize the pressure. The acid
solution is introduced through the burette d, thus avoiding any action
of a strong acid on the potassium iodide of the potassium iodide-
alkali solution. A 200 c.c. pipette is used to draw a sample for
titration, thus avoiding agitation of sample in presence of air. Cor-
rection for error due to the introduction of chemicals can be calcu-
lated from the per cent, of collection used for titration with sodium
thiosulphate, and the oxygen content of the water can be calculated
directly. In lieu of the simple pipette for drawing off sample of water
for titration, the device described by Hyman L. Shoub* mav be sub-
stituted.

A modification of this bottle is also very useful for work with
hydrogen sulphide, sulphur dioxide, carbon dioxide, and other gases
when exclusion from the air is essential.

I wish to thank Mr. Carl F. Miller and Mr. Paul Anders, of the
Chemical Laboratory of the University of Illinois, for making this
apparatus available.

•Hygienic Lab. Bull. 9G, U. S. P. H. S. Aug., 1914.

Bulletin

OF THE

Illinois State Laboratory

OF

Natural History

Urbana, Illinois, U. S. A.

VOL. XI. June 1918 Contents and Index

1915, 1917, 1918

INDEX.

Abramis chrysoleuca, 387, 397.
Acanthoceros galeator, 64, 65, 126.
Acarina, 164, 208.
Acarus serotin«, 64, 126, 140, 208.
Accipiter cooperi, 294.
velox, 298.

Acer, 292.

saccharinum, 149.

saccharum, 42, 62, 63, 123, 126, 151,
157, 301.

Acorn codling caterpillar, 141.
moth, 141.
plum gall, 61, 232.

Acorns, 141.

Acridiidse, 115, 166, 211.

Acrosoma, 138.
gracile, 207.

rugosa, 58, 64, 65, 125, 126, 138, 207.
spinea, 64, 65, 125, 126, 138, 207.

Actinomeris alternifolia, 63, 125, 219.
Adelphocoris rapidus, 53, 174, 175.
Adiantum pedatum, 63
Aenigmatias, 355.
blattoides, 355.
Agapetid£B, 226.

Agaricus, 437.

arvensis, 470, 472.

campestris, 418, 432, 464, 466, 470,

476.
placomyces, 468, 470, 472.
rodmani, 474.
silvaticus, 476.
silvicola, 427, 470, 472.
subrufescens, 476.

Agelaius phceniceus phcsniceus, 286.
Agrilus, 144. |

Agriotes lineatus, 116.

Agromyza, 348, 359.

abbreviata, 360.

angulata, 351-352.

aprilina, 350, 359-360.

carbonaria, 350.

kincaidi, 360.

nigripes, 360.

parvicornis, 350.

pruinosa, 348, 350.

pruni, 348, 349-350.

tilise, 351.

subnigripes, 360.
AgromyzidjB, 348, 359.
Agropyron smithii, 39.
Agrotis, 327.

herilis, 333.
Alaus, 145. ,

oculatus, 145.
Alder, 79, 84, 139.
Aletia, 218.
Algse, 292, 293, 558.
Allograpta obliqua, 53, 188, 342.
Alydus quinquespinosus, 65, 219.

Amanita, 136, 417, 430, 437, 464.
booted, 450.
cothurnata, 431, 450.
phalloides, 430, 448.
solitaria, 452.
spreta, 454.
spring, 448.

verna, 415, 416, 430, 431, 448, 452.
warted, 452.

Amanitopsis, 437, 456.
sheathed, 454.
vaginata, 454.

Amazon-ant, 191.

Ambloplites rupestris, 387, 567.

580

Index

Amblycorypha, 138, 140.
oblongifolia, 215.
rotundifolia, 64, 126, 215.

Ambrosia, 118, 171, 175.

artemisiifolia, 176.

beetles, 137.

trifida, 178, 179.
Ambusb bug, 45, 46, 47, 48,. 50, 51, 52,
53, 104, 310, 174, 185, 189.

spider. See under Spider.

Ameiurus nebulosus, 387.

melas, 561, 567. See also Bullhead,
black.

Ammalo, 109.

eglenensis, 53, 183.
tenera, 53, 183.

Amraophila, 140.

abbreviata, 59, 62, 125, 132, 159, 228,

238.
nigricans, 52, 194.

Amphibians, 282, 289, 293, 407.
and reptiles, 284, 293.

Amphibolips, 140.
confluens, 232, 234.
prunus, 61, 232.

Amphicoma, 369.
Anasa, 173.
Ancylonycha, 365, 369.
Andrena, 327.

Andricus, 140.
clavula, 59, 232.
cornigerus, 65, 232.
lana, 59, 65, 232.
seminator, 232.

Andropogon, 40, 49, 55, 111, 160, 163,
167, 168, 169, 170, 171, 181, 212,
215, 216.
fureatus, 39, 49, 53, 112.
virginicus, 39, 49, 53.

Anisodactylus interstitialis, 135.
Anisonyx, 369.

Anosia, 51 (see Errata).

plexippus, 45, 46, 47, 50 (see Errata),
113, 183. I

Ant, 54, 110.

Amazon-, 191.

carpenter, 62, 147, 150, 154, 203, 236.

cocoanut, 64, 236.

corn-field, 119.

-lion, 58, 165, 209.
prairie, 50.

mound-building, 235.

old-fashioned, 61, 233. .

rusty carpenter-, 62, 65.

Tennessee, 61, 235.

velvet, 192, 238.

white, 58, 61, 147, 150, 152, 154,
159, 202, 204, 208, 234.
Antennaria, 124.

plantaginifolia, 57.
Anthomyiidse, 356 (see Errata).
Anthrax, 319, 326, 327, 328, 333.

alternata, 333.

anale, 328.

fascipennis, 330.

hypomelas, 326, 333, 334.

lateralis, 326, 332-333.

molitor, 333.

morio, 327.

sinuosa, 198.

velutina, 327.

Antrostomus vociferus vociferus, 298.
Ants, 35, 125, 140, 171, 177, 293.
leaf-cutting or umbrella, 426.
Ants' nests, 355.

Apatela, 105.
populi, 105.

Apheenogaster, 235.

fulva, 59, 65, 159, 202, 204, 208,
234, 235.

tennesseensis, 61, 235.
Aphaniosoma, 358.

approximatum, 358.

quadrivittatum, 357-358.

Aphididae, 35, 137, 158, 171, 188, 234.
Aphiochffita, 309.

Aphis, 158.

asclepiadis, 109, 112, 118, 171, 188,
190.

Index

581

Aphoebantus, 327.

mus, 332.
Aphorista vittata, 136.
ApidjB, 200.
Apis mellifera, 45, 46, 47, 50 (see

Errata), 51, 200.
Apithus, 132.

agitator, 58, 61, 124, 217.
Aplexa hypnorum, 161.
Aplopus mayeri, 211.
Apocynum, 104, 109, 113, 118, 173,
183, 201.
androsagmifolium, 179.
medium, 44, 45, 49, 57, 109, 178, 183,
193, 223.
Apogonia, 369.
Apple, 146, 149, 229.

-tree. 342.
Arachnida, 161-164, 205-208.
Araneida, 162, 206.
Arcliilochus colubris, 295.
Arctiida;, 183, 227.
Argiope, 120, 164, 165.

aurantia, 42, 44, 45, 46, 48, 49, 50, 51,
52, 53, 54, 104, 107, 108, 109, 111,
121, 162, 165, 182.
riparia, 162.
transversa, 163.
Argynnis idalia, 45, 46, 183.
Arliopalus fulminans, 147.
Aristolochia, 225.
Armillaria, 437.

mellea, 423, 429, 488.
Army-worm, 189.
Arrhenoplita bicornis, 136.
Asaphes memnonius, 64, 126, 221.
Asclepias, 118, 172, 178, 181.
cornuti, 113, 173.

incarnata, 39, 44, 49, 103, 112, 113,

160, 163, 171, 172, 173, 174, 175,

176, 177, 178, 179, 182, 183, 184,

186, 192, 194, 198, 200, 283.

sullivantii, 43, 49, 112, 182.

syriaca, 112, 113, 164, 171, 173, 176,

178, 180, 188, 189, 190, 191, 201.
tuberosa, 183.
Ascomycetes, 420, 435, 546.

Ash, 77, 78, 147, 149, 152, 227, 425.
black, 149.
borer, 147.

prickly, 60, 63, 138, 179. 183, 217,
225.

Asilidae, 48, 49, 108, 115, 186, 190, 210,

230, 319, 324, 325, 326, 337-341.
Asilus, 187.

missouriensis, 187.

notatus, 327, 337, 338, 339, 340-341.

vertebratus, 337.
Asparagus, 162.

beetle, imported, 172.
Aspen, 27.

Aspidiotus obscurus, 156.
Astacidas, 161, 204.
Aster, 188.

Astragalinus tristis tristis, 286, 295.
Attelabus rhois, 139.
Attidse, 112, 164.
Aulacizes irrorata, 64, 126, 218.
Autographa, 138.

precationis, 64, 126, 227.

B

Baccha babista, 342.
Bacteria, 89, 90.
Bacterium, 427.
Bacunculus blatchleyi, 211.
Badger, 303.
Bag-worm, 154. 156.
Balaninus, 142.

caryse, 141.

nasicus, 141.

reniformis, 141.
Bark-beetle, hickory, 154.
Bark-beetles, 27, 156.
Bark-louse, 156.
Basidiomycetes, 417, 420, 435.
Basilona, 140.

imperialis, 64, 227.
Bass, 387, 391, 402.

calico, 567.

large-mouthed black, 385, 387, 567,

rock, 387, 567.

small-mouthed black, fi85, 387, 567
570.

582

Index

Bassus Isetatorius, 342.

Basswood, or linden, 77, 136, 141, 146,

149, 151, 152, 174, 227, 228.
Bayberry, 299.
Beans, 179.

Bear, 303. i

Beard grass, 53.

Bee, carpenter, 45, 46, 104, 198, 199.

-fly, 174.

giant, 50, 52, 53, 54, 163, 174, 185.

honey-, 45, 46, 50, 51, 104, 187, 200.

leaf-cutting, 50, 198.

moths, 100.

short leaf-cutting, 52, 198.
Beech, 76, 80, 81, 85, 147, 152, 157,

214, 425, 456.
Bees, 174, 186, 192.
Beet, 182.

Beetles, 174, 201,, 235, 236, 293.
Beggar-ticks, 53, 103.
Bellflower, 63.
Benzoin, 138, 207.
Bidens, 44, 103, 118, 171, 172.
Bill-bug, 50, 181.
Birch, 27, 149, 228.

river, 348, 350.
Birds, 44, 100, 284, 287, 289, 291, 293,
294-297, 298, 299, 300, 301, 302.

Bittacus, 62, 126, 133, 190.

apicalis, 126, 210.

stigmaterus, 64, 126, 209, 210.

strigosus, 126, 210.
Bitternut, 57, 60, 63, 228.
Bittersweet, 63, 224.
Black flies, 307.

Blackberry, 129, 148, 170, 216, 299.
Blackbird, crow; or grackle, bronzed,
286, 290, 298.

red-winged, 286, 290, 291.
Blackbirds, 291.
Blarina brevicauda, 289.

parva, 288, 299.
Blastobasis glandulella, 141.
Blattidse, 210.
Blazing star, 199, 200.
Blissus leucopterus, 111.

Blister-beedle, black, 52, 53, 55, 110.
180.

margined, 52, 53, 54, 180.

striped, 180.

two-lined, 180.
Blister-beetles, 180.
Bluebird, 297.

Blue flag, 44, 103.

-gill, 387.
,jay, 286, 295, 300.

stem, 40, 53, 55, 166, 170, 171, 181.
Bobolink, 302.

Bob-white, 285, 290, 298, 301.
Boeolophus bicolor, 296.
Boletinus, 538.

porosus, 538.

porous, 538.

Boletotherus, 159.

bifurcus, 64, 126, 136, 224.
Boletus, 534, 538.
Bombidse, 199.

Bombus, 47, 51, 117, 119, 120, 121, 187,

200.
auricomus, 56, 108, 111, 200.
consimilis, 200.
fervidus, 200.

fraternus, 45, 46, 50, 111, 200.
impatiens, 56, 108, 111, 200.
pennsylvanicus, 45, 46, 54, 56, 108,

109, 111, 199.
separatus, 45, 46, 50, 52, 111, 163,

200.

Bombycid, 220.
Bombycilla cedrorum, 298.
Bombyliidse, 115, 185, 319, 324, 325,

327-334.
Bombylius, 186, 327.

brevirostris, 331.

fulvus, 331.

I'herminieri, 331.

Borer, apple, 146.
ash, 147.
elm, 146, 154.
flat-headed apple-tree, 146.
heartwood, 154.
hickory, 147.

Index

583

Borer — continued.

honey-locust, 147.

locust, 145, 147, 154.

sugar-maple, 156, 232.
Borers, wood, 99, 100, 148.
Bothriothorax, 342.

peculiaris, 342.
Bothropolys multidentatus, 134.
Botrychlum vlrginianum, 63.
Box-elder, 143, 456, 530.
Box-turtle, 293, 294.
Brachycoma, 120.

davidsoni, 200.
Brachynemurus abdominalis, 50, 51,

111, 165.
Brachypalpus frontosus, 343.
Bracon agrili, 144, 159 (see Errata).
Braconidee, 158, 190.
Branchiobdellidas, 66.
Brenthid, northern, 147.
Brontes dubius, 151.
Brown-tailed moth, 156.
Bubo virginianus virginianus, 298.
Buck-brush, 63.
Buckwheat, climbing, 227.
Buffalo, 118, 301.

-grass, 30.
Bufo americana, 29'3.

Bug, ambush, 45, 46, 47, 48, 50, 52,
53, 104, 174, 185, 189.
flea negro-, 172.
leaf-footed, 138.
milkweed. See Milkweed-bug.
plant. S-ee Plant-bug.
slender-necked, 135.
squash, 189.
stinging, 174.
stink-, 50, 51, 187.

Bugs, 201.

Bullfrog, 294, 300.

Bullhead, black, 562, 567, 570.

Bullheads, 387, 570.

Bulrush, 44, 103.

Bumblebee, false, 52, 54, 120, 200.

impatient, 56, 200.

Pennsylvania, 45, 54, 56, 199.

Bumblebees, 45, 46, 47, 50, 52, 56, 117,

199.
Bunting, Henslow's, 302.

indigo, 287, 296.
Buprestidse, 144, 145.
Buprestis splendens, 142.
Burdock, 227.
Bush honeysuckle, 183.
Buteo borealis borealis, 298.

lineatus lineatus, 298-.
Butorides virescens virescens, 284, 294.
Butterflies, 46, 125, 174, 187, 201.
Butterfly, cabbage, 56, 182, 186, 187.

celery, 45, 182.

cresphontes, 225.

eurytus, 65, 226.

idalia, 45, 183.

milkweed, 45, 50, 183.

monarch, 290.

philenor, 59, 61, 225.

philodice, 45.

portlandia, 65, 226.

thoe, 53, 183.

troilus, 59, 61, 225.

turnus, 50, 225.
Butternut, 139, 146, 149, 227.
Buttonwood, 227.

Cabbage, 347.

Caberodes confusaria, 61, 229.

Cacalia, 171.

Calandridse, 181.

Calicodoma, 327.

Callipus, 133.

lactarius, 64, 134, 205.
Calloides nobilis, 148.
Callostoma, 327.
Caloptenus italicae, 327.

spretus, 327.
Calopteron, black-tipped, 64, 221.

reticulate, 64, 222.

reticulatum, 64, 126, 222.

terminale, 64, 126, 221.
Calosoma, 140.

scrutator, 59, 61, 124, 125, 132, 159,
220, 237.

584

Index

Calvatia gigantea, 544.
Cambarus, 292.

diogenes, 66, 128, 161, 204, 294.

gracilis, 43, 47, 104, 108. 161.

immunis, 66. 205.

propinquus, 66, 205.

sp.. 48. 49. 50, 51.
Campanula americana, 68.
Camponotus, 147, 150, 209.

herculeanus, 154.

pennsylvanicus, 62, 202, 203, 204,
221, 223, 228, 236.
ferrugineus, 62, 65, 220, 237.
Campostoma anomalum, 66, 293.
Campylencliia curvata, 48, 170.
Canker-worms, 221.
Cantharellus, 437.

aurantiacus, 506.

ciharius, 504.

cinnabarinus, 506.

Capsid, 305.

Carabidae, 116, 130, 175, 220.

Cardinal, 296.

Cardinalis cardinalis, 220.

cardinalis cardinalis, 296.
Carex, 44.

Carpodacus purpureus purpureas, 298.
Carya, 124, 292.

alba, 40. '

cordiformis, 57, 60, 63, 292.

glabra, 40, 57, 60, 124.

microcarpa, 228.

ovata, 40, 57, 60, 124, 226, 229, 230.
Catalpa, 148, 149.

hardy, 148.
Catbird, 298.
Caterpillar, carpenter, 154.

rotten-log, 61 150, 153, 154, 228.

slug, 61, 140, 229.

-gall, 184.

-hunter, 59, 61, 220.

wasp, short, 59, 62, 238.
Caterpillars, 125, 164, 172, 173, 174, 177,

183, 193.
Catfishes, 568.
Cathartes aura septentrionalis, 294.

Catogenus rufus, 148.
Catostomus coiomersonii, 387, 567.
Cattails, 80.
Ceanothus, 223.

Cecidomyia, 140, 157, 158, 184.
caryaecola, 59, 230.
holotricha, 59, 65, 229.
solidaginis, 110, 184.
tubicola, 59, 229.

Cecidomyiidae, 124, 184, 229, 347 (see

Errata).
Cedar, red, 148, 149.

white, 149.
Celastrus scandens, 63.
Ceraonus, 327.
Centrinophus helvinus, 110.

Centrinus penicellus, 52, 182.
picumnus, 182.
scutellum-album, 52, 182.

Centurus carolinus, 294.
Cerambycidae, 144, 177.
Ceratocampidse, 227.

Ceratopogon, 310, 311, 315.

bellus, 310.

biguttatus, 308.

fusicornis, 314.

griseus, 309.

peregrinus, 309.
Ceratopogoninae, 305, 306-317, 317-

319, 322.
Cerceris, 195.

Cercis canadensis, 60, 63, 292.
Ceria signifer, 345.

willistoni, 344-345.
Certhia familiaris americana, 298.
Ceruchus piceus, 152.
Ceryle halcyon, 294.
Ceuthophilus sp., 135.
Chaetopsis aenea, 104.
Chalcididae, 158.
Chanterelle, edible, 504.

false, 506.

Chariessa pilosa, 145.
Chat, yellow-breasted, 296.
Chauliodes sp., 315.

Index

585

Chauliognathus, 120, 121.
marginatus, 65, 222.
pennsylvanicus, 45, 46, 53, 55, 56,
104, 109, 111, 169, 176.

Cherry, 143, 148, 149, 227, 228, 283,
287, 291.

black, 63.

wild, 141, 149, 208, 227, 286, 292,
299.
Chestnut, 146, 149, 228, 536.
Chickadee, 297.
Chiggers, 45, 46, 52, 164, 306.
Chinch-bug, 111, 114.
Chion cinctus, 143, 144, 146.
Chipmunk, 297, 299.
Chironomidae, 305, 319.
Chloealtis conspersa, 58, 124, 132, 213.

Chlorion, 119.

atratum, 49, 54, 110, 195.
caeruleum, 192.
cyaneum, 192.
harrisi, 52, 170, 194.
ichneumoneum, 45, 46, 49, 50, 51, 52,

104, 120, 121, 194, 196.
penn sylvan icum, 49, 54, 194.

Chloropidae, 360-363.

Chondestes grammacus grammacus,

298.
Chorophilus nigritus, 284.
Chrosomus erythrogaster, 567.
Chrysobothris femorata, 144, 146, 148.

Chrysocus, 118.

auratus, 45, 46, 51, 59, 104, 124, 178,
223.

Chrysomelidae, 178, 223.
Chrysopa, 109, 158.

oculata, 50, 51, 111, 165.
Chrysophanes thoc, 53, 183.
Chrysopidae, 165.

Chrysotoxuna ventricosum, 59, 231.
Chub, creek, 65.

river, 567.
Chyromyia, 358.
Cicada, 125.

dog-day, 58, 196, 217.
dorsata, 170.

Cicada — continued.

limnei, 58, 130, 217.

periodical, 58, 129,130-132.

prairie, 170.

pruinosa, 196.

tibicen, 217.
Cicadas, 140.
Cicadidae, 170, 217.

Cicindela, 186, 187, 319', 327.

scutellaris lecontei, 328.

punctulata, 181.

sexguttata, 220.

unipuuctata, 59, 124, 132, 219.
Cicindelidae, 219, 230.
Circinaria concava, 58, 64, 136, 201,
202, 204.

Circinariidae, 201.
Circus hudsonius, 285.
Cirsium, 46, 118, 171.

discolor, 183, 199.
Cissia eurytus, 65, 126, 138, 159, 226.
Cistogaster immaculata, 54, 189.
Citheronia, 140.

regalis, 61, 227.
Citrus, 225.

Clavaria, crested, 540.

cristata, 540.

pyxidata, 540.
Clavariaceae, 540, 542.

Claudopus, 437.

nest-cap, 532.

nidulans, 532.
Clearweed, 60, 62, 63, 126, 138, 209.
Cleidogona, 133.

caesioannulata, 61, 205.
Cleridae, 134.
Clerus quadriguttatus, 145.
Click-beetle, 221.
Clinidium sculptile, 149.
Clitellus frankliui, 289.

tridecemlineatus, 289.
Clitocybe, 437 438, 514.

deceiving, 512.

illudens, 427, 431, 439, 512.

many-cap, 510.

multiceps, 510

586

Index

Clitocj^be — continued.
ochropurpurea, 514.
odora, 508.
sweet-smelling, 508.

Clover, prairie, 169, 178.

purple prairie, 54, 169, 172, 199.
red, 226.
sweet, 196.

Clytanthus albofasciatus, 147.

ruricola, 147.
Coccidae, 139, 234.
Coccinella novetnnotata, 112, 176.
Coccinellidae, 59, 176, 221.
Coccyzus americanus americanus, 294.

erythrophtlialmus, 298.
Cochlidiidae, 229.
Cochlidion. 61. 229.
Cocklebur, 49, 189.
Cockroach, 210.

woodland, 61.
Coelioxys, 198.
Coffee-tree, 292.

Kentucky, 63, 141.
Colaptes auratus luteus, 285, 295.
Coleoptera, 116, 131, 158, 175-182, 219-
225, 327.

larvae, 172.
Colinus virginianus virginianus, 285,

298.
Collembola, 131.
Colletes, 197, 327.

Collybia, 437.

broad-gilled, 518.

dryophila, 522.

oak-loving, 522.

platyphylla, 518.

radicata, 436, 516, 518.

rooting, 516.

velutipes, 520.

velvet-stemmed, 520.
Cone-flower, 39, 48, 49, 169, 170, 172,

179, 189, 196, 197, 198, 283.
Cone-nose, Nebraska, 64, 216.
Conifers, 26, 27, 86, 143, 144, 156, 227.
Conocepbalus, 50, 51, 111, 163, 168.

nebrascensis, 64, 126, 216.

Conopidae, 188.
Conops, 120, 200.
Conotrachelus elegans, 141.

seniculus, 138, 139.
Copepoda, 293.

Coprinus, 437, 480, 482.

atramentarius, 480, 482, 484, 494.
comatus, 432, 478, 494.
ebulbosus, 484.
glistening, 482.
micaceus, 482.
spotted, 484.

Coptocycla clavata, 65, 224.
Cord grass, 39, 40, 170.
Cordyceps, 119, 120, 121.
Coreidae, 173, 219.
Corirachne versicolor, 151.
Corixidae, 66.

Corn, 177, 179, 182, 218.
broom-, 283, 285, 287.
Indian, 283, 285, 286, 291, 293.
root-worm, southern, 48, 53, 179.

western, 179.
Cornus, 122, 147.
Corthylus, 137.
Corvus brachyrhynchos brachyrhyn-

chos, 286, 295.
Corymbites sp.. 64, 221.
Cotton, 218.
Cottonwood, 44, 76, 103, 105, 106, 120,

121, 135, 138, 148, 149, 157, 283,

285.
Couch grass, 39.
Cowbird, 298.

Crab-apple, 55, 56, 129, 146.
Crab-spider. See S p i d e r — ambush,

crab-, or flower.
Crambidae, 115.
Cranberry, 77, 79, 84.
Crane-flies, 201.
Crappie, black, 567.

white, 567.
Crappies, 387.
Craspedosomidae, 205.
Crataegus, 146, 350.
Craterellus, canthiirellus, 504.

Index

587

('ratoparis lunatus, 137.
Crawfish, 35, 44, 48, 50, 66, 108, 114,
179, 289, 292, 294, 300.

burrowing prairie, or prairie, 45, 104,
161.

diogenes, 161, 204.

immune, 205.

neighborliood, 205.

prairie or burrowing prairie, 45, 104,
161.
Creeper, brown, 298.
Cremastogaster lineolata, 59, 152, 234.
Crepidotus, 437.

Cressonia juglandis, 59, 140, 226.
Cricket, 165.

black-liorned meadow, 42, 48, 55,
169.

four-spotted white, 42, 50, 170.

spotted, 58, 217.

striped, 58, 64, 216.

woodland, 58, 61, 132, 217.
Crickets, 426.

Criocephalus obsoletus, 148.
Crioceris asparagi, 172.
Crow, American, 286, 295.
Crustacea, 71, 161, 204, 205.
Cryptocephalus mutabilis, 65, 223.

venustus, 178.

simplex, 178.
Crytorhynchus parochus, 146.
Cuckoo, black-billed, 298.

yellow-billed, 294, 300.
Cucujus clavipes, 149, 151.
Cucullia asteroides, 110.
Culicidae, 184.

Culicoides biguttatus, 307, 308-309, 310.

cinctus, 306.

guttipennis, 306-307, 308.

haematopotus, 306, 308.

sanguisugus, 306, 307-308.

stellifer, 306, 307.

unicolor, 306.

varipennls, 306.
Culver's root, 174.
Curculiouidae, 182.
Currant, 129.

Cyanocitta cristata cristata, 286, 295.
Cyclorrhapha, 342-352.
Cyllene caryae, 147.

pictus, 147.

robiniae, 110, 145, 147, 154.
Cymatodera balteata, 145.
Cynipidae, 124, 190, 232.
Cypress, 362, 363.
Cyprinidae, 568.
Cyrtidae, 324, 325, 341-342.
Cyrtophyllus perspicillatus, 58, 125,
140, 159, 215.

D

Dace, horned, 293, 567.

red-bellied, 567.
Daddy-long-legs, 206.
Daedalia, 136.
Danais archippus. See Anosia plex-

ippus.
Dandelion, 227.
Darter, rainbow, 387, 567.
Darters, 386, 568.
Dasypogon winthemi, 338.
Datana, 140, 159, 220.

angusi, 59, 61, 228.
Deer, 303.

Dendroctonus frontalis, 143, 156.

piceaperda, 156.

ponderosa, 156.

terebrans, 143.
Dendroica coronata, 287, 298.
Dendroides, 154.

canadensis, 149, 225.
Dendrolinus pini, 327.

Deromyia discolor, 64, 126, 230.
sp., 53, 186.
umbrinus, 230.
winthemi, 326, 338-339. '

Desmodium, 53, 124, 226.

canadense, 171.

grandiflorum, 63.

nudiflorum, 57.
Desmognathus fusca, 293.
Destroying angel, 415. (See also Am-
anita verna.)

588

Index

Diabrotica atripennis, 45, 179.

12-punctata, 48, 49, 53, 112, 164, 179.

longicornis, 179.
Diaperis hydni, 136.

maculata, 136.
Diapheromera femorata, 58, 125, 140,

159, 211.
Diatoms, 292.
Dicerca divaricata, 148.

lurida, 147.
Dichelonyx, 369.
Dichromorpha viridis, 58, 61, 64, 124,

126, 212, 214.
Dickcissel, 302.
Dictamnus, 225.
Didelphys virginiana, 299.

Digger-wasp, 152, 196, 228.
black, 54, 195.
Harris's 52, 194.
Pennsylvania, 54, 194.
rusty, 45, 46, 47, 50, 51, 52, 104, 120,
194.

Diogmites misellus, 338.

Diplocardia, 135.

Diplopods, 124, 125, 133.

Diptera, 107, 116, 131, 143, 184-190,

229-231, 305-363, 370.
Dissosteira Carolina, 166, 196.

venusta, 189.
Dixippus morosus, 211.
Dock, 183.

Dogbane, 44, 49, 57, 104, 109, 113, 124,
173, 178, 183, 193, 201, 223, 231.
beetle, 45, 47, 59 178, 223.
caterpillar, 53.
spreading, 178.

Dogwood, 122, 137, 138, 139, 147.

flowering, 299.
Dolicbopodidae, 187, 188.
Dorcas parallelus, 152.
Dorcascbema wildii, 148.
Dove, mourning, 285.
Dragon-flies, 47, 119, 164, 165, 230.
Dragon-fly, nine-spot, 45, 50, 104, 165.

red-tailed, 50, 164.
Dropseed, 49, 53.

Drosopbila, 346, 347.
adusta, 347, 348.
dimidiata, 348.
pbalerata, 104.

Drosophilidae, 346-348.

Dryobates pubescens medianus, 294.

villosus villosus, 294.
Ducks, wild, 288, 290.
Dung-beetle, splendid, 50, 223.
Dumetella carolinensis, 298.
Dutchman's pipe, 225.

E

Earthworms, 115. 135.

Eburia Quadrigeminata, 143, 147.

Egg-plant, 224.

Elaphldion, 141, 159.
mucronatum, 147.
villosum, 141, 143, 147.

Elateridae, 115, 145, 221, 224.

Elm, 40, 62, 63, 77, 126, 138, 144, 147,
148, 149, 152, 227, 231.

American, 514.

borer, 144.

slippery, 63.

white, 217.
Elms, 292, 322, 342.
Elymus, 39, 41, 44, 107, 111, 162, 163.
167, 168, 169.

canadensis, 42, 107.

virginicus, 107.

submuticus, 42, 4S.

Empididae, 174, 189.

Empidonax virescens, 295.

Empis clausa, 110, 112, 189.

Empusa, 119, 120, 121.

Enchytraeids, 135.

Encoptolophus sordidus, 48, 50, 53, 54,

108, 109, 111, 166.
Endodontidae, 203.
Endoniychidae, 136.
Enodia, 126, 138, 159.
portlandia, 65, 226.
Entoloma, 437.
Epargyreus tityrus, 64, 126, 140, 226.

Index

589

Epeira domiciliorum, 64, 65, 126, 138,
206.

insularis, 58, 138, 206.

labyrinthica, 138.

trivittata, 64, 126, 207.

verrucosa, 58, 65, 125, 138, 207.
Epeirid, island, 206.

tent, 64, 65, 206.

three-lined, 64.
Epeirldae, 162, 206.
Epeolus concolor, 48, 49, 50, 51, 54,

108. 196.
donatus, 197.
spp., 197.

Epliydridae, 345.
Epicaerus imbricatus, 141.
Epicauta, 120, 121.

marginata, 52, 53, 54, 109, 180.

pennsylvanica, 52, 53, 54, 55, 108,

109, 110, 111, 180.
vittata, 52, 54, 178, 180.

Epinomia, 111, 181.

triangulifera, 181.
Erax bastardi, 186.

lateralis, 187, 327.
Erigeron, 178.
Eriophyidae, 208.
Erotylidae, 136. .
Eryngium, 86.

yuccifolium, 53, 54, 108, 163, 167, 168,
174, 175, 177, 179, 180, 181, 183,
189, 192, 194, 195, 196, 199.
Etheostoma coeruleum, 386, 387, 567.
Euaresta aequalis, 48, 49, 189.
Euceridae, 197.
Euforcipomyia, 312.

fusicornis, 313, 314-315.

hirtipennis, 313, 314.

longitarsis, 313.
Eugnoriste occidentalis, 185.
Eumenes, 327.

fraterna, 181.
Eumenidae, 193.
Eupatorium coelestinum, 125, 163, 212,

214, 231.
Euphorbia, 73, 74, 118.

corollata, 53, 55, 108, 109, 283.

Euphoria inda, 177.

sepulchralis, 45, 46, 104, 177.
Euproctis chrysorrhoea, 156.
Eupsalis minuta, 147, 159.
Eurymus philodice, 45, 46, 182.
Euschistus fissilis, 65, 218.

variolarius, 45, 50, 51, 53, 54, 108,
109, 110, 111, 171, 187.
Eustroma, 140.

diversilineata, 59, 229.
Eustrophus bicolor, 136.

tomentosus, 136.
Euthoctha galeator, 219.
Everes, 138.

comyntas, 61, 226.
Evergreens, 82, 85.
Everlasting, 57, 124.
Exoprosopa, 120, 328.

fasciata, 319, 326, 327, 329-330.

fascipennis, 121, 185, 319, 326, 330-
331, 332.

Palco sparverius sparverius, 285, 298.
Feltia jaculifera, 334.

subgothica, 121, 174.
Fern, beech, 63.

maidenhair, 63.

rattlesnake, 63.
Feverwort, 183.
Fiber zibethicus, 299.
Finch, purple, 298.
Fir, Douglas, 149.
Fireflies, 222.

Firefly, Pennsylvania, 65, 222.
Fishes, 293, 300, 381-412, 557, 558, 559,

562, 563, 564, 565, 566, 567, 568.
Flag, blue, 44, 103, 104.
Flags, 283.
Flammula, 43?, 438.
Flicker, or northern flicker, 285, 291,

295.
Flower-beetle, black, 45, 46, 177.

rose, 152.
Flowering spurge. 283.
Flycatcher, Acadian, 295, 300.

crested, 295, 300.

590

Index

Fontaria corrugata, 134.

virginiensis, 134.
Forcipomyia, 309, 312.
cilipes, 312.
elegantula, 311-312.
specularis, 312.
Formica difflcilis consocians, 191.
exsectoides, 235.
fusca, 109, 171.

subsericea, 59, 110, 112, 171, 190,
191, 236.
Integra, 177.
pallide-fulva, 191.

schaufussi, 120, 191, 235.

incerta, 54, 112, 171, 190, 191.
sanguinea, 190, 191.
aserva, 190.
puberula, 191.
rubicunda, 190.
subintegra, 191.
subnuda, 191.
Pormicidae, 190, 233.
Fowl, wild, 302.
Foxtail, 181.

Frog, common, or leopard, 284, 290.
Frogs, 45, 66, 383, 398, 407.
Frontina, 120.
Fulgoridae, 217.
Fundulus, 382.

Fungi, 90, 102, 124, 133, 135, 136, 137,
148, 149, 159, 169, 176, 221, 320,
322, 346, 348.
club, 419, 435, 540, 542.
cup, 435.
gill, 420, 435.

hedgehog, 419, 435, 540, 542.
pore, 435.
sac, 420, 435.
Fungus insects, German, 137.
gilled, 136.
shelf, 136, 224.
Fungus-beetle, horned, 64, 136, 224.
Fungus-beetles, 136, 137.

G

Galba obrussa, 161.

umbilicata, 45, 46, 47, 104, 160.

Galera, 437.

slender, 526.

tenera, 526.
Galerita janus,,59, 125, 135, 150, 221.
Galerucella luteola, 156.
Galium circaezans, 63.

trifolium, 63.

Gall, acorn plum-, 232.

caterpillar, 184.

-flies, 140.

goldenrod bunch, 184.

hairy midge, 65, 229.

hickory seed, 230.

hickory tube, 229.

horned knot oak- 65, 232.

insects, 106.

-louse, vagabond, 105.

-mite, cherry-leaf, 64, 140, 208.

oak-apple or May-apple, 232, 234.

Oak bullet-, 59, 232.

oak seed-, 232.

oak wool-, 59, 65, 232.

rose, 56, 190.

white oak club-, 59, 232.

willow cone-, 184.

willow leaf-, 158.
Gallinipper, 184.
Galls, 35, 110, 351.
Gaura biennis, 183.
Gaurax, 360-361.

apicalis, 361.

dorsalis, 360, 361.

ephippium, 361, 363.

festivus, 361.

flavidulus, 360, 361-362.

fumipennis, 361, 363.

interruptus, 361, 363.

montanus, 360, 361.

obscuripennis, 361.

pallidus, 361, 362-363.

pilosulus, 361.

pseudostigma, 360.

splendidus, 361.

Gelechia, 141.
Gelechiidae, 184, 229.
Geometridae, 229.

Index

591

Geomyzidae, 357.

Geophiloids, 133.

Geothlypis trichas trichas, 287.

Geotrupes splendidus, 59, 125, 132, 223.

Gerridae, 219.

Gerris, 292.

remigis, 66, 127, 219.
Giant fly, 45, 46, 186.
Glaphyrus, 369.
Gnatcatcher, blue-gray, 297.
Gnat larvae, 293.
Gnathotrlchus, 137.
Gnats, 201.
Gnorimoschema gallaesolidaginls, 110,

184.
Goes debilis, 146.

pulverulentus, 146.

tigrlna, 146, 154.
Goldenrod, 109, 110, 111, 162, 169, 170,
172, 174, 176, 177, 180, 182, 185,
188, 190, 192, 196, 283.

bunch gall, 184.
Goldfinch, 286, 295.
Goldfishes, 383.
Gooseberry, 63, 141.
Gopher, 288.

gray, 289.

striped, 289.
Grackle, bronzed, or blackbird, crow,

286, 290, 298.
Grape, 55, 56, 60, 63, 145, 177, 217, 218,
223, 229.

-beetle, spotted, 55, 177, 223.

wild, 292, 299.
Grass, 42, 43, 51, 74, 78, 121, 152, 162,
166, 173, 212, 226.

beard, 53.

cord, 39, 40, 169, 170.

couch, 89.

reed, 283.

root-louse, 120.

slough, 39, 41, 42, 43, 107.
Grasses, 283.
Grasshopper, Boll's, 58, 61, 213.

Carolina, 166, 196.

common meadow, or meadow, 42, 44,
50, 53, 58, 64, 168.

Grasshopper — continued.

differennal, 42, 44, 48, 50, 53, 119,
167, 213.

dorsal-striped. 42, 44, 48, 52, 53, 169.

lance-tailed, 53, 169.

leather-colored, 55, 167.

lesser, 58, 213.

long-horned, 194.

red-legged, 42, 44, 48, 50, 168.

Scudder's, 61, 64, 214.

short-winged, 58, 61, 64, 212.

sordid, 48, 50, 53, 166.

sprinkled, 58, 213.

two-striped, or two-lined, 53, 167.
Grasshoppers, or locusts, 47, 50, 58,
64, 65, 164, 180. 186, 187, 192, 213,
290, 293, 294, 300.
Green brier, 63.
Gregarina, 134.

Grosbeak, rose-breasted, 178, 296.
Ground-beetles, 42, 294.
Grouse, ruffed, 303.
Grouse-locust, 58, 211.

short-winged, 58, 212.
Gryllidae, 169, 216.
Gum, 149.
Gymnocladus, 141.

dioica, 63, 292.
Gypona pectoralis, 65, 218.
Gypsy-moth, 156.
Gyrocampa, 346.
Gyromitra, 550.

brown, 550.

brunnea, 550.

esculenta, 550.

H

Habia ludoviciana, 178.
Hackberry, 75, 146, 152.
Halictidae, 196,
Halictus, 181, 195.

fasciatus, 52, 54, 110, 196

obscurus, 54, 196.

sp., 305.

virescens, 52, 196.
Halisidota, 140.

tessellaris, 59, 61, 227.

592

Indf,x

Hardwoods^ 26, 143.

Harmostes reflexulus, 52, 112, 173.

Harpalus, 175.

caliginosus, 175, 176.
pennsylvanicus, 175, 176.
Harvest-fly, dog-day, 58, 196, 217.
Harvest-man, 50.
Harvest-mites, 164.
Harvest-spider, polished, 161.
stout, 58, 61, 206.
striped, 205.
Harvest-spiders, 58, 132, 138.
Haw, 129, 146.
Hawk, Cooper's, 294.
marsh, 285, 290.
-moth, 183.
red-shouldered, 298.
red-tailed, 298.
sharp-shinned, 298.
sparrow, 285, 289. 290, 298.
Hawks, 300.
Hazel, 139, 223, 227.
Hazelnuts, 141.
Heart-rots, 423, 424, 536.
Heboloma, 437.
Hedeoma puleg:odes, 57.
Helianthus, 111, 330.
Helicidae, 201.

Helodromas solitarius solitarius, 285.
Hemaris diffinis, 45, 46, 183.
Hemerocampa loucostigma, 154, 156.
Hemiptera, 46, 98, 107, 138, 170-175

217-219.
Hemlock, 149, 468.
Hemp, Indian, 178.
Herbivora, 421.
Heron, black-crowned night, 298.

little green, 284, 291, 294.
Hesperiidae, 226.
Hetaerius blanchardi. 235.
Heterocampa, 140, 159.

guttivitta, 59, 228, 238.
Heteroptera, 158.

Hickory, 40, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 74, 75
76, 80, 87, 12.3, 124, 129, 132, 138^
139 141, 144, 146, 147, 148, 149, 157,
177, 211, 215. 217, 223, 226 227 2^8
229, 230, 292, 425.

Hickory — continued.

bark-beetle, 154.

bitternut, 57, 60, 63, 228, 292.

-borer, 147.

horned-devil, 61, 227.

-nuts, 141.

pignut, 57, 60, 124.

seed-gall, 230.

shagbark, 57, 60, 124.

shell-bark, 226.

tube-gall, 229.
Hippodamia parenthesis, 52, 176.
Hirundo erythrogaster, 287.
Holcaspis, 140.

globulus, 59, 232.

Honey-bee, 45, 46, 50, 51, 104, 187, 200,
201.

Honey-locust, 147, 149.

Honeysuckle, bush, 183.

Hoplia, 369.

Hoplismenus morulus, 135.

Hordeum, 346.

Hornet, white-faced, 135.

Hornets, 210.

Horntail, 144, 145, 154, 231, 233.

Horsemint, 57, 124, 200.

Horseweed, 170.

Hummingbird, ruby-throated, 295.

Humulus, 225.

Hybopsis kentuckiensis, 567.

Hydnaceae, 542.

Hydnum, bear's-head, 542.

caput-ursi, 542.

coralloides, 542.

erinaceum, 542.

hedgehog, 542.
Hydrellia scapularis, 345-346.
*Hyla versicolor, 294.
Hjiocichla guttata pallasi, 299.

mustelina, 299.
Hymenarcys nervosa, 64, 218.
Hymenomycetes, 137.
Hymenoptera, 46, 107, 181, 190-201,
2a0. 231-238, 327.

parasitic, 104, 109, 115, 140, 141, 145,
163, 165, 198, 226.
Hyphanlria cunea, 156.

Index

593

Hypholoma, 437.
appendiculate, 502.
appendiculatum, 502.
candolleanum, 502.
incertum, 502.
lacrymabundum, 500.
weeping, 500.

Ichneumon cincticornis, 135.
Ichneumonidae, 233.
Icteria virens virens, 296.
Icterus galbula, 298.
Imperial motli, 64, 227.
Insecta, 99, 100, 119, 164-201, 208-238,
290.

Insects, forest, 142.

of the trunks and decaying wood,
142-157.

willow-gall, 157, 158.
Tnvertebrata, 119.
Ips 4-guttata, 176.
Iris, 103, 283.

versicolor, 44.
Ironweed, 172, 178.
Ironwood, 226.
Ischnoptera, 61, 125, 210.

inaequalis, 144.

pennsylvanica, 210.
Isodontia philadelphica, 170, 194!
Isosoma, 107, 111.

grande, 175.
Ivy, five-leaved, or Virginia creeper,
57, 60, 63, 177, 223.

poison, 57.

Jack-o'-lantern, 512.
Jalysus spinosus, 64, 126, 219.
Jassidae, 107, 112, 118, 171.
Johannsenomyia albibasis, 315-316.

argentata, 317.
Juglans, 292.

nigra, 57, 60, 63.
Junco hyemalis hyemalis, 295.

slate-colored, 295.
June-berry, 299.
Juniperus, 148.

K

Katydid, angle-winged, 58. 215.

common, 58, 215.

cone-nosed, 50.

forked, 58, 215.

round-winged, 64, 215.

Texan, 42, 44, 48, 50, 168.
Katydids, 140.

Kentucky coffee-tree, 63, 141.
Killdeer, 285.
Kingbird, 285, 290, 298.
Kingfisher, belted, 294.
Kinglet, golden-crowned, 299.

ruby-crowned, 299.
Kites, blue, 302.

swallow-tailed, 302.

Labidesthes sicculus, 387, 406, 567.
Laccaria, 514.

ochropurpurea, 514.

purplish, 514.
Lacewing, 50, 109, 165.
Lachnosterna, 105, 116, 119, 121, 142,
144, 174, 181, 186, 193, 233, 319,
331, 332, 338, 365, 369, 370.
Lactarius, 136, 437, 438. •

orange-brown, 442.

peppery, 440.

piperatus, 440, 442.

volemus, 442.
Lactuca, 118.

canadensis, 48, 53, 55, 108, 109, 171,
Ladybird or Lady-beetle, 52, 59, 221.

nine-spotted, 112, 176.

parenthetical, 176.
Lampyridae, 176, 221.
Languria mozardi, 109.

Lanius ludovicianus hudsonius, 287.

migrans, 287.
Laportea canadensis, 62, 63, 125, 126,

138, 209.
Larch, 156.
Lark, horned, 302.
Lasius flavus, 120.

interjectus, 120.

niger americanus, 119, 120, 121.

594

Index

Laurus, 225.
Leaf-beetle, 45, 52.

elm. 156, 232.
Leaf-bug, dusky, 53, 175.
Leaf-cutting bee, 50, 52, 198.
Leaf-footed bug, 138.
Leaf-hoppers, 64, 65.
Leaf-miner, 347.
Leather-jackets, 116.
Lebia grandis, 135.
Leeches, crawfish, 66.
Lentinus lepideus, 424.

tigrinus, 427, 428.

Lepachys, 108.

pinnata, 39, 48, 49, 108, 118, 161, 162,
166, 167, 168, 169, 170, 172, 174,
179, 189, 196, 197, 283.
Lepidoptera, 115, 138, 140, 143, 182-184,
225-229, 237. 319, 327, 333.
larvae, 35, 47.

Lepiota, 437, 458, 462.

crested, 460.

cristata, 460.

grainy, 462.

granulosa, 462.

morgani, 427, 431, 458.

naucina, 464.

smooth, 464.
Lepomis cyanellus. 387, 562, 563, 567.

humilis, 387, 391, 397, 407, 562. 563.

megalotis, 387.

pallidus, 387.
Leptilon, 170.

Leptoglossus oppositus, 138.
Leptostylus aculiferus, 146.
Leptotrachelus dorsalis, 42, 175.
Leptura proxlma, 148.
Lettuce, wild, 48, 53, 109, 171.
Leucania unipuncta, 189.
Liatris scariosa, 54, 185, 199, 200.
Libellula pulchella, 45, 50, 51, 104, 162,

165.
Libellulidae, 164.
Lichen, 176.

Ligyrocoris sylvestris, 48, 172.
Ligyrus spp., 327.

Lilac, 227.

Limacodes, 327.

Linden, or basswood, 77, 136, 141, 146,

149, 151, 152, 174, 227, 228, 351,

425.

Liobunum, 132, 138.
formosum, 162.
grande, 58, 61, 206.
politum, 50, 51, 161.
ventricosum, 58, 206.
vittatum, 58, 205.

Liopus alpha, 138.
fascicularis, 138, 159.
variegatus, 148.
xanthoxyli, 138.

Liriodendron, 225.
Lithacodes, 61.
Lithobius, voracior, 134.
Lobelia inflata, 63.

Locust, 141, 149.
borer, 145, 154.
Carolina, 166, 196.
grouse-. (See Grouse-locust.)
honey-, 147, 149.
yellow, 110, 148, 149, 226.

Locustidae, 51; 168, 215.

Locusts, or grasshoppers, 47, 132, 164,

180, 186, 187, 192, 213.
Lonchaea polita, 309.
Long-tail, black, 64, 233.
Long-sting, lunate, 64, 231, 233.
Lucanidae, 222.
Lucanus dama, 152.
Lumbricus, 115.
Lycaenidae, 183, 226.
Lycomorpha pholus, 222.
Lycoperdon cyathiforme. 544.

gemmatum, 544.
Lycopus, 44.
Lycosa scutulata, 64, 126, 208.

spp., 58, 132. 208.
Lycosidae, 208.
Lyctidae, 147.
Lygaeidae, 172.

Lygaeus kalmii, 45, 46, 50, 51. 104,
108,112, 118, 172. 185.

Indkx

595

Lygus pratensis, 305.
Lymexylon sericeum, 148.
Lymnaea, 160.
Lymnaeidae, 160.
Lysiopetalidae, 205.
Lythrum alatum, 44.

M

Macrobasis unicolor, 141.
Macrosiphum rudbeckiae, 109, 118, 171.
Magdalis, 146, 148.

armicollis, 144, 154.

barbita, 144.
Maggots, 426.
Mallophaga orcina, 187.
Mamestra, 327.
Mammals, 282, 288, 293, 297, 299, 303.

Maple, 76, 77, 80, 81, 84, 129, 136, 137,
138, 141, 143, 146, 148, 149, 152,
157, 227, 228, 231.

ash-leaved, 530. (See also box-
elder.)

hard, or sugar, 40, 62, 63, 123, 126,
151, 157.

red, 229.

silver, 149.

Maples, 292, 424, 456.
Marasmius oreades, 427.
Masycera sylvatica, 327.
May-beetles, 105, 106, 119, 120, 142,
187, 193, 233, 366, 367, 368, 379.

Meadow cricket, black-horned, 42, 48,
55, 169.

grasshopper, common, 42, 44, 50, 53,
55, 58, 168.
Meadowlark, 286, 302.
Mealy flata, 65, 217.
Mecaptera, 209.
Megachile, 327.

brevis, 5^, 198.

centunoularis, 198.

mendica, 50, 198.
Megachilidae, 198.
Megalodacne fasciata, 136.
Melandryidae, 136.
Melanerpes erythrocephalus, 285, 298.

Melanobracon simplex, 144, 159.
Melolontha, 116, 369.
balia, 369.
decimlineata, 369.
frondicola, 369.
hirsuta, 369.
hirticula, 369.
iricolor, 369.
linearis, 369.
longitarsis, 369.
moesta, 369.
occidentalis, 369.
pilosicollis, 369.
quercina, 369.
sericea, 369.
sordida, 369.
vespertina, 369.
vulgaris, 369.
Melanolestes picipes, 135.
Melanoplus amplectens, 58, 64, 124,
126, 132, 214.
atlanis, 58, 124, 213.
bivittatus, 53, 109, 167.
differentialis, 42, 44, 48, 50, 53, 54,
J07, 108, 109, 111, 121, 162, 167,
168, 213.
femur-rubrum, 42, 44, 48, 50, 107,

108, 111, 168, 196.
gracilis, 64, 126, 214.
obovatipennis, 58, 65, 124, 214.
scudderi, 61, 64, 124, 126, 214.
Melanotus, 61, 125, 150, 221.
Melasoma scripta, 106.
Melissodes aurigenia, 197.

bimaculata, 48, 50, 51, 54, 111, 197.
desponsa, 197.

obliqua, 48, 49, 52, 54, 108, 118. 197.
perplexa, 230.
trinodis, 107.
Melissopus latiferreana, 141.
Meloidae, 180.

Melospiza melodia melodia, 287, 296.
Membracidae, 170.
Menispermum canadense, 37, 60, 63.
Mephitis mesomelas avia, 289, 299.
Meracantha contracta, 59, 61, 125, 132,
135, 144, 152, 154, 202, 224.

596

Index

Merinus laevis, 151.
Meromyza americana, 107.
Mesogramma politum, 53, 54, 59, 65,

188, 231.
Metopia. 120, 121.

leucocephala, 195.
Mice, 290.
Microcentrum, 140.

laurifolium, 58, 124, 215.
Microlepidoptera, 158.
Microparsus variabilis, 171.
Micropterus dolomieu, 387, 567.

( See also Bass, small-m o u t h e d

black.)
salmoides, 387, 567.
Microtus austerus, 289.

pinetorum scalopsoides, 299.
Midge-gall, hairy, 65, 229.
Milesia ornata, 59, 64, 126, 163, 231.

virginiensis, 163.
Milesiinae, 231.

Milkweed, 51, 104, 112, 113, 172, 173,
178, 181, 336.
beetle, 45, 104, 178, 185.
four-eyed, 45, 50, 52, 177.
beetles, 46, 47, 51.
bug, small, 45, 50, 172, 185.

large, 45, 50, 104, 173.
bugs, 51, 104.
common, 112, 164, 171, 176, 180, 188,

190, 191, 201.
-fly, metallic, 187.
Sullivant's, 182.

swamp, 39, 44, 46, 49, 51, 103, 160,
162, 163, 165, 168, 171, 172, 173,
174, 175 176, 177, 178 179, 182, 183,
184, 186, 194, 198, 200, 283, 288.
Millipeds, 61, 64, 133, 136.
Minnow, blunt-nosed, 387, 401, 562, 567.
steel-colored, 387.
straw-colored, 562.
Minnows, 386, 387, 402, 568.
Mint, 163.

horse-, 57, 124, 200.
mountain, or white, 39, 50, 51, 163,
169, 172, 173, 174, 176, 178, 179,
180, 185, 191, 194 197, 199, 283.

Miridae, 175, 218.

Misumena aleatoria, 42, 43, 45, 46, 50,
51, 52, 53, 54, 64, 104, 109, 121,
126, 163, 168, 175, 185, 200, 216, 231.
vatia, 47.
Mites, 46, 107, 120, 130, 131, 137, 222.
mushroom, 426, 430.
uropod, 222.
Mniotilta varia, 296.
Molds, 435.
Mole, common, 289, 299.
Mollusca, 35, 124, 125, 126, 135, 137,

140, 160-161, 201-204.
Molorchus bimaculatus, 138.
Molothrus ater ater, 298.
Monarda, 124, 200, 330.

bradburiana, 57.
Monarthrum, 137.
Monoliammus confusor, 143.

titillator, 155.
Moonseed, 57, 60, 63.
Morchella, 550.

conica, 432, 546, 548.
semilibera, 548.
Morel, common, 546.

half-free, 548.
Morels, 420, 435, 546, 548.
Mormidea lugens, 65, 218.
Morus, 148.

rubra, 57, 60, 63, 292.
Mosquito, giant, 45, 47, 50, 51, 104, 184.
Mosquitoes, 219.
Moth, acorn, 141.
brown-tailed, 156.
gypsy, 156.
imperial, 64,, 227.
royal walnut, 227.
Moths, 125, 169, 174, 201.

clothes, 99, 100.
Mouse, house, 288, 299.
mole, 299.

prairie meadow-, 289.
white-footed prairie, 288.
Moxostoma aureolum, 562, 567.
Mud-wasp, potter, 193.
Mulberry, 57, 60, 63, 147, 148, 149, 292,
299.

Index

597

Mus musculus, 288, 299.
Musca clavatus, 336.
Muscidae, 116.
Mushroom, cone-like, 534.

coral-like, 542.

cultivated or meadow, 418, 466.

fiel^ or horse, 470.

flat-cap, 468.

green-gill, 458.

honey-colored, 488.

inky-cap, 423, 424, 480, 494.

oyster, 419, 528.

pink-gill. (See Mushroom, cultiva-
ted or meadow.)

Rodman's, 474.

shaggy-mane, 418, 423, 424, 478, 480,

494.
slightly red, 476.
spawn, 429.
sylvan, 472.
Mushrooms, 137, 413-554.
diseases of, 427.
parasitic, 423, 427, 488, 494.
puffball, 419, 423, 432, 435, 544.
saphrophytic, 423.
shelving, 419, 423.

umbrella-shaped, 415, 417-419, 423,
424.

Muskrat, 299.
Mutillidae, 192, 238.
Mycena, 437.

galericulata, 524.

haematopa, 524.

peaked-cap, 524.
Mycetobia, 323, 335.

divergens, 319, 321.

marginalis, 321.

pallipes, 324.

sordida, 321.
Mycetophagus bipustulatus, 136.

punctatus, 136.
Mycetophila, persicae, 321.
Mycetophilidae, 137, 185, 319, 320, 321,

323, 335.
Mydaidae, 186, 319, 324, 325, 336-337. j
Mydas clavatus, 45, 46, 186, 326, 336- '
337, 338

fulvipes, 186.
Myiarchus crinitus, 295.
Myodites, 52, 181.

fasciatus. 111, 181.

solidaginis. 111, 181.
Myodocha sefrripes, 135.
Myriapoda, 35, 134, 137, 140, 205.
Myriochanes virens, 295.
Myrmecophila pergandei, 191.
Myrmedonia, 234.
Myrmeleon, 154.

Immaculatus, 153.
Mj^rmeleonidae, 58, 124, 153, 165, 209.
Myrmica rubra scabrinodis sabuleti,
112, 190, 191.

schnecki, 61, 202, 234, 236.
Myzine, 115.

sexcincta, 50, 51, 54, 109, 110, 111,
192.
Mj'zinidae, 192.
Myzocallis, 107.

N
Nadata, 140.

gibbosa, 59, 61, 228.
Naucoria, 437.
Negro-bug, flea, 172.
Nematode, 323.
Nematus erichsonii, 156.
Nemobius, 132.

fasciatus, 58, 64, 124, 126, 216.

maculatus, 58, 124, 217.
Nemocera, 323, 324.
Nemognatha immaculata. 111.

sparsa. 111.
Neoceratopogon, 310.

bellus, 310.
Neoclytus, 146, 148.

erythrocephalus; 144, 147, 148, 154,
159.

luscus, 147.
Nettle, wood, 62, 63, 125, 126, 138, 209,

214.
Neuroptera, 165, 209.
Nitidulidae, 136.
Noctua, 327.
Noctuidae', 115, 183, 227, 333.

598

Index

Nodonoto convexa, 48, 179.
Nomadidae, 196.
Notodontidae, 228.
Notropis, 386, 397, 405.

atherinoides, 567.

blennius, 562.

cornutus, 387, 567.

whipplii, 387.
Nut-weevils, 141.

Nyticorax nycticorax naevius, 298.
Nyctobates pennsj'lvanicus, 151.
Nymphalidae, 183, 225.

Oak, 40, 57, 58, 59, 74, 76, 77, 80, 87,
123, 124, 128, 132, 139, 141, 142,
146, 147, 148, 149, 151, 152, 157,
177, 203, 205, 214, 215, 219, 220,
223, 227, 228, 229, 231, 232, 345,
456, 522, 536.
-apple gall, 232, 234.
black, 57, 60, 75, 124, 144, 149.
bur, 77.
post, 123.
-pruner, 141, 147.
red, 40, 57, 60, 62, 63, 123, 126, 129,

292.
shingle, 63, 123, 232.
white, 57, 60, 78, 124, 147, 148, 149, '
156, 227, 228, 232, 446, 514.
Oaks, 292, 300.
Oberea tripunctata, 148.
Odonata, 164.
Odynerus, 49, 327.
vagus, 52, 193.

Oecanthus, 42, 195.

fasciatus, 195.

nigricornis, 42, 48, 55, 107, 108, 111,
169.

niveus, 170.

quadripunctatus, 42, 50, 107, 111, 170.
Omaloplia, 369.
Omphalia, 437.
Oncideres cingulatus, 141.
Oncodes, 341.

costatus, 341-342.

Oncopeltus fasciatus, 45, 46, 50, 51,

104, 112, 118, 173.
Opossum, 299.
Orange, 155, 219.
Orchelimum, 120, 121.

cuticulare, 58, 64, 124, 126, 216.

glaberrimum, 42, 44, 64, 126, 216.

gracile, 194.

vulgare, 42, 44, 50, 53, 55, 56, 104,
107, 109, 111, 168, 194.
Orchids, 425.
Oriole, Baltimore, 298.
Ormenis pruinosa, 65, 217.
Orthoptera, 42, 43, 44, 47, 49, 51, 107,
113, 124, 126, 130, 166-170, 210-
217, 290.
Orthorrhapha, 324-342.
Orthosoma brunneum, 152.
Osage orange, 148, 149, 283.
Oscillatoria, 292.
Oscinis carbonaria, 107.

coxendix, 104.
Osmia, 327.
Osmoderma eremicola, 152.

scabra, 152.
Otocrytops sexspinosus, 134.
Otus asio asio, 298.
Owl. barred, 298.

great horned, 298.

screech, 298.
Oxyechus vociferus vociferus, 285.

Pallodes pallidas, 136.
Pandeletejus hilaris, 144.
Paneolus, 437.

Panicum, 73, 166, 167, 168, 170, 181,
346.

crus-galli, 176.
Panorpa, 133.

confusa, 133.
Panorpidae, 209.
Panther, 303.
Papaw, 138, 141, 147, 224.
Papilio, 126.

asterias, 233.

cresphontes, 46, 140, 225.

Ini)f,x

599

Papilio — continued.
philenor, 59, 61, 225.
polyxenes, 45, 46, 162, 182, 233.
troilus, 59, 61, 225.
turnus, 59, 140, 225.
Papilionidae, 182, 225.
Parandra brunnea, 151, 154.
Parasites of fishes, 387.
Parokeet, Carolina, 303.
Parsley, 182.
Parsnip, wild, 196.

Passalus cornutus, 61, 125, 144, 150,
151, 153, 154, 159, 202, 203, 204, 221,
222, 228, 236.
horned, 61, 154, 203, 222, 236.
Passer domesticus domesticus, 286.
Passerella iliaca iliaca, 298.
Passerina cyanea, 287, 296.
Peach, 143.
Pear, 229.
Pelecinidae, 233.

Pelecinus polyturator, 64, 126, 233.
Pelidnota punctata, 55, 56, 177, 223.
Pelopoeus, 327.

Pemphigus oestlundi, 105.
populicaulis, 105.
populi-transversus, 105.
vagabundus, 105.

Pennyroyal, 57.
Pentatomidae, 171, 218.
Penthe obliquata, 137.

pimelia, 137.
Penthestes atricapillus atricapillus,

297.
Perca flavescens, 567.
Perch, 391.

yellow or American, 569.
Peridroma saucia, 140.
Peromyscus maniculatus bairdi, 288.
Petalostemum, 169, 178.

purpureum, 54, 169, 172, 199.
Pewee, wood, 295, 300.

Peziza badia, 552.
recurved, 552.
repanda, 552.

Phalangiida, 35, 161, 205.

Phalangiidae, 161, 205.
Phasmidae, 211.
Phegopteris hexagonoptera, 63.
Phenolia grossa, 136.
Phidippus audax, 138.

sp., 164.
Philomycidae, 202.
Philomycus, 64, 203.

canadensis, 58, 61, 136, 150, 202, 204,

205, 209, 221, 223, 228, 236.

Phloeotomus, pileatus, 228.
Pholiota, 437.
dura, 490.

hard, 490.

praecox, 490.

scaly, 492.

squarrosa, 492.
Phoridae, 137, 353.
Photuris pennsylvanica, 65, 222.
Phragmites, 77, 79, 80, 105, 188.
Phycomycetes, 435.

Phyllophaga, 365-379.
Carolina, 378.
ephilida, 378, 379.
forbesi, 378-379.
hirticula, 370.
uniformis, 378, 379.
Phymata, 120.

fasciata, 45, 46, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53,
54, 104, 108, 109, 110, 111, 121,
174, 175, 185, 189. See also Am-
bush-bug.
wolffi, 174.
Phymatidae, 174.
Phymatodes varius, 156.
Physa gyrina. 50, 51, 160.
Physidae, 160.
Physocephala, 200.

sagittaria, 110, 188.
Pieridae, 182.
Pigeon Tremex, 59, 61, 231.

wild, 303.
Pignut, 57, 60, 124.
Pilea pumila, 60, 62, 63, 126, 138, 209.
Pilobolus, 421.

Pimephales, 386, 397, 401, 405, 406.
notatus, 386, 387, 562, 567.

600

Index

Pine, 143, 155.
yellow, 156.
Pipilo erythrophthalmus erythroph-

thalmus, 296.
Piranga erythromelas, 296.

rubra rubra, 296.
Pitcher-plant, 195.
Plagionotus speciosus, 156, 232.
Planesticus migratorius migratorius,

287, 297.
Plankton, 557.
Planorbis, 161.
Plantain, 227.
Plant-bug, dusky, 174.

tarnished, 45, 175, 218.
Plant-lice, 42, 47, 51, 107, 112, 162, 164,

165, 169, 174, 176, 188, 230.
Plant-louse, milkweed, 171. See also

Aphis asclepiadis.
Platydema ruficorne, 136.
Platymetopius frontalis, 48, 171.

Platyphora, 355.

coloradensis, 354, 355.
eurynota, 354, 355.
flavofemorata, 353-354, 355.
lubbocki, 355.
schwarzi, 355.

Platyptera, 208.
Platypus, 137.
Pleurotus, 429, 437, 532.

elm, 530.

ostreatus, 419, 432, 528.

ulmarius, 530.
Plover, upland, 302.
Plum, 141, 198, 219, 229.

sugar, 228.
Pluteolus, 437.

Pluteus, 437.

cervinus, 432, 486.
fawn-colored, 486.

Pogonamyia alpicola, 356, 357.

aterrima, 357.

flavinervis, 356-357.
Poison-ivy, 299.
Pokeberry, 299.
Polioptila caerulea caerulea, 297.

Polistes, 48, 49, 187.
pallipes, 110.
variatus, 110, 121, 193.

Polydesmidae, 205.
Polydesmus, 61, 150, 205.

serratus, 134.
Polyergus lucidus, 192.
Polygonia, 126, 138.

interrogationis, 225.
Polygonum, 183,

convolvulus, 227.
Polygraphus rufipennis, 156.
Polygyra albolabris, 58, 201.

clausa, 61, 201, 202, 204.
Polylepta leptogaster, 324.

Polyporus, 126, 136, 224, 538.
branched, 536.
froiulosus, 536.
sulphureus, 536.
tomentosus, 136.
volvatus, 137.

Pomace-fly, 104.
Pomoxis annularis, 567.

sparoides, 567.
Pompilidae, 194.
Pompilus, 238.
Pontia protodice, 174.

rapae, 56, 182, 186.
Poplar, 106, 149.

Carolina, 105, 106.
Populus, 106, 149.

deltoides, 44, 103, 105, 283.
Porthetria dispar, 156.
Porzana Carolina, 285.

Potato, 179, 224.

-beetle, old-fashioned, 52, 180.
wild sweet, 178.

Prairie chickens, 302.

dog, 100.
Prickly ash, 60, 63, 138, 179, 183, 217,

225.
Priocnemis unifasciatus, 193.
Priocnemoides unifasciatus, 19.S.
Priononyx atrata, 195.
Prionoxystus robiniae, 144, 154.
Prionus imbricornis, 152.

Index

601

Probezzia albiventris, 317.

infuscata, 316.

pallida, 316, 318-319.
Proctacanthus, 337.

milberti, 187, 327, 339-340.
Procyon lotor, 299.
Promachus, 119, 120, 121.

vertebratus, 50, 51, 53, 56, 109, 111,
171, 186, 326, 337-338, 339.

Protozoa, parasitic, 3,87.
Prunus, 225, 348.

avium. 350.

domestica, 350.

serotina, 63, 208, 292.

Psammochares aethiops, 65, 132, 238.
Psammocharidae, 193, 238.
Psedera, 229.

quinquefolla, 57, 60, 63.

Pseudoculicoides, 312.

griseus, 309.

major, 309.
Psilocephala, 335, 336.

haemorrhoidalis, 319, 325, 334-336.
Psilopus sipho, 112, 171, 187.
Psithyrus, 120.

variabilis, 52, 54, 200.
Psocids, 131.
Psocus, 158.

Psorophora ciliata, 45, 46, 50, 104, 184.
Ptelea, 225.
Pterodontia, 341.
Puffball, gemmed, 544.

giant, 544.
Puffballs. See Mushrooms, puffball.
Pulmonates, 236.
Purpuricenus humeralis, 148.
Putorius noveboracensis, 289, 299.
Pycnanthemum, 181, 192.

flexuosum, 39, 50, 163, 169, 172, 173.
174, 180, 185, 191, 192, 194, 196,
197, 199.

linifolium, 180.

pilosum, 169, 172, 174, 176, 177, 179,
180, 182, 184, 185, 190, 191, 192,
193, 196, 197, 199.

virginianum, 178, 283.

Pyramidula alternata, 64, 203.

perspectiva, 58, 61, 136, 150, 201, 202,
204, 221.
Quiscalus quiscula aeneus, 286, 298. .
Pyrochroidae, 221, 223, 224.
Pyrrharctia Isabella, 233.

Quercus, 124, 232, 292.

alba, 40, 57, 60, 124, 228, 232, 446.
Imbricaria, 63, 123, 232.
michauxii, 123.
' minor, 123.
rubra, 40, 57, 60, 62, 63, 123, 126,

292.
velutina, 40, 57, 60, 75, 124, 144.

Quiscalus quiscula aeneus, 286, 298.

R

Rabbit, common, 288, 297, 299.
Rabbits, 289, 290, 301, 426.
Raccoon, 299.
Ragweed, 175, 176, 178, 179.

Rail, Carolina, 45.
king, 284, 290.
sora, 285.

Rails, 291.

Rallus elegans, 284.

Rana, 45.

catesbiana, 294 (see Errata).

pipiens, 284.

Raspberry, 57, 124, 129, 170.
Rattlesnake-master, 53, 167, 168, 174,

175, 177, 180, 181, 183, 189, 199.
Rattlesnakes, 302.
Raven, 302.

Redbud, 60, 63, 138, 292.
Red-horse, 562, 567.
Redstart, 296.

Regulus calendula calendula, 299.
Reduviidae, 173, 219.
Regulus satrapa satrapa, 299.
Reptiles, 100, 282, 303.
and amphibians, 284, 293.

Rhipiphoridae, 51, 180.

602

Index

Rhipiphorus, 120, 121.

dimidiatus, 50, 51, 52, 53, 109, 111,
180.

limbatus, 53, 109, 181.

paradoxus, 181.

pectinatus ventralis, 181.
Rhodites nebulosus, 56, 190.
Rhodophora gaurae, 183.
Rhubarb, 186.
Rhus. 172.

glabra, 57, 60, 124, 292.

toxicodendron, 57.
Rhynchites aeneus, 53, 54, 181.

hirtus, 108.
Rhynchitidae, 181.
Rhynchophora, 116.
Ribes cynosbati, 63.
Robber-fly, vertebrated, 50, 53, 56, 171,

186.
Robber-flies, 48, 49, 53, 119, 164, 182,

186, 187, 210, 230.
Robin, 287, 297.
Robinia, 148, 226.
Romaleum atomarium, 146.

rufulum, 146.
Root-louse, grass, 120.
Rosa, 57, 190.
Rose, 57, 124, 198.

-breasted grosbeak, 178.

wild, 180, 190.
Rosin-weed, 39, 40, 48, 53, 55, 108,
174, 180, 181, 185, 197, 283.

arrow-leaved, 169.

broad- or large-leaved, 55, 168, 176,
199, 200.

cup-leaved, 54.
Rotten-log caterpillar, 61, 150, 153, 154,

228.
Rozites gongylophora, 426.
Rubus. 57.
Rumex, 183.
Rushes, 283, 286.
Russula, 136, 437, 438, 446.

foetentula, 446.

green, 444.

slightly ill-smelling. 446.

virescens, 444.

Rutela, 369.

Rye, wild, 39, 41, 42, 43, 107, 168.

Sagittaria. 343.
Salamander, dusky, 293.
Salamanders, 66.
S[alicis] brassicoides, 157.
Salix, 44, 103, 106, 283, 350.
Sandpiper, pectoral, 302.

solitary, 285.
Saperda, 143.

Candida, 146.

discoidea, 144.

tridentata, 144, 146, 148, 154, 159.

vestita, 146.
Sapsucker, j'ellow-bellied, 295.
Sarracenia flava, 195.
Sassafras, 57, 60, 124, 125, 126, 137,
149, 206, 207, 212, 215, 218, 225,
226, 227, 299.

variifolium, 57, 60, 124.
Saturniidae, 227.
Saw-fly, 158.

larch, 156.
Scale insects, 106.
Scalopus aquaticus machrinus, 289

(see Errata), 299.
Scaptomyza adusta, 347.

flaveola, 347.

graminum, 347.
Scarabaeidae, 177, 223, 225, 233.
Scatopse pulicaria, 104.
Scepsis fulvicollis, 110.
Schilbeodes gyrinus, 570.
Schistocerca alutacea, 55, 56, 167.
Schizoneura corni, 112, 122.

panicola, 120, 121.
Sciara spp., 50, 185, 320.
Sciaridae, 320.
Sciomyzidae, 42, 43, 189.
Scirpus, 44, 103, 105, 283.

robustus. 286.
Sciuropterus volans, 299.
Sciurus carolinensis, 299.

niger rufiventer 297, 299.

sp., 296.

Index

603

Scolecocampa liburna, 61, 125, 150,

153, 154, 159, 209, 221, 223, 228.
Scolia. 192, 193.

bicincta, 192.

tricincta, 193.
Scoliidae, 192.
Scolytidae, 137, 144.
Scolytoidea, 27.

Scolytus quadrispinosus, 144, 154, 159.
Scorpion flies, 62.

-fly, brown-tipped, 210.
clear-winged, 64, 209.
spotted crane-like, 210.
Scotobates calcaratus, 151.
Scudderia furcata, 58, 124, 215.

texensis, 42, 44, 48, 50, 107, 108, 111,
168.
Scytonotus granulatus, 134.
Sedge. 44. 283.

Semotilus atromaculatus, 65, 293, 567.
Senotainia trilineata, 196.
Serica, 369.
Serpents, 100.
Setaria, 182.

glauca, 352.
Setophaga ruticilla, 296.
Setulia grisea, 195.
Sheep, 426.

Shelf fungus, 136, 224.
Shiner, 567.

common, 387.

golden, 387.
Shrew, short-tailed, 289.

smaller, or Small short-tailed, 288,
299.
Shrike, loggerhead, 287.

migrant, 287.
Shrikes, 289, 290.
Sialia sialis sialis, 297.
Silkworm, American, 61, 227.
Silphium, 73, 86, 108, 118, 171, 283.

integrifolium, 48, 54, 108, 166, 167,
169, 174, 180, 181, 185, 196, 197,
198.

laciniatum, 53, 73, 108.

terebinthlnaceum, 39, 40, 48, 55, 56,
108. 161, 168, 176. 180, 199. 200.

Silverside, brook, 387, 567.

Simuliidae, 307. 309.

Sinea diadema, 50, 51, 65, 111, 173, 219.

Sinoxylon basilare, 146.

Siricidae, 231.

Skipper, common, 64, 226.

Skunk, 289, 299.

Slug, Carolina, 58, 61, 150. 202. 236.

caterpillar, 61, 140, 229.
Slugs, 133, 420, 426.
Smartweed, 183.
Smilax, 55, 56, 63, 299.
Smodicum cucujiforme, 148.
Snail, alternate, 64, 203.

predaceous, 58, 64, 201.
Snails, 45. 50, 58, 61, 64, 133, 138, 160,

234, 294.
Snake, garter, 284, 290.
Snakes, 297, 302.
Snakeworms, 320.
Snipe, Wilson's, 288.
Snout-beetle, imbricated, 141.
Snout-beetles, 52, 53, 104. 116, 181, 182.
Snowberry, 183.

Soldier-beetle, 45, 46, 47, 53, 55, 65, 104,
118, 120, 169, 176.

margined, 65, 222.

Pennsylvania, 118. (See also Sol-
dier-beetle.)

Soldier-bug, rapacious, 50, 51, 65. 173,

219.
Solidago, 109, 110, 111, 118, 145, 162.
171, 172, 174, 176, 179, 180. 182,
184, 185, 188, 189, 190, 192, 196,
283.
Sow-bugs, 137.
Span-worm, 229.
Sparganium, 43.
Sparnopolius fulvus, 121, 174, 186, 319,

326, 327, 331-332.
Sparrow, English, -186.
field, 295.
fox, 298.
grasshopper, 302
lark, 298.
savanna, 302

604

I.NDEX

Sparrow — ro/itinued.

song, 287, 296.

tree, 287, 298.

white-crowned, 298.

white-throated, 295.
Spartina, 39, 40, 41, 43, 44, 107, 167,
168, 169, 170, 175, 189.

michauxiana, 41.
Sphaerophthalma, 59, 124, 132, 192, 238.
Sphaerularia bombi, 200.
Sphagnum, 79.

Spharag-emon bolli. 58, 61, 124, 213.
Sphecidae, 194, 238.
Sphecius speciosus, 196.
Sphenopliorus, 116.

ochreus, 104.

placidus, 181.

robustus, 182.

venatus, 50, 181.
Sphex brunneipes, 195.

ichneumonea, 194.
Sphingidae, 183, 226.
Sphinx, honeysuckle, 45, 46, 183.
Sphyrapicus varius varius, 295.
Spice-bush, 138, 207.
Spider, ambush, crab-, or flower, 42,
43, 45, 46, 47, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 64,
104, 163, 168, 175, 200, 216, 231.

common garden or garden 42, 44, 45,
48, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 104, 162, 182.

ground, 58, 64.

harvest-. See Harvest-spider.

island, 58.

jumping, 112, 138, 164.

rugose, 58, 64, 65, 207.

spined, 64, 65, 207.

three-lined, 207.

white-triangle, 58, 65, 207.
Spiders, 35, 119, 131, 138, 140, 238.
Spirobolus marginatus, 134.
Spirogyra, 292.
Spizella monticola monticola, 287.

pusilla pusilla, 295.
Spogostylum, 327.

anale, 186, 319, 326, 328-329.
Sporobolus, 49, 111, 112, 168, 212.

cryptandrus, 39, 49, 53.

Sporotrichum, 427.
Spragueia leo, 110, 184.
Spruce, 149, 156.

Engelmann, 149.
Spurge, flowering, 53, 55.
Squash-bug, 173, 189.
Squirrel, flying, 299.

fox, 297, 299.

gray, 297. 299.
Squirrels, 293, 301.
Staphylinidae, 116.
Stelis, 198.

Stenosphenus notatus, 144, 147.
Stigmatomma pallipes, 61, 133, 202,

205, 224, 233, 236.
Stilbolemma, 369.
Stilt-bug, spined, 64, 219.
Stink-bug, 45, 50, 51, 53, 110, 187,
Stiretrus anchorage, 172.
Stizidae, 196.
Stizus brevipennis, 52, 196.

speciosus, 196.
Stoneroller, 65-66, 293.
Strawberry, 176.
Strepsiptera, 49.
Strix varia varia, 298.
Strobilomyces strobilaceus, 534.
Stropharia, 437.

epimyces, 423, 494.

parasitic, 494.

semiglobata, 496.

semiglobose, 496.
Sturnella magna magna, 286.
Sucker, common, 387, 567.
Suckers, 385, 387, 391.
Sumac, 55, 56, 57, 60, 124, 138, 139,

227, 292, 299.
Sunfish, 387, 402, 404.

blue-spotted, 387, 567.

green, 562.

long-eared, 387, 391.

orange-spotted, 38'^, 403, 405, 406,
408, 562.
Sunfishes, 568.
Sunflower, 111.

wild, 169, 288.
j Swallow, barn, 287.

I.NDl.X

605

Sweet potato, wild, 178.
Sycamore, 149, 186, 227, 231.
Sylvilagus floridanus mearnsi, 288,

297, 299.
Sympetrum rubicundulum, 50, 51, 164.
Symphoricarpos orbiculatus, 63.
Synchroa punctata, 149.
Syrbula admirabilis, 50, 111, 166.

Syrphid, American, 52.

corn, 53, 54, 59, 65, 188, 231.

Vespa-like, 59, 64, 231.
Syrphidae, 158, 188, 231, 342-345.
Syrphus americanus, 52, 188.
Systoechus, 327.

oreas, 186, 327 and 330 (see Errata).

vulgaris, 185.
Systropus, 327.

Tabaniade, 325, 341.
Tabanus, 325.

Tachinidae, 158, 182, 189, 195.
Tadpole cat, 570.
Taeniocampa rufula, 333.
Tamarack, 149.
Tamias striata, 297.
hysteri, 297, 299.

Tanager, scarlet, 296.

summer, 296.
Tanypinae, 317.
Tanypus carneus, 317.
Tapinoma sessile. 64, 126, 236.
Tautogolabris, 382.
Telea, 140.

polyphemus, 61, 227.
Telephorus bilineatus, 222.

sp., 65, 222.
Tench, 397, 400, 403.
Tenebrionidae, 136, 224.

Termes, 125, 147.

flavipes, 58, 61, 150, ir.2, 154, 159,
202, 204, 208, 234.

virginicus, 209.
Termites, 208, 234, %\^.
Termitidae, 208.
Terns, black, 302.

Terrapene Carolina, 294.
Tetanocera pictipes, 43, 189.
plumosa, 42, 43, 107, 189.
Tetraopes, 51, 104, 112, 185.
femoratus, 45, 46, 47, 178.
tetraophthalmus, 45, 46, 50, 52, 111,
177, 178.
Tetropium cinnamopterum, 156.
Tettigidea lateralis, 58, 211.

parvipennis, 58, 212.
Tettigonellidae, 218.
Thalessa, 145, 148, 156.

lunator, 64, 125, 126, 159, 231, 232,
233.
Thamnophis sirtalis, 284.
Tliereva haemorrhoidalis, 334.
Therevidae, 324, 325, 334.
Thistle, 46, 199.
Thomisidae, 163.
Thrasher, brown, 287, 298.
Thrush, hermit, 299.
water, 296.
wood, 299.
Thryothorus ludovicianus ludovicia-

nus, 296.
Thyanta custator, 108.
Thyreocoridae, 172.
Thyreocoris pulicarius, 172.
Thyridopterix ephemeraeformis, 154,

156.
Thysanura, 131.

Tibicen septendecim, 58, 130, 217.
Tick-trefoil, 57, 63, 124.

Canadian, 171.
Tiger-beetle, woodland, 59, 219.
Tiger-beetles, 132, 187, 220, 328.
Tilia, 149.
Timothy grass, 352.

seeds, 175, 176.
Tiphia, 115. 119, 120, 121, 181, 185, 193,

319, 331.
Tipulidae, 115, 133, 136.
Titmouse, tufted, 296, 300.
Toad, common, 293.
Toads, 66.

Toadstools, 414, 466 (See also Mush-
rooms.)

606

IXDEX

Tobacco, Indian, 63.
Tomato, 224.

Tortoise-beetle, clubbed, 65, 224.
Totanus flavipes, 285.

melanoleucus, 285.
Towhee, 296.
Toxophora, 327.
Toxostoma rufum, 287, 298.
Tree-frog, swamp, 284.
Tree-toad, common, 294.
Tremex columba, 59, 16, 125, 132, 144,
Tyrannus tyrannus, 285, 298.
Trichius piger, 152.
Trichocera, 136, 159.

brumalis, 136.

Tricholoma, 437, 498.
album, 498.
personatum, 498.
white, 498.

Trichopepla semivittata, 108.

Trichopoda pennipes, 189.

plumipes, 189.

ruficauda, 52, 189.
Triepeolus, 197.
Trifolium, 229.
Triphyllus humeralis, 136.
Trirhabda tomentosa, 52, 179.
Trissolcus euschisti, 218.
Tritoma biguttata, 136.

thoracica, 136..
Trogositids, 145.
Trogus, 140.

obsidianator, 65, 233.
Trombidiidae, 164.
Trombidium spp., 45, 46, 52, 120, 121,

164, 306.
Tropidia quadrata, 343, 344.
Trout, 401.
Truffles, 420.

Truxalis brevicornis, 214.
Trypetidae, 189.
Turkey, wild, 303.
Turnip, 347.
Turtles, 426.

Tussock-moth, white-marked, 154, 156.
Twig-pruners, 141.

Typha, 79, 80.
Tyrannus, 285, 298.

u

Ulmus, 225, 292.

americana, 40, 62, 63, 126, 217

fulva, 63.
Umbellifers, 182, 188.
Uropod mites, 222.
Urtica, 225.

V

Verbena, 185, 196, 197.

stricta, 185.
Vernonia, 118, 171, 172.
Veronica virginica, 174.
Vespa, 135, 188, 190, 210, 230.

maculata, 135.
Vespidae, 193.
Viburnum, 223, 229.
Vireo, red-eyed, 300.
Virginia creeper, or five-leaved ivy,

57, 60, 63, 177, 223.
Vitis cinerea, 60, 63, 292.
Vitrea indentata, 61, 64, 201, 202, 203,
204.

rhoadsi, 61, 201, 202, 204.
Volucella, 200.
Volvaria, 437.

bombycina, 456.

silky, 456.
Vulture, turkey, 294.

W

Walking-stick, forest, 58, 140, 211.
Walnut, 57, 60, 63, 145, 146, 148, 151,
226, 227, 228, 292.

black, 149.

moth, royal, 227.
Warbler, black and white, 296.

myrtle, 287, 298.
Wasp, 65.

digger-. (See Digger-wasp.)

potter mud-, 193.

social, 48.

solitary, 52.

spider, 65, 193.

white-grub, 185,

Index

607

Wasps, 119, 175, 181. 185, 201.
Water horehound, 44.

-strider, 66, 127, 219. 292.
Waxwing, cedar, 298.
W^easel, 289, 299.
Web-worm, fall, 156.

Weevils, 144, 195.
grain, 99, 100.
nut-, 141.

Wheat, 175, 218.

-stem maggot, greater, 107.

Whippoorwill. 298.

White ant, 58, 61, 147, 150, 152, 154,
159, 202, 204, 208, 234.
-grubs, 106, 116, 119, 120, 174, 181,
186, 193, 233.
Wildcat, 303.

Willow, 44, 47, 49, 103, 106, 120, 121,
283, 286, 287.
-gall insects, 157, 158.

Wireworms, 61, 224.

Wolf, black timber, 303.
large gray, 303.

Wolves, prairie, 301.

Woodbine, 299.

Woodpecker, downy, 294, 300.

hairy, 294.

pileated, 228.

red-bellied, 294, 300.

red-headed, 285, 298.

Woodpeckers, 291.
Wren, Carolina, 296.
Wrens, marsh, 302.

X

Xanthium, 49, 189.

Xenodusa cava, 237.

Xiphidium attenuatum, 53, 54, 169.

nemorale, 58, 64, 124, 126, 216.

strictum, 42, 44, 48, 52, 53, 54, 107,
108, 109, 169.
Xyleborus, 137.

Xylocopa virginica, 45, 46, 47, 104, 198.
Xylocopidae, 198.
Xylopinus saperdioides, 151.
Xyloryctes satyrus, 152.
Xylota quadrata, 343.
Xyloteres, 137.
Xylotrechus colonus, 144, 147, 148, 154

undulatus, 154.

Yellow-jacket, 188.
Yellowlegs, greater, 285.

lesser, 285.
Yellow-throat, Maryland, 287.
Ypsolophus, 140.

ligulellus, 59, 65, 229.

z

Zamelodia ludoviciana, 296.
Zanthoxylum, 138. 179, 183, 225.

americanum, 60, 63.
Zenaidura macroura carolinensis, 285.
Zonitidae, 202.

Zonitis bilineata, 111, 112, 180.
Zonitoides arborea, 58, 61, 136, 150,

202, 204.
Zonotrichia albicollls, 295.

leucophrys leucophrys, 298.

3 5185 00261 4103

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