ISSN 0025-4231

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BULLETIN OF THE

^FlarylaniS

f)Ecpetological

©oriety

Department of Herpetology
The Natural History Society of Maryland, Inc.

MUS. COMP. ZOOU.

LIBRARY

lJUL 1 51976

harvard

UNiVEIRSn*

MdHS . A FOUNDER MEMBER OF THE

Eastern Seaboard Herpetological League

JUNE 1975

VOLUME 11, NUMBER 2

Bulletin of the Maryland Herpetological Society

Volume 11 Number 2 June 1975

CONTENTS

An Annotated Checklist and Key to the Saurofauna of Southeastern . .

and Central Spain 31

An Annotated Checklist and Key to the Saurofauna of South- ....

eastern and Central Spain . Achim R. Borner 31

Grist for the Mills of Herpetoph i 1 es in Mexico . . Hobart M. Smith 40

The Green Turtle ( Chelonia my das) , One of the Reptiles most . . .

Consumed by Man, Needs Immediate Protection .

. A. J. Zwinenberg 45

Notes on a Brood of the Arizona Ridge-nosed Rattlesnake .

Crotalus willardi willardi . Brent E. Martin 64

An Occurrence of the Arizona Ridge-nosed Rattlesnake, .

Crotalus willardi willardi , Observed feeding in Nature . .
. Brent E. Martin 66

News & Notes:

Eastern Seaboard Herpetological League Meeting . 68

Book Release - Xenopus - The South African Clawed Frog . 68

Book Release - Edward H. Taylor: Recollections of a Herpetologist 69

Book Release - Amphibians and Reptiles in Kansas . 70

Second Edition - A Field Guide to Reptiles and Amphibians of . . .

Eastern and Central North America . 71

Back Issues of Various Journals Available for Trade . 72

r<

1

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 76-93^58

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BULLETIN OF THE

Volume 11 Number 2

June 1975

The Maryland Herpetolog ical Society
Department of Herpetology, Natural History Society of Maryland, Inc.

Bulletin Staff

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Bulletin of the Maryland Herpetological Society

Volume 11 30 June 1975 Number 2

AN ANNOTATED CHECKLIST AND KEY TO THE SAUROFAUNA
OF SOUTHEASTERN AND CENTRAL SPAIN

Achim R. Borner

This article was prepared as a hand-list for use in the field, when the
author had the opportun i ty to spend a few days in southeastern Spain. It
is primari ly based on the checkl ist of Europe by Mertens and Wermuth (i960) .
The reg ion covered by the present synops i s i s del i neated i n F i g . 1. General
1 i terature on the region includes Hellmich (1956, 1962), Klemmer (1963),
Mertens (1925), and Pasteur and Bons (i960).

5°

0°

5C

Lisbon

Scale : 1 : 15000000

fig. 1 Map of Spain depicting the region under study.

Bulletin Maryland Herpetological Society

Page 31

Volume 11 Number 2

June 1975

Annotated Checklist to the Saurofauna of Southeastern and Central Spain
Angu i dae

Anguis f. fragilis (LINNAEUS), 1758
Type locality: Sweden
Chamael eon i dae

Chamaeleo a. ohamaeleon (LINNAEUS), 1758

Type locality res t r i cted by Mertens and MUller (1928): North
Af r i ca

The chamael eon is said to be very rare in southern Spain and
therefore should not be collected.

Geckon i dae

Hem-idactylus t. turodous (LINNAEUS), 1758

Type locality restricted by Schmidt (1953) • Asian Turkey
Tarentola m. mauritanica (LINNAEUS) , 1758
Type locality: Mauritania

An adul t specimen typi cal of thi s Mediterranean gecko was found
on a rock near the footpath from the lookout to the old har¬
bour, Benidorm; itwas taking a sunbath early in the morning.

Lacert i dae

This family, contributing the major element of the European
saurofauna, is poorly known despite all of the efforts of Eu¬
ropean herpetologists and the tens of thousands of specimens
amassed in museum collections. Since Boulenger (1920/1921 ) no
one has undertaken the time consuming and painstaking job to
attempt a revision of a larger subspecies , or species complex;
the outstanding exception i s the very few, however , who d id not
deal with the Span i sh 1 i zards such as Broadl ey (1972), Darevsky
(1967) , Eisentraut (19^9) , Lantz (1928/1930) , and Peters (19^2).

This chaotic situation, especially in the genera Laoerta and
Eremdas and their close allies, is reflected by our current
knowl edge of the Spanish forms; e.g. we know ne i ther the number
of wall lizard species nor their var i at ion at the subspecific
level. Therefore it is deemed necessary to give all names
assigned to Laoerta hdspandoa in the region, a 1 though many are
considered synonyms.

Genus Aoanthodaotylus

Acanthodactylus e. erythrurus (SCHINZ), 1 833
Type local i ty: Spain

Genus Algyroddes

All Spanish forms in this genus are rare. Their occurance is
sporadic, as they all require a high air-humidity. This is"

Page 32

Bulletin Maryland Herpetological Society

June 1975

Volume 11 Number 2

olation of populations effects subspecific diversity, which,
due to the scarcity of specimens, is unknown. See Buchholz
(1964) and Klemmer (i960) for additional data.

Algyroides hildagoi BOSCA, 1916

Type locality: San lldefonso, 1192 m elev., S i erra de Guadar-
rama , central Spain

Known only from the hoi otype , which apparently has been lost.

Algyroides m.marchi VALVERDE, 1958

Type locality: P i edro de Aguamu 1 a , S i erra de Cazor 1 a , Province
of Jaen

Algyroides marchi niethammeri BUCHHOLZ, 1964

Type locality: near the mountain pass (1480 m elev.) at ca .
1430 m elev., road from A1 caraz to Riopar , S i erra de Agua , Pro¬
vince of Jaen, southeastern Spain

Known only from the holotype.

Genus Laoerta

Additional data on the sys temat i cs of th i s group can be found
in Buchholz (1963), Cyren (1928, 1934), and Klemmer (1959).

Laoerta hispanica STE I NDACHNER, 1 870

It is not known, whether Laoerta booagei SEOANE, 1844 is a
distinct species or represents only a subspecies of L. his-
panioa . If it is indeed distinct on the specific level, a re¬
arrangement of other subspecies, which are currently defined
as L. hispanioa, is warranted.

A female specimen, nearly 6 cm snout-vent length , from I s 1 a de
Benidorm (the island opposite to the famous hotel - town of
Benidorm), and its habitat are depicted in the photos (figs.
2,3,4). The island is densely populated with 1 i zards , whereas
they are shy and very rare on the mainland (sight records exist
from the mountains east of Playa Levante, Benidorm).

Laoerta h. hispanioa STE I NDACHNER , 1 870

Type locality rest r i cted by Mertens and Muller (1928): Monte
Agudo near Murcia, southeastern Spain

Laoerta muralis steindaohneri BEDRIAGA, 1 886 was made a j un i or
synonym of this race by Mertens and Wermuth (I960), who re¬
stricted its type local i ty to that of the nomi nate form. Klemmer
( 1 959) was unab 1 e to f i nd a single lizard at the type locality.

Laoerta hispanioa liolepis BOULENGER, 1905

Type locality: town of Valencia, Spain

Described as a variety of L. muralis , it was then referred to
L. booagei , and later reduced to a junior synonym of the nom
inate species.

Bulletin Maryland Herpetological Society

Page 33

Volume 11 Number 2

June 1975

fig. 2 Laoerta hispanioa , adult female from Is la de Beni dorm

Laoerta hispanioa vauoheri BOULENGER, 1905

Type locality: Tanger, northwest Africa

The lizards in the extreme south of Spain are referred to this
race, which is considered valid.

Laoerta hispanioa guadarramae BOSCA, 1916

Type locality: San lldefonso, Sierra de Guadarrama, central
Spa i n

This name is tenatively considered a junior synonym of the
nominate subspecies.

Laoerta t. lepida DAUDIN, 1 802

Type locality rest r i cted by Mertens and Wermuth (i960): south¬
ern France

Laoerta lepida nevadensis BUCHHOLZ, 1 963

Type locality: North-slope of the Pico Veleto, between 1 600
m and 2100 m elev., Sierra Nevada, south Spain

Laoerta montioola oyreni Muller & Hellmich, 1937

Type locality: Puerto de Navacerrada, Sierra de Guadarrama,
Spa i n .

Laoerta sioula ssp.

introduced in Almeria accord ing to Mertens and Wermuth (I960)

Genus Psammodronrus

Psammodromus a. algirus (LINNAEUS), 1 758
Type locality: Mauritania

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Bulletin Maryland Herpetological Society

Volume 11 Number 2

June 1975

Ash-gray specimens were observed on the wal Is and in the gardens
of Almeria Castle, Almeria. Normally the back has a brownish
or ol i ve color .

Psammodromus h. hispanicus FITZINGER, 1826

Type locality res t r i cted by Mertens and Mul 1 er (1928): South¬
ern Spain.

Psamiodromus hispanicus edwarsianus ( DUG ES ) , 1829
Type locality: Southern France

The zone of intergradation between both subspecies is of special
interest. Stud i es i n th i s zone may reveal the distinctiveness
of the forms on the specific level.

Sci nci dae

For the systematics of this group see Klausewitz ( 1 95^+) and
Pasteur and Bons (i960).

Chalcides bedriagai BOSCA, 1 880

Type locality restricted by Mertens and Muller (1928): Dos-
aguas, Valencia

Chalcides chalcides striatus (CUVIER), 1829
Type locality: Southern France

The validity of this form requires further examination.

fig. 3 Lizard habitat on Isla de Benidorm

Bulletin Maryland Herpetological Society

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Volume 11 Number 2

June 1975

Artificial Key to the Saurofauna of Southeastern and Central Spain

1. Limbless . Anguis f. fragilis

1 . Limbs present . 2

2. Unders i de of toes wi th t ransversel y en 1 arged 1 amel 1 ae (scansors)

. 3 (Geckoni dae)

2. Digits in two opposable sets of 2 and 3

. Chamaeleo o . ohamaeleon

2. Digits not so, separate . . . . 4

3. Underside of digits with one row of scansors

. Tarentola m. mauritanioa

3. Underside of digits with two rows of scansors

. Eemidaotylus t» turoious

4. Ventral scales not differentiated

. 5 (Scincidae)

4. Ventral scales well differentiated from the dorsals

. 6 (Lacertidae)

5. Limbs reduced, each with three digits

. Chaloides chaloides striatus

5. Limbs relatively well developed, each with five digits

. Chaloides bedriagai

6. Pileus without an occipital; only two supraoculars

. Acanthodaotylus e. erythrurus

6. Pileus with an occipital; four supraoculars

. 7

7. Dorsal scales large, rhombic, relatively strongly keeled, im¬
bricate . 8

7. Dorsal scales small, rounded, weakly keeled or not keeled, not

imbricate . 13 ( Laoerta )

8. Ventral scales squarish; well differentiated collar scales

. 9 ( Algyroides )

8. Ventral scales rhombic; collar scales discernible only on the

sides of the throat . 11 ( Psammodromus )

9. Dorsum uniformly brown i sh wi th vague dark spots on the vertebral

1 i ne ; dorsa 1 s sharpl y keel ed ; 1 7 rows of dorsa 1 s around the middle
of the body . Algyroides hildagoi

9. Middle of dorsum light brown with sharply defined spots on the
vertebral line; sides of the trunk dark brown; dorsals not so
sharply keeled; 24 to 31 rows of dorsals around the middle of
the body . 10 ( Algyroides marohi)

10. 24 to 29 dorsals around the middle of the body; throat whitish

or yellow . Algyroides m, marohi

10. 31 dorsals around the mi ddl e of the body; throat deep blue (only

in adult males?) . Algyroides marohi niethammeri

11. On each s i de of the back a longitudinal yellow stripe; length of
unregenerated ta i 1 doubles snout-vent 1 ength , wh i ch exceeds 7 cm

. Psammodromus a . algirus

11. Longitudinal stripes onl y as j uven i 1 es : 4 to 6 of them along the
back, composed of 1 i ght spot s ; adu 1 ts un i form or w i th dark spots;
length of unregenerated tail never exceeds double snout-vent
length; snout-vent length does not exceed 5 cm

.... 1 2 ( Psammodromus hispanious )

Bulletin Maryland Herpetological Society

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Volume 11 Number 2

June 1975

12. 30 to 34 dorsa 1 s around the mi ddl e of the body; subocular reaches

the mouth; greenish in life . . . Psammodromus h. hispanious

12. 34 to 43 dorsals around the middle of the body; one or two small
scales separate the subocular from the mouth; not greenish

. Psammodromus hispanious

edwarsianus

13* Ventral scales like a trapezium

. 14 ( Laoerta lepida)

13. Ventral scales squarish

. 15 (wa 11 lizards)

14. 65 to 70 dorsals around the middle of the body; ocellated, black
scales irregularly distributed

. Lacerta l . lepida

14. 76 to 90 dorsals around the middle of the body; ocelli faded, no
black scales

. Laoerta lepida nevadensis

15. Dorsal s at 1 east weakly keeled; scales of unregenerated tail in
distinct whorls, broad and small ones alternating

. Laoerta monticola

15. Dorsals not keeled; scales of unregenerated tail in whorls of

equal length . 16

16. Underneath uniformly colored, except the outer rows of the ven¬
tral scales; differentiated large temporal (masse ter icum)

. Laoerta sioula

16. Underneath black spots, at least on the throat; massetericum

normally missing . Lacerta hispanioa

fig. 4 Isla de Benidorm, seen from the mainland

Acknowledgements

Thanks are due to Miss Iris B. Borner, for bibliographical aid. I am
grateful to Herbert S . Harris, Jr . for h i s pat i ent editorial comments wh i ch
improved the quality of this paper. My special thanks go to Dr. Hobart
M. Smith, University of Colorado, for his continued kind interest in my
plans and his numerous helpful suggestions in my saurological studies.

Bulletin Maryland Herpetological Society Page 37

Volume 11 Number 2

June 1975

Literature Cited

Boulenger, George Albert.

1920/1921. Monograph of the Lacertidae. Brit . Mus . Nat. Hist. London,
1 (1920) : 1-352 , figs., pis.; 2(1921 ): 1-451 , figs., pis.

Broadley, Donald G.

1972. A review of the Nucras tessellata group. Arnoldia 5(20) : 1 -
36, 7 figs., 1 tab., 3 pis.

Buchholz, Karl F.

1963. Die Perleidechse der Sierra Nevada ( Rep t ilia, Lacertidae) in
Spanien. Bonner loot. Beitr. 14 (l -2) : 1 51 " 1 56 , 4 figs.

1 964 . Zur Kenntn i s des Genus Algyroides (Reptilia^ Lacertidae) in
Spanien. Bonner Zool. Beitr. 15 (3"4) : 239“246 .

Cyren, Otto.

1 928. Span i sche und portug ies i sche Mauere i dechsen . Goteborgs Kungl.

Vet. + Vitt. Samh. Handl.s 5th series 3 ser. B.3 i(l):1-36.

1 934. Zur Kenntn i s der Lacert i den der Iberischen Halbinsel und Ma-
ka rones iens. Ibid3 4(l):1-36, figs.

I

Darevsky , 1 1 1 ya S .

1967. The Rock lizards of the Caucasus. Systematics, Ecology, and
Phy logeny of the Polymorphic Group of Caucasian Rock Lizards
of the Subgenus Arohaeolacerta (in Russian). Leningrade
(Nauka) : 264 pp., figs., pis., maps.

Eisentraut, Martin.

1949. Die Eidechsen der spanischen M i ttelmeer i nsel n und ihre Ras-
senauf spal tung im Lichte der Evolution. Mitt. Zool. Mus.
Berlin 3 25:1-228, figs., pis.

Hel lmich, Wal ter.

1956. Lurche und Kriechtiere Europas. Winters naturwissenschaft-

liche Tasohen buoher (Heidelberg) 25:1-166, figs. pis.

1 962 . Rept i 1 es and Amphi b i ans of Europe (English translation edited
by Alfred Leutscher) , London (B1 anford Press) . 160 pp., figs,
pis.

Klausewitz, Wolfgang.

1954. E i donomi sche , taxonomische und t i ergeograph i sche Untersuch-
ungen liber den Rassenkre i s der Scinciden Chalcides ohaloides
und Chaloides striatus. Senckenbergiana Biol. 34(4-6) :1 87"
203, 9 f igs. , pi .

Klemmer, Konrad.

1959. Systema t i sche Stellung und Rassengl i ederung der Spanischen
Mauere i dechse , Laoerta hispamoa. Senckenbergiana Biol. 40
(5-6) :245-250, 2 pis.

Page 38

Bulletin Maryland Herpetological Society

Volume 11 Number 2

June 1975

I960 . Zur Kenntnis der Gattung Algyroides ( Rep t ilia, Lacertidae)
auf der Iberischen Halbinsel. Senokenb erg iana Biol . 41 { 1-2):
1-6, map, fig., pi.

•

1963. Von den Wi rbel t ieren e i nes andal us i schen Gebirges. Natur und
Mus . (Senokenberg Mus.) £3(12) :507-5lA, 6 figs.

Lantz, L. A.

1928/1930. Les Eremias de 1 1 As ie occidentale. Bull. Mus . Georg ie (Tiflis)
4 ( 1 928) : 1 -72 ; 5 ( 1 930) : 1 -64 .

Mertens, Robert.

1925 . Amph i b ien und Rept i 1 ien aus dem nordl i chen und ost 1 ichen Span-
ien, gesammelt von Dr. F. Haas. Abh. Senokenb. Naturf . Ges .
384 , [3£(1)]:1-129, 3 pis.

Mertens, Robert and Muller, Lorenz.

1928. Die Amphibien und Reptilien Europas. Abh. Senokenb. Naturf.
Ges 413: 1-62.

_ _ and Wermuth, Heinz.

1 960 . DTe Amphibien und Rept i 1 ien Europas (3. Liste nach dem Stand
vom 1 . Januar I960) . Senokenberg - Buoh 38 (Senokenb. Naturf.
Ges. ) : X I X-264 , map.

Pasteur, G. and Bons, J.

i960. Catalogue des reptiles actuel s du Maroc . Trav. Inst. Scient.
Cherif., Ser.,Zool. 21:1-132, A figs., 5 pis., tabs.

Peters, GUnther.

1962. Die Zwergei dechse {Laoerta parva BOULENGER)undihreVerwandt-
schaf tsbez i ehungen zu anderen Lacertiden, insbesondere zur
L i banon-E i dechse (L. fraasii LEHRS). Zool. Jahrb. Syst. 89:
(3-A) : AO7-A78 , pi.

Schmidt, Karl Patterson.

1953. A checklist of North American amphibians and reptiles. 6th
ed., Publ . Amer. Soc. Ichtyol. and Herpetol . :X I I + 280 pp.

5 Cologne 41, ZVilpioher Street 83, West Germany

Received 23 April 1975
Accepted 8 May 1975

Bulletin Maryland Herpetological Society

Page 39

Volume 11 Number 2

June 1975

GRIST FOR THE MILLS OF HERPETOPH I LES IN MEXICO

Hobart M. Smith

The limitless opportun i t i es for new d i scover i es i n the amazi ng 1 y com¬
plex diversity of the herpetofauna of Mexico cannot be catalogued. The
cream has been skimmed from the basic work of faunal exploration, as noted
several years ago by one of the greatest herpetologists of our country,
W. E. Duellman, even though new taxa, significant range extensions and
taxonomic rearrangements will continue to be discovered frequently for
many years, and occasionally for many decades. Every new road makes ac¬
cessible many such discoveries. Nevertheless the fact remains that the
a 1 pha phase of bas i c expl orat ion is no longer domi nant ; now the experimental
and observational phase is rapidly developing, with emphasis in the field
upon behavioral and demographic studies, which have gained a great advantage
over the strict collecting of the alpha phase through the imposition of
severe regulations curbing wanton col lecting and importation of amphibians
and reptiles.

One of the most exciting prospects for field observation in Mexico
at this particular time is the determination of the basic facts in the 1 ife
cycleof the high-altitude lizard Soeloporus aeneus aeneus , common in the
mountains between Mexico C i ty and Cuernavaca , and occurr i ng rather widely
e 1 sewhere i n the southern moun ta i ns of the main Mexican plateau. It would
be a s impl e , del i ghtf ul and reward i ng experience , especial ly for a family,
justifying prot racted or repeated stays in Cuernavaca or some other stra¬
tegically situated base (see Fig. 1) near the range of this subspecies,
to launch an investigation to settle once and for al 1 the basic questions
of the life cycle of this lizard.

It would take an outstandingly significant problem to justify such
a proposition, but the qualification exists. There is an outside chance
that S. a. aeneus may prove to be the only lizard in the world known to
reproduce in alternate years. This is the problem for the solution of
which so far there is nothing but speculation, but which cou 1 d be solved
by even one, and certa i n ly by two , appropriately chosen, brief periods of
observat i on .

Even such a bas i c matter as method of "par i t ion" (i.e., by parturition
or oviposition) remains to be established in this subspecies. Such in¬
formation does not come easily, for the critical period usually arrives
in spring when human col lectors are occupied with other matters, such as
a fixed schedule of work or school ; when they are free, in summer, it is
too late for immediately conclusive evidence to be obtained. Only in 1962
(Anderson) was it demonstrated that the only related member of the group
occurring in this country ( S . sea'lav'is sZeV'in'i) is oviparous. It was
establ ished long ago that S. seatarZs seaZarZs is oviparous (Her rera , 1 890:

Page 40

Bulletin Maryland Herpetological Society

Volume 11 Number 2

June 1975

dots, S. a. subniger; half-circle, half-dot, intergrades be¬
tween S. a. aeneus and S. a. subniger. Adapted from Zool.
Ser. Field Mus. Nat. Hist., 26:357, fig. 57, 1939.

331), and in 1939 Smith (1939:356) recorded that S. aeneus bieanthalis is
viviparous.1 Gadow (1905:214) stated that S. soalaris i s "ovovi vi parous ,"
but clearly in error, probably in reference in reality to either S. a.
aeneus or S. a. bieanthalis. This is the only reference even possibly
noting method of pari t ion i n S. a. aeneus , and these are the only taxa of
the whole soalaris group for which such information had been recorded,
until 1974 when Smith and Hall recorded the occurrence of viviparity in
S. goldmani. They went on however to propose that viviparity is the norm
in all subspecies of S. aeneus as well as in S. goldmani , and that all
subspeci es of S. soalaris are ov i parous , 1 eav i ng i n abeyance the parition
method of the only other assigned member of the group, S. galapae. Such
a proposition required however that they really crawl out on a limb to
propose that S. a. aeneus normally reproduces biennially.

1 Viviparity is a term here used, as it should always be to avoid
confusion, in its broadest sense in reference merely to live-bearing,
without implication of presence or absence of a placenta, rudimentary or
not. Ovoviviparity is a type of viviparity in which placental structures

Bulletin Maryland Herpetological Society

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Volume 11 Number 2

June 1975

That proposition stems from the proposal by Davis and Smith (1953:
102) that S. a . aeneus is oviparous, thereby requiring specific status
since S. a. bicanthalis is i ncont rover t i b 1 y viviparous. The data on which
the i nference of ovi par i ty was based were summarized as follows: "Ten of
the 28 females, collected from July 25 to August 15, contained from 3 to
5 (average, 4) 1 arge ova , the 1 argest measur i ng 6 X 12 mm; 1 2 of the others
appeared to have oviposited and in the others the ova were minute, less
than 1 mm i n d iameter . In none of the large ova was there any recognizable
evidence of embryonic development." The assumption was, of course, that
the females with no or minute eggs had already laid their eggs, whereas
those with large eggs would have laid them later in the same season.

In more mature consideration, however, it is evident that eggs in
which no visible embryonic development had yet taken place could not be
laid after mid-August and sti 1 1 hatch before winter. The altitude (around
3,330 m) and normal weather pattern preclude rapid development; even in
midsummer, n i ghts are unpl easant 1 y cold , and freez i ng weather comes early.
Winter snows are commonplace. It now seems more reasonab 1 e to i nf er that
the females with large eggs would have carried them over wi nter and have
given birth to their young in late spring and early summer. They would
have redeveloped small eggs by fall, duplicating the members of the group
descr i bed by Davi s and Smi th with small eggs. The eggs would have reached
larger size by the fall of the following year, and the young would have
been born the following spring and summer.

Although available data suggest the possible validity of the hypo¬
thesis of occurrence of a biennial reproductive cycle in S. a. aeneus ,
at least in the Tres Cumbres area of Morelos , three cons i derat ions suggest
contrariwise: (1) no lizard anywhere in the world has been recorded to
have a biennial cycle, according to Fi tch (1970) , al though several northern
species of snakes (e.g . Crotaius vividis, Vipera berus> V . aspis ^ Tham-
nophis sivtalisj T. radix) are known or thought to have either biennial
or triennial cycles (Fitch suggests that the extended cycles are better
i nterpreted as i rregul ar cycl es ) ; (2) 1 i za rds , espec i a 1 1 y sma 1 1 Soeloporus ,
are too short-lived for a biennial cycle, especially of viviparity, to
sustain the species (the snakes are much longer-lived); and (3) other
speci es of 1 i zards under apparent 1 y equally great or greater environmental
stress maintain an annual cycle.

are present. Histological examination is necessary to determine whether
any given viviparous species is ovoviviparous or euviviparous , and even
then the distinction may be argumentative. Except where histological
study has confirmed the presence or absence of a placenta - and very few
species of reptiles have been studied in this context - it is best always
to use the term of broadest meaning in reference to non-mammalian verte¬
brates, since only in the viviparous mammals is a placenta assured.

The alternative to viviparity is, of course, oviparity. These two
types, and their subtypes, if any, constitute the parity types , the term
parity occuring with this meaning in most dictionaries. The act of parity,
i.e. of laying eggs or giving birth, is properly referred to as "parition"
(a new word) , and the condition of parity is properly referred to as the
"parous" condition (an established word) .

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Obviously the mere fact that no lizard is yet known to have an ex¬
tended reproductive cycle is inconsequential except as it makes the es¬
tablishment of such spec i es of except i ona 1 interest. As for the longevity
of S. a. aeneus, nothing is known, but an extrapolation from data on re¬
lated and other small species of lizards suggests a life span almost
certainly not exceed i ng 1 0 years , and quite likely not frequently exceed i ng
5 years. Northern species in general, however, subjected as they are to
cold-induced inactivity much of the year, are longer-lived and have more
protracted reproductive cycles than do their more temperate relatives.
The same generality may apply equally well to high altitude species as
compared with their lower-altitude relatives.

Finally, although several other species of iguanid lizards reach
altitudes considerably greater than does S. a. aeneus, all so far as I am
aware are conspicuously heliophilous, insolating extens i vel y on t rees or
rocks. Some high-altitude lizard populations may indeed have polyennial
reproductive cycl es , for they have not been observed exhaustively; on the
contrary northern lizard populations have been studied thoroughly and
seemi ng 1 y do not dev i ate from the norm of annual reproductive cycles. How¬
ever, it is quite possible that through extreme heliophily most high-al¬
titude 1 izards so protract thei r activi ty that an annual reproductive cycle
may be ma i nta i ned . An example i s the sympatric (with S. aeneus) , viviparous
S. gratmicus microlepidotus , which ranges to a much h i gher al t i tude (4750 m)
than S. aeneus , but is strongly heliophilous and seemingly reproduces
annua 1 1 y .

On the contrary, S. a. aeneus is not given to conspicuous insolation,
but is secretive, terrestrial andg ram i n i co 1 ous , thus exposed to the maximum
developmental retardation of the cold weather characteristic within its
range. Even if it were known to have a 1 ower opt imum act i v i ty temperature
(not established, but possible) than other sympatric species, it would
not necessarily thereby escape the need for a biennial cycle; Sphenodon ,
with the lowest optimum activity temperature of any living reptile, has
a protracted reproductive cycle (± 13 mo.), although its freedom from
temperatures in the freezing range permits a more rapid development of
embryos than wou 1 d be possible in the strongly seasonal weather to which
S. a. aeneus is exposed. Sphenodon in the habitat of S. a. aeneus would
probab 1 y a 1 so requ i re two yea rs for compl e t ion of one reproductive cycle.

Thus the facts of the reproductive cycle, longevity and population
structure of S. a . aeneus stand as one of the most rewarding goals toward
which any herpetologist may work in Mexico. Unlike many problems, these
have answers that are readily accessible, awaiting merel y the determi ned
attention of anyone willing to devote a little time and effort to them.

Li terature C i ted

Davis, William B. and Hobart M. Smith.

1953* Lizards and turtles of the Mexican state of Morelos. Her-
petologica , ^(2) : 100—108.

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Fitch, Henry S.

1970. Reproductive cycles in lizards and snakes. Misc. Publ . Mus.
Nat. Hist. Univ. Kansas , (52): 1-247, figs. 1-16.

Gadow, Hans.

1905. The distribution of Mexican amphibians and reptiles. Proe.
Zool. Soo. London , 1905 (2) : 1 91 “145 , figs. 29“ 32 .

Herrera, Alfonso Luis.

1890. Notas acerca de los vertebrados del Valle de Mexico. Na-
turalezay (2) 1:299-342.

Smith, Hobart M.

1939. The Mexi can and Cent ra 1 American lizards of the genus Soelo-

porus. Zool. Ser. Field Mus. Nat.. Hist. , 26:1-397, figs. 1-
59, pis. 1-31.

Smith, Hobart M. and William P. Hall.

1974. Contributions to the concepts of reproductive cycles and the
sys temat i cs of the soalaris group of the lizard genus Scelo-
porus. Gt. Basin Nat., 34 (2) : 97“ 1 04 , figs. 1-2.

Department of Environmental, Population and Organismio Biology, University
of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado 80302.

Received 30 April 1975
Accepted 2 May 1975

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June 1975

THE GREEN TURTLE (CHELONIA MYDAS) } ONE OF THE REPTILES
MOST CONSUMED BY MAN, NEEDS IMMEDIATE PROTECTION

A. J. Zwinenberg
ABSTRACT

A description of the biology of Chelonia mydas (Linnaeus) 1758, is
given, i nc 1 ud i ng the prob 1 ems concern i ng the preservat i on of this economic
and valuable sea turtle. Its decline, classification, distribution, sub-
speciation, characteristics, size, weight, color, food, mating behaviour,
eggs, hatchlings, enemies and turtle hatcheries are discussed.

DECLINE

One and a half centuries ago a b iolog i st wrote: . this species

of turtle is one of the most valuable gifts of prov idence to the inhabitants
of tropical cl imates , and to sa i lors frequent i ng those cl imates . It affords
them an abundant supply of agreeable and nutritive food. So numerous are
they in some places that 40 to 50 specimens have been obtained within 3
hours". The favoured reptile he wrote about was Chelonia mydas , the now
well known green turtle, also called edible turtle.

Labat (1725) was one of the first authors describing a favoured meal
for Europeans 1 iving in the Caribbean in those days. The meal was composed
of the chopped meat of two marine turtles, mixed with hard-boi led egg yolks,
the green i s h fat of one turt 1 e , herbs and sp i ces , the whole smothered above
a fire, using the carapace of one of the dead turtles as a pan. He writes:

11 . a king never tasted a daintier pastel . ". In this way the

fame of turtle meat reached Europe and North America, and thousands of
animals were killed every month. Before man started eating turtle meat in
great quantities, it was known that from the greenish fat of one species
(hence "Green Turtle") a delicious soup could be prepared. With the col¬
onization of the New World by Europeans, a spectacular decline in turtle
numbers began. During that time the Caribbean was the major source of turtles
for use as food in other parts of the world. This led to the first pro¬
tective legislation, which was passed in Bermuda in 1620. The killing of
tur 1 1 es was proh i b i ted if the width of the animal's carapace was less than
18 in (45cm) (Brongersma, 1964). In spiteof this the decline of turtles
around Bermuda cont i nued . In the early 17th century the crew of two vessels
could secure as many as 40 green turtles in one day; in 1933 two steamers
with experienced turtle-hunters could seize only 24 reptiles in 4 months
(Babcock, 1938). Not only the animals were wanted as an important source
of prote i n by coas ta 1 people, but also their eggs. Between 1932 and 1938,
2,184,095 eggs were dug up on an average every year on three islands off¬
shore of Sarawak (Harrison, 1962). Eggs are currently consumed today in
Thailand, Indonesia, Burma, Borneo and the southern Philippine Islands
(Hirth, 1971). Turtles once nested in large numbers on the coasts of eastern
Africa, but are now rare, probably because of egg-collecting.

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To the demand for turtle soup and the demand for their meat can be
added the demand for their leather, which became very fashionable in past
decades. The United States Department of the Interior (Fish and Wildlife
Service) recently pub 1 i shed a l i st of amph i b i ans and rept i 1 es imported into
the United States in 1970 and 1971 (Busack, 197*0. From this leaflet one
can 1 earn that at least 293 (1970) and 6 1 3 (1971) living Chelona mydas were
imported. From the same leaflet the following summary of green turtle
products imported into U.S.A. is derived (Table 1.).

Table 1. Summary of Green Turtle Products Imported into the U.S.A.
Dur i ng 1 970 and 1971.

year

shoes

skins,
p i eces

meat

(lbs)

ca 1 i pee
(lbs)

o i 1
(lbs)

1970

0

. .

2200

113,900

25,195

2500

1971

74

,

3302

87,000

0

0

Herpetologists all over the world agree that the green turtle (and
other marine turtles) needs protection. Governments i n severa 1 countries
proposed regulations for the hunting and/or killing of sea turtles and
for collecting their eggs. In some cases full protection of the turtles
and their eggs were given. In other countries adults and clutches are
protected on 1 y dur i ng certa i n seasons . The fact rema i ns tha t g reen turtles
are not as common today as they once were. A few examples for their de¬
cline were given, but many more could have been mentioned. The green
turtle has nearly disappeared altogether in many places on beaches of
trop i ca 1 and subtrop i ca 1 seas. One reassuring thought is that the demand
for meat and soup is decreasing, especially in Europe. However, a rel-
ativeofmine, mentioned that his son played with skeletons of green tur¬
tles (?) on the beach near Colombo, when he lived at Sri Lanka (formerly
Ceylon) during 1 968 and 1969. The animals were captured at sea and slaught¬
ered on the beach c 1 ose to restaurants where the meat and soup were served.
A similiar incident is also mentioned by Rose (1950). The carapaces and
pi astrons were 1 ef t and used by ch i 1 d ren to play hide-and-seek. The beach
was dotted with turtle remains.

This article is intended as a contribution towards the conservation
of Chelonia mydas and to bring to the attention in a nutshell to both
biologists and laymen the facts currently known concerning this remark¬
able and ancient reptile. It may be regarded as a sequel to my article
(197*4) on the Leatherback ( Dermochelys ooriacea) , and will be followed
by other articles on marine turtles in the future.

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June 1975

CLASSIFICATION, DISTRIBUTION AND SUBSPEC I AT I ON

Fig. 1. The distribution of Chelonia my das.

Chelonia mydas and five other species of sea turtle belong to the
family Cheloniidae, which in turn with the family Dermoche 1 i dae form the
superfamily Chelonoidea of the order Testudinata. The species was first
described as Testudo mydas in 1758 by the famous Swedish natural ish Lin¬
naeus (type local i ty Ascension I s 1 and i n the At 1 ant i c Ocean). In 1800 the
generic designation Chelonia was i nt roduced by Bronn iart . S i nee that t ime ,
spec imens of the green turtle have often been mistaken for a new species
and described as such. The list of names in the synonymy of C. mydas has
become quite long.

C. mydas lives in sha 1 1 ow waters , mos 1 1 y i n coas ta 1 areas, far from
its breeding grounds. It wanders through all tropical seas, since at
regular intervals it travels to sandy shores to lay eggs. Between the
feeding grounds and breeding grounds may lie hundreds of miles of open
sea; specimens tagged at Ascens ion Island were recaptured near the coast
of Brazil, about 2200 kilometers away (Cronnie, 1971)*

The green turt 1 e i s usua 1 1 y found within 35 degrees north and south
of the equator (Loveridge, 1946). It prefers seas with an average tem¬
perature of surface water dur i ng the col dest month of above 20° C (Hirth,
1971). However, wanderers are seen or caught at more northerly points
(e.g. i n Newfound 1 and waters , near British Col umb ia and Japan) . The south¬
ernmost records are from coastal areas of northern Argentina, Chile and
New Zea land. There i s cons iderable variation inthecolorof green turtles,
which has resulted in the description of a number of subspecies. Hirth
(1971) recommends the use of the binomial Chelonia mydas for all green
turtles until a detailed taxonomic study can be made. Brongersma (1984)
i s a 1 so of the op i n ion tha t a deta i 1 ed study ought to be made, before valid
subspecific identification is possible. He noted that such a study would
be difficult and time consuming . There are , however , a number of indications

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June 1975

which make it plausible that the green turtle can be divided into a few
subspecies. Bustard (1973) i nd i cates that a number of wel 1 -d i fferent i ated
populations exist and what is currently called the 'green turtle1 could
prove to be a composite of two or more quite distinct species.

In general the following subspecies are recognized:

Chelonia mydas mydas (Linnaeus), the Atlantic green turtle, found in the
Atlantic Ocean , Car i bbean Sea , Gul f of Mexico and the Med i terranean ( Conan t ,
1958; Mertens and Wermuth, I960; Hirth, 1971).

Chelonia mydas agassizii Bocourt, the east Pacific green turtle, found
mainly a long the Pac i f i c coasts of Cent ra 1 and South America (Hirth, 1971;
Stebb ins, 1 986) .

Chelonia mydas oavrinegra Ca 1 dwel 1 , the northeastern Pacific green turtle,
occurs in great numbers in the Gulf of California. This subspecies was
descr i bed in 1 962 by D. K. Caldwell. Other herpetologists (Hirth and Carr,
1970; Pr i tchard , 1 971 ) have s i nee concl uded that th i s dark form was noth i ng
more than a ster i 1 e mutant form of C.m. agassizii . Schulz (1968) does not
recognize this subspecies.

Chelonia mydas japonioa (Thunberg) , the western Pacific green turtle,
probably only living near Japan and ranging as far east as the Hawaiian
Islands. Worrell (1963) lists it as a full spec ies for Australian waters
(Chelonia japonioa) , and gives the range as Pacific and Indian Oceans.
He mentions that there is a nesting s i te near Bundaberg (Queensland). It
is likely that this species should be placed in the synonymy of Chelonia
depressa , decribed by Garman in 1880 and the least known of the world's
sea turtles. Chelonia depressat the flatback turtle, breeds on the coast
and islands offshore of northeastern Queens 1 and , and i s of ten mi staken for
a green turt 1 e. The flatback differs mainly i n hav i ng a strong ly depressed
carapace with an upward curve at the edge (Bustard and Limpus, 1969).

CHARACTERISTICS

Fig. 2. The characteristic large prefrontal plates of Chelonia mydas.

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The carapace of C. mydas i s not completely ossified; i t i s smooth and
has 4 costal shields (costa Is) on each side, the 1st not touching the nuchal .
The other horny sh i el ds of the carapace are : 2 supracauda 1 s , 11 marginals

on each side and 5 vertebrals. The large scutes of the carapace do not
over 1 ap , except i n very young turtles. The fore-f 1 i ppers on 1 y bear a single
claw. The jaws are not so remarkably hooked as in Dermoohelys ooriaoea.
The cutting edge of the lower j aw i s coa rse 1 y toothed (Fig. 3), while the

Fig. 3* The head of Chelonia my das $.

upper jaw is provided with strong ridges on its inner surface. Between
the eyes a pair of large prefrontal plates are visible (Fig. 2). Males
can be recognized by their tail, which is much longer than in females.
Moreover their carapace is somewhat narrower and longer. Fig. 4 shows the
tail of a male caught on Eilanti (Surinam); ithas a 1 ength of 38 cm (Schulz,
1 988) . The tail of the male is very muscular and tipped with a horny nail
(Fig. 5) • Stebb ins (1966) mentions that males have a prehensile tail.
In their paper on the behaviour of green turtles in the sea, Booth and
Peters (1 972) pr i nt a number of photos cl ear i ng up mat i ng behavior. Some of
the photos show that during mating the male's tai 1 is curled around the back¬
side of the f ema 1 e ' s body (her hind flippers ?),togivehimafi rmer grip.

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Fig. 4 . The ta i 1 of a ma 1 e Chelonia
my das .

Fig. 5 . The male's tail is tipped
wi th horny nail.

SIZE AND WEIGHT

Wh i le the shel 1 of a large green turtle may be almost 4 ft (120 cm)
in length, 3 ft (90 cm) is nearer the average for an adult; a turtle was
once taken at Key West (Florida) weighing 700 lbs (315 kg). Those ap¬
pearing in the American markets today range from 75 lbs (33*5 kg) to 150
lbs (67.5 kg) (Loveridge, 1946). In Surinam the carapace length ranges
from about 40 in (100 cm) to 50 in (125 cm) (Schulz, 1968). Deraniyagala
(1 953) ment ions curved carapace 1 engths of about 48 in (1 22 cm), which are
not uncommon at Sri Lanka. Pritchard (1971) gives the following carapace
1 engths of mature females: Galapagos Islands from 28.5 in (72 cm) to 37
in (94 cm), Surinam 39 in (99 cm) to 48 in (122 cm), Ascension Island 33
in (84 cm) to 55 in (140 cm), in Guyana from 38 in (96.5 cm) to 46 in
(117 cm), and in Costa Rica from 35 in (89 cm) to 44 in (112 cm). Two
adult males in the Galapagos had carapace lengths of 31*5 in (80.0 cm)
and 33.2 in (84 .3 cm) .

Worrell ( 1 963) mentions a maximum weight of about 850 lbs (382 kg)
for Australia, but the resu 1 ts of turt 1 e-hunters indicates that specimens
over about 250 lbs (112.5 kg) are quite rare. In November 1952 a green
turtle was stranded on the Dutch coast, which is very uncommon for tem¬
perate areas; the carapace was on 1 y 14 in (36 cm) long and 11.5 in (29.5
cm) wide (Brongersma, 1961 ) . Undoubtedly, it was a juvenile. Hirth and
Carr (1 970) g i ve some s i zes of green turt 1 es caught on the feeding pastures
near Khor Uma i ra , southern Yemen ; the carapace 1 engths of 1 78 fema 1 es ranged
from 29 in (48.3 cm) to 44 in (111.8 cm) - average 34.7 in (88.1 cm). The
carapace lengths of 112 males ranged from 28 in (71.1 cm) to 41 in ( 1 04 . 1
cm) - average 35.6 in (90.4 cm).

The heaviest green turtle ever reported, weighed 860 lbs (386 kg).
Almost half of the wet weight of a green turtle represents edible protein
(Hirth, 1971).

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Fig. 6. Female C, mydas crawling up on a beach.

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COLOR

There is a considerable variation in color, as previously mentioned.
Therefore, for purposes of i dent i f icat ion a color descr i pt ion of the turtle
will never be enough. In his synopsis on the green turtle, Hirth (1971)
gives the following descr i ption of the coloration of the various subspecies:

Chelonia m. mydas has a predominately brownish carapace, sometimes with
olive or dark brown blotches and streaks . The dorsal surfaces of the head,
flippers and tail are also predominatly brownish.

C. m. agassizii has a bas i ca 1 1 y green i sh or o 1 i ve-brown carapace somet imes
strongly flecked with black.

C. m. oarrinegra is character i zed by b 1 ack p i gmenta t ion on both dorsa 1 and
ventral surfaces (plastron more greyish).

C. m. japonica (from Philippines waters) is rusty reddish brown above,
each shield streaked wi th amber , head shields distinctly redd i sh and each
edged with black, plastron yellow. Around Tha i 1 and waters th i s subspec i es
is greenish to greyish above, specimens with dark rays are observed as
well; the plastron is yellow.

In the Galapagos two color forms exist, a pale (cal led 'yel low' turtle)
and a dark form. The latter nests on severa 1 islands, but the yellow has
never been seen nesting there. In both forms the plastron always has
variable grey areas on the sides and along the midline. According to
Pritchard (1971) both forms belong to the subspecies C. agassizii .

These are only a few of the number of green turtle "forms" existing.
It appears that coloration is highly variable. Besides, there also seems
to be color differences between males and females. In a few cases this
has been indisputable ascertained. Not only in the Atlantic Ocean and
Med i terranean , but a 1 so throughout the Pac i f i c Ocean and the Indian Ocean
and the Indian Ocean an unknown number of races exist. Careful research
(as soon as poss ib le) wi 1 1 i nd i cate i nto how many races (sepa rate species 7)
Chelonia mydas can be divided. 1 1 i s poss i b 1 e , that some races will become
extinct in the near future, if no protective measures are taken. Efforts
should be made so that each race survives.

FOOD

It can be stated that adult and sub-adult green turtles are mainly
herbivorous, whi 1 e the young (1 to 2 years old) are carnivorous (Schulz,
1 968) . The main diet of adults consists of sea grasses, the so called
"turtle grass", that grow in sheltered shallow water. Submarine pastures
near coastal areas and on atolls are visited by the turtles at selected
places throughout the year. The stomach contents of over 100 turtles,
caught near Khor Umaira (Southern Yemen), were examined and it appeared
that two types of turt 1 e grass, Posidonia sp. and Halodule sp. , form the
menu. Also a small amount of brown algae and red algae were found (Hirth
and Carr , 1970) . The stomach of 6 mature turt 1 es (5?, 1<f ) packed solidly
with this grass, weighed between 3.9 lbs (1.8 kg) and 5.5 lbs (2.5 kg).
The densities of turtle grass ( Posidonia ) reach 2500 leaves per square

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June 1975

Fig. 7. Female C, mydas digging body pit.

meter at Southern Yemen. The d i stri but ion of green turtles coincides with
the distribution of sea grasses (Hirth, 1971). Offshore of Surinam there
is no turtle grass growing, and the number of rept i 1 es existing there is
limited and is restricted to mostly juveniles. In the Galapagos Caulerpa
is eaten. Stomachs of turtles also contain mangrove leaves and roots
(Pritchard, 1971). Turt les from the Atlantic coast of Hex i co and from the
West Indies had eaten in large quantities the turtle grass Thalassia.
Other vegetable rests taken from stomachs appeared to belong to the genera
Zostera (e.g. Bermuda and Chi le) , Sargassum (e.g. Pacific coast of Mexi co) ,
SagittaricLj Vallisneria (e.g. Florida), Cymodocea, Ulva3 Halophila and
others. Adults and sub-adults are not averse to eating animals as well.
Some animals may be devoured accidentily together with the swallowing of
marine plants. There isa possibility that specimens traveling over long
distances from feeding grounds to breed i ng grounds and back, have to eat
animals (e.g. jellyfish) due toalack of seaweeds. Other marine animals
found in turtle stomachs are: sponges, molluscs (e.g. sna i 1 s ) and crus¬
taceans (e.g. crabs). In captivity green turtles can survive on a diet
of mixed fishes. Young turtles eat almost any animal they can devour
(Burton, 1970). That i s not amaz i ng s i nee the spec i es 1 favorite seagrasses
are absent off the nesting beaches.

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Fig. 8.

Female C. my das digging nest hole.

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Volume 11 Number 2

|| MATING

Our know 1 edge on the sexual behav i our of sea turtles i s i nconc 1 us i ve ;

1 i tt 1 e i s known about courtsh i p and mat i ng . From most species no data are
available, but the green turtle is an exception. Some herpetologists
succeeded in spending many hours in the sea with mating Chelonia mydas
pairs and made valuable observations. Mating takes place in the sea, ap¬
parently always on the surface (Cogger, 1967). Booth and Peters (1972)
report that the mount i ng of fema 1 es may occur near the surface of water,
but is not necessarily the most frequent place for copulation. Schulz
(1968) presumes that mating takes place near the nesting beaches. This
is conf i rmed byHirth (1971), who says that copul at ion us ua 1 1y occurs wi th i n
one ki lometer of f the nest i ng beaches . 1 1 seems probab 1 e that green turtles
may reach maturity between A and 7 years. Caldwell (1962), mentions 8 to
13 years. Frauca (1 970) est imates that femal es at Heron Island (Australia)
become sexua 1 ly mature when the carapace reaches a 1 eng th of 35 in (89 cm).

During the breeding season ma 1 es are cont i nuous 1 y prepared to mate,
but females are not always sexually agressive during that period. If a
female is not interested in courtship, she will bite the obstrusive male
furiously, sometimes causing severe wounds. The biting at the female's
neck by the male plays a prominent role in courtship. If she is receptive,
the male approaches her from behind. His enlarged claws of the front
f 1 i ppers a i d h im i n grasp i ng the fore edge of the female's carapace. Mating
pairs often are escorted by a number of males, circling around the "lovers",
and finally one of them will make at temps to dislodge the copu 1 at i ng male.
If he i s successful , he wi 1 1 try to mate wi th the abandon fema 1 e , but she
usually will only accept the original male. The longest continious ob¬
servation of a mated pair was 6 hours (Booth and Peters, 1972).

1

Fig. 9. Laying green turtle on the Great Barrier Reef (Australia).

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NESTING BEACHES

June 1975

Females breed every 2 - k years . They come ashore several times during
the breeding season and prefer sandy beaches, which will not be flooded
during the spring high tide. The level of ground water must not be too
close to the surface of the beach, otherwise the eggs would spoil (Jans¬
sen, 1972; Schulz, 1968). A number of nest i ng sites still exist, but in
earlier times one could rind nesting beaches of green turtles throughout
the tropical world. The most important beaches today are:

a. South Yemen [[almost the year around; peak in November, when AO or 50
nesting females per mi le of beach were observed (H i rth and Carr , 1970)].

b. Heron Island (Australia) and adjacent islands of the Capricorn and
Bunker Groups (mid-November - March).

c. Bount i f ul Island, Ra i ne Island, Bramble Cay (Austral ia) (nesting i s some¬
what earlier than* in the previous areas).

d. Kamwatta Beach (or Shell Beach), and other beaches at Guyana (March
- August) .

e. Eilanti and Bigisanti, Surinam (March - July).

f. Tortuguero, Costa Rica, the most important nesting site in the Carib¬
bean (June - November).

g. Beaches of Ascension Island [peak around February (Cronnie, 1971)].

h. Beaches of West Pak i stan , A1 dabra Atol 1 , Tha i 1 and , Malaysia, Indonesia
and the Philippines [visited the year around (Hirth, 1971)].

Some of the minor turtle rookeries are the beaches of the Galapagos
Islands, Tonga Islands, Yucatan Peninsula, western and eastern coast of
tropical Africa, West Indian Islands and the Seychelles. A great number
of other nesting beaches exi st , especial ly on i slands rarely ever visited
by man or on islands with less or no natural predators.

Fig. 10. Female C. mydas laying her "Ping-pong" ball shaped eggs.
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June 1975

NESTING, EGGS, HATCHLINGS

Females come ashore to lay eggs on or around the night high tide
(Fig. 6). After reach ing the beach, the turtle reposes for a while. Pos¬
sibly to orientate and to examine if the coast is clear; moreover, she
presses the head on the sand (Janssen, 1972). The f unct i on of th i s "sand¬
smelling" is still unknown. She then crawls from surf to the nest site
and progresses by laborious forward thrusts inwhich all four limbs move
at once (Bustard, 1968). This is extremely exhausting for the turtle,
because of the soft sand. The animals are very shy at this time and will
return to the sea immediately upon disturbance (i.e. lights, approaching
of people , talking).

After cl ear i ng the nest s i te (preferably a beach platform well above
flood tide; Hirth, 1971) a bodypitis excavated (Fig. 7). With all four
limbs sand is thrown backwards, while the plastron rests on the sand.
Occasionally the animal moves forward until a pit is produced somewhat
larger than the turtle's body (Schulz, 1968). The depth of the body pit
varies from 12 to 20 in (30 to 50 cm). During digging the animal rests
repeatedly. After completion of the body pit, she starts excavating the
nest hole (Fig. 8). She scoops out the sand beneath the cloaca with her
hind flippers and puts it beside the nest. She continues scooping till
the nest hole has a depth of about 20 in (50 cm) and a diameter of about
12 in (30 cm) (Somberg-Hon i g , 1967). If during excavating an obstacle is
met (e.g. stone or stub) , the whole process is repeated at an other site
near by.

The eggs are white and usually dropped one, two or three at a time.
The spherical eggs are covered with mucous when leaving the cloaca (Fig.
10) (Hi rth, 1971). Egg laying takes about 8tol2 minutes (Schulz, 1 96 8 ) .
Frauca (1973) however, states that this takes 30 minutes to over one hour
(Fig. 9) . The eggs weigh between 28 and 44 gms each and have a di ameter from
40 to 55 mm. Nests contain between 50 and 200 eggs (Frauca, 1970), 48 -
131 (Pritchard, 1971 ), 70 - 130 (Hirth and Carr, 1970), 137 on an average
(Schulz, 1968). Pritchard (1969) reports the average number of eggs per
nest at Sur i nam as 1 42. 8, at Tortuguero 110.0, at Ascension 115.5, and at
Sarawak 104.7.

The female covers both the nest hole and body pit with sand and makes
her way back at sea (where the males are waiting), leaving behind deep
tracks on the sandy beach (Fig. 11). During nesting and covering she may
move one ton of sand (Frauca, 1970). The fema 1 e green turtle spends about
3 hours out of the water when nesting and laying, but this varies and de¬
pends on beach conditions. Most green turtles lay between 3 and 7 times
each season at about 10 to 16 day intervals (Hirth, 1971). Incubation
takes about 7 to 10 weeks, but this depends mainly on cl imate, season and
temperature. In Australia (Heron Island) it takes about 8 to 9 weeks
(Bustard, 1 968 ) , but at Tortuguero 7 to 10 weeks. Hirth and Carr (1970)
mention 48 - 49 days at Abul Wadi Beach (Aden).

Emergence from the sand normally takes place under cover of darkness
when predation hazard is greatly reduced. Carapace length of hatchlings
varies from 44 to 56 mm. Balazs and Ross (1973), give mean values of 125
one-day-old turtles at the Hawaii Institute of Marine Biology: weight
0.029 kg, carapace length 50mm, carapace width 36 mm. The movement from

Bulletin Maryland Herpetological Society

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Volume 11 Number 2 June 1975

the nest to the surface of the sand is a process that repeats that de¬
scribed for the 1 eatherback, Dermoohelys coriaoea (Zwinenberg, 197*0. The
carapace of hatchl i ngs is extremely dark (black to dark greenish or dark
brown i sh - Fig . 12). After emergence , the young head for the light horizon
(the sea), rush into the sea and swim rapidly to deeper waters. Little
is known about the habits of the hatchlings after entering the sea.

Fig. 11. A large crowd gathers as the female heads back to sea.

ENEMIES AND TURTLE FARMING

Eggs are dug out and eaten by dogs, foxes, pigs, crabs, rats, monitor
lizards and sometimes birds in addition to man. The mortality of hatch¬
lings is high. Approximately less than \% of them survive to adulthood.
Newly hatched turtles have soft shells and are killed by a wide range of
predators before they can reach the sea , e.g. by ghost crabs (Coypode sp.),
dogs, foxes, raccoons, feral cats, frigate birds (when emergence inci¬
dentally takes pi ace at day 1 ight ) , night herons, rats , mongooses , tigers,
jaguars, crows, silver gulls ( Larus novae-hollandiae) , monitor lizards
( Varanus sp.), snakes ( Python sp .). The few that reach the sea are largely
eaten by large fishes, crocodiles and in large numbers by sharks. The
stomach of a black-tipped reef shark killed off Australia's coast con¬
tained 14 hatchlings (Bustard, 1973).

Adults are killed by sharks too. Many specimens caught at sea or
observed on beaches show damages of shark attacks. Except for sharks,

Bulletin Maryland Herpetological Society

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Volume 11 Number 2 June 1975

adult green turtles have hardly any natural predators. Only man forms a
threat. Mortality is high, as mentioned earlier. Protection is badly
needed for obv i ous reasons. Hatch 1 i ngs shoul d have a chance to reach adult¬
hood. Green turtle hatcheries operate at d i fferent places in the tropical
world to help assure their survival. Bustard (l 968) collected 30,000 green
turtle eggs annually (at a later stage 50,000) from Heron Island for in¬
cubation elsewhere under control. After emergence the young are kept in
pools for some time [Carr and Ingle (see Peters, 1968) proposed they be
kept until they reach shell lenghts of 6 - 8 in (15 ~ 20 cm)], tagged and
rel eased at sea i n severa 1 areas. Hatchlings (more than 1 00 , 000) are flown
from Caribbean beaches (espec i a 1 1 y from Tortuguero , Cos taRica) to Florida,
South America and many other areas for release in hopes to replenishing
turtle stocks. In 1988 the Queensland Government gave 5 species of sea
turtle full protection, i ncl ud i ng the green turtle (Bustard, 1989). Full
protect i on for green turtl es and thei r eggs are given at Ascension Island,
in Costa Rica, Surinam and Panama. In other areas turtles and eggs are
protected only for a number of months, as in Trinidad (from 1 June - 30
September) and French Guiana (from 1 May - 31 August). Green turtles can¬
not be hunted except under 1 i cences , wh i ch a re hard 1 y ever g i ven , at Sabah ,
Malaysia (De Silva, 1989). Mexico gives full protection for eggs and
allows hunt i ng of turt 1 es during open season. I agree with Hirth (1971),
who states that the best and simplest method to secure the green turtle's
future is to provide protect ion for nest i ng females, eggs, and hatchlings
on the natural rookeries, so survival is assured.

Fig. 12. A young green turtle with egg-tooth.

Bulletin Maryland Herpetological Society

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Volume 11 Number 2

CONCLUSION

June 1975

The green turtle is one of the most studied species of sea turtle.
We know more about its life history, then of any other sea turtle, and
still a number of facts are unknown or need further study. For instance,
little is known of the seasonal trips the turtles make between feeding
grounds and nest i ng beaches. Navi gat ion and or i entat ion should be studied
continously, as well as the migration routes. Tagged females from Tor-
tuguero rookeries were recaptured 2400 km away. Others were taken at a
d i stance of 800 km in another direction. Most of these turtles, however,
return to the same nesting ground within 2-4 years. How do they manage?
Mirth and Carr (1970) tagged some females in southern Yemen, five were
later taken off the coast of Somalia. One of them had covered a distance
of about 3200 km in exactly 2 years. Ascension Island turtles were re¬
captures off the coast of Brazil (over 2200 km) and the shores of the
Ivory Coast (Africa) , about l600 kmaway (Fig. 13). Not a 1 1 turt 1 es travel

Fig. 13. The migration of green turtles from Ascension Island.

over great distances. A lot are taken within a radius of 100 km of the
beach where they were tagged.

We know hardly any th i ng of the hatchlings after they reach the sea.
Females do come on beaches after reaching maturity, but males apparently
never come ashore, except for some Pacific green turtles ( Chelonia m,
agassizii) . In this subspecies it is known that males do occasionally
bask on remote rockery beaches. The life span of C. mydas is still un¬
known. The feeding habits are also unclear. These, and a lot of other

questions exist, making it clear that research must be continued. The

“ , •

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Volume 11 Number 2 June 1975

main concern now, is the immediate protection of Chelonia my das , so that

there will be enough time to permit a 1 1 the necessary investigations, and
so that the future of this valuable sea turtle will be ensured.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank Dr. Haro 1 d F . H i rth of the University of Utah,
and Dr. H. R. Bustard at the Australian National University for sending
me valuable information, and Mr. P. A. Teun i ssen at Paramaribo (Surinam)
and the Australian I nformat ion Service at Canberra (Au s t ra 1 i a ) for a 1 1 owi ng
the use of the photographs.

L i terature C i ted

Babcock, H. L.

1938. The sea-turtles of the Bermuda I s 1 ands , wi th a survey of the
present state of the turtle fishing industries. Proo . Zool.
Soo. London 3 ser. As 1 07 • 595~60 1 .

Balazs, G. H., and Ross, E.

1973* Reared in captivity. Int. Turtle and Tortoise Soo. Joum.

7( 0:6-9.

Booth, J., and Peters, J.A.

1972. Behavioural studies on the green turtle ( Chelonia mydas) in
the sea. Animal Behaviour 20 (4) : 808-81 2 .

Brongersma, L.D.

1961. Notes upon some sea turtles. Zool. Verh. Leiden :1-46 .

1 36b . Qua Patet Orbis. Brill - Leiden: 1-39.

Burton, M.

1970. Purnell's Encyclopedia of Animal Life. BPC Publ. } London 3
pp. 9^8-950 .

Busack, S. D.

197^. Amph i b i ans and Rept i 1 es Imported i nto the Un i ted States. U.S.

Dept. Int. j Wildlife leaf l . 506:23.

Bustard, H. R.

1968. Queensland Sea Turtles, Research and Conservation. Wildlife
in Australia 5(1): 2-7.

•

19^9. Queensland protects sea turtles. Joum. Fauna Press. Soo. 3
(Oryx) X ( 1 ) : 23“ 24 .

1973. Aus t ra 1 i a sea turt 1 es , the i r natura 1 h i s tory and conservat ion .

Wildlife in Australia 10( 3 ) : 98- 1 03

. , and Limpus, C.

1969. Observations on the Flatback turtle, Chelonia depressa Gar-
man. Herpetologioa 25 { 1 ) : 29 “ 3^ -

Ca 1 dwe 11, D . K.

1962. Growth measurements of young captive Atlantic sea turtles in
temperate waters. Contr. Soi. Los Ang. City Mus.3 50:1-8.

Bulletin Maryland Herpetological Society Page 61

Volume 11 Number 2

June 1975

Cogger, H.

1967. Australian reptiles in colour. Reed-Sydney 3 pp. 16-18.

Conant, R.
1958.

Cronnie, W.
1971.

A field guide to reptiles and amphibians of Eastern North
America. Houghton Mifflin 3 Boston 3 pp. 67-68.

1

S.

Wie finden Seesch i 1 dkroten im endlosen Meer ihren Weg? Das
Tier ii(1):33“37.

Deran i yaga 1 a , P. E. P.

1953. A colored atlas of some vertebrates from Ceylon - tetrapod
reptilia. Ceylon Govemm. Pr.3 pp. 12-21.

Frauca, H.

1970. The marine turtles of Australia. News and Inf . Bur . Bull. f
E709, pp. 1-4.

1973. Aust ra 1 i an rept i 1 e wonders . Rigby Ltd. 3 Adelaide 3 pp. 91 “97 •
Harrison, T.

1962. Notes on the Green turtle ( Chelonia mydas) . Sarawak Mus.
Journ. 10( 1 9-20) : 6l 4-623 .

H i rth , H . F .

1971 • Synops i s of biolog i cal data on the green turtle, Chelonia mydas
(Linnaeus) 1758. FAO Fisheries Syn . 85.

_ . , and Carr, A.

1970 The green turt le in the Gul f of Aden and the Seychel les Islands.

Verh. Konkl. Ned . Ak. Wet.3 Amsterdam } pp. 1-44.

Janssen, J. J.

Zeesch i 1 dpadden aan de stranden van Sur i name . Laoerta 3l{ 1):
3-12.

Nieuwe reizen naar de Franse eilanden in America, behelzende
de Natuurlyke Historie van die Landen, derzelver Oorspronk,
Zeden, Godsdienst, Reger i ng der oude en tegenwoord i ge I nwoon-
ders ; a 1 s 00k d i e der zwarte SI aaven , enz., in 't Nederduitsch
in 1 t ligt gebracht door W. C. Dyks , Amsterdam, B. Lakeman3
2 (2) : 404.

Loveridge, A.

1946. Reptiles of the Pacific Worl d , McMillan Comp.3 New York3 pp.
21-24.

Mertens, R. , and Wermuth, H.

I960. Die Amph i b i en und Rept i 1 i en Europas. Kramer Verl. 3 Frankfurt
a .M. , pp . 69-70.

Peters, J. A.

1968. Rare and Endangered Reptiles and Amphibians of the United
States. U.S. Mus. Publ. 3 Sheet Rap- 14.

1972.

Labat, P.

1 725.

Bulletin Maryland Herpetological Society

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Volume 11 Number 2

June 1975

Pr i tchard ,
1969.

1971.

Rose, W.

1950.

Schu 1 z , J .

1968.

de Silva,

1969.

P. C. H.

Sea Turtles of the Guianas. Bull. Flor. State Mas. Biol. So.
13(2) : 85-1 40 .

*

Galapagos Sea Turtles - Prel iminary Findings. Journ. of Herp.
5(1-2) : 1-9.

The rept i 1 es and amph i b i ans of sou them Africa. Maskew Miller
Ltd ., Cape Town, pp. 327~29.

P.

Zeesch i 1 dpadden i n Sur i name , dee 1 II. Dienst Landsbosbeheer ,
Paramaribo, pp. 1-120.

G. S.

The fauna conservation ordinance of Sabah. Loris XI ( 5 ) : 28 3“

286.

Somberg-Hon i g , J. T.

1967. Zeesch i 1 dpadden aan de Surinaamse kust, II. Panda Nieuws 4

(3) : 1 .

Stebb ins, R . C .

1966. A field guide to Western Reptiles and Amphibians. Houghton
Mifflin, Boston , pp. 87~88.

Worrel 1 , E.

1963. Rept i les of Austral i a. Angus and Robertson, Sydney, pp. 6-11.
Zwinenberg, A. J.

1974. The leatherback ( Dermoohelys ooriacea) , one of the largest
living reptiles. Bull. Md. Herp. Soo. 10{ 2):42-49.

Borneo straat 23, Vlaardingen, The Netherlands

Received 2 June 1975
Accepted 4 June 1975

Bulletin Maryland Herpetological Society

Page 63

Volume 11 Number 2

June 1975

Notes on a Brood of the Arizona Ridge-nosed Rattlesnake

Crotalus willardi willardi

The limited number of natural history data and field observations of
the ridge-nosed rat 1 1 esnake {Crotalus willardi) are i nd i cated by the brief
treatment g i ven the spec i es in Klauber's monographic review of the genus
(1972). Other pub 1 i cat ions on the natural h i story of th i s species are few
and brief in context.

On 3 August 197*+, I captured an adult female Arizona ridge-nosed
rattlesnake ( Crotalus willardi willardi) at ca . 6500 ft elevation in the
Santa Rita Mountains, Santa Cruz County, Arizona. The specimen appeared
gravid and was col 1 ected with the hope of gathering reproductive data on
the species. It was housed in a 2± gallon aquarium and kept at room tem¬
perature, between 23 and 30° C. Fifteen days after capture 18 August, it
gave birth to six live of f spr i ng and one s t i 1 1 born wh i ch rema i ned enclosed
in the embryonic membranes. When I first observed the brood, about 2k
hours after b i rth , the young were coated wi th dr i ed membrane material from
the egg. They were then soaked for several hours in water to remove the
dried material. They were weighed on a Torsion Balance about 36 hours
af ter b i rth and measured after the i r f i rst mol t between 2A-29 August. Total
lengths, we i ghts and notes regarding food habits of the six offspring and
the mother are presented in Table 1.

The coloration of the juveniles differed from that of the mother,
who conformed to the general color descri pt ion of the subspecies (Klauber,
1 9*+9) . A1 1 of the young were di st i nctl y grey and had bright yellow tails,
not evident in the mother. The yellow tails faded after the second shed.
The basic dorsal pattern of the mother was , however , apparent in the off¬
spring.

Klauber ( 1 9^+9 ) noted a female Crotalus w. willardi that "contained
6 eggs" and a Crotalus w. silus that "contained at least 2 wel 1 -developed
embryos." He also noted the measurements of three juvenile specimens cap¬
tured i n the wi 1 d and concl uded that they represented the approx imate size
of the species at birth.

Th i s account , however , appears to be the first conf i rmat ion of ovovi -
viparity in this species.

The mother and four of the of f spr i ng were released near the col lect ion
site on 1 September 197*+. Two of the young were re ta i ned i n capt i v i ty for
further observations on growth and food intake, and to note their color
changes during maturity.

Page 64

Bulletin Maryland Herpetological Society

Volume 11 Number 2 June 1975

Table 1. Total 1 engths and we i ghts of a mother and six newborn Crotalus
willardi willardi with notes on feeding and shedding between
18 August and 1 September.

1 ■■ ■ — - i—-- .. ,

Approximate length Weight (gms) Feeding-shedding

(nearest 5 mm) notes

Mother: 530 65.2 Killed several small

(after parturition) mice but refused to

L

eat them before giving
birth. Ate 6 small
mice between 18 Aug.
and 1 Sept.

Young :

180

5.43

Shed 29 Aug. Refused
newborn mice.

190

5.91

Shed 27 Aug. Refused
newborn mice.

190

6.04

Shed 25 Aug. Ate 1
newborn mouse.

\

190

6 . 06

Shed 25 Aug . Ate 2
newborn mice.

190

6.39

Shed 25 Aug. Ate 2
newborn mice.

195

6 . 66

Shed 24 Aug. Ate 2
newborn mice.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am greatly indebted to the following personnel at the University
of Arizona: Dr. Michael D. Borinson for hi s ass i stance and advice in the
preparation of the manuscript; Dr. Mac E. Hadley for the use of the fa¬
cilities in his laboratory; and Dr. Howard K. Gloyd for h i s cr i t i ca 1 re-
viewof the final product. Also thanks to Wi 1 1 i am P. Savary for observing
the mother snake and recording the birth date in my absence.

Literature Cited

Klauber, L. M.

1 9^9 . The subspecies of the ridge-nose rattlesnake, Crotalus wil¬
lardi. Trans. San Diego Soc. Nat. Hist., 11 (8) : 1 21 - 1 40 .

1972. Rattlesnakes, their habits, life histories, and influence on
mankind. University of California Press, Berkeley and Los
Angeles. Vol . 1, pp. XXX-740.

■—Brent E. Martin, 704 N. Second Avenue, Tucson, Arizona 85705.

Received 9 April 1975
Accepted 8 May 1975.

Bulletin Maryland Herpetological Society

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Volume 11 Number 2

June 1975

An Occurrence of the Arizona Ridge-nosed Rattlesnake,
Crotalus willardi willardi 3 Observed Feeding in Nature

There are severs 1 indirect observat ions on the feeding habits of the
ridge-nosed rattlesnake, Crotalus willardi , in nature. The following
variety of food items have been found in the stomachs of dissected in¬
dividuals: Van Denburgh (1922) and Klauber (1949) reported finding mammal
remains, i ncl ud i ng sma 1 1 rodents. Klauber (l 972) noted 1 i zards ( Sceloporus
sp.j Gerrhonotus kingi) and a bird, Wilson's Warbler (Wilsona pusilla) .
He also reported a scorpion disgorged by a Crotalus w, willardi in the
possession of A. E. Ball. Fowlie (1965) captured an individual of this
subspec i es that d i sgorged a cent i pede several days later. Vorhies ( 1 9^8 ) ,
Manion (1968) and Harris (1975) mention lizards as the principal natural
food of Crotalus willardi , but do not site direct feeding observations.
Actual observations of this species feeding in the wild are unknown in
the 1 i terature.

On the morn i ng of 4 August 1974, I came upon a dead deer mouse (Pero-
mysous sp .) on the ground on an open oak-covered hillside at ca. 6500 ft
el evat ion in the Santa Rita Mountains. Death appeared to have been recent ,
a 1 though the rodent was col d and somewhat stiff. No external injuries were
apparent. Suddenly, I was startled by the rattling of an adult Crotalus
w. willardi no more than two feet away from the mouse and myself. I was
completely unawareof its presence until it rattled. As it turned to es¬
cape , I captured the snake , wh i ch then turned and b i t my gloved hand several
times. I then released it and after coiling up and continuously rattling
for several moments it became quiet and slowly uncoiled, while flicking
its tounge and stretching its jaws that were previously displaced from
biting. It 1 ocated the mouse , and began to ingest the rodent's head. When
it was halfway down it noticed me move slightly from where I was sitting
several feet away; it started to rattle and promptly regurgitated the
mouse. When I moved about ten feet away, it stopped ratt 1 i ng and returned
to its meal. After eventually swallowing the mouse, it slowly crawled
towards a large fal len tree nearby, pausing frequently for several minutes.
It then crawled over the tree and coiled up under a space between the
fallen trunk and the ground.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am greatly indebted to the following personnel at the University
of Arizona: Dr. Michael D. Bor i nson for h i s assistance and advice in the
preparation of the manuscript; Dr. Mac E. Hadley for the use of the fa¬
cilities in his laboratory; and Dr. Howard K. Gloyd for his critical re-
viewofthe final product.

L i terature C i ted

Fowl i e , J .
1965.

Harris, H.
1975.

A.

The snakes of Ar i zona . Azu 1 Qu i nta Press , Fal 1 brook , I V + 1 64 .

S . , Jr .

An endangered spec i es , the New Mex i can r i dge-nosed rattlesnake.
Bull. Md. Herp. Soc., 17(l):1-7.

Page 66

Bulletin Maryland Herpetological Society

Volume 11 Number 2

June 1975

Klauber, L. M.

19^9. The subspecies of the ridge-nose rattlesnake, Crotalus wil-
lardi. Trans. San Diego Soc. Nat. Hist., 11 (8) : 1 21 - 1 kO .

1972. Rattlesnakes, their habits, life histories, and influence on
mankind. University of California Press, Berkeley and Los
Angeles. Vol. 1, pp. XXX~7^0.

Manion, S.

1968. Crotalus willardi - - The Arizona ridge-nosed rattlesnake.
Herpetology (SW Herpetol og i ca 1 Soc.) Il{lll) : 2 7“ 30 .

Van Denburgh, J.

1922. The reptiles of western North America. Occ . Pap . Ca 1 i f . Acad .
Sci . , 10:1-1028.

Vorh i es , C . T .

19^8. Food items of rattlesnakes. Copeia, 1 9^8 (A) : 302-303-

— Brent E. Martin, 704 N. Second Avenue Tucson 3 Arizona 85705.

Received 9 April 1975
Accepted 8 May 1975

Bulletin Maryland Herpetological Society

Page 67

Volume 11 Number 2

June 1975

News & Notes

IMPORTANT NOTICE

EASTERN SEABOARD HERPETOLOG I CAL LEAGUE MEETING

DATE; 18 October 1975 (Saturday)

TIME: 10:00 A.M. to 6:00 P.M.

PLACE: Auditorium

National Museum of Natural History
Smithsonian Institution
Washington, D.C.

If you would 1 i ke to present a paper at this meeting, please contact (as
soon as poss i b 1 e) :

Scott M. Rae, WHS
A17 Adahi Road, S.E.
Vienna, Virginia 22180

BOOK RELEASE

Xenopus The South African Clawed Frog

by Elizabeth M. Deuchar

This book summarizes our current knowledge of Xenopus in an easy to
understand form. Chapters include: The discovery of Xenopus in its nat¬
ural habits, The anatomy of Xenopus , Physiological studies on Xenopus ,
Gametogenes i s , fertilization and the i n i t i at i on of embryonic development,
Development of the embryo and larva of Xenopus laevis3 Observations on
c 1 eavage and b 1 as tu 1 a stages, The mechan i sms of gastrulation and neurula-
tion, Interactions between tissues in the early embryo, Organogenesis in
Xenopus , The cont ro 1 of later events i n devel opment , and future pos s i b i 1 i t i es
in resea rch on Xenopus . The book contains a fine bibliography of some 559
titles. A must for your book shelf. A handy reference guide to Xenopus\

HSH .

John Wiley 6 Sons, Inc., Publishers
605 Third Avenue, New York, N.Y. 1 00 1 6

Ava i 1 ab 1 e at $29 . 50

Page 68

Bulletin Maryland Herpetological Society

Volume 11 Number 2

June 1975

ANNOUNCEMENT

The University

of

Kansas Museum of Natural

History

will publish

in early fall 1975

a

book entitled "Edward H.

Taylor:

Recollections

of a Herpetologist."

Thi

s new book contains:

Philippine Adventures: An autobiographical Memoir by Edward H. Taylor

Edward Harrison Taylor: The Teacher by A. Byron Leonard

The Blazing of a Trail: The Scientific Career of Edward Harrison
Taylor by Hobart M. Smith

The Published Contributions of Edward H. Taylor by George R. Pisani

The book may be ordered at the special prepublication price effective
until 1 October 1975 of $5.00 (including postage and handling) from Publi¬
cations Secretary, Museum of Natural History, University of Kansas, Lawrence,
Kansas 66045. After October 1 the price will be $6.00.

Bulletin Maryland Herpetological Society

Page 69

Volume 11 Number 2

June 1975

AMPHIBIANS AND
REPTILES
IN

KANSAS .... a new book now available to the public. Written

by Joseph T. Collins for the Museum, and co-sponsored by the Museum of

Natural History and the State Biological Survey, this publication contains. . .

. . . . accounts of the natural history of the 91 kinds of

snakes, lizards, turtles, toads, frogs and salamanders
found in Kansas.

. . . . detailed maps showing the individual ranges of each
species in Kansas.

ORDER FORM

. . . . over 100 striking black and white photographs (most by
the author) of these fascinating creatures.

. . . . designation of those amphibians and reptiles in Kansas
that are considered to be threatened species.

. . . . and much more additional information on these interesting
animals.

Publications Secretary
Museum of Natural History
University of Kansas
Lawrence, Kansas 66045

Please accept my order for _ copy(ies) of Amphibians and Reptiles

in Kansas by Joseph T. Collins at $5.00 per copy, postage and sales
tax (for Kansas residents) included.

Checks should be made payable to Museum of Natural History. I enclose

$

Page 70

Bulletin Maryland Herpetological Society

Volume 11 Number 2

June 1975

For further information, contact: Carolyn Amussen

(617) 725-5970

FOR IMMEDIATE RELEASE:

A Field Guide

'REPTILES

"AMPHIBIANS

"EASTERN

"CENTRAL

North America

BY ROGER CONANT

Illustrated by Isabelle Hunt Conant

SECOND EDITION

Roger Conant' s A FIELD GUIDE TO REPTILES AND
AMPHIBIANS, first published in 1958, is
newly revised and expanded and available
for the first time in a softcover edition.
The territory covered now stretches to
Texas and North Dakota in the west and
north to Manitoba and Keewatin in Canada.
Included are 331 species -- counting sub¬
species, a total of 574 different animals
-- with 472 full-color photographs and
174 in black and white. In addition, there
are 353 line drawings showing key features
useful in identification and 311 distribu¬
tion maps. Like all Peterson Field Guides,
this one is thorough and easy to use, an
indispensable aid to both professional and
amateur herpetologists.

FETERSON FIELD GUIDES NEWLY

AVAILABLE IN PAPER EDITIONS

A FIELD GUIDE TO WESTERN REPTILES AND
AMPHIBIANS by Robert C. Stebbins

ROGER CONANT retired in 1973 after almost
forty years as Curator of Reptiles at the
Philadelphia Zoo. He is now an Adjunct
Professor in the Department of Biology
at the University of New Mexico.

Cloth, $6.95;

A FIELD GUIDE TO
J. Murie (Second

Cloth, $6.95;

A FIELD GUIDE TO
NORTHEASTERN AND

Cloth, $5.95;

A FIELD GUIDE TO
Cloth, $8.95;

Paper, $4.95

ANIMAL TRACKS
Edition)

Paper, $4.95

THE FERNS AND
CENTRAL NORTH

Paper, $3.95

THE STARS AND
Paper, $4.95

by Olaus

Published June

THEIR RELATED FAMILIES OF
AMERICA by Boughton Cobb

PLANETS by Donald Menzel

16, 1975 Cloth, $10.00

Paper, $ 6.95

SUWANNEE COOTER

HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY

2 Park Street Boston, Mass. 02107 (617) 725-5000

Bulletin Maryland Herpetological Society

Page 71

Volume 11 Number 2

June 1975

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Bulletin Maryland Herpetological Society

Page 72

Back Issues of Various Journals Available For Trade

Society Publications

Back issues of the Bulletin of the Maryland
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