HARVARD UNIVERSITY

LIBRARY

OF THE

Museum of Comparative Zoology

BULLETIN

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY

HARVARD COLLEGE, IN CAMBRIDGE.

VOL. II.
Nos. 1-5.

CAMBRIDGE, MAS?., U. S. A.
1870-1871.

Reprinted with the permission of the original publisher

KRAUS REPRINT CORPORATION

New York

1967

Printed in U.S.A.

CONTENTS.

Pace
No. 1. — On the Eared Seals (Otariadae), with detailed Descriptions of the
North Pacific Species. By J. A. Allen. Together with an Account of
the Habits of the Northern Fur Seal (Callorhinus ursinus). By Charles
Bryant. (3 Plates) I

I. Introduction ........... 1

1. Re'sume of recent Contributions to the Natural History of the

Otariadae .4

2. On the Affinities, distinctive Characters, and Synonymy of the

Family Otariadffi, with Remarks on sexual, age, and individual

Variation, and a Conspectus of the Genera and Species, etc. 19

Habits 36

On the Genera and Species ....... 37

Geographical Distribution ...... 42

3. On the North Pacific Species of Otariadse .... 45

II. On the Habits of the Northern Fur Seal (Callorhinus ursinus Gray),
with a Description of the Pribyloff Group of Islands. By Captain
Charles Bryant. "With Notes by J. A. Allen ... 89

No. 2. — Preliminary Report on the Crustacea, dredged in the Gulf Stream
in the Straits of Florida. By L. F. de Pourtai.es, Assist. U. S. Coast
Survey. Part I. Brachyura, prepared by Dr. William Stimpson . 109

No. 3. — On the Mammals and Winter Birds of Fast Florida, with an Ex-
amination of certain assumed specific Characters in Birds, and a Sketch of
the Bird Faunce of Eastern North America. By J. A. Allen. (5 Plates) 161
Introduction . . . . , 161

I. The topographical, climatic, and faunal Characteristics of East Florida 163

II. List of the Mammals of East Florida, with Annotations . . . 16S

III. On Individual and Geographical Variation among Birds, considered
in Respect to its bearing upon the Value of certain assumed specific
Characters 186

IV CONTENTS.

1. [ndividnal Variation ........ 187

Individual Variation in general Size and in the relative Size

of different Parts 197

Variations in the Size and Form of the Bill, Wing, etc. re-
sulting from Age 226

General Remarks on Individual Variation . . . 228

Climatic Variation 229

Species, Varieties, and Geographical Races . . . 243

IV. List of the Winter Birds of East Florida, with Annotations . . 250

The Origin of the Domestic Turkey ...... 343

V. On the Geographical Distribution of the Birds of Eastern North
America, with special Reference to the Numbcrand Circumscription
of the Ornithological Faunae . ....... 375

1. Introductory Remarks ........ 375

2. The Natural Provinces of the North American Temperate

Ecu ion . 384

3. The Ornithological Faunre of the Eastern Province of the

North American Temperate Region ..... 3S7

The Faunas of the Eastern province considered in Reference

to the Distribution of Mammals and Reptiles . . . 404

4. The Ornithological Districts of the North American Temperate

Region 406

5. On the Ornithological Range of the Species . . . 407

General Remarks on the Distribution and Migration of the
Birds of the Eastern Province ...... 418

Appendix to Part V. List of Authorities . . . 426

No. 4. — Directions for Dredging. Drawn up by L. F. de Pourtales,
Assist. ET. S. Coast Survey ........ 451

No 5. — Appendix to the Preliminary Report (Bulletin No. 9, Vol. I) on
the Echini collected by L. F. de Pourtales. By Alexander Agassiz 455

No. 1. — On the Eared Seals (Otariad.e), with detailed Descrip-
tions of the North Pacific Species, by J. A. Allen. Together
with an Account of the Habits of the Northern Fur Seal (Cal-
lorhinus ursinus), by Charles Bryant.

I.

Introduction.

The specimens on which the present essay is mainly based were
collected by Captain Charles Bryant, at St. Paul's Island, one of the
Pribyloff Group, situated near the coast of Alaska, and by him kindly
presented to the Museum of Comparative Zoology. They consist of two
perfect skins and two complete ligamentary skeletons of the Eumetopias
Stelleri Peters, and six perfect skins, four complete ligamentary ski de-
tons and two partial skeletons of Callorhinus ursinus Gray. The skins
were sent preserved in salt, and arrived in excellent condition. The
specimens of Callorhinus ursinus represent both sexes of this species
and the young, both in skins and skeletons ; while the notes kindly fur-
nished by Captain Bryant give a minute account of its habits. A
summer's residence at the Pribyloff Islands, as government supervisor
of the seal fisheries, has given Captain Bryant an opportunity of be-
coming thoroughly familiar with the habits of these interesting animals,
and the description lie has given of them shows that he made a good
use of his opportunites. His notes, given in full, form part second of
the present paper. In addition to the specimens collected by Captain
Bryant, I am indebted to the Smithsonian Institution and the Chicago
Academy of Sciences for the opportunity of examining skulls of Zalo-
phus Gillespii and Otaria jubata. I have also in this connection to
make acknowledgments to Dr. Theodore Gill of Washington for various
suggestions and other acts of kindness.

The only previous account of tiie Northern fur seal which lias any
great importance is that given by Steller, nearly a century and a quar-
ter ago, and the observations of Krasheninikoff, published a few years
later in his History of Kamtcliatka. Krasheninikoff's account, how-
ever, was doubtless wholly or mainly derived from Steller's note-. The
remarkable accuracy of Steller's account, considering the time when it

VOL. II. 1

Z BULLETIN OF THE

was written, is fully confirmed by Captain Bryant, who seems to have
been the first naturalist who lias bad an opportunity of verifying Steller's
observations. Tbe history of this species is now far more fully known
than that of any of its congeners, and better in fact than the majority
of our hest known mammals. A remarkable similarity of habits, how-
ever, so far as known, seems to pervade the whole group of eared
seals. — a similarity which in many respects extends also to the wal-
rus and tbe sea elephant (Mixcrorhinus elephantinus). As matter of
collateral interest, for comparison with the account given by Captain
Bryant of the species so fully described by him, the principal notices of
the habits of the other species of the family have been cited as foot-
notes to Captain Bryant's article, and occasional abstracts are given
of those most pertinent to the subject.

Through the important labors of Messrs. Gray, Gill, and Peters
our knowledge of the Otariadce has recently been greatly increased ;
yet not a single species of the family has been hitherto very satisfac-
torily known. Regarding the able essays of these gentlemen published
in 1866 as representing the state of our knowledge of these animals
five years since, their somewhat discrepant opinions respecting the
number of known species, their distinctive characters, and their mutual
affinities sufficiently indicate how imperfectly they were then known.
A comparatively large number of specimens of the Olaria jubata has
since been received at different scientific museums, which, with the
facts obtained from persons who have recently been able to observe
this species in its natural haunts, have served to render it, up to
the present writing, the best known of any of the family. The
number of specimens formerly possessed by naturalists having been
very small, and the sex, age, and habitat of the individuals they repre-
sented being generally but vaguely known, the unusually great differ-
ences resulting from individual variation, as well as from sex and age,
which recent developments prove to exist in these animals, remained
for a long time unsuspected, and are even now, it would seem, not fully
appreciated by the few naturalists who alone have given them special
attention. Hence there has arisen in many cases an almost unparalleled
complication of synonomy and an unusually large number of nominal
species.*

* The synonomy of Olaria jubata, for example, embraces no less than fifteen distinct
speeiii • hi:

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 3

The collection of skins and skeletons above mentioned of two
of the North Pacific species which has recently been received at the
Museum of Comparative Zoology throws much light not only upon
these species but also upon several of the others. The investigation
of this material has led the writer to an examination of the whole
group, the results of which are herewith presented.

Dr. J. E. Gray and others have recently made known the fact that
great differences in the form of the skull in Otaria jitbata result from
differences in age. Also the existence of remarkably great sexual
difference in size has been long established ; whilst Professor Peters,
of Berlin, has recently pointed out extraordinary variations in the den-
tition of Zalophus Gillespil. The specimens of Callorhinus ursinm
and Eumctopias SteUeri in the Museum of Comparative Zoology show
that greater and more radical differences even in the osteological char-
acters than those previously known are to be expected in all the species.
The two adult male skulls of the Eumctopias SteUeri, for instance, dif-
fer from each other so much in form that, if their habitat was not pre-
cisely known and the evidence of their co-specific relationship unques-
tionable, one might well be excused for regarding them as belonging to
distinct species ; and the same is true of the two adult male skulls of Cal-
lorhinus ursinus. These specimens also show that some of the characters
that have been relied on most frequently as affording generic distinc-
tion?,— as the form of the palatal surface of the intermaxillaries and of
the hinder edge of the palatal bones, — vary so much, not only with age,
but in specimens of the same age, that no given form of these parts
can be regarded as affording even reliable specific characters. The great
degree of asymmetry, especially in the skull, seen in these animals is
sufficient to indicate clearly that an unusually great tendency to indi-
vidual variation in these animals is to be naturally expected. Professor
Peters has already referred to the presence of a supernumerary molar in
one side of the upper jaw in two skulls of cared seals in the Leyden
Museum, and another instance of the same abnormality is exhibited by
one of the skulls of CaUorhinus ursinus previously referred to. Taken
in connection with this tendency to variation, the interesting fact that
the number of synonymes pertaining to the several species is in almost
exact ratio to the number of specimens that naturalists have had for
examination is readily explained. The incidental revision of the genera
and species embraced in the present paper is based on these recent
developments.

4 BULLETIN OF THE

The greatest number of species recognized by any writer during the
last live years is fifteen ; but they have now been reduced, by general
consent, to ten or eleven. These have been placed by Dr. Gray, in his
later papers, in ten genera. In the present enumeration six species *
are regarded as fully established, and two or three other species f are
given as doubtful. All are referred to five genera. \

One of the most singular facts connected with the history of these
animals is that they should have so long remained among the species
least known to naturalists, when their commercial importance is such
that their capture has given employment to thousauds of men and mil-
lions of capital for more than a century.

For many years, as is well known, hundreds of thousands of the
skins of the Falkland Island fur seal, and hundreds of tons of the oil
of other species, annually reached England ; yet specimens of either
the fur seals, or of any of the other species that naturalists were able
to obtain, were exceedingly few and imperfect. Add to this the fact
that, in many cases, the localities whence these fragmentary and iso-
lated specimens were received were frequently wholly unknown or but
vaguely surmised, and we can well understand how it happened that
only till within the last decade have naturalists been able to decide with
certainty as to which of the species on their catalogues were to be refer-
red the various fur seals of commerce.

I. Resume of Recent Contribute 'ons to the Natural History of the

Otariad^e.

A brief statement of the present state of our knowledge of the Ota-
riadce seems to be demanded in the present connection, inasmuch as
since the publication of the last general synopsis of the subject our
knowledge of the group has greatly increased, without the new facts
having been given in a single summary. As a resume of the contri-
butions to the literature concerning this group of animals which have
appeared during the last two decades would necessarily give such a
statement, and also at the same time a connected history of the recent
changes in their nomenclature and classification, a synopsis of the

* Eumeiopias Stelleri, Zahphus GiUespii, Z. cinereus (= lobaluo, Auct.), Otctria jubata,
CM » himis ursii}us, Anii-< ephalus falklandicus.
t Phvcarctos Hookeri, Arctocephalm au&tralis, A, antarcticus.
I Eumetopias, Zahphus, Otaria, Cnllorhinvs, Arctocejihalus.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 5

principal recent papers relating to the subject is accordingly here in-
troduced. For references to earlier papers the reader is referred to
the works cited in Dr. J. E. Gray's British Museum Catalogues of the
Seals and Professor W. Peters's elaborate essay on these animals pub-
lished in the Monatsberichte of the Berlin Academy for 18GG.

The present notice of the literature of the Otariadce begins with
Dr. Gray's " Catalogue of the Seals in the British Museum," pub-
lished in '1850, in which valuable work two genera (Arctocephalus and
Otaria) and eight species* are recognized. The next paper requiring
mention is that of Dr. McBain.f describing, in 1858, a new species
{Otaria Gillespii) from a skull from the Gulf of California. A fe^
months later Dr. Gray published some important notes relative to
the Northern sea bear (Arctocephalus ursinus Auct.).:j: based on a skin
and skull of an adult male from Behring's Straits, received at the
British Museum by way of Amsterdam and St. Petersburg, under the
name of Otaria leonina. This paper is accompanied by an excellent
profile figure of the skull, which seems to be the only figure of the skull
of this species that has been hitherto published.

Two weeks later Dr. Gray communicated to the Zoological Society
another paper on the Eared Seals, § in which the fur seal of the Cape
of Good Hope was described anew from a specimen received by him
from Paris, and of which he published a view in profile of the skull.
He appends to this paper a synopsis of the genus Arctocephalus, in
which he divides it into three unnamed sections, based on characters
drawn from the skull. Short diagnoses are also given of the species,
which he groups as follows : —

"I. Arctocephalus ursinus; TT. A. Hookcri ; HI. A. Delalandii,
A. nigrescens, A. lobatus, A. Gillespii." He also gives a profile fig-
ure || of a ca^t of the skull described by Dr. McBain as Otaria Gil-
lespii.

Some months later the same indefatigable author published a paper

* The<e are Arctocephalus ursinus, A. falklandicus, A cinereus,. A. lobatus, A. austra-
lis, A. Hookeri, Otaria S'elleri, and 0. leonina.

f Proe. Edinburgh Royal Phys. Soc., Vol. I, p. 422.

| " On the Sea Bear of Forster, the Uisus marinu* of Steller, Arctocephalus ursinus of
authors," Proe. London Zoid. Soc., 1859, pp 101, 100, PI. Ixviii.

§ '• < >n the Eared Seal of the Cape of Good Hope ( Otaria Delalandii)," Ibid , pp.
107-110, PI. lxix.

II Ibid., PI. lxx.

6 BULLETIN OF THE

on the Sea Lion? of the Coast of California,* with a profile figure of an
adult male skull of what he supposed to he a new species {Arctocepha-
lus monteriensis), hut which proved to he identical with the Otaria
Stefan of authors, as first suggested hy Dr. Gill. Another young skull
was described and doubtfully referred to the same species, as was also
the skin of a fur seal. The latter, however, is undoubtedly identical with
the Northern fur seal (CaUorhinus ursiuus). In this paper he gives a
new classification of the eared seals, in which he properly raised the first
of the sections of his genus Arctocephalus, which he had previously in-
stituted, to the rank of a genus {Callorhinus) . The second and third
sections he seems to have reunited, for which he retained the name of
Arctocephalus. His genus Arctocephalus, as now restricted, he again
divided into four unnamed .sections. A valuable table of comparative
measurements of the skulls of eight species is appended.

Seven years from the date last given (1859) carries us to the ap-
pearance of Dr. Gray's " Catalogue of the Seals and Whales," f pub-
lished in 18GG, during which interval little or nothing of importance
was published relating to the group in question. In this Catalogue all
the species of his "Catalogue of Seals" of 1850 are retained; the
synonymy is brought up to date, and the species he and others had
described since the appearance of that Catalogue are added. These are
the Otaria GlUespii McBain (= Zalophus Gillespii Gill, the Arcfo-
cepkalus monteriensis Gray (= Eumetopias Stelleri Peters), and the
Arctocephalus Californianus Gray (= CaUorkinus ursiuus, in part or
wholly), making the whole number of species thirteen. Only one of
the three species supposed to he new, however, proved to be so.

The specific nomenclature is not changed from that adopted in his
previous paper, so far as the species mentioned in that paper are con-
cerned, and the introduction of one generic name is the only change
from the generic nomenclature employed by him in 1850. Another
new classification of the species of the genus Arctocephalus is given, in
which the species are grouped in two primary sections and seven sub-
sections, upon the* arbitrary basis of the differences in the form of the
bony palate. No new material is described, and lint little new matter
added, the Catalogue being essentially a compilation from his previously

* " On the Sea Lions, or Lobos Marinos of the Spaniards, <>n the Coast of California,"
Ibid., p. 557.
f " Catalogue of the Seals and Whales in the British Museum," 1866, pp. 44 -CO.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 7

published papers, generally without any change in the language, and
often embracing important typographical errors. In the Appendix,
however, some interesting notes are added in respect to the manner in
which the eared seals walk, and their attitudes when in a state of re-
pose, he having had the opportunity of observing a living sea lion in
the Cremorne Garden.

Nearly coincident with the appearance of Gray's Catalogue of Seals
and Whales was the publication of a " Prodrome of a Monograph of
the Pinnipeds," by Dr. Theodore Gill,* of Washington. Tins im-
portant paper presents to a great extent a new classification of the Pin-
nipeds, and introduces numerous changes of nomenclature. The wal-
rus, the eared seals, and the earless seals, for the first time for many
years,! are again regarded as forming distinct families, as by Brookes,
to which are applied respectively the names Rosmaridce, Otariadce,
and Phocidce.% The name Otaria, of Peron, is restricted to the South-
ern sea lion (Phoca jubata Schreber) ; Eumetopais is proposed as a
generic name for the Northern sea lion (Leo marinus Steller, = Otaria
califurniana Lesson, — Arctocephalus monteriensis Gray); Zalophus is
proposed as a generic name for the Otaria Gillespii McBain, and
Halarclus for a group for which the Arctocephalus Delalandii is named
as the type ; Arctocephalus F. Cuvier is substituted for the generic
name of Callorhinus, proposed by Gray for the Phoca ursina Linne.
Brief diagnoses of these genera are given, and a species is indicated as
the type of each. A list of the North American species is also added.

While most of the changes introduced by Dr. Gill in his Prodrome
are judicious ones, errors occur in respect to the names of the genera
of the Otariadce. These were speedily pointed out by Dr.Gray§ in a
short critique upon Dr. Gill's paper, in which Dr. Gray calls attention
to the fact that the type of Arctocephalus F. Cuvier was not. as Gill
assumed, Steller's sea bear, as is clearly shown by Cuvier's figure of
the ?kull of his type of Arctocephalus. Hence Gray properly reinstated
his name Callorhinus for the generic name of Steller's Ursus marinus.
He does not state, however, to what F. Cuvier's figure refers, this,

* Proc. Essex Institute. Vol. V, pp. 1-13. March, 1866.
t See my remarks on the synonomy of Otariadce below.
\ Catalogue of Brookes's Anat. and Zool. Museum, p. 36, 1828.

§ " Observations on the ' Prodrome of a Monograph of the Pinnipedes,' by Theodore
Gill," Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist, 3d Series, Vol. XVII, pp. 444-447, June, 1866.

8 BULLETIN OF TUE

as suggested to me by Dr. Gill, being first pointed out by Professor
Peters.* The type of Cuvier's genus Arctoceplmlus being in all prob-
ability the Arctocephalus Delalaudii Gray, Halarctus of Gill, based
on the same type, became, as Gray points out, a synonyme of Arcto-
cephalus.

jSYarly contemporaneously with Gray's above-mentioned critique
appeared an able paper on the Otariadce by Professor W. Peters of
Berlin.f In this essay Professor Peters reviews the whole family, and
describes two species erroneously supposed by him to be new,$ and gave
figures of their skulls. The species are all described as Olarice, but are
arranged under seven named subgenera or sections.|| which appear in the
main to be natural groups. The characters on which these divisions are
based are drawn, not from the skull alone, but from all the available
sources, the length of the ears, and the presence or absence of under-
fur (" Unterwolle ") being for the first time made use of as distinctive
characters in determining the lesser groups ; Gray and Gill in their
classifications having, with slight exceptions, made use of only the
characters furnished by the skull. The specimens of eared seals con-
tained in the Berlin Museum are described with considerable minute-
ness, and the synonymy of all the species quite fully and carefully
presented. Professor Peters agrees with Gray (though at the time of
writing he could not have seen his [Gray's] paper) in referring Hul-
arctos to ArclocepJ«dns and in reinstating CaUorhinus. The names of
all the other genera recognized by both Gill and Gray were adopted by
him for the names of his sections, and to which he added two others
(A)-cfo/j/toca and Pliocarctos). The arrangement of Professor Peters for
the first time separated the hair seals from the fur seals, and to this
extent at least an advancement was made towards a natural classi-
fication. The fur and hair seals differ markedly from each other in

* Monatb. d. k. P. Akad. z. Berlin, 1866, p. 271.

t " [Jber die Ohrenrobben (Seelowen und Seebaren), Otarice, insbesondcre iibcr die
in den Sammlungen zu Berlin befindlichen Arten," Monatsberichte der k. P. Akadamic
y.n Berlin, 1866, pp. 2(51 -281, with three plates.

J Olaria Godeffroyi and 0. Pkilippii.

|| (1.) Otaria, containing 0. jubata. 0. leoninct, 0. Godeffroyi, and O. Byronia; (2.)
Phocarcios, containing 0. Hbokeri and 0 Ulloce ; (3.) Arctocephalus, containing O pusilla,
0. cinerea, and 0. fnUdaitdica ; (A.) CaUorhinus, containing 0 ursina; (5 ) Eumetopins,
containing 0. SlelU ri ; > 6.) Zalophus, containing 0. Gillespii, and 0. lobala ; {'.) Avcto-
phoat, containing 0. Philippii.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 9

numerous other general features, as well as in the pelage, as will be
more fully noticed hereafter. Fourteen species have been recognized,
but three of them (0. leoriina, 0. Byronia, 0. falklandicd) he seems to
have regarded as doubtfully distinct from others. He refers Gray's
Arctocephalus Delalandii to the Phoca pusilla of Schreber, and (with a
query, however) Gray's Arctocephalus nigrescens to the Otaria falk-
landica of Shaw.

In consequence of the publication of these papers of Dr. Gill and
Professor Peters, Dr. Gray was led to a re-examination of the speci-
mens of the Otariadce in the British Museum, and in September of the
same year he published the results of his investigations.* In this
paper he for the first time regards the Otarice as a family (though
several other writers had done so previously), and speaks of certain
features that indicate their superiority to the Phocidce. He adopts an
entirely different generic class'ieatiou from that given by him a few
months before, f both as to the number of genera and their mutual
relations. The seven named sections of Otaria of Peters he admits to
the rank of genera, with the limits ascribed to them by Peters. He
adds also one " new genus " (DFeophoca), based on his Arctocephalus
lobatus, which species Peters had referred to Gill's genus Zalophus.
Gray had now eight genera and three subgenera.! Only ten species
being recognized by him as valid, he has now but a single species to
each of his generic and subgeneric subdivisions. Although the paper
is a somewhat important one, containing as it does many valuable sug-
gestions, no really new matter is described in it.

Another paper on the Eared Seals by Peters § immediately followed
this one of Gray. In the few months intervening since the publication
of his previous e-say on this subject, Professor Peters had visited Eng-
land and Holland, and examined the specimens contained in the prin-
cipal museums of these countries, including among them the specimens
in the Leyden Museum described and figured in the Fauna Japonica,

* " Notes on the Skulls of the Sea Bears and Sea Lions (Otnrindce) in the British
Museum," Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 3d Series, Vol. XVIII. pp. 228 -237, September
1866.

f In his Catalogue of Seals and Whales.

\ Arctocephalus is divided into Arctocephalus, containing A. Delalandii; Euotaria, con.
taining A. nigrescens ; and Gypsopkoca, containing A. cinereus.

§ A supplement to his previous " Abhandlungen iiber die Ohrenrobben, Olariiv.^
Monatsb. d. k. I'. Akad. z. Berlin, 1866, pp. 665-672, November, 1866.
VOL. II. 2

10 BULLETIN OF THE

and those in the British Museum described and figured by Dr. Gray. A
skull of Tschudi's Otaria Ullvce is figured, and many interesting facts
are given respecting several of the species described by him in his pre-
vious paper. A list of the species is added, and while all of those
given by him a few months before are included in the enumeration, they
are numbered in such a way as to indicate that his estimate of them
had somewhat changed. The whole number is ten, but under No. 1
he has " Nos. 1 a," " 1 b," and " 1 c," and under Xo. 9, " No. 9 a."*
One is left somewhat in doubt, however, as to whether he regarded
these species as synonymous respectively with Nos. 1 and 9, or as sub-
species. Gray's Arctocephalus uigrcscens is now positively (previously
with a query) referred to 0. falklandica Shaw, to which species also his
own 0. Philippii is seemingly referred. Instead of dropping altogether
his subgenus Arctophoca, based at first solely on his 0. Philippii,
which he now appears to regard as a nominal species, he transfers
his 0. falklandica from Arctocephalus to Arctophoca. The Otaria
Stellcri of Schlegel is in this paper referred to 0. Gillcspii of McBain,
instead of in part to the 0. cinerea of Peron, and in part to the
Arctocephalus hiatus of Gray, as both he and Gray had previously re-
ferred it. In addition to the determination of the character of Schlegel's
0. Stelleri, the most important thing decided by this paper is the exact
character of Tschudi's 0. Ulloce, of which Peters was able to figure
and describe original specimens.

In addition to the above-mentioned five papers published in 1866, —
an important year in the history of the literature of the Otariadee, —
Dr. Sclater states, in the Proceedings of the Zoological Society of the
same year,f that a "young living male sea bear (Otaria Hookeri),
captured mar Cape Horn, in June, 1862, by a French sailor named
Lecomte, had been added to the society's menagerie. This animal
had been exhibited by its captor in Buenos Ayres, and in various
parts of France and England, and is the one doubtless referred to by
Cray in the Appendix to his Catalogue of Seals and Whales.

At about the same time Dr. Burmeister t also gives a description

* 0. jubata ox Forster and Blainville is given as " Xo. 1 " ; 0. Byronia Blainv., as
•■ No. la"; 0. leonina F. Cuv. as " No 1 b," and 0. Godeffroyi Peters, as " No. 1 c"j
" No. 9 " is 0. falklandica Shaw, while his 0. Philipjni forms his " No. 9 a."

t Proceedings London Zool. Society, 1866, p. 80, January, 1S66.

t Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 3d Series, Vol. XVIII, p. 99, PI. ix, February, 1866.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 11

and figure of a young skull of Arctocephalus falklandicus, and some
interesting facts in respect to the distribution of the eared seals on
the east coast of South America, where he says but two species
exist. Under the improper name of A. falklandicus, he also refers
to the specimen captured and exhibited by Lecomte. One is led by
Burmeister's remarks to infer that he believed this specimen (and an-
other which did not live to reach Europe) was captured in the Rio de
la Plata. Later the death of this " sea bear " is announced in the Pro-
ceedings of the Zoological Society, and Dr. James Murie * reports the
results of his investigations as to the cause of its decease.

The next paper of moment on the Eared Seals appeared in February,
1868, and is entitled '"Observations on Sea Bears (Otariadce), and
especially on the Fur Seals and Hair Seals of the Falkland Islands
and South America."! In this paper Dr. Gray refers briefly to the two
papers of Professor Peters, and very properly remarks, as it seems to
me, that Peters in his first essay "formed no less than five species
from the skulls of the Southern sea lion (Otaria jubata), — 0. jubata,
0. Byronia, 0. leonina, 0. Godeffroyi, and 0. Ulloa" lie reviews at
some length the complicated synonomy of the Falkland Island eared
seals, and raises his subgenera of Euotaria and Arctocephalus (pre-
viously mentioned) to the rank of genera, and redescribes the Falkland
Island and South American species. These are, (1) the Arctocephalus
falklandicus Gray ex Shaw, (2) the Euotaria nigresceus Gray, and
(3) P/tocarctos Hookeri Gray. Dr. Gray contends that Peters's O.falk-
landica is not the O.falklandica of Shaw, but that it is the same as
his Arctocephalus (or Euotaria) nigrescens. The Arctocephalus falk-
landicus of BurmeisterJ he, as it seems to me, erroneously referred
to his Phocarcfos Hookeri, doubtless from Dr. Burmei>ter having re-
ferred Lecomte's specimen of the ;' sea bear " already mentioned,
which was really the 0. jubata, to the " 0. faUclandica." The de-
scription of the ^kin by Dr. Burmeister, in Profes-or Peters's second
essay,§ shows the animal to have been a. fur seal, the P. Hookeri being
a hair seal.

The young male sea lion (or sea bear, as it was also called), which

* Proceedings London Zool. Society, 1S67, p. 213.

t Ann. and Mag. Nut Hi-t., 4th Series, Vol. I pp. 99-110, February, 1 56 ,

J Ibid., 3d Series. Vol. XVIII, p. 99, February, | -

§ Monatsb. d. k. P. Akad. d. Wi;senseh, z. Berlin, 1866, p. 670.

12 BULLETIN OF THE

lived for a time in the Zoological Garden, and which was figured by
Dr. Sclater as O. Hoolceri* he says is identical with the O.jubuta, —
an opinion subsequently shared by Dr. Sclater himself, t

A few weeks later Dr. Gray published another p«per, on the Ota-
riadce, entitled "Observations on the Fur Seals of the Antarctic Seas
and the Cape of Good Hope, with Description of a ne\f Species"; J
he having in the mean time received additional material. In this
paper he remarks still further concerning the complicated synonomy
of the Falkland Island fur seals, and respecting the habitat of the
specimens of Weddell, described by Mr. R. Hamilton, § and the dif-
ferences between these species and his A. cinereus of Australia and
the fur seals of the Cape of Good Hope. He also describes what he
regards as a new species, from two skins from the Cape of Good Hope,
which species he calls Arctocephalus nivosus. These skins differ from
those of his A. Delalandii, he says, in being so nearly destitute of
under-fur, except just on the crown of the head, that he was convinced
they could not be dressed as fur seals. ||

In "The [Cambridge, Eng.] Journal of Anatomy and Physiology "
for November, 1868,1" Dr. McBain describes an imperfect skull of a
female Otaria jubata from the Chincha Islands, which he calls "(9. Ul-
loce?" suggesting for it, however, the name 0. Graii, in case it should
prove to be new. In the same number of this journal Professor
Turner** describes, as that of a new species (Arctocephalus schisthy-
joeroes ft )< a skull with a peculiar conformation of the palatine bones,
from Desolation Island, which Dr. Gray examined later and referred
to his Euotaria nigrescens.

In the Monatsbericht of the Berlin Academy for March of the same

* Proc. Loud. Zobl Soc, 1866, p. 80.

t Ibid., 1868, p. 190, loot-note, March, 1868.

J Ann and Mag. Nat, Hist, 4th Series, Vol. I, pp. 215-210, March, 1868.

4 Ibid., Vol II, p. 81, PI. iv. 1838.

|| In this paper Gray repeat- a misstatement made by him in his last paper preceding
this, viz. that the Eumetopias Stelleri, a true hair seal, is one of the few eared seals that
"have a close, soft, elastic fur." See further remarks on this point beyond under E.
Stelleri.

\ Vol. Ill, p. 109-112.

i ■• [bid., p. 113-117.

ft In the •• Zoological Record" for 1863 Dr. Gunfher changes this name to scMsluperus.
McBain's "0. Ulloce'i" he regards us a new species, for which he proposes the name
of Arctocephalus Graii.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 13

year a letter from Dr. Burmeister to Professor Peters * is published
concerning the eared seals of the coast of the La Plata States. In this
letter Dr. Burmeister restates his opinion | that only two species of
these animals exist on the east coast of South America, one of which he
regards as the Olaria leonina, and the other as the Otaria falklandica of
Peters's first essay. Of the first of these he had examined a number of
specimens, which he describes somewhat in detail, and remarks espe-
cially upon the great variations presented by different specimens in con-
sequence of differences in age, and also upon the great amount of purely
individual variation they present.. He is consequently led to believe
that the species described by Professor Peters in his first essay as 0.
jubata, 0. Byronia, 0. leonina, and 0. Godeffroyi, form but a single spe-
cies. These several nominal species he regards as based merely upon
individual differences, and liot constituting even " permanent races or
varieties." In the statement of this opinion he was anticipated by Dr.
Gray, who, as previously stated, one month earlier referred not only
these, but also the 0. Ulloce of Peters, to the 0. jubata. To the
Otaria falklandica of Shaw Dr. Burmeister also refers the 0. nigre-
scens Gray and the 0. Philippii Peters, as it seems to me with evident
propriety. This short article contains highly important information
respecting the South American eared seals. $

In the following month Captain C. C. Abbott § communicated to the
London Zoological Society some interesting notes on the haunts, habits,
and external features of Otaria jubata and Arctocephalus falklandicus,
Among other things, he remarks that, in the hundreds of skins of the
former (0. jubata) lie had seen, he " never saw on any of them any-
thing approaching fur." Captain Abbott's notes are the more valuable
from the fact that he has deposited skulls of both these species in the

* Monatsb. d. k. P. Akad. Wissensch. z Berlin, 1S68, pp. 180-1S2. The same ac-
count is substantially given in the Anal. Mus. Buen. Ayr. 1S68, p. 303; Act. Soc.
Paleont., p. xxxix, and Zeitschr. ges. Naturw., XXXI, pp. 294-301.

t See Ann. and Mag. Nut. Ili-t., 3d Series, Vol. XVIH, p. 99, 1866.

I It is perhaps but proper to state in this connection that the specimens referred to by
Dr. Burmeister in the above-mentioned paper were collected by Dr. G. A. Maack at Cabo
Corricntes, near the southern extremity of Buenos Ayres (lat. 38° S.) They are the
specimens referred to by Dr. Maack in his paper in " Der Zoologische Garten" (Jan.
1870), and in his notes to the present paper.

§ " On the Seals of the Falkland Islands," by Captain C. C. Abbott. Communicated,
with notes by P. L. Sclater, M. D., etc., Proc. Lond. Zobl. Soc. 1868, pp. 189-182, March,
1868.

14 BULLETIN OF THE

British Museum, so that it is well known to which species his re-
marks refer. In a note to this paper Dr. Sclater observes : " I agree
with Dr. Peters * in thinking it best to retain the name jubata for
the Southern species, and to call the Northern one Stelleri. I con-
sider O. leonina Cuv. to be probably the same as 0. jubata, as appears
to be admitted by Dr. Peters in his last paper." f Dr. Sclater states
that he was mistaken in referring the living specimen brought by Le-
comte to the 0. Hookeri, and agrees with Peters \ and Gray in re-
garding it as 0. jubata.

At the first session of the Zoological Society of London, held in No-
vember, 18G<S, Dr. Sclater § announced that a young female sea lion
{Otaria jubata), from the Falkland Islands, had been received during
the preceding August at the society's menagerie. ''This individual," he
says, " was the only survivor of eight examples of this animal captured
in various spots on the coast of the Falklands by Adolphe Alexandre
Lecomte, || the society's keeper, who had been sent out there by the
council of the society for the purpose of obtaining living specimens of
it." The different localities at which M. Lecomte met with this species
are mentioned in this communication, from which it appears that both
this animal and "the fur seal of the Falklands (Otaria falUandica)"
are far less numerous than formerly. The latter species was observed
in considerable numbers at the Volunteer Rocks.

M. Lecomte also brought home a considerable number of skins and
skeletons of the sea lion, concerning which Dr. James Muriel! soon
published an exceedingly interesting communication. Lecomte's collec-
tion consisted of parts of fifteen individuals of the Otaria jubata, and of
one of the Arctocephalus nigrescens Gray. The latter species, however,
was represented by merely the "pectoral extremities" of an adult fe-
male ; the.- former by the skull and skin of an "adult male,"** the skins
and skeletons — the latter nearly complete — of four adult females, the

* Monatsb. Berl. Ak. 1866, p. 670.

t Ibid., p. 670. \ Ibid., 666.

§ Proc. Lond. Zool. Soc, 1868, p. 627.

|| Francois Lecomte, according to Dr. Murie. (Sec next foot-note.)

H " Report on the Eared Seals, collected by the Society's Keeper, Francois Lecomte,
in the Falkland Islands," by James Murie, M. I)., etc., Proc. Lond. Zool. Soc, Jan.
1869, pp. 100- 109, PI. vii, and two woodcuts.

** This specimen, according to Dr. Marie's measurements, was but little larger
than the so-called adult female", and hence cannot have been adult. Respecting the

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 15

skin and partial skeleton of a young male, skins of two very young
males,* skins of two young females, together with a partial skeleton
of one of them, and five aged male skulls. The skins were pre-
served in salt, but the pelage of none of them was in perfect condition.
The color of these skins is described in detail, and a few measure-
ments are given of both the skins and skulls. The skulls are described
only in general terms. The skull of a half-grown male is figured, as
is also another skull of an adult female. Three figures of the animal
(young male, adult female and young), showing its peculiar attitudes,
also accompany the report. While the paper conveys highly important
information in respect to these specimens, it is to be hoped that a far
more detailed account of them will yet be given. Dr. Marie's paper
also embraces valuable observations concerning the habits of these
species, derived from M. Lecomte, who resided several months on the
islands among them.

Dr. Murie remarks that he cannot agree with Dr. Gray, " that Dr.
Peters's figured skull of Otaria Philippii is most nearly allied to 0.
Stelleri from California, inasmuch," he continues, "as I consider it noth-
ing less than 0. Hookeri " ; both of these gentlemen evidently overlooked
the fact that Dr. Peters states expressly that the 0. Philippii has a
thick under-fur ("die dichte Unterwolle ist rostroth "), whereas both
the 0. Stelleri and the 0. Hookeri are true hair seals. On the other
hand, Dr. Murie says he unhesitatingly supports Dr. Gray in his criti-
cism of Dr. Peters as regards the species of sea lions termed respec-
tively 0. Byronia, ' 0. leonina, 0. Godeffroyi, and 0. Ulloce, as," he
adds, " I am perfectly convinced they are but differently aged specimens
of Forster's jubata." Dr. Murie further observes, and it seems to me
justly, that the Arctocephalus nivosus Gray is " only a variety, seasonal,
sexual, or of a different age" of a previously known species.

In October, 18G9, Dr. Gray published some " Additional Notes on
Sea Bears (Otariadce)" f based mainly on an examination of three
skulls from Desolation Island, and one from the Cape of Good Hope,
which had recently been sent him by Professor Turner of Edinburgh.

comparative size of the sexes, see Captain C. C. Abbott's notes (Proc. Zool. Soc, 1868,
p. 190) and Dr. Maack's remarks beyond. Also Burmeister's in the Monatsb. Akad. z.
Berlin, 1868, p. 181; and D'Orbigny's in his Voyage dans l'Amdrique Meridionale,
Tome II, p. 140, 1839.

* About three months old, according to Sclater (Proc. Zool. Soc, 1868, p. 628).

t Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 4th Series, Vol. IV, pp. 264-270.

16 BULLETIN OF THE

The skull from the Cape of Good Hope is (he one on which Professor
Turner* had founded his Arctocephalus schisthyperoes. This skull Dr.
Gray is induced to helieve is that of a half-grown Arctocephalus Dela-
landii, presenting an individual abnormality in the form of the palatine
bones. The three skulls from Desolation Island he refers to his Euotaria
nigrcscens. In his remarks respecting them he speaks of certain differ-
ences he had observed in the relative position of the hinder grinders in
the Desolation Island skulls, and also in the form of the posterior nares.
In this connection he also compares Euotaria nigrcscens with Arcto-
cephalus Dclalandii, and says that the last upper molar teeth being
" placed in front of the hinder edge of the front part of the zygomatic
arch" in the former is, so far as the skull is concerned (on which his
distinction of his groups is mainly based), all that distinguishes them.
This difference, he says, is slight in the adult, but more marked in the
young ; but '• even then," he adds, " the difference is more imaginary than
real." We should hardly expect, after this admission, and his apparently
appreciative remarks in the same paper on the notable differences he
had observed in skulls he regards as specifically identical, that in his
subjoined new synopsis of the "tribes and genera" of the Otariadfe he
should place, as he has done, these two species in different genera!
He remarks that he does not now regard the " form of the hinder
opening of the nostrils, and the form of its front edge," a< constituting
"a good character." The position of the grinders he regards as afford-
ing reliable specific characters during youth, but that in maturity their
form is so much altered by age, "and their position in different spe-
cies so similar, that the distinction of the species becomes more diffi-
cult." He finally briefly recapitulates the principal distinctive family
characters of the Otariadce, and concludes the paper with a synopsis
of its " genera and tribes." He having previously established as
many genera as there are commonly recognized specie-,f no new genera
could well be added. It is, nevertheless, a radically new classification,
and one as arbitrary a could well be devised. The family is first
divided into two primary groups, termed ''sections." The first section
embraces a single "tribe," called Otariina, containing the single species
Otaria jubata of the east and west coast of Southern South America.

* See anten, p. 12.

t See his papers on the Eared Seals in the Ann. and Mag. Nat Hist, for 18G0 and
1868.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 17

The other section is divided into four " tribes," which are named respec-
tively, (1) Callorhinina, (2) Arclocephalina, (3) Zalopliina, and (4)
Eumetopiina. The first embraces the single genus Gallorhinus ; the
second, Phocarctos, Arctocephalus, Euotaria, and Gypsophoca ; the third,
Zalophus and Neophoca ; the fourth, Eumetopias and Arctophoca, — ten
genera in all. The short generic diagnoses given are drawn almost
entirely from two exceedingly variable features of the skull, namely, the
form and relative length of the palatal bones and the form and position
of the teeth. The geographical distribution of the supposed genera is also
indicated, in which the habitat of Zalophus is given as " South America,"
whereas it was founded solely on the Olaria Glllespii McBain of the
North Pacific. Three alleged species are mentioned whose skulls, he
says, are not known. These are, (1) Arctocephalus falklandicus, habitat,
"New Georgia"; (2) A. nivosus, habitat, " Cape of Good Hope"; (3)
" A. Forsteri Fischer " habitat, " New Zealand." The character of the
latter I cannot satisfactorily determine. I have never seen an " Arcto-
cephalus Forsteri Fischer " elsewhere mentioned ; the Otaria Fischeri
Lesson and the Phoca Forsteri Fischer* have usually been referred to
the A. falklandicus. Gray's A. Forsteri seems to be based, judging
from his references, exclusively on the "sea bear" of Dr. J. R. Fors-
ter.f whose habitat was the Cape of Good Hope, as Gray in another
place specially states. But this species Gray in this paper regards
as the same as the Phoca antarctica Thunberg % and Fischer, § which,
he says, is the same as what he had called Arctocephalus Delalandii,
the name of which species he now consequently changes to A. antarc-
ticus. Although Forster regarded the New Zealand fur seal as the
same as the one he saw at the Cape of Good Hope, Gray's A.
Forsteri seems to refer, from the habitat given, only to the New
Zealand animal. I can see no evidence, however, of the New Zealand
fur seal being specifically different from the fur seal of South Australia
{A. cinereus auct.).

In this paper the dental formula of the eared seals is, for the first
time correctly given by the author. ||

* Synop. Mam., p. 232.

t Cook's Voyages, Vol. I, p. 174 ; Vol. II, p. 528.

| Mem. de l'Acad. de St. Petersbourg, 3d Series, Tome III, p. 322, 1811.
§ Synop. Mam., p. 242.

|| For more than fifteen years, through some strange inadvertence, the dental
formula of the molars of the eared seals was given in Dr. Gray's papers as " | — 4."
VOL. II. 2

18 BULLETIN OF THE

In " Der Zoologische Garten " for January, 1870,+ Dr. G. A. Maack
describes bis excursion to the Cabo Corrientes on the southern coast
of Buenos Ayres (lat. 38° S.) for the purpose of obtaining specimens
of the eared seals, and his difficulties in capturing them. He states
that he met with both species {Arctocephalus falklandicus and Otaria
jubata = 0. leonina Maack) there, of both of which he secured exam-
ples. As these specimens had been previously described by Dr. Bur-
meister (1. c), Dr. Maack's observations are mainly concerning the
habits of the animals and the character of the locality. A figure of
the O.jubata is also given, but through some mistake of the artist the
limbs are improperly represented. The remarkable form of the nose,
Dr. Maack informs me, correctly represents the specimen from which
the figure was made. It differs greatly, however, in this respect from
any other eared seal that has been figured or described, and may repre-
sent but an individual or abnormal variation.

In Mr. W. H. Dall's important work on Alaska f may be found
valuable notes on the fur and other eared seals of the North Pacific,
with a figure of the Callorhinus ursinus drawn from nature by Mr. Dall.

In addition to the above-mentioned scientific papers, other interest-
ing articles of a popular character have recently appeared, but some of
the statements given in them are evidently not wholly reliable.}.

In addition to the preceding summary of the more important of the
recent contributions to our knowledge of the eared seals, the reader is

This mistake occurs in three consecutive synopses of the group (Cat. of Seals in Brit.
Mus ., 1850; Cat. Seals and Whales in Brit. Mus., 1866; Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 3d
Series, XVIII, 1866, — in the last case corrected, however, in the general list of errata
appended to the volume), and twice in each synopsis (in the diagnosis of this group,
called by him Arclocephalina, and in that of the genus Arctocepknlus). The correct
formula of the molars is, of course, | — « for a part of the species, and $ = ■£ for
the others. In the diagnosis of Arctocephalus given in the " Catalogue of Seals and
Whales " (p. 47), the molars are stated to be <; | — 8 " ; the nlolars of thefrst, third,
and seventh species described under this genus are really, however, | — |, and in the
others fi — «

t Vol. XI, pp. 1 - 8.

t Alaska and its Resources, Boston, June, 1870.

X One of the more important ones relative to the North Pacific species is a recent
article in the "Old and New" Magazine (Vol. I, pp. 487-493, April, 1870), by Mr.
0. Howes, Jr. In •Hutchin's "Scenes of Wonder and Curiosity in California" (p.
187, figs. 1 and 2) are also a few interesting notes on the sea lions of the Farallone
Islands. They contain, however, exaggerated statements, especially in respect to their
size.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 19

referred to three recent systematic synopses of the family for an expres-
sion of the later opinions relative to the genera and higher groups of
the three eminent zoologists who, within the last four years, have pub-
lished special classifications of these animals, as no tabulated summary
will properly represent them. These are Dr. Gill's " Prodrome," *
Professor Peters's revision f of the genera and species, published in
186G, and Dr. Gray's synopsis \ of the " tribes and genera," published
in 1869.

2. On the Affinities, Distinctive Characters, and Synonymy of the
Family OtariaDjE, with Remarks on Sexual, Aye, and Individual
Variation, and a Conspectus of the Genera and Sjjecies, etc.

Family OTARIAD^l Brookes.

Phocacea auriculata Peron, Voy. Terr, austr., II, 37, 1816.

Otariada Brookes, Cat. Anat. and Zool. Mus., 36, 1828.

" Otaride's Gervais, Hist. Nat. des Marnmiferes, II, 305."

Otariidce Gill, Proc. Essex Institute, V, 7, 1866.

Otariada Gray, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 3d Ser., XVIII, 228, 1866.

Otariina Gray, Ann. of Phil., 1825.

Arctocephalina Gray, Charlesworth's Mag. Nat. Hist., I, 583, 1837.

" Turner, Proc. Lond. Zool. Soc., 1848, 88; Ann. and

Mag. Nat. Hist., 1st Ser., Ill, 422, 1848.
Otaria Peron, Voy. Terr, austr., II, 37, 1816.

" Peters, Monatsb. Akad. Berlin, 1866, 261, 665.

Distinctive Characters. — Body less attenuated than in the majority of
the Phocidm ; more attenuated than in the Rosmarida>. Fore limbs fin-
like, situated very far back. Hind limbs comparatively free ; hind feet
directed forward when the animal is at rest, and serviceable for terres-
trial locomotion. The digits terminate in long cartilaginous flaps, con-
nected at the base by membranes. Bones of the upper and fore-arm
and corresponding bones of the leg very short, exceedingly stout and
heavy. The digits of the hand successively decrease in length from the
first ; without nails, or with extremely rudimentary ones, situated at a
distance from the edge of the hand. Outer digits of the hind limbs
longer than the middle ones ; the latter sub-equal, and provided with well-
developed nails ; the outer digits without nails or with very rudimentary
ones, and much shorter and thicker than the inner digits. Pubic bones

* Proc. Essex Institute, Vol. V, pp. 7, 10, 11.

t Monatsb. d. k. P. Akad. z. Berlin, 1866, p. 670.

t Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 4th Series, Vol. IV, p. 269.

20 BULLETIN OF THE

not anchylosed, and in the female considerably separated. Acetabula
opposite the posterior end of the second sacral vertebra. Ears provided
with a sub-cylindrical external conch. The skull has a well-developed
orbital process and an alisphcnoid canal ; the mastoid process is strong
and salient, distinct from the auditory bulla, -which is much smaller than
in the Phocidce. Molars either | ~ § or f ~ f ; canines, ^ ^; incisors,
f = | 5 whole number of teeth, fzzf = i|=:34, or J^ — J^=fg==36.
Testes scrotal, situated as in the Suidce.

Rank and Affinities. ■*- The seals were all referred by the earlier
writers to the Linnasan genus Phoca. Buffon was the first naturalist
who recognized the division of the seals made by seamen into eared
seals and earless seals, accordingly as they possessed or were devoid of
external ears. Later Peron,* in 1816, regarded these two groups as
genera, and gave to the eared seals the name of Otaria, leaving the
earless seals in Phoca. Finally these two groups were regarded by
Brookes,f in 1828, as constituting two families, the walrus, in his
system, forming a third.

These groups have been generally recognized as natural, but their
rank has been variously estimated by different authors. Turner {
regarded the eared seals, the earless seals, and the walrus as to-
gether constituting a single family, which he divided into three sub-
families, — Arctocephalina, embracing Otaria and Arctocephalus ;
Trichecina, embracing only the walrus; and Phocina, embracing all
the earless seals. Pie observes, however, in referring to the classifica-
tion of the Pinnipedia made by Gray in 1837, § that if the sub-families
of the Phocina, proposed by that author, be entitled to that rank,
" the walrus and the Arctocephaline group, which differ so decidedly
from the other seals, would almost seem entitled to the rank of families."

All writers, except Brookes and Gervais, previous to 18GG, seem to
have regarded these three groups as constituting a single family. Gill,
however, in his Prodrome, || considered them as distinct families, which
view has since been adopted by Gray.H

* Voy. Terr, aust., Vol. II, p. 37, 1816
t Cat. of his Anatom. and Zoiil. Mas., p 36, 1828.
J Proc. London Zool. Soc, p. 88, 1848.
§ Charlesworth's Mag. Nat. Hist., Vol. I, p. 583.

|| " Prodrome of a Monograph of the Pinnipedes," Proc. Essex Institute, Vol. V,
p. 7, .Inly, 1866.

T Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 3d Ser., Vol. XVIII, p. 229, 1866.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 21

Believing that they have a higher than a sub-family value, I adopt
for the present the classification elaborated by Dr. Gill in his Pro-
drome, which is, it seems to me, the most natural arrangement of the
Pinnipedes that has been proposed. Gill's arrangement places the
Otariadce between the Phocidce and the Rosmaridce. No serial ar-
rangement of these groups can, I think, fully express their relative
rank and mutual affinities. The Otariadce are evidently the highest,
though they seem intermediate in general features between the earless
seals and the walruses. Their affinities, as they appear to me, may
be indicated as follows : —

Otariadce.
Rosmaridce.

Phocidce.

While the Rosmaridce are lower than the Otariadce, and the Phocidce
are still lower than the Rosmaridce, the latter evidently do not con-
nect the other two groups.

The evidence of the superiority of the Otariadce over the Phocidce
consists mainly in that modification of their general structure, and es-
pecially of the pelvis and posterior extremities, by means of which they
have freer use of their limbs, and are able to move on land witli
considerable rapidity; the Phocidce, on the other hand, move with
great difficulty when out of the water. But the higher rank of the
former is also indicated by their semi-terrestrial habits, the scrotal po-
sition of the testes, and in the nearer approach in general features
to the terrestrial Carnivores, especially in the more posterior position
of the acetabula. Most of these modifications are, however, nearly
equally shared by the Rosmaridce, indicating likewise that their true
station is above that of the majority of the Phocidce.

Primary Subdivisions. — The members of the Otariadce form among
themselves a closely connected group, as well as a well-defined one.
But in general form, in size, in color and in the character of the pelage,
two tolerably distinct divisions of the Otariadce may be recognized,
which in a general way correspond with the sea bears* and sea lions
of seamen, and the fur seals and hair seals of commerce. F. Cu-
vierj was the first naturalist who recognized these divisions, he regard-

* The term sea bear, however, has been sometimes applied indiscriminately to

fur and hair seals, and even to the same animal by the same person, as in the case of
the first living specimen of Otarla jabata, exhibited in England.
t Mem. du Mus., Tome XI, p. 205 tt seq., 1824.

22 BULLETIN OF THE

ing them as constituting two genera. To the first of these genera, em-
bracing the sea bears, founded in fact on one of the Southern ?ea bears,
(? Ar otocephalus Delalandi Gray), he gave the name of Arctocephulus,
and to the other, founded on the Southern sea lion (Otaria jubata
Blainville), that of Platyrhynchus. These names indicate to some ex-
tent the differences seen in the general form of the head, in the
two groups. In the first, or sea bears, the muzzle is narrow and
pointed ; in the other it is broad, and the aspect is more leonine. The
name Platyrhynchus, however, is antedated by that of Otaria of Peron.
Besides these differences in the shape of the head, the form of the
body in the Arctocephaline species is more slender than in those of the
other group. The hind feet, especially, are longer and slenderer,
with relatively longer swimming-flaps at the end of the toes. Their
size is smaller, and they differ in general color. The Arctocephaline
species are also all provided with a dense, soft, thick under-fur, while
the others are either entirely without under-fur, or possess it in too
small a quantity to render the skins of any commercial value as furs.*
These two groups are as well defined as the several sub-families of the
Phocidce, and are co-ordinate with them. If the Otariadce constitute a
group entitled to family rank, — and the so-called sub-families of the
Phocidce have truly a sub-family value, — the Otariadce must be con-
sidered as divisible into two sub-family groups, of which the hair seals
constitute one and the fur seals the other.

In respect to what names should be used for their designation, none
seem in themselves more appropriate than those derived from the
names of the leading genera of these groups, Otariince for the hair
seals and Arctocephalince for the fur seals. These names, however,
in a slightly altered form (Otariina and Arctocephalina), have been
used on different occasions in widely different senses, especially by
Gray ; the first for the whole group of eared seals, and afterwards the
other in precisely the same sense. Later, both were again used simul-

* I am aware of the alleged exceptions in the Otarys of Australia : the Zalqphtu
lobatus Peters, a true hair seal, having, it is said, considerable under-fur when young.
This is probably the case, to a greater or less extent, with the young of all the hair
seals prior to the first moult. I feel sure, however, that it is quite different in char-
acter from the soft, long, dense fur of the true fur seals. It may be added that the
genus Zalrphus is in other respects, as in size and the general shape of the head,
somewhat intermediate between the fur and hair seals, though its affinities are decid-
edly with the latter.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 23

taneously, as the names of different sub-divisions of the group, but Arc-
tocephalina still embraced both hair and fur seals. Later still, the
same author restricted Otariina, so that it embraced but a single species,
while the other, also greatly restricted in its scope, embraced still both
hair and fur seals. In view of this confusion, the name Trichophocince*
is proposed for the hair seals, and Oulophocince | for the fur seals, in
allusion to the different character of the pelage in the two groups.

Hitherto, owing to the fact that our beat classifications of them have
been based mainly on the number and position of the molar teeth, the
hair and fur seals have been associated pell-mell and in almost every
possible mode of combination. Formerly Arctocephulus was a hetero-
geneous association of members of two widely different natural groups.
Although of late the hair and fur seals have been usually placed in
different genera, the genera of the one set have variously alternated
in the systems of different authors, and in the different systems of the
same author, with those of the other set.

Comparison of the Skeleton of the Otariad^e with those
of the Principal Types of the Phocid.e.

The chief osteological differences which serve to distinguish the
eared seals from the other types of the Pinnipedes, as the common
Phoca, \ Cystophora, Monachus, Mucrorkinus, and Posmarus, § may be
indicated as follows : —

Comparison of the Otariad.e (Eumetopias) with Rosmarus. —
The eared seals (of which Eumetopias is here taken as the type) differ

* 0p<f = hair, and 4>u>xv = Phoca.

•f ouAos = soft, <t>"\v = rhoca.

t The materials mainly used in the following comparisons consist as follows: (1.) Of
the eared seals, two complete ligamentary adult male skeletons cf Eumelopias Stelleri,
and two adult male and two adult female complete ligamentary skeletons of Grflorkinus
ursinta. (2.) Of the earless seals, a complete adult male ligamentary skeleton of Phoca
vitvlina, and other partial skeletons of the same species; three complete ligamentary
skeletons of Cystophora cristata, and two nearly complete disarticulated male skeletons
of Macrorhinus elephantinus, besides partial skeletons of other species. (3.) Of the
walrus, two complete ligamentary skeletons. Cuvier's figures of the skeleton of the
"Phoque a ventre Wane " (Moimchus albiventer), Pander and D' Alton's of that of the
Otaria jubata, and Schelgel's of that of Zahphus Gilleepii, have also been examined.

§ Trichechtts, as has been pointed out by Petersl4md Gill, was originally based by
Linne" (Syst. Nat., 10th Ed., 1758, I, 34) solely on the Manati ( T. Manatus), and must
hence be retained for that animal.

24 BULLETIN OF THE

from liosmarus in the form of the skull, in the relative length of the
cervical vertebrae, in the form of the scapula?, and in general propor-
tions. In respect to the limbs, the principal difference consists in the
relatively greater shortness of the foot in the walrus as compared with
the other extremital segments (the femur and tibia posteriorly and the
humerus and radius anteriorly), and the great divergence of the digits
of the hind feet.

A skeleton of an aged male Alaska walrus I find varies in length but
a few centimetres from that of an aged male of E. Stdleri. The dorsal
and lumbar vertebrae have the same length in both, but the cervical
vertebne in the walrus are considerably shorter, and the caudal some-
what longer, than they are in the other. A vast difference, however,
is seen in the general form, the E. Stdleri being slender and the walrus
exceedingly robust, the bulk of the body in the latter being nearly
twice that of the former. This gives a greater length to the ribs of the
walrus, and much larger centrums to its vertebrae ; but the develop-
ment of most of the vertebral apophyses is nearly the same in both.
The great thickness of the body also serves to increase the dispropor-
tionate shortness of the neck, as well as to increase the relative size of
the pelvis and the divergence of the ilia. The limbs also are hence
necessarily longer in proportion to the length of "the body. The feet,
however, are proportionally less developed than in the eared seals, and
the whole form of the body indicates an animal of slow movements,
especially in the water, and of rather sluggish habits.

The scapula in the walrus is long and narrow, with its greatest
breadth near the middle, and its spine or crest situated but little behind
the median line. In Eumetopias the scapula is short and broad, with
its greatest breadth at the upper border, and its spine quite near the
posterior edge. These considerable differences seem to result neces-
sarily from the correlation of the form of the scapula with the great
depth of the body.

The great differences which obtain in the skulls of these types,
through the enormous development of the canines in the walrus, are too
well known to require a detailed description. In the latter the skull is
exceedingly massive throughout, but is especially developed anteriorly,
to afford support to the immense tusks, while in Eumetopias it has the
normal carnivore form.

The bones of the walrus, it may be added, are lighter and softer than

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY.

25

those of the eared seals, hut the}- are far less so than those of some of
the earless seals, especially Macrorhinus, in which they are more porous
than in some of the cetaceans. All the sternal segments in the walrus
are much less ossified than in the Otariadce ; in the former the first
and ninth are almost wholly cartilaginous, leaving but eight ossified. In
Eumelopias all are ossified, the first being also developed anteriorly
into a long bony point, and the ninth similarly developed posteriorly.*

Hence the Olariadce differ from the walrus type not only in many de-
tails of structure, but radically in the general form and proportions of
the whole skeleton.

Comparison with the Phoca vitulina. — The eared seals differ
vastly from the earless seals, as represented by Phoca vitulina, in almost
every feature. In addition to the well-marked differences of form ex-
isting between nearly all the principal bones, there are remarkable
regional variations which indicate a wide difference in the zoological
rank of the two types. In the eared seals the length of the cervical
and thoracic regions of the body, as compared with its whole length, is
much greater than in Phoca, but in respect to the lumbar and pelvic
regions the reverse of this obtains, these regions being most developed
in the Phocidoe.\ In the eared seals (Eumetopias and Callurhinus, which
represent the two leading types of the eared seals) the ratio of the length
of the cervical vertebra? to the whole length of the spinal column is as 19
to 100 ; in Phoca vitulina as 18 to 100. In the former, the ratio of the
length of the dorsal vertebra to the whole length of the spinal column
is as 44 to 100 ; in Phoca vitulina as 37 to 100. That of the lumbar to

* See the detailed measurements of the skeletons of E. Slelleri and Cdlurhinus ursinus
given beyond.

f The following table gives the dimensions (in mm.) and the proportions of the differ-
ent regions in E. Sttlleri, C. ursinus, P. vitulina, and the Alaska walrus.

E Stel-

C. ur-

Ph. vitu-

Rosma-

leri. $

sinus. $

lina. $

rus. $

Length of the cervical vertebrae ....

480

400

235

330

" dorsal " ....

1.130

V80

4^0

1,130

" " lumbar " ....

370

270

220

370

" " cau lal " ....

520

310

370

580

" " spinal column ....

2,500

1,700

1.305

2,410

" sternum ....

840

6.30

270

590

Ratio of length of cervical vert, to spinal column,

15-100

23-H'O

lS-100

14-100

" " dorsal " " "

4-3-100

44-100

37-100

47-lnO

" " " lumbar '' " "

15-100

15.1-100

17-100

15.4-100

" " " caudal " "

21-100

20-100

2S-1O0

24-100

" " " sternum " "

34-100

36-100

20.7-100

24.5-100

26

BULLETIN OF THE

the whole length is in the former as 15 to 100; in P. vitulina as 17 to
100. The same proportion in respect to the caudal vertebrae is in the
former as 20 to 100 ; in the latter as 28 to 100.* The relative length
of the sternum to the spinal column is as 35 to 100 in the eared seals,
and as 28 to 100 iu Phoca vitulina, indicating in the latter the relative
shortness of the thorax as compared with the whole length of the animal,
and hence its eminently cetacean form.

In regard to the skull, Turner t showed many years since that the eared
seals are distinguished from the others by important cranial differences.
He compares them as follows : In the earless seals " there is no trace of a
postorbital process, nor of an ali-sphenoid canal; the mastoid can scarcely
be said to constitute a process ; it is swollen, and appears to form a por-
tion of the auditory bulla, more or less connected with the tympanic por-
tion, from which it is separated by a depressed groove running from the
stylo-mastoid foramen backwards and a little inwards. The paroceipital
process is never large in any of the family, but it is always distinctly de-
veloped and salient backwards. The Arctocephaline group are distin-
guished at once by their having a distinct postorbital process and an ali-
sphenoid canal ; the mastoid projects as a strong process, and seems, as it
were, to stand aloof from the auditory bulla." In Phoca and in other
types of the Phocidce, the bulla is many times greater than in the Otari-
adce, its increa.^ed size being doubtless compensatory for the absence of
an external conch. In the latter the occipital and sagittal crests in old
age attain an enormous development, which only a few of the higher
forms of the Phocidce at all approach.

Considerable differences are also found in the form of the different
bones of the extremities of the two types. In the anterior extremities,
these consist in the reduced size and structurally low form of the scapula
in Phoca, *as compared with Eumetopias and CaUorhinus t (Figs. 12, 13,

* In E. Slelleri as 15 to 100; in C. ursinus as 23 to 100; in the latter there being a
greater development of the post sacral vertebra;.

t Proc. Lond. Zoul. Soc., 1848, p. 84.

J The general form of the scapula in these groups (including Rogmnrus and Macro-
rhinus) is indicated by the following table: —

Rosmarus.

Eumetopias.

CaUorhinus

Phoca.

Macrorhinus.

Breadth

Katio of breadth to length .

420
260
6-10

370

405

11-10

215

2SO

13-10

125
110
9-10

S25

215

6.6-10

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY.

27

and 16, Plate III). In the latter the acromion is developed almost as
much as in the terrestrial carnivores, the crests are high, and the expan-
sion of the blade very great. In Phoca the blade is small, expanded
about equally anteriorly and posteriorly, the crest moderate, and the
acromion process slightly developed. The greater tuberosity of the
humerus, though large, does not rise above the base of the head of the
humerus, whilst the lesser tuberosity rises as a sharp point to a greater
height than the head of the humerus. In Eumetopias and Callorhinus
these conditions are reversed, the lesser tuberosity being but slightly
developed, whilst the greater is excessively so, rising to a greater height
than the head of the humerus, aud extending downwards more than
half the length of this bone, — much farther than in Phoca. Differences
are also traceable in the form of the bones of the forearm, carpus, and
metacarpus. In respect to the digits of the hand, they differ less in size
and length in Phoca than they do in the Otariadce and in Posmarus.

By far the most important differences, however, are found in the
posterior organs of locomotion, — the pelvis and the hind limbs. The
latter are relatively smaller in the Phocidce than in the Otariadce, and
are very differently constructed and adapted to widely different uses, as
indicated in the following comparison.

In the Phocidce the hind limbs are In the Olariadoe the hind limbs are
extended backwards in a line parallel somewhat free, and when in a natural
with the body ; the legs are so en- position (on land) the feet are turned
closed within the integuments of the forward, and serve to raise the body
body that they have little or no mo- from the ground.*
tion, and the feet are movable only
in a relatively small degree, in an
obliquely lateral direction.

* It may be added that the foot is also relatively longer, as compared with the length
of the leg, than in Phoca, as shown by the following table, whilst the differences in the
size of the outer toes as compared with the middle ones is also greater.

Eumetopias.

Callorhinus.

Romarus.

Phoca.

" " humerus ....

" " hand

Ratio of length of hand to that of radius
Length of hind limb ....

Ratio of length of foot to tibia

1,045
320
275
450

16-10

1,000
200
350
450

13-10

705
200
205
300

15-10
705
135
220
&50

16-10

1,010
3S0
270
3i0

13-10

1,040
250
370
420

11-10

360
120
110
130

12-10
600
100
210
290

14-10

28

BULLETIN OF THE

In consequence of this peculiar They also (imperfectly) serve the

structure the only purpose which purpose of walking; these animals

these organs can subserve is that of being able to progress when out of

swimming. On land progression is the water several miles an hour, and

mainly accomplished by a wriggling to run for a short distance with nearly

serpentine motion of the body, slight- the rapidity of a man.*
ly assisted by the extremities.

In the Phocidce the tarsal articula- In the Otariadce the foot when

tion allows but a small amount of similarly at rest forms with the leg

movement of the foot, which when an angle of at least 90°.
naturally at rest forms but a slight
angle with the leg.

In the Phocidce no unusual sexual In the Otariadce (in Callorliinus and

difference in the form of the pelvis is Eumetopias^ at least) there is an

known to exist ; the principal differ- exceedingly great sexual variation in

ence being that the pubic bones are the form of the pelvis. In the males

united for a shorter distance in the it is narrow throughout, and seen from

females than in the males. In the the front the sides are nearly paral-

Phoca vitulina the pelvis, seen from lei for the greater part of its length,

the front, presents a pyramidal out- the pubic bones abruptly converging

line, with the apex pointing back- posteriorly, and the ilia diverging

ward. Laterally and ventrally its moderately at their anterior ends,

outlines are straight. The front outline is gently hollowed.

The ilia are short and broad The ilia are elongated (twice as

(length and breadth about equal), ex- long as broad), flattened posteriorly,

panding anteriorly in a transverse with their dorsal and ventral borders

line. Their crests are turned abrupt- parallel, and no lateral expansion or

ly outward and recurved, their pos- recurvation of the crest,
terior surfaces being concave.

The pubic bones are straight, slen- The pubic bones are stout and sub-
der, and subcylindrical ; posteriorly cylindrical, a little broader and thin-
they become flattened and somewhat ner behind, approximating both an-
expanded dorso-ventrally. In the teriorly and posteriorly. Barelymeefc-
male they are appressed posteriorly ing (in the males) at the latter point,
for one third their length, their point they form with each other a more or
of widest divergence being at their less broad ellipse, which is only slight-
anterior ends. In the females, how- ly open anteriorly in Callorkinus, but
ever, they merely meet at the end, more widely in Eumetopias. They

* See Captain Rryant's account, given below, of the habits of Callorkinus ursinus.

t The pelvis of Callorliinus differs from that of Eumetopias somewhat in certain de-
tails of its structure, as will be shown later in the comparison of these two species under
C. ursinus.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY.

29

much as in the males of the eared are not partially united as in Phoca,
seals. but merely touch each other at their

extremities, and arc most widely sep-
arated at the middle.
The ischia are dorsally arched, es- The ischia are considerably arched
pecially their dorsal margins, which above, but otherwise have nearly the
rise in a high angular point opposite same form and size as the pubic
the posterior third of the thyroid bones. Their dorsal margins have
foramen. Anteriorly they are sub- not the high angular prominence
cylindrical, but posteriorly are flat- seen in Phoca.
tened into broad thin blades, and
unite with the corresponding parts of
the pubic bones.

The thyroid foramen is an irregular The form of the thyroid foramen is
elongated ellipse, its pubic outline be- nearly the same as in Phoca.
ing nearly straight.

The ilio-pubic spine is prominent, The ilio-pubic spine is very large,
but the iliac tuberosity is wholly ab- and the iliac tuberosity is not only
sent. present, but is enormously developed.

The middle of the acetabulum is The middle of the acetabulum is
situated a little in front of the pos- situated but a little in front of the
terior end of thejirst sacral vertebra, posterior end of the second sacral
which is considerably anterior to its vertebra, — the length of the second
position in the eared seals. sacral vertebra posterior to its posi-

tion in Phoca.
Four fifths of the length of the Only slightly more than one half
innominate bone is posterior to the of the length of the innominate bone
acetabulum, — in other words, the is behind the acetabulum. Hence
proportion of the length of the ischio- the proportional length of the ischio-
pubic part to the length of the ilia pubic portion to the ilium is nearly as
is as three to one. one to one.

The bones of the pelvis are all thin The bones of the pelvis are all
and slender. thick and stout, especially the walls

of the acetabula. The acetabula are
themselves very much larger than in
Phoca.

In recapitulation it may be stated that the essential or most striking
pelvic differences in the males between Phoca and Eumetopias and Cal-
lorhinus consist in the abbreviated ilia, with their outwardly produced
crests, the greater elongation of the pubic and ischiac bones, and the more
anterior situation of the acetabula in Phoca as compared with the others.

30

BULLETIN OF THE

In Phoca and the earless seals generally no great sexual differences
in the structure of the pelvis appears to be known. From the great
breadth of the pelvis between the pubic bones in the male, no modifica-
tion of the male form of the pelvis would seem requisite in the female.
In the eared sen Is, however, especially in Callorhinus, the pelvis is
exceedingly narrow, especially anteriorly, in the males, and of small
capacity. In the females it is hence necessarily entirely open in front,
and the pubic bones and the ischia are reduced to a mere bony rim
enclosing the very large thyroid foramen. The ventral borders of the
innominate hones are also less produced. The more posterior position
of the acetabula in the eared seals places the hind limbs in a position
better fitting them to support the body, and hence for terrestrial locomo-
tion. They are, in fact, placed but little anterior to their position in
many of the true walking mammalia.

The following table of comparative measurements indicates the differ-
ence in proportions and form of the pelvic bones in Phoca, Macrorhinus,
JSumetopias, Callorhinus, and Rosmarus : —

Rosma-

Eume-

Callo-

Callo-

Phoca.

Macro-

rus.

topias.

rhinus.

rhinus.

rhinus.

330

350

235

?

140

$
190

380

Length of the os innominatum . .

Breadth (externally) at iliac crests

330

160

110

975

135

" " at acetabula .

195

120

55

40

67

Length of ilium ....

180

150

100,

60

50

130

Breadth (antero-posterior) of do. .

90

80

45

23

57

Length of ischium and os pubis .

250

200

135

70

140

260

< Ircatest breadih of ischio-pubic bones

160

110

70

35

73

180

Length of thyroid foramen

150

125

65

45

87

1 50

Breadth " "

65

50

28

20

25

73

Transverse diameter of the brim

40

15

25

40

" " of the inferior outlet

To

28

35

25

Ratio of length of ilium to ischium

72-100

75-100

71.5-100

86-100

28-100

50-100

Owing mainly to the great elongation of the very thick neck in the
Otariada, the fore limbs, as long since mentioned by Cuvier,* are ap-
parently placed much farther back than in the Phocid<z.\

The neural spines in Phoca are but slightly developed, especially an-
teriorly, whilst in Eumctopias and Callorhi)ins, as well as in Eos?narus,
they are largely developed, especially those of the anterior dorsal verte-

* Oss. foss., Vol. V, j). 216.

t By actual measurement they are found to be but little anterior to the middle of the
entire length of the animal.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 31

brae, which in Phoca are the smallest. These features, with others of a
similar character, especially the high crests of the skull in all the eared
seals, show these animals to be possessed of relatively much greater
muscular power than the common Phoca, and that they are not only
fitted for greater activity on land, but that they must also possess su-
perior powers of motion in the water. The most strongly developed
features in the skeleton of the Phoca type are those that best serve its
strictly aquatic mode of life, and the character of its whole structure,
as previously mentioned, gives it a rank far below the Otariadce.

Comparison with Macroriiinus, Cystophora, and MONACHUS. —
In respect to size the Phoca vitulina and the Macrorhinus elephantinus
represent the two extremes, not only of the Phocidce, but of the Pinni-
pedes, the sea elephant in size far exceeding the walrus. Yet in general
osteological features Macrorhinus is strikingly like Phoca. In the form
of the pelvis and scapulae, however, it slightly approaches the Otariadce,
and what is known of its habits indicates that it has greater powers of
locomotion on land than the common Phoca.

Cystophora differs in no important particular in the general skeleton
from Phoca and Macrorhinus. Monachus, from Cuvier's* figure of its
skeleton, much more nearly approaches the Otariadce, and is hence a
higher form than either Macrorhinus, Phoca, or Cystophora. The greater
development of the neural spines and the other apophyses, the strongly
developed crests of the skull, the very broad strongly keeled scapula;,
together with numerous other osteological features, indicate it to be an
animal of great muscular power, whilst at the same time its compar-
atively slender form, and especially the elongated form of the thorax,
indicate that it has a much nearer affinity to the Otariadce than either
Macrorhinus, Cystophora, or Phoca have.

These four, forms — Monachus, Macrorhinus, Cystophora, and Phoca
— represent four of the leading types of the Phocidce. Their relative
rank is doubtless in the order given, Monachus being unmistakably
the highest and most like the Otariadce. Stenorhynchus, it seems to me,
is still lower than either of the above-mentioned genera. I should hence
arrange the sub-families of the Phocidce in the following order, with Mona-
chus as the highest genus of Phocince, which is the highest sub-family: —
Phocinje.
Cystophorix.k.
Stenoriiyni.'iii.we.
* Oss. foss.. Tome V, Plate XVII.

32 BULLETIN OF THE

Of the Sexual, Age, and Individual Variations.

Sexual Differences. — "Whilst in the carnivores generally the sexual
variations are considerable, especially in respect to size, they seem
to never exist in greater degree than in the Otariadce. In all the
species of this family in which the sexes are well known, — especially
in Otaria jubata, Eumetopias Stelleri, Callorhinus ursinus, and Arcto-
cephalus falklandicus, — it has been found that the weight of the adult
females is rarely above one sixth' to one fourth that of the old males ;
— a sexual disproportion in size rarely if at all elsewhere met with
in mammals. Iu the Pinnipedes the nearest approach to it is in the
sea elephant (Macrorhinus elephantinus), which in some of its habits, as
previously mentioned, also approaches nearer to the eared seals than
any other well-known species of the Phocidcc.

The sexes differ also in color, the females being generally much
lighter colored than the males.

They also differ in the size of the teeth, especially of the canines, the
females having relatively, as well as absolutely, much smaller teeth
than the males. The form of the palatal surface of the maxillaries
also varies in the two sexes in the females it being usually flatter or
less depressed than in the males, and its lateral outlines straighten
The females also lack the high crests of the skull possessed by the
males, and have the processes of the bones less developed.

One of the greatest sexual differences, however, is seen in the pelvis.
In the female it is much smaller than it is in the male, and the pubic
bones instead of meeting behind, as in the males (and also in the females
in the P/iocidce), are widely separated, and with the i-chia are re-
duced to a slender rim enclosing the large thyroid foramen; at least this
is the ease in Callorhinus ursinus, and there seems to be no reason for
believing that similar differences in the structure of the pelvis do not
exist in the other species of the Otariadce.*

* Respecting the sexual differences in the Otariajubata, Dr. G. A. Maack lias fur-
nished me with the following note: —

"The most striking feature in Olaria jvbata i< tin- great dissimilarity between the

males and females, not only in res] t to size and general external features, but also in

their osteological structure. It is a curious fact, that, whilst the male changes greatly
with age in respect to its osteological characters, the female prssents in this respect a
greater or less constancy of character. In color, however, tin' reverse obtains, — the
males preserving a greater constancy in this respect, whilst the females vary exceed-
ingly at different ages."

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 33

Differences resulting from Age. — In color the young differ from the
adult, us in most mammals, in being very much darker, especially pre-
vious to the first moulting of the pelage. During the first few months
the young of both sexes of the fur seals are black, whilst the old males
are more or less brownish- or grayish-black, and the females cinereous.
In the hair seals the young are dark reddish-brown, whilst the adult are
pale yellowish- or grayish-brown. The first coat of hair in the young is
somewhat different in character from that they have later, in both the
fur and hair species. The latter, whilst quite devoid of fur in adult life,
or possessing only an exceedingly sparse undercoat of crisp curled hair
rather than fur, are said to have more or less "fur" when young. This
is affirmed more especially of the Zalophus hiatus, but doubtless the
young of all the hair seals have a softer coat than the adult.

In respect to the form of the skull, the young greatly differ from the
adult, as is sufficiently indicated by the figures of the young and adult
skulls of Callorhinus ursinus given in Plates II and III, and described
in detail in the account of that species, and as is also shown in the figures
of young and adult skulls of Zalophus Gillespii given in the Fauna Japon-
ica (Mamm., Plate XXII). It appears that the brain-case early reaches
its full size, and changes later mainly through the thickening of its walls.
The facial portion is more slowly developed, so that the proportions of
the very young and the mature skull are widely different. As regards
the general skeleton, my material does not allow me to speak.

Individual Variation. — In order to determine what characters may
be most useful in distinguishing genera and species, it is necessary to
take into account the individual variation to which the different parts
are subject, as well as the differences resulting from sex and age. For-
merly, when but few specimens of any species of the Otariadce were
known, it was natural to suppose that any characters based on the adult
form of the skull or of its different bones might be regarded as afford-
ing reliable specific and generic characters. As more material was
acquired, it became evident that these parts in the present group were
unusual! v variable, and hence to a great degree unreliable as the foun-
dation for specific or even generic diagnoses. The general form of the
skull, the depression of the bony palate, the posterior extension of the
palatines and their posterior outline, and also the situation of the last"
molar relative to the anterior edge of the zygomatic foramen, and the
number and form of the molars, have been generally taken as the basis
vol. II. 3

34 BULLETIN OF THE

of generic divisions. All these parts, however, have recently heen found
to vary greatly, not only with age and sex, but in specimens of the same
age and sex. The form of the hinder edge of the palatines, as to
whether it be convex, truncate, or emarginate, has been especially
relied on for the distinction of both species and genera, yet the spe-
cimens before me show that in the same species, in skulls of equal age
and of the same sex, the posterior border of the palatines may be either
truncate or deeply emarginate.

The situation and form of the molars also vary in a similar way, as
does also the depression of the palate. The general form of the skull
varies greatly in adults of the same sex, as shown by specimens of adult
males of each of the three North Pacific species now before me; so
much so, indeed, as to materially alter the relative proportions of the
different regions. The form of the frontal region, or third segment of
the skull, is especially liable to great variation, as indicated by the two
male skulls of Callorhinus ursinus figured in Plate II (Figs. 1 and 2).
Two skulls of the Zalophus Gillespii, received too late for illustration,
show much greater differences in this respect than these do. They close-
ly resemble in relative size and form the two adult male skulls of the
same species figured in the Fauna Japonica (Mamm., PI. XXII, Figs.
1 -4). In the figures of these skulls, as seen from above (Fig. 2 and
3, 1. c, Fauna Japon.), these differences are very strikingly shown.
Through the deep and abrupt postorbital constriction of the .skull, the
latero-anterior angles of the brain-case are sometimes well developed,
whilst in other specimens of the same species, age, and sex, through
the less abruptness of this constriction, they are either but slightly
prominent or obsolete. These differences give in one instance a quad-
rate form to the brain-case, and in the other a triangular form. The
length of the postorbital cylinder of the skull is also an exceedingly
variable (dement, the difference amounting in some cases to nearly
thirty per cent, and hence greatly changes the general form of the
skull.

The great degree of asymmetry exhibited by these animals may be
also cited as evidence of an unusually great tendency to variation*
Further evidence of the same tendency is seen in the somewhat frequent
occurrence of supernumerary molars in the upper jaw, — instances of
which will be presently cited.

* See remarks on this point beyond, under Ettmetopias Stdleri.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 35

The form and position of the molars in the same species is also far
too variable to be of much taxonomic value, even in respect to genera,*
although they form one of the principal elements on which has been
based one of the latest generic revisions of the group.f

The roots of the molars often vary considerably in the two sides of
the jaw in the same specimen, and most markedly in different co-
specific specimens of the same sex and age. In one of the males of C.

* The details of the individual variation shown in numerous points by my specimens
of the North Pacific species will be more fully given later.

t In October, 1869, Dr. J. E. Gray published the following classification of the Ola-
riadce, based, as will be seen, on a few eminently variable characters of the skull and
teeth. That it should have been otherwise than palpably unnatural and arbitrary could
hardly be expected. The alleged differences between the genera are very slight, and
in some cases almost inappreciable, as for instance between Zalophus and Neophoca;
the really important differences which sometimes exist between the different groups
being unmentioned.

" Section I. Palate produced behind to a line even with the condyles of the jaws. Grind-
ers A — 6 Sea Lions.
Tribe 1. Otariixa.

1. Otaria. East and west coast of .South America.

Section II. Palate only extended behiivl to a line even with the middle part of the zygomatic
arch. Sea Beaks.
Tribe 2. Callokiiinixa. Grinders 4~4 ; skull oblong; face broad, shorter than
the orbit ; forehead arched.

2. Callorhinus. Northwest coast of America.

Tribe 3. Arctocephali.na. Grinders £ — | ; face of the skull shelving in front;
the fifth and sixth grinders behind the front of the zygomatic arch.

3. Phocaixtos. Grinders large, lobed, the six upper with two notches ou their

hinder edge. South America.

4. Arctocephalus. Grinders thick; crown conical. Africa.

5. Euolaria. Grinders large, subcylindrical; crown conical; fiice broad. South

America.

6. Gypsophoca. Grinders moderate-sized, compressed, with a small, more or

less distinct lobe on the front edge of the cingulum; face narrow, com-
pressed. Australia.
Tribe 4. Zalophina. Grinders 4 —1 large, thick, in a close, continuous series;
the fifth upper in front of the back edge of the zygomatic arch.

7. ZaUphus. Grinders large and thick, in a close uniform series. South

America. [ ! ]

8. Neophoca. Grinders krge, thick, all equal, in a continuous uniform series.

Australia.
Tribe 5. Eumetopiina. Grinders s — 4, more or less far apart; the hinder upper
behind the hinder edge of the zygomatic arch, and separated from the
other grinders by a concave space.

9. Eumetopias. West coast of America.

10. Arctophoca. West coast of South America."

36 BULLETIN OF THE

ursinus already mentioned, the fangs of several of the molars have a
deep longitudinal groove on the outside, the fangs appearing to be
formed of two connate roots, but in the corresponding molars of the
other specimen there are no grooves, the fangs being wholly simple.

Great variations in the form of the teeth and the bones of the skull
have also been pointed out as existing in several species of the P/tocidce.*
Naturalists are fast becoming aware of the fact that the bones of ani-
mals generally are not so invariable in form and proportions as formerly
supposed, and hence afford less reliable characters for the discrimination
of species than has been generally believed.f Such facts evidently
show that too high a value has been placed upon certain relatively
slight differences in the form of the teeth and certain parts of the skull.

Color is one of the features commonly much relied on for the dis-
tinction of species among the higher vertebrates. In the case of the
Otariadce, as also happens in other groups, this feature proves to be in
no small degree unreliable. In respect to the hair seals, the three or
four best known species (Eumetopias Stelleri, Zalophus Gillespii, Z.
hiatus, and Otariajubata) eo closely resemble each other in color, and
different individuals of the same species at the same time vary so much
in this regard, that a description of the color of either of the species
is almost equally applicable to all. This is equally the case in the
fur seals, where sometimes specimens of such really widely distinct spe-
cies as the Callorhinus ursinus and the Arctocephalus falklandicus seem
hardly distinguishable in color.t

Habits.

In respect to general habits the eared seals seem to have much in
common that distinguishes them from the Pliocidce, at least so far as the
habits of the latter are known. All the species appear to assemble in

especially an important paper by Dr. J. E. Gray, entitled " On the Variations
in the Teeth of the Crested Seal, C!tstopliora cristata," etc., Proc. Lond. Zool. Soc., 1849,
pp. 00-03. Also, by the same author, another entitled " Notes on Seals {Pliocidce) and
tin- Changes in the Form of their Lower Jaw during Growth," Ann. and -Mag. Nat.
Hist., 4th Series, Vol. IV, pp. 342 -346, November, 1869.

i See " Mammalia of Massachusetts," Bulletin Mus. Comp. Zool., Vol. I, pp. 143-
252, October, 1869.

J In respect to a skin of C wsinvs from California, Dr. Gray has remarked: "The
skin is so like that of Arctocephalm nigrescens [= falklandicus] that we were induced to
regard it as a second specimen of that species before we received the skull." (Catalogue
Of Seals and Whales, p. 52.)

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 37

vast numbers at certain favorite places of resort, — usually isolated rocky
islands, — for the purpose of reproduction, where they spend several
weeks or months, when undisturbed, almost entirely on land. They being
eminently polygamous, the old males select their stations and assemble
around them a numerous harem, which they guard with the utmost
jealousy. Numerous bloody combats ensue between the rival males for
the possession of the females, or for favorite stations, and the roaring
of the males it is said can be heard for many miles. One young,
or at most two, are annually brought forth by each mature female, the
period of gestation being about twelve months. Captain Bryant's
account* of the habits of the northern fur seal renders unnecessary
a detailed account of the habits of any of the species here, especially
since the notes added to Captain Bryant's paper sufficiently indicate
the similarity of habits which all the species seem to share during the
important season of reproduction.

One of the most striking features in their history is that at this period
both sexes pass weeks, and even months, without food or without often
visiting the water. Arriving at the breeding-grounds exceedingly fat
and unwieldy, they seem to be sustained by the fat of their bodies, they
finally leaving at the end of the breeding-season greatly emaciated.

A similar fact has been long known in respect to the walrus, whose
period of fasting, however, seems to be shorter than that of the eared seals.

In respect to breeding habits, the sea elephant (Macrorhinus elephan-
tinus) is the sole species of the earless seals which seems to quite
closely resemble the Otariadce. They as.-emble in a similar manner at
their breeding-grounds, and pass much of their time during the repro-
ductive period on the land, and probably without taking food; but the
accounts of travellers are on this point somewhat, contradictory. It
does not appear, however, that they are to so great a degree polyga-
mous. And they move on the land with great difficulty, and go but a
short distance from the water.

Of the Genera and Species.
Of (lie Genera. — The genus Otaria was, as previously stated, pro-
posed to embrace all the eared seal> as a group distinct from the earless
seals, for which the name P/i oca was retained. But naturalists have
found it necessary, as our knowledge of these animals has incre ised, to
• S< - Part IF, beyond.

38 BULLETIN OF THE

greatly subdivide each of these groups. Olaria is now restricted to a
single species; while the original Otaria (=Otariadce), as defined by
IYron, has been separated into ten groups to which generic rank has
been accorded ; none of them containing more than a single species.

The first division of the Otarice was made by F. Cuvier* in 1825,
who separated them into two genera, Platyrhynchus and At 'otocephalus,
with the 0. jubata of recent systcmatists as the type of the former, and
Arctocephulus Delalandii ' (antarctic us) as the type of the latter. Dr.
Gray,t in 185 9, separated generically the Northern fur seal from Arc-
tocephalus, under the name of Callorkinus.

The next subdivision of the group was made by Dr. Gill, + in 18GG,
who in his " Prodrome of a Monograph of the Pinnipedes," separated
them into five genera. § These appear to be natural groups, of true
generic rank, and properly restricted ; and, after a careful examination
of the subject, and specimens of four of these five types, they appear
to me to include all the natural genera of the family. As has been
previously pointed out by Gray and Peters, || Dr. Gill, as he himself
now freely admits, wrongly retained the name Arctocephulus for Gray's
genus Callorkinus, and consequently substituted Ilalarctus for what had
previously been regarded as Arctocephalus. Two of these genera
(Eumetopias and Callorkinus) iuclude but a single known species each ;
Otaria has possibly two, Zalophus two, and Arctocephalus, according to
the views of different writers, three or four.

Professor Peters, ^[ in 18GG, divided Olaria into seven sections or
subgenera, he adding two (Phocarctos, type Otaria Hooheri, and Arcto-
pkoca, type Otaria Philippii, a nominal species-, = Arctocephalus falh-
landicus) to the number of divisions recognized by Gill. The principal
character on which the latter (Arctophoca) was first founded proved to
be an invalid one,** yet it was subsequently transferred by Peters, with
a slight modification of its diagnosis, to the Arctocephalus falhlandicus.

* Mem. dii Mus., Vol. XI, p. 205. f Proc. Lond. ZooL Soc, 1859, p. 359.

| Proc. Essex Institute, Vol. V, p. 7.

§ Otaria, type Phoca jubata Schreber; Arctocephalus, type Phnca ursina Linne; Eume-
topias, type Otaria calijorniana Lesson, ■■ Arctocephalus monteriensis Gray; Zalophus,
type Otaria GiUespii McBain; Halarctus, type Arctocephalus Delalandi Gray.

|| See above, p. 7 of the " Resume." \\ Monatsb. Akad. Berlin, 1866, pp. 261, 665.

** The number of molars of A. Philippii was supposed to be | ~| instead of f — £>
u- in the other fur seals, but the skull figured and described by Peters as that of this
species bad evidently lost the fifth (last but one) pair of molars, as shown by his figure
of the skull. 1'eters himself afterwards referred his A. Philippii to the A. falhlandicus.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 39

Dr. Gray, in his various papers published since the appearance of Pro-
fessor Peters 's papers, has not only recognized as genera all the genera
and subgenera previously proposed by Gill and Peters, including Arcto-
phoca, with essentially Professor Peters's first diagnosis of it (including
the dental formula !), but has added three others {Euolaria, Gypsopkoca,
and Neophoca). Taking into account the nature of the diagnostic
characters of his pseudo-genera given in his last synopsis of the family *
his classification is too palpably arbitrary to require a detailed review.

Of the Species. — For a long period the northern sea lions were by
most writers regarded as specifically identical with the southern sea
lions, and the northern sea bears with the southern sea bears. Peron
in 1816 first called attention to the fact that the northern and southern
sea lions and sea bears were distinct species. During the following
twenty-five years many naturalists of high authority still regarded
them as identical, whilst others considered them as distinct. In 1840
they were for the last time seriously confounded ; but until within the
last four years the two species of Zalophus, the one northern and the
other southern, have been regarded as one. It is now generally be-
lieved, however, that in no case is the same species found on both sides
of the equator.! In Peron's time there were commonly believed to be
but a single species of sea lion and a single species of sea bear. He
however -affirmed that as many as twenty species of sea bears alone
were confounded under that name. Since that time many nominal
species have been described, — doubtless partly in consequence of
Peron's remark, — until the number of distinct names applied to the
different sea lions and sea bears exceeds fifty, while probably the num-
ber of veritable species is not more than ten. This, in fact, is the num-
ber now most commonly recognized. In consequence of the early con-
founding of the northern with the southern species, an extraordinary
complication of synonymy has resulted, several of the earlier names
having been applied by different writers to several different species.
The synonomy of some of these species hence embraces a list of ten
to fifteen different and variously applied names.

Of the hair seals, four apparently unquestionable species are now well

* Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 4U) Series, Vol. IV, p. 269. This synopsis has already
been quoted in full on p. 35.

t See further remarks on this point below, under the head of " Geographical Distri-
bution."

40 BULLETIN OF THE

known, two of which (Enmetopias Stelleri and Zalophus Gillespii) are
northern, and two {Otaria jubata and Zalophus lubatus*) are southern.
A fifth species {Otaria Hbokeri), also southern, is likewise commonly
recognized. But it appears to be known only from specimens in the
British Museuimf collected many years since at the Falkland Islands,
and does not seem to have been met with by recent collectors, either at
the Falklands or elsewhere. It differs from the O.jubata, judging from
the figures and the not wholly satisfactory descriptions we have of it,
mainly in having the palatal bones less produced posteriorly; at least
this is the difference that has been chiefly dwelt on as distinguishing the
two, although certain differences in the color of the under-side of the
body have also been mentioned. The skull figured by Gray is evidently
that of a middle-aged or rather young animal. The form of the bony
palate corresponds also with what is seen in middle-aged and young spe-
cimens of other hair seals. Having seen apparently as great differ-
ences in specimens of the northern species, unquestionably specifically
identical, as exists between O.jubata and 0. Huoleri, I am led to ques-
tion whether the specimens described as Otaria \_Phocarctos~] Ilooheri
may not be an unusual state of Otaria jubata, the only hair seal now
known to exist in the Falkland Islands; the difference resulting partly
from age and partly from abnormal development. Not having seen spe-
cimens of the 0. Hbokeri, I do not presume to assume it to be-referable
to O.jubata ; my design by this reference is mainly to call attention to
its somewhat doubtful character.

Two genera of fur seals are also commonly recognized. One of these
genera consists of the Callor//inus ursinus, or the fur seal of the North.
The other genus embraces numerous nominal species, all but one of
which have been referred by Peters, and also by Gray in his later
papers, to three species, all of which have a southern distribution.

* Peron, under the name Otaria cinerea (Voy. mix Terr, austr., Tome II, pp. 54, 77),
undoubtedly referred to the so-called Zalophus lubatus of recent writers. Although his
description is rather meagre, the size given, as well as the character of the hair, ami
•• pei i'u'. the context (at p. 77), render it clear that he must have intended to indicate
by this name the species mure fully described later by other writers. Pe'ron's name
was at first used by Gray to designate what he has since called lob tins. Although
there i> little reason to doubt that PeYon's earlier name of cinerea refers to this species,
it is perhaps not advisable to substitute for a well-established name one of possibly
doubtful application.

t See Catalogues of the British Museum (Seals, 1850, p. 45; Seals and Whales, 1S66,

p. 54; B !S of Mammalia, p. 110, etc.)-

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOULOGY. 41

These are, Arctocephalus falldandicus, — one of the earliest described
species of the family, — A. cinereus and A. antarcticus {= A. Dela-
landi). A. falldandicus inhabits the shores and islands of Southern
South America ; A. cinereus, the Australasian Seas ; and A. antarcticus,
the southern coasts of Africa. These species hence have quite widely
separated habitats, yet the alleged differences between them are slight,
while in size, color, character of the pelage, and general conforma-
tion, they possess many features in common. Their distinctness has at
times been doubted, and it seems still to remain an open question wheth-
er they form a single species or three. That the A. falldandicus and
A. antarcticus hold a close relationship is generally admitted. The A.
cinereus, or the Australian species, was believed, through certain dif-
ferences in the fangs of the hinder molars, and the supposed less abund-
ance of the under-fur, to be quite distinct from the others. Professor
Peters, in his second paper, placed the A. cinereus and A. antarcticus in
different subsections of his section Arctocephalus, characterizing them
as follows: "a. mit sehr sparsamer Unterwolle " (referring to A.
antarcticus = Olaria pusilla Peters), and "/3. mit reichlicherer Unter-
wolle" (referring to A. cinereus). It is found, however, that the fur
of the latter is equally rich with that of the other species.*

The distribution of these alleged species presents nothing incompati-
ble with the supposition of their identity. They inhabit islands one
third as distant from the shores of the South American, African, and
Australian continents as these islands are from each other. Other
Pinuipedes, as the sea elephant, range over nearly the same area.
Moreover, the distance is one of longitude merely, and the physical
conditions of this wide area are hence nearly uniform. Until favored
with the opportunity of comparing specimens from these several distant
points, my opinion as to the identity or diversity of these species must
remain unsettled.

In respect to the synonomy of the eared seals, that of the northern
species will be presently given in full, in connection with the descriptions
of these species. To that of Otaria j ubata, given so fully by Dr. Gray
in his first memoir on these animals, may be added, as clearly shown
already by other writers, f the following recently recognized names:

* Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 3d Scries, Vol. XVIII, p. 257, 1SGG.

t For references to the papers wherein the following-named synonymes occur, see the
"Resume of the recent Contributions to the Natural History of the OUtl^tad<B,,' anlea,
pp. 4-19.

42 BULLETIN OF THE

Otarla Byronia, 0. leonina, 0. Godeffroyi and 0. Ulloce of Peters, to
which should be added the "0. Ulloce V McBain (= 0. Graii Giin-
ther), the 0. leonina Maack, and probably also the 0. Hooker i of Gray.

To the synonomy of Arctocephalus falklandicus, given by Professor
Peters, the 0. \_Arctophoca~] Philippii Peters and Gray.

To that of the A. antarcticus — (=Otaria pusiUa Peters, = Arcto-
cephalus Delalandi Gray) — given by Professor Peters and in Dr.
Gray's above-cited catalogues, A. nivosus and A. schisthypero'es Turner
(= A. schistuperus Giinther).

To the synonymes of A. australis may doubtless be added the A.
Forsteri Gray.

Geographical Distribution. — As long since announced by Peron,
the Pinnipedes have their habitats as definitely circumscribed as do
the land mammalia. Previously, as already stated, the northern sea
lions and sea bears were popularly regarded as specifically identical
with the southern sea lions and sea bears; and even as late as 1840
Nilsson entertained the error regarding their identity so universally
made by the early writers. It has been found, however, that in only
one instance can the species living north and south of the equator be
regarded as referable to even the same genus. In this case the species
living north of the equator (Zalophus Gillcspii) ranges the furthest to
the southward of the northern species, while its congener living south
of the equator ranges furthest to the north of any of the southern
species. The habitat of no species, so far as certainly known, quite
reaches the tropics.*

The eared seals hence occupy two distinct areas, separated by the
broad expanse of the tropical waters. Furthermore, and what is most
singular in their distribution, none, as is well known, exi>t on the shores
of the North Atlantic. South of the equator they occupy a broad cir-
cumpolar belt, extending from near the tropics to the region of antarctic
ice. Here also they reach their greatest numerical development in
respect to the number of species; for while three species only are
known from the northern waters, at least seven are commonly reckoned
as inhabiting the southern waters. As previously remarked, however,
this number is probably much too large.

* There is a skull of Olariujvbata in the Anatomical Museum of Harvard University,
labelled as having come from " Arica, Peru," but 1 thiuk it doubtful if it was collected

at that point.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 43

In respect to genera, the number existing in the northern and south-
ern waters is equal ; there being two of hair seals and one of fur seals
at the north, and the same number at the south. One genus, Zcdophus,
is found both at the North and South. Eumetopias of the North may be
regarded as represented at the South by Otaria; and Callorhinus of the
North by Arctocephalus at the South. Callorhinus and Arctocephalus
are undoubtedly representative groups ; but if we regard the latter as
composed of three intimately related species instead of one, we shall have
three species of fur seals at the South against one at the North. Za-
lopkus is the most southern genus, its single species on each side of the
equator nearly reaching the tropics, if not actually existing within them
at Moluccas, as represented by Mr. Murray* in his map of the distri-
bution of these animals. Another interesting fact is that on the coast of
Asia the northern species of Zcdophus (Z. Gillespii) is well known to
inhabit Japan, whilst the home of the southern species (Z. lobatus) in-
cludes the shores of Australia and the neighboring islands ; so that the
only two congeneric species of the eared seals distributed on opposite
sides of the equator are those whose habitats most nearly approach each
other. The distribution of the species is further indicated in the follow-
ing conspectus, which is designed to give a concise view of the different
groups of the eared seals, with their principal distinctive characters,
affinities, and the geographical distribution of the species.f

* Geographical Distribution of Mammals, Map XXVIII, 1S66.

t The following observations respecting the distribution of the eared seals of the
eastern coast of South America have been kindly communicated to me bv Dr. G. A.
Maack, who in November and December, 1867, visited the coast of Buenos Ayres for
the purpose of obtaining specimens of these animals:

" The eared seals, of the eastern coast of South America, exist especially between the
34th and 40th degrees of south latitude. North of the Rio de la Plata they occur at the
Islas de los Lobos, near Maldonado. South of this river they occur in great numbers at
the Cabo Corrientes, where they frequent the rocks at the base of the vertical and even
overhanging cliffs (160 to 170 feet high) of these shores. I visited the latter locality
during the months of November and December, 1867, where I had the opportunity of
observing these animals alive. But as Professor Burmeister and myself have already
published the scientific results of this excursions [see above pp. 13 and 18], but little
requires to be added here.

"As stated in my paper in ' Der Zoologische Garten ' (Jan., lS70),only two species of
these animals exist on the eastern coast of South America: one, the Otaria jubata,
from its having but a single kind of hair, is known to the natives as the Lobo marino con
unopelo; and the other, Arctocephalus faMmdicus, from having both external hair and
under-fur, is called the Lobo marino con dos pelos. Of both I obtained specimens. The

44 BULLETIN OF THE

Conspectus op the Genera and Species.

Subfamily I. — TRICII0PII0CIN7E.

Without under-fur. Size large and form robust. Ears short and broad.
Molars either f = f = If or f = \ — \%.

I. Genus Otabia Gill ex Per on.
Palatines usually extending nearly to the pterygoid processes (sometimes
reaching them and sometimes terminating considerably anterior to them) ;
their posterior margin generally nearly straight. Molars £ ~ | = *§•

1. Olaria jubata Blainv.* Habitat: Coasts and islands of South Amer-
ica, from Chili, (Arica, Peru ?) on the west, and the Rio de la Plata
southward to the Antarctic Islands.

II. Genus Eumetopias Gill.

Palatines much less produced posteriorly than in Otaria. Molars

6 — 5 — 1 '1
5 5 10"

2. Eumetopias Slelleri Peters. Habitat : Coasts and islands of the
North Pacific, from California and Southern Kamtchatka northward.

III. Genus Zalopiius Gill.

3.< Zalophus Gillespii Gill. Habitat : Coasts and islands of the North
Pacific, from Lower California and Southern Japan northward.

4. Zulophus lobalus Peters. Habitat: Australasian Seas, especially
the shores of Australia and New Holland.

Subfamily II. — OULOPIIOCIN.E.

With thick under-fur. Size smaller; form more slender, and the ears,
and the toe-flaps of the hinder limbs, much longer than in Trichophocince.
Molars f-f=i|.

IV. Genus Callorhinus Gray.

5. CaUorhinus ursinus Gray. Habitat : The continental coasts and
islands of the North Pacific, from California and Southern (V) Kamtchatka
northward.

male* anil females of Otaria jubata arc both abundant at the Cabo Corrientes, where in
the month of I ember they bring forth their young; but of tin- Arctocepkalus I ob-
served only in ili'-- The females of the latter are entirely unknown at this point, this
species probably repairing to other localities to breed. One of the native gauchos in-
formed me that, during the fifteen years he had been accustomed to kill them here, he
had never met with a female."
* Including Olaria Hvohcri Gray et auct.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 45

V. Genus Arctocephalus F. Cuvier.

6. Arctocephalus falklandicus Gray. Habitat: Coasts and islands of
South America, from Chili on the west and the Rio de la Plata southward
to the Antarctic Islands.

? 7. Arctocephalus cinereus* Gray. Habitat: Southern shores of Aus-
tralia and New Zealand and the islands to the southward.

? 8. Arctocephalus antarcticus* Gray. Habitat: Southern coast of Africa
and the adjoining islands.

3. On the North Pacific Species of Otartad^e.

Subfamily I. — TRICHOPHOCIX.E.

Without under-fur. Size large and form robust. Ears short. Molars
either | = | = if, or -|-|=i°-

Genus Eumetopias Gill.

Eumetopias Gill, Proc. Essex Institute, V, 7, 11. July, 1866. Type "Otaria
californiana Lesson, = Arctocephalus monteriensis Gray."

Molars |- ~ f = \% ; the upper hinder pair separated from the others
by a considerable interval ; the last only double rooted. Postorbital
processes quadrate. Palatine surface of the intermaxillaries flat, only
slightly depressed, and greatly contracted posteriorly ; the palatals mod-
erately produced, extending about three fourths of the distance from the
anterior end of the zygomatic arch to the pterygoid process ; their pos-
terior margin straight, or slightly or deeply emarginate ; rarely deeply so
in old age.

Eumetopias hence differs from Otaria, ns restricted by Gill, in hav-
ing one pair less of upper molars,f a much less posterior extension of
the palatine bones, and in having the posterior portion of the surface
of the intermaxillaries less than one third, instead of more than one
half, the width of the anterior portion, and but slightly instead of deeply
depressed ; also in the form of the postorbital processes, which in
Eumetopias are quadrate, while in Otaria they form an obtuse, nearly
equilateral triangle, the apex of which points outward. In Otaria they
are also more produced. In the general character of the pelage, in
color, in proportions and size, there seems to be a close resemblance

* Perhaps the A. cine7-etis and the A. antarcticus are to be referred to the A. falkland-
icus, in which case the habitat of this species is the southern seas generally,
t See the characters of Otaria given in the preceding " Conspectus," p. 43.

46 BULLETIN OF THE

between the single known species of Eumetopias (E. Stelleri) and the
single known species of Otaria (0. jubata).

Eumetopias differs from Zalophus through the presence of a wide
space between the fourth and fifth pairs of upper molars, the less
emargination of the posterior border of the palatine bones, the quad-
rate instead of the triangular and posteriorly pointed form of the post-
orbital processes, the less relative breadth of the posterior nares, and
the larger size of the facial angle ; also through its much broader muz-
zle, the less degree of the postorbital constriction of the skull, and its
much less developed sagittal crest. It differs from Neophoca Gray, as
nearly as can be determined from the published figures and defective
descriptions, in nearly the same manner.

Eumetopias Stelleri Peters. Steller's Sea Lion.

Leo marinus Steller, Nov. Coram. Petrop., XI, 360, 1751.

" Phoca jubata Schreber, Saugeth., 300, lxxxiii, 1775 (in part only; not P.

jubata Forster)."
Phoca jubata Gmelin, Syst. Nat., I, 63, 1788 (in part).

" " Pander and D'Alton, Skelete der Robben und Lamant., PI.
Ill, Figs, d, e, f, 1826.
Otaria jubata P£ron, Voyage Terr, austr., II, 40, 1816.

" " Nilsson, Arch. f. Naturgesch., 1841, 329 (in part only}.
Otaria Stelleri Lesson, Diet. Class. Hist. Nat., XIII, 420, 1828.
Phoca Stelleri Fischer, Synop. Mam., 231, 1829.
Otaria Stelleri J. Muller, Arch. f. Naturgesch., 1841, 330, 333.

" " Gray, Cat Seals in Brit. Mus., 47, 1850.

" " Sclater, Proc. ZooL.Soc, 1868, 190.

" " Gray, Cat. Seals and Whales in Brit. Mus., 60, 1866.

Otaria (Eumetopias) Stelleri Peters, Monatasb. Akad. Berlin, 1866, 274, 671.
Eumetopias Stelleri Gray, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 3d Ser., XVIII, 233.
Otaria cali forniana Lesson, Diet. Class. Hist. Nat., XIII, 420, 1828.
Phoca califurniana Fischer, Synop. Mam., 231, 1829.
Eumetopias californianus Gill, Proc. Essex Inst., V, 13, July, 1866.
Arctocephalus monteriensis Gray, Proc. Zoiil. Soc., 1859, 360, PI. lxxii (in part).*
Le Lion marin Buffon, Hist. Nat, Suppl., VI, 337, 1782 (in part).
Leonine Seal Pennant, Arctic Zoology, I, 200 (in part).

Color. — General color of the upper side of the body varying from pale
yellowish brown to reddish brown ; much darker towards the tail, and not

* Excluding the skin (and young skull?), here doubtfully referred to A. monteriensis,
and afterwards described by the same author as A. californianus, in Cat. Seals and
Whales, p. 51 (1866).

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 47

unfrequently marked on the back and sides with irregular-shaped dark
brown patches. The sides below the median line are reddish, shading
above into the lighter color of the back, and below into the darker color
of the lower surface. Lower side of the body dusky reddish-brown, darkest
on the hinder portion of the abdomen. Limbs dark reddish-brown, ap-
proaching black, especially externally.

"While the general aspect of the color is as above indicated, the hairs
individually greatly vary in color. While some are entirely pale yellow-
ish, others are yellowish only at the tip, and dark below, and others are
dark reddish-brown or nearly black throughout. The mixture of these
two colors gives a brindled appearance on some parts of the body, and to
a much greater extent in some specimens than in others. The relative
proportion of the light and dark hairs determine the general color of the
different regions of the body.

The color appears to vary much in different individuals, not only with
age and sex, but irrespective of sex and age.

Hair. — The hair is of two kinds, the outer of which is straight, coarse,
stiff, and flattened. Beneath this is an exceedingly sparse, very short,
finer under-coat, so short and in such small quantity as to be detected only
with difficulty. The hair is longest on the anterior half of the body,
where it has an average length of 40 mm. ; it decreases in length pos-
teriorly, and towards the tail has an average length of only 15 mm. It is
still shorter on the abdomen, whilst on the limbs it is much more reduced,
and disappears entirely towards the ends of the digits. The end of the
nose, the soles and palms, the anal region, and the extra-digital cartilagi-
nous flaps are naked and black. The whiskers are long, slender, and cylin-
drical, white or brownish-white, and set in four or five rather indistinct
rows. Some of the longest sometimes reach a length of 50 cent., or about
twenty inches, with a maximum thickness of 2 mm.

Size. — The length of full-grown males is about twelve or thirteen feet.
According to Captain Bryant they frequently reach the latter size, and a
weight of from fifteen to eighteen hundred pounds. The females, he ob-
serves, are much more slender than the males, and do not attain to more
than one fourth the weight of the latter.

Ears. — The ears (Fig. 8, PI. I) are short and pointed, but much broader
than those of the Northern fur seal (Fig. 13, PI. II), though of only half
their length.

Hind Limbs. — The hind feet (Fig. 7, PI. I, -^ nat. size) are broad
and, gradually widening from the tarsus, reach their greatest breadth at
the end of the toes. Their length is short as compared to their breadth,
the distance between the ends of the outer toes when spread nearly equal-
ling the whole length of the foot. The toes are terminated with strong

48

BULLETIN OF THE

cartilaginous flaps, covered with a thick leathery naked membrane, which
is deeply indented opposite the intervals between the toes, and serves to
connect the rather diverging digits. The three middle toes are provided
with long, well-developed nails ; the outer toes are without true nails, but
in place of them are thickened, horny disks, which may be regarded as
rudimentary nails, which an examination of the skeleton shows them to
be. The outer toes are slightly shorter than the three middle ones, which
are sub-equal.

Fore Limbs. — The fore feet (Fig. 6, PI. I, fa nat. size) are large, tri-
angular, and situated but a little in front of the middle of the body.
They terminate in a thick, hard, membranous flap, which is slightly and
somewhat irregularly indented on the inner side. The terminations of the
digits are indicated by small circular horny disks or rudimentary nails.

Measurements. — The following table of external measurements of two
males, one very aged and the other mature, indicates the general propor-
tions of the body. A part were taken from the moist skins before stuffing,
and the others from the same skins mounted.

Measurements of Two Skins of Eumetopias Stelleri.

No. 2920.

No. 23

21.

£ 10 years old.

J 1 5 years old.

Unmounted.

Mounted.

Unmounted.

Mounted.

Length of body

2,750

2,790

2,896

3,010

" " tail . ...

100

100

110

Extent of outstretched fore limbs . . "

2,362

Length of hand .....

57.'.

560

C35

620

Breadth" "

3.37

335

360

Length " foot .....

559

540

610

Breadth " " at tarsus

2 Hi

210

230

" " " " ends of the toe-flaps

4^3

4 15

440

Length of flaps of outer toe .

200

200

220

" " " " 'id toe .

171)

156

210

" " " " .'id toe

152

147

190

" " " " 4th toe .

164

150

190

" " " " inner toe .

164

150

165

Distance from end of nose to eye

215

190

170

" '" " " ear .

368

365

380

" between the eyes .

190

195

210

" " ears

372

370

420

Length of the ear ....

37

35

35

" " longest harhulc

342

342

I)i-t between points of longest barbulcs

SOU

800

Circumference of the body at fore limbs

2, -.'5(1

2,600

" " " near the tail

1,000

1,020

" " head at the cars

1 000

(ISO

Length of body to end of hind limbs . .

3,450

3,790

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 49

Skull — The skull (Figs. 3 and 4, woodcuts, pp. 57-58, and Figs. 1 -4, PL
I) varies greatly in different individuals, not only in its general form, but
in the shape of its different bones. The occipital and median crests are
doubtless not much developed before the fifth or sixth year. The bones
thicken greatly after the animal attains maturity, and the palate becomes
more flattened. In the adult male the brain-box may be described as
subquadrate, narrower anteriorly, where the skull is abruptly contracted.
The greatest diameter of the skull is at the posterior end of the zygoma,
and is equal to three fifths of its length. The post-orbital processes are
strongly developed and quadrate ; the forehead is flat, and the facial pro-
file is either abruptly or gradually declined ; the muzzle is broad, equal
in breadth in front to the distance between the orbits. The palatal sur-
face of the intermaxillaries is flat, or slightly depressed anteriorly, and very
slightly contracted posteriorly. Laterally the intermaxillaries reach nearly
to the end of the palatals. The latter are much contracted posteriorly,
and terminate quite far in front of the hamuli pterygoidii. Both the
anterior and posterior nares are a little narrower than high. The nasals
are widest anteriorly. The last (fifth) pair of upper molars is placed
far behind the fourth pair, the space between them being about equal
to that occupied by two molars. The males in old age have exceed-
ingly high occipital and sagittal crests, most developed posteriorly ; an
teriorly they diverge and terminate in the hinder edge of the postorbital
processes.

The lower jaw is massive and strong. Its coronoid processes are greatly
developed, as are the tuberosities at the angles of the rami, and a second
tuberosity on the lower inner edge of each ramus (see Figs. 9-11,
PI. III).

It should be added that the above description of the skull refers ex-
clusively to the male. Having no skulls of the female, I am unable to
state definitely how the sexes differ in respect to the form of the skull.
Judging, however, from the sexual variations seen in Callorhinus ur sinus,
Otaria jubata, and other species of the Olariadce, the skull of the female
would be not only very much smaller, but it would lack almost totally the
high occipital and sagittal crests exhibited by the male, and have all the
processes for the attachment of muscles less developed. The teeth, es-
pecially the canines, are relatively much smaller, as is also the lower jaw.
In other words, the female skull would doubtless closely resemble the skull
of a yearling male. The annexed table of measurements indicates still
further the general form of the male skull and the relative proportions of
its different regions.

50

BULLETIN OF THE

Measurements of the Skull.

Length

Breadth

Dist. from ant edge of intermaxillary to hamuli pterygoids
" " " " to last molar (left side)

" " " " " (right side)

" " " " to ant. edge of zygm. arch

" "- " " post. " "

" " " " to auditory orifice

Length of left palatine bone (inner edge)
" " " " " (outer edge)

" " right " " (inner edge)

" " " " " (outer edge)

Breadth of right palatine anteriorly ....

left " " ....

" right " posteriorly ....

left " " ....

Distance from edge of palatals to ptyg. process

" " " last molar to post, edge of palatals

(left side)

Depression of palate below alveoli of canines

" " " " 2d and 3d molars .

" " " " 4th molar .

Length of the nasals (outer edge)

" " " (inner edge) ....

Breadth of nasals (anteriorly)

" " " (posteriorly)

" of the skull at the canines

" " " postorbital processes .

" " " paroccipital "

" " anterior nares (vertical)

" " " (transverse) . •?.

" " posterior nares (vertical)

" (transverse)

Length of zygomatic foramen

Breadth " ......

Diameter of foramen magnum (transverse)

" " " " (anteroposterior)

Greatest height of skull (paroc. proc. to top of occip. crest)
Distance from lower edge of condyles "
Height of skull from hamuli pteryg. to top of sagittal crest

Length of sagittal crest

Greatest height of skull

Length of lower jaw .......

Breadth of the lower jaw at the condyles
" " " last molar

" " " in front ....

" • " condyle

Height of lower jaw at the coronoid process

" at symphysis

No. 2920.

No. 2921.

Middle aged.

Very old.

$

8

374

385

220

246

243

247

160

160

160

150

140

140

246

250

290

300

50

64

55

68

45

63

49

63

16

19

19

21

12

16

13

18

48

46

32

42

19

17

41

38

18

20

60

64

47

48

32

38

45

44

95

110

120

130

200

235

54

54

48

55

32

42

30

36

116

120

80

80

30

33

33

36

145

165

132

140

150

160

80

180

38

35

270

280

185

210

100

110

65

65

60

60

85

95

65

75

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY,

51

Teeth. — Last upper molar is double-rooted, and its crown directed back-
wards. All the other molars are single-rooted, with a slight median longi-
tudinal groove on the outside. Their crowns are irregularly conical,
pointed, and jut out over their contracted necks ; inner side of the crowns
hollowed. Surface of the crowns roughened with minute, longitudinal
grooves and ridges. The upper molars have no trace of the supplemental
points to the crowns seen in many species of this family. The lower
molars, particularly the third and fourth, have very slight accessory cusps.
Necks of the molars uniform in size with the upper part of the fangs.
Fangs of the molars gradually tapering, those of the first and second
upper much curved inwards ; that of the third less so ; that of the fourth
straight ; the two fangs of the fifth are directed abruptly forward, the
posterior one much the smaller. Canines of both jaws very large, the
upper, however, much the larger; the lower more curved. Of the six
incisors- of the upper jaw, those of the outer pair are much larger than
the middle ones, two thirds as long as the canines, and much like them in
form. The middle ones have their antero-posterior diameter nearly twiee
their lateral diameter, and their crowns are divided transversely. The
fangs of the inner pair are slightly bifid. Of the four lower incisors the
outer are much the longer. Figures 5-5 e (one half natural size), Plate I,
shows the form of the teeth, and the subjoined table their size.*

Measurements of the Teeth.
A. — Teeth of the Upper Jaw.

a

Molars.

1)

a

i
o

Incisors.

5th.

4th.

3d.

2d.

1st.

Outer.

Middle.

Inner.

Total length .
Length of the crown

" " neck f

" " root X
Antero posterior diameter $
Lateral diameter §

27
9

6
12

11.5

6.5

33
13

6
14
13

9

36
13
6
15
13
10

37
13
6
18
13
10

40
11
6
23
11.5
8.5

84

34

6

24
20

63
23

7

15
12

29
5

7

7
5

25
4

7

6
4

* These figures and dimensions (the latter given in millimetres) are taken from the
younger or middle-aged specimen, in which the dentition was perfect and normal. In
old age many of the teeth are usually broken, and a portion of them often entirely
wanting, through loss from accident. As the lower canines could not be removed with-
out removing a portion of the jaw, they have not been figured nor fully measured.

t The distance from the crown to the alveolus^ _

\ The portion of the tooth inserted in the jaw.-

§ At the base of the crown.

52

BULLETIN OF THE
B — Teeth of the Lower Jaw,

Molars.

o
c

'3

Incisors.

6th.

4th.

42
12

5
25
13

9

3d.

42
14
5
23
15
10

2d.

1st.

30
10
5
15
10.5
8.5

Outer.

Iuner.

Total length ....
Length of the crown

" " neck* .

" " roott .
Anteroposterior diameter t •
Lateral diameter \

28

10

5

13

9
G

39
12

5

22

12.5

9

35

7

26
17

31

8

4

9

25
5
4

16
6
5

Skeleton. — Vertebral formula: Cervical vertebra?, 7; dorsal, 15; lum-
bar, 5; caudal (including the four sacral), variable; probable average, 16.

Ten of the fifteen ribs articulate with the sternum ; their sternal por-
tions are entirely cartilaginous. Their osseous portions evidently increase
much in length after middle age. The apophyses of the vertebra} are
well developed. Of the neural spines of the dorsal vertebras, the first,
secondhand third are sub-equal, 130 mm. long; they gradually shorten
posteriorly, the last having a length of only 75 mm.

The sternum is normally composed of nine osseous thick and broad
segments, the first and last very long, the eighth shortest. Between the
eighth and ninth a shorter cartilaginous one is sometimes intercalated (as
in specimen No. 2920).

The pelvis (already fully described on pages 27- 29) is well developed.
The ilia are very long and narrow antero-posteriorly. The pubic bones
are unanchylosed, they being merely approximate at their posterior ex-
tremities. Probably in the females (as in Callorhinus ursinus), they are
widely separated, and the whole pelvis much smaller than in the males
and differently shaped.

The humeri, as in the other Pinnipedes, are short and thick, with the
greater tuberosity enormously developed. The bones of the fore-arm are
also very -large and strong, with all their processes greatly developed; in
length they but slightly exceed the humerus. The length of neither of the
segments of the arm quite equals the length of the bones of the first digit
(including its metacarpal bone) of the hand. The first digit of the hand
is the longest, twice as long as the fifth, and very thick anil strong.

The bones of the hinder limbs are also short and thick, especially the
femur, which is scarcely more than one third as long as the tibia. The
latter in length about equals the foot. The relative length of the digits

* The distance from the crown to the alveolus,
t The portion inserted in the jaw.
J At the base of the crown.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY.

53

is as follows, the longest being mentioned first: 5th, 1st, 2d, 3d, and
4th. The third and fourth are of equal length, and but little shorter than
the second. In fespect to size, the tarsal and phalangeal bones of the fifth
digit are nearly twice as large as those of the first, whilst those of the first
are about twice the size of those of either of the other three. As pre-
viously noticed, the three middle digits of the foot are supplied with long
narrow nails ; the first and fifth with rudimentary ones, scarcely visible in
the skin but quite distinct in the skeleton.

Measurements of the Bones of the Hand (metacarpal and phalangeal).

Middle-aged Specimen.

Very old Specimen.

1st 2d

3d

4th

5th

1st

2d

3d

4th

5th

digit, digit.

digit.

digit.

digit.

digit.

digit.

digit.

digit.

digit.

Length of metacarpal and

phalanges .

352 310

240

200

177

357

320

250

205

185

Length of metacarpal bone

152 110

85

80

80

160

110

90

80

85

" " 1st phalanx .

140 95

70

55

65

140

95

70

60

65

" " 2d " .

60 ' 80

60

45

20

57

80

65

45

18

" " 3d

25

25

20

12

35

25

20

17

Measurements of the Bones of the Foot {metatarsal and phalangeal).

Middle-aged Specimen.

Very old Specimen.

1st

2d

3d

4th

5th

1st

2d

3d

4th

5th

digit.

digit.

digit.

digit.

digit.

digit.

digit

digit.

digit.

digit.

Length of metatarsal and

phalanges .

310

290

290

305

328

320

317

327

350

350

Length of metatnrsal bone

120

95

95

110

130

145

110

110

120

130

" " 1st phalanx .

140

90

90

90

93

130

100

105

105

110

" " 2d " .

50

75

75

80

70

45

80

85

95

75

" "3d

30

30

25

35

27

27

30

35

" " nail

40

40

37

50

55

50

The hyoid bone is greatly developed. Each ramus consists of five
segments, its two rami being connected together by a transverse segment
articulating with the juncture of the fourth and fifth segments. All the
parts of the hyoid bone are very thick, especially the transverse and an-
terior . segments ; relatively much more so than in Callnrhinm. In the
common Phoca the hyoid bone is reduced almost to a bony filament.
The length of the hyoid bone in the present species is 270 mm.; of the
transverse segment, G5 mm. ; circumference of the transverse segment, 45
mm. ; of the segment at the thickest part, 95.

54

BULLETIN OF THE
Measurements of the Skeleton.

-6

2

© o

— o

<N M

&> M

<J> U

o >-.

CM ".

CM ".

J? <=>

6 o

^~

^ -

2,750

2,935

Whole length of skeleton (including skull) .

Length of skull

374

385

" " cervical vertebrae

500

540

" " dorsal "

1,051)

1,090

" " lumbar " ......

340

400

" " caudal " ......

440

520

" " first rib ........

260

224

" " " osseous portion .....

130

140

" " " cartilaginous portion ....

130

100

" " second rib

345

295

" osseous portion .....

175

185

" " " cartilaginous portion

170

120

" " third rib ....... .

410

410

" " " osseous portion .....

231)

270

" cartilaginous portion ....

180

140

" " fourth rib

470

470

" " " osseous portion .....

280

330

" cartilaginous portion

190

140

" fifth rib

535

5 50

" " " osseous portion .....

320

370

" " " cartilaginous portion ....

215

160

" " sixth rib .

580

590

" " " osseous portion .....

360

420

" " " cartilaginous portion

220

170

" " seventh rib .......

640

620

" osseous portion ....

400

440

" " " cartilaginous portion

240

ISO

" " eighth rib ...... .

670

670

" " " osseous portion

420

480

" " " cartilaginous portion

250

190

" " ninth rib

710

685

" " osseous portion ....

420

485

" " " cartilaginous portion ....

290

200

" " tenth rib

750

745

" " " osseous portion .....

420

4^5

" " " cartilaginous portion

330

260

" " eleventh rib, osseous portion only

430

510

" " twelfth rib " " " . . .

490

500

" " thirteenth rib " " " ...

450

470

" " fourteenth rib " " "

410

460

" " fifteenth rib " " " ...

340

350

" " sternum (ossified portion) ....

7(10

840

" " " 1st segment .....

130

1st)

2d

70

90

" " 3d

70

85

" 4th

65

so

" " " 5th "

63

85

" 6th

60

75

7th

60

73

8th

55

65

9th "

70

77

" " " supernum. cartilag. seg.(bet. 8th and 9th)

30

—

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY.

55

Length of scapula .

Breadth of " ....

Greatest height of its spine .

Length of humerus ....
Circumference of its head .
Least circumference of the humerus
Length of radius .

" " ulna ....
Longest diameter of upper end of ulna
Length of carpus ....
" " metacarpus and 1st digit

" 2d "

" " " " 3d "

« « « 4th '•

" 5[h «

" " femur
Circumference of neck
Length of tibia
" " fibula
" " tarsus
" " metatarsus and 1st iiigit

" 2d "

" " " " 3d "

<< 4th "

" 5th "

" " innominate bone
Greatest width of the pelvis anteriorly
Length of ilium ....

" " ischio-pubic bones

" " thyroid foramen

" " os penis .
Width of hand at base of digits

" " foot " " .

£2

830
350

45
300
300
170
260
510
100

80
350
310
240
200
170
170
125
320
310
140
310
290
290
305
227
320
140
140
140

170
160
130

© m

370
380
52
285
290
180
SCO
310
130
80
360
320
250
2,050
1 ,850
220
ISO
340
330
160
270
290
270
285
310
360
160
160
200
200
170

140

The os penis (Fig. 13, Plate III) is 170 mm. long, slightly arched,
somewhat flattened above, especially posteriorly, sharply convex below,
and abruptly expanded and squarely truncate at the end. Its circumfer-
ence at the base is 72 mm.; just behind the terminal expansion, 32 mm.;
and the terminal expansion itself, G5 mm.

The above table gives the principal measurements of the bones of
the skeleton. Measurements of both specimens are given, as in previous
tables, for the purpose of illustrating the variations that occur in the rela-
tive size of different parts after maturity is attained, and also for the pur-
pose of illustrating individual variation, which in some particulars these
specimens exhibit in a marked degree. The ribs, it will be observed, dif-
fer but slightly in total length in the two; not nearly so much as would be
expected from the much greater bulk of the body of the older specimen.
It will be noticed that the principal differences in the ribs consist in the

56 BULLETIN OF THE

relative length of the bony to the. cartilaginous portions, in the older the
ossified portion being much longei and the cartilaginous much shorter than
in the other. An irregularity will be also observed in respect to the ster-
nal segments, the younger specimen having a supernumerary cartilagi-
nous one between the 8th and 9th normal ones.

Age and Sexual Variations. — In regard to the present species my ma-
terial does not furnish many facts in respect to these points, since the two
males contained in Captain Bryant's collection constitute at present my
only resources. These examples, he writes me, were selected " as average
specimens of full-grown males, but in the selection," he says, " we were
governed somewhat by the desire to have skins perfectly haired, many of
the animals being chafed by the rocks, even to having sores." " I should
estimate," he further adds, "the age of one of them to be nine or ten
years, that of the other fifteen." These specimens, however, differ consid-
erably from each other in color, size, and proportions. Some of these dif-
ferences are clearly due to age, but others equally great cannot be thus
explained. These specimens show that the body increases greatly in bulk,
and the bones in size and density, after the animal has reached its adult
length. The crests of the skull are almost wholly developed after this
period, and in great measure also the spines or ridges of the scapulae.
The processes for the attachment of the muscles also increase, as do the
vertebral or osseous portions of the ribs. The teeth also change greatly
in size and form after maturity is attained. They not only increase in size,
especially the canines, but become much worn and misshapen by long use.
In old specimens a greater or less proportion of the teeth are said to be either
entirely wanting or broken, as is the case in the older of the two specimens
before me.* Respecting the younger stages I am without data, as well as
in respect to sexual variation. In these points the present species dot's
not probably differ much from Callorhinus ursinus, adult females and the
young of which are described further on. It is well known, however, that
the females are much smaller than the males ; as already suggested, they
doubtless" also lack the greatly developed sagittal and occipital crests of
the males, as do the females of C. ursinus and Otaria jubata.

Individual Variation. — The present specimens, though only two in
number and of different ages, indicate that the species under consideration
is subject to a great amount of individual variation. This variation is strik-
ingly shown in the skull, as seen in tin' following woodcuts (pp. 57-58).
After allowing for the differences age would make, as in the smaller size of
the sagittal crest, the rounded outline of the front edges of the inter-
maxillaries, the smaller size of the postorbital processes, the greater dis-
tinctness of the sutures, and perhaps the more sloping outline of the fore-

* See Eig. 3, Plate I.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY.
Fig. 1.* Fig. 2.t

57

head in the younger (Figs. 1 and 4), there is left a radical difference in
the general form of the two skulls, which must have increased as the
younger animal advanced in years. In length the two skulls vary only about
a tenth of an inch; the younger, however, is considerably the narrower and
much deeper, especially posteriorly, while its facial angle is much less.
The direction of the latero-occipital crests, the form and projection of
the occipital condyles, and especially their situation relative to the par-
occipital processes, are exceedingly different in the two skulls, as clearly
shown in Figs. 3 and 4, — as different as might be expected to occur in

Fig. 3.J

* Fig. 1, anterior portion of trie skull of No. 2920 (left side), showing the form of tho
nasals the zygomatic and postorbital processes, and the posterior outline of the inter-
maxillaries, soon from above.

t Fig. 2, same of No. 2921. t Fig. 3, skull of No. 2921, seen in profile.

58

BULLETIN OF THE

quite distinct species. In the anterior portion of the skull the differences
are nearly as great as in the posterior portion. In the older skull the
ratio of the height of the skull at the base of the second molar to its
height at the base of the fourth is as 81 to 100; the corresponding ratio

Fig. 4.*

in the younger skull is as 74 to 100. It may be added that the same ratio
in Dr. Gray's figure of the skull of Zalophus Gillespii\ is as 70 to 100,
showing that the younger skull in this character more resembles the Z. Gil-
lespii, — which different writers have spoken of as remarkable for the great
declination of the face, — than it does the older skull of the same species.
There are also great differences in the relative length and shape of the
nasal bones, and in the form of the posterior outline of the intermaxillaries
(Figs. 1 and 2). In the younger specimen they extend further back than
in the older, further even than the end of the nasals, while in the older the
nasals extend beyond the intermaxillaries.

In respect, to the posterior aspect of the skull (Figs. 2 and 4, Plate I),
the differences are no less great. The height of the occipital bone is about
fifteen per cent greater in the young skull (Fig. 2, PL I), which would be
much increased by age through the further development of the supraoc-
cipital crest. The breadth of the occiput above is equal in the two; below
it is fifteen per cent greater in the older (Fig. 4, PI. I).

In the lower surface of the skull (Figs. 1 and 3, Plate I) other consider-
able differences are observable, and of such a nature that they cannot be
dec! as resulting from age. In the older skull, as previously remarked,
the bones are in general much thicker than in the younger; but in re-

* Fig. 4, skull of No. 2920, same view.

t l'i'oc. London Zoi 1. Society, lbu'J, PI. LXX.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 59

spect to the hamuli pterygoidei, the younger skull has these processes
longer and stouter than they are in the older. The posterior nares are
narrower and higher in the younger, — a difference correlating with the
general differences in form of the skull in the two specimens, the nares in
the younger being relatively narrow and high as compared with those of
the other. The comparative measurements of these skulls already given
(p. 49) show definitely the amount of these differences. The palatine
surface of the intermaxillaries is less depressed in the older skull.

In respect to other portions of the skeleton, considerable differences
other than those obviously resulting from age are met with. The smaller
and younger specimen, which has a girth in the mounted skin (as it
doubtless had in life) one fourth greater than the other, has ribs as long
as the other. The number of segments in the sternum varies in the two,
through the intercalation in the younger specimen of a short cartilaginous
one between the eighth and ninth, to which the ninth pair of ribs is at-
tached, instead of both the eighth and ninth pairs being attached to the
eighth segment, as is usually the case.

In color, contrary to what would result from age, the younger specimen
is much the lighter.

Asymmetry. — A small amount of asymmetry has now come to be recog-
nized as normally occurring in many groups of mammals, from which even
the highest are not free. It is most marked, however, in the lower types,
and especially in the cetaceans, where it is usually too great to escape the
notice of the mo;t cursory observer. The eared seals also exhibit an un-
usually great degree of asymmetry. This absence of symmetry doubtless
indicates a tendency to a greater than the ordinary degree of individual vari-
ation. In the skull of the older specimen of Eumetopias now before me,
the asymmetry is very striking, the preponderance of size being on the left
side of the skull, which is not only broader, but appreciably longer. Be-
sides the asymmetry of size, there is an asymmetry in the position of the
different parts, those on one side being in advance of their homologues on
the other side.* The following measurements indicate the extent of the
asymmetry in size, the measurements being taken from the (homologically)
median line outwards at four different points : —

Right side, ....
Lett side

48
53

57
63

34
39

111
113

* This one-sidedness is still more strikingly seen in the above-mentioned female skull
of Otariajubnta, especially in regard to the size and position of the postorbital processes.

Dr. G. A. Maack informs me that in the specimens of the 0. jubeda collected by him
on the coast of Buenos Ayres the asymmetry was astonishingly great. On the contrary,
he found no asymmetry in the skull of the ArctocejAalus falklandicus.

60 BULLETIN OF THE

The palatine bones seem to be particularly liable to vary in length and
form on the two sides of the same skull, as does also the position of the
last molar tooth. On the left side the distance between the fourth and
fifth molars in the older skull is 3."> mm., on the right side 26 mm.

In the younger skull the left side is also just appreciably more devel-
oped than the right. In the older individual the asymmetry is readily
traceable throughout the skeleton, in the hind feet especially, the one
being much larger than the other.

General Remarks. — The northern sea lion was first described by
Steller in 1751, who, under the name of Leo marinas, gave a somewhat
detailed account of its habits and its geographical range, so far as known
to him. His description of the animal, however, is quite unsatisfactory.
Steller's Leo marinus, in size, general form and color, closely resembles
the southern sea lion (Otariajubata), with which Steller's animal was
confounded by Pennant, Buffon and nearly all subsequent writers for
nearly a century. Peron, in 1816, first distinctly affirmed the northern
and southern sea lions to be specifically distinct. Lesson, in 1828, gave
it the specific name it now bears, in hpnor of Steller, its first describer.
The following year Fischer, on the authority of Lesson, also recognized
its distinctness from the southern species. Nilsson, in 1840, in his cel-
ebrated monograph of the seals, reunited them. Midler, however, in an
appendix to Dr. W. Peters's transition of Nilsson's essay, published in
the Archiv fur Naturgeschichte for 1841, separated it again, and pointed
out some of the differences in the skulls that serve to distinguish the
two species. Gray, in his Catalogue of the Seals published in 1850,
also regarded it as distinct. But one is led to infer that he had not yet
seen specimens of it, and that he rested his belief in the existence of
such a species mainly on Steller's account of it, as he himself expressly
states in his later papers. The ^kull received subsequently at the Brit-
ish Museum from Monterey, California, and figured and described by
Gray as a new species, under the name of Arctocephalus monteriensis,
proved, however, to be of this species, as first affirmed by Dr. Gill, and
later by Professor Peters and Gray himself. With the exception of the
figures of an imperfect skull of Steller's sea lion from Kamtchatka, given
by Pander and D' Alton in 1826, Dr. Gray's excellent figure (a view
in profile) is the only one of its skull hitherto published. The only
specimens of the animal extant, up to a recent date, in the European
museums, seem to have consisted of the two skulls and a stuffed skin in

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 61

the Berlin Museum mentioned by Peters, and the skull in the British
Museum figured and described by Gray.

With the Monterey skull above mentioned, Dr. Gray received another
very young skull, and the skin of a fur seal, both of which were said
to have belonged to one animal, and which he hesitatingly referred
to his Arctocephalus monteriensis.* Later, however, he regarded them
as representing a new species,! which he called Arctocephalus califor-
nianus. Still later he again seems to refer them to his Eumetopias
Stelleri \ (=. Arctocephalus monteriensis Gray, of earlier date). Con-
cerning this skin he remarked at one time as follows: "If the skin
sent last year by Mr. Taylor to Mr. Gurney, and by that gentleman
presented to the Museum, is the young of this species \_A. monteriensis'],
the young animal is blackish, silvered by the short white tips to the
short black hairs ; those on the nape and hinder parts of the body with
longer white tips, making those parts whiter and more silvery. The
under-fur is very abundant, reaching nearly to the end of the hair.
The end of the nose and sides of the face are whitish. The whiskers
are elongated, rigid, smooth, and white. The hind feet are elongate,
with rather long flaps to the toes. The skull is small for the size of
the skin, and I should have doubted its belonging to the skin if it were
not accompanied by the following label : ' Skull of the fur seal I sent
last year. It is very imperfect, from my forgetting where I had put it;
but it must do until accident throws another in the way; the other
bones were lo~t. — A. S. T.' " §

As Dr. Gray seems to have finally become settled in his opinion
that this skin is identical with his A. monteriensis, afterwards called by
him Eumetopias Stelleri, this may account for the statement (already
referred to in my " Resume,") recently made by him || and subse-
quently reiterated,^" that the Eumetopias Stelleri is a species in which
" the fur is very dense, standing nearly erect from the skin, forming a
very soft, elastic coat, as in 0. falklandica and 0. Stelleri, which," he
erroneously says, "are the only seals that have a close, soft, elastic
fur." From his description of this young skull it is apparently reler-

* Proc. Loud. Zool. Soc, 1S59, p. 358.

t Cat. Seals and Whales, 1866. p. 49.

J Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 3d Series, 1866, Vol. XVilI, p. 233.

§ Proc. Lond. Zool. Soc, 1859, p. 358.

I! Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 4th Series, 1866, Vol. I, p. 101.

1 Ibid., p. 215.

G2 BULLETIN OF THE

able to E. Stelleri ; but the skin is unquestionably that of the Callor-
hinus ursinus. Nothing can be more sure than that it cannot belong
to the E. Stelleri, which is completely destitute of soft fur, as proved
by the specimens before me, and the description given by Professor
Peters of the one in the Berlin Museum.

Lesson gave the name Otaria californiana to a supposed species of
eared seal based solely on the " Jeune lion marin de la Californie " of
Choris.* The figure given by Choris is too poorly drawn to be recog-
nizable as that of one species of eared seal rather than of another.
The following is the only allusion Choris makes to this animal in his
text : " Les rochers, dans le voisinage de la baie San-Francisco sont
ordinairement couverts de lions marins. PI. XI." From the locality,
which is the only possible guide, it was doubtless the E. Stelleri, but it
may have been the Zalophus Gillespii. Dr. Gill in his " Prodrome,"
adopted provisionally Lesson's name {californiana) for the present spe-
cies, but at the same time suggested its probable identity with the so-
called Otaria Stelleri of Miiller. Peters, a few months later, confirmed
Gill's suggestion, since which time the name Stelleri has been univer-
sally adopted for the larger northern hair seal. The Otaria Stelleri of
Schlegel, f formerly supposed by Gray % and also by Peters § to in-
clude both the Australian eared seals (viz. Arctocephalus cinereus and
Zalophus lobatus), has finally been referred by the latter, after an ex-
amination of the original specimens in the Leyden Museum, to the
Zalophus Gillespii.\\ I am now convinced of the correctness of this
determination, though for a time I suspected the skull of the young
female figured in Fauna Japonica (PI. XXII, Figs. 5 and 6) to belong
to some species of fur seal. It certainly differs greatly in proportions,
as well as in dentition, from the other skulls figured in this work (same
plate), and called 0. Stelleri.

The northern sea lion having become generally recognized as specifi-
cally distinct from the sea lion of the southern seas, Dr. Gill, in 1866,
separated the two generically. This had indeed already been done prac-
tically by Dr. Gray, inasmuch as he placed his A. monteriensis (=0.

* Voyage Pittoresque, PI. XI, of the chapter entitled " Port San-Francisco et se9
habitants." (The date of this work is 1822.)
t Fauna Japonica, Mam. marine, p. 10.

\ Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 3d Series, 1866, Vol. XVni, p. 229.
§ Monatsberichte Akad. Berlin, 1866, pp. 272, 276.
|| Ibid., p. 669.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 63

Stelleri auct.) in the genus Arctocephalus, and the southern sea lion in
Otaria, with which he nominally associated the 0. Stelleri. He failed,
however, to recognize the identity of his A. monteriensis with the 0.
Stelleri, and hence the entire generic diversity of the northern and
southern sea lions seems to have escaped his observation. The latter
fact was first pointed out by Dr. Gill in his " Prodrome," as above
stated.

Comparison with Otaria jubata. — Having only male specimens of
the Eumetopias Stelleri, and only skulls of the female of Otaria jubata,
I am unable to make a detailed comparison of these two strictly geo-
graphically representative species. The following measurements of a
female 0. jubata, taken from the animal itself (at Cabo Corrientes,
Buenos Ayres), by Dr. G. A. Maack, are here introduced for future
reference, since they are more detailed than any hitherto published : —

" Measurements of Otaria jubata (adult).

" Total length to end of tail 1,750 mm.

" " « " " outstretched hind limbs . . 2,070 "

Greatest circumference of the body .... 1,050 "

Circumference of the body in front of fore limbs . 970 "

" " " hind limbs . . 860 "

" of the neck 620 "

Length of left fore fin 700 "

" « palm 500 "

" " hind fin (sole) 430 "

" The general color is brown ; iris, coffee-brown ; barbules, dark yellow."

Of the large collection of skins and skeletons of the Otaria jubata
received by the London Zoological Society in 1868, we as yet have no
very detailed account. The measurements of one of the adult females
given by Dr. Murie * are as follows : " Greatest length of skin, includ-
ing hind extremities, 80 1 inches [2,045 mm.] ; from muzzle to end of
tail, 66| inches [1,702 mm.]; tip to tip of fore limbs outspread, 58
inches [1,473 mm.]" It hence agrees very nearly in size with that
measured by Dr. Maack.

The measurements of a male specimen of O. jubata — belonging to
the same collection as the female — given by Dr. Murie, indicate
that it was not nearly full grown. The few reliable facts we have in

* Proc. Zool. Soc. 1869, p. 102.

G4 BULLETIN OF THE

respect to the size of the male are sufficient to show that in this respect,
as well as in general external features, the O.jubata differs markedly in
no way from the Eumetopias Stelleri, although they differ widely in the
form of the skull and in dentition.

Geographical Distribution. — According to Steller, this species ex-
isted in his time along nearly the whole eastern coast of Kamtchatka
and southwards to the Kurile Islands. He also met with it on Behring's
Island and on the American coast. Both Captain Bryant and Mr. Dall
report it as abundant at the Pribyloff Islands, and it has been received
by Dr. Gray, and also, as Dr. Gill informs me, at the Smithsonian In-
stitution, from California. The sea lions of the Farallone Islands and
other parts of the California coast, especially those that have of late
attracted so much attention in the harbor of San Francisco, are proba-
bly the present species. The E. Stel/eri hence doubtless ranges along
the American coast, in greater or less abundance, from California to
Behring's Strait, and down the Asiatic coast to the Kurile Islands.

Habits. — The habits of this species have not yet been minutely
described. Steller gave a very full account of those of the sea bear
(Cattorkinus ursinus), and remarked that, with some few exceptions
(which lie specifies), those of the sea lion closely resemble those of that
animal. Captain Bryant has also been far more minute in his account
of the sea bear; but in the subjoined notes respecting the sea lion he
presents interesting information regarding the latter species. The
Plates of Choris (Nos. XI Vr and XV of the chapter on the Aleutian
Islands) doubtless give a very good idea of the appearance of these
animals and the sea bears when assembled on the land. lb' has also
contributed a few interesting facts concerning their habits. The follow-
ing are tin' remarks of Captain Bryant: —

"The sea lion visits St. Paul's Island in considerable numbers to
rear its young. It is one of the largest of the seal family, the male
frequently measuring thirteen feet in length, ami weighing from fifteen
to eighteen hundred pounds. It- habits are the same as those of the
fur seal. When roused to anger it has a very- marked resemblance,
through the form of its bead and neck, to the animal from which it is
named, and its voice, when roaring, can be heard to a great distance.
Its body is thickly covered with fine, short, dark [?] In-own hair, without
any fur. It- skin is of considerable value as an article of commerce in
the territory, it being used in making all kinds of boats, from a one-man

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 65

canoe to a lighter of twenty tons' burden. The natives of all the Aleu-
tian Islands and of the coast as far east as Sitka, beside those of many
ports on the mainland to the north, rely on this island for a supply of
the skins of this animal. The rookery is on the northeast end of the
island, and the animals have to be driven ten or eleven miles to the vil-
lage to bring their skins to the drying-frames. It sometimes requires
five days to make the journey, as at frequent intervals they have to be
allowed to rest. It is a somewhat dangerous animal, and the men fre-
quently get seriously hurt by it in driving and killing it. They are
driven together in the same manner as the fur seals are ; and while
impeding each other by treading upon each other's flippers the small
ones are killed with lances, but the larger ones have to be shot.

" This animal is the most completely consumed of any on the island.
Their flesh is preferred to that of the seal for drying for winter use.
After the skins are taken off (two thousand of which are required
annually to supply the trading-po.«ts of the territory), they are spread
in piles of twenty-five each, with the flesh side down, and left to heat
until the hair is loo-ened ; it is then scraped off, and the skins are
stretched on frames to dry. The blubber is removed from the carcass
for fuel or oil, and the flesh is cut in strips and dried for winter
use. The linings of their throats are saved and tanned for making
the legs of boots and shoes, and the skin of the flippers is u>ed for
the soles. Their stomachs are turned, cleaned, and dried, and are used
to put the oil in when boiled out. The intestines are dressed and
sewed together into water-proof frocks, which are worn while hunting
and fishing in the boats. The sinews of the back are dried and
stripped to make the thread with which to sew together the intes-
tines, and to fasten the skins to the canoe-frames. The natives receive
thirty-five cents apiece for the .-kins when ready for shipment. But
these skins are not so much valued by the trader for the profit he
makes on their sale, as for the advantage it gives him in bargaining
with the hunters, since by buying these they are able to secure a
right to the purchase of the hunter's furs on his return, the natives
always considering such contracts binding."

Choris, in his description of the '"lies S. -Georges et S.-PauFs," thus
speaks of the sea lions that he met with on these islands fifty years
ago: —

" Le rivage etait couvert de troupes innombrables de lions marins.

VOL. II. 5

G6 BULLETIN OF THE

L'odeur qu'ils repandent est insupportable. Ces animaux etaient alors
dans lc temps du rut. L'on voyait de tous cotes les males se battre
entre eux pour s'enlever les uns aux autres les femelles. Chaque
male en rassemble de dix a vingt, se montre jaloux, ne soutfre aucun
autre male, et attaque ceux qui tentent de s'approcher ; il les tue par
ses morsurea ou s'en fait tuer. Dans le premier cas, il s'empare des
femelles da vaincu. Nous avons trouve plusieurs males etendus morts
sur la plage, des seules blessures qu'ils avaient reeues dans les combats.
Quelques femelles avaient deja des petits. Les Aleoutes en prirent plu-
sieurs douzaines pour nous. L'animal n'est pas dangereux ; il fuit
a l'approcbe de l'homme, excepte depuis la mi-mai jusqu'a la mi-juin,
qui est le plus fort temps du rut, et oil les femelles mettent bas leur
petits ; alors il ne se laisse pas approcber et il attaque meme."

" Ces animaux sont aussi tres-conmums au port de San-Francisco,
sur la tote de Californie, oil on les voit en nombre prodigieux sur les
rochers de la baie. Cette espece m'a paru sedistinguer de ceux qui fre-
quentent les iles Aleoutiennes; elle a le corps plus fluet et plus allonge,
et la tete plus fine: quant a la couleur, elle passe fortement au brun,
tandis que ceux des iles Aleoutiennes sont d'une couleur plus grise,
ont le corps plus rond, les mouvements plus diffieiles, la tete plus
grosse et plus epaisse ; la couleur du poil des moustaches plus noiratre
que celui des iles Aleoutiennes.

" On trouve les lions marins depuis L 3(V'mc jusqu'au GO0"16 parallele
nord, dans les iles et sur le continent d'Amerique."

"On v [l'ile Saint-Georges] tue une grande quantite de lions marins;
mais seulement des males, a cause de leur grandeur; on se sert de
leur peau pour recouvrir les canots, et des intestins pour faire le
kamleyki, especes de blouses que Ton endosse par dessus les autrs
veteinents lorsqu'il pleut pour ne pas se mouiller. La chair, que Ton

fait secher, est dure ; c'est une bonne nourriture pour l'hiver Les

jeunes sont tres-tendres et ont le gout de poisson." *

The following careful description of their movements on land has
been communicated to me by Mr. Theodore Lyman, who has recently
observed the sea lions on the " Seal Rocks" near San Francisco: —

" These rocks," he says, " are beset with hundreds of these animals, —
some still, some moving, some on the land, and some in the water. As

* Voyage Pittorcsque autour du Monde, Chapter " lies Aleoutiennes," p. 12 - 14.

BULLETIN OF THE 67

they approach to effect a landing, the head only appears decid< <\\y
above water. This is their familiar element, and they swim with
great speed and ease, quite unmindful of the heavy surf and of the
breakers on the ledges. In landing, they are apt to take advantage of
a heavy wave, which helps them to get the forward flippers on terra
jirma. As the wave retreats, they begin to struggle up the steep
rocks, twisting the body from side to side, with a clumsy worm-like
motion, and thus alternately work their flippers into positions where
they may force the body a little onward. At such times they have a
general appearance of sprawling over the ground. It is quite astonish-
ing to see how they will go up surfaces having even a greater inclina-
tion than 45°, and where a man would have to creep with much exer-
tion. When the surface is nearly horizontal, they go faster, and often
proceed by gathering their hind-quarters under them, raising themselves
on the edges of their fore-limbs and then giving a push, whereby they
make a sort of tumble forwards. In their onward path they are ac-
companied by the loud barking of all the seals they pass; and these
cries may be heard a great distance. Having arrived at a good bask-
ng-place, they stretch themselves out in various attitudes, — often on
the side, sometimes nearly on the back, but commonly on the belly,
with the flippers somewhat extended. They seem much oppressed
with their own weight (which is usually supported by the water), and
it seemed an. exertion for them even to raise the head, though it is
often kept up for a long time. They play among themselves contin-
ually by rolling on each other and feigning to bite. Often, too, they
will amuse themselves by pushing off those that are trying to land.
All this is done in a very cumbrous manner, and is accompanied by
incessant barking. As they issue from the water, their fur is dark
and shining ; but, as it dries, it becomes of a yellowish brown. Then
they appear to feel either too dry or too hot, for they move to the
nearest point from which they may tumble into the sea. I saw many
roll off a ledge at lea-t twenty feet high, and fall, like so many huge
brown sacks, into the water, dashing up showers of spray."

From the accounts given by various observers, the sea lions evi-
dently move with much less facility on land than do the fur seals.
Captain Bryant states that the fur seals may be driven at the rate of a
mile and a half per hour, whde he asserts that the sea lions can be
driven with safety only about two miles a day.

68 MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY.

Genus Zalopiius Gill.

Zulophus Gill, Proc. Essex Institute, 18GG, V, 7, 11. Type Otaria GiL

lespii McBain.
Zulophus Peters, Monatsb. Akad. Berlin, 18G6, 275, 671.
Neophoca Gray, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 3d Series, 18GG, XVIII, 231.

Type Arctocephalus lobutus Gray.

Size medium. Molars approximated, last under the hinder edge of the
zygomatic process. Muzzle narrow. Superior profile, from the postor-
bital process anteriorly, gently declined. Bony palate moderately con-
tracted posteriorly, and but slightly depressed. Hinder edge of the
palatals deeply concave. Pterygoid hooks slender. Posterior nares
broader than high ; anterior higher than broad. Postorbital cylinder
narrow and elongate. The postorbital constriction of the skull is deep
and abrupt, giving a quadrate or subquadrate form to the brain-box, which
varies to triangular through the varying degree of prominence of its latero-
anterior angles. The postorbital processes arc triangular, developed
latero-posteriorly into a rather slender point. The sagittal crest forms a
remarkably high, thin bony plate, unparalleled in its great development
in any other genus of the family. The general form of the skull is rather
narrow, much more so than in Eumetopias, and nearly as much so as in
Arctocephalus ; the breadth to length being as GO to 100.

Zulophus, so far as the skull is concerned, is the most distinct generic
form of the family Otariadce, it being thoroughly distinct from all the
others. It differs from Otaria in having one less pair of upper
molars, in the less depression of the bony palate, the less extension
posteriorly of the palatines, the much narrower muzzle, the much less
abrupt declination of the facial profile, its much higher sagittal crest,
and in its narrower and more elongated form.

Zalophus differs from Eumetopias, as already pointed out, in hav-
ing all the upper molars closely approximated, in the concave out-
line of the posterior border of the palatines, and otherwise much as it
differs from Otaria.

Zulophus differs from Callorhinus in its less number of upper
molars, its high sagittal crest, and in the more declined profile of the
face. It differs in a nearly similar manner from Arctocephalus, but
more resembles this genus in the general form and proportions of the
skull than any other. But in the nature of its pelage, and in other ex-
ternal features, it is radically distinct from the whole group of fur seals,
as it is also in its high sagittal crest.

BULLETIN OF THE 69

Zalophus Gillespii Gill. Gillkspik's IIaik Seal.

Otarta Gillespii McBain, Proc. Edinb. Roy. Phys. Soc, I, 422, 1858.

Arctocep/utlus Gillespii Gray, Proc. Loud. ZooT. Soc, 1859, 110,360, PI.
lxx ; Cat. Seals and Whales, 1866, p. 55.

Zalophus Gillespii Gill, Proc. Essex Inst., V, 13, 1866.

Otarin (Zdloplius) Gillespu Peters, Monatsb. Akad. Berlin, 1866,275, 671.

Zalophus Gillespii Gray, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 3d Series, 1866,
XVI II, 231.

Otana Stelleri Schlegel, Fauna Japonica, Mam. marin, 10, PI. xxi,
(animal), PI. xxil,Figs. 1-4, and 5-6 (skulls),
PI. xxin, Figs. 1 -9 (skeleton and teeth), 1842.

" Olaria japonica Schlegel, MS." Peters.

Color. — In color, as well as in general form, this species is similar to
E. Stelleri, but in size it is much smaller. Being without skins of this
species, I borrow the following from Schlegel's description in the Fauna
Japonica. In describing Japan specimens (under the name Otarin Stelleri)
he says the tints of the upper parts are "d'un gris jaunatre, un pen nuance
de noir sur le dos et sur la tete. Sur les parties inferieures et sur les ex-
tremites, la teinte generale dont nous parlons, passe insensiblement au
brun-roux ; mais cette couleur est tres-peu marquee sur le dessous du cou,
tandis qu'elle devient tres-foneee vers l'extremite des pieds, qui sont d'un
brun-roux noir assez profond." " Les poils," he adds, " sont en general
courts, puisqu'ils nc portent guere que trois a quatre lignes en longueur
sur le cou ou sur le dos, un peu raides et assez touffus. lis sont, sur les
parties superieures, bruns a la base et noirs au milieu, mais leur pointe
offre toujours des couleurs plus claires, qui fbrment les teintes generates de
1'animal." The specimen above described he states is a female, and re-
marks that another female he possessed differs from it in color only in
being generally darker or more deeply colored.

Size. — The mounted skin of an adult male preserved in the Museum
of the Pays-Bas, he says, is "six pieds et deux ponces en longueur totale,
mesure depuis le nez jusqu'a 1'extremite de la queue." It differs from a
female specimen, he says, only in being larger and darker colored and in
having the hairs longer.

The only specimens of this species I have been ab'e to examine are two
skulls, one of which was kindly loaned me by (he Chicago Academy of
Sciences, and the other by the Smithsonian Institution. The former belongs
to a mounted skeleton, collected, as Dr. Stimpson informs me, In Professor
W. P. Trowbridge, formerly Lieutenant of United States Engineers some-
where between Puget Sound and San Francisco. The skeleton, without the
atlas and skull, Dr. Stimpson writes me, measures six fee.1 ; adding the
length of the latter gives a little less than seven feet as the whole length of

70

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY.

tin- skeleton. Tin- sex of neither of* these specimens was recorded, but there
seems to be little doubt of their being both males. Both axe very old indi-
viduals. They differ considerably in size, however, as will be seen by the
accompanying table of measurements, the Chicago Academy specimen
being the larger.

Measurements of the Skull.

330

(Jt

290

180

170

Dist. from ant. edge of intermaxillaries to hamuli pterygoidei

1!)0

180

" " " " '• last molar

100

97

«• ■« " " " front edge of orbit

95

90

" << " " " post. " "

160

150

" " " " " auditory orifice .

245

220

Length of left palatine bone (inner edge)

35

34

" " right " " " ....

36

Breadth of left " " (anteriorly)

21

19

" right " " " .

18

Dist. from post, edge of palatals to end of hamuli pteryg.

55

48

" " last molar to end of hamuli pteryg.

90

80

Depression of palate below alveoli of canines .

10

07

" " " " 3d molar

09

08

" " " " last molar .

10

Length of the nasals (outer edge)

61

56

" (inner edge) .....

49

38

Breadth of both nasals together (anteriorly)

30

27

" " " " (posteriorly) .

2S

20

" of the skull at the canines .....

70

60

" " " " postoibital process

83

66

" " " middle of the orbits .

145

130

" " " maxillary condyles

190

170

" " " paroccipital process .

165

163

Diameter " anterior narcs (vertical) ....

32

30

" " " " (transverse) ....

34

29

" posterior nares (vertical) ....

30

23

" " (transverse) ....

2H

26

Length of the zygomatic foramen .....

117

82

Breadth " " "

65

55

Diameter of foramen magnum (antcro-postcrior)

24

25

(laterally) . . . . .

25

23

Height of the skull (end of parae. proc. to top of occip. crest)

150

120

" " (occip. condyle to top of occip. crest) .

130

97

" (end of ham. pteryg. to top of sag. crest)

140

125

Length of sagittal crest .

157

145

Greatest height of crest .......

38

29

Length of the lower jaw .......

240

200

Breadth posteriorly

170

155

" at last moiar

75

75

" posterior ('dire of symphysis ....

53

64

" of each condyle

55

47

Height of lower jaw at coronoid process ....

90

75

" " " symphysis

45

37

* Received from the Chicago Academy of Sciences.

t Received from the Smithsonian Institution (S. I. No. 261).

BULLETIN OF THE 71

According to Peters, the length of the skull of 0. Gillespii is 295 mm. ;
of one of the skulls of 0. japonica (Schlegel MS. = 0. Stelleri of the Fauna
Japonica) is 270 mm. and of the other 310 mm., which would indicate
an animal f about three fourths the size of E. Stelleri.

If we can assume that the California " lion marin " of Choris * is this
species, which we can hardly do with certainty, it differs from the E.
Slelleri in being browner and smaller, with a more delicately shaped head
and uarker mustaches. The latter, however, are variable in color, in other
species, in specimens specifically the same.

Individual Variation. — The two male skulls of Zalo/ihus Gillespii before
me differ from each other very remarkably in various points. Besides
the general difference in size indicated in the above table of measure-
ments, there are other and more radical differences in proportions and form.
In the specimen received from the Chicago Academy, the general form is
much more elongated than in the other, especially the facial portion of the
skull and the postorbital cylinder. The nasals are especially longer, and
the expanded interorbital space shorter, with the postorbital processes
much more heavily developed. The brain-box, seen from above, through
the gradually sloping postorbital constriction, is triangular, whilst in the
other, through the abruptness of the postorbital constriction, it is quadrate.
Hence in the latter the brain-box has distinct latero- anterior angles, whilst
in the other the lateral walls of the brain-box gradually and regularly con-
verge anteriorly. The differences in these respects are far greater than
exist between the two male skulls of Callorhinus ursinus represented in
Plate II. The following proportions indicate the extent of the difl'eiences
seen in the form of the postorbital cylinder.

The diameter of this part, at its point of greatest constriction, in the
specimen received from the Smithsonian Institution is 23 mm. ; do. of
the specimen received from the Chicago Academy of Sciences, 35 mm.
The length of the postorbital cylinder in the first is 43 mm. ; in the lat-
ter, 69 mm., or nearh/ one and a half times longer than in the other;
whilst the difference in the whole length of the skull in the two speci-
mens is less than one seventh of the length of the smaller specimen.
Species, and even genera, have been based on differences of less impor-
tance than these.

General Remarks. — Schlegel, in the work above cited, gave the first
and thus far the fullest account we possess of this species. lie also
gave figures of several skulls, of a skeleton, and of a middle-aged female.
He failed, however, to distinguish this species from the Z. hbatus and
the Eumetopias Stelleri, but confounded the three under the name Otana

* Voyage Pittoresque (lies Ale"ontiennes, p. 13).

72 MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY.

Stelleri. He also omitted to state distinctly the localities at which the
specimens figured were obtained, though they were doubtless from Japan.

As already remarked under Eumelopias Stelleri, naturalists for a long
time referred the specimens figured by Schlegel under the name Otaria
Stelleri to two widely distinct species, namely, 0. lobata {Zalophus
lobatus) and 0. cinerea (Arctocephalus cinereus). It was only four
years since that Professor Peters, after examining the specimens fig-
ured in the Fauna Japonica, was able to determine the real character
of Schlegel's 0. Stelleri, which he found referable to the 0. Gillespii
McBain. As previously stated, I see no reason to question the correct-
ness of this identification. The skull represented in Figures 5 and G,
Plate XXII, is said to be that of a young female ; the great propor-
tional differences apparent between this and the other specimens figured
are only such as might result from age.

The references to this species are very few. The first, aside from
Schlegel's above-cited work, is the description of a skull from Cal-
ifornia by McBain, in which the animal in question was first indi-
dicated as a distinct species. This skull was described in 1858, and
was the basis of McBain's species 0. Gillespii. In the following year
Dr. Gray published a figure of a cast of this skull, and re-described the
species from the cast, under the generic name of Arctocephalus. Dr.
Gill having seen other skulls, and noticing the striking differences ex-
isting between this and the other forms, in his " Prodrome" he proposed
for this species the generic name of Zalophus.

The only species with which Zalophus Gillespii seems to be at all
closely related is its congener the Z. lobatus, with which, as stated
above, it was supposed by Schlegel to be identical, and to which it was
in part or wholly referred by later writers. The two are of nearly the
same size, and seem to have, in general, similar external features. Ac-
cording to Peters and Gray they differ, however, in the form of the
teeth and in respect to some of the features of the skull.

Distribution and Habits. — The only localities from which this
species is at present certainly known, are California and Japan, but
it doubtless inhabits the intermediate shores of the Pacific. Mr. W. II.
Dall informs me, however, that lie is confident that there is only one
species of " eared sea lion in Behring's Sea." He affirms most posi-
tively that " there is no Zalophus there, or at San Francisco," the spe-
cies frequenting the rocks in the harbor of that name being the Eu-

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. T3

metopias Stelleri. Captain Bryant writes me that he feels quite sure
two species of sea lions inhabit the coast of California and the other
Pacific States, but he has not yet had an opportunity of carefully ex-
amining them. The three specimens from the west coast of the United
States alreaily in collections, — that described by Dr. McBain, the one
in the Museum of the Smithsonian Institution, and that in the Museum
of the Chicago Academy, — sufficiently establish its occurrence on the
California coast. There seems to be nothing known, or at least on
record, concerning its habits.

Subfamily II. — OULOPHOCTN^E.

AVith thick under-fur ; size smaller, form slenderer, and the ears rela-
tively much longer than in Trichophocinat. Digital swimming flaps of the
hind feet very long. Molars § ~ § = \%.*

Genus Callorhinus Gray.

Callorhinus Gray, Proc. Lond. Zool. Soc, 1859, 359. Type " Arctocephalus

ursinus Gray," = Phoca ursina Linne.
Arctocephalus Gill, Proc. Essex Inst., V, 7, 1866. Same type; not Arctoceph-
alus F. Cuvier.

Facial portion of the skull broad and greatly produced. Otherwise essen-
tially the same as in Arctocephalus.

Callorhinus and Arctocephalus are sufficiently distinguished from the
hair seals by the character of the pelage, as well as by the other char-
acters given above in the diagnoses of the two groups of hair and
fur seals. Callorhinus differs apparently from Arctocephalus mainly,
if not almost solely, in the greater prominence of the facial portion of
the skull. Between these two groups there are not such radical differ-
ences in the form of the skull as are met with in the several genera of
the hair seals, by means of which Otaria, Eumetopias, and Zalophus are
so trenchantly separated from each other. Callorhinus and Arctoceph-
alus, though closely allied forms, are probably generically separable.

Callorhinus ursinus Gray. Northern Sea Bear.
Ursus mannus Steller, Nov. Comm. Academ. Petrop., 11,331, PI. XV, 1751.
Phoca ursina Linne, Syst. Nat., I, 37, 1758. (From Steller.)
"Phoca ursina Schreher, Saugeth., Ill, 289, 1758. (From Steller.)"
Phoca ursina Shaw, Gen. Zool., I, 265, PI. LXII, 1800.
Fischer, Synop. Mam., 231, 1829.
" " Pallas, Zoog. Posso-Asiat, I, 102, 1831.

* For a more extended comparison of Oulophociiue with TrichophocincB, see above,
pp. 21-23.

■i BULLETIN OF THE

Phoca nigra Pallas, Zoog. Rosso-Asiat., I, 107. (Young.)
Otaria ursina Peuox, Voy. Terr. Austr., II, 41, 1816.
" " Desmarest, Nouv. Diet. Hist. Nat., XXV, 595, 1817.

" " Desmarest, Mam., I, 249, 1820.

" " Gray, Griffith's An. Kingd., V, 182, 1827.

" Nilsson, Archiv f. Naturgesch. 1841 (in part).
" " J. Muller, Ibid., 333.

" " A. Wagner, Ibid, 1849, 39.

Otaria Kraschenninikowii Lesson, Diet. Class. Hist. Nat., XIII, 419, 1826.
Otaria Fubricii Lesson, Ibid , 420.

Otaria (Callorhinus) ursinus Peters, Monatsb. Akad. Berlin, I860, 373, G72.
Arctocephalus ursinus Gray, Cat. Phoeidrc, 41, 1850; not A. ursinus F. Cuv.,
or only in part.
" " Gray, Proc. Lond. Zool. Soc., 1859, 103, 107, PL lxxiii,

skull.
" Gill, Proe. Essex Inst., V, 13, 1866.
Callorhinus ursinus Gray, Proc. Lond. Zool. Soc., 1859, 359.
" Gray, Cat. Seals and Whales, 44, 1866.
" " Gray, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 3d Ser., XVIII, 234,

1866.
Arctocephalus monteriensis Gray', Proe. Lond. Zool. Soc, 1857, 360 (in part).
Arctocephalus californianus Gray, Cat. Seals and Whales, 51, 18C6 (in part).
Sea Cat, Kraschenninikow, Hist. Karnt, 306, 1704.

Ours Marin, Buffon, Hist. Nat., Suppl., VI, 336, PI. xlvii, 1782 (in part).
Ursine Seal, Pennant, Hist. Quad., I, 526, 531, 1792 (in part).

Color — (Male.) General color above, except over the shoulder
nearly black, varying in different individuals of equal age from nearly
pure black to rufo-grayish black. Over the shoulders the color is quite
gray. The sides of the nose and the lips are brownish, as is a consid-
erable space behind the angle of the mouth, and a small spot behind the
ear. The neck in front is more or less gray. The breast and the axilla;
are brownish-orange. The limbs are reddish-brown, especially near their
junction with the body, as is also the abdomen. The hairs individually
vary considerably in color, some being entirely black nearly to their base,
and others entirely light yellowish-brown; others are dark in the middle
and lighter at each end. The naked skin of the hind limbs, the nose, ami
the anal region is black.

(Female.) The general color of the female is much lighter than that
of the male. Above it is nearly uniformly gray, varying to darker or
lighter in different individuals and with age. The color about the
mouth is brownish, varying to rufous, of which color are the axilhe, the
breast, and the abdomen. The sides an' brownish-gray. At the base all
the hairs are usually brownish, like the under-fur, with a broad subter-

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 75

minal bar of black, and tipped for a greater or less distance with gray.
The variation in different individuals in the general color results from the
varying extent of the gray at the ends of the hairs.

{Young.) The general color of the upper surface of the body in the
young, previous to the first moult, is uniformly glossy black. The region
around the mouth is yellowish-brown. The neck in front is grayish-black.
The axilla? are pale yellowish-brown; a somewhat darker .-hade of the
same color extends posteriorly and inward towards the median line of the
belly, uniting on the anterior portion of the abdomen. The greater part
of the lower surface, however, is dusky brownish-gray, the rest being
black, but less intensely so than the back. Specimens of equal age vary
much in color, one of the young specimens corresponding nearly with the
above description, while the other is much darker.

On the head and sides of the neck a portion of the hairs are found, on
close inspection, to be obscurely tipped with gray. After the first moult
the pelage becomes gradually lighter, through the extension of the gray
at the tips of the hairs, especially in the females, the two sexes 1 cing at first
alike. Contrary to what has been asserted, the young are provided from
birth with a long thick coat of silky under-fur, of a lighter color than the
under fur of the adults

The Hair. — The double pelage consists of an outer covering of long,
flattened, moderately coarse hair, beneath which is a dense coat of long
fine silky fur, which reaches on most parts of the body nearly to the ends
of the hairs. The hairs are thicker towards the ends than at the base,
but their clavate form is most distinctly seen in the first pelage of the
young. In length the hair varies greatly on the different parts of the
body. It is longest on the top of the head, especially in the males, which
have a well-marked crest. The hair is much longer on the anterior half
of the body than on the posterior half, it being longest on the hinder part
of the neck, where in the males it is very coarse. On the crown the hair
has a length of 42 mm.; on the hinder part of the neck it reaches a
length of 50 to CO mm. From this point posteriorly it gradually shortens,
and near the tail has a length of only 20 mm. It is still shorter on the
limbs, the upper side of the digits of the hind limbs being but slightly
covered, while the anterior limbs are quite naked as far as the carpus.
The males have, much longer hair than the females, in which it is much
longer than in Eumetojiias StellerL*

* From the descriptions of most writers it would seem that the Utaria jubala is pro-
vided with a conspicuous mane, but in the few accurate descriptions in which the
length of the longest hairs is given, the so-called "flowing mane," — which refers only
to the greater length of the hairs on the neck and shoulders as compared with the other
regions of the body, — does not appear to be any more truly a mane than in Lumetu-

7G BULLETIN OF THE

The whiskers arc cylindrical, long, slender, and tapering, and vary with
age in length and color. In the young they arc black; later they are
li<dit colored at the base, and dusky at the ends. In mature specimens

they arc cither entirely white, or white at the base and brownish-white
towards the tips.

Size. — The length of a full-grown male, according to the present speci-
mens (see the table of measurements on page 77), is between seven and
eight feet; and of a full-grown female, about four feet. Captain Bryant
states* that the males attain mature size at about the sixth year, when
their total length is from seven to eight feet, their girth six to seven
feet, and their weight, when in full flesh, from five to .-even hundred
pounds. The females, he says, are full grown at. four years old, when they
measure four feet in length, two and a half in girth, and weigh eighty to one
hundred pounds. The yearlings, he says, weigh from thirty to forty pounds.

Ears. — The ears (Fig. 12, PI. II, one half nat. size) are long, narrow,
and pointcd.f being absolutely longer than those of the E. Slelleri, though
the latter animal is two or three times the larger.

Fore Limbs. — The hands (Fig. 11, PI. II, -^th nat. size) are long and
narrow, with a broad cartilaginous (lap extending beyond the digits,
which has a nearly even border. Both surfaces are naked the whole
length ; not covered above with short hair, as in Eumelopias and Otaria.
The nails are rudimentary, their position being indicated by small circular
hornv disks, as in all the other eared seals.

Hind Limbs. — The feet (Fig. 12, PI. II, ^th nat. size) are very long,
nearly half their length being formed by the cartilaginous (laps that pro-
ject beyond the ends of the toes. They widen much less from the tarsus
to the cud- of the toes than these parts do in E. Stelleri, and the length
of the toe-flaps is relatively many times greater than in the fitter species.
The toes of the posterior extremities are of nearly equal length. The
outer are slightly shorter than the three middle ones. The nails of the
outer toes are rudimentary and scarcely visible; — those of the middle
toes are strong and well-developed.

pias Slelltri, Qdlurhinm ursinus, Arctocephalus (imrctta. or A. falklattdicus. All the sea
bears and sea lions, according to authors, have the hair much longer on the anterior
than on the posterior half of the body: and in the hair seals if is not longer than in

the fur seal-. The resemblance t<> the mane of the lion, with which in several species
this longer hair has been compared, is doubtless partly imaginary and partly due to the
loose skin on the neck and shoulders being thrown into thick folds when these animals
erect the head. I have not, however, seen the distinct crest formed by the long hairs
on the crown of the male of C ursinm mentioned as occurring in the other species,
unless it is alluded to in the specific name coromtta, given by Blainville to a South
American specimen of fur seal. It is certainly not posse 1 by the E. SttUeri.

* See beyond, p. 95.

t They are accidentally represented too broad in the figure.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY.

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78 BULLETIN OF THE

Measurements. — The preceding table of external measurements indi-
cates the general size of the adult males and females, and the young at
thirty-five days old. In some respects the dimensions are only approxi-
mately correct, being taken from mounted specimens ; in the main, how-
ever, they are sufficiently accurate. A few measurements taken from the
soft skin are also given ; the making of a complete series of measurements
of the skins before t£3fey were mounted was accidentally omitted. In ad-
dition to the six specimens of Captain Bryant's collection, I am indebted
to Mr. W. II. Dall for measurements of a male and a female, taken by him *
from the animals immediately after they were killed. The female (said by
Mr. Dall to be six years old) is evidently adult, but the male, from its
but little larger size, seems not to have been fully grown. In the last
column of the table a few measurements are given of a male specimen of
the A rctocephalus falklandicus, taken by Dr. G. A. Maack, from a fresh
specimen collected by him at Cabo Corrientes, Buenos Ayres. This speci-
men appears also to have not been fully grown.

Skull.] — In adult specimens the breadth of the skull is a little more
than half its length, the point of greatest breadth being at the posterior
end of the zygomatic arch. The muzzle or facial portion is broad and
high, or greatly produced, much more so even than in Eumelopias. The
postorbital processes vary from sub-quadrate to sub-triangular, sometimes
produced posteriorly into a latero-posteriorly diverging point, as in Zalo-
phtis. The postorbital cylinder is broad and moderately elongated. The
postorbital constriction is well marked, giving a prominently quadrate
form to the brain-case, the latero-anterior angles of which vary somewhat
in their sharpness in different specimens. The sagittal and occipital
crests are well developed in the old males, nearly as much as in Eumeto-
pias, as are also the mastoid processes. The palatine bones terminate
midway between the last molar teeth and the pterygoid hamuli ; their
posterior outline is either slightly concave, or deeply and abruptly so.
The palatal surface is flat, but slightly depressed posteriorly, and but
moderately so anteriorly. The zygomatic foramens are broad, nearly
triangular, and truncate posteriorly. The posterior and anterior nares
are of nearly equal size in the males, with their transverse and vertical
diameters equal ; in the females the posterior nares are depressed, their
transverse diameter being greater than the vertical. The nasal bones are
much broader in front than behind.

The lower jaw is strongly developed, but relatively less massive than

* At St. George's Island, Alaska, August, 1868.

t See Figs. 1-4, PI. II (males); Figs. 1-4, PL HI (females); and Figs. 5, 6, 7, PI. II,
and Fig. 9, PL 111 (young).

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY.

79

in Eume/opias. The coronoid processes are high and pointed, but much
more developed in the males than in the females. The rainial tuberosities
are greatly produced, especially the hinder one (see Figs. 8-10, PI. II).

Measurements of the Skull.

Length

Breadth

Dist. from ant. edge of intermax. to end of ham. pteryg

" " " last molar

" " auditory opening

" " edge of max. condyle

" palato-max suture to end of ham. pteryg.

Length of left palatine bone
Breadth of left palatine bone opposite last molar
Length of left nasal bone ....
Breadth of lefc nasal bone (anteriorly)

" " " (posteriorly)

Breadth of skull at canines ....

" " " postorbital processes

" " " paroccipital "

" posterior nares (vertical)

" " " (transverse)

" anterior nares (vertical)

" " " (transverse)

Length of zygomatic foramen
Breadth of " "

Greatest height of skull ( mast. proc. to top of occip. crest)
Height of skull at hamulus ptcrygoideus .
Length of postorbital cylinder

" brain-case .....

" the lower jaw ....

Breadth of lower jaw at its condvles

" " " last molar

" " " symphysis

Height " " coronoid process

" " " symphysis

*c

245 275
145 155
140 165
88 97
180,205
153 165

o

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Gi

o

O

85

55

f>

Ot

s

3

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185 200
115 117
120 124

63 75
135 145
120 135

58| 58
25 25
10 10
33
11
6

34 33
42 40
91 95
15 13
20! 21 1

— 23

— 23|

64 68

40 41

75 76

— 75!
29 30
80 76|

120 1261
90| 93
33 1 35
24 24|

35 37
23| 21

O*

137

20

Teeth. — The molars are closely set in a continuous row. The ca-
nines (Fig. 7 c and 7 c', PI. II, upper canines) are large and sharply
pointed, the lower slightly curved. The outer upper incisors (Figs. 6 a and
7 a, PI. II) are much larger than the others, but relatively smaller than in
Eumetopias. The middle incisors are flattened antero-posteriorly, and in
youth and middle age have their crowns transversely divided (Figs. 6 a and
7 a, PI II, upper incisors seen from the side). The lower incisors (Fig. 6 d,
PL II) are similarly divided and are quite small. The crowns of the mo-

80 BULLETIN OF THE

lars are sharply conical, with no accessory cusp, or occasional)- exceedingly
slight ones. All the molars are simple rooted in the specimens I have heen
able to examine. Some of them have deep median grooves either on the
inside or outside of the fangs, or on both sides, which seem to indicate that
the fangs are made up of two connate roots. The distinctness of these
grooves varies in different specimens (compare Figs. 6 b with 7 c, PI. II)
and in the corresponding teeth of the two sides of the mouth in the same
specimen. Hence it is not improbable that specimens may be found in
which the grooves of the fangs may be entirely obsolete, or so deep as to
nearly or quite divide the fang into two distinct roots. The roots of the
molars are very short, and but partially fill their alveoli ; hence when the
periosteum is removed they fit so loosely that they require to be cemented
in with wax or other substance to prevent their constantly falling out
whenever the skull is handled. The canines and the incisors have much
longer roots, which more nearly fill their sockets. The roots of the molars'
are comparatively much shorter and thicker than in Eumetopias, and
club-shaped, whereas in the latter they are slender and tapering. They
are a little shorter than in Zalophus Gillespii, which has also short-rooted,
loosely fitting teeth.*

Skeleton. — Vertebral formula : Cervical vertebrae, 7; dorsal, 15; lumbar,
5; caudal (including the 4 sacral), 13 to 14 in the males, and 14 to 15 in
the females.

The skeleton in its general features resembles that of Eumetopias Stel-
leri, already described. The bones of C ursinus are, however, all slen-
derer, or smaller in proportion to their length, than in that species, the
general form of the body being more elongated. The scapulas are shorter
and broader than in E. Slelleri, the proportion of breadth to length being
in the one as 11 to 10 and in the other as 13 tu 10. The pelvis is more
contracted opposite the acetabula in C. ursinus tha i in E. Stelleri, and
the last segment of the sternum is also longer and narrower. The differ-
ences in the «kull of the two forms have already K'en pointed out in the
generic comparisons. In proportions, the principal difference, aside from
that already mentioned as existing in the form of the scapula, consists in
the longer neck and longer hind feet in the C. ursinus ; the ratio of the
length of the cervical vertebras to the whole length of the skeleton being
as 15 to 100 in E. Stelleri, and as 23 to 100 in C. ursinus; and the ratio of
the length of the foot to the tibia being in the former as 13 to 10, and in
the other as 10 to 10. The following measurements indicate the length
of the principal bones, and of the different vertebral regions.

* Figures of the teeth of this species are given in the Fauna Japonica, Mammals,
PI. XXIII, Figs. 4-9.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY.
Measurements of the Skeleton.

81

Adult $

Adult cT

Adult 9

Adult 9

No. 2922.

No. 2923.

No. 2925

No. 2924.

Whole length of skeleton (including skull) .

2,040

1,840

1,370

1,215

Length of skull

275

245

200

185

" " cervical vertebrae ....

430

360

200

172

" " dorsal " ...

770

680

520

470

" " lumbar " ...

270

245

185

173

'• " sacral " ...

160

145

105

95

" " caudal " ....

140

145

160

120

" " first rib

212

178

120

110

" " " osseous portion

112

105

55

55

" " " cartilaginous portion .

100

73

65

55

" " third rib .....

395

370

205

175

" " " osseous portion .

265

210

140

115

" " " cartilaginous portion

130

90

65

60

" " sixth rib

465

400

323

265

" " " osseous portion

350

295

230

190

" " " cartilaginous portion .

115

105

93

75

" " tenth rib

590

—

405

335

" " " osseous portion .

360

340

265

215

" " " cartilaginous portion

230

—

140

120

" " twelfth rib, osseous portion only

345

320

210

200

" " fifteenth rib " " "

210

205

150

130

" " sternum

640

590

385

370

" " " 1st segment

135

127

76

73

" " " 2d "

68

54

37

34

" 3d . ' .

65

57

39

36

" " " 4th "

65

55

40

36

" " " 5th "

60

57

40

37

6th

58

55

40

36

" " " 7th

63

57

43

40

8th "

115

110

70

70

" " scapula

250

217

140

120

Breadth of "

295

285

170

160

Greatest height of its spine .

35

27

14

12

Length of humerus .....

220

220

130

130

" " radius

205

195

128

128

" " ulna .....

243

223

160

157

" " carpus

55

55

35

35

Breadth" "

100

80

60

55

Length of 1st digit* and its metacarpal bone

250

250

180

177

" 2d "

245

235

178

—

«3d "

215

195

155

—

" 4th "

170

150

125

—

" 5th "

127

115

100

—

" " femur

150

135

82

85

" " tibia

250

225

167

157

" " fibula

230

210

145

150

" " tarsus

87

84

57

60

Breadth" " . . . .

67

65

40

37

Length of 1st digit! and its metatarsal bone

270

260

200

—

" 2d "

265

260

—

—

" 3d "

265

260

—

—

" 4tn " " « «

264

255

—

—

" 5th " " " "

290

280

—

—

Fore limb.

t Hind limb.

82

BULLETIN OF THE

Adult $

Adult $
No. 2923

Adult 9

Adult 9

No. 2922.

No. 2925.

No. 2924.

Length of innominate bone

234

210

145

140

Greatest (external) width of pelvis anteriorly

115

110

70

75

Width of posterior end of pubie bones

17

14

30

25

Length of ilium .....

100

95

60

60

" " ischio pubic bones

134

110

75

73

" " thyroid foramen

67

63

45

45

Breadth" " ...

34

25

20

20

Sexual Differences. — The sexes differ in color, as already stated, in
the females being much lighter than the males, or grayer. In respect
to the skeleton they differ extraordinarily in the form of the pelvis, as
already described,* all the parts of which in the female are greatly reduced
in size, and instead of the pubic bones meeting each other posteriorly,
as they do in the males, they are widely separated. The innominate
bones are also much further apart in the females, and the bones forming
the front edge of the pelvis are less developed, so that the pelvis in the
female is entirely open in front. In consequence of the remarkable nar-
rowness of the pelvis in the male, the form of this portion of the skeleton
is necessarily varied in the female, to permit of the passage of the fetus
in parturition. As already remarked, no such sexual differences are seen
in the Phocidce.

In respect to other parts of the skeleton, the absence of the great de-
velopment of the sagittal and occipital crests seen in the males has already
been noticed. The bones of all parts of the skull are much smaller and
weaker, especially the lower jaw and the teeth. The attachments for the
muscles are correspondingly less developed throughout the skeleton. The
most striking sexual difference, however, is that of size; the weight of
the full-grown females, according to Captain Bryant, being less than ONK
sixth that of the full-grown males.

Differences resulting from Age. — The differences in color between the
young and the adult consist, as already stated, in the young of both sexes
during the first three or four months of their lives being glossy black, and
gradually afterwards acquiring the color characteristic respectively of the
adult males and females. In respect to the differences in the skeleton
that distinguish the young, I can only speak of the skull. In regard to
this a most striking difference is seen in the relative' development of
its different regions, as compared with the adult of either sex. The
two young skulls before me, said to be from specimens thirty-five days

* In the comparison of the skeleton of the eared seals with that of Phoca ritulma
(above, p. 25 et seq.).

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 83

old, arc both females, but at this age the sexes probably differ but
little in osteological features, especially in those of the skull. In thcso
specimens the anterior or facial portion of the skull is but little developed
in comparison with the size of the brain-case. The muzzle is not only
excessively short (see Figs. 5-7, PI. II), but the orbital space is small,
and the postorbital cylinder is reduced almost to zero, the postorbital
processes being close to the brain-case. The zygomatic arch is hence very
short ; the zygomatic foramen is as broad as long, instead of being nearly
twice as long as broad, as in the adult. On the other hand, the brain-case
is exceedingly large, the greatest breadth of the skull being at the middle
of the brain-case instead of at the posterior end of the zygomatic arch.
As will be seen by the table of measurements of the skull already given,
the brain-case is nearly as large as in the adults, and the bones being
thinner, it must have a capacity about as great as that of the skulls of
the adult males and females, there being, in respect to this point, but
slight difference in the sexes. As the young advance in age, the anterior
portion of the skull, or that part in advance of the brain-case, greatly
elongates, especially the postorbital cylinder, and increases also in
breadth, the skull in a great measure losing the triangular form and the
narrow peaked muzzle characteristic of the young. The postorbital pro-
cesses also greatly change their form as they further develop, as shown
in the figures of Plate II.

The limbs are also relatively much larger than in the adult, as men-
tioned by Quoy and Gaimard in respect to the Arctocephalus cinereus of
Australia,* which enables them to move on land with greater facility
than the adult, as the above-mentioned authors have stated to be the
case in the Australian species.

It is not true, however, that the young of C. ursinus are devoid of under-
fill", as has been by some writers incorrectly stated.f

Individual Variation. — The two males were both not only full-grown,
but quite advanced in age, though in all probability the crests of even the
older skull (Xo. 2922) would have been still further developed. The other
male (No. 2923) was somewhat younger, but already had the sagittal crest

* Voyage de 1' Astrolabe, Zoologie, Tom. I, p. 89.

f It may be added that .the young specimens above described had not fully shed their
milk teeth. The incisors appear to have been renewed, but both the first and second
sets of canines were still present (as shown in Fig. 5, PI. Ill, natural size), the permanent
ones being in front of the others. The three pre-molars of the first set have been re-
placed by the permanent ones, the first and second of which are already quite large.
The hinder or true molars are in one of the specimens but just in sight, and doubtless-
had not cut through the gum. In the other specimen they are a little more advanced.
The middle one is quite prominent; the first is much smaller, while the last or third true
molar is far behind either of the others in development.

84 BULLETIN OF THE

considerably produced ; tlie teeth, however, -were but moderately worn, the
incisors still retaining the groove dividing the surface of the crowns. In
the younger male skull the posterior outline of the palatines is but slightly
concave, whereas in the other it is deeply and abruptly emarginate in the
middle, — as deeply so as in the young (one month old) skulls ; — showing
that differences in this respect do not necessarily depend upon differences
in age. They also differ in the form of the postorbital processes, in the
younger they having nearly the same form as in Eumeiopias, whereas in
the older nearly that seen in Zulophus. The postorbital cylinder is also
much shorter in the younger, though these two skulls do not present
nearly the great difference in this respect exhibited by the two very old
male skulls of Zalophus already described. Another difference is seen in
the parieto-maxillary suture. In the younger specimen it is nearly
straight and directed forwards, the nasals extending considerably beyond
it. In the other it curves at first moderately backwards, and then ab-
ruptly in the same direction ; the mamillaries extending in this case
slightly beyond the nasals, instead of ending considerably in front of the
end of the latter. The nasals themselves are much narrower in the
younger specimen, especially anteriorly, and hence have very different
forms in the two specimens.

In respect to the teeth, it may be added that the older skull has seven
upper molars on one side and six on the other, the normal number being
six on each side. The form of the molar teeth, especially of the fangs,
differ markedly in the two skulls; those of the younger having the longi-
tudinal grooves of the fangs of nearly all the teeth almost wholly obsolete,
while in the other specimen the roots of nearly all the molars are more or
less strongly grooved.

Of the two female skulls one is very aged,* as shown by the closed su-
tures and the greatly worn and defective teeth. The younger, however,
is also quite advanced in years. Differences of a similar character to those
seen in the males also occur between these, but they are less marked.

There are also considerable variations in color. Not only is one of the
young females much darker below and about the face than the other, but one

* Respecting the ag;e of these specimens of fur seals, Captain Bryant has responded
to my inquiries as follows: "The grown females (the mothers of the pups) were aver-
age specimens. The only means I had of determining their age was by the evidences
afforded by dissection. These were that the oiler female had given birth to -even
young, and the other to five, which would make their ages respectively ten and eight
years. The two grown males were also selected as average specimens in size and color.
Judging from their general appearance and color, 1 estimated them to be ten years old.
The two pups were thirty-five days old, and in that time had doubled their size from
birth. They were both females."

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 85

of the old females is much darker than the other, while similar variations
are seen in the males.

General Remarks. — The northern sea bear ( Callorhinus ursinus)
was first made known by Steller in 1751, under the name of Ursus
marinus. On his visit to Kamtchatka and its neighboring islands, in
1742, he met with these animals in great numbers at Behring's Island,
where he spent several weeks among them, and carefully studied their
habits and anatomy. On his return to St. Petersburg he published a
detailed and accurate description of them in his valuable essay entitled
De Bestiis Marinis, in the Transactions of the St. Petersburg Academy
for the year 1749.* This valuable memoir has furnished nearly all the
information concerning the northern sea bears we have hitherto had.
Steller's account, occupying twenty-eight quarto pages, gave not only
a detailed description of its anatomy, with an extensive table of meas-
urements, but also of its remarkable habits, and figures of the animals.
His description of its habits has been largely quoted by Buffon and
Pennant, and by Hamilton, in his history of the "Marine Amphibia." f
Kraschenninikow, in his History of Kamtchatka, \ under the name of
the "sea cat," also gave a lengthy account of its habits, apparently
mainly from Steller's notes ; but it embraces a few particulars not given
in the De Bestiis 3farinis. Buffon, followed by Pennant, and most
general writers for half a century, confounded the northern sea bear
with the southern sea bear, they combining the history of the two as
that of one species. When specimens of both the northern and south-
ern fur seals had been compared in Europe, their specific distinctness
became fully recognized, and in 1859 they were even genetically sepa-
rated by Dr. J. E. Gray, since which time they have been generally
recognized as belonging to different genera. In color, size, and the
character of the pelage they are undoubtedly closely related, as they
seem to be also in habits, but they differ greatly in the form of the
facial portion of the skull, and hence in physiognomy, through the much
greater breadth of the muzzle in the northern species, and its abruptly
rising and convex nose.

* Novi Commcntaria2 Acidemias Petropolitanre, Vol. XI, pp 331-359, pi. xv. 1751.
t Naturalist's Library, Mammalia, Vol. Vlh, 1839.

| History of Kamtchatka (English edition), translated from the Russian by James
Grieve, M. D., pp. 120- 130, 1764.

80 BULLETIN OF THE

Steller's figures were the only original ones of this species that had
been published up to a recent date, which, with modifications, have
been frequently copied. Those given by Hamilton (Plate XXI of
his work above cited) are among the best, and are quite accurate in
general form, hut erroneous in details, especially in respect to the feet.
Choris, in 1822, gave a plate purporting to represent a group of
sea bears, as they appear when assembled on the rocks at their breed-
ing-places. Though douhtless giving a good idea of their attitudes at
such times, as the other plate in his chapter on the Aleutian Islands,
purporting to represent the sea lions, does of those animals ; but they
are not sufficiently detailed to be of further value. Mr. Dall, in his
book on "Alaska and its Resources" (previously cited), has published
a figure from nature of this species, which, while doubtless generally
correct, gives a somewhat erroneous impression in regard to the charac-
ter of the hind feet, since the upper surface is represented as being
strongly ridged and furrowed, the ridges extending to the ends of the
flaps, which are really flat.*

The first and only specimen of the skull hitherto figured is that of
a male, represented in profile, published by Dr. Gray in the Proceed-
ings of the Zoological Society for 1859 (Plate LXVIII).

As already remarked, the sea bears of the North were for a long
time confounded with the southern sea bears, they collectively bearing
the name of either Phoca or Olaria vrsina. This name was originally,
however, applied by Schreber and Linne to the Ursus marinus of
Steller, to which animal the name nrsina is hence exclusively applicable.

Forster and Cook, and other voyagers, subsequently described the
southern sea bears, so far as respects their general habits, size, and
abundance. Most of these writers seem to have regarded these ani-
mals as the same as the northern sea bear, and, as already stated,

* It is remarkable how few correct figures have been published of the eared seals,
even those in scientific works being palpably erroneous, and contradictory of the char-
acters given in the descriptions accompanying them. In nearly all cases the feet are-
represented as covered with hair, as in the common seals, and similarly provided with
well-developed nails on both the fore and hind limbs. In this respect even the figures
given by Quoy and Gaimard, in the Zoology of the Voyage de VAstrolabe, are faulty,
not corresponding at all in this regard with the accompanying descriptions of the ani-
mals. The figures of the Otnria jitbnta, published in the Proceedings of the London
;ical Society (1666, p. 80, woodcut; 1869, PI. VII) seem to be those most nearly
approaching accuracy.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 87

naturalists for a long time generally confounded them. Peron, in 1816,
first claimed that they were distinct, but no specimens seem to have
readied European museums till some years later. Dr. Gray, writing
in 1859, remarks as follows: " I had not been able to see a specimen
of this species in any of the museums which I examined on the Con-
tinent or in England, or to find a skull of the genus [Arctocephalus]
from the North Pacific Ocean, yet I felt so assured, from Steller's
description and the geographical position, that it must be distinct from
the eared fur seals from the Antarctic Ocean and Australia, with which
it had usually been confounded, that in my ' Catalogue of Seals in the
Collection of the British Museum' [1850] I regarded it as a distinct
species, under the name of Arctocephalus ursinus, giving an abridgment
of Steller's description as its specific character." "The British Mu-
seum," he adds, " has just received, under the name Otaria leonina,
from Amsterdam, a specimen [skull and skin] of the sea bear from
Behring's Straits, which was obtained from St. Petersburg" * ; which
is the specimen already spoken of as figured by Dr. Gray. From the
great differences existing between this skull and those of the southern
sea bears, Dr. Gray separated the northern species from the genus
Arctocephalus, under the name Callorhinus.^

Although there were two skulls of Steller's sea bear in the Berlin
Museum as early as 1841,+ and three skeletons of the same species in
the Museum of Munich in 18-19, § Dr. Gray seems to have been the
first naturalist who was able to compare this animal with its southern
relatives, and hence to positively decide its affinities.

Misled by a label accompanying specimens of eared seals received
at the British Museum from California, a skin of the Callorhinus ursi-
nus was doubtfully described by this author, in the paper in which the
name Callorhinus was proposed, as that of his Arctocephalus monterien-
sis, which is a hair seal. This skin was accompanied by a young skull,
purporting, by the label it bore, to belong to it, but Dr. Gray observes
that otherwise he should have thought it too small to have belonged
to the same animal. Seven years later, || however, he described the

* Proc. London Zool. Soc, 1859, p. 102.

t Ibid., p. 359.

X Archiv fur Naturgeschichte, etc , 1841, p. 334.

§ Ibid., 1849, p. 39.

|| Cat. Seals and Whales, 1S66, p. 51.

88 BULLETIN OF THE

skull as that of a new species (Arctocephalus calif ornianus), still asso-
ciating with it, however, the skiu of the Gallorhinus ursinus. The
skull lie subsequently considered as that of a young A. monteriensis
(= Eametupias Stelleri); and referring his A. californianus to that
species, he was consequently led into the double error of regarding the
Eumetopias Stelleri as a fur seal (as already explained under that
species and elsewhere in the present paper), and of excluding the
CaUor/n'uus ursinus from the list of fur seals.

Geographical Distribution. — The northern fur seal seems to be
nowhere so numerous at present as at the St. Paul's and St. George's
Islands, off the coast of Alaska. They seem to still occur, however,
in considerable numbers at a few of the islands to the northward and
westward, especially at St. Matthew's and Behring's Islands. They
appear never to have landed on the Asiatic shores to any great extent,
and I have found no report of their occurrence to the southward of the
Kuriles on that coast. On the American side they were formerly
numerous from Sitka to the southern coast of California. At Point
Conception, Captain Bryant informs me, large numbers were formerly
taken, but that they are now rare on the California coast, and are
only seen there in the winter season. " The present year,'' he writes
me,* " unusually large numbers have been seen off the coasts of
Oregon, Washington Territory, and British Columbia, and many .skins
have been taken and brought to San Francisco. They were mostly
of very young seals, none appearing to be over a year old. Formerly
in March and April the natives of Puget Sound took large numbers
of pregnant females, but no place- where they have resorted to lured
seem to he known off this coast. Neither can I ascertain that any
rookeries of the hair seals, or sea lions, are known to exist here ;
but I think it probable that both species occupy the rocky ledges off
the shore, which are rarely visited by boats."

The northern fur seals seem to require a moderately cool and hu-
mid climate, since they do not readily bear the heat of the sun. These
condition- apparently existing in an eminent degree at the Pribyloff
Islands, these islands, as Captain Bryant remarks beyond, are eminently
suited to the wants of these animal-, which, according to his computa-
tion, resort there in summer to the number of more than a million.

* Under date of Jum i i. 1870, from the United States revenue cutter " Lincoln," en
route fur the Seal Islands of Alaska.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 89

At Behring's and the Pribyloff Islands the fur seals are reported to
make their appearance from the southward late in spring, and that they
only resort to these islands for the purposes of reproduction, and leave
them early in the autumn. Their haunts at other seasons seem not to
be well known, but it is evident that their winter quarters must be to
the southward of these islands. That there is a southward migration
of these animals in winter is evident from their reported greater fre-
quency at that season on the Pacific coast of the United States.

Habits. — The very full account of the habits of this species, con-
tained in the following communication of Captain Bryant, together with
the accompanying notes, require nothing to be added on this point in
the present connection.

II.

On the Habits of the Northern Fur Seal (Callorhtnus ursinus
Gray~), with a Description of the Pribyloff Group of Islands.
By Captain Charles Bryant, with Notes by J. A. Allen.

Description of the Pribyloff Group of Islands.

Discovery. — The group of several small islands, known as the
Pribyloff Group, were discovered under the following circumstances.
Captain Pribyloff, who in 1781 took charge of the Russian trading
factory at Ounalaska, observed during his voyages among the islands
to the westward of Ounalaska numbers of fur seals going north in
spring and returning in autumn. Believing that there must be un-
known land to the northward to which these animals resorted, he fitted
out an expedition for the purpose of discovering it, and in June, 1785,
while cruising for that purpose, discovered an island. He took pos-
session of this island, colonized it, and called it St. George's, from the
vessel in which the discovery was made. On a clear day, during the
following year, these colonists saw another island to the northward ot
the first, and visiting it in their canoes, proceeded to occupy it. The
island was called St. Paul's, from its discovery being made on St.
Paul's day.

St. Pauls Island. — St. Paul's Island, of which I append an outline
sketch (Fig. 5) is nearly triangular, and sixteen miles in length. Its
northern side is a little concave. Its greatest breadth is four miles, at

90

BULLETIN OF THE
Fig. 6.

Diagram of St. Paul's Island : a, harbor and native village ; b, sea-lion rookery

a point one third its length from the west end. From this point a nar-
row peninsula, half a mile wide and two and a half miles long, extends
in a southwest direction from the main island. The island is of vol-
canic origin, and consists of a cluster of flattened cones. The central
cones of the island have an elevation of from two to three hundred
feet, and a diameter of from half a mile to one mile and a half. Those
on the outside, which form the shore line, are much smaller, they being
only from one eighth to half a mile in diameter, and from fifty to sixty
feet in height. Their bases touch those of the central higher cones.
Between the chains of cones are narrow valleys, raised but little above
the sea level. The border cones are composed entirely of clinkstone,
and their surfaces appear to have undergone no change other than that
resulting from the original Assuring, and the subsequent action of frost.
Where these cones extend into the water they form rounded points
with gently sloping shores. There is a belt of loose rocks, varying
from five to forty rods in width, between the base of the outer cones
and the water. The coves formed between these points have shores
of loose lava sand.

The peninsula is formed by two of these cones, one of which is one
half and the other two and a half miles distant from the main island,
with which they have been recently connected by the deposition of
loose sand thrown up by the action of the waves. The connecting

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 91

necks of land thus formed have a height of only six or eight feet above
the tide level.

The cones of the peninsula differ from those of the main island in
being elongated instead of circular, and in having their surfaces covered
with a layer of pitchstones, several inches in thickness, above the
clinkstones.

On the cone in the centre of the peninsula there is a bed of vol-
canic ashes and cinders, which shows by its loose mixed condition that
it fell there after the elevation and cooling of the rock above water.
Opposite the junction of the peninsula with the main island is a cliff,
facing the southeast, sixty feet high. Its composition of alternate
layers of cinders and ashes indicates that it was deposited under water,
and subsequently elevated to its present positiop. This cliff has been
worn into by the waves, and portions of it continually falling down
furnish material for the increase of the sand belt, along the southeast
shore of the island. A seam or stratum two feet in thickness, com-
posed mainly of volcanic ashes, and containing lumps of calcined sea
mud and petrified shells, extends the whole length of the cliff, parallel
with its surface curves, and situated at about midway its height. These
shells differ from any now found on the island.

The distance from the point where the peninsula joins the island to
the west end of the island is about eight miles, and the general trend
of the shore is northwest. The peninsula itself extends two miles and
a half in a southwesterly direction, with a reef continuing to the west-
ward a mile farther. Within the angle formed by these two shores is
an open harbor, with anchorage of from nine to thirteen fathoms of
water, half a mile to three miles off shore.

A vessel lying here is sheltered from winds blowing from any
xiortherly point between northwest and east ; with the wind more to
the southward, a heavy swell rolls over the reef, making it very rough.
At the head of the cove is located the trading-post of the former Rus-
sian company and the native village. This portion of the island is
undergoing great changes, from the filling in of sand from deep water.
At no very remote period there existed a spacious harbor within the
-ove now filled with sand ; and there are people living on the island
who remember when the peninsula itself was an island. In this cove last
year a vessel drawing six feet of water lay and swung at her anchor
where it is now dry at low tide. The sand is brought up by the action of

92 BULLETIN OF THE

the tides from deep water, and being thrown on the shores soon becomes
dry and light, and is blown by the high winds into the valleys and over
the slopes of the hills, tilling up the cracks in the rocks. The climate
being moist, the soil thus thrown up is rapidly overspread with a luxu-
riant growth of grass, conspicuous among which is the redtop and other
common grasses of the New England States ; at a lower level on the
made land a grass grows which, when young, resembles oats, but later
it heads out like rye, and bears a small black seed which resembles the
latter grain when shrunken in ripening. These grass-heads in winter
furnish rich forage for the cattle and other stock living on the island.
Among the profusion of wild flowers are the dandelion, buttercup, wild
pea and bean, yarrow, wormwood, and other weeds ; also the cow-pars-
nip or wild celery. The latter the natives consider a great luxury,
they eating the seed stalks when green and tender with great relish.

The northeast point of the island is formed by a cone two miles in
diameter and a hundred feet in height. It was once two and a half
miles distant from the main island, but is now connected with it. The
action of the tide ebbing and flowing has formed bars of sand on the
two outer sides ; they thus have extended until they have united the
two islands, enclosing between them a long narrow lake. This lake is
now rapidly filling with sand, and being only a mile loug it has become
quite fresh by the annual melting of snow in it.

The southeast shore of the island has also a belt of sand, which is in
many places half a mile wide, and is constantly increasing. In many
places the sand is drifted to the height of fifty feet, which shows that
at some period of the year the island is subject to very high winds.

On one of the largest cones near the centre of the island is the rim
of an extinct volcano, with a crater thirty rods in diameter. This
rises to a height of two hundred feet above the surrounding plain of
clinkstones. Its walls are of red tufa, much crumbled and broken, the
debris of which fills the opening in the centre.

Around its base an; several fissures communicating with dark caves.
Three fourths of a mile west i> a still larger crater, but of less eleva-
tion. The surface of this portion of the island is covered with broken
clink-tones, and is either entirely bare of vegetation or only covered
with mov.

Otter Island. — Four miles southwest, and in line with the peninsula,
is a small rocky island, half a mile in its longest diameter, one fourth of

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY.

93

a mile wide, and about forty feet high, with a sloping shore on one side.
It is a part of a cone which has been broken off on three sides, and the
other part submerged. This is called Otter Island, and has on it a
small fur seal rookery, yielding three thousand skins annually.

Mosrovia, or Walrus Island. — East-southeast from the east end of
St. Paul's Island, eight miles distant, is a rock rising on all sides to a
height of thirty-five feet, half a mile long by one eighth wide. It has
around its base at the water line several ledges or shelves, on which the
walruses come to lie after feeding on the banks east of the island.
These animals frequent the island during the summer in large num-
bers, and are killed by the natives for their ivory. On the island is
also a small sea lion rookery. It is also the breeding-place of immense
flocks of sea-fowl, and the natives of St. Paul hence visit it in the lay-
ing season for the purpose of obtaining eggs.

St. George's Island. — This island lies forty miles to the southeast
of St. Paul's, and is nearly triangular in form (Fig. 6) ; its greatest

Fig. 6.

Diagram of St. George's Island : a, principal seal rookery ; 6, harbor and settlement.

length is twelve miles in an east and west direction. The greatest
width of the island, which is near its centre, is four miles. Its north-
ern shore has an indentation near its centre of three fourths of a
mile in depth, with a bank in front. Within this cove vessels may
anchor in ten fathoms of water, one half a mile off shore. It is at this
point that the settlement is situated. The southeast and southwest
sides are very irregular, with indentations on each side where vessels
may anchor in from ten to sixteen fathoms, one fourth of a mile from

94 BULLETIN OF THE

shore, but with poor holding-ground, and no shelter except when the
wind is from the land.

This island is of similar origin to St. Paul's, but differs from it in
outline. A mountain ridge nearly one thousand feet high traverses
the southeast part of the island parallel to the shore, and forms a per-
pendicular sea front, from two to six hundred feet high. West of the
ridge the island is intersected by a valley three miles wide, descending
gradually on either side to the shores, where it terminates in low broken
cliffs. To the westward of the valley the surface rises again rapidly,
and ends in a narrow perpendicular headland six or seven hundred
feet high.

The whole appearance of the island indicates that it was originally
much larger than it is at present, and that the outer portion has been
broken off and submerged, leaving the sides perpendicular. It is only
on the sloping shores near the middle of the island that the seals can
obtain a footing. On all the other sides the surf breaks against the
base of the cliffs. Broken clinkstones cover most of the surface of the
island, upon the lower parts of which a thin soil of decayed vegetable
matter has accumulated. Owing to the springy, oozy nature of the
ground, the houses are all built above-ground, and not partially below
the surface as on St. Paul's. The island has one hundred and sixty
Aleutian inhabitants, similar to those of St. Paul's.

The island of St. George is estimated to yield one half as many
seals as St. Paul's, but owing to the poor anchorage and the difficulty
of loading the vessels with the skins, the seals have been less disturbed.

The Climate. — No record of the temperature at these islands had
been kept previous to my arrival. My observations at St. Paul's give
the mean temperature of June as 48° F. ; of July, 51°; a part of
August, 60° These are the three warmest months of1 the year. I
was told that the mercury froze twice during the previous winter.

Snow falls on these islands from October to April, but except in
sheltered spots it does not attain any great depth, blowing off as fast as
it falls.

From the middle of March to the latter part of May the great body
of floating ice comes down from the north, and passes by the east end of
the island to the southwest. At this time the weather is very severe,
this being the most stormy period of the year. This body of ice seldom
extends as far south as .St. George's, forty miles distant. During my

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 95

residence at St. Paul's there was very little fog on the island, though it
could be seen resting on the water ten or fifteen miles off shore, form-
ing clouds which obscured the sun during the greater part of the time.
The climate is not favorable to agriculture, but there is at least a thou-
sand acres of first-class grazing land along the southeast shore and in
the vicinity of the village.

Last year a horse and four neat cattle were brought to the island.
Directions had been given to prepare hay for them, but owing to the
dampness of the atmosphere it was not done, so that when the cattle
were landed there were only such supplies of food for them as the
island naturally afforded. They therefore had to subsist on the dry
grass of the flats, on which they wintered in good condition, the cows
giving a good supply of milk. The wild rye-heads proved nutritious
food, of which the supply was abundant. The horse also came through
in excellent condition, though having no grain. Goats and sheep have
been added to the stock on the island during the past season. They
have all bred and are doing well. I have been thus minute in these
details, because I have often heard it asserted that these islands are bar-
ren rocks, without vegetation.

The Habits of the Fur Seal.

The fur seals resort to the Pribyloff Islands during the summer
months for the sole purpose of reproduction. Those sharing in these
duties necessarily remain on or near the shore until the joung are able
to take to the water. During this considerable period the old seals are
not known to take any food. In order to speak intelligibly of the
duties of the several classes of seals at this important season, it is
necessary at this point to describe the animals.

The male fur seal does not attain mature size until about the sixth
year. He then measures in total length from seven to eight feet, and
six to seven in girth. His color is then dark brown, with gray over-
hair on the neck and shoulders. When in full flesh his weight varies
from five to seven hundred pounds. These and no others occupy the
rookeries (or breeding-grounds) with the females.

A full-grown female measures four feet in length and two and a half
around the body, and differs from the male in form by having a some-
what longer head, shorter neck, and a greater fulness of body poste-
riorly. She usually weighs from eighty to a hundred pounds. Her

96 BULLETIN OF THE

color when she first leaves the water is a dark steel-mixed on the hack,
the sides and breast being white ; but she gradually changes somewhat,
and in eight or ten days after landing becomes dark brown on the back,
and bright orange on the breast, sides, and throat. Hence it is easy to
distinguish those that have just arrived from those that have been sev-
eral days on the shore. The female breeds the third year, and is full-
grown at four years.

The yearlings weigh from forty to fifty pounds, and are dark brown
with a lighter shade on the throat and breast. The ages of those
between one and six years old are easily distinguished by the differ-
ences in size and state of development of the animal-. The repro-
ductive organs of the male are fully developed the fourth year, and
it is mainly by males of this age that the fertilization of the females is
effected. Copulation, described more fully later, usually takes place in
the water.

The breeding-rookeries, which are frequented exclusively by the old
males and females with their pups, occupy the belt of loose rocks along
the shores between the high-water line and the base of the cliffs or
uplands, and vary in width from five to forty rods. The sand beaches
are used only as temporary resting-places, and for play-grounds by the
younger seals ; these beaches being neutral ground, where the old and
infirm or the wounded may lay undisturbed.

The old male appears to return each year to the same rock so long
as he is able to maintain his position. The native chiefs affirm that
one seal, known by his having lost one of his flippers, came seventeen
successive years to the same rock.*

Those under six years are never allowed by the old ones on these
places. They usually swim in the water along shore all day, and at
night go on the upland above the rookeries and spread themselves
out, like flocks of sheep, to re.-t.

* Dr. Newberry states (United States Pnrifie, Railroad Surveys and Explorations,
Vol. VI, Zoology, p. 50, 1857) that Dr. William 0. Ayres of San Francisco presented a
skull of a " sea lion" to the California Academy of Science, obtained by him during a
visit to the Farallone Islands in June, is.",:., concerning which he mad.' the following
remarks, which tend to corroborate Captain Bryant's opinion that the seals return year
after year to the snnc breeding-grounds. Dr. Ayres observes: " The specimen is of in-
terest as illustrating, in one particular, the habits of these animals. The left zygomatic
arch has been perforated by a bullet, and the lower part of the left inferior maxillary
bone by another; both these injuries having been received so long since that the action

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 07

Wherever a long continuous shore line is occupied as a breeding-
rookery, neutral passages are set apart at convenient distances through
which the younger seals may pass from the water to the Lip'uiiil and
return unmolested. Often a continuous line moving in single file may
be seen for hours together going from the water to the upland, or the
reverse, as the case may he. When suddenly disturbed while sleeping
on the upland by an attempt of an animal to cross the rookery at any
other place, a general engagement ensues, which often results in the
death or serious crippling of the combatants. After the females have
arrived at the rookeries, many of them, as well as their pups, are tram-
pled to death in these struggles.

Constant care is also necessary lest thoughtless persons incautiously
approach the breeding-grounds, as the stampede of the. seals that would
result therefrom always destroys many of the young.

The old males are denominated by the natives Seacutch (married
seals). These welcome the females on their arrival, and watch over and
protect them and their }'Oung until the latter are large enough to be
left to the care of their mothers and the younger males.

Those under six years old are not able to maintain a place on the
rookery, or to keep a harem, and these are denominated HoUuschuck
(bachelors). These two classes of males, with the full-grown females
termed Mothu (mothers), form the three classes that participate in the
duties of reproduction.

By the first to the middle of April the snow has melted from the
shore and the drift ice from the north has all passed. Soon after this
period, a few old veteran male seals make their appearance in the water
near the island, and after two or three days' reconnoissance venture on to
the shore and examine the rookeries, carefully smelling them. If the
examination is satisfactory, after a day or two a few climb the slopes
and lay with their heads erect listening. At this time, if the wind blows
from the village towards the rookeries, all fires are extinguished and

of the absorbents lias almost smoothed the splintered edges of the bones. Inside of the
wound of the zygoma was found the piece of lead which had caused it, and which was
at once recognized, from certain peculiarities of form, as one which had been fired,
without fatal effect, at a sea lion, on the same rocks, in the summer of 1854. We have
thus a demonstration," Dr Ayres continues. " that these huge seals return, in some
instances at least, year after year, to the same localities. They leave the Farallones in
November and return in May, being absent about six months. How far they migrate
during that interval we have at present no means of determining." — j. a. a.
VOL. II. 7

98 BULLETIN OF THE

all unnecessary noises avoided. These scouts then depart and in a few
days after small numbers of male seals of all ages begin to arrive. The
old patriarchs soon take their places on the rookeries and prevent the
younger males from landing. They thus compel them to either stay in
the water or go to the upland above.

In locating, each old male reserves a little more than a square rod of
space to himself. For this proceeding they evidently have two reasons.
First, from the constant liability to surprise from their rear, which is
their weakest point, they require room enough to make one leap in
turnin"- before being able to defend themselves or to attack their ene-
mies. Their eyes being adapted to seeing in the water, their vision is
feeble when they are out of that element. Consequently they have to
rely mainly on the senses of hearing and smell for warning of danger ;
hence while dozing on the rocks every movement or sound in their
vicinity keeps them constantly turning towards the direction from
which it proceeds. A second reason is that each requires that amount
of space for the reception of his ten or fifteen wives.*

Male seals continue to arrive in small numbers daily, a few of which
are yearlings ; those two, three, four, and five years old arrive in about
equal proportions. Those older than this are more numerous than the
younger, each one of which fights his way to his old place on the rook-
ery,! or, taking a new one, prepares to contend for it in case the owner
comes to take it. As they acknowledge no right but that of might, the
later comer has to select again. The growling and fighting are con-
stant, so that day and night the aggregated sound is like that of an
approaching railway train.

About the 15th of June the males have all assembled, the ground
being then fully occupied by them, as they lay waiting for the females
to come. These appear in small numbers at first, but increase as the
season advances till the middle of July, when the rookeries are all full,
the females often overlapping each other.

* Steller gives the number of females to each male as eight to fifteen or even fifty.
(" Mares polygami sunt, unus ssepi 8, 15, ad 50 fcemollas habet, quas anxie semula-
bundus custodit, et vel alio tantillium appropinquante, in furorem agitur.") Several of
the carle" <cul<. as well as all the species of eared seals, are well known to be polyga-
mous. The seraglios of the male sea elephant, whoso habits are better known than
those of any other of the group, are said to embrace frequently from fifteen to twenty
females. — j. a. a.

f Steller remarks that the males sometimes become so attached to their stations that
they prefer death to the loss of them. — J. a. a.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 99

Many of the females on their arrival appear desirous of returning to
some particular male, and frequently climb the outlying rocks to over-
look the rookeries, calling out and listening as if for a familiar voice.
Then changing to another place they do the same again, until some
"bachelor" seal swimming in the water approaches and drives her on
shore, often compelling her to land against her will. Here comes in the
duty of the " bachelor " seals. They swim all day along the shore es-
corting and driving the females on to the rocks as fast as they arrive.
As soon as a female reaches the shore, the nearest male goes down to
meet her, making meanwhile a noise like the clucking of a hen to her
chickens. He bows to her and coaxes her until he gets between her
and the water so that she cannot escape him. Then his manner changes,
and with a harsh growl he drives her to a place in his harem. This
continues until the lower row of harems is nearly full. Then the males
higher up select the time when their more fortunate neighbors are off
their guard to steal their wives. This they do by taking them in their
mouths and lifting them over the heads of the other females, and careful-
ly placing them in their own harem, carrying them as cats do their kit-
tens. Those still higher up pursue the same method until the whole
space is occupied. Frequently a struggle ensues between two males for
possession of the same female, and both seizing her at once pull her in
two or terribly lacerate her with their teeth. When the space is all
filled, the old male walks around complaisantly reviewing his family,
scolding those who crowd or disturb the others, and fiercely driving off
all intruders. This surveillance always keeps him actively occupied.

In two or three days after landing, the females give birth to one pup
each,* weighing about six pounds. It is entirely black, and remains of
this color the whole season. The young are quite vigorous, even at
birth, nursing very soon after they are born. The mother manifests a
strong attachment for her own young, and distinguishes its cry among
thousands. The voice of the female is like the bleating of a sheep, and
the cry of the pup resembles that of a lamb.f

* A single young at a birth seems to be the general rule in this family; ea<es where
two are produced seeming to be, so far as known, exceptional. The period of gestation
is stated by different authors as being nine to twelve months, varying in the differing
species, from twelve in the fur seals to nine or ten in the hair seals. — j. a. a.

t By several different writers the voice of the male is compared to the roaring of the
lion ; that of the female to the bleating of a sheep ; and that of the young to the cry of a
lamb, not only in the case of the present species, but also of their southern allies.

100 BULLETIN OF THE

In a few days after the birth of the young the female is ready for
intercourse with the male. She now becomes solicitous of liis atten-
tions, and extends herself on the rocks before him. Owing to the
position of the genital organs, however, coition on land seems to be not
the natural method, and only rarely, perhaps in three cases out of ten,
is the attempt to copulate under such circumstances effectual. In the
mean time the four and five year old males are in attendance along the
shore. When their jealous lord is off" his guard, or encased in driving
away a rival, the females slip into the water, when an attentive "bach-
elor" seal follows her to a distance from shore. Then, breast to breast,
they embrace each other, turning alternately for each other to breathe,
the act of copulation sometimes continuing from five to eight minutes.*

"When the female again returns to the shore she is treated with in-

Kraschennimkow, apparently quoting from Steller, thus quaintly describes their voice
as heard under different circumstances. " When this animal lies upon the shore and
diverts himself, hi> losing is like that of a cow ; when he fights he growls like a bear ;
when he has conquered his enemy he chirps like a cricket." — Hist, of Kamtsck., p. 228.
Mr. Dall observes that they have "a kind of piping whistle which they use when tired
or hot." — j. A. a.

* Other accounts somewhat vary from this. Steller's remarks on this point areas
follows: " Concubitum exercent more hominum ita ut mas incubus foemella succuba
sit. prseeipue autem circa vesperam veneris exercitiis inhiant: horam antea tarn mas
quam foemella in mare se recipiunt, una placide natant, dein una reuertunter, fcemella
supina in dorso jacet, mas vero e mari superueuit, anterioribus pedibus innixus, maximo
feruore libidinem exercet, et sub hoe lusu fcemellamita premitet pondere su'oin arenam
demergit, ut nihil nisi caput cmineat, ipse vero pedibus anterioribus adeo in arenam
endit, ut tandem toto ventre fcemellam premat et contingat. Locum eligunt ipsum
litns arenosum, qua undis huncdum alluitur, adeo intentiet obliuiosisui ipsius sunt, ut
plusquam per quadrantem horau scortanti abstarem, antequam me obsernai'et, nee obse-
ruasset, nisi mum colapham impegissem, ex quo adeo iratus maximo fremiti! me laces-
siuit, ut aegre me surriperem, ille vero nihilominus me eminus vidente, quod cceperat,
absoluit opus per integrm quadrantem horse."

Mi-. W. II. Dall. in August, 1S68, spent some time at St. George's Island, and in some

valuable notes on the natural history of this island, which he has kindly placed at my

disposal, 1 find tin' following remarks, which, it will be seen, are quite confirmatory of

: "They [the females] sleep in the water, lying on their sides, with the

two flippers [of the upper side] out of the water, and receive tin- male ill the same

times nanain in copula for upwards of an hour." While these

statements arc doubtless quite true, at least in numerous instances, the more favorable

unit! for observation Captain Bryant has had, leave little reason to suppose he

ition, been deceived in the matter.

I have been thus lengthy in these comments from the fact that tlii- mode of coitus
■ Ijccii no,- r among the lower mammalia. — j. a. \.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 101

difference by all the males. She now roams at will about the rookery,
whereas before she was not allowed to go to the relief of her young
when in distress and crying for her. By the middle of August the
young are all born, and the females are again pregnant. The old males
having occupied their stations constantly for four months, without food,
now resign their charge to the younger males, and go to some distance
from shore to feed.

The fact of their remaining without food seems so contrary to nature,
that it seems to me proper to state some of the evidences of it. Having
been assured by the natives that such was the fact, I deemed it of suffi-
cient importance to test it by all the means available. Accordingly I
took special pains to examine daily a large extent of the rookery and
note carefully the results of my observations. The rocks on the rookery
are worn smooth and washed clean by the spring tides, and any discharge
of excrement could not fail to be detected. I found, in a few instances,
where newly arrived seals had made a single discharge of red-colored
excrement, but nothing was seen afterwards to show that such discharges
were continued, or any evidence that the animals had partaken of food.
They never left the rocks, except when compelled by the heat of the
sun to seek the water to cool themselves. They are then absent from
the land for but a short time. I also examined the stomachs of sever-
al hundred young ones, killed by the natives for eating, and always
without finding any traces of food in them. The same was true of the
few nursing females killed for dissection.* On their arrival in the

* Steller states that, in the numerous specimens he dissected, he always found the
stomachs empty, and remarks that they take no food during the several weeks they
remain on land. Mr. Dall confirms the same statement in respect to the present species,
and Captains Cook, Weddel, and others, who have had opportunities of observing the
different southern species, affirm the same fact in respect to the latter. Lord Shuldham
long since stated that the walrus had the same habit, though its annual fast seems some-
what shorter than those of the eared seals. In the London Philosophical Transactions
for the year 1775 (p. 249), in briefly describing the droves of walruses that at that time
frequented the Magdalen and other islands in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, he says that
they crawl upon the land in great numbers, at convenient landing-places, " and some-
times remain for fourteen days together without food, when the weather is fair; but on
the approach of rain they immediately retreat to the water with great precipitation."

This singular phenomenon of a protracted annual fast during the period of parturition
and the nursing of the young — the season when most mammals require the most ample
sustenance — seems not wholly confined to the walruses and the eared seals. So far as
known, however, it is limited to the Pinnipedes; and, excepting in the case of a single

102 BULLETIN OF THE

spring they are very fat and unwieldy, but when they leave, after their
four months' fast, they are very thin, being reduced to one half their
former weight.

The female has four teats, two on each side, equidistant, and in line
between the fore and hind flippers. Their milk is of a yellowish color,
composed of water and caseine, very insipid, and containing no sugar.
The pups nurse but seldom, and when separated from the mother for
thirty-six hours and returned to her again, they seem in no haste to do
so, and in some cases did not for several hours afterwards.

About the 20th of July the great body of the previous year's pups
arrive and occupy the slopes with the younger class of males, and they
continue to be mixed together during the remainder of the season. The
two-years-old females, which pair with the young males in the water
near the island, also now associate with the other females.

The pups are five weeks old when the old females go off to feed;
they go with the mothers to the upland, but keep by themselves. The
pups born on the lower edge of the rookery, where the surf breaks over
them occasionally, learn to swim early, but the larger portion of them
do not take to the water until later, and many have to be forced in by
the parent.* Once in, however, they soon love to sport in it. The
young are taught to swim by the old males on their return from
feeding.

By the last of October the seals begin to leave the islands in small
companies, the males going last and by themselves. In November the

member, the sea elephant ( Macrorhinus elephantinus ), to the two above-named fami-
lies. By some of the old writers the sea elephant was said to feed sparingly, at this
time, on the grasses and sea-weeds that grew in the vicinity of its breeding-places, out
the weight of the evidence in respect to this point seems to indicate that this species
fasts similarly to the eared seals and walruses, during the period it resorts to the land to
bring forth its young. Regarding the period of abstinence of the sea elephants and its
effect upon the animals, Weddel observes as follows: "The circumstance of these
animals living on shore for a period not less than two months, apparently without taking
food of any description, may certainly be considered a remarkable phenomenon in
natural economy. That they live by absorption is evident; that is, by consuming the
substance of their own bodies; because, when they come first on shore they are ex-
cessively fat, and when they return to the sea they are very lean" ( Voyage toicards
the South Pole, p. 136).

It may be that other species of the earless seals undergo similar fasts, but if so I have
■ en ii rd of the fact. — j. a. a.

* A dislik ' fear of the water on the part of the young of other species of fur and

hair seals has been reported by other observers. — J. a. a.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 103

young seals (as I was informed by the natives, my own observations
ending in August) stop to rest a few days on the Aleutian Islands, and
at Ounalaska the natives obtain several hundred skins annually.*

* The following remark?, quoted from Captain Weddel's " Voyage towards the South
Pole" (p. 137, August, 1827), show how closely the southern fur seal (Ar otocephalus
falklandicus) resembles the northern fur seal in habits and general economy: —

" Nothing in this class of animals [the seals], and more particularly in the fur seal of
Shetland, is more astonishing than the disproportion in the size of the male and female.
A large grown male, from the tip of the nose to the extremity of the tail, is six feet nine
inches, whilst the female is not more than three feet and a half. This class of males is
not, however, the most numerous; but being physically the most powerful, they keep
possession of the females, to the exclusion of the younger branches; hence, at the time
of parturition, the males may be computed to be as one to twenty [females], which shows
this to be, perhaps, the most polygamous of large animals.

" They are in their nature completely gregarious; but they flock together and assem-
ble on the coast at different periods and in distinct classes. The males of the largest
size go on shore about the middle of November to wait the arrival of the females, which
of necessity must soon follow, for the purpose of bringing forth their young. These, in
the early part of December, begin to land ; and they are no sooner out of the water than
they are taken possession of by the males, who have many serious battles with each
other in procuring their respective seraglios; and by a peculiar instinct they carefully
protect the females under their charge during the whole period of gestation.

" By the end of December, all the female seals have accomplished the purpose of
their landing. The time of gestation may be considered twelve months, and they seldom
have more than one at a time, which they suckle and rear apparently with great affec-
tion. Ey the middle of February the young are able to take to the water; and after
being taught to sicim by the mother, they abandon them on shore, where they remain
till their coats of fur and hair ai-e completed. During the latter end of February, what
are called the dog-seals go on shore: these are the young seals of the two preceding
years, and such males as, from their want of age and strength, are not allowed to attend
the pregnant females. These young seals come on shore for the purpose of renewing
their annual coats, which being done by the end of April, they take to the water, and
scarcely any are seen on shore again till the end of June, when some young males come
up and go off alternately. They continue to do this for six or seven week«, and the
shores are then abandoned till the end of August, when a herd of small, young seals of
both sexes come on shore for about five or six weeks; soon after they retire to the
water. The large male seals take up their places on shore, as has been before described,
which completes the intercourse all classes have with the shore during the whole year.

" The young are at first black ; in a few weeks they become gray, and soon after

obtain their coat of hair and fur I have estimated the female seal to be. in

general, at its full growth-wifhin four years, but possibly the male seal is much lo
very likely five or six years; and some which I have contrasted with others of the same
size could not, from their very old appearance, be less than thirty year- "

[For further information in respect to the habits of the Pinnipedes in general, the
reader is referred to Dr. Robert Hamilton's " Natural History of the Amphibious Car-
nivora," etc. (1839), which forms the eighth volume of the Mammalia of Jardine's " Nat-

104 BULLETIN OF THE

Manner of Killing the Seals. — It will be recollected that I have de-
scribed the younger seals as spreading out on the slopes above the
rookeries to rest at night. A party of men approach these places armed
with clubs of hard wood, and quietly creep between the seals and the
shore. "When ready the men start up with a shout at a given signal, and
drive the seals inland in a body. When at a sufficient distance from
the rookery, they halt to screen the flock of as many as possible that
are too old for killing, only those that are two and three years old yield-
ing prime skins ; the fur of those older is too coarse to be market-
able. The screening is done by driving the seals slowly forward in a
curve ; the older, sullenly holding back, force the more timid forward,
when the men opening their ranks let them pass through and return
to the shore. The remainder of the flock is then driven to the killing-
ground, though still containing many too old to be of value.

It is necessary to drive the flock some distance from the breeding-
ground, as the. smell of the blood and the carcasses disturbs the seals.
Another object is to make the seal carry his own skin to the salt-house,
and it is hence sometimes necessary to drive them six or seven miles.
The driving has to be conducted with great care, as the violent exer-
tion causes the* seals to heat rapidly, and if heated beyond a certain
degree the fur is loosened and the skin becomes valueless. In a cool
day they may be driven one mile and a half per hour with safety.
They travel by lifting themselves from the ground on their fore legs,
and hitching their body after them with a kind of sideways, loping gal-
lop. When arrived at the killing-ground a few boys are employed to
keep them from straggling, and they are thus left to rest and cool.
Then a small number, from seventy to one hundred, are separated from
the flock, surrounded and driven on each other, so that they confine
themselves by treading on each other's flippers. Those desired for
killing are then easily selected and quickly killed by a light blow on
the nose from a hard wooden club. When these are killed, those left
as unfit are allowed to go to the nearest water, whence they imme-
diately return to the place from which they were driven. This
operation is repeated until the whole flock is disposed of, providing
there is time to skin and take care of them all before putrefaction

uralist's Library," — an excellent compilation from previous authors. The more impor-
tant of the recent papers treating of the habits and other characters of the cared seals
have already been cited in the historical " Resume" of the present paper. — J. A. A.]

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 105

would begin. The work of skinning is performed by all the men on
the island, and every one participating in it is allowed to .share in the
proceeds.

As the seals are not wholly at rest until the females arrive, great care
is necessary in selecting the time and place from which to drive. These
points are determined by a head man, who assumes the whole control
of this part of the business. In the month of May only the small
number required by the natives for food are driven. In June, when
the seals are more numerous, they are driven and killed for their skins,
although the percentage of prime skins is at this time very small, often
not twenty per cent of the whole flock driven. About the middle of
July the females go off into the water, and there is a period of general
rest among all the seals, during which time the natives desist entirely
from killing for from ten to fourteen days. At the close of this period
the great body of yearling seals arrive. These, mixing with the younger
class of males, spread over the uplands and greatly increase the pro-
portion of prime skins, but also greatly increase the difficulty of killing
properly. Up to this time, there having been no females with the
seals driven up for killing, it was only necessary to distinguish ages;
this the difference in size enables them to do very easily. Now, how-
ever, nearly one half are females, and the slight difference between these
and the younger males renders it necessary for the head man to see
every seal killed, and only a strong interest in the preservation of the
stock can insure the proper care. September and October are consid-
ered the best months for taking the seals.

Besides the skin, each seal will yield one gallon and a half of oil, and
the linings of all the, throats are saved and salted as an article of trade
to other ports in the Territory, these being used by the natives for mak-
ing water-proof frocks to wear in their skin canoes when hunting the
sea otter or fishing. These parts have no very great commercial
value, though they are considered by the natives as indispensable to
them.

It will be seen by the foregoing description of the habits of the fur
seal, that the conditions necessary for their preservation and increase
are very simple. The first is that they be not unnecessarily disturbed
during the period of their arrival on the island. Second, that care be
taken in killing to kill only males, and to reserve enough of these for
breeding purposes. If these precautions are taken, they increase faster

106 BULLETIN OF THE

than if left to themselves ; for when the number of males is in excess,
the continual fighting on the rookeries destroys many of both females
and young, which get trampled to death.*

Mode of Curing the Skins. — The skins are all taken to the salt-
houses and are salted in kenches or square bins, the skins being spread
down flesh side up, and a quantity of loose salt profusely scattered over
them. They remain thus packed for thirty or forty days, when they
are taken from the bins ; the loose salt is removed, and the skins are
folded together, the flesh side in, and sprinkled as they are folded with
a small quantity of clean salt. They are then ready for shipment, only
requiring a small additional quantity of salt whenever removed.

Number of Seals frequenting the Island. — There are at least twelve
miles of shore lme on the island of St. Paul's occupied by the seals
as breeding-grounds, with an average width of fifteen rods. There be-
ing about twenty seals to the square rod, gives one million one hundred
and fifty-two thousand as the whole number' of breeding males and fe-
males. Deducting one tenth for males leaves one million thirty-seven
thousand and eight hundred breeding females. Allowing one half of the
present year's pups to be females, this will add half a million of breeding
females to the rookeries of 1872, in addition to those now there, while
the young of last year and the year before are also to be added. This
estimate does not include the males under six years of age, these not

* The almost total extermination at some points of some of the various seals formerly
extensively hunted for their skins or their oil on the islands and coast of Southern South
America is well known. Weddel states (in his "Voyage," already cited) that the
number of fur seals taken off the Shetland Islands, during the years 1821 and 1822, may
be computed at 320,000. li This valuable animal," he adds, " might, by a law similar to
that which restrains fishermen in the size of the mesh of their net, have been spared to
render annually 100,000 furs for many years to come. This would have followed from
not killing the mothers till the young were able to take to the water; and even then only
those which appeared to be old, together with a proportion of the males, thereby dimin-
ishing their total number, but in slow progression. ' This system is [183fl] practised at
the river of Plata. The island of Lobos, in the mouth of that river, contains a quantity
of seals, and is farmed by the Governor of Monte Video, under certain restrictions, that
the hunters shall not take them but at stated periods, in order to prevent the animals
from being exterminated. The system of extermination was practised, however, at
Shetland; for whenever a seal reached the beach, of whatever denomination, he was
immediately killed and his skin taken, and by this means, at the end of the second year
the animals became nearly extinct ; the young losing their mothers when only three
or four days old, of course all died, which, at the lowest calculation, exceeded 100,000."

J. A. A.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 107

bein"- allowed on the rookeries by the older males, nor the yearlings.
If we now add those frequenting St. George's Island, which number
half as many, and make a very liberal discount for those that may be
destroyed before reaching maturity, the number is still enormous. It
will also be seen that the great importance of the seal fishery is not to
be calculated from the basis of its present yield, since each year adds
to its extent, as with proper care the number can be increased until
both islands are fully occupied by these valuable animals*

Peculiar situation of the Pribylqff Island. — These islands are situ-
ated immediately between the northern edge of the great warm oceanic
current, — which, passing into Behring's Sea west of the Aleutian
Islands and flowing east through Ounimak Straits, enters the Gulf
of Alaska at that point, — and the edge of the rotary cold current
which flows from the Gulf of Anadir east through Norton Sound,
returning westward to this point again. These currents furnish the
necessary climatic conditions of a cool uniform temperature and hu-
mid atmosphere necessary to these animals, while their position is just
far enough south to escape being visited by the polar bears floating on
the ice, as is not the case with the island of St. Matthew's, the nearest
land on the north. There are no other islands possessing these ad-
vantages in an equal degree. Behring's and Copper Islands, further
westward, in Russian waters, approach it nearest.

Prices paid for the Skins at the Islands, and their Value in Eu-
rope.— The Russian company allowed the natives the value of ten
cents per skin. This was the pay they received for the labor of kill-
ing, curing the skins, and delivering them alongside the vessel ready for
shipment, the company finding salt and magazines in which to salt
them.

The parties who took advantage of the interval between the transfer
of the Territory and the enacting and enforcement of the law of the
27th of July, 1868, to kill and purchase of the natives, paid twenty-
seven cents per skin, and had they been allowed to trade the present

* It may be added that the United States government has already taken measures to
prevent an undue decrease of the fur seals of the Pribyloff Islands, in the amendment
to the bill for the preservation of the fur-bearing animals of Alaska, which was passed
by Congress early in July of the present year, and that private parties have interested
themselves in the preservation of the sea lions that frequent portions of the California
coast. — j. a. a.

108 BULLETIN OF THE

year would have bidden forty cents apiece for tliem. To this is to be
added the cost of salt, buildings, and the expense of the agency on
shore. Their market value was at that time five dollars, so that, after
a liberal allowance for incidental expenses, the profit must be very
large.

Previous to 1 8GG these skins were worth only three dollars each,
but owing to recent improvements in their manufacture they have
become fashionable for ladies' wear, and soon after the transfer of the
Territory to the United States the price rose to seven dollars. At this
time the Russians had one hundred thousand on hand, which were for-
warded to London, the only market for seal-skins in the raw state, and
the only place where they are dressed. The different parties who sealed
on the islands in the summer following the purchase took two hundred
thousand, which so overstocked the market that they are now worth
only three or four dollars.

The agents of the Russian Fur Company aimed to control this branch
of the fur trade in Europe by regulating the supply. To do this they
sent orders a year in advance to have such a number killed as in their
judgment the market might need, always keeping at the same time one
year's supply on hand. At the time of the sale of the Territory the
annual yield was estimated at eighty thousand skins. The opinion of
the men who have the special care of the seals is that it has reached
one hundred thousand, and that the killing yearly of this number will
in no way cheek their increase. As I have elsewhere explained, to
kill a proper number of males annually tends to a general increase in
the whole number of seals.

Use of the Flesh by the Natives. — The flesh of the seal constitutes
the principal food of the inhabitants they killing from time to time
such numbers as are necessary for that purpose. Before the; seals
leave in autumn a number are killed sufficient for their winter's
supply. Tie- carcasses are allowed to freeze, and in this state they
keep them until the return of the. seals in the spring. The flesh of
the yearling seal is somewhat darker than beef; it is juicy and tender,
but lacks the sweetness and flavor of beef, and is less firm and nutri-
tious. In highly seasoned dishes it is relished by nearly all who partake
of it. The soldiers on the island preferred it to salt rations. Alive
weeks' old pup roasted is esteemed a great luxury. The sea lion
also constitutes a part of the natural food of the natives.

Cambridge, August, 1870.

Plate I.

Eumetopias Stelleki Peters.

[The figures are all one third natural size, when not otherwise stated.]

Fig. 1. Skull, seen from below, of a middle-aged $ (spec. No. 2920).
" 2. Posterior view of the same skull.

« 3. Skull, seen from below, of a very old $ (spec. No. 2921).
" 4. Posterior view of the same skull.

« 5. Teeth (one half nat. sire) of the middle-aged skull; 5a, upper
incisors seen from the side; bb, lower incisors, same view; be,
upper molars, seen from the side; bd, same view of lower molars.
(The canines are not figured.)
« 6 View of upper surface of the right anterior extremity. (The more
heavily shaded portion indicates the termination of the hair-
covered part. One twentieth natural size.)
« 7. View of the upper surface of one of the posterior extremities.

(one twentieth natural size).
" 8. Ear (one half natural siz<*.).

Bull.M.CZ.Vol.lI.No.l.

Plate I.

I'.jiucttri'.cni.sfo/Hr from nature.

.// ■'',:', fo Jiosro

EUMETOPIAS STELLERl (Pe/ers)

Plate II.

Callorhinus ursinus Gray.

[The figures are all one third natural size, when not otherwise stated.]

Fig. 1. Upper view of skull of an old <J (spec. No. 2922).
Lower view of the same skull.

Upper view of another skull of an old <J (spec. No. 2923).
Lower view of same skull.
Inside of the left ramus of the lower jaw.
View of the same from below.
View of the same from above.

Skull of a young 9 (thirty-five days old) seen in profile.
The same seen from above (nasals wanting).
The same seen from below.

Anterior extremity seen from above (one twentieth natural size).
Posterior extremity seen from above (one twentieth natural size).
Ear (one half natural length, but relatively too broad).

" 2.

" 3.

" 4.

" 5.

" 6,

" 7.

« 8.

" 9,

" 10.

" 11.

" 12.

" 13,

Bull. MX. 7.. Vol !' Mo. 3

f.ftor/j,/ w,oVm/< ft

X/'ll •////.' //'//' rtj fjnstoit

CALLORHINUS URSINU5. (Gray.)

Plate III.

Callorhinus ursinus Gray.
[The figures are all one third natural size, when not otherwise stated.]

Fig. 1. Skull of 9 seen in profile (specimen No. 2924).

" 2. The same seen from above.

'• 3. The same seen from below.

" 4. Underside, in part, of the skull of another 9 (spec. No. 2925),
showing the teeth and the posterior outline of the palatine bones
(natural size).

" 5. Anterior part of the skull of young 9 (thirty-five days old), show-
ing the dentition (natural size).

" 6. Teeth (one half nat. size) of an old $ (spec. No. 2926) ; 6a, upper
incisors seen from the side ; 6b, same teeth seen from the oppo-
site side ; 6c, upper molars seen from the outside ; 6a*, same seen
from the inside ; 6e, lower molars seen from the inside; 6/, same
seen from the outside ; 6a, lower incisors seen from the side.

" 7. Teeth (one half nat. size) of another old <J (spec. No. 2922) ;
7a, incisors seen from the side ; 76, same teeth seen from the
opposite side ; 7c and 7c', upper canines ; 7 a*, upper molars
seen from the outside ; 7e, same teeth seen from the inside ; If,
lower molars, seen from the outside ; 7a, same teeth seen from
the outside.

" 8. Scapula of a male (spec. No. 2923).'

Eumetopias Stelleri Peters.

Fig. 9. Inner side of the right ramus of the lower jaw

" 10. Same seen from above.

" 11. Same seen from below.

" 12. Scapula of the middle-aged g.

" 13. Scapula of the very old g.

" 14. Os penis, seen from the side.

" 15. Muzzle of £ (one tenth natural size).

Phoca vitulina Linn.
Fig. 16. Scapula.

Bull.M.C.Z.Vol.U.No.l

Plate III

6 f

6 a

^IH HX\ IU» "

P.Roetter. on stone from nature

XewEng Lith Co. Boston

1 &.E.STELLERI,

9 15. C.URSJNUS

I (-; ~Vi\ir\r\ irrTTir i xt a

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 109

No. 2. — Preliminary Report on the Crustacea dredged in the
Gulf Stream in the Straits of Florida, by L. F. de Pourtales,
Assist. U. S. Coast Survey. Part I. Brachyura. Prepared
by Dr. William Stimpson.

(Communicated by the Superintendent of the U. S. Coast Survey.)

The Crustacea collected by M. Pourtales are very numerous iti
species, and among them there is an unusually large proportion of new
forms; so that their investigation has occupied more time than was
anticipated. To avoid delay in publishing a portion at least of the
results, it is thought best to give at once that part of the work which
has been done thus far, reserving the completion for a second part, in
which the general considerations derived from the entire study will aLo
be given.

To preserve accuracy in the statements of localities and depths, and
to insure the correction of any errors which may have occurred, all the
details on the labels of each species are given below, arranged in the
order of depihs of water.

MAIOIDEA.

Family MAIIDAE.

Subfamily LEPTOPINAE.

The group typified by the genus Leptopus Lamarck (Egeria Latr.) should
be separated from the Inachinae of Dana on account of the broad and
somewhat heart-shaped meros-joint of the external maxillipeds, which in
Inachus is simply ovate and elongated, with the palpus articulated at the
small extremity.

Pyromaia nov. sen.

Carapax somewhat pyriform, convex : rostrum simple, slender, of moder-
ate length, acute; transorbital breadth small; praeorbital spine short,
almost erect ; postorbital tooth rather large, pointing forwards. Meros-
joint of the external maxillipeds short and broad, deeply and broadly
notched for the reception of the palpus, and with the inner lobe stronglv
projecting and the outer lobe angular. Ambulatory feet long; those of
the first pair t' ree times as long as the post-frontal portion of the carapax

This genus approaches nearest to Micrnrhynchus Bell, but <lifiers in
its more elongated and pyriform carapax, larger rostrum, and prominent,
angular external lobe of the meros-joint of the outer maxillipeds. From
Lepfoptis it differs in its simple rostrum.

110 BULLETIN OF THE

Pyromaia cuspidata nov. sp.

Body and feet naked. Carapax granulated, with the regions well
defined, tumid, and armed with short spines. Rostrum trigonal, with the
three edges (the superior and two lateral) armed with minute spines.
Basal joint of external antennae with a slender spine in front, and a
smaller one beneath; the latter pointing directly downward. Chelipeds
with the meros-joint spinous below and with a spine at the summit ; carpus
with one spine on the outer side at the articulation of the hand; hand
inconspicuously spinulose, fingers longer than the palm, not gaping,
serrated, and acuminate. Ambulatory feet with cylindrical joints; in the
adult female smooth and naked ; in the young male sparsely and incon-
spicuously hairy; dactyli two thirds as long as the penult joint, and flat-
tened toward the extremities.

The dimensions of the largest specimen, a female, are as follows:
Length of the carapax, 1.2 inch; greatest breadth, 0 94 inch; proportion
of breadth to length, 1 : l."28. Length of ambulatory feet of the first pair.
3.05 inch.

This species lives in deep water, with a range of from 82 to 125 fathoms,
as shown by the following table of localities, etc., taken from the notes of
the expedition.

Off Sand Key, May 11,1 868.

Off Alligator Reef, May 8,1809.
Off the Samboes, May 9,1868.
Off the Samboes, May 9,1868.
S. W. of Sand Key, February 17, 1869. Cast No. 2. 125 "

Subfamily ITSINAE.
Pisa antilocapra nov. sp.
Carapax subovate, rather narrow, pubescent, and spinous, with a strong,
acute spine on the hepatic region, seven to ten smaller, subequal ones on
the branchial, and four, forming a rhomb, on the intestinal region. A few
sharp tubercles on the cardiac and gastric regions. Rostrum horizontal,
equalling in length more than one third the post-frontal length of the
carapax; horns diverging from the basal third, rather slender, acute, and
straight, or slightly curved inward near the extremities. Prseorbital spine
slender, less than one third as long as the rostrum. On the superior mar-
gin of the orbit there are two spiniform teeth between the base of the
praeorbital spine and the external angle, which is also acute. Spine of the
basal joint of the external antenna? much smaller than the prseorbital
spine. Feet pubescent, with the. meros-joint s sparsely Bpinose above.
Dactyli of the ambulatory feet unarmed on the inferior edge.

Cast No. 5.

82 :

fathoms.

Cast No. 6.

88

"

Cast No. 6.

93

It

Cast No. 1.

121

it

MUSEUM OF COMFARATTVE ZOOLOGY. Ill

Dimensions of a male : Total length of carapax, 1.22 ; breadth, exclud-
ing the spines, 0.65; length of ambulatory foot of the first pair, 1.30
inch.

It is a more elongated species than any of the three Pisae described by
Desbonne and Schramm, which are the only ones as yet indicated as in-
habiting the West Indian seas, if, indeed, these species truly belong to
the genus.

The specimens occurred at the following localities and depths: —

OffCarysfort Reef, March 31, 1869. Cast No. 1. 52 fathoms.
Off Carysfort Reef, March 31, 1869. Cast No. 5. 60

Off Alligator Reef, May 8, 1869. Cast No. 10. 118

Pisa praelonga nov. sp.

Carapax long and narrow, the width across the branchial regions being
very little greater than that between the orbits. It is sparsely hairy, and
armed with a few very small spines on the sides. Surface beneath the
hairs smooth. Rostrum large, as long as one third the post-frontal length
of the carapax ; horns slender, acute, divergent. Prseorbital spine slender,
acute. Orbit large, with one sharp tooth on the upper margin, near the
base of the post-'orbital tooth. Basal joint of external antenna? with a
spine in front (smaller than the praeorbital spine), and another on the
o 'ter side near the base.

Dimensions of a male : Length of carapax, rostrum included, 0.39 ; length
to the base of horns of rostrum, 0.30; breadth, 0.19 inch.

It differs from all species of the genus hitherto known in the narrowness
of the carapax.

Off Alligator Reef, May 8, 1869. Cast No. 10. 118 fathoms.
Off Tennessee Reef, May 7, 1869. Cast No. 7. 124 "

Milnia bicornuta Stm.

Pisa bicornuta Latreille, Encyc. Meth., X, 141.

Pericera bicorna II. Mii.ne-Edwards, Hist. Nat. des Crust., I, 337.

Pisa bicorna Gibbes, Proc. Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1850, p. 170.

Pericera birornis Saussure, Crust. Nouv. du Mexique et des Antilles, p. 12;

pi. i, fig. 3.
Milnia bicornuta Stimpson, Notes on North American Crustacea, p. 52.

Smith, Trans. Connecticut Acad, of Arts and Sciences, II, 1.

Found at low-water mark at the Tortugas, and dredged at Key West
in 2 to 5 fathoms.

The generic name Milnia is preoccupied, having been used by Haime
for an Echinoid, but it seems scarcely necessary to change it.

112 BULLETIN OF THE

Subfamily PERICERINAE.
Milne-Edwards, Dana, and authors generally, speak of the eyes of
Pericera as being non-retractile, having probably studied the genus by
means of dried specimens only. In fact, however, the eyes in this group
are more perfectly retractile than in any other Crustacea ; so much so
that they may be entirely concealed in their orbits, which form a capa-
cious cavity with a small, round external orifice. In this cavity the pe-
duncle of the eye, the inner half of which is not indurated, becomes bent
to a right angle when retracted.

Pericera trispinosa 11. M.-Emv.
Pisa trispinosa Latreille, Encye. Meth., X, 142.
Pericera trispinosa H. M. -Edwards, Hist. Nat. des Crust., I, 336 Guerin,

Iconog. du Regne Anim., Crust, pi. viii, fig. 3. Gihbes, Proc. Am.

Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1850, p. 172.

Dredged at Key West in from 2 to 5 fathoms, and found at the Tortugas
at low-water mark.

Pericera camptocera nov. sp.

Allied to P. triapinom, but differs as follows : The carapax is narrower
and more sparsely pubescent. The tour tubercles at the summit of the
gastric region are more prominent, forming erect spines. The posterior
spine and the lateral spines are longer and more curved. The rostrum is
longer, and its horns are regularly divergent from the base. The orbital
tubes are more protuberant, and the praeoeular and postocular teeth
longer. The movable part of the antenna? is both longer and stouter.
Finally the carpal joint of the ambulatory feet is narrower and not tuber-
culated.

Measurements of a male : Total length of carapax, 0.92 ; length of ros-
trum, from base of orbital tubes, 0.25; breadth, between the tips of the
lateral spines, 0.70; between the bases of these spines, 0.48 inch.

One male and one female specimen were taken near Key West in from
2 to 5 fathoms.

Pericera eutheca nov. sp.

Carapax subtrapezoidal, constricted anteriorly behind the orhits, and
broadly rounded behind. Frontal and hepatic regions concave; gastric,
cardiac, intestinal, and branchial regions moderately prominent and each
bearing a slender spine. Rostrum very small, forming about one sixth the
length of the carapax, nearly horizontal, and consisting of two slender,
acute, parallel horns. Orbits very strongly prominent, projecting forward
and outward far beyond the anterolateral margins, ((inning sheaths longer
than the rostrum, and each occupying nearly one third the intcrorbital

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 113

width of the carapax. The distance between their extremities equals
four fifths of the greatest width of the carapax. The extremity of the
orbital sheath is armed with two spines, one before and one behind the
eye. The spine of the basal joint of the external antennas is rather small
and slender, and abdut one third as long as the rostrum. The ambulatory
feet are very slender.

The measurements of a female specimen are : Total length of carapax,
0.90 ; breadth, excluding the spines, 0.G5 ; length of first pair of ambula
tory feet, 0.75 inch.

It may be distinguished from all the species hitherto known by the
great size and prominence of the orbital sheaths.

Off French Reef, April 3, 1869. Cast No. 1. 15 fathoms.
West of Tortugas, Jan. 1(3, 1869. Cast No. 9. 37 fathoms.

Pericera septemspinosa nov. sp.

Carapax oblong, strongly convex, pubescent ; antero-lateral and postero-
lateral sides concave. Dorsal surface armed with seven prominent spines,
one on the gastric, one on the cardiac, one on the intestinal, and two on
each branchial region. Rostrum about one fourth as long as the post-frontal
portion of the carapax, detlexed ; horns snbtriangular, acute, diverging,
curved, pointing outward. Orbits projecting, with a prominent, acute
prasocular and postocular spine. On the suborbital and subhepatic region
there are three spines, the posterior one of which is longest. There is a
small, slender, acute spine on the basal joint of the antenna?. Feet un-
armed. The pubescence of the body adheres strongly to rough objects
brought in contact with it, and notably to that of other specimens of the
same crab.

Measurements of a male: Length of carapax, 0.33 : breadth, excluding
the spines, 0.25 inch.

It differs from P. eutheca in its broader rostrum and less prominent
orbital sheaths; also in the spines on the subhepatic region, etc
West of Tortugas, January 16, 1869 Cast No. 4. 36 fathoms.

Pericera cornuta H. M.-Edw.

Cancer cornuta Herbst, Naturg. d. Krahhen u. Krebse, pi. lix, fig. 6.

Maia taunts Lamarck, Animaux sans Vert., V, 242.

Pericera cornuta II. Milne-Edwards, Hist. Nat des. Crust., I, 335 ; pi. xiv
bis, fig. 5. Illust. Cuv. Rcgne Anim., pi. xxx, fig. 1. Gibbes, Proc
Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci. 1850, p 172. Stimpson, Notes on N. American
Crust., p. 55.

A young example, one inch long, of this well-known species, occurred in
rather dee]) water. It had previously been found only about low-water

VOL. II. 8

114 BULLETIN OF THE

mark. In the young, the horns of the rostrum are more divergent than in
the adult, and the anterior branchial spine is smaller. The feet are pro-
vided with a few long, thick hairs not found in the adult.

Off the Quicksands, January 23, 1809. Cast No. 1. 34 fathoms.

Tiarinia setirostris nov. sp.

Carapax narrow, with perpendicular sides. The greatest breadth,
which is at the posterior fourth of the post-frontal length, is only one
fourth greater than the transorbital breadth. The upper surface is naked,
and bears a few small tubercles, of which three, in a median line on the
posterior half of the carapax, are larger than the others. The posterior
tubercle, on the intestinal region, is spiniform and curved upward. Sides
of the carapax somewhat setose. Rostrum half as long as the post-frontal
part of the carapax, with the horns slightly gaping near the base, but con-
tiguous for the remainder of their length, very slender, setiform, and setose.
External antennae as long as the rostrum ; basal joint concave, without
any spine at the antero-external angle ; flagellum long, hair-like. Cheli-
peds in the male large, longer than the carapax including the rostrum ;
hand somewhat compressed, granulated above ; fingers very short, widely
gaping. Ambulatory feet long, slender, and smooth ; those of the first
pair nearly as long as the chelipeds.

Dimensions of a male specimen : Length of carapax, 0.82 ; breadth,
0.35 inch.

This species differs much from the typical Tiariniac in the great length,
slenderness, and smoothness of its ambulatory feet, and future investiga-
tions, on more abundant materials, than those at present available, may
prove it to be generically distinct; in which case I would propose for it
the name Leptopisa.

The Tiariniae hitherto described all belong to the Indo-Paeific fauna,
living chiefly in the southern part of the Japanese Archipelago, in the
seas of Sulu and the Philippines, Nicobar, etc. Of these species our
Florida form approaches nearest to T. anrjusta Dana, which it resembles
in the narrowness of the carapax, but from which it is at once distinguished
"by the less tuberculated carapax and slender feet.

It was taken at the following points : —

Key West, 2 to 5 fathoms.

Near the Tortngas, 9 fathoms.

On the Fishing Ranks, S. W. of Loggerhead Key.

Subfamily NAXIINAE.

The characters of the orbital region in Chorinus are so different from
those of Naxia and its allies as to forbid its being placed in the same sub-

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 115

family with the latter group, for which the name Naxiinae is here proposed.
The deep notch on the upper side of the orbit is here a constant char-
acter.

Scyra umbonata nov. sp.

Carapax triangular, with six large flat-topped protuberances on the
nppcr surface ; one on the posterior part of the gastric region, one on the
cardiac, and two on each branchial region- On the outer side of the
branchial region there is also an acute triangular tooth, pointing forward
and outward, and of similar character and nearly as large as the other
protuberances just described. They aie all not only flattened, but some-
what expanded at the top. Their summits are naked, but the deep chan-
nels between them are pubescent. Besides the above there are on the
carapax three small tubercles on the gastric and a strong erect tooth on
each hepatic region. The gastric and the sides of the branchial regions
are hairy. The rostrum is rather longer than the interorbital width of
the carapax ; it is hairy above, and is neither flattened nor expanded. The
movable part of the external antennae has cylindrical joints. The meros-
joint of the external maxillipeds is not notched for the reception of the
palpus. Abdomen and sternum pubescent. Sternum of the male with
deep excavations between the segments, the excavations being broader
than the i-idges separating them.

Dimensions of a male : Length of carapax, 0.94 ; breadth, measured
between the tips of the branchial teeth, 0.72 inch.

The species of Scyra heretofore known are but two in number, and in-
habit waters of moderate depth on the shores of the North Pacific Ocean,
one on the coast of California and Oregon, the other on that of Japan. The
present species was placed in the genus with some doubt, on account of
tin' character of the rostrum, the external antennae, and the outer maxilli-
peds which, as may be noticed by the description, differ somewhat from
those of' the type, S. acutifrons. The resemblance in all other essential
characters is, however, very great ; and in the present state of our knowl-
edge, the Florida species ought not to be separated as the type of a distinct
genus.

It is an inhabitant of deep water, as follows : —

Off Sand Key, May 11, 1868. Cast No. 15. 143 fathoms.

Subfamily OTHONIINAE.

The Othoniinae are characterized by great orbito-frontal breadth, a
small, short rostrum, an extremely short epistome, and gaping external
maxillipeds. The orbits are tubular like those of the Pericerinae but are
directed forwards instead of outwards.

116 BULLETIN OF THE

Othonia aculeata Stm.
Hi/as aculeala Gibbes, Proc. Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1850, p. 171.
Othonia aculeata Sti.mpson, Notes on N. American Crust., p. .3.
Othonia Lherminieri Desbonne et Schramm, Crust, de la Guadeloupe, p. 20.
The specimens in the collection are all young, and occurred as fol-
lows : —

At Key West, 2 to 5 fathoms.

At the Tortugas, 5 to 6 fathoms.

Off the Tortugas, January 29, 1868, in 13 fathoms.

Subfamily MITHRAC1NAE.

Mithrax hispidus H. M.-Edw.

Cancer hispidus Herbst, Naturg. d. Krabben u. Krehse, pi. xviii, fig. 100.

Maia spinicincta Lamarck, Anim. sans Vert., V, 241.

Mithrax spinicinctus Desmakkst, Consid. sur les Crust., p. 150; pi. xxiii,

figs. 1,2.
Mtthrax hispidus H. Mi lne-Ed wards, Hist. Nat. des Crust., I, .522. Gibbks,

Proc. Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1850, p. 172. Stimpson, Notes on N.

American Crust., p. 60. Smith, Trans. Connecticut Acad, of Arts and

Sciences, II, 2, 32.
This well-known species occurred at Key West, in from 2 to 5 fathoms.

Mithrax pleuracanthus nov. sp.

This is closely allied to J/, hispidus, but is a smaller species, with a
somewhat narrower carapax. The protuberances of the carapax, and the
teeth or spines of the orbits and the basal joint of the antenna;, are
sharper and more prominent, and there are small tubercles on the intes-
tinal, branchial, and hepatic regions which do not occur in .1/. hispidus.
The minute punctures of the surface are less apparent than in that
species.

The dimensions of a male; specimen are : Length of the carapax, 0.57 ;
breadth, 0.55 inch; proportion of length to breadth, 1 : 0.965.

This sjieeies ean scarcely lie I be .1/. affinis of Desbonne and Schramm
(Crust de la Guadeloupe, ]>. 10), the description of which applies to it in
most respects, for those authors state that the front, rostrum, and orbits
are like those of Mithraculus sculptus.

Tt occurred at Key West in from 2 to 5 fathoms, and at the Tortugas in
5 to 6 fathoms. There is in the Smithsonian Collection a specimen taken
at St. Thomas by A. II. Riise, Esq.

Mithrax acuticornis nov. sp.
Carapax much longer than broad, and tuberculated, sparsely on the
gastric region but more closely posteriorly and at the sides, the tubercles

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 117

becoming spiniform toward the margins, which arc armed with true spines
curving forward at their tips. Rostrum half as long as the interorbital
width, and consisting of two rather slender, acute horns. Basal joinl of
the external antennae armed with two spines, the anterior one of which is
slender, curved, and two thirds as long as the rostrum. The margin of
the orbit is armed with six spiniform teeth, not including those of the
antenna] joint. The feet are strongly spinose above, but the hands are
unarmed. The color in wet specimens, and probably in life, is a bright
deep red.

Dimensions of a male : Length of carapax, o.7;j ; breadth, 0.55 inch ; pro-
portion, 1 : <».7o3.

This species approaches Sckizophrys in the shape of it- carapax, which
is much more oblong than in other species of the genus in which I have
placed it: but the rostrum i- simply two-horned, and the orbit- are similar
to those of the typical forms of Mithrax.

Off the Quicksands, January 23, 1869. Cast No. 1. 34 fathoms.
West of the Tortugas, January 16, 1869. Cast No. 8. 37
West of the Tortugas, January 10, 1869. Cast No. 12. 42 "

Mithrax Holderi now sp.

This species resembles .1/. acuticornis in the characters of the front, but
the carapax is broader and more strongly and closely tuberculated, the
tubercles occupying nearly the whole upper surface, causing it to resemble
that of Tinr'ini<i cornirjera. There i- a small spine on the hepatic region
and one at the lateral extremit.3 of the branchial region. The anterior
spine of the basal joint of the antenna1 is nearly as long as the rostrum,
and there is another -p ne, very small, at the insertion of the movable
part nt' the antenna. The ambulatory feet are flattened above, giving the
joint- a somewhat trigonal form, and both margins of their upper surface
are spinulose ami ciliated.

Dimensions of a male : Length of the carapax, 0.55 ; breadth. 0.48 inch;
proportion, 1 : 0.872.

This species occurred at the Tortugas in 7 fathoms It is named in
compliment to Dr. .1. B. Holder, who found it, also at the Tortugas, and I
believe at low-watei mark, several years ago. Dr. Holder's specimen is in
the' Museum of the Smithsonian Institution.

Mithraeulus sculpms Stm.
Maia sculpta Lam \i:< k, Anim. sans Vert, V, 242.
Mithrax sculptus II. Milne-Edwards, Ili-t. Nat des Crust., I, 322. Gibbes,

Proc. Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1850, p. 172. Desbonne et Schramm, Crust.

i|e la Guadeloupe, p. 9.
Mithraeulus sculptus Stimfsox, Notes on N. American Crust., p. 58.

118 BULLETIN OF THE

Key West, 2 to 5 fathoms.

Tortugas, 5 to 6 "

\ Off the Samboes, 123

This well-known species is (bund throughout the West Indian seas, and
is very abundant on the reefs at and abov.e low-water mark. I have
queried the depth 123 fathoms, fearing that some accidental transposition
of labels has taken place, as the Milhracuh are eminently littoral in their
habits, and the specimen so labelled is a full-grown male, similar in all
respects to those found on the shores.

Mithraculus ruber nov. sp.

Carapax subtriangular, one fifth broader than long. Surface naked.
polished, and uneven, luit with the protuberances less numerous and
smaller than in M. sculptus and .1/. coronatus. These protuberances are
also rounded, and not elongated as in the allied species, and some of
them are sparsely tuberculatcd. Antero-lateral margin armed with three
teeth, besides the angle of the orbit, the posterior tooth being sharp, spini-
fbrm, and curving forward, the other two teeth tuberculiform ; the middle
tooth is composed of two tubercles, and there is a small tubercle between
it and the posterior tooth. Behind the posterior tooth there is a small
sharp tubercle on the postero-lateral margin. The meros-joinl of the outer
maxillipeds is slightly sinuous in front, showing a faint indication of a
notch. Chelipeds rather lofig and slender; meros armed above with six
small, conical, equal tubercles; carpus and hand smooth. Ambulator)
feel cylindrical, densely short-hairy above (hairs simple); they are also
spinulose above, the spines being scattered in two rows. Color of the
carapax chestnut red, with some bluish posteriorly.

Dimensions of a male: Length of the carapax. 0.48 ; breadth, 0.60 inch;
proportion, 1 : 1 .25.

It differs from M.sculpfus, M. cinctimanus, ami M. minutus in its broader
carapax, etc., and from .1/. coronatus in its spinifbrm lateral tooth and in
the character of the surface of the carapax.

Found on the reef at Cruz del Padre, Cuba.

Mithraculus coronatus Stm.
Cancer coronatus Ili.i.msi , Naturg. d. Krabben und Krebse, I. 184; pi. xi,

ti-. 6 I

Mithraculus coronatus White, Brit. Mas. Cat. Crust., p. 7 Cpartim). Stimp-
son, Notes mi N. American Crust., p. 58. Smith, Trans. Conn. Acad, of
Arts and Sciences, II, 2.
It is somewhal doubtful whether this is really the Cancer coronatus of

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 119

Herbs! He refers to Seba, |>1 xxii, fig. 6. Seba's fig. 22 of pi. xix is a
better representation of the species under consideration.

Littoral on the reef at Eastern Dry Rocks.
Reef at Cruz del Padre, Cuba.
Key West, in 2 to 5 fathoms

Family TYCHIDAE.

Subfamily TYCHINAE.

Tyche einarginata White.
Tyche einarginata White, Annals and Magazine of Natural History, First

Series, Vol XX. p. 206.
Platyrinchwi Iritnbercuhitus Desbonxe et Schramm, Crust, de la Guadeloupe

p. :i ; pi. iii, ligs. T and 8.

The curious genus Tyche is so little known that a short description of
the crab under consideration may not be out of place here. The carapax
is flattened and partly concave above, and has laniinilbnn expansions in
front and behind. The frontal region is very broad, the transorbital width
nearly equalling that across the branchial regions. The hepatic region is
concave. Rostrum rather long, forked from the base ; horns widely diver-
pent. Prajorbital spines very long, and somewhat divergent, thus, with
the rostrum, giving the entire front a tour-horned form. External antenna'
concealed beneath the rostrum. Eyes long but reaching scarcely beyond
the edge of the expanded orbit. d margin, which is entire, without nop h or

oolll.

The external maxillipeds are very remarkable in form, the exognath
having a hook-shaped process at the base, which nveTaps the base of the
ischiuin-joinl of the endognath. The meros-joint of the endognath has ;l.
posterior lobe which projects fir into the anterior extremity of the ischium.

This crab was found by the expedition at Key West in 2 to ."> fathoms,
and al the Tortugas in 7 fathoms.

Family EURYPODIIDAE.

Among tin1 general characters of this family, the existence of a distinct
orbital arch over the base of the eye, and of a postocular spine, seem to be
the most important.

Subfamily COLLODIjSTAE.

'I his name is proposed for a group nfgi nera of Eurypodiidae character-
ized by the extreme shortness of the rostrum, which group is. as far as
known, peculiar to the tropical parts of the American sea-, and occurs on
both sides of the continent.

120 BULLETIN OF THE

Collodes trispinosus nov. sp.

Carapax ovate-triangular, hah-)', and everywhere covered with small
granulated tubercles, except on the front and the anterior portion of the
gastric region. There is an erect, capitate spine on the gastric, one on the
cardiac region, and one of equal size on the basal joint of the abdomen.
Rostrum with two minute horns. Four minute spines on the basal joint
of the antennae, the anterior one of which is placed nearly on a level
with the horns of the rostrum. Ambulatory feet long, and provided with
long stiff hairs ; hairs of the penult joint below straight and above hook-
like and often serrated on the inner side near the tip. Dactyli of the am-
bulatory feet about as long as the penult joint.

In the male of this species the carapax is somewhat more elongated and
depressed than in the female ; the hands are of moderate size only, and
much curved inward ; fingers nearly as long as palm and gaping, with a
tooth inside on the middle of the thumb. Abdomen of the male elongate
triangular ; intromittent organs nearly straight, simple, reaching nearly to
the extremity of the abdomen.

All the specimens examined were covered with a thick coating of mud,
held by the setae.

The dimensions of a female specimen are : Length of the carapax, 0.41 ;
breadth, 0.32 inch.

The only species hitherto known of this genus is the C. granosus of the
west coast of North America, described by me in " Notes on North Ameri-
can Crustacea," page 66 (Annals of the New York Lyceum of Natural
History, Vol. VII, p. 194), from which the species under consideration
differs in its more elongated carapax, which is more completely covered
with granulated tubercles, and in the somewhat greater length of (he
rostral horns and the spines on the basal joint of the antennae. It is
proper to state that of C. granosus only a single (female) specimen is as
yet known.

The species occurred as follows : —

Off the Quicksands, January 23, 1869. Cast No. 1. 34 fathoms.
OffCarysfort Reef, March 21, 1869. Cast No. 8. 35
Off Carysfort Reef, March 21, 1860. Cast No. 7. 40
Off French Reef, April 3, 1869. Cast No. 4. 50

Collodes nudus nov. sp
Allied to C. granosus and C. trispinosus, having three spines on the back
similar in shape and position to those of those species. It differs from
them, however, in its naked carapax and feet, and in the less numer-
ous and prominent granulated tubercles of the dorsal surface. The carapax
is also much broader anteriorly.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 121

The ambulatory feet of the second pair are rather longer than those of
the first pair. The dactyli of the ambulatory feet are armed with spines
along the inner edge.

The dimensions of the single specimen found, a male, are as follows :
Length of carapax, 0.24 ; breadth, 0.18 ; length of ambulatory foot of the
first pair, 0.45 inch.

Off Carysfort Reef, March 21, I860. Cast No. 7. 40 fathoms.

Arachnopsis nov. <;en.

Carapax oblong, narrow, and somewhat truncated in front. Rostrum short,
bifid. Orbital arch high, protuberant. Postocular spine long, and separated
from the orbital arch by a dee]), narrow fissure. Eye long, considerably
overreaching the tip of the postocular spine, but capable of being drawn
back beneath it. Basal joint of the external antenna? with a small, sharp
spine at the extremity, pointing obliquely tin-ward and outward, between
which and the rostrum the movable part of the antenna is exposed, and
with a spinulous crest on the inferior surface extending back to the angle
of the buccal area. Meros-joint of the external maxillipeds broader than
long, and with sharply prominent external and internal anterior angles.
Ambulatory feet long, filiform; those of the second pair longest ; dactyli
straight, acute, and nearly as long as the penult joint.

This genus differs from Collodes in its filiform ambulatory feet and long
eye peduncles.

Arachnopsis filipes nov. sp.

Body armed above with three erect, slender, blunt spines, one on the
gastric re :"n, one on the cardiac region, and one on the basal joint of the
abdomen. Abdominal spine, small ; cardiae and gastric spines equal and
about as long as the distance between the orbital arches. Carapax convex
anteriorly, and flattened posteriorly. Surface of carapax smooth and
glossy, naked, except for a few hairs on the anterior part of the bran-
chial, the sides of the gastric, and the frontal region. Beneath, the sub-
hepatic and pterygostomian regions are armed with spiniform granules.
Chelipeds in the male as long as the carapax and much curved ; edges
of meros and carpus spinulose; hand nearly smooth ; fingers as long as the
palm. Ambulatory feet spinulose along the lower edges of all the joints,
except the dactyli; those of the second pair more than twice as long as
the carapax. Sternum, abdomen, and external maxillipeds tuberculated.

Dimensions of a male : Length of carapax, 0.25 ; breadth, 0.18 ; length
of ambulatory foot of first pair. 0.5 inch.

Off Conch Reef, May 11, 1869. Cast No. 2. 34 fathoms.

Off Carysfort Reef, March 21, 18(59. Cast No. 7. 40

Off French Reef, March 21, 1869. Cast No. 2. 45 "

122 BULLETIN OF THE

Batrachonotus nov. gen.

Carapax triangular, broadly expanded behind : surface rough with gran-
ulations : gastric, cardiac, and branchial regions strongly protuberanl ; cer-
vical depressions deep and broad, giving the carapax a superior outline
mucb like thai of a frog's back. Rostrum very short, not extending beyond
the walls of the antennulary fossa?, rounded in outline, and slightly emargi-
nated at the middle. Basal joint of the external antenna? with a small
tooth or spine on the (inter margin, but none at the anterior extremity.
No spine on the orbital arch. Post-ocular spine minute. Meros-joint of
the external maxillipeds broad, with prominent external and internal
anterior angles. Ambulatory feet simple; those of the fust pair dispro-
portionately long, nearly twice as long as those of the second pair; those
of the posterior pairs very short. Dactyli of ambulatory feet rather long.
Abdomen very narrow at base.

It differs from the other genera of Collodinae, among other characters, in
the want of a terminal spine on the basal joint of tin- antenna', and in its
very long anterior and short posterior ambulatory feet.

Batrachonotus fragosus nov. sp.

The following description i> licit of a male. Body and feet naked. On
each of the protuberant regions of the carapax there are one or two large
and many smaller rounded tubercles or granules. A strong tubercle on
the basal joint of the abdomi n. A sharp tubercle on the subhepatic, and
one on the pterygostomian region. Sternum regularly granulated. Cheli-
peds as long as the carapax. and sparsely granulated within; ischium with
an erect spine at the summit; hand unarmed: fingers toothed and slightly
gaping. Ambulatory feet of the firsl pair about three times as Ion-- as the
carapax.

Color of the body in the alcoholic specimen whitish, or pale flesh-color,
variegated with purplish.

Of this species we find in the collection only one specimen, a male, the
dimensions of which are: Length of the carapax, 0.2S; breadth, 0.245;
length of ambulatory feel of the first pan-, 0.80 inch.

The specimen was taken in X. I. at. 24° 36' 10", \V. Lou-. *:)° 2' 20", on
the 22d of January, L868. Cast Xo. 3. Depth 16 fathoms.

Euprognatka nov. gen.

Carapax pyriform. Rostrum short, trifid, the median horn being the
interantennular spine, which point- foi ward and downward at a much lower
level than that of the other two horns, which are minute and divergent.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 123

B;isal joint of the external antennae armed at the anterior extremity with
a slender spine reaching forward as far as do the rostral horns; movable
part nt' tlif antennae exposed from its insertion. An ered spine on the
orbital arch. Eye large; peduncle short. Post-ocular spine reaching be-
yond the extremity of the eye. Meros-joinl of the external maxillipeds
somewhat L-shaped, strongly produced beyond the insertion of the palpus
in fronl and at the postero-interior angle. Feet long and slender. Penult
joint of the ambulatory feet of the first pair more than twice as long as the
dactyli, and three times as long as the antepenult i> >in t .

This genus differs from all the other genera of Collodinae in its interan-
tenular spine and the spine on the orbital arch, and especiallyin the shape
of the meros-joint of the external maxillipeds.

Euprognatha rastellifera nov. sp.

The following description is that of a male. Carapax naked, with the
regions well denned, and minutely and irregularly granulated. There is a
single, erect, blunt, almost capitate spine on the gastric, the cardiac, and
each branchial region making four in all, and there are a few smaller
spines on the sides of the branchial, and on the hepatic and pterygosto-
inian regions. There is also a small spine on the basal joint of the abdo-
men. The intcrantennular spine projects somewhat beyond the other
tbnr spines of the front, which reach to the same vertical plane. The
chelipeds are large, nearly twice as long as the carapax: hand swollen:
fingers not gaping. Ambulatory feel of the first pair nearly one third
longer than the chelipeds. The ambulatory feet are naked (except in
bearing a few minute curled seta- above), and rough with minute spines.
The sternum is regularly granulated, except on the concave portion be-
tween the chelipeds.

Dimensions: Length of carapax, 0.32; breadth, 0.23; length of ambula-
tory foot of the first pair, 0.7U inch.

This crab is an inhabitant of deep water, ranging from 80 to 138 fathoms,
and occurred in considerable abundance, as follows: —

Off the Samboes, May 9. ' No. 5. 80 fathoms.

Off Alligator Reef, May 8, 1869. Cast No. 6. 88

Off Sand Key, May 16, 1868. Cast No. 2. 120 "

Off the Samboes, May 9, 1868. Cast No. 12. 123

S. W. of Sand Key, February 17, 1869. Cast No. 2. 125 "

Off Boca Grande, February 15, 1869. Cast No. 5. 1l>.">

Off Sand Key, May 11, 1868. Cast No. II. 128 "

S W. of Sand Kev, February 17. I HG9. Cast No. 3. 138 "

124 BULLETIN OF THE

Subfamily AMATHIINAE.

The only species of this group hitherto known is the Amatkia Rissoana
of the Mediterranean Sea. Two species are now added, as lbllows : —

Amathia hystrix nov. sp.

This species lias a close resemblance to .1. Rissoana, but differs in having
four instead of three spines on the gastric region.

The dimensions of a male specimen are as follow? : Length of carapax,
including the rostrum, L.23; excluding rostrum, 0.7] ; breadth, including
lateral spines, 0.5)5; excluding these .-pines, U 4<S inch.

Off Sand Key, May 11, 1869. Cast No. ltl. 138 fathoms.

Amathia modesta nov. sp.

Carapax armed with twelve spines shorter than in the other species of
the genus, the two on the gastric region being in fact only spiniforin tuber-
cles. The lateral and posterior spines are longest, that on the outer ex-
tremity of the branchial region equalling in length one fifth the width of
the carapax. Rostrum nearly as long as the post-frontal part of the
earapax; horns rather stout, divergent, and curving outward at the tips.
The spine before the eye is small, and that behind still smaller. No trace
of a spine at the anterior angles of the buccal area. Feet somewhat
shorter than in the oilier two species, and with no trace of a spine at the
summit of the meros-joint.

Dimensions of a male: Length of carapax. rostrum and posterior spine
included, 0.84 ; from base of rostral horns to tip of posterior spine, 0.54 ;
breadth of earapax, including spines. 0.50; excluding spines, 0.36 ; length
of ambulatory foot of the first pair, 0.95 inch.

Taken off Sand Key in 120 fathoms.

s, BFAMH.Y ANOMALOPINAE.

This group is indicated for the reception of the genus Anomalopus, now
for the first time described, with a single species. The crab differs from all
other Maioids in its elongated, subcylindrical carapax, and in the character
of its ambulatory feet ; those of the posterior pair being larger than those
of the penult pair. The orbital arch is less distinct than in other Eury-
podiidae, and the post-ocular spine much smaller.

Anomalopus nov. gen,

Carapax verv much elongated, almost subcylindrical; rostrum very long,
slender, bifid. Eyes without orbits ; prajorbital spine small, acute ; post-

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 12o

ocular spine minute. External antenna' exposed from above; basal joint
narrow. Antennulary fossa1 lame. Epistoine two thirds as long as it is
broad. Meros-joint of the external maxillipeds without any notch at the
interior angle when.' the palpus is inserted; external angle sharply prom-
inent. Chelipeds in the female shorter than the carapax. Ambulatory
feel of the first pair very long, twice as long as the carapax, with the
dactylus nearly straight, and three fourths as long as the penult joint.
Ambulatory feet of the posterior two pairs shorter and stouter than those
of the anterior two. and with prehensile extremities; those of the penult
pair shorter than those of the last pair.

Anomalopus furcillatus nov. sp.

Carapax minutely pubescent, unarmed except in front, regions scarcely
defined. Rostrum equalling in length two thirds that of the post-frontal
pari of the carapax, forked in the terminal half of its length; horns but
slightly divergent. External antenna' much shorter than the rostrum;
flagellum as long as the two joints preceding it taken together. Anten-
liuhc reaching to the extremity of the peduncle of the antenna'. Cheli-
peds with a small spine on the outer side of the carpus; hand very small;
fingers half as long as the palm and much gaping.

Dimensions of a female; Length of carapax 0.67; breadth, 0.25;
length of ambulatory foot of the first pair, 1.50; of the third pair, 0.48 ;
of the fourth pair. 0.82 inch.

Of this species I find hut one specimen in the collection, a female, which
wa- taken at the depth of 123 fathoms off "The Samboes."

Family LEPTOPODIIDAE.
This family is characterized by an entire want of orbits and of a true
post-ocular spine, and by the great length of the feet.

Subfamily LEPTOPODIIXAE.

Leptopodia sagittaria Leach.

Cancer Sagittarius Fabrii us, Em. Svst., II, -142.

Inachus Sagittarius Fabricius, Suppl. Ent Syst., p. 359.

Cancer sc-ticornis Herbst, Naturg. d. Krabben a. Krehse, III, pi. lv, fig. 2.

Leptopodia sagittaria Leach, Zool. Misc., II. pi. lxvii. Latreille, Encyc.
Meth. pi. ecxcix, fi--. 1. Des.ua rest, Consid. snr !es Crust., pi. xvi,
li--. _'. Guerih, Iconographie da Rcgne Anim., Crust., pi \i, fig. 4.
II. Milne-Edwards, Hist. Nat. des Crust., I, 276 ; pi. xv, fig. 14. 1! lust.
Cuv. Regne Anim., Crust., pi. xxxvi. Gibbes, I'roc. Am. Assoc, 1850,
p. 169. Desboxne et Schramm, Crust, de la Guadeloupe, p. 1.

12»> BULLETIN OK IIIK

This crab, which has hitherto been found in shallow waters, bul never,
as far as 1 am aware, above low-water mark, occurred to the expedition at
the following points and depths : —

South of the Tortugas, January 15, 1869. Cast No. 3. 17 fathoms.

Off Conch Reef, May 11, 1869. Cast No. 1. •■!()

Santarem Channel, at the edge of Bahama Bank. CastNo-. ;s."> "

Off French Reef, March 21, 1869. Cast No. 2. 45 "

Subfamily ACHAEINAE.

Podoehela maci'odera Stm.
Podochela macrodera StiiMpson, Notes on N. American Crust., p. 68.

Found at Key West, in from 2 to 5 fathoms

Podochela gracilipes nov. sp.

Closely allied to P. macrodera, but differs in its narrower body, longer
and more acute rostrum, and longer and much more slender feet. The
dactylus of the first pair of ambulatory feet is exceedingly slender and
longer than in either of the two specie? hitherto known, being more than
one third as long as the penult joint. The process of the penult joint in
the other ambulatory feet is almost entirely obsolete.

Dimensions of a female: Length ofcarapax, 0.35; breadth, 0.24 inch.

Only female specimens occur in the collection.

West of Tortugas, January 16, 1867. Cast No. 5. 36 fathoms.

Off Pacific Reef, May 13, 1869. Cast No. 2. 49

Off Carysfort Reef, March 31, 1869. CastNo I. 52

Off Carysfort Reef, March 21, 1869. Cast No. 5. 60

Podonema nov. gen.
The species of this genus I formerly included under Podochela (Notes
on X. American Crust., p. 69), but the study of several species which have

since become known to me has led me to consider it distinct in the h 1-

shaped rostrum, and in the existence of lamelliform ridges on the ptery-
gostomian regions, defining the afferent channels, hike Podochela, tins
genus has a concave posterior margin of the carapax.

Podonema Riisei Sim.
/'"- Stimpsox, Notes on N. American Crust., p 69

A female specimen of this species was taken in 13 liithoms, off" the Tor-
tugas.

Podonema lamelligera nov. sp.

The following description is that of a female, the only specimen as yet

MUSEUM OK COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY 127

found. Carapax similar to thai of P. Riinei, except that there is a spini-
form tubercle, curving backward at tin- tip, on the gastric region, and that
the rostrum is smaller and more pointed. The two marginal lamellae of
the basal joint of the external antenna' are strongly prominent, joining
each other in Iron t, and curving outward at the posterior extremity On
the ischiiun-joint of the external maxillipeds there is a smooth longitu-
dinal channel, defined exteriorly by a ciliated r i < I l^ < ■ . On either side of
the buccai area there ace four laminiform crests ; one at the antero-exterior
angle of the area, one on the hepatic, ami two on the pterygostomian
region. The sternum, where not covered by the abdomen, ami the bases
ot'all the feet, are ornamented with cavities, the surface of each joint being
concave and surrounded l>\ a raminiform expansion.

Dimensions of the female specimen: Length of carapax, 0.44 ; breadth,
o.:;r inch.

It was taken at the depth of 21 fathoms, oil Tennessee Reef, on the 7th
of May, 1869.

Podonema hypoglypha now sp.

The following description is that of a male. Gastric, cardiac, and
branchial protuberances low and rounded. Rostrum slightly curved up-
ward, and triangular in outline when seen from in front and below, but
with the lateral expansions well developed The basal joint of the ex-
ternal antenna> is greatly elongated, and the laminiform expansions of the
margins slight. Hepatic tooth and pterygostomian ridges moderately
developed. Sternum with deep and broad channels separating the seg-
ments, which have each a corresponding flattened ridge as broad as the
channel.

Dimensions of a male specimen : Length of carapax, 0.63 : breadth,
0.48 inch.

It differs from P. Riisei in the shape of the rostrum, and from both
Riitei and lamelligera in the elongated basal joint of the external an-
tennae.

No female specimen occurs in the collection.
Key Wot, in 4 to 5 fathoms.
8. W. of Loggerhead Key, in 9 fathoms.

Family AC'AXTIIOXYCIIIDAE.
In this group the eye i< short, in some genera scarcely movable, and in
others somewhat retractile, or rather capable of being moved in a horizonT
tal plane. There are no true orbits, but in many genera the eye lies
beneath the expanded orbital margin of the carapax. which has frequently
two teeth, one before and one behind the position of the eye. The eye

l'J8 BULLETIN OF THE

is, however, never concealed by these expansions. The carapax is gen
erally flattened, angular, and naked, instead of subpyriform and spinous
as in tlic majority of Maioids The feel arc usually short.

It is necessary to reject the name Periceridae, which was applied to this
group by Dana, forin the genus Pericera the eyes are completely retractile,
as stated on a previous page. The genus Acanthonyx seems tin' most
typical of the group, and from this is taken the name adopted above.

Si bfamily EPIALTINAE.

Epialtus longirostris Stm.
Epialtus longirostris Stimpson, Notes on \. American Crust., p. 71.
Found at Key West in from 2 to ."> fathoms.

Epialtus affinis Stm.
Epialtus affinis Stimcson, Notes on N American Crust., ]>. 3.
Found on the Reef at Cruz del Padre, Cuba.

Mocosoa nov. gen.

Carapax subpentagonal, tumid: rostrum subtriangular, entire, obtuse,
excavated below ; eyes large, immovable. External antennae concealed
beneath the rostrum and not reaching to its tip; basal joint triangular,
unarmed in front. External maxillipeds very broad : meros-joint particu-
larly short ami broad, with the outer angle much projecting outward, and
the inner one a right angle, not at all notched lor the reception of the
palpus.

This genus differs from Epialtus m its immovable eyes, which resemble
those of Hue.nia. From Huenia it differs in the character of the rostrum.
The name adopted for the genus is that of one of the Florida Caciques
encountered by I V SotO in his inarch.

Mocosoa erebripunctata nov. sp.

Upper surface of carapax everywhere uniformly punctate, the minute
pits being equal in size and wider than the interspaces. Carapax naked
and protuberant, there being two prominences between the eyes three on
the gastric region, one large one on the cardiac, and three on each bran-
chial region. Of the three branchial protuberances one is situated at the
middle of the region, and two on the outer margin, the posterior one
being smallest and bearing a minute blunt -pine. Feel short and armed
with a few short, hliuit spines chiefly on the meros-joint.

Body <>f a strawberry color: upper surface of carapax iridescent.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 129

Of this species there is but one specimen in the collection, an immature
female, the dimensions of which are: Length of carapax, 0.20 ; breadth,

0.17 inch.

It was taken in 15 fathoms, off French Reef, April 3, 1869.

Family PARTHENOPIDAE.

Subfamily PARTHEN< >PINAE.

Lambrus crenulatus Sauss.

Lambrus crenulatus Dr. Saossure, Crust. Nouv. du Mexique et des Antilles,
p. 13 ; pi. i, fig 4. Stimpson, Notes on N. American Crust., p. 73. Des-
boxxe et Schramm, Crust, de la Guadeloupe, p. 21.

This species is remarkable for its depressed torm and the excavation of
the pSerygostomian and subhepatic regions, which excavation extends to
the infero-exterior margin of the orbit, forming, when the chelipeds are
retracted, covered afferent passages, the external apertures of which are
seen between the base of the finger of the cheliped and the margin of the
orbit. Tins arrangement would indicate that the crab habitually conceals
itself in the sand, with the rostrum, eyes, and afferent apertures only ex-
posed.

Lambrus laciniatus De Ilaan exhibits the same features in a less marked
degree, and the two species, with three or four similar forms, comprise a
group which future studies may prove to he distinct from the triangular
Lambri, and for which the name Platylambrus would be appropriate.

Lambrus crenulatus was taken near the Tortugas in from 5 to 7 fathoms,
and off Loggerhead Key in 13 fathoms.

Lambrus Pourtalesii now sp.

Carapax considerably broader than long, with a median row of four
spiniform tubercles, of which one is placed upon the gastric and three on
the cardiac region. In front of the tubercle on the gastric region there
are two much smaller ones in a transverse line. The oblique ridge on the
branchial region is armed with three unequal tubercles, and a strong,
spiniform, laciniated tooth, with a smaller tooth at its base, at the margin of
the carapax. There are a few small, scattering tubercles on the other parts
the carapax, particularly in the hollows between the branchial and cardiac
regions. The depressions between the branchial, hepatic, and gastric re-
gions are moderately deep The general surface is pitted and granulated,
having a carious appearance. There is a small prominent tooth on the
hepatic region. Antero-lateral margin, behind the cervical sulcus, with

VOL. II. 9

loO BULLETIN OF THE

nine small, slender, laciniated teeth, progressively diminishing in size for
wards; posterior tooth only one third the size of the large branchial spine
or tooth, which is the largest on the margin of the carapax. There is a
prominent tubercle at the summit of the branchial region. Rostrum of
moderate size, pointing obliquely downward and forward, and bearing a
tooth on each side near the base, and a smaller one near the tip. At the
basal tooth tin- rostrum is abruptly contracted more than one half in
width. Chelipeds rather Ion:;: margins armed with laciniated teeth;
meros convex, with the upper surface granulated and tuberculated, the
largest tubercles, those along the middle, being subspiniform ; carpus with
live large and several small spiniform tubei'cles above and on the outer
side. Upper surface of hand with only two or three tubercles about
the middle; teeth of the margins larger and more triangular than those
of tin- margins of the meros; those of the inner broader than those of
the outer margin, particularly those toward the fingers, which are not, like
those toward the carpus, separated by intervals; inner margin with eight
large and three small teeth; outer one with four large and six small teeth.
Lower surface of hand punctate, with a regular median row of tubercles.
Ambulatory feet somewhat compressed ; meros-joint spinulose on both
upper and lower edge. The ridges of the abdomen, sternum, and outer
maxillipeds are tuberculated.

Dimensions of a male : Length of carapax, <->.47; breadth, lateral teeth
included, 0.52 inch ; proportion of length to breadth, 1 : 1.106; length of
meros-joint of chelipeds, 0.37 inch.

Off Conch Reef, March 21, 1869. Cast No. 1. 40 fathoms.

Off French Reef, March 21, 1869. CastNo. 2. 45

Off American Shoal, May 6, 1868. Cast No. 9. too

Off Conch Reef, May 11, 1869. Cast No. 6. 117 "

Lambrus fraterculus nov. sp.

Nearly allied to L. Pourtalesii, but differing as follows: The carapax is
narrower, the proportion of length to breadth being 1 : 1.04 even in the
female, while in the male it is longer than broad. The depressions between
the branchial and the gastric and hepatic regions are much deeper. In
the female the tubercles of the carapax and the teeth of the margins are
less spiniform and generally smaller; the tubercles of the branchial and
gastric region? are indeed sometimes obsolete or nearly so. In the only
male specimen at hand the median tubercle of the gastric and that of the
cardiac region are much taller than in L. Pourtalesii. The rostrum is also
longer than in that species, with the narrowed extremity much more
slender, and the basal teeth more prominent : there is also a small slender

MUSEUM 'OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 131

spine placed beneath and outside <>f this basal tooth. The chelipeds are
shorter, and the lower surface of the hand is always ornamented with
several rows of granulated tubercles. The daetyli <>t' the ambulatory feel
arc covered with a dense velvet-like pubescence, except at the tips.

Dimensions of a male: Length of earapax, 0.47 ; breadth, 0.45 inch.
Of a female, length of earapax, 0.5 1 ; breadth, 0.5G ; length of meros-joinl
of cheliped, i».."> 1 inch.

Off Sand Key, May 11, 1868. Cast No. 2. 26 fathoms.

Off Carysfort Reef, March 21, 1869. Cast No. 8 •">:>

West of Tcrtugas, January 16. 1869. Cast No. 4. .'if.

Off Conch Reef, March 21, 1869. Cast No. 1 40

Off Carysfort Reef, March 21, 1869. Cast No. :>. 60

West of Tortugas, January 16, 1869. Cast No. 13. 68

Lambrus agonus nov. sp.

Carapax broader than long, of rounded form, without angles at the sides.
Depressions between the regions rather shallow. Surface above every-
where minutely tuberculated and granulated. The larger tubercles are
somewhat spiniform, and are arranged as follows : Five on the gastric
region, of which four arc placed in a transverse line across the middle,
and one, larger than the others, on the median line behind them; three
in a longitudinal row on the cardiac region ; one each side of the intes-
tinal, far apart ; five on each branchial, and one on the hepatic region.
From the central cardiac, and from each hepatic tubercle, proceeds on each
side a row of granules, forming a V. Antero-lateral margin behind the
hepatic region armed with six very small teeth, beneath and behind the
posterior one of which there i- a short tooth-like crest. The rostrum,
though smaller in size, resembles that of L. Pourtah ni in having a slender
extremity, but instead of two denticles near the tiji.it has two or three
denticles near the basal teeth. There arc two prominent teeth on the
outer side of the orbit, and a minute spine at the summit of the eve. On
the sternum, near the base of the chelipeds, there is a conical tubercle on
each side. Tooth of tin- basal joint of the cheliped acutely triangular.
On the second joint of the abdomen there is a sharply prominent, bluntly
triangular transverse crest, and a tooth on each side ; and on the penult
joint there is a crest like that of the second joint, hut smaller.

The chelipeds are very long and slender; upper surface minutely sca-
brous, and with an irregular row of tooth-like tubercles which is median on
the ineros and carpus, bnl approaches the outer margin in the hand.
Edges of the meros and carpus with numerous small irregular teeth. On
the inner (superior) edge of the haul there are nineteen teeth, increasing

132 BULLETIN OF THE

somewhat regularly in size to a point near the anterior extremity, where
they gradually diminish again. < >n the outer edge of the hand there are
four or five large and about eleven small teeth alternating by threes with
the larger ones. The fingers are white in color, and not so much bent
downwards as is usual in the genus. Ambulatory feet long, slender,

naked, and unarmed, or will ly obscure indications of teeth on the

ineros-joint.

Dimensions of a male: Length of carapax, 0.45 ; breadth, 0.50 ; propor-
tion, 1 : 1.11 ; length of ineros-joint of cheliped, 0.55 inch.

In a male specimen of what is probably a variety of this species, dredged
off Conch Reef, the hands arc shorter than in the typical form, and the
rostrum is not narrowed toward the extremity, and is devoid of marginal
teeth. These differences are certainly important ones, but the specimen
accords so well with the type in all other characters that I can scarcely
believe it to he distinct.

The species lias some resemblance to /.. mediterraneus Roux, hut differs
in the smaller and less numerous marginal teeth of the carapax, and in the
unarmed ambulatory feet.

Off the Marquesas, February 10, 1869. Cast No. 3. 40 fathoms.

Off Carysfort Reef, March 21, 1869. Cast No. 7. 40

Off Conch Reef, March 21, 1869. Cast No. 1. 40

Off Conch Reef, May 11, 1869. Cast No. 3. 49

Solenolambrus nov. gen.

This name is proposed for a well-defined group of Parthenopidae, allied
to Lambrus, of which I have before me three species, the only ones as yet
known, all of which ate new to science.

The carapax is pentagonal, and more or less broader than long. The
posterior side of the pentagon is much the shortest, and the other four
sides are about equal. The margin is acute on all sides, forming a slight
crest. The upper surface is naked, -lossy, strongly convex, and bears
four protuberances, one gastric, one cardiac, and two branchial. The gas-
tric and cardiac protuberances are more or less triangularly pyramidal, and
the branchial protuberance i^ armed with an acute ridge, running obliquely
to the postero-lateral margin of the carapax. The frontal region is slightly
convex, and there is no protuberance on the orbital region. 'I he rostrum
is short and blunt, or faintly tridentate. The orbits are round, with the
upper margin entire and smooth. The basal joint of the external antenna'
is about as long a- the next joint ; it may he either longer or shorter.
The epistome is concave. From the antero-external angle of the buccal
area a sharp, elevated, crenulated ridge extends to the outer base of the
cheliped, separating the concave pterygostomian from the subhepatic

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 133

region, which is also concave and channel like. When retracted, the
extremity of tluj hand of the cheliped covers the pterygostomian region,
forming the afferenl passage. The external maxillipeds fit accurately
the buccal area, and closely against each other within, and the exognath
is concave, forming part of the wall of the afferent channel, which is denned
within l>v a slight elevated ridge on the outer side of the ischium of the
endognath; the meros-joint has a prominent antero-external angle, and its
surface is concave toward the antero-interior angle, and there is no notch
for the insertion of the palpus, which, except at its origin, is concealed be-
neath the other joints of the endognath. The chelipeds resemble those of
Lambrus, except that the fingers are very small, and the dactylus is gener-
ally at right angles with the palm when retracted. The terminal joints
of the ambulatory feet are acuminate. The third, fourth, and fifth joints
of tin' male abdomen are soldered together.

This genus differs from Parthenope and Lambrus in its naked, polished
carapax, in the distinct definition of the afferent channels, and in the want
of a notch in the meros-joint of the external maxillipeds tor the reception
of the palpus. As far as known, it is peculiar to the tropical portions of
the American seas, species being found on both the east and the wesl
coasts of the continent.

Solenolambrus typicus nov. sp.
Carapax one eighth broader than long; posterior side considerably pro-
duced. Surface punctate. Protuberances of the gastric and cardiac
regions triangularly pyramidal, and acute, with the ridges forming the
angles crenulated; one of the ridges, the posterior. i> in the median line
of the carapax, and the other two diverge from each other in front. The
cardiac pyramid is symmetrical, each of its triangular sides being equal;
while the gastric protuberance is not symmetical, the posterior ridge being
a short, steep slope, and the two anterior ridges being long, and enclosing
a gradual, somewhat convex slope toward the trout. The ridge of the
branchial region is also crenulated, and is bent at the middle at an obtuse
angle, almost a right angle. In the male each of the protuberances of the
carapax is surmounted by an acute spine, while in the female the apical
angles are not thus acute. The margin of the carapax is more or less dis-
tinctly crenulated, especially the antero-lateral margin, at the outer or
posterior end of which there are three small out distinct teeth. The
antero-lateral margin is concave anteriorly and convex posteriorly. The
posterior margin is straight, with the lateral angles sharply defined, and
even spinifbrm in the male. Eyes rather large, with a minute tubercle on
the anterior side of the extremity. Basal joint of the external antennae
somewhat longer than the next joint.

134 BULLETIN OF THE

Epistome of moderate Length. On t lie subhepatic region, near tne afferent
ridge, and parallel to it. there is a slighl supplementary ridge. External
maxillipeds naked : ischium with the outer ridge tuberculated, and a few
tubercles on the surface near the extremity ; external angle of meros very
strongly prominent. On the sternum between the bases of the chelipeds
there arc two small tubercles, one on either side of the median line.
Chelipeds long, naked, with the exception of some inconspicuous setae
on the crest nt' the hand ; meros with denticulated margins, and with the
surface smooth and glossy above, except at the inner or posterior extremity,
where there are three or four small tubercles, and at the outer extremity,
where there is a granulated protuberance; carpus with five denticulated
crests ; hand trigonous, with ten strong, regular, equal teeth on the superior
crest, twelve small, granulated teeth on the outer margin, and fifteen teeth,
increasing regularly in size toward the extremity, on the lower margin;
upper surface of the hand with two rows of tubercles and two or three
scattered ones between the rows : lower surface with three rows of tuber-
cles, those of the middle row minute and obsolescent toward the extremity :
inner surface glabrous at the middle, and with a row of tubercles close
to cither margin, and a few scattered ones near the fingers. All the
tubercles of the surfaces of the hand are ornamented with granules, from
two to live in number. Fingers very small and slender, one fifth as long
as the palm; dactylus when retracted placed almost at a right angle with
the palm. Ambulatory feet compressed, naked, polished, with a lamini-
form crest above; the meros of the posterior pair having a crest below
also, which has a lobe-like expansion at the inner extremity. Abdomen
tuberculated on the sides; that of tin- male not narrowed at the third
joint and very little tapering.

Dimensions of a female specimen : Length of carapax, 0.45 : breadth,
0.50 inch: proportion, 1 : 1.1 I: length of meros-joint of cheliped, 0.41;
length of hand, 0.50 inch.

Off the Samboes, May '.), 1868. Cast No. 5. BO fathoms.
Off Alligator Reef, May 8, 1869. Cast No. 6. 88
Off Alligator Reef, May 8, 1869. Cast No B. IK)

Solenolamb us tencllus nov. sp.

This species i- much smaller than the preceding, and more delicate and
fragile in appearance. The carapax i- but little shorter than broad, and
about equally produced in front ami behind beyond the line of the

lateral angles. Surface rather c 'sch punctate. Protuberances of the

carapax much less prominent than in the other species : those of the gas-
tric and cardiac regions obtusely rounded, without angular ridges ; ridge
of branchial region sufficiently well marked near the postero-lateral margin,

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 135

but almost obsolete anteriorly. Margins of carapax crenulated, the teeth
being most distinct on the flattened, expanded, and broadly rounded lateral
angle, where they are about six in number, not crenulated, and but little
projecting, being denned chiefly by the impressed lines on the marginal

limb. On the hepatic region there are two or three denticulated teeth.
Posterolateral margin slightly concave. Posterior margin convex; its
lateral angles obtuse. Rostrum rather prominent and faintly tridentate at
the extremity ; median tooth smallest and most prominent. External
angle of orbit not prominent. Eye large, with a very minute tubercle at
the summit. In the external antennae the basal joint is about equal to
the next in length. Subhepatic region less eoncave than in >'. typicus,
and without any supplementary ridge. External maxillipeds and afferent
channels nearly as in S. typicus, but with the ridges less strongly tubercu-
lated, and with the outer angle of the meros-joint less acutely prominent.
Sternum between the bases of the chelipeds convex on either side, but
not tuKerculated. Chelipeds very long and slender; edges denticulated.
hut with the surface between them smooth and polished: meros with
about thirteen denticles on either edge, the third denticle from the outer
extremity being larger than the others; hand with twelve sharp, forward-
curving teeth on the superior edge, the terminal tooth above the finger
being spiniform and considerably longer than the others; outer edge of
hand with about eleven obtuse, equal, less prominent, minutely crenulated
teeth; inner edge with nineteen or twenty very minute teeth Ambula-
tory feet naked and compressed, but without laminiform crests; meros-
joint of the posterior pair slightly expanded below near the base. In the
male the sternum and abdomen are smooth and glabrous; abdomen broad
at the base and narrower at the third joint.

Dimensions of a male ; Length of the carapax, 0.25 ; breadth, 0.27 inch;
proportion, 1:1.08; length of meros-joint of cheliped, 0.29; length of
hand, 0.32 inch.

Off Carysfort Reef, March 21, 1869. Cast No. 8. 35 fathoms

Off Carysfort Reef, March 21, 1869. Cast No. 7. 40

Off Conch Reef, March 21, 1869. fast No. I. 40

Off French Reef, March 21, 1869. Ca-t No. 2. 45

Off Carysfort Reef, March 21, 1869. Cast No. 6. 48

Off Conch Reef, May 11, 1869. Cast No. 3. 49

Mesorhoea nov. gen.

Tins genus bears an almost exact resemblance to Solenolambnt? in the
form and armature of the carapax, the character of the feet, and that of
the pterygostomian and hepatic channels, except that the latter are
deeper. It differs, however, in the very important point that the affe-

136 BULLETIN OF THE

rent channels meet at the middle of the endostome, which has there a
triangular projection, and a deep notch in its vertical, laminiform wall.
The meros-joint of the external maxillipeds is acutely produced forward

at its internal angle, and behind it the palpus is entirely concealed. The
epistome is very short. The eyes are small, and may be retracted into
their deep sockets so as to be almost entirely concealed The basal joint
of the external antennae is somewhat shorter than the next joint.

The remarkable form of the endostome and external maxillipeds in this
genus indicates an approach to the oxystomatous crabs, to which the Par-
thenopidae show, indeed, considerable resemblance in other respects.

Mesorhoea sexpinosa nov. sp.

Carapax one fifth broader than long, and about equally produced in
front and behind beyond the line of the lateral angles. Surface punc-
tate and inconspicuously pubescent. Protuberances of the gastric, car-
diac, and branchial regions strongly angular, each surmounted by a
three-sided spihe, the spine of the branchial region being situated on the
posterolateral margin, of which it forms a projection. The angles or
ridges are more or less crenulated. The lateral edges of the gastric
protuberance are continued forward nearly to the front, becoming parallel
shortly after diverging from the spine. The cardiac spine is more slender
than the others, and its posterior edge is nearly vertical. The branchial
ridge is nearly straight. Between the protuberances and ridges the sur-
face is more or less regularly concave, the sides of the protuberances being
not swollen. The rostrum is short. The margins of the carapax are sub
laminiform and almost entire, the normal crenulation being indicated only
by faint impressed lines on the limb. Microscopic n tches may, however,
be detected on the antero-lateral margin, which is slightly convex toward
the lateral angle. Postero-lateral margin concave. Posterior margin about
half as long as the postero-lateral, convex at the middle, and terminating
on either side in a slight tooth. Afferent channels deep, separated from
the subhepatic channels by a very thin and sharp, prominent, ciliated
lamina, and defined on the inner side by tin' ciliated outer edge of the
ischium of the external maxillipeds. From the anterior angle of the
buccal area ;i short ridge extends to the middle of the inner tooth of
the orbit, which ridge separates the concavity of the epistome from that of
the subhepatic region. Meros-joint of the external maxillipeds with two
tubercles on the surface, one towards the postero-exterior angle, the
other close to the antero-exterior angle; anterior margin of the joint,
deeply concave or notched. Chelipeds short, pubescent, especially on the
toothed edges; surface between the edges smooth; on the basal joint

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. loT

below there is a strong, triangular, pyramidal spine, nearly as large as

the dorsal spines of the carapax ; margins of the meros crenulated with
six or seven small teeth on either edge; carpus flattened above, with two
strong, crenulated crests, the outer one of which bears a larger, spini-
form tooth at the middle : hand with an elevated, nine-toothed superior crest
and eleven-toothed outer margin; fingers very small; dactylus at right
angles with palm Ambulatory feet much compressed ; antepenult and
penult joints with a laminiform crest above; meros-joint of the posterior
pair with a slight crest below. Abdomen glabrous.

Of this species there is but one specimen — a female — in the collec-
tion; in which the length of the carapax is 0.32 ; the breadth, 0.39 inch.
The length of the hand is 0.28 inch.

The specimen was taken in 11 fathoms, lour miles southwest of Logger-
head Key.

Subfamily CRYPTOPODILNAE.

Cryptopodia concava now sp.

Carapax subpentagonal, greatly expanded posteriorly, the posterior
margin, which is nearly straight, equalling the entire width : lateral
margins short ; antero-lateral margins slightly convex. Rostrum trian-
gular. Tlie gastric region is protuberant, and from its summit a sharp,
crenulated ridge or raised line passes on either side to the postero-lateral
angle, enclosing a concave, triangular space. The surface between this
ridge and the antero-lateral margin is also concave. The entire upper
surface of the carapax, the ridges excepted, is smooth and shining. The
margins are crenulated with small teeth, the furrows separating which
extend for some little distance inward, giving the indentations the appear-
ance of being much deeper than they really are. The teeth themselves
are minutely granulated. External maxillipeds smooth, glabrous ; meros-
joint triangular, with the external angle very acutely projecting, and the
internal angle without a notch for the insertion of the palpus, the first
joint of which is indurated, with a projecting tooth at its extremity.

Chelipeds flattened as in C. fornicata, but with the meros-joint nar-
rower, the carpus smaller, and the hand convex below ; fingers slender.
curved. Ambulatory feet crested; crest of meros spinulosc above and
below. Transverse crest of sternum bilobed, each lobe beino- three-
toothed, and in the same line with a tooth on the basal joint of the
cheliped, which belongs also to this crest, which forms the margin of the
concave and perpendicular front of the sternum.

The dimensions of the only specimen found — a young female — arc as
follows: Length of carapax, 0.32; breadth, 0.43; proportion, 1 ; 1.34;

138 BULLETIN OF THE

length of meros-joint of cheliped, 0.22 ; length of hand, 0.26 ; breadth of
hand, 0.12 inch.

The specimen was taken off Conch Reef in 34 fathoms.

CANCROIDEA.

Family CANCRIDAE.

Subfamily XAXTIIINAE.

Actaea nodosa Stm.
Actaea nodosa Stimpson, Notes on N. American Crust., p. 75. Desbonne
et Schramm, Crust, de la Guadeloupe, p. 25.

Dredged January 16, 1869, west of the Tortugas, in 35 and 3 7 fathoms.

Actaea setigera Stm.

Xantho setiger II. Milne-Edwards, Hist. Nat. des Crust., I, 390.
Actaea setigera Stimpson, Notes on N.American Crust., p. 51. A.Milne-
Edwards, Nouv. Arch, du Museum d'llist. Nat., 1, 271 ; pi. xviii, tig. 2.

Found on the Reef at Cruz del Padre, Cuba.

Carpoporus nov. gen.

Carapax subhexagonal, nearly as long as broad; antero-lateral margin
armed with three small teeth (in a line which conducts beneath the orbit
anteriorly), and drawn in posteriorly, the greatest breadth of the carapax
being at the middle tooth; postero-lateral shorter than the posterior mar-
gin; facial region very broad; front prominent. Orbit circular, without
teeth below, except two or three minute spinitbrm denticles on the
margin ; fissures of outer and inferior margins obsolete. Basal joint of
the external antenna' narrowing forwards, reaching the front, ami passing
well into the hiatus of the orbit, nearly as in Euxanthus , movable part
of the antennae very small. . Chelipeds, when retracted, having a large
hole between the carpus and hand above for the passage of water to the
afferent branchial apertures. Third, fourth, and fifth joints of the
abdomen in tin- male soldered together; terminal joint as broad as long.

This genus differs from Xantho in its external antenna' ; front Euxan-
thus in the narrowness of the carapax ; from Polycremnus in its five-
jointed male abdomen; and from Halitnede and Merfaeus in the want of
conspicuous fissures and teeth on the margin of the orbit.

It is very peculiar in the perforation of the retracted chelipeds, recall-
ing a similar perforation of the chelipeds of Echinocerus foraminatus, in
which, however, it occurs between the carpus and meros.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 139

Carpoporus papulosus nov. sp.

Carapax naked above, areolated; areolets protuberant, somewhat wart-
like, and granulated ; gastric and fiontal regions very prominent. Lateral
teeth small, spiniform ; their interstices armed with denticles, two or
three in number. Front strongly projecting at the middle, ami bilobed;
margin of lobe concave. Peduncle of the eye granulated, and with a few
minute spines at the summit. Orbit with tin- margin minutely crenulated
with granules, with a slight fissure near the middle of the superior margin,
ami with two spiniform teeth below neat- the outer side. Quter maxilli-
peds armed in front ami along the inner edges with small hut strongly
prominent tubercles. Tin- carpus ami hand of the chelipeds are sculp-
tured externally with granulated protuberances, which on the hand are
arranged in four or five longitudinal rows; hand serrated above with
four teeth ; fingers short, less than halt the length of the palm. Ambu-
latory feet hairy below : penult and antepenult joints armed above with
two rows of short, stout spines.

Dimensions of n male: Length of carapax, 0.25 ; breadth, 0.31 inch;
proportion, 1 : 1.21.

S. XV. ot the Tortugas, January 18, 1869. Cast Xo. 1. 25 fathoms.
Off Carysfort Reef, "March 31, 1869. Cast No. 1. 52

Micropanope nov. pen.

The generic group now for the first time described is nearly allied to
Panopi us, and also shows some resemblance to Pilumnus. As in the
latter genus, the species are among the smallest fit' Cancroid forms, and
live in deep or moderately deep water. A< far as I am aware they are
never truly littoral like the Panopei. Species of the genus occur in the
warmer seas of both sides of the American continent.

The carapax is rather narrow, with the antero-lateral margin short and
the front broad. As in Panopt us, there are five teeth on the antero-lateral
margin, but the second tooth i- coalesced with the scarcely prominent
angle of the orbit, and the posterior tooth i- minute; so that only two of
the teeth are prominent, arming the carapax at its antero-lateral angle.
The external hiatus of the orbit is reduced t i a simple emargination.
The basal joint of the external antenna* is short, hut meets a process from
the front. The endostome is usually marked on either side by a slight
ridge, which does not, however, extend to the anterior margin. The hind
in the chelipeds is larjrc. with rather long fingers, bent to an angle with
the palm, so that the lower margin of the hand is rather deeply con-
cave.

140 BULLETIN OF THE

Micropanope sculptipes nov. sp.

Carapax naked, distinctly areolated ; anterior and antero-lateral areolets
somewhat roughened infront with small, sharp, tooth-like tubercles. An-
tero-lateral teeth sharp and denticulated ; the posterior one nearly obsolete.
Frontal lobes little projecting, but with a convex outline; margin minutely
crenulated, and defined by a slight furrow following it above. A small
tubercle on the subhepatic region beneath the second antero-lateral tooth.
Chelipeds granulated above ; carpus with a sharp tooth and denticulated
margin within, and with the granules arranged in reticulating lines; hand
with a double denticulated crest, and with tin' minute granules of the
outei surface showing a tendency to arrangement in rows ; these granules
become obsolete toward the base of the thumb or propodal finger.
Ambulatory feet armed with minute spines above, which form two rows on
the carpal joint.

Dimensions of a male: Length of carapax, 0.13 ; breadth, 0.17 inch;
proportion, 1 : 1.30.

It was taken at the following localities and depths : —

Off the Marquesas, February 10, 1869. Cast No. — . L 5 fathoms.

Off Carysfort Reef, March 21, 1869. Cast No. 8.35

West of the Tortugas, January 16, 1869. Cast No. 6.35

West of the Tortugas, January Hi, 1869. Cast No. 12. 42

OffFrenchReef, March 21, 1869. Cast No. 2.45

Off Carysfort Reef, March 21, 1869. Cast No. 5.60

West of the Tortugas, January 10, 1869. Cast No. 13. 68

Chlorodius dispar nov. >\>.

Carapax transversely oval, very broad, convex, smooth, polished, sparsely
punctate in front, and scarcely at all areolated, the only depressions at all
conspicuous being those at the antero-lateral corners of the gastric region,
partly defining the protogastric lobes. Antero-lateral margin almost
entire, the posterior two of the live normal teeth only being distinguisha-
ble. Orbits entire, above and below. Front straight, slightly notched,
hut not at all prominent at the middle; margin furrowed. Chelipeds
very unequal, tin- right one in both specimens under observation being
much larger than the other: they are naked, smooth, and polished;
fingers a little more than half as Ion- a- the palm, scarcely gaping, and
but little excavated at the tips. Ambulatory feet compressed, hairj
above.

Colors: Caranax, dark brown: chelipeds, dark reddish; fingers, black;
greater hand with one or two white .-pot- on the outer side between the
bases of the fingers.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 141

Dimensions of a male: Length of carapax, 0.18 ; breadth, 0.26 inch;
proportion, 1 : 1.44.

This species approaches somewhat C. levissimus Dana, of the Sandwich
Islands, but differs from that and all other known species in its smooth,
oval, convex carapax and the obsolescence of the anterolateral teeth.

Found on the reef at Cruz del Padre, Cuba; two specimens, a male and
a female.

Family ERIPHIIDAE.

Subfamily OZINAE.

Pilumnus aeuleatus II. M.-Edw.

Cancer acuh at us Say, Jour. Acad. Nat. Son, Philad., I, 449.

Pilumnus aeuleatus II. Milne-Edwards, in Gueein, Iconog. du R'egne

Anim., Crust., pi. iii, tig. 2; and Ilist. Nat. ties Crust., I, 420. Gibbes,

Proc. Am. Assoc Adv. Sci., 1850, p. 177.
A young specimen of this species was collected at the Tortugas. I find
no note of the depth of water at which it was taken.

Pilumnus caribaeus Desb. et Schr.

Pilumnus caribaeus Desbonne et Schramm, Crust, de la Guadaloupe, p. 32.

The specimens which I have referred to the above species differ from P.
aeuleatus in having the anterior spine of the three principal ones of the
anterolateral margin bifid, and in the shorter and more numerous spines
of the frontal margin.

Found on the reef at Cruz del Padre, Cuba, and at Key West in from
2 to 5 fathoms.

Pilumnus noridanus nov. sp.

This species belongs to the same group with P. arvhatus, and bears a
close resemblance to it. It differs in its narrower carapax, which is
covered with a dense, short pubescence, with a few longer hairs, a trans-
verse series of which, across the frontal region, forms a somewdiat con-
spicuous feature. Below the ciliated line, the frontal region is naked,
and its margin is unarmed : its lobes are not strongly and evenly project-
ing as in aeuleatus, hut are most prominent within, near the median sinus.
The orbits are unarmed above, but have eight or ten spiniform teeth on
the margin below, which teeth are far shorter than in aeuleatus. The
subhepatic tooth or tubercle is small and inconspicuous, and the surface of
the subhepatic region is not perceptibly granulated. There are no spines
on the hepatic region above. In the chelipeds the entire outer surface of
the greater hand is tuberculated. The ambulatory feet are armed with
spines as in acuh at us.

l-i'2 BULLETIN OF THE

Dimensions of a female specimen: Length of carapax, 0.22 ; breadth,
0.30 inch ; proportion, 1 : 1.3&.

Found at tlic Tortugas.

Pilumnus lacteus nov. sp.

Closely allied to /'. gemmaius Stm. (Notes on North American Crus-
tacea, p. 86), and like that specie- covered with a whitish or cream-colored,
velvet-like pubescence. It differs in the mure spiniform shape of the
antero-lateral teeth of the carapax, in the less numerous tubercles on the
carapax and chelipeds, in the want of tubercles on the superior margin oi
the orbit, and in the smooth, glabrous outer surface of the hands, which i<
li'iht red in color. The lobes of the front also are more triangular and
pointed.

Dimensions of a male: Length of carapax, 0.31; breadth, 0.44 inch;
proportion, 1 : 1.42.

Found on the reef at Cruz del Padre, Cuba, and at Key West in from
■_' to 5 tii thorns.

Pilumnus Agassizii nov. sp.

Carapax convex, and with the anterior two thirds deeply areolatcd;
areolets protuberant. Surface pubescent everywhere, except on the
anterior and antero-lateral areolets, which are naked and thickly granu-
lated. The depressions between the protuberant areolets are broad,
occupying fully as much space as the areolets themselves. Tun of the
areolets form the lobes of the front, which are as large and prominent as
the epigastric lobes, or even larger. The frontal surface i> vertical, and
not much projecting, hut the lobes are deeply separated from each other
and from the orbits. Orbital region protuberant and granulated : margin
not toothed, but crenulated with granules, and marked by two fissures
above and two less conspicuous ones below. The antero lateral margin
behind the orbit is armed with three triangular, acute, equal teeth of mod-
erate size. Subhepatic tooth distinct. Chelipeds stout, short, and thick :
carpus covered above with granulated tubercles which are confluent ex-
teriorly, forming transverse ridges; hand covered above and on the outer
side with small but prominent maminillary tubercles, having their apices
pointing forwards. Ambulatory feel pubescent and hairy; penult and
antepenult joint- armed with minute spine- above.

Dimensions of a male: Length of carapax, 0.65 ; breadth, 0.83 inch;
proportion, 1 : 1.28.

This species has some little resemblance to P. gemrnatus, bul the pro-
tuberances of the carapax are densel) granulated instead of sparsely
tuberculated.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 14o

It was taken in from 5 to 7 fatTioms between East and Middle Keys,
Tortugas, and East of die Tortugas in 13 fathoms.

Pilumnus nudifrons nov. sp.

Body and feet everywhere puhescenl above, except on the frontal and
orbital regions. Carapax about seven eighths as Long as broad, much
narrowed posteriorly, convex ; regions slightly defined and not protuber-
ant; surface beneath the pubescence punctate and sparsely roughened
with scattered tubercles variable in size, and most numerous on the gastric
and hepatic regions. Frontal and orbital regions continuous, without any
teeth or spines, forming a prominent, wide, naked, minutely granulated
anterior border to the carapax, made more distinct by a channel-like
depression which separates it from the rest of the surface. On this
border there are no sinuses at the junction of the front and orbits, and
tlie median emargination of the straight or slightly convex frontal outline
is very slight. At the outer angle of the orbit the border i~ continued tor
a short distance posteriorly, on the antero-lateral margin. Bej'ond this
the antero-lateral margin is nearly parallel to the axis of the body, and
armed with three small triangular teeth. Orbital margin below entire,
and smooth, without fissures or teeth, with the exception of the usual
large tooth forming the inner angle. The subhepatic tooth is distinct.
forming part of an irregularly denticulated or granulated ridge, which
extends from the posterior extremity of the anterior border of the cara-
pax to the anterior angle of the buccal area. The basal joint of the
external antennas is small, and the space between it and the frontal pro-
jection is almost equal to its own length. Chelipeds very short and stout,
armed above and on the outer side with roughened tubercles like those
of the carapax. On the superior margin of the hand there are three
strongly projecting teeth.

Dimensions of a female specimen: Leilgth of the carapax. 0.41;
breadth, 0.49 inch; proportion, 1 : 1.1!'.").

Only two specimens of this species were taken, both females. They
occurred at the depth- of 111 and 125 fathoms, oif Sombrero Key.

Pilumnus granulimanus nov sp.

This is a small species, in which the carapax i> rather short and broad,
naked, areolated and granulated in trout, and smooth posteriorly. The
granulation is especially conspicuous on the hepatic regions. Antero-
lateral niacin minutely denticulated, and armed with four small, equal,
acute, triangular teeth, besi les the angle of the orbit At the penult
tooth a short granulated ridge extends inwards on the surface of the

144 BULLETIN OF THE

carapax. The antero-latcral margin in these characters resembles that
of Xantho and Panopeus rather than that of the ordinary Pilumni. The
subhepatic region is granulated, and bears a minute tooth beneath
tht' interval between the angle of the orbit and the next marginal tooth.
Orbit with a distinct notch beneath the outer angle ; margins otherwise
entire, above and below. Front somewhat detlexed, very little projecting;
margin unarmed and profoundly notched at the middle. The basal joint of
the external antenna' talis considerably short of reaching the front. There
is no ridge on the endostome. Feet setose ; greater ebeliped less setose
than the rest; carpus and hand covered externally and above with small,
subequal granules, regularly crowded, and diminishing in size below ■
carpus with two minute, sharp teeth at the inner angle. Ambulatory
feet with a few minute, short spines along the superior edge. Color
yellowish, marbled with red.

Dimensions of a male: Length of carapax, 0.18 inch; breadth, 0.25
inch; proportion, 1 : 1.38.

A male and a female of this species were found on the reef at Cruz del
Padre, Cuba.

Melybia nov. gen.

Carapax broad, subquadrate ; front rather depressed, very broad ;
anterolateral margin short, only one third as long as the postero-lateral,
and armed with three or four teeth. Basal joint of the external antenna?
occupying the hiatus of the orbit, firmly soldered, and reaching a process
of the front. External maxillipeds very narrow, widely gaping ; exognath
half the width of the endognath. Feet all spinulose ; chelipeds rather
large, even in the female ; ambulatory feet long, slender, and compressed.

This genus is closely allied to Melia, but differs therefrom in its broader
carapax, three-toothed antero-lateral margin, firmly soldered basal-joint
of the external anteiiu:e, broader exognath of the external maxillipeds,
and spinulose feet. It has somewhat the appearance of a Thalamita.

Melybia thalamita nov. sp.
Carapax somewhat convex, slightly pubescent; surface nearly smooth
and even; regions faintly defined. Antero-lateral margin three-toothed
(the little-prominent angle of the orbit not included) ; teeth spiniform,
pointing tin-ward, the anterior one longest, the posterior one minute.
Front bilobed; margin of the lobes nearly straight. Orbit with two
fissures above, and one below near the outer side; margins smooth or
minutely crenulated. Subhepatic region minutely granulated. In the
chelipeds the meros-joint is spinulose along the upper 'edge, and armed
with two slender spines on the inner edge; carpus with tour or five spines

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 1-15

on the upper side, the spine at itB summit being the longest one on the
chelipeds; hand oblong, with two longitudinal rows of spines on the
upper edge ; fingers two thirds as long as the palm. Ambulatory feet
sparsely hairy ; meros armed with spines along the upper edge, and with
one spine below near the extremity ; dactyli nearly as long as the penult
joint.

Dimensions of a female specimen : Length of carapax, 0.25 ; breadth,
0.36 inch ; proportion, 1 : 1.44.

In a variety (?) of the species, dredged, as stated below, in 42 fathoms,
the carapax and feet are naked.

Off French Reef, April 3, 1869. Cast No. 1. 15 fathoms.

West of the Tortugas, January 16, 1869. Cast No. 7. 35

West of the Tortugas, January 16, 1869. Cast No. 8. 37

West of the Tortugas, January 16, 1869. Cast No. 12. 42 "

Subfamily ERIPHILNAE.

Eriphia gonagra H. M.-Edw.

Cancer gonagra Fabr., Ent. Syst., II, p. 460. Suppl. Ent. Syst., p. 337.
Eriphia gonagra H. Milne-Edwards, Hist. Nat. des Crust., I, 426, pi. xvi,

figs. 16 and 17. Gibbes, Proc. Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1850, p. 177.

Dana, U. S. Expl. Exped., Crust., I, 250. Stimpson, Notes on North

American Crust., p. 89. Smith, Trans. Conn. Acad. Arts and Sciences,

II, 7.
Dredged at Key West, in from two to five fathoms.

Domeeia hispida Soul.

Domecia hispida Souletet, Voyage au Pole Sud., pi. vi, figs. 3, 7. Stimpson,
Notes on N. American Crust., p. 90.

Of this species I find three lots of specimens, labelled as follows : —

Florida Reefs, in shallow water.
Reef at Eastern Dry Rocks, littoral.
Reef at Cruz del Padre, Cuba.

Family PORTUNIDAE.

Subfamily PORTUNINAE.

Bathynectee nov. gen.
Very near Portunus,* but differing in its antero-lateral teeth, which are
not like those of a saw, but are somewhat spiniform, and separated by

* By Portunus the typical forms are meant, P. puber, corrugatug, etc. P. holsatu*
(mai-moreus) should be separated genencally; it is quite distinct in its external max-
VOL. II. 10

146 BULLETIN OF THE

considerable intervals. The front, also, has no median tooth, and the
hiatus of the orbit is widely open, not being filled by the basal-joint of the
external antennae, •which is narrow, and firmly soldered anteriorly to the
process of the front. The meros-joinl of the external maxillipeds is as
broad as long, and does not projed anteriorly, but fits accurately to the
anterior edge of the buccal area. The ambulatory feet are very slender;
those of the first pair much shorter than those oi the second ; second and
third pairs very long, the third longest; fourth pair two thirds as long as
third.

Bathynectes longispina nov. sp.
The following description is that of a male : Body naked : feet also
naked, except the posterior ones, which are ciliated, as usual. Carapax
subhexagonal, with a granulated and uneven surface. A well-defined
ridge crosses the middle, connecting the lateral spines: while a shorter
ridge crosses the cardiac, and another, interrupted at the middle, the
gastric region. Antero-lateral margin armed with five sharp, spinifonn
teeth, including the angle of the orbit : the posterior tooth or spine being

three time- a- long as tl tilers, ami more than one third as long as the

width of the carapax, excluding the spines; first (anterior) two teeth
broader and less spiniform than the others; third and fourth teeth very
acute and a little longer than the distance between their bases. Front
prominent, four-toothed; the middle two teeth being smaller than, and
projecting a little beyond, the two lateral ones. Or! it with two open
fissures above and one below; besides which, below, there is a Minis
beneath the outer angle, and a broader one, with a denticulated margin,
next the inner tooth. From the base of this inner tooth of the orbit
a small projecting lobe crosses the bottom of the hiatus of the orbit and
reaches the basal joint of the antenna. This joint is oblong in form, and
bear-; a crest or carina along the outer side, terminating anteriorly in

a slight tooth. Flagellum of the outer antennas re than half as long as

the carapax. Chelipcds one half longer than the carapax ; meros with a
long -pine on the inner edge, and a short one on the -uperior edge, both
distant from the anterior extremity of the joint about one third its length ;
carpus with a very long spine at the inner angle, which spine is itself
armed with two or three small teeth on the anterior edge, and with three

illipeds, the meros-joinf of which is elongated, projecting considerably beyond the
buccal margin; and the basal joint of the external nntennoe i- slightly movable;

tlio carapax 1- naked; there is no elevated lit n the surface of the terminal and

penult joints of the posterior pair of ambulatory feet, and tlio first joint of the abdo-
men is almost entii led beneath the carapax. For P. hulsulus ami it.- allies
the name Liocarcinus i- proposed.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 147

other spines, and several spinuliform tubercles on the supero-exterior sur-
face. Hand costate, there being three ridges on the outer, two on the
upper, and one on the inner side; of the superior ridges, the outer one is
armed with five spines, and the inner one is denticulated, with a long
spine at the summit anteriorly : fingers nearly as long as the palm, and
strongly toothed within, the teeth being four or five in number on each
Ambulatory feet of the third pair two and a half times as long as the
carapax. Colors: Body greenish ; ambulatory feet white.

Dimensions: Length of carapax, 0.58; breadth, including the lateral
spines, 1. 10; excluding the spines, 0.68 inch; proportion of length to
latter breadth, 1 : 1.17; length of third pair of ambulatory lie:, 1.45 inch.

Oft' Sand Key, May 1.'). 1868. Cast No. -. 100 fathoms.

Off Key West, April 21, 1869. Cast No. 5. 120

Off American Shoal, May 8, 1808. Cast No. 3. 150

Bathynectes brevispina nov. sp.

This species greatly resembles the typical form in color and most other
characters, but differs in the following important particulars : The carapax
is more convex, and the transverse ridges are less prominent The antero-
lateral teeth are much smaller and shorter, the second, third, and fourth
teeth being only half as long as the distance between their bases, and the
posterior tooth (lateral spine) equalling in length only one seventh the
wi Ith of the carapax, excluding the spines.

The dimensions of the only specimen in the collection — a female —
are: Length of carapax, 1.96; breadth, including the lateral spines, 2.95;
excluding the spines, 2.-lo ; proportion of length to latter breadth, 1 : 1.22.

The specimen was taken in 107 fathoms, off the Marquesas, February
11. 18G9.

It was at first regarded as a large female of B. longispina, but the differ-
ences between the two firms are so much greater than is usual between
the sexes in Portunidae, that I have preferred to consider them dis-
tinct, until the question can be decided by the acquisition of additional
materials.

Subfamily LUPIN AE.

Neptunus Sayi Stm.
I.iijm pelagica Say, Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., I, 97 (1817).
Lupa Sayi Gibbes, Pioc. Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1850, p. 178. Dana, U. S.

Expl. Exped., Crust., I, 273, pi. xvi, fig. 8.
V Sayi Stimpson, Notes on N. American Crustacea (18G0), p. 92. A.

Milne-Edwards, Arch, du Mas, N, 317, pi. xxix, fig. 2.
Found on Gulf weed, January 1<S, 18G9.

148 BULLETIN OF THE

Callinectes ornatus Ordway.
CaUinectes ornatus Ordway, Monograpli of the genus Callinectes (1861), p. 6.

Found al Key West in from •_' to •"» fathoms.

The Callinectes ornatus of Smith (Trans. Conn. Acad, of Arts and
Sci. II, 8) is probably not the same as that of Ordway, as the Brazilian
specimens are described as having the carapax deeply areolated, which is
not the case in specimens from the Florida coast.

Acheloiis Ordwayi Stm.
Acheloiis Ordwayi Stimpson, Notes on N. American Crustacea (1SG0), p. 90.

Smith, Trans. Conn. Acad, of Arts and Sciences, II, 9.
Neptunus Ordwayi A. Milne-Edwards, Arch, du .Museum d'Hist. Nat., X,
Add.

The carapax is everywhere granulated above, except on certain spaces
about the middle. The depressed pubescent areas on the male abdomen
are characteristic.

For the differences between this species and A. spinimanus and A.
cruentatus, see the excellent description of Smith, referred to in the
synonymy.

Dredged in from 5 to 7 fathoms between Fast and Middle Keys,
Tortugas.

Acheloiis spiniearpus nov. sp.

Carapax convex, and rendered uneven by granulated ridges and protu-
berances similar to those seen in all species of Acheloiis, hut which are
generally much less prominent than in the species tinder consideration.
The branchial ridge (that extending inward from the lateral spine) is
sinuous and strongly convex forward. The lateral spine is long, equalling
in length two thirds that of the entire antero-lateral margin. The eight
smaller teeth of the anterolateral margin vary somewhat in si/e, the
second, fourth, and sixth, counting from the front, being smaller than the
others. Front moderately prominent, projecting slightly beyond the
level of the outer angles of the orbit; teeth sharp, triangular, rather
deeply cut. and about equal in size, hut the median ones are more promi-
nent than the outer ones. The postero-latural angles of the carapax are
armed with a slight tooth. In the chelipeds, the meros-joint is armed
in front with lour or five spines (usually four on one side and five on the
other) ami with one spine at the outer extremity. The inner spine of
the carpus is xrry long, two thirds as long as the palm of the hand. The
outer .-pine of the carpus i- short. There is only one spine on the
superior margin of the hand. There is no spine on the meros-joint of the
posterior pair of ambulator) feet, bul the margins of this joint are den-
til date. 1 both above and below, most strongl) so toward the extremities.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 149

The abdomen of the male is naked, smooth, and polished, and the ster-
num is granulated.

Dimensions of an adult male: Length of earapax, 0.37; breadth, in-
cluding spines, 0.84 : excluding spines, 0.50 inch: proportion of length to
latter breadth, l : 1.35. In a young male the length of the earapax is
0.25; breadth, including spines, 0.55; excluding spines, 0.34 inch.

This species is easily recognized among mosl of its congeners by its
lime; carpal spines. From .!. Ordwayi and A. tumidtdus it is distin-
guished by the great length of the lateral spines.

Oil' the Tortugas, January 4, 1868. Cast No. I. 13 fathoms

Off Carysfort Reef, March "21, 1869. Cast No. 7. 40

Off Conch Reef, May 11, 1SG9. Cast No. 3. 4'.i

Off Alligator Reef, May 8, 1869. Cast No. 3. 53

Off Pacific Reef, May 13, 18G9. Cast No. 3. 60

Lat 31° 31', Long. 79° 41', May 25, 1868. Cast No. l. 74

Off American Shoal, May s, IS68. Cast No. 3. 150

Achelous tumidulus nov. sp.

Carapax rather narrow, only one fourth broader than long, rather more
convex than is usual in the genus, and somewhat protuberant about the
middle and posteriorly. Posterior tooth of the antero-lateral margin
(lateral spine) of moderate length, about as long as the space occupied by
the three teeth next in trout of it. Front prominent, projectile: much
beyond the level of the outer angles of the orbits, convex ; teeth rounded,
the two middle ones being smaller and most prominent, and separated
from the lateral ones by a rather broad, shallow sinus. Xo notch on the
orbital margin above the insertion of the external antenna'. Meros-joint
of the outer maxillipeds longer than broad. Chelipeds rather short;
meros armed with three large and one small spine on the front edge;
spine of the outer extremity of the posterior edge of the meros almosl
obsolete. Inner spine of the carpus long, reaching to the middle of the
palm of the hand. There is only one spine on the superior margin of the
hand. On the meros-joint of the posterior p-ur of ambulatory feet there
is a denticulated extero-inferior margin, but no spine. The abdomen of
the maie is smooth and polished.

Dimensions of a, male: Length of earapax, 0.20: breadth, including the
lateral -pine-. 0.31 ; excluding the spines, 0.25 inch; proportion of length
to latter breadth. I : 1.25.

This differs from most other American species heretofore described in
the narrowness of the carapax and the prominence of the front. From .I.
Ordicayi it differs in the frontal teeth, which are not deeply cut.

West of Tortupas, January 16, 1869. Cast No. 8. 37 fathoms.
Off Conch Reef, March 21, 1869 Cast No. 1 10

150 BULLETIN OF THE

Aeheloiis spinimanus De IIaan.
Partunus spinimanus Latr ei lle, Encyc. Me'th., X. 188.
Lupa spinimana Leach, in Desmarest, Considerat. sur les Crustace's, p. 98.

II. Milne-Edwards, Hist Nut. dcs Crust., I, 452.
Aeheloiis spinimanus De Haan, Fauna Japonica, Crust., p. 8. A. Milne-

I'.i'\\ lrds, Arch, ilu Museum d'Hist. Nat., X, 341, pi. xxxii. Smith,

Trans. Conn. Acad, of Arts ami Sciences, II, 9.

Taken in shallow water mi the Florida coast.

Aeheloiis depressifrons Stm.
Amphitrite depressifrons Stimpson, Notes on N. American Crustacea (1859),

p. 12.

Aeheloiis depressifrons Stimpson, Notes on X. American Crustacea (I860), p. 95.
A. Milne-Edwards, Arch, du Muse'um d'Hist. Nat., X, .'342.

Key Wot. in from two to five fathoms.

Two miles south of Rebecca Shoal, in ten fathoms.

OCYPODOIDEA.

Family CAECINOPLACIDAE.

In this family the base of the abdomen covers the entire width of the
posterior extremity of the sternum.

Si bfamily EURYPLACINAE.

The genus Euryplax is the type of a group which differs from the usual
forms of Carcinoplacidae (as Pseudorltombila, Eucrate, Pilumnoplax, and
Tleteroplax) in having the verges lodged in covered or closed canals, and
in having the anterior corners of the posterior segment of the sternum ex-
posed instead of being covered by the abdomen. The first joint of the
abdomen is narrow ami very little developed. The eyes are long ami the
antennae are excluded from the orbit by the internal suborbital lobe.

Euryplax nitida Stm.
Euryplax nitida Stimpson, Notes on X. American Crust., p. 14. Smith, Trans.
Conn. Acad, of Arts ami Sciences, II. 162.

The female, now for the first time described, differs remarkably from
tin- male in its narrower and more convex carapax, in which the broadest
part is al the second antero-lateral tooth. The outer angle of the orbit is
very prominent, forming the largest tooth of the anterolateral margin,
the posterior tooth of which is the smallest; just the opposite of what
occurs in the male. There is no pit on the meros joint of the chelipeds.
This pit would, therefore, appear to be a sexual character, belonging to tin;
male.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 1")1

In a young female specimen, probably of this species, w liieli was dredged
in forty-nine fathoms, and is less than two tenths of ;in inch in length, the
posterior tooth of the antero-lateral margin is obsolete. The same thing
occurs in a, young male of about the same size from St. Thomas. In this
young male tin- pits are already present on the meros of the chelipeds,
but tlic shape of the carapax is like that of the female, and the internal sub-
orbital lobe is much less developed than in the adult.

Key West. -2 in r, fathoms.

Off Elbow Reef, March 21, i860. Cast No. :;. 49 fathoms.

Subfamily EUCRATOPSINAE.

In this group the vergal canals arc closed, ami the last joint of the
sternum in the male i- exposed at the anterior corners, as in the Eurypla-
cinae ; hut the first joint oT the abdomen is well developed, ami is much
broader thin the second, reaching to the coxa; of the posterior feet, which
the second joint docs not. The third joint of the abdomen is much wider
than the second, but falls-considerably short of the margins of the sternum.
The third, fourth, and fifth joints are soldered together. Except in the
passage of the verges through the sternum, the typical genus of this group
(Eucratopsis) dithers little from Panop< us.

Panoplax now gen.

This genus resembles Panopt us in general appearance. The carapax is
somewhat depressed, and much broader than long. Antero-lateral margin
short, with three teeth (not including the angle of the orbit, which is not
prominent), and a slight emargination indicating the fifth, or posterior
tooth, which, being placed within as well as behind the prominent fourth
tooth, belongs more properly to the postero-lateral margin. Facial region
narrow: eye- short; orbit rather small, with a slight hiatus beneath the
outer angle. Antenna' and outer maxillipeds as in Pa opt is. Ambula-
tory feet compressed : dactyli but little longer than the penult joint.

It is very closely allied to Etta tlopsis Smith ( Enrralt Dana), but differs
in its broader and more depressed carapax. deflexed front, more elongated
bands, etc.

Panoplax depressa nov. sp.

Carapax faintly arcolatcd, and smooth and naked above. Third and
fourth antero-lateral teeth triangular, acute, and about equal in size, the
third, however, being somewhat broader. Second antero-lateral tooth half
as large as the third. Front deflexed, in a curve ; lobes broadly convex,
smooth. There is a slight, straight, acute transverse ridge crossing the
frontal region just above the margin. Chelipeds rather large; carpus

152 BULLETIN OF THE

with a small spine at the inner angle; hand eonrpressed, smooth. Ambu-
latory feet pubescent, the dactyli in particular being covered with short
hairs on all sides.

Dimensions of a male: Length of carapax, 0.28 ; greatest breadth, at
tips ut' the fourth antero-lateral teeth, 0. (3 inch ; proportion, 1 : 1,54 ; length
of ambulatory feel of the second pair, 0.60 inch.

Dredged between East ami Middle Keys, Tortugas, in from 5 to 7
fathoms.

LEUCOSOIDEA.

Family CALAPPIDAE.

Subfamily CALAPPINAE.

Cyelois Balguerii Stm.

Afursia Balguerii Desp,onxi: et Schramm, Crust, de la Guadeloupe, p. 52. pi. iv,
fig. -jo.

The specimens agree in all respects with -the description and figure
quoted, except in the proportions of the carapax, which is narrower than in
the (juadaloupu specimens, being full} as long as broad.

Key West, 2 to 5 fathoms.

Between East and Middle Keys, Tortugas, 5 to 7 fathoms.

Off Orange Key, Bahamas, April 1, 1869. Cast No. 2. 9 fathoms.

Off die Tortugas, March 4, 1868. Cast No. - 13

Off Pacific Reef, May 13, 1869. Cast No. 1. 30

Off Carysfort Reef, March 21, 1869. Cast No. 8. .35

Off Carysfort Reef, March 21, 1869. Cast X... 7. 40

Off French Reef, March 21, 1869. Cast No. 2. 45

Acantkocarpus uov. ecu.
Body regularly ovale, strongly convex in its antero-posterior dorsal out-
line. Carapax as broad as long, broadest in front. Antero-lateral con-
tinuous with the postero-lateral margin; the latter armed with a strong
tooth at about the middle. Pronto-orbital region very broad, occupying
more than half the width of the carapax. Eyes large. External maxilli-
peds not reaching to the anterior extremity of the buccal area; ischium
truncate in front, without projecting at the inner angle, which, like the

outer one, is a right angle; meros shorter and br ler than the ischium,

and narrowed in Iron!, with the palpus attached at the autero-interior

: exognatlt reach in« to the tip of the meros. Chelipeds with a great
spine on the carpus placed in a horizontal plane and pointing outward in a
direction exactly transverse to the axis of the body. The ambulatory

II I, . lender dad \ li, as in ( 'alapjm and Mursia.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. I ■'>'■'>

This genus differs from Calappa in the want of lateral expansions of the
carapax, and from Mursia in the want of lateral spines. From all the
genera of the family hitherto described it differs in its ureal facial width.

Acanthocarpus Alexandri nov. sp

Carapax regularly convex, with uneven surface, the protuberances
being arranged obscurely in five longitudinal rows anteriorly, the middle
ones of which form centrally and posteriorly three conspicuous ridges,
the lateral ridges terminating in the teeth of the postero-lateral margin.
The surface is uniformly, but not thickly, covered with minute, equal
granules, the interspaces between which are wider than the granules
themselves. The posterior margin is regularly arcuate, and hears a slight-
ly prominent tooth at the middle, and a slight wave in the outline on
either side. The lateral margin is unarmed, except by two or three slight
tuberculiform teeth near the orbit. The' orbits are large, without fissures,
except the inner superior one. which is itself nearly obsolete ; orbital mar-
gin ciliated. The front, is of moderate width, a little convex, lint not
toothed, and is separated from the orbit by irs lateral angle -imply, and
not by any notch. The spine on the carpus of the cheliped is nearly half
as long as the carapax; and above it, on the same joint, there is another
spine, stouter, but only one fourth as long as the first. Both these spines
are granulated. The hand is provided with a seven-toothed crest above,
and another, oblique, six-toothed crest on the outer surface, extending from
the base of the daetylus to the postero-inferior angle. On the latter crest
the posterior tooth i> largest, and firms by itself a short crest, separated
from the other teeth by a, considerable interval. Between the upper and
lower crests of the hand there are four or live tubercles scattered upon the
surface. Ambulatory feet naked, unarmed, with smooth polished surface.

Dimensions of a male: Length of carapax, 0.31 inch; breadth the same.
(Jti'the Quicksands, January -j:i, 1869. Cast No. i'. 74 fathoms.

Calappa marmorata Faisr.
Cancer marmoratusFwRicivs, Ent. Syst., II, 450 (17;n).
<'mtr<_r flammeus Herust, Nattirg. d. Krabben unci Krcbse, II, 161; pi. \I,

tig. 2.
Calappa marmorata Farricus, Suppl. fait. Syst., p. 346. II. Milne-Edwakos,

Ili-t. Xat. des Crust., II, 104. Dkshonxe et Schramm, Crust. de la

Guadeloupe, p. 51.

Found at Key West, in from 2 to 5 fathoms.

Calappa galloides Stm.
Calappa galloides Stimpson, Notes on V American Crustacea, p. 25.
Found at Key West, in 1 to 5 ['alliums.

154 BULLETIN OF THE

Family MATUTIDAE.

Tin' Matutidae may conveniently be dividefl into two subfamilies, Ma-
tutinae and Hepatinae. Tlie latter gi p differs from the former in hav-
ing a broader carapax, a narrow facial region, and short orbits and eyes.

Subfamily HEPATINAE.

Osachila nov. gen.

This genus is allied to Hepatus in all essential characters, but differs
considerably in the shape of the carapax, which is nearly as long as broad,
and lias the front much produced, so much so as to form a true rostrum in
one species. The carapax i- also more or less depressed and expanded at
i he -ides, and its surface is verj une\ en, Inn ing six chief protuberances.

Species of this genus are found in the seas of both sides of Tropical
America. The name is that of a Florida. Cacique.

Osachila tuberosa nov. sp.
Carapax somewhat octagonal, very slightly broader than long; surface
very uneven, deeply pitted on the protuberances, and finely, densely punc-
tate on tin' depressed parts. Three of the protuberances are on the
gastric region and correspond to the metagastric and nrogastric lobes,
the protuberance of the latter being much the smallest, and continued an-
teriorly in the form of a slight ridge in the furrow between the metagastric
lobes, reach in-, with the furrow.-, nearly to the frontal region. The cardiac
protuberance is rounded and smaller than tin- metagastric ones. Themeso-
branchial lobes are strongly protuberant and larger than the metagastric,
and there is a small, elongated, longitudinal protuberance between them
and the. cardiac protuberance. The front is projecting, and bilobed, with
the lobes verv obtuse and separated h\ a deep tin row. No protuberance on
the concave hepatic region. Antero-lateral margin straight or slightly con

cave anterior!} , but quickly curving backward and bee ing parallel to the

axis of the body in the greater, posterior part oi its length; it is armed
with numerous small irregular teeth, and i> pitted above like the protuber-
ant parts of the carapax ; and the posterior tooth, which forms part of the
branchial protuberance, is larger than the others. Postero-lateral margin
nearly straight, obtuse, rugose, and armed with two or three tuberculi-

torm teeth, of which one. separated fr the post* rior extremity of the

carapax by a concavity, is the largest. Posterior extremity of the carapax
narrow, with a rugose and much-thickened margin concealing the base of
the alrdomen. Beneath, the entire surface of the carapax, maxillipeds,
sternum, abdomen, and of the base? of (he feet, is densely covered with
rather large pits, giving it a vcrmiculated or reticulated appearance.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 155

Ohelipeds father stout; outer surface strongly rugose with punctate
tubercles and juts; hand with four teeth on the superior crest. Ambula-
tory feet (except dactyli) naked, compressed, and crested above and lie-
low; crest ofmeros-joint with a row of pits along the posterior side, giving
it a plicated appearance; last three joints with another crest on the pos-
tero-superior surface; dactyli stout, densely pubescent below.

Dimensions of a male: Length of carapax, 0.56; breadth, 0.59 inch;
proport ion, 1 : 1.05 !.

West of Tortillas, January 16, 1869. Cast No. 4. 36 fathoms.

Off Conch Reef, March 21, 1869. Cast No. 1. 40

Off French Reef, March 21, L869. Cast No. 2. 45

Off Carysfort Reef, .March 21, 1869. Cast No. 5. 60

West of Tortugas, -January 16, 1869. Cast No. 13. 68

Family LKUCOSIDAE.

Subfamily ILLIINAE.

Xo attempt has yet, 1 believe, been made to separate the Leucosidae
into subfamilies. The existence of the group which I have here named
Iliinae seem- to be sufficiently well indicated by tangible characters, such
as the long, slender chelipeds, and the two-notched extremity of the
pterygostomian channel.

Iliacantha nov. gen.

Closely allied to Ilia, but having three -pines (one median) at the pos-
terior extremity of the carapax, instead of tour tuberculiform teeth. From
Persephona, Myra, and other allied genera of Leucosidae, it differs in the
peculiar conformation of the hands, which are twisted, so that the fingers
open in a vertical instead of a horizontal plane.

The pterygostomian channels at their anterior extremities project con-
siderably beyond the orbits. The abdomen in a young male, the only
specimen of that sex 1 have seen, is seven-jointed, none ^\' the joints be-
ing soldered together.

The species of Ilia, the nearest ally of this new Lreuu<. are confined t<
the Mediterranean Sea.

Iliacantha subglobosa nov. sp.
Carapax subglobose, smoothly and evenly convex, and unarmed, except
a' the posterior extremity, where there are three spines, similar in position
to those of the species of Myra ami Persephona, the middle one being long
(equalling in length one seventh that of the carapax) and curved upward,
and the lateral ones flattened, triangular. The hepatic region is consider-
ably swollen, hut entirely unarmed, and is hounded posteriorly byadepres-

15G BULLETIN OF THE

sion indicating the outer extremity of the cervical sulcus, which is entirely
obsolete in its median portion. The margin of the carapax is distinct ami

somewhat acute on the hepatic region, and on the anterior part of the
branchial, as far as a slight angular projection, posterior to which it
ceases to be denned. Surface of the carapax minutel) granulated. Chel-
ipeils in the female two and a hah' times as long as the carapax, excluding
the spine, ami minutely granulated ; meros more sharply granulated than
carpus ami hand; fingers very slender, much longer than the palm, ami
armed within with needle-like teeth. Ambulatory feet very slender ami
smooth, those of the first pair reaching to the middle of the palm of the
chelipeds ; meros-joint as long as the terminal three joints taken together.

The above description is that, of a female. In the male the carapax is
less smoothly rounded above, the regions being faintly indicated, and the
intestinal region protuberant above the base of the posterior spine.

Dimensions of a sterile female: Length of carapax, including the poste-
rior spine, 0.63 ; breadth, 0.52; length ofcheliped, 1.38 inch.

Off Carysfort Iteef, March 21, 18(59. Cast No. 7. 40 fathoms.
Off French licet', March 21, 18(59. Cast No. 2. 45
Oil' Pacific beef, May 13, 1869. Cast No. :i. do

Iliacantha sparsa nov ^]>.

Carapax oval; intestinal and hepatic regions only defined; surface
sparsely granulated; granules scattered, sharply projecting, almost like short
capitate spines; surface between the granules punctate, or, as near the
margins, covered with smaller granules. Postero-lateral margin less con-
vex than in /. subglobosa. Posterior spines large; lateral ones similar in
shape to and more than one half as large as the middle .-pine. A spine on
the hepatic region half as large as the lateral posterior ones. Depression
between the frontal and gastric region very deep, giving great prominence
to the facial projection; median sinus of front very deep: frontal tee.h
much projecting. External maxillipeds larger, more produced in front,
ami more coarsely granulated than in the preceding specie-: granules
prominent, like those of the back of the carapax.

Dimensions of a sterile female: Length of carapax, posterior spine
included, 0.30 ; breadth, 0.25 inch.

It is easily distinguished from /. subr/lobosa by it- hepatic spine.

\V. i ,,f the Tortu»as, January !»'>, 1869. Cast No. 1. 30 fathoms.

Myropsis nov. gen.
This rronus differs from Mijra, to which it is nearly allied, in its more
globular form, in having five instead of three posterior spines, in the want
of the median and hepatic ridges, and in having the outer margin of the

MUSKUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. L57

exognath of the outer maxillipcds straight instead of curved. From Ilia
and Iliacantha ii differs in its chelipeds, the fingers of which open in a
horizontal plane. From Persephona it differs, among other characters, in
the basal joint of the antcnnulas, which is indurated and crested. The
anterior extremity of the pterygostomian channel does not reach beyond
the orbits. All the joints of the male abdomen are soldered together, ex-
cept the terminal one.

The species of Myra, the nearest ally of the new genus, are all, as far as
known, inhabitants of the Kasl Indian and Australian seas.

Myropsis quinquespinosa nov. sp.

Body and chelipeds everywhere granulated, above and below. Carapax
subglobular, regularly and evenly convex, as in Iliacantha subglobosa ; in-
testinal and cardiac regions only defined, and defined by rather deep
furrows on either side ; hepatic region not swollen ; cervical sulcus obso-
lete; granules of the surface equal in size and distributed with great
regularity, being distant from each other by a space equal in width to two
or three times their diameter. Lateral margins of carapax regularly
arched. Of the five posterior spines, the median one is situated on the
intestinal region; the intermediate ones are but little smaller than the
median one, and are placed at a lower level, occupying the postero-1
angles of the carapax : the outer ones, placed on the branchial region over
the insertion of the posterior feet, are small, only one third as long as the
median spine. There is also a small spine at the middle of the lateral
margin, and one on the hepatic region. The frontal teeth are obtuse, and
not very prominent. Chelipeds cylindrical ; meros more than two thirds
as long as the carapax, and covered with granules as large as those of the
carapax, but densely crowded : granules of hand smaller, but also densely
crowded : fingers longer than the palm, and armed within with very
minute and acute teeth varying in size. Ambulatory feel naked (except
the dactyli), cylindrical, and parth microscopically granulated; those of
the first pair one sixth longer than the carapax.

Dimensions of a male: Length of carapax, spines included, 0.72;
breadth, 0.5.S ; length ofcheliped, 1.2.") inch.

Off Tennessee Reef, May 7, ISG'J. Cast No. I. 21 fathoms.
May 11, 1SH8. Cast No. 5. 82

Callidaetylus nov. -m.
Carapax rounded, ncarl\ as broad as long, regularly convex, except
if. i: I he anterior margins: hepalie i rell defined, protuberant, and

toothed: posterior extremity armed with threi spines, as in Pcrsej
etc. Fi\ nt short : basal joint of (be ante inula1 not indurated. Orbit

158 BULLETIN OF THE

longitudinal, with three very distinel fissures on the outer side, which ex-
tend to the base of the orbital tube. Pterygostomian channel much nar-
rower than in Myra, strongly tridentate in front, and extending beyond
the orbit. External maxillipeds sharply granulated ; exognath with a con-
vex outer margin, bul much less dilated than in Myra; meros-joint of
endognath with a concave outer surface. Chelipeds of moderate length ;
hand much longer than the meros ; palm short, pyriform, much swollen
within toward the base, and somewhat twisted, though less so than in Ilia,
so that the fingers move in an oblique plane ; fingers much longer than the
palm, very thin and delicate, laminate, curving upward and inward toward
the tips, serrated on the outer edge, and armed within with numerous
needle-shaped teeth. Ambulatory feel naked (except the dactyli of the
posterior pair, which are sparsely pilose) ; penult joint compressed, with a
laminiform crest above and below; dactyli lanceolate, those of the first
three pairs three-edged, those of the posterior pair two-edged and shorter
and broader than the others.

in the female there is a deep, smooth channel on the outer maxillipeds,
in the median line, between and on the ischium joints, defined on cither
siik' by a strong ciliated ridge. This channel does not exist in the male,
and has doubtless something to do with the flow of the water which bathes
the eggs or young in the abdominal cavity.

In the male, all the joints of the abdomen, except the terminal one, are
soldered together.

The genus resembles Myrodes somewhat in the character of the fingers,
but differs from it as well as from Myra and the allied genera in the want
of an indurated crest on the basal joint of the antennuhe, and in the char-
acter of the dactyli of the ambulatory feet, from Peisephona, etc. it (lif-
ters in the convex outer margin of the exognath of the outer maxillipeds.

Oallidactylus asper nov. sp.
The following is a description of an adult female. Carapax con-
vex in the middle and posteriorly, hut somewhat depressed toward the
anterior margins. The sulci separating the gastric, cardiac, and intesti-
nal from the branchial regions are easily traceable, as well as that between
the cardiac and the gastric; but there is none between the cardiac and
the intestinal regions. The hepatic region is surrounded by rather pro-
found depressions, and on its posterior pari there is a strong tooth-like pro-
tuberance, occupying about one third its area. The upper surface of the
carapax i ornamented with scattered, prominent granules, or short, capi-
tate spiimles. which become less prominent posteriorly and disappear alto-
gether near the posterior extremity, where the surface i> covered, with
smaller and more, crowded and depressed granules. On the lateral parts

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. L59

of the branchial region the two kinds of granules arc found together. In
the median line there arc three or four shorl blunl spines on the posterior
part of the gastric and the cardiac regions, the posterior one of which is
rather remote from the others, and much larger than they, nearly as
large as the median posterior spine. There is a strong, triangular tooth,
pointing forward, on the subhepatic region, and a smaller tooth at the an-
terior extremity of the branchial region on the antero-latera! margin. On
the postero-lateral margin there is also a small tooth, or short spine. The
three posterior spines occupy the usual position (as in PersepJiona, Myra,
etc.), and are short. The outer maxillipeds arc granulated, like the upper
surface of the carapax, and somewhat setose, the setae arising between the
granules. The fourth, fifth, and sixth joints of the abdomen are soldered
together; the surface is smooth and glossy about the middle, hut there is
a transverse tuberculated ridge on the fourth joint, and the sixth joint is
sparsely granulated.

Of the male sex I have lmt one half-grown example. The carapax is
rather broader and more depressed than in the female, and the granules
are smaller, less numerous, and more scattered. The posterior spines are
longer. The. sternum and abdomen are evenly covered with minute, de-
pressed, crowded granules.

Dimensions of a female specimen: Length of carapax, spine included,
o.7!>: breadth. 0.61; length of meros-joint of cheliped, 0.42; length of
hand, 0.65 inch. In the young male the length of the carapax is 0.311 ;
breadth. 0.65 inch.

Lat. 24° X. Long., S3° W., January 22, 1868. Cast No. 3. 16 fathoms.
Off Carysfort Reef, March 21, 1869. Cast No. 8. 35

West of Tortugas3 January 16, 1869. Cast No S. 37 "

Subfamily EBALIINAE.

The genera Ebalia, Nursia, Lithartia, Oreophorim, Spelaeophorus, etc.,
appear to form a natural group, to which the name Ebaliinae may be
applied.

Lithadia cadaverosa no v. sp.
The following description is that of a female, no males having occurred :
Carapax broad, somewhat octagonal in shape, very little produced poste-
riorly, and very strongly convex ; the branchial regions being more swollen
than in any of the Other known species of the genus, am) occupying by far
the greater portion of the carapax These regions and the other protu-
berant parts of the carapax are more or less covered with depressed, often
confluent granules, arranged in lines or groups with depressed spaces in-
tervening, giving to the surface an eroded or vermiculated appearance.

160 BULLETIN OF THE

Tl xcavations between the regions are very deep, but those surround-
ing the cardiac region are broader and less abrupt than in other species
of the genus; those surrounding the hepatic region and lying in fronl of
the branchial arc very narrow. In one of the two specimens then' are
several small, round, isolated tubercles in the depression between the
cardiac and gastric regions; while in the other this space, as well as the
entire gastric and part of the branchial region, is evenly covered with flat,
translucent granules, giving the surface a finely reticulated appearance.
The hepatic region is narrow, with a granulated ridge extending inward a
slmrt distance from the antero-lateral margin, which is here defined by a
similar ridge. Behind the hepatic region, and separated from it l>y a deep
transverse sinus below, there are on the margin two strong, triangular
teeth pointing downward mi the antero-lateral part of the branchial region.
The posterior of these two teeth corresponds to the anterior lateral tooth
of other species of the genus, but the tooth in fronl of it is the larger; the
surface of both is flattened. The posterior lateral tooth of the branchial
region is blunt. The intestinal region is broad, and the two marginal
lobes are thickened, but very little projecting, and not at all dentiform.
On the inferior surface of the branchial region there are one or two rows
of -mall tubercles. The front is thick, the epistome and suborbital region
ample, and the external maxillipeds bent nearly to a right angle in front,
so that the anterior portion of the facial region is large and lies in a verti-
cal plane. The frontal mar-in is slightly concave, hut not notched. The
chelipeds are rugose, with angular, granulated protuberances; meros not
at all flattened, hut nearly as thick as it is broad. Ambulatory feet armed
above with short, thick spines, as in L. Cumingii ; dactyli and penult
joints somewhat setose. Color, bluish-white, with flake-white ridges and
tubercle-: frontal portion ami feet, flesh-colored; a tew blood-red spots on
the abdomen and about the bases of the feet, particularly of the chelipeds.

Dimensions of the larger female: Length of carapax, 0.26; breadth,
0.30 inch

This crab is well protected by its general appearance, and with its feet
retracted would scarcely be taken for a living object- It differs from L.
cariosa in it- broader and more convex carapax, and in the much less
prominent lobes of the intestinal region.

West of Tortujras, January 16, I860 Cast No. 7. •'?:> fathoms.
Off Concli Reef, March 21, I860. Cast No. 1. 40

A. AM M \ Ol SCIKNCES, ('no VGO, 111..,
December 1st, 1870.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 1G1

No. 3. — On the Mammals and Winter Birds of East Florida,
with an Examination of certain assumed Specific Characters
in Birds, and a Sketch of the Bird-Fauna; of Eastern North
America. By J. A. Allen.

Introduction.

The present paper embraces five more or less distinct parts. The
first consists of introductory remarks respecting the topographical,
climatic, and faunal features of that part of the peninsula of Florida
usually known as East Florida. The second is an annotated li.~t of
the mammals of this region. The third is devoted to a consideration
of individual, seasonal, age and geographical variation among birds,
with reference to certain characters commonly assumed to be specific.
The fourth contains a list of the winter birds of East Florida, with
field and revisionary notes. The fifth is given to an examination of
the geographical distribution of the birds and mammals (more particu-
larly of the birds) of Eastern North America, in which is considered
the number of the natural faunae of this region, their distinctive fea-
tures and their boundaries.

The enumeration of the mammals and birds, forming Parts II and
IV, is based partly on my own observations and' partly on notes
kindly furnished me by Messrs. C. J. Maynard and G. A. Boardman.
These observations may be considered as equivalent collectively to the
labors of a single observer constantly in the field for at least four or
five winters.

My own observations were made during a three months' exploration
of the country bordering the St. John's River, between Jacksonville
and Enterprise, in the winter of 1868 and I860, under the auspices of
the Museum of Comparative Zoology. The greater part of January
was passed at Jacksonville, where I also spent the last week of March.
Five weeks were also passed in the vicinity of Enterprise, and the bal-
ance of the time at various intermediate points.

Mr. Maynard's explorations were made during the same winter,
mainly in portions of the country unvisitcd by myself, a large part
of his collection coming from the Upper St. John's and Indian Rivers.
lie also spent several weeks at Dummitt's, twenty miles south of
New Smyrna. During most of December and January he collected

VOL. II. 11

162 BULLETIN OF THE

in the vicinity of Jacksonville, at which point one of his assistants,
Mr. Charles Thurston, remained during April and a portion of May,
collecting, among other tilings, the later arriving birds. Nearly all the
birds ami mammals collected by these gentlemen, and by Mr. J. F. Le-
Baron, a third member of Mr. Maynard's party, have been added to
the collection of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, and are accom-
panied by measurements carefully taken before skinning.

Mr. Boardman's observations were continued through three suc-
cessive winters, during which he spent considerable lime at the follow-
ing points : St. Augustine and Fernandina on the coast, Jacksonville,
Green-Cove-Springs and Enterprise on the St. John's River. Al-
though the numerous specimens he collected at these and intermediate
points were presented by him to the Smithsonian Institution, I am
indebted to him for an annotated manuscript list of the species he met
with. I am also indebted to the Rev. Thomas Marcy, who accompa-
nied me on my Florida trip, for valuable assistance in collecting, and to
Mr. J. E. Brundage for similar aid.

Having made use of the reports of previous visitors on the faunae of
this region, the following lists are believed to embrace all the species
of mammals thus far known from East Florida, and all the birds regu-
larly present in winter, of nearly all of which I have examined speci-
mens from Florida. A few other birds not included in my list doubt-
less occasionally visit this region from the North, and others may lin-
ger here which usually pass the winter further south. In order to
increase the value of the bird li>t as a fatinal record, those species
known to be resident throughout the year have been indicated by
an asterisk (*), and those known only as winter visitors by an obelisk
(f). The date of the first appearance of the strictly spring visitors is
also noted, so far as such arrivals were observed.

The specimens on which the investigations detailed in Part III are
based, as well as tin' revisionary notes of Parts II and IV, are mainly
those of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, which embrace, among
Others, nearly a thousand specimens of birds from Florida.*

The topics discussed in Part III, namely, individual and climatic
variation, necessarily involve the question of the nature of species,
as well as the validity of various diagnostic characters. Many details

* I have also made use of measurements, taken by Mr. Wm. Brewster and Mr. C. J.
M;iyiiurd, of hundreds of specimens not in the collection of the Museum.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 163

in reference to these variations arc given in this part, but a lame pro-
portion are recorded in the general and revisionary notes of Part IV.
The conclusions arrived at, it may be here premised, are mainly the fol-
lowing: (i.) That the majority of nominal species originate in two
principal sources of error; namely, (a) an imperfect knowledge of the
extent and character of individual variation, and (b) of geographical
variation. ('-.) That this imperfect knowledge is mainly due to the
neglect of zoologists to study with sufficient care the common species
of their respective countries, whence has arisen a faulty method of in-
vestigation and erroneous ideas respecting species and specific charac-
ter-. (3.) Instead of the method at present pursued by a large school of
descriptive naturalists — the analytic, or the search for differences —
being the proper one, that synthesis should be duly combined with analy-
sis, and that general principles should be sought as well as new forms,
or so-called "new species" and '-new genera." (4.) It is claimed that
nothing is to be gained by giving binomial names to climatic or other
form-, in cases where, however considerable the differences between them
may be, a complete transition from the one to the other can be traced
in specimens from intermediate localities, notwithstanding the plea
sometimes urged that their use affords " convenient handles to facts."

In accordance with such views a partial revision of the species of
certain groups is incidentally attempted in Part IV, more especially
of the Icteridcc, the raptorial birds, and the genera Pants, Tardus, Pas-
serculus, etc.

Part I.

The Topographical, Climatic, and Faunal Characteristics of East

Florida.

No part of the Florida Peninsula, as is well known, is much ele-
vated above the level of the sea, the greater, port ion being extremely
low and lame areas swampy. The surface is slightly undulating, but
tin; higher ridges randy attain a height of more than lifiy or seventy-
five feet, and the highest eminence is less than two hundred. A large
part of Northern Florida, including what is usually termed Fa-t and
West Florida, is covered with open pine forests, constituting the so-
called " pine barrens." These barrens frequently rise into dry knolls,
but they likewise embrace considerable tract- that are so low as to be
more or less submerged during a portion of the year, especially in wet

1G4 BULLETIN OF THE

seasons; they are nlso interspersed with cypress swamps of varying
extent. Such swamps usually bonier the St. John's on its upper
course, sometimes extending back from the river for several miles.
Other portions of the low grounds support ;i mixed foresl of live-oak,
water-oak, elm, bitter-nut hickory, maple, laurel, sweet gum, etc., with
a more or less dense undergrowth, Mich forests forming the so-called
" hummocks." Some portions of these forests are swampy ; others are
dry, and slightly elevated. The saw and dwarf palmettos (Subal serru-
lata R. & S. and S. Adansonii Guerns.) frequently render the former
difficult to penetrate, and extensive groves of the cabbage palm (Cha-
mcerops palmetto Michx. ; Sabal palmetto R. & S.) here and there oc-
cupy the banks of the streams. At intervals in the pine barrens exten-
sive thickets of low trees and thickly growing shrubs are met with,
which are exceedingly difficult to enter, and are appropriately termed
" scrubs." Each of these kinds of country, as would be naturally ex-
pected, forms the favorite haunt of certain species of birds and mam-
mals, the grassy or open pineries being frequented by some that
rarely v i-i t the swamps and hummocks, and the hitler by others that
rarely visit the open pineries. The extensive savannas which occur
along the upper portion of the St. John's River and elsewhere form the
favorite haunts of numerous wading birds ; and the numerous lakes are
congenial to the swimming bird-.

East Florida hence differs but little in its general character from the
lower portions of Georgia and the low land- ol the coast ol South Carolina.
The tree-, especially of the hummock- and swampy forests, arc usually
covered with the pendant Tillandsia vsnoides, or " Spanish moss," and
the abundance of epiphytic orchids and other plant.-, as well as the palms,
clearly indicates the subtropical and peculiar character of the climate.

From the great extent in latitude of the Florida peninsula — from
2.3° to 3F, or about four hundred miles — considerable differences
necessarily exist between the fauna and flora of the northern and south-
ern portions. Although the change in these features from the north
southward i- more or less gradual, it seems to be appreciably greater
near Lake George than elsewhere. At this point so well-marked a
change occurs in the vegetation as to attract the attention ol unscien-
tific observers, and a corresponding change in the fauna is readily
traced. Above bake George the general aspect of both the flora and
fauna is decidedly more southern than it is below the lake. The

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 165

boundary between the Floridian and Louisianian fauna? and florae, it
would hence seem, may be properly regarded as passing near this
point, the portion of the State to the southward being alone properly
Floridian, the northern resembling more the Louisianian type.*

As already observed, Florida, from its excessively marshy charac-
ter, is pre-eminently suited to the wants of the grallatorial birds. Im-
mense numbers of the heron tribe hence make it their permanent
home, while it is the favorite winter resort of numerous species of Gral-
he that pass the breeding season far to the northward. Ibises and
egretts abound in its swamps and savannas, forming at all times, by
their numbers and showy plumage, a characteristic feature of the fauna.
In winter the abundance of snipe and other species of Grallce and
ducks render it at that season a sportsman's paradise. Florida hence
attracts great numbers of sportsmen in winter, through whose reckless
and often wanton waste of life the water-fowl, especially of late years,
are annually decimated.

The summer bird fauna of Florida is probably not better represented
in species than that of the temperate parts of the continent generally ;
but this State being the winter resort of numerous species of spar-
rows and warblers, and of those smaller land birds generally that pass
the summer in much higher latitudes, its winter bird fauna, as compared
with that of the Northern States, is extremely rich. In New England
the number of species of birds that can be regarded as " common " in
winter does not exceed fifteen,! but in Florida at that season at least
five times that number can be so regarded. This, however, accords
with a general law of distribution in respect to the relative number of
species found at different points in latitude from the arctic zone south-
ward, the number increasing in proportion to the decrease of the lati-
tude, or with the increa-e of the mean temperature. In winter, through
the southward migration of many species, the minimum number of
species which in summer is characteristic of the arctic zone is carried
down nearly to the Northern States, there being a marked decrease
from summer to winter as far south as the warm temperate or sub-
tropic belt ; within the tropics, on the contrary, the number of species
is far greater in winter than in summer, through the temporary influx
of species from colder regions.

* For a further definition of the Floridian bird fauna, as distinguished from the Louis-
ianian, see beyond, Part V.
t See American Naturalist, Vol. I, p. 47, March, 1867.

1G6 BULLETIN OF THE

In consequence ot the subtropical character of the climate of Florida
certain peculiarities occur in respect to the development of vegetation at
the vernal period, and in the time of breeding of the resident birds, that
seem in this connection worthy of record. The mildness of the winter
climate is such that the verdure of the forests is to a greater or less
degree perennial, severe frosts being of rare occurrence. Some of
the early flowering trees, such as the maples, ashes, and elms, begin to
bloom and to gradually unfold their leaves early in January. Although
the forest trees in general put forth their leaves in February, and a few
have acquired their full summer dress by the 1st of March, their de-
velopment is slow and irregular. I observed peach-trees in flower at
the same locality (Jacksonville) in January and in April ; and the flow-
ering period of some of the forest trees is nearly as protracted. The
development of vegetation is hence as great during a single week in
May, in New England, as during any four weeks in February and
March, in Florida.

A similar irregularity is observed in respect to the pairing and breed-
ing of the resident birds. Some of the rapacious species, as the fish-
hawk and the white-headed eagle, commence incubation in January, and,
as I have been informed, occasionally in December ; other members of
the same species delay breeding till February or March. The great
blue heron and the egretts nest in February, as do also the courlans,
several of die hawks, the sandhill crane, the wood-duck and the blue-
bird ; the mocking-bird and other resident soug-birds, in March and
April.

In the Northern States the vivacity of the birds during the pairing
season is as much greater than it is in Florida as is the rapidity of the
development in vegetation. In spring at the North the woods, the
fields, and the hedgerows are ever vocal with bird music ; but in Flor-
ida no such outburst of song marks the arrival of the vernal season.
The brown thrush, the blue-bird, the cat-bird, the towhee, and the
various kinds of sparrows that are common in the breeding season to
both New England and Florida, seem to lose at the latter locality the
vivacity which characterizes them at the North, their attempts at song
being listless and feeble. The songs of some are also much abbre-
viated, and so differen! from what they are at the North as to be some-
times scarcely recognizable as proceeding from the same species.
Even the mocking-bird sings far less than in the Middle States, and

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 167

with much less power. Such at least is the general fact as indicated
by my own limited experience in Florida, which accords, I find, with
that of various other observers.

In recounting the faunal peculiarities of Florida it is necessary to
allude further to a few facts that will be more fully presented in the
following chapters, namely, the differences which distinguish the Florida
representatives of species that have a wide distribution to the northward
from the northern ones. It has for some time been well known that a
difference in size in birds and mammals usually accompanies differences
of locality in respect to latitude and elevation. Other differences, how-
ever, are found to accompany these with considerable uniformity ; namely,
a relative increase in the length or general size of the bill, and an in-
crease in the intensity of the general color of the plumage.* Florida
birds, in short, usually differ considerably in these respects from their
New England cospecific representatives ; so much so, indeed, that in
many cases the majority of ornithologists would probably regard the
two forms as distinct species, though few of them have as yet been
specifically separated.

Hence not only do birds of the same species living at distant points
differ considerably in size, color, and other features, but also in their
habits, notes, and songs. With the decrease in size to the southward
there seems to be a corresponding decrease in vivacity, — a fact which
accords with the general law of the distribution of the higher forms of
life in the temperate latitudes. Although a few structurally high types
are, from certain peculiarities of their conformation, necessarily tropical,
the highest races of men, whether considered physically, intellectually,
or morally, are inhabitants of a medium climate, and gradually decline
in rank both to the northward and southward from this favored re-
gion, animal and vegetable life reaching, as a whole, its highest
manifestation in the temperate latitudes. The excessive variety of
forms within the tropics mainly results from the addition of those
of comparatively low or medium grades, only a few of the exclusively
tropical forms being of absolutely high rank. Generally, too, the forms
to be properly regarded as temperate are represented in the tropics by
only their lower members, while, conversely, many of the higher types
of the tropics are really cosmopolitan.

* See Annual Report of the Mus. Comp. Zool., 1669, p. 16.

1()8 BULLETIN OF THE

Part II.

List of the Mammals of East Florida, with Annotations.

FELIDJE.

1. Felis concolor Linn€. Panther.

Not very unfrequent in the more unsettled parts of the State. I

saw several hunter's skins of it at Jaeksonville, said to have been taken

up the river.

2. Lynx rufus Rafinesque. Bay Lynx.

Abundant. Especially numerous on the Upper St. John's and In-
dian Rivers, according to Mr. Maynard and others.

CANID^.

3. Canis lupus Linne. Gray Wolf.

Canis lupus Linne, Syst. Nat., I, 58, 1767. — Allen, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool.,

I, 154, October, 1869
Canis Iiijiik, occidentalis Rich., Fauna Bor. Amor., I, 60, 1829.
Canis occidentalis et var. Bairi>, Mam. X. Anier., 104, 111, 113, 1857.

Not numerous. They were described to me as being very dark col-
ored, or black.* This account tends to confirm the statement of Au-
dubon and Bachman in respect to this point. f After citing the
comparative frequency of this form of the common wolf in Kentucky,
and in several of the Southern Atlantic and Gulf States, as compared
with its occurrence in regions more to the northward and westward,
they observe : '" The varieties with more or less of black continue to
increase, as we proceed farther to the south ; and in Florida the pre-
vailing color of the wolves is black." }

4. Vulpes virginianus Richardson. Gray Fox.
Canis virginianus Erxl., Syst. Keg. Aiiiin., 567, 1 777. — " Sciireber, Si'uigcth.,

Ill, 361, pi. xcii, 1778."
Canis cinereo-argentatus Kr.xi.., Syst. Reg. Anim., 567, 1778. — " ScHREBER,

Saugeth., 360, pi. xcii." — Godman, Am. Nat. Hist., I, 280, 1826.
Canis griseus Bodd., Elcnchus Anim,, I, 77, 1784.

* Since writing the above, II ed a letter from Mr. G. A. Boardman, ofMill-

town, Me., in which he i of the Florida wolves.

t Quad. X. Amer., Vol. II, p. 130.

t Respecting tin- distribution of the different color races of the common wolf in North
America, see my paper on the Mammals of Massachusetts, Bulletin Mus. Comp. Zool.,
Vol. I, p. 156, 1869.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 109

Canis [Vulpes] virginianus Rich., Faun. Bor. Am., I, 96, 1S29.

Vtdpes virginianus Dekay, New York Fauna, I, 45, pi. vii, fig. 2, 1842. —

Am. & Bach., Quad. N. Am., T, 162, pi. xxi, 1849.
Vidpes ( Urocyon) virginianus Baird, Mam. X. Am., 138, 1857.

Common.

MUSTELID^J.

5. Putorius lutreolus Cuvier. Mink.

Mustda lutreola Linn., Syst Nat., 66, 1766.

Putorius lutreolus Crv., Reg. Anim., I, 14S, 1817. — Allen, Bull. Mus. Comp.

Zoiil., I, 175, October, 1869.
Putorius vison Gapper, Zool. Journ., V, 202, 1830.
Putorius nigrescens Aud. & Bach., Quad. N. Am., Ill, 104, pi. cxxiv, 1853.

"Not common." — Boardman. I did not meet with it. It is well
known to be common, however, in the adjoining States. Audubon and
Bachman speak of it as being very numerous in the rice-fields of South

Carolina

6. Lutra canadensis Sabine. Otter.

Abundant. Its fur, however, is of little value, compared with that
of northern specimens, and the animal is hence not much hunted.

7. Mephitis mephitica Baird. Common Skunk.

Viverra mephitica Shaw, Mus. Lever., 172, 1792. — Ibid., Gen, Zool., I, 390,

1809.
Mephitis chinga Tiedem., Zool., 362, 1S08.
Mustela (Mephitis) americana Desm., Marnm., I, 1S6, 1820.
Mustela varians Gray, Charlesw. Mag. Nat Hist., I, 581, 1837.
" Mustela mesomelas Licht., Darst. Saugeth., I, fig. 2." — Geoff. St. Hil., Vov.

de la Venus, Zool., I, 133, 1855. — Max. zu Wied, Archiv fur Natorgesch.,

XXVII, 218, 1861. — Baird, Mam. X. Am., 199, 1S57.
Mephitis macroura Aud. & Bach., Quad. N. Am., Ill, 11, 1853.
Mephitis mephitica Baird, Mam. X. Amer., 195, 1857. — Allen, Bull. Mus.

Com. Zool., I, 178, October, 1869.
Mephitis occidentalis Baird, Mam. N. Amer., 194, 1857.

Common on the Lower St. John's, but, according to Mr. Maynard,
quite unknown on the Indian River.

8. Mephitis bieolor Gray. Little Striped Skunk.
Mephitis bieolor Gray, Charlesw. Mag. Xat. Hist., I, 5S1, 1837. — Baird,

Mam. X. Amer., 196, 1857.
Mephitis zorilla Liciit., Abhand. Ak.id. Wiss. Berlin, for 1836, 281, 1838. —

Aud. & Bach., Quad. X. Amer., Ill, 276, 1854.
Mephitis interrupta Licht., Abhand. Akad. Wiss. Berlin, for 1836, 283, 1833.

170 BULLETIN OF THE

This beautiful little animal was obtained by Mr. C. J. Maynard at
Captain Dummitt's, where it was said to be common in the scrub. Mr.
May n aid says they arc domesticated and used there as cats, the odor
glands being removed when the animals are young; they become very
tame and are quite efficient in destroying the mice {Hvsperomys sp.)
that infest the houses. I am not aware that this animal has been
reported before from any point east of tin: Mississippi River. It has
been recently ascertained to extend northward in the interior as far as
Central Iowa.*

(JRSIDJE.

9. Procyon lotor Storr. Raccoon.
Ursus Jolor Linne, Syst. Nat., 48, 1758.
Procyon lotor Baird, Mam. N. Amer., 209, 1857. — Allen, Bull. Mus. Comp.

ZooL, I, 181, October, 1869.
Procyon Hernandezii Wagler, Isis, XXIV, 514, 1831. — Baird, Mam. N.

Amer., 212, 1857. — Ibid., U. S. and Mex. Bound. Surv., II, Mam., 22, 1859.

Exceedingly numerous.

10. UrSUS arctOS Linne. Common Bear.
Ursn!. arcfos Linne, Syst. Nat, CO, 1706. — Cuvier, Reg. Anim., I. 142, 1817.

Blainvii.t.e. — Middendorff, Sibirische Reise, II, ii. 1854. — Gray,

Proo. London Zool. Sue, 1864, 682. — Allen, Bull. Mus. Comp. ZooL, I,

184. October, 186'.).
Ursus americnmis Pallas, Spicelcgia ZooL, XIV, 6, 1780. — Gmelin, Syst.

Nat., I, lni, 1788. — Richardson, Faun. Bor. Amer., I, 14, 1829. — Aud.

& Ba< h., Quad. X. Amer., III. 187, 1853. — Max. zu Wild & Mayer,

Verhandl. Akad. der Naturf., XXVI, i, 33, 1857. — Baird, Mam. X. Amer.,

225, 1857.
Ursus [Euarctos) americanus Cray, l'roe. Lond. Zool. Soc. 1864, 602.
Ursus horribilis Ord, "Guthrie's Geo-., 2d Amer. ed.. II, 201, 200, 1815." —

Say, Long's Exped., II, 53, 1823.— Baird, Mam. X. Amer. 210.
Ursus horribilis, var. horriaceus, Baird, U. S. & Mex. Bound. Survey, Rep., II,

Mam., 24, 1859.
Ursus cinereus Desm., Mam., I, 164, 1820.
Ursus (Dam's) cinereus Gray, Proc. Loud Zool. Soc, 1864. 690.
Ursus ferox Rn hardson, Faun. Bor. Amer.. I, 24, 1S20. — Max. zu Wied,

Reise in das innerc Nord Amer.. I, 4SS, is:;'.).— M w. /r Wild & Mayer,

Verliandl. Akad. der Natnrforsch., XXVI, 30.
Ursus cinnamomeus Baird, U. S. & Mex. Bound. Survey Rep., II, Mam., 29.

* See H. \V. Parker, in Amor. Nat , Vol. IV, 370, August, 1870.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 171

Numerous and often troublesome, occasionally destroying swine, of
which they are exceedingly fond. Judging from their tracks in the
swamps, they must not only be exceedingly numerous, but some of
them of enormous size. The several .--kins seen by me were all in-
tensely black.*

CERVIDJE.

11. Cariacus virginianus Gray. Virginia Deer.
Cervus virginianus Bodd.ert, Elcnch. Animal., I, 136, 1784. — Gmelin.

SCHREBER, DESMEREST, Al'D. & BaCII., BaIRD, &C.

Cariacus virginianus Gray, Cat. of Bones in Brit. Mus., 266, 1862.

Abundant almost everywhere. Not so numerous along the Lower
St. John's as in the more unsettled districts further south. As re-
marked by Professor Baird, the Florida deer are considerably smaller
than those of the Northern States ; so much so that it is a fact of
common observation.

MANATIDJ3.
12. Triekechus manatus Limit?. Manatee.

Trichechus manatus Lixxe, Syst. Nat., I, 34, 1758.

"Manatus australis Tilesius, Jahrb. der Naturg., I, 23." — Gtat, Cat. Seals

and Whales, 358, 1866. — Murray, Geo-. Distr. Mam., 202, 1SC6.
Manatus amer' anus Desm., Mam., 507, 1822.
Manatus lalirostris JIari.ax, Journ. Phil. Acad. Nat. Sci., Ill, 390, pi. xii, fig.

1-3, 1824. — Ibid., Faun. Anier., 277, 1825.

I learn from Mr. Maynard that the manatee is still quite common.in
Indian River, where they are often caught in nets. They come into
the river at niglit to feed on the mangrove bushes. Mr. Maynard did
not meet with them in Mosquito Lagoon, which he traversed nearly its
whole length, and he thinks they do not occur there.

The manatees of America and Africa seem to be very closely allied, and
to number at most but two species. Those of the same species also appear
to be exceedingly variable in their osteological characters. Dr. J. E. Gray,

* In my recent paper in this Bulletin, cited above, I have discussed the mutual re-
lationship of the numerous supposed species of lan.l bears <>f the northern hemisphere.
The close affinity between the hears of Northwestern America and Northeastern Asia
is especially noticed; but at that time I was nut aware that Temminck, in the Fauna
Japonica, had referred the large land bear of Japan to the U. fa-ox of authors, or to
the so-called "grizzly bear" of Western America. Tliis indicates the very close affinity,
in this author's opinion, of the Japan and American bears.

172 BULLETIN OF THE

in a valuable paper entitled " On the Species of Manatee? (Manatus), and
on the Difficulty of distinguishing such Species by Osteological Characters,"*
states thai he finds the African and American species are distinguished by
only a single character, — the absence of the nasal bones in the African
species. Concerning the individual variation in the skulls of the two species,
lie oh crves as follows : " When Cuvier had a skull of the American and one
of the African Manatee, he gaveeighl characters by which the African skull
could be known from the American. Now we have a series of skulls of each
kind, we find that not one of these characters will separate the skulls of the
two countries from one another. Indeed, the skulls of each kind are so
variable that, after having them laid out before me for two or three days,
studying them every now and then, and inducing two proficients in the study
of bones, and in observing minute characters, to give me their assistance, we
came to the conclusion that we believed there was no character, common to
all the skulls of each kind, which could he used to separate them. As a
proof of the difficulty of so doing, I may state that there was one skull in the
series which had been long in the collection, and had been received without
any habitat, and neither of the three could decide to which of the series this
skull should he referred; and it was not until I accidentally observed the
character, derived from the absence of the nasal bones in the African kind,
that this question could be settled."

Having myself been struck with the variability of osteological as well
as external characters in individuals of the same species, in both birds and
mammals, — a matter to which I have already often called attention, and the
consideration of which occupies a considerable portion of Part III of the
lire-cut paper, ■ — I can hardly refrain, in this connection, from citing further
the judicious remarks of Dr. Gray on this point. "The examination," he
savs, '• of a lame series of skulls of the hears (I'rsus) and Paradoxuri, shows
how difficult it is to distinguish species by the study of the >kulls alone.
Thus, when we have, a series of skulls of hears from different localities, which,
from their external form and habits, are known to be distinct species, it is
easy to shy which is the skull of U. thibetanus, U. syriacus, U. arctos, U.
us, and / '. ami ricanus, when we have the habitat marked on each ; but
the true test of the power of distinguishing the one from the other is to
determine to what species a skull belongs, of which we have no information
as to its origin ; and we have several skulls in the British Museum under
then- circumstances, and I cannot, with the best assistance at my command,
determine to which species they ought to be referred. And it is the same
with the Pciradoxuri." " If this is the case with the skulls," he continues,
" bow must the difficulty of distinguishing species with certainty be increased
when we have only fossil bones, which are generally more or less imperfect,
* Anc and Mag. Xat. Hist., 3d Ser., Vol. XV, pp. 130- 139, 1865.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 173

to examine and compare, or of which only a limited number of example? are
to be obtained and compared ? They [tin* skullsjvary in most genera much
more than was expected, before series of the skulls of each species were
collected and compared."

These observation- by Dr. Gray arc fully confirmed by my own studies;
and I hence believe that, as the number of specimens of different species
increases in our museums, many species now believed to be valid will be
found to rest merely on individual characters.

VESPERTILIONID^.

13. Lasiurus noveboracensis Gray. Red Bat.
I i no horacensis Erxl., Syst. Reg. Anim., 135, 1717.

Vespertilio lasiurus Gmel., Syst. Nat., 1788.
Vespertilio rubellus Pal. de Beaut., Cat. Peale's Mus., 1796.
? Vespertilio cinereus Pal.de Beauv., Ibid.
? Vespertilio pruinosus Say, Long's Exped., G7, 1S23. — Rich., Faun. Bor.

Am., I, 1, 1829.
Taphozous rufus Harlan, Faun. Amcr.. 23, 1S25.
Lasiurus* ruf us Gray, List Mam. Brit. Mus., 32, 1842.
Lasiurus noveboracensis Tomes, Proc. Lond. Zoiil. Soc, 1837, 34.
? Lasiurus pruinosus Tomes, Ibid, 37.
Lasiurus noveboracensis II. Allen, Mon. N. Am. Bats, 15, 1SG4. — J. A. Allen,

Bull. Mus. Comp. Zoiil., I, 207, 1SG9.
? Lasiurus cinereus II. Allen, Mon. N. Am. Bats, 21.

Common. All of the several specimens obtained, both by myself
and Mr. Maynard, are of a deep cherry red, with but a slight skirting
of ash, and are uniformly much darker or deeper colored than any I

have seen from the Northern States. All examined (nine specimens)
were males.

14. Scotophilus fuscus II. Allen. Carolina Bat.

Vespertilio fuscus Pal. de Beauv , Car. Peale's Mus., 14, 179G. — LeConte,

Proc. Phil. Acad. Nat. Sci., VII, 437, Is.").").
Vespertilio carolinensis Geoff St. IIil., Ann. du Mus., VIII, 193, 1806, pi.

xlvii, rig. 7.— Harlan, North Am. Jour. Geol. & Nat. Sci., I, 218, 1831 —

LeConte, Proc. Phil. Acad. Nat. Sci., VII, 437.
I rtibo arcuatus Say, Long's Expcd., 167, 1823.
I is Raf., Amcr. Month. Mag., 445, 1S18.

Vespertilio ursinus Temm., Mam., II, 234, 1835.
- iophilus fuscus II. Allen, Mon. N. Am. Bats, 31, 1SG4.
Scotophilus carolinensis II. Allen, Ibid., 28.

Common. Several specimens taken.

174 BULLETIN OF THE

1") Scotophilus georgianus II Allen. Georgia Bat.

Scotophilia georgianus H.Allen, Mon. N. Am. Bats, 33, 1864, nee. si/n. —
J. A. Allen, Bull. Mus. Com]). Zool., No. 8, 1809.

This species doubtless occurs in Florida, at least in the northern
part, since the capture of specimens at different localities in Georgia
and at New Orleans is on record.*

16. TsTycticejus crepuseularis H. Allen.
Vespertilio crepuseularis LeConte, McMurtrie's Cuv. An. King., I, 432, 1831.

Ibid., Proc. Phil. Acad. Nat. Sci., VII, 438, 1855.
Nycticejus crepuseularis 11. Allen, Mon. N. Am. Bats, 12, 1864.

A specimen collected by Mr. Maynard at Jacksonville, in January,
but afterwards lost, I refer from his measurements and description of it
to this species. There is also a specimen (Xo. 7-il) in the Museum of
Comparative Zoology, collected in Florida by Mr. Chas. Belknap.

17. Corynorhinus inacrotis H.Allen. Big-eared Bat.

Phcotm macrotis LeConte, McMurtrie's Cuv. An. King., I, 431, 1831.

Plecotis 1 1 I v< ( Iooper, Ann. Lye. Nat. Hist., IV, 12, 1837.

Synotus macrotis II. Allen, Mon. N. Am. Bats, G3, 1864.

Corynorhinus macrotis II. Allen, Proc. Phil. Acad. Nat. Sci., XVII, 173, Aug.

A specimen of this species from Micanopy, Florida, collected by Dr.
Bean, is cited by Dr. Allen | This Southern species ranges northward
along the coast nearly or quite to the Middle States, it being compara-
tively common, according to authors, in South Carolina.

NOCTILIONID^.

18. Nyctinomus nasutus Tomes.

Molossus nasutus Spix, Sim. ct Vesp. Bras., 60, pi. xxxv, fig. 7, 1823.
Nyctinomus nasutus Tomes, Proc. Lond. Zool. Soc, 1861, 68. — II. Allen,
Mon. N Am Bats, 7, 1867.

This widely distributed southern species should unquestionably he
included among the mammals of Florida. Tt has been reported from
Texas, Louisiana, South Carolina, and the West Indie-. $ as well as from
South America, as far south even as Buenos Ayres.§ Specimens in

* Dr. II. Allen, Monograph of North American Bats, p. 38.

t Ibid., p. 55.

t Ibid., p. 10.

§ Tomes, Proc. Lond. Zool. Soc, 1861, p. 68.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. ' 175

the Museum of Comparative Zoology from ITayti, collected by Mr. P. R,
1'lik-r. have been identified by Dr. Harrison Allen as of this species.

19. Megadermatidse Sp. ?
A large species of bat was noticed by both Mr. Maynard and my-
self, but as it always flew very high, neither of us obtained it. It
was very much larger than any other species yet described from the
United States, and is doubtless a AVest Indian form ; probably a spe-
cies of Mefjadermatidee.

SORECID.E.

20. Blarina brevicauda Baird. Mole SnfcE-w.
Sori '■ brevicaudus Say, Long's Expcd , I, 164, 1862-63.
Soi;ex parvus Say, Ibid., 164.

Sfirex taipoides Gapper, Zool Journ., V, 20S, pi. viii, 1830.
Sorex car.olinensis Bach., Journ. Phil. Acad. Nat. Sci., VII, 366, pi. x.wi,

tig. 3, 1837.
Sorex cinereits Bach., Ibid., 373, fig. 3.
Surex Dekoyi Bach., Ibid., 377, fig. 4.

rira (Blarina) talpoides Gray, Proc Lend. Zool. Soc, V, 124, 1837.
Blarina brevicauda Baird, Mam. N. Am., 42, pi. xxx, fig 6, 1 S 3 " . — Allex,

Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., I, 212. October, 1 -< l.
Blarina taljmides Baird, Mam. X. Am., 37. pi. xxx, fig 5.
Blarina carolinensis Baird, Ibid., 45, pi. xxx, fig. 8.
Blarina cinerea Baird, Ibid., 4S, pi. xxx, tigs. 9 and 10, young.
Blarina erilipes Baird, Ibid., 51, pi. xxviii, young.
Blarina Berlandieri Baird, Ibid., 53, pi. xxviii, young.

A single specimen of Blarina from Indian River, Florida, collected
by Mr. G. Wurdemann, is mentioned under '•Blarina cinerea" by Pro-
fessor Baird, as having been received at the Smithsonian Institution.*
While it may be of a species distinct from B. brevicauda, it seems more
probable that it is the young of that species, as 1 have elsewhere stated. t
Sorex cinereus of Bachman,J which Professor Baird cites as a synonyme
of his Blarina cinerea, Dr. Baehman subsequently regarded as the
young of his S. carolinensis,^ which is the same as B. talpoides et bre-
vicauda of* recent writers.

* North American Mammals, p. 50

t Bull. Mus. Com. Zool., Vol. I. No. 8, p. 212.

I Journ. Phil Acad. Nat. Sri.. Vol. VII. 1837, p 373, nl. xxiii, fig. 3.

^'Quadrupeds vf North America, Vol. Ill, p. 344.

170 BULLETIN OF THE

TALPID.E.

21. Scalops aquaticus Fischer. Shrew Mole.
Several specimens of this species from Indian River and Jacksonville,
Florida, are mentioned by Professor Baird in his list of the specimens
of this species in the Museum of the Smithsonian Institution, in his
Report on North American Mammals. Mr. Boardman has also
informed me that it is not uncommon there.

SCIURIDJE.

22. Sciurus niger Linne. Southern Fox Squirrel.

Sciurus niger JjINNE, Syst. Nat., I, 64, 1758.
Sciurus vulpinus Gmel., Syst. Nat., I, 147, 1788
Sciurus vulpinus <t syn. Baird, Main. N. Am., 246, 1857.

Common. Confined chiefly to the pine woods. Extremely variable
in general color, the variations in this respect ranging from pale
yellowish gray to black. The specific name niger of Linne is the one
which has unquestionably the priority, as observed by Professor Baird,
and its applying only to a single stage of coloration, inasmuch as it is
a common one, does not seem to be sufficient reason for rejecting it,
since it is as applicable as any name referring to its color can be, and
is not likely to seriously mislead.*

23. Sciurus carolinensis Gmelin. Gray Squirrel.

Sciurus carolinensis G.mel., Syst. Nat., L, 143, 1788. — Baird, Mam. N. Am.,

256, 1857.
" Sciurus anereus Schreber, Saugeth., IV, 766, pi. ccxiii, 1792."
Sciurus niger Godman, Am. Nat. Hist., II, 133, 1826.
Sciurus leucotis Gapper, Zool. Journ., V, 2(>G, \>\. xxi, 1830.

Exceedingly abundant, and generally very tame. Two of my party
shut a dozen one evening in less than half an hour at Ilawkinsville.
Tiny are considerably smaller than at the North, and also diner some-
what in color from northern specimens, the gray being more suffused
with brownish than in the gray northern type.

The fifty or sixty specimens carefully examined were quite uniform
in color and generally so in size. The yellowish-brown patch on the
back usually presenl in the gray type of this species was of greater
extent and Less distinctly defined than in northern examples. No

* See Baird, W.rtli American Mammals, p. 218.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY.

177

dusky or black varieties were noticed, nor could I learn that they ex-
isted here. Their voice is not so heavy as that of the northern animal,
hut in no other respects than in those above mentioned do they differ
from it. Professor Baird has quite fully described the gradual transi-
tion from the common gray to the glossy black type of coloration seen
at the North, where the dark varieties are most common.*

Measurements of Florida Specimens.

245.".
2454

•j 4.').-;

2040
2041

,2054
2055
2056
2057
2058
2059
20(56
206"

206S

203 '

JIM, J

24J7 *

351 i

352 ■

221 ,

222 /

365 "

366 .

367 i

368 ?

369 J
37() /
377 f
378

379 •

380 .

381 I
3S2 f

384 '

385 -•

386 .

387 '

388 '

389 -'

390 '

391 ■

392 "

393 '

394 •

395 '

396 '

397 '

398 '
3 . i

4HU '

- z o "a

Hi »0

Jacksonv'l Jan. 12 CJ.Maynard 20.

Ki " 18

12 " 17.

25 J. A. Allen 19

25 " 20

Dummitt's Mar. 16 CJ.Maynard 20.

'• 18 " lis

Welaka Feb. 6 J.A.Allen 21.

Ilawl.iiisv'I Mar. 12

2.50

2.40
.45

2.4H
2 42
2 33
2 50
2.45
2.35
2.45
2.30
2 35
2.45
2 50
2.35
2.40
2 35
2.40
2.40
2.38
2 40
2.50
2.40
2.40
2.50
2 411

9.00 8.00

9.00 7.75
8.45 7.50
9.50 7.:o

10 50 7.50
9 50 8 15
10.20 8 00
in no 8 25
10.00 S 75
lo.i 0 8.40

9.1 'i 7.50
9.15 7 60

10.15 9.60
9.50 8 00
9 25 8.00
s 25 !».75
9.25 - 0
8.75 7.60
8.90 7. so
9 00 7.60
9.50 6.75
8.50 8.0U
9 ii' 3.50

10 00 8.00
8.75 8.00
9.00 8.00
9.25 7.65
9 on 7 50
9.15 7.85
9.25 8.1
9.00 7.90
9. 75 -.15
9.00 7.7.".
8.75 7.95

10.15 7.S5
8.90 7.35

I LOO 2.00

1 .35
1.45

1.60
1.35

10.45
10.25
[0.00
10.00
10.50
10.56
11.00 -
11.50 —

9.00 —
in on —

9.85 —
11.35 —
in '(■ 1 ;,n

9.25 l.to
11 on 1.35

9.75 1.40
lo.oo 1.50
10.60 1.50
10.00 1.50

9.00 1.40

10.00 1.40

10 75 1.45
10 50 1.45
11.00 1.42
10 25 1.45
9.75 1.40
9.50 1.45
10. 1011.45
10.75 1.45
10.50 1.50
10.25 1.55

lo.: :. i 40

9.60 155
lo.Ti 1.65
10.10 1.60

2.45

2.35
2 45

2.56
2.40

2.15
2 23

2. 'J 2
2.20
2.25
2 05

2.25

■i 20
2.15

2 jo

2.:; 7

2.25
2.22
2.30
2.32

2.22

2 LO

2.40

2 3( '

1 LO

2.45

2 15

* N. Am. Main., p. 259. See further on this point my remarks on this species in
No. " of the first volume of this Bulletin, already cited.
VOL. II. 12

178 BULLETIN OF THE

24. Geomys pineti Rqfinesque. " Salamander."
Geomys pinelis Raf., Amer. Month. Mag., II, 45, 1817.
Pseudosloma Jloriduna Acd. & Bach., Quad. N. Am., Ill, 242, pi. cl, fig. 1, 1853.

Common, but mainly confined to the drier portions of the pine woods.
The five specimens collected by me differ very much in size, and
considerably in color, some of them being plumbeous and others brown-
ish-plumbeous ; in other words, some are much darker than others.
The difference in size appears to be mainly due to age. This species
extends southwards at least as far as Lake Harney, and at some locali-
ties is particularly numerous, the little hillocks of earth it throws
up sometimes nearly covering the ground.

MURIDiE.
25. Mus decumanus Pallas. Brown Rat.
Abundant at Jacksonville, but not observed by any of my party on
the Upper St. John's, nor by Mr. Maynard on Indian River.

Although no other species of Mus was observed, it is not improba-
ble that the common mou>e (M. musculus) occurs in the vicinity of the
towns. It was not found on the Upper St. John's (to which locality it
probably has not yet extended), where the common house mice are a
species of Hesperomys, as are also the house mice on Indian River,
according to Mr. Maynard. Neither was any species of Reithrodon
obtained. The R. humilis, which occurs in Georgia and South Caro-
lina, is certainly to be expected in Northern Horida; but it has not
yet to my knowledge been reported from there.

26. Hesperomys leucopus Wagner. White-footed Mouse.

Mus sylvaticus, var. Erxl., Syst. Re?. An., I, 300, 1775.

Mus leucopus Desm., Mam., II, 307, 1822. — Aud. & Bach., Quad. N. Am.,

I, 300, pi. xlvi, 1849.
Mus agrarius Godman, Am. Nat. Hist., II, 18:20.
Mus noveboracensis Selys-Longcii., Etude Micromam., G7, 1839.
Mus Emmonsii Dekay, Emmon's Rep. Quad. Mass., 01, 1840.
Cricdus myoides Gapper, Zool. Journ., 1830, 204.
Hesperomys polionotus Wagner, Wicgm, Arch., 1843, ii, 52.
f Hesperomys cognatus I.i < 'onte, Proc. Phil. Acad. Nat. Sci., VI, 442, 1852.
Hesperomys leucopus LeConte, Ibid., 413. — Baird, .Mam. N.Am., 459, 1857.

— Allen, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., 1, 227, October, 18G9.
Hesperomys myoides I5.vir.ii, Main. N. Am., 472.
Hesperomys indianus Max. zl Wild., Arch, fiir Naturg., XXVIII, i, 1 1 1, 1862.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 179

A mouse provisionally referred to this species was abundant, espe-
cially at certain localities. At my first camp, about twenty-five miles
above Jacksonville (near Hibernia), an Hcsperomys and the wood rat
(Neotoma fioridand) were excessively numerous. At eveuing they
began scampering over the leaves, their little footsteps being •heard
in every direction ; at times they approached so near the camp-fire as
to be distinctly seen. They ascended the bushes, and could be heard
on the lower branches of the trees. Some of my party being unac-
customed to such manifestations of nocturnal life, were at first filled
with app:"ehension as to the character of their visitors, and could
scarcely be convinced that the place was not infested with poisonous
snakes or other dangerous animals. Depending upon my traps for
specimens, which unfortunately for me the mice avoided, I secured but
two or three examples of the Hesperomys so abundant here. These,
with several others obtained by me elsewhere, as also others obtained
on Indian River by Mr. Maynard, including both young and adult,
are undistinguishable from the common II. leucopus of the North, the
young being deep plumbeous.

I observed at this place a fact in respect to the habits of the Hes-
peromys I had not previously noticed nor seen pointed out, though it
was noticed in all the parts of Florida I visited. I refer to its habit of
cutting off the branches and main stems of the young saplings. I at
first supposed this work to be that of the wood-boring larvae of some
coleopterous insect, so nearly did the "pruning" resemble that of the
so-called " oak-pruners " (Cerambycidoe sp.). A closer examination,
however, showed that, instead of the twigs being smoothly cut, as by a
boring insect working from within outwards and severing the bark
last, the cutting was begun from without, and that a considerable por-
tion of wood had been gnawed away, both the cut surfaces being
highest at the middle. Marks of the teeth of these little gnawers
were also generally clearly distinguishable. No traces of boring by
insect larvae could be detected near the severed point. The branches
thus cut are generally of about the size of one's finger, and are usually
the main stem of a young sapling. Various species of trees are thus-
mutilated ; but as they are usually destitute of fruit, the purpose of
these animals in this work is not apparent. It is a habit that may be
common to the Hespi >mys of the North, but I have never seen it
referred to. These little animals being a hundred-fold more numerous

180 BULLETIN OF THE

in East Florida than they generally are in the Northern States, their
work would here be of course much more noticeable.

27. Hesperomys auroolus Wagner. Golden Mouse.

Afcieola Nutta/li Harlan, Month. Amer. Journ. Gcol &. Nat. Sri., I, 440,
1342. — Iisid., Med. & Plus. Researches, 55, pi. , 1835.

Mus (Calomys) aareolus Aud. & Bach., Jouin. Phil. Acad. Nat. Sci., VIII,
302, 1842. — Aud. & Bach., Quad. N. Am., II, 305, pi. xcv, 1851.

Hesperomys aureolas Wagner, Wieg. Archiv, 1 S43, ii, 51.

Hesperomys Nuttalli Baird, .Mam. N. Am., 467, 1857.

A single specimen which I refer to this so-called species was obtained
by Mr. Maynard at Dummitt's. While this example is of the size and gen-
eral proportions of H. It ucopus, it is markedly different in color, being of a
bright golden yellow above, which color reaches on the outside of the legs
to the feet : the under surface has also a yellowish wash. It also differs in
the texture of its fur, which is remarkably soft and fine. It is a little lighter
colored than Audubon and Bachman's description and figure of //. am i olus
represent that animal to be, but the distribution of the colors is the same,
the specimen in question being not orange, but bright yellowish-cinnamon.
It is, however, much nearer this than to Dr. Harlan's Arvicola Nuttalli.
The latter does not differ very appreciably, judging from Dv. Harlan's
very unsatisfactory description and his wretched figure of it, which
was evidently made from a badly stuffed skin. Mr. Maynard believes
the specimen referred to above to be a young animal, and states that it
was so regarded by the people in whose house it was caught. He further
informs me that he captured another of the same color, but very much
larger, which was lost. This he regards as merely the adult of the same
species. His measurements show the latter to have agreed in size and
proportions with the so-called H. gassy pinus. The texture of the fur <4'
the small specimen above referred to agrees with that of the plumbeous,
immature stage of //. leucopus. This form, whether a valid species or
not,* is now known to occur in Southeastern Pennsylvania, Southern
Illinois, Georgia, Florida, Mississippi, Missouri, and at several intermediate
points.

28. Hesperomys gossypinus LeConte. Cotton Mouse.

Hesperomys gossypinus LeConte, Proc. Phil. Acad. Nat. Sei., VI, 411, 1853,
— Baird, Mam. N. Am., 469, 1857.

* This and the following species arc only provisionally adopt See a previous
number of this Bulletin (Vol. I., No. 8, p. 227) for a fuller expression of my \
to the number of North American species of this group, and their mutual affinities.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 181

Several specimens were obtained, corresponding in size and color
with what LeConte and Baird have described under this name. It is
apparently common. As I have previously stated elsewhere,* these Flor-
ida specimens have well-developed cheek-pouches.

The specimens in question arc rather larger than any examples of 77.
leucopus I have seen from the Northern States, they agreeing very well in
measurements with the two specimens cited by Professor Baird. j The
large size of these specimens, conjoined -with their southern habitat, would
seem at first to clearly indicate their being distinct from II. leucopus, as
they are at least one third larger than the average size of the latter at the
North. Professor Baird in speaking of this species observes : " There is
every reason to consider this mouse as specifically distinct from II. leuco-
pus of the North; although skins, when much stretched (as Nos. 1105,
1112. from Middleboro', Massachusetts), of the latter, may measure as
much as those recorded here, yet they are certainly actually smaller, as
shown by the feet, which never attain anything of the length of .45 for the
anterior and .90 for the posterior." But he is " hardly satisfied," he adds,
" that this animal is different from the smaller 27. leucopus, as the differ-
ence in size is no greater than is to be seen in a series of Hesperomys from
more northern localities. The tail is duskier beneath than in 77. cognatus,
and the sides more rusty ; otherwise I can realize only the larger size.
Should both [77. cognatus and II. gossypinus'] prove to be the same, the
name 77. gossypinus must of course take precedence."'

As already observed, the prevailing form of the Hesperomys of East
Florida is not essentially different from a large proportion of the 77.
leucopus of the North, either in measurements, proportions, or color,
although it is unmistakably referable to the so-called 77. cognatus, which
has been supposed to replace in the Southern Atlantic and Gulf States the
77. leucopus of the nmre northern ones. If, as I have elsewhere suggested
(Joe. cit.), as Professor Baird admits may be, and as the facts seem to indi-
cate, 77. gossypinus is inseparable from 77. cognatus, and the latter being
most unquestionably referable to II. leucopus, it would seem that 77. gos-
sypinus must also be referred to the II. leucopus.

Respecting the variations in this species and the affinities of the 77.
gossypinus, Audubon and Bachman observe as follows: " That a species so
widely distributed and subject to so many variations in size, length of
tail, and color, should have been often described under different names is
not surprising. We have ourselves often been in a state of doubt on
obtaining some striking variety. The name Hypudccus gossypinus of our

* Bulletin Mus. Comp. Zobl., Vol. I, No. 8, p. 229, 1869.
t Mam. X. Am., p. 469.

182 BULLETIN OF THE

friend Major LeConte (sec Appendix to McMurtrie's translation of Cuv.
An. Kingd., Vol. I, p. 431) was intended for this species, as it is found in
the Southern States. We were for several years disposed to regard it as
distinct, and have, not without much hesitation, and after an examination
of many hundred specimens, been induced to set it down as a variety
only." These authors also remark that they are considerably larger in
the Carolines than in the Eastern States.*

29. Hesperomys palustris Wagner. Rice-field Mouse.

Mvspalustris Harlan, Am. Journ. Sci., XXXI, 386, 1837.

" Hesperomys palustris Wagner, Supplem. Schreb. Saugeth., Ill, 543, 1843."

Hesperomys {Oryzomys) palustris Baird, Mam N Am:, 482, 1857.

Arvicola oryzvtora Aud. & Bach., Quad. N. Am., Ill, 214, pi. cxliv, fig. 3, 1857.

No specimens of this species were obtained by either Mr. Maynard
or myself. Its habitat is usually given as South Carolina and Georgia,
but Audubon and Bach man state : " The late Dr. Leitner brought us a
specimen obtained in the Everglades of Florida." | It in all probabil-
ity occurs also in East Florida. The above-mentioned authors give it as
somewhat common in the salt-marshes near Savannah and Charleston.
Professor Baird has received it from Columbus and St. Simon's Island,
Georgia, and Society Hill, South Carolina.

"0. Neotoma floridana Say <j- 0>d. Wood Rat.

Mas floridanus Ord, Lull. Soc. Plnlom., 1818, 181. — Say, Long's Exped.,

I, 54, 1823.
Arvicola Jlondana Harlan, Faun. Amer., 141, 1825.
Neotoma floridana Say & Ord, Journ. Phil. Acad. Nat. Sci., IV, ii, 352,

1825.— Baird, Mam. N. Am., 487, 1857.

I found this species very abundant on the Lower St. John's, espe-
cially around Jacksonville and Hihernia, but I did not meet with it
above Lake George. The old residents about Ilawkinsville seemed
•wholly unacquainted with it. Mr. Maynard also failed to meet with it
on Indian River. It hence appears probable that it may not occur
very frequently in the southern part of the peninsula. Professor Baird,
however, lias recorded a specimen from "Indian River, Fla.," collected
by Dr. Wurdemann.

The present usual northward range of this species does not appear
to extend beyond North Carolina ; but Professor Baird, writing in 1837, X

* Quad. N. Amer., Vol. I, pp. 301, 305. \ Mum. X. Am., p. 489.

t Ibid., Vol. Ill, p. 216.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 183

remarks : " A few specimens of unusually large size were captured
some years ago by J. G. Bell, near Piermont, on the Hudson River,
but I have not heard of any in intermediate localities [New York and
Society Hill, South Carolina]." Mi-. George Gibbes states that he
"caught a specimen, many years ago, in Massachusetts."* Audu-
bon ami Bachman remark that specimens of it have been obtained in
North Carolina, and that they had "observed a few nests in the valleys
of the Virginia mountains," and that they had " somewhere heard it
stated that one or two had been captured as far to the north as Mary-
land." f

31. Sigmodon hispidus Say $• Ord. Cotton Eat.
Arvicola hispidus Godman, Am. Nat. Hist., II, 68, 1826.
Arvicola hortensts Harlan, Faun. Am., 138, 1825.
Arvicola ferrugineus Harlan*, Am. Journ. Sci., X, 285, 1826.
Sigmodon hispidum Say & Ord, Journ. Phil. Acad. Nat. Sci., IV, ii, 354, pi. x,

figs. 5-8, 1825. — Baird, N. Am. Mam., 503, 1857.
Sigmodon Berlandien Baird, Proc. Phil. Acad. Nat. Sci., VII, 333, 1855.

Ibid., N. Am. Mam., 50-1.

Abundant throughout the country along the St. John's River,
and also on Indian River, whence Mr. Maynard brought fifteen speci-
mens. They are quite a pest to the farmers, who often successfully
resort to poison to reduce their numbers. By scattering grain poi-
soned with strychnine about their fields they are able to destroy hun-
dreds with slight trouble. Different specimens vary considerably in
color, from gray through yellowish-brown to rufous. The so-called
Sigmodon Berlandieri, from Texas and New Mexico, seems undistin-
guishable from S. hispidus.

In its general economy, the cotton rat represents the Arvicola? of the
North, especially A. riparius.

Concerning .S\ Berlandieri, Professor Baird remarks : " This species is
readily distinguishable from .S'. Imp'ulus by the much lighter color above,
where it is grayish-yellow brown instead of distinct reddish-brown ; the
tail is considerably longer and covered by finer annuli. The toes are
shorter, and the metatarsus shorter, while the feet are nearly the same
length. The claws, however, are much weaker." The tail in this species
is said to be " equal to or longer than the trunk " ; the " color above gray-
ish-yellow brown, lined with black "; while 5. hispidus is said to have the

* Xat. Hist. Wash. Terr., Zool., p. 12S, 1SG0.
t Quad. X. Am., Vol. I, p. 36.

1S4 BULLETIN OF THE

tail " less than the trunk," and "the color above reddish brown, lined with
very dark brown." The specimens from Florida examined by me are
mainly of the gray type, and hence like S. Berlandieri, but some were de-
cidedly rufous, or like S. hispidus. In "Mammals of North America,'
measurements of specimens of the so-called X. Berlandieri are given, and
of" twelve of S. hispidus. In the latter the length of the tail to the length
of the trunk is as 69 to 100 ; in the former (.S'. Berlandieri) as G3 to 100 !
It hence appears from Professor Baird's own measurements that the X.
Berlandieri is far from having the tail relatively the longer. The other
distinctions are based on too few specimens to have much value, since indi-
vidual variations of the same character are common.

32. Arvicola pinetorum LeConte. Pine Mouse.

Psammomys pinetorum. LeCoxte, Ann. N. Y. Lyceum Nat. Hist., Ill, 132, pi. ii,

1820.
Arvicola scalopsoides Add. & Bach., Journ. Phil. Acad. Nat. Sci., VIII, 299,

1 842.
Arvicola pinetorum. Aud. & Bach., Quad. N. Am., II, 216, pi. lxxx, 1851.
Arvicola [Pitymys) pinetorum Baird, N. Am. Mam., 544, 1857.
Included on the authority of Audubon and Bachman, who state that
they had received it from Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, and Georgia.
Professor Baird also cites specimens from Georgia and Louisiana.
This is the most southern of the Arvicolce, and the only one, except
A. austerus, whose habitat includes the Gulf States.

LEPORIDJE.

33. Lepus sylvaticus Bach. Gray Rabbit.
Lepus amcricanus Desm., Mam., II, 351, 1822. — ILuilan, Faun. Amer., 193,

L825.
Lcjhi* sylvaticus Bach., Journ. Phil. Acad. Nat. Sci., VII, 1837. — Waterh.,

Nat. Hist. Mam., II, 116, 1S48.— Aun. & Bach., Quad. N. Am., I, 173,

pi. xxii, 1849. — Baird, Mam. N. Am., 597, 1857.

Abundant. Mr. Maynard obtained a specimen but a few weeks old,
at Dummitt's, as early as the lGth of February

34. Lepus palustris Bachman. Marsh Rabbit.
Lepus palustris Ba< ii , Journ. Phil. Acad. Nat. Sci., VII, 194, 336, pi. xv, xvi,
1837; Ibid., VIII, 79, 1 8 39. — Aun. & Bach., Quad. N. Am., I, 151,
pi. xviii, 1849. — I5.\iki>, Mam. X. Am., 615, ls.">7. — Coues, Proc. Bust.
Sue. Nat. [list., XIII, 86, 1869.
Common, especially on the Lower St. John's.*

my <>f this species a paper by Dr. Elliott Coues, Proceed.
Bost. Soc. Nat. lli^t., Vol. XIII, pp. tO - 101, June, 1669.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 185

DIDELPHIDJE.

35. Didelphys virginiana Shaw. Opossum.

Didelphys viryiniana Shaw, Gen.Zo.il., I, 473, pi. cvii, 1800. — Desmar est,
Harlan, Temjiinck, Waterhouse, Baird, and most other authors.

? " Didelphys marsupialis Schreb., Saugeth., Ill, pi. cxlv, 1778."

Didelphys califomica Bennett, Proc. Lond. Zool. Soc, I, 40, 1833. — Also
Wagxer, Waterhouse, Aid. & Bach, (from Bennett). — Baird, Mam.
N. Am., 233, 1857. — Baird, U. S. & Mex. Bound. Surv. Rep., II, Zool.,
32, 1859.

Didelphys breviceps Bennett, Proc. Lond. Zool. Soc, I, 40, 1833. — Water-
house, Nat. Hist. .Mam , I, 477, 1846 (from Bennett '<.). — Aid. & Bai ii.,
Quad. X. Am.; Ill, 330, 1S51 (from Bennett).

Didelphys pruinosus Wagner, Wiegmann's Archiv, 1842, 358. — Water-
house, Nat. Hist. Mam., I, 477, 1846, (from Wagner).

Abundant.

This species is quite variable in its color-markings, and remarkably so
in many other features, especially in the length and size of the nose, and
in the size and proportions of the skull, even in specimens from the same
locality.* Slight and quite inconstant differences also occur between ex-
amples from the Southern States, Texas, Mexico, and California. It
would, in fact, be quite unusual if specimens of any species ranging so
widely should not be found to differ somewhat at localities so widely sepa-
rated. Two supposed species of North American Didelphys described
by Mr. Bennett, as cited above, have been quoted by numerous other
authors, and by them currently adopted, without apparently an exam-
ination of their merits. Professor Baird. rejecting one of them, has en-
deavored to separate the opossums occurring west of the Mississippi valley
from those living farther eastward, designating the western one as D. cali-
fomica. The distinctions claimed are somewhat similar to those urged as
distinguishing the so-called Procyon Hernandezii of the western half of
the continent from the /'. hilar of the Atlantic States. They are equally
slight and unsatisfactory, and at most mark but a geographical race, so
intimately allied to and intergrading with the better-known eastern form
that the point at which the one supplants the other is thus far undeter-
mined. The Didelphys breviceps of Bennett was founded on a single
specimen from California, which differed from the so-called D. califomica
only in having a relatively shorter head.

* Since writing the above I have been incidentally informed by Dr. Cones that, in
preparing his memoir on the anatomy of Didelphys viryiniana (now publishing in the
Mem. of the Bost. Sue. Nat. Ili-t., Vol. 11, l't. I), he had occasion to examine a large
number of specimen-, ami that he found the variation in size and proportions to
amount to nearly twenty per cent.

186 BULLETIN OF THE

Part III.

On Individual and Geographical Variation among Birds, considered

in respect to its bearing upon the J'alue of certain assumed Specific

Ch evaders.

A systematic investigation of the extent and character of individual
variation in birds seems not to have hitherto been attempted; in fact,
few collections exist that furnish the material necessary to such a
work. In occasional instances considerable differences between indi-
viduals of the same species, other than those that result from age and
sex, have, however, already been pointed out, but these instances seem
to have been generally, but improperly, regarded as exceptional cases.

The collection of birds in the Museum of Comparative Zoology now
offers unusual facilities for a general investigation of this subject, most
of the common species of Eastern North America being each repre-
sented by fifty to one hundred and fifty or more specimens. The
greater part of them having been collected in Southern New England,
and a large proportion in Eastern Massachusetts, they are the more
valuable for this purpose, from their having been collected essentially
from the same locality. The examination of this material has disclosed
a hitherto unsuspected range of purely individual differentiation in
every species thus far studied. At the same time regard has been
had to the more obscure seasonal variations in color, and to the gen-
eral differences that dfpend upon age, including such as result from
senility as well as from immaturity. Local or geographical variations
have likewise been carefully considered, with results that a short time
since were unsuspected. These several lines of investigation have
shown that in many instances what have been regarded as reliable char-
acteristics of species have in not a few eases really little or no value;
that the importance of many diagnostic features has been too highly
estimated, and that consequently a careful revision of our published
fauna' will be necessary for the elimination of the merely nominal
species. In the following pages many of the data which have led to
these conclusions will be presented.

Individual variation not only affects color and size, but the propor-
tions of different part-, as the relative size ami form of the wings, tail,
bill, toes, and tarsi, including the skeleton as well as the external organs;

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 187

of the soft parts no account can as yet be given. Geographical varia-
tion has an equally universal range, but is most strikingly exhibited in
the color, in size, and in the form of the bill. Individual variation will
be first considered, and subsequently geographical variation. In each
case each prominent phase of variation will be more or less fully de-
scribed.

1. Individual Variation.

Individual Variation in Color. — In birds of whatever age, two lines
of variation from the average or medium type of coloration are readily
distinguishable, the variation depending essentially on differences in the
depth or intensity of the general tint. On the one hand, individual
variation in color results from a greater than the average amount of
coloring matter in the integuments ; on the other hand, from an amount
less thau the average amount. The difference in this respect between
the extremes of a series of fifty or one hundred specimens of any spe-
cies, collected in course at a single locality, and nearly at the same
season of the year, is often as great as occurs between truly distinct
species. But the difference is here solely one of intensity of color,
while in allied species there is almost always an appreciable variation
in the style of coloration. In individual variation the differences usually
extend alike to all parts of the integuments ; that is, if the plumage
of the upper surface of the body is brighter or paler than usual,
the same difference extends to the plumage of the lower surface of the
body, and also to the bill and the feet. This is noticeable not only in
species that have the color in uniform masses, differing in tint on differ-
ent regions of the body, as in the robin (Tardus migratoriw), the blue-
bird (Sialiasialis), the Maryland yellow-throat (Geotlth/pis trichas), the
mocking-bird (Mimus polyglotti/s), and species generally of that type
of coloration, but also in spotted bird*, as in the various spotted species
of Fringillidce, Tardus, Dendrozca, etc., where the plumage on certain
regions of the body is marked with numerous streaks and .-pots differing
from the ground color, in which case the intensity of the color of the
markings correllates in its variations with that of the ground color.
Closely allied species, on the contrary, usually vary more or less,
not only in respect to the ground color, but also to a greater or less
degree in the style of the markings. In illustration of this point the
familiar group of the small, spotted-breasted wood-thru -lies of Eastern

188 BULLETIN OF THE

North America — the group Hylocichla of Professor Baird — may be
taken. Three of these species {Tardus fuscescens, T. Swainsoni, and
T. Pallasi) are so closely related that for many years they were vari-
ously confounded with each other by almost all who wrote of them,
one of them not being clearly recognized as distinct from the others till
thus established by Dr. T. M. Brewer,* in 184 1, and also at about the
same time by Mr. J. P. Giraud.f each apparently independently of the
other. Yet they are so distinct that there seems to be not the slightest
excuse for again confounding them. While they all agree so closely in
general size, in form, and in proportions, that a series of detailed meas-
urements of many specimens of each species gives in the average no
constant differences in any of these particulars, each differs from the
other radically and constantly in style of coloration, and somewhat in
general tints, in habitat, nidification, habits and song. Two of these
species (T. fuscescens and T. Swainsoni) agree in the style of the colora-
tion of the dorsal surface, but differ so much in the color of this part, that
this character alone is always sufficient to separate them, while a still
wider difference is seen in the color and markings of the ventral surface,
a glance at this part of T. fuscescens being sufficient to invariably dis-
tinguish it from either of its above-named allies. The third species (T.
Pallasi) differs markedly from both the other two in the style of color-
ation of the dorsal surface, the rump and tail being conspicuously dif-
ferent in color from the anterior part of the body, whilst the others
exhibit no contrast of color between these regions. But the under sur-
face of T. Swainsoni is so like that of T. Pallasi that frequently speci-
mens cannot readily be referred to the one species rather than to the
other from a view of this surface alone. This group serves as a fair
general illustration of the kind of variation in color usually seen in
closely allied species, but there occur occasional exceptions, where a
difference in the relative proportions of different parts, or a wide differ-
ence in size, is the prominent specific distinction, the smaller species, so
far as color is concerned, being a diminutive representative of the larger.
Taking the present group of Hylocichla (for reasons that will appear
hereafter]) as a group illustrative also of individual variation, it is found
that the differences in color in different individuals of either species

* Proc. Boston Soc. Nat Hist, Vol. I, p. 191, July, 1844.

t Bird of Long 1 land, p. 91, 1843-44.

X See the remarks on these species in Tart IV.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 189

results from the amount of rufous pervading the plumage. Individuals
of Tardus Swainsoni of the rufous or bright-colored type have the dorsal
surface of a uniform brownish-olivaceous tint, and the sides of the head
and breast strongly suffused with yellowish-brown, which tint is also
traceable throughout the lower plumage, in the brighter color of the
basal brownish band on the inside of the wing-, and in the color of the
mouth and base of the bill. In other individuals the upper plumage
is of a dark olivaceous tint, without any trace of brownish, the sides
of the head, neck, and breast being ashen, with often no appreciable
tinge of ferruginous ; specimens of this type thus differing widely in
general aspect from those of the other. Between these extremes, of
which examples are not unfrequent, nor confined to any particular
locality or season of the year, there is every degree of intergradation,
specimens intermediate between the two being by far the most fre-
quent, and constituting the average or common form.

Turdus Pallasi and Tv.rdus fuscescens present precisely similar vari-
ations. They are also seen in Turdus mustelinus, in Turdus migrato-
rius, in Siulia sialis, in Seiurus noveboracensi's, in many species of Dcn-
drceca, sparrows, and other species which I have especially investigated
in reference to this point, embracing examples of all the leading families
of birds. The ruffed grouse (Bonasa umbellus), as is well known,
varies in the color of the upper parts from reddish-brown to gray ; the
great horned owl (Bubo rirginianus) from dusky through numerous
shades of rufous and fulvous to nearly white, the fulvous suffusion so
commonly present in this species varying from ferruginous on the one
extreme to its complete obsolescence on the other. In such common
and thoroughly known species as the robin, blue-bird, etc., the true
character of these variations is recognized, but in groups where the
species are not well known, and especially in specimens from partially
explored regions, they are frequently regarded as of specific value, and
the addition of numerous nominal species is the result.

Besides the variation in the depth of color already noticed, birds hav-
ing the plumage varied with streaks and spots differ exceedingly in
different individuals of the same species in respect to the size, shape, and
number of these marks, and in the general aspect of the plumage result-
ing from such variations. Generally, as already stated, such differences
correllate with the variations in the intensity of the ground color, the
darker or more deeply colored birds being usually those with the mark-

100 BULLETIN OF THE

ings largest and brightest. A wide range of variation in this respect is
seen in all birds which have the breast and lower plumage marked with
dark streaks and spots on a lighter ground, or that have the whole plu-
mage streaked. In the common song sparrow (Mcluspiza melodia), the
fox-colored sparrow (Passerella iliaca), the swamp sparrow {Mclospiza
palustris), the black and white creeper (Mniotilta varia), the water wag-
tail (Seiurus noveboracensis), in Tardus fuscescens and its allies, etc.,
the difference in the size of the streaks is often very considerable. In
the song sparrow they vary to such an extent that in some cases* they
are reduced to narrow lines ; in others so enlarged as to cover the
greater part of the breast and sides of the body, sometimes uniting on
the middle of the breast into a nearly continuous patch. Variation in
this respect is equally great in the fox-colored sparrow and in the grass
finch (Pooccetes gramineus). Massachusetts specimens of the savanna
sparrow {Passerculus savanna auct.) also present variations exactly par-
allel with those of the song sparrow. Yet these differences, with other
variations to be hereafter mentioned,! have been regarded, as in the
case of Passerculus savanna, as of specific value. Similar variations in
the Ilijlocichla group are very marked, as in Turdus (Hylociclda) fus-
cescens especially. In some specimens of this species the colors are on
all parts not only very pale, but the markings on the breast are reduced
to indistinct narrow lines ; in others, in which the general color of the
plumage is darker, the markings on the breast are dark, broad, and
triangular. Two specimens taken in Cambridge the same day (early
in May), both of which are males, exhibit these extremes. Average
male specimens of the black and white creeper (Mniotilta varia), in
which the plumage is varied with longitudinal black and white streaks,
have the black streaks about a third broader than the white ones ;
but other specimens occur in which the white ones are equal to and
even broader than the black ones ; others have the black streaks so
much broader than they usually are, — the white ones of course being
proportionally reduced, — that the general aspect of the plumage at a
short distance is nearly black. The difference between these two
extremes is strikingly great. Yet similar variations, scarcely less in
degree, occur in nearly all of the striped-breasted warblers.

In birds which have 'lie ground color of certain areas of the body

* Perfectly mature specimens only are here referred to.
| See the remarks on the genus Passerculus in Part IV.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 191

black spotted with white, as in some of the woodpeckers (Picus villosus
and P. pubescens, for example), the white markings vary in size most
notably, and sometimes in number. The wliite markings so common
on the wings and tails of birds, as the bars formed by the white tips of
the greater wing coverts, the wliite patch occasionally present at the
base of the primary quills, or the white band crossing them, and the
white patch near the end of the outer tail feathers, are also extremely
liable to variation in respect to their extent and the number of feathers
to which, in the same species, these markings extend. Variation in the
tail markings is particularly common, as may be seen by comparing
numerous specimens of almost any species of Dendrceca, Junco, Pipilo,
of Mimus polyglottus, Chordeiles popetue, etc. In the latter species the
white patch on the wing does not ordinarily encroach upon the outer
vane of the first primary, and rarely upon its shaft, but in several spe-
cimens before me it covers not only the shaft of the first primary, but
extends completely across its outer vane ! The black subterminal bar
on the upper surface of the tail of the ruflfed grouse (Bonasa umbellus)
ordinarily crosses all but the middle pair of feathers, on which there is
usually no trace of this bar; in many specimens, however, it is barely
traceable on them, and in others it is as distinct and perfect on the
middle pair as on the others.*

The Parula americana presents also remarkable examples of indi-
vidual color variation. The colors of the males are usually much
brighter than those of the females, but cases are frequent where the sex
cannot" be determined by the color of the plumage. Adult males also
vary greatly in the style of coloration. They are generally bright
yellow anteriorly below, with a broad band of dusky reddish-brown
across the breast, varying in tint from nearly pure chestnut to dusky
reddish-brown, and even black, and also greatly in extent. In some,
however, this band is partially obsolete, in which case the whole plu-
mage is generally paler than in average specimens. More rarely large,
brightly colored males are taken, even in New England, with the whole
breast bright yellow, the brownish pectoral band being entirely absent.
This condition, however, seems to be more frequent in specimens of
Parula collected in Mexico, and Central and Northern South America,
which on this account have been regarded as distinct from the Parula
of the North ; yet all the conditions of color seen in specimens from

* See remarks on color variations in other species in Part IV.

192 BULLETIN OF THE

the North are also common to those from the South, and vice
versa.

In species in which the (Vmale usually differs from the male in being
paler colored, the' pattern of coloration being the same in both sexes,
females occur more or less frequently which arc as brightly colored as
the brightest males, and males that are paler than the generality of the
females.

Variation in Color depending on Season. — A word in this connection
seems necessary concerning some of the more obscure variations de-
pending upon season and age, since it is sometimes difficult to avoid
confounding these differences with those resulting from individual vari-
ation. In many species there is a marked change in the color of the
plumage without a change of the plumage itself. No experienced col-
lector can have failed to notice the much brighter and livelier tints
the plumage of mo?t song birds presents immediately after the autum-
nal moult, in species in which there is no marked seasonal change
of color, in comparison with the faded appearance they exhibit to-
wards the close of the breeding season. This brighter autumnal tint
is particularly marked in the Vireos, the different species of Em-
pidonax, Sayomis, Contopus, and in some of the Sylvicolidee, and
is clearly traceable in hundreds of other species. But almost as
great a difference is seen when specimens of any species taken in
spring, on its first arrival at its breeding station, are compared with
those collected several weeks later, or just before the autumnal renewal
of the plumage. In this case the variation results in part from an ac-
tual lading of the color, and in part from the wearing of the edges of
the feathers. Seasonal differences of this character are often only read-
ily appreciable to the experienced eye, and the failure to recognize
the cause of these differences has led in many instances to their being
regarded as of specific value. Especially noteworthy instances of such
mistakes will be noticed later. Collectors, and even naturalists, gen-
erally place little value on failed or dull-colored specimens, so that or-
dinarily in collections of our native birds only fine-looking specimens
are preserved. But travellers and explorer- of new localities are often
compelled to content themselves with any representative they may be
able to get, so that the " closet " or exclusively "museum naturalist"
has not usually the material necessary to furnish him with a clew to the
cause of these variations.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 193

Generally, aside from the paler tints of late-collected birds, as com-
pared with those taken early in the season, there is a total absence of
the grayish, yellowish, brownish, or rufous suffusions (the particular
tint varying of course in different species) that tinges the feathers early
in the season. The general aspect of the plumage at the two pe-
riods in question is thus essentially different. The common chickadee
(Parus atricapillus) will illustrate this point, in which the brownish
tint so conspicuous on the lateral portions of the ventral plumage in au-
tumn and winter is gradually lost as spring approaches, and in summer
is almost entirely wanting, especially in nesting females, which at this
season have the plumage generally much more worn than the males.
The savanna sparrow will also illustrate the differences resulting simply
from the fading of the color during the breeding season. In spring
both sexes have a greenish-yellow, superciliary stripe, varying more or
less in intensity in different specimens, but rarely or never of the pale
soiled-whitish so frequently met with late in the breeding season. In
the large series of specimens before me collected at that season in Mas-
sachusetts, few if any have this stripe so bright as average spring spe-
cimens have it, in many it having faded to soiled white. Scores of sim-
ilar cases might be cited, but the above are sufficient for illustration.

Variations in Color depending upon Age. — So well known are many
of the variations depending upon age, that it seems necessary to advert
to only a few of the lesser known phases. In many species there is no
marked difference between old and young birds, after the moulting of
the first or nestling plumage, which usually occurs in the oscine groups
in a few weeks after they leave the nest. But even in these, in many
cases, sufficient marks of immaturity remain for a time to enable any
one acquainted with such features to recognize birds of one or two years
of age from those that are older. Yearling birds of this group are often
recognizable by their having more or less well-defined bars across the
wings, formed of light-colored, hastate, or drop-shaped spots on the ends
of the greater wing-coverts and inner secondaries, which in many
genera are peculiar to yearling birds, though in other respects, so far as
the plumage is concerned, they are not distinguishable from adults, —
a difference which in some instances has been considered specific.
Similar marks are also seen in older birds, in species that do not obtain
their adult colors till later in life.

194 BULLETIN OF THE

Yearling and two-year-old birds are also often distinguishable from
older ones by the presence, after the spring moult, of a greater than the
ordinary amount of ferruginous, ashy, or yellowish edging to t lie feath-
ers, such as is often seen in the winter plumage of adult birds. In
some eases such a bordering to the clothing feathers, especially those
of the back, is often strictly distinctive of young birds, and is, more-
over, a feature of common occurrence.

Generally speaking, several years elapse before the purity of the
colors and the definiteness of outline of the markings characteristic of
maturity is fully obtained, especially in highly colored species. In
birds of variegated colors the contrasts of color become for a time more
and more decided with each moult, and the markings better and better
defined, especially in respect to the white bars of the wings and the
spots on the tail common to a large number of species. The latter
markings usually gradually increase in extent for a considerable period.
A good illustration of this is seen in many of the gulls, particularly in
the genus Larus. In L. argentatus the following gradual change with
age occurs in the white markings on the tips of the primaries. At first,
as ornithologists are aware, the plumage of this species is uniformly
dusky, the adult colors not being acquired before the second year, and
apparently frequently not before the third, there being in the breeding
season usually a large proportion of individuals in the brown plumage.*
But there are wide ditferences in the intensity of the color in different
individuals in this stage of plumage, some being but slightly du>ky and
others extremely dark, — differences that probably result mainly from
differences in age, the darker birds being probably yearling birds and the
lighter ones two years old, though part of the difference is doubtless due
to individual differentiation. In this stage the wings and tail are of
nearly the same uniform dusky tint as the general plumage. In what
may be considered as the second stage, the general color is somewhat
lighter, the tail much lighter, and the primaries much darker, with a
distinct paler apical margin. At a third stage the tail becomes white,
the dorsal plumage begins to assume the blue tint characteristic of ma-
turity, the primaries change from dull blackish brown to black, and a
small white spot appears near the end of the inner vane of the first

* Generally the largo parties that spend the summer on the coast of Massachusetts,
where none of these birds now breed, consist almost wholly of birds in the brown stage
of plumage. See American Naturalist, Vol. Ill, p. 640, 1870.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 195

primary, separated from the -white at the extreme tip by a broad space
of black. A subsequent gradual increase occurs in the purity of the
colors and in the extent and form of the wing markings. The complete
series of the changes in the latter is as fullows : At first, as previously
remarked, the primaries are dull brownish black, a little darker than the
general plumage, with their extreme apical margins lighter. At the
next stage the three inner primaries have become much lighter, and
the light border to all broader and whiter. Later the three inner pri-
maries and the distal portions of most of the others become wholly ashy
white, and the outer portion of the other primaries much blacker. The
subapical dark portion of the wing now embraces only the seven outer
primaries, and is of a triangular form, the first primary forming the base
of the triangle. The black on the outer vane of the first primary
reaches nearly to the base of the outer vane of the second, and is more
and more restricted on the others, till on the sixth (or, more rarely, on
the seventh) it forms only a narrow bar near the tip. In other words, the
black, if present on the seventh primary, exists as a narrow transverse
subapical bar, which bar increases in distal extension on the sixth,
fifth, fourth, third, and second, to the first, and embraces the whole
outer vane of the first primary. The basal outline of the black
area being an oblique one, a much larger portion of the outer than of
the inner vane of each feather is embraced in the black space. All the
primaries are now terminated with a narrow white border, the first pri-
mary having also an oval white spot on the inner vane, near the end of
the feather. Subsequently this spot enlarges so as to embrace a part of
both vanes, the white at the tip of the feather also meantime increasing
somewhat in extent, and the two being separated by a broad bar of black.
Coincident with this increase in the amount of white on the first primary,
a small white spot appears on the inner vane of the second primary.
Subsequent increase in the extent of these white markings goes on until
the white area on the second primary extends to both vanes, and the
two white spots on the first primary are separated by only a narrow
bar of black. Later still this bar becomes broken, through the partial
union of the two white' spots, and finally becomes entirely obsolete,
leaving the first primary with a single continuous white apical area, an
inch and a half to two inches in length. It is probable that not all
individuals reach this final stage, though most doubtless do in old age.
A large series of specimens of mature birds usually exhibit the gradual

196 BULLETIN OF THE

change above described, and indicate the inconstancy of these markings
and their unreliability as specific characters. Often, as is well known,
these markings in the gulls differ considerably in the two wings of the
same bird.

Although the L. argenlatus has been taken as a general illustra-
tion, the same variations with age, or in different individuals, are
exhibited by most species of the genus Larus. Generally they
are admitted to have no value as specific characters, even by those
who in the case of L. argentatus have accorded to them this impor-
tance.

In some of the species of Janco and Pipilo, in Mimus, in numerous
species of Dendrceca, in Panda, Mniutilta, etc., there is a similar in-
crease with age in the extent of the white markings on the tail, some-
times three and sometimes four pairs of feathers being spotted or
terminated with white in different specimens of the same species. In
short, these variations occur in so many species that they may be looked
upon as indicating a general law of variation in color depending upon
age, namely, an increase in the purity or intensity of the general color,
and an increase in the size of the wing and tail markings, for a time,
witl i age.

After complete maturity is attained there is, however, unquestionable
evidence of a decline in color, which in many cases, and especially in
bright-colored species, is quite marked. So general is such a decline
in other groups of the animal kingdom that a citation of evidence on
this point seems wholly needless. Yet in birds, in numerous instances,
it is scarcely appreciable, and doubtless is in most species too slight to
be readily traced. This obscurity may result, however, more from an
absence of favorable conditions for such a decline to be recognized
than from its real absence. It can hardly be doubted, in fact, that a
share of the color variation seen in mature birds is attributable to this
cause. It is well known that young mammals in their first pelage are,
as a general rule, much darker colored than the adults of the same spe-
cies. At a later period the color fades more slowly, but in old
age the hair often beconi"- more or less gray, the blanching being in
some cases very marked. Nearly all birds are also darker in their nest-
ling and immature stages of plumage than alter they arrive at maturity,
especially if in the adult stage the plumage is light colored ; and it is
more than probable, and in some cases certain, that the decline in color

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 197

continues in a slight degree through life. The change of Falco candi-
cans from du-ky when young to nearly white when fully mature may
be hardly referable wholly to the blanching of age ; but the gradual
obsolescence of the dusky mottliugsof the snowy owl {Nyctea m'rea), a3
it advances in age, seems strictly parallel to the blanching of the gray
colt to a white horse. Hence a second law of variation in color in old
age, namely, that of smile decline.

Individual Variation in General Size and in the Relative
Size of Different Parts.

Individual Variation in General Size and Form. — Measurements
of scores of specimens of birds of the same species and sex, collected at
the same locality and season, show the existence of a large range of
individual variation, both in size and in general proportions; the varia-
tion extending to every external part of the body, and implying a
corresponding variation in the internal anatomy. In birds size has
usually been regarded, from its comparative constancy in the same
species, as an important specific character. But from the fact that
specimens of closely allied species often differ but little from each other
in this respect, it has been justly looked upon as being in some cases
more or less unreliable ; but from the great importance commonly
attached to it, it is evident that such instances are usually regarded as
exceptional. Individual variation in this respect having been formerly
regarded as too slight to have any significance, the size of a single speci-
men has usually been given as that of the species to which it belonged ;
hence subsequent variations from it discovered in other specimens of the
same species has sometimes led to the recognition of the latter as
specifically distinct. E-pecially has this .been the case when a differ-
ence in size has been associated with a wide difference of locality. The
facts in the case, however, show that a variation of fifteen to twenty per
cent in general size, and an equal degree of variation in the relative
size of different parts, may be ordinarily expected among specimens of
the same species and sex, taken at the same locality, while in some
cases the variation is even greater than this. Table A (p. 198) shows
to some extent the general variation in size, but it does not always
give, nor even generally, the extreme differences in the size of similar
parts, as the wing, tail, etc., since those averaging the largest or

198

BULLETIN OF THE

smallest for the four measurements given are orten not those having
the longest or the shortest wing, tail, or tarsus, or which measure the
most or the least in length or alar extent. The extremes of variation
in the size of the wing and tail is given in Tables B, C, and D. *

Table A. — Variation in General Size.

A' ■'- .

O >, S J5

»» »S

.

w — — =

= '§ ~ '*•

gN °

_

SS44 G9i

••

1520 —

250

r

t; ig

i

8330 337 •■

8634 5

621 ■

641 '

5 1 i ■"

451 C

4J74 Mil f

43:3 - f

19J0 1411 o"

164 I

4819 5 f

4701 317 f

5093 -

89

5088 8

711 '

713 J

46241407 '

4926 L50 •

106 -

55 •

1456 — (

2378 - i*

4371

437*3 372 f

8S7 ■

5111 --

1 (32 '

_ /

78 i '

4852 653 '

94 i

10485 91 i '

10461 932 '

992

4009 — id

10151 -

d

Turdus S.vainsoni
Tardus Swainsoni
Turdus Pall isi
Turdus I'.illasi
Tardus fuscescens
Turdus fuscescens
Dendroe a striata
Dondroaca striata
Da id penns) Ivanica
I) i 1 penusy Ivanica
Spizella pusilla
Spizi Hi pusilla
S lyornis fuscus
S i) ornis fuscus
Sayornis fuscus
Pas: erculus savanna
Passcrculus savanna
Passcrculus savanna
1' isserculus savanna
Vireo oiivaceus
Vireo oiivaceus
Uhrysomitris tristis
Chrysomitris tristis
Melospiz i melodia
Melospizi melodia
Sialia sialis
Si ilia sialis
M niotilla v iria
Mniotiila varia
Cot) le riparia
( lot) le rip iria
Passerellu ili ica
Passerclla iii ica
[ctei us Baltimore
Icterus Baltimore
Sterna liirundo
Sterna liirundo
Sterna arctica
Sterna arctica [thus
Pipiloerythrophthal-
l'i pilo erythropli thai.

Locality.

Belmont, Mass.
Springfield, "
Newton, "
Newton, "
Newton, "
Watertown, "
Newton, "
Newton, "
Newton, "
Newton, "
New ton, "
Walt ham, "
Newton, "
Waltham, "
Newton, "
Newton, "
Ipswich, "
Ipswich, "
Ipswich, "
Waltham, "
Waltham, "
Newton, "
Newton, "
Newton, "
Newton, "
Worthingt'n,"
Watervide, Me.
Newton, Mass.
Waltham, "
[pswich, "
Ipswich, "
Springfield, "
Newton, "
Newton, "
Newton, "
Muskeget Isl
Muskegetlsl
Muskegel 1-1.
Muskegetlsl.
Milton. Mass
Cambridge, "

Mav 27,
May 11,
Apr. 25,
May 25,
May 5,
Ma) 20,

Mav 27,
May 27,
\I ly 20,
Mav 20,
Jul) 22,
Sept.19,
Sept 30,
Mar. 28,
Oct. 9,
Apr. 5,
June] f,
JunelT,
JunclT,
Maj 30,

Mav 30,
Sept.28,
Mar 2 i,
Mar 12,
Nov. -11,
Inly-,
Apr 15,
Apr 20,
Mav 6,

.Ilinel7.

,lunel7.
Mar. 22,
Mar 27,
June 6,
May 27,
June29,
June2 i.
July 2,
Julv 2,

Collected by

'68 C .1 Mavnard
•62 J. A Allen
>,- C J Maynard
68 C.J. Maynard
68 C.J Maynard
68 C J.Maj nard
68|C .I.May nard
'68 < '..I.May nard
68 C .1 Maynard
63 C .1 Maynard
'68 C . I. Maynard
:67 C J Maynard
.st' J .Maynard
'68 C J Mavnard
'69 C .1. Maynard
UN U .1 Mavnard
'68 .1. A Allen
'68 J. A. Allen
68 .1. A Allen

68 C J. Maynard

'68 CJ M iv nard
68 0 .1 Maynard
'63 C .1 Maynard
68 C .1 M lynard
'67 C.J .M lynard
'63 C.II Hamlin
'64 W. II Niles
us c .1 Maynard

18'C.J Mavnard
'68 J. \ Allen
■67 d A Allen
US .1. A Allen
Ms C .1 Mavnard
US C .1 Mavnard
'68 C.J Mavnard
'68 .1. A Allen
T,S ,1 A Allen
'68 .1. A A Ten
lis .1 A. Allen

- II C Daring

- L. Agassiz

7.70 12.65
6.62 U.4U
7 3i 12.83

7."" 10 64
7.81 13.70

7.IIU 11.115
5 17 s 75

5.71 9 3
5.40 825
5 00 7 51

on. i - ;;_

5.06 7.62

7 50 11.40
7 25 L2.6
6.51 10.32
5 85 o 73
5.83 7.75
5.35 7.75
5.75 it. 75
6.55 lo or,
6.25 0 ss

5 35 0.40
5.00 8.60
0 75 Hi:,
tin. i 8.25

6 50 11.10
7on L2.25
540 9.00
5.3D 3.25
5.45 11 oo
5 ■-'. 1 ' 5?
7.50 11.65
6.80 lo so
son 12.25

7 3-11 15

15 50 31.S5
14 90 29 30

16 1- 32 15
14.40 29.00

s 55 12.25
7.50 l" -J"

4 20
3 80

3 8 i
3.00

4 16
3.58
•j 8 '
310
2.01
2 35

2 02
•2 00
360

3 82
3 20

3oo
2.83
3 33

2 1.7
10,1

355

1.70

2 00

2.07

1 75

2.. ,o
- '12

3.00
2.20
2.85

3.00 2 26

2 so 2 lo
2 51 L.95

2 78 2.0.7

3 1-2 16

3 22 2.10
3.002.00
2.65 1 85
2.652.80
2.35 2.68

3 75 2.45

4 102.60
3 00J2 17
2.-; 2.05

IT, 2.1o

3.75 1 86
3-65 2

3 40 2 50
1 on:; lo

3.56 2.55
11.30 7.00
10 io 5 50
ll.iio 7.50
L0.70 ''.30

3.57 3.85
3.34 3.60

I

As a large proportion of the specimens mentioned in some of the fol-
lowing tallies (most of Tables A to G) were taken during the season
of their migration, they may have originated at widely different locali-
ties, and thus the differences indicated may lie in some measure due
to geographical causes. In other cases, however, all the specimens

* The measurements pven jn this pnper were all taken eiihcr from fresh specimens
by the collector, or by myself from specimens preserved in spirits.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 199

were taken in the breeding season ; while in still other instances
(Tables II to P) the species were purposely chosen from among
such as find their northern limit of distribution near the locality where
all were taken. Of ten species of the latter class, twenty perfect male
specimens have been carefully measured,* the measurements embra-
cing a series of eighteen to twenty distinct parts; uuder such circum-
stances the variation in general size, in length, in alar extent, in the
length of the folded wing, the tail, the tarsus, the head, the bill, etc., etc.,
commonly ranged from twelve to eighteen per cent.

In respect to the differences in the general form of the body, two
leading styles of variation from the average form may be recognized in
nearly all species, namely, a relatively robust form, in which the stout-
ness extends to all parts, and a relatively slender form, in which the
slenderness is equally general. Variations of this general and sym-
metrical character are remarkable only for their extent, since in such
cases there are no marked discrepancies between the relative size of
different parts. Contrary, however, to our usual notions of exact sym-
metry in animals, the unsymmetrical variations are by far the most
frequent and important.

Variation in the Relative Size of Different Parts. — In specimens
of average size of any given species, considerable differences exist
in the relative size of different parts. In individuals of the aver-
age alar extent of their species, for example, the length of the folded
wing may vary very considerably, in consequence of a difference in the
length of the primary quills as compared to the length of the bones of
the wing. The length of the folded wing or the alar extent may vary
with reference to the whole length of the specimen, in consequence of
differences in the relative length of the tail, the neck, or the body. The
tarsus also varies independently of variation in the general size, as do
also the toes to the tarsi, relatively short toes being found to accom-
pany tarsi of ordinary length, and, conversely, long toes short tarsi.f
The wing varies in its form in consequence of the different relative
development of the primary and secondary quills. \ The tail varies in
respect to its form, especially in regard to the degree of its emargination
or graduation, and, in some groups, in respect to the number of its
feathers. The bill also varies greatly in size and form. The variations
in these various parts will be considered separately and in detail.

* See below, Tables H to P, pp. 210-219. J See Table E, p. 204.

f Seo Table F, p. 205.

200 BULLETIN Of iHE

Variation in the Length of the Folded Wing and the Tail. — The
measurements given in the following table (Table B) sufficiently illus-
trate the variation in the length of the folded wing in fully mature speci-
mens of the same sex and species, while Table C indicates the
variation in the length of the tail, in specimens of a similar char-
acter. All the specimens, with a few exceptions, were taken within
a few miles of Cambridge ; the others are mainly also from Eastern
Massachusetts, a few * being from a single locality in Florida. The
series from which these extremes are taken embrace ordinarily not
more than twenty-five or thirty specimens ; with larger suites the
differences would in many cases doubtless be much increased. The
largest and smallest only are taken, between which, however, there
is every gradation. The difference between these extremes is indicated,
and also the percentage of the variation, based on the average of the
two extremes. The amount of the variation in the length of the folded
wing ranges, as will be seen from the table, from twelve to twenty-one
per cent of the average length. In the tail the amount of variation in
respect to length ranges from fourteen to twenty-three per cent. The
different species vary considerably in respect to the amount of variation
each presents, some being much more variable than others. It should
be stated, however, that as a general rule the widest extremes, or the
highest percentages of variation, occur in those species of which the
greatest number of specimens has been examined. It will also be noticed
that the tail usually varies more than the wings. In species with a
relatively long tail the percentage of variation in the length of this
member is found to be greater than in those species in which it is of
medium length or short, as would have been naturally expected. In
several cases the greater differences occur between females, but this
may be a mere coincidence.

In this connection it may be added that the variation proves to be
much less between specimens of the same species and sex when taken
at a single locality in the breeding season than when taken during the
period of migration. In many instances specimens of the same species
may be obtained at one locality which shall represent the whole range
of its geographical variation, as well as- its individual variation, as in
the case of those species which breed far to the North, but migrate in
winter to the tropics, being thus but transient visitors to the temperate
portions of the United States.

* Those of Mimus pc'iyglottus, Cardinalis virdnianus, Picus borealis.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY.

201

Table B. — Individual Variation in the Length of the Folded Wing.

JM C. 7. No.
10596

Orig No.

Sex

folded Wing

Difference.

I'd' ..-lit of

Variation.

25 1 0

9

.Minius polvglottus

4.75 i

17.0

2-185

9

Minius polyglottus

4.00 (

10710

1987
1993

d
d

Card in al is virginianus
Cardinalis virginianus

3.85 /
3.30 \

.55

14.6

316

d

Passerculus savanna

2.95 I

.40

14.5

820

d

Passerculus savanna

2.55 j

8830

367

d

Turtlus fuseescens

4.16 )

.61

15.S

883-1

556

d

Turdus fuscesceus

3.55 J

4821

148

d

Savornis fuscus

3.87 |

.67

19.0

4819

5

d

Sayornis fuscus

3.20 j

DO.") 7

618

d

Geothlypis trichas

2.56 I

.50

21.0

5020

703

d

Geothlypis trichas

2 06 j

4648

1389

d

( Carpodacus purpureus

3.70 /

.GO

17.6

4655

751

d

Carpodacus purpureus

3 10 S

9G96
1421

d
d

Pipilo erythrojdithalmus
Pipilo ervthrophthalinus

3.68 /
3 1'7 j

.51

14.6

■

170

d

Junco hvcmahs

3.20 |

.45

180

4910

140

d

Junco hyemalis

2 75 }

1563

i

Tvrannus carol inensis

4.85 j

.68

15.0

1 0025

1

Tv ran mis carolinensis

4 17 \

10014

i

Galeoscoptes carolinensis

3 85 ^

.60

17.0

2734

1

Galcosco]»tcs carolinensis

3.25 \

786
1334

d
d

Icterus Baltimore
Icterus Baltimore

4.00 )
3 42 \

.58

16.0

Table C. — Individual Variation in the Length of the Tail.

M C. Z No

Orig No

Sex

Tail

Difference.

Percent of

Vai i:itinn.

10592

2474
2372

Minius polycrlottus
Mimas polyglottus

5.15 )
4 20 i

,95

20.5

1955

.f

Cardinalis virginianus

4 30 )

.90

23.4

24H0

d

Cardinalis virjjnianus

3 40 j

317

d

Passereulus savanna

2.26 )

.41

19.5

5086

846

d

Passcrculus savanna

1.85 [

8830

528

d

Turdus f'uscescens

3 00 I

.45

14.4

8835

556

d

Turdus fuscescens

2 55 j

V

Parus atiicapillus
Parus atricapillus

2.63 1
2 15 j

.48

20.0

9056

454

d

Geothlypis trichas

2.L5 /

.45

23.4

5020

703

d

Geothlvpis trichas

1 ,70 J

4651

1071

9

Carpodacus purpureus

2.57 I

59

22.5

4653

1371

V

Carpodacus purpureus

2.05 J

4614

4727

1330

415

d

d

Pipilo ervthrophthalmus
Pipilo ervthrophthalinus

4 00 /
3.29 [

.71

19.5

160

d

Junco hvenialis

2.78 /

.38

15.0

4 017

201

*

Junco hyemalis

2.40 \

10646

1972

y

Picns horealis

3.75 (

.50

14.0

10633

41

V

Pious borealis

3.25 (

1317

/

Tyrannus carolinensis

2.93 )

.61

19.0

1568

?

Tyrannus carolinensis

3.54 S

2734
10014

i

( raleoscoptes carolinensis
Galeoscoptes carolinensis

3.35 )
410 )

.75

20.0

1334

d

Icterus Baltimore

2.70 )

.40

13.8

2289

:'

Icterus Baltimore

3.10 j

202

BULLETIN OF THE

Variation in the Relative Length of the Wings and Tail. — Table D
illustrates the irregularity of the variation in the wings and the tail. The
first column of measurements gives the length of the folded wing, and

Table D. — Individual Variation in the relative Length of the
Folded Wing and Tail.

DifF. betw'n

Amount

M. C. Z.

No.

Original
No.

Sex.

Wing.
4.35

Tail.

Wing and
Tail.

of
Variation.

2429

c?

Mimus polyglottus

4.35

.00'

105'JO

2342

9

Mimus polyglottus

3.25

4.35

+ 1.00

2560

9

Mimus polyglottus

4 15

4.35

+ .25

2614

d

Mimus polyglottus

4.40

4 90

4- .50

1.20

2340

i

Mimus polyglottus

4.40

4. 50

-4- .10

2478

9

Mimus polyglottus

4.40

4.20

— .20

2374

d

Mimus polyglottus

4 30

4.16

— .14

8881

441

d

Gateoscoptes carolinensis

3 60

3.60

.00 ,

1376

9

Galcoscoptes carolinensis

3.70

3 60

— .10 !

.45

8879

412

"

Gateoscoptes carolinensis

3.75

4.10

+ .35 )

8841

495

d

Turdus fuscescens

4.00

3.00

1.00 .

8832

332

d

Turdus fuscescens

4.10

4.00

.10

1.15

8835

581

•"

Turdus fuscescens

4. 1 5

2 90

1.25 )

8821

374

d

Seiurus aurocapillus

3.0O

2.00

1.00

.66

423

d

Seiurus aurocapillus

3.00

2 66

1.66

8851

322

9

Turdus Pall as i

3.50

2 60

.90

.67

301

d

Turdus Pallasi

3.43

3 17

.23

4301

514

d

Dendrceca aestiva

2.85

1.80

1.05

.58

362

d

Dendroeca asstiva

2 45

1.98

.47

5053

707

d

Dendroeca striata

2.85

2.00

.85

1341

d

Dendrceca striata

3.00

1.75

1.25

.79

5062

734

f

Dendroeca striata

2.45

1.93

.46

741

9

Dendroeca striata

2.80

1.80

1 00

5041

665

d

Setophaga ruticilla

2.60

2.10

— .50

.57

698

d

Setophaga ruticilla

2.43

2.50

-+- .07

693

9

Regulus satrapa

2.20

1.52

.68

.49

50

9

Regulus satrapa

1.94

1.75

.19

4808

711

d

Contopus virens

3 35

2.36

.99

.54

4994

1116

d

Contopus virens

3.15

2.70

.45

10645

1924

d

Picus l)ore;ilis

4.80

3.32

1.48

.48

10616

1972

9

Picus borealis

4.75

3.75

1.00

4587

323

d

Agelafus phceniceus

4.85

340

1 .45

.67

4589

214

d

Agelseus phceniceus

4.60

3.82

.78

4654

1069

d

( Jnrpodacus purpureus

3 85

2 00

1.35

.64

4655

286

d

Carpodacus purpureus

3.03

2.32

.71

-

288

d

Poocaetes gramineus

3 55

2.41

1.14

.54

846

9

Poocaetes gramineus

3.10

2.50

.60

881

d

Passerculus savanna

2.75

1 85

.90

.41

127

d

Passerculus savanna

2.74

2.25

.49

115

d

Passerella iliaca

3 75

2.65

1.10

.78

55

9

Passer lia iliaca

332

3.00

.32

177

d

Melospiza melodia

235

2.68

+ .33

.53

2363

'

Mclospiz i melodia

2 60

2.40

— .20

2369

d

Cardinalis virginianus

3 60

3 40

— .20

.70

d
d
d
d
d

Cardioalis virginianus
Dolichonyx oryzivora
Dolichonyx oryzivora
Ilodvuicles ludoviciana
Hedymcles ludoviciana

3.60
3.75

4.10
2.78
2.72
2.93
2.95

-H .50

.96

1.28

1.27

.88

2293

5711

10107

1 9787

4 (III

.32

4.20

3.83

.39

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 203

the second the length of the tail, of the same specimens ; the third
column shows the difference in length between the tail and the win",
and the fourth column the amount of the difference between the two
extremes. In Mimus polyglottus the tail is usually one fourth to one
half an inch longer than the wing; but in many specimens the wings
and tail are equal, and in a small proportion the tail is shorter than the
wing. In the seven specimens of this species cited in the table, the
variation ranges from the tail being one fifth of an inch shorter than
the folded wing to one inch longer. In the three specimens which
agree in the length of the tail (4.35 in.), the variation in the
length of the folded wing ranges from 3.25 in. to 4.25 in., or is nearly
twenty-seven (2G.85) per cent. The larger specimen, however, is a
male, while the others are females ; but between the two females the
difference is over twenty-four (24.3) per cent. Similar differences
have been met with in various other species, but it has not been deemed
necessary to cite a larger list of examples.

Variation in the Form of the Wing. — By the form of the wing is
meant its general outline when expanded, which is mainly deter-
mined by the relative length of the remiges. The form of the wing,
and especially the relative length of the different primary remiges,
has direct relation to the power of flight. In strong, swift-flying
birds, the outer primaries are the longest, giving a narrow pointed form
to the expanded wing, as in the swifts, the swallows, in Chordeiles, in
the Slernince and in most of the Procellaridce. In birds of medium
powers of flight, as in most of the true finches (Coccothranstince) and
Tardince, the Tyrannidce, the Sylvicolidce, etc., etc., the third, fourth,
and fifth primaries are the longest, the wing being less pointed and
broader. In species with low power of flight, as the Troglodytidce,
several genera of sparrows, the grouse, etc., the outer primaries are still
more reduced, the wing is much more rounded and shorter, and the
power of flight is in each case correspondingly less. In birds of the
first class, which live almost wholly on the wing, little variation is seen
in the relative length of the primaries. In those of the second and third
classes, slight variations affect in less degree the particular habits of
life, so that among the latter would be naturally expected the greatest
range of individual variation.

Correlating with the variation in the form of the wing, as determined
by the relative length of the outer primaries to the length of the inner

204

BULLETIN OF THE

primaries are similar variations in the relative length of the inner secon-
daries as compared with the outer secondaries. Relatively short inner
secondaries (generally improperly called " tertiaries ") hence ac-
company long primaries, and, conversely, long inner secondaries,
short outer primaries. The particular form of the wing in any group
depending upon the relative development of these several elements,
they hence afford excellent generic characters ; but while thus impor-
tant, they are subject to a considerable range of individual variation.
The form of the wing being readily determined by measurements,
and easily expressed mathematically, the amount of the variation i3
easily measured and tabulated. In the following table (Table E) the
extent and character of this variation is to some degree illustrated. In
the first column of measurements is given the length of the folded wing;
in the second the extent of the longest primary beyond the outer (or
shortest) secondary, and in the third the extent of the longest pri-
mary beyond the inner (or longest) secondary. The fourth column
gives the amount of variation in each specimen cited.

Table E. — Variation in the Form of the Wing.

M. C. Z No.

Sex.

d

Species.

Length of
the Wing

Ext. ofPr.
beyond

Onicr Sec

Ext. of Pr.
beyond

Inner Sec.

Amount of
Variation.

2119

Icterus Baltimore

3.75

.77

.90

.13

2290

d

Icterus Baltimore

3 83

.67

.81

.14

1333

d

Icterus Baltimore

3.64

.57

1.06

.49

1567

•

Icterus Baltimore

3. SO

.56

.92

.36

2964

t

Icterus Baltimore

3.85

.77

1.07

.30

2299

d

Icterus Baltimore

3 85

.87

1.12

.25

2296

d

Dolichonyx oryzivora

3.80

.98

1.42

.44

5741

d

Dolichonyx oryzivora

4.00

1.20

1.40

.20

119

d

Dolichonyx oryzivora

3.82

.78

1 .23

.45

9854

d

Dolichonyx oryzivora

3 53

.98

1.14

.16

284

7

Tyrannus carolincnsis

4.30

.85

1.15

.30

113

i

Tyrannus carolincnsis

4. GO

.90

1.45

.55

1317

■2

Tyrannus carolinensis

4.25

.76

1.10

.34

4008

1

Tyrannus carolincnsis

4 60

1 .35

1 62

.27

10107

d

Heclymelcs ludoviciana

4.20

.90

1 .05

.15

590

d

Hedymelcs ludoviciana

■leu

.'.10

1.25

.35

99 ;:>

■

Hedymelcs ludoviciana

4.00

.60

1.06

.40

1 156

d

Sialia sialis

3.75

1.00

1.10

.10

1945

d

Sialia sialis

3.90

1.03

1.10

.07

338

d

Si ilia sialis

4 <i7

1 .30

1.30

.00

d

Sialia sialis

4 i 15

1 25

1.40

.15

10292

d

Si.ilin sialis

3.90

.95

1 15

.20

256

1

( raleoscoptes carolinensis

3.37

.55

.50

—.05

1790

1

( raleoscopi -s c irolinensis

3.75

.55

.70

+ .15

5358

7

Galeoscoptes carolincnsis

3.:,.')

.35

.57

-(-.22

Km! t

f

Galeoscoptes carolincnsis

3 -:,

.70

.75

+ .05

■m;\

t

Galeoscoptes carolinensis

::.7:.

.07

.70

+ .03

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 205

Variation in the relative Length of the Primary Quills. — From the
great stress laid upon the relative length of the outer primaries by de-
scriptive ornithologists in determining genera and species, one would be
led to expect but a slight amount of variation in this respect in speci-
mens of the same species. On the contrary, however, it is soon found,
on giving special attention to this character, that a considerable amount
of individual variation in this regard really exists. That the wing
formula, so generally introduced of late years into specific diagnoses, is
in a great degree unreliable as a specific character, is sufficiently shown
by the subjoined table (Table F, p. 20G) of the relative proportions of
the primaries. The comparison, extended in the table to only a few
species has been carried to scores of others with similar results.

In general, in species of the Oscines which have the second primary
usually the longest, it is sometimes the first and sometimes the third
that is the longest. In those which have the third ordinarily the longest,
the second and third, the third and the fourth, or the second, third, and
fourth are frequently equal. In those in which the first (or the second
when the first is very short) is intermediate to the second and fourth
or to the third and fifth, it may be equal to or longer than the second or
third, or only equal to the fourth or fifth.

Variation in the Form of the Tail, and in the Number of the
Rectrices. — Individual variation in the form of the tail is often quite
marked. In species with the tail deeply forked, different specimens
vary considerably in respect to the depth of the fork. Those with the tail
rounded and much graduated differ greatly in respect to the amount the
middle feathers exceed the outer ones in length. In species with a nor-
mally nearly even tail, the tail is sometimes distinctly emarginate, and
sometimes as distinctly rounded in different specimens of the same species.

In regard to the number of rectrices, in those groups in which the
number exceeds twelve, as in the Rasores, the Lamellirostres, etc., the
number is frequently variable. The rectrices of the common ruffed
grouse (Bonasa umhellus) are usually eighteen in number, but an ex-
amination of numerous specimens shows that the number varies from
sixteen to twenty. The usual number in Tetrao canadensis is sixteen,
but the number varies from fourteen to eighteen. In Cupidonia
cupido, and in other species of grouse, similar variations also occur.
They are also frequent in the Anserina*. In Bernicla canadensis,
for example, the usual number of rectrices is eighteen, but the number

206

BULLETIN OF THE

Table F. — Variation in the relative Length of the Primaries.

M. C Z.

No

Species.

to

c
o
►3

- a
■■■^

3
4

c5

— to

•a = .

CO «

2

— tL

— _

5~
5

o£

— uj

6
6

5-3

= 5

— £

3-289

67G4

Tardus iiisccsceus
Tardus f'uscescens

4
3

7
7

8837

Turclus fuscescens

i\

2

5

6

7

8

8843
5197

Turdus Pallasi
Turdus Pallasi

4

4

3

5

5
3

6
6

2
2

7
7

8205

Turclus Pallasi

4

3

5

II

7

8

8206

Turdus Pallasi

4

',)

6

2

7

8

10698
10699

Myiarcbus crinitus
Myiarchus crinitus

3
3

4
2

2
4

5

5

6
C

1
1

7

-

8166

Myiarchus crinitus

4

3

2

5

6

!)

8

10700

Myiarchus crinitus

:i

2

5

6

1

7

8

10701

Myiarchus crinitus

3

4,
2)

5

6

1

7

8

12420
4612

Tyrannus carolinensis
Tyrannus carolinensis

2

2

3
3

1
4

4
1

5
5

6
6

6457

Tyrannus carolinensis

o

3

1)

5

6

7

4816
6665
693S

Contopus borcalis
Contopus l)orealis
Sayornis fuscus

2
2
3

1
3

4

3
1
2

4
4
5

5
5
6

C
6
1

7

6932

Sayornis fuscus

J)

II

6

1

7

8

9

5364
5248

Lophophanes bicolor
Lophophanes bicolor

4
5

il

6'

o

3

5

4

6
6

3

7

7
3

8
8

9

9

2

2

1
1

Lophophanes bicolor

7

3

8

9

2

I

5080
5176

Dendroeca coronata
Dcndrceca coronata

3
2

1

4

4
1

5
5

6
6

P«78

Dendrceca coronata

3

I)

1

5

6

7

3412

Dcndrceca coronata

I)

4

1

5

6

7

10533

Dcndrceca coronata

1)

5

6

7

8

9

5056
5057

Dcndra'ca striata
Dendroeca striata

41

2

1

1
2

3
3

4
4

5
5

6
6

3390

Dendrceca striata

2

51

4

5

6

7

6675
10958
10963
10960

Dendroeca striata
Pinicola enucleator
Binicola enucleator

Pinicola enucleator

2
3
3
3

3
4
2
2

1
2
4
1

4
5
1
4

5
1

5
5

6
6

6
6

7
7
7

10962

Pinicola enucleator

l\

4

1

5

6

7

8

8114

Pinicola enucleator

3

i\

1

5

6

7

8

4843
4633

4844

Ampelis ccdrorum
Ampelis cedrorum
Ampelis cedrorum

2
1
2

3
2

1

1
3
3

4

4
4

5
5
5

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY.

207

varies from fourteen to twenty. Specimens with sixteen are tolerably
frequent. Yet one of the principal characters urged as separating the
B. Hutchinsii from the B. canadensis is the possession of two more
feathers in the tail by the latter tlian the so-called B. Hutchinsii is
assumed to have. In Bernicla brenta the usual number is sixteen,
but in different specimens they vary from fourteen to eighteen. A
greater, or less amount of variation in the number of the feathers of
the tail is more or less common to numerous other species of the duck
tribe. An odd number is even quite frequent, one half of the tail hav-
ing normally one more feather than the other.

Variation in the Relative Length of the Tarsus and Toes. — A com-
mon feature in modern generic and specific diagnoses is a statement of
the ratio the length of the tarsus bears to the length of the middle toe
or to the hallux, and the relative length of the hallux to the outer or
inner toe, as though we had here constant structural proportions. The
following table (Table G) shows that such is not the case, the varia-

Table G. — Relative Length of Tarsi and Toes.

M. C. Z. No.

Sex.

Species.

Tarsus.
1.08

Middle
Toe.

Outer
Toe.

. . 7

Hallux.

5853

i

Galcoscoptes carolinensis

1.04

.75

2273

i

Galcoscoptes carolinensis

1.15

.98

.70

.70

10356

i

Galcoscoptes carolinensis

1.00

1.00

' .70

.73

5S57

7

Galcoscoptes carolinensis

1.18

1.08

.70

.75

2229

?

Galcoscoptes carolinensis

1.07

.93

.68

.67

5605

c?

Sialia sialis

.77

.77

.57

.58

1456

d

Sialia sialis

.74

.84

.62

.65

5766

d

Sialia sialis

.83

.80

.56

.60

1 SS3

d

Sialia sialis

.80

.91

.77

.65

1946

d

Sialia sialis

.80

.84

.77

.61

1881

d

Sialia sialis

.77

.85

.56

.72

1771

d

Pipilo erythrophthalmus

.98

.95

.73

.80

1399

d

Pipilo erythrophthalmus

1.05

1.05

.80

.78

350

d

Pipilo erythrophthalmus

1 .05

1.12

.76

.84

1476

d

Pipilo erythrophthalmus

1.10

1.03

.75

.78

2985

d

Pipilo erythrophthalmus

1.13

1.00

.80

.80

9854

d

Dolichonyx orvzivora

.98

I 1.17

.83

.82

5585

^

Dolichonyx orvzivora

1.15

1.27

.98

.93

9894

d

1 )olichonyx orvzivora

1.00

1.00

.83

.81

10219

d

Dolichonyx orvzivora

1.03

1.25

.98

.76

2320

d

Icterus Baltimore

.S3

.68

.88

.72

9793

d

Icterus Baltimore

1.02

.85

.70

.70

1567

d

Icterus Baltimore

.97

1.00

.75

.80

10025

■2

Ty ran mis en rolinensis

.67

.73

.53

.54

10027

1

Tyrannus carolinensis

.80

.85

.55

.61

10028

1

Tyrannns carolinensis

.70

.87

.53

.57

5546

1

Tyrannus carolinensis

.70

.80

.60

.60

208 BULLETIN OF THE

tion being as great between different specimens of tlie same specie3
as between different species of the same genus, and even of differ-
ent genera. The variation in the length of the toes is often due to
an increase or a decrease in the length of the nail, but by no means
rarely to variations in the length of the phalanges themselves. As
already stated, and as appears from the table, toes of less than the
average length accompany tarsi of the average or of more than the
average length, and toes of more than the average length accompany
tarsi of medium or less than the medium length. In compiling the above
table the specimens mentioned have been selected in each case from
a series of only twenty specimens of the species to which they respec-
tively belong, and represent the longest and shortest tarsus, middle toe,
outer toe, and hind toe met with in each series, and also the greatest and
least amount of difference in these several elements. They are all
taken from Tables H to Q (see pp. 210-219), which serve to show
the usual range of variation, in respect to size and proportions, in ten
species.*

Individual Variation in other Parts. — In addition to the instances
already mentioned, individual variation of a similar character and equal
extent occurs in the relative size of other parts. The length of the bill,
for instance, is often compared to the length of the head, or to that of
the tarsus in specific diagnoses. Table G1 (see next page) serves to
show the individual variation in respect to the proportion of length to
alar extent ordinarily met with in specimens of the same species.

To show more fully, however, the exact nature and extent of what
may be considered as purely individual variation, tables of detailed
measurements of about twenty specimens of each of a number of
species are herewith appended (Tables II to Q). Care has been
taken to not only select specimens of the same sex, collected at the
same locality, and as nearly as possible at the same season, but also
such species as find their northern limit so near the locality at
which they were taken as to obviate. the complication of individual
witli geographical variation, which would result if the range of the
spcci.s extended far to the northward of tin1, locality in question.
In general, the specimens are all from Eastern Massachusetts, and

* Icterus Baltimore, Dolichonyx oryzivorus, Pipilo erythrophthalmus, Sialia sialis,
,; co tes carolinensis, Pyranga rubra, Geothlypis trichas, Harporhynchus rufus,
Tyraunus carolinensis, Hedymeles ludoviciana.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY.

209

Table Gl — Individual Variation in the Proportion of Length to
Alar Extent.

M. C. Z. No.

Orig. No.

Sex.

Species.

5056

668

9

Dendrceea striata

5.45

9.70

777

?

Dendroeca striata

5.50

8.68

5087

848

d

Passerculus savanna

5.50

9.13

981

d

Passerculus savanna

5.83

7.75

d

Passerculus savanna

6.00

8.27

1987

d

Cardinalis virginianus

9.00

11.50

2394

9

Cardinalis virginianus

800

11.75

9901

cf

Dolichonyx oryzivorua

6.65

1 1 .50

2295

d

Dolichonyx oryzivorus

7.50

11.50

2340

i

Mimas polyglottus

960

14 25

2374

9

Mimas polyglottus

9 .75

14.00

2371

?

Miinus polyglottus

9.80

13 00

5757

Turdus Swuinsoni

7.25

12.15

2930

i

Turdus Swainsoni

7.75

11.20

1829

•2

Turdus Swainsoni

6.90

11.20

307

■2

Turdus Swainsoni

7.24

11.00

9691

■2

Turdus Pallasi

700

10 50

145

■2

Turdus Pallasi

7.00

11 40

5756

?

Turdus Pallasi

7.38

11.05

314

d

Turdus Pallasi

7.38

12.33

363

d

Turdus Pallasi

7.23

11.94

26

d

Turdus Pallasi

680

11.28

367

d

Turdus fuscescens

7.81

13.70

495

d

Turdus fuscescens

7.87

11.91

551

d

Turdus fuscescens

7.00

11.95

112

d

Parus atricapillus

5.50

8.12

4946

268

9

Pnrus atricapillus

5 00

8.60

11714

114

9

Parus atricapillus

5 75

7.88

95

cf

Agelaeus plia-niceus

9.00

15.10

93

d

Age! reus phceniceus

9 20

14.40

5723

d

Agelssus phceniceus

845

14.45

from within a short distance of Cambridge. A very few are from
Southern Maine and from the Connecticut valley at Springfield ;
but the general faunal character of all these localities is essentially
the same.*

In addition to the measurements given in these tables, several others
are sometimes taken by collectors, as the relative posterior extent of the
outstretched feet and the wing, as compared with the tail. As they are,
however, among the most variable of proportions, and are likewise
among the most difficult measurements to take with accuracy, they have
been here neglected.

* In consequence of the small size of these pages, it has been found impracticable to
Include the names of the localities, the date of collecting, and the name of the collector
in the tables, as would have been desirable.
VOL. II. 14

210

BULLETIN OF THE

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MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY.

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220 BULLETIN OF THE

Individual Variation in the Size and Form of the Bill. — That con-
siderable variation occurs in the size and shape of the bill, in specimens
of the same sex and species living together at the same locality, is evident
from a glance at some of the preceding tables of measurements. The
variation in this organ is further illustrated in the accompanying plates
(Plates IV- VIII), in which are given figures of the bills of several
specimens of each of a number of species. Much greater differences
are here shown to exist in cospecific specimens of the same sex
and from the same locality than occur between those supposed to
be distinct, of which comparative figures of the bills have been pub-
lished with a view of demonstrating their specific diversity. In only a
few groups in fact, and mainly in the long-billed Grallce, is the bill
generally admitted to be too variable to afford an important basis for
the discrimination of species.

The principal points of variation in the form of the bill eonsi.-t in
variations in its general size, without corresponding variations in the
general size of the individual, and in the details of its form in regard to
thickness and length. There are also other variations in respect to the
emargination or dentation of the terminal portion, especially in the vast
group of the insectivorous species, and in the "festooning" of the bill
in many of the hawks.* In respect to the size of the bill, it is a note-
worthy fact that birds specifically and sexually identical vary in such a
way that specimens much below the average size possess bills above
the average size for their respective species, and, conversely, that
specimens above the average size have bills much smaller than the
average for their respective species, the general proportions of the
bill in each case being essentially the same. In such cases, with
the increase or decrease in length, there are corresponding differ-
ences in the thickness of the bill, both in the vertical and trans-
verse directions. In other cases with the increase in length there
is no corresponding increase in thickness, such a differentiation thus
resulting in a relatively attenuated form of the bill. In other cases
the bill is shortened without a corresponding decrease in its thick-
ness, from which results a short, thick, or robust bill. The variation
in thickness is again sometimes relatively greater in the vertical

* In respect to this point, see. Dr. Henry Bryant's paper on " Variations in the Plu-
mage in Buleo borealis auct. and B. Hwlani Aud.V" (Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist.,
Vol. VIII, p. 107 et $eq., Ifc6l, where the variation in this feature is especially noticed.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 221

than in the transverse direction, and sometimes the reverse, thus
giving in some cases a deep, narrow bill, and in others a broad, de-
pressed bill. In the latter case the differences are especially important,
as will be more fully shown later. In regard to the tooth-like inden-
tation near the tip of the bill in so many of the insectivorous birds, it is
found that in some species which usually have it strongly developed,
specimens occasionally occur with the indentation nearly or quite obso-
lete. Again in other cases where this feature is usually but slightly
developed, some specimens have the notch at the tip of the bill exceed-
ingly prominent. Similar variations occur in regard to the develop-
ment of the so-called " festoon " of the upper mandible in the hawks,
as Dr. Bryant has already sufficiently shown.

The greatest range of individual differentiation in any given organ
occurs, as would be naturally expected, in those species which have that
organ more than ordinarily developed, and also in species of a low
grade of structure. In the long-billed Grallce both these conditions
exist, and it is in such genera as Numenius, Gambetta, Limosa, Scolo-
pax, Philohela, and Gallinago, that the maximum of bill variation is
seen. It is less marked in the song-birds, though in many members of
this group the variation is by no means small. In the typical wood-
peckers, on the other hand, which have the bill especially adapted to a
peculiar function, that of digging into wood, the variation is scarcely
appreciable, since any considerable variation from its usual form would
seriou-dy impair its efficiency. In the semi-frugivorous and terrestrial
Picidcc, however, we again meet with the usual range of variation.

In the accompanying plates illustrative of variation in the bill,
representatives from the higher types of the Oscines have mainly been
chosen, several representatives from widely different families having
been selected. Plate IV, figures 1 and la, 2 and 2a, give a view of
the bills of two specimens of the common king-bird [Tyrannus caro-
linensis), from Eastern Massachusetts, which differ from each other as
much as the bills of different genera sometimes do. One of them, as
will be seen, is so much narrower and deeper than the other as to give
very different proportions and outlines. The skulls of these two speci-
mens vary in the same manner as do the bills, the one having ;i broad,
flat skull, and the other a narrow, high one. Two specimens of M>/iar-
chus crinitus, one of which is from South Carolina and the other from
Western New York, differ as much from each other, and in nearly the

222 BULLETIN OF THE

same way, as do those of (he king-bird. Similar and nearly as great
variations occur also between different specimens of Contopus borealis,
C. virens, Empidonax minimus, E. jiaviventris, Sayorius fuscus, and
in several species of (he South American Tyrannida. But between
these (wo extremes are found in other specimens nearly every possible
degree of gradation.

Figures 3 and oa to figures 7 and la (same plate) represent different
forms of the bill in Troglodytesaedon. Between these specimens there
are great differences both in respect to absolute size and to general
form, greater than would be deemed necessary by most ornithologists
for the differentiation of species. These examples are all from Florida,
and essentially from the same locality. Other specimens in the Muse-
um come between these extremes in such a way as to show the incon-
stancy of all these forms. The variation in color, which is considerable
in this species, does not accord with the variation in the bill, specimens
exhibiting the extremes of color as often having the bills alike as other-
wise, and, conversely, those with bills alike differ widely in color.

Figures 8 and 8a to 11 and 11a (same plate) indicate the varia-
bility of the bill, especially in respect to length, in Massachusetts
specimens of Seiurus noveboracensis. The first corresponds essentially
with, and unquestionably is, an example of the so-called Seiurus ludo-
vicianus, which, in all probability, is but the darker colored, longer-
billed southern form of S. noveboracensis. This species varies also
remarkably in color, but the variation in color, as in the case of Tro-
glodytes aedon, and as is commonly the case in other species, does not
accord with the variation in the bill, some of the long-billed specimens
being in color almost undi-tinguishable from some of the short-billed
ones, while some of those with medium bills present the extreme
degrees of variation in respect to color.

Figures 12 and 12a to14 and 14a (same plate) represent the bills
of three, male specimens of Mniotilta varia from the vicinity of Cam-
bridge, which present as great differences as modern ornithologists
would ordinarily deem sufficient, if the specimens had come from
Mexico instead of from Massachusetts, to warrant their recognition as
types of three distinct species. The correspondingly great variations in
color in this species have already been adverted to (p. 190). The
bill, however, in specimens presenting extreme forms of color variation,
unfortunately for ultra-divisionists, may be either of the ordinary form

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 223

or of either of the forms figured, or of any intermediate form, as exem-
plified by the specimens of this species in the collection of the Museum.
Figure 15 and 15a and 16 and IGa (same plate) are accurate repre-
sentations of the bills of two Massachusetts males of Dendrceca striata.
The differences between these specimens, though so great, are not
greater than occur in different cospecific examples of several other
species of this genus contained in the Museum.

Massachusetts specimens of Certhi a familiar is differ even more in the
form of the bill than do the specimens above figured of either Troglody-
tes a'edon or Mniotilta varia. They also present a similar range of color
variation in the plumage, and one equally at variance with the variation
in the bill.

Figures 19 and 19a, 20 and 20a (same plate), show how widely
two Florida specimens (both males) of Pyranga cestiva vary in respect
to the size of the bill, the specimens in question differing but little in
general size. If these figures are compared with the figures recently
published of the bills of certain supposed species of Pyranga'* they will
be found to vary more than some of the latter do, and indicate how un-
satisfactory the nature of species must be when based mainly upon dif-
ferences in the bill. Other cospe'cific specimens of Pyranga in the
Museum exhibit great difference in the size, form, and position of the
tooth-like processes of the upper mandible, and in the color of the bill,
— differences that have been regarded as specific characters. The
color of the bill in many species of birds, in fact, varies greatly in speci-
mens of the same species taken at the same season, and generally in
those taken at different seasons ; yet it is a character that has been re-
lied upon for the distinction of species.

Figures 1 and la, 2 and 2a, 4 and 4a, and 5 and 5a, Plate V, illus-
trate variations in the bill in Massachusetts representatives of .2EgiotJtns
linarius. Figures 3 and 3a, and 5 and oa, are drawn from specimens from
Arctic America, the first being an original specimen of the jE. fuscescens
Coues ex auct., and the other a similar specimen of the JE. exilipes Coues.
Figures 7 and la to 10 and 10a, inclusive (same plate), represent varia-
tions of the bill in male specimens of Chrysomitris tristis, a species allied
to JE. linarius. It will be seen that the two series are nearly parallel in
respect to the amount and character of the variations in the bill.
Figures 11 and 11a and 12 and 12a indicate similar variations in an-

* Proceed. Phil. Acad. Xat. Sci., June, 1869, pp. 130-133.

224 BULLETIN OF THE

other allied species, the Chrysomitris pinus, and figures 13 and 13a
to 1j and 15a, inclusive (same plate) similar variations in another
species (Curviroslra americana), of the same sub-family. In the latter
case the specimens are also all males, and all from the vicinity of Cam-
bridge, they having been killed in fact from the same flock. In the
jEgiotkus group numerous so-called " species " have been described by
different writers, six or seven of which were recognized by Dr.
Coues a few years since in his monograph of that genus.* A consid-
erable number of these species have been generally looked upon as
equivocal, and the exact number in the group and their distinctive
characteristics have been a matter of much uncertainty. Recently the
writer above referred to has again revised the group,f and arrives at
the conclusion that if more than one species exists, all the forms pre-
viously recognized by him as species are valid species. I can readily
grant this alternative, being fully convinced that the genus consists of
but a single known species, which has a circumpolar distribution. The
alleged specific distinctions have consisted in differences in general
size, in the relative size of the bill, the length of the tarsus, wing, and
tail, and in color. Some of these differences are doubtless climatic and
local, while others may be due to age, but the greater part I believe to
be to a great degree purely individual, inasmuch as they are paralleled
in allied species, whose standing has not been and cannot reasonably be
questioned. But the special consideration of the variations presented
by the JEtjiotla and similar groups will be reserved till after the facts
relating to geographical variation have been presented, since they can
then be move appropriately discussed.

Figures 1G and IGa to 18 and 18<7, inclusive (Flate V), represent
the bills of three male specimens of Pusserculus savanna, from different
localities on the Atlantic coast. The specimen represented in figures
18 and 18c?, has the bill of minimum size, being in bulk less than half
that of the one represented in figures 17 and 17a. \ Figure 17, it will
be observed, corresponds nearly with the so-called P. sandwichensis § of

* A Monograph of the genus JEgiolhus, etc., Proc. Phil. Acad. Nat. Sci., Vol. XII, p.

1. Vol. XV, p. 4", 1SG3.
j On variations in the plumage of the jEgiotki, Ibid., Vol. XXI, p. — , 1869.
J Other specimens received from Grinnell, Iowa, from Professor II. \V. Parker, since
the above was written, have lulls still smaller than any of those here figured.
§ ISaird's Birds of N. Amer., p. 444, 1858.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 225

the Pacific coast, and figure 17 with the so-called Passerculus alaudi-
nus* also of the Pacific coast.

Plate VI, although designed more especially to illustrate local varia-
tion, indicates to some extent the individual variation existing in Age-
Iceus phoenkeus. Figures 1 and la represent the average type of the
hill in this species in Massachusetts, and figures 3 and 3a, and 4 and
4a, unusually long and unusually short forms of the bill found at the
same locality. Figures 2 and 2a, 5 and 5a, and 6 and Ga, represent a
similar series from the St. John's River, Florida. All the specimens of
the two series are adult males.

Plate VII represents similar variations of the bill in Quiscahi*
purpureus. Figures 1 and la, 3 and 3a, 4 and 4a, and G andfGa,
represent the average and the extreme types of the bill met with in
Massachusetts males. The latter also represents an inflexed type of
bill, a modification seen in many species, it being especially common in
the Quiscali and other genera having the bill of a similar form. It is
unmistakably an individual peculiarity, evidently depending mainly
upon age, and resulting from the upper mandible outgrowing and over-
hanging the lower. In Quiscalus purpureus such specimens are more
or less frequent at probably all localities, they having been received at
the Museum from Maine, Massachusetts, New Jersey, Florida, and
Illinois, and I have seen them from the "West Indies. It often gives
rise to the name inflexirostris, which is found so frequently a synonyme.f
The figures of the bills of four females of Sturnella ludoviciana (Plate
VIII), from Florida, indicate the character of the bill variation ex-
hibited by different individuals of this species at the same locality,
independently of any variation attributable to sex. Figures o and oa,
and G and Go (same plate) show that like variations occur in Colaptes
auratus, the figures being drawn from two Massachusetts females.

Similar comparisons, with similar results, might be made with scores
of other species, but the above illustrations will doubtless suffice to show
that individual variation in the form of the bill is not only great, but
that it exists in groups having a high grade of structure. Other groups
might have been chosen in which the individual variation in the form
of the bill, as already stated, is far greater than in the instances above

* Bonaparte, Comptes Rendu?, Vol. XXXVII, p. 918, 1853.

t Concerning Quiscalus i/ijltxirostris Swuiuson, see below (Part IV), under Q. pur-
pureus.

VOL. II. 15

226 BULLETIN OF THE

cited. The Grallce have already been referred to as presenting re-
markable examples of bill variation. In some of the Anatidce, how-
ever, it is scarcely less, whilst it is especially great among many of the
Longipennes. Hence some authors evidently attach too high impor-
tance to the exact form of the bill in these groups.

All the illustrations referred to above have been drawn, with one or
two exceptions, from fully adult specimens. One of these is a speci-
men of Passerculus savanna (Plate V, fig. 18), which is a bird of the
year, killed in Labrador in Augu.-t, before it had quite completed its
first moult. Another is the smallest billed specimen of Chrysomitris
trisfis (Plate V, fig. 10), which is also evidently a bird of the year. The
other is an autumnal specimen of Dendrceca striata (Plate IV, fig.
15). They all, however, would be ordinarily considered as adult in
size.

Variations in the Size and Form of the Bill, Wing, etc.,
resulting from age.

In the foregoing remarks on the variations in general size, in propor-
tions, and in the form of different parts, exclusive reference has been
had to adult specimens. It is easy, however, to confound difference
depending upon age with those strictly resulting from individual differ-
entiation. The form of the bill is especially subject to variation
by age in specimens that upon casual inspection would seem to be
full-grown In long-billed birds the bill increases in length for several
months after the bird is full-fledged, and even after it has once
moulted. In short- and thick-billed birds, the bill increases considerably
in thickness as well as in length after the individual seems to have
acquired its adult size and proportions. As a general rule, then, " birds
of the year " possess a relatively shorter and thicker bill than those
fully adult, or three or four years of age. In old age an abnormal
elongation of the upper mandible occasionally occurs, especially in
species in which the tip of the upper mandible is decurved and projects
slightly beyond the lower, as in Corvus, Quiscahts, Vireo, Tta-dus,
Larus, etc. Since, however, great differences occur in the form of the
bill in specimens of the same age, in birds of the year as well as in those
unquestionably adult, it is sometimes difficult to determine how much
of the difference in certain cases is to be considered as due to age and
how much to individual variation.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 227

The wing also varies considerably in form with age. In many of the
song-birds, at least, and also in the raptorial birds, the wing becomes
more pointed with the second and third moultings of the remiges.
Birds of the first year hence have, even after the flight feathers are
fully grown, a shorter and more rounded fore-wing, as a general rule,
than birds of two or three years of age. These differences of course
result from variations in the relative length of the primaries, the outer
primaries being the last to acquire their ultimate proportions, as they
are also the last primaries to be renewed in the annual moult. A
similar change with age occurs in the form of the inner point of the
wing, or that formed by the inner secondaries. These, like the pri-
maries, are subject to a gradual increase in length for a time with each
moult, they likewise being the latest of the secondaries to acquire their
mature size, as they are also the last of the secondaries changed in
each normal moult. Thus, through the gradual elongation of the outer
primaries and the inner secondaries, a slight change is produced in the
general form of the wing. It is, however, only slight, and since some
young birds have as pointed wings as any of the same species which
are fully adult, and some adult birds have wings as much rounded as
the full-grown young, the rule is subject to many exceptions. The
sexes of the same species also often differ similarly with the young and
old in respect to the form of the wing. This is more especially the
case in those species in which the female is much smaller and much
duller colored than the male, the structural inferiority of the female to
the male being thus evident in various features.

"While the wing may be regarded, as already stated, as generally
smaller and more rounded in the younger individuals, it not unfre-
quently happens that the specimens having the greatest alar extent are
immature birds. This has been particularly noticed in the eagles and
hawks, as well as in some of the gulls, in which it is so frequent as to
have attracted the attention of numerous observers.* The feathers of the
wings and tail are not only longer, but they are also broader, and hence
in the expanded wing present a greater resisting surface to the air.
Two explanations of this fact present themselves. First, in the cases
referx-ed to, the birds may have been born at a very northern locality,
whence only the younger birds ever descend so far south. Second, the
greater lack of power in the muscles of flight in the young birds, as

* See American Naturalist, Vol. Ill, 1S69, p. 617.

228 BULLETIN OF THE

compared with those fully mature, may he counterbalanced by a rela-
tively larger supporting surface in the wings and tail. Whatever the
explanation may be, the facts seem to be unquestionably as above
stated.

Other variations in the plumage and in other characters depending
upon age, but which are liable to be confounded with individual differ-
entiation, might be cited, but none seem to be of sufficient importance
to require a special description.

General Remarks on Individual Variation.

After the preceding remarks on this* subject, I should perhaps state
expressly what I regard to be the bearing of the facts above discussed,
otherwise I might be understood as in a great measure discarding
the majority of the characters used in the diagnoses of species and
genera. Nothing, however, is further from my purpose. What I urge
is simply this : that the extent of purely individual variation is far
greater than has usually been recognized, and that as a result numerous
strictly nominal species have found their place in our systems, from
naturalists having mistaken these differences for true specific characters.
Individual variation, however, is so complicated with geographical
variation, that the general bearings of the whole subject will be deferred
till the end of the discussion of the latter topic.

As regards the general cause of individual differences in animals, it
is too evidently constitutional to allow of any other hypothesis, and akin
to that seen in domestic animals, and which in man gives to each indi-
vidual his unlikeness in temperament and physical structure to all other
men. While individuality is so patent and so universal in the human
species, and scarcely less so in domesticated animals, it is one of the
most surprising facts in zoology that so many naturalists should have
entertained the idea that there is an almost total absence of it in feral
animals, and that the description of a single specimen will suffice for
that of its species. Practically, however, this has been the fact, and
eminently so with that large class of " species hunters," who have not
inaptly been characterized as "closet naturalists"; for to this class
and not to the field naturalists are we mainly indebted for the long
lists of synonymes that form so vexatious a burden to zoological
science.

Certain secondary causes that share in producing individual variation

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 229

are doubtless more or less obscurely traceable. Among these are cer-
tain circumstances attending the time of hatching, as well as, of course,
the vigor of the parent. Not unfrequently the first attempts of birds to
rear their brood, are unsuccessful, from their eggs or young bein<* de-
stroyed by their enemies. Persisting, however, in their efforts, it is late
in the season before their brood is fledged, several sets of eggs or young
having been previously destroyed. The birds of such broods are found
to be smaller and paler colored than those hatched earlier in the
season. In cases where several broods are reared each year, as a
general rule the birds of the earlier brood seem in all respects the most
perfect and vigorous. Various other causes operating during their
infancy doubtless more or less affect their general size, their propor-
tions, and colors when mature. Food has doubtless much to do with
variation in color, though but few facts bearing upon this point have
been yet recorded. Professor Agassiz informs me, however, that many
years since, in Switzerland, he raised many Pyrrhula vulgaris, and
found that by feeding them on the seeds of hemp the red on the breast
changed to black. The well-known fact that certain brightly colored
birds, as the purple finch (Carpodacus purpureus) and the crossbills
(Curvirostra), change, when kept in cages, from bright red to dull
olive with their first moult, and never again, or at least so long as kept
in confinement, regain their original color, shows how susceptible the
color of birds is to the influences of food and artificial conditions of life.

Climatic Variation.

Climatic variation involves as completely all parts of the animal as
does individual variation. It is more marked, however, in some features
than in others. The three most prominent phases of climatic variation
in birds are the following : variation in general size, variation in the
size ;md form of the bill, variation in color.

Climatic Variation in Size. — Variation in the size of individuals of
the same species with differences in the latitude and altitude of their
respective places of birth is a fact already so well known as to be quite
generally recognized ; hence any demonstration of such a variation is
in the present connection unnecessary. A few tables of comparative
measurements of New England and Florida specimens given in Part IV
serve to illustrate its general character and extent. Similiar illustrations
are abundantly afforded by the tables of measurements published in Pro-

230 BULLETIN OF THE

fessor Baird's Birds of North America,* in the text of which work fre-
quent reference is made to the differences in size between northern and
southern specimens of the same species. The same author also subse-
quently called attention to the subject, and explicitly announced a general
law of geographical variation in size ; namely, a gradual decrease in size
in individuals of the same species with the decrease in the latitude and
altitude of their birth-places.t

In some species, and throughout some entire families, climatic varia-
tion is more marked than in others ; generally, however, it is very
appreciable, and amounts, in respect to size, not unfrequently to from
twelve to twenty per cent J of the average dimensions of the species.

Climatic Variation in the Bill. — The climatic variation in the size of
the bill is, in general, inverse to that of the general size of the individual.
In some species, as in the Sittce and the typical members of the Picidce,
I have as yet been unable to trace an independent variation in the size
of the bill to that of the body ; but in many species there is not only a
marked relative increase in the size of the bill to the southward, but, in
some, an absolute increase, especially in its length.

* Pacific Railroad Explorations and Surveys, Vol. IX, Birds. By Professor S. F.
Baird, with the co-operation of Mr. John Cassin and Mr. George N. Lawrence. 1858. Sub-
sequently republished under the title of " The Birds of North America," with an Atlas
of one. hundred plates.

t Proc. Phila. Acad. Nat. Sci., Vol. XI, p. 300, November, 1859. Also in Am. Journ.
Sci. and Arts, 2d Ser., Vol. XLT, p. 190, March, 1866.

\ Variation in size with differences in habitat is by no means confined to birds. In
mammals it .is well known to be as great, if not greater, than among birds. In some
wide-ranging species of mammals there appears to be a double decadence in size, — a
diminution to the northward, in those non-migratory species whose habitats extend into
the arctic regions, as well as a diminution to the southwards of the point where in gen-,
eral the maximum of size is attained, — as I have elsewhere had occasion to remark.
(Bull. Mus. Comp. Zotil., Vol. I, p. 199.) But in these exceptional cases of a decline
in size to the northward, the cause of such a decline must result from climatic
conditions the i-everse of those producing the decline at the southward, — from the
excessive rigor of the arctic climate instead of from the enervating influence of
warm temperate and sub-tropical latitudes.

In the case of reptiles, the larger representatives of a given species are generally found
at the North, as has also been observed to be the case with the edible marine and fluviatile
fishes. (I am credibly informed that this is markedly the case with the codfish and the
halibut.) In some groups of Crustacea and mollusca-the same fact has been repeatedly
observed;' but in insects, as in plants, the increase in size is generally to the southward,
as is especially noticeable in the diurnal Lepidoptera. In plants, however, the increase
is a purely vegetative one, the northern representatives of a given species being gener-
ally far the most prolific, in proportion to the size of the plant, utar the northern
limit of their respective habitats.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOULOGY-. 231

An increase in the length of the bill is most frequent in long-billed
species, while in short-billed ones the increase is in general size, without
material change in its proportions. With the increased length and
slenderness of the bill there is in many cases also a tendency to greater
curvature.

An increase in the length of the bill is quite marked in the genera
Quiscalus, Agelceus, Geothlypis, Troglodytes, Seiurus, Harporhynchus,
Galeoscoptes, etc. Quiscalus purpureus and Agelceus phamiceus afford
good illustrations of geographical variation in the size and shape of the
bill. Notwithstanding that the northern specimens are the larger, the
southern ones have, in the average, bills as long, though slenderer, than
the northern, and occasionally even longer. These differences are shown
to some extent in Plates VI and VII, where the figures of the bills
of Massachusetts and Florida specimens of these species are given side
by side. In Plate VI, figures 1 and la represent the bill of an average
Massachusetts male A. phozniceus, and figures 2 and 2a the bill of an
average Florida male of the same species. The latter, while much less
thick, is fully as long as the former. Figures 4 and 4a represent the
shortest bill of a considerable series of Massachusetts specimens, and
figures 6 and Go the shortest or thickest bill of a similar series of Florida
specimens. Figures 3 and 3a give the longest bill of the Massachusetts
series, and figures 5 and ba the longest of the Florida series, the speci-
mens being in each case adult males. Plate VII, figures 3 and 3a rep-
resent the bill in average Massachusetts males of Quiscalus purpureus,
and figures 2 and 2a that of average Florida specimens, while figures 1
and la, and I and 4a, show respectively the longest and the shortest bills
of a considerable series of Massachusetts specimens. Figures 5 and ba
are from a New Jersey specimen, and figures 6 and 6a from a Florida
specimen, the latter showing an inflection of the upper mandible more
or less frequent in the various species of Quiscalus. The figures, as in
the previous plate, were all drawn from adult males. Jn each of these
species the average difference in the bills of Florida and Massachusetts
birds is as great as is frequently considered to be sufficient to constitute
specific differentiation, and between the extremes, especially of A. phoz-
niceus, even subgeneric. Yet specimens from intermediate localities
resent such a gradual and complete transition between the two forms
as to render their specific identity unquestionable.

A similar difference between Massachusetts and Florida examples,

232 BULLETIN OF THE

with a gradual transition from the one to the other, through specimens
from intermediate localities, is seen in Troglodytes aedon, Geotklypis
triclias, and Seiurus noveboracensis. In Pipilo erythrophthalmus, Orlyx
virginianus, Corvus americamts, and Cyunura cristata the bill is appre-
ciably larger in the Florida than in the northern form. In Corvus
americanus this difference was long since noticed by Professor Baird,
the larger bill of South Florida specimens having led him to recog-
nize a variety floridanus of this species, based chiefly on this difference.*
The same author has also referred to the larger size of the bill in
Florida specimens of Ortyx virginianus.^

In some species individual variation is so great that it is unsafe to
draw conclusions respecting geographical variation from the examina-
tion of a small number of specimens. This is notably the case in
Sturnella ludoviciana, in which the bill varies greatly in size and form,
as does the bird in general bulk, at all localities. In the average, how-
ever, Florida specimens of this species seem to have a relatively longer
and slenderer bill than those from the Northern States.

As already noticed, variation in the bill is not equally marked in all
species, but it occurs in too many to admit of the supposition that the
numerous cases wherein it is clearly marked are exceptional, or that it
does not follow a general law of geographical variation. The observa-
tions above detailed are based on specimens collected on the Atlantic
coast, from New England southward to Florida, and refer exclusively
to species breeding within that range. But specimens of species which
breed entirely to the northward of this range, collected during their
semi-annual migrations, corroborate the law already staled, namely,
an increase in the size of the bill to the southward in specimens of the
same species from different breeding stations. In the Anatidce and
TringcE, which breed far to the northward and pass the winter in lower
latitudes, it is noticeable that, while those which arrive first in the fall,
and those which return north latest in the spring, are smaller than
those that arrive later and depart earlier, they have, nevertheless,
relatively larger bills. This has been especially noticed in species of
Fulix, Bernicla, Actodromas, and Macrorhamphus. Professor Baird
has also referred to the larger size of the bill of the southern repre-
sentatives of Lagopus ulbus as compared with those from further north,

* Birds of North America, p. 568, 1858,

t Am. Journ. Sci. and Arts, 2d Ser., Vol. XLI, p. 191, 1866.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 233

" those from Eastern Labrador and Newfoundland," he says, appear-
in^ " to have decidedly broader, stouter, and more convex bills than those
from the Hudson's Bay and more northern countries."* In the writings
of various authors on the birds of Southern Mexico, Central America,
Southern Asia, and Northern Africa, frequent mention is incidentally
made of the larger size of the bills of southern representatives of north-
ward ranging species. Although such statements record what have
been apparently regarded as only isolated facts, their frequency indicates
that the increase in the size of the bill to the southward is not confined
to the birds of Eastern North America, nor exclusively to those of
temperate and sub-tropical countries, but that it is a general geograph-
ical law, similar to that of the variation with locality in the general bulk
of the individual.

Geographical Variation in Color. — Geographical variation in color
in birds may be regarded as of two kinds, which may be termed, from
their different geographical relations, latitudinal variation and longi-
tudinal variation. The first is coincident with differences in latitude,
and the second with differences in longitude. Both are due, however,
to climatic peculiarities, and are hence, strictly speaking, climatic. The
latitudinal is perhaps at present the best known, and will be first con-
sidered.

(a) Latitudinal Variation. — ■ In those species of North American
birds whose breeding range extends over a wide range of latitude, the
southern-born specimens are, as a general rule, appreciably darker or
brighter, or more intensely colored, than northern-born ones of the
same species ; in many instances the difference being so great as to im-
press even the casual observer. Dark colored birds, like the Quiscali,
Agelceus phceniceus, etc., become blacker towards the southern limit of
their respective habitats, where tho.-e with metalic reflections have the
iridescence more intense and of a darker hue, greenish and bronzy re-
flections changing to purple. The slaty, ferruginous, and olive tints, and
the various shades of red and yellow of others, become also far more
intense. In species barred transversely with dark and light colors, the
dark bands, as a general rule, become broader, and the light ones
narrower. Those with white spots on a black ground have the spots
reduced in size and number, the smaller ones becoming ob-olete.
White bars on the wings and terminal white spots on the tail feathers
* Birds of X. Amer., p. 634.

234 BULLETIN OF THE

are also of less extent in southern specimens. There hence results, as
already observed, a generally darker aspect in the plumage of the
southern representatives of wide-ranging species ; the bill and the feet
also usually sharing in the general accession of coloring matter in the
integuments. The difference in color between the extremely northern
and the extremely southern representatives of a given species is often
so great that, taken in connection with other differences, as in general
size and in the size and form of the bill, the two extremes might be
excusably taken for distinct species, especially if viewed aside from the
connecting series between the two types formed by specimens from suc-
cessively intermediate- points, which beyond question show their specific
identity.

As in the case of climatic variation in the bill and in general size,
the variation in color differs greatly in degree in different species.
Climatic difference in color is particularly striking in Agelceas pharni-
ceus. In the males the black is greatly intensified and more lustrous
at the South, and the red on the shoulders becomes equally heightened.
Instead of the light red shoulder-patch, bordered externally with
whitish or pale yellowish-whitish, seen in Massachusetts specimens, the
shoulder-patch in the Florida males is of a brilliant dark red, with a
rich cream-colored or orange-yellow border. "While the differences in
the bills of the two types might in extreme cases be taken as indicative
of different sub-genera, the difference in color is as great as occurs
between the northeastern type of A. phce?iiceus, and either the so-called
A. tricolor or A. gubernator of the Pacific slope, or between any of these
ititer se. Quiscalus purpureus also affords a similar example of climatic
variation, as well in color as in the bill and general size. In the males
the change in general tint is in the black becoming more intense at the
South, and the iridescence being dark purple or bluish instead of bronzy
or greenish. The change in the females is as great as that in the
males. At the North their plumage is nearly lustreless brownish-black,
but at the South it becomes nearly as black as that of the northern
males, and has considerable iridescence, so that the northern collector,
judging from color alone, would at first be likely to mistake the south-
ern females for males.

In Ortgx virginianus, through the increased breadth of the transverse
bars of hlack at the South, on the dorsal as well as on the ventral sur-
face, the general aspect of the plumage is very much darker in Florid?

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 235

specimens than in New England ones. In Sturnella ludoviciana the
yellow of the ventral surface in Florida specimens is far more intense
than it is in northern ones ; the slate color of Guleoscopies carulinensis
is correspondingly darker, and the ferruginous of Harporhynchus ruf us is
much redder. In Centurus carolinus not only are the black transverse
bars on the back broader and darker, but the red on the head and
abdomen becomes more extended and lustrous. In Picus pubescens
the white spots on the wings become smaller and fewer, with a greater
tendency to black streaks on the sides of the breast, a variation in the
direction of P. Gairdneri and P. Harrisi, as will be noticed at length
in the remarks on P. pubescens and P. villosus in Part IV. Similar
differences occur between northern and southern specimens of Picus
borealis, which are so great as to have led Mr. Cassin to regard the
southern type as specifically distinct from the northern. Similar differ-
ences to those above described occur between northern and southern
specimens of Thryothorus ludovicianus, Troglodytes a'edon, Geotldypis
trichas, Colaptes auraius, Buteo lineatus, and various other species, as
will be described more in detail in Part IV.

The climatic variation in respect to the relative size of the white
spaces on the rectrices and primary remiges may be illustrated by a
single example. In northern specimens of Pipilo erythrophihalmus the
terminal white spots of the tail feathers are found on the four outer
feathers of each side ; but in Florida-born ones they occur on only the
three outer feathers on each side ; and are correspondingly reduced in
length. The white area on the tail of Florida specimens hence has
only about the extent that would be presented in northern specimens if
the outer pair of feathers were removed. The extent of the white
space at the base of the primaries is correspondingly reduced in size in
the southern type.

Extending the examination to northern species, it is found that simi-
lar color differences with the latitude of the birthplace are of frequent
occurrence. In Bernicla brenta and Bernicla canadensis the smaller
southern-born birds are, as a general rule, considerably darker than the
larger northern-born ones. The same is true of Fulix marila and
Bucephala americana, the so-called Bucephala ulandica being the
larger northern type of B. americana, in which the white markings on
the wings and head occupy a somewhat larger area. It is altogether
probable also that the so-called Anser frontalis holds a similar relation

236 BULLETIN OF THE

to A. Gambeli (= A albifrons ?), and the Anser cceruhscens to the A.
hyperboreus, though by some the former has been regarded as the young
of the later. In Larus argentatus the southern specimens are not only
smaller, with the " mantle " somewhat darker, but as a general rule the
white spots at the tips of the first and second primary quills are more
restricted.

The changing of the pelage to white in winter in certain northern
mammals, and of the plumage in certain birds, as the ptarmigans, cor-
relates perfectly with these geographical differences in color; and since
in some species of mammals only the northern representatives change
to white in winter, while the southern ones are of the same color
throughout the year, this seasonal change seems evidently to come
under the above-stated general law of geographical or climatic color
variation, namely, a gradual increase in color to the southward in
individuals of the same species.

A comparison of Florida birds with "West India specimens of the
same species shows that the difference between them in color (and, it
may be added, in size and other general features) are generally not
greater, and in some cases jfar less, especially between Cape Florida and
Cuba specimens, than obtains between Florida and Massachusetts
examples, and that it is of precisely the same character. West Indian
specimens of course differ more from Massachusetts examples of the
same species than the latter do from others from East Florida, yet by
means of the South Florida specimens, which differ but slightly from
the Cuba type, a gradual transition is evident from the extreme northern
to the extreme southern forms. Of late many Jamaican, Porto Rican,
and Cuban forms have been regarded, by many writers, as specifically
distinct from their representatives in the Northern States, and in many
cases they might well be so regarded, were there not a succession of
intermediate forms connecting them, — a fact which seems to have
been hitherto overlooked. The earlier writers considered the Ortyx,
the Slurnella, the Strix, the Circus, several of the Buteos, etc., of the
West Indies as specifically identical with the Ortyx virginianus,
Sturnella ludoviciana, Strix Jlammea, Circus hudsoniiis, Bntco bore-
alis, etc., of the United States, and doubtless justly, notwithstanding
that the comparison of specimens reveals certain relatively slight
but constant differences in color and size, and to some extent in
other features.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 237

(b) Longitudinal Variation. — In comparing the birds of the Atlantic
States with specimens specifically identical from the interior of the
continent, one is soon struck with the brighter colors of the latter, and
especially with a tendency, in many species, to more ferruginous tints,
and to melanism in others. In comparing again the birds of the Mis-
sissippi valley with those of the Pacific slope, especially that portion
north of the fortieth parallel, a similar difference is also noticeable, the
extremes of color variation in truly continental species being met with
(especially to the northward of this parallel) at the Atlantic seaboard
on the one hand, and the Pacific on the other, between which there is a
gradual and, with an exception soon to be noticed, a uniform increase in
intensity of color to the westward. This tendency to more ferruginous
and melanic colors to the westward is especially marked in Falco pere-
grinus* Accipiter fuscus, Circus hudsonius, Buteo lineatus, Buteo
borealis, Archibuteo lagopus, Hypotriorchis columbarius, Olus vulgaris,
and other species of Strigidce, Tetrao canadensis, Bonasa umbellus,
Bernicla canadensis, Bernicla brenta, Larus argentalus, Par us atrt-
capillus, Carpodacus purpureus, etc., etc. The western representatives
of Melospiza melodia, Passerella iliaca, Jlvico hyemalis, Pipilo ery-
throphtkalmus, Parus hudsonicus, etc., differ mainly from their Eastern
congeners in their more ferruginous or darker colors, according to the
species.

While the general tendency from the East westward is thus to darker
or deeper colors in specimens of the same species, and in representative
species of the same genus, the rule is not without exceptions, nor is the
transition quite uninterrupted. On the arid sterile plains the repre-
sentatives of not a few, and probably of most, species are much lighter
colored than their relatives either to the eastward or to the westward.
Also at the southward on the Pacific slope there is not the tendency to
deeper colors seen farther to the northward, specimens from North-
western Texas, New Mexico, much of the Colorado basin and Lower
California, being lighter than others of the same species from Northern
California, Oregon, and Washington, an explanation of which will be
suggested later.f

In comparing again the European representatives of cireumpolar
species with their representatives in Eastern North America, a difference

* For the synonymy and other remarks on these species, see Part IV.
f See below, p. 239 et seq.

238 BULLETIN OF THE

similar to, but hardly so great as, that between the Atlantic and Pacific
coast examples of indentical species is likewise seen, the American
being in general several shades darker than the European. In certain
cases there is also a difference in the markings, as in some of the hawks,
in which in the European the transverse bars are broader and better
defined, and the longitudinal ones less so than in the American. This
is illustrated in Astur palumbarius and A, alricapiUus, in Acci'piter
nisits and Ac. fuscus, etc. In many instances the only tangible differ-
ences between so-called representative American and European species
consists in the darker, brighter, or intenser color of the American, the
differences being oftentimes less than that between specimens of the same
species from the Atlantic States and the Mississippi valley, or between
those from the Mississippi valley and the Pacific coast. Not unfre-
quently, however, are American and European specimens so nearly
alike, even of species that have rarely been considered as identical, that
without a knowledge of the locality whence they came it would be
impossible to confidently refer them to the one species rather than to
the other.

There are also indications of various local differences in color in speci-
mens specifically identical within the larger areas above considered,
and which are in a measure exceptional to the general law of a west-
ward increase in color. The data at hand are at present too few either
to limit these exceptional areas or to indicate to what extent they are
exceptional. They appear, however, to be coincident with peculiar
climatic conditions, the exact nature and extent of which are likewise
imperfectly known.*

Variation in the Length of the Tail and in other Characters. — At
certain localities, and more especially to the southward, there are well-
known instances of an increase in the length of the tail, without an ap-
preciable modification of other parts. Marked examples of this are
seen in Icteria virens, Harporhynchus rufus, and Mi/nus polyglottus,
as has h^en pointed out by Professor Baird and other writers,! each of
which species has a western long-tailed variety. The Quiscalus
macrura is also little else than a long-tailed variety of Q. major. A
tendency is seen to this variation in Geothlypis trichas at the southward,

* See on this point below, p. 239 et seq.

t See especially Prof. Baird in Amer. Joum. of Science and Arts, 2d Series, VoL
XLI, p. 191.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 239

while it seems to be a marked characteristic of many of the birds of
Lower California. The tendency in southern forms to an elongation of
the tail seems, however, less general than the southward decrease iu size
and the increase in color, or the tendency to an elongation of the bill.

Among other local variations may be mentioned the white instead of
a red iris in the South Florida representatives of Pipilo erythroph-
thalmus ; the yellow instead of a black bill in the magpies of the coast of
California ; the white basal half of the feathers of the neck of the raven
of Southwestern Texas and Mexico, by which it is chiefly distinguished
from the common species ; the greater continuation anteriorly of the
superciliary stripe in the western forms of Zonotriclda leucophrys,
by which alone it is distinguishable from the eastern form ; the white
frontlet of one of the western forms of the Parus atricapillus group,
etc. There appears frequently to be also a locally greater development
of the foot in western and southern forms of wide-ranging species,
and occasionally an exceptional increase in general size under identical
isothermes.

Causes of Climatic Variation. — The facts respecting climatic varia-
tion are at present too imperfectly known to be fully explained. There
are, however, certain peculiarities of climatic variation, especially in
color, coincident with certain meteorological peculiarities of the regions
where they occur, that demand attention. The increase in color to the
southward, especially the tendency to darker tints above shown to be so
general, coincides with the increase in the intensity of the solar rays to
the southward, and in the humidity of the climate. The southward
increase in depth of color and in iridescence in birds specifically identi-
cal coincides also with the general increase in brilliancy of color in
birds, taken as a whole, in the lower latitudes (as well as in insects
and animals generally), the maximum being reached in the tropics.

The longitudinal variation, or the westward increase in color, seems
to be also coincident with the increased humidity to the westward, the
darker representatives of any species occurring where the annual rain-
fall is greatest, and the palest where it is least. This coincidence is
clearly illustrated in the birds of the United States, where the darkest
representatives of a species, as a general rule, (indeed without exception
so far as known to me,) come from regions of maximum annual rain-
fall, and the palest from those of minimum annual rain-fall. In the
Northeastern States the amount of rain is only one half to two thirds

240 BULLETIN OF THE

what it is in the Northwestern States, while on the Great Plains it is
less than one half what it is in the Northeastern States. In the lower
part of the Mississippi basin and in the Southeastern States it is much
greater than to the northward under the same meridians. Within the
tropics, in America and Asia at least, the humidity, as well as the
intensity of the solar rays, reaches the maximum, as does the in-
tensity of color in both birds and other animals. In Europe, as is
well known, the birds from near the Scandinavian coast, where
the annual rain-fall reaches forty inches, are darker than in Central
Europe, where the yearly rain-fall is only half this amount. So
much darker, in fact, are the Scandinavian forms, that by some
writers they have been regarded as specifically distinct from their
representatives in Southern Germany, the Scandinavian forms of
circumpolar species being as dark as their Eastern North American
allies. There is again a striking parallelism between the relative
humidity of Western Europe and Eastern North America, and the
relative depth of color in the representatives of circumpolar species
living in these two countries, the rain-fall of the latter region being
double that of the former, and the birds of darker and livelier colors.
As already intimated, this coincidence is not confined to the birds of
these different regions, the same correlation of livelier, brighter, deeper
tints with increased humidity being also exhibited by the mammals
of these various districts, the Europeo-North American species being
higher colored, as a general rule, in Eastern North America than
in Europe, as the western forms of the continentally distributed Ameri-
can species are often higher colored than the eastern.

It is a most striking fact that the birds, and even the mammals and
reptiles, of the almost rainless districts of Lower California, the Gila
and Colorado deserts, are almost all so much paler in color than their
relatives of the better-watered neighboring districts, that many of them
have been described as distinct species, and the others referred to as
strongly marked varieties, they all being characterfzed to a greater or
less degree by a faded or bleached aspect. The birds and mammals of
the arid plains of the middle region of the continent exhibit also the
Same bleached appearance, but in a somewhat less degree.

I had long suspected that hygrometric conditions had much to do
with local variations in color in individuals of the same species, but I
was not a little surprised when I came to compare the known areas

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 241

most prolific of dark and light local forms witl rain-fall charts, — which
may be assumed as indicating relatively the liygrometric conditions of
different regions, — to find the distribution of the light-colored races so
strictly coincident with the regions of minimum mean annual rail-fall,
and the dark forms with those of maximum mean annual rain-fall, as
seems to be the case.»

Humidity has hence apparently far more to do with climatic varia-
tion in color than solar intensity, though the latter has undoubtedly
an influence upon color. The occurrence of a light-colored race
of Arvicola riparius on Muskeget Island and the sandy sea-beaches
of the coast of Massachusetts shows clearly that the intense light
caused by reflection from a sandy surface tends to the diminution
rather than to an increase of color in animals, and even plants,
since the foliage of the latter in arid districts so commonly assumes
a dull grayish tint. The capture on Muskeget Island last season
(July, 1870), by Messrs. Maynard and Brewster, of two pairs of
the short-eared owl (Olus brachyotus) with the color of the plu-
mage so pale as at first to suggest their being albinos, is additional
evidence of the bleaching effect of strong light upon the colors of ani-
mals. Such facts render it doubtful whether the increased intensity of
the light in the tropics has really much to do with the brighter colors
of tropical birds and insects, and suggest that humidity alone may be
the principal agent in producing this accession of color.

In regard to the cause of other climatic variations, certain other
facts are naturally recalled. In the remarks on. the climatic and faunal
peculiarities of East Florida,* attention was called to the less degree of
vivacity and energy exhibited by the southern as compared with the
northern members of the same species, and the general higher physio-
logical development of essentially extra-tropical species in the temperate
portions of their habitats. Is it hence improbable that the southward
deterioration in size seen in such species is directly related to the ener-
vating influence of increased heat ? And why is it that so large a pro-
portion of the birds pre-eminently singing-birds are found in temperate
latitudes ?

In the increased size of the bill and tail to the southward, especially
of the former, we have a fact somewhat parallel to what is not unfre-
quently seen in mammals. The ears, for example, of the arctic repre-

* See above, p. 166.
VOL. II. 16

242 BULLETIN OF THE

sentatives of species ranging to warm-temperate latitudes are smaller
at the northward than at the southward, as is seen in the native dogs,
the foxes, and the wolves, and in the arctic races of man. The ex-
planation generally given of this seems possibly applicable to the beaks
of birds, namely, a greater activity in the circulation of the blood in
the peripheral parts of the body in the temperate latitudes.

Species, Varieties, and Geographical Races.

The foregoing remarks on individual and geographical or climatic
variation necessitates a brief consideration of the character of species,
varieties, and races, and the propriety of appl \ ing binomials to such
forms as can be clearly shown to be connected by intergrading links
with others previously known. As preparatory to what follows, it
seems proper to refer briefly to the origin of the excessive synonymy
with which our descriptive ornithological works are burdened.

Ornithological synonymes may be arranged, as regards their origin,
under four primary heads, namely: (1) Those arising from the de-
scription of immature and adult birds of the same species for different
species, (2) from authors mistaking sexual for specific differences, (3)
individual variation for specific differentiation, and (4) climatic differ-
entiation for specific. A fifth source of error, and one which has given
rise to a large class of synonymes, results from a combination of the
causes indicated under (3) and (4).

Synonymes arising from the first two causes mainly preceded the
others in regard to the relative frequency of their occurrence, especially
so far as regards the birds of this continent. During the previous
century, and the first two decades of the present, our birds were mainly
described by European naturalists, who had no acquaintance with them
in life, and whose resources often consisted of single and imperfect
specimens received from chance travellers, without any indication of
their sex or age. Later they were studied by resident naturalists, by
whom the mistakes of their predecessors in this respect were to a great
extent corrected. The laws of sexual and age variation becoming grad-
ually known, errors from this source were soon far less frequent than in
earlier times. When at a comparatively recent date critical compari-
sons were made of specimens from distant localities before regarded as
specifically identical, it was found that occasionally distinct species had
been confounded. Such results led in the end to undue importance

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 243

being attached to trivial differences, so that assumed species were fre-
quently based solely on either individual or climatic variation, but
oftener on both combined.

As the rage for describing new species increased, differences seemed
alone to be sought ; and so long as a given species was usually deemed
sufficiently represented, even by the best ornithologists of the day, by
a single pair,* the subject of individual and climatic variation was neces-
sarily almost wholly neglected, the custom of many naturalists being to
describe species from single specimens, as though all the representatives
of a species were cast after an unvarying pattern. As the number of
specimens of well-known species increased in our large museums, it was
soon seen that some of the supposed most reliable diagnostic features
were subject to considerable variation. The collections brought
together from various parts of the continent by the Pacific Railroad
surveying parties and from other sources, and the reports published
thereon, formed the beginning of a new era in the history of the orni-
thology of North America, and in ornithological science. The facts thus
disclosed in respect to geographical range, and individual and climatic
variation, opened new fields of inquiry. Old theories and blind adher-
ence to authorities, however, still impeded progress and led to frequent
inconsistencies, which only time and further investigations could correct.
Hence has gradually dawned the fact of the existence of a range of
individual variation previously unsuspected, and of general laws of
climatic variation, the full scope of which, as bearing upon the character
of species, is yet to be determined.

Nearly half a century since it was discovered that the North
American representatives of what were then commonly regarded as
circumpolar species could not in all cases longer be regarded as identical
with the European. Further comparisons showed that in most cases
of the supposed circumpolar distribution of species, specimens from the
Old "World and the New could be more or less readily distinguished,
yet the differences were in most cases slight, more or less inconstant,
and not unfrequently due more to differences in the latitude whence the
specimens came than to other causes. Yet a precedent for specific

* Not many years since amateur ornithologists were kindly informed, by ono of the
leaders in the science of ornithology, that his collection of the birds of a certain country,
numbering over two thousand species, required for their convenient storage a space
equal to only about one hundred cubic feet, the specimens averaging less than two to a
species 1

244 BULLETIN OF THE

separation in such cases having been established by recognized author-
ities, it was followed till all the land-birds and a large proportion of
the water-birds of the two continents were separated, in many cases, it
would appear, on purely theoretical or geographical grounds.* When
the comparison was carried to specimens of continentally di-tributed
species from distant localities, differences between these were also de-
tected, and the theory of specific diversity assumed, till the Pacific
representatives of such species were separated from the Atlantic ones,
and in like manner the southern from the northern, and those of
particular areas, as insular, peninsular, and interior basins, from the
others. In some cases such separations were of course properly made,
but a high percentage of such forms are now found to intergrade through
specimens from the intermediate localities.

Not a few of the species of our faunal lists have been based on, and
are still only known from, single specimens, and often on differences
manifestly within the range of individual variation ; others represent
local races, which only appear distinct when extremes alone are consid-
ered, the intermediate stages being unknown or ignored. The increase of
synonymes from this fruitful source appears to have not yet culminated,
a large proportion of the "new species" now annually described being
but slight local differentiations of previously known specific forms, from
which they often differ only in being a little smaller, a little darker or
brighter colored, and in the individual peculiarities of the single specimens
on which some of them are based. In many cases this process of ultra
subdivision has furnished stepping-stones to later generalizations ; in too
many other cases it has been in its results only unmitigatedly injurious.

So large a proportion of the commonly recognized species are virtu-
ally nominal, or rest on a false basis, it is not surprising that in the
reaction consequent upon, a fuller knowledge of the birds of this conti-
nent, which has already commenced, the reality of species should be to
some extent ignored. Whether, however, species are considered as
entities or only as arbitrary inventions, convenience demands some
established definition of them.

* Audubon, writing in 1838 (Orn. Biog., Vol. IV, p. 608), refers to the Prince of
Musignano (by whom a large part of the circumpolar and cosmopolitan specie* were
separated into numerous assumed species) as *' having altered his notions so far as to
seem desirous of proving that the same species of birds cannot exisfc on both the con-
tinents"; and there seems to have, been good reason for the remark, only instead of
proving them distinct, he in most cases merely assumed them to bo so.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 245

Not a few naturalists have hence adopted the test of intergradation,
which seems a reasonable and an unobjectionable one. The question of
species and of specific synonymy is thus simplified to this: that when-
ever two forms which have both received names are found to intergrade,
the more recent name shall become a synonyme of the older. Some,
however, still urge that every recognizable form, however closely
allied to others, and even intergrading, should be recognized by a
binomial epithet, and that whether we call them species, or varieties,
or races, or simply forms, that such names are none the less convenient
expressions for certain facts. It seems to me, however, that there are
insuperable objections to this course ; for however distinct the extreme
geographical forms of a species may be, a vast proportion of its repre-
sentatives are intermediate to them, and could never be but doubt-
fully referred to the one rather than to the other. Ordinarily, for
instance, in the birds of the Atlantic slope, the representatives of a
given species at the extreme north of its breeding range almost always
differ very tangibly from its representatives at the extreme southern
limit, sometimes more, sometimes less, according to the species. Those
living only a little to the northward of the middle region differ less from
the extreme southern type than the extreme northern type does, and those
a little to the southward of the middle region differ still less from the
southern type, and are qviite distinguishable from the extreme northern
form. In other words, in species ranging from Southern Labrador or
Northern New England to Florida, of which there are numerous un-
questioned instances, specimens from Southern New England differ
somewhat from the more northern ones ; those from Southern New Eng-
land from those of Southern New Jersey and Eastern Maryland, and
these latter from those of Georgia and Florida. It hence depends en-
tirely upon individual predilection whether two, three, or four " species "
or " binomial forms " shall be recognized ; and in either case there is
the same difficulty in disposing of the intermediate types. Again, speci-
mens from the Mississippi valley differ more or less from their relatives
from the Atlantic coast, the central plains, and the Pacific slope. Here
again similar difficulties are encountered. Hence it is necessary to
decide between recognizing a single binomial form, with a considerable
but definite range of climatic variation, or three, or six, or nine, or even
more, which cannot be rigidly defined, and between each of which will
always be found a greater or less proportion of intermediate types,

246 BULLETIN OF THE

doubtfully referable to one of the binomial forms rather than to another.
Another important objection may be urged against giving binomial
names to intergrading forms. In faunal and nominal lists of the
species of a large or continental area, scarcely distinguishable forms
take equal rank with the most distinct congeneric species. For in-
stance, in a list of the birds of North America, Tardus Alicia and
Tardus Swainsoni, Tardus Auduboni and Tardus Pullasi, stand side
by side with Tardus mustelinas and Tardus fascescens, though in the
former cases Tardus Alicice and T. Auduboni are founded at best on
slight, and in the one case on inconstant individual or local differences,
while in the latter no two congeneric species need be more distinct. In
the one case only experts can distinguish the forms, and frequently they
only by an actual comparison of specimens, and then too frequently but
doubtfully, while in the other case a casual observer need not mistake
them. The names alone give no clew to their real character, and are
hence in a great measure meaningless when separated from the most ex-
plicit diagnoses, and whose affinities can frequently only be settled by the
arbitrary criterion of locality. But it is urged that cognizance should
in some way be taken of these differences ; and " How can they be better
recognized," it may be asked, " than in the way proposed ?"

As already shown, and as I trust a large proportion of ornithologists
are willing to admit, these local forms occur in accordance with recog-
nizable laws of climatic variation, similar variations with locality occur-
ring, to a greater or less extent, in all species having nearly the same
geographical range. Eventually, then, will not the recognition of these
laws be sufficient, and should not a statement of the tendencies to varia-
tion with locality, and the degree to which it is developed, be embraced in
the specific diagnosis of each species as a part of its specific description ?
Is not this, in fact, actually essential to the proper characterization of a
species ? The average characters being give*n, a line or two would
suffice for a statement of its variations, both geographical and individual.
Then only in one case where now there are hundreds would there be
instances of doubtful identification. Till within a very recent period,
perhaps, no other course could have been pursued than that of giving
binomial names to each apparently distinct form, however slightly it
may have differed from others previously known. In many cases,
indeed, the differences between strictly intergrading geographical forms
are very great, — greater, indeed, if they were not thus serially con-

MUSEUM GF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 2-17

neet'ed, (han would be deemed necessary for specific separation ; and so
long as the extr raes only were known, no one could have regarded them
otherwise than as well-defined species. But the time has already come,
it seems to me, for a different and a more philosophic method, and that
to furl her increase synonymy by giving new names to slightly different
local forms of the same species is worse than useless.

It is important, in this connection, to observe that the species occur-
ring at any point on the Atlantic coast, or on the Pacific coast, or in
the Mississippi valley, or on the Great Plains, in short, at any re-
stricted locality, have, as compared with each other, with scarcely an
exception, an unequivocal character ; they are based on differences that
place them beyond controversy. It is not so, however, when we com-
pare the species of distant localities with each other, whether the
localities differ in latitude or longitude. In such cases we constantly
meet with controverted species. At the South are species admitted
as doubtfully di.-tmct from others found farther north; at the West,
those holding the same relation to others of the East ; while at in-
termediate points either both the disputed forms occur with greater
or less frequency, or there is a gradual transition of the one into
the other, neither form being typically represented. This is evi-
dently what should be expected to occur, if what has been said above
in respect to climatic variation be correct, and is evident^ a suggestive
and important fact. Is the theory of hybridization, so often appealed to
in such cases, necessary to explain these facts ? and is it, in fact, true ?
By uniting the intergrading forms, the number of species occurrin"- at
any >ingle locality is not essentially reduced, but such a union would
considerably reduce the total number recognized, as well as the num-
ber usually assigned to the several continents, as at present not a few
fire repeatedly counted.

The many facts bearing upon individual and geographical variation,
presented in the foregoing pages form but an imperfect exposition of
the subject. They are, nevertheless, eminently suggestive of interesting
results, and the conclusions above deduced I can but believe will be
only the more fully confirmed by further research. Additional details
are given in the general remarks embraced in Part IV, where various
fact- merely hinted at above are more fully presented, and an appli-
cation is made in many cases of the pinciples deducible from them.

As previously stated, individual and geographical variations are in

248 BULLETIN OF TOE

some cases difficult to distinguish. They can he satisfactorily investigated
only from extensive suites of specimens taken from the same locality
in the breeding season, and sufficiently extensive suites of this character
arc, with rare exception-, still wanting. In specimens taken during
migration it is difficult to determine what share of the variation is due
to birthplace and what to individuality. Whilst, however, the varia-
tions noticed cannot be always traced with certainty to their origin,
their bearing upon the general subject of variation within specific limits
is in no way vitiated. In considering hypothetical species, it is fre-
quently clearly evident that they are based in part upon slight and
tolerably constant climatic differences, and in part and sometimes wholly
upon the individual peculiarities of the single specimen upon which the
original description of the species was based ; in part, too, upon seasonal
differences, and upon characters of immaturity. It seems to me that in
the numerous clo-ely allied species of the ^.Egiutltus group, to cite a case
in point, some are based in part upon one and in part upon other of
these differences of a single circumpolar species. As already shown,
the bill in different specimens oF ^E. Unarms varies greatly in size, yet
an examination of a considerable series of specimens of several of its
allies shows an amount of variation in the bill closely approximate to
that seen in the specimens of the various assumed species of uEgiothus.
Much of the variation in color seen in the flocks of JEgiothi that visit
the Northern States in winter is due to age, yet it has been taken as
characteristic of different species. These birds only visiting us in
winter, those inhabiting widely distant localities in the breeding season
are probably then more or less associated. The light-colored specimens
are doubtless in part old or fully mature birds, or inhabitants in summer
of more northern districts than the browner or more fulvous ones, a
large portion of which, however, an; unquestionably young birds. The
short-hilled ones have also relatively longer seta; at the base of the
bill, which, by concealing a large portion of it, give it the appearance
of being shorter than it really is. Analogy would lead us to infer that
those with the shorter and more heavily clothed bills have a more
northern habitat than the others.

The persistency with which nominal species when characterized by
" authorities " are retained in our literature is not a little remarkable.
If specimens from the original localities cannot lie found to exactly tit
the descriptions, the diagnosis is slightly amended to suit examples that

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 249

somewhat approach them, and the name retained. In other cases
the species i- retained without its character being questioned, the name
and the original description being copied by succeeding writers, till the
species becomes traditionally accepted without its claims to recognition
having been critically examined.

Another noteworthy coincidence in regard to nominal species is the
fact of their most frequent occurrence in obscurely known groups, which
obscurity usually results from the difficulty of obtaining specimens of
the forms in question, — either from the remoteness of their habitat,
their scarcity, or the peculiarities of their habits, — or from preconceived
notions of the intimate relationship of the species of such groups.

Since the above was put in type. I have for the first time met with
some important and timely remarks by an eminent English botanist
concerning variation within specific limits in plants, which are so
apropos to what has been said above in regard to individual and
climatic variation in birds, and contains, moreover, such judicious
strictures on various practices indulged in by botanist-, and of which
zoologists are equally guilty, that a short abstract of them forms a fit-
ting conclusion to the present paper. Says Dr. J. D. Hooker, in the
introductory essay to his " Flora Nova>Zelandia3 " (Part I, pp. xii, xiii,
xv, 1853) : — -

" Some naturalists consider every minute character, if only tolerably
constant or even prevalent, as of specific value ; they consider two or
more doubtful species to be distinct till they have been proved to be one ;
they limit the ranges of distribution, and regard plants from widely severed
localities as almost necessarily distinct ; they do not allow for the effects
of local peculiarities in temperature, humidity, soil, or exposure, except
they can absolutely trace the cause to the effect ; and they hence attach
great importance to habit, stature, color, hairiness, period of flowering, etc.
These views, whether acknowledged or not, are practically carried out in
many of the local floras of Europe, and by some of the most acute ami ob-
servant botanists of the day; and it is difficult to overestimate the amount
of synonomy and confusion which they have introduced into some of the
commonest and most variable of plants Jn working up incom-
plete floras especially,! believe it to be of the utmost importance to regard
dubious species as varieties, to take enlarged views of the range i f
variation in species, and to weigh characters not only per sc\ but with

250 BULLETIN OF TILE

reference to those which prevail in the order to which the species under
consideration belong; and to resist steadily the temptation to multiply
names ; for it is practically very difficult to expunge a species founded on
an error of judgment or observation. The state of the British flora proves
not only this, but further, that one such error leads to many more of the
like kind; students are led to overestimate inconstant characters, to take
a narrow view of the importance and end of botany, and to throw away
time upon profitless discussions about the differences between infinitely
variable firms of plants, of whose identity really learned botanists have no
doubt whatever. There is, further, an inherent tendency in every one
occupied with specialties to exaggerate the value of his materials and

labors

" To the amateur these questions are perhaps of very trilling impor-
tance, but they are of great moment to the naturalist who regards accu-
rately defined floras as the means of investigating the great phenomena
of vegetation ; he has to seek the truth amid errors of observation and
judgment, and the resulting chaos of synonomy which has been accumu-
lated by thoughtless aspirants to the questionable honor of being the first
to name a species. The time, however, has happily passed when it was
considered to be an honor to be the namcr of a plant ; the botanist who
has the true interests of science at heart not only feels that the thrusting
of an uncalled-for synonvme into the nomenclature of science is an ex-
posure of his own ignorance and deserves censure, but that a wider range
of knowledge and a greater depth of study are required to prove those
dissimilar forms to be identical, which any superficial observer can sep-
arate by words an 1 a name."

The above remarks are as strictly applicable to zoology and zoologists
as they have ever been to botany and to botanists. The present state of
ornithology, and the tendency the majority of ornithologists have to
multiply species on improper grounds, find here a fitting rebuke.

Part IV.

List of the Winter Birds of East Florida, with Annotations.*

TURDID.S3.

it Turdus migratorius Linn€. "Romx.

Seen daily, sometimes in considerable flocks, till about the first of

March, after which time few were observed. It was shot by me at

* An asterisk (*) prefixed to the name of a species indicates that it is a constant

resident; an obelisk (t), that it is a winter visitor.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 251

Jacksonville, April 1st, but according to general report it does not
breed in the State.

In this species the females are commonly supposed to be paler colored
than the males, which is undoubtedly usually the case, but specimens as
brightly colored as any I ever saw proved on dissection to be fannies,
and other specimens as palely colored as any I ever met with have like-
wise proved on dissection to be males. This shows the importance of
determining the sex in all cases by dissection, and not from external
appearances. It also indicates a wide range of variation in color in
the present species, as great as is seen between typical representatives of
the so-called Turdus Swainsoni and T. Alicice, and which is, moreover,
of the same character, namely, simply a variation in intensity.

2.1 Turdus Swainsoni Cubanis. Olive backed Thrush.

Turdus minor Gmelin, Syst. Nat., I, S17, 1788; in part only. — Vieillot,
Ois. Am. Sept, II, 7, pi. lxiii, 1807; in part only. — Bonaparte, Geog.
and Comp. List, 1838.

Turdus solitarius Wilson, Am. Orn., V, pi- xiii, fig. 2 : not the text.

Turdus nanus Audubon, Birds of Amer., Ill, pi. cxlvii,* not the text. — »
Samuels, Am. Nat., II, 218, 1868

Turdus olicaceus Giraud, Birds of Long Island, 92, 1843-44. Not the T.
olicaceus of Linne'

Turdus Swainsonil Cabanis, " in Tschudi's Fauna Peruana, 188, 1844 - 46." —
Baird, Birds >»T Am., 216, 1858. — Sclater, Cat. Am. Birds, 2, 1862.—
Allen, Proc. Essex Inst., IV, 56 864. —Baird, Rev. Am. Birds, I, 19,
1864. — Allen, Mem. Post. Soc. Nat. Hist, I, 514, 1868. — Ridgway,
Proc. Phil Acad. Nat. Sci., XXI, 128, 1869.

Turdus Alicia Baird, Birds N. Am., 217, 1858. — Coues and Prentiss,
Smithsonian Pep., 1861, 405. — Coues, Proc Phil. Acad. Nat. Sci., XIV,
217, 1861— Baird, Rev. Am. Birds, I, 21, 1864. —Ridgway, Proc. Phil.
Acad. Nat. Sci., XXI, 128, 1869.

Merula Wi/sonh Swainson, Faun. Bor. Am., I, 182, 1831.

Merula olivacea Brewer, Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., I, 191, 1844.

Rare. Given on the authority of Mr. Boardman, who writes me he
obtained one specimen at Enterprise, February 18th, and another at
St. Augustine, in the same month. The greater part pass the winter
farther south.

* The plates in :l Birds of America" are. too poorly colored, as is well known, to be
recognizable representations of the species whose names they bear, including all those
representing wood-thrushes, they having but little resemblance to those of the folio
edition. The figures of " Tun/us nanus,'' Turdus solitarius. and Turc/ns mustelinus,
might all pass for the Turdus Swainsoni, so far as the color of the dorsal surface is con-
cerned.

252 BULLETIN OF THE

In my " Catalogue of the Birds of Massachusetts,"* published in 1864,
I first advanced the opinion that the so-called Tun/us Alicia- Baird was
the paler form of T. Swainsoni. To this view other writers have taken
exception. Professor Baird, in his " Review of American Birds " (p. 21),
summarily disposes of the matter by presuming that I had not seen what he
called T. Alicice. In 18G8, in my " Notes on the Birds of Iowa, Illinois,"
etc.,t I again reviewed the subject, having in the mean time examined
some twenty specimens sent out by the Smithsonian Institution to different
scientific institutions, labelled respectively, " Turdus Alicia," " Tardus
Ahem?" "Turdus Alicice? hybrid?" "Turdus Swainsoni" "Turdus
Swainsoni ?" " Tardus Swainsoni f hybrid ? " Alter having examined these
authentic specimens of the bird in question, and also large numbers of Mas-
sachusetts examples of what I called Turdus Swainsoni, — among which
are a considerable number that correspond in every particular respectively
with the typical, authentic specimens of" Turdus Swainsoni" and " Turdus
Alicice " of Baird, the larger number, however, being intermediate in char-
acter between them, and agreeing with specimens sent out from the Smith-
sonian Institution as "T. Swainsoni f" "Turdus Alicice ? " "Tardus Alicia; ?
hybrid?" etc, — I state in this paper that the opinion I had previously
expressed in respect to Turdus Swainsoni and Turdus Alicice was fully
confirmed. In this paper I discussed at some length the variations pre-
sented, not only by this species, but by Turdus Pullasi and Turdus fus-
cescens, and the character of their supposed allies, T. Auduboni, T. nanus,
and T. uslulatus, and their supposed respective habitats. I gave also some
details in respect to the variations in general size, form of the bill, propor-
tions of the primary quills of the wing, etc., as well as in color, and con-
cluded that Turdus Alicia was based on simply individual variation in
color, the other differences, as of size, form of bill, etc., supposed at first to
characterize it, being rarely coincident with the variations in color, they
occurring as frequently in the one type of coloration as in the other.
Turdus nanus and Tardus uslldatus I also deemed to hold the same
relation-hip to 7'. Pullasi and 7'. fuscescens that 7'. Alicia dues to T.
Swainsoni. Though described as exclusively western, I stated I had found
specimens in .Massachusetts that accorded with them in every particular.
After having given the subject still further attention, I am but the more
fully confirmed in these opinions.

Dr. Coues, thus far one of the most strenuous advocates of the validity
of these nominal species, in a somewhat recent paper of his, X after stating

* Proceedings of the Essex Institute, Vol. IV, p. r>G.
tnoirs of the Bost. Soc. Nat. l!i-t., Vol. I, p. 507.
J "A List of the Buds of New England," Proceedings Essex Institute, Vol. V, p. 267,
1868.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY.

253

that he had shown the T. Alicia; to he " a very common eastern bird, hav-
ing a range of habitat as extensive as, and nearly identical with, that of
T. Swainsoni," says, in referring to my earlier remarks on this subject,
that they " illustrate very fully the well-known seasonal and other varia-
tions to which T. Sicainsoni and T. fuscescens are subject," and adds that
I appear to have been " autoptically unacquainted " with T. Alicia: at the
time of writing them. In respect to this supposition of Dr. Cones, I will
merely add that one of the numerous specimens considered by me to typi-
cally represent the supposed T. Alicice has been sent to the Smithsonian
Institution, and pronounced by Professor Baird himself to "typically
represent the T. Alicice."

The measurements given below of this species and the two following
indicate the average size and the usual range of variation in this respect
in these species as represented in the Atlantic States. These measure-
ments embrace twenty-four specimens of Tun/us Sicainsoni, nearly fifty of
T. Pallasi, and about forty of T. fuscescens, nearly all of which are from
New England, and by far the greater part from Eastern Massachusetts.

The following is the range of variation in the series of twenty-four
specimens of T. Sicainsoni: Length, C.C2 to 7.75; alar extent, 10.75 to
12.C5 ; wing, 3.47 to 4.30 ; tail, 2.40 to 3.40 (4.00 ?) ; tarsus, 1.02 to 1.27.
The average dimensions are as follows: Length, 7.17 ; alar extent, 11.65;
wing, 3. 80; tail, 2.88; tarsus, 1.15.

Measurements of Neiv England Specimens of Turdus Swainsoni.

6

si

Z £

Locality.

Date.

Collector.

"P.

ti

j

1

o

2£ § . w

?

£•

H

(*=;

~

<

2S77

Ppringfiel 1, Mass.

May 11. '63

J. A. Allen

6.75

11 |.n

3 1'.'

2.78

1 12

__

— ' —

"

May 14, -63

"

6 62

11 4n

3 80

2.83

1.11

is _

11 l!

May 2,, '''I

"

6.75

:: 92

2.78

1 in

19

d

" "

May 27, v.l

"

t; 98

4.30

3.40

1 ' 2

2930

" ■<

Ma\ 25, 63

"

7 60

12 :.n

4 12

!

1 20

37

—

" "

May 25, '63

"

7 ii.;

1140

• •'

2 86

1.13

2940

—

" "

.May 29

"

7 L0

12.00

4.00

1.13

44

cf

" "

May 29, '63

"

7.25

L2.00

too

2.9:.

I In

—

" "

May 14, '63

ii

7.15

11.10

2 71'

1. 5

1829

29

—

" "

May 3d, "62

"

6 90

11.20

1 2

1830

23

—

U II

May 30, '62

"

7.75

12.20

3.95

1 17

1831

1

—

II 11

May 30, '62

"

7.35

11.50

2.73

1.10

2! ■■ II

—

11 U

May 25, '63

"

7 7">

12.20

:: >7

1.17

2940

—

11 11

May 29, '63

"

: ■■>

11.37

2-7 1.11

—

Concord, "

II Mann

7 2-'.

12 15

1.10

2.95 1.10

8844

64fi

d

Belmont, "

May 27, '68

C. .1 . Maynard

7.76

12.65

1.2.i

4.00

—

1999

1326 -

ii ii

Sept. 21, '68

•■

7.7"

1 1

3 07

1 20

17

9

Watertown, "

Oct. _', !69

Win. Brewster

7.12

12.00

3.94

1 l 1

_ —

213

V

" •'

May 'J I '69

"

7.12

i i

2 K7 1.27

282

—

Maiden, "

D. IIi<:'_'iiis

7 1"

lUii

2 1- LOS

307

—

Norway, Maine

A. E. Verrill

7 24

11 i ii

3.47

2.73 1.14

308
5963

7 llll

lu.7.-,
11 lo

.: 18
:; ;i

2 10 1 12

2 08 I 3

Upton, "

J. G Rich

7:;i

1520

—

GlenHou?e,W. Mts.

S. 11. Scudder

7.00

1 1 ;,• i

3.84

254 BULLETIN OF THE

3.t Turdus Pallasi Cabanis. Hermit Thrush.

Tardus solitarius Wilson, Am. Orn., V, 95, 1812. Not the figure (pi. xliii, 2),
which is of T. Stvainsoni. Not T. solitarius Linne. — Bonaparte, Geog.
and Comp. List, 17, 1838. — Audubon, Synop., 91, 1839 — Ibid., Birds
of Amcr., Ill, 29, pi. cxlvi, 1841.

Turdus minor Bonaparte, Obs. on Wilson's Nomenclature, Journ. Phil.
Acad., IV, 33, 1S24. — Nuttall, Man. Am. Orn.. I, 346, 1830. — Audubon,
Orn. Biog., I, 303, pi. lviii, 1831. — Ibid., V, 445, 1839. — Gambel, Proe,
Phil. Acad. Nat. Sci., Ill, 113, 1846. — Giraud, Birds of Long Island, 90,
1843-44.

Turdus Pallasi Cabanis, Wiegm. Archiv, I, 205, 1847. — Baird, Birds N.
Am., 212, 1858. — Sclater, Cat. Am. Birds, 2, 1862. — Baird, Review
Am. Birds, Part I, 14, 1864. —Allen, Mem. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., I, 514,
1868.— Ridgway, Proc. Phil. Acad. Nat. Sci., XXI, 128, 1869.

Turdus nanus Audubon, Orn. Biog., V, 201, pi. ccccxix, 1839 (T. minor on
the plate). — Ibid., Birds of Am., Ill, 32, 1841. — Baird, Birds N. Am.,
213, 1858. — Sclater, Cat. Am. Birds, 2, 1862. — Baird, Rev. Am.
Birds, I, 15, 1864.— Ridgway, Proc. Phil. Acad. Nat. Sci., XXI, 129,
1869. — Cooper and Baird, Orn. Cal., I, 4, 1870.

Turdus Audubunii Baird, Rev. Am. Birds, I, 16, 1864. — Ridgway, Proc.
Phil. Acad. Nat. Sci., XXI, 129, 1869.

Merula solitaria Swainson, Faun. Bor. Amcr., II, 184, pi. xxxvii, 1831. —
Brewer, Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., I, 191, 1844.

Merula silens Swainson, Faun. Bor. Amcr., II, 186, 1831. — Sclater, Cat.
Am. Birds, 2, 1862.

Common. Last seen about March 25th.

As already observed in the remarks under Turdus Sicainsoni, I regard
the Turdus yianus of authors as identical with T. Pallasi. The assumed
differences arc slight and inconstant, and seem to be principally individual
variation ill color. Although of late supposed to be exclusively western,
representing 0I1 the Pacific slope the T. Pallasi of the Atlantic and Central
States, Audubon's original specimen came from Pennsylvania, though lie
subsequently received it from the valley of the Columbia River. In his
"Synopsis" he gives its habitat as "Columbia River. Accidental in the
United States." His description of its color is identical with that he gives
of T. Pallasi (T. solitarius And.), even the words used being almost
entirely tin; same throughout each description. In size, however, he
gives T. nan its as being one inch less in length and one inch less in extent
than 7'. Pallasi. Since Professor Baird, in 1858, recognized the T. nanus
as a valid species and its habitat as " Pacific coast of North America to the
Rocky Mountains," and restricted the 7'. Pallasi to "Eastern North Am-
erica to the Mississippi River," the validity of T. nanus has been gener-
ally accepted. Professor Baird himself, however, speaks of it in this work

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 255

as though it was in his opinion doubtfully distinct, and observes that, " if
really distinct, is so closely allied to T. Pallasi as to render a separa-
tion of the two exceedingly difficult." The T. Pallasi was formerly
recognized as inhabiting California by good authorities. Dr. Ganibel, in
his " Remarks on the Birds of Upper California," etc.,* after stating that
'•the dwarf thrush of Audubon was founded upon specimens from the
Atlantic States, and no doubt upon the true hermit thrush," remarks :
"An examination of specimens of the T. minor [=T. Pallasi] from the
Atlantic and Pacific coasts of North America shows no difference in
any way, except that perhaps the western one is somewhat smaller, yet
the difference is scarcely appreciable. From the measurement of many
western specimens I found its length to be 6^ inches, and the extent of
wings 10^ inches; the tail, wings, and relative length of quills the same as
in our eastern one, and, in fact, I think it can in no possible way be dis-
tinguished as specifically different." California specimens, however, seem
to average a little smaller than New England ones, so that the T. nanus
seems best entitled to recognition of any of the several disputed forms of
this group.

The habits of T. nanus, as described by Dr. Cooper, are exactly like
those of the T. Pallasi of the East, except in regard to the situation of its
nest, Jus account of its nest and eggs according exactly icith those of T.
Swainsoni, and not at all with those of T. Pallasi, its nearest ally.f

The Tardus Auduboni of Baird, of the Rocky Mountains, I have already
also referred to T. Pallasi, from average specimens of which it differs
only in being slightly larger. My reasons for this opinion have been given
with sufficient detail elsewhere. %

It is difficult to reconcile the account given by Wilson, § and corrobo-
rated by Audubon, || of the breeding habits of this species with what is
now known of the distribution in the breeding season of this group (sub-
genus Hylociclda) of thrushes. The account given by these authors of the
situation and structure of the nest is applicable to only T. Swainsoni,
which, as well as the T. Pallasi, is not known to breed so far south by
several hundred miles as the localities they give. The only species which
may probably breed there is the T. fuscescens ; but this species does not
nest on trees. To determine to which species of thrush these authors refer

* Proc. Phil. Acad. Nat. Sci., Vol. Ill, p. 14, October, 1844. Also Journal Phil. Acad.
Nat. Sci., 2d Series, Vol. I, p. 41, 1847.

t According to Professor A. E. Verrill, the T. PaUasi nests on the ground, and lays
" bright-blue " eggs. Proc. Essex Inst, Vol. Ill, p. 145.

J Mem. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist, Vol. I, p. 012.

$ Am. Orn., Vol. V, p. 91.

|| Orn. Biog., Vol. I, p. 303: Bird; of America, Vol. Ill, p. 30

25G

BULLETIN OF THE

as breeding in this manner on the Lower Mississippi would solve an in-
teresting problem.

The following table will indicate tin' average size of Turdus Pallasi in
the Atlantic States. The extremes in size of forty-six specimens are as
follows : Length, G.50 and 7.G5 ; alar extent, 10.00 and 12.25 ; wing, 3.30
and 3.90 ; tail, 2.-17 and 3.17 ; tarsus, 1.12 and 1.33. The average dimen-
sions of these specimens are as follows : Length, 7.04 ; alar extent, 11.17 ;
wing, 3.7D; tail, 2.72; tarsus, 1.15.

Measurements of Specimens o/ Turdus Pallast.

M. C. Z. No.

Collectors
Number.

Locality.

Date.

Collector.

J3

"to
c

>3

a
H

03
<

ti

'rt

H

3
u
H

9835 —

Milltown, Maine

June — , '64

O. A. Boardman

6.98

3.50

2 68

1.17

4071 —

"

June — , '65

J. G. Rich

6.88

10.00

3.48

2.67

116

1990 —

1991 —

Norway, "

A. E. Verrill

6.90

10.50

3 3 i

2.51

1 is

7 00

10.60

" 65 1 17

<< i<

S. I. Smith

725

11.55

y.7U

2.93 120

5311 -

312 —

■■ill —

6.S0

In 95

3.45

■_• 7- 1 12

ii ii

ii

7 15

11 50

:; 70

2 02 1.15

ii i(

"

7. -'52

11.00

;; 59

2.98 1 17

1897 —

Waterville, "

Apr. 20, '62

C. E. Hamlin

7.20

10.77

2.93 1.07

mi:; —

Apr. 14, "62

"

6.80

10.75

3.49

2.65i 1 18

4-j;j") —

1C tt

Oct. 21, "63

"

6 90

10.25

3.37

2.60! 1.18

42;, l _

ii n

Oct. 24, :63

"

6 80

10.75

3.57

2.93 -

575 1 —
;, , 55 —
1060
2584 —

Concord, M I i.

II Mann

7 50
7.15
7.25

.; s i

11.82

3.83

2.95 1-93

10.15

3.45

2.57
2 ''i

1.14

ti ii

((

11 02

3 77

1 18

Woburn, "

.

J. G. Shut"

10.25

2 57

1.17

2832 —

Springfield, "

May s, '>;■;

J. A. Allen

7.25

10.70

3.52

2.83 1 20

9690 1002 -

Oct. 17, '63

"

7.10

11.20

357

2.70 1.13

9391 L021! —

u ii

Oct. 29,63

"

7.00

Li

:;47

2 71 1 18

4.1 •

Watertown, "

Dec. 1 i, 39

ffm. Brewster

700

11.63

3 63

2 63 133

.1 ii

Nov. 6, '69

"

6 -7

11.19

301

2 52

1 .20

a ti

.Nov. 1

a

7.12

11 12

3.74

2 5S

1.27

Belmont, "

Nov. 22, -69

"

7.12

11.50

3 30

2 71

1 20

3tt d

Cambridge, "

Apr. 16, 70

"

7.23

11.94

3 71

2.S5

129

Waltham, "

0 •

u

7.20

11.12

3 74

2 58

1.27

'.1 .

ii ii

X IV. 1, '69

'•

7.06

1137

3 72

1.25

62 i

Watertown "

Oct. 26, !69

• '

10.50

3 50

237

115

283 ,

.i ii

Nov. 22, '69

«

6.56

11.00

3.50

2 ;,s

1.16

— :r, ; ,

ii ii

Apr, li I, '70

••

6.75

L1.30

3 45

2 50

1.17

8845

Newton, "

Oct. 12, '67

C. J. Maynard

6.83

11.00

332

2.65

—

— - 13 i

ii ii

Oct. 12, '67

'I

7.00

1" 77

3.37

2.47

—

8848 250 i

ii ii

Apr. IS, '68

■|

7 21

11 32

2 80

—

8852 322 i

ii a

Apr. 2.",, -6S

««

11.00

2.60

—

8847 338

?

• I n

May 5, '68

"

fn'i

11 30

3.50

2.73

—

21

■•

ii ii

Oct. 19 '68

• •

7.0U

11 17

2.75

—

14

{

ii ii

Oct. 16, '68

•'

7.00

1 1 43

3.50

2.71

—

n i;

Oct. 16, '63

ii

6.80

11.28

3 57

2 75

—

38-J 1

ii ic

Apr. 25, '70

■'

7.60

1 1 75

317 ■

— ;

ii .1

Apr. 25, '70

,;

7 38

2. S3 —

• i a

Apr. 28, '70

"

7.45

11.83

2.90

—

5120 —

i

Jacksonville, Fla.

Jan. 21, 'OS

J. A. Allen

7.40

12.25

3 85

—

—

51 15 -

Jan. 25. 'tis

"

7.UO

11 60

3 60

—

—

5143 -

ii ii

Jan. 25, 'OS

"

6.75

11 lo

3 15

—

—

5147 -

■>

ii ii

Jan. 25, '68

"

7.oo

1 1 51 1

3.60

—

—

51 <;

Hibemia, "

Feb. :;. '68

"

7 65

11 S7

;; 85

—

—

532 I -

?

Enterprise, "

Mar. l. '68

6.75

10.90

3 40

4.t Turdus fuscescens Stephens. Wilson's Thrush.

mustelinus Wilson, Am. Orn., V, 98, pi. xliii, 1812. (Not T.muste-
Units Gmelin.)

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 257

Turdus fuscescens Stephens, Shaw's Gen. Zoo]., X, i, 182, 1817. — G. R.
Gray, Gen. Birds, 1S49. — Baiud, Birds X. Am., 2U, 1858. — Sclater,
Cat. Am. Binls, 2, 1862. — Bated, Rev. Am. Birds, I, 17, 1864. — Allen,
Mem. Bost. Soc*. Nat. Hist., 1,514, 1S68. — Ridgway, Proc. Phil. Acad.
Nat. Sci., XXI, 127, 1869.

Tualas Wilsonii Bonaparte, (>bs. on Wilson's Nomenclature. — Ndttall,
Man. Am. Orn., I, 349, 1832. —Audubon, Urn. Biog., II, 362, pi. clxvi,
1834. Ibid., V, 446. — Giracd, Birds L. Island, 89, 1843-44.

Turdus usiulatus Nuttall, Man. Am. Orn., I, (2d ed.) 400, 1840. — Baird,
Birds N. Am., 215, 1858. — Ibid., Rev. Am. Birds, I, 18, 1804. —Ridg-
way, Proc. Phil. Aead. Nat. !Sci., XXI, 127, 1S69. — Cooper &. Baird,
Orn Cal., I, 5, 1870.

Mervla minor Swainson, Faun. Bor. Am.. II, 179, pi. xxxvi, 1831.

Morula Wilsonii Brewer, Proc. Bost. Soc. Xat. Hist., I, 191, 1844.

Not common, the greater part passing the winter in the tropics. A
few specimens were taken by Mr. Boardman at Green Cove Springs,
February 20th and 22d. I did not meet with it.

The considerable variation in color exhibited by different specimens of
this species have perhaps been already sufficiently adverted to. It may be
added that some of the brightest colored specimens of this species proved
on tlissection to be females, as well, also, as some of the palest. As in T.
migratorius, T. Swainsoni, etc., these variations in color do not depend
entirely upon sex, age, nor season. The latter, however, doubtless has
much to do with it, as has also age, as already explained; * but the varia-
tion is in the main strictly the result of individual differentiation.

Dr. Cooper says f that in habits this species is the " exact counterpart
of T. nanus," the resemblance extending to the situation and structure of
the nest, and also to the color of the eggs. In this connection it may be
remarked that it is not a little remarkable that the eggs and nests of both
the so-called T. ustulatus and T. nanus should so exactly coincide with
those of T. Swainsoni (which breeds where the other species are said to),
when the birds themselves are scarcely distinguishable respectively from
T. fuscescens and T. Pallasi, both of which nest on the ground and lay
unspotted eggs, while T. Swainsoni nests in trees and lays spotted eggs.
The nests and eggs I have seen purporting to be those of T. ustulatus and
T. nanus (and also of T. Alicia;) were so closely like those of T. Swainsoni,
— not differing more from those of this species than those of the same
species usually differ, — as to at once raise the suspicion in my mind that
they might all be really those of T. Swainsoni, and that they may have
been in some accidental way wrongly identified by the collector.

* In Part III, pp. 193 et seq.
t Ornithology of California, Vol. I, p. 5.
vol. ir. 17

258

BULLETIN OF THE

In the following table are given the measurements of forty specimens,
some twenty-five of which were taken in Massachusetts during the breed-
ing season. The extremes of the series arc as follows : Length, 6.95 and
7.87; alar extent, 11.05 and 12.70; wing, 3.55 and 4.16; tail, 2.63 and
3.02; tarsus, 1.06 and 1.18. The average dimensions are as follows:
Length, 7.38; alar extent, 11.83; wing, 3.82; tail, 2.88; tarsus, 1.13.

Measurements of Specimens of Turdus fuscesckn'S.

6

+,

S5

2.2

5 =

x

Locality.

Date.

Collector.

to

a

X

i

3

O

— 3

co

S

a!

<<

2272

- s.

J

1125

3 90

2 87

H

1.10

Wateryille, Maine

June 2, '02

C. E. Hamlin

7.12

2275

—

" "

June 5, ;62

7 39

11'.- 1

3 79 2 84

1.18

2270

—

" "

June 2, 02

"

7.53

11 73

3.86 2.ss

1.06

2277

—

" "

June 2, '62

"

7.40

12.(10

3 83 2 s7

1.13

9607

-

-

Canton, St. Law- 1
renee Co , N. Y. J

June — , "60

J. S Foley

7.3i>

1140

3.72 292

1.12

9608

—

"

June—, "60

«

7.50

1175

3 93 3 00

1.10

9609

—

"

June—, "60

ti

7 50

3 92: 2 93

1.18

10382

—

"

June—, "60

it

7.30

1143

3.77 2 97

1.13

10383

—

"

June—, "60

"

6 95

11.05

3 55 2 63

1.09

10384

"

June-, '60

"

7,4.-,

1175

3 69| 2.80

1 12

10385

—

"

June—, "Bit

ii

7.12

11.75

3.68 2.67

111

883 I

367

r

Newton, Mass.

May 5, "68

C. J. Maynard

7.81

12.7(1

4.16! 3.00

B831

382

d

" "

May 6, "68

"

7.75

12.55

4 10 1 3.00

—

8841

495

•

" "

May 15, :68

"

7.87

1191

400 3.00

s.s32

528 r

" "

May 10, "68

"

7 7ii

12.45

4.00 3.00

—

■--::.:

538

'

Way land, "

May is, 'lis

i<

735

11.91

3 91 2 73

—

8834

550

■•

Weston, "

May 20, '68

''

7. mi

11.95

3 55 2 55

8835

581

'

Newton, "

May 22, "68

"

741

12 5(1

4 15 2 90

8337

611

t

a i<

May 2f,. "68

"

7.50

12 45

3.80; 2.90

8838

683 /

" "

May 28. "68

"

7.5H

12.30

4.15| 317

8839

692 ■

" "

May 28, 68

"

7.45

12.16

3 76 2.85

8338

610 -J

" "

May 2;-,, '68

"

7 30

11 33

3.55 2 60

8840

768 5

" "

June 5, '68

"

7.51)

12 15

3 mi 2.89

_

2876,2876 -

Springfield, "

June 11, '02

J. A. Allen

7.0(i

11 7(1

3 75 '1 so

1.17

1740 174!» —

" "

June 14, '62

"

7 mi

1 1 35

3 63 2.65

1.10

1828 1828

2

" "

May 29, "62

"

7 5' i

11.50

3 99 2.86

1.08

1832 1832

3

" "

May 29, "62

"

7.50

11.55

3 7:i 2.80

1.12

-ins

—

Newton, "

May 18, "70

Wm. Brewster

7.50

12ii(i

3 74 2 74

1.14

2873 2873

—

Springfield "

May 12, '63

J. A. Alien

7 75

12.40

3.98 3.02

1.08

2876 2876

—

i. ti

May 14, '63

"

7.12

11.30

;: ,:: 29]

1.12

2937 2937

—

" "

May 29, '63

"

7.45

11 so

3.65 2.7s 1.12

2938 2938

—

" "

\i..\ 29, '63

"

7 65

11 511

3.86 "00

1 15

1131 —

—

Maiden, "

May 22, '62

"

7.15

11.87

3 75 2 93

1.14

1432 —

—

" "

May 22, "62

"

7 52

11 80

393 300

1 15

281 i —

D. Higgius

7.35

7.25

11.75
11 90

3 70 2.89

:; 18 2 73

1.10

1.15

281 —

ii

143 —

—

" "

June — , T,l

"

7.30

11 72

3.72 2.83 112

1H

—

—

" "

JllIH , 1)1

"

7.25

11.75

3.78 2.70 l 15

I!:",

—

—

" "

June — , 'Hi

"

7.IKI

11 40

3.03 2 68 1 11

146 -

1

June — , '61

7-45

1175

3 oo 2.80 1.12

5.* Harporhynchus rufus Calianis. Brown Thrush.
Very abundant. The specimens examined were smaller and much
brighter colored than any I have seen from the Northern States.
Commences nesting the last week in March.

6.* Galeoseoptes carolinensis Cabanis. Cat-Bird.
Abundant. Smaller and darker colored than at the North. Some

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 259

evidently remain and breed. Audubon states that none breed so far
south as South Carolina, and that few remain so far north as Florida
in winter; but Dr. Coues, in his ''Synopsis of the Birds of South Caro-
lina,"* gives it as abundant and resident in that State.

7* Mimus polyglottus Boie. Mockixg-Bird.

Common. Contrary to my anticipations, I failed to hear this bird
sing during my three months' stay in Florida, except in a few' instances
near Jacksonville early in April, at which time they were nesting,
although everywhere more or less common. It was more frequent
along the borders of the forest and about clumps of bushes in the pine
barrens than in the hummocks. It differed from its relatives, the
brown thrush and cat-bird, in avoiding the denser thickets, which are
the favorite resorts of the latter. The resemblance of the mocking-bird
to the loggerhead shrike, in mode of flight and general appearance,
which must strike every observer, has been properly referred to by Dr.
Coues. f

Different specimens of the mocking-bird from Florida differ consider-
ably from each other in intensity of color, some being much darker
than others, and in the extent of the white on the outer tail feathers, and
also in the length, thickness, and curvature of the bill. Some have the
commissure but slightly curved and the tip of the bill moderately de-
pressed ; others have the commissure much arched and the tip much
decurved. Several specimens before me from Cape Florida are smaller
than those from the St. John's River, with longer, slenderer, and more
curved bills. There seems to be as much difference between specimens
from South Florida and the Middle States, as between the numerous so-
called species of the West Indies, which, many of them at least, are
scarcely more than local forms of the original or first-described M. poly-
glottus.

The following measurements of forty-four Florida specimens of this
species indicates its usual range of variation in size and proportions. The
extremes of this series are as follows : Length, 9.25 and 11.00 ; alar ex-
tent, 13.00 and 14.75; wing, 4.00 and 4.75; tail, 4.10 and 5.15. The
average dimensions are as follows : Length, 9.01 ; alar extent, 13.69 ; wing,
4.28; tail, 4.87.

* Proc. Bost. Soc. Xat. Hist., Vol. XII, p. 113.

t " Synopsis of the Birds of South Carolina," Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. XII,
p. 113, October, 1868.

260

BULLETIN OF THE

Measurements of Florida Specimens of Mimtts POLYGLOTTTJS.

1 o

6

•

a

N

13

a

M

Locality

Date.

Collector.

1j

w

'3

6

!§P

DQ

►3

P

H

a

o

<

5118

^

Jacksonville, Fla

Jan. 19, '68

J. A. Alleu

9 75

14 00

4.60

5124

j<

" "

Jan 21, '68

"

14 35

4 50

5350

cf

Enterprise, "

Nov. 4, '69

"

1 )

14 15

4 25

Hawkinsville, "

Mar 15, '69

10.60

14 75

4 50

5415

•

" "

Mar. 15, :6i

"

9 85

1400

4 40

ii ii

Mar 14, '69

''

9.85

14-00

1 in

5355

9

1955 9

2407 r
2614 ,■
2341 d

" "

Mar 10, '6S

"

10.12

1300

4 26

5185

Ilibernia, "

Jan. 30, '69

"

10.30

14.15

i 30

UioSH

Jacksonville, "

Dec. 31, '68

C. J. Maynard

10.00

13 00

4(15

4.65

" "

Jan. HI, '69

"

10.20

14.00

i 50

4.70

Dummitt's, "

Mar. 2, '69

"

11.00

11 65

4 50

4.60

" "

Mar 13, '69

"

10. 15

11 00

1 to

4.90

10589

" "

Feb. 16, '69

"

9.75

13.50

4.25

4.75

" "

Feb. 24, ''lit

"

9 25

11 00

I 35

4.35

" "

Mar, 13, '09

"

10 20

14-00

4 4D

4.75

2374 ■

2370 ■;

" "

Mar 13, '69

"

ll.SII

14 00

i 30

4.10

" "

Feb. 17, '69

"

9.50

13 25

4.25

4.40

10592

2372 r

" "

Feb. IT, '69

"

9.75

13.75

4.20

4.50

2528 •■

" "

Mar. 5, '69

"

10 30

14. no

4 45

4.95

2171 •

" "

Feb. 16, '69

"

10.15

11 :n

4 60

5.15

10595

2486 --

" "

Feb. 16, '69

"

10.00

13.00

4.00

1 38

10596

2518

9

" " Mar. 2, '69

"

9 75

13 50

4.75

4 50

2428

9

" " Mar. 2, '69

"

10.00

13 50

4 ."i1 1

4.45

242!)

1

Mar. 2, '69

L0.00

13 50

4 35

4 35

2478

j

" Mar. 11, 69

"

1050

13.50

1 L8

4. 75

2419

,•

Mar. 11, 69

"

10.00

13 35

4.25

4.75

10590 2340

9

" " Mar. 13, '69

"

i

1 1 35

4.40

4.50

10594 234 I

('

" " Mar. 16, '69

"

9 75

13 60

4.25

4 35

10597 25 19

9

" " Mar. 11, 69

"

10

13.00

400

4. 17

2507

Mar 11, '6S

"

9.60

1 :

4 10

4.60

10587 2339

5

" " Feb. L0, '69

"

9.40

13.50

1 05

4.20

2

,: " Feb. 17, '69

"

9.75

13.50

3 1"

1 50

s

Mar. 13, '69

"

9.50

13.25

4 2( i

i a

2560

2

Mar. 8, "69

"

9 50

13.20

4.15

10593 2375

,'

Feb. 17, '69

"

9 so

13.00

4 10

4.60

247S

?

" " Feb. 16, '69

"

9.50

13 50

1 10

4.20

24S5

V

Feb. 16, VJ

10.00

13.00

4.00

SAXICOLIDJE.

8* Sialia sialis Haldemann.* Blue-Bird.
Common. In this species the smaller size of the Florida specimens,
as compared with those from Massachusetts, is very marked, as is also the
greater intensity of color.

SYLVIADJE.
9.1 Regulus calendula Lichtenstein. Rcbt-crowned Kinglet.
Abundant. One of the most numerous of the winter birds. Chiefly
confined to the swamps and hummocks.

lO.t Regulus satrapa Lichtenstein. Golden-crested Kinglet.
Not common. A single pair was collected by Mr. Maynard at
Jacksonville in January.

* Sialia sialis Haldemann, Trego's Geography of Pennsylvania, p. 77. 1843.
-Baird, Birds of X. Am., 222, 1S58. Sec American Naturalist, Vol. Ill, p. 159, 1869.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 261

11.* Polioptila cserulea Sclaler. Blue-gray Gnatcatcher.
Common. Generally seen in the same situations as It. calendula.

VKRTDM.

12.* Lophophanes bicolor Bonaparte. Crested Titmouse.
Common.
13.* Parus atricapillus Linne. Black-capped Titmouse. Chickadee.
Parus atricapillus Linne, Syst. Nat., I, 341, 1766. — Wilson, Am. Orn., I,

137, 1808. — Bonaparte, Obs. Nom. Wils. Orn., Journ. Phil. Acad. Nat.

Sci., IV, 254, 1825.— Rich. & Swain., Faun. Bor. Am., II, 226, 1831.—

Audubon, Birds Am., II, 146, pi. cxxvi, 1841. — Cassin, 111. Birds Cal.

I, 17, 1853. — Baird, Birds N. Am., 390, 1858. — Sclatek, Cat. Am.

Birds, 13, 1862. —Baird, Rev. Am. Birds, I, 80, 1864.
Parus palustris Nuttall, Man. Orn., 241, 1832.
Parus carolinensis Audubon, Orn. Biog., II, 341, 1837 ; V, 474, pi. clx, 1839. —

Audubon, Birds Am., II, 152, pi. cxxvii, 1841. — Cassin, 111. Birds Cal., I,

17, 1853. — Baird, Birds N. Am., 392, 1858. — Sclater, Cat. Am. Birds,

14, 1862. — Baird, Rev. Am. Birds, I, 81, 1864.
Parus septentrionalis Harris, Proc. Phil. Acad. Nat. Sci., II, 300, 1845. —

Cassin, 111. Birds Cal., I, 17, 80, pi. xiv, 18"53. — Baird, Birds N. Am.,

389. — Sclater, Cat. Am. Birds, 14. — Baird, Rev. Am. Birds, I, 82.
Parus meridionalis Sclater, Proc. Lond. Zool. Soc, 1856, 293. — Baird, Birds

N. Am., 392. — Sclater, Cat. Am. Birds, 14. — Baird, Rev. Am. Birds,

1,81.
Parus occidental^ Baird, Birds N. Am., 391, 1858. — Sclater, Cat. Am.

Birds, 14, 1862. — Baird, Rev. Am. Birds, I, 81, 1864.
Po:cila atricapilla Bonap., Consp. Av., 230, 1850.
Pacila carolinensis Bonap., Ibid.

Seen by Mr. Marcy at Jacksonville, where also specimens of it were
collected by Mr. Maynard. Not observed by any of us up the river.
Audubon speaks of having found it abundant in the Floridas in the
winter of 1831 and 1832, and "breeding in the swamps as early as the
middle of February." *

The common titmouse (P. atricapillus), although not more subject to
geographical variation than many other birds, is one of the species in
which such differences were first detected, though not recognized at the
time as such. Audubon, in 1833, upon returning to Charleston, South
Carolina, from a visit to the Eastern States, the British Provinces, and
Labrador, noticed a considerable difference in size between the examples
of this bird he met with at the North, and those of the lowlands of the

* Birds of America, Vol. II, p. 153.

202 BULLETIN OF THE

Carolinas. Though no other difference was appreciable, he and his friend
Bachinan thought this was sufficient to warrant the description of the
southern form as specifically distinct from the northern. He accordingly
thus separated them in the second volume of his " Ornithological Biog-
raphy." But if the black-capped titmice of the Carolinas, the lower
parts of Virginia, Maryland, and Southern New Jersey are distinct from
those of Massachusetts, on precisely the same grounds are those of Mas-
sachusetts distinct from those of Northern Maine. Even the titmice
of Massachusetts are not just the same in winter that they are in
summer, those which breed here doubtless mainly going south in winter,
while their place is filled by others that spend the summer more to the
northward. This at least is what the slight average difference in size
between summer and winter specimens seems to indicate. But the Caro-
lina titmouse (P. carolinensis) has been recognized as valid by most
subsequent writers, and in accordance with the principle upon which this
supposed species was admitted, several others have been added by other
authors.

The titmice from the middle, elevated regions of the continent, in
accordance with a general law of geographical variation among both birds
and mammals, are a little larger than those of either the Mississippi
valley or the Pacific coast, and have also, apparently, a relatively slightly
longer tail and paler colors, — variations which occur in a number of other
birds that have a similar distribution. The titmice of this region form
the Parus septentrionalis of authors. Specimens labelled " Parus septen-
trionalis," collected near Chicago, have been received at the Museum of
Comparative Zoology from the Chicago Academy. They do not differ,
however, from numerous others collected in Massachusetts, though the
true P. septentrionalis, or the black-capped titmice of the Rocky Moun-
tains, does have a slightly longer tail than those from the other parts of the
continent.

Those which occur on the Pacific slope of the continent, though forming
the P. occidentulis of authors, are admittedly the same in size and general
appearance as the P. atricapillus of the Atlantic States, Ibis species having
been introduced to the world with the following suggestive remarks:
"It is rather a hazardous undertaking to add another to the list of North
American black-capped and throated titmice; but if we have three good
species now, instead of one, then the present is equally entitled to specific
distinction with carolinensis and septentrionalis."

The P. meridionalis was first made known from a single specimen from
Mexico, and of which very tew specimens seem to have been recognized as
belonging to it. The original type certainly recalls only a worn summer
specimen of the common titmouse, though its darker color may be due to

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 263

its southern habitat. Towards the end of the breeding season specimens
of P. atricapillus, more especially females, have the plumage, particularly
that of the lower surface of the body, much darker than in fall and winter,
simply from the wearing off of the rufous and ashy extremities of the
leathers, July specimens generally differing much in color from winter ones.

In respect to P. carolinensis, as already observed, the only difference
urged as distinguishing it from P. atricapillus is that of its smaller size.
Yet this difference is so slight that it is admitted that if P. carolinensis and
P. atricapillus were " separated by a wide interval of locality, it might be a
question whether it [P. carolinensis'] might not be a variety. As, how-
ever," it is urged, " both are found together in the Middle States, and pre-
serving together their characteristics, there will be little risk in considering
them distinct." Since the larger birds are, in the main, either northern
or occupy the elevated regions of the Alleghanies, the two forms must
necessarily be found associated together, especially in winter, through their
migrations. Unfortunately, in the work where this group has been most
elaborately considered,* but two examples of each are cited, with a state-
ment of their measurements ; the two of P. atricapillus being from Carlisle,
Pennsylvania, and the two of P. carolinensis from Washington, D. C.
From the annexed table of measurements of P. atricapillus from Massachu-
setts and Maine, it will be seen that a few are small enough to be regarded
as belonging to the P. carolinensis. There is, also, a larger amount
of seasonal difference in the color and general character of the plumage
than has been either admitted or suspected, as well as in size. No one
who has previously written on this group appears yet to have compared
many specimens of these supposed two species, or to have examined a
sufficiently large number of either to become aware of the wide differences
that exist between specimens from the same locality.

Variations similar to those assumed to specifically distinguish P. caro-
linensis from P. atricapillus occur in P. hudsonicus between sj:>eeimens from
localities quite distant in latitude. Dr. Bryant has already called attention
to such differences in the P. hudsonicus, and at the same time proposed
for the southern "variety" the name of "P. hudsonicus var. littoralis."
Concerning this variety and the general subject in question, he remarks
as follows : " The specimens of Paras hudsonicus from Yarmouth [Nova
Scotia] and those from the Hudson Bay territory present as great, if not
greater, differences in size than exist between P. carolinensis and P. atri-
capillus, and in color, between P. septentrionalis and P. atricapillus. I am
inclined myself to consider P. atricapillus, septentrionalis, meridionalis, and
occidentalis as varieties of on" species; but, if they are considered as
specifically distinct, there can be little question of the propriety of

* Baird's Birds of North America.

264

BULLETIN OF THE

separating the Yarmouth bird from those found in the Hudson Bay ter-
ritory." *

In the following table of measurement-! of twenty-seven specimens, all
taken within ten miles of Cambridge, and all but two in December and
January, the extremes of size are as follows : Length, 4.70 and 5.75, both
specimens being females ; alar extent, 7.50 and 8.60, both specimens being
also females; wing, 2.33 and 2.63, also both females; tail, 2.15 (female)
and 2.G7 (male) ; tarsus, .G2 (male) and 7 7 (female). The average size
of these specimens is as follows: Length, 5.38 ; alar extent, 8.3 7 ; wing,
2.4 7; tail, 2 50; tarsus, .70. The females average a little smaller than
the males, but the difference is only slight.

The largest specimen of the group of black-capped and black-throated
titmice cited by Professor Bairdf measures as follows: Length, 5.75;
alar extent, 8.37; wing, 2.75; tail, 2.86 (Parus septentrionalis, from the
Black Hills, Neb., Sm. Inst. No. 8827). A specimen of the P. carolinensis,
cited by the same author, measures as follows : Length, 4.62 ; alar extent,
7.00 ; wing, 2.50 ; tarsus, .60 (Sm. Inst. No. 706, from Washington, D. C).
So far as the length of the wing and tail are concerned, specimens are fre-

Measurements of Massachusetts Specimens of Parus atricapillus.

Z. No.

jetor's
mber.

a!

Locality.

Date.

Collector.

if

a

X

W

si

a

'5

3

O =3

OZ

S »
11703 52

Ji

hH

<
8.12

2_62

Eh

2.07

e3

EH

.75

-'

Cambridge, Mass.

Dec. 10, '69

AVm. Brewster

5.38

L1704 86

1

" "

Dec. 14, '69

"

5.25

812

2.55

2.37

.75

11705 87

-

" "

Dec. 14, "69

"

5.00

7.88

2.02

2 50

.02

11708 96

i

" "

Dec. 14, '69

"

5.00

7.50

2.44

2 311

.75

11707 'M

..<

" "

Deo. 17, V.I

"

5.06

7.S7

2.50

2.50

_

99

d

" "

Dec. 17, '69

"

5.12

8.12

2.55

2 13

.72

104

f

" "

Dec. 20, '69

"

5.25

8.00

2.55

2.50

.70

11711 103

--"

" "

Dec. 20, '69

"

5.06

8.00

2.02

2 43

.75

11710 1"1

••

" "

Dec. 20, "69

"

512

8.06

2.55

2.43

.75

153

•

" "

Jan. 7, '70

"

4 94

7.80

2.43

2 25

.69

112

•

" "

Dec. 24, '09

"

5 50

8 12

2.62

.69

206

5

" "

Jan. 20, '70

"

5 10

8.21

2.58

2.55

.70

11706 88

" "

Dec. L4, '69

"

1 94

7 50

2.43

2.31

—

95

5

" "

Dec. 17, "69

"

5.1 ii i

8.00

2.50 2 37

.75

11709 97

5

" '

Dec. 17, '69

"

5.06

7 83

' 2 13 2 12

. —

11712 105

5

" "

!).■<■. 20, '69

"

5.19

7-75

2.5ii 2-25

.07

100

5

" "

Dec. 20, '69

"

8.12

2.56 2.50

.75

11713 114

5

" "

Dec. 24, '69

"

5.75

7.88

2:," 2 3::

.63

101

,

Watertown, "

Jan. 7. '70

"

5.45

8.00

2 .'3 264

.69

163

5

" "

Jan. 7, 70

"

4.94

7-5n

.69

179

5

Belmont, "

Jan. 13, '70

"

1 84

7.55

2.35 2.15

• 77

205

5

" "

Jan. 20, '70

"

5 11

8.17

2.54 2.42

.70

239

ii ii

Jan 20, '70

"

7.52

2.35 2.30

.67

203

5

Arlington, "

Jan. 20, '70

4 70

7 75

2 15 2.40

.68

4946 268

5

Newton, "

Apr. 21, '68

C. J. Maynard 5.00

8.60

2.58 2.30

—

5011 1216

,'

u it

Sept. S, '68

"

7 85

.65

4945 209

■

Apr. 21, -09

5.00

8.00

2.41 2.35

* Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist.. Vol. IX, p. 368, April, 1865.
t Birds of North America, p. 39u.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 2G5

quently taken in Massachusetts (and of which I have measurements before
me) that are considerably smaller than this one from Washington, or
than any given in the above table.

SITTIDJE.
14.* Sitta carolinensis Gmdin. White-breasted Nuthatch.
Common ; especially in the pineries.

15.* Sitta pusilla Latham. Brown-headed Nuthatch.
Common in the pineries ; rarely seen elsewhere.

TROGLODYTID^.

16* Troglodytes aedon VieSlot. Common "Wren.

Tng'odyies aedon Vieillot, Ois. Am. Sept., II, 52, pi. cvii, 1807. — Bona-
parte, Richardson & Swainson, Audubon. — Baird, Birds N. Am.,
367, 1858. — Ibid., Rev. Am. Birds, I, 138, 1864. — Maynard, Naturalist's
Guide, Part II, p. 95, 1870.

Troglodytes fulvus, Nuttall, Man. Am. Orn., I, 422, 1832.

Troglodytes amerieanus Audubon, Orn. Biog., II, 452, pi. elxxix, 1834. —
Baird, Birds N. Am., 368. —Ibid., Rev. Am. Birds, I, 141.

Troglodytes Parkmani Audubon, Orn. Biog., V, 310, 1839. — P t;d, Birds N.
Am., 367. — Ibid., Rev. Am. Birds, I, 140.

Troglodytes sylvestris Gambel, Proc. Phil. Acad. Nat. Sci., Ill, 113, 1864.

Sylvia domestica Wilson, Am. Orn., I, 129, pi. viii, fig. 3, 1808.

Abundant, occurring everywhere. It keeps so closely concealed that
it is difficult to shoot, except when on the wing. Both this and the
Carolina wren are exceedingly quick in their movements, and if they
are watching the collector when he is about to shoot at them, they are
pretty sure to dodge the charge ; although he finds the bushes and
foliage where the bird sat riddled by the shot, he usually searches in
vain for the specimen he is sure he ought to have killed. When ap-
proached in old grassy fields or pine openings, they will allow one to
almost tread on them before attempting to get away, and then, instead
of taking to wing, often seek to escape by running off like a mouse
beneath the grass. The term " house " wren, usually applied to this
bird, is decidedly a misnomer, since it frequents the fields the thickets,
and even the forest, as much as the vicinity of houses. In the wilds of
Florida, where human habitations are few, there is nothing whatever in

266

BULLETIN OF THE

The " wood wren," Troglodytes americanus of Audubon, I am sure is
only the brighter colored ibrm of T. aedon ; in size or proportions there
is nothing, though the contrary has been claimed, to distinguish them.
Specimens equally large and equally small occur in each state of plu-
mage, in which the same general range of variation in proportions is pre-
sented. There is also an intergradation in color, and no observable
difference in habits. Both forms were common in Florida ; both also
occur in New England, whence Audubon obtained the first specimen of
his supposed new species. Audubon admits that it " can hardly be dis-
tinguished in description " from the house wren. The large size assumed
by him as characterizing it maybe readily accounted lor by the fact of his
obtaining his first specimens at Eastport in Maine, which is the extreme
northern limit of the habitat of this species.

The. following measurements of fifteen Florida specimens indicates the
usual range of variation in respect to size and proportions found in speci-
mens from the same locality. The extremes of this series are as follows :
Length, 4.30 and 5.10, both specimens being females ; alar extent, G.10
and 6.95, both specimens being males ; wing, 1.90 and 2.44 ; tail, 1.30 and
2.40 ; tarsus, .50 and .G8 ; bill, .4 7 and .GO (.80?). The differences between
these extremes, it will be noticed, are very great, considering the small size
of the bird. The average dimensions are as follows : Length, 4.89 ; alar
extent, G.G1 ; wing, 2.05 ; tail, 1.80; tarsus, .52.

Measurements of Florida Specimens of Troglodytes aedon.

6

^i

a

■u u

■

a

N

o 0>

- 3

&

Locality.

Date.

Collector.

"S

*

W

3

s

a

O

— 3

Vl

H

C3

S

S3

5*

»3

6.60

2 44

2.40

.50

.47

10681

1900

6

Jacksonville

Jan.

1/69

C. J. Maynard

4.70

1942

i"

*'

Jan.

1, '69

"

5.00

6 50

2.00

1.70

.57

.50

19 Hi

:•'

11

Jan.

3, '69

"

5.00

6.75

2.05

1.75

.65

.50

10682

1967

<$

"

Jan.

3, '69

"

4.75

6 75

2.05

1 95

.55

.52

L968

■

"

Jan.

3, :69

"

4.50

6.50

2.05

1.65

.61

50

2790

■-

•'

Mar.

20, '69

"

5.65

6.95

2.00

1.64

.54

.51

2576

d

r"iniiM',t's

Mar.

In, '69

"

5. mi

6. nil

2.10

2.00

.62

.50

4

■■

Jacksonville

Mar.

29, '69

"

4.60

6.10

2 00

1 so

.61

.60

2033

"

Jan.

5, '69

"

5.70

6.75

2.1(1

1.75

.tin

.80

1979

y

"

"

4.3d

6 50

2 0(1

1.3H

.60

.56

2588

,'

Dnmmitt's

Mar.

11. '69

"

6.00

6.7(1

L.90

1.70

.65

.50

5178

—

Hibernia

Jan.

20, "''.'.i

J. A. Allen

5.20

6.75

2.03

1.70

,65

.60

5179

—

"

Jan.

2ii, '69

"

4.75

6.50

2. mi

1.65

.67

.55

—

Hawkinsville

Mar.

in, '69

"

5.00

6.50

2.00

6361

~~

Mar.

In, '69

4.87

6.75

•J Oil

—

.68

—

17* Thryothorus ludovicianus Bonaparte. Carolina Wren.
Common. Rarely seen outside of thickets.

In few species is the difference in color between northern and southern
specimens greater than in this. Florida specimens have the reddish-brown

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 267

of the dorsal surface many shades deeper than Maryland ones, and the
under surface strongly rufous. The tail and wings, besides bein<>- much
darker, have the dark bars black, they being deep black on the tail, and
consequently far more conspicuous. The crissum, however, is lighter than
in the Maryland specimens, with the black bars broader. The Florida
specimens have also a much longer bill, they closely agreeing in every par-
ticular with the so-called Thryothorus Berlandieri of Northeastern Mexico
the Florida specimens even possessing the interrupted black bars on the
sides of the body said to occasionally characterize that species as distin-
guished from the T. ludovicianus. The differences between Florida and
Maryland specimens of T. ludovicianus in the length of the bilL as well
as in color, are very striking. They are paralleled, however, in Harpo-
rhynchus rufus and in other species. The T. Berlandieri hence appears to
be only the smaller, darker form of T. ludovicianus, — the Mexican homo-
logue of the Florida representatives of this species.

The Thryothorus Bewickii, from what is known of its range, doubt-
less occurs as a resident bird in Florida, but is probably rare there, as
it generally is elsewhere.

lS.t Anorthoura hy emails Rennie. Winter Wren.
Rare. — Board/nan.

19-t Cistothorus stellaris Cabanis. Short-billed Marsh Wren.

Rare. Enterprise, February. — Boardman.

The Telmatodytes palustris doubtless also occurs as a winter resident.

MOTACILLID^I.

20.t Anthus ludovicianus Lichtenstein. Titlark.
Common. Several were usually seen in company, but along the
river I saw no large flocks. According to Mr. Maynard, however, they
occurred in large flocks in the " old fields " away from the river.

SYLVICOLID^J.

21. t Mniotilta varia Vieillot. Black and White Creeper.
Not uncommon throughout the winter, but much more numerous in
March.
22.t Parula americana Bonaparte. Blue Yellow-backed Warbler.

Occasional during the winter months, but very numerous after the
1st of March, soon after which time they were in full song.

268 BULLETIN OF THE

23.t Helminthophaga celata Baird. Orange-crowned Warbler.
" Enterprise, loth of February. Rare." — Boardman.

24.* Dendrceca pinus Baird. Pine Warbler.
Abundant. Is much on the ground at this season, as it sometimes is
at the north in spring ; on the whole, however, it is much less ter-
restrial in its habits than is D. palmarum. In full song in February.

25.t Dendrceca palmarum Baird. Yellow Redpoll Warbler.
Extremely abundant. Probably the most numerous of the winter
birds in East Florida, where it is more or less common in all situations.
Exceedingly terrestrial in its habits, being generally seen hopping
along the ground or fallen timber. At the 1st of April they had con-
siderably decreased in numbers, but many were at that time observed
at Jacksonville.

There is some indication that the males and females, and possibly the
adult and young-, frequent separate districts at this season. When at
Jacksonville in January I saw only males ; on the Upper St. John's, in
February and March, only females or immature males ; but these were in
excessive abundance, as were also the males at the earlier date around
Jacksonville. Is it not probable that the old males either do not go quite
so for south as the females and immature males, or that the species was
already on its way north ? As is well known, the males in the species of
this family, as probably in most other birds, precede the females in their
journey northward.

26. t Dendrceca coronata Gray. Yellow-crowned Warbler.
More or less common till the 1st of April, and probably some re-
mained still later. During the last half of March they began to moult,
but at the end of the month a large part were still in winter dress.
The same remarks in respect to moulting apply also to D. palmarum.

27.* Dendrceca dominica Baird. Yellow-throated Warbler.
Seen at Jacksonville in January, but much more abundantly up the
river in February and March. March 5th I found them in great
numbers in the cypress and maple swamps near Lake Munroe, at
which time the spring migration had commenced.

28.* Dendrceca discolor Baird. Prairie Warbler.
Abundant at Jacksonville, April 1st, and occasionally seen at earlier
dates. This specie- is undoubtedly resident in Florida the whole year.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 269

29.t Seiurus aurocapillus Swainson. Golden-crowned "Wagtail.
Not common. A few were seen in February, as well as later.

30. t Seiurus noveboracensis NuttaU. "Water Wagtail.
Rare. Found at Dummitt's by Mr. Maynard in Februrary.

31.* Geothlypis triehas Cabanis. Maryland Yellow-throat.

Abundant. Though somewhat brighter colored throughout, they dif-
fer mainly from the northern type in the greater breadth of the black
facial band. There is but little difference in general size, that is, so far
as I have had an opportunity of observing ; occasionally a Florida
example has a bill considerably longer than the average in northern
examples, but this does not appear to be a very constant difference
between the southern and northern specimens. It would probably be
more marked in specimens from South Florida.

Other species of this family were seen in March that are not to be
reckoned as winter residents. Amonsr them are the following : Den-
drceca maculosa, D. virens, and D. pennsylvanica, Euthhjpis cana-
densis, Setophaga ruticilla, and Hehninthophagg. ruJicapiUa, all of which
began to appear on the Upper St. John's, near Enterprise, about the
middle of March, and most of them were also seen later at lower points
on the river. Helmitherus vermivorus and H. Swainsoni were taken at
St. Augustine, by Mr. L. L. Thaxter, in April.

HIRUNDINID.E.

32.t Tachycineta bicolor Cabanis. "White-bellied Swallow.
More or less numerous, but observed at irregular intervals. Large
flocks were seen near the St. John's River in January. It probably
does not breed in Florida.

33.t Cotyle riparia Boie. Bank Swallow.
Not observed by either Boardman, Maynard, or myself prior to the
last of March, but Mr. Audubon saw it in immense flocks " in winter,"
first at St. Augustine, and afterwards in other parts of the State.*

The Stelgidopteryx, serripennis was seen about Jacksonville the first
week in April, and specimens of it were obtained. Several pairs were
seen flying about some bluffs a few miles below the town, apparently
with the intention of selecting breeding-places.

* Birds of America, Vol. I, p. 187.

270 BULLETIN OF THE

VIREONID^l.
34.t Lanivireo solitarius Baird. Solitary Vireo.
Rather common. In full song early in March.

35.* Vireo noveboracensis Bonaparte. White-eyed Vireo.
Common. In full sons in March.

36.t Vireosylvia olivacea Bonaparte. Red-eted Vireo.

u A few all winter." — Boardman. Common after the 1st of March,
on the Middle St. John's.

The Yellow-throated Vireo, Lanivireo Jiavifrons, was quite common
early in March, and is undoubtedly a winter resident in South Florida.

AMPELID-EJ.

37.t Ampelis cedrorum Baird. Cedar Bird.
Common. Perhaps resident.

LANIID-B3.

38.* Collurio ludovicianus Baird. Loggerhead Shrike.

Lanius ludovicianus Linne, Syst. Nat., I, 184, 1766. — Bonaparte, Nuttall,

Audubon. — Gambel, Proc. Phil. Acad. Nat. Sci., Ill, 200, 1847.
Lanius garrulus Bartram, Travels, 289, 1791 (no description).
? Lanius ardosiaceus Vieillot, Ois. Am. Sept., I, 81, pi. li, 1807. — Bonaparte,

Obs. on Wils. Nomenc, Journ. Phil. Acad. Nat. Sci., III. 358, 1824.
Lanius carolinensis Wilson, Am. Orn., Ill, 57, pi. xxii, fig. 5, 1811.
Lanius excubitoroides Swainson, Faun. Bor. Am., II, pi. xxxiv, 1831.
Lanius elegans Swainson, Ibid., 122. — Nuttall, Man. Am. Orn., I, 2d ed.,

287, 1840. — Gambel, Proc. Phil. Acad. Nat. Sci., I, 261, 1843.
Lanius mexicanus Brehm, Cab. Journ. fur Orn., II, 145, 1854. — Sclater,

Catal. Am. Birds, 46, 1861.
Collurio ludovicianus Baird, Birds of N. Am., 325, 1858. — Allen, Amer.

Nat., III. 579, 1869. —Baird, Rev. Am. Birds, I, 443, 1866.
Collurio excubitoroides Baird, Birds N. Am., 337. — Baird, Rev. Am. Birds,

I, 445. — Cooper & Baird, Orn. Cal., I, 138, 1870.
Collurio elegans Baird, Birds N. Am., 328. — Baird, Rev. Am. Birds, I, 444.

Cooper & Baird, Orn. Cal., I, 140, 1870.

Not very numerous.

I have already referred to the questionable distinctness of the so-called
C. excubitoroides from the present species.* Further examination of the

* See a series of articles in the ''American Naturalist," entitled " Notes on some of
the Rarer Birds of Massachusetts," Vol. Ill, 1869.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 271

subject has only confirmed me in the opinion that they are not distinct,
and that in all probability the C. elegans of California should also be re-
ferred to the C. ludovicianus.*

TANAGRID-2E.

The Pyranga (estiva became common on the Lower St. John's
April 1st to 5th, but was not observed previously. P. rubra was not
seen at all.

A considerable number of specimens of this species (P. cestiua) in the
Museum, from the Atlantic States, present great differences in the size of
the bill in respect to vertical and lateral thickness, as well as in the posi-
tion and distinctness of the " tooth " of the bill, and in the curvature
of the commissure, as indicated by the accompanying figures (Plata IV,
figs. 19, 20). They also vary greatly in intensity of color, both of the bill
and plumage, as do different specimens of P. rubra from Massachusetts.
Hence species based solely on such distinctions should be accepted, if at
all, with great hesitancy, f

FRINGILLID^l.
39.t Chrysomitris tristis Bonaparte. Yellow Bird.
Common throughout the winter, and as numerous the first week in
April as earlier.

I am sure I heard the notes of the Pine Finch {Chrysomitris pinus),
but as I obtained no specimens of it and do not find it reported by
others, I do not include it in the present list. It is not improbable
that this species and the Purple Finch (Carpodacus purpureas) are
occasional winter visitors.

* Since writing the above I have met with the following observations on this group,
made by Dr. Gambel, in his " Remarks on the Birds observed in Upper California "
(Proc. Phil. Acad. Nat. Sci., Vol. Ill, p. 200, 1S47): "In the shrikes we are presented
with a group of birds closely allied to each other, and undergoing such changes in
plumage as renders them difficult to discriminate. Although examined with great care
by Swainson in the Fauna Boreali-Americana, yet he appears to have laid too much
Stress upon characters subject to great variation, as sue, relative length of quills, and

color The relative length of quills in the snrikes i» an uncertain character, and

differs very much according to age. In the young of this species the second quill is
generally much shorter than the sixth, but in the adult equals and may even exceed the
sixth in length; the proportion of 'he third, fourth and fifth to each other is also exceed-
ingly various, and indeed m each wing of the same bird it is very common to find the
proportions of the quills differing very materially. This I have found to be the case in
the European and botb American ,veeies [iniluno ludovicianus and C. borealis)."

t See some remarks on the" Uniformly red >pecies of Pyranga," m Proceed. Phil.
Aead. Nat. Sciences, p. 127. June, l&G'J.

272 BULLETIN OF THE

40.t PasserculllS savanna Bonaparte. Savanna Sparrow.

Emheriza sandwichensis Gmelin, Syst. Nat., I, 875, 1788.

Emberiza arctica Latham, Ind. Orn., I, 414, 1790.

Emheriza chrysops Pallas, Zool. Rosso-Asiat., II, 45, pi. xlviii, fig. 2, 1811.

Fringilla savanna Wilson, Am. Urn., Ill, 55, pi. xxii, fig. 2, 1811.

Passerculus savanna Bonaparte, Geog. ami Comp. List., 3.3, 1838. — Baird,

Birds N. Am., 442, 1858. — Sclater, Cat. Am. Birds, 112, 1862.
Passerculus alaudinus Bonaparte, Compte Rendu, XXXVII, 918, 1853. —

Baird, Birds X Am., 446, 1858. — Sclatek, Cat. Am. Birds, 112, 1862. —

Coues, Proc Phil. Acad. Nat. Sci., XVIII, 84, 1866. — CouES,Proc. Essex

Inst., V, 281, 1868.— Cooper & Baird, Orn. Cal., I, 181, 1870.
Passerculus ant/unus Bonaparte, Compte Rendu, XXXVII, 919, 1853. —

Baird, Birds N. Am., 445, 1858. — Sclater, Cat. Am. Birds, 112, 1862. —

Cooper & Baird, I, 18.3.
Passerculus sandwichensis Baird, Birds N. Am., 444, 1858. — Sclater, Cat.

Am. Birds, 112, 1862. — Cooper & Baird, Orn. Cal., I, 180.

Abundant, especially on the savannas, where it was the principal
sparrow seen.

This species, like all the sparrows, varies considerably in color with the
season of the year. Fall specimens, and especially the young of the year,
have the yellow superciliary stripe very indistinctly defined, it being in
numerous cases entirely obsolete. The general plumage is also much
browner, with the streaks on the dorsal surface suffused and obscured with
ferruginous, and those below, as in fall specimens of Melospiza melodia,
bordered with the same tint. Different individuals also vary considerably
in the breeding season, some being much grayer above than others ; the
superciliary line varies from bright yellow to grayish white, with the yellow
either entirely wanting or limited to a slight wash on the part anterior to
the eve. This graver plumage and faded condition of the superciliary
stripe is more especially seen towards the end of the breeding season.
The spots below also vary so much in size as to give very different aspects
to the plumage of the lower surface of the body in different specimens. In
some they form little more than a narrow line along the middle of the
feathers of the breast and sides of the body ; ill others they are quite
broad, occupying relatively a much larger surface ; occasionally, also, they
are aggregated on the lower part of the breast, forming a large conspicuous
patch, as distinct as is ever seen in Melospiza melodia. The general size.
of the bird also varies considerably, as is indicated in the accompanying
table of measurements, and the bill i- subjeel to very marked variations in
respect to length, size, thickness, and slenderness, as substantiated by a
series of nearly one hundred specimens now before me, including some
thirty specimens taken at Ipswich, Massachusetts, in the breeding season.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 273

These specimens are separable to some extent into several series, which
may be based either upon difference in general size, the character of the
bill, or upon coloration; but these several kinds of variation fail to cor-
roborate each other. If separated upon differences in size, the two or
more series thus separated embrace every combination of the other dif-
ferences ; and similar incongruities result when the separation is made
upon differences in coloration or other characters. Yet the Massachusetts
specimens present among themselves differences as well marked and of the
same character as is assumed to distinguish several of the so-called species
from the Pacific coast, that have been proposed and adopted by different
authors.

Alexander Wilson was the first naturalist who gave any adequate de-
scription of the species in question, though the Emberiza sandwichensis of
Gnielin unmistakably refers to this bird, and this name having been given
long before that of Wilson, should, in accordance with the rule of priority,
supplant Wilson's more euphonious and familiar one of savanna. The first
supposed species recognized by modern writers after the well-known one of
Wilson was the P. alaudinus, described by Bonaparte in 1853, in his notes
on the Delattre collection,* from a specimen from California. He says it
is not easily distinguished from P. savanna, but differs from it in being
smaller, with the bill shorter and slenderer, and in wanting the yellow
superciliary line.f Professor Baird redescribed it in his Birds of North
America in similar language, and cites under it five specimens, which came
respectively from Brownsville, Texas; Tamaulipas. Mexico; Petaluma,
Cal.. and Shoalwater Bay. AY. T. lie remarks respecting it as follows:
"This species, if really distinct from P. sacanna, differs in the rather
smaller size, although the difference is not great, and in the considerably
paler colors. The superciliary stripe shows a very faint trace of yellow,
especially anteriorly near the bill. In some specimens, as 4342, there is
none at all." Bonaparte, in his paper just cited, added another " new
species" from Kodiak, Alaska, which he called Passercidus anthinus, and
described as follows: " Passercidus anthinus, Bp., ex Kadiak, Am. Ross.
Simillimus pr&cedenli, sed rostro eliam graciliore et capite jlavo induto ;
subtus alho-rufttcens matjis maculatus." He says it is still smaller and has
the bill slenderer even than the other, and that it appears to live farther
noi-th. Professor Baird al~<> redescribes this species, and is much more
explicit in his account of it. He says : " Similar to P. savanna, but

smaller Breast and upper part of belly thickly spotted with sharply

defined sagittate brown spots, exhibiting a tendency to aggregation on the

* Compte Rendu, Tome XXXVII, p. 918.

t " Passerculus alaudinus, Bp., ex Wils., mais plus petite sans jaune aux sourcils et
a bee plus court et plus effileV'
VOL. II. 18

274 BULLETIN OF THE

middle of the belly," etc. He adds : " This species is the smallest of its
group, and differs from all in the much greater amount of spotting on the
under parts. The streaks, indeed, extend over the whole breast and upper
part of the abdomen, instead of being mainly confined to the jugulum." It
differs, he says, from P. alaudinus "in the strong shade of yellow on the
head, the much darker tints above, and the thick crowding of larger and
better defined spots beneath, with a faint tinge of reddish." lie refers to
it three specimens from San Francisco, Benicia, and Petaluma, California.

In 1858 Professor Baird added still another species of Passerculus to
those previously recognized, through the redescription of the original type
of this group, the Emberiza sandwichensis of Gmelin, based upon La-
tham's Sandwich Bunting * and Pennant's Unalaska Bunting.f The name
Sandwich, as Professor Baird has remarked, refers not to the Sandwich
Islands, but to Sandwich Sound, on the northern coast. To this species
Baird judiciously refers the Emberiza arctica of Latham J and Vigors, §
and the E. chrysops of Pallas. || Professor Baird's description of it is as
follows : " Almost exactly like P. savanna, but half an inch larger, with
much larger bill. Length, 6.12 ; wing, 3.00 ; tail, 2.55. Habitat, north-
western coast, from the Columbia River to Kussian America." He also
further observes : " This species is extremely similar to the P. savanna, and
is only distinguishable by its greater size and more western locality. The
tail feathers also are rather more acutely pointed. There is also a greenish-
yellow shade on the top and sides of the head, brighter than is seen in P.
savanna. The bill is considerably larger and longer, measuring .51 of an
inch above instead of .44." To this is referred one specimen from " Rus-
sian America," one from Fort Steilacoom, W. T., and three from Shoal-
water Bay, W. T., three of which measure as is indicated in the above-
quoted description, and the other nearly three fourths of an inch less.

In respect to size, then, it appears that the so-called P. sandwichensis is
the larger, the P. savanna the next in size, P. alaudinus the third, ami /'.
anthinus the smallest. So, at least, it is claimed ; but from the measure-
ments published in Birds of North America, a female of P. savanna from
Carlisle, Pa. (No. 780), is, with one exception (No. 4340, from Browns-
ville, Texas), the smallest of the specimens of this genus of which meas-
urements are there given ; two others from Pennsylvania are below the
average of A alaudinus. No. 10,203, from Russian America, referred to
P. sandwichensis, is scarcely larger than an average P. sava?ina. The

* Latham's Synopsis, Vol. II, p. 202, 1783.

t Pennant's Arctic Zoology, Vol. II, Species No. 229, pp. 320, 368.

X Indian Ornithology, Vol. I, p. 414, 1790.

§ Zoology of the Blossom, p. 20, 1839.

|| Zoographia Rosso-Asiatica, Vol. II, p. 45, pi. xlviii, fig. 1, 1811.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 275

accompanying series of measurements shows that specimens occur in
Massachusetts as large and as small as any specimens of the genus of
which measurements are given by Professor Baird.

In respect to the geographical distribution of these different supposed
species, it will be observed that of the three West Coast species, the larger,
P. sandwichensis, is northern, and the others, P. alaudinus and P. anthi-
nus, southern, which perfectly explains the difference in size that occurs
between them.* In respect to P. alaudinus and P. anthinus, one is only
the paler colored and the other the brighter colored form of the common
savanna sparrow as represented in the Pacific States ; the three supposed
species together forming a series similar to what is seen when a large
number of specimens of this bird from the Atlantic States are compared.
In other words, the characters whereon these species are based are evi-
dently only individual differences. The P. alaudinus is the form with
narrow streaks and generally paler tints, or that having a minimum inten-
sity of color ; the P. anthinus is that with the brighter tints, or with the
maximum intensity of color, the greater breadth of the streaks, and the
rufous suffusion below correlating with the generally brighter tints. Aside
from this normal range of variation referred to at length in Part III
as obtaining in all species, there i« that of season to be taken into
account, as the fading of the superciliary stripe and the grayer aspect of
the plumage above towards the end of the breeding season, through the
natural wearing and bleaching of the plumage, f and also the rufous suf-
fusion and greater amount of color characteristic of the renewed plumage
in fall. It will be noticed that authors report the occurrence of all the
western species either actually at or near the -same points^ while P.
savanna was not until recently supposed to occur on the Pacific slope of the
continent. § But one of the others have been announced from the plains
as far east as Nebraska, || and from Brownsville, Texas.^f

In respect to the habits of these supposed species, there is nothing
attributed to the western one that is not equally applicable to the eastern
bird. Dr. Coues, it is true, says that in Southern California P. anthinus
seemed confined to the moist salt grass and sedgy weeds of the sea-shore

* Since the above was written, Mr. Dall has given, not only P. savanna and P. sand-
mchensis, but also P. alaudinus and P. anthinus in his list of the birds of Alaska. (See
Trans. Chicago Acad. Sciences, Vol. I, pp. 283, '284.)

t See Part III, p. 193.

J See Professor Baird, " Birds of North America," Dr. Coues, " Notes on the Birds of
Arizona Territory," and Cooper's Ornithology of California.

§ It has recently been reported by Mr. Dall as common in Alaska.

|| P. alaudinus, Sclater's Catalogue of American Birds, p. 112.

^ P. alaudinus, Baird, in Birds of North America, p. 446.

276 BULLETIN OF THE

itself. " When with difficulty it was flushed, its flight was," he remarks,
" very rapid and irregular ; and it would alight again almost immediately,
and run with great celerity among the roots of the thick grasses. It was
then exceedingly difficult to procure." * All of which is quite true of
P. savanna when frequenting the salt marshes, which form its most favor-
ite resort in Massachusetts. " I', alaudinus" he says, "was common two
or three miles away from the coast, but on the sea-shore itself I never
found one mixing with P. ant/anus ; it is a bush-and-weed rather than
a grass species." P. saccuuia also frequents similar localities. Mr.
Dall, under P. antJiinus, has also accurately indicated the habits of the
eastern Passerculus. Under P. savanna, however, he mentions a fact
in respect to the breeding habits of this species I have never before seen
mentioned as characterizing any of the Passerculi, namely, its nesting in
bushes. I have met with many nests of the eastern savanna sparrow, and
have always found them placed on the ground, usually in a tuft of grass.

To recur again to the series in the Museum of Comparative Zoology,
I may add that while some of the Ipswich specimens, taken late in June,
have a decidedly yellow superciliary stripe, none have it so bright as it is
usually in spring specimens ; in a considerable proportion it is very pale,
and in Nos. 4700, 10GC8, etc., it is grayish-white, with no perceptible trace
of yellow. No. 5099, and some others, have the spots on the breast and
sides very narrow, occupying but a small share of the surface ; on the
other hand, in No. 5088, as also in several others of the series, the spots
are so broad as to occupy more space than the enclosing white portion.
In other specimens, taken at a different season of the year, the "rufous
tinge" surrounding the spots referred to in the above-quoted description
of P. anthinus is very marked. There is likewise great difference in the
color of the upper surface, in different specimens. In some the black cen-
tral spots of the interscapularies are so broad as to give to the dorsal aspect
a very dark tint; in others, taken the same day at the same locality, they
are so restricted that the general aspect of this surface is gray. The bills
of the different specimens vary as much in length and robustness as they
are represented to do in the two extremes in this respect in the western
bird. Some of the long-billed ones have the bill slender: others have it
thick and stout. Occasionally one has the upper mandible projecting
considerably beyond the lower, but only in cases where it is abnormally
developed. A specimen from Fort Bridger, Utah (No. 11115 of the
Smithsonian Catalogue), in the Museum, labelled Passerculus alaudinus
at the Smithsonian Institution, is of this character, the upper mandible
being very much abnormally developed and decurved, and projecting
much beyond the lower.

* Ibis, July, 1S66, 268.

MUSEUM <">F COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 277

In short, while not denying that there maybe a slight average difference
between eastern and western specimens, as I know there is between those
of the Central Plains and those of the Atlantic States, I cannot allow that
it is at all sufficient to substantiate a specific difference. On the contrary,
I am confident that the above-named supposed species of the Pacific
States are based chiefly on individual variation perfectly parallel with
that seen in a large series of specimens from the Atlantic. States. No
one, in fact, seems to have felt very confident that any of them were
distinct from the eastern P. savanna. Dr. Coues has even repeatedly
expressed his belief that Passeixulus alaudinus is not permanently dis-
tinct from that species. " In a large series of the latter," he says, '• shot
about Washington, I have found fully as great differences as I have ever
detected in comparing the eastern with the western forms." *

Dr. Cooper also refers as follows to the close resemblance of the P.
alaudinus to the P. sayulwichensis. He says, " I think it very doubt-
ful whether these specimens (which measure larger than the dimensions
given by Baird, though otherwise agreeing) are anything more than a
southern form of P. sandwichensis, though collected near San Diego.
.... Baird considers it almost identical with P. sacanna of the east,
and says that P. sand/vichensis differs from that species in its larger
size. Spring specimens have the superciliary stripe more decidedly yel-
low, so that there only remains a more slender bill to distinguish this
from P. savanna, and the larger size (characteristic of northern speci-
mens generally), with darker hues, from P. sandwichensis." f Respecting
P. anthinus Dr. Cooper remarks, " This species appears better marked, as
compared with P. savanna, than the preceding [P. alaudinus and P. sand-
wichensis], although I am not entirely satisfied that it is different." J

The following measurements of twenty-six specimens (fourteen males
and twelve females), all taken at Ipswich during June and July, 1868, and
measured before skinning, indicates the range of individual variation pre-
sented by this species. The extremes are as follows : Length, 5.20 and
6.00, both males; alar extent, 7.61 and 9.75, both females; wing, 2.44 and
2.95 ; tail, 1 .64 and 2.25 ; tarsus, .75 and .88. The average dimensions are :
Length, 5.20 ; alar extent, 8.79 ; wing, 2.70; tail, 1.96 ; tarsus, .84. The
following are the extremes of the series of measurements of the western
Passerculi, given in Birds of North America : Length, 5.00 (P. alaudinus
Tamaulipas, Mex.) and 6.12 (P. sandicichensis, Fort Steilacoom, \V. T.) ;
alar extent, 8.50 and 9.37 (same specimens) ; wing, 2.50 and 2.95 (same
specimens) ; tail, 2.00 and 2.57 (same specimens). It thus appears that

* Ibis, July, 1866, p. 289.

t Ornithology of California, Vol. I, p. 182.

J Ibid., p. 183.

278

BULLETIN OF THE

specimens taken in the breeding season in Massachusetts, overlap in two
out of the four measurements given, all the so-called western species,
while specimens taken in Massachusetts at other seasons, vary still more
than the specimens cited in the following table.

Measurements of Massachusetts Specimens of Passerctjlus savanna,
taken in the Breeding Season.

6

m

^

X

o

Locality.

Date.

Collector.

a

a
w

to

c

"3

9

6
8

s 5

oz

C/J

►2

<

£

E-i

03

5083

811

ft

Ipswich

June 12,

'68

Allen & Maynard

5.70

8.32

2 72

2.07

821 '

d

June 13,

:68

5.76

9.25

255

2.00

.85

5086

S40

d

June 14,

•68

5.65

9.15

2.75

1.85

.85

5087

848

d

June 14,

68

5.50

9.13

2.75

2.07

84

5089

852

d

June 15,

•68

5.40

9.10

2 65

2.00

.85

5090

853

d

June 15,

'68

5.70

9.20

2.08

2.10

.87

5094

854

■'

June 15,

v,s

5.70

9.25

2 04

1.95

.88

855

d

June 15,

'68

9.15

2.75

185

84

5901

S56

d

June 15,

-68

1.40

9.25

2 60

193

.80

5092

857

d

June 15,

'68

5.20

9.37

2 95

2.00

—

5092

858

d

June 15,

'68

5.40

9 25

2.63

2 06

.83

5096

832

d

Juiih 17,

'68

6.76

8 00

2 90

2 00

—

5098

873 j

June 17,

os

5.83

7 75

2.*

2.10

881 c

r

June 17,

•68

6.00

827

2.74

2.25

5082

810 :

>

June 12,

68

5.42

8.81

271

1.81

5084

819 \

June 13,

•63

5.75

S-85

2.57

1.83

.83

5084

847 ^

June 14,

•68

5.54

8.55

2.70

1.90

.80

r.uss

851 f,

June 15,

'68

5.75

9.75

2.70

2.05

.75

5094

859' (,

June 17,

•68

5.45

8.90

2-65

2.05

.85

5095

860 $

>

June 17,

■68

5 25

8.50

2-44

1.85

5096

862

June 17,

•68

5,70

8.90

2.7i

1.90

6097

878; ?

June 17,

'68

5.75

« 7.01

2.60

1.80

5099

877: {

June 17,

'68

5-75

8.05

2.75

2.00

890 ! <,

June 17,

'68

5.35

9.75

2. 77

1.95

5100

1006 5

July 15,

'68

C. J. Maynard

5.65

795

2^72

2.00

.87

1158: $

>

Aug 19,

•68

5.30

8.50

2.70

1.64

.85

41.t Poocsetes gramineus Baird. Grass Finch.
Abundant, especially in and about the old fields. The most numer-
ous sparrow in East Florida in winter.

42.t Junco hyemalis Sclater. Snow Bird.
" Common in January." — Boardman. Not seen by either Mr.
Maynard or myself. Probably of somewhat irregular occurrence so
far south.

43.t Spizella SOCialis Bonaparte. Chipping Sparrow.
Common. A large proportion of those seen were young birds.

44* Spizella pusilla Bonaparte. Field Sparrow.
Common. More numerous than the preceding species (S. socialis).
They appeared to be breeding at Jacksonville the first week in April.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 279

The songs of the males were so different from those of the northern
binl that the species was almost unrecognizable by me from its notes.

45.t Zonotrichia albicollis Swainson. White-throated Sparrow.
Generally more or less common.

46. t Melospiza melodia Baird. Song Sparrow.
Not numerous. At least comparatively few were seen.

47.t Melospiza palustris Baird. Swamp Sparrow.
Common, frequenting the hummocks and swamps.

48.t Passerella iliaca Swainson. Fox-colored Sparrow.
A single specimen was seen by Mr. G. A. Boardman at Enterprise.
None were seen by Mr. Maynard or myself.

49.t Ammodromus maritimus Swainson. Seaside Finch.
" Abundant at Fernandina." — Boardman.

50.t Ammodromus caudacutus Swainson. Sharp-tailed Finch.

" Abundant, with the preceding." — Boardman. Although I have
marked as winter visitors both these species of Ammodromus, they may
be resident.

51. t Coturniculus Henslowi Bonaparte. Henslow's Sparrow.
Stated by Audubon to be abundant in winter on the grassy pine
barrens of Florida.*

52.* Peucsea aestivalis Baird. Pine-wood Sparrow.

Fringilla aestivalis Lichtenstein, Verzeich. Doubleder Zool. Mus. der konigl.

Univ. zu Berlin, 25, 1823.
Fringilla Bachmani Audubon, Orn. Biog., II, 366, pi. clxv, 1834.
Fringilla astiva Nuttall, Man. Orn., I, 2d ed., 568, 1846.
Peucau Bachmani Audubon, Syn. Am. Birds, 112, 1839.
Peuccea ccsti calls Cabanis, Mus. Hein., 132, 1850.

Zonotrichia Cussinii Woodiiouse, Proe. Phil. Arad. Xat. Sci., 1852, 60.
Peucoca Cussinii Baird, Birds N. Am., 485, 1858.

Common, but confined to the pine woods.

The twenty-two specimens, collected by Mr. Maynard's party and
myself, now in the Museum, present considerable differences. Several
are so different in color from most of the others as to almost have the
appearance of being a different species, the general color of the upper

* Birds of America, Vol. Ill, p. 76.

280

BULLETIN OF THE

parts being rufous instead of gray. These are all females, the others
being males. But the males differ greatly in color, few of our sparrows
being more variable in this respect than the present species.

The following measurements of twenty-two Florida specimens indicate
quite a constancy in size, much greater than in color. The extremes of
this scries are as follows: Length, 5.75 and 6.20; alar extent, 7. GO and
8.30 ; wing, 2.17 and 2.55 ; tail, 2.25 and 2.G8. Average : Length, 5.88;
alar extent, 8.99 ; wing, 2.40; tail, 2.49.

Measurements of Florida Specimens of Peucjea aestivalis.

6 '

•n

^

55

S3

Sii

■r a

y.

Locality.

Date.

Collector.

A

a

m

'3

3

d
5377

= 3

oz

d

iS

<!

%

EH

2.50

H

.76

5377

Hawkinsville

Mar. 13, '69

J.A.Allen

6.00

8.20

2.35

5393

5398

"

Mar. 15, '69

"

5.S5

8.05

liLS

2.3(1

.75

5425

5425

?

Jacksonville

Apr. 2, '69

"

5.90

8.00

'J. in

2.4(1

.76

54l6

5426

d

"

Apr. 2, 69

"

5.90

8.30

2.55

2.50

.70

5427

5427

'

"

Apr. 2, '69

"

5.60

7.85

2.50

2 25

.76

5428

5428

/

"

Apr. 2, '69

"

5.80

8.20

2.40

2.50

74

54-9

5429

'•

"

Apr. 2, '69

"

5.90

7.85

2.45

2.47

.76

5430

5430

d

"

Apr. 2, '69

"

5.60

7.S5

2.40

2 50

68

10 18

18

•

"

Apr. 3, '69

C. Thurston

5.80

8.00

•J 45

250

.70

L0617

21

'•

"

Apr. 3, '69

"

5.90

7 - 7;".

2.17

250

.07

24

.-'

"

Apr. 5, '69

"

5. 75

8.00

2.45

2.35

.66

10818

27

d

"

Apr. 6, '69

"

5.75

8.00

'J 51 1

2.55

.65

10619

28

d

"

Apr. 6, ii('

"

6.90

8.00

2 45

2.65

.62

10620

36

?

"

Apr. 7, "69

"

5.90

8.00

2 25

2 55

.68

L i t

72

J

"

Apr. 24, '69

"

6 00

8.00

2.40

2.55

.70

I 6 3

68

d

"

Apr. 16, '69

"

6.00

S.00

2.40

2.56

.75

10622

67

r

"

Apr. 16, "69

"

6.00

8.00

2.45

2.50

.74

10625

73

d

"

Apr. 24, '69

"

6.20

8.15

2.40

2.50

.70

651

d

"

Apr. 15, '69

"

6.0(1

8.00

2.40

2.53

.72

10621

45

-

"

Apr. is, '69

"

6.10

8 m

2.35

2.60

73

37

d

"

Apr. 7, :69

"

5.90

8.00

2.45

2.68

.75

10626

2934

d

Apr. 13, '69

5.85

7.60

2.25

2.34

.70

53.* Cardinalis virginianus Bonaparte. Cardinal Bird.
Exceedingly numerous. Their clear, musical, loud call-note was
heard everywhere, this being the most noisy bird of the forest.

None of the specimens I have seen from Florida are as large as those
from the Middle States. The colors of the dinner are also somewhat
brighter, especially in the females, in which the brownish-yellow of the
lower parts is not only much deeper, but a large proportion have the breast
and middle of the abdomen strongly tinged with bright, red, giving a very
different appearance from northern females.

The, following measurements of fifty-eight specimens shows the amount
of variation in size in specimens from the same locality. The females, it
will be seen, average a little smaller than the male-, but the sexual
difference in this respect is not very great. The range of variation,
which is much less in this species than in many, is as follows: In the
males: Length, 7.75 to 9.10; alar extent, 11.00 to 11.78; wing, 3.50 to

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY.

281

3.85 ; tail, 3.40 to 4.20 ; tarsus, .62 to .80. In the females : Length, 7.50 to
8.75 ; alar extent, 10.70 to 11.75 ; wing, 3.25 to 3.85 ; tail, 3.40 to 4.10 ;
tarsus, .62 to 75 Average size of the males : Length, 8.46 ; alar extent,
11.43; wing, 3.63; tail, 3.87. Average of the females: Length, 8.27;
alar extent, 11.27; wing, 3.53; tail, 3.77.

Measurements of Florida Specimens of Cardinalis VIRGINIANUS.

6
e4

i S

*

Locality.

Date.

Collector.

a

w

u>

d

d>

° z

i.

>3

u

P

h-i

g

y^

<

5164

5164

9

Hibernia

Jan. 30, '69

J. A Allen

8.60

11.45

:; 35

4.10

5165

5165

cf

"

Jan. 30

»69

"

8 45

11 7d

3.65

3 83

5163

5166

-•

"

Jan. 30

"69

"

8.45

1 1 :,i i

3.60

4 10

5167

5167

7

"

Jan. 30

'69

"

8.75

1 1 :,i '

3 55

3 95

51S9

5 ISt

9

"

Feb. 3

•69

"

1 1 .25

3 50

:; :<5

5192

5192

cf

"

Feb. 3

'69

"

8 75

1 1 . 75

;: 5 i

4 Id

5193

5193

9

"

Feb. 3

'69

"

8.45

11.35

3.60

3 83

5230

5230

Volusia

Feb. 12

'69

"

815

11.00

3.30

3.78

5311

5311

cf

Enterprise

Mar, 1

69

"

8.75

11.60

:; mi

3 90

5312

5312

?

"

Mar. 1

•69

"

8.50

11 35

:; m

3.78

5347

5347

cf

"

Mar. 4

'69

•'

9.10

11.50

:; 58

4.15

?

Ilawkinsville

Mar. 13

'69

"

7-75

10.70

3 •_.-,

—

cf

Jacksonville

Mar 31

'69

"

7. 75

11.15

3.55

—

5424

5424

cf

"

Apr. 2

'69

"

8 50

115H

3.65

3.90

9

"

Apr. 2

•69

"

S.55

11.10

:;i,r,

—

1955

•'

"

Jan. 2

'69

C. J. Maynard

9.00

11.50

3.65

4 30

1987

cf

"

Jan. 5

■on

"

9.00

11.50

3 85

4.K5

10706

1988

r

"

Jan. 5

'69

"

S.50

1151

3 75

4.20

10707

1989

f

"

Jan. 5

'69

"

8 50

11.45

3.75

3 SO

2003

•

"

Jan. 10

'69

"

8 05

11.60

3 75

4.15

2i)U

1

"

Jan 7

'69

"

8.00

11.00

3 75

4.00

24 >0

i

D urn mitt's

Feb 24

'69

"

S HI 1

11.25

3.50

3.40

241S

cC

"

Feb. 22

'69

"

8 75

11 lu

3.80

3.90

2531

g

"

Feb 7

■69

"

S 0(1

11.00

:; >;.",

410

2537

-7

"

Feb. 9

'69

"

S.70

11.50

:; 65

4.00

2447

cf

"

Feb. 24

•69

"

Mil)

11.56

3.60

3 0(1

10709

2337

cf

"

Feb 16

-69

"

8 50

11 5H

360

3.80

2328

cf

"

Feb. 25

•69

"

8 25

1150

3 50

3.80

10710

233S

cf

"

Feb. 16

•69

"

8.50

11.5(1

3 60

3.80

10713

2393

<J

"

Feb. 16

'69

"

s 5i i

11.5H

3.65

3.65

2324

cf

"

Feb. 25

Y,'»

"

8.60

11,50

3.60

2389

cC

"

Feb '.'5

'69

"

S75

11 is

3.65

3.00

2368

cf

"

Feb. 25

■69

"

8.40

11 5li

3 60

4 10

23 55

•"

"

Feb 17

>69

"

8.00

11 5(1

Mill

3.90

2384

-"

"

Feb. 17

•69

"

8.50

11.50

3i;o

:j 60

2363

(f

"

Feb. 17

•69

"

8.50

11 5m

3 60

4(1(1

2538

cf

"

Mar. 10

•69

"

8 15

11. IS

3.60

3 4(1

2535

cf

"

Mar. 4

•69

"

S40

11 00

3 57

3 95

2459

cf

"

Feb. 25

'69

"

8 50

11.50

3. 75

;; 95

2008

9

Jacksonville

Jan. 9

•69

"

8.25

1 1 25

;; 35

3S5

2(142

V

'•

Jan. 6

"69

"

8 75

11 21

3 50

:: 70

— —

23 1

,

"

.Ian. 11

'69

"

3 00

11 hi'

:; in

3 K)

2579

9

Dummitt's

Mar. 10

'69

"

7 75

10.75

3 in

3 Ii.",

2317

s

"

Feb 24

■611

"

7.5U

11 ("i

10

:; 30

- —

2594

9

"

Feb 11

•69

"

8.50

11 Id

3.50

3.9J

2593

9

"

Fell 11

•on

"

3.50

11.05

;; 50

2334

9

"

Feb 21

•60

"

8.75

11 t^>

3 67

4iKI

2415

V

"

Feb. 20

■69

"

SHU

11.10

3.50

:; so

2394

9

"

Feb 16

•69

"

8.00

11 .75

1(1716

2324

9

"

Feb 15

'69

'•

8.50

1 1 0

3TH

4 In

___

2458

9

"

Feb 25

69

"

3 in

11 15

3 75

3 or,

23 ! I

,

"

Feb. 17

'69

"

S Tii i

1 1 5' I

3.60

3 70

2474

,

"

Feb. 16

'69

"

3.00

1 1 25

■i 15

3 55

2475

9

"

Feb. 26

'69

"

S.i HI

1 1 i ii i

3 i"

3 75

10117

2489

9

"

Mar 1

'69

"

Ml",

11 15

3.64

;; W

10715

21SS

,

"

Mar 1

■69

"

8.50

11 20

3.60

■l.i m

10714

2427

9

"

Mar 4

'69

'■

8 20

1 1 25

3 35

360

2043

9

Feb 11

•09

"

850

11 50

3 75

3.90

282 BULLETIN OF THE

54* Pipilo erythrophthalmus Vieillot. Chewix-k.
Exceedingly numerous.

Mr. C. J. Maynard detected an interesting local race or variety of this
bird at Dummitt's. Besides having the irides yellowish-white instead of
red, there is less white at the base of the primaries, less skirting the
secondaries, and much less on the tail. The whole bird is also smaller.
The white on the tail generally extends only to the three outer pairs of
feathers ; in the common northern form it extends over the four outer
pairs, and on the first is much more extended than in the Florida one.
The tail of the common form, with the outer pair of feathers removed,
would resemble, in respect to the distribution and extent of the white, that
of the Florida bird. The song of this bird, as I heard it at Jacksonville
in April, is quite different from that of the northern bird, it being ordinarily
only about half as long, and uttered with much less spirit. As is well
known, the song of the towhe, or chewink, at the north consists of two
parts, nearly equal in length but otherwise quite different. In the Florida
bird the last half is almost entirely omitted. According to Mr. Maynard,
this variety is almost the only one occurring on Indian River, and of which
he brought home some forty or more specimens. I found also one among
half a dozen I shot at Jacksonville in January. In April, among a few
towhes exposed in cages for sale in the market, were several of this kind.
There is probably a large proportion of northern birds among the Pipilones
of Northern Florida in winter, while probably in summer the majority are
of the southern type above described, as are those of Middle and Southern
Florida, doubtless, :it all seasons.

Had this form been discovered ten, or even five years since, it would
probably have been regarded by most ornithologists as entitled to specific
rank, and not as a local race of P. erythrophthalmus, as it evidently is.
Indeed, there are many species still on our lists that are far less entitled to
rank as species than this, but which, though at first only provisionally
adopted, have become traditionally established as valid species.

The two tables of measurements of specimens of this species given
below, with Table J (p. 212), show the difference in size that obtains be-
tween Massachusetts and Florida specimens. The first table embraces
twenty-nine specimens (nineteen males and ten females) of the white-
eyed Florida type ; the second table embraces sixteen specimens (ten
males and six females) of the common northern type from Eastern Massa-
chusetts ; the measurements of twenty other Massachusetts males having
been also already given in Table J, on p. 212. The following are the
extremes of the two series. Northern type, males : Length, 7. .00 and 8.80;
alar extent, 10.00 and 12.25; wing, 3.17 and 3.90; tail, 3.30 and 3.93;

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY.

283

Measurements of Specimens of Pipilo erythrophthalmus from
Indian River, Florida.

6

N

<-> 3

— 3

°z

1)

ce

Locality.

Date.

Collector.-

to

□

a
o

"3

w

u

3

bio

'3

H

3
u
a
Eh

10722

2477

cf

Dummitt's

Feb. 26, '69

C.J. Maynard

8.10

10.25

3.25

360

1.00

2476

cf

"

Feb. 26, '69

"

8.00

10.50

3.20

3.65

.95

2531

cf

"

Mar. 5, '69

"

8.00

10.00

3 60

100

2530

'

"

Mar. 5, '69

"

7.20

10.10

3.00

3.65

.90

2529

rf

"

Mar. 6, '69

"

8.30

10.20

3.25

3.70

1.00

2559

g

"

Mar 7, '69

"

7.90

9.85

3.42

3.50

1.02

10729

2669

cf

"

Mar. 12, '69

"

8.20

11.00

3.45

3.57

1.01

2592

cf

"

Mar. 11, '69

"

8.50

11.00

3.50

3.60

.87

2417

cf

<l

Feb. 22, '69

"

8.00

10.00

3 05

3.70

.95

2416

cf

"

Feb. 22, '69

"

8.00

10.25

325

3.35

—

2394

cf

"

Feb. 25, '69

"

8.00

10.10

3 10

3 50

.95

2426

cf

"

Feb. 20, '69

"

7.78

10.0(1

300

325

.90

2514

cf

"

Mar. 2, '69

"

7.70

9.50

280

3.40

.80

2512

1

"

Mar. 2, '69

"

7.25

10.25

3.10

3.70

.80

10724

2511

c?

"

Feb. 20, '69

"

7.75

10^0

3.20

3.50

1.09

10721

2395

cf

"

Feb 18, '69

"

7.40

10.00

2.92

3.90

—

10729

2668

cf

"

Feb 22, '69

"

7.40

lo7f,

3.00

3.45

.95

2044

cf

"

Feb. 17, '69

"

8.50

11.30

3.00

3 50

.95

10728

2516

c?

"

Mar. 2, '69

"

8.00

10.25

3 05

3 45

.90

2481

"

Feb. 24, '69

"

7.50

U A<

300

3.60

.90

2483

5

"

Feb. 20, '69

"

7-50

9.50

3.00

3.54

.90

2590

\

"

Mar. 11, '69

"

7.65

10.05

3.00

3 75

.92

2593

2

"

Mar. 11, '69

"

8.20

10 10

305

3 58

1.00

2591

?

"

Mar. 11, '69

"

790

9.95

3.03

360

.92

2578

5

"

Mar. 10, '69

"

740

9.75

3.00

3.80

.95

10727

2515

V

"

Mar. 2, '69

"

7.50

9.75

3.10

3.05

.95

10725

2513

$

"

Mar. 2, '69

"

7.35

10.50

3 35

3.10

.85

2445

?

"

Feb. 18, '69

"

8.05

10 53

350

3.45

.95

10726

2514

5

Mar. 2, '69

7.50

9 50

3 90

3.05

95

Measurements of Specimens of PinLO erythrophthalmus from
Eastern Massachusetts.

6
si

a>

Locality.

Date.

Collector.

J3
to

c
w

-j

3

^5

~ 3

1-3

u

a

<
12 35

3.30

3^4

rf

Newton

May 6, '68

C. J . Maynard

8.30

3.60

_

414

rf

Weston

May 9. '68

"

8.25

11.00

3 35

3 64

—

415

,-f

■'

May 9, '68

"

8 20

11.30

3 45

3 49

—

430

-f

Newton

May 11, '68

"

825

11.00

365

3.76

—

439

rf

Walt ham

May 13, '68

•'

8 45

11 30

3.51

3 Bo

—

639

rf

•'

May 18, '68

"

8. as

11.23

.•', 46

3.55

—

1008 cf

Weston

July 10, '68

"

8.50

11.00

341

3 46

—

4616

1329; <t

Newton

Sept. 21, '68

"

8 80

11.(15

3 42

370

1 10

1330; cf

"

Sept 21, '68

"

8 51

1141

3 51

4 00

100

4615

1295 cf

"

Sept. 17, '68

"

8 50

1 1 51 I

3. 55

3 75

1.00

4725

496 V

'•

May 15, '68

"

7.60

10 45

331

3 35

—

4726

527 V

Waltham

May 16, '68

"

8 25

11.76

335

3.60

—

-,j

"

May 16, '68

"

826

10 55

355

365

—

4724

555 V

Weston.

May 2o, 68

"

8 00

10.56

3 25

3 36

—

4617

1028 9

Newton

.hi lv 22, '68

8.50

11 00

341

3 52 ] lo

4613

1328 ?

■'

Sept 21, '68 i

845

1100

335

3 65 1 05

tarsus, .98 and 1.13. Southern type, males : Length, 7.20 and 8.50 ; alar
extent, 9.50 and 11.30; wing, 2.80 and 3.50 ; tail, 3.25 and 3.90 ; tarsus,

284 BULLETIN OF TOE

.80 and 1.09. The females in both cases average a little smaller than the
males. The average dimensions of thirty northern males are as follows :
Length, 8.19 ; alar extent, 11.32 ; wing, 3.43 ; tail, 3.66 ; tarsus, 1.06. Of
nineteen southern males: Length, 7.88; alar extent, 9.88; wing, 3.13;
tail, 3.56 ; tarsus, .94. The measurements given in the two preceding
tables were all taken by Mr. Maynard from fresh, specimens.

Other species of Fringillidce that from their general distribution one
naturally expects to meet with in East Florida in winter, but which, so
far as I can learn, have not yet been met with there, are the Yellow-
winged Sparrow ( Coturntculus passerinus), Black-throated Bunting
(Euspiza americana), Indigo Bird (Cyanospiza cyanea), and the Non-
pariel (0. ciris). Specimens of the latter, collected at Cape Florida in
winter, have been received at the Museum, and it was taken in April
at Jacksonville and St. Augustine by Mr. Thurston and Mr. L. L.
Thaxter.

ICTERID.3S.
55. t Molothrus pecoris Swainson. Cow Blackbird.

Not numerous. Sometimes seen in small parties by themselves, but
more frequently associating with the red-wings and grackles.

56* Agelseus phoeniceus I icillot. Red-winged Blackbird.
Abundant. Apparently chiefly Florida born birds seen, especially
in February and March. The sexes were usually in separate flocks.

The differences in respect to size and color between Florida and New
England specimens usually seen in individuals of the same species, from
these localities are very marked in the present species, especially in re-
spect to color. In no group, in fact, is it generally more so than in the
Icteriilii .

In the Florida red-wings the general form is slenderer and more deli-
cate, the bill relatively longer and more pointed, and the general color
more intense and lustrous. The difference is particularly marked in the
shoulder-patch, in which tlie red of its anterior portion is darker, approach-
ing bright orange, and the posterior part, which in the northern bird is
usually pale cream-color, whitish, or even nearly pure white, is orange-
yellow, — very nearly as in the .1. gubernaior of the Pacific States. The
difference in color, si/e, and especially in the form of the bill, is much
greater than the differences existing between many currently received
Species of North American birds, and it is surprising that the two forms
have not Keen specifically separated. I can only account for it on the sup-
position that specimens from Florida and the Gulf States have not fallen

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 285

into the hands of the assiduous species hunters. As remarked in Part III
(p. 234), Florida and New England specimens are as different from each
other as are the so-called Agelceus phceniceus of the Northeastern States,
the A. tricolor and the A. gubernalor from each other.

Specimens of A. phceniceus from Louisiana I find correspond very nearly
in every respect with the specimens from Florida. I have also before me
one specimen from Maine with the shoulder-patch as highly colored, and
with nearly as long a bill as is found in the specimens from Florida.

Plate VI shows the average form of the bill in Florida and Massachu-
setts specimens, and the annexed table of measurements the difference in
general size. They also illustrate individual variation.

The following measurements of seventy specimens of this species from
Massachusetts (forty males and thirty females), eighteen specimens from
South Carolina and Florida (eleven males and seven females), and thirteen
specimens from California (four males and nine females), exhibit, besides
the average size and the individual variation at the same locality (espe-
cially in the case of those from Massachusetts), several interesting facts in
respect to geographical variation. While the northern specimens (see the
summary of these measurements given below) are somewhat larger than
the southern ones, the latter have the longer head (including the bill), and
also the longer bill. The height and width of the bill at the base re-
maining essentially the same in both, the southern ones have the bill
relatively more attenuated. The difference in this respect is more strik-
ing than the measurements given seem to indicate. The California
specimens closely resemble those from Florida, not only in respect to size,
but in regard to the size and form of the bill, and also in respect to color ;
these, as well as the Florida ones, belonging to the southern tvpe. As
previously remarked, they bear a much closer resemblance to the Florida
form in every respect than to that found in New England.*

The individual variation in this species seems to be very great everv-
where, the variation in specimens of the same sex from the same locality
being fully fifteen per cent of the average size at that locality.
* The affinities of Agelaus gubernator and A. tricolor witli A. phce?iieetis are acknowl-
edged to be exceedingly close. Professor Baird cites, in his Birds of North America,
one specimen of the A. phceniceus from San Jo«e, California, and five from Fort Steila-
coom, W. T. He also cites specimens of A. gubernator from Petaluma and San Fran-
cisco, Cal.; hut Dr. Cooper regards this species as "limited to the interior of the State"
(California), while those found along the coast, he say?, clearly resemble the eastern
bird. (Ornithology of California, Vol. I, p. 264.) From the close res .already

alluded to, of both the A. gubernator and .4. tricolor to A. phceniceus, and their occur-
rence mainly in the hot valleys of California and the region more to the south-
ward, I can scarcely doubt that these forms, especially A. gubernator, are the southern
smaller, brighter colored, more attenuated billed western homologues of the similar
eastern form from Florida and the Gulf States.

286

BULLETIN OF THE

Measurements of Northern Specimens of Ageljeus pikeniceus.

6
6

* ii

M

•-■
OQ

Locality.

Collector.

5

S
(J

c

ti
c

is

'3

•a

S

K

Bill.

Date.

a
0

a

1

T3

1274
9577

<SZ

7

<

3~82
3.88

L82

I 77

3

.87

~.45
46

^37

.40

Vassalboro', Me.
Waterville, "

Mr Becker
C. E. Hamlin

9 4014.90,4.65

9 45 H.75 4.82

June 20, '64

'.87

391

—

•'

Maiden, Mass.

1859

D. Higgius

9.35 14.75 4.67

3 75

1 70

•86 .47

.40

96 -

cf

ii ii

'

"

9.15 U -35 4.55

3.50

1.75

.80 .50

.37

392 -

d

ii ii

'

n

9 20 '4 75 4.70 3.66

1.82

.89 .47

38

92 —

'

ii ii

1

"

9.25 11 50 4.75'3.82

1.80

•92 50

.40

93' —

d

it ii

'

"

9.2014.40 150 3.45

1 S5

.88 .45

40

94 -

d

ii it

'

"

9.00 14.25 4.60 355

176

.90 .50

.38

95 -

■'

ii ii

'

"

9.O0 L5 10 4653.65

1.83

95 .50

.40

<■

it ii

'

"

9.0014.65 4.65 3 35

1 SL

84 45

.37

394 -

{

ii ii

'

"

8.40 14.10 4.50,3.40

1.60

• 75 46

.40

5727 -

d

Concord, "

'

II. Mann

8 58 13 95 4 50 3.46

1.78

.92 4S

.40

5723 -

'

ii ii

'

"

8 45

1445 4.55 3 35

1 75

90 43

45

5724 -

<

u ii

1

"

8.40

14 25 4.43 3.12

1.80

.84 .45

3S

5729 -

r

ii ii

'

"

9.60

14 51 4.54 3.33

1.K2

.85 .47

.39

5726

—

cf

ti ii

"

9.26

14.95 4.75 3.75

1.80

.87

.44

38

5720

—

•'

ii u

'

"

9 05

15.00 4.86 3.86

184

.88

.44

.37

5721

—

d

u ii

'

"

9.70

14.88 40^0 so

1 77

.92 .46

.40

5722

—

d

u ii

'

"

9 00

14.50l4.65 3.65

1.71

83 .43

38

5725; -

d

ii ii

"

"

9.85

14 25 4 7:;:; 76

185

.93

.43

.35

5728 -

?

ii ii

'

"

9 25

14.50 4. r,o 3.81

1.78

.88

.44

.33

5732

—

'•

ii ii

"

"

9 58

14.62

4 74 3 85

1.83

.91

■is

.38

Monti

—

'•

Ipswich, "

June 14,'68

J. A. Allen

9.15

14.50

4.70 3.78

1.79

92

44

.40

1674

—

f

Springfield, "

June 26, '62

9.00

14.00

4.59 3.42

1.62

87

45

.40

1675

—

1

i. ii

June 26,'62

"

9-25

151 1

4 82 3.73

1.84

.93

46

43

L782

—

•'■

July 12, '62

"

9 50

1 1 51

4 62 3 65

1-91

.97

.45

37

1781 j -

-"

July 12, '62

"

9 00

14.61

4.50 3.38

ISO

.86

.43

.40

626

—

c?

Auburndale, "

Mar. 23, '57

S. Tenney

9 62

1535

4.87 3.77

1.85

.91

.43

40

1022

•" \\ enham, "

May —,'61

J. Bartlett

9 25

15.00

4.67 3.55

1.84

.89

.48

43

114

Newton, "

Mar. 13/68

('. J. Maynard

8 75

14.83

4.70 3.53

—

—

—

—

180 cf! "

Mar. 28 ,'68

"

9 :;>

15.00

4 75 3.60

—

—

—

214 - "

Apr. Ll,'68

SOI

14 85

4.60 3.52

—

—

—

—

251 Weston,

Apr. 18/68

9.52

1500

4.82 3 80

—

—

—

302 f Newton,

Apr. 23/68

9.00

15.00

4.66 3.65

—

—

—

—

323 ••

Apr. 25, '68

"

9 00

15.0014 85 8 40

—

—

—

—

352 ■• Weston, '■

May 1/68

"

9 16

15 lo

1 hi:;. 70

—

—

—

—

.'J71 d Newton'. "

May 5/68

;;

9.00

15.00

5.00 3.S0

—

—

—

—

1 351c?1 "

May 1/68

9.50

15 25

4 92 3.85

—

—

—

—

! 417icf;Weston, "

May 9/68

"

9 50

15 15

4.90 3.77

—

—

—

—

3047

•' Newton, "

Mar. 23/70

"

9.50

15.00

I 60 3 56

—

—

—

—

9843 —

f Milltown, Me.

G.A.Boardman

8.00

12.50

3.95 3.05

157

73

.38

32

9844 —

«

800

12 50

I 08 :; 10

1 54

.79

.40

.30

399 -

J Maiden, Mass.

1853

D. Higgins

7 50

11.75

3.60 2.70

1 48

.72

.42

33

396

V

u ii

•'

"

7.75 12 30

3 90 3.06

1 60

.82

.43

35

97 -

*

u ii

'

"

7:::, 11.75

3 63 2 so

155

• 70

.40

.37

402! —

9

ii ti

'

"

8 55 13 55

4.26 3.15

It;.;

.75

M

.41

398 -

t

ii ii

'

"

8 05 L3.50

4.16 3 10

[.67

77

.43

36

98 -

.

ii ii

'

"

7 75 L2.10

:: 71 2.97

158

72

.37

33

I

it it

«

"

7.42 11 55

:;s7 2 7:;

1 02

.73

.37

35

397 —

5

it ii

'

"

7 51 1 1 1 25

3.70 2.98

1 58

76

84

33

395 -

V

" "

'

"

7 40 12.50

1.11 2 68

150

70

.38

.38

99 -

9

ii ti

1

"

7 45 11.50

3.75 2.90

1.55

75

.42

43

5730 -

$! Concord, "

11 Mann

7.75 12-50

3 80 3.02

1 .54

.70

.40

.33

1 ..ii

9

Springfield, "

July 15/62

J. A. Allen

7 50 12.00

3.73 2.90

1.68

79

.40

;;t

(

it ii

June 26/62

"

7.65 11.75

3.07 2.82

1 54

.70

:;s

.37

1672 -

2

ii ii

June 26/62

"

7.85 11 82|3.75 2.89

l 60

.75

.40

.38

1673 -

i

u ii

June 26, '62

"

7.75 12 003.77 2.85

157

.78

.38

37

1679 -

1

"

June26.'62

"

8.00 12 25:: 79 3.00

1 :,:,

74

.39

36

?

it ii

June26,?62

"

soo 12 10 ■". 85 2.93

1 53

.78

38

—

—

5

Weston, "

C. J. Maynard

7 7:; 12.61 3.95 2 05

—

—

—

—

E

[pswich, "

June 15/68

"

7.45 13.60 A 00 3 05

—

—

—

—

sol * Essex.

June 17/68

"

8.00 1235 1.00!

—

—

--

—

893 i "

June 17/68

"

7.75 12 51 3.90 2-90

—

—

—

—

loo:i > Walt ham, "

Aug. —,'68

"

7 15 12.37 380 2 75

—

—

—

—

— M7r, y;

Aug. —,'68

"

7.67 12 30 3.85 2.85

—

—

—

,10961$' "

Aug. —,'68

"

7.5o 12403.95 2.72

—

—

—

—

. Newton, "

Aug. —,'68

ii

7 7', 1280 3.71 2 so

—

—

—

—

vw

W althain, "

Aug. —,'68

"

7 50 12.00 3.85 2.65

—

—

—

—

1099

Weston, "

Aug. —,"68

"

7 50 12.10367 2 so

—

—

—

—

2830 V Newton,

June 8/69

"

7.50 12.00 4.00 2.90

-

—

—

—

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY.

287

Measurements of Southern Specimens Oj

f Ageljeus phceniceus.

6 4

o

S5

><

Locality.

Date..

Collector.

i i i

■6

s

Bill.

j

j

E
4126

o

•'

►3

=5 \* '-

a

o

.45

37

Charleston, S. 0.

L. Agassiz

9.55 14 75 4 75 3.65 190

1.00

4127

—

•'

" "

*'

B 80 14.30 4 50 3.551.74

.87

.47

.40

412*

—

•'

" "

"

9.45 14.50 4.60 3 72 1.80

.90

.50

.40

4129

—

•

" "

'•

9.05 13.50 4.37 3.45 1.73

.85

.43

.42

4125

—

-•

" "

"

9.05 14.12 4.42 3 35 1.94

.95

.46

.35

-?

HiwkinsviHe.Fla.
Jacksonville, "

Mar. 15, '69

J. A Allen

825 13 60 4.34 —

1928 d"

Dec. 31, "69

C. J. May nard 9 10 14 90 4 75 3. 58

1056 i 1929 cC

" "

Dec. 31, '69

"

9.20 14 ^o 4.80 390

—

—

—

10561 2018 rt"

" "

Dec. Sl,'69

"

8.80 14 15 4.55 3 58

—

—

10574 2552 rf

Dummitt's, "

Mar. 8,'69

"

950 14.20 4.75 3.90

—

10573 2450 <f

" "

Feb. 24, '69

"

8.50 14.00 4 75 3 45

—

5153 —

?

Hibernia, "

Jan. 30,'69

J. A. Allen

7 65 12.60 3.85 3.05

5154 —

T

" "

.Ian. 30,'69

"

7.85 12 5H3.90 3 07

5155 —

" "

Jan. 30,'69

"

7.80 12.85 — 3 20

4141 -

" "

Jan. 3D, '69

"

8.0012.25 3 80 3 05

5209 —

9

Welaka, "

Feb. 8, '69

"

765 12 50 3 75 2 SO

5208 —

1

M cc

Feb. 8, '69

"

7.50 11 85 3 63 2 75

_

5210 —

*

" "

Feb. 8, "69

"

Measurements of California Specimens of Ageljeus PHCenicetji

><

CO

Locality.

Date.

Collector.

A

c

W

ho

a

'3

3
u

ta

TT

Winter '59 -'60

|J

<

fr*

5S*5

San Francisco, Cal.

A. Agassiz

8.50

14.93

4.83

3.50

1.63

5884

<-r

" "

Winter '59 -'60

8.75

15 05

4 95

335

1.74

666

■•

" "

Winter '59 -'60

860

14 55

4.47

3o9

1.90

2188

rT

GulfofGeorgia,W.T.

Sept. — , '60

8.71

13.50

4.45

3.26

1.75

9

Sau Francisco, Cal.

Winter '59 -'60

758

12 80

4.03

2 73

1.63

5893

i

" "

Winter '59- '60

7.55

12.35

3.05

247

1.46

5887

i

" "

Winter '59 -'60

7.81

12 30

4.25

3.86

154

V

" "

Winter '59 - '6 )

7 50

12.75

3 04

2.47

1.56

58S6

i

" "

Winter '59 -'60

T. G. Cary

7.82

12.77

4o4

2.62

1.56

20,o

?

" "

Winter '59 - '60

8.29

1327

4 32

3.00

1.62

20.4

y

" "

Winter '59 - '60

8.18

13.25

3.85

2.95

167

2078

i

" "

Winter '59 -'6')

8.50

13.00

4.15

310

165

5888

I

"

Winter '59 -'60

A. Agassiz

7.25

12.25

390

3.71

1.50

Summary of the above Measurements of Specimens of Ageljeus
phceniceus.

Locality.

"S|

to

to

c

c

2

co

<

£

H

~T79*

3

rj
J38*

£

'

40

Aver.

9.16

14.71

4 69

3.63

.46*

.39*

9

28

Aver.

7-53

1224

3.86

2 93

1.571

.75t

.395t

.357+

South Carolina |

li

11

Aver.

9.02

14.41

4.62

361

1.83

.91*

.46+

.391

and Florida |

9

i

Aver.

773

12 44

3.83

2.99

—

California I

d

7

Aver.

864

14.52

4.67

3.30

1.75

9

9

Aver.

7.83

12.70

4.00

2.99

157

—

[

rf

40

Max.

9.&5

15 35

5.00

3 90

1.94*

,97*

.50*

.45*

Massachusetts -j

40

Min.

8.40

13 95

4.43

3.12

1.60*

.75*

.43*

.33*

9

'28

Max.

8 55

13 55

4.26

3 15

1.681

.82t

lit

I

9

28

Min.

7.35

11.25

3.63

265

1.48t

.70t

37t

.301

1

ft

11

Mux.

9.55

14 90

4 B0

390

1.94 J

1.00J

50J

South Carolina !

'•

11

Min.

8.25

13.60

4 34

335

1.74J

.85+

.43;

.35;

and Florida 1

7

Max.

8.00

12.85

390

3 20

1

§

i

Min.

7 50

11.85

3.63

2.75

rf

t

Max.

875

15.05

4.95

3.50

190

California <

f

7

Min.

8.50

13 50

4.45

309

1.63

_

9

Max.

8.50

13.27

4 32

3.86

1.67

I

*

9

Min.

7 25

12 25

3.85

2 17

146

—

-

-

29 specimens.

t 19 specimens.

t 5 specimens.

288 BULLETIN OF THE

57* Sturnella ludoviciana Svoainson. Meadow Lark.

Alauda magna Linne, Syst. Nat., I, 167, 1758. — Wilson, Am. Orn., Ill, 20,

p!. xix, 1811.
Slurnus ludovicianus Linne, Syst. Nat., I, 290, 1766. — Bonap., Joum. Phil.

Acad. Nat. Sri., IV, 180, 1824. — Nuttall, Man. Orn., I, 147, 1832.

— Audcison, Orn. Biog., II, 216, 1834.
Sturnus collaris Wagleh, Syst. Avium, I, 1827.
Sturnella ludoviciana Swainson, Faun. Bor. Am., II, 282, 1831. — Bonap.,

Geog. and Comp. List, 1838. — Audubon, Synop. Am. Birds, 148, 1839. —

Cabanis, Mus. Hein., 192, 1851. — Sclater, Cat. Am. Birds, 139, 1862.—

Cassin, Proc. Phil. Acad. Nat. Sci., 1866, 23.
Sturnella magna Swainson, Phil. Mag., I, 436, 1827. — Baird, Birds N. Am.,

535, 1858. —Allen, Mem. JBost. Soc. Nat. Hist., I, 496, 1868.
Sturnella collaris Vieillot, Analyse, 1816.
Sturnd/a hippocrcpis Wagler, Isis, 1832, 281. — Lawrence, Ann. N. York

Lyceum N. Hist., VII, 266, 1860. — Sclater, Ibis, 1861, 79. — Cassin,

Proc. Phil. Acad. Nat. Sci., 1866, 24.
Sturnella neglecta Audubon, Birds of Am., VII, 339, pi. cccclxxxvii, 1843. —

Baird, Birds of N. Am., 537, 1858. — Cassin, Proc. Phil. Acad. Nat. Sci.,

1866, 23.
Sturnella mexicana Sclater, Ibis, 1861, 79. — Cassin, Proc. Phil. Acad. Nat.

Sci., 1866, 24.
Sturnella meridionalis Sclater, Ibis, 1861, 79. — Cassin, Proc. Phil. Acad.

Nat. Sci., 1866, 24.

Abundant. Found chiefly in the moister parts of the pineries.

Somewhat smaller than in the Northern States, but in most eases with
longer and larger bills, brighter colors, and a quite different song. The
latter somewhat resembles that of the western meadow lark, but is still as
distinct from it in its general character as it is from that of the New Eng-
land bird. The present species has a wide geographical range, throughout
the greater part of which it is resident. The Alleghanian fauna forms its
northern limit, from which it mostly retires during winter. To the south-
ward it extends to Cuba and the other larger West India Islands, through-
out most of Central America, and to the elevated parts of Northern South
America. It ranges westward over the elevated arid plains of the middle
of the continent to the Pacific As might be expected, it is not quite uni-
form in its characters at all points. The main differences, however,
consist merely in the lighter color of those from the plains, and the
smaller size of those from the south. The former constitute the S!itni</!a
neglecta of Audubon and most other writers since his time. In Cuba it is
the S. hippocrepis of Wagler and others, and tin? Mexican and (iuatemalan
tlji'in i- the S. mexicana of Sclater, and the South American form the S

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 289

meridional^ of the same author. Yet the distinctions between them are
trivial, all of these so-called species having been generally looked upon as
doubtfully distinct from the S. ludoviciana of the United States, especially
the three last named. The S. collaris of Vieillot has very generally been
referred by subsequent writers to the 5. ludoviciana. The main distinctive
feature of the S. neglecta has been its song, — a very doubtful basis on
which to found a species. The Florida specimens are intermediate in size
and other characters between the Cuban and New England represent-
atives of this species. As already remarked, the song of the Florida birds
is as widely different from that of the New England bird as the song of
the latter is from that of the western ones. Concerning the affinities of 5.
neglecta I have already remarked.* Concerning those of the other sup-
posed species, I may well borrow the appropriate remarks of the late Mr.
Cassin, who observes in respect to them, in his " Study of the Icteridce"]
as follows : —

" This bird [Slamella ludoviciana'] is nearly related to the next four
species of this genus [S. neglecta, S. hippocrepis, S. mexicana, S. meridio-
nalis], equally in structure and in colors, and it would be difficult to de-
scribe by positive characters either species of this group, so as to insure
recognition absolutely, or without comparative characters being given.
.... No other genus or sub-genus of this family presents so many species
of such uniformity of structure and similarity of color, and there are, as-
suredly, few such in the kingdom of birds." Under S. neglecta he further
remarks in respect to the transition that is so apparent between it and S
ludoviciana : "In the central regions of North America it is possible that
a hybrid race between the two species may be produced, to be referred
•with about equal propriety to either." S. hippocrepis, he says, is very
nearly related to 5. mexicana, " and can scarcely be distinguished from it
by any characters which seem to be reliable." He thinks it to be some-
what more distinct, however, from 5. neglecta. Mr. Lawrence had pre-
viously remarked that the S. hippocrepis is somewhat smaller than S.
ludoviciana of the United States, and that he " thinks it is specifically
distinct " ; although he adds, " it would be difficult to point out any re-
liable differences in coloration, especially of the upper plumage, as in-
dividuals even of the same species are very variable.''^ He says, further,
that specimens of it from Jalapa, Mexico, differ " only in the pectoral band
appearing broader in the Mexican bird, and the tertials much shorter
than the primaries, but this last may not be a reliable character." In the

* See Memoirs of the Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. I, p. 494, 1868.
t Proceedings of the Phil. Acad. Nat. Sciences, 1866, p. 23.
t Annals of New York Lyceum of Nat. Hist., Vol. VII, 266, 1860.
VOL. II. 19

290

BULLETIN OF THE

following year, however, Mr. Sclater separated the Mexican bird from
those of Cuba and the United States, under the name 5. mexicana, and
also the South American under the name 5. meridionalis. Mr. Cassin
says of the latter : " Very nearly related to the preceding (S. hippocrepis),
if distinct, and I give it, at present, as a species provisionally only. .....

The. colors of the upper parts seem to be less clearly defined, and of a
slightly different style and pattern from the preceding, and it may bear
about the same relation to that species (S. hippocrepis) that S. neglecta does
to <S\ ludoviciana. Such relation I hold to be rather probable from the
specimens now at hand."

Having given the views of the describers of these several "species," I
may add that I have seen examples of each, and do not question that they
should all be referred to one. As is evident from the above-quoted re-
marks, these different species gradually pass into each other, — the S.
magna into the S. neglecla, the S. neglecta into the S. mexicana, and
the 6'. mexicana into the S. hippocrepis, which is their exact geographical
relation.

In regard to the Florida specimens, as compared with New England
ones, the most striking differences consist in their smaller size and
much brighter colors, especially of the ventral surface.

The following tables of measurements indicate the individual and sexual
differences in size, and also the difference in size between specimens from
the Northern States and from Florida.

Measurements of Northern Specimens o/* Sturnella ludoviciana.

4862
4863

362

363

3 14
865
366

568
569

97ti4
9765
9766
2646

4n42
41U2

416
lloO
[134
2696
2698
1700
4045

4D61

2738

Locality.

Newton,

Walt ham,
Newton,

Maiden, "

Evanston, 111.

Lawn Ridge, "
Concord, Mass

Collector.

May 8, '68

Aug. 6, "68

Aug. 19, '68

May 15, '69

May 15, '69

Aug. 6, '68

Aug. 2, '69

Aug. 2, '69

May 15, 69

C. J. Maynard

D. Higgins

0. Marcy

K. Butler
F. C. Brown

1075

in 'jo

10.25

in 75
11.00
10 20
1100
11.00
0.75
9.25
9.58
111.50
10.35

1

10 75

8.90

9.50

o 25

0 75

10.00

9.60

lit 25

10.33

w
^<

16.59
16.30

15 85

Hi 75

17.IKI

16.30

17 on
16.00

15.00

13.50
1400
15.33
15.65
15 05
15 50
lino
I ,.68
13.92
U 65

15 50
1475
16.00

15.65

5.13

■i us
4.80

,-, I I! ,

5 15
■1 OS
5.00

4. MP

4.55
4.17

4.:j5
4.82
4.83
4.75
4. st;
4.35
5.00
4 15
4.50
4.74
4.55
4.77
467

3.50
290
2.92
3 35
3.35
•i 0i p
:!4ii
3.35
2.65

•J .Ml
290
311
313
314
3 30
2.60
3 05
2 82
310
3.15
2K4
2.83
3.08

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY.

291

Measurements of Florida Specimens of Sturnella ludoviciaxa.

s

o
J5

M

Locality.

Date.

1 £

Collector. |>

in

c

"5

o

o

oa

1 —

<

4 50

H

203*

d
d

f

Jacksonville

Jan.

20, '69

C.J. Maynard 9.55

15.60

2.85

2817

Duminitt's

May

15, '69

"

10 20

1510

4.50

3 20

2816

"

May

15, '69

"

1

1515

4 60

295

6335

■f

Enterprise

Mar.

4, -69

J. A. Allen

9.75

14 75

4.50

—

633(5

3
d

"

Mar.

4, '69

"

9.85

15.20

4 10

2.89

5337

"

Mar.

4/69

"

9 70

14.80

4 45

-

Hawkins ville

Mar.

12, '69

"

9 75

15.00

450

3.05

5369

f

"

Mar.

12, '69

"

9.50

14 75

4.25

537 1

J

"

Mar.

12, '69

"

10.00

15 75

4.50

3.07

Volusia

Mar

17, '69

"

8.75

13 75

4.05

—

5370

i

Hawkinsville

Mar.

12, '69

"

8.90

14 15

4.10

2.65

5372

"

Mar.

12, '69

"

950

14 65

4.20

2.90

6125

Q

Jacksonville

Jan.

"

8.75

14.25

4.20

2 70

2072

?

"

Jan

20, '69 G. J. Maynard

8.75

14.00

4.40

2 51 1

2070

?

"

Jan.

20, '69

"

8.50

13 55

3.90

2.55

2070

?

"

Jan.

20, '69

"

8.75

13 00

4.00

2.55

2068

"

Jan.

20, '69

it

9.25

14 75

4.50

2 BO

2069

"

Jan.

20, "69

"

8.76

14 25

4 20

2 40

2071

o

"

Jan.

20, '69

"

9.00

14.00

430

2 80

2051

?

"

Jan.

20/69

"

9.50

14.75

4.66

2.50

2791

9

"

Apr.

15, '69

"

905

14 00

4 10

2.S8

The following is a tabulated summary of the two preceding tables : —

No. of
Speci-

Locality.

Length.

Alar
Extent.

Wing.

Tail.

mens.

15

d"

Northern States

Average

10.43

16.30

4.91

3 16

8

s

"

Average

9.55

14 43

4 29

2.82

15

d

"

Maximum

11.00

17.00

5.15

350

15

d

"

Minimum

10.00

15.05

4 74

2.83

8

V

"

Maximum

9.75

15-65

4.55

3.10

8

9

"

Minimum

8.90

1350

4.15

2.50

9

d

Florida

Average

9.81

15 70

4.47

2.85

12

?

"

Average

8.93

14 09

4 22

257

9

d

"

Maximum

10.20

15.75

4.60

3.20

9

d

"

Minimum

9 50

14.75

4.25

2.82

12

2

"

Maximum

9.50

14.75

4 65

2.90

12

¥

"

Minimum

8.50

13.00

3.90

2.40

58.t Scolecophagus ferrugineus Swainson. Rusty Grackle.
Abundant. Occasionally met with in large flocks.

59.* Quiscalus purpureus Cassin. Purple Grackle.

Gracula quiscula Linne, Syst. Nat., I, 165, 1766. — Wilson-, Am. Orn., Ill,

44, pi. xxi, fig. 4, 1811.
Gracula barita Linne, Syst. Nat., 165, 1766. — Ord, Journ. Phil. Acad. Nat.

Sci., I, 253, 1818.
Gracula purpurea Bartram, Travels, 289, 1791. (No description.)
? 0 riot us ludovicianus Gmelin, Syst. Nat., 387, 1788.
Quisaitus baritus Vieillot, Nouv. Diet., XXVIII, 487, 1819. — Baird, Birds

North Amer., 556, pi. xxvii, 1858. — Cassin, Proc. Phil. Acad. Nat. Sci.,

1866, 405.
Quiscaius versicolor Vieillot, Nouv. Diet., XXVIII 488, 1819. — Bonaparte,

Swainson, Nuttall, Audubon, Baird.

292 BULLETIN OF THE

Quiscalus purpureus Cassin, Proc. Phil. Acad. Nat. Sci., 1866, 403. — Ridg-

way, Ibid., 1869, 133.
Quiscalus purpuratus Swain., Lardner's Cab. Cyclop., 299, 1838 (female).
? Quiscalus Iwjubris Swain., Lardner's Cab. Cyclop., 299, 1838. — ? Cassin,

Proc. Phil. Acad Nat. Sci., 1866, 408.
Quiscalus inflexirostris Swain., Lardner's Cab. Cyclop., 300, 1838. — Cassin,

Proc. Phil. Acad. Nat. Sci., 1866, 407.
Quiscalus crassirostris Swain., Lardner's Cab. Cyclop., 355, 1838. — Gosse,

Birds of Jamaica, 217, 1847.
Quiscalus aghtus Baird, Amcr. Journ. Sci. and Arts, XLI, 87, 1866. — Cassin,

Proc. Phil. Acad. Nat. Sci., 1866, 404. — Ridgway, Ibid., 1869, 135.
Quiscalus aneus Ridgway, Ibid., 134.
Quiscalus mexicanus Cassin, Ibid., 1866, 408.
Quiscalus Gundlachii Cassin, Ibid., 406.
Quiscalus brachypterus Cassin, Ibid., 406.
Quiscalus niger Cassin, Ibid., 407.
? Quiscalus rectirostns Cassin, Ibid., 409.
Chalcophanes quiscalus Wagler, Syst. Avium, 1827. — Cabanis, Mus. Hein.,

197, 1851.
Chalcophanes baritus Wagler, Syst. Avium, 1827. — Cabanis, Mus. Hein.,.

197, 1851

Very abundant everywhere. Flocks containing many hundreds were
frequently met with.

As already remarked in Part III, few species present such marked
climatic variations as the present, or better illustrate the three prin-
cipal laws of geographical variation already enumerated ; namely, a de-
crease in general size from the north southward, and at the same time
an increase in the length and slenderness of the 'bill, and an increase
in the intensity and brilliancy of the color of the plumage. Far to the
north, as in Labrador, the colder parts of Canada, and Northern New Eng-
land, the bill is shortest and thickest, the size of the bird at its maximum,
and the colors of the plumage least brilliant, with the metallic reflections
of a light tint, tending to green rather than to blue. In Southern New
Jersey the change from the northern type is already considerable ; even
between summer specimens from Calais (Maine) and Eastern Massachu-
setts there is an appreciable difference. In the lowlands of South Caro-
lina and Georgia the divergence from the northern type is still greater,
and it goes on rapidly increasing in Florida, especially in South Florida,
the maximum of divergence from the northern type being attained in the
West Indies. In East Florida, while the general size of the bird is less than
in New England, the bill is considerably longer, much slenderer and much
more decurved, as is shown by the accompanying figures (Plate VII). The

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 298

change in color is equally marked. Not only do the reflections become much
darker at the south, but form prismatic bars across the interscapularies and
the feathers of the rump, especially in the South Atlantic States. In South
Florida and the West Indies these prismatic bars, in some specimens at
least, seem to lose their distinctness, evidently through the continued dark-
ening or increased intensity of the general color. The difference in size
between Florida and Massachusetts specimens is considerable, especi-
ally between those from South Florida and Massachusetts. Those from
the West Indies are still smaller ; and in comparing specimens of these
with others from Northern New England, the* difference is so striking
that it seems impossible at first to believe that both can belong to the
same species, yet a gradual transition between the two, through the indi-
viduals inhabiting the intermediate region, fully proves it. Even between-
Florida and New England specimens the difference is so great that, were
there no transition from one to the other, the two extremes might well
be regarded as not only valid species, but as well-marked ones. Being fa-
miliar with the so-called Quiscalus aglceus before visiting Florida, through
specimens in the Museum of Comparative Zoology from Cape Florida, I
had no doubt that it was a species distinct from the Q. purpureus. But
a subsequent study of these birds in Florida, and an examination of speci-
mens from various points between Florida and Northern Maine, and
also from the West Indies, has forced me to the conclusions indicated in
the above table of synonymes.

The purple grackles of the Mississippi Valley have recently been- sep-
arated as specifically distinct from those of the Atlantic States, under the
name Q. ceneus, Q. purpureus being retained for the latter. The range of
Q. purpureus is given as " Atlantic and Gulf? States, north to Nova
Scotia, west to the Alleghanies." The New England type, however, is
entirely referable to the Q. ceneus, as defined by its describer. The same
writer also follows some of his predecessors in separating those of South
Florida from the Q. purpureus, under the name of Q. aglceus. But Cape
Florida specimens differ but little — being, in fact, scarcely distinguishable
except in size — from those from the St. John's River.

Mr. Cassin, in one of his latest papers,* took fhe ground that each of
the larger West India Islands has a distinct species of this group, peculiar
to itself. That these forms, many of them evidently difficult of recognition,
should be distinct species is quite contrary to general principles. These
islands are generally separated by a distance of rarely more than a hun-
dred miles ; yet a near ally of these " species," the Q. purpureus (or Q.
ceneus as recently restricted), is admitted to range from the Gulf of Mexico

* " A Second Study of the Icteridae," Proc. Phil. Acad. Nat Sci., 1866, pp. 403 - 417.

294

BULLETIN OF THE

to the arctic regions, so that those that breed farthest north make annu-
ally a journey of fully a thousand miles to reach their breeding-grounds.
As I have already observed, individuals of species possessing a very north-
ern habitat usually present a great uniformity of character, while those of
species ranging farther to the southward are more variable ; also that with-
in the warm-temperate and tropical latitudes, islands but slightly separated
from each other or the mainland, and peninsulas which, like Florida, are
almost insular in their geographical relations, present each peculiar modi-
fications of species ranging throughout not only all of them, but portions
of the adjoining continents, which render the individuals from these differ-
ent localities more or less readily distinguishable. This results partly,
doubtless, from the isolation of these different districts, partly from the
more sedentary habits of birds in warm countries, as compared with those
of cold latitudes, and partly from the greater tendency to variation in
species inhabiting tropical and sub-tropical countries.

In the subjoined tables measurements are given of thirteen males and
eight females from the Northern States, and of twenty-three males and seven
females from Florida, of which the following is a tabulated summary : —

No. of
Speci-

Sex.

Locality.

Length.

Alar

Wing.

Tail.

mens.

17.73

13

d

Northern States

Average

12.63

5.66

5.30

S

9

"

Average

11.45

15.76

4.94

4.49

13

<$

"

Maximum

13.50

18.43

6.05

6.00

13

cj

"

Minimum

12.00

17.00

5.20

4.58

8

9

"

Maximum

12.05

16.30

5.20

4.85

8

9

"

Minimum

10.90

15.38

4.60

4.10

23

d"

Florida

Average

12.19

16.64

5.42

5.22

7

9

"

Average

11.12

14 si;

4.75

455

23

cT

"

Maximum

13 00

17.80

5.75

6.50

23

"

Minimum

11.00

15.25

5.00

4.55

7

p

"

Maximum

11.75

1675

6.00

4.77

7

9

"

Minimum

10.25

13.75

4.50

4.45

Measurements of Northern Specimens of QuisCALUS purpureus.

1234

9770
2643

1401

1871

1874
2574
L602
1873
9769
07., 7
9598
2284
2271
2501

187
L86
185

3097

Locality.

Rod River, B. A.
Water town, Mass.

Ipswich, "

Evanston, 111.

Lawn Ridge, "

Springfield, Mass

Evanston, 111.
Waterville, Me.

Lynn, Ma.«s

Date.

Apr.

3,

'68

Apr.

3,

68

Apr.

3,

'68

Mar.

28,

i;k

Aug.

28,

•69

July

29,

'62

July

29,

'62

July

29,

»62

July

12,

!62

July

29,

62

May

3,

"62

June

».

'62

Collector.

S. H. Scudder
C. J. Maynard

0. Marcy
K. Butler

O. Marcy
C. E. Hamlin

12.50

12.50
12.45
12 80
12.80
13.10
12.40
12.25
12.50
13.50
12.48
12.12
12.77
11 17
10.90
11 30
11.48
II 50
11.40
12.05
1 1 50

w
17.50
17.80
18 25
17.53
18.10
1800
1775
17.05
17.25
1843
17. 25
17.00
17.50
15. 7 5
15 15
15 38
15 67
16.00
16.00
16.30
15.50

5.65
5.77
5.85
557
5-86
5.85
5.62
5.42
560
6.05
550
5.20
5.68
5.1 in
4.75
4.60
4.95
5.00
4.98
5.20
6 05

5.68
5.20
5 30
6.43
5.50
560
5.07
4.87
6.20
6.00
5.00
4.58
560
4.37
4.10
4.25
4 40
4.65
4.46
4.85
4.86

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY.

295

Measurements of Florida Specimens of Quiscalus purpureus.

"I

Coll.
No.

X

02

Locality.

Date.

Collector.

ti

a

A
12.75

si

<x
M

1780

si)
5.65

'3

H

5201

d

Weiaka

Feb.

6, "69

J. A. Allen

53i2

•

"

Feb.

6, '69

"

12.40

16.87

545

5.00

5204

<■

Hawkinsville

Feb.

18, '69

"

12.80

1715

5.50

5.37

5251

'■

"

Feb.

18, '69

"

1175

17.00

5.50

4.87

5266

d

"

Feb.

18, '69

"

1300

17 60

5-55

5.40

5267

i

"

Feb.

18, '69

"

11.50

16 70

5.50

—

f

Enterprise

Feb.

21, 69

12.85

1'. -7

—

5345

d

Mar.

5, '69

"

12.30

17.38

550

5.25

5346

d

"

Mar.

5, '69

"

12.37

1660

5.20

525

10604

2583

d

Dumnritt's

Mar.

9, '69

0. J. Maynard

1240

17.50

5 55

—

2344

d

"

Feb.

26, -69

"

12 25

17.50

5.75

550

10602

2469

d

'•

Feb.

25, 69

"

12.50

17 30

550

555

2470

d

"

Feb.

25, '69

•'

1250

17(H)

5.50

5 00

10603

2471

d

"

Feb.

25, 69

"

1175

16.75

575

5 55

6S48

■

Cape Florida

Mar.

31, '58 GWurdemann

11.50

1550

5.50

5.12

6851

d

"

Apr.

10, 58

"

12.00

16.25

5.25

6.00

6852

d

;1

Apr.

22, -58

"

11.75

16.25

5.75

500

10335*

d

"

Mar.

31 , '5S

"

1150

16.00

5.50

—

10336*

d

•'

Apr.

15, '58

"

11.50

15 25

5 00

10.337*

J

"

Apr.

15, '58

"

12.00

15.50

5.00

10340*

f

"

Apr.

22, 58

"

12.00

16.50

5.12

—

1034 1 *

?

Apr.

9, '58

"

11.00

1525

5 25

10342*

3

"

May

18, oS

"

11.75

16.25

5.00

2342

"

Feb.

26, "69

"

11.50

15 50

5.00

477

2344

■

"

Feb.

26, '69

"

11.00

1550

5.00

4.40

10601

2468

(

"

Feb.

26, "69

"

11.50

16.00

4.50

4. CO

5263

;

Hawkinsville

Feb.

18, '69

J. A. Allen

11.45

15 25

4.85

4 55

6853

9

Cape Florida

Apr.

22, '58 G.Wurdemaun

11.00

14 50

4.50

4.45

10338* ?

Apr.

22, '58 i

11 12

14.50

4.75

10&39* ?

Mar.

31, '53 !

10.25

13.75

4 75

—

The specimens from Cape Florida are considerably smaller than those
from the St. John's River ; but the same difference occurs in other species
between specimens from these two localities. The Cape Florida specimens
of Quiscalus purpureus differ from others from North Florida also in having
a relatively longer, slenderer, and more decurved bill, but not appreci-
ably in color.

60.* Quiscalus major Vieillot. Boat-tailed Grackle.
Abundant. Particularly numerous along the St. John's River.
According to Dr. Bryant they breed about the first of April. He says
that about Lake Monroe some of the birds, as late as the 6th of April,
had not commenced laying, " though the majority had hatched, and the
young of others were almost fledged." f He notes also their sandpiper-
like habit of running along the fedge of the water. At Lake Dexter I
observed great numbers of them walking on the floating aquatic plants.

The females of this species present very singular variations in color.
Of four specimens collected at Lake Dexter, in March, one is pale ashy-

* Smith. Inst. No. Copied from Baird's Birds of North America, p. 557.
t Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. VII, p. 9, January, 1859.

296

BULLETIN OF THE.

brown. below, on the throat and breast nearly white, and dull dusky-brown
above ; while another is deep reddish-brown below and proportionally
darkc above, and the others are intermediate to these.

Between the two extremes there is more difference than usually ob-
tains between valid congeneric species. The series of twenty-four males,
on the otber' hand, are quite uniform in color, there being only a slight
difference in Us intensity and in the prevailing tint of the iridescence.*

The average dimensions of the thirty-three specimens of which meas-
urements are given below are as follows :

Length (males): lb.51 ; alar extent, 22.48; wing, 7.19; tail, 7.00.
Length (females) : ltf.95 ; alar extent, 17.94 ; wing, 5.67 ; tail, 5.11.

The individual variation is as follows .

Males, length, 15.50 to J6.80; alar extent, 21.10 to 23.50; wing, 6.25 to
8.35 ; tail, 6.25 to 7.60.

Females, length, 12.10 to 13.40 ; alar extent, 17.25 to 18.25; wing, 5.25
to 5.95 ; tail, 4.75 to 5.60.

Measurements of Florida

Specimens of Q

CISCALUS MAJOB

M.CZ.

No.

"5272

Coll.
No.

w

17"

Locality.

Date.

Collector.

5

a
►J

id

<x

w

to
□

'3

E-t

Blue Springs

Feb.

21, '69

J A. Allen

16.00

22.15

725

6.80

5252

cf

.Enterprise

Mar.

1,'69

"

16.25

22.50

715

7 15

5283

cf

»'

Feb.

22, '69

"

16 25

21.75

7.15

7.10

5332

•

"

Mar.

4, '69

"

15.50

22.00

6.85

6.70

5333

•

"

Mar.

4, '69

"

15 75

22.30

7.20

6.85

5334

■
f

"

Mar

4, '69

"

15 60

2185

7.00

—

6407

Hawkinsville

Mar.

15, '69

"

16 00

23 00

7.00

7.00

5243

"

Feb.

18, '69

"

15 75

22.25

7.30

—

5408

"

Mar.

15, "69

"

16 50

22 50

7.30

7.15

6244

cf

"

Feb.

18, -69

"

1730

2350

7.80

—

6409

cf

"

Mar.

15, '69

"

16 00

22.75

7 15

7 00

5410

cf

"

Mar.

15, '69

"

16 00

22.75

7 20

6 90

0411

cf

"

Mar.

15, '69

"

16 35

22.50

7.50

—

cf

"

Mar.

15, '69

"

16 50

23 25

725

7.40

2408

.<■

Dummitt's

Feb.

19, '69

C.J. Maynard

16 50

23.00

7 40

7.10

10607

2405

cf

"

Feb.

19, '69

"

16.75

23.50

7.50

7.25

2406

cf

"

Feb.

19, '69

"

17 50

23HO

s :;5

7.60

2345

<f

"

Mar.

17, '69

"

16.00

2110

6 75

6.60

10610

2585

tj

«

Mar.

9, '69

"

10.90

23 00

7.70

7.50

2409

cf

"

Mar.

9, '69

"

16.25

22 00

700

7.20

2586

cf

«'

Mar.

9, '69

"

16 75

22.00

7.00

7.00

2399

cf

• '

Mar.

9, '69

"

15.75

22.00

6.90

7.00

2431

/

••

Mar.

9, '69

"

16.00

22-25

7.25

6.75

2404

cf

"

Mar

9, '69

•'

16.17

20 75

6.50

6.50

2345

cf

"

Feb.

16, '69

"

16.50

22 30

6.25

625

10609

2563

v

"

Mar.

9, '69

. "

13.00

1750

5.85

5.60

2343

v

"

Mar.

9, '69

"

13.00

1 * 2.5

5.80

500

2464

v

"

Mar.

9, '69

"

13.00

18.25

5.95

5.25

5290

V

Enterprise

Feb.

25, '69

J. A. Allen

1340

18.25

5.85

4.75

5334

V

"

Mar.

4, 't;:i

"

12.75

17.50

5.50

5.00

6412

v

Lake Dexter

Mar.

23, '69

"

13 00

18.05

5 60

620

6413

v

<>

Mar.

23, '69

"

n io

17 25

5.25

5.00

5414

5

"

Mar.

23, '69 12 50

17 60

5.45

—

* For a very full biography of this species, see an article by Dr. Elliott Coues in the
Ibis. Vol. VI, pp. 367-378, 1870.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 297

The present species is hence not only remarkable for variation in size
between specimens of the same sex, but espeeiallj' so for its sexual varia-
tion in size, the sexual difference in this respect being greater than in
any other species of insessorial bird with which I am acquainted, and it is
rarely, if ever, exceeded in any group.

CORVID^E.

61.* Corvus americanus Audubon. Common Crow.

Corvus corone Wilson, Am. Orn., IV, 79, pi. xxv, fig. 3, 1811. — Nuttall,

Man. Orn., I, 209, 1832.
Corvus americanus Audubon, Orn. Biog., II, 317, 1834. — Baikd, Birds N.

Am., 566, 1858.
Corvus americanus var. floridanus Baird, Ibid., 568, 1858.
Corvus minimus Gundlach, Cabanis's Journal fur Ornithologie, IV, 97, 1856.

Everywhere abundant.

In the average, while the general size of Florida specimens is smaller
than New England ones, the bill is somewhat larger. As is well known,
the crow is exceedingly variable in the size and shape of its bill even
in specimens collected from the same flock. There is, however, an ap-
preciable average difference in the size of the bill, as in general size,
between northern and southern examples. This was some time since
observed by Professor Baird in comparing a single specimen from the
southern point of the Florida peninsula with others from the Northern
States, and so strongly was he impressed by it that he thought if his
Florida specimen did not represent a distinct species, it did at least a dis-
tinct variety, and as such he characterized it, calling it Corvus ameri-
canus var. Jloridanus. He at the same time referred to the little crow of
Cuba, described by Dr. Gundlach as Corvus minutus, to which he said.it
was more nearly allied than either are to C. americanus. I have no
examples of the latter, but from descriptions of it see no reason why it
should be regarded as other than the extreme southern form of C. ameri-
canus.

62* Corvus OSSifragUS Wilson. Fish Crow.
Abundant. Perhaps rather more numerous than the common crow.

63* Cyanurus cristatus Stoainson. Blue Jay.
Very abundant and unsuspicious. It frequents the towns, where it
seems half domestic.

The same difference occurs in this species between Florida and northern
specimens in size and shape of bill as has been already pointed out in

298

BULLETIN OF THE

respect to Corvus americanus, hut it is far less marked than in Agelceus
phccniceus, Quiscalus purpureus, and Sturnella ludoviciana. The brilliancy
of its colors seems not much greater than in New England specimens.

The difference in size between northern and southern specimens is as
follows : Average of eighteen Massachusetts specimens (eleven males and
seven females): Length, 11.71; alar extent, 1G.87 ; wing, 5.13; tail,
4.89. Average of eleven Florida specimens (proportion of males and
females nearly the same as in the previous case): Length, 10.98; alar
extent, 15.11; wing, 4.75; tail, 5.00. The maxima and minima of the
eleven males from Massachusetts are as follows : Length, 12.25 and 11.35 ;
alar extent, 17 50 and 16.30; wing, 5.50 and 5.00; tail, 5.65 and 4.25.

Measuretnents of Specimens of Cyanura cristata.

M.C.Z.
No.

Coll.
No.

to

Locality.

Date.

Collector.

to

a

3

si

■< *

a

a
3

H

34"

d

Newton, Mass.

Oct. 25, '67

C. J Maynard

1162

T.6\30~

"ET32

5 06

90

d

" "

Feb. 5, '68

"

11.35

17.00

5.00

4.78

94

'

" "

Feb. 8, -68

"

12 00

17.00

500

5.00

93

d

" "

Feb. 8, '68

"

11.55

17.20

5.25

4.80

—

d

" "

Feb. 21, '68

"

12.00

16.80

5-00

5.00

687

•

" '•

May 28, '08

"

12 16

17 00

5.45

6.40

1667

••

" '•

"

12.25

1725

5.65

565

12393

—

d

Springfield, "

Feb 25, '70

Irving Allen

12.00

17.20

5.15

5.15

12392

—

■

" "

Feb 25, "70

"

11.50

17 00

530

5.10

12338

—

d

i. ii

Feb. 25. "70

"

12.00

17.00

6.00

4 25

12385

■

ii i<

Feb. 25. "70

"

1200

17.50

5.50

5.40

12389

?

" "

Feb. 25, '70

"

12.00

17 00

4.40

4.45

12392

ii ii

Feb. 25, 'TO

"

1100

16 50

4.33

4 80

12391

p

u ii

Feb. 25, '70

"

1100

17.00

5 25

4 75

12386

y

ii ii

Feb. 25, "70

"

11.50

17 00

5.50

5-15

33

0

Newton, "

Oct. 25, (17

C J. Maynard

11.40

16.32

530

5 30

4875

688

Q

ii ii

May 28, '68

"

11.62

1653

4 75

4.77

1685

y

ii ii

Nov. 4, '68

"

11.75

16 00

5.20

435

10733

1951

■■

Jacksonville, Fla.

Jan. 2, '69

"

11.15

16.00

5.00

5.00

10734

1973

" "

Jan. 3, '69

"

11.00

15 50

4.80

4 80

10731

1974

§

i' u

Jan. S, '69

"

1100

14.75

4.00

4.80

5522

—

■>

Blue Springs, "

Feb. 21, '69

J A. Allen

10.75

1575

4 20

—

5128

—

?

Jacksonville, "

Jan 21, '69

"

10 75

15 50

4 70

5.12

5190

d

Welaka, "

Feb M, '69

"

10.70

15(10

510

610

—

d

Enterprise, "

Mar 1, '69

"

1100

15 75

500

—

?

ii ii

Mar. 4, '69

"

10 70

15.15

•1 50

—

6348

?

" "

Mar 4, '69

"

11.00

16.00

5.00

5.05

5162

Hibernia, "

Jan 30 "69

"

11.25

15 75

5.00

5.15

61113

—

i

" "

Jan. 3D, 'fVJ

"

11 50

15 50

5.00

—

64.* Cyanocitta floridana Bonaparte. Florida Jay.

Corvus Jloridanus Bartram, Travels, 291, 1791. — Audubon, Orn. Biog., I,

444, pi. lxxxvii, 1831.
Garruhis Jloridanus Boxap., Am. Orn., II, 11, pi. ix, 1828.
Garrulus cceruiescens Okd, Journ. Phil. Acad. Nat. Sci., I, 347, 1818.
Garrulus californicus Vigors, Zool. Beechey's Voyage, 21, pi. v, 1839.
Cyanocitta floridana Bon ap., Consp Gen. Avium, 377, 1850.
Cyanocitta superciliosa Strickland, Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist., XV, 260, 1845.
Cyanocitta californica Strickland, Ibid., 342.
Cyanocitta Woodliousei Baird, Birds N. Am., 585, 1858.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY.

299

Numerous in the scrub, but does not appear to frequent the pine woods
the hummocks or swamps. I saw none along the St. John's, except at
Blue Springs, but they occur in numbers a few miles back from the river.

On comparing a number of specimens of the so-called Cyanncilla cali-
fornlca with numerous others from Florida, I find, as previous writers have
observed, that the differences between them are very slight, and not
so great as obtain between Florida and New England specimens of
Pipilo erythrophthalmus, Agelceus phceniceus, and other species where there
is no reason to question their specific identity. The so-called C. Wood-
housei is described as, and is, intermediate in character between C. fiori-
dana and C. californica. The habitat of C. Woodhousei is also interme-
diate between those of the other two, but adjoins that of C. californica, to
which it is most nearly allied. How great the interval is between the
habitats of C. floridana and C. Woodhousei I have not been able to accu-
rately determine. Bonaparte * reported the former as being found in Louis-
iana and northward to Kentucky, and the latter occurs in Western Texas.

In the following measurements of twelve specimens of this species (six
males and six females) the extremes are as follows: Length, 11.00 and
12.50 (both specimens being females) ; alar extent, 13.50 (female) and
15.00 (male); wing, 4.00 and 4.75 (both specimens females); tail, 4.25
and 5.35 (both specimens females). The average dimensions of these
specimens are as follows: Length, 11.74; alar extent, 14.44; wing, 4.42;
tail, 4.80. The females average slightly smaller than the males.

Measurements of Florida Specimens of Cyanocitta floridana.

M.C Z

No.

Coll.
No.

""2480

02

Locality.

Date.

Collector.

Length

Alar
Extent.

~14.50

Wing.

Tail.

10739

^-

Dummitt's

Feb. 22, '69

C.J. Maynard

1150

4.30

435

2377

rf

"

Feb. 22, '69

•'

12.00

15.00

4.45

4.75

2421

rf

"

Feb. 15, '69

"

12 00

15.00

4.75

5.00

10738

2326

rC

"

Feb. 15, '69

"

12.00

14 50

4.50

4.60

2329

7

"

Feb. 15, '69

"

11.50

14.25

4 50

4.25

2379

r!

"

Feb. 22, -69

"

11.50

14.25

4.50

5.35

10737

2328

"

Feb. 15, -69

"

12.50

14.50

4 75

4.90

2378

§

"

Feb. 16, '69

"

1150

14.10

4.30

5.15

2375

V

"

Feb. 15, '69

"

1160

14 40

4.60

4.25

5271

V

"

Feb. 21, "69

J. A. Allen

1100

1350

4.00

5.35

5272

rf

"

Feb. 21, "69

"

12.00

14.50

4.30

4.75

5523

"

Feb. 21, '69

"

11.75

14.80

4.20

—

TYRANID.E.
65.t Sayornis fuscus Baird. Pewee.
Abundant all winter, and a few remain till into April.
The king-bird (Tyrannus carolinensis), the great-crested flycatcher
(Myiarchus crinitus), and the wood pewee (Contopus virens) became

• Am. Orn., Vol. II, p. 60, 1828.

300 BULLETIN OF THE

common the last week in March, as also, according to Mr. Boardman,
the least flycatcher (Empidonax minimus).

Several specimens of the gray king-bird (Tyrannus dominicensis)
were obtained by Mr. L. L. Thaxter at St. Augustine, about the first
of May.

ALCEDINID^I.

66.* Ceryle alcyon Boie. Kingfisher.
Abundant. As shy and distrustful here as in the more thickly
settled parts of the country. Begins to breed very early. Mr. May-
nard saw them forming their holes in the coquina rock, in the banks of
the canal connecting Indian River with Mosquito Lagoon, the first week
in February.

CAPRIMULGID^I.
67.* Antrostomus carolinensis Gould. Chuokwill's Widow.
Abundant. Not observed till about the first of March, when its
notes are usually first heard. Said by Audubon to be resident ; which
statement is confirmed by the testimony of old residents of the State.

68* AntrostOmUS VOCiferuS Bonaparte. Whippoorwill.

Apparentlv not numerous in winter. I heard it once in February,
and Mr. Maynard took it at Dummitt's in the same month. The in-
habitants along the St. John's agree with Audubon that this species is
also a winter resident.

The night hawk ( Chordeiles popetue * Baird) was collected at Jack-
sonville by Mr. Thurston as early as April 20th

* C'iprimulgus virgininnus Brisson, Orn., II, 477 (in part).

Caprimulgus popetue Vieillot, Ois. Am. Sept., I, 56, pi. Hv, 1807.

Qtprimuhjus americanus Wilson, Am. Orn., V, 65, pi. cxl, 1812.

Caprimulgus ( Cliordeiles) virgininnus .Swain., Faun. Ror. Am., II, 62, 1831.

Chordeiles virginianus Bon., Geog. & Comp. List, 8, 1838. — Gosse, Birds of Ja-
maica, 33, 1847.

Chordeiles snpiti Bonap., Consp. Gen. Avium, I, 63, 1849. — Cassin, 111. N. Am.
Birds, 238, 1855.

Chordeiles brasilinnus Lawr., Ann. X. Y. Lyceum Nat. Hist., V, 114, 1851.

Oiordeiles Henryi Cassin, 111. N. Am. Birds, 239. — Baihd, Birds N. Am., 153.

Chordeiles Gundlachii Lawr.. Ann. N. Y. Lye. Nat. Hist., VI, 167, 1856.

Chord, H, s texerisis Lawk., Ibid., 165. — Baird, Birds N. Am.. 154.

Chordeiles minor Caranis. Journ. fur Orn., 5, 1856.

Chordeiles popetue Baihd, Birds X. Am., 151.
This widely distributed species presents only the usual variations in size and color

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY.

801

CYPSELID^I.

The chimney swift ( Chcetura pelasgia) arrives about the last week
in March. It was common at Jacksonville, April 1st.

TROCHILID^I.

The ruby-throated humming-bird (Trochilus colubris) became com-
mon about March 1st. Some probably spend the. winter in South
Florida.

V1C1DM.

69* Campephilus principalis Gray. Ivory-bjt.led Woodpecker.

Picus principalis Linne, Syst. Nat., I, 173, 1767.
Campephilus principalis Gray, Genera of Birds, 1840.

Campephilus Bairdii Cassin, Proc. Phil. Acad. Nat. Sci., 1863, 322. (West
Indian form.)

Rather rare ; at least far less numerous than most of the other
species of woodpecker.

With only Florida specimens of this species before me, I am unable to
give comparisons between them and specimens from other localities. Ac-
cording to the late Mr. Cassin, those found in Cuba differ from those of
the Southern States, in being smaller, as would be expected, with very
slight deviations in color-markings. He has, however, given to the Cuba
race the name of Campephilus Bairdii, remarking that it appears to be
" one of those singular insular species which have become well known to
naturalists."

Measurements of Florida Specimens of Campephilus principalis.

M. C. Z.
No.

Sex.

Locality.

Date.

Collector.

Length.

Alar
Extent.

Wing.

Tail.

5221
5222
5229
6354
5399

(J Volusia.

d

?

cf ! Enterprise

9 Hawkinsville

Feb. 12, '69
Feb. 12, '69
Feb. 12, '69
Mar 5, '69
Mar. 15, '69

J. A. Allen

20.00
19.50
19.30
19.25
19.50

32.25
32 50
31.50
30.50
31.50

10.40
10.25
10.60
9.70
10.25

690
690
6.85
6.40
6.75

seen in other species of our birds. Yet these variations have in the present case been
mistaken as indicating numerous species. The southern representatives of it are ap-
preciably smaller than the northern, and have the white markings on the wings more
restricted, — variations that have already been pointed out in this paper as occurring in
numerous others similarly distributed. Those from the central arid region of the con-
tinent are also Ughter in general color than those from the eastern or western portions;
also a common color variation in other species. The latter type forms the so-called
Chordeiles Henryi ; the southern ones have been variously characterized as C. sapid,
C texensis, C. Gundlachii, etc., as indicated in the above-cited syuonymes.

302

BULLETIN OF THE

70.* Hylotomus pileatus Buird. Pileated Woodpecker.
Abundant. Much smaller than at the north, but not otherwise
appreciably different.

The average dimensions of fourteen Florida specimens (seven males and
seven females) are as follows : —

Males, length, 17.48 ; alar extent, 28.07 ; .wing, 9.21 ; tail, 6.82.

Females, length, 16.44 ; alar extent, 26.80; wing, 8.98 ; tail, 6.54.

The individual variation is as follows : —

Males, length, 17.25 to 17.75; alar extent, 27.50 to 28.50; wing, 9.00
to 9.50 ; tail, 6.20 to 6.75.

Females, length, 15.50 to 16.80 ; alar extent, 26.00 to 27.75 ; wing, 8.50
to 9.50 ; tail, 5.85 to 6.80.

Measurements of Florida Specimens of Hylotomus pileatus.

M.C.Z.
No.

— 5118

Coll.

No.

Sex.

Locality.

Date.

Collector.

Length.

Alar
Extent.

Wing.

Tail.

d

Hibernia

Jan. 30T'69

J. A. Allen

17.75

28.25

9.2o

6.65

6203

d

Welaka

Feb. 7, '69

"

17.25

28.00

900

650

5215

d

"

Feb. 10, '69

"

1750

28.50

9.25

6.75

d

Hawkinsville

Mar. 10, '69

"

17.25

27.50

9.50

1937

d

Jacksonville

Dec. 31, '69

C. J. Maynard

17-75

28.50

9.50

6.40

2076

d

"

Jan. — , '69

"

17.25

27.75

9.00

6.20

2543

d

Dummitt's

Feb. 15, '69

"

17.60

28.00

9.00

6.45

2334

2

"

Mar. 11, '69

"

15 50

26 40

8.70

5.85

2602

2

"

Mar. 5, '69

"

16.60

27.75

9 00

6.75

5204

Welaka

Feb. 7. '69

J. A. Allen

16.75

26 25

8.50

6 75

5214

§

"

Feb. 10, '69

"

16.35

26.75

9.15

6.60

6216

0

"

Feb. 10, '69

"

16.30

27.25

9.00

6 80

6274

§

Blue Springs

Feb. 21, '69

"

16 75

27 20

9 50

6.50

2

Hawkinsville! Mar. 10, '69

"

16.80

26 00

9.00

—

71.* Picus vill0SU8 Limit. Hairy Woodpecker.
Picus villosus Linne, Syst. Nat., I, 175, 1767. — Forster, Philosoph.
Transact., LXII, 383, 1772. — Wilson, Am. Orn., I, 150, pi. ix, fig. 3,
1808. — Audubon, Orn. Biog., V, 164, pi. ccccxvii, 1837. (Northern form.)
Picus leucomelanus Wagler, Syst. Av., No. 18, 1827. (Immature male.)
Picus Auduboni Swainson, Faun. Bor. Am., II, 306, 1831. (Immature male.)
— Trudeau, Journ. Phil. Acad. Nat. Sci., 404, 1837. (Immature male). —
Audubon, Orn. Biog., V, 194, 1839. (Same as the last.)
Picus Martince Audubon, Ibid., 181, pi. ccccxvii. (Very immature.)
Picus Phillpsii Audubon, Ibid., 186, pi. ccccxvii. (Immature.)
Picus Harrisii Audubon, Ibid., 191, same plate. (Northwestern form.) —

Baird, Birds N. Am., 87.
Picus septentrionalis Nuttall, Man. Orn., I (2d Ed.), 685, 1840.
Picus rubricapillus Nuttall, Ibid., G84. (Immature male.)
Picus Cuvieri Malherue, Mon. 1'icida;/ I, 85, pi. xxii, fig. 3. (Young fe-
male.)
Picus Jardinei Malherbe, Ibid., I, 85, pi. xxv, fig. 4, 5. — Cassin, Proc.
Phil. Acad. Nat. Sci., 1863", 201.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 303

Not numerous in Florida in comparison with the other species of
Picidce.

The difference in size between northern and southern specimens of all the
species of the Picidce is greater than obtains in most other families of birds.
So great is it in Picus villosus and Picus pubescens that it was in these species
that such variations were first noticed. This difference is well pointed out
by Professor Baird in his work on the North American Birds, and fully de-
monstrated in his table of measurements. On this ground he distinguished
three varieties of P. villosus, — P. villosus major, occupying the northern
and western portions of the continent; P. villosus medius, occupying the
Middle States ; and P. villosus minor, occupying the Southern States.
Audubon regarded the two former as distinct species. In addition to these
variations in size, my Florida specimens indicate a well-marked variation
in color between the northern and extreme southern races, the Florida
specimens differing from New England ones in having the white mark-
ings of relatively less extent, which gives to the plumage a considerably
darker aspect. Through this variation there is an approach in the Florida
examples of P. villosus to the so-called P. Harrisii of the Pacific coast and
Rocky Mountain regions of the continent, and in the Florida examples of
P. pubescens to the so-called P. Gairdneri, also of the middle and western
regions of the continent. These, as is well known, differ respectively from
P. villosus and P. pubescens almost solely in a general darker aspect, re-
sulting simply from the relatively greater predominance of the black color
of the plumage over the white markings in the western type ; there being
no change whatever in the general style of coloration, though some of the
smaller white spots seen in the eastern are entirely obsolete in the western
type. Under Picus Gairdneri Professor Baird thus describes these varia-
tions. " There is," he says, " the same series in specimens of Picus Gaird-
neri that were indicated under P. Harrisii. Thus the most northern from
Washington Territory and Oregon have the under parts more brown,
with faint black streaks, the white spots above smaller and less numerous.
In specimens from California and farther east the white is purer, the
spots more conspicuous." " The almost perfect parallelism," he further
observes, " with appreciable differences between the markings of the
northwestern and southeastern varieties of Picus Harrisii and Gairdneri,
and their relationship to P. villosus and pubescens, is a remarkable fact in
American ornithology, and may possibly indicate the necessity either of
dividing the dark ones into a Pacific and Rocky Mountain series, or of con-
sidering all as variations of two species, a larger [P. villosus] and a smaller
[P. pubescens], changing their character with longitudinal distribution."
And he aptly adds, " Many other supposed species are involved in the

30-1 BULLETIN OF THE

same consideration." * Professor Bairri in his account of these species, ex-
pressly refers to •California specimens that have less white on the wings
than the one form and more white than the other, f This with the color
differences existing between Florida specimens and New England ones,
similar in character to these, though less in degree, seems to confirm the
necessity alluded to by Professor Baird of regarding the small spotted
woodpeckers in question as forming only two species, — the Picus villosus
and Picus pubescens, — with parallel and remarkable geographical varia-
tions. So great is the difference, however, between typical representatives
of the two leading forms of each, that their discoverers, with too few speci-
mens of each to enable them to detect the gradual passage of the one into
the other, — a fact which now seems well substantiated, — were quite
excusable in regarding them as distinct species. Several other sup-
posed species, as indicated by the synonymes given above, and previously
by other authors, have been based on phases of immaturity. The young
of either sex often have the crown spotted with red or yellow, while the
mature male alone has red on the head, and in which it is usually confined
to a narrow occipital transverse band. In respect to the number, shape,
position, and size of the white spots on the wings, however, there is al-
ways considerable variation in specimens from the same locality, these
variations being dependent upon neither sex nor age.

Florida specimens of not only Picus pubescens and P. villosus, but of
Centurus carolinus, Sitla carolinensis, and Si/la pusilla, often have the
plumage of the lower surface of the body so much soiled and darkened by
running over the blackened trees in recently burnt districts as to ma-
terially alter their appearance, so that they might almost be taken for
distinct species, as previously noted by Audubon. J

72.* Picus pubescens Linne. Downy "Woodpecker.
Picas pubescens Linne, Syst. Nat., I, 175, 1766. — Wilson, Audubon, Box a-

PARTE, NoTTALL, BaIKD, CaSSIN, CtC

Pints (Dendrocopus) pubescens Swainson, Faun. Bor. Am., II, 307, 1831.
Picus (Dendroco/ms) mcdianus Swainson, Ibid., 308. (Described from New
Jersey specimens).

* Birds of North America, p. 91.

t In accounting for these intermediate forms, Mr. Cassin adopts the very convenient
but, as it seems to me, uncalled-for and incorrect theory of hybridity, so often resorted
to in similar cases. Under Picus villosus, he says that J', villosus and P. Harrisii prob-
ably associate in a region intermediate between the proper ranges of the two species,
"and produce hybrids, which present difficulties to naturalists." Under Picus pu-
bescens lie makes similar remarks in respect to P. pubescens and P. Liairdneri. Proc.
Phil. Acad. Nat. Sri., 1863, pp. 200, 201.

J Orn. Biog., Vol. II, p. 82.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY.

305

Picus (Dendrocopus) meridionalis Swaixson, Ibid. (Southern race.)

Picus Gairdneri Audubon, Orn. Biog., V, 317, 1839. (Northwestern form.) —

Baird, Birds N. Am., 91, 1858.
Picus meridionalis Nuttall, Man. Orn., I,(2d Ed.) 690, 1840. (Not of Swainson).
Picus Lecontei Jones, Ann. N. York Lye. Nat. Hist., IV, 489, pi. xviii, 1848.

(Three-toed specimen.)
Picus Turati Maliierbe, Mon. Pic., I, 125, pi. xxix, fig. 5, 6. — Cassin, Proc.

Phil. Acad. Nat. Sci., 1863, 202.

Common. Much more numerous than Picus villosus.

The difference in size and color between northern and southern speci-
mens has been sufficiently detailed under the previous species.

73.* Picus borealis Vieillot. Red-cockaded Woodpecker.

Picus borealis Vieillot, Ois. Am. Sept., II, 66, pi. exxii, 1807. — Cassin,

Proc. Phil. Acad. Nat. Sci., 1863, 203.
Picus querulus Wilson, Am. Orn., II, 103, pi. xv, fig. 1, 1810. — Cassin, Proc.

Phil. Acad. Nat. Sci., 1863, 203.

Common in the pineries.

Mr. Cassin regards the Carolina and Georgia representatives of this
species as specifically distinct from the Pennsylvania ones. He says that
they are as distinct and as easily recognized as are Picks villosus and P.
Harrisii, which he of course regards as valid species. He assigns Yieillot's

Measurements of Florida Specimens of Picus

BOREALIS.

M. C. Z.

No.

Coll.
No.

y.

CO

Locality.

Date.

Collector.

c

(3

< X

'3

10641

1919

9

Jacksonville

Dec. 31, '68 C. J. Maynard

~ fT40

14.20

4.75

3.52

10642

1920

d

"

Dec. 31, '68

"

8.30

14.20

4.76

362

10043

1921

2

"

Dec. 31, "68

"

8.30

14.80

480

3 56

1922

d

"

Dec. 31, "68

"

8.50

14.50

4.75

3 69

10644

1923

d

"

Dec. 31, '68

"

8.20

14 45

4.75

3.39

1924

d

"

Dec. 31, '68

"

8.50

15.00

4 80

3.32

10645

1925

d

"

Dec. 31, '66

"

8 50

14.75

4.85

3.60

1971

8

"

Jan. 3, '69

"

8.50

15 00

4.85

3.50

10646

1972

•

"

Jan. 3, '69

"

8.50

14 30

4.75

3.75

10631

29

■

"

Apr. 11, '69

"

8.00

14.75

4.90

3.45

10632

30

"

Apr. 6, '69

"

8.50

15.00

4.90

335

10633

31

,

"

Apr. 6, '69

"

8.30

14 90

4.85

335

10634

41

.•"

"

Apr. 7, '69

"

8.15

1450

4.70

3-25

10637

47

'

"

Apr. 8, '69

"

8.60

15.15

4.87

3.40

10638

48

-■

"

Apr. 8, '69

"

8.50

15.00

4.95

3.46

1063y

58

i

"

Apr. 13, '69

"

8.50

1410

4.75

3.59

49

"

Apr. 8, '69

"

8,50

14.15

4.85

3.49

10640

59

0

"

Apr. 12, '69

•«

8.50

15.00

4.80

3.50

10636

44

—

"

Apr. 7, '69

ic

8.30

15.00

4.80

3.60

10635

43

?

"

Apr. 7, '69 "

8.35

14.60

460

3.60

32

d

"

Apr. 3, '69

'«

830

14.90

4.85

3.50

42

d

"

Apr. 7, '69

"

8.20

14.70

475

329

5116

—

"

Jan. 19, '69

J. A. Allen

8.50

15 20

4 40

330

5137

—

d

"

Jan. 25, '69

"

8.33

14.75

4.57

3.42

6375

—

d

Hawkinsville

Mar. 12, '69

"

8.55

14.55

4.50

3.40

5393

—

d

"

Mar. 15, '69

"

8.50

14.50

4 45

320

5394

—

d

"

Mur. 15, '69

"

8.25

14.50

4.40

315

5414

—

i

Volusia

Mar. 25, '69

"

7.90

14.60

4.45

3.25

20

306 BULLETIN OF THE

name borealis to the Pennsylvania type, and Wilson's name querulus to
the more southern form. In recognizing two species of red-eockaded wood-
pecker in. the Atlantic States, Mr. Cassin differs from all previous writers.
Having only Florida specimens, a series of twenty-two, before me, I cannot
state from personal observation as to how they differ from northern ones.
They appear, however, to be merely a little smaller and darker.

The average size of the twenty-eight Florida specimens of which meas-
urements are given in the foregoing table is as follows : Length, 8.34 ;
alar extent, 14.46; wing, 4.71; tail, 3.41.

74.t Sphyrapicus varius Baird. Yellow-bellied Woodpecker.
Common.

75* Centurus carolinus Bonaparte. Red-bellied Woodpecker.

Picus carolinas Linne, Syst. Nat., I, 174, 1767.

Picus griseus Vieillot, Ois. Am. Sept., II, 52, pi. cxvi, 1807.

Centums carolinus Bonap., Geog. & Comp. List, 40, 1838.

Abundant. The most numerous species of its family in Florida.
Specimens in the Museum from Cape Florida, taken the 8th of May by
Mr. G. Wurdemann, indicate it as resident throughout Florida, though
considered by Audubon and others as only a winter visitant to this and
the other Gulf States.

The Florida specimens are all very much brighter colored than others
before me from Maryland, Indiana, Illinois, and Michigan, the Michigan
specimens being the palest. Professor Baird has remarked, in regard to a
specimen from Amelia Island, Florida,* that it was not only very much
smaller than northern ones, but had the white transverse bands on the
back much narrower, the black ones being three times the breadth of the
white ones, instead of twice, as in the northern specimens. These differ-
ences my large series from the St. John's River indicate as constant. A simi-
lar increase, in the breadth of the black bands over the white ones in southern
specimens as compared with northern ones, in species banded transversely,
i< seen in numerous other species. It is well marked in Colaptes auratus
(where the bands are dark and light brown), in Sphyrapicus i-nriu.<, and, as I
shall show more fully subsequently, in Ortyx virginianus. The extent and
intensity of the red on the abdomen and head, and especially its brilliancy
on the head, is much greater in the Florida specimens of C. carolinus. In
this respect there is also a well-marked difference between Cape Florida
specimens and those from the St. John's River, the Cape Florida ones
being much the brighter. These seem to accord in every particular with
* Birds of North Amer., p. 109.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY.

307

the so-called Cenlurus subelcgans of Lower California and Mexico. It is
interesting to note that variations in color occur between the northern and
southern representatives of Centurus Jlaviventris similar to tl\ose exhibited
by northern and southern examples of C. carolinus. The southern forms
of C. Jlaviventris were long since characterized by Wagler, Swainson, and
Bonaparte as specifically distinct from the northern, under the names of C.
elegans, C. santacruzi, etc., etc., which many authors still rank as species.

76.* Melanerpes erythrocephalus, Swainson. Red-headed Wood-
pecker.
Rare in winter ; said to be common in summer. I saw two only,
about March loth. Mr. Boardman also gives it as rare, while Mr.
Maynard did not meet with it at all. Audubon speaks of its being
very abundant in winter in Louisiana, and Dr. Coues gives it as resi-
dent in South Carolina ; but it is certainly not common in winter in East
Florida.

77.* Colaptes auratus Swainson. Golden-winged Woodpecker.
Abundant.

Considerably smaller than at the north, with the colors much more in-
tense, and the transverse black bars on the back relatively broader. The
individual variations in this species, even at the same locality, are very
considerable, especially in respect to the bill. Figures 5 and 6, Plate VIII,
illustrate the variation in the form and size of the bill of two specimens
from Massachusetts, both of which are females.

The following summary of the subjoined tables indicates the difference
in size between Massachusetts and Florida specimens, and the individual
differentiation in the same respect at each locality. The sexes seem not
to differ essentially in size.

No. of
Speci-
mens.

Sex.

Locality.

Length.

Alar
Extent.

Wing.

Tail.

18
11
18
18
11
11

—

Massachusetts.

Florida
Massachusetts.

Florida.

Average

Average

Maximum

Minimum

Maximum

Minimum

12.45
11.66
13.00
12.00
12.75
10.60

19.94

18.82

20.75

19.00

19.75 -

17.60

6 24
6.84
660
6.00
6.25
6.60

4.35
4.40
4.70
4.00
4.85
4.10

"While the Florida specimens are considerably smaller than the northern
in three of the measurements, the tail is actually longer in the Florida
birds, and hence relatively much longer. In most of the species of which
comparative tables of measurements are given in the present paper, there
is a decided tendency to an elongation of the tail at the southward, the
tail decreasing less in length than the wing or the general size.

308

BULLETIN OF THE

Measurements of Massachusetts Specimens of Colaptes auratus.

M.CZ

No.

Coll.

No.

CO

Locality.

Date.

Collector.

Length.

c

'3

E-t

2075

?

Jacksonville

Jan.

20, '69

C. J.Maynard

10.75

18.50

5.75

4.55

2074

v

"

Jan.

20, '69

"

11.00

17.60

550

4.50

10612

2346

Dummitt's

Feb.

16, '69

"

11.75

19.50

6.25

4.10

10014

2601

g

"

Mar.

11, '69

"

12.00

19 00

5.90

4 60

10611
10613

2584

o

"

Mar.

9, '69

"

10.60

1775

5.70

4.30

2542

V

"

Mar.

6,'69

"

12 75

19.10

6.00

4.85

10610

23S5

rf

"

Mar.

6, "69

"

12 00

19.20

6.00

4.26

5196

i

Welaka

Keb.

5, -69

J. A. Allen

12 20

19.10

5.85

4.30

6321

Enterprise

Mar.

1,"69

"

11.50

18.75

5.60

4.15

v

Volusia

Mar.

25, "69

"

12.25

19.75

6.00

—

a

"

Mar.

25, '69

"

11.50

18.75

5.65

—

Of the eight species of woodpecker mentioned above as occurring in
Florida in winter, all but one or two {Melanerpes erythrocephalus
and Campepkilus principalis) are numerously represented. Most of
them are exceedingly abundant, the woodpeckers hence forming a con-
spicuous element in the bird-fauna of East Florida. All of them are
resident, according to Dr. Coues, in South Carolina. Audubon, how-
ever, states that two of them ( Sphyrapicus varius, Centurus carolinus)
do not breed south of Maryland, but Dr. Coues gives them as resident
the whole year in South Carolina.

PSITTACID-S3.

78. Conuru8 carolinensis Bonaparte. Caiolina Parokeei-.
Common. Hundreds are captured every winter on the Lower St.
John's by professional bird-catchers and sent to the northern cities.
Thousands of others are destroyed wantonly by sportsmen. Concerning

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY.

309

this needless slaughter Mr. Boardman i„us writes : " The little parokeet
must soon be exterminated. Some of our Enterprise party would
sometimes shoot forty or fifty at a few discharges, for sport, as they
hover about when any are shot until the whole flock is destroyed."
From its habit of feeding upon the tender maize in autumn, it is some-
times somewhat injurious to the farmer, and for this cause many are
also killed. It is also more or less hunted as a game-bird. It is well
known that the parokeet formerly inhabited large portions of the United
States where it is now never seen, and the cause of its disappearance
has been deemed a mystery. Such facts as these, however, seem to
render clear what its ultimate fate must be in the United States, — ex-
termination.

I could learn nothing from the inhabitants in regard to the time,
manner, or place of breeding of this species, even old residents pro-
fessing total ignorance in regard to these points.

The following table of measurements of specimens of this species serves
to indicate its average size and proportions in Florida. In mature speci-
mens the sexual difference in color and size is very slight. Neither sex
acquires its adult colors before the second or third year.

The average size of the nineteen specimens (six males and thirteen
females) cited below is as follows: Length, 13.10; alar extent, 21.76;
wing, 7.59.

The extremes are as follows : —

Length, 12.50 and 13.60 (both specimens females); alar extent, 21.10
(female) and 22.50 (male) ; wing 7.00 and 7.85. These specimens seem
to indicate a tolerable constancy in general size and proportions.

Measurements of Florida Specimens of Conurus carolinensis.

M. C Z.

No.

Sex.
~d~

Locality.
Welaka

Date.

Collector.

Length.
~TsW

Alar
Extent.

Wing.

Tail.

5205

Feb. 8, '69

J. A. Allen

~22~0(T

7 70

6.05

5206

d

"

Feb. 8, '69

"

1355

2230

7.85

6.75

5207

?

'<

Feb. 8, "69

"

12.90

2150

7.45

6.10

5225

9

Volusia

Feb. 12, '69

"

13.00

21.75

7.00

5.80

5226

2

"

Feb. 12, "69

"

13 00

21.60

7.35

5.80

5227

2

"

Feb 12, "69

"

13.00

21.75

7 30

6.00

5228

9

"

Feb 12, "69

"

13 00

21.50

7 50

6.00

5291

d

Enterprise

Feb 25, "69

"

1325

21.50

740

—

5295

2

"

Feb. 25, '69

"

13 00

22.45

7-60

6.00

5293

?

"

Feb. 25, '69

"

13.60

22 00

7.34

6.60

5297

d

"

Feb. 25, '69

"

13.45

22.00

7.50

—

d

Hawkinsville

Mar. 13, '69

"

1325

22.50

7.75

—

d

"

Mar 13, '69

"

13.15

21 25

7.50

—

9

"

Mar 13, '69

"

12.50

21 35

7.30

—

?

Orange Bluffs

Mar. 24, "69

"

12.S5

21 75

7.40

—

?

"

Mar. 24, -69

"

13.60

22.30

7.75

—

?

"

Mar 24, '69

"

1305

21.10

7.50

—

?

"

Mar. 24, '69

"

13.25

21.30

7 50

—

9

Mar 2t, '69

13.25

21.50

7.55

—

310 BULLETIN OF THE

VULTUEID^J.

79 * Cathartes aura Ittiger. Turkey Vulture.
Vultur brasiliensis Brisson, Orn., I, 468, 17G0.
Vultur aura Linne, Syst. Nat., I. 122, 1767. — Vieillot, Ois. Am. Sept., I, 25,

pi. 2 bis, 1807. —Wilson, Am. Orn., IX, pi. lxiv, fig. 1, 1814.
Cathartes aura Illiger, Prodromus, 283, 1811. — Bonaparte, Ann. N. Y.

Lye. Nat. Hist., II, 23, 1828. — Audubon, Orn. Biog., II, 296, pl.clii, 1835.

— Bonaparte, Gcog. and Comp. List, I, 1838. — D'Orbigny, Voy. dans
l'Amer. Merid., IV, ill, 38, 1844. — Cassis, Proc. Phil. Acad. Nut. Sci.,
1849, 159. —Bonaparte, Consp. Gen. Av., I, 9, 1850.

Vultur jot a Molina, Saggio sul stor. nat. del Chile, 1782.

Cathartes nificolUs Spix, Av. Spec. Nova:, 2, 1824.

Vultur jota Molina, Sagg. sul stor. nat. del Chile, 235, 1782. — Gmelin, Syst.

Nat., I, 347, 1788.
Cathartes jota Bonaparte, Consp. Gen. Av., I, 9, 1850. — Cassin, U. S. Nav.

Astr. Exp., II. 172, 1855.
Cathartes septentrionalis Pr. Maximilian, Rcise in das Nord-Amer., 1, 162, 1839.
? Cathartes Burrovianus Cassin, Proc. Phil. Acad. Nat. Sciences, 1843, 212.

— ? Cassin, Baud's Birds of N. Am., 6, 1858.

Abundant. Collect in large companies about the dead alligators so
numerous in the St. John's River.

Both this species and the following ( Carthartes atratus) paid us fre-
quent visits at our camps at Enterprise and Hawkinsville, and whenever
we left them they did not fail to gather up and devour the carcasses of
the birds and mammals thrown away by us after skinning. We found
them, in fact, rather troublesome neighbors, since on more than one
occasion they proceeded, in our absence, to investigate the character of
the specimens we had left in the sun to dry, and in a manner so unsat-
isfactory to ourselves that one of the party was frequently obliged to
stay in camp to protect them while the others were away collecting.

Both this and the following species were represented as breeding
late in the season, and as frequenting the palmetto swamps as well
as some of the islands above Enterprise for this purpose.

The synonymy hero given of the present and following species indicates
clearly tin- confusion which several continental European authors have in-
troduced through their descriptions of these species, to which attention has
been previously called by Mr. Cassin.* While a Vultur (or Cathartes) aura
has been described by most authors who have written of the two species
in question, the name aura has been applied sometimes to the one and

• Proc. Phil. Acad. Nat Sci., 1849, 159.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 311

sometimes to the other, but when given to the true aura of Linne", Vieillot,
and Wilson, the atratus of Bartram and Wilson has been cited as a syno-
nyme, and the true atratus described under a new name. The name jota
has likewise been repeatedly applied to both species by different authors,
and in some cases even by the same author, as has been also the name
bra&iliensis. The description given by Linne in the twelfth edition of his
Systema Naturae, under V. aura, clearly refers to the V. aura of Wilson, of
which the V. jota of Molina and Gmelin are synonymes ; although some of
Linne's synonymes may refer to the C. atratus of modern writers. Bona-
parte, however, in both his Synopsis of the Birds of the United States and
in his Geographical and Comparative List, strangely applied the name jota
to the atratus of Wilson, in which he was for a time followed by other
writers. By those who have regarded the South American representatives
of C. aura as distinct from its North American ones, the name jota has
latterly been applied to the supposed distinct South American representa-
tive of the supposed true or northern C. aura.

The distinctions between the so-called C. jota and C. aura seem, judg-
ing from the published accounts, to be by no means clear. Mr. Cassin, in
his report on the birds of Lieutenant Gilliss's Expedition, says the C jota
" is apparently, or so far as can be ascertained from prepared specimens,
a more slender bird, and loncjer in all its measurements. The last character
is particularly applicable to its wings."* In his Illustrations of the birds
of California and Texas, published the following year, he reverses this
statement, and says : " The South American species [C.jota] is the smaller,"
and " is the more slender in all its members " ; and adds : " All the spe-
cimens that we have seen have been of a more uniform clear black color."
Having myself examined numerous specimens, both in Brazil and in Florida,
I find the difference in the average exceedingly slight, and nearly as stated
by Mr. Cassin in his later work ; that is, the Brazilian are slightly smaller,
and have the plumage appreciably darker.

Bonaparte, in his Conspectus, gives the jota of Molina as being simply
smaller and with a shorter tail than aura of Linne. The differences are in-
deed very slight; they are, moreover, strictly in accordance with the well-
known general laws of variation between specimens of the same species from
northern and southern localities, and by no means indicate a diversity of
species. Because formerly not known to occur in some of the West India
Islands, it was at one time supposed by some that the habitats of the two
supposed species did not meet, or that there was a region in Central and
Northern South America where neither existed. As I have elsewhere
stated,f this is a mistake, both this species and the C. atratus ranging from

* U. S Naval Astronomical Expedition, Vol. II, p. 173, 1855.
t Memoirs Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. I, p. 500, 1S68.

312

BULLETIN OF THE

the middle and northern portions of the United States nearly to the south-
ern extremity of South America ; the C. aura also extending as much be-
yond the southern limit of the C. alratus in South America as it does to
the north of it in North America.

The Cathartes Burrovianus of Cassin, described in 1843, from a single spe-
cimen from Mexico, is referred by Bonaparte, in his Conspectus, to C. jota,
or to what I regard as the typical form of C. aura, and evidently with good
reason. It differs from C. aura only in being smaller. I am therefore
disposed to regard it as based on an unusually small specimen of that spe-
cies. Though Dr. Gambel supposed he had seen it with the other species
in Lower California, but two specimens seem to have been known to Mr.
Cassin, one of which was from an unknown locality.

Measurements of Florida Specimens of Cartiiartes aura.

M.CZ.

No.

Coll.
No.

a*

C/J

Locality.

Date.

Collector.

to

□

ti>

.2
22.50

'5
H

5143

■•

Jacksonville

Jan.

25,

'69

J. A. Allen

'11 'ill

7 'J -Mi

11.10

5 ISO

,-r

Hibernia

Feb.

1,

'69

"

27.50

72.U0

22.no

11.75

51S7

rl

"

"

21.00

12.00

10746

2541

?

Dummitt's.

Mar.

11,

'69

C.J. MayuarU

26.50

6S.O0

21 mi

11.00

2603

?

"

War.

11,

•6!)

"

68.00

20.00

10.50

1

2433

5

"

Mar.

in

'69

"

27.50

72.00

21.75

11.25

80.* Cathartes atratUS Swainson. Black Vulture.

? Vultur brasiliensis aut mexicanus Ray, Synop. Meth. Avium, 10, 1713.

Vultur atratus Bartram, Travels, 289, 17'Jl.

Cathartes atratus Swainson, Faun. Bor. Am., II, 6, 1831. — Audubon, Synop-
sis, 3, 1839. — Bonaparte, Consp. Gen. Av., I, 9, 1850. — Cassin, Illust.
Birds Cal., Texas, etc., 58, 1854. — Cassin, Gilliss's U. S. Nav. Astr. Exp.,
II, 173, 1855.

Vultur jota Wilson, Am. Orn.,IX, 104, pi. lxxv, fig. 2, 1814. (Not of Molina;
not of Gmclin.)

Cathartes jota Bonaparte, Ann. N. Y. Lye. Nat. Hist., II. — Audubon, Orn.
Bio?., II, 33, 1835.— Bonaparte, Gcog. and Comp. List, I, 1838.

Vultur urubu Vikillot, Ois. Am. Sept., I, 53, pi. ii, 1807.

CdHiartes urubu Lesson, Voy. autourdu Monde, 014. — D'Orbigny, Voy. dans
1'Amer. Merit!., 1844.

Cathartes <ntra Spix, Av. Spec. Novae, 2, 1824.

Cathartes brasiliensis Bonap., Consp. Gen. Av., I, 9, 1850.

Abundant. On the whole, probably about as numerous as the pre-
ceding, but the two species occur in different proportions at different
localities, and at different times at the same locality. None were seen
about Jacksonville during the two weeks I spent there in January, and
none were met with for some distance up the river. Above Lake

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 313

George it was generally common, and sometimes outnumbered the
other species, as it did often at Hawkinsville during my stay there.
The younger birds appear to be generally not so highly colored as the
fully mature, nor to have the naked skin of the head and neck so rugose
and corrunculated as the older. The differences in these respects are
very considerable between individuals of the same flock.

A comparison of Florida specimens with Brazilian ones shows that the
latter are slightly smaller than the former ; in color or other general fea-
tures they do not appear to differ. Most writers have regarded the South
American as identical with the North American, but Mr. Cassin,* appar-
ently on the authority of Bonaparte,f says the South American bird " is
the Vullur brasiliensis Kay," and that " it is considerably smaller, and other-
wise quite distinct." But he only refers definitely to the difference in size.
The year preceding the publication of these remarks, however, he gives
C. atratus as inhabiting Chili. £ In speaking of the Chili specimen, he
says : " A single specimen in mature plumage and excellent condition is
exactly identical in size arid other characters with the common species
[C. atratus^ of the southern parts of North America." He adds: "It is
the only specimen presenting this similarity that we have ever seen from
South America, and is larger and in other respects different from the allied
Catliartes brasiliensis, which is an inhabitant also of that division of this
continent." C. atratus, he says, is "not abundant in Chili, though repre-
sented to be occasionally met with in the interior " ; these larger individuals
referred to being doubtless the birds that inhabit the more elevated dis-
tricts. Whatever Mr. Cassin's Cathartes brasiliensis may prove to be, it
remains unquestionable that the C. atratus is a general inhabitant of South
America, and that Bonaparte's brasiliensis is merely the southern type of
this species. The exact parallelism of its range on the two continents as
compared with that of C. aura has already been alluded to.

The Paixtfd or Sacred Vulture ('• Vultur sacra"), § an apocryphal
species described by Bartram || as inhabiting Florida, demands in this con-
nection a passing notice. Though not identified by any succeeding author
(by some, however, it has been referred to the king vulture, Sarcorham-

* Must. Birds of Cal. and Texas, p. 58. 1856.
t Conspectus Generum Avium, Tom I. p 9, I^'jO
X V. S. Naval Astronomical Expedition, Vol. II, p. 173, 1855.
§ Travel, in Florida, etc., p. 150, 1790.

|| Vullur sacra Baktkam, Travel-, pp. 150, 289, 1791. — Vieillot. — Xcttall, Man.
Orn. I, 42.

SarcorhampliHs sneer Cassin, Must. Birds of Cal. and Texas, 59, 1S5C.
See also Bonatakte, Conspectus Gen. Av., I, 9.

314 BULLETIN OF THE

phus papa), Bertram's account of it leads one to infer thatlie found itquite
abundant. His description of it is given with satisfactory detail. He says
it is " near the size of the turkey-buzzard, but his wings are much shorter,
and consequently he falls greatly below that admirable bird in sail. I
shall call this bird the painted vulture. The bill is long and straight al-
most to the point, where it is hooked, or bent suddenly down, and sharp ;
the head and neck bare of feathers nearly down to the stomach, where the
fe?*.hers begin to cover the skin, and soon become long and of a soft text-
ure, forming a ruff or tippet, in which the bird, by contracting his neck,
can hide that as well as his head ; the bare skin on the neck appears loose
and wrinkled, which is of a deep bright yellow color, intermixed with coral
red ; the hinder part of the neck is nearly covered with short, stiff hair;
and the skin of this part of the neck is of a dun-purple color, gradually be-
coming red as it approaches the yellow of the sides and fore part. The
crown of the head is red; there are lobed lappets of a reddish orange
color, which lay on the base of the upper mandible. But what is singular,
a large portion of the stomach hangs down on the breast of the bird, in
the likeness of a sack or half wallet, and sceijis to be a duplicative of the
craw, which is naked and of a reddish flesh color ; this is partly concealed
by the feathers of the breast, unless when it is loaded with food (which is
commonly, I believe, roasted reptiles), and then it appears prominent.
The plumage of the bird is generally white or cream color, except the
quill feathers of the wings, and two or three rows of the coverts, which are
of a beautiful dark brown ; the tail, which is large and white, is tipped
with this dark brown or black ; the legs and feet of a clear white ; the eye
is encircled with a gold-colored iris; the pupil black.

"The Creeks or Muscogulgees," he continues, " construe! their royal
standard of the tail feathers of this bird, which is called by a name signi-
fying the eagle's tail; this they carry with them when they go to battle,
but then it is painted with a zone of red within the brown tips, and in
peaceable negotiations it is displayed new, clean, and white; this standard
is held most, sacred by them on all occasions, anil is constructed and orna-
mented with great ingenuity. These birds seldom appear but when the
deserts are set on fire (which happens almost every day throughout the
year in some part or other, by the Indians, for the purpose of rousing up
game, as also by the lightning)*, when they are seen at a distance soaring
on the wing, gathering from every quarter, and gradually approaching the
burnt plains, when they alight upon the ground yet smoking with hot em-
bers; they gather up the roasted serpents frogs, and lizards, filling their
sacks with them. At this time a person may shoot them with pleasure,
they not being whTng to quit the feast, and indeed seem to brave all
danger."

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 315

Mr. Cassin * refers the species described as above by Bartram to the
genus Sarcorhamphus (S. sacer Cassin = Vultur sacra Bartram), believing
it to be a valid species, and remarks that its identification " may be consid-
ered as one of the most important services to be performed in North Ameri-
can ornithology." It is related, Mr. Cassin continues, <-to the king vulture
(S. papa), but that species has a black tail, and in case of mistake or mis-
print in Bartram's description, it may be presumed, at any rate, to relate
to an occurrence of that species within the United States.f There is no
more interesting nor more singular problem in North American ornithol-
ogy." Two years later, in Baird's Birds of North America, Mr. Cassin
again refers to the subject, and says that " recent information renders it
probable that this [ Vultur sacra Bartram], or a species different from the
vultures just described [Cathartes aura, C. alratus, C Burrocianus'}, is
found about Lake Okechobee in Southern Florida, where it is called king
buzzard. The verification of this statement by actual specimens would
be one of the most important discoveries yet to be made in North Ameri-
can ornithology."

Although the description of Bartram's " Vultur sacra " accords more
nearly with the Sarcoramphus papa than with any other known species, I
cannot avoid the conclusion that it is in the main a purely mythical species,
notwithstanding the high reputation for veracity generally accorded to Mr.
Bartram. I mainly so regard it for the reason that Florida has of late
been too often traversed by naturalists, and especially all the parts visited by
Bartram, for a bird of so striking an appearance, and so numerous as Bar-
tram represented his V. sacra to be, to remain undiscovered if such a
species exists there. While it nearly accords with the 5. papa in size
and general color, it is most radically different from this species, in the
color of *the tail, and in having a " large portion of the stomach hanging
down on the breast, in the likeness of a sack or half-wallet." In the latter
feature it is structurally widely different from any known American bird.
It is mentioned as though it was an abundant species on, at least, the
upper portion of the St. John's River, inasmuch as he speaks of large
flights of them. As to the feathers of its tail being used by the Creek In-
dians for a royal standard, and to ■which feathers they give a " name signi-
fying an eagle's tail," it seerns to me more probable that they were really
feathers of the white-headed eagle {Halia'elus leucoccphalus), since it is
well known that the tail feathers of that bird are very generally used
for this and similar purposes by the Indian tribes of this continent,
whereas the tail feathers of so foul a bird as the vulture must in all

* Illustr. of Birds of Cuba and Texas, p. 59.

t The S pnpa, a Central and South American species, appears to have not yet been
seen north of Mexico.

316 BULLETIN OF THE

probability be too ill scented to suit even the unfastidious taste of an In-
dian. As to Mr. Cassin's supposition that the word white in the descrip-
tion of the tail should perhaps read Mack, the context wholly forbids its
probability. If thus changed the passage referred to would read, " the
tail which is rather large and black, is tipped with this dark brown or black ! "
which makes simply an absurdity. Besides this, the tail is again men-
tioned in the following paragraph as being painted by the Indians, when
used in their war standards, etc., " with a zone of red within the brown
tips," and afterwards as being " displayed new, clean, and while." As to
the information referred to by Mr. Cassin as having been received by him
respecting a " king buzzard " existing in Southern Florida, it may be re-
marked that this is the name by which the caracara eagle (Polyborus tharus
Cassin) is commonly known in Florida, and which is undoubtedly the bird
of which, under the name of "king buzzard," Mr. Cassin had heard.

On the whole, it seems evident that Bartram's account of the Vultur
sacra is a confused mixture either of pure fiction and truth, with the former
largely in preponderance, or of the characters of several different species.
The description would seem to have been mainly drawn from an example
of Sarcoramphus papa that he may have somewhere met with, but with
which he combined certain features of this or other species which he had
only observed at a distance, and that he thus misjudged their exact char-
acter (as in respect to the strange external food-pouch) or else added them
solely on popular, fabulous rumors. The flights of these birds, which
he observed assembling over recently burned districts, I think must refer
to the Polyborus tharu*, which is well known to have this habit, while the
tail feathers he speaks of as used by the Indians in their councils were
more probably either those of the Haliaetus leitcocephalus or Polyborus
tharus than of any species of vulture, since a white-tailed American vul-
ture, I believe, is a bird thus far unknown. If the "V. sacra," then, is to
be regarded as anything else than a myth, it should in all probability be
identified with the S. papa, as already stated, and as was done by Bona-
parte in his Conspectus.

FALCONIDJE.

81 1 Faleo peregrinus LinnA. Duck Hawk.
Fako prrrgrinus Gmelin, Syst. Nat. I, 272, 1788. — Wilson, Am. Orn., IX,

120,1814. — Bonai'AUTE, Joum. Phil. Acad. Nat Sci., 1st Ser., I, 342,

1824. — Audubon, Orn. Biog., I, 85, 1832, V, 365, pi xvi. — Nuttall,

Man. Orn., I, 53, 1832.
Fako anatum Bonaparte, Gcor. and Comp. List, I, 1838. — Cassin, Illust.

Birds Cal. ami Texas, 86, 1853. — Cassin, Baud's Birds of N. Am., 7, 1858.

— Allen, Proc. Essex Inst., IV, 153, 1865.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 317

Falco nigriceps Cassin, Illust. Birds of Cal., 87, 1853. — Cassin, Baird's Birds
ofN. Am., 1858.

"One instance, St. Augustine, February, 18C8." Boardman. Mr.
Maynard found it rather common near Dummitt's, where he observed
its peculiar manner of capturing the ducks. Also well known to occur
in winter in Cuba and other of the West India Islands.

In 1838, Bonaparte, in his "Geographical and Comparative List," gave
to the American peregrine or duck hawk the name Falco anatum. Pre-
vious to this time all writers had considered it, and it seems to me justly, as
identical with the European peregrine, or F. peregrinus, — an opinion still
held by many eminent ornithologists. Until about this date the peregrine
falcon was believed to have a nearly cosmopolitan distribution, but since
then the Australian and other supposed species have been separated from
it on grounds that it now seems should be reconsidered. Among these
supposed species is the Falco nigriccps of Cassin, first described in 1858,
from specimens received from California and Chili. These first specimens
were smaller, with the rufous color of the under parts in the young of a
stronger tint than in the so-called F. anatum, they more resembling the
African, Australian, and especially the Indian type of F. peregrinus. Speci-
mens since obtained from farther north, however, fully equal those from
Eastern North America, and the slight differences found to really exist
between them seem to be by no means ol specific value.

Formerly a difference in breeding habits was supposed to obtain be-
tween the American and European peregrines, the American peregrine
being for a long time believed to breed in trees, whilst the European was
well known to nest on cliffs. Recently, however, the American bird has
been repeatedly found nesting in similar situations, but never yet in trees.*

82. t Falco COlumbarius Linn€. Pigeon Hawk.
Falco columbarius Wilson and subsequent American writers generally.
Falco aisalon Swainson, Faun. Bor. Am., II, 35, pi. xxv, 1831. — Ncttall,

Man. Orn., I, 60, 1832.
Falco temerarius Audubon, Orn. Biog., I, 381, pi. lxxv, 1832.

" Frequent." Boardman.

* For an account of the breeding habits and nesting-places of the American bird in
the Atlantic States, see the author's papers in Proc. Essex Inst., Vol. IV, pp. 153 - 161,
and American Naturalist, Vol. Ill, p. 514. The past summer (1870) its eggs have been
received by Mr. C. W. Bennett from Vermont. Prof. S. S. Haldeman was not only the
first naturalist who made known the fact of its breeding on cliffs, but of its breeding in
the United States. See Proc. Phil. Acad. Nat. Sci., Vol. I, p. 54, July, 1841.

318 BULLETIN OF TIIE

Many of the earlier ornithological writers regarded, as is well known, a
considerable proportion of the rapacious birds of North America as iden-
tical with species inhabiting the Old World. More accurate comparisons
of specimens from the two continents, however, eventually revealed ap-
preciable differences between them, and one after another of those of the
American continent were regarded as specifically distinct from their Old
World relatives; and now there is not one of the diurnal species that has
not been separated by one author or another. The owls of the two conti-
nents, with two exceptions, have also been similarly separated. While in
many of these cases there are appreciable differences that seem more or
less constant, in the majority of instances there appears to be no just causo
tor the separation. Especially is this the case in respect to Falco peregri-
nus (as already observed), Falco candicans, Archibuteo lagopus, Aquila
chrysaelos, Pandion halia'elus, Olus vulgaris, Brachyotus palustris, Nyctale
Tengmalmi, and Strix jiammca, in all of which species the American birds
have been specifically separated from the. European. Buteo borealis,
Astur alricapillus, and Falco columbarius present stages of plumage that
are scarcely distinguishable from certain stages of respectively Falco
cesalon, Buteo vulgaris, and A slur palumbarius , and it is hence not strange
that each of these European species have been described by many
good authorities as occurring in the northern parts of North America.
Certain styles of plumage presented by Falco columbarius, especially
at northwestern localities, so strongly resemble common phases of F.
cesalon, that one is readily puzzled to know whether to recognize the
latter as also inhabiting North America, or whether, since these types
imperceptibly grade into the so-called typical F. columbarius, all should
not be regarded as forming a single species, since they differ essentially
only in coloration, and never very widely. The specimens of F. asalon
before me (all immature) mainly differ from average specimens of F. colum-
barius of corresponding age in being less ferrugineous, the style of color-
ing being the same in both.

83* Falco sparverius Linn€. Sparrow Hawk.
Falco sparverius Lixx£, Syst. Nat., 128, 17GC; and of subsequent Writers gen-
erally.
Fuku dominicrnsis Gmelin, Syst. Nat., I, 285, 1788.
Falco gracilis Suainsox, Lardncr's Cab. Cyc, 281, 1838.
Falco cinnamominus Swainsox, Ibid., 281.
Falco Isabel I inus SwAlNSON, Ibid., 281.
Falco sparveroides Vigors, Zool. Journ., Ill, 4.'!G, 1827.

Abundant. Breeds in March. As has been previously pointed out,
though not observed by all writers, the sexes differ greatly in color, the

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 319

adult females being banded transversely above, mucb as the young

birds are.

Florida specimens are considerably smaller than New England ones, the
former being intermediate in size between the latter and the West Indian
and South American representatives of this species, which have been re-
garded as distinct species, and to which various names have been applied
bv different writers. Audubon observes that he found this species in the
Southern States, and more especially in Florida, so much smaller than the
northern birds that he was at first inclined to consider them specifically
distinct, but finally felt sure they were the same. The colors, as usual
in other species, are generally brighter in the more southern exam-
ples. Wide variations in the color of the plumage in this species have
been long recognized, but, as Mr. Cassin has remarked, " they do not ap-
pear to be constant, nor peculiar to any locality." *

84 * Accipiter fuscus Bonaparte. Sharp-shinned Hawk.

Falcofuscus Gmelin, Syst. Nat., I, 280, 1783.
Accipiter fuscus Bonaparte, Geog. and Comp List, 5, 1838.
Astur fuscus Audubon, Syn., 18, 1839
Falcodubius Gmelin, Syst. Nat., I, 281, 1788.
Falcovelox Wilson, Am. Orn., V, 116, 1812.
Falco pennsjjlvanicus Wilson, Ibid., VI, 13, 1812.
Accipiter slriatus Vieillot, Ois. Am. Sept., I, 42, 1807.
Accipiter frimjilloides Vigors, Zoul. Journ., Ill, 434, 1827.
Accipiter pennsylvanicus Rich. & Swain., Faun. Bor. Am., II, 44, 1831.
Nisus Maifini Lesson, Traite d'Ornithol., I, 58, 1831.
Common. I was unable, however, to obtain specimens.

In this species, as in the hawks generally, but more especially in the
group to which the present species belongs, there are wide variations in
color and size, not only with age and sex, but independently of either.
One of the most interesting features in the specimens before me, in respect
to these variations, is the much brighter color of the several western and
southwestern examples in the collection of the Museum, as compared with
New England ones. In one from Cheltenham, Missouri, the color of the
lower parts is nearly uniformly red ; the transverse dark lines, which in
adult eastern specimens usually occupy half the exposed surface of the
feathers, and often more, being in this specimen almost obsolete. The
tibial feathers are especially bright, while the tints are livelier throughout
the plumage. Other specimens from Fort Steilacoom, received from the
Smithsonian Institution, present nearly the same appearance. Although
the western representatives of the present species yet await some enter-
* Illust. Birds of California and Texas, etc., p. 93

320 BULLETIN OF THE

prising divisionist to give them a distinctive name, they are interesting
as indicating a rufous western race, corresponding with the Accipiter
mexicayius form of the A. Cooperi, the Falco nigripes form of the F pere-
grinus, the Archibuteo ferrugineus form of the A. lagopus, and the west-
ern rufous forms of Jiuleo borealis and Circus hudsonius.*

Although the Accipiter fuscus has always been regarded as closely re-
lated to the Accipiter nisus of the Old World, they have, with one or two
exceptions,! been regarded by all authors as specifically distinct. The
only distinctive difference between them, however, has been properly re-
garded as a slight difference in color, which difference is merely one of
tint, the style of coloration being precisely the same in both. In the
Museum of Comparative Zoology are several specimens of A. nisus from
Germany and Switzerland, which represent both the adult and the young.
The brown transverse markings on the lower plumage of the mature A.
nisus are rather darker and broader than in most New England specimens
of .i. fuscus ; but they still more closely resemble average New England
specimens than the latter do any specimens of A. fuscus I have seen from
the western parts of the United States. The western form of A. fuscus,
as already stated, is brighter colored or more rufous than the eastern,
while the eastern differs similarly from the European, the latter being
much duller colored than the eastern form of A. fuscus. So closely, how-
ever, does one of the immature examples of A. nisus resemble several of
the immature New England specimens of A. fuscus, that, if their origin
was unknown, few ornithologists would probably consider them as other-
wise than specifically identical ; especially if placed in a large series com-
posed of both eastern and western specimens of the A. fuscus. As I have
previously remarked, the transverse markings on the lower plumage in the
adult stage are broader and more regular and distinct in A. nisus than in
A. fuscus. This, it may be added, is also the only difference observable be-
tween A. palumbarius and A. atricapillus. Such a coincidence of parallel
differences between Accipiter nisus and Accipiter fuscus, and between
Astur palumbarius and A. atricapillus, is a point of much interest to any

* For further remarks concerning the rufous western races of several of these species
see the following pages.

t Prince Max zu Wied, in his " Beitrage zur Naturgeschichte von Brasilien," referred
a hawk, probably of this species, of which he obtained a single immature mule in Fa-t-
ern Brazil, to the Falco nisus Linn. Respecting this species lie observes: " Der Vogel

dieser Beschreibung scheint von dem europaischen Sperbernicht abzuweichen

t mir selbst in Braslien nicht vorgekommen, allein Freireifs hat mir
ein Exemplar davon mitgetheilt, welches in derGegendvon Camamu, sudlich von Bahia,
geschossen wurde. So viel ich von diesem einzigen Individuo urtheilan kann, so scheint
<■- 1 lentisch mit dem europaichen Xisus zu seyn; denn sowohl seme Verhaltnisse als sein
Gefieder stimmen vollkommen uberein." Vol. Ill, pp. 112, 114.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 321

one Interested in geographical color variations in animals; the more so,
perhaps, from the two latter species being so intimately related as to have
been at one time generally regarded as identical. Yet so far as can be
judged from a limited number of specimens, Astur palumbarius differs
more from A. alricapillus than Accipiter nisus does from Accipiter fuscus,
which latter species have never been considered as identical.*

85.* Accipiter Cooperi Cassin. Cooper's Hawk.

Falco Cooperi Boxap., Am. Orn., II, 1, 1828.

Falco Stanlei/i Aldlbon, Orn. Biog., I, 186, 1831 (young).

Astur Cooperi Bonap., Geog. and Comp. List, 5, 1838.

Accipiter Cooperi Cassin, Must. Birds of Cal., etc., 96, 1854.

Accipiter mericanus Swain., Faun. Bor. Am., II, 45, 1831. — Cassin, Baud's

Birds N. Am, 17, 1858.
Accipiter Gundlaclu Lawk., Ann. N. Y. Lye. Nat. Hist., VII, 252, 1860.

Common.

Mr. Cassin has very properly indicated the variations in sice and color
commonly seen in this species in the following remarks: " Rather a diffi-
cult species to the ornithologists, on account of the great variations in its
colors, and in size also. It is, in fact, unusual to find two alike in a dozen
specimens." t Its relationship to Accipiter Juscus is of course well under-
stood, it holding a similar relationship to that species that Picus villosus
does to Picus pubescens, the essential difference between them being mainly
a great difference in size. But the specific distinctness of A. mexicanus
from it is not so clear. Being without authentic specimens of A. mexi-
canus, and having only New England specimens of A. Cooperi,% I cannot
speak confidently respecting the character and affinities of the former.
According to authors, however, it seems to differ from A. Cooperi in being
somewhat smaller and more highly colored. It is also more southern in
its distribution. Hence these variations, being in accordance with the
general laws of geographical variation in size and color, do not necessarily

* In this connection I wish to cite some interesting variations in color presented by
Massachusetts and Maine specimens of Astur alricapillus. Ordinarily this species has
each feather below centred with a longitudinal dark shaft-line, with several transverse
broader but somewhat irregular dark ashy-brown bars on a lighter ground. Some
specimens, however, as one from Maine, have the transverse bars so narrow and
broken that the lower surface presents a nearly uniform, minutely mottled appear-
ance. Another specimen (from Springfield, Muss.) represents the opposite ex-
treme, it having the transverse bars broad, regular, and quite far apart, so that its
resemblance to average specimens of Astur palumbarius is very close. The color in
this specimen is much darker throughout than is usual in this species.

t Illustrations of Birds of California, etc., p. 93, 1854.

| Since the above was written, specimens have been received at the Museum from
Jalapa, Mexico, from Sn. E. Montes-de-Oca.

322 BULLETIN OF THE

imply a diversity of species ; they only accord with what would naturally
be expected to occur if A. mexicanus and A Cooperi were known to con-
stitute but a single species.*

Accip'tter Cooperi, as is well known, is not only closely allied in general
structure to Buteo lincatus, but also in style of coloration in both the imma-
ture and adult stages. It may be fair, then, to test the value of the dis-
tinctive characters assigned to A. mexicanus by what obtains as geographi-
cal variations in size and color in Buteo linealus Of this species I have
fortunately a large number of specimens, including some from localities
similarly separated to those whence A. Cooperi and A. mexicanus respec-
tively come. In the case of Buteo linealus there is no reason whatever to
doubt that my specimens from Florida and New England are specifically
identical. Yet the Florida specimens are very much brighter colored, and
very much smaller ; the difference in the length of the folded wing between
two males, one of which is from Maine and the other from Florida, being
two and one half incites, with corresponding differences in general measure-
ments. This is relatively much greater than the difference in size between
specimens of the so-called A. Cooperi and A. mexicanus. Similar varia-
tions in color and size to those between A. Cooperi and A. mexicanus also
occur between northeastern and southwestern specimens of A.fuscus, the
latter, as already noted under A. fuscus, being smaller than the former,
and very much brighter colored ; the difference in color between speci-
mens from Maine and (he State of Missouri being greater than is repre-
sented to occur between A. Cooperi and A. mexicanus, and of a parallel
kind. In accordance with the evident inference that may be drawn from
these facts, I provisionally include A. mexicanus among the synonymes of
A. Cooperi. The A. Gundlachi of Cuba differs from the southern A. Coop-
eri in the way southern birds usually differ from the northern ones of the
same species,, that is, in being smaller and brighter colored, and in having
the dark transverse bars on the under plumage increased in breadth at the
expense of the alternating light ones.

86.* Buteo borealis Bonaparte. Red-tailed Hawk.

Falco borealis Gmelin, Syst. Nat., I, 266, 178S. — Wilson, Am. On., VI,
75, pi. lii, fig. 2, 1812.— Rich. & Swain., Faun. Bor. Am. II, 50, 1831.—
Audubon, Om..Biog., I, 265, pi. II, 1832.

Buteo borealis Bonaparte, Geog. and Comp. List, 3, 1838. — Gossi, Birds
of Jamaica, II, 1847. — Lemiseye, Av.dc la Isla dc Cuba, 18,1850.—
Cassin, Syn. N. A. Birds (Illust. Birds Cal. and Texas, etc.), 97, IS34.—
Brewer, N. Am. Oology, 21, 1857. — Cassin, Baird's Birds of N. Am.,
25, 1858. — Bryant, Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., VIII, 109, 1861.--
Allen, Memoirs Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., I, 499, 1868.

* Bonaparte indeed long since cited A. mexicanus Swainson as a synonyme of A.
Cooperi.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 323

Falco kverianus Gmelin, Syst. Nat., T, 266, 1788. — Wilson, Am. On., VI,

78, pi. lii, 1812.
Falco jamaice.nsis Gmelin, Syst. Nat., I, 266, 1788.
Falco aquilinus Bartra.m, Travels, 290, 1791.
Falco Harlani Audubon-, Am. Orn., I, 441, 1831.
Accipiter rujicaudus Vieillot, Ois. Am. Sept., I, 47, 1807.
Buteo ferrugineicaudus Vieillot, Ibid., 32.
Buteo fulvus Vieillot, Nouv. Diet. Hist. Nat., IV, 472, 1816.
Buteo americanus Vieillot, Ibid., 477.
Buteo vulgaris Rich. & Swain*., Faun. Bor. Am., II, 47, pi. xxvii, 1831. —

Audubon, Syn., 5, 1839.
Buteo but coides Nuttall, Man. Orn.. I, 100, 1832.
Falco buteo Audubon, Orn. Biog., IV, 108, 1S38.
Buteo Swainsoni Bonaparte, Geog. and Comp. List, 3, 1838. — Cassin,

Ulust. Birds Cal. Texas, etc., 98, 1854. —Brewer, N.Am. Oology, 24,

1857. — Cooper & Baird, Orn. Cal., I, 476, 1870.
Buteo Harlani Bonaparte, Geog. and Comp. List, 3, 1838. — Cassin, Ulust.

Birds Cal., Texas, etc., 101, 1854. — Cassin, Baird's Birds N. Am., 14.—

? Bryant, Proc. Bost- Soc. Nat. Hist., VIII, 115, 1861.— Cooper &

Baird, Orn. Cal., I, 473.
Buteo montanus Nuttall, Man. Orn. I (2d ed.), 112, 1840. — Cassin, Baird's

Birds N. Am., 26. — Coues, Proc. Phil. Acad. Nat. Sci., 1866, 43. — Cooper

& Baird, Orn. Cal., I, 469.
Buteo Bairdii Hoy., Proc. Phil. Acad. Nat. Sci., 1853,451. — Cassin, Baird's

Birds N. Am., 21.
Buteo insignalus Cassin, Birds Cal. and Texas, 102, pi. xxi, 1854. — Cassin,

Baird's Birds N. Am., 23. — Cooper & Baird, Orn. Cal., I, 474.
Buteo calurus Cassin, Proc. Phil. Acad. Nat. Sci., 1855, 281. — Cassin, Baird's

Birds N. Am., 22. — Cooper & Baird, Orn. Cal., I, 471.

Not apparently uncommon, but far less numerous than the next
species.

The Buteoninaz, or the group of hawks to which the present and the
two following species belong, is well known to embrace species more
variable in color than those of any other section of the Falcoriidce, al-
though all the members of this family are more or less remarkable for in-
dividual and other variations of plumage. The present species, however,
admitting for it the wide variation in this respect herein claimed, scarcely
equals the immense range of color variation well known to characterize its
near ally and representative in the Old World, the Buteo vulgaris auct.
(Falco buteo Linne). Six specimens of this species in the Museum from
Switzerland and Germany, received under the name Falco buteo, vary in
color as follows : One is almost entirely black ; another is nearly black
throughout, with obscure narrow transverse bands of ferruginous on the
VOL. II. 21

324 BULLETIN OF THE

crissum and abdomen ; another is mainly black, but varied belov
bars of pale rufous and blotches of white ; a fourth is also nearly black, *..
verv dark brown, but considerably more relieved with white below than
the last ; a filth is mainly white below, with longitudinal stripes of dark
brown, and so nearly resembles a common immature stage of the American
Buteo borealis that if placed together the most discriminating observer
could not tell. which specimen was the European or which the American
one. The sixth is very light colored throughout, with only a few dusky
longitudinal spots on the breast. This' specimen is also not readily dis-
tinguishable from certain common phases of B. borealis. Another specimen
of B. vulgaris, in the La Fresnaye collection in the Museum of the Boston
Society of Natural History, is still lighter than this, being nearly uniform
whitish below, and very light colored, almost white above. The latter
specimen and the first-mentioned dark specimen present as great differences
in color as two specimens of one species can well be conceived to exhibit.
The variations presented by the American B. borealis have already been
fully detailed by the late Dr. Henry Bryant, in his " Remarks on the Varia-
tions of the Plumage of Buteo borealis auct., and B. Harlani Aud."* He
observes that the variation in plumage of the species of Buteo, common in
the Atlantic States, " are so slight that it is not to be wondered at that
the first specimens from other parts of the country, presenting as they did
such extraordinary variations in color, should have been described as dis-
tinct species. At present, however," he continues, " the number of speci-
mens known is so large that on careful examination i^seems to me necessary
to adopt one of two conclusions, namely, either to increase the number of
species indefinitely, or to reduce them to a much smaller number than are
now supposed to exist. As the European buzzard, Buteo vulgaris, is well
known to present the greatest variety of color, it seems to me more reason-
able to adopt the last conclusion." f With the above opinions and
remarks I in the main agree, but do not regard the variations presented by
the Buteo borealis as by any means slight, even in the Atlantic States.
Although instances of such excessive variation as are seen in the Central
and Pacific States are apparently more rare in the Atlantic States, speci-

* Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. VIII, p. 107, 1861.

t In respect to the variety of color in the B. vulgaris, Dr. Bryant makes the following
quotation from Nanmann's Natural History of the Birds of Germany (Vol. I, p. 347):
" In the coloring of the feathers of the bird there prevails a most extraordinary differ-
ence, and one which is not often seen in other birds of prey. From the darkest uniform
blackish-brown to the purest white, we find all the shades, and also both colors mixed
and spotted, in such various ways that the countless transitions cannot be described;
this difference is independent of age and sex." Many other European writers, it may
be added, have made similar remarks in respect to its astonishing range of variation in
color.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 325

mens from Massachusetts now before me vary as follows : Some are nearly
unspotted beneath, others, sparsely spotted, have the spots mainly restrict-
ed to the pectoral region ; others, in which the spots are equally few,
have them mainly accumulated on the abdominal region, while still other?
have them so numerous as to occupy the greater part of the lower surface,
sometimes covering the abdomen in an almost unbroken broad band.
They likewise vary in the amount of rufous tint in the plumage, in some
it being very slight, while others are as strongly ferruginous as any of the
California specimens (B. montanus) I have yet seen.

The Buteo borealis was first described by Latham in his " General
Synopsis of Birds,"* in 1781, under the names of "cream-colored buz-
zard " and " American buzzard," the first name being applied to the
young, f and the last to the adult stage of plumage. Pennant, in his
" Arctic Zoology," % also redescribes the immature bird as the " Leverian
falcon," and to these several descriptions of Latham and Pennant, Gmelin,
in lus " Systema Naturas,'' gave respectively the names Falco jamaicensis,
F. borealis, and F. Leverianus. Some twenty years later the Buteo borealis
was redescribed by Vieillot, in his '• Histoire des Oiseaux de l'Amerlque
Septentrionale," as Acc'qnter ruficaudus and Buteo ferruyineicaudus, both
names evidently referring to the mature or nearly mature bird ; and again
ten years later, in the " Nouvcau Dictionnaire d'Histoire Naturelle," as
Buteo fulvus and B. americanus. Audubon, in 1831, figured and described
a specimen from Louisiana under the name Falco Harlani. This speci-
men, which was finally sent to the British Museum, has been regarded by
Mr. G. 11. Gray and others as only a very dark-colored example of B.
borealif.% In the same year Richardson and Swainson reported the Buteo
vulgaris, in their " Fauna Boreali- Americana," as an inhabitant of North
America, and of which they figure an immature male. As already re-
marked, the B. vulgaris, in certain stages of plumage, is not readily distin-
guishable from B. borealis, so that the mistake is a perfectly excusable one.
This form, however, was for some time currently received by most writers
as a species distinct from the B. borealis, ana to which the name B. Swain-
sorii was given by Bonaparte. In 1832 Nuttall described a Buteo buteoiiles,
which, though referred by Bonaparte to B. lineatus, and by Cassin to B.
pennsylvanicus, seems to me to much more nearly agree with B. borealis.
In 1840 the same writer described a B. montanus, which was subsequently

* Vol. I, pp. 49, 50, Nos. 30 and 31.

t Latham observes: "This beautiful specimen was sent to me from Jamaica by an
intelligent friend and a good naturalist, who did not hint the least of its being a variety
of the common buzzard [Buteo vulgaris auct.], which I should have otherwise sus-
pected."

J Vol. II, p. 206. No. 101. i Cat. of Birds in British Museum.

326 BULLETIN OF THE

referred by Bonaparte to his B. Swainsoni, but has since been recognized
as a valid species by Cassin and other recent American authors. In
1853 Mr. P. It. Hoy described a Buteo Bairdii, and in 1854 Mr. Cassin
added B. insignatus, in 1855 B. calurus and B. oxypterus, and in 1856 B.
Cooperi. In 1861 Dr. Bryant made a revision of the group, then contain-
ing eight or nine species currently recognized by American ornithologists,
and reduced the number of species to two, one of which he called B.
borealis and the other B. Harlani; which latter, however, is not the
Harlani of Cassin, and probably not the Harlani of Audubon.

Dr. Bryant, in the above-cited paper, describes in detail the leading
variations presented by our red-tailed hawks, and the character of the
numerous supposed species of this group that had then been recently
described. He having at his command all the specimens of this group con-
tained in the Museums of the Philadelphia Academy and the Smithsonian
Institution, including the original types of Mr. Cassin's species, as
well as the specimens in his own collection, his opportunities lor investi-
gating the subject were unusually favorable. The results of his exam-
ination of this material may be briefly stated in his own words. He says
that after examining this large series of specimens, he found " that of all
those belonging to Harlani, insignatus, Swainsoni, Bairdii, oxypterus,
borealis, montanus, calurus, and perhaps Cooperi," could be "easily reduced
to two very distinct groups, each of which is distinguishable by definite
external characters, and in which the variations of plumage, though
apparently so great, if the extremes of the series only are taken into con-
sideration, can, it seems to me, be arranged in a series, in which the
connecting of the different members may be readily traced. Of these two
groups, or rather species, one, which should be called B. borealis, as the
first described, consists of that species, montanus, calurus, Harlani, and
probably Cooperi, and is characterized by a very muscular body,* stronger
and longer bill, longer and more powerful tarsi, and a more rounded wing,
the fourth quill generally the longest, tin- fifth little if any shorter than
the third, anil the first always longer than the eighth. The other species,
to which Harlani?, insignatus, Swainsoni, Bairdii, and oxypterus belong, is
distinguishable by a more slender body, shorter and weaker tarsi, and a
more pointed wing, the third quill generally the longest, the fifth consid-
erably shorter than the third, and the first always longer than the eighth."

" On making the examinations which led to the conclusion above stated,"
he further observes, " I was struck by tin- small number of specimens in
which all the feathers were equally developed, and when they were so,
the variation in the proportions of the primaries, and of the wings and

* Stuffed skin> evidently ruTord rather unsatisfactory data for the determination of
the relative muscularity of the body.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 327

tail, in specimens of the same variety, was much . greater than I had ex-
pected to find"; a result* which indicates how unreliable such fea-
tures are as specific distinctions, as I have already repeatedly remarked,
and also, of course, the fallacy of the belief, so generally held, that they
are really among the most trustworthy.* After detailing some of the in-
stances of variation in this respect in the specimens in que.-tion, he makes
the following remarks on variations in other characters : " The variation
in the number and shape of the tarsal scales is considerable, as is usual in
birds of this order. The development of the festoon of the lower edge
of the upper mandible, one of the principal generic characters, f varies par-
ticularly in B. montanus, the series of which is the largest, from a sharp,
almost tooth-like process to an entire absence ofit."%

Dr. Bryant described each of the so-called species of the later authors,
and generally several authentic specimens of each, showing the variations
of color they present. B. montanus is the so-called " western red-tail,"
replacing, it is supposed, B. borealis in the western half of the continent,
and differing from it in the main only in being more rufous or brighter
colored. Some specimens, however, from California and Oregon are not
appreciably different from others from the Atlantic States, and among
them is one received at the Museum from the Smithsonian Institution
labelled " B. borealis." B. calurus differs from these in being much darker
throughout, and especially below. It has, however, according to Dr.
Bryant, two varieties, one of which is much darker than the other. The
B. Harlani of Cassin, Dr. Bryant says, "resembles very closely the dark
variety of calurus, with the exception of its tail, which resembles mon-
tanus." Respecting the single known specimen of B. Coope.ri, he says
there is nothing in its coloration M that would make the supposition of its
being a variety of montanus improbable." The tail presents the greatest
dissimilarity and "has very much the appearance it would have in a semi-
adult of this species, if the color were partially washed out.' The tarsus,
though long, he says is not longer than in some specimens of montanus ;
but observes that the scutellation of the tarsus presents certain peculiar-
ities not seen in the others, there being but two rows of lateral scales in-
stead of three or four, and two more than the usual number of transverse
scales. § In respect to these supposed species he then observes : " After

* See the remarks on this point in Part III.

t The italicizing is my own.

\ On differences of this kind the several supposed species of the B. borealis group
have been arranged in different subgenera .'

§ Since writing the above I have learned from Professor Baird that he is inclined to
regard this specimen as " only an Archibuteo ferrugineus without feathers on the tarsus;
at any rate, hardly a species." It is hence omitted in Cooper and Bairds " Orni-
thology of California," which has just appeared.

328 BULLETIN OF THE

carefully examining the birds described above, I do not see, if Buteo bo-
rea/is, monlanus, and calurus are to be considered distinct species, that we
can avoid increasing the number by separating from montanus two species,
— one the dark Stcilacoom variety, and the other that from Cape St.
Lucas (which, by the way, is the most distinct variety that I have seen) ;
from calurus, one species, the ferruginous variety from Fort Tejon; and
adding to this group one species based on the adult Harlani of the Acad-
emy \_Harlani of Cassin, not of Audubon], making in all seven species
of this group. I have not included in this list the youiig Harlani of the
Academy, which differs as much from the adult as from any other speci-
men of this group ; or Cooperi" etc. After next describing in detail
Buteo Harlani (B. Harlani of Bryant, not B. Harlani of Cassin, nor of
Audubon), and its several varieties, which form the " species" B. insigna-
tus, Sioainsoni, and oxypterus of Cassin and the B. Bairdii of Hoy and
Cassin, with several varieties under each, some of which lie clearly shows
are connecting links to others, Dr. Bryant concludes his paper with the
following summary : " Taking color, therefore as a sufficient ground for
specific distinction, we find that we have in the red-tailed group seven
species, and in the other nine, which, with the young Harlani of the
Academy, Cooperi, fuliijinosus, albonolatus, lineatus, elegans, and pennsyl-
vanicus, give a total of twenty-three species of this genus which are found
in the United States."

But Dr. Bryant by no means admits color in this group to be a specific
characteristic, and, as I have already remarked, in reducing the number
of species of the red-tailed hawks to two, he takes general size and the
proportions of the primary quills of the wing as the basis of distinction.
He has accordingly given a table of comparative measurements and pro-
portions of the two species, in which he has arranged, as he says and
doubtless supposed, the larger specimens under B. borealis, and the smaller
under B. Harlani. Size and the proportions of the quills, however, it
seems to me, arc equally ai-bitrary grounds for their separation, as an
examination of his tables and descriptions evidently proves. It hap-
pens that in the first, or B. borealis series, marly all the specimens
are fully adult, as indicated by the tail being uniformly red, with a subter-
minal black band, — a stage of plumage which characterizes only adult
individuals. In the second, or B. Harlani series, but one specimen (which
does not appear in the table of measurements), is described that is not
evidently somewhat immature, while the greater part of them are quite
so.* Respecting the so-called Buteo Bairdii, of which numerous speci-
mens have been reported, some from quite eastern localities, Dr. Bryant

* They have at least the tail numerously banded, a6 all immature B. borealis do have,
and their general diagnosis is that of immature birds.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 329

remarks that a single specimen in the Museum of the Philadelphia Acad-
emy is the only one he had seen "presenting the least appearance of
adult plumage." In regard to the size of the specimens of the two scries,
adopting the length of the folded wing as the basis of comparison, — the
besl clement in the tables available for comparison, in this respect, — the
smallest and the largest specimens, measuring 370 and 438 millimetres re-
spectively, occur in the B. borealis series. The average length of wing in
twenty specimens of B. borealis is 409 millimetres, and in fourteen * speci-
mens of B. Harlani Bryant, 405. The difference of 4 millimetres is an
amount too trivial to be of account, as the addition of a single specimen to
cither series might reverse the difference. Hence the impression possessed
by Dr. Bryant of an average difference in size between the two series
was evidently an erroneous one.

There, hence remains but a single difference, that in respect to the form
of the wing, or the relative length of the primaries, by which to distinguish
the two series, which is at best one of doubtful value. My present opinion
is that all the so-called species of these two groups may be safely referred
to the original Buleo borealis, except the B. oxypterus, which should be un-
doubtedly referred to the B. pennsylvanicus,

87.* Buteo lineatus Jardine. Red-shocldered Hawk.

Falco lineatus Gmelin, Syst. Nat, I, 268, 1788. — Wilson, Am. Orn., VI,

86, pi. liii, fig. 3, 1812. — Audubon, Orn. Biog., I, 296, pi. lvi, 1832.
Buteo lineatus Jardine, Am. Orn., I, 1832. — Audubon, Svn., 7, 1839. —

Cassin, Baiid's Birds N. Am., 28, 1858. — Verrill, Proc. Essex Institute,

III, 141, 1862.
Falco hyemalis Gmelix, Syst. Nat., I, 274, 1788. — Wilson, Am. Orn., IV,

73, 1812. — Nuttall, Man. Orn., I, 106, 1832. — Audubon, Orn. Biog.,

V, pi. lxxi, 1832 (young).
Buteo Cooperi Allen, Amer. Nat., Ill, 518, 1869.

Circus hyemalis Bonap., Journ. Phil. Acad. Nat Sci., 1st Ser , III, 305, It
Butto elegans Cassin, Proc. Phil. Acad. Nat. Sci., 1855,281. — Cassin, Baird's

Birds of N. Am 28, 1858.

Very abundant. By far the most numerous species of the family.

Generally smaller and much brighter colored than New England speci-
mens. The dark line along the shaft of the feathers below, especially on
the throat and breast, is very distinct, in this respect and in the bright
colors greatly resembling the so-called Buleo elegans of Cassin. B. elegans,

* The B oxypterus, referred to the B. Harlani by Bryant, is very much smaller than
any other specimen in either series, and it seems to me has decided affinities, in its
small size as in other features, with the B. pennsylvaniais, as stated by Mr. Cassin,
and it is hence excluded in my computation of the average length of the folded wing.

380

BULLETIN OF THE

however, has been generally considered as the western representative of
B. linealus, but it differs from the latter only in being brighter colored, or
in having the ferruginous of the under parts more intense. In this it
resembles the western representatives of the B. borealis, Archibuleo lago-
pus, Accipiter fuscus, Circus cyaneus, Falco peregrinus, and other species
of this family, the western specimens of which are ordinarily more rufous
than the eastern, though in only a part of them have the eastern and
western races as yet been separated as distinct species.

The considerable difference in size between specimens of this species
from New England and Florida has led to the supposition that the former
may be specifically distinct from the latter, or at least that they form well-
marked varieties.* The following measurements, however, show that
specimens occur in Florida, in winter at least, nearly as large as average-
sized New England specimens. But these may have been merely
winter visitors, since two of the, three specimens taken in February on
the St. John's River are larger than any of the others, all of which were
taken later in the season. Those taken by Dr. Wiirdemann at Cape
Florida and Indian Key are also smaller than those from the St. John's
River.

Measurements of Florida Specimens of Buteo lineatus.

M C.Z.
No

Locality.

Date.

Collector.

.d
to

i- a

to

a

'3

til

£

H

5223

~d

Volusia

Feb.

12, '69

J. A. Allen

22 25

^JL50~

13.00

7.75

£224
Ti276

d

"

Feb.

12, '69

"

20.00

39 50

12 25

7 50

d

Blue Springs

Feb.

21 ,''69

"

211.00

42.00

13.00

8.40

6310

d

Enterprise

Mar.

V69

"

17 65

39.15

12.25

8.00

6331

d

"

Mar

1,'69

"

17.75

40.25

12.30

7.50

5398

d

H.nvkinsville

Mar.

15, '69

"

18.00

40 50

12 85

7.75

10744

Jacksonville

Dec.

31, '68

C. J. Maynard

19 20

4150

12.60

8.50

10743

6

"

Jan.

11/69

"

19.20

40.05

12.60

8.50

6899

$

Cape Florida

Apr.

6, '58

G. Wiirdemann

15.75

35.75

1100

6 75

8fi30t

d

Indian Key

Aug

31, '57

"

17 50

3700

1120

—

6898

"

Aug.

1,'58

"

15.50

34.50

10.50

7.15

8629t

"

Nov.

10, '57

"

1775

40.00

12 00

—

8631t

r

"

Aug.

31, '57

"

17.50

37 no

11.10

—

88.t Buteo pennsylvanicus Bonaparte. Broad-winged Hawk.

Falco pennsylvanicus Wilson, Am. Orn., VI, 22, 1812.

Buteo pennsylvanicus Bonap., Geog. and Comp. List, 3, 1838. — Audubon,

Syn., 6, 1839. — Cassin, Illust. Birds Cal., Texas, etc., 100, 1854. — Cassin,

Baird's Birds N. Am., 29, 1858.
Falco latissimus Wilson, Am. Orn., VII, 22, 1812. (Later published copies.)!

* See Prof. A. E. Verrill in Proc. Essex Institute, Vol. Ill, p. 141.1S62.

t Smithson. Inst., No. (Copied from f!t.o«>;n |n Baird's Birds of North America,
p. 28.)

J Concerning the names F. pennsylvanicus and F. latissimus given by Wilson to this
6pecies, sec Air. Cassin's remarks, Illust. Birds of Cal., Texas, etc., p. 101.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 831

Falco Wilsoni Bonap., Journ. Phil. Acad. Nat. Sci., Ill, 348, 1824.
Sparvius platypterus Vieillot, Encyc. Meth., Ill, 1273, 1823.
Buteo orypterus Cassin, Proc. Phil. Acad. Nat. Sci., 282, 1855. — Cassin,
Baud's Birds of N. Am., 31, 1858.

" Common." — Boardman. Audubon, however, gives it as rare south
of the Middle States, and it is uot mentioned by Dr. Coues in his list
of the birds of South Carolina. There is, however, a specimen in the
Museun of Comparative Zoology labelled as having been taken in
Florida.

As previously observed, it appears to me that the Buteo oxypterus of
Cassin, described from a single specimen taken at Fort Filmore, New
Mexico, corresponds more nearly with the young of this species than with
any known stage or form of B. borealis.

89* Circus cyaneus Bote. Marsh Hawk.

Falco cyaneus Linn., Syst. Nat. I, 126, 1766. — Bonap., Am. Orn., II, 30. —

Audubon, Orn. Biog., IV, 396, pi. ccclvi, 1838.
Circus cyaneus Boie, Isis, 1822, 549. — Audubon, Synop., 19, 1839. — G. R.

Gray, Gen. of Birds, I, p. 32. — Ibid., Cat. Brit. Birds, 17, 1863.
Falco hudsonius Linn., Syst. Nat., I, 128, 1766.
Falco uliginosus Gmelin, Syst. Nat., I, 278, 1788.
Circus uliyinosus Vieillot, Ois. Am. Sept., I, 37, 1807.
Falco uliginosus Wilson, Am. Orn., VI, 67, pi. li, fig. 2, 1812.
Buteo ( Circus) cyaneus ? var. ? americanus, Rich, and Swain., Faun. Bor. Am.,

II, 55, pi. xxix, 1831.
Circus hudsonius Vieillot, Ois. Am. Sept., I, 36, 1 807. — Cassin, 111. Birds

Cal., Texas, etc., 108, 1854 —Brewer, N. Am. Ool., 42, 1857. — Cassin,

Baird's Birds N. Am, 38, 1858.
Circus variegatns Vieillot, Ois. Am. Sept., I, 37, 1807.
Strigiceps uliginosus Bonap., Geog. and Comp. List, 5, 1838.
Strigiceps pygargus Bonap., Ibid.

Common about the savannas.

The present species has been considered by most writers as identical
with the C. cyaneus of the Old World. It was first separated as a dis-
tinct species by Bonaparte in 1838, in his Geographical and Comparative
List. Mr. Cassin also regarding it as distinct, this opinion has been
generally adopted by recent American ornithologists. They seem to be,
however, quite identical.

The same variation in color between eastern and western specimens is
seen in this species that has been noted in others of this family, the young
western ones especially being much brighter colored than the eastern.

332 BULLETIN OF THE

The great variation in plumage attending differences of age and sex in
this species have given rise to numerous synonymes, of which twenty arc
cited by Mr. G. R. Gray in his Catalogue of British Birds.

90.* Pandion haliaetus Cuvier. Fish Hawk. Ospret.

Falco haliaetus Linne, Faun. Suec, 22, 1735.— Wilson, Am. Orn., V. 13, pi.
xxxvii, 1812. — Bonap., Ann. N. Y. Lye. N. Hist., II, 26, 1828. — Audubon,
Orn. Biog.,1,415, pi. lxxxi, 1832. — Nuttall, Man. Am. Orn., I, 78, 1832.

Pandion haliaetus Cov., Reg. An., 1,316, 1817. — Audubon, Synopsis, 12, 1839.
— G. It. Gray, Cat. Brit. Birds, 5, 1863. — Pelzeln, Ornithol. Brasiliens,
4, 1868.— Heuglin, Ornithol. Nordost-Afrika's, 54, 1869.

Falco arundinaceus Gmelin, Syst. Nat. I, 263, 1788.

Falco carolinensis Gmelin, Ibid.

Pandion carolinensis Bonap., Geog. and Comp. List, 3, 1838. — Cassin, Illust.
Birds Cal, Texas, etc., 112, 1854. — Brewer, N. Am. Ool., 53, 1857. —
Cassin, Baird's Birds N. Am., 44, 1858.

Falco cayanensis Gmelin, Syst. Nat. I, 268, 1788.

Anuila piscatrix Vieillot, Ois. Am. Sept., I, 29, 1807.

Pandion flucialilis Savig., Descr. de l'Egypte, Hist. Nat., I, 96, 1809.

Pandion americamis Vieillot, Gal. des Ois., I, 33, 1828.

Pandion indicus Hodgson, Journ. As. Soc. Bengal, 366, 1837.

Abundant everywhere ; especially so around the lakes of the Upper
St. John's. Commences nesting in January. At Lake Monroe I
counted six iic:sts from a single point of view. Their nests were also
frequent all along the river. They generally selecting a dead tree in
which to build, and often those situated in cleared fields, their nests
were conspicuous objects, and could usually be seen from a long dis-
tance. Even these harmless birds do not fail to attract the fire of the
numerous sportsmen who visit this region in winter, some of whom
are ignorant enough to believe that when shooting them they are killing
"bald eagles."

Gmelin, in his " Systema Naturae," described the present species not only
as Falco haliaetus, but he gave to it also the names F. carolinensis, F. arun-
dinaceus, and F. cayanensis, apparently indicating under them, however,
what he regarded as varieties rather than as distinct species. For many
years, however, the common fish-hawk was generally regarded as having
an almost cosmopolitan distribution. Bonaparte spoke of it in 182C, in his
Synopsis of the Birds of the United States,* as follows : " Inhabits almost
every part of the globe near waters; much more common in North Amer-
ica than in Europe." Ten or twelve years later, however, he seems to

* Annals of tho N. Y. Lyceum of Nat History, Vol. II, p. 26.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY.

333

have changed this opinion, since in his Geographical and Comparative
List of the Birds of Europe and the United States (to which paper, by
the way, we are indebted for the separation of eight of the American
species of raptorial birds previously considered identical with the Euro-
pean,* embracing all thus separated up to the present time, except two t)
he calls the American fish-hawk Pandion carolinensis, and gives its
habitat as " America generally." Other authors have since separated
the West Indian and South American as a tbird, the Asiatic as a fourth,
and the Australian as still another. The numerous specimens in the
Museum show that considerable variation obtains in color, size, and pro-
portions among those recognized by authors as belonging to the P. caro-
linensis, much greater differences in color — the main ground on which
they have been separated from the European — being presented among
the Florida specimens alone than obtains in the average between Bra-
zilian and New England specimens, or American and European. Gen-
erally the feathers of the breast are each centred with a broad longi-
tudinal spot or stripe of brown, which spots sometimes cover the greater
part of the breast ; but they are often simply narrow lines, and are not
unfrequently entirely wanting. Sometimes these spots are uniform dark-
brown, at others suffused or broadly margined with ferruginous, and are
occasionally altogether of the latter color. In reuniting the American fish-
hawk with the osprey of the Old World, I but adopt the view always held
by a large number of ornithologists, though by all American authors they
have for the last fifteen years been commonly considered as distinct.

Measurements of Florida Specimens of Pandion haliaetus.

M.C.Z.

No.

Locality.

Date.

Collector.

Length

Alar
Extent.

Wing.

Tail.

5268

rf

Blue Springs

Feb. 21,

'69

J. A. Allen

21.75

64.00

19.50

8.75

5298

rT

Enterprise

Feb. 25,

'69

"

24.25

68 75

20.25

10.00

5331 1

rT

"

Mar. 4,

'69

•'

22.00

63 50

19.25

9.00

5356

rf

Hawkinsville

Mar. 10,

'69

"

20 75

63.00

18.75

8.60

5355

9

"

Mar. 10,

•69

"

'-

20.25

7.80

9

"

Mar. 15,

•69

"

24.25

66.25

19.00

*

"

Mar. 15,

'69

"

23.50

68 50

20.25

91. Haliaetus leucocephalus Savigny. White-headed Eagle.

Falco leucocephalus Gmelin, Syst. Nat., I, 255, 1788. — Wilson, Am. Orn.,
IV, 89, pi. xxxvi, 1811. — Audubon, Orn. Biog., I, 58, pi. xxi, 1832; II,
160; V, 354, pi. exxvi.

* Pandion carolinensis from P. haliaetus, Butceles (or Archlbuteo ns now called) Sancti-
Johannis from B. lagopus; Buteo Swainsoni from B. vulgaris; Falco anatumfrom F. pere-
grinus ; Astur atricapillus from A. palumbarius ,- Strigiceps (Circus as now called) w/i-
ginosus from S pygargus (cyaneus auct.); Otus americanvs (or " Wilsonianus ") from 0.
vulgaris; Nyctale Richardsoni from N. Tengmalmi ; Strix pratincola from S. jlammea.

f Aquila chrysaetos, Brachyotus paluslris.

334 BULLETIN OF THE

Haliaetus leucocephalus Savigny. — Bonaparte, Geog. and Comp. List, 3,
1838. — Audubon, Synop., 10, 1839. — Cassin, Illust. Birds Cal., Texas,
etc., Ill, 1854. — Cassin, Baird's Birds N. Am., 43, 1858

Faico ossifiagus Wilson, Am. Orn., VII, 16, pi. lv, 1813.

Aquila (Haliaetus) leucocephalus Kich. & Swain., Faun. Bor. Am., II, 15, 1832.

Faico Washingtom Audubon, Orn. Biog., I, 58, pi. xi, 1831 (plate published
1827).

Faico Washingtomana Audubon, Loudon's Mag. N. Hist., I, 115, 1828.

Haliaetus ]\ \ishingtoni Audubon, Synop., 10. 1839. — Cassin, Baird's Birds
N. Am., 42, 1859.

Common. Breeds in January and later. Very abundant on the
Upper St. John's, and especially at Lake Monroe. Saw them repeat-
edly dive and catch their own fish, though usually depending upon rob-
bing the fish-hawks for them. The same fact has been reported by
other observers,* although it was formerly supposed they never caught
any fish themselves.

The large specimen of an eagle taken by Audubon in Kentucky, and
figured and described by him as Faico Washingtoni, seems not to have
been preserved ; it is at least not known to be extant, and appears to have
never been examined by any other naturalist. Audubon states that he
altogether saw not " more than eight or nine " specimens, f and deemed it
very rare. He does not appear, however, to have really examined but the
one figured. Numerous local observers have reported it as occasional at
different localities, and Mr. Cassin has doubtfully referred specimens to it
taken in New Jersey. Nuttall believed the young were more or less
common near Boston every winter, and considered it as " probably also
indigenous to northern Europe, but confounded with the ordinary sea
eagle." J But, as remarked by Mr. Cassin, " No specimen precisely
corresponding to Mr. Audubon's bird has been obtained since its dis-
covery, and it has latterly been looked upon by naturalists, especially
in Europe, as an unusually large specimen of the white-headed eagle." §
The important point of difference between Audubon's bird and other rep-
resentatives of this genus consists in the scutellation of the tarsi, which
are covered in front with broad transverse scales, instead of with a great
number of small irregular ones, as in other sea eagles. This, Mr. Cassin

* William Couper, Massachusetts Ploughman, August 26, 1S70. Charles H. Nau-
man, on his own authority and that of Professor S. S. Hakleman, Ibid., September 24,
1870. Henry Reeks, Can. Nat., Vol. V, No. 1, p. 43, 1870.

t Loudon's Mag. of Nat. Hist., Vol. I, p. 116, April, 1828.

I Mem. Am. Acad., 1st Ser., Vol. I, p. 92, 1831.

§ Illustrations of Birds of California, Texas, etc., p. Ill, 1854.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 335

has observed, is " a character quite unusual in any rapacious bird," * though
I do not see that in this respect it differs essentially from Buteo linealus,
B. pennsylcanicus, or Circus cj/aneus, etc. Its other main point of differ-
ence from the H. leucocephalus is its greater size. Audubon described
his bird as measuring " 3 feet 7 inches in length," "10 feet 2 inches " in
extent of wings, and the folded wing "32 inches." In this series of
measurements there is no discrepancy between the different dimensions
given — the proportions being exactly the same as in H. leucocephalus —
that might lead to the suspicion of a typographical or other accidental er-
ror, as some writers, have suggested there maybe in respect to the alar
extent. It is, then, either a valid species or a large individual of //. leu-
cocephalus, or a large immature H. albicilla. Since known specimens of
H. leucocephalus sometimes nearly approach the supposed //. Washing'
toni in size, it seems not unreasonable, on the whole, to regard it as
reallv a remarkably large example of //. leucocephalus in immature
plumage. Audubon describes his bird as breeding within the United
States, and hence it is hardly probable it coidd have been the arctic
H. albicilla, which has never, so far as known to me, been observed
60 far south at any season of the year. In reference to its fishing habits,
supposed by Audubon to distinctively characterize it, it is now well known
that the //. leucocephalus will occasionally capture its own fish, instead of
depending wholly upon robbing the fish-hawk for them.

Mr. Cassin further observes, f respecting the H. Washingioni, that he
believes it to be more nearly related to his //. pelagica, which he describes
as " the largest of eagles," than to any other. In the same connection he
judiciously remarks respecting the numerous apocryphal species of eagles
on record as follows : " But there is no end to the accounts of strange
eagles given by travellers and naturalists. Some of them may have refer-
ence to peculiar species which have in later times escaped attention, but
the probability is they more frequently allude to accidental varieties, or
that the authors describe from such reports as they had heard at second
hand, or fell into error from insufficient personal observation." Many of
these reports he alludes to in detail, including the reference by Captain
Cook % to a " black eagle " with a " white breast " seen by.him at Kay's
Island, on the northwest coast of America. A specimen of the //. leu-
cocephalus in peculiar (probably albinic) plumage in the Museum of Com-
parative Zoology, taken in Eastern Massachusetts, seems to indicate that
the eagle of Captain Cook may have been but an unusual stage of colora-
tion of the common white-hea'ed eagle. The Massachusetts specimen

* Baird's Birds of X. America, p. 42.
t Illust. Birds of Cal. and Texas, p. 36.
*J Cook's Voyages, II, 352, 1784.

336 BULLETIN OF THE

above referred to has the general color of the under parts white, with
most of the feathers centred with spots of dusky brown of varying size,
but with a nearly uniform dusky brown patch on the middle of the breast.
The interscapulars are also mainly white, and the general plumage above,
except the wings, more or less varied with the same color. The tail below
is mottled with irregularly shaped specks and spots of dusky or black on a
white ground, and above with white on a nearly black ground, and tipped
with dusky. The appearance of the under side of the bird at a distance
vould be nearly uniform whitish.

Mr. Cassin having stated repeatedly that his HaliaL'tus pelagicus (the
Anuila pelagica Pallas*) is the largest and most powerful of all known
>agles,f I was greatly surpised, in critically studying his description, to
ind it in every respect evidently far inferior in size to Audubon's bird of
Washington, and scarcely equalling the //. albicilla, as described by him-
self; the folded wing, in fact, of his H. pelagicus is one inch shorter than
the folded wing of his H. albicilla, four inches shorter than the wing of the
//. Washingtoni, as measured by Audubon, and two inches shorter than the
folded wing of several different Massachusetts specimens of //. leucocepha-
lus! The length he gives of "a skin from Behring's Strait " — the only
specimen, he says, at that time in America — is " about 3 feet 8 inches,"
which exceeds by one inch only the length of Audubon's II. Washingtoni,
as given by Audubon, doubtless from the fresh bird. But the length given
y Mr. Cassin for his i/. pelagicus is evidently too great, as, taken in eon-
■ection with the other measurements of the same specimen given by Cas-
in, if correct, it would indicate a bird of the most anomalous and im-
probable proportions. Mr. Casein's erroneous conception of the gigantic
size of his bird was doubtless formed from the length of his specimen,
which if a flat or unfilled skin, as it probably was, must have measured
several inches more than the natural length of the bird.J While I do not
'n the least question the sincerity of Mr. Cassin's belief in the large size
jf his bird, I have felt it proper to call the attention of future investiga-

* Zoographia Rosso-Asiatica, I, p. 343.

t " The bird which is the subject of our present article is the largest and most power-
ful of the eagles." — Illust. Birds Cat. and Texas, p. 32, first paragraph. "Even the
famous condor of the Andes, the largest of vultures, scarcely exceeds him in size,"
etc. Ibid., p. 32, third paragraph. " The largest of all known eagles, and nearly re-
lated to IJ. Washingtoni (Aud.). It differs from the hitter as described by Audubon in
being generally larger," etc. Ibid., p. 38. "It is the largest of the eagles and ap-
pears to be related to the species immediately succeeding" (77. Washingtoni). Ibid.,
p. 110.

} Pallas says of his Aquila pehgica, which Cassin makes identical with his II. pela-
gicus: •' Caudse 1' 1", lohgitudo alae composite 1", 11", 2'" "; which dimensions do
not indicate a bird larger than avarage examples of B. leucocephalus or U. albialfa.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 337

tors of this group to tins evident discrepancy of proportions in Mr. Cas-
sin's description. An error in Mr. Cassin's figure also demands attention,
which is doubtless due to an inadvertency of the artist. This consists in
the scales on the front of the tarsus being arranged as Mr. Cassin says
he never saw in any rapacious bird, namely, continued to the toes in
broad, unbroken transverse plates, nearly as in Audubon's figure of the //.
Washingtoni !

92.* Polyborus brasiliensis Audubon. Caracara Eagle. " King Buz-
zard."

Milvus brasiliensis Pay, Synop. Method. Av. et Pise, 17, No. 6, 1713.

Circus brasiliensis Brisson, Ornithologie, I, 116, No. 31, 1760.

Falco brasiliensis Gmelin, Syst. Nat., I, 262, 1788.

Falco tharus Molina, Sagg. sul. Storni Nat. del Chile, 17S2.

Polyborus tharus Cassin, Illust. Birds of Cal. and Texas, 113, 1856. — Cassin,

Baird's Birds N. Am., 45, 1858.
Polyborus vulgaris Vieillot, Nouv. Diet., V, 257, 1816. — Audubon, Orn.

Biog., II, 350, pi. clxi (young).
Polyborus brasiliensis Audubon, Synop., 4, 1839. — Bonap., Consp. Gen. Av.,

13, 1850.

" Frequent at Enterprise, associating with the vultures." — Boardman.

The swallow-tailed hawk (Nauclerus furcatus) became more or less
common early in March. I also saw a specimen of the Mississippi kite
(Ictinia ?nississippiensis) at Hawkinsville, March loth.

STRIGID^J.

93. Bubo virginianus Sivainson. Great-horned Owl.

Strix virginiana Gmelin, Syst. Nat., I, 287, 1788. — Wilson, Nuttall, Au-
dubon.

Strix (Bubo) virginiana Swainson, Faun. Bor. Am., II, 82, 183i.

Bubo virginianus Bonaparte, Geog. and Comp. List, 6, 1838. — Audubon,
Synop., 29, 1839 —Cassin, Illust. Birds Cal. and Texas, 177, 1854.—
Cassin, Baird's Birds of N. Am., 1858.

Strix bubo, var. magellanicus Gmelin, Syst. Nat., I, 286, 1788

Slrix pythaules Bartram, Travels, 289, 1791.

Bubo ludovicianus Daudin, Traite' d'Orn., II, p. 210, 1800.

Bubo pinicola Vieillot, Ois. Am. Sept., I, 51, 1807.

Strix (Bubo) arctica Swainson, Faun. Bor. Am., II, 86, pi. xxx, 1831.

Bubo sub-aixticus Hov, Proc. Phil. Acad. Nat. Sci., VI, 211, 1852.

Not apparently numerous. Mr. Boardman states that he saw only a
=ingle specimen, which was killed at Enterprise. I did not observe it
VOL. it. 20

338 BULLETIN OF THE

above Lake George, and only heard its notes a few times below. Mr.
Maynard gives it as rather common about Jacksonville, and says he
frequently observed it elsewhere.

Mr. Cassin has very properly remarked that different specimens of this
widely distributed species vary materially in size and color, and states that
after having examined a large number of specimens from many localities
he believed that they were all of one species. lie thought, however, that
four leading varieties, which he called allanticus, pacijicus, arclicus, and
magellanicus, could be distinguished. I am not disposed to regard them,
however, as by any means strictly geographical, since specimens have been
taken recently in Massachusetts that typically represent each of them.*
While there are doubtless more or less well-marked local forms of this
species, as of all other widely distributed species, many of the differences
on which the different varieties have been based are probably only indi-
vidual.

94.* Scops asio Bonaparte. Mottled Owl.

Strix asio Linne, Syst. Nat, I, 132, 17G7. — Wilson, Am. Orn., V, 83, pi.

xliii, fig. 1, 1812. — Audubon, Nuttall, etc.
Scops asio Boxaparte, Geog. and Comp. List, 6, 1838. — Cassin, Illust.

Birds Cal. and Texas, 179, 1854. —Cassin, Baird's Birds N. Am., 51, 1858.

— Allen, Amcr. Nat., IF, 327, 18G8.
Strix no?via Gmelin, Syst. Nat., 289, 1788. — Wilson, Am. Orn., Ill, 16, pi.

xix, fig. 1, 1812.
Bul>o striatus Vieii.lot, Ois. Am. Sept., I, 54, pi. xxi, 1807.
Ephialles choliba Lawrence, Ann. N. Y. Lye. Nat. Hist., VI, 4, 1854.
Scops McCalli Cassin, Illust. Birds Cal. and Texas, 180, 1854. — Cassin,

Baird's Birds N. Am., 52, 1858.
Scops Kennicotti Elliot, Proc. Phil. Acad. Nat. Sci., 1867, 69. — Ibid., Illust.

Birds N. Am., pi. xi. — Baird, Trans. Chicago Acad. Sci., I, 311, pi.

xxvii, 1869.

Specimens were procured by Mr. Maynard, by whom, and also by
Mr. Boardman, it is reported as not unfrequent.

The remarkable differences in the color of the plumage this species
presents has led many to suppose it embraced two well-marked species,
the reil stage being recognized as one and the gray or mottled as another.
Gmelin described the red stage as Strix asio (which is the same as the
Strix asio of Linne", and the Scops caro'inensis of Brisson) and the gray
6tage as Strix nmvia. Wilson redescribed these different stages as distinct
species. Bonaparte was the first to regard them as identical, he believing

♦ See Part III, p. 189.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 339

the differences in plumage to be the result of age.* The red he believed
to be the young bird, and the mottled the adult, which opinion was also
entertained by Audubon. During the last thirty years, however, they have
been by some authors again regarded as distinct species ; ■(• by others %
the gray were regarded as the adult and the red as the young, while some
have held the opinion that the difference in color was sexual. A general
survey of the facts, either on record or known to me, show that the young
birds are sometimes gray and sometimes red ; that red young have some-
times red parents and sometimes gray ; that the female is sometimes red and
sometimes gray ; and also that both sexes of a mated breeding pair of old
birds are sometimes alike in color and sometimes different. Hence the
opinion already advanced, § that this variation is dependent upon neither age
nor sex, but is simply a case of irregular and somewhat remarkable individ-
ual variation of a single species, seems a well-founded one. But these dif-
ferent stages, though usually so different, are not always well marked, so that
one is often at a loss to know whether to refer certain specimens to the red
series or to the gray. In other words, specimens occur of every intermediate
grade between the typically bright red stage and the typically gray stage.
I have already given my reasons for referring the Scops McCalli of
Cassin to the common S.asio, of which it is merely the somewhat smaller
southern type. § It is also difficult to perceive wherein the Scops Kennicotti
Elliot, known thus far from a single specimen, differs essentially from a
common phase of S. asio.\\

* " Observations on the Nomenclature of Wilson's Ornithology," Journ. Phil. Acad.
Nat. Sci., 1st Ser., Vol. Ill, p. 357, 1824. — " Synopsis of the Birds of the United States,"
Annals N. Y. Lye. Nat. Hist., Vol. II, p. 36, 1828.

t Michner, Dr. Ezra, "A few Facts in Relation to the Identity of the Red and
Mottled Owls," Journ. Phil. Acad. Nat. Sci., 1st Ser., Vol. VII, p. 53, 1834. — Hoy, Dr. P.
R., "Notes on the Ornithology of Wisconsin," Proc. Phil. Acad. Nat. Sci., Vol. VI, p.
306, 1853; Ibid., Transact. Wisconsin Agr. Soc, Vol. II (1852), p. 344, 1853.

J Cabot, Dr. S., Jr., " Observations on the Plumage of the Red and Mottled Owls,"
Journ. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. II, p. 126, 1838.

§ Allex, J. A., " Notes on the Red and Mottled Owls," American Naturalist, Vol.
II, p. 327, 1868.

|| Since the above was written two adult specimens of this species have been received
at the Museum from Dallas, Texas, one of which is of the mottled and the other of the
red type of plumage. The specimen in mottled plumage, besides being generally darker
throughout than northern specimens, has also the dark markings broader and blacker.
The specimen in red plumage has the red more intense than it is in specimens of the
northern red type. Both the Texas specimens are a little smaller than average New
England specimens.

1 have seen no specimens as yet from Florida, but from Mr. Cassin having referred a
specimen from Indian River, (Fla.,) provisionally to his Scops McCalli, they would seem
to differ but little from Texas specimens, resembling them, as would be naturally ex-
pected, more than northern ones.

340

BULLETIN OF THE

95.* Syrnium nebulosum Gray. Barked Owl.

Strix helmlosa Forster, Trans. London Philos. Soc, LXII, 386, 424, 1772. —
Wilson, Am. On., IV, 61, pi. xxxiii, fig. 2, 1812. — Audubon, Orn. Biog.,
I, 242, pi. xlvi, 1832.

Syrnium nabulosum Gould, Birds of Europe, I, pi. xlvi, 1832. — Audubon,
Synop., 27, 1839. — Cassin, Illustr. Birds of Cal. and Texas, 184, 1654.—
Brewer, N. Am. 061., I, 72, 1857. — Cassin, Band's Birds N. Am., 56,
1858.

Ulula nebulosa Bonap., Geog. and Comp. List, 1, 1838. — .donap., conspect.
Gen. Av., I, 53, 1851.

Strix chichictli Gmelin, Syst. Nat., I, 296, 1788.

Strix acclamator Bartram, Travels, 289, 1791.

Strix fernandica ShaW, Gen. Zoiil., VII, 263, 1809.

Very abundant. The only species of owl at all common. Their
ludicrous notes are heard at night everywhere, and not unfrequently
during the day. At night they often startle the traveller by their
Strange utterances from the trees over his head.

The four Florida specimens of this species before me are several shades
darker than New England specimens, one only of a considerable series of
the latter being as dark as the lightest-colored Florida example. The
Florida specimens are also a little smaller than the northern ones.

Measurements of Florida Specimens of Syrnilm: nebulosum.

M.C. Z.

No.

Sex.

Locality.

Date.

Collector.
~~T. Marcy
J. A. Allen

Length.

Alar
Extent.

Wing.

Tail.

6241

5242
6299

Lake Dexter

Enterprise
Hawkin«ville

Feb. 14, '69
Feb. 14, '69
F-b. 25, '69
Mar. 15, "69

20.00
20.00
19.50
19.75

45.75

46.25
45.75
46.00

14 00
14.00
13.00
1325

8 75
8.75
9.00

96.* OtUS brachyotUS Boie. Short-eared Owl.
Strix hrachyotus Gmelin, Syst. Nat, I, 2b3, 1788. — Forster, Trans. Lond.

Phil. Soc., LXII, 384, 1772. — Wilson, Am. Orn., IV, 64, pi. xxxiii, fig. 3,

1812. —Bonap., Ann. N. Y. Lye. N. Hist., II, 37, 1828. — Audubon, Orn.

Biog., V, 373, pi. ccccxxxii, 1835. — Rich. & Swain., Faun. Bor. Am., I,

75, 1831.
Otus hrachyotus Boie, Isis, 1822, 549. —Audubon, Syn., 28, 1839. — Cassin,

Illust. Birds Cal. and Texas, 182, 1854. — G. R. Gray, Gen. of Birds, I, 40.

— Ibid., Cat. Brit Birds, 27, 1863.
Otus palustris Brehm, Viig. Dcutschl., I, 124.
Brachyotus palustris Bonap., Geog. and Comp. List, 7, 1838.
Brachyotus Cassmi Brewer, Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., V, 321, 1856. —

Brewer, N. Am. 061., 1, 68, 1857. — Casbin, Baird's Birds N. Am., 54, 1858.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE. ZOOLOGY. 341

" Quite common about marshes." — Boardman.

Specimens of this bird from Europe, in the Museum of Comparative
Zoology, are not appreciably different from others from various parts of
the United States. Neither do the habits of the European bird appear to
differ from those of the American, as some have supposed. Dr. Richard-
son described its principal haunts in the Fur Countries as being " dense
thickets of young pine-trees or dark entangled willow clumps, where it
sits on a low branch, watching assiduously for mice." But it is now well
known to more commonly frequent open fields and savannas, situations
similar to those the European frequents.

An interesting state of plumage of this owl is exhibited by two pairs
taken on Muskeget Island, Massachusetts, about July 1, 1870, by Messrs.
C. J. Maynard and William Brewster, in which the color is so light as to
almost suggest their being albinos. They are many shades lighter than
the specimens of this species are from the interior, and show clearly, when
taken in connection with the light race of Arvicola riparius (Arvicola
Breweri Baird), also occurring on this small sandy island, the effect of the
combined influence of an absence of shade and the increased light caused
by reflection from the light-colored sand. The influence of similar
circumstances is seen on a large scale in the birds and mammals of the
Colorado desert and the arid peninsula of Lower California, and in less
degree on the open arid plains of the middle region of the continent.

The long-eared owl, Otus vulgaris Fleming,* may be expected,
from its known distribution, to also occur in Florida.

97 * Strix flammea Limit. Barn Owl.

Strix flummea Linne, Syst. Nat., I, 133, 1767. — "Wilson*, Nuttall, Audu-
bon (Orn. Biog.), Bonaparte (Synop.).

Strix pratincola Bonap., Geog. and Comp. List, 7, 1838. — Cassin, Brewer,
and recent American authors.

Strix americana Audubon, Synop., 25, 1839.

Strix perlata Bonap., Consp. Gen. Av., I, 55, 1850.

Strix /areata Temm., PI. Col., I, 432.

A specimen was taken by Mr. Thaxter at St. Augustine. Mr.

* Strix otus Linne, Faun. Suec, 24, 1761.

Strix otus americana ct mexicana Gmelin, Syst. Nat., I, 288, 1788

Strix otus Wilson, Bonap. (Synop.), Nuttaix, Audubon (Orn. Biog.).

Olus vulgaris Fleming, Brl ish Animals, 60, 1828. — Audubon, Synop., 28, 1839.

G. R. Gray, Gen Birds, T, 40; Cat- Brit. Birds, 26, 1863.

Otus Wilsonianui Lesson, Traite d'Orn., I, 110, 1831. — Cassin, Brewer, and re-
cent American authors.

Otus americanus Bonap., Geog and Cooip. List, 7, 1835.

S42 BULLETIN OF THE

Maynard informs me it was said to be common, and that at Dummitt's a
hollow tree was shown him in which a pair of these birds had bred for
several years. Audubon also speaks of it as being common in Florida.

Respecting the numerous species of late recognized in the Slrix flam-
mea group of owls, Mr. Cassin has, with great propriety, remarked that
naturalists have " established species on very slender characters."

As is well known, different specimens from near the same locality vary
considerably in color and size, while specimens from different continents
are frequently almost undistinguishable. From the considerable number
of specimens I have seen from distant points, as Europe, the United
States, South America, Southern Asia, the West Indies, Australia, and
South Africa, I see no reason why the Slrix JIammea may not be regarded
as having a nearly cosmopolitan distribution, which indeed seems to be
the present opinion of several European ornithologists. Nearly the same
variations in color appear to occur on each continent, the general color
in specimens from near the same locality varying from yellowish rufous
to pale fulvous, and the dusky spots from being large and conspicuous to
nearly obsolete or entirely wanting.

COLUMBJJXai.
98.* Chamsepelia passerina Swainson. Ground Dove.
Common, especially about cultivated grounds.

99* Zensedura carolinensis Bonaparte. Mourning Dove.

Columlm. carolinensis Linne, Syst. Nat., I, 286, 1766.— Gmelin, Wilson, Nut-
tall, Audubon (Orn. Biog.).

Columba marginata Linne, Syst. Nat., I, 286, 1766.

Ectopistes margincllus Woodhouse, Proc. Phil. Acad. Nat. Sci., Vol. VI, 104,
1852.

Zenrcdura carolinensis Bonaparte, Consp. Gen. Avium, II, 84, 1854.

Zenccdura marginellus Bonapakte, Ibid., 85.

Abundant. Among its favorite resorts are the wild orange-groves,
where it feeds on the seeds of the decaying fruit. Smaller than at the
north, with the metallic tints much brighter and more bronzy.

MELEAGRIDJE.

100* Meleagris gallopavo Linne. Wild Turret.
Meleagris galloparo Linne, Syst. Nat., 268, 1766. —Gmelin, Wilson, Bona-
parte, Audubon, Nuttall, Baird, etc.
Meleagris americana Bartram, Travels, 290, 1791.
Meleagris syluestris Vieill , Nouv. Diet., IX, 447.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 343

Mflcngris /era Vieiix., Gale'rie des Ois., II, 10, pi. x, 1324.

Meleagris mexicana Gould, Proc. Lond. Zool. Soc, 1856, 61. — Baird, Birds

N. Am., 618, 1858. — Coopkr & Baird, Orn. Cab, I, 523, 1870.
Oafhpnvo sjjlvestris, Nora Anc/liie Bay, Synopsis, 51, 1713. — LeConte, Proc

Phil. Acad. Nat. Sci., IX, 179, 1857.

Common and even quite numerous in those sections where it is not
too much hunted. Mr. Boardman informs me that very fat male birds
often weigh twenty-five to twenty-eight pounds, but that the average
weight of the males is eighteen to twenty pounds, and of the females
6ix to ten pounds.

The Origin of the Domestic Turkey.

Although it had been for a long time previously vaguely conjectured
that the domestic turkey did not originate from the common wild turkey of
North America, it was not until about 1856 that it was fully asserted
that such was not its origin. In a paper road before the Zoological So-
ciety of London, in April, 185G, Mr. John Gould, the well-known English
ornithologist, assigned this bird to the list of those domesticated animals
whose origin had become involved in obscurity. He refers, however, to
the fact of its known introduction into Europe from Mexico about 1524,
and to the belief, shared by all naturalists from Linne up to that time, that
the domesticated turkeyr was derived from the wild turkey of North
America. He also states that, " on account of the great differences which
are met with among our domestic turkeys, and the circumstance that the
wild turkeys recently imported from North America not readily associating
or pairing with them," he had for some years entertained the opinion that
the wild turkey of the United States was not the original of the domestic
turkey. He also at this time described a single specimen of a turkey from
Mexico as belonging to a species distinct from the wild turkey of the
United States, to which he gave the name of Meleagris mexicana. It
differed, however, but slightly from the northern bird, mainly in having
more white on the upper tail coverts. Although he claimed that it
was of larger size, his measurements indicate it to be only barely
above the average, and considerably smaller than the larger speci-
mens from the Northern States. In considering it as distinct from the
common wild turkey, he seems to have been greatly influenced by the lo-
cality whence his specimen came ; as he states that he hardly thinks it prob-
able that the common turkey, " authors to the contrary, notwithstanding,"
ranges very far into Mexico, since it is found, he says, along the southern
boundary of Canada, which is nearly two thousand miles from Mexico.
He deems it unlikely that a bird inhabiting " the cold regions of Canada

344 BULLETIN OF THE

should also be indigenous to the hotter country of Mexico, ■whence," he
adds, " and not from North America, the turkey was originally introduced
into Europe " ; thus leaving it to be inferred that, in his opinion, the Mexi-
can bird — bis new species — was the ancestor of the domestic turkey.
The facts in respect to the distribution of the wild turkey are briefly
these : It exists in Canada only in the warmer portions of that country,
and thence southward uninterruptedly throughout the table-lands of
Mexico.

Dr. Henry Bryant, of Boston, in reviewing Mr. Gould's paper, a few
months after its appearance, took exceptions to the views of that gentle-
man, and in referring to the two principal statements made by Mr. Gould,
namely, that the wild and domestic turkeys were structurally different, and
refused to breed together, Dr. Bryant thus observes : " How far climate
and other influences may have affected the domestic variety in England
I do not yet know, but with us neither of these two statements is correct.
If it were not for the difference in the plumage it would be impossible in
many cases to distinguish the two birds ; and even with this aid it is some-
times very difficult to decide with certainty when the specimen is a

female The wild turkey breeds here with the tame variety quite

as readily as could be expected ; wherever the wild turkeys are numerous,
it is an ordinary occurrence for the tame hen to prefer the wild gobbler to
the domestic ones. I have had in my own possession wild hens that bred
with the tame gobblers, — a fact much stranger than that of the wild gob-
bler breeding with the tame ben. But the most satisfactory proof of their
specific identity is that the offspring of mixed blood is known to be har-
dier and more prolific than the domestic variety, — a fact which cannot
be reconciled with their specific diversity."*

Dr. Bryant's facts, with those of previous writers, seem amply sufficient
to settle the question as to the origin of the domestic turkey ; yet a few
months later Major John EeConte, who probably at that time had not
seen Dr. Bryant's remarks, published a paper entitled " Observa-
tions on the Wild Turkey, or GaUopavo syloestris of Ilay."f In this
paper he took the ground that the tame turkey could not possibly have
been derived from the wild turkey of the United States. And, if what he
states in support of his opinion as facts were such, they would go far
towards rendering his position a tenable one, but in reality they are but
baseless, dogmatic assumptions, which not only ran counter to the then
generally received opinion, but were squarely opposed to unquestionable
evidence already on record. Major LeConte's opinions, notwithstanding

* Proc. Bost Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. VI, p. 158, March, 1857.

t Proc. Phil. Acad. Nat. Sci., Vol. IX, p. 179, September, 1857.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 345

that they were based on groundless assumptions, as an investigation of
the subject fully proves, have been so generally entertained by subsequent
authors, who have accepted his statements without investigating the
facts for themselves, that a careful revision of the subject is now
required. Major LeConte observes : " Whoever has compared the wild
turkey of the United States with the domestic animal of the same genus
must have observed that there existed very striking differences between
them." While asserting that "'these differences do not consist of slight and
unimportant particularities, but in radical disagreements, which ought to
remain unchangeable under all circumstances, and which form good spe-
cific characteristics," his sole point of distinction consists "in the posses-
sion by the tame bird of an enormous palear or dewlap," which he affirms,
contrary to fact, is not possessed by the wild bird. * He refers also to
the conviction that had long existed in his mind, that the two birds — the
wild and domestic — "were really distinct species." "More than fifty
years ago," he says, " when I first saw a wild turkey, I was led to con-
clude that one never could have been produced from the other. I have
mentioned this to many ornithologists, but no one would take the trouble
to investigate the matter [!]," etc. It does not appear, however, that
even with him this long-standing conviction had resulted from a thorough
investigation of the subject, for he gives no detailed comparison of the two,
and many of his statements are not simply erroneous, but diametrically
opposed to facts previoudy well substantiated. He refers to the early in-
troduction of the turkey into Europe, and to the fact that it was found by
the first explorers of America in both the wild and domesticated state.
He alludes also to Mr. Gould's above-cited paper, remarking respecting it
that he was unable to determine whether Mr. Gould's supposed new Mexi-
can species was the same as the M. gallopavo, or was the original of the
domestic bird. He thought, however, that the Mexican was identical with
the common wild bird. He then remarks : " I have before observed that
the turkey was found domesticated among the nations of Central America.
Now the bird which ice hare native among us has never been domesticated.
All attempts to conquer its peculiar habits have failed, nolwi'hslanding what
has been said and written on the subject to the contrary. I defy axy oxe

TO SHOW A TURKEY, EVEN OF THE FIRST GEXERATIOX, PRODUCED

from A pair hatched from A wild HEX.f We have every year
in our market offered for sale birds of a very dark color, and in
some degree resembling the wild species ; but in every instance,
by the presence of the palear, the imposition can be detected at

* It is usually, however, either entirely absent in the wild bird, or present only in a
rudimentary state.

t The italicizing in this extract is of course my own.

346 BULLETIN OF THE

first sight, and the cheat exposed. I have known the eggs found in
the woods hatched hy a domestic hen, the chickens brought up carefully,
and rendered so tame and familiar as to eat out of the hand, and to
show considerable pleasure whenever persons with whom they were ac-
quainted approached them. Yet they never would associate icith the domes-
tic turkeys, studiously avoiding their company, and in little more than a year
running oil' to the woods, and never again returning to the haunts of their
infancy. / knoiv," he continues, "that I shall be contradicted in this
statement, and many quotations from authors brought forward against me. I
repeat, contrary to the assertions of many others, that no one has ever

SUCCEEDED IX DOMESTICATING OUR WILD TURKEY. I Speak not Only

from my own personal observations, but from the undivided testimony of
many southern gentlemen. The turkey of our own poultry-yards, which,
when young, is difficult to bring forward, it was thought might be obtained
of a hardier race by a new domestication ; but every attempt has failed,
nor can I find a single well-authenticated case of a mixed breed being
obtained." One is certainly at a loss to know what the self-confident
Major would call a well-authenticated case of a mixed breed of wild and
tame turkeys, since he must have been familiar with Bonaparte's excellent
account, derived mainly from notes furnished him by Mr. Audubon, of
this bird given in the first volume of his continuation of Wilson's " Ameri-
can Ornithology." In sneaking of the mixing of the wild and tame tur-
keys, this author remarks as follows : " This crossing often occurs in coun-
*ies where wild and tame turkeys are frequent ; it is well known that they
,vill readily approach each other ; and such is the influence of slavery
upon even the turkey, that the robust inhabitant of the forest will drive
his degenerate kinsfolk from their own food and from their females, being
generally welcomed by the latter and by their owners, who well know the

advantage of such a connection Eggs of the wild turkey have been

frequently taken from their nests and hatched under the tame hen ; the
young preserve a portion of their uncivilized nature, and exhibit some
knowledge of the difference between themselves and their foster-mother,
roosting apart from the tame ones, and in other respects showing the force
of hereditary disposition. The domesticated young, reared from the eggs
of the wild turkey, are often employed as decoy birds to those in a state of
nature." *

Audubon, in his account of the Canada goose, also incidentally refers
to the crossing of the wild and tame turkeys, in a manner tint leads
US to suppose that it was to bis knowledge a matter of common oc-
currence, lie says : " The crossing of the Canada goose with the com-

* Nearly the same words are used by Audubon in his Ornithological Biography and
in his Birds of America.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOULOGY. S47

men domestic species has proved as advantageous as that of the wild with
the tame turkey."* He also states, " My friend, Dr. Bachman, assures
me that in a state of domestication the wild turkeys, though kept separate
from tame individuals, lose the brilliancy of their plumage in the third
generation, becoming plain brown, and having here and there white
feathers intermixed " f

The assertions of Major LeConte are so fully controverted by pre-
viously recorded testimony that they might have been justly ignored,
had they not received, as already observed, the sanction of eminent
authorities, and thus have come to be more or less currently adopted.
Among the first to give them support was Professor Baird, of the Smith-
sonian Institution. This gentleman, in his work on the " Birds of North
America," published less than two years subsequently to Major LeConte's
paper, cites LeConte's opinions and statements, and partially indorses them,
though he had not, he says, specimens at hand of the domestic bird for
comparison with the wild one. To the data for their distinction adduced
by Major LeConte, he adds a statement from Bonaparte in respect to the
difference in color between the domestic and wild bird ; Bonaparte ob-
serving that the wild bird never has the whitish tip to the tail which dis-
tinguishes the domestic ones. Professor Baird also adds that the flesh of the
two differs in color, that of the wild bird being " much dai-ker." He adds
that, upon the whole, it is exceedingly probable that they are specifically
distinct. " If the dewlap," he says, " be characteristic of a species at
present only known in captivity, then, as Major LeConte remarks, it
should bear the name of M. gallopavo, as based by Linnams essentially upon
the description by Brisson of Gallopavo sylvestris, in which this dewlap is
particularly mentioned. In this event our wild bird will be entitled to a
new name," etc. Professor Baird concludes his remarks on this subject with
the following ingenious theory, which has been to some extent accepted as
a probably correct one. " In conclusion," he says, " I venture to suggest
the following hypothesis, which, however, is not original with myself:
That there are really three species of turkey, besides the M. ocellata, a
fourth species from Central America, entirely different from the rest.
That one of them, M. americana, is probably peculiar to the eastern half
of North America ; another, HI. mexicana, belongs to Mexico, and extends
along the table-lands to the Rocky Mountains, the Gila, and the Llano
Estacado; and a third is the M. gallopavo, or domesticated bird. That it
is not at all improbable that the last was originally indigenous to some
one or more of the West Indian Islands, whence it was transplanted as
tamed to Mexico, and from Mexico taken to Europe about a. d. 1520.

* Birds of America, Vol. VI, p. 190.
t Ibid., Vol. V, p. 55.

348 BULLETIN OF THE

Finally, that the wild turkeys were probably completely exterminated by
the native?, as has been the case with equally large birds in other islands,
as the dodo and solitaire.* Tins hypothesis," he continues, " will ex-
plain the fact of our meeting nowhere at the present day any wild turkeys
resembling the domestic one. f .... The entire subject is one of much
interest, and deserves to be investigated thoroughly. It is quite possible
that a careful examination of the external form and habits of the New
Mexican bird may do much to throw full light on the whole question."

It is not surprising that a theory presenting to the imagination so many
attractive features, and indorsed by authority so eminent, should have
been currently received, as has this, by those who have not had the oppor-
tunity, nor perhaps the desire, to examine the subject for themselves. But,
if I mistake not, it has also been accepted as at least a probably correct
hypothesis by many ornithologists.^ I have, however, already adduced
evidence from Bonaparte, Bachman, Audubon, and Bryant sufficient to
show, not only the erroneous character of Major LeConte's fundamental
proposition, to wit, that the wild turkey of the United States has never
been and never can be .domesticated, but that such an hypothesis as the
one above quoted is wholly uncalled for. As the whole question of the
origin of the domestic turkey and its relationship to the wild turkey of the
United States turns, however, upon the fact of the domesticability or non-
domesticability of the common wild turkey, it may perhaps be proper to
bring forward some recent testimony respecting this disputed point.

I have myself always been more or less familiar with the domestic bird,
and with the fact that breeds exist which closely resemble the wild bird,
and which their owners claimed were one fourth, one half, or one eighth

* Mr. Darwin, in referring to this gratuitous theory, refers to the fact of the de-
terioration of the turkey within the tropics, and very properly to the " improbability of
a bird having long ago become extinct in these large and luxuriant islands, or of its
ever having been aboriginally an inhabitant of the lowlands of the tropics." (Animals
and Plants under Domestication, Am. ed., Vol. I, p. 303, note.)

t But does it explain the frequent occurrence of domestic ones so closely resembling
the wild ones as to be quite undistinguishable from them?

t Dr. Cooper, who considers the western wild turkey specifically distinct from the
wild turkey of the cast, appears to believe that the domestic turkey originated from the
wild turk,ey of Mexico. He says: " It is well known that at the period of the Spanish
discovery the. native turkey was widely domesticated in Mexico, and was introduced
thence first into Europe, and thence into North America. Furthermore, the native bird
of Eastern North America does not occur in Mexico at all. The markings of the do-
mestic turkey are sometimes exactly like those of the wild bird of Mexico, while they
never assume the plumage of the wild Meleagris gallopavo of the north." (Orn.
Cab, Vol. I, p. 523, 1870.) Dr. Cooper's last remark is unfortunately erroneous, since
domestic birds do often occur, especially females, that cannot well be distinguished
from wild northern birds.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 349

wild blood, as the case might be, and which differed in habits in some re-
spects from the common breeds. I have also been long conversant with
the fact that in the Western States, and in those other parts of the coun-
try where the turkey exists in its native state, that fhe eggs of the wild
bird are frequently taken and hatched under the domesticated turkey, the
young carefully raised and held at high prices, they being considered as
highly valuable for the purpose of improving the domestic breeds. In a
recent correspondence with Mr. D. Darwin Hughes, an able ornitholo-
gist of Marshall, Michigan, I alluded to the fact that the domestication
of the wild bird had been disputed, and requested him to give me any
facts he might possess in reference to the subject. The facts given in the
following extracts from his letters are fully co-roborated by other private
testimony in my possession.

Under date of October 25, 1869, he wrote me respecting the domes-
tication of the wild bird as follows : " Here [Calhoun County, Michigan],
where the wild bird is abundant, they mix freely with the tame ones, and
it is a common thing to see large flocks of half-breeds ; I have owned them
myself. They are fond of roaming and are apt to stray ; not to the woods
exclusively, but also to other farms. I have known the pure wild bird,
hatched from wild eggs and raised in the poultry-yard, to remain for years
in the yard without being confined ; but this is not usual. One fine gob-
bler, as beautiful a bird as I ever saw, was hatched from a wild eg£ and
headed a flock of mixed turkeys in a barn-yard. He was tame, like the
others, but easily distinguished by his wild plumage ; at night the flock
roosted in the yard, but this bird could not brook so low a perch, and
when the flock went to roost he invariably took wing and perched on an
immense forest-tree one fourth of a mile away, where he spent the night ;
but in the morning he always returned to the barn-yard. Such instances
are not uncommon. The eggs are eagerly sought for for hatching, and in
this manner, as I have belbre said, there is a liberal sprinkling of wild
blood in domestic birds, where the wild birds are abundant. The eggs of
the wild bird are found every year, and although I have offered at the
rate of six to eight dollars per dozen for them, there is not one in my col-
lection of eggs, which numbers over two hundred species, so eager are the
finders of them to hatch them, the chicks selling for a large price."

In another letter, dated November 5, 1869, Mr. Hughes wrote me
further concerning this subject, in which he remarks as follows : " I have
already said that the wild bird has been so domesticated as to reproduce
its kind in the poultry-yard, and inquiries made since my last letter show
that in the more northern counties of the State such cases are quite com-
mon. I cannot agree with what is said in the ninth volume of the Pacific
Railroad Reports (p. 617), that there is an appreciable difference in the

350 BULLETIN OF THE

color of the flesh of the wild and tame birds when cooked. There prob-
ably is some difference in color, but so little that one must have very acute
powers of observation to tell the difference when brought to the table
roasted. There 'is a difference in the color of the head, caruncles, and
dewlaps, as stated by Professor Baird, but with my present means of
knowledge, having no fresh specimens before me, I will not undertake to
describe the differences. One thing, however, should not be forgotten ;
that we see the tame bird under all circumstances of passion, — in fear
and when proudly strutting ; in short, under all the different emotions
that turkeys are heirs to, while we rarely or never see the wild turkey
under such varied circumstances, but only when they are terror-stricken
or dead. The head and neck in the tame bird makes rapid and surprising
changes in sympathy with its emotions, and it may be so, and probably is,
with the wild."

From the evidence that has now been given, it is sufficiently apparent
that Major LeConte's two fundamental assumptions, — first, that the wild
bird will not mix or breed with the domesticated ; and, second, that the wild
bird never has been and cannot be domesticated, — upon which was
erected an hypothesis to explain the origin of the domesticated bird by
referring it to an extinct ancestor that probably inhabited some of the
"West Indian Islands, are entirely groundless, and never had for their sup-
port only the negative evidence afforded by the limited experience of
Major LeConte and a few of his friends.

Inasmuch as the domestic turkey was first introduced into Europe from
Mexico, it may be well in this connection to inquire further into the rela-
tionship of the so-called M. mexicana, or Mexican turkey, to the wild
turkey of the eastern part of the United States. As already stated, the
M. mexicana was originally described by Mr. Gould from a single specimen
from Mexico. This specimen differs but slightly from the common wild
turkey of the eastern part of the continent. But like many other merely
nominal species, this " Mexican turkey" has been since generally recognized
by writers on American ornithology, doubtless mainly because its describer
was deemed too eminent a naturalist to be mistaken on such a point. Its
habitat has been since extended to embrace half of that portion of the
continent over which the wild turkey ranges, — the entire western half of
the United States: yet the point at which the habitat of the eastern
species ceases and that of the western begins, no one has yet ventured to
attempt to definitely indicate. It is universally conceded to be exceed-
ingly closely allied to the .1/. gallopavo, as the latter is now defined.
Though admitted provisionally as a valid species by Professor Baird in
his work already cited, he says that " whether these differences can be
considered as establishing a second species for the United States is a

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 351

question yet to be decided." Dr. Coues, however, in his " List of the
Birds of Fort Whipple, Arizona," * says he thinks there can be no doubt
respecting the propriety of separating the " western turkey from the com-
mon species of the Eastern United States"; but he has given us no infor-
mation as to how great the differences between them are, or in what they
consist. As mentioned by Gould and by Baird, the Mexican bird differs
from the eastern one only in being lighter colored, and in having, in
correlation with the generally lighter color of the plumage, the terminal
band of the tail, as also the tips of the tail coverts, whitish instead of pale
brown, as the eastern bird usually has them. This, however, seems by no
means necessarily a specific difference, it being only a slight geographical
variation, not restricted to the turkey, but which runs through most spe-
cies of both birds and mammals that have the same distribution ; the
probable cause of which variation I have already adverted to in Part III.
The common eastern turkey occasionally approaches much nearer to the
so-called Mexican bird than appears to be generally supposed. According
to some authors, the tip of the tail in M. gallopavo is never whitish, but
" plain chestnut, lighter than the ground color " of the tail. Yet of five
specimens in the Museum of Comparative Zoology from one of the West-
ern States, probably either Ohio or Michigan, two correspond with the
description of the assumed typical M. gallopavo, two very nearly as well
with that of the so-called M. mexlcana, and one is intermediate between
them. Three of them are decidedly lighter colored, and possess a lighter
terminal band to the tail than they should to correspond with the true M.
gallopavo as recently defined. I have, on the whole, no hesitancy in refer-
ring the .1/. mexicana Gould to the M. gallopavo Linne. The unquestionable
specific identity of the domestic turkey with the wild one of the Eastern
United States, though originally derived from the Mexican bird, seems
further to support this view. From the great constancy of the white on
the tail and its coverts in the domestic turkey, it has been thought to more
resemble the western bird, or the M. mexicana, than the eastern. I need,
however, only to recall the testimony of Dr. Bachman, already given in
discussing another point, to show that it has necessarily no such signifi-
cance. It will be remembered that Dr. Bachman states that he had
known the wild birds of the Atlantic States, when kept entirely by them-
selves, to become more or less white under confinement in three genera-
tions.f Instead of this being either a " reversion " or a distinctive specific
feature, it can be regarded only as the result of a diminution of the color-
ing matter through degeneracy, under the influences of domestication.

* Proc. Phil. Acad. Nat. Sci., Vol. XVIII, p. 93, 1866. Republished under the title
of " Prodrome of a Work on the Ornithology of Arizona Territory."

t Mr. Darwin mentions a similar fact as having happened iu England. (Animals and
Plants under Domestication, Vol. I, p. 354).

352 BULLETIN OF THE

As the whole plumage becomes lighter, those portions that are naturally
lightest are those we should expecl would soonest become white; and
such is actually the case. Under domestication the turkey not only de-
generates in size and hardiness, but is well known to soon lose much of
the brilliancy of plumage that characterizes it in a state of nature. In a
few generations it loses to a great extent its metallic tints, and becomes
much lighter colored ; the terminal band of the tail, as well as its coverts,
changes to white, and in succeeding generations the cream-colored and
pure white birds often seen in our poultry-yards are gradually developed.
The fact of the domestic turkey having been first introduced into
Europe from Mexico, and into the United States from Europe, admits of
easy explanation ; since the advanced state of civilization enjoyed by the
native Mexicans had enabled them to domesticate the turkey, while their
more degraded neighbors of the north had accomplished nothing of the
kind. The turkey having been introduced into Europe nearly a century
before the establishment of permanent settlements in the northern portions
of the continent, it was, of course, as naturally introduced thence into this
country as were our other domesticated animals.

PERDICID^E.
101* Ortyx virginianus Bonaparte. Qdail.
Tetrao virginianus Linne, Syst. Nat., I, 277, 1766.
Titrao marilandicus Linne, Syst. Nat., I, 277, 1766.
Ortyx borealis STEPHENS, Shaw's Zoul., XI, 377, 1819.
Perdix [Ortyx) virginiana Bonap., Obs. on Wils. Nomcn., Journ. Phil. Acad.

Nat. Sri., 1st Scr., IV, 268, 1825.
Ortyx virginianus Baird, Birds N. Am., 640, 1838. — March, "Notes on

Birds of Jamaica," Proc. Phil. Acad. Nat. Sci., XV, 303, 1863.
Ortyx texanus Lawrence, Ann. N. Y. Lye. Nat. Hist., VI, 1, 1853. — Baird,
Birds N. Amcr., 641, 1858.
Abundant.

The quails of Florida differ from those of the Northern States in being
smaller, larger billed, and darker colored. While the difference in size is
very appreciable, as is also that in respect to the size of the bill, — the bill
being actually larger while there is a general decrease in the size of the
individual, — the most marked dissimilarity is in the coloration, through
tin' darker color of the Florida birds. In the latter the ground color
above i- nitons instead of ashen, as in northern specimens, and the trans-
verse black markings are broader. In average northern specimens the
transverse black bars on the lower surface of (he body are scarcely half
the breadth of the intervening white spaces; in the Florida specimens
they are much mure than half, and in some cases nearly equal them. In

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY.

353

general the proportion of black in the Florida fernales is the same as that
in the northern males. There is a similar relative increase in the extent
of the black markings on the wing coverts, scapulars, and interscapulars,
and on the dorsal surface generally. The black bonier to the white throat-
patch is also broader, and extends back on the sides of the head so as usu-
ally to cover the auriculars, which in average northern specimens are dark
rufous. The bill is also much darker, being generally jet black ; in
Massachusetts specimens it is brownish black, with the tip decidedly
lighter than the other parts.

The so-called Texas quail (Ortyx texanus Lawr.) does not differ very
greatly from either the Florida or the northern ones, it combining some
of the essential characters of each, but more resembling Florida speci-
mens than northern ones. Lawrence and Baird mention the ashen or
decided gray hue on portions of the dorsal surface as distinguishing it
from the 0. virginianus, which has these parts of a "dull pinkish red."
" A dull pinkish red," however, is just the color of these parts in my
Florida specimens ; but the Massachusetts specimens, on the contrary, are
ashen, as already stated, and in this respect agree with the descriptions
of the Texas form, and differ from the Florida ones in the same way that
the Texas ones are said to do from those of the Atlantic coast of the
Middle and Southern States. In both the Florida and Texas specimens
there is a similar increase in the breadth of the black transverse mark-
ings, Lawrence describing them as being twice as broad in the Texas
specimens as in the northern ones.

The Ortyx cubanensis of Cabanis appears scarcely to differ from the
quails of Florida and Texas. D'Orbigny and Lembeye were hence doubt-
less correct in believing the so-called Ortyx cubanensis to be identical with
the 0. virginianus.

The following summary of the subjoined tables shows the difference in
size that obtains between northern and southern specimens, and also in
the sexes. The largest Florida specimen, it will be seen, scarcely equals
the smallest northern one, when those of the same sex are compared.

No. of

Speci-
mens.

ax

Locality.

Length.

Alar

Extent.

" 15.44

Wing.

Tail.

7

d

Illinois

Average

10.18

4.47

2.82

16

d

Florida

Average

9.4*3

14 16

4.22

2.52

6

?

Illinois

Average

9.83

15.10

4.36

2 67

10

?

Florida

Average

9.37

14.02

4 17

2.54

10

?

"

Maximum

10.00

1450

4.40

2.77

10

s

"

Minimum

9 00

13 10

3.35

250

16

d

"

Maximum

1000

14 75

4.50

3.00

16

d

"

Minimum

9.00

13.80

4.00

2 30

7

d

Illinois

Maximum

1050

15.60

4.60

3 00

7

d

"

Minimum

10.00

15.00

4.37

2.55

6

9

'<

Maximum

10.25

15.50

4 50

2.85

6

?

"

Minimum

9.50

14.50

4.25

2.45

23

854

BULLETIN OF TIIE

Measurements of Florida Specimens of Ortyx virginianus.

M.C.Z.
No.

Coll.
No

Sex.

Locality.

Date

1 "B
Collector. g>

1 ^

sg

•< x

w

bo

'3

5151

rf

Ilibernia

Jan. 30, '69

J A. Alien

9.25

14 75

4.15

•2 40

6152

rf

"

Jan 30, "09

"

9 25

14.10

4.00

2.i;o

5183

rf

"

Jau. 30, '69

"

9.00

14 00

4 00

2.30

5184

rf

"

Jan. 30, '69

"

9 25

14.25

4.10

260

6337

rf

Enterprise

Mar 4. "69

"

9 05

14 50

4.40

240

5336

rf

"

Mar. 4, '69

"

9.C0

1425

4.15

250

10578

1990

rf

Jacksonville

Jan. 9, "69

C. J. Maynard

9.50

13.80

4.30

2 80

10579

1990

rf

"

Jan 9, '69

"

9 33

14.15

4.45

2 53

10580

1991

rf

"

Jan. 9, '09

"

9.30

14.30

4.00

2 30

2547

rf

Dummitt's

Mar. 8, '69

"

10 00

1408

4.10

2 65

2546

rf

"

Mar. 7, '09

"

9.30

14.05

4 25

3.00

2562

rf

"

Mar. 9, '69

"

9.85

13.80

4.45

2S4

10583

2472

rf

"

Feb. 24, '69

"

9.50

14 00

4 25

250

2517

rf

"

Mar. 4, '69

"

9 25

14 00

4 40

2.70

•.T.iil

rf

"

Mar. 9, '69

"

9 70

14.08

4 25

265

10581

2356

rf

"

Feb. 16, '69

"

9 70

14.50

4 50

270

10582

2456

9

"

Feb. 24, '69

"

10 00

14 50

4.25

2 55

2795

*

"

Feb. 16, '69

"

9.00

13.75

3 35

2.70

2G15

r\

"

Mar. S. '69

"

950

14 20

4 10

2 57

1993

*

Jacksonville

Jan 9, '69

"

935

14.10

4 35

2.70

1994

A

"

Jan. 9, '69

"

9.40

13 10

4 35

2.65

1995

fS

"

Jan. 9, '69

"

9 50

13.60

4.40

2.77

61S2

5

Hibernia

Jan. 30, '69

J. A. Allen

9.35

14 25

4.10

2.30

6338

?

Enterprise

Mar. 4, '69

"

9 00

14 00

4 05

2.33

6351

?

"

Mar. 5, '69

"

9.40

14 50

4.30

2.45

5352

8

"

Mar. 5, '69 "

9.25

14^5

4.15

2.47

Measurements of Northern Specimens of Orttx virginianus.

m. c z

No.

13096

10410
10408
10411
13099
i:;n'.<s
13097
13101
10407
10409
10412
10406
13100

Locality.

Northern Illinois

Date.

Jan. 18

Jan. 18

Jan. 18

Jan. 18

Jan. 18

Jan. 18

4an.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.

Length

10 25

10.(0

10 00

10 50

10.25

10 28

10 00

10.25

9.50

lo 00

9 85

9.50

9.85

Alar
Extent.

15
15
15

15

, 15
15

I 15
15
It
14
15
15
15

Wing

4 45
4.60
4 40
4.50
4.60
4 50
4 37
4.45
4.25
4.50
4 38
450
4 30

2.72
2.75
2.85

2 75

3 00
290
2.55
2 72
2 73
2.85
2.4S
2.45
2.60

CHARADRIID^.
102.t Squartarola helvetica Cuvier. Black-bellied Plover.

" Some remain on the shores of the Floridas in winter." — Audu-
bon*

103.t Charadrius virginicus Borck. Golden Plover.
" St. Augustine ; rare." — Boardman.

* Birds of America, Vol. V, p. 200.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 355

104 * JEgialitis vociferus Cassin. Killdee Plover.
Abundant.

105* JEgialitis Wilsonius Cassin. Wilson's Plover.
Not recently reported as found in Florida in the winter months.
Audubon pbserves : " While in the Floridas, near St. Augustine, in the
months of December and January, I found this species much more
abundant than any other." *

106.t JEgialitis semipalmatus Cabanis. Semx-palmated Plover.
" Not uncommon at St. Augustine throughout the winter." — Board-
man.

107.t JEgialitis melodus Cabanis. Piping Plover.
Observed at St. Augustine in the winter months by Mr. Boardman.

H^MATOPODmSE.

los.t Hsematopus palliatus Temminck. Oyster-Catcheb.

Given by Mr. Boardman as rare in winter at St. Augustine.

I09.t Strepsilas interpres llliger. Turnstone.
" Rare at St. Augustine in winter." — Boardman.

SCOLOPACID.5J.

no* Philohela minor Gray. Woodcock.
More or less common. Probably resident.

111. (t?) Gallinago "Wilsoni Bonaparte. Snipe.
Abundant Probably resident. Florida specimens are darker col-
ored and have longer bills than northern ones.

112.1 Calidris arenaria 'IlUger. Sanderling.
" Common at St. Augustine." — Boardman. " Abundant on Indian
River." — Maynard.

113.t Pelidna americana Coues. Red-backed Sandpiper.
" Common." — Maynard. Boardman.

lU.t Ereunetes pusillus Cassin. Semi-palmated Sandpiper.
" Common." — Maynard.

* Ibid., p. 216.

356 BULLETIN OF THE

iis.t Actodromas minutilla Coues. Least Sandpiper.
" Common." — Maynard.

116.t Actodromas Bonaparte! Cassin. "White-rumped Sandpiper.
"St. Augustine." — Audubon.

117.* Symphemia semipalmata Harthub. "Willet.
" Indian River to St. Augustine. Breeds in March." — Maynard.

118.t Gambetta flavipes Bonaparte. Yellow-legs.
Common.

119.t Gambetta melanoleuca Bonaparte. Greater Yellow-legs.
Common.

120* Tringoides macularius Gray. Spotted Sandpiper.
Common.

121.* Limosa fedoa Ord. Marbled Godwit.
Common. Reported to Mr. Maynard as common all the year near
St. Augustine, but where it nested was unknown to his informants.

I22.t Numenius hudsonicus Latham. Hudsonian Ccrlew.

123.f Numenius borealis Latham. Esquimaux Curlew.
I have no knowledge of the actual occurrence of these two species
in East Florida, yet they apparently must occur as winter visitors. Dr.
Coues gives them as winter visitors in his South Carolina list, and they
are well known to range at this season southward into the tropics.

124.t Numenius longirostris Wilson. Long-billed Cuklew.
" Very abundant on the coast." — Boardman.

Several other species of this family are well known to pass through
East Florida in their migrations, and perhaps a few others are winter
residents there.

RECURVIROSTRIDiE.

125.* Himantopus nigricollis Vieillot. Black-necked Stilt.
Audubon says it is found in Florida in winter.* Mr. Boardman
gives it as "quite common at Enterprise after the 15th of March."

* Birds of America, Vol. VI, p. 85.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 357

126.t Recur virostra americana Gmelin. Avoset.
This species must occur in Florida as a winter visitor, but I have
as yet seen no specimens that were collected there.

GRUID^S.

127.* Grus canadensis Temminck. Bbown Crane.
Abundant.

In 1853, in the Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History,*
Dr. Bryant discussed at length the question of the relationship of G
americana Ord to the G. canadensis, and arrived at the conclusion that
■while the young of the G. americana, or white whooping crane, might be
brown like the mature G. canadensis, or sand-hill crane, that the two were
distinct species ; and this conclusion ornithologists seem to have generally
adopted. I saw none of the white birds in Florida, where the brown were
very numerous. In Iowa I have seen both, but only at a distance. The
account given by Dr. Bryant of the breeding of the sand-hill crane in
Florida is very complete and interesting. According to this author the
eggs, two in number, are laid from early in February till about the middle
of April, f

RALLIDiE.

128.* Rallus elegans Audubon. Marsh Hair.
Common.

129* Rallus crepitans Gmelin. Clapper Rail.

Common.

130.t RaUus virginianus Linne". Virginia Rail.

" Common along the St. John's River." — Boardman.

I3i.t Porzana Carolina Vieillot. Carolina Rail.
" Common." — Maynard.

132. (t?) Porzana noveboracensis Cassin. Yellow Rail.
" Common throughout the winter along the St. John's." — Boardman.

I33.t Pulica americana Gmelin. Coot.
Abundant. As numerous the 1st of April as during the winter.

134.* Gallinula galeata Bonaparte. Florida Gallinule.
Abundant.

* Vol. IV, p. 303.

t See also on this point the same Proceedings, Vol VU, p. H.

858 BULLETIN OF THE

135.* Gallinula martinica Latham. Purple Gallinule.
Well known as a resident bird of Florida, but not observed by
either Messrs. Maynard and Boardman or myself.

ARDEID-E.
136 * Demiegretta ludoviciana Baird. Louisiana Heron.
Common.

137 * Demiegretta Pealei Baird. Pe ale's Egret.
Several specimens of this beautiful species were brought home by
Mr. Maynard from Indian River, taken at Dummitt's. This is some-
what farther north than any point from which it has been previously
reported.

138.* Garzetta caildidissima Bonaparte, kittle "White Heko*.
Abundant. Breeds in February and March.

139.* Herodias egretta Gray. White Heron.

Abundant. Breeds early in the season. At a small heronry on an islet
in Lake Dexter 1 found several nests containing nearly fledged young,
March 23d. The nests, built eight to fifteen feet above the ground, were
composed of a few sticks loosely put together. Often they were placed
in the tops of bushes which were thickly overgrown with woody vines.
The young, when shaken from the nest, climbed through the vines,
using their bills as an organ of prehension, either seizing the branches
between their mandibles or hooking their bills over them, and clung so
closely that it was exceedingly difficult to dislodge them.

This and the preceding species are greatly persecuted by the hun-
ters, who sometimes destroy great numbers at their breeding places,
so many of the birds being killed and the others so much alarmed, that
large heronries are thus completely broken up. Some gunners make
it their business to hunt them for their plumes. Some means should
be devised, however, for the protection of these beautiful birds, as at
their present rate of decrease their number will soon be greatly di-
minished.

140.* Ardea herodias LinnC. Great Blue Heron.
Abundant. Breeds in the retired swamps, nesting in the highest
cypres3-trees. It is rare that more than a .single nest is seen in one

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGT. 359

tree, but often several pairs breed near eacb otber. Young, a third
grown, were met with as early as the 12th of March. This species
breeds while in immature plumage, young females being found mated
with adult males, and vice versa. The only very appreciable external
sexual difference is that of size, the males, as is generally the case in
this* family, being much larger than the females.

141.* Florida cserulea Baird. Small Blue Heron.
Common.

142.* Ardetta exilis Gray. Little Bittern.
Not common.

I43.t Botaurus lentiginosus Stephens. Bittern
Very common at some localities.

144.* Butorides virescens Bonaparte. Green Heron.
Not uncommon. Smaller than northern specimens, the Florida
examples being intermediate in size between those from New Eng-
land and the West Indies, the latter of which are usually regarded as a
distinct species, under the name of B. brunnescem. They also de-
cidedly approach the West Indian type in coloration.

145* Nycticorax griseus Gray. Night Heron.

Ardea nycticorax Linne, Syst Nat., I, 235. — Wilson, Audubon, Nuttall,
Bonaparte etc.

Ardea grisea Linne, Syst. Nat., I, 239, 1766.

Ardea Gardeni Gmelin, Syst. Nat., I, 644, 1788.

Nycticorax europaus Steph., Gen. Zool., XI, 609, pi. xlvii.

Nycticorax americana Bonap., Geog. and Comp. List, 48, 1838.

Nycticorax Gardeni Jardine, Notes to Wilson's Orn. — Bonap., Conspectus
Gen. Avium, II, 141, 1855.

Nyctiardea Gardeni Baird, Birds N. Am., 678, 1858, and subsequent Ameri-
can authors.

I did not observe this species on the St. John's, but Mr. Maynard
found it more or less common on Indian River and Mosquito Lagoon.
Mr. Boardman gives it as "not rare." It is said to be resident the
Whole year in Florida, by Audubon.

Having compared specimens of the American night heron with others
from various parts of the Old World, I see no jeason for considering them
specifically distinct, though so considered by all American and some Euro-
pean ornithologists. The differences between them are scarcely appreciable.

860 BULLETIN OF TBE

TANTALID^J.

146* Tantalus loculator /''"",' "Wood Ibis. "Gannet."

Common on the Upper St. John's. In March they were undergoing
their spring moult, and were consequently in poor plumage. According
to Dr. Bryant, who is the first and only writer, so far as I am aware,
who has minutely described their eggs and breeding habits, incubation
is generally commenced by the 1st of April. Dr. Bryant visited two of
their breeding places, one of which was between New Smyrna and
Enterprise, in a large cypress swamp on the southern border of Lake
Ashby. He estimated that a thousand pairs were breeding there.

There is a singular discrepancy in the accounts of authors in respect
to the habits of this bird. Bartram mentions it as solitary in its
habits, not associating in flocks. Audubon, always finding it in large
flocks, calls attention to this remark of Mr. Bartram as being wholly
erroneous, and regrets that his account had been so extensively copied
by authors. Dr. Bryant fully corroborates Bartram's account, and
censures Audubon for not remembering that birds vary in their habits
at different times and places. He says he never saw it in flocks except
at its breeding places, and that they usually went off and returned
either singly or in pairs. I saw wood ibises more or less frequently on
the Upper St. John's for four or five weeks, and only in two or three
Instances singly or in pairs. I almost invariably saw them in flocks,
both at their feeding grounds and flying in the air, they varying in
number from a dozen to a hundred. While more or less gregarious at
all times, they often doubtless also separate into pairs or wander singly.

In East Florida the wood ibises are called " gannets." Under this
name they were described to Audubon when he visited that country,
and concerning which he remarks : " On asking the appearance of the
Gannets, I was told they were large white birds, with wings black at
the end, a long neck, and a large sharp bill. The description so far
agreeing with that of the common gannet or solan goose, I proposed no
questions respecting the legs or tail, but went off." On visiting the
locality where they were said to occur, he was surprised to find the
trees covered with wood ibises. He hence adds : " Now as the good
people who gave the information spoke according to their knowledge,
and agreeably to their custom of calling the ibises gannets, had I not
gone to the pond, I might have written this day that gannets are found

MUSEUM OF -COMPARATIVE: ZOOLOGY. 561

in the interior of the woods in the Floridas, that they alight on trees,
etc., which, if once published, would in all probability have gone down
to future times through the medium of compilers." * Numbers of simi-
lar errors have in fact crept into our natural-history literature, and
after they have become well known as such to investigators, they are
perpetuated for a generation or two by superficial compilers. The
same may almost equally well be said in respect to nominal species.

147.* Ibis alba VieMot. White Ibis.

Abundant. Towards the end of February they were moulting and
in very poor plumage. Most of the young still retained their brown
dress, but in a large proportion the moulting was considerably advanced.
Before the end of March it was completed, and April 1st I saw large
flocks passing northward high in the air, apparently migrating.

During the winter these birds have the peculiar habit, on the Upper
St. John's, of daily flying up the river at evening and down again early
ii» the morning. They usually fly very low, passing just over the tree-
tops when cutting across a bend in the river, and at other times close
to the water. They are hence in easy gun-shot range from the river or
its banks, and, flying in dense flocks, afford fine sport to the numerous
sportsmen camping along its banks, who make great havoc among them.
They breed much later in the season than the herons. Dr. Bryant
states that as late as the 20th of April they had not commenced laying,
and that they fly up and down Indian River in the same manner as on
the St. John's.f Mr. Maynard informs me he did not meet with this
bird on Mosquito Lagoon.

148. Ibis falcinellus Linn€. Glossy Ibis.

Tantalus mexiranus Orp., Journ. Phil. Acad. Xat. Sci., I, 53, 1817.

Ibis falcinellus Bonwp., Obs. on Noniencl. Wilson's Orn., Ibid., V, 70, 1825. —

Ibid., Am. Orn., IV, 23, pi. xxiii, 1831. — Acdubon, Orn. Biog., IV, 608,

pi. ccclxxxvii, 1838.
Ibis Ordi Bonaf., Geog. and Comp. List, 1838. — Baird, Birds N. Amer.,

685, 1858.

" Pine barrens between Lake Harney and Indian River, in the
ponds, in flocks of twelve to twenty." J

* Birds of America, Vol. VI, p. 68.

t Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. VII, 15.

t The above is a memorandum of the recent occurrence of this species in East
Florida, obtained from Mr. Maynard, but whether given by him -on his own authority or
on that of Mr. C. H. Nauman, I am at present uncertain.

362 BULLETIN OF THE

ABAMID^E.

149.* Aramus giganteus Baird. Crying Bird. "Limpkin."
This singular and stupid bird is at present more or less common about
the grassy lakes and bayous from Lake Dexter southward. Now that
Florida has become such a favorite winter resort for health-seekers,
pleasure-seekers, and sportsmen, it will be surprising if it is not soon
exterminated, as it seems to have almost no fear of man or the gun.
They are generally seen in pairs, rarely, however, more than a few
occupying the same vicinity ; and when one of a party of them is shot,
the others, instead of seeking safety by flight, remain and salute the
intruder with their singularly discordant cries. Their excellent flesh
will tend to favor their rapid extermination. They build their nests in
bushes along the river and its bayous, occasionally at a considerable
height, but make no effort to conceal them. At Hawkinsville I found
a newly built nest, containing a single egg, March 20th, and a few days
later, at Lake Dexter, I met with young nearly full grown. Hen«e
they must breed very early, and, perhaps, somewhat irregularly. Dr.
Bryant gave the first detailed account of the habits of this bird,* to
which there is little to be added. He says he found it more or less
common on the St. John's from Lake George to Lake Harney, but
most abundant on the Wikiva Creek, which empties into the St. John's
about twenty-five miles below Enterprise. This account agrees with
my own experience in respect to its distribution. I did not ascend the
"VVikiva, but was informed that this bird was much more abundant there
than on the St. John's. Dr. Bryant says that incubation usually com-
mences in February, and that the number of eggs it lays is very large,
sometimes numbering fifteen. Its popular name in Florida is " limp-
kin."

Possessing many features that ally them to the rails, they in other
respects resemble the herons, and especially the ibises, besides having
peculiar characters which mark them as a group distinct from either.

ANATID^.
150.t Anas boschas Linnif. Mallard.
"Common all winter in very large flocks." — Boardman. Audubon
speaks of their occurring in such numbers in portions of Florida, when

* Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. Vn, p. 12.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 363

he was there in 1831, as to darken the air, and the noise of their wings,
when rising from the large submerged savannas, he compares to the
rumbling of thunder. Mr. Maynard also found them in vast numbers
in 1869 on Indian River.

15l.t Anas obscura Linn€. Black Duck.
" Quite common." — Maynard.

152.t Daflla acuta Jenyns. Pintail Dcck.
" St. John's River ; not common." — Boardman. Mr. Maynard says
that on Indian River he found them in immense numbers, passing over
in clouds for hours together.

I53.t Nettie- n carolinensis Baird. Green-winged Teal.
Abundant.

154.t Querquedula cyanoptera Cassin. Red-breasted Teal.
This species was found by Mr. Maynard in great numbers in the
savannas of the upper part of Indian River, but unfortunately the
specimens he obtained were lost. This, I believe, is the first time it
has been reported from any of the Atlantic States.

I55.t Querquedula discors Stephens. Blue-winged Teal.
Abundant.

156+ Spatula clypeata Bote. Shoveller.
" Common." — Maynard. Boardman.

I57.t Mareca americana Stephens. Baldpatb.
" Common." — Boardman.

158* Aix sponsa Boie. Wood Duck.
Abundant. Breeds early. Saw young March 15th.

159.t Fulix marila Baird. Scaup Duck.

Anas marila Linne, Syst. Nat., I, 1766, 196. —Wilson, Am. Orn., VIII, 84,

pi. lxix, 1814.
Fuliijnla marila Aud., Birds of America, VII, 355, pi. ccccxcviii, 1843.
Fidigula affinis Eyton, Mon. Anat, 157, 1838.
Fulignla maritoides Vigors, Zoiil. Blossom, 31, 1839.
Fuligula minor Giraud, Birds of Long Island, 323, 1844. — Bell, Proc. Phil.

Acad. Nat. Sci.. I, 141, 1842.
Fuhx marila et affinis Baird, Birds N. Amer., 791, 1858.

864 BULLETIN OF THE

Very abundant. By far the most numerous duck on the St. John's
River. Quite common at Jacksonville as late as April 1st.

The Fullx, or Fuligula, affinis auct. is evidently only the smaller, darker
southern form of the F. marila auct. Most of the specimens collected in
Florida were of the so-called F. ajims type.

160.f Aythya americana Bonaparte. Red-head.
Abundant in the marshes near St. Augustine, in 1831. — Audubon.*
I find the A. vallisneria recorded in my notes made at Jacksonville.

I saw none, however, myself, but it was reported by sportsmen to Dot

unfrequently occur there.

161.1 Bucephala albeola Baird. Butter-Ball.
Observed in Florida by Audubon. f

162.t Erismatura rubida Bonaparte. Ruddy Duck.
More or less common on the Lower St. John's. Also observed by
Audubon when he was on the plantation of General Hernandez, in
East Florida, and " in immense flocks " about a hundred miles up the
St. John's River, in February, 1832. J Also obtained by Mr. Maynard
at Dummitt's.

163.t Lophodytes CUCUllatus Reichenbach. Hooded Merganser.
" Very abundant on the coast." — Boardman. " Numerous at Dum-
mitt's." — Maynard. Occasional on the St. John's.

Geese are currently reported by the inhabitants to occur in winter in
North Florida, but I am unable to state what species. Probably Ber-
nicla canadensis and B. brenta, and perhaps others, are at times more
or less common, since they are well known to occasionally visit Cuba.

PELECANID^J.

164 * Pelecanus erythrorhynchus Gmelin. White Pelican.
" Seen in large flocks near the mouth of the St. John's all winter." —
Boardman. " Common on Indian River. Said to breed on an island
near Dummitt's, and at Jupiter Inlet." — Maynard.

165.* Pelecanus fuscus Linne". Brown Pelican.
" Abundant on the coast in winter." — Boardman.

* Birds of America, Vol. VI, p. 312.

t Ibid., p. 370. J Riid., p, 325.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 865

SULIDJE.
166-t Sula bassana Brisson. Common Garnet.
" Abundant on the coast." — Board/nan.

167.* Sula fusca Linne'. Booby Gannet.
A few were seen on the coast near St. Augustine by Mr. Boardman.
Mr. Maynard also observed it at Cape Canaveral

PHALACROCORACID-EI

168.* Graculus floridanus Bonaparte. Florida Cormorant.
Common on the St. John's, and, according to Mr. Boardman, abun-
dant on the coast.

PLOTID.E.
169* Plotus anhinga Linne'. Snake Bird. Water Turkey.
Abundant. Breeds in February and March, sometimes nesting in the
tops of the highest trees, and sometimes quite low. Both sexes incubate.

PROCELLARID.S3.

I70.t Oceanites oceaniea Coues. Wilson's Stormy Petrel.
"A few about the coast at Fernandina." — Boardman.

171.t Puffinus major Fabricius. Greater Shearwater.
" A few about the coast at Fernandina." — Boardman.

LARID.^

172. t Larus argentatus Briinnich. Herring Gull.

Common. Seen up the St. John's as far as Hibernia.

On my voyage from New York to Augusta, Ga., on my way to
Florida, small parties of these gulls, numbering usually six to twenty,
were almost constantly hovering near the vessel. In the Bay of New
York, as along the coast of New England, and doubtless along that of
all the Atlantic States at this season, the birds in immature plumage
far outnumbered the others ; but a hundred miles from land all the gulls
of this species seen were old birds, which accords with observations of
mine made on other winter voyages in the North Atlantic. It hence
appears that the young birds are less venturesome than the adult, and
keep mainly near the land. This accords also with the well-known
fact that young birds, in migratory species, do not generally attain so

366 BULLETIN OF THE

high latitudes in the breeding season as the fully adult. It is also
highly probable that, generally, the young birds of this family do not
range quite so far southward in winter as the older. The mature herring
gulls, so far as I had an opportunity of observing, far outnumbered
the young ones along the Carolina coast and on the St. John's River.

173.t Larus delawarensis Ord. Ring-billed Gull.
" Not numerous." — Boardman.

174* Chrcecocephalus atricilla Lawrence. Laughing Gull.
Common along the coast and on the Lower St. John's.

175.t ChrCBCOCephalus Philadelphia Lawrence. Bonaparte's Gull.
With the preceding, and equally numerous. Also common, accord-
ing to Mr. Maynard, on Indian River.

176.t Gelochelidon anglica Bonaparte. Marsh Tern.
Obtained by Mr. Maynard on Indian River.

177.* Thalasseus regius Gambd. Royal Tern.
"Abundant about the coast." — Boardman. Maynard.

178. Sterna hirundo Linn€. Common Tern.
" Common at Dummitt's." — Maynard.

The following table of measurements of sixty-five specimens (forty-five
males and twenty females) of this species, taken in the breeding season at
Muskeget Island, Massachusetts, indicates the considerable range of indi-
vidual differentiation that obtains in this species. Though so great, it does
appear to be greater than occurs in Sterna macrura, of which I have the
measurements of twenty-five specimens taken at the same locality and dur-
ing the same excursion, nor is it probably greater than most of the terns
and gulls present, as is evidently indicated by the great number of
measurements of specimens of other species of the Laridm of our coast
now before me.

The average dimensions of the specimens cited in the subjoined table
are as follows : —

Males: Length, 14.51; alar extent, 30.72; wing, 10.47; tail, 5.80; cul-
men, 1.40; tarsus, .78. Females: Length, 13.85 ; alar extent, 30.59 ; wing,
10.57; tail, 5.74; culmen, 1.36; tarsus, .77. The extremes of the same
are as follows : —

Males : Length, 13.00 to 15 77 ; alar extent, 29.00 to 32.00; wing, 9.65
to 11.70; tail, 5.00 (4.81?) to 7.00; bill (culmen), 1.28 to 1.55; tarsus, .70
to .87.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY.

367

Females: Length, 13.10 to 15.50 ; alar extent, 28.20 to 32.00 ; wing, 9.90
to 11.50 ; tail, 5.20 (4.75?) to 6.11 ; bill (culmen), 1.25 to 1.55 ; tarsus .70
to .90.

Measurements of Massachusetts Specimens of Sterna hirundo,
Taken in the Breeding Season.

S3

U °

.<5

8* a

Locality.

Date.

Collector.

c

£3

si

.n

■3
in

S

i

u

S

Isli'd

>3

w

^*

6.90

i.a:

.73

Ipswich

1 June 16, '68

Allen & Maynard

14 00

"30 50

10.65

8071 d

June 16, '68

"

14.36 29.60

10.11

6 56 1.3S

.70

I047i

905 \d

Wellfleet

June 26, '68

"

14 75 31.90

10.5C

6.50 1 3£

.80

1047-

906! d

June 26, '68

"

1430' 31.70

10.4f

6.00: 1.41

.76

1047:

907k

"

June 26, '68

"

14 nil 31 «

10. 6C

5.50; 1 3£

.74

10481

908: d

June 26, '68

"

13 75; 31. oO

10. 7E

5.40 1.28

.76

911, d"

Muskeget Isl.

June 29, '68

"

14.75 30.50

1051

6 00, 1.3C

.87

10431

913 d

"

June 29, '08

"

14.40 ! 293'

10.1a

0.0(1 l.r,l

.80

1048.3

913; d

"

June 29, '68

"

14 801 29.30

1040

5.50 1 1 45

1048b

917 d"

"

June 29, '68

"

14 901 29.60

10.40

5.55i 1.36

.85

920 ?

"

June 29, '08

"

14 001 30.00

11.00

5.75 1.35

.76

923'd"

"

June 20, '68

"

14.001 30.50

10 40

5.55 140

.77

10480

"

June 29, '08

"

14.40; 29.80

10.25

5 45! 137

.81

10490

926 d"

"

June 29, '68

"

14.501 30:25

10.30

5.40 1.35

.80

927 d

"

June 29, '68

"

14.00 ai.iM

10.50

600

14'

.75

10491

928 ?

"

June 29, '68

"

14 50! 30.80

10.15

5.60

1.52

.74

910l d

"

June 29, '68

"

13 601 31.15

10.25

560

94lj d

"

June 30, '68

"

14.50 31 65

10.15

6.10

.

942'cT

"

June 30, '68

"

14.50: 3150

9.65

690

943, d

"

June 30, '68

"

14. 25; 30.25

9.75

5-00

944!cf

"

June 30, '68

"

14.60 30.20

10 80

6.00

10492

945 -•

"

June 30, '68

"

14.10 30.50

lo2_,

5.50

941 d

"

June 30, '63

"

15.50; 31.85

11.30

7.00

80

947 ••

"

June 31. '68

"

15.75! 31.50

10.75

6.00

.v..

949 d

"

July 2, '68

"

13.75; 29.90

10 45

5.85

.79

957 cf

"

July 2, ~m

"

15.65 32.00

11 50

5.95

150

.75

10198

935 '

"

July 2, '68

"

14.00 30.25

1170

5.00

1.45

•77

10500

963 '

"

July 2, '68

"

14.30; 31.27

10.70

5.01 1.33

•77

10501

"

July 2, :68

"

14.26 31.00

10.65

5.61 1.30

• 76

939 d

"

July 2, '68

"

L5.60 31 60

lu 85

6.7o 1.30

.75

970' d

"

July 2, '68

"

14.281 30.80

10.50

5.40 135

•81

971; cf

"

July 2, '63

"

14 40: 31.60

10.30

5.70 1.40

•75

972; d

July 2, '68

"

14.00 j 30.00

9.80

5.15 140

.78

973 d

"

July 2, '68

"

15.00 31.00

9.90

5.80 1.50

■75

10503

975! d"

"

July 2, '68

"

15-20 30.50

10.56

5.S51 143

• 85

"

July 2, '68

"

14.25 31.20

10.25

5-70 1.51

•80

10504

979 d

"

July 2, '68

"

15 25 31.00 10.00

6 27

145

•81

930! d

"

July 2, '68

»'

14.70 : 30.55 10.40

5.45

1.51

•85

981 d

"

July 2, '68

"

14 55| 3100

10.55

5 55

1.41

• 75

"

July 2, '68

"

13.00; 29.00

10.30

4 81

135

•76

"

July 2, '08

"

15.00, 31 43

10.80

6 11

•75

99 '

"

July 2, '68

"

14 50' 31.50

In;,.

1 45

.85

"

July 2, '68

"

15.77 30.00

1050

1 55

•77

"

July 2, '68

"

L4.25 31 00

10.65

,". 75

•70

"

July 2, '68

"

14.00 30.30

10 35

1.41

•70

10476

904 i

Wcllfleet

June 20. '68

"

9.90

• 7o

10481

912 V

Muskeget Isl

June 29. '68

"

14.20 :;

10.00

6.00 1.40

• 70

1 1484

915 .

l(

June 29, '68

"

li;:, 30.75 10.55

6.07 1 42

•75

1 1483

914 i

"

Juue'io, 68

"

13.90 29.80 L0.05

5.75 1.30

•75

"

June 29, '68

"

13.60, 28. 50 lorn

5.50 1 36

• 74

919 .

"

June 29. '68

"

13.50 28.20 10.30

5 85 1 .25

•75

0-1 1

"

June 20, »68

"

25 10.25

5.65 1.26

• 71

10487

922

"

June 29, '68

"

13.55 30.55 10.63

5.70 1 26

•80

10488

924 I

"

June 29. '68

"

. 1.50 10.50 •".

• 73

948 .

'■

June 30, '6S

"

14.50 31 7.'. 10.80 5.90 —

.80

10491

"

July 2, '68

"

.1 ,.80 128

.80

10495

"

July 2, '68

■'

13.60 32-00 11 50 5 75 130

.80

"

July 2, '68

"

1550 31.75 U.25

5.41 1 43

•71

10498

985 9

"

July 2 '68

"

13.56, 30.00 1030

5.14 1.30

•74

oTt ,

"

July 2, '68

"

15 25 32 00 1125

6 11 134

976 9

"

July 2, '68

"

i.20 J" 26 5.55 1 31

• 75

97S!9

"

July 2, '68

"

14.™ 31.80 10.70 5.45 1.55

•80

10504

99719

"

July 2, '68

"

14.45' 31.70 10.45 6.46 141

.80

10505:

999: 9

"

July 2, SS

"

14.35 30.50, 10.45, 560i 1.491

.80

1001 V

July 2, '63

14.40, 31.00! 10.65 5.85 1.401 .85

368 BULLETIN OF THE

179. Sterna macrura Neumann, Arctic Tern.
"Common at Dummitt's." — Maynard.

As already remarked under Sterna hirundo the individual variation in
the present species is very great. The largest and smallest specimens in
a series of twenty-five, taken at Muskeget Island in the breeding season
measured as follows : —

Largest {$) : Length, 16.00; alar extent, 32.75; wing, 11.75; tail, 6.00.

Smallest (<?) : Length, 14.33 ; alar extent, 27.52 ; wing, 9.85 ; tail, 4.26.

The maxima and minima of this series are as follows : —

Length, 14.10 and 17.00; alar extent, 27.52 and 32.75; wing, 9.85 and
11.84; tail, 4.26 and 8.25.

"While the females average a very little smaller than the males, several
of the females are very nearly as large as the largest males.

The Sterna Forsteri may also occur as a winter resident, but I have
at present no evidence of its occurrence there at this season. A specimen
from the " St. John's River, Florida," collected by Dr. "Wurdemann, is
■cited by Mr. Lawrence * and Dr. Coues f (Smithsonian collection No.
4928), but no information is given as to when it was collected.

180.* Rhynchops nigra Linn€. Black Skimmer.
Abundant on the coast, occurring in large flocks. Not observed by
me on the St. John's.

COLYMBIDJE.

181 .t Colymbus torquatus Brunnich. Loon.

" A single specimen at Mandarin, on the Lower St. John's ; abun-
dant off Fernandina harbor." — Maynard.

The considerable number of specimens of this species in the Museum of
Comparative Zoology show a wide range of individual variation. In a
series of fifteen specimens from various localities in New England, but
mainly from Massachusetts, the variation in the length of the folded
wing amounts to twenty per cent of its average length in the whole se-
ries ; in the length of the tarsus, to twenty-nine per cent ; in the length of
the outer toe, to thirty per cent ; in the length of the head, to twenty-
eight per cent ; and in the length of the culmen to twenty-three per cent.

The form described some years since as Colymbus Adamsi seems to have
been founded on very old specimens of the large northern race of C. tor-

* Baird's Birds of North America, p. 863.
t Proc. Acad. Xat. Sci. Phila., 1862, p. 547.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 369

quatus, in which the color of the hill is unusually light, and the bill itself'
unusually produced.

182.t Podiceps cornutus Latham. Horned Grebe.
"Not uncommon on the St. John's." — Boardman.

183.t Podilymbus podiceps Lawrence. Carolina Grebe.
Abundant on the St. John's.

Resume of the preceding Tables of Measurements, with suvplemental

Remarks.

The following tables present a brief summary of the measurements
given in Part IV. In the first table is given the average dimensions of
thirty-two species, based on specimens collected, in each case, essentially
from the same locality, and generally based on twenty or more speci-
mens, the number varying in the different species from thirteen to
sixty-five specimens. In all cases where the average sexual differ-
ence in size is appreciable, the dimensions are given for each sex.
In most cases very nearly all the specimens are from Eastern Massa-
chusetts, a few being from different localities in Southern Maine, and
a few from Northern Illinois. In a few species all the specimens cited
are from Eastern Florida ; in a few other species part of the specimens
are from Southern New England and a part from Eastern Florida ;
but in these cases a separate average is made of those from each of
the two localities. The number of the specimens on which the average
is based is given in each instance.

The second table shows the range of individual variation in size in
the same species, based also on the same specimens.

The third table shows the amount of geographical variation in size in
specimens of the same species from northern and southern localities,
these localities being generally Southern New England (Eastern Massa-
chusetts in the main) and East Florida. Only seven species are cited,
but I have traced about the same ratio of difference in a score or more
of others, of which the measurements have not yet been published.
Although the number of specimens compared from the two localities
has in many of these cases been comparatively small, enough have
been examined to show the general constancy of the variation in all
the species which breed at both these localities.

It should be added that the specimens on which the generalizations

vol. ir. 24

370

BULLETIN OF THE

given in Table Hi are based were not taken at the seasons likely to
give the greatest differences, the northern specimens having been taken
in summer and the southern ones in winter. Had summer Florida
specimens been used instead of winter specimens, the differences would
have been doubtless much greater, since in some eases, and especially
in the cases of Agelceus phoeniceus and Quiscalus purpureus, the sum-
mer home of a part at least of the Florida specimens must have been
somewhat to the northward of Florida.

I. Table showing the Average Dimensions of Thirty-two Species of
American Birds, based on Measurements of Thirteen to Sixty-five
Specimens of each Species.

Species.

Turdus Swainsoni .
Turdua Pallasi . . .
Turdus fuscescens . . .
Ilarporhynchus rufus
Mini us polyglottus . . .
Galeoscoptes earoliuensis

Sialia sialis

Geothlypis triehas . . .
Parus atricapillus . .
Tyrannus carolinensia . .
Pyranga rubra . .
Troglodytes aedon . .
Passerculus savanna
Peucaaa aestivalis

Cardinalis virginianu3

Pipilo erythrophthalmus \

Hedymeles ludoviciana
Icterus Baltimore
Dolichonyx oryzivorus

Agelajus phoeniceus j

Sturnella ludoviciana .

Quiscalus purpureus

Quiscalus major . .

Cyanura cristata
Cyanocitta florMana
Hylotomus pileatus
Picus borealis . .
Colaptes auratus
Conurus carolinensig

Oxtyx virginianus .
Sterna hirundo .

Locality.

Massachusetts
Florida . . .

Massachusetts

Florida .

Illinois . . .
Florida . .
Illinois . . .
Florida . . .
Massachusetts

Suuthem New England

Florida

Southern New England

Eastern Massachusetts
Southern New England

Florida . ....
Massachusetts . . .
Florida

Southern New England

Florida

Southern New England

Northern States
Florida . . .
Northern States
Florida .
Northern States
Florida

Northern States
Florida . . .

"Sri

J3

Sex.

a

Z o.

3

24 ! -

7.17

46 1 —

7.o4

40 —

7.38

17 -

11.29

37 -

9.91

20 -

8.60

6.80

20 S

5.10

27 —

5 38

20 —

8.00

13 -

7.05

15 —

4.89

26 —

5.20

22 -

5.88

32 ' d"

8.46

26 ; $

8 27

30 d

8.19

19 ' d"

7.ss

17

7-77

20

rT

7 52

20

rT

7-24

40

rT

9.16

28

V

7-53

15

rt

10.43

12

d

8

V

9 55

9

V

8.96

15

rf

10.43

12

r-T

9.81

8

9 55

9

o

8.96

24

rT

16.51

8

9

12.95

18

11 71

11

1?,

11.74

7

?

17.48

7

16 It

28

18

12.45

11

11 66

19

13.10

i

rf

lo 18

16 r

o 4-;

o 37

45 d"

14.51

20 1 9

13.85

Tf65 '~S\86
11 17 3.07
11 83 3-2
13.09 4.15
13.69 428
11.16 3.53

11.93
693
8.37
13.77
11.33
t; oi

11.27

11 32
9.88

12 15

11.67

14.71

12.24

15 70
14.43

15.70
11 13
14.09

22 18
1704

0.-7
15 11

3.94
2.17
2.47
4 49
3 76
2.05

5 7* 2.70
8 99 2 in
11.43 3.63

3 53
3 43
3.13
3 93
3 71
3.78
1.69

3 86

4 91
447
I 29

14.09 I 21

1 91
1 17

4 •»
7 19
5.67

5.13

4 7.",

14 44 4 41
28 07 0 21
26.80 8 98
14.46 4.71

1 B 82 5 8 1

21 70 7 59

15 44 4 47
14.16 4 22
15 10 4.36
It 02 4 17
30.72 10.47
30.59 1057

j

—

P

3

H

ci

EH

2.88

1 15

2.72

1.15

2.88

113

5.00

1.31

4.87

—

3.76

1.10

2.55

78

2.00

.77

2.50

.70

3 30

.73

2 00

.75

1.80

.52

1.96

.84

2.49

70

3.87

—

3.77

—

3.30

1.00

3.56

.94

■■ s-<

.86

2 02

.92

2 07

1.00

:; ••:;

—

2 03

—

3 10,

—

—

—

2.57

—

3.16

—

—

2 82

—

2 57

—

7on

—

5.11

—

1 89

—

5.00

—

4 SO

—

6.S2

—

6.54

—

3.41

—

4 85

—

4.40

—

2.82

2 52

—

2.67

—

2.54

—

5-80

.78

5.74

.77

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY.

371

II. Table showing the Range of Individual Variation in Tldrty Species
of American Birds, based on the Measurements of Thirteen to Sixty-
five Specimens of each Species, collected at the same Locality.

Species.

Turdus Swainsoni . . j

Turdus Pallasi ... J

Turdus fuscescens . . j

Harporhynchus rufus . j
Galeoseoptes carolinensis ]

Mimus polyglottus . . j

Sialia sialis . . . j

Geothlyms trichas . . j

Pyratiga rubra . . . j

Parus atricapillus . . j

Troglodytes aedon . . j

Passerculus savanna . j

Peucaea aestivalis . . {

Cardinalis virginianus .

Pipilo erythrophthalmus .j

(

Hedymeles ludovicianus J

Icterus Baltimore . . j

Dolichonyx oryzivorus !

Agebeus phceniceus
Sturnella ludoviciana
Quiscalus purpureus
Quiscalus major

Cyanura cristata .

Cyanocitta floridana . j

Tyrannus carolinensis I
Picus borealis .

Locality.

Southern New England

Florida . . ...

Southern New England

Eastern Massachusetts

Florida

Eastern Massachusetts
Florida

Min.

Max.

Min.

Max.

Min

Max.

Min.

Max.

Min

Max.

Min.

Max.

Southern New England

Florida

Southern New England

Massachusetts

Florida . . . ,
Northern States
Florida .

Massachusetts
Florida . . .

Southern New England
Florida . . . .

Min.

Max

Min.

Mix.

Min.

Max.

Min.

Max.

Min.

Max.

Min.

Max.

Min.

Max.

Min.

Max.

Min

Max.

Min.

Max.

Min.

Max

Min.

Max.

Min.

Max.

Min.

Max.

Min.

Max.

Min.

Max

Min.

Max.

Min.

Max

Min.

Max.

Min.

Max.

Min

Max

Min.

Max.

Min

Max.

Min

Max.

Min.

Max.

Min.

Max.

Min

Max.

— \ <* a

tao i = v
g <x

6.62 10 75

7 7," 12 65
6.50 10.00
7.05 12.25

7.87 12.70

10 55 12 55
11.85 14.00
7tt0 10.50
9<)0 11.95
9 27 13 00
11.00 14 75
6.10 11.10
7.00 12.55

5.63 7.50
6.7510 65;
7.30 11 75
4 7-7 :■< I
5.75 8.60
4.30 <3 10
5.10 6.95
5.20 7.61
6.00 '.'.7.".
5.7-J 7.60
6.20| 8.30!
7.75 11.00
9.10 11.78

7 50 10.70!
8.7511.75
7.50 10.00
8.80 12.25
7.20 9.50
8.50 11.30
7.15 11.50
8,30 12.90
7.00 10.40
8.00 12.00
6.65 1100
7.70 12.15
8.40 13.95
9 85 15.35
7.35 11 25
8.55 13.55

10.00 15.05

11 00 17.00

8.50 13.00

9 50 4 75

L200 17 00

13.50 18 43

• 11.00 15.25

13 00 17 80

15.50 21.10

16.80 23.50

12.10 17 25

L3 i I 18.25

11 00 16.00

12 2", 17.50
10-70 14.75
112-", 1600
11 00 13.50
12.50jl5.00

7.0012 50

8 65 14.80
7 90 14.10
8.60 15.20

3 17 2.40

4.30 3.40

3.30, 2.4

3 90 3.1
3.55 2 63

4 16 3.02
3 8 I 4.50
4.25 5.30

3 25 335
3.85 l l"
4.00 4.10

4 75 5 15

3 85 2.33
4.10 2
1.95 1

2 37 2.10

3.57 2 55

4 00 2a5
233 2.15
2.63 26
1.90 130
2 44 2.40

2.44 1.64
2.95 2 25
2.17 2.25

2 55 2.68

3 50 3 40
3.85 4.20
3.25 3 40
3.85 4.10
3.17 3.30
3 90 3 93
2.80 3.25
3.50 3.90
3 83 2 70
4.25 3.08

3.45 2 70
3.851 310

3 53 2 45

4 00 2.82

4.43
5.00
4 26
4 43
4 74
5.15

3 90

4 65

5 2( '
6.05
500
5 75

2 99

3 90
2.65
315
2.82
3.58
2.40
2.90

4 58
6.00
455
5.50

6 25 6 25

8.35 7.60

5.251 4.75

5.95 5.60

4.33 4.25

5f,5 5.65

4 on 4 80

5.00 5.15

4.00 4 2_,

4 75 5. 3.5

4.171 2.93

4.85 3.54

4.40 3.15

4.951 3.'i 5

1.02

127
1.12
1.33
106
118
120
1.42
105
1.18

.62
80
.62
.75
.98

1.13
.80

1.09

.83
1.02

.98
1.15

372

BULLETIN OF THE

Table II. (Continued.)

Species.

Colaptes auratuB
Conurus carollnensis

Ortyx rirginianus .
Sterna hirundo . .

Locality.

Massachusetts
Florida . . .

Illinois . . .
Florida . .
Illinois . .
Florida . . .
Massachusetts

Min.
Max.
Min.
Max.
Min.
Max.
Min.
Max.
Min.
Max.
Min.
Max.
Min.
Max.
Min.
Max.
Min.
Max

III. Table showing the Geographical Variation in Si2e in Seven
Species of American Birds, between Specimens from Florida and
the Northern States.

Species.

Pipilo erythrophthalmus
Agelseus phceniceus

Sturnella ludoviciana

Quiscalus purpureus . .

Cyanura cristata . . .
Colaptes auratus . . .

Ortyx virginianus . .

Locality.

Southern New England

Florida

Southern New England
South Carolina & Florida
Northern States . .

Florida

Northern States . .

Florida

Northern States . .

Florida

Northern States . .

Florida

Massachusetts . . .
Florida ....

Massachusetts . . .

Florida

Illinois . . . .

Florida

Illinois . . .
Florida

o g

Sex.

fc &

03

32

r?

26

c?

40

<t

11

r?

15

r?

12

rf

8

V

9

V

15

rf

12

(T

8

V

9

?

18

11

—

18

—

11

—

7

rf

If,

rf

6

V

10

V

8.19
788
9.16
9 02

10 43
9.81
9.55
8 96

10.43
9.81
9.55

8 96
11.71
10.98
1245
1166
10 18

9 46
9 83
9.37

1132

9.88

14 71
1441
16.30

15 70
1443
14.09
1630
15 70
1443

14 09
16.87
15.11
19 94
18.82

15 44
14 16
15.10
14.02

ti.

3

£

is

EH

C3

EH

3.43

3 36

1.06

3.13

3 56

.94

469

3.63

—

4 62

3.61

4 91

3.16

—

4 47

2.85

—

4.29

2.82

—

4 22

2.57

—

4.91

3 16

_

4 47

2.85

—

i 4.29

282

4.22

2 r.T

—

5.13

4 89

—

475

5.00

—

6.24

4.35

—

r, si

4 40

—

4.47

2 82

—

4 22

2.52

—

4.36

267

—

4.17

2.51

—

In the tables and remarks contained in the preceding pages many
facts have been given bearing upon the subject of geographical varia-
tion in birds, and especially in reference to the differences that al-
most universally obtain between specimens of the same species from
northern and southern localities. In addition to the smaller size of the
southern specimens, — a fact which has been for some time quite gen-
erally recognized, — attention has been called to the differences in color
and in the form of the bill that seem almost equally constant and easy
of recognition. In several species that range in the breeding season

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 373

from Florida to Maine, a tendency to a relatively greater elongation of
the tail in the Florida specimens has also been noticed, — a feature so
well known to characterize a large proportion of the birds of Lower
California, as pointed out some years since by Professor Baird, — but
this variation is not so frequent as the differences in size, color, and in
the length and form of the bill. As already remarked, the tail i3 not
usually abbreviated proportionally to the general diminution in size in
the southern or Florida forms of the birds of Eastern North America,
and in some species it is actually longer than in the larger northern birds.
As shown in the above tables, this is the case in Pipilo erythrophthal-
mus, Cyanura a-istata, and Colaptes auratus, or in three species out of
the seven cited in the last table.

In numerous instances the southern forms of the birds enumerated
in Part IV of this paper have already been specifically separated from
their northern relatives ; and if the example of some previous writers
was to be followed at least a dozen other similar species might still be
added from among the birds of Florida. Some, indeed, might be re-
ferred to the already separated West Indian and Mexican or Central
American so-called species rather than to the northern type. As al-
ready stated, I consider this almost universal similar variation of the
southern representatives of species from their northern representatives
to be the result of a law of gradual geographical differentiation, and
that the interest of science is better subserved by simply recognizing
these differences, and the law of geographical variation of which they
are the result, than by giving to each newly discovered race a distinctive
binomial name ; and the more especially since in numerous instances
there is the most indubitable proof of the gradual and almost imper-
ceptibly minute intergradation of the extreme northern and extreme
southern types, even in cases where they are the most widely diverse.

In conclusion, it may be stated that the differential diagnoses of the
southern types, in cases where they have been specifically separated
from the northern, and the comparisons of them made with the northern
for the purpose of showing their specific distinctness, are in many
cases admirable descriptions of the usual differences found to distinguish
the Florida-born birds from their -co-specific representatives born in
the Northern States. These differences are commonly solely the fol-
lowing : In the southern types the size is smaller, the bill longer, and
the colors generally darker ; the latter resulting from the greater pre-

374

BULLETIN OF THE

dominance of the black in those in which portions of the plumage are
mottled with this color, and the greater breadth of the dark transverse
bars, and the correspondingly diminished breadth of the alternating
lighter ones. To illustrate this point more fully, I herewith append a
list of some of the so-called species of American birds that have been
specifically separated by different authors from their northern repre-
sentatives, but which are in reality only the extreme southern forms of
species previously well known, with which they were considered by the
older writers to be specifically identical, the most of them having been
separated within the last ten or fifteen years : —

Accipiter Gundlachi, separated from Accipiter Cooperi.
Accipiter fringilloides, " Accipiter fuscus.

Falco dominicensis,

cinnamominus et ' " Falco sparverius.

Mimus polyglottus.

Seiurus noveboracensis.
Thryothorus ludovicianus.
Dendrceca aestiva.

Chordeiles popetue.

Antrostomus vociferus.
Icterus spurius.

Sturnella ludoviciana.

Quiscalus purpureus.
Corvus americanus.
Ortyx virginianus.
Campephilus principalis.
Colaptes auratus.
Butorides vircscens.
Actiturus Bartramius.
Macrorhamphus griseus.
Charadrius melodus

Larus argentatus.

Sparveroides, etc.
Mimus Gundlachi ")

et Hillii, etc. )

Seiurus ludovicianus,
Thryothorus Berlandieri,
Dendrceca Gundlachi, etc.
Chordeiles minor et ")

Gundlachi, etc. >
Antrostomus cubanensis,
Xanthornus affinis,
Sturnella hippocrepis et |

mexicana, )

Quiscalus baritus,
Corvus minuttts,
Ortyx cubanensis et texanus,
Campephilus Bairdii,
Colaptes chrysocaulosus,
Butorides brunnescens,
Actiturus longicaudus,
Macrorhamphus scolopaceus
Charadrius tenuirostris,
Larus argentatoides et *>

Smithsonianus, )

In other cases the arctic forms, or the northern types, having been
discovered subsequently to the southern ones, these have been described
a3 specifically distinct from the latter. The Bucephala islandica, sep-

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 375

arated from the B. americana et clangula, and the Collurio excubitoroides
from the G. ludoricianus, will serve to indicate the class of so-called
species here referred to.

The Pacific Slope of North America furnishes a similar list of spe-
cies, based on either southern or northern forms of others previously
known ; and the middle region of the continent its list of similar nominal
species, mainly based on the desert forms of widely ranging species. In
the northern half of the Old World, also, have the northern and south-
ern geographical forms of the same species been specifically separated ;
but it is not my intention to call farther attention to them at present.

As already remarked, the American representatives of circumpolar
species differ from the European and Asiatic principally in two ways,
namely, in the apparently slightly larger size of the American, and in
their somewhat brighter colors ; but specific separations seem to have
been based almost as frequently upon some theory of geographical distri-
bution, or upon the individual variation of single specimens, as upon the
real though slight differences that frequently obtain in such cases.

PART V.

On the Geographical Distribution of the Birds of Eastern North Amer-
ica, with special reference to the Number and Circumscription of the
Ornithological Fauna.

1. Introductory Remarks.
The distribution of plants and animals in circumpolar zones over the
earth's surface has been long recognized; Humboldt* first making
known the fact of such a natural distribution of the plants, and Agassiz,f

* Humboldt, A. vox, et Boxpland, Ai.me. " Essai sur la G^ographie des Plantes,"
etc. 4to. Paris. 1805.

t Acassiz, Louis. " Essai sur la G(?ographie des Animaux," Pevue Suisse et Chro-
nique LitteYaire, Tome VIII, pp. 441-452, 538-585, 1845. •' Note sur la Distribution
Geographique des Animaux et de l'Homme," Bulletin de la Societe" des Sciences Natu-
relles de Xeuchatel, Tome I, pp. 162-166, 357-361, 366-369, 1845. "Sur la Distribu-
tion Geographique actuelle et le mode de l'apparition actuelle des Animaux a la
surface du Globe." Ibid., Tom. 2, pp. 347-351, 1847. "Geographical Distribution of
Animals," Edinburgh New Philosophical Magazine, Vol. XLVI, pp. 1-25, 1850.
Ibid., Christian Examiner, Vol. XL VIII, pp. 184-204, 1850. '-Sketch of tiie Natural
Provinces of the Animal World and their Relation to the different Types of Man," Nott
and Gliddon's Types of Mankind, pp. lviii- Ixxxii, 1854. Also especially insisted upon
in a course of unpublished Lectures delivered before the Lowell Institute, Boston,
December, 1869.

376 BULLETIN OF THE

"Wagner,* Dana,f and other?, subsequently establishing the same in re-
gard to animals ; the distribution of both plants and animals being prima-
rily determined by the same influences. It has been further shown that
these influences are mainly climatic, temperature having been justly
recognized as governing the limitation, especially in latitude, of not only
the species, but of faunae and flora;. Their limitation in longitude is
likewise as directly determined by climatic influences,]: though indirectly
by physical barriers, as oceans, mountain chains, and deserts. Humidity,
in many instances, is scarcely a less, and in some cases a more, power-
ful limiting agent than temperature, plants being highly sensitive to
hygrometric conditions, and their distribution intimately affects that of
animals, since the existence of the latter is dependent upon the presence
of the former, and their variety and numbers upon the degree of luxu-
riance of the vegetation. The faunal and floral zones hence coincide
in their limitation in latitude with the climatic zones, but by no means
necessarily with the geographical circles ; isothermal lines, and not paral-
lels of latitude, forming their boundaries. Their limits in longitude are
determined by the influence geographical barriers, especially long chains
of high mountains, exert upon climate.

* Wagneb, Andreas. " Die geographische Verbreitung der Siiugethiere," Abhand-
lungen de: baierischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Math. Phys. Classe, Band IV,
Abth. I, pp. 1-146, 2d Abth., pp. 1-108, 3d Abth., pp. 3-114. Mit 9 Karten, 1844-
1846.

t U. S. Exploring Expedition Report, Crustacea, Vol. II, pp. 1451-1500, 1852.

J I am aware of the diversity of opinions still prevalent among naturalists in regard
to the influence climate exerts in determining the geographical distribution of species,
and that many writers on this subject attribute to it only a slight importance, or alto-
gether ignore it. The limits of these preliminary remarks will not allow of an extended
comparison of the views of different authors on this point, nor a detailed consideration
of the supposed objections that have been raised against the proposition above expressed.
I agree with Mr. Andrew Murray in his remark, that, although "various authors have
endeavored to embody the differences between the faunas and floras of the different re-
gions of the globe into some kind of system, .... they, with one or two exceptions,
have worked upon no definite principle, and the result has been a mere catalogue of re-
gions which possessed peculiarities without distinguishing their relative importance,
or their relation to each other" (Geographical Distribution of Mammals, p. 296, 4to,
London, 1866),— a remark which unfortunately semis in some degree applicable to
Mr. Murray's own generalizations. That temperature is n powerful limiting influence
affecting the range of species, especially in respect to their northward and southward
extension, is so easily demonstrable that I am surprised to see it -till questioned. I have
myself subjected this principle to a rigid examination in studying the distribution of
the animals and plant- of Eastern North America, and have been surprised at the exact
coincidence I have almost constantly met with between their northern and southern

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 377

The uniform character of both the flora and the fauna throughout tlie
arctic zone is one of the most striking onto-geographical features thus
far known, and one of primary importance, especially when taken in
connection with its relation to the fauna? and flora? of more southern
latitudes. Not less significant is the fact that in the temperate zone
there is still a prevalence of identical forms in each of the three north-
ern continents, where the resemblance of the animals and plants of
either continent to those of the others is far greater than is the resem-
blance of those of the temperate regions of either continent to those of
the tropical portions of the same continent.

Different animals and plants, as every one recognizes, are differently
limited in respect to their geographical range. A small proportion of
the species are almost or quite cosmopolitan ; others range over the
greater part of the northern hemisphere, finding their southern limit of
Mstribution near the tropics. A few are exclusively arctic, or range
only over the arctic and cold-temperate zones. Many are limited to the
temperate zone, throughout nearly the whole of which they find a con-
genial home. A large number can only exist within the tropics, often

limits of distribution and isothermal lines, they following them in all their numerous
undulations, sweeping northward in the valleys and southward along the sides of
mountain ranges. The occurrence on isolated alpine summits of species existing at a
lower level only far to the northward, is of itself suggestive of the powerful influence
temperature has on the distribution of animals and plants. In the northern hemisphere
a northern fauna and flora everywhere extends along the mountains hundreds of miles
to the southward of their respective limits in the adjoining plains and valleys. Various
other causes have, of course, a greater or less influence in determining the range of spe-
cies, but none other, on the land areas, humidity perhaps alone excepted, is nearly so
potent. The want of conformity of isothermal lines with parallels of latitude has doubt-
less led to confusion in regard to this subject, since vain attempts have often been made
to circumscribe the botanical and zoological zones by the latter.

Differences of temperature evidently explain many of the otherwise seeminglv inex-
plicable sudden transitions in the faunae and florae of adjoining regions, especially in re-
gard to the marine animals and plants, temperature forming a strong barrier to the com-
mingling of species inhabiting the waters of opposite sides of peninsulas having a north
and south trend, or such long narrow points of land as terminate the South American ami
African continents. Those of the one side cannot pass to the other without passing
through a zone of colder water than their organization will allow them to sustain. The
isotherms of the continents are widely deflected by the irregularities of the surface of the
land, running nearly straight and parallel across level areas; but in mountainous districts
they bend abruptly northward or southward, following along the sides of mountains in-
stead of crossing them. In the same manner are species, and fauna? and florae, limited,
— a coincidence clearly indicative of th« strong influence climates exert in determining
their geographical limits.

378 BULLETIN OF THE

embracing whole families, none of whose representatives are found oui-
side of the torrid zone of a single continent. Others are again equally
at home in the torrid and warm temperate zones, but which do not exist
either in the arctic or cold temperate zones ; others range throughout
the temperate and subtorrid. Nearly an equal number, some tropical,
but the greater part temperate species, range across continental areas,
within which, however, they are restricted. A great number of others
find their range limited in longitude to the half or the third of a conti-
nent, and others within still more circumscribed boundaries, fluviatile
species being frequently confined to single river basins. Through this
diversity of geographical range we have what may be termed cosmopoli-
tan, semi-cosmopolitan, circumpolar, continental, semi-continental, and
(relatively speaking) restricted species. The circumpolar and the conti-
nental are again realm species, the semi-continental and restricted, prov-
ince species. Rarely is any species limited to a narrower area than that
of two or three fauna; or flora;. Hence fauna; and flora; — which terms,
in their restricted sense, are properly applied only to the smallest of
the onto-geographical divisions — are determined by the peculiar associa-
tion of species, and not by the range of a single or of a few " restricted "
species ; hence by their general facies. Provinces, and realms, on the
other hand, may have species, and even genera and families, exclusively
distinctive of them. As there are cosmopolitan, circumpolar, continental,
and other kinds of species, so there must be cosmopolitan, circumpolar,
continental, and other kinds of genera and families ; the latter, as well
as species, having each a definite or specific geographical range as dis-
tinctive of them as any biological or anatomical character may be. They
are each circumscribed within definite areas, beyond which their
special adaptation to their natural surroundings forbids their extension,
unless aided by extraneous and unusual circumstances.

The three divisions of zones, realms (or " regions"), provinces, and
fauna' and flora-,* comprise the phyto-zoblogic divisions usually recog-

* Z>me, realm, region, kingdom, and province, are forms which have been used by dif-
ferent authors to designate the primary natural-history divisions of the earth's surface.
In deciding as to which of those terms should be exclusively applied to these divisions,
not only priority of use, but appropriateness, should of course be considered, and also the
sense in which they are at present currently employed, in order to avoid, as far as pos-
sible, the confusion necessarily attending changes of nomenclature. So far as priority
is concerned, zone undoubtedly has the precedence, it having boon u-ed for animals by
Wagner in 1844, by Agassiz in 1845, and much earlier than this by Humboldt and ot
in relation to the distribution of plants. It is, however, not always a strictly convenient

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 379

nized. The boundaries of realms and provinces have often been arbi-
trarily fixed, inasmuch as they have been frequently limited and named
in conformity to the continental areas, regardless of the fundamental
law of the distribution of life in circumpolar zones.*

In addition to the law of the circumpolar distribution of life in zones,
another may be recognized, namely, that of a differentiation from the
north southward, since in passing from the northern pole to the. equator
we meet with a constant and accelerated divergence in the character
of the animals and plants of successive regions of the continent. More
or less related to the last is a third law of differentiation, namely, a
divergence of the life of given portions of continental areas from that
of the corresponding portions of other continents, in proportion to the
oceanic space separating such corresponding regions. As evidence of
this fact we have but to compare successively the life of the north
temperate, tropical, and south temperate zones of the Western hemi-
sphere with the life of the corresponding zones of the Eastern hemi-
sphere ; or that of Australia with the life of the other continents, as a
whole ; or that of tropical Asia with Africa or South America. A
comparison of Africa with South America, and the fauna? and florae
of islands with those of the different continents, further corroborates
this law. There is, furthermore, a correlation between the diversity

term. Realm, region, fauna and flora, and province, have been also successively used in
the same sense, and also for divisions of subordinate rank, and in different ways by even
the same writers. In regard to the names of the divisions of the second, third, and
fourth rank, there is an equal want of uniformity in the use of the terms by which they
have been designated. As being most convenient and least opposed to current usage,
the following schedule of -names for *'ie primary and subordinate divisions has been
°dopted in the present paper: —

Realms for divisions of tlie first rank.

Regions for divisions of the second rank.

Provinces for divisions of the third rank.

Districts for divisions of the fourth rank.

Fauna and flora for the smallest or ultimate divisions, like the bird faunae of Eastern
North America, presently to be characterized.

Intermediate divisions to some of those above mentioned may in special cases be re-
quired; but until the necessity for them is made apparent, no names for such need be
proposed.

* Sclater, P. L. " On the general Geographical Distribution of the Members of the
Class Aves," Jour, of the Proc. of the Linnsean Society, Vol. II, Zoology, pp. 130- 149,
1858. The divisions proposed by this author have been quite generally adopted, but
without corroboration, or apparently a critical examination of their merits

380 BULLETIN OF THE

of life in a given area and the relative temperature of that area, the
number of distinct forms increasing directly with the increase in the
temperature, other conditions remaining essentially unchanged. The
number of distinct species and geographical races also increases directly
with the increase in the diversity of the conditions of life resulting
from differences of geographical configuration. Hence fauna? and
flora? cover a smaller area in the warm temperate and tropical latitudes
than at the northward, and in a mountainous region than in a level
region. Hence within the torrid zone, where a maximum temperature
is generally associated with a highly diversified surface, species, genera,
and families are the most numerous, and faunae and flora?, as well as
species, are ordinarily the most narrowly circumscribed.

In accordance with the facts stated above respecting the mode of
the distribution of animals and plants over the earth's surface, and the
zoological and botanical laws of the differentiation and mutual relations
of the different regions, the following primary natural-history divisions
may be recognized : I, an Arctic Realm ; II, a North Temperate
Realm ; III, an American * Tropical Realm ; IV, an Indo-African
Tropical Realm; V, a South American Temperate Realm; VI, an
African Temperate Realm ; VII, an Antarctic Realm ; VIII, an Aus-
tralian Realm.

The Arctic Realm presents a nearly uniform character throughout
its extent, and, though embracing several faunae, is not divisible into

* The terms " Palir-ogean " and " Neogean," " Pala?arctic " and ' Nearctie " etc., like
those of " Old World " and " New World," have been given with reference solely to the
length of time the different land areas of the earth's surface have been known to the
dominant race of mankind, and hence regardless of the zoological history of these
different land areas. Modem science has taught us that the latent discovered continent
(Australia) is peopled with the most ancient types of animals and plants now in exist-
ence, and that it is, zoologically considered, the ancient continent. Also that North
and South America are behind Europe, Asia, and Africa in their zoological and
geological development, while they are far in advance of Australia. To apply the
term "ancient" to what is really the most recent, and "modern" to what is mediaeval,
is evidently too great a misuse of language to be allowable in scientific nomenclature.
The sciences of geographical zoology and geographical botany concern not merely
the geographical distribution of the animals and plants now living, hut also those of the
pa t. If such descriptive terms as the a hove are to be employed, it is evidently im-
portant that they should he used in their legitimate sen<e. In the present paper it has
hence been considered advisable to altogether discard these terms, since to use them
properly woidd nece-dtate their adoption in a manner directly opposite to their origma'
and generally accepted application.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 381

provinces. Its southern boundary may be considered as the northern
limit of forest-trees, or about the isotheral of 50° F.

The North Temperate Realm presents a more varied character, and
is divisible into an American Region and an Eur opceo- Asiatic Region,
each of which is divisible into provinces, districts, and faunae and florae.
Its boundaries may be provisionally considered as the isotherms of 32°
and 70° F.

The American Tropical Realm, and also the Indo- African Tropical
Realm, may be regarded as bounded by the isotherms of 70° F. The
first is far more homogeneous than the second. Though the American
Tropical Realm is perhaps not divisible into distinct regions, it cer-
tainly embraces several provinces and districts, and is rich in faunae
and florae. The Indo-African Tropical Realm may be divided into an
African Region and an Indian Region, each composed of several prov-
inces and districts, and a great number of faunae and florae.

The South American Temperate Realm embraces that part of South
America south of the isotherm of 70° F. ; the African Temperate
Realm includes that part of Africa south of the same isotherm, whilst
the Antarctic Realm is restricted to the antarctic islands.

The Australian Realm, embracing Australia, New Zealand, New
Guinea, and their dependent islands, including those to the eastward
as far as Timor and Celebes, is zoologically as distinct from the other
primary regions as it is in its geographical position. It is divisible
into a Temperate and a Tropical Region, the former embracing New
Zealand and the southern third of Australia. Each of these regions
includes two or three well-marked provinces.

The above division of the earth's surface* avoids the arbitrary
partitioning of an almost homogeneous Arctic Realm between two

* It is not within the scope of the present article to trace the subdivisions of the
earth's surface in relation to the distribution of its organic life any further than to
furnish illustrations of the general principles according to which it is believed animals
and plants are distributed, and by which the land surface of the earth is divided. De-
termining the rank of the several divisions by the amount of variation from others they
present, it is found, as indicated above, that the divisions of co-ordinate rank increase
in number to the southward. The Arctic Realm is homogeneous to such an extent as
not to admit of divisions of a higher grade than faunae and flora;. In the Temperate
Realm the animals and plants of the Eastern and Western hemispheres are, as a whole,
so far different as to admit of the division of this zone into two grand divisions (divis-
ions of the second order), with other divisions between these and the ultimate ones.
In the Tropical Realm the differences in the life of the two hemispheres is so great as

382 BULLETIN OF TIIE

implied totally distinct life regions, and also a similar division of the
two slightly differentiated regions of the North Temperate Realm.
For nearly all the species, and hence of course the genera and fam-
ilies, of the Arctic Realm, and a considerable percentage of the species,
a larger proportion of the genera, and nearly all the families of the
Temperate Realm, occur in the northern parts of both the so-called
" Neogean " and " Palrcogean Creations." * It is thus seen that the
life of the North Temperate Realm differs far more from that of the
Tropical Realms than the life of the Old World does from that of
the New. Hence the subdivision of the earth's surface into pri-
mary ontological regions, according in area with the two primary divis-
ions of the land, now so generally adopted, is contrary to the facts,
since it wholly ignores the close resemblance of the animals and plants
inhabiting the north temperate and arctic regions, and the striking
differences between them and those of the intertropical zone. The
recognition of a "Nearctic" as contradistinguished from a " Palas-
arctic Region " is almost equally arbitrary and at variance with the
law of the distribution of life in circumpolar zones. f

Dana, in his map of the geographical distribution of marine ani-
mals,} divided the Tropical Zone into four subzones, — a North and a
South Torrid and a North and a South Subtorrid ; and each temper-
to require a division of the torrid zone, considered as a climatic zone, into two primary-
divisions, with subdivisions of each of several ranks. The south temperate (climatic)
zone is similarly divisible, while the Australian Realm, from its isolated position and
its remarkable individualization, forms a primary region, with subdivisions of various
grades.

* Dr. Sclater properly observes: "It cannot be denied that the ornithology of the
Palsearctic, or great temperate region of the Old World, is more easily characterized by
what it has not rather than by what it has. There are certainly few among the groups
of birds occurring in this region which do not develop themselves [to an equal or] to a
greater extent elsewhere," etc. — Journ. of P roc. /.inn. Soc , Zoology, Vol. II, p. 137.

t I may here add that the homoge msness of the life of the boreal regions has been

recognized by a number of recent writers, among whom are Dr. L. K. Schmarda, Dr. Von

Middendorff, and Professor Huxley, who have each recognized a circumpolar region.

Professor Huxley has also called attention (see Proc. Zool. Soc. Loud., 1868, pp. 313-

819) to the wide divergence of the life of the tropics from that of the north-temperate

19 of even the same continents, and the individualization of Australia and its

ent islands. He considers that the whole surface of the globe may be "primarily

subdivided into two principal areas, — a northern and a southern," tor winch be has pro-

I the names Arclogoea and Notogcea. The latter be has divided into three regions, —

>. Columbia (= Neotropical Region of Sclater), Australasia, and New Zealand.

I Rep. on Crust, of U. S. Expl. Exped (Vol II), under Capt. Wilkes.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 383

ate zone into five subzones, — a Temperate proper,, a Subtemperate, a
Warm Temperate, a Cold Temperate, and a Subfrigid. These zones
are equally recognizable in the distribution of terrestrial life ; but, owing
to inequalities of its surface, they are of course less regular on the
land than on the oceans.

The zones and subzones, or the Provinces and the minor phytological
and zoological divisions of the globe, are usually not trenchantly de-
fined. Their boundaries being determined by climatic conditions, the
transition between adjacent zones, or between ontological divisions of
•whatever rank, is rarely abrupt ; like the climatic zones, they blend
more or less at their edges, their boundaries being strongly marked only
in regions possessing a highly varied surface, as in mountainous dis-
tricts. They are, nevertheless, easily recognizable, and can be ap-
proximately defined. Generally the dividing lines are more or less
undulating, and, being determined indirectly by chains of mountains
and other physical barriers, adjoining faunae and florae, and even adjoin-
ing provinces and realms, almost always interdigitate, and frequently
enclose isolated areas of others, as will be presently shown in describ-
ing the ornithological fauna? of Eastern North America.

The boundaries of faunae and florae, like the range of species, are
determined indirectly by elevations and depressions of the earth's sur-
face, these variations in the altitude of the land producing varying
conditions of temperature and humidity, which latter, as already stated,
are the direct limiting influences of species, and of tn*e botanical and
zoological divisions of the globe. The permanency of their boundaries
hence depends upon the constancy of the physiographic conditions of
these areas, a migration of species, and of faunae and florae, necessarily
following changes in these conditions. That such migrations have
taken place is evident from the occurrence in the post-tertiary
deposits of the warm temperate latitudes of the fossil remains of
species found now only in the cold temperate and arctic regions, and
in the tertiary strata of high latitudes of the remains of other species
whose nearest allies are now found in the warm tempeiatu and sub-
tropical zones. These facts indicate clearly the great changes in
temperature that have repeatedly occurred at given localities during
the earth's history. In respect to existing animals, however, it is dif-
ficult to determine how much their known recession northward, as of
the reindeer, for example, is due to climatic changes, and how much to

38-i BULLETIN OF- THE

human agency, or whether it may not be due exclusively to the latter
cause.

2. The Natural Provinces of the North American Tem-
perate Region *

Before passing to the special subject of the present article, it will be
necessary to consider briefly the North American continent as a whole.
As already shown, North America embraces portions of three realms,
the Arctic, the North Temperate, and the Tropical. It belongs mainly,
however, to the North Temperate Realm, of which the temperate por-
tions of North America form the Western Region. Within this Region
may be recognized two Provinces, — an Eastern and a Western, — quite
distinct from each other in their general features as well as in man;
special characteristics. The Eastern Province is characterized by the
uniformity of its geographical and climatic features and by a com
sponding uniformity in its faunal and floral aspects. The Wester^
Province, on the other hand, is characterized by the diversity of ito
geographical and climatic features, — different areas situated under the
same parallels differing greatly «n these respects, — and by the number
and small extent of its zoological and botanical areas, and its compara-
tively numerous restricted flora1, and fauna?.

The Eastern Province f extends in the United States from the
Atlantic seaboard to the vicinity of the 100th meridian, but to the
northward its western boundary sweeps rapidly westward, and extends
to the Rocky Mountains, whilst farther northward, where it approaches
the Arctic Realm, it occupies the whole breadth of the continent. Its
■western border is not generally abruptly defined, and is, moreover, quite
irregular, through its extension up the valleys of the numerous rivers
which enter it from the westward. According to Professor Baird, its
western boundary "starts on the Gulf of Mexico near the eastern bor-
der of Texas, perhaps between the Brazos and the Sabine, and follow-

* The " Districts" of the North American Region, or the ontological divisions of this
region of the fourth rank, can be more conveniently characterized after the seve
fauna' have been defined, to which point in the paper their consideration i^ accordingly
deferred.

t The boundaries of these two regions have been sketched with apparent accuracy
by Professor Baird. See American Journal of Science and Arts, 2d Series, Vol. XLI,
pp. 82-85,.Tan., 1666.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 385

ing up the direction of the former river to the approaches of the Great
Desert, nearly on the meridian mentioned [the 100th], proceeds north-
ward, forced sometimes more or less westward, especially along the
Platte, sometimes eastward. It crosses the Platte between Forts
Kearney and Laramie and intersects the Missouri between Fort Ran-
dall and Fort Pierre, perhaps near Fort Lookout, as it is between the
first mentioned two points that in ascending the river we find the
change to take place in the ornithology of the country. Soon after
crossing the northern boundary of the United States the line rapidly
inclines westward and extends to the Rocky Mountains." To the
southeastward this region embraces the whole of the United States,
except perhaps the southern portion of Florida, which is decidedly
"West Indian and tropical in its affinities. To the northward it em-
braces the whole northern and eastern portions of the continent up to
the Arctic Realm.

The "Western Region commences at the western border of the East-
ern, and extends thence to the Pacific coast. In the United States its
area is about two thirds that of the Eastern Province, but a little farther
to the northward it narrows rapidly, and is finally bounded in this direc-
tion by the Alaskan mountains.* To the southward it of course merges
in Mexico into the Tropical Realm, but its southern limit is not as yet
well known. While its varied character renders it subdivisible into
several more or less distinct longitudinal areas, each of which may be
again divided transversely into numerous fauna? and florae, many species
range throughout its whole extent and give to it a certain degree of
homogeneousness. This portion of North America is, however, as yet
too indefinitely known, geographically and meteorologically, as well as
ontologically, to admit of the exact definition of its primary and
ultimate life regions.

The Eastern Province, notwithstanding its larger area, has not only
a less number of ornithological faunae than the Western, but has also
a smaller number of species represented in it, as well as a smaller
number exclusively restricted to it. The following list of one hundred
and eight species embraces most of the birds that are exclusively
restricted to the Eastern Province, and hence those that distinctively
characterize this Province.

* According to Mr. W. H. Dall. See Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. XII, p. 144,
Dec, 1868*.

vol. ii. 25

386

BULLETIN OF THE

List of Species limited in their Longitudinal Distribution to the Eastern Prov~
ince of the North American Temperate Region.

40. Galeoscoptes carolinensis.

41. Harporhynchus rui'us.

42. Thryothorus ludovicianus.

43. Cistothorus stellaris.

44. Lophophanes bicolor.

45. Parus hudsonicus.

46. Cotumiculus passerinus.

47. Cotumiculus Henslowi.

1. Turdus mustelinus.

2. Sialia sialis.

3. Mniotilta varia.

4. Parula americana.

5. Prothonotaria citrea.

6. Geothlypis {Philadelphia.

7. Oporornis agilis.

8. Oporornis ibrmosa.

9. Helmitherus vermivorus.

10. Helminthophaga Swainsoni

11. Helminthophaga pinus.

12. Helminthophaga ehrysoptera,

13. Helminthophaga Bachmani.

14. Helminthophaga ruficapilla.

15. Helminthophaga peregrina.

16. Seiurus auroeaj)illus.

17. Seiurus noveboraeensis.

18. Dendrceca virens.

19 Dendrceca ea'iulescens.

20. Dendrceca coronata.

21. Dendroeca blaekburnhe.

22. Dendroeca castanea.

23. Dendroeca pennsylvanica.

24 Dendrceca caerulea.

25 Dendroeca striata.

26. Dendroeca maculosa.

27. Dendroeca palmarum.

28. Dendroeca dominica.

29. Dendroeca discolor.

30. Perisoglossa tigrina.

31. Wilsonia mitrata.

32. Euthlypis canadensis.

33. Setophaga ruticilla.

34. Pyranga rubra.

35. Pyranga aestiva.

36. Vireosylvia olivacea.

37. Vireosylvia philadelphica.

38. Lanivireo flavifrons.

39. Yireo noveboraeensis.

48. Ammodromus eaudacutus.

49. Ammodromus maritimus.

50. Zonotrichia albicollis.

51. Junco hyemalis.

52. Spizella monticola.

53. Spizella pusilla.

54. Peucaea aestivalis.

55. Passerella iliaca.

56. Euspiza americana.

57. Hedymele* ludoviciana.

58. Cyanospiza eiris.

59. Cyanospiza cyanea.

60. Cardinalis virginianus.

61. Pipilo erythrophthalmus.

62. Dolichonyx oryzivorus.

63. Icterus spurius.

64. Icterus baltimore.

65. Quiscalus purpureus.

66. Corvus ossifragus.

67. Cyanura cristata.

68. Sayornis fuscus.

69. Campephilus principalis.
70 Pic us borealis.

71. Sphyrapicus varius.

72. Centurus carolinus.

73. !Melanerpes erythrocephalus.

74. Colaptes auratus.

75. Coccy^us americanus.

76. Coccygus crythro[)htbalmus.

77. Conurus carolinensis.

78. Trochilus eolubris.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY.

387

79. ?Chsetura pelasgia.

80. Antrostomus vociferus.

81. Antrostomus carolinensis.

82. Nauclerus furcatus.

83. Ictinia mississippiensis.

84. Rosthramus sociabilis.

85. ?Tetrao canadensis.

86. Cupidonia cupido.

87. Ortyx virginianus.

88. Grus americanus.

89. Florida cserulea.

90. Ibis alba.

91. Platalea ajaja.

92. JEgialitis Wilsonius.

93. iEgialitis melodus.

94. ?Actiturus Bartramius.

95. Limosa hudsonica.

96. ?Numenius borealis.

97. Rallus crepitans.

98. Porzana jamaicensis.

99. Porzana noveboracensia.

100. Gallinula galeata.

101. Gallinula inartinica.

102. Anas obscura.

103. Querquedula discors.

104. Camptolasmus labradorius.

105. Sula fiber.

106. Graculus floridanus.

107. Plotus anhinga.

108. Chroecocephalus atricilla.

3. The Ornithological Faunae of the Eastern Province op
the North American Temperate Region.

Passing to the Eastern Province of the North American Region, the
distribution of the birds will be now mainly considered. But a
somewhat detailed comparison of the distribution of the represent-
atives of this class with the distribution of the mammals and reptiles,
and to some extent with the insects, mollusks, and plants, shows that the
same divisions apply almost equally well to all. The distribution of
plants, however, is everywhere greatly affected by the nature of the soil,
as well as by humidity and temperature; and the character of the veg-
etation is also intimately connected with the distribution of the insects.
The character of the soil, and especially the nature and amount of the
mineral matter held in solution in the waters of the streams and lakes,
has much to do with the relative abundance and distribution of the ter-
restrial and fluviatile mollusca, neither of which influences materially
affects the distribution of the birds and mammals. The presence or
absence of forests only, in respect to vegetation* and the soil, has much

* At the junction of the prairies with the eastern wooded districts there is quite an
appreciable change in the fauna, especially in respect to the birds and mammals. Tho
faunal differences between these regions, in respect to these two classes, result mainly
through the addition of a relatively small number of strictly prairie species, the west-
ward extension of none of the species of the Eastern Province wholly terminating at
this point. The number of their representatives, however, becomes greatly reduced,
and their distribution from being general and uniform is restricted to the belU of

388 BULLETIN OF THE

influence on the. distribution of the terrestrial vertebrates. The distri-
bution of the fishes, the aquatic reptiles and certain groups of batrachians
is, however, in great measure determined by the hydrographic basins.
Hence we meet with relatively more restricted forms among the latter,
as well as in insects, moll usks,. and plants, than we find in either mam-
mals or birds, the latter class being the most independent of all animals
of geographical barriers.

It has been remarked that the great extent of the Eastern Province,
as compared with the Western, is due to the great extent of the low-
lands of Eastern North America, or of that area which has an elevation
not exceeding eight hundred feet above the sea.* This is unquestion-
ably the true reason, there being no highlands of sufficient altitude to
interpose serious obstacles to the range of species. Some portions of
this area, however, as the Arctic lowlands, do not belong to this region,
while large portions of the country included in the Eastern Province
more or less exceed that altitude. These differences of elevation are
sufficient to cause the marked interdigitation of the fauna? of contiguous
regions lying under the same parallels, as in the Eastern United States,
where the upper portions of the Appalachian system support a Cana-
dian or subalpine fauna and flora as far south as Georgia. Yet this
elevation, in consequence of its nearly meridional trend and its lack of
perfect continuity, forms a barrier to but few vertebrates except the strict-
ly aquatic ones. If, however, the trend of the Appalachian range had
been an easterly and westerly one, the influence of these highlands as a
geographical barrier would have been most marked. Without the dif-
ferences in altitude it affords, the faunas and floras of Eastern North

forest skirting the streams. At the eastern limit of the prairies, in fact, the distinctively
western species begin to appear, thence westward few additional western species being
met. with till the edge of the great central plateau of the continent is reached, where
the differentiation is further increased not only by the addition of many new forms, hut
by the gradual disappearance of eastern types. Whether the addition of a few prairie
species be sufficient reason for recognizing a western subdivision of each of the fauna?
of the Eastern Province may perhaps be thought questionable.

The forested portion of the Eastern Province also presents a lack of total uniformity
between its eastern and western portions, a few species of birds occurring east of the
Appalachians in the Eastern States only a- stragglers, whilst they are quite common
west of these highlands. About half a dozen species avoid the region circumscribed
by the valleys of the St. Lawrence, Lake Champlain, the Hudson River, and the
Atlantic Coast, that are found west of this area.

* See Baird, Am. Journ. of Science and Arts, 2d Series, Vol. XLI, p. 86.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 389

America would have extended in regular and parallel zones from the
Atlantic seaboard to the central plateau of the continent, whereas they
now sweep far southward near the coast, and passing around the Appa-
lachian highlands extend northward again along their western base.

In attempting to determine the number and limits of the ornitho-
logical faunoe of a large area, it is evident that the distribution of the
birds in the breeding season should be taken as the basis for the inves-
tigation rather than their entire range, since during no other portion of
the year can the migratory species be regarded as being at their true
homes. The species numerously represented are also of far greater
importance than those having but few representatives, as it is the
common species which are not only the most characteristic, but those
whose distribution is at present best known.

Applying the term fauna, when used in a special sense, to the smallest

of the natural divisions in zoological geography, and considering faunas

to be characterized by their general facies, as determined by a peculiar

assemblage of species, rather than by the restriction of a certain

number of specific forms within their areas, Eastern North America

may be considered as embracing seven ornithological fauna?, which

occupy narrow, somewhat parallel zones or belts of varying breadth,

extending from the Atlantic coast westward to the great middle plateau

of the continent. The extent of each in an east and west direction is

generally many times greater than what may be considered as its

meridional extent. Their breadth, however, is quite unequal, not

only as compared with each other, but that of the same fauna varies

greatly at different points. They have their minimum breadth on the

slopes of the mountains, and attain their maximum breadth on the

plains. Each species having its own peculiar limits, which may or

may not coincide with those of other species, it usually happens

that at somewhat regular intervals, in passing either northward or

southward from a given point, a greater number of species disappear

at some points than at others, at which point also other species first

appear. These divisional lines usually coincide with some marked

physical change in the general character of the country, more especially

in respect to its elevation, and form the boundaries between adjoining

faunas.* These faunal boundaries, as has been before remarked, coin-

* The first terrace of the Atlantic slope, which marks not only the transition from the
tertiary deposits of the coa<=t of the Middle and South Atlantic States to theolder forma-

390 BULLETIN OF THE

cide with isothermal lines. These isothermal lines, however, are not
so often the yearly isotherms as those of particular seasons. While
some writers have considered isocrymal lines as those having the
greatest amount of limiting influence, as Dana has supposed to be the
case with marine animals,* and as may be true in the case of plants,
and possibly also of some terrestrial animals, f the mean temperature
of the breeding season must necessarily more affect birds, especially the
migratory species, than that of any other part of the year, or than the
mean annual temperature. Isotherals hence most nearly coincide with
the lines limiting the distribution of birds in the breeding season, and
also the ornithological faunae, since the majority of the species in the
region now under consideration breed almost exclusively during the
summer months, .and mainly in June and July. Some breed in May,
and a few of the rapacious birds in April, and even in March, but they
are the exceptions to the general rule. The isotheral lines are hence
adopted in the present essay in giving the boundaries of the ornitho-
logical faun se. t

Owing to the imperfect state of our knowledge of the summer dis-
tribution of the birds of North America, the present attempt at a defini-
tions of the interior, as well as forming the limit of steam navigation on the rivers of
the lower Atlantic States, forms also the dividing line between the fauna? of the coast
and thoso situated next to them in the interior, although having an altitude of generally-
less than three hundred feet. The rise from the succeeding plateau to the more abrupt
slope of the Appalachians forms likewise the boundary between the second and third
tiers of faunae in the Atlantic States. The terrace forming the northern boundary
of the tertiary deposits of the Gulf States, and of the lower Mississippi Valley generally,
coincides likewise with faunal boundaries, as do similar slight changes in elevation
elsewhere.

* See Report on the Crustacea collected by the U. S. Expl. Expd. under the com-
mand of Captain Wilkes, Vol. II, p. 1452.

t There must; however, be many exceptions, since in cold climates many mammals
and all reptiles, as well as a large proportion of the molhisca and insects, hibernate,
and thus are to a great degree (especially the reptiles) beyond the influence of excessive
cold. In regard to plants, also, their northward range seems to be limited more by the
amount of heat in summer than by the cold of winter, particularly in the case of annuals.
As soon as the sum of the heat ot summer is diminished to such a degree as to be
insufficient to mature the plant, or to allow it to ripen its fruit, whether an annual, a
shrub or tree, it must at that point cease to propagate, and there find its polar limit.

} Professor A. E. Verrill states that he has found the "boundaries between the
Canadian and Alleghanian Faunas" to be " coincident with a line which shall indicate
a mean temperature of 50° Fahrenheit during the months of April, May, and June."
Proc. Dost. S"c. Nat. Hiti., Vol. XII, p. 260, May, 1S66.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 391

tion of the faunas of this region is to be regarded as merely a pro-
visional one, to be perfected as the required data become known.
The distribution in summer of the birds of the United States, even of
that portion situated east of the Mississippi River, is still too little
known to afford even there entirely satisfactory data. The data are
tolerahly full only for the region embraced between the St. Lawrence
and the Upper Lakes on the north, and the Ohio River and Virginia
on 'the south. Much is also known, however, in regard to the summer
distribution of the birds in the other Atlantic States ; but in respect to
the whole region of the lower Mississippi and the Gulf States, the re-
corded facts bearing on this subject are lamentably few.* The iso-
thermal lines of even our best climatological charts are also obviously
more or less erroneous, and are nowhere laid down with sufficient detail
to meet the wants of the student of zoological geography. The follow-
ing lists of those species which by their presence or absence determine
the facies of the several faunae of the Eastern Province are hence not
only often incomplete, but will in some cases, doubtless, require more
or less modification as our knowledge of the subject increases.! The
facts at hand for the work herein attempted are, however, far more nu-
merous than would at first seem probable ; J and doubtless the general
conclusions reached in the following pages will be in the main substanti-
ated by future investigations.

Beginning with Florida and passing northward, we meet with the
following ornithological Faunae : —

I. Floridian Fauna. As stated in Part I (p. 164), that part of
Florida south of Lake George in the interior, and of Cape Canaveral

* The importance of complete and carefully annotated lists of the birds of many-
localities in the South Atlantic and Gulf States, and in the Mississippi Valley, is hence
clearly manifest. Now that the necessity of a precise knowledge of the habitats of
animals is so generally recognized, it is to be hoped that every year will add something
to our knowledge in regard to these regions.

t This is especially true in respect to the Floridian, Louisianian, and Carolinian
Faunae. Over this large area I have been unable to determine satisfactorily the exact
southern limit of the breeding range of any species. Their northern limit, however, is
readily approximately determined.

J See the Appendix to Part V for a list of the special papers that have been con-
sulted in the present connection. In addition to these papers the specimens of birds in
the collection of the Museum of Comparative Zoology have been of great use, whilst
many additional facts have been gathered from correspondents and from other sources
not there indicated.

392 BULLETIN OF THE

on the coast, differs quite sensibly in its general faunal and floral
characteristics from that part of the State situated farther to the north-
ward, its fauna, especially the ornithological portion, having a decidedly
West Indian or tropical aspect, as has also its flora. Dr. Stimpson has
recently shown that on the Gulf coast of the State the southern forms,
among the marine animals, extend considerably farther north than they
do on the Atlantic coast; * but whether the warm waters of the Gulf
of Mexico sensibly modify the land fauna of the northern coast of
the Gulf sufficiently to atfect the distribution of the birds is a point I
have been as yet unable to determine. As it seems probable, however,
that it does not to any great degree, the Floridian Fauna may accord-
ingly be provisionally regarded as terminating near the latitude of
Lake George.

The peculiarities of the bird fauna of Southern Florida in summer is
still too imperfectly known to admit of the Floridian ornithological fauna
being fully characterized. The occurrence within it of the following
species which do not appear to extend much, if any, to the north
of it, may serve for the present to distinguish this fauna from the
Louisianian.

Species limited in their Northward Range by the Floridian Fauna.

1. Vireosylvia barbatula. 12. Starnaenus cyanocephalus.

2. Certhiola flaveola. 13. Rostrhamus sociabilis.

3. Icterus vulgaris. 14. Polyborus tharus.

4. Cyanocitta floridana. 15. Aramus giganteus.

5. Tyrannus dominiccnsis. 16. Demiegretta Pealei.

6. Coccygus minor. 17. Demiegretta rufa.

7. Crotophaga ani. 18. Audubonia occidentalis.

8. " Crotophaga rugirostris." 19. Ibis rubra.

9. Columba leucocephala. 20. Phoenicopterus ruber.

10. Zenaeda amabilis. 21. Ilaliplana fuHginosa.

11. Oreopelia martinica. 22. Anoiis stolidus.

II. Louisianian Fauna. The Louisianian Fauna may be pro-
visionally considered as limited at the northward by the isothcral line
of 77° F., it embracing all thpt part of the United States south of this
line east of the Great Plains, except the Floridian Fauna. Beginning
on the Atlantic coast apparently as far north as Norfolk, Virginia, it oc-

• See American Naturalist, Vol. IV, p. 636, December, 1870.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 393

cupies a narrow belt thence southward along the coast, and in the lati-
tude of Columbia, South Carolina, begins to expand to the westward.
Farther southward its northern boundary passes to the southward of
the mountains in Georgia, west of which it rises obliquely northward,
and extends in a narrow point up the valley of the Mississippi as far
as the mouth of the Ohio. West of the Mississippi it bends again
somewhat to the southward.

The Louisianian Fauna hence embraces the coast of North Carolina,
the lowlands of South Carolina and Georgia, nearly all of Alabama,
all of Mississippi and Louisiana, nearly all of Arkansas, Western
Tennessee, the extreme western part of Kentucky, Southern Missouri,
the extreme southern part of Illinois, and a small portion of Eastern
Texas. Most of the following species range throughout its entire
extent, but appear farther to the northward only as stragglers. The
presence of these species, and the absence of those given in the
preceding list, will serve to distinguish it from the Floridian Fauna.
It is similarly distinguished from the Carolinian Faun* »° will be
presently shown.

Species limited in their Northward Range hij the Louisianian Fauna.

1. Peucaea aestivalis. 13. Chamsepelia passer' ia.

2. Cyanospiza ciris. 14. Cathartes atratus.

3. Quiscalus major. 15. Ictinia mississippiensis.

4. Heliuinthophaga Swainsoni. 16. Elanus leucurus.

5. Helminthophaga Bachmani. 1 7. Demiegretta ludoviciana.

6. ?Prothonotaria citrea. 18. Platalea ajaja.

7. Dendrceca dominica. 19. Ibis alba.

8. Sitta pusilla. 20. Tantalus loculator.

9. Antrostomus carolinensis. 21. Porzana jamaicensis.

10. Campephilus principalis. 22. Plotus anhinga.

11. Picus boreaiis. 23. Graculus floridanus.

1 2. Conurus carolinensis. 24. Puffinus obscurus.

III. Carolinian Fauna. The Carolinian Fauna extends from
the northern boundary of the Louisianian Fauna northward to about
the isotheral line of 71° F. On the Atlantic coast this fauna includes
Long Island and a small portion of Southeastern New York, which
form its northern limit. In New Jersey it is restricted to the low-
lands, extending westward in Southern Pennsylvania, Maryland, and
Virginia to the Appalachian highlands. It embraces the middle por-

394 BULLETIN OF THE

tion of the Carolinas, and a narrow belt in Northern Georgia. West
of the Appalachian highlands its northern boundary sweeps to the
northeastward as far as Northern Ohio, and thence runs westward, pro-
bably along the water-shed of that State ; rising somewhat to the north-
ward in passing farther west, it crosses Michigan near the southern
border of that State, and embraces a portion of Southern Wisconsin
and Southern Minnesota.

The Carolinian Fauna hence embraces Long Island and Southeastern
New York, the greater part of New Jersey, all of Delaware, a small
portion of Southeastern Pennsylvania, the greater part of Maryland
and East Virginia, all of North Carolina, except the extreme eastern
and western portions, the northwestern half of South Carolina, a narrow
belt of Northern Georgia south of the mountains, the eastern part of
Tennessee, the larger part of West Virginia, nearly all of Ohio and
Kentucky, all of Indiana, nearly all of Illinois, a narrow strip of
Michigan and Wisconsin, nearly all of Iowa and the greater part of
Missouri, and the eastern portions of Nebraska and Kansas. It also
occupies the lower Appalachian valleys.

It is distinguished from the Louisianian Fauna by the absence of the
species mentioned in the preceding list, and by the presence of those
given in the list next following. The features distinguishing it from
the Alleghanian will be presently given in the diagnosis of that fauna.

Species limited in their Northward Range by the Carolinian Fauna*

1. Cardinalis virginianus. 14. Corvus ossifragus.

2. Euspiza amerieana. 15. Centurus carolinus.

3. Guiraca casrulea. 16. Stelgidopteryx serripennis.

4. Helmitherus vermivorus. 1 7. Nauelerus furcatus.

5. Icteria virens. 18. Strix flammea.

6. ?Prothonotaria citrea. 19. Cathartes aura.

7. Wilsonia mitrata. 20. JEgialitis Wilsonius.

8. ?I)endrocca cacrulea. 21. Gallinula galeata.

9. Pyranga aestiva, 22. Gallinula martinica.

10. Mimus polyglottus. 23. Garzetta candidissima.

11. Thryothorus ludovicianufl. 24. Herodias egretta.

12. Polioptila ca:rulea. 25. Florida ca?rulea.

13. Lophophanes bicolor. 26. Nyctherodius violaceus.

* A few of these species occur as stragglers in the Alleghanian Fauna.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY.- 395

27. Rallus ciegans. 31. Himantopus nigricollis.

28. Rallus crepitans. 32. Sterna aranea.

29. ?IL-ematopus palliatus 33. Rhynchops nigra.

30. Recurvirostra amerieana.

IV. Alleghanian Fauna. The Alleghanian Fauna has the Car-
olinian for its southern boundary. Its northern boundary, from the
ample data for its determination at the eastward, appears to nearly coin-
cide with the isotheral line of 65° F. It is, however, an extremely irreg-
ular line, with abrupt and deep sinuosities. Beginning on the coast to
the eastward of the Penobscot Bay, it sweeps first somewhat to the
northeast, nearly or quite reaching Bangor ; thence passing westward
and southward, it follows the northern boundary of the lowlands through
Southern Maine and Southern New Hampshire. In the Connecticut
valley it Vises farther to the northward, and in its southern descent
skirts the eastern base of the Green Mountains, passing to the south-
ward and westward of these highlands in Connecticut, and thence
abruptly to the northward. Skirting the eastern boarder of the Cham-
plain valley, it continues still northward to the valley of the St. Law-
rence as far as Quebec ; thence turning again southwestward, it passes
along the northern border of the lowlands east of the Lawrentian Hills
(including the valley of the Ottawa), and crosses the southern peninsula
of Michigan near the forty-fifth parallel ; continuing thence northwest-
ward it passes near Fort Ripley. Reaching the valley of the Red River
of the North, it turns abruptly to the northward, enclosing the lowlands
around Lake Winnipeg and embracing the valley of the Saskatchewan
and those of its northern and southern branches, passing westward
till it meets the higher plateau forming the eastern slope of the Rocky
Mountains. This may be considered as approximately the northern
boundary of the Alleghanian Fauna; the physical, climatic, and phyto-
zoological- character of the interior of British North America being at
present too imperfectly known to render it easy to determine definitely
the northwestern limit of the Alleghanian Fauna.*

* As already stated, the mean temperature of the breeding season (May, June, and
July) has been taken as limiting the breeding range of the species. But this criterion
associates regions which have very different climatic peculiarities, "when the temperature
of the whole year is considered, the isotheral lines diverging more widely from the
isothermal or yearly lines in the interior than on the Atlantic coast. While in the
Winnipeg basin the summer heat is sufficient to ripen corn and to permit of the cultiva-

396 BULLETIN OF THE

The Alleghanian Fauna hence includes all of Southern New Englanu,
except the higher parts of the Green Mountain ranges, including even
the southern third of Maine and a considerable part of New Hamp-
shire and Vermont ; all of New York, except the higher portions of the
Adirondacks and the southeastern extremity of that State (which be-
longs to the Carolinian Fauna), all the lowlands of the Canadas, as far
east at least as the vicinity of Quebec ; the northern border of Ohio,
the greater part of Wisconsin and Minnesota (in fact, very nearly all
of these two States), and the valleys of the Red River of the North,
the Assinniboine, and large portions of the valleys of the Saskatchewan
and its two main branches, including also the extensive lowlands sur-
rounding Lake Winnipeg. It also embraces all the Appalachian high-
lands southward to Georgia, except the higher parts (which belong to
the Canadian Fauna), and hence includes a large part of Pennsylvania,
the greater part of the highlands of Maryland, Virginia, and the Caroli-
nas. The isolated areas within this region belonging to the Canadian
Fauna are the highlands of Northeastern New York, and the most
elevated parts of Pennsylvania, the Virginias, North Carolina, and
Georgia. The northwestern part of New Jersey seems also to belong
to the Canadian Fauna.

The Alleghanian Fauna is characterized by the absence of those
species already mentioned as finding their northern limit within the
Carolinian Fauna, by the presence of those mentioned below as limited
in their northward range by the Alleghanian Fauna, and by the
absence of a considerable number which occur abundantly in the Cana-
dian Fauna. It is further distinguished from the Carolinian Fauna by
the occurrence within it in the breeding season of the species enumer-

tion of tobacco, .the winter climate is almost arctic, ice remaining in the lakes in shel-
tered places till late in May. Yet in summer the Winnipeg district is frequented
by birds that find their northern range limited on the Atlantic coast to Southern Maine,
■where the winters are much shorter and the cold far less severe than en the prairies of
the Saskatchewan. The same continental character of the climate of the interior
is similarly seen as far south as the prairies of the Upper Mississippi, to which the
northern birds descend in winter in greater numbers and with greater regularity than
in the corresponding latitudes near the Atlantic coast. A limitation of the ornithologi-
cal fauna; by the distribution of the birds in winter, — in other words, by their maxi-
mum range, — would hence differ considerably from the circumscription of these faunae
based on the breeding range of the species. This remark applies, of course, not only
to the present fauna ( Alleghanian), but to Eastern North America as a whole, especially
to that portion north of the Louisiauian Fauna.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY.

39T

ated in the second list next subjoined, to which the present fauna forms
the southern limit of their breeding range.

1 Species limited in their Northward Range by the Alleghanian Fauna.*

1. Turdus mr~folinus.

2. Sialia sialis.

3 Pyranga rubra.

4. Dendroeca discolor.

5. Lanivireo flavifrons.

6. Vireo noveboracensis.

7. Troglodytes aedon.

8. Harporhynchus rufus.

9. Cyanospiza cyanea.

10. Pinilo erytbrophthalmus.

11. Spizella pusilla.

12 Coturniculus passerinus.

13 Ammodromus caudacutus
14. Ammodromus inaritimus.

15. Icterus Baltimore.

16. Icterus spurius.

1 7. Sturnella ludoviciana.

18. ?Antrostomus vociferus.

19. Zenaedura carolinensis.

20. Cupidonia cupido.

21. Ortyx virginianus.

22. Meleagris gallopavo.

23. Ardetta exilis.

24. Rallus virginianus.

25. Chrcecocephalus atricilla.

26. Sterna paradisea.

27. Hydrochelidon fissipes.

2. Species junited by the Alleghanian Fauna in their Southward Range in
the Breeding Season.

1. Turdus fuscescens.

9,. Dendroeca pennsylvanica.

3 Parula americana.

4. Helminthophaga ruficapilla.

5. Helminthophaga chrysoptera.

6. Hirundo bicolor.

7. Lanivireo solitarius.

8. Carpodacus purpureus.

9. IVrelospiza palustris.

10. Passerculus savanna.

11. Dolichonyx oryzivorus.

12. Contopus borealis.

13. Empidonax minimus.

14. Empidonax flaviventris.

15. Pedia?cetes phasi nellus.

16. Rallus virginianus.

1 7. Porzana Carolina.
8. iEgialitis melodus.

19. Nettion carolinensis.

20. Querquedula discors.

21. Mareca americana.

22. Anas boschas.

23. Anas obscura.

24. Mergus merganser.

25. Lophodytes cucullatus.

26. Bernicla canadensis.

27. Colymbus torquatus.

28. Podilymbus podiceps.

29. Larus argentatus.

30. Sterna macrura.

* A few of the species mentioned in this list are more or less frequent stragglers into
the Canadian Fauna, but none of them seem to occur there except a? irregular and
infrequent visitors.

398 BULLETIN OF THE

V. Canadian Fauna. The next fauna to the northward of the
Alleghanian is the Canadian. The southern boundary of the Canadian
is hence, of course, the northern limit of the Alleghanian, which bound-
ary has been already defined. Its northern limit coincides very nearly
with the isotheral line of 57° F. The region to the northward of the
Alleghanian Fauna is unfortunately too little known to permit of a
very satisfactory determination of the northern boundary of either the
Canadian Fauna or of the faunas to the northward of the Canadian.
On the Atlantic coast the Canadian Fauna appears to embrace the
greater part of Newfoundland, nearly or quite all of Nova Scotia* and
New Brunswick, Northern New England, including the crests of the
Green Mountain ranges southward to Connecticut, the greater part of
the province of Quebec, including the Lower St. Lawrence valley as
far up as the city of Quebec, the southern slope of the Height of Land
in Northern Ontario, and the highlands on both sides of Lake Superior.
To the southward it also embraces as outlying islands the Adirondacks
of Northern New York, and the higher crests of the Appalachians
southward to Georgia. To the northward it probably extends nearly
to the summit of the Height of Land, and may embrace part of the low-
lands bordering the southwestern shore of Hudson's Bay. Its northern
boundary hence sweeps northwestward in the interior nearly or quite
to Fort Resolution, on the southern shore of Great Bear Lake.

The Canadian Fauna, as above limited, may be characterized as fol-
lows. It is distinguished from the Alleghanian Fauna by the absence
of the species mentioned above as limited in their northward range by
that fauna, and by the presence in the breeding season of those men-
tioned in the first subjoined list ; from the Hudsonian Fauna by the
presence of those given in the second subjoined list, and by the absence
of those given in the first list under the Hudsonian Fauna. * It is
further distinguished by its forming the breeding haunts of a large pro-
portion of the Sylvicolidce, especially of the species of Dendrceca,
several of which are in summer mainly restricted to it.

* Nova Scotia, zoologically considered, presents somewhat anomalous characters.
In summer a number of birds which are reported as either rare or accidental at Calais,
Me., are represented as common summer residents in Nova Scotia, while other northern
species breed there in numbers which do not usually breed at localities where the other
species referred to are summer residents. The half-insular position of Nova Scotia is
doubtless the explanation of the faunal peculiarities above mentioned.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY.

399

Species limited by the Canadian Fauna in their Southward Range in the
Breeding Season.

1. Turdus Pallasi.

2. Turdus Swainsoni.

3. Regulus satrapa.

4. Regulus calendula.

5. Dendrceca castanea.

6. Dendrceca Blackburnia?.

7. Dendrceca coronata.

8. Dendrceca ca^rulescen

9. Dendrceca striata.

10. Dendrceca palmarum.

11. Dendrceca maculosa.

12. Euthlypis canadensis.

13. Troglodytes hyemalis.

14. Parus hudsonicus.

15. Pinicola enucleator.

16. Curvirostra americana.

1 7. Curvirostra leucoptera.

18. Chrysomitris pinus.

19. Zonotrichia leucophrys.

20. Zonotrichia albicollis.

21. Junco hyemalis.

22. Spizella monticola.

23. Passerella iliaca.

24. Scolecophagus ferrugineus.

25. Perisoreus canadensis.

26. Picoides hirsutus.

27. Picoides arcticus.

28. Falco columbarius.
•j:'. Astur atricapillus.
30. Surnia ulula.

.31. Nyctale Tcntrmalmi.

32. Tetrao canadensis.

33. Calidris arenaria.

34. Macrorhamphus griseus.

35. Phalaropus Wilsoni.

36. Aytliya vallisneria.

37. Aytliya americana.

38. Fulix marila.

39. Fulix collaris.

40. Erismatura rubida.

41. Bucephala clangula.

42. Bucephala albeola.

43. Mergus serrator.

44. Somateria mollissima.

45. Cymochorea leucorrhea.

46. Puffinus anglorum.

47. Larus marinus.

48. Rissa tridactylus.

49. ?Chroecocephalus Philadelphia.

50. Pelecanus erythrorhynchus.

51. Sula bassana.

52. Graculus carbo.

53. Graculus dilophus.

54. Podiceps cristatus.

55. Podiceps cornutus.

56. Podiceps Holbolli.

57. Fratercula arctica.

58. Utamania torda.

59. Uria grylle.

60. Lomvia ringvia.

61. Lomvia svarbag.

2. Species limited by the Canadian Fauna in their Northviard Range.

1. ?Turdus Pallasi. 7. Euthlypis canadensis.

2. Mimus carolinensis. 8. Parus atricapillus.

3. Dendrceca virens. 9. Chrysomitris tristis.

4. Dendrceca ca?rulescens. 10. Chrysomitris pinus.

5. Dendrceca castanea. 11. Curvirostra americana.

6. Dendrceca Blackburniae. 12. Poocstes irramineus.

400

BULLETIN OF THE

13. Melospiza melodia.

14. Melospiza palustris.

15. Dolichonyx oryzivorus.

16. Tyrannus carolinensis.

1 7. Myiarchua crinitus.

18. Contopus virens.

19. Trochilus colubris.

20. Ant- stomus vociferus.

21. Sayornis fuscu°

22. Cyanura cnstata.

23. Buteo lineatus.

24. Buteo pennsylvanicus.

25. Accipiter Cooperi.

26. ?Syrnium ncbulosum.

27. Butorides virescens.

28. Porzana Carolina.

29. iE^ialitis vociferus.

30. iEgialitis melodus.

31. Philohela minor.

32. Actiturus Bartramius.

33. Aix sponsa.

34. Chaulelasmus streperus.

35. Aythya vallisneria.

36. Hydrocbelidon fissipes.

VI. Hudsonian Fauna. The next ornithological fauna north of
the Canadian may well be termed the Hudsonian Fauna. Its northern
limit seems to nearly coincide with the isotheral line of 50° Fahrenheit,
its southern limit being the isotheral of 57°, or the northern boundary
of the Canadian Fauna. It will include at least the southern third of
Labrador, the northern peninsula of Newfoundland, Anticosti Island,
the more elevated parts of the Height of Land separating the low-
lands bordering Hudson's Bay from the lowlands of the St. Lawrence
and the Winnipeg district, and the basin of the Mackenzie's from Lake
Athabasca to a point considerably north of Fort Simpson, extending in
the Mackenzie's River valley some distance within the Arctic Circle,
probably to the Arctic coast. Extending still westward, it embraces
the valleys of Liard's and Peel's Rivers, and probably the valley and
adjoining lowlands of the Youkon, including the greater part of that
portion of the Territory of Alaska situated to the southward of the
Arctic Circle. In other words, that portion of boreal America situ-
ated between the Canadian Fauna and the Barren Grounds. It is
far from certain that a western or Alaskan Fauna will not have to
be separated, embracing all the more temperate portions of Alaska.
Although strictly western species occur here, they appear to be con-
fined mainly to the western coast and the lower part of the Youkon
valley. The faunal differences between the western shore of Alaska
and the valley of Mackenzie's River become far greater when the
marine species are taken into account, even if only the birds and
mammalia are considered. The Pacific coasts of Alaska and Si-
beria have many species peculiar to the shores of those countries

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 401

and to the intervening islands, constituting a distinct fauna, which
may well be called the Aleutian Fauna. Tlie mingling of Asiatic
and American species forms its distinctive feature. There is also a
slight commingling of western species in the valley of the Mac-
kenzie's River, as there is also in the valley of the Saskatchewan.
The Hudson ian Fauna doubtless embraces outlying islands in the
Canadian Fauna, as the upper part of the White Mountains, and the
summits of some of the higher peaks of the Adirondacks. The
southern point of Greenland embraces many species common to the
Hudsonian Fauna, and though Greenland belongs almost wholly to the
Arctic Realm, its extreme southern portion is doubtless Hudsonian.*

The Hudsonian Fauna being coextensive northward with the limit
of forest-trees, it forms the northern limit of distribution of all the
species of birds whose mode of life renders them dependent upon a
forest vegetation. The distinction between the Hudsonian Fauna and
the Arctic Realm, as well as between the Temperate Realm and the
Arctic Realm, is hence a strongly marked one, nearly one hundred
species, nearly all of them land birds, finding their northern limit of
distribution near the polar limit of forests, or at least within the Hud-
sonian Fauna.

The Huds.cnian Fauna may be distinguished from the Canadian by
the absence of the species given in the preceding lists and by the
presence of those enumerated in the first of the lists next subjoined,
and from the Arctic Realm by the presence of those given in the
second list below.

1. Species limited by the Hudsonian Fauna in their Southward Range in the
Breeding Season.

1. Anthus ludovicianus. 9. . ?Picoides arcticus.

2. Saxicola oenanthe. 10. ?Picoides hirsutus.

3. Ampelis garrula. 11. Faleo candicana.

4. JEgiothus linaria. 12. Archibuteo lagopus.

5. Plectrophanes lapponicus. 13. Syrnium cinereum.

6. Plectrophanes nivalis. 14. Nyctea nivea.

7. Plectrophanes pictus. 15. Lagopus albus.

8. Leucosticte tephrocotis. 16. Lagopus rupestris.

* For remarks respecting the similarity of the Fauna of Northern Labrador and
Southern Greenland, see Dr. A. S. Packard, Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. X, p. 255,
1866.

VOL. II. 26

402

BULLETIN OF THE

1 7. Charadrius virginicus.

18. iEgialitis semipalmatus.

19. Squartarola helvetica.

20. Strepsilas interpres.

21. Actodromas maculata.

22. Actodromas Bonapartei.

23. Actodromas minutilla.

24. Ereunetes pusillus.

25. Anser Gambeli.

26. Anser hyperboreus.

27. Bernicla brenta.

28. Dafila acuta.

20. Harelda glacialis.

30. Somateria spectabilis.

31. Pelionetta perspicillata.

32. Procellaria glacialis.

33. Sterna caspia.

34. Larus glaucus.

35. Colymbus septentrionalis.

36. Stercorarius parasiticus.

2. Species limited in their Northward Range by the Hudsonian Fauna

1. Turdus migratorius.

2. Turdus Swainsoni.

3. Regulus calendula

4. Regulus satrapa.

5. Helminthopliaga ruficapilla.

6. Helminthopliaga peregrina.

7. Helminthopliaga celata.

8. Seiurus aurocapillus.

9. Seiurus noveboracensis.

10. Dendroeca coronata.

11. Dendroeca striata.

12. Dendroeca aestiva.

13. Dendroeca maculosa.

14. Dendroeca palmarum.

15. Wilsonia pusilla.

16. Setophaga ruticilla.
1 7. Hirundo horreorum.

18. Hirundo lunifrons.

19. Hirundo bicolor.

20. Ampelis garrula.

21. Collurio borealis.

22. Yireo olivaceus.

23. Yireo gilvus.

24. Parus hudsonicus.

25. Pinicola enucleator.

26. Curvirostra leucoptera.

27. >Egiothus linaria.

28. Plectrophanes nivalis.

29. Plectrophanes lapponicus.

30. Plectrophanes pictus.

31. Passerculus savanna.

32. Zonotrichia leucophrys.

33. Zonotrichia albicollis.

34. Junco hycmalis.

35. Spizella monticola.

36. Sj)izella socialis.

37. Melospiza Lincolnii.

38. Passerella iliaca.

39. Molothrus pecoris.

40. Agelanis phoeniceus.

41. Scolecophagus ferrugineus.

42. Quiscalus purpureus.

43. Corvus corax.

44. Corvus americanus.
45 Pica caudata.

46. Perisoreus canadensis.

47. Contopus borealis.

48. Empidonax minimus.

49. Empidonax Traillii.

50. Picus villosus.

51. Picus ])ubescens.

52. Picbides hirsutus.

53. Picoides arcticus.
51. Sphyrapicus varius.

55. Hylotomus pileatus.

56. Colaptes auratus.

57. Chordeiles popetue.

58. Ceryle alcyon.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY.

403

59. Falco candicans.

60. Falco peregrinus.

61. Falco columbarius.

62. Falco sparverius.

63. Astur atricapillus.

64. Archibuteo lagopur

65. Buteo borealis.

66. Accipiter fuscus.

67. Circus cyaneus.

68. Bubo virginianuf

69. Otus vulgaris.

70. Otus bracbyotus.

71. Ectopistes migratori

72. Tetrao canadensis.

73. PeJioecetes phasianellus.

74. Bonasa umbellus.

75. Lagopus leucurus.

76. ?Grus aiuericanus.

77. Gallinago Wilsoni.

78. Macrorhamphus griseus.

79. Ereunetes pusillus.

80. Gambetta mclanoleuca.

81. Gambetta flavipes.

82. Tringoides niacularius.

83. Limosa budsonica.

84. Porzana Carolina.
35. Fulica americana.

86. ?Dafila acuta.

87. Nettiou carolinensis.

88. Querquedula discors.

89. Spatula clypeata.

90. Mareca americana.

91. Fulix marila.

92. Fulix collaris.

93. Erismatura rubida.

94. Lopbodytes cucullatus.

95. Graculus dilopbus.

96. Pelecanus erythrorhyncbus.

VII. American Arctic Fauna. The Arctic Realm may be
considered as occupying that portion of the northern hemisphere
north of the isotheral of 50° F. Though presenting a great uniformity
of character througbout its extent, it seems to be divisible into
four faunas, — an American Arctic Fauna, an Americo-Asiatic Fauna,
an Europeo-Asiatic .Arctic Fauna, and an Europeo-American Arctic
Fauna, the second and fourth being essentially marine. While a few
species of mammals seem to be almost wholly restricted within the
Arctic Realm, it contains but few resident birds, and no species of
birds seem to be wholly confined to it, even in the breeding season.
The following species are reported to range to the Arctic coast of
North America, the most of which have been observed at Melville
Island and in Greenland. The greater part are Natatores and Grallce,
the only commonly so-called land birds being two or three species of
grouse, a sparrow or two, and a few hawks and owls.

Species found in the American Arctic Fauna in the Breeding Seas'
1. Cotyle riparia. 4. Haliaetus leucocephalus.

5. Pandion haliaetus.

2. Corvus corax.

S. Aquila chrysaetos.

6. Nyctea nivea.

404

BULLETIN OF THE

7. ?Surnia ulula.

8. Tetrao canadensis.

9. Lagopus albus.

10. Lagopus rupestris.

11. Grus canadensis.

12. Botaurus lentiginosus.

13. Charadrius virginicus.

14. JEgialitis semipalmatus.

15. Strepsilas interpres.

16. Phalaropus fulicarius.

17. Calitlris arenaria.

18. Tringa canutus.

1 9. Pelidna " americana."

20. Arquatella maritima.

21. Cygnus "americanus."

22. Anser hyperboreus.

23. Anser Gambeli.

24. Bernicla canadensis.

25. Anas boschas.

26. Bucephala albeola.

27. Bucephala clangula.

28. Histrionicus torquatus.

29. Harelda glacialis.

30. Melanetta velvetina.

31. Pelionetta perspicillata.

32. G^demia " americana."

33. Somateria spectabilis.

34. Somateria mollissima.

35. Bupbagus skau Cones.

36. Stercorarius pomarinus.

37. Stercorarius parasiticus.

38. Stercorarius Buffoni Coues.

39. Fulmarus glacialis.

40. Larus argentatus.

41. Larus glaucus.

42. Larus leucopterus.

43. Rissa tridactyla.

44. Pagophila eburnea.

45. Xema Sabini.

46. Sterna arctica.

47. ?Sula bassana.

48. Colymbus septentrionalis.

49. Colymbus arcticus.

50. Colymbus torquatus.

51. Utamania torda.

52. Fratercula glacialis.

53. Lunda cirrhata.

54. Mergulus alle.

55. Uria grylle.

56. Lomvia troile.

57. Lomvia ringvia.

58. Lomvia svarbag.

The Faunce of the Eastern Province considered in Reference to the
Distribution of the Mammals and Reptiles.

The faunae of the Eastern Province of the North American Region
above characterized from the distribution of the birds seem to be
equally well marked as natural zoological districts by the distribution
of the mammals and reptiles. About the same proportionate number
of mammals are limited similarly with the birds in regard to their
northward and southward distribution. The correspondence in the
geographical limitation of the species of the two groups will be
briefly shown by the following remarks respecting the range of the
mammals.

The Arctic Realm is well known to be characterized by a few species
nearly or quite restricted to it, as the polar beat ( Ursus maritimus),

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 405

the artic fox (Vulpes lagopits), the musk ox (Ovibos moschatus), the
lemmings {Myodes), the small northern race of the caribou or reindeer,
the Eskimos, etc.

The Hudsonian Fauna forms the southern limit of the polar hare
{Lepus glacialis) and the northern limit (at least in wiuter) of the
Lynx canadensis, Mustela " americana," Mustela Pennantii, Pulorius
vulgaris, Putorius ermineus, Ursus " americanus" Ursus " horribilis"
Sciurus hudsonius, Arctomys monax, Vespertilio subidatus, and others.

The Canadian Fauna forms, at present,* the southern limit of Mustela
Pennatii, Mustela " americana" Gulo luscus, Arvicola xanthognathus,
Erethizon dorsatus, Alces malchis, Rangifer tarandus, etc., and the
northern limit of Felis concolor, Lynx rufus, Mephitis mephitica, Pro-
cyon lotor, Bos americanus, Condylura cristata, Blarina brevicauda,
and others.

The Alleghanian Fauna forms the southern limit of Lynx cana-
densis, Sciurus hudsonius, Arvicola Gapperi, Jaculus hudsonius, Lepus
americanus, Cervus canadensis, Sorex platyrhinus, Condylura cristata,
and doubtless of several other species ; and the northern limit of Sciu-
rus cai'olincnsis, Lepus sylvaticus, Arvicola pinetorum, Cervus virgini-
anus, Scalops aquaticus, etc.

The Carolinian Fauna forms the southern limit of Mustela vulgaris,
Tamias striatus, Arctomys monax, and Fiber zibethicus ; and the north-
ern limit of Vulpes virginianus, Nycticejus crepuscularis, Didelphys
virginiana, etc.

The Louisianian Fauna seems to form the southern limit of Putorius
vison, Blarina brevicauda, Scalops aquaticus, and doubtless thus limits
several other species, though not a small proportion of those which
occur in this fauna range also into South Florida, or into the Floridian
Fauna. The Louisianian Fauna limits the northward range of Neo-
toma fioridana, Reithrodon humilis, Sigmodon hispidus Hesperomys
palustris, Geomys pineti, and Lepus palustris.

In respect to reptiles, a similar proportion of species are limited in
either their northward or southward range b)r each fauna. Several
species of batrachians range into the Hudsonian Fauna, but apparently
this fauna must be the northern limit of their distribution. The Cana-

* It is probable that some of the fur-bearing species, as well as Hystrix dorsatus, the
moose and the caribou, once ranged southward throughout the Alleghanian Fauna, and
have been exterminated there by man.

406 BULLETIN OF THE

dian Fauna forms the northern limit of the reptiles proper, where this
class is represented by two orders only, the Tesludinata and the Ophi-
dia The Testudinuta are there represented by only three species
(C/ielydra serpentina, Glyptemys inscidpta, Chrysemys picta), and the
Op/tidin by five (Baseanion constrictor, Tropidonotus sirtalis, Diadophis
punctatus, Storeria occipito-maeidata). In the Alleghanian Fauna the
number of species in each of these groups is more than doubled. The
Carolinian Fauna forms the northern limit of the Sauria, of which two
species {Plesliodon fasciatus, Tropidolepis undulalus) here first make
their appearance, and the number of species of the other groups is
still further increased, several additional generic types being added.
In the Louisianian Fauna the number of species of Sauria becomes
considerably greater, and while few of the northern species of either
the true reptiles or the batrachians have disappeared, other more
southern forms have been added in almost every family.

These several faunae, it may be added, seem in general to coincide
in their number and limits with the florae of the same region. These
several flora?, as thus circumscribed, form successively the northern
limit of the successful cultivation of some more or less important cul-
tivated plant. But a detailed consideration of the distribution of the
vegetation of the region under consideration, in respect to the number
and circumscription of the flora?, and their correspondence with the
fauna?., cannot of course well be here introduced.

4. The Ornithological Districts of the North American
Temperate Region.

The subdivision by Professor Dana of the tropical and temperate
climatic zones of the oceanic areas into several zoological zones has
been already alluded to as being equally applicable to the land areas.
To these life zones I propose to apply the term "districts." Dana's
divisions of the north temperate climatic zone correspond respectively
in latitudinal extent with the several ornithological faunae of the
Fastern Province, as defined in the preceding pages. Unlike tie
fauna?, however, the districts extend in an east and west direction across
the North American Region, each district embracing not only one oi
the fauna? of the Fastern Province, but also its representative fauna (or
fauna?) in the Western Province. The Hudeonian Fauna corresponds
in latitudinal extent with Dana's subfri"id division of the north tern-

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 407

perate zone, and the term Sub/rigid District may be very properly
applied to that district of which this fauna forms the eastern portion.
The zone corresponding with the Canadian Fauna may in like manner
be termed the Cold-temperate District; that corresponding with the
Alle^hanian Fanua the Subtemperate District; that corresponding
with the Carolinian Fauna the Temperate District; and that corre-
sponding with the Louisianian Fauna the Warm-temperate District;
the Floridian Fauna in like manner corresponding with the Subtorrid
District, or with Dana's subtorrid zone. Each of these districts is
distinguished, in contradistinction from the faunae, by species which
range across the continent, while the districts are distinguished from
each other by the same kind of difference as has been shown above to
characterize the several fauna3 among themselves.

5. Ox the Geographical Range of the Species.

The preceding tables, while serving to characterize the ornithological
faunae of Eastern North America, indicate only very obscurely the range
of the species. The following tables have hence been prepared in order
to show more clearly the hreeding range, and also the winter quarters, of
those species whose distribution in the breeding season is tolerably
known. For this purpose the birds occurring iu the Eastern Province
of the North American region have been grouped, according to their
geographical distribution, into the following classes, beginning with those
which have the widest breeding range : I. Cosmopolitan Species.
II. Circitmpolar Species. III. Species which range across the whole
breadth of the North American Temperate Region. IV. Species limited
in longitude to the Eastern Province of this region. The birds of the
Eastern Province are further subdivided according to the range of the
species in the breeding season in latitude.*

* In a preliminary notice like the present it has been found impracticable to give the
authorities in detail on which the generalizations given in the following synopsis have
been based. The list of papers given in the Appendix serve in a general way to
indicate the principal sources from which information has been derived. It is
believed, however, that the limits assigned each species will be found in the main
correct, though in many cases the accessible data have been quite too few to
be satisfactory. The generalizations are given, of course, as a representation of our
present knowledge of the subject rather than as final. The polar and equatorial limits of
the migratory range of the species varies, as is well known, more or less in different years,
according to the season. It is also somewhat different on the coast from what it is in

408 BULLETIN OF THE

I. Cosmopolitan Species. A large proportion of ornithologists
have of late been unwilling to admit that any bird has what is usually
termed a " cosmopolitan " range, while others recognize only about
twenty such species, taking into account, of course, their total range.
These embrace two or three species each of hawks and owls, the rest
being either Grallce or Natatores. Very few of them, however, breed
within both the tropic and the polar zones ; many of those which
visit the shores of all lands in their migratory journeys being restricted
in the breeding season to comparatively limited areas. Pandion
haliaetus and Otus brachyotus are the only examples of commonly so-
cahed cosmopolitan species which appear to breed from the Arctic Circle
southward through the tropics to the southern extremity of the southern
continents. Falco peregrinus may form a third, but its peculiar breed-
ing habits give it a very irregular dispersion at that season. Slrix
flammed appears to be also everywhere resident, except in the arctic and
cold-temperate zones. Colyle riparia and Hirundo rufa (including
under the latter name the several slightly differing geographical races
of this group, which have of late been regarded as species), seem also to
be nearly cosmopolite. The list of species which are permanently cos-
mopolitan will hence not exceed half a dozen, and are those above
enumerated.

II. Circumpolar Species. Regarding as circumpolar species only
those numerously represented in both the eastern and western hemi-
spheres, nearly one hundred species* can be included in the list of

the interior, as has been previously explained; so that an indication of only the average
boreal and austral limits of the species at this season has been aimed at, and only so far
is their winter range is circumscribed within the region under special consideration.
The blanks in the third column of the tables hence indicate that the species winter
entirely within the American Tropical Realm; those in the fourth, that the austral limit
is within that realm. The few occurring in the second column of the tables indicate
that the species in question also ranges southward in the breeding sea>on into the Tropi-
cal Realm. A [?] in place of a blank indicates that the southward range of the species
is supposed to be limited to the Eastern Province, but as being too vaguely known to
warrant a specification of its limit in the direction indicated by the column in which the
query stands.

* Dr. Richardson, in 1831 (in the " Fauna Boreali-Americana," p. xxxix), gave thirty-
two species of land birds and "upwards of sixty-two species of water birds" (ninety-
four in all) as "common to the Old World and the Vm- Countries." A few truly cir-
cumpolar species were not included in this list, and others were included which were
merely accidental vi-itors from one continent to the other. Since the date of that list
the identity of the greater part of the species therein mentioned has been questioned by

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 409

circumpolar species. A small number of others that are properly
either exclusively American or Europeo-Asiatic species occur more
or less frequently as accidental visitors to the continents not embraced
within their usual habitats.

one or another writer, and their representatives on the two hemispheres separated under
different names. But a considerable proportion of those mentioned in the next sub-
joined table are still regarded as truly circumpolar by a number of leading European
onithologists. Dr. Von Middehdorff (" Uebersicht der Natur Nord- und Ost-Sibiriens,
Theil 2, Erste Lieferung," etc.; see Newton's Ibis, April, 1870, p. 275), in 1867, gave
lists of eighty-seven circumpolar species, a part of which (called " Hyperboreal Birds ")
are distinctive of what has been termed above the Arctic Realm, whilst many of the
others range quite far southward even in summer. These lists, however, do not era-
brace a number of circumpolar species whose boreal limit does not extend to the
districts named. A dozen or more Europeo-Asiatic species, in addition to those given
below, have representatives in America so closely resembling them in habits and in
geographical distribution, as well as structurally, that they have often been confounded,
specimens frequently occurring on the one continent that are undistinguishable from
those from the other continent.

In 1846 Professor Edm. de Selys-Longchamps, in his excellent paper entitled " Sur
les Oiseaux americains admis dans la Faune europeenne " (Mem. de la Soc. R. de Liege,
Vol. IV, pp. 35-50, 1849), included thirteen species in his list of " Oiseaux terrestres
communs a 1'Europe et a l'Amerique," and mentions nine other terrestrial American
species which he regards as "ne semblent etre en realite que des modifications clima-
tiques de nos oiseaux europeens." All but two of these, and also one or two in addi-
tion to them, have been regarded in the present paper as specifically identical. In his
list of" Oiseaux aquatiques communs a. 1'Europe etal'Amerique " he includes fifty-five
species, and mentions thirteen others, " decrits comme especes distinctes, ne semblent
etre que des races locales," three or four of which I have regarded as specifically iden-
tical. The whole number mentioned by Selys-Longchamps as common to Europe and
boreal America is seventy-six, plus twenty -four " autres qui semblent n'etre que des
races legerement modifiees par le climat." (See 1. c, p. 48.) In the same paper he gives
a list of twenty-eight American species as of accidental occurrence in Europe, eight of
which are land birds, eight echassiers or waders, and twelve palmipedes or swimmers,
and also a list of twenty American species which he considers to have been improperly
included among the birds of Europe, among which are HaUaetus leucocephalus, Slrix
nebulosn (= Syrnium nebitlosum), Loxia{= CurvirOstra) leucoptera, Struihus (= Junco)
hyemalis, and Parus (= Lophophanes) bicolor.

410

BULLETIN OF THE

II. List of Circumpolar Species, with Indications of their Boreal and
Austral Limits.

Species.

Certhia familiaris
Saxicola cenanthe
Ampelis g.irrula
Cotyle riparia .
Plectrophanes nivalis
Plectrophanes lapponica
.Fgiotlms linaria
Pinieola enucieator
i'ur\ [rostra leucopter
Eremophila alpestris
i Ion 11- corax . .
Pica caudata . .
Aquila chrysaetos
Archibuteo lagopus
PandioD haliaetus
Falco candicans
Falco peregrinus .
Circus cyaneus
Strix flammea .
Nyctale Tengmalmi
Sj rnium cinereum
Otus vulgaris . .
Otus brachyotus .
Surnia ulula . .
Nyctea aivea
Lagopus albus . .
Lagopus rupestris
X) cticorax griseus
Strepsilas interpres
Charadrius pluvialis
Squartarola helvetica
Hsematopus palliatus
Arquatella maritima
( lalidri j arenaria . .
Tringa canutus . .
Ancy locheilus subarquatus
Pelidna alpina .
ictodromas maculata
Actodromas Bonapartei
Tringites rufescens .
Lobipes h\ perboreus
Phalaropus fulicarius
Anser hyperboreus .
Anser albifrons . .
Bernicla brenta . .
A nas boschas . . .
Dan la acuta . . .
Spatula cly peata . .
Chaulelasmus streperus
Soma teria mollissima
Somateria spectabilis
Buccphala claugula .
Histrionicus torquatus
Him i i facialis . .
Fulix marila
Pelionettaper spicillata
Melanetta fusca .
Mergus merganser .
Mergus serrator . .
Graculus carbo . .
Sula b issana . . .
Gelochelidon anglica
Thalasseus caspius .
Thai i -liH cantiacus
Sterna birundo . .
Sterna inacrnra . .
Sterna paradisea . .
Hydrocbelidon flssipes

Boreal Limit Austral Limit

iu the Breeding in the Breeding

Season. Season.

Allegh. Fauna
Hudson. Fauna
Hudson. Fauna

Canad fauna

Hudson. Fauna
Hudson. Fauna
Arctic Coast
Arctic Coa I
Hudson. Fauna
Arctic Coast
Hudson. Fauna
Hudson. Fauna
Hudson. Fauna
Arctic Coast
Hudson Fauna
Hudson. Fauna
Arctic Coast
Arctic Coa -i
Arctic Coast?
Hudson. Fauna
Arctic Coast ?
Carolin. Fauna
Hudson. Fauna
Hudson. Fauna
Hudson. Fauua
Arctic Coast
Arctic Coast
Arctic Coast
Arctic Coast
Arctic Coast
Hudson. Fauua
Arctic Coast
Arctic Coast
Arctic Coast
Arctic Coast

Arctic Coast

Arctic Coast

Arctic Coast
Arctic Coast
Arctic Coast
Arctic Coast
Arctic Coast
Arctic Coast?
Arctic Coast
Arctic C
Arctic < loast
Arctic Coast
Arctic Coast
Arctic Coast
Arctic Coast
Arctic Co ust
Hudson. Fauna
Arctic Coast
Arctic Coast
Arctic ( 'hi -i
Arctic Coast
Arctic Coast
Hudson. Fauna
Arctic Coast
Arctic ( loast
Hudson. Fauna
Hudson. Fauna
Arctic Coast
Arctic Coast
Carolin Fauna
Arctic Coast

Louis Finn i

Arctic < loasl '

Arctic Coast
Allegh. Fauna

Carolin. Fauna

Hudson. Fauna,
Hudson. Fauna
Hudson. Fauna
Canad. Fauna
Canad. Fauna
Carolin. Fauna
Allegh. Fauna
Allegh. Fauna
Canad. Fauna
Hudson Fauna

Hudson. Fauna

Louis. Fauua ?

Canad. Fauna
Hudson. Fauna

Canad. Fauna
Hudson. Fauna'
Hudson. Fauna
Hudson Fauna
Carolin. Fauna?
Hudson. Fauna
Arctic Realm
Hudson. Fauna

Arctic Realm
Canad. Fauna

irctic Realm
A rctic Realm ?
II ml mi. Fauna?
Arctic Realm
Arctic Realm
Hudson. Fauna
Canad. Fauna
Hudson. Fauna7
Hudson. Fauna
Hudson. Fauna
Hudson. Fauna
Allegh. Fauna
Hudson. Fauna
Hudson. Fauna
Hudson. Fauna

Canad Fauna
Hudson. Fauna
Canad Fauna
Canad. Fauna
Hudson Fauna
Canad. Fauna
Hudson. Fauna
Hudson. Fauna
Canad. Fauna

Canad. Fauna
Hudson. Fauna
Canad. Fauna

Hudson. Fauna

Carolin. Fauna
Allegh Fauna

Boreal Limit
in Winter.

Allegh. Fauna

Hudson. F'auna
Louis. F'auna
Hudson. Fauna

Hudson. F'auna
Hudson F'auna
Hudson. Fauna'
Canad. Fauna '
Arctic Realm
Canad. Fauna
Hudson. Fauna1
Hudson. Fauna
Carolin. Fauna
Canad. Fauna

Canad Fauna
Carolin. Fauna
Hudson F'auna
Hudson. F'auna
Canad. F'auna
Hudson F'auna?
Arctic Realm
Arctic Reaim
Arctic Realm
Arctic Realm
Carolin F'auna

Tropical Amer.
Carolin. Fauna

Canad Fauna
Allegh Fauna
Carolin. Fauna
Carolin. Fauna:
Allegh. Fauna
Carolin. Fauna
Carolin. Fauua
Louis F'auna
Carolin Fauna
Carolin. Fauna!
Canad. Fauna '.
Allegh. Fauna
Allegh. Fauna
Canad. Fauna

Allegh. Fauna

Canad Fauna

Hudson. Fauna

Canad. Fauna ?
Canad. Fauna '
Canad Fauna '

Canad. Fauua

Austral Limit
in Winter.

Carolin. Fauna

Canad. Fauna

Allegh Fauna
Allegh. Fauna
Allegh. Fauna
Allegh. Fauua
Canad. F'auna
Louis. Fauna

Carolin Fauna'
Allegh. Fauna

Canad. Fauna

Canad. Fauna
Canad. Fauna

Canad. Fauna
Allegh Fauna
Hudson. Fauna
Hudson. Fauna

Louis. Fauna

Louis. Fauna
Carolin. Fauna
Allegh. Fauna
Louis. Fauna
Allegh. Fauna
Louis. Fauna

Florid Fauna
Florid. Fauna

Florid. Fauna

Louis. Fauna
Funis. Fauna
Louis Fauna
Louis Fauna
Allegh. Fauna
Louis. F'auna

Carolin. Fauna

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY.

411

List of Circumpolar Species. (Continued.)

Species.

'^

Pagophila eburnea . .
X.-in.'i S iliini ....
Ki.-s.i tridactyla . . .
Khodostethia rosea . .
Larue glaueus ....
Larus inariiius
Larue leucopterus . .
Larus argentatus . .
Buphagus skau . . . ,
.>tercorarius pomarinus
'Sterrorarius parasiticus
Stt'tyorarfus " Buffoni"
Ttfalassidroma Leachii .
gowceps grWigena . .
l'ni'licr-|is cetnutus . . .
I'nclici j.s -cristatus . .
Podict'ps.auritus . . .
Colymbus torquatus
Colymbus arcticus . . ,
Colymbus septentrionalis
Fratercula arctica . .

Uria grylle

Lomvia svarbag . .
Lomvia troile . . . . ,
Mergulus alle

Boreal Limit Austral Limit

in the Breeding in the Breeding

Season. Season.

Arctic Realm
Hudson. Fauna
Canad. Fauna
Arctic Realm
Hudson. Fauna
Canad Fauna
Hudson Fauna
Canad. Fauna
Hudson. Fauna
Hudson. Fauna?
Hudson. Fauna?
Hudson. Fauna?
Canad. Fauna
Allegh. Fauna
Allegh. Fauna
Allegh. Fauna
Allegh. Fauna?
Allegh. Fauna
Hudson. Fauna
Canad. Fauna
Canad. Fauna
Canad. Fauna
Canad. Fauna
Canad Fauna

Arctic Coast
Arctic Coast
Arctic Coast
Arctic Coast
Arctic Coast
Arctic Coast
Arctic Coast
Arctic Coast
Arctic Coast
Arctic Coast
Arctic Coast
Arctic Coast
■>

Hudson. Fauna
Hudson Fauna
Hudson. Fauna
Hudson. Fauna
Arctic Coast
Arctic Coast
Arctic Coast
Arctic Coast
Arctic Coast
Arctic Coast
Arctic Coast
Arctic Coast

Boreal Limit
in Winter.

Austral Limit
in Winter.

Huds. Fauna
Canad. Fauna
Allegh Fauna
?

Canad Fauna
Louis. Fauna
Allegh. Fauna
Trop Realm
Canad. Fauna
Canad Fauna
Allegh. Fauna
Allegh. Fauna.
Allegh Fauna?
Louis Fauna
Louis Fauna
Louis. Fauna
Louis. Fauna
Florid. Fauna
Canad. Fauna
Canad. Fauna
Allegh. Fauna
Carol. Fauna
Carol Fauna?
Allegh. Fauna
Allegh Fauna

Summary of the Preceding Table. — The whole number of species in
the preceding list is 93. Its most striking feature is the great pre-
dominance of the water birds, less than one third of the whole being land
birds. Of the 27 land birds, 7 are owls, 6 are hawks, and 5 belong
to the family Fringillidce ; 9 species embracing all the representatives
of other families. The water birds include 1 heron, 14 Grallce, 17
Anatidce, 19 Laridce, 5 Alcidce, 3 species of Colymbus, and 4 of Podiceps.

In summer 65 species are inhabitants of the Arctic coast and adjacent
seas ; 22 have their boreal limit near the northern border of the Hua-
sonian Fauna; 2 are similarly limited by the Canadian Fauna, 5 by the
Alleghanian, 3 by the Carolinian, and 1 by the Louisi'anian ; 3 are essen-
tially tropical aquatic species.

Seven seem to be altogether restricted in the breeding season to the
Arctic Realm ; 36 find their austral limit during the same season near
the southern border of the Hudsonian Fauna; 23 are similarly limited
by the Canadian, 9 by the Alleghanian, and 3 by the Carolinian, while
10 extend nearly to or within the Tropical Realms, 4 being also inhab-
itants of the greater part of the southern hemisphere.

The winter quarters of the land birds of this list are the cold-temper-
ate and middle-temperate districts of the northern hemisphere. Most
of the water birds visit the warm-temperate parts of the same hemi-
sphere ; a considerable number also visit the tropics, and a few wander,
at this season, over the greater part of the warmer regions of the globe.

412

BULLETIN OF THE

TIL Stecies mainly restricted in the Breeding Season to
the North American Temperate Region.

1. List of Species ivhich breed throughout the greater Part of Temperate
North America, with Indications of their Boreal and Austral Limits
Distribution in the Eastern Province.

Species

Turdus migratorius
Turdus fuscescens
Geothlypis trichas
Hirundo horreorum
Petrochelidon lunifrons
Tachycineta bicolor .
Cotyle riparia . . .
Progne subis . . .
Ampelis cedrorum
Oolluno ludovicianus
Vireosylvia gilva . .
Lanivireo solitarius •.
Cistothorus palustria
Troglodytes aedon
? Sitta carolinensis .
Sicta canadensis . .
Parus atricapillus
Carpo Lacua purpureus
Chrysoinitris tristia .
Passerculus savanna
Poocajtes gramineus
Spizella socialis . .
' Melospiza melodia .
Melospiza Lincolnii .
Molothrus pecoris
igelaeua phoeniceus .
Sturnella ludoviciana
Corvus americanu8 .
Tyrannua carolinensis
' \I\ i minis crinftus .
' Sayomis fuscus . .
Contopus borealis
' Contopus virens
? Empidonax minimus
' Empidonax acadicus
Empidonax tlaviventris
Picua villosus . . .
Picas pubescens . .
Ilylotomus pileatus .
Chordeiles popetue .
dcyon . . .
Accipiter Cooperi
Accipiter fuscus . .
Buteo borealis
Buteo lineatus . .
Buteo pennsj Ivanicus
II. ili i i us leucocephalus

.!> . . . .
Zensedura carolinensis
Meleagris gallopavo .
Bonasa umbellua . .
Boi lurus lentiginosus
Ardetta <-xiIi < . . .

tgo Wilsoni
K i . ai ophilus solitarius
Tringoides mocularius
Limosa fedoa . .
Rallus virginianus
Porzana Carolina . .
Fulica americana .
Nettion carolim

Boreal Limit Austral Limit

iu the Breeding in the Breeding

Season. Season.

Hudson. Fauna
Canad Fauna
Hudson Fauna
Hudson Fauna
Hudson. Fauna
Hudson. Fauna
Arctic Coast
Canad. Fauna
Canad. Fauna
Allegh. Fauna
Canad. Fauna
Hudson. Fauna
Hudson. F'auna
Allegh. F'auna
Canad F'auna
Canad. F'auna
Hudson. Fauna
Canad. Fauna
Canad. Fauna
Hudson. F'auna
i lanad. F'auna
Hudson. F'auna
Hudson. Fauria
Hudson. Fauna
Hudson. Fauna
Hudson. Fauna
Allegh. Fauna
Hudson. Fauna
Canad. F'auna
Canad. F'auna
Hudson. Fauna
Hudson. Fauna
I !anad. Fauna
Hudson. Fauna
Canad. F'auna
Canad. Fauna
Hudson. Fauna
Hudson Fauna
Hudson. Fauna
Hudspn. Fauna
Arctic Coast
Canad. Fauna
Canad Fauna
Hudson. Fauna
Canad. Fauna
Canad. Fauna
Arctic Coast
Canad. F'auna
Allegh F'auna
Allegh. Fauna
Hudson. Fauna
Hudson. Fauna
Canad. Fauna
Hudson. Fauna
Hudson. Fauna
Hudson. Fauna
Arctic Coast '
Allegh. Fauna
Canad F'auna
Canad. Fauna
Hudson. Fauna

Carol Fauna
Carol. Fauna
Florid. Fauna
iLouis. Fauna
Carol. Fauna ?
Carol. Fauna
Carol. F'auna

Florid. Fauna
Florid. F'auna
Carol. F'auna
Allegh. F'auna
Louis. F'auna
Florid. F'auna
Louis. F'auna
Carol. F'auna
Florid. F'auna
Allegh. Fauna
Louis. F'auna
Allegh. F'auna
Carol. Fauna
Louis. F'auna
Louis. F'auna
Allegh. F'auna
Louis. F'auna
Florid. F'auna
Florid. Fauna
Florid. Fauna '
Louis. Fauna
Louis. Fauna
Louis. Fauna
Allegh. Fauna
Louis. F'auna
Allegh. Fauna
Carol. Fauna
Carol. Fauna
Louis. Fauna
Louis. Fauna
Florid. Fauna

Florid. Fauna

F'lorid. Fauna

Florid Fauna

Florid. Fauna
F'lorid. Fauna
Carol. Fauna
Carol. Fauna
Florid. Fauna
Allegh F'auna
Allegh. Fauna
Louis. Fauna
Hudson. Fauna
Louis Fauna
Carol. Fauna
Carol. Fauna
Canad. F'auna

Boreal Limit
in Winter

Florid

Louis.

Louis

Canad

Canad

Canad

Allegh

Allegh

Carol.

Carol.

( larol.

Carol.

Carol.

Carol.

Carol.

Carol

Canad.

Louis. F'auna

Carol. Fauna
F'lorid. F'auna

Louis. Fauna
Florid. Fauna
Louis. Fauna
Allegh. Fauna
Louis. Fauna

. Fauna
F'auna
F'auna
F'auna
Fauna
F'auna
. Fauna
. Fauna
F'auna
F'auna
F'auna
F'auna
F'auna
F'auna
Fauna
F'auna
F'auua

Austral Limit
in Winter.

Canad. Fauna?
Canad Fauna?
Canad Fauna?

('and Fauna
Carol. Fauna
Carol. Fauna
Canad. Fauna
Allegh. Fauna
Allegh. Fauna
Hudson. Fauna:
Canad. Fauna
Carol F'auna
Allegh Fauna
Hudson. Fauna1
Louis. Fauna
Louis. Fauna
Louis. Fauna
Caml Fauna
Louis. Fauna
Louis. Fauna
Louis. Fauna
i

Louis. Fauna
('and. F'auna

Florid. F'auna
Louis. F'auna?
F'lorid. F'auna
Louis. Fauna

Florid. F'auna

Florid. Fauna
Florid. Fauna
Florid. F'auna

Florid. F'auna

Florid. F'auna

Florid. F'auna
Florid. Fauna
Carol. Fauna

* Blanks in the third column indicate that the species ranges southward in the breeding season into
the Tropical Realm. Blanks in the fourth column that the species retires wholly within the Tropical
Realm in winter ; in the fifth column, that the southern limit in winter is within the Tropical Realm.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY.

413

2. List of Species which breed throughout the greater Part of the Cold-
temperate Portions of the North American Region, with Indications of
their Boreal and Austral Limits of Distribution in the Eastern Province.

Species.

Turdus Pallasi . ,
Turdus Swainsoni
Regulus calendula .
Regulus satrapa . .
Anthus ludovicianus
Helminthophaga celata
Wilsonia pusilla .
Collurio borealis . .
Troglodytes hyemalis
Chrysomitris pir/us .
Curvirostra americana
Zonotrichia leucophrys
Scolecophagus ferrugiueus
Perisoreus canadensis
Picoides arcticus . .
Picoides hirsutus . .
Fair., columbarius .
Astur atricapillus
JEgialitis seuiipalmatus
Phalaropus VVilsoni .
Ereunetes pusillus .
Gambetta nielanoleuca
Gambetta rlavipes
Numenius longirostris
Numenius hudsonius
Cygnus americanus .
Bernicla canadensis .
Mareca americana
F'ulix eollaris . . .
Aythya americana .
Aythya vallisneria .
Bueephala albeola
Ei'ismatura rubida .
Lophodytes cucullatus
Pelecanus erythrorhynchus
Graculus dilophus
Larus delawarensis
Chroeeoccphalus philadepbia

Boreal Limit in
Breeding Season.
Hudson. Fauna
Hudson Fauna
Hudson. Fauna
Hudson Fauna
Arctic Coast
Hudson. Fauna
Hudson. F'auna
Hudson. F'auna
Hudson. Fauna
Hudson. Fauna
Hudson Fauna
Hudson. Fauna
Hudson. Fauna
Hudson. Fauna
Hudson. Fauna
Hudson. Fauna
Hudson. Fauna
Hudson. F'auna
Arctic Coast
Arctic Coast
Arctic Coast
Hudson. F'auna
Hudson. F'auna
Hudson. Fauna
Hudson. F'auna
Arctic Coast
Arctic Coast
Arctic Coast
Arctic Coast
Arctic Coast
Arctic Coast
Antic Coast
Arctic Coast
Arctic Coast
Arctic Coast
Arctic. Coast
Arctic Coast
Arctic Coasc

Austral Limit in
Breeding Season.

Canad Fauna
Canad F'auna

< '.mad. Fauna
Canad. F'auna
Hudson. Fauna
Canad. F'auna
Allegh. F'auna
Canad Fauna
Canad. Fauna
Canad. Fauna
Canad Fauna
Canad. F'auna
Canad. Fauna
Canad. F'auna
j Canad. F'auna
.Carol. Fauna
Carol. F'auna
Canad. Fauna
Hudson. Fauna
Canad. Fauna
Canad. Fauna
ICarol. Fauna
Canad. F'auna
Canad. Fauna
Canad. Fauna
Canad. F'auna
;Cauad. Fauna
Canad. F'auna
Canad. F'auna
Hudson. Fauna
Hudson. F'auna
Hudson. Fauna
Hudson. F'auna
Canad. Fauna
Canad. Fauna
Canad. Fauna
Hudson. F'auna
Hudson. F'auna

Boreal Limit
in Winter.

Carol. Fauna
Florid. Fauna

Carol. Fauna
Allegh Fauna
Carol. Fauna
Carol. Fauna

Canad. F'auna
Allegh. Fauna
Canad. Fauna
Hudson. F'auna
Carol. Fauna
Carol. F'auna
Hudson. Fauna
Hudson. F'auna
Hudson. Fauna
Canad. F'auna
Hudson. Fauna
Louis F'auna
Louis. Fauna
Carol. F'auna
Louis. Fauna
Louis. Fauna
Louis. F'auna
Louis. F'auna
Allegh. Fauna
Allegh. F'auna
Allegh. Fauna
Canad. F'auna
Carol. F'auna
Carol. Fauna
Allegh. F'auna
Allegh. F'auna
Allegh. Fauna
Allegh. Fauna
Canad. Fauna
Allegh. Fauna
Canad. F'auna

Austral Limit
in Winter.

Carol. F'auna

Florid. F'auna
Allegh. F'auna
Louis. F'auna

Canad. F'auna
Canad. F'auna
Canad. Fauna
Louis. Fauna
Allegh. F'auna

3. List of Species which breed only in the Warm-temperate Portions of
the North American Temperate Region, and range Southward in the
Breeding Season into the Tropical American Realm.

_ Boreal Limit in
Speaes. Breeding Season.

Austral Limit in
Breeding Season.

Boreal Limit
in Winter.

Austral Limit
in Winter.

Mimus polyglottus . .
Polioptila caerulea . .

Icteria virens

Stelgidopteryx serripennis
Tim othorus Bewicki .

Guiraca caerulea ....
' Quiscalus major . . .

_

I larolin. Fauna
Carolin. Fauna
Carolin. Fauna
Carolin. Fauna
Carolin. F'auna
Louis. Fauna
Carolin. Fauna
Louis. Fauna
Louis. F'auna
Florid. F'auna
Louis. F'auna
Louis. Fauna
Louis. F'auna
Carolin. F'auna
Carolin. Fauna
Carolin. Fauna '
Carolin. F'auna
FTorid. Fauna
?

Carolin Fauna
Florid Fauna
Louis. Fauna

#

Louis. Fauna
Louis. Fauna.

Louis. Fauna ?
Louis. Fauna

Louis. Fauna

l'oh borus tharus . . .
Craxirex unicinctus . .
Chauiapselia passerina .

Tantalus loculator . .

Garzetta candidissima .
Herodias egretta . . .
Himantopus nigricollis.

Florid. Fauna

Louis. Fauna
Louis. F'auna
Louis. F'auna
Louis. Fauna

Louis. Fauna
Florid. Fauna ?

Phoenicopterus ruber .
Que rq uedu la c vanop tera
Pelecanus fuscus . . .
Tachypetes aquila . .

• Louis. Fauna

Florid. Fauna

Within the Tropical Realm

41-4

BULLETIN OF THE

4. List of Species whose Breeding Range extends throughout the greater
Part of the North American Realm, and Southivard into the Tropical
Realm, with Indications of their Boreal and Austral Limits in the
Eastern Province.

Species.

Boreal Limit | Austral Limit j
in the Breeding in the Breeding
Season. Season.

Dendiueca .Estiva . . .
Grua canadensis .
Butoii les virescens . .
Ardea berodias . .
Hoeuiatopus palliitua .
.I'.ui tlitis vociferus .
Recurvirostra americana
Sj mphemia semipalmata

Aix sponsa

Podilymbus podiceps

Hudson. Fauna
Arctic Coast
Allegh. Kauua
Hudson. Fauna
Arctic Coast
Allegh. Fauna
Hudson. Fauna
Canad. Fauna
Canad. Fauna
Hudson Fauna

Boreal Limit
in Winter.

Austral Limit
in Winter.

Louis. Fauna ?

Carolin. F'auna
Louis. Fauna
Carolin Fauna
Louis. F'auna
Louis. Fauna
Louis. Fauna
Louis. Fauna
Carolin. Fauna
Carolin. Fauna

* Within the Tropical Realm.

5. List of Species whose Breeding Habitat includes the greater Part of
both North and South America, with Indications of their Boreal
Limit, both in the Breeding Season and in Winter.

Species.

Boreal Limit

in the Breeding

Season.

Austral Limit

in the Breeding

Season.

Boreal Limit
iu Winter.

Austral Limit
in Winter.

* Pandion haliaetus . . . .
Falco sparverius

* Falco peregrinus . . . .

Bubo virginianus

k Strix flammea

* Otus vulgaris

* Otus brachyotua . . . .

Allegli Fauna

Arctic Coast
Hudson. Fauna
Hudson. F'auna
Hudson. Fauna
Carolin. F'auna
Hudson. F'auna
Arctic Coast

Carolin. Fauna
Louis. Fauna
Louis. Fauna
Hudson Fauna
Canad. Fauna
Hudson. Fauna
Carolin. Fauna
Canad. Fauna?
Hudson. Fauna?

•

* Also circumpolar species.

Summary of the Preceding Five Tables. — The total number of
species given in the above lists of the species characteristic (mainly
exclusively so) of the North American Temperate Region is 135. Of
these 38 are restricted in the breeding season in their austral range to
the Cold-temperate District; about one third of them, chiefly natatorial
species, reach the Arctic coast ; 61 are similarly mainly limited to
the Middle-temperate District, but two or three reach the Arctic coast,
and nearly one third range into the Hudsonian Fauna ; 21 are limited
in their boreal range to the Warm-temperate District, the greater part
of which, even in the breeding season, range southward into the
tropics. Of the whole number, 90 are land birds, 23 being raptorial
species. Of the remaining 45 water birds, 7 are herons, 20 are Grallce,
and 18 are Natatores, 12 of the latter being Anatidce.

In the li-t of those whose breeding habitat is the cold-temperate
portions of the continent (Table 1), 20 of the species are aquatic and

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY.

415

18 terrestrial ; of those breeding throughout the greater part of the
continent, 10 only are aquatic and 51 are terrestrial ; of those breeding
in the warm-temperate portions of the continent, 9 are aquatic and 9
terrestrial; of the 10 wide-ranging species, whose breeding habitats
embrace not only nearly the whole of temperate North America, but
extend also into the tropics, 1 only is a land bird, 3 being Herodiones,
4 Grallce, and 2 Natatores. Of the 9 species given in the Fifth Table,
which range in the breeding season throughout both the North American
and South American continents, none are aquatic ; 4 are owls, 3 hawks,
and 2 vultures. The most numerously represented family, and one of
those almost exclusively characteristic of the North American Temper-
ate Region (the Sylvicolidce), has but three species which range across the
continent, and only one of these is a typical representative of the family.

IV. Species limited in Longitude to the Eastern Province
of the North American Temperate Region.

1. List of Species restricted in the breeding Season to the Cold-temper-
ate Portion of the Eastern Province, with Indications of their Boreal
and Austral Limits.

Species.

Mniotilta varia

Parula americana . . . •
Geothlypis Philadelphia . .

Oporornis agilis

Helminthophaga chrysoptera
? Helminthophaga peregrina .
Helminthophaga ruficapilla
Dendroeca coronata . . . ,
Dendroeca castanea . . . .

Dendroeca striata

Dendroeca Blackhurniae . .
Dendroeca ca?mlescens . . .
Dendroeca maculosa . . . .

Dendroeca virena

Dendroeca palmarum . . .
Perissog'.ossa tigrina . . . .
Euthlypis canadensis . . .
Setophaga ruticilla . . . .
Vireosylvia olivacea . . .
Vireosylvia philadelphica . .
Cistothorus stellaris . . . .
Parus hudsonicus . . . .
Zonotrichia albicollis . . .

Junco hyemalis

Spiztlla montieola . . , .

Passerella iliaca

Dolichonyx oryzivora . . .
Tetrao canadensis' . . . .
iEgialitia melodus . . . .
Limosa hudsonica . . . .
Numenius borealis . . . .
Porzafla noveboracensis . .

Anas obscura

Querquedula discors . . .
Camptolwmus labradorius

Boreal Limit in
Breeding Season.

Hudson. Fauna
Canad. Fauna
Ailegh. Fauna
Canad. Fauna
Canad. Fauna
Canad. Fauna
Hudson. Fauna
Hudson. Fauna
Hudson. Fauna:
Hudson. Fauna
Canad. Fauna
Canad. Fauna ?
Canad. Fauna ?
Hudson. Fauna
Hudson. Fauna
Canad Fauna?
Hudson. Fauna
Hudson. Fauna
Hudson. Fauna
Hudson. F'auna
Hudson. Fauna
Hudson. Fauna
Hudson. Fauna
Hudson. F'auna
Hudson. F'auna
Hudson. Fauna
Ailegh. Fauna
Arctic Coast
Canad. Fauna
Arctic Coast ?
Arctic Coast ?
Hudson. Fauna
Hudson. Fauna
Hudson. Fauna
Arctic Coast

Austral Limit in
Breeding Season.
Carolin. Fauna
Carolin Fauna
?

Ailegh. Fauna ?
Carolin. Fauna
Carolin. Fauna
Carolin. Fauna
Canad Fauna
Canad. Fauna
Canad. Fauna
Ailegh. Fauna
Canad- Fauna
Canad. Fauna
Ailegh. Fauna
Canad. Fauna
Ailegh. F'auna
Canad. Fauna
Ailegh. F'auna
Louis. F'auna
Ailegh. Fauna
Carolin. Fauna
Canad. Fauna
Canad. Fauna
Canad. Fauna
Canad. Fauna
Canad. Fauna
Ailegh. Fauna
Canad. Fauna
Carolin. Fauna
Hudson. Fauna
Hudson. Fauna
Carolin. Fauna
Ailegh. Fauna
Canad. Fauna
Hudson. Fauna

Boreal Limit
in Winter.

Austral Limit
in Winter.

Florid. Fauna

Carolin. Fauna

Louis. Fauna

Florid. Fauna

Louis Fauna
Hudson. Fauna
Louis. Fauna
Ailegh. Fauna
Ailegh. F'auna
Caroiin Fauna

Canad. Fauna

Louis. Fauna
Louis. Fauna
Louis. Fauna

Hudson. Fauna? Canad Fauna

Louis. Fauna

Louis Fauna

Louis Fauna

Louis. F'auna

Ailegh. Fauna Florid. Fauna

Ailegh Fauna '

Canad Fauna

* The blanks in the fourth and fifth columns indicate that the limit in question is within the
Tropical Realm.

41G

BULLETIN OF THE

2. List of Species which breed throughout the 3Iiddle-temperate Por-
tions of the Eastern Province, toith Indications of their Boreal and
Austral Limits in the Eastern Province*

Species.

Turdus mustelinus . . .
Galeoscoptes earolinensis .
Harporhynchus ruf'us . .
Sialia sialis

Dendroeca peansylvanica .

Dendroeca discolor . . .
Dendrceca cacrulea . . .
(Vilsonia mitr.it. i ....
Pyranga rubra ....
Vireo noveboracensis . .
Lanivireo fiavifrons . . .
Lophophanes bicolor . .
Coturniculus passerinus .
Coturniculus Henslowi . .
Ammodromus caudacutus .
Ammodromua maritimus .
Spizella pusilla ....
Euspiza americana . . .
Hedymeles ludovicianus .
Cyanospiza cyanea . . .
Cardinalis virginianus . .
Pipilo erythrophthalmus .
Icterus spurius ....
Icterus baltimore ....
Corvus ossifragus ....
Ceuturus earolinus . . .
Melanerpes erythrocephalus
Antrostoinus voeiferus . .
Coccygus americanus . .
Coccygus erytlirophthalmus
Ortyx virginianus . . .
Cupilouia cupido . . . .

Boreal Limit | Austral Limit
in the Breeding in the Breeding

Season. Season.

Allegh.
Allegh.
Allegh.
Allegh.
i lanad.
Allegh.
Allegh.
Allegh.
Allegh.
Allegh.
Allegh.
Carolin
Allegh.
Allegh.
Allegh
Carolin
Allegh.
Carolin
Allegh.
Allegh.
Carolin
Allegh.
Allegh.
Allegh.
Carolin
Carolin
Allegh.
Allegh.
Allegh.
Allegh.
Allegh.
Allegh.

Fauna
Fauna

Fauna
Fauna
Fauna
Fauna
Fauua
Fauna
Fauua
Fauna
Fauna
. Fauna
Fauna
Fauna
Fauna
. Fauna
Fauua
. Fauua
Fauua
Fauna
Fauna
Fauna
Fauna
Fauna
Fauna
Fauua
Fauna
F'auna
F'auna
Fauna
F'auna
Fauna

Louis. Fauna !
F'lorid. Fauna '
Florid. Fauna '
Louis. Fauna
Allegh. Fauua

Carolin. F'auna
Louis. Fauna
Louis. F'auna
Florid. Fauna?

Louis F'auna?
Louis. Fauna
Louis. Fauna
Louis. F'auna
Louis. F'auua
Louis. Fauna ?

Caroliu Fa.una

Florid. F'auna
Louis. Fauna
Louis. F'auna
Florid. Fauna'

Florid. Fauna'
Florid. Fauua

Allegh. Fauna
Carolin. Fauna? Allegh. Fauua

Boreal Limit
iu Winter.

Louis. Fauna
Louis. F'auna
Carolin. F'auna

Austral Limit
in Winter.

Louis. Fauna

Carolin. F'auna Florid Fauna

Carolin F'auna'

Carolin F'auna?

Louis. Fauna j

Louis. Fauna

Carolin. F'auna !

Carolin. Fauna
Louis. F'-auna

Louis. Fauna
Carolin. Fauna
Louis. Fauna
Louis. F'auna

Louis. Fauna

* The blanks in this and the following tables have the same significance as in the last preceding
table.

3. List of Species ivhich breed throughout the Temperate Portions of
the Eastern Province, with Indications of their Boreal and Austral
Limits.

Species.

Seiurus aurocapillus
Seiurus noveboracensis
Cyanura cristata .
Sphyrapicua varius .
Colaptes auratus . .
Trochilus colubris .
Chaetura pelasgia . .
Grus americanus .
Actiturus Bartramius

mtillarum
Dendroeca pin us . .
Quiscalus purpureus

Boreal Limit | Austral Limit

in the Breeding in the Breeding

Reason. Season.

Canad. Fauna
Hudson. Fauna
Canad. Fauna
Canad. Fauna ?
Hudson. Fauna
i lanad. Fauna
Canad. Fauna
Canad. Fauna
I 'ana I Fauna
C mad Fauna
Hudson. Fauna'
Hudson. Fauna

Carolin Fauna
Louis F'auna
Florid. Fauna
F'lorid Fauua?

Louis Fauna ?
Florid Fauna

Louis. F'auna '

Boreal Limit
in Winter.

Florid Fauna

Allegh. F'auna
I 'arc in. F'auna
Carolin. Fauna
Florid. Fauna.'

Louis Fauna
Louis. Fauna

Caroliu Fauna
Carolin. F'auna

Austral Limit
in Winter.

Florid. Fauna

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY.

417

4. List of Species which hrced in the Eastern Province only within the
Warm-temperate and Subtropical Districts.

Boreal Limit Austral Limit

in the Breeding in the Bn eding

Season. Season.

Prothonotaria citrea . . . JCarolin. Fauna

Oporomis formosus . . . .]Allegh Fauna Louis. Fauna?
Helmitherus vermivorus . JCarolin. Fauna florid. Fauna?
Helmitherus Swainsoni . . Louis. Fauna
Helminthophaga pinus . . Carolin. Fauna.'
Ilelminthophaga Bachmani . Louis. Fauna
Dendroeea dominica . . . . Louis. Fauna
i i liarliatula . . . Florid. Fauna

Pyranga aestiva Carolin Fauna

I irus ludovicianua . . Carolin. Fauna

Peucaea aestivalis Louis Fauna

Cyanospiza ciris Louis. Fauna

Tyrannus doniinicensis . . Florid. Fauna
Campephilus principalis . ".Carolin. Fauna

Picus borealis Louis. Fauna

Oonurus carolinensis . . . Louis. Fauna

Crotpphaga ani florid. Fauna

Antrostomus carolinensis . . Louis. Fauna
Nauclerus furcatus .... Carolin. Fauna
I (tin it mississippiensis . . . Louis Fauna
Rosthramus sociabilis . . .Florid. Fauna

Florida caerulea Carolin. Fauna

Nyctherodius violaceus . . .Carolin. Fauna
Demiegretta Pealei . . . .Florid Fauna
Demiegretta luduvkiana . .JCarolin Fauna

Ibis alba Icaroiin Fauna

Platalen ajaja Louis. Fauna

iEgialitis VVilsonius .... Carolin. Fauna
Aramus giganteus .... Florid Fauna

Rallus crepitans Carolin Fauna

Porzana jamaicensis . . . . Carolin. Fauna

Gallinula galeata Carolin. Fauna

Gallinula martinica .... Carolin. Fauna

Sula fiber Louis. Fauna

Graculus froridanus . . . .Louis. Fauna

Plotus anhinga iCarolin Fauna

Chroecocephalus atricilla . . Allegh. Fauna
Tliala.-.-ous acuflavidus . . . Louis. Fauna

Anoiis stolidus Florid. Fauna

Ualiplana fuliginosa . . . J Florid. Fauna
Rhynckops nigra I Carolin. Fauna

Boreal Limit
in Winter.

Austral Limit
m Winter.

Louis. Fauna
Florid. F'auna

Louis Fauna

Louis. Fauna
Louis. Fauna

Louis. Fauna

Louis. Fauna

Florid Fauna
Louis Fauna
Louis. Fauna

Louis. F'auna
Florid. Fauna
Louis Fauna
Florid Fauna
Louis. Fauna
Louis Fauna
Florid Fauna
Florid. F'auna
Florid. F'auna
Florid. F'auna

Florid Fauna

Summary of the Four Preceding Tables. — About one hundred and
twenty species occur in the Eastern Province of the North American
Temperate Region that do not appear as regular residents in the West-
ern Province of the same region, of which a small proportion are in
part tropical. Of these one hundred and twenty, thirty-five are northern,
or range in the breeding season only over the cold-temperate portions
of the Eastern Province ; twenty-eight of the latter being land birds,
and only seven aquatic. Eighteen species of the land birds belong to
the single family of the Sylvicolidce. About one fourth of the Eastern
Province species (thirty-two), all land birds, range in the breeding sea-
son over only the middle-temperate part of the province. Of these
only three belong to the family Sylvicolidce, and only one is a typical
representative of that group ; ten belong to the family Fringillidce, three

VOL. ir. 27

418 BULLETIN OF THE

to the Turdidce, and two each to the Icteridce, Picidce, Cucididce, and
Tetraonidce ; several other families have one representative each. The
total absence of any species of Falconida, Strigidee, Herodiones, Gralla,
and Natatores is one of the most striking features in the list of the
species restricted to the Eastern Province.

Twelve of the Eastern Province species breed throughout the greater
part of the province, three of which are Sylvicolidce, two are Picidce,
one is a humming-bird, one a wader, and one a tern.

Forty-one of the one hundred and twenty species restricted in longi-
tudinal range to the Eastern Province extend so far into the Tropical
American Realm in the breeding season as to be essentially tropical
species, exclusive of a considerable number that appear only in the
Floridian Fauna. Twenty-one of these are land birds and twenty
aquatic ; the latter embracing six Herodiones, six Grallce, and eight
Natatores, five of which are terns. The land species embrace three
hawks, two species of Fringillidce, seven of Sylvicolidce, two of Picidce,
and one each of seven other families.

General Remarks on the Distribution and Migration of the
Birds of the Eastern Province.

The preceding tables, illustrative of the geographical distribution of
the birds of the Eastern Province of the North American Temperate
Region, and the summary remarks already given respecting them,
indicate a number of interesting general facts.

I. The species which have the greatest longitudinal range in the
breeding season are the hawks, owls, and vultures, the swallows, the
Turdince or typical thrushes, the woodpeckers and flycatchers, and the
water birds ; among the latter, especially the Scolopacidce, the C/iara-
driidce and their allies, the Anatidoe, and the Laridce ; in fact, nearly
all the Natatores. All the land birds ranging widely in longitude are
hence species which possess highly developed powers of flight, and have
also a wide latitudinal range. The few circumboreal Natatores, which
have only moderate or greatly reduced powers of flight, possess great
power of locomotion in the water. Their habitat is, moreover, not
only generally the sea-shores, but the boreal shores of the converging
continents of the northern hemisphere. Hence all the species having
a wide geographical range — as the circumpolar and continental — are
either pre-eminently strong fliers or powerful swimmers. It also ex-

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 419

plains the occurrence of the large proportion of long-winged birds, and
especially of the preponderance of the water birds, in the three first
primary divisions given above of the birds of the Eastern Province,
namely, the cosmopolitan, the circumpolar, and the continental, and the
small proportion of such species among those restricted in their longi-
tudinal range to the Eastern Province. Most of the circumpolar
species are also boreal ones.

II. The aquatic species, while forming only about four tenths of the
birds found in the Eastern Province, greatly predominate over the
land species in the boreal regions, in the Arctic Realm they outnum-
bering the land birds in the proportion of five to one, or form eight
tenths of the whole. In the Cold-temperate District of the North
American Region the water-birds form about six tenths of the whole ;
in the Middle-temperate Districts, between four and five tenths ; in
the Warm-temperate District, rather less than four tenths. Farther
southward, although a few groups (as the Rallidce, Herodiones, and
Sternince) are more numerously represented, the relative proportion
of water birds to the terrestrial seems scarcely to increase. In the breed-
ing season, however, a numerical comparison of the land and water
birds yields very different results, in respect to the proportion char-
acteristic of localities situated under different parallels of latitude.
Passing from the extreme boreal regions southward, the number of
Grcdlce (exclusive of the Paludicolce), Anatidce, Larince, and Lestrid-
ince decreases rapidly, so that the number of the Grallce (exclusive
of the rails and their allies) is reduced in the breeding season, in the
warm-temperate parts of the Eastern Province, to only seven or eight
species, the Anatidce to one (Aix sponsa), the Larince to one (C/irceco-
cephalus atriciUa), and the Lestridince disappear entirely.

III. A large proportion of the accessions to the land birds near the
tropics being species of a comparatively low grade of structure, the
prevalence of the water birds in the arctic and subarctic fauna;, the
comparative absence of water birds in the temperate latitudes, and the
great development here of the higher groups of the land birds, give to
the temperate regions the maximum proportion of high forms of avine
life, — a fact as true in respect to mammalian life as it is of birds.

IV. In respect to the distribution and relative development of par-
ticular families, the Sittidce (Sittce), the Paridce, and the Alcidce are alone
restricted to the North Temperate Realm. The species of these groups

420 BULLETIN OF THE

(except the Alcidce) are also sedentary throughout nearly their whole
range. In the Eastern Province, Larus, Stercorarius, and their allies,
as well as Columbus, are restricted in the breeding season to its north-
ern half, as are also, as already remarked, most of the water birds,
except the Rallidce and the Herodiones, which are chiefly southern.
The representatives of the Troglodytidce and Icteridce increase rapidly in
number towards the tropics, while the Mi mi ace and several genera of
the more brightly colored Fringillid<e are confined to the southern half
of the province. The Sylvicolidce, the most exclusively distinctive
family of the North American temperate region, reaches its maximum
development in the Middle and Cold-temperate Districts. The sec-,
tion Sylvicolece, and especially the genus Dendroeea, is more numer<
ously represented in the Eastern Province than in the Western, and
the greater part breed in the colder latitudes, their "metropolis" dur-
ing the breeding season being the Canadian Fauna of the Eastern
Province and the corresponding fauna of the Western. The species
of the section Vermivorece (genera Helmitherus and Helminthophagct)
have a wider longitudinal distribution than the Dendrcecce, the species
of which genus are mainly restricted either to t he Eastern or to the
Western Province. The two species of Helmitherus are southern in
their distribution, while four or five of the six Helminthophagce are
northern.

V. At the extreme north, or from the Arctic coast southward to the
Canadian Fauna, nearly all the birds are migratory, owing to the
extreme severity of the winter season ; they also spend a smaller
portion of the year at their breeding stations than do the species
which breed farther to the southward. Even as far south as the Alle-
ghanian and Carolinian Faunae, the greater proportion of the species
are to a greater or less extent migratory. In die Carolinian and
Louisianian Faunse a much greater proportion are resident, even in-
cluding many species whose boreal limit of distribution is the Carolin-
ian Fauna. From the Hudsonian Fauna southward many species are
found the whole year at tin' same localities, and are hence termed
"resident," though the individuals representing such species are migra-
tory, there being a general movement of the winter habitat southward,
lint too limited to carry the wave of migration entirely beyond the
southern limit of the summer habitat of these species.

VI. The representatives of the various groups differ from each other

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 421

widely, as is well known, in respect to the extent of their migrations.
Those of a few families (as the TdraonidcE, the Picidce, Sittidee, Cor-
vidce, and Strlyidce) are nearly sedentary, the nature of their food
being such that the supply is almost equally sure at all seasons. The
insectivorous species have the most extended migratory range ; the pis-
civorous, the graminivorous, and the raptorial the least of the non-
sedentary species, the migrations of the latter being mainly governed
by those of their prey. Hence the wood warblers {Sylvicolidce), the fly-
catchers (Tyrannidce), and the swallows make the longest journeys, and
leave their breeding stations the earliest. Requiring apparently a
temperature in winter similar to that of their summer habitats, as well
as a constant supply of insect food, they begin their southward journeys
almost before the close of the short northern summer, proceeding grad-
ually southward during the autumn months to pass the winter in the
tropics. The Grallce have also to seek districts almost wholly beyond
the reach of severe frosts, their food being only accessible to them
where the ground continues unfrozen. The Natatores also necessarily
migrate to localities where the streams and estuaries are nearly free
from ice ; the strictly littoral and pelagic species hence making shorter
journeys than the inland species.

The migratory insessorial birds that pass the winter wholly or in
part within the Eastern Province are principally fringilline species.
The others are a single flycatcher (Sayornis fuscus), the northern
members of the Icteridce, two species of Tardus, three of Mimince,
three wrens, and three or four sparrows. All of these species are
resident the whole year in those sections to which the northern mem-
bers of these species mainly resort in winter. In these species there
is hence only a partial recession southward in winter from the northern
portions of their respective summer habitats. Most of the Frinyillidce,
however, which pass the summer within or to the northward of the
Alleghanian Fauna, remove wholly in winter from- their summer sta-
tions. "While some in winter barely abandon their summer stations,
as shown in the preceding tables, of distribution, others pass entirely
over one fauna, throughout which they occur only as spring and au-
tumn passengers ; others in a similar way pass over two fauna? in
reaching their winter quarters. Hence some which breed in the Cana-
dian Fauna and farther northward pass only into fhe Alleghanian and
Carolinian Faunas in winter, while others pass over the Alleghanian

422 BULLETIN OF THE

into the Carolinian, and others over both the Alleghanian and the
Carolinian into the Louisianian.

Some species which in general breed far to the northward of the
tropics, to which they retire in winter, are also known to breed on the
mountain- within the tropics (as Dendroeca coronata and Perissoglossa
tigrina), and doubtless many others will be found to do so when the
mountain faunae of these regions become fully known ; it being already
well ascertained that there is a migration from the plains and lowlands
to the mountains (more especially in the Tropical Realms) as well as
(in the northern hemisphere) from the south northward.

VII. The lack of suitable food and the low temperature in winter in
northern latitudes are evidently the causes which impel so many species
to leave their breeding stations at that season to seek a warmer zone.
"While in most cases a degree of cold sufficient to cut off the supply of
food of any species, especially of the insectivorous ones, would of itself
also prove fatal to the birds themselves, it is by no means the case with
the baccivorous and graminivorous species, their winter migrations ap-
pearing to be primarily and principally controlled by the accessibility
of their food. This is evidently indicated by the irregular dispersion
in winter of such species near the boreal limit of their range at
that season, they being numerous where their food abounds and en-
tirely absent in the immediately adjoining districts.*

VIII. The breeding range, as well as the migratory range, differs
greatly not only among the species of different families (nearly all the
species of some families having a wide range, while nearly all the spe-
cies of other families have a quite restricted range, as in the Cor-
vidcB and Ficidce, for instance, as compared with the Syhicolidce), but
also among those of the same family and even of the same genus.
The two extremes are well illustrated by the osprey or fish-hawk and

* These remarks are illustrated by the winter distribution of the robin and the cedar-
bird in tin- Alleghanian Fauna, and by the sudden southward incursion of the snow-
buntings and other northern sparrows when deep snows suddenly render their food more
than usually difficult to procure in their usual winter reports. The early return of birds

to their br ling stations, — their real homes, — as soon as the causes that impelled their

winter migration are removed, is further corroborative of the same view. Most of even
the insectivorous species visit regions in winter whose average winter temperature dif-
fers but little from that of their breeding stations, and when the excessive heats of spring
and summer arrive in the, southern latitudes, they gradually retire again to their north-
ern breeding stations, keeping pace in their migration with the northward advance of
the summer warmth.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 423

the bobolink, the one having an almost cosmopolitan breeding range,
while the breeding range of the other is nearly or quite restricted
to the Alleghanian Fauna. Several of the Sylvicolidce have a breeding
range as restricted as the bobolink, while a few other species of the
same family breed throughout nearly the whole of North America.
One of the species of Dendrceca (D. cestiva) has this wide breeding
range, while other species of the same genus appear to breed only in
the Canadian Fauna.

IX. Species which have a wide breeding range usually present
a greater or less number of easily distinguishable local forms, which
merge generally the one into the other in the regions lying be-
tween the localities at which these several forms are most fully
developed. A part of these local forms have received distinctive
names, and have of late been quite commonly regarded as distinct
species, while many are as yet not so regarded. Every year additional
races of this character are discovered, and doubtless many still remain
unknown. Much time will probably elapse before naturalists will gen-
erally agree as to their true character and relations, though evidence
indicative of their being the result of general and uniformly acting
laws of geographical variation is apparently by no means wanting.
The difference in color, size, form of the bill, length of the tail, etc.,
that appear almost universally to obtain between the northern and
southern representatives of the same species, have already been suffi-
ciently dwelt upon in the preceding pages ; but the insertion of a few
species in the list of those alleged above (Class IV of the preceding
tables) to range across the North American continent calls for an ad-
ditional word in respect to the differences which have led to the specific
separation of the western representatives of these species from their east-
ern representatives, or to suggestions that they might prove to be spe-
cifically distinct. Most of the cases of this kind have been distinguished
in the tables under Class IV by the prefix of a [?] before their names.
In all these cases almost the sole difference alleged for the separation
of the western forms is that of either the darker or brighter or, in other
words, the more intense colors of those from the Pacific coast ; this char-
acter being always the one most strongly urged as distinguishing them,
and not unfrequently the Only one, especially in those species that breed
wholly to the northward of the latitude of San Francisco. The fre-
quency of this difference seems to be a strong reason for regarding

424 BULLETIN OF THE

it as the result of a general law, and to remove it from the category
of genuine specific distinctions.*

X. Tlie number of species which breed in the American Arctic
Fauna appears to be not far from sixty. In the Hudsonian Fauna the
number is increased to upwards of one hundred and fifty, in the Cana-
dian to probably about one hundred and sixty. In the Alleghanian
the number is nearly one hundred and forty; in the Carolinian about
one hundred and thirty-five; in the Louisianian about one hundred and
thirty. The Hudsonian and Canadian Faunae hence have a greater
number of species, in areas of the same extent, and probably a far
greater number of individuals, than the Carolinian and Louisianian
Faunae. In respect to the number of individuals, it is evident that
this must result, in consequence of the hordes of wading and swim-
ming birds, of thrushes, sparrows, and Sylvicolidce that pass through
the southern and middle districts of the Eastern Province to breed
in its boreal portions ; few of the species that breed at the southward
being there as numerously represented as are scores of species that
breed exclusively at the northward. Taking the whole number of
species found at particular localities during the year, there is a con-
stant increase in number to the southward, the increase, however,
being less rapid from the southern boundary of the Canadian Fauna
southward than from that point northward.! There is also a steady

* In addition to the list of examples of this variation already cited in Part III of
this paper, the following may be added as marked instances: Reyulus satrapa, Pacific
coast specimens forming the variety olivaceus Baird ; Troglodytes hyemalis, Pacific coast
specimens forming the variety pacificus Baird; Cistothorus palustris, Pacific coast speci-
mens forming the variety paludicola Baird; Helminthophaga celata, Pacific coast speci-
mens being, according to Professor Baird, " much brighter and clearer yellowish be-
neath and olivaceous above," than those from the interior of North America ; Myiodioctet
(= Wihonia) puiilla ; Ilirundo bicolor ; Collwrio excubiloroides (= C. ludovicianus), Pacific
coast specimens being darker than those from the Mississippi Valley, and much darker
than those from the Plains {Baird); Ctrpodacus purpureas, Pacific coast specimen!)
being darker and forming the C. californicus of Baird : Mdospiza melodia, the darker
Pacific coast specimens forming the M. Ihermanni Baird, etc.

t There seems to have been no exhaustive list published of the birds occurring at
any locality north of the Alleghanian Fauna. Dr. Richardson's list is the largest, and
gives two hundred and thirty-eight as the whole number known in 1831 to inhabit
British North America north of the Canadas and east of the Pocky Mountains. Prob-
ably this number, and even more, may occur at a single locality on the Saskatchewan;
but probably not more than two hundred and sixty or seventy. Three hundred and
ten have been detected in Massachusetts, including those of irregular and very rare

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 425

increase southwards in the number and even in the proportion of
species which are resident at the same locality the whole year. But
from the absence of exhaustive lists of the species occurring at numer-
ous localities, differing in latitude, it is difficult to make at present a
wholly satisfactory numerical comparison of the different ornithological
faunae.*

occurrence ; three hundred and twenty-seven in ttie vicinity of New York City (Law-
rence), and three hundred and forty-three in New Jersey ( Turnbull). The number
given by Ross as observed by him in the " Mackenzie's River District" is one hundred
and ninety-two. Tne greatest number I have seen recorded from any restricted 1 icality
within the American tropical Realm is five hundred and forty, the number given from
Costa Rica by Messrs. Lawrence and Salvin.

* Dr. Richardson in 1831, found that the number of species " known to rear their
young on the banks of the Saskatchewan " amounted to one hundred and forty-one.
At least twenty species more may now be safely added. Bonaparte, in 1S27, estimated
the number of species breeding at Philadelphia to be one hundred and four.' Messrs.
Coues and Prentiss in their list of the birds of the District of Columbia, published in
1861, mention forty-four species as being permanent residents, and fifty-nine others as
summering, making one hundred and three that probably breed in the District, — one
less than the number given by Bonaparte as breeding at Philadelphia. Messrs. S. F.
and W. M. Baird gave, in 1*44, one hundred and nine species as breeding at Carlisle,
Pennsylvania. The tfiree latter being inland localities, they may properly be compared
with the Saskatchewan district. The numerous lakes at the latter locality, however,
afford favorite breeding places for numerous water birds, while few such localities are
afforded by the other localities mentioned; but since few water birds breed so far south
as these localities, the difference in this respect is a fact of small importance. Dr.
Turnbull, in 1869, gave the number of permanently resident species in "East Penn-
sylvania and New Jersey" as fifty-two, and the number of summer visitors as one hun-
dred and fourteen, making a total of one hundred and sixty-six species that occur there
in summer; but the area included in this list is more extended, and embraces a greater
variety of surface than in the other cases, and includes several strictly- coast species.
Farther than this, an examination of his list shows that at least thirty of the one hun-
dred and sixty-six are either wholly of accidental or of very rare occurrence, and hence
do not regularly (many of them never) breed at the locality named. The number of
resident speeies in Massachusetts is not far from thirty, of summer visitors one hun-
dred and six. making one hundred and thirty-six that are more or less frequent in sum-
mer,— a number considerably less than undoubtedly -eccur in an equal area on the
Saskatchewan. Mr. ('. J. Maynard, in his careful analysis of the birds of Eastern
Massachusetts (Naturalist's Guide, Part II, pp. 162- 164, 1870), gives only one hundred
ami fifteen as being known with certainty to breed in the eastern half of that State,
one or two of which cannot be considered as breeding there regularly. While this
somewhat <-xr<-<-,\~ the number generally given as breeding at localities more to tin
ward, it is far less than the number given by Dr. Richardson as breeding on the Sas-
katchewan, and much less than the number now well known to be found there in
summer. Dr. Coues, in his " Synopsis of the Birds of South Carolina," indicates i , 1 1 1 y
nbout one hundred and thirty-five as being known to breed regularly in that State.

426 BULLETIN OF THE

APPENDIX TO PART V.

LIST OF AUTHORITIES.

In the following list are given the titles of general works and special
papers tliat may be profitably consulted in a study of the geographical
distribution of the birds of North America. An attempt has been made
to cite all the papers of much importance bearing upon this subject
that have appeared prior to the beginning of the year 1870, those pub-
lished in this country having been also brought down to the present
date (April, 1871). Some of those published in the transactions of for-
eign societies during 1869 have been necessarily omitted, as also a large
proportion of those published in 1870, since most of these publications
are usually several months in reaching this country.

In compiling the present list I have been greatly aided by the
"List of Authorities" published by Professor Baird in the Appen-
dix of his Report on the Birds of North America in 1858 ; Agassiz's
" Bibliographia Zoblogia? " ; Carus and Engleman's '; Bibliotheca
Zoologica," ending with the year 1860 ; by Dr. G. Hartlaub's "Bericht
iiber die Leistungen in der Naturgeschichte der Vogel," in Wiegmann's
Archiv fur Naturgeschichte, and by Professor Alfred Newton's ad-
mirable ornithological record in Dr. Gunther's "Zoological Record."*
I am also indebted to Dr. Elliott Coues for the addition of the titles of
a considerable number of articles to the proof-sheets, which he has had
the kindness to carefully examine. The few titles enclosed in brackets
indicate those papers I have not myself consulted.

In aiming at brevity I may have excluded from the list a few papers
that might well have been added. Usually papers mentioning less
than half a dozen species have been excluded, including announcements
of the capture of species at localities beyond their usual range. To cite
all such notices would nearly double the length of the list, without ma-
terially adding to its value, at least for general purposes. Papers in
which new species were described are frequently omitted where the
geographical data given in them have been subsequently incorporated
in other papers published by the same author.

* The volume for 1869 I regret to find has not yet appeared.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 427

The geographical arrangement of the papers serves to show at a
glance what portions of the continent are tolerably well known, so far
as regards the birds occurring there, as well as to indicate the consider-
able areas that are still almost unknown, and the amount of information
possessed respecting the regions partially known. In order to indicate
to some extent the character of the papers mentioned, the number of
species given in each is usually stated, as well as the number of pages
the papers embrace.

Occasionally valuable notes on the distribution of our birds, and some-
times nearly complete local lists, are to be found in the various agricul-
tural periodicals, in the transactions or reports of agricultural societies,
and in the various State agricultural reports. Although a number of
such have been entered in the following list, others may have escaped
notice ; and information of such omissions, or of the omission of any
local list, would be thankfully received by the writer.

GENERAL WORKS.

Audubon, J. J. Facts and Observations connected with the permanent
Residence of Swallows in the United States. Ann. N. Y. Lye. Nat. Hist.,
Vol. I, pp. 166-168, 1824.

Audubon, J. J. Ornithological Biography. 5 vols. 8vo. Edinburgh,
1831-1839.

Audubon, J. J. A Synopsis of the Birds of North America. 8vo. Edin-
burgh, 1839.

Audubon, J. J. Birds of America. 7 vols. 8vo. Philadelphia, 1840 - 1844.
(506 species.)

Bachman, John. On the Migration of the Birds of North America. Am.
Journ. Sci. and Arts, 1st Ser., Vol. XXX, pp. 81 - 100, 1836.

Baird, S. F. Review of American Birds, in the Museum of the Smith-
sonian Institution, Part I, North and Middle America. 8vo. Washington,
pp. 1-176, 1864; pp. 177-320, 1865; pp. 321-450, 1866.

Baird, S. F. The Distribution and Migration of North American Birds.
Am. Journ. Sci. and Arts, 2d Ser., Vol. XLI, pp. 78-90,184-192,
337-347, 1866.

Baird, S. F., Cassin, John, and Lawrence, G. N. Birds of North
America : a Report on the Birds collected during the Explorations and
Surveys for a Railroad Route from the Mississippi River to the Pacific
Ocean. Pacific R. R. Rep. of Expl. and Surv., Vol. IX, 4to, 1858. (Re-
published under the title of " Birds of North America," with an Atlas of
Plates. — 738 species, 22 of them extralimital )

428 BULLETIN OF THE

Bannister, TT. M. A sketch of the Classification of the Aneriean Anserea.

Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., 1870, pp. 130-132. (12 North American

species.)
Bonaparte, C. L. Additions to the Ornithology of the United States.

Journ. Acad. Nat Sci. Philad., Vol. V, pp. 28-31, 1825. (7 species.)
Bonaparte, C. L. Specchio comparativo della orni'ologia di Roma e

Filadelfia. 8vo. Pisa, 1827. Supplement to the same, 1832.
Bonaparte, C. L. Saggio di una distribuzione metodica degli Animali

vertebrati etc. 8vo. Roma, 1831-1832; Isis, 1832, pp. 283-319;

1833, pp. 1183-1230.
BONAPARTE, C. L. A Geographical and Comparative List of the Birds of

Europe and North America. 8vo, London, 1 838. (4 71 American species.)

See a review of tie same in Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist., Vol. I, p. 318, 1839.
Bonaparte, C. L. American Ornithology, or the Natural History of .the

Birds inhabiting the United States, not given by "Wilson. 4 vols. 4to.

New York, 1825-1833.
Bonaparte, C. L., and Schxegel, H. Monographic des Loxiens. 4to.

Leiden et Dusseldorf, 1850. (38 species.)
Prandt, Johann Friedrich. Rapport sur une Monographic de la famille

des Alcadees. Bull. Sc. Acad. Tmp. St. Petersb., Tome II, pp. 344-349,

1837.
Brandt, Johann Friedrich. Erg'a'nzungen r.nd Berichtigungen zur

Naturgeschichte der Famiiie der Alciden. Bull. Se. Acad. Imp. St.

Petersb , Tome VII, pp. 199-256, 1869. (21 species )
Brandt, Johann Friedrich. Beirerkungen iiber die Classification, die

Entwickelungsstufen und die Verbreitung der Alciden. Bull. Sc. Acad.

Imp. St. Petersb., Tome VII, pp. 256-268, 1869.
Brewer, Thomas M. Norfh American Oology, Part I, Rapiores and

Fissirostres, June, 1857. Smithsonian Contributions, Vol. XI.
Brewer, Thomas M. A List of Birds common to Europe and America,

with others not identical but confounded together from close resemblance.

Proc. Bost. Soe. Nat. Hist., Vol. IV, pp. 324 - 328, 1853. (115 species.)
Brewer, Thomas M. A Synopsis of die Birds of North America. Pub-
lished as an Appendix to Brewer's edition of Jardine's Wilson's Orni-
thology, pp. 682-746, 1810. (491 species).
Bryant, IIenm'. Remarks on the Variations of Plumage of Buteo borealis

auct. and Buteo Harlani Aud. Proc. Bost. Sue. Net. Hist., Vol. VIII,

pp. 107-119, 1861.
Bryant, Henry. Monograph of the Genus Cctarractes Moehring. Proc.

Bost. Soc. N:.t. Hist, Vol. VIII, pp. 134-144, 1861. (4 species.)
Cabot S., Jr. <>n the Distribution of Tetrao cupido, and of other Grouse

in New Eng'and. Proc. Bo:t. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. V, p. 154, 1855.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 429

Cassin JOHN. Illustrations of the B'rds of California, Texas, Oregon,

British and Russian America, etc. 8vo. Philadelphia, 1853-1856.

(Contains al.so Synopses of the Parince, Raptures, and Fissirostres of

North America).
Cassin, John. Notes on North American Falconidce, etc. Proc. Acad.

,vit. Sri. Philad , 1855, pp. 277-284. (25 species.)
Cassin, Joiiy. Ornithology of the United States and British and Russian

America. United States Mag-, Vol. Ill, pp. 18, 109, 205, 181, 1856 ; Vol.

IV, p. 10, 185 7. (Raptores only.)
Cassin, John. Studies of the Tcteridcs. Proc. Acad. N:t. Sci. Philad.,

1866, pp. 10-25, 10.? -417; 1867, pp. 45-74.
Cassin, John. Notes on the Picidce, etc. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad.,

1863, pp. 194-204, 322-328.
Cassin, John. Notes of an Examination of the Birds of the Suhfamily

Ccerebince. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., 1864, pp. 265-275.
Cope, E. D. The Birds of Palestine and Panama compared. Am. Nat.,

Vol. II. pp. 351-359, 1868.
Coues, Elliott. A Monograph of the Alcidce. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci.

Philad., 1868, pp. 2 - 81. (33 species.)
Coles, Elliott. A Critical Review of the Family Procellariidce. Proc.

Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., 1S64, pp. 72-91,116-144; 1866, pp. 25 - 33,

134-197. (92 species.)
Coues, Elliott. A Critical Review of the Suh-family Lcsiridhtce. Proc.

Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., 1863, pp. 121 - 138. (7 species.)
Coues, Elliott. Review of die Gulls of North America, etc. Proc.

Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., 1862, pp. 291-312. (25 species.)
Coues, Elliott. Synopsis of the North American Forms of Co'ymbidce

and PoJicipidre. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phihad., 1862, pp. 226-233.
Coues, Elliott. A Revision of the Terns of North -America, etc. Proc.

Acad. Nat. Sci. Phi'ad., 1862, pp. 535-559. (14 species.)
Coues, Elliott. A Monograph of the Tringece of North America. Proc.

Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., 1861, pp. 170-205. (12 species.)
Coues, Elliott. On Variation in the Genus ^■Egiothui. Proc. Acad.

Nat, Sc. Philad., 1869, pp. 180-189. (Special reference to the geo-
graphical races.)
[Coues, Elliott. Key to North American Birds (in press). 1 vol. imp.

8vo. Salem.]
Dresser, H. E., and Sharpe, R. B. Notes on Lanius excuhitor and its

Allies. Proc. Zobl. Soc. Bond., 1870, pp. 590-600. (9 species.)
Elliot, D. G. Remarks on the Species composing the Genus Pedioscetes.

Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., 1862, pp. 402-401.
Elliot, D. G. Morograph of the Tetraonidce. Folio.

430 BULLETIN OF THE

Elliot, D. G. The New and heretofore Unfigured Birds of North Amer-
ica. 2 vols, folio. New York, 1869.
Elliot, D. G. A Monograph of the Genus Pelecanus. Proc. Zool. Soc.

Lond., 1869, pp. 571-591. (9 species.)
[Finsch, Otto. Die Papageien, monographische bearbeitet. 2 vols*

royal 8vo. Leiden, 1867 - 1868.]
Gambel, Wm. Contributions to American Ornithology. Proc. Acad.

Nat. Sci. Philad., Vol. IV, pp. 126 - 129, 1848. (Remarks on 6 species.)
Gould, John. Monograph of the Troc/ulidcc, or Humming-Birds. Folio,

1850, et se.q.
Heermann, A. L. Additions to North American Ornithology. Proc.

Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., Vol. VII, pp. 1 77 - 180, 1854. (5 species.)
Herbert, William Henry. Frank Forester's Field Sports of the United

States and British Provinces of North America. 2 vols. 8vo. New

York, 1848. (Contains many valuable observations on the game birds of

North America.)
Huxley, T. II. On the Classification and Distribution of the Alectoro-

rnorphce and Heteromorphce. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1868, pp. 294-319.

With a map.
Lawrence, G. N. Additions to the Ornithology of the United States.

Ann. N. Y. Lye. Nat. Hist., Vol. V, pp. 112-124, 1851. (22 species.)
Lesson, R. P. Distribution geographicpie de quelques Oiseaux maiins.

Ann. Sci. Nat, Tome VI, pp. 88- 102, 1825.
Lesson, R. P. Essai sur la dispersion des Oiseaux sur la surface du

globe. Ferrus. Bull. Sc. Nat., Tome XXVII, pp. 92 - 100, 1831
Lewis, E. J. American Sportsman. 8vo. Philadelphia, 1863. (Contains

valuable information respecting the Rasores, Gralhr. and Analidce.}
Malherbe, A. Monographic des Picidees. 2 vols, folio, avec 125 pi.

eoloriecs, Metz, 1859-1862.
[Muller, J. W. von. Reisen in den Vereinigten Staaten, Canada und

Mexico. 3 vols, royal 8vo. Leipzic, 1864-1865. Vol. Ill, pp. 551-

594. (Gives a list of 611 species of North American birds.)]
Nuttall, Thomas. A Manual of the Ornithology of the United States

and Canada, 2 vols. 12mo. Boston. Vol. I, Land Birds, 1832 ; 2d ed.,

with additions, 1840; Vol. II, Water Birds, 1834.
Ord, GEORGE. List of North American Birds, Guthrie's Geog., 2d Am.

ed., 2 vols. 8vo. Philad., 1815.
Pennant, Thomas. Arctic Zoology. 3 vols. 4to, 1784 - 1787; 2d ed, 2

vols. 4to, 1792.
RlDGWAY, Robert. Notices of certain obscurely known Species of Amer-
ican Birds [of the Genera Tardus (Hylocickla), I'yranga and Quiscalus.]

Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., 1869, pp. 125-135.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 431

Ridgway, Robert. A New Classification of the North American Falconidce.
Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., 1870, pp. 138-150.

Roosevelt, R. B. The Game Birds of the Northern States of America.
12mo. New York, 1866, pp. 338.

Salvin, O. On the Genus C Indus. Ibis, 2d Ser., Vol. Ill, pp. 109-122,
186 7. (Contains remarks on the geographical distribution of 13 species.)

Schmarda, L. K. Die geographische Verbreitung der Thiere, 3 Bd.
Wien, 1853.

Sclater, P. L. Catalogue of a Collection of American Birds, belong-
ing to Philip Lutley Sclater, M. A., etc., etc. 8vo. London, 1862.

Sclater, P. L. On the general Geographical Distribution of the Mem-
bers of the Class Aves. Journ. of Proc. of Linnsean Society of London.
Vol. II, Zoology, pp. 130- 145, 1858.

Sclater, P. L. Notes on Krueper's Nuthatch and on the other known
Species of the Genus Sitta. Ibis, 1865.

Sclater, P. L. Notes on the Genera and Species of Cypselidce. Proc.
Zobl. Soc. Lond., 1865, pp. 593-617.

Sclater, P. L. Notes upon the American Caprimulgidce. Proc. Zool. Soc.
Lond., 1866, pp. 123-145.

Sclater, P. L., and Salvin, O. Notes on the Species of the Genus
Asturina. Proc. Zobl. Soc. Lond., 1869, pp. 129-134. (7 species.)

Sclater, P. L., and Salvin, O. Synopsis of the American Rails (Pallida.)
Proc. Zobl. Soc. Lond., 1868, pp. 442- 470. (48 species.)

Sclater, P. L., and Salvin, O. Exotic Ornithology. 4to. London, 1866
el seq. (Publishing in parts.)

Selys-Longchamps, Edm. de. Sur les Oiseaux americains admis dans la
Faune europe'enne. Mem. de la Soc. R. de Liege, Vol. IV, pp. 35-50, 1849.

[Sharpe, R. B. A Monograph of the Alcedinidce, or Family of Kingfishers.
Imp. 8vo. London, 1870. Introduction published senarately. (4to, Lon-
don, 1871.)]

Slxdevall, C. J. Conspectus Avium Picinarum. 1 vol. 8vo. pp. 116.
Stockholm, 1866. (254 species.)

Sun devall, C. J. Conspectus Generis Dendrcecce. Ofvers. Kongl. Vetensk.
Acad. Forhandl., 1869, pp. 605-618. (30 species.)

Taylor, G. C. Birds observed during two Voyages across the North
Atlantic. Ibis, 1869, p. 388.

Verrill, A. E. On the supposed Eastward Migration of the Cliff Swal-
low (Hirundo lunifrons Say). Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. IX, pp.
276-278, 1863.

Verrill, A. E. Report of some Investigations upon the Geographical
Distribution of North American Birds, made with Reference to the
Physical Causes that determine their Limit in Latitude. Proc. Bost.
Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. X, pp. 259-262, 1866.

432 BULLETIN OF THE

Wallace, A. R. Letter concerning the Geographical Distribution of

Birds. Ibis, Vol. I, pp. 449-454, 1859.
Wied, Max Prinz vox. Verzeichniss der Vbgel welche auf seiner Reise

in Nord-Amerika beobaehtet wurden. Cabanis's Journ. tur Ornithol., VI

Jahrgang, pp. 1-29, 97-124, 1.77-204, 257-284, 337-354,417-444,
1858 ; VII Jahrgang, pp. 81 - 9(3, 1C1 - 180, 241 - 260, 1859.
"Wilson, Alexander. American Ornithology, or the Natural History of
the Birds of the United States. 9 vols. 4to. Philadelphia, 1808-1814.
(283 species/)

GREENLAND.

Fabricius, O. Fauna Grcenlandia?, etc. 8vo. Hafhise et Lipsiae, 1780.
(54 species.)

IIolrull, Carl. Ornithologiske Bidrag til den gronlandske Fauna.
Kroyer's naturhist. Tidskr., Bd. IV, pp. 361-457, 1843; Isis, 1845, pp.
739- 792. (88 species.)

Reinhardt, J. List of Birds hitherto observed in Greenland. Ibis, 1st
Ser., Vol. Ill, pp. 1 - 19, 1861. (118 species.)

[Richardson, J. Birds and Mammalia collected during the last Arctic
Land Expedition under Sir John Franklin. Proc. of the Com. of Sci. and
Carres, of ZooL Soc. Loud., Vol. I, p- 132, 1831.]

Sabine, Edward. A Memoir on the Birds of Greenland; with Descrip-
tions and Notes on the Species observed in the late Voyage of Discovery
in Davis's Straits and Baffin's Bay. Transact. Linn. Soc. of London, Vol.
XII, pp. 527-559, 1819. (54 species.)

BRITISH NORTH AMERICA EAST OF THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS.
Labrador and Anticostl.
COUES, Elliott. Notes on the Ornithology of Labrador. Proc. Acad. Nat.

Sci. Philad., 1861, pp. 215-257. (83 species )
Verreaux, Jules. Der in Labrador befindlichen Lands'augethiere und

Vbgel. Bull. Akad. Munchen, 1844, pp. 122-126, 129- 133.
VERRILL, A. E. Notes on the Natural History of Anticosti. Proc. Bost. Soc:
Nat. Hist, Vol. IN, pp. 137-145. (Contains a list of 62 species of
birds.)
Weis, Samuel. List of Vertebrates observed at Okak, Labrador, by Rev.
Samuel Weis, with Annotations by Dr. A. S. Packard, Jr. Proc. Bost. Soc.
Nat. Hist, Vol. X,pp. 264-277,1866. (Birds, pp. 267 - 269 ; 85 species.)
Interior of British North America.

[Armstrong, A. A personal Narrative of the Discovery of the Northwest
Passage, etc. 8vo. London, 185 7. (31 species from the Arctic Coast.)]

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 433

Barxstox, George. Recollections of the Swans and Geese of Hudson's

Bay. Can. Nat and Geol., Vol. VI, pp. 33 7 - 344, 1861.
[Bi.akistox, Thomas. [Ornithological] Scraps from the Far West. Zoolo-
gist, 1859, pp. 0318-6325, 6373-6376:]
Bjlakistox, Capt. On Birds collected and observed in the Interior of

BritUi North America. Part I, Ibis, 1st Ser., Vol. Ill, pp. 314-320,

1861 ; Part II, Ibid., Vol. IV, pp. 3 - 10, 1862.
Blakistox, Capt. Notes on the Interior of British North America. Ibis,

1st Ser., Vol. V, pp. ul»-8 7, 1863. (Devoted principally to remarks on

the birds.)
Cassix. -Tohx. Remarks on Birds from the Arctic Regions, presented by

Dr. Kane. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., 1852, p. 107.
Edwards, Geoi:<;e. Natural History of Bird* etc. 4 vols. 4 to. London,

1743-1751. (Contains the first descriptions of 38 species of birds from

Hudson's Bay.)
Guxx, Doxald. Notes of an Egging Expedition to Shoal Lake, west of

Lake Winnipeg. Smithsonian Report, 1867, pp. 427 -432.
Forster, J. R. An Account of the Birds sent from Hudson's Bay, etc.

Phil. Trans., Vol. LXII, pp. 382-422, 1772. (58 species.)
Leach, W. E. Zoological Appendix to' Ross's Voyage to Baffin's Bay.

Birds, App. No. 2, pp. xlviii-lx, 1819. (20 species.)
Lord, J. K. List of Birds collected and presented by the British North

American Boundary Commission to the Royal Artillery Institution. Proc.

Roy. Artill. Instit., 1864, pp. 110-126. (87 species.)
Lord, J. K. Catalogue of the Birds, Nests, and Eggs cpllected by him when

Natural'st to the North American Boundary Conmifssion. Proc. Roy. Art.

Inst., 1865, pp. 33 7-339.
Murray, Andrew. Contributions to the Natural History of the Hudson's

Bay Company's Territory. Part III, Birds. Edinburgh New Phil. Journ.,

2d Ser., Vol. IX, pp. 221 - 231, 1857. (82 species.)
Richardsox, J., and Swaixsox, W. Fauna Boreali-Americana. Vol.

II, Birds. 4to, 1831. (238 species.)
Richardsox, John. Geographical Distribution of some American Birds.

Ann. Nat. Hist, Vol. XI, pp. 484, 1843. (A list of 12 species collected

at Fort Simpson, Mackenzie's River.")
Ross. Berxard R. Mammals and Birds of the Arctic Regions. Edinb.

Phil. Journ., 2d Ser., Vol. XIII, 1861, pp. 161-164. (A nominal list

of 94 species.)
Ross, Berxard R. List of Species of Mammals and Birds collected in

Mackenzie's River District during 1860-1861 (June, i860, to April, 1861).

Can. Nat. and Geol., Vol. VI, pp. 441-444, 1862. (80 species of birds

mentioned.)

vol. ii. 28

434 BULLETIN OF THE

Ross, Bernard R. List of Mammals, Birds and Eggs, observed in the
Mackenzie's River District, with Notices. Nat. Hist. Rev., Vol. II, pp.
276-290,1862. (192 species.)

Sabine, Edward. Supplement to the Appendix to Captain Parry's First
Voyage. London, 4to, 1824. (73 species.)

Sabine, Joseph. Birds of Sir John Franklin's [First] Journey. Frank-
lin's Journey to the Shore, of the Polar Sea. 4to. London, 1823. Ap-
pend., pp. 669 - 703. (94 species.)

Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Newfoundland.
Ambrose," John. Observations on the Sea-Birds frequenting St. Mar-
garet's Bay, N. S. Proc. Nov. Scot. Inst. Nat. Sci., Vol. II, Part II, pp.

51-59. (19 species)
Brewer, Thomas M. A few Ornithological Facts gathered in a hasty

Trip through Portions of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, in June, 1850.

Journ. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. VI, pp. 297-308, 1852. (7 species.)
Bryant, Henry. List of Birds observed at Grand Menan and at Yar-
mouth, N. S., from June 16 to July 8, 1856. Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist.,

Vol. VI, pp. 114 - 123, 1857. (55 species.)
Bryant, Henry. Remarks on some Birds that breed in the Gulf of St.

Lawrence. Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. VIII, pp. 65-75, 1860;

Can. Nat. and Geol., Vol. VI, 1861, pp. 255 - 267. (14 species.)
Downs, A. On the Land Birds of Nova Scotia. Proc. Nov. Scot. Inst.

Nat. Sci, Vol. II, pp. 38-51, 1865. (61 species.)
Jones, J. M. On some of the Rarer Birds of Nova Scotia. Proc. Nov.

Scot. Inst. Nat. Sci., Vol. II, Part II, pp. 70 - 73, 1868.
Reeks, Henry. Notes on the Birds of Newfoundland. Can. Nat., Voh

V, pp. 38-47, 151 -159, 1860.
Willis, J. R. List of the Birds of Nova Scotia, compiled from Notes by

Lieut. Blakiston and Lieut. Bland. Smithsonian Report, 1858, pp. 280 ~

286. (207 species.)

The Canadas.

Bell, Robert. Catalogue of Birds collected around Lakes Superior and
Huron in 1860. Can. Nat. and Geol., Vol. VI, pp. 270-275, 1861.
(77 species.)

Cabot, J. E. Report of the Birds collected and observed at Lake Supe-
rior. Agassiz's Lake Superior, pp. 383-385, 1850. (69 species.)

Couper, Wm. List of the Birds found in the Vicinity of Quebec, Lower
Canada. Samuels's Birds of New England, pp. 80, 81, 368-372) 396,
477-478, 571-573, 1868. (154 species.)

D'Urban, W. S. M. Notes on the Land Birds observed around Mon-

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 435

treal during the Winter of 1856-57. Can. Nat. and Geol., Vol. II, pp.

138-145,1857. (18 species.)
[Hadfield, Henry. Birds of Canada observed near Kingston during the

Spring of 1858. Zoologist, 1859, pp. 6701 - 6709, 6744- G752, G751 -G787.]
Hall, Archibald. On the Mammals and Birds of the District of Mon-
treal. Part II, Birds. Canadian Nat. and Geol., Vol. VII, pp. 44-54,

1862. (199 species.)
King, W. Ross. The Sportsman and Naturalist in Canada; or, Notes on

the Natural History of the Game, Game Birds, and Fish of that Country.

Imp. 8vo, London, 1866.
Le Moine, J. M. Notes on Land and Sea Birds observed around Quebec.

Can. Nat. and Geol., Vol. IV, pp. 411-414, 1859.
Le Moine, J. M. Ornithologie du Canada. Oiseaux de Proie et Palmi-
pedes. 8vo, pp. 96, Quebec, 1860.
McIlvv'raitii, Thomas. List of Birds observed near Hamilton, Canada

West. Proc. Essex Institute, Vol. V, pp. 79 - 96, 1866. (241 species.)
Vennor, II. G. A short Review of the Sylviadce, or Wood- Warblers, found

in the Vicinity of Montreal. Can. Nat. and Geol., VI, pp. 349-362, 1861.
Vennor, H. G., Jr. Notes on Birds wintering in and around Montreal.

Can. Nat. and Geol., Vol. V, pp. 425-430, 1860. (27 species.)
W., J. F. Notes on Canadian Birds. Can. Nat. and Geol., Vol. V, pp. 230,

231, 1870. (The capture of 9 rare species near Quebec mentioned.)

NEW ENGLAND STATES.
General.

Brewer, T. M. Seaside Ornithology. Am. Nat., Vol. Ill, pp. 225-235.
1869.

Coues, Elliott. A List of the Birds of New England. Proc. Essex Insti-
tute, Vol. V, pp. 249-314, 1868. (335 species.)

Samuels, E. A. Birds of New England and Adjacent States, 5th ed. (of
" Ornithology and Oology of New England"). Boston, 1870.

Maine.

Boardman, G. A. Catalogue of the Birds found in the Vicinity of Calais,
Maine, and about the Islands at the Mouth of the Bay of Fundy. Proc.
Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. IX, pp. 122-132, 1862. (231 species.)

Cabot, S., Jr. Notes of the Breeding of Mergus serrator, M. cucullatus,
Anns sponsa, A. obscura, and Fuligida clangula, on the Sources of the
Androscoggin River, Maine. Proc. Bost. Soc. Nai. Hist., Vol. II, p. 55.

Hamlin, C. E. Catalogue of Birds found in the Vicinity of Waterville,
Kennebec County, Maine. Rep. of Sec'y Maine Board of Agric, 1865,
pp. 168-173. (135 species.)

436 BULLETIN OF THE

Holmes, Ezekiel. Birds of Maine. Agr. Maine, 6th Ann. Rep., 1§61.

pp. 113-122. (A nominal list of 193 species.) Addenda to the same.

2d Ann. Rep. Nat. Hist, and Geol. of Maine, 18G2, p. 118. (13 species.)
Verrill, A. E. Catalogue of Birds found at Norway, Oxford County,

Maine. Proc. Essex Institute, Vol. Ill, pp. 13G - 158, 1863. (159 species.)
Verrill, A. E. Additions to the Catalogue of Birds found in the Vicinity

of Calais, Maine, and about the Bay of Fundy. Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat.

Hist., Vol. IX, pp. 233, 234, 1863. (12 species.)

Vermont.

Thompson, Zadoc. Birds of Vermont. History of Vermont, Natural,
Civil, and Statistical, 8vo. Burlington, 1842. Birds, pp. 56 -112.

Massachusetts.

Allen, J. A. Catalogue of the Birds found at Springfield, Massachusetts,

■with a List of those found in the State not yet observed at Springfield,

etc. Proc. Essex Institute, Vol. IV, pp. 48-98, 1864. (296 species.)
Allen, J. A. Winter Notes of an Ornithologist. Amer. Nat., Vol. I, pp.

38-48, 1867. (On the Winter Birds of Massachusetts.)
Allen, J. A. The Birds of Spring. Amer. Nat., Vol. I, pp. 141-144,

1867.
Allen, J. A. Notes on some of the Rarer Birds of Massachusetts. Amer.

Nat, Vol. Ill, pp. 505-519, 568-585, 631-648, 1869-70. (92 species.)
Anonymous. Notes on the Ducks found on the Coast of Massachusetts in

Winter. Amer. Nai., Vol., IV, p. 49. (8 species.)
Brewer, Thomas M. Some Additions to the Catalogue of the Birds of

Massachusetts in Prof. Hitchcock's Report, etc. Jour. Bost. Soc. Nat.

Hist, Vol. I, pp. 435-439, 1837. (45 species.)
Brewer, T. M. Observations on the Appearance of the Cliff Swallow

(Htrundo lunifrons), giving Data of its Appearance in New England. Puoc.

Bost. Soc. Nat. 1 1 i - 1 . , Vol. IV, p. 270, 1852.
Bryant, II. Notice of Mareca Penelope and Querquedula crecca taken in

Eastern Massachusetts. Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. V, p. 195, 1855.
Emmons, E. Catalogue of the Birds of Massachusetts. Hitchcock's Report

on the Geology of Mass., Amherst, 1833. (165 species.)
Maynard, C.J. Catalogue of the Birds of Eastern Massachusetts. Nat-
uralist's Guide, Part II, Boston, 1870. (299 species.)
Nuttall, Thomas. Remarks and Inquiries concerning the Birds of

Massachusetts. Mem. Amer. Acad. Arts and Sciences, 2d Ser., Vol. I,

pp. 91 - 106, 1833. (45 species remarked upon.)
Peabody, W. B. O. A Report on the Ornithology of Massachusetts.

Rep on the Fishes, Reptiles, and Birds oi Mass., 8vo, 1839, pp. 256-404 ;

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 43T

Ibid., Jour. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. Ill, pp. 65-246,1840. (284

species).
Putnam, Fred. W. Catalogue of the Birds of Essex County, Mass. Proc.

Essex Institute, Vol. I, pp. 201 - 231, 1856. (245 species.)
Samuels, E. A. Descriptive Catalogue of the Birds of Massachusetts.

Agr. of Mass., Sec'y's Rep., 18G3, App. pp. xvii-xxix, 1864. (267 species.)

Connecticut.

Linsley, J. H. A Catalogue of the Birds of Connecticut, etc. Am. Jour.

of Sci. and Arts, 1st Ser., Vol. XLIV, pp. 249 - 273, 1843. (302 species.)
"Wood, Wm. Rapacious Birds of Connecticut. Hartford Times, March 14

to August 8, 1861.

MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES.

New York.

De Kay, James E. Zoology of New York, or the New York Fauna. 4to.

Albany, 1844. Part II, Birds. (317 species.)
GiraoD, J. P. The Birds of Long Island, 8vo. New York, 1843-1844.

(276 species.)
Hopkins, Wm. List, of Sea-Birds obtained at Auburn, New York. Proc.

Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist, Vol. V, p. 13, 1854. (8 species.)
Lawrence, Geo. N. Catalogue of Birds observed on New York, Long

and Staten Islands. Ann. New York Lye. Nat. Hist, Vol. VHI. pp. 279-

300, 1867. (327 species.)

New Jersey.

Abbott, C. C. Catalogue of the Birds of New Jersey. Geol. of New

Jersey, Appendix, pp. 761 - 798, 1868. (301 species.)
Abbott, C. C. Notes on certain Inland Birds of New Jersey. Amer.

Nat, Vol. IV, pp. 536 - 550, 1870. (26 species.)
Turnbull, "Wm. P. The Birds of East Pennsylvania and New Jersey.

8vo pamphlet Philadelphia, 1869. (343 species.)

Pennsylvania.

Baird, Wm. M. and S. F. List of the Birds found in the Vicinity of
Carlisle, Cumberland County, Penn. Am. Jour. Sci. and Arts, 1st Ser.,
Vol. XLVI, pp. 261 - 273, 1844. (201 species.)

Baird, S. F. Catalogue of the Birds found in the Neighborhood of Car-
lisle, Cumberland County, Penn. Literary Rec and Journ. Linn. Ass.
Pennsyl. College, Vol. I, p. 249, 1845.

Barnard, Vincent. A Catalogue of the Birds of Chester County,
Pennsylvania, etc. Smiths. Rep., 1860, pp. 434 - 438. (191 species.)

Barton, Benj. S. Fragments of the Natural History of Pennsylvania.

438 BULLETIN OF THE

Folio. Philadelphia, 1799. (Contains a list of the birds of Pennsylvania,
with dates of migration.)

Halpemanx, S. S. Facts in Ornithology. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad.,
Vol. I, p. 54, 1841. (Falco peregrinus stated to breed " on the cliffs along
the Susquehanna.")

Taylor, It. C. On the Geology and Natural History of the Northeastern
Extremity of the Alleghany Mountain Range in Pennsylvania, U. S.
Loudon's Mag. Nat. Hist., Vol. VIII, pp. 539-540. (Contains a nomi-
nal list of 5G species of birds.)

Taylor, R. C. A Supplement to the List of Species of Birds occurring at
the Northeastern Extremity of the Alleghany Mountains. Loudon's
Mag. Nat. Hist., Vol. IX, pp. 72-74, 1836. (36 species.)

See also Turnbull, under New Jersey.

SOUTH ATLANTIC STATES.
General.

Bartram, John. Travels through North and South Carolina, Georgia,
East and West Florida, etc., 8vo. Philadelphia, 1791. Contains a list o:
the birds of the United States, pp. 289 - 296. (216 species.)

Catesby, Mark. The Natural History of Carolina, Florida, and the
Bahama Islands. 2 vols, folio, 3d ed. London, 1771.

Virginia and the District of Columbia.

[Clayton, John. On the Birds of Virginia. Phil. Trans., Vol. XVII, p.
988, 1693.]

Couks, Elliott, and Prentiss, D. Webster, List of the Birds ascer-
tained to inhabit the District of Columbia, with the Times of Arrival
and Departure of such as are Non-residents, etc. Smithsonian Report,
1861, pp. 399-421. (226 species.)

North Carolina.

Cope, E. D. Observations on the Fauna of the Southern Alleghanies.

Amer. Nat., Vol. IV, pp. 392-401, 1870. (Madison County, North

Carolina, and Giles County, East Virginia.)
[Coues, Elliott. Notes on the Natural History of Fort Macon, N. C.

Birds, Part I. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., 1871 (in press).]

South Carolina.

Bachman, Jonx. On the Migration of the Birds of North America.
Am. Journ. Sci. and Arts, 1st Ser., Vol. XXX, pp. 81 - 100, 1836. (Con-
tains numerous observations on the birds of South Carolina.)

Burnett, AV. I. Notes on the Fauna of the Pine Barrens of Upper South
Carolina. Proc Bost Soc. Nat Hist, Vol. IV, pp. 115-118, 1851. (69
species of birds mentioned.)

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 439

Coues, Elliott. Synopsis of the Birds of South Carolina. Proc. Bost.
Soc. Nat. Hist, Vol. XII, pp. 104 - 127, 1868. (294 species.)

Gibbs, Lewis R. Catalogue of the Birds of South Carolina. Tuomey's Ge-
ology of South Carolina, Appendix, pp. iii - viii, 1848. (271 species.)

Georgia.

Gerhardt, Alex. Uber die Lebensweise der Vdgel Nord-Amerikas

(Georgia). Naumannia, 1855, pp. 380-397, 458-469 ; 1856,. pp. 1 - 18.
Gerhardt, Alex. Verzeichniss der Vbgel des Staats Georgia, nach

White. Naumannia, 1855, pp. 382-383. (A nominal list of 270

species.)

Florida.
Allen, J. A. List of the Winter Birds of East Florida, -with Annotations.

Bulletin Mus. Comp. Zodl., Vol. II, pp. 250 - 368, 1871. (183 species.)
Bryant, H. Observations on some of the Birds of East Florida. Proc.

Bosc. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. VII, pp. 5-21, 1859. (26 species.)
Taylor, George Cavendish. Five Weeks in the Peninsula of Florida

during the Spring of 1861, with Notes on the Birds observed there.

Ibis, 1st Ser., Vol. IV,"pp. 127, 197, 1862.

GULF STATES.
Mississippi.

Wailes, B. L. C Birds of Mississippi. Rep. on Agr. and Geol. of Mis-
sissippi, pp. 317-327, 1854. (91 species; mainly a nominal list.)

CENTRAL STATES
Ohio.

Kirkpatrick, John. The Rapacious Birds of Ohio. Ohio Farmer for
1858-59; Ohio Agricult. Rep., 1858, pp. 340-383, 1859.

Kirtland, J. P. Fragments of Natural History. II, Ornithology. Am.
Journ. Sci. and Arts, 1st Ser., Vol. XL, pp. 19-24, 1841. (Contains
notes on 16 species observed near Cleveland.)

Kirtland, J. P. Catalogue of the Birds of Ohio. Secona Ann. Re-
port of the Geol. Survey of Ohio, pp. 1 77 - 187, 1838. (223 species.)

Read, M C. Catalogue of the Birds of Northern Ohio. Proc. Acad. Nat.
Sci. Philad., 1853, pp. 395-402. (145 species.)

Wheaton, J. M. Catalogue of the Birds of Ohio. Ohio Agri. Rep., 1860,
pp. 359-380, 480. (285 species.)

Indiana.

Allen, J. A. List of Birds observed in Richmond, Wayne Co., Indiana.
in June, 1867. Mem. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. I, pp. 522-526, 1868.
(72 species.)

440 BULLETIN OF THE

Haymoxd, Rufus. Birds of Southeastern Indiana. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci
Thilad., 1856, pp. 286-299. (147 species.)

Haymoxd, Rufus. Birds of Franklin County Indiana. Cox's Geol. Sur-
vey of Ind., 1869, pp. 209-235. (164 species.)

Illinois.

Allen, J. A. Notes on Birds observed in Northern Illinois, in June, 1867.

Mem. Bost. Soc*. Nat. Hist, Vol. I, pp. 502-522, 1868. (94 species.)
Brendel, F. Vbgel der Cmgegend Peoria's in Illinois. Giebel's Zeitsch.

fur Naturk., 1857, p. 420.
Kenxicott, Robert. Catalogue of the Animals of Cook County, Illinois.

[Birds.] Transact. 111. State Agric. Soc, I, 1853 - 54, pp. 580 - 591. (187

species.)
Kenxicott, R. Notes of the Occurrence of Plolus anhinga and Tantalus

loculalor in Southern Illinois. Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. V, p. 391,

1856.
Prattex, Henry. Catalogue of the Birds of Southern Illinois (Wayne

and Edwards Counties). Transact. 111. State Agric. Soc, I, pp. 596-609,

1853 - 54. (184 species.)

Michigan.

Hughes, D. Darwin. The Game Birds of Michigan. Detroit Free Press,

1870.
Kneeland, S., Jr. On the Birds of Keweenaw Point, Lake Superior.

Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist, Vol. VI, pp. 231-240, 1858. (147 species.)

Minnesota*

Head, J. F. Some Remarks on the Natural History of the Country about
Fort Ripley, Minnesota. Smithsonian Report, 1854, pp. 29i - 293. (60
species of birds mentioned.)

[Trippe, T. Martin. Notes on the Birds of Minnesota (in press). Proc.
Essex Institute, Vol. VI. (138 species.)]

"Wisconsin.

Barry, A. Constantixe. Ornithological Fauna of Wisconsin. Proc.
Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist, Vol. V, pp. 1-13, 1851. (193 species.)

Hoy, P. R. Notes on the Ornithology of Wisconsin. Proc Acad. Nat. Sci.
Philad., 1853, pp. 304-313, 381-385, 425-429. Ibid., Transact. Wis-
consin Agric Soc, 1852, pp. 341-364. (283 species.)

Iowa.
Allex, J. A. Notes on Birds observed in Western Iowa, July 1 to Sept.

20, 1867. Mem. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist, I, pp. 491 -502, 1868. (108 species.)
Allex. J. A. Catalogue of the Birds of Iowa. White's Geol. of Iowa,

Voi. II, Appendix, pp. 419-427, 1870. (283 species.)

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 441

Missouri.

Hoy, P. K. Journal of an Exploration of Western Missouri in 1854, etc.
Smithsonian Rep., 18G4, pp. 431-438. (Includes. a nominal list of the
birds observed, — ■ 153 species.)

Texas.

Butcher, II. B. List of Birds collected at Laredo, Texas, in 186G and
■1867. Proc Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., 1868, pp. 148-150. (89 species.)

Dresser, H. E. Notes on the Birds of Southern Texas. Ibis, 2d Ser.,
Vol. I, pp. 312-330, 466-495; Vol. II, pp. 23-46, 1866.

McCall, Geo. A. Remarks on the Habits, etc., of Birds met with in
Western Texas, between San Antonio and the Rio Grande, and in New
Mexico, with Descriptions of several Species believed to have been hitherto
undescribed. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., 1850-51, pp. 213-224.
(^GS species.)

McCall, Geo. A. [Ornithological] Facts and Observations from Notes
when in Texas. Ann. N. Y. Lye. Nat. Hist., Vol. VI, pp. 9-14. (18
species.)

Roemek, Ferdinand. Texas : mit besonderer Rlicksicht auf deutsche
Auswanderun"- und die physichen Verhaltnisse des Landes, nach eigener
Beobachtung geschildert. 8vo. Bonn, 1849. (Contains a list of birds, —
40 species.)

KOCKY MOUNTAINS AND ADJACENT PLAINS.
General.

Baird, S. F. ["Nominal] List of Birds inhabiting America, west of the

Mississippi, not described in Audubon's Ornithology. Stansbury's Expl.

and Survey of the Valley of the Great Salt Lake, pp. 327-335, 1852.

(153 species.)
Baird, S. F. Descriptions of New Birds, collected between Abuquerque,

New Mexico, and San Francisco, during the Winter of 1853-54, by Dr.

C. B. R. Kennerly and H. B. Mbllhausen, etc. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci.

Philad., Vol. VII, p. 118-120, 1854. (8 species.)
Baird, S. F. Report on the Birds collected by the United States and

Mexican Boundary Survey, with Notes by J. H. Clark, D. N. Couch,

and C. B. R. Kennerly. U. S. and Mex. Bound. Sur., Vol. II, Part II,

No. 2, pp. 1-32, 1859. (236 species.)
Baird, S. F. Report on the Birds collected on the Route near the 3§th

and 39th Parallels, explored by Capt. J. W. Gunnison, and near the 41st

Parallel, explored by Lieut. E. G. Beckwith. Pacific R. R. Rep. of Expl.

and Surv., Vol. X, Part IV, No. 2, pp. 11 - 16, 1S59. (25 species.)

442 BULLETIN OF THE

Cooper, J. G., and Suckley, G. Report on the Birds collected on the
Route near the 47th and 49th Parallels, explored by I. I. Stevens, Gov-
ernor of Washington Territory. Pacific R. R. Rep. of Expl. and Surveys,
Vol. XII, Part II, No. 3, pp. 140-291, 1859. (Republished, "with ad-
ditions and corrections," in 1860, forming the work entitled "Natural
History of Washington Territory.") (212 species.")

Cooper, J. G., and Suckley, G. List of Birds heretofore reported as
found in the Northwestern Part of America, but of which no Specimens
have been reported by recent Explorers. Pacific R. R. Rep. of Expl.
and Surv., Vol. XII, Part II, Zoology, pp. 288-290, 1859. (120 species.)

Coues, Elliott. Ornithology of a Prairie Journey, and Notes on the
Birds of Arizona. Ibis, 1st Ser., Vol. V, April, 1865.

Haydex, F. V. List of the Birds of the Upper Missouri. Geol. and Nat.
Hist, of the Upper Missouri, pp. 157-176, 4to. Philadelphia, 1862.
(191 species.)

Heermanx, A. L. Report on the Birds collected on the Route near the
32d Parallel, from the Rio Grande to the Pimas Villages, explored by
Lieut. J. G. Parke. Pacific R. R. Rep. of Expl. and Surveys, Vol. X, Part
— , No. 1, pp. 5 - 20, 1859. (25 species.)

Kexxerly, C. B. R. Report upon the Birds of the Route near the 35th
Parallel, explored by Lieut. A. W. Whipple. Pacific R. R. Rep. of Expl.
and Surveys, Vol. X, Part VI, No. 3, pp. 19-35, 1859. (88 species.)

Newberry, J. S. Report upon the Zoology of Lieut. R. S. Williamson's
Explorations in Oregon and California. Pacific R. R. Expl. and Surveys,
Vol. VI, Part IV, No. 2, chap, ii, Birds, pp. 73 - 110, 1857. (175 species.)

Say, Thomas. The Ornithological Articles in Long's Expedition (from
Pittsburg to the Rocky Mountains). 2 vols. 8vo. Philadelphia, 1823.

Towxsexd, Johx K. List of the Birds inhabiting the Regions of th
Rocky Mountains, the Territory of Oregon, and the Northwest Coast of
North America. Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., 1st Ser., Vol. VIII, pp.
151-158, 1839. (231 species.)

Towxsexd, Johx K. Description of twelve new Species of Birds, chiefly
from the Vicinity of the Columbia River, with an Appendix containing a
[nominal] List of the Birds of the Columbia River. Journ. Acad. Nat.
Sci. Philad., 1st Ser., Vol. VII, pp. 187 - 193, 1837. (72 species.)

Woodiiouse, S. W. Report on the Birds of Capt. L. Sitgreaves's Expedi-
tion down the Zuiii and Colorado Rivers. Sitgreaves's Report, pp. 58 -
105, 1853. (247 species.)

Montana.

Cooper, J. G. The Fauna of Montana Territory. Part II, Birds. Amer.
Nat., Vol. II, pp. 596 -GUU; Vol. Ill, pp. 31-35, 73-84,1869. (107
species.)

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 443

Utah.

Baird, S. F. Exploration and Survey of the Valley of the Great Salt Lake,
etc., by H. Stansbury, T. E., U. S. A. 8vo. Philad., 1852, Appen-
dix C, Birds, pp. 314-324. (31 species.)

Baihd, S. F. Birds found at Fort Bridger. Gen. Rep. on Birds of N.
Amer., Append., pp. 926, 927; P. R. K. Rep. of Expl. and Surv., Vol'
IX, 1858. (104 species.)

Arizona.

Coues, Elliott. List of Birds collected in Southern Arizona by Dr. E.
Palmer, with Remarks. Proe. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., 1868, pp. 81-85
(53 species.)

Coues, Elliott. List of the Birds of Fort Whipple, Arizona, with
which are incorporated all other Species ascertained to inhabit the Ter-
ritory, etc. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., 1866, pp. 39-100. (245
species.) — Republished under the title, " Prodrome of a Work on the
Ornithology of Arizona Territory." *

New Mexico

Baird, S. F. On Birds collected in New Mexico by Lieut. Abert. Stans-
bury's Exped., pp. 325-327. (9 species.)

Henry, T. Charlton. Notes derived from Observations made on the
Birds of New Mexico, during the Years 1853 and 1854. Proc. Acad. Nat.
Sci. Philad., 1855, pp. 306 - 317. (170 species.)

Henry, T. Charlton. Catalogue of the Birds of New Mexico, as com-
piled from Notes and Observations made while in that Territory, during
a Residence of six Years. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., 1859, pp. 104-
109. (198 species.)

PACIFIC COAST.
General.

Cassin, John. Catalogue of Birds collected by the North Pacific Survey-
ing and Exploring Expedition, in Command of Capt. Rogers, U. S. N.,
etc. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., 1862, pp. 312-328. (Contains many
species from the West Coast of North America.)

Peale, Titian R. Report on the Mammalia and Birds of the U. S. Ex-
ploring Expedition under Capt. Wilkes. 4to. Philadelphia, 1848. (In-
cludes many species from the West Coast of North America.)

Vigors, N. A. Ornithology of Captain Beechey's Voyage. Zool. of
Beechey's Voyage, pp. 13-40, 1839.

* I regret to learn from Dr. Coues that this work will not be published.

444 BULLETIN OF THE

Alaska.

Baird, S. F. On Additions to the Bird-Fauna of North America, made

by the Scientific Corps of the Russo-American Telegraph Expedition.

Transact. Chicago Acad. Sci., Vol. I, pp. 311-337, 1870. (16 species.)
Dai.l, W. II., and Bannister, II. M. List of the Birds of Alaska, with

Biographical Notes. Transact. Chicago Acad. Science, Vol. I, pp. 267 —

310, 1870. (212 species.)
Dall, W. H. Alaska and its Resources. 8vo. Boston, 1870, pp. 580-586.

(Contains a nominal list of 212 species.)

Vancouver's Island.

Brown, Robert. Synopsis of the Birds of Vancouver's Island. Rois,
1868, pp. 414-428. (153 species.)

[Lord, Joiix K. The Naturalist in Vancouver's Island and British Co-
lumbia. 2 vols. 8vo. London, 1866. Vol. II, pp. 291-301, contains a list
of 226 species of birds collected by Mr. Lord.]

Sclater, P. L. On a Collection of Birds from Vancouver's Island. Proc.
Zool. Soc. Lond., 1859, pp. 235-237. (35 species.)

California.

Brewer, T. M. List and Descriptions of Eggs obtained in California by

Mr. E. Samuels. Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. VI, pp. 145 - 149, 1857

(16 species.)
Bridges, Thomas. Notes on California Birds, with Remarks by P. L

Sclater. Proc. Zobl. Soc. Lond., 1858, pp. 1 -31, 1858. (11 species.)
Cooper, J. G. The Fauna of California and its Geographical Distribution

Proc. Cal. Acad. Sci., Vol. IV, pp. 61 -81, 1869.
Cooper, J. G. Species of Animals new to the State of California. Proc

Cal. Acad. Sci., Vol. II, pp. 118-123, 1861. (18 species of birds.)
COOPER, J. G. Some recent Additions to the Fauna of California. Proc

Cal. Acad. Sci., Vol. IV, pp. 3-13, 1868. (33 speciesof birds added.)
Cooper, J. G. The Naturalist in California. Amer. Nat, Vol. Ill, pp

182- 189, 470-481, 1869.
Cooper, .1. G. Monterey in the dry Season. Amer. Nat., Vol. IV, pp

756-758, 1871. (About 30 species of birds mentioned as summer resi-
dents.)
Cooper, J. G, and Baird, S. F. Ornithology of California. Vol. I, [Land

Birds,] royal 8vo, 1870.
Coi i S, Elliott. From Arizona to the Pacific. Ibis, 2d Ser., Vol. I. pp.

260-275, 1866.
Feilner, Joiix. [Ornithological] Explorations in Upper California in

1860 Smith. Rep., 1864, pp. 421-430.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 445

Gam bel, Wm. Remarks on the Birds observed in Upper California, with
Descriptions of New Species. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., 184G-47,
pp. 44-48, 110-115, 154-158, 200-205. (84 species.) Ibid., Journ.
Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., 2d Ser., Vol. I, pp. 25-56, 215 - 229, 1847 - 1849.
(176 species.)

Heermann, A. L. Notes on the Birds of California observed during a Res-
idence of three Years in that Country. Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil., 2d
Ser., Vol. II, pp. 259-272, 1853. (103 species.)

Heermann, A. L. Report on the Birds collected during Explorations in
California for Railroad Routes to connect with the Routes near the 35th
and 3 2d Parallels of North Latitude, made by Lieut. R. G. William-
son. Pacific R. R. Rep. of Expl. and Surveys, Vol. X, Part IV, No. 2, pp.
29 - 80. (221 species.)

Lichtexsteix, H. Beitriige zur ornithologischen Fauna von Californien,
etc. Abhandl. der Berlin Akad., Phys. Kl., 1838, pp. 417-451.

Sclater, P. L. List of Birds collected by Mr. Thomas Bridges, in the
Valley of San Jose, California. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1857, pp. 125-
127. (33 species.)

Vigors, N A. On a Collection of Skins of Birds from California. Proc.
Zool. Soc. Lond., Vol. I, p. 65, 1833. (Only a paragraph often lines.)

Xantus, Johx. List of Birds collected at Fort Tejon, California. Proc.
Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., 1859, pp. 189 -193. (144 species.)

MEXICO.
Baird, S. F. Notes on a Collection of Birds made by Joan Xantus, Esq.,

at Cape St. Lucas, Lower California. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad.,

1859, pp. 299 - 306. (42 species.)
Boxaparte, C. L. Catalogue d'Oiseaux du Mexique et du Perou. Rev.

Zool., 1840, p. 19.
Cabot, Samuel. Descriptions and Habits of some of the Birds of

Yucatan. Journ. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. IV, pp. 460-467, 1843'

(4 species.)
Cassin, Joiix. Catalogue of Birds collected by Mr. Wm. S. [H.] Pease

during the March of the Army of the United States from Vera Cruz to

the City of Mexico. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., 1848-49, pp.

87-91. (45 species.)
Lawrence, G. N. List of a Collection of Birds from Northern Yucatan.

Ann. N. Yr. Lye. Nat. Hist., Vol. IX, pp. 198 - 210, 1869. (103 species.)
Montes-de-Oca, Rafael. The Mexican Humming-Birds. Proc. Acad.

Nat. Sci. Philad., 1860, pp. 47, 48, 80, 81, 551 - 553. (4 species.)
[Parzudaki, E. Catalogue des Oiseaux du Mexique qui composent les

collections de M. Salle. (432 species.)]

446 BULLETIN OF THE

Sclater, P. L. On a Collection of Birds made by Mr. H. S. le Strange,

near the City of Mexico. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1869, pp. 3G1-364.

(Of the 262 species said to have been contained in the collection only 15

are particularly mentioned.)
Sclater, P. L. List of a Collection of Birds procured by Mr. G. H.

"White in the Vicinity of the City of Mexico. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond.,

1864, pp. 172 - 179. (156 species.)
Sclater, P. L. Notes on some Birds from Southern Mexico. Proc. Zool.

Soc. Lond., 1858, pp. 95-99. (14 species.)
Sclater, P. L. On a Collection of Birds received by Mr. Salle from South-
ern Mexico. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1857, pp. 226-230. (29 species.)
Sclater, P. L. Catalogue of the Birds collected by M. Aug. Salle in South-
ern Mexico, etc. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1856, pp. 283-311. (233 species.)
Sclater, P. L. On a Collection of Birds made by Sign. Matteo Botteri

in the Vicinity of Orizaba, Southern Mexico. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond.,

1857, pp. 210-215. (38 species.)
Sclater, P. L. Notes on a Collection of Birds from the Vicinity of

Orizaba and neighboring Parts of Southern Mexico. Proc. Zool. Soc.

Lond., 1860, pp. 250 - 254. (44 species.)
Sclater, P. L. List of Birds collected by Mr. A. Boucard in the State

of Oaxaca in Southern Mexico. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1859, pp. 369 —

393. (236 species.)
Sclater, P. L. List of Additional Species of Mexican Birds obtained

by M. Salle, from the Environs of Jalapa and San Andres Tuxtla. Proc.

Zool. Soc. Lond., pp. 201-207, 1857. (62 species)
Sclater, P. L. On a Series of Birds collected in the Vicinity of Jalapa,

Mexico. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1859, pp. 362- 369. (226 species.)
Sclater, P. L. On some Birds to be added to the Avifauna of Mexico.

Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1862, pp. 368, 369. (8 species N,
Sumiciirast, F. The Geographical Distribution of the Native Birds of

the Department of Vera Cruz, with a List of the Migratory Species,

translated from the French, by Dr. T. M. Brewer. Mem. Bost Soc. Nat.

Hist., Vol. I, pp. 542-563, 1869. (225 species.)
Sw.uxso.v, Wm, A Synopsis of the Birds discovered in Mexico by W.

Bullock, Sen. and Jun. Phil. Mag., 2d Ser., Vol. I, pp. 364-369, 433-

442, 1827. (101 species.)

CENTRAL AMERICA.

General.
BONAPARTE, C L. Notes sur les collections rapporte'es en 1853, par M.
A. Delattre de son voyage en California et dans ie Nicaragua. Comptes

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 447

Rendus, Tome XXXVIII, pp. 827-835, 913-927, 1853; Tome XXXVIII,

pp. 1-11, 53-66; 258-266, 365-389, 533-542, 650-665, 1854.
Coues, Elliott. Notes on Certain Central American Laridce. Ibis, 1864.
Moore, T. J. List of Mammals and Birds collected by Mr. Jos. Leland

in Honduras, Belize, and Guatemala. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1859, pp.

50-65. (129 species.)
Lawrence, Geo. N. Descriptions of New Species of Birds of the Families

Zanagradce,'etc, etc. Ann. Lye. Nat. Hist. N. Y., Vol. VIII, pp. 126-

135. (12 species.)
Lawrence, Geo. N. Descriptions of Six New Species of Birds from

Central America. Ann. Lye. Nat. Hist. N. Y., Vol. VIII, pp. 170-173.
Salvin, Osbert. A List of Species to be added to the Ornithology of

Central America. Ibis, 1861.
Salvin, O., and Sclater, P. L. Descriptions of New Species of Birds of

the Families Dendrocolaplidce, Slrigidce, and Columbidce. Proc. Zool.

Soc. Lond., 1868, pp. 53-60.
Salvin, Osbert. On the PsiUacidce of Central America. Ibis, 1871, pp.

86-100. (27 species.)
Sclater, P. L., and Salvin, O. On the Ornithology of Central America.

Ibis, I, pp. 1 - 22, 1 1 7 - 138, 213 - 234, 1859. (382 species.)
Sclater, P. L„ and Salvin, O. Descriptions, of New and Little-known

American Birds, etc. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1868, pp. 322-329.
Sclater, P. L., and Salvin, O. Descriptions of Six New Species of

American Birds, etc. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1869, pp. 416-420.
Sundevall, C. J. Conspectus genris Certhiolce. Ofvers. Kongl. Vetensk.

Acad. Forhand., 1869, pp. 619-625. (20 species.)

Guatemala.

Salvin, Osbert, and Sclater, P. L. Contributions to the Ornithology
of Guatemala. Ibis, 1860, pp. 28-45, 272-278. (119 species.)

Salvin, Osbert. Notes on the Humming-Birds of Guatemala. Ibis,
1860, pp. 259-272. (23 species.)

Salvin, Osbert The Sea-Birds and Waders of the Pacific Coast of
Guatemala. Ibis, 1865, pp. 187- 199.

Salvin, Osbert. A further Contribution to the Ornithology of Guate-
mala. Ibis, 1866, pp. 188-206. (81 species.)

Salvin, Osbert. On some Collections of Birds from Veragua. Proc.
Zool. Soc. Lond., 1867, pp. 129 - 161. (220 species.)

Salvin, Osbert. Descriptions of Eight New Species of Birds from Vera-
gua. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1866, pp. 67-76.

Sclater, P. L., and Salvin, O. Descriptions of Four New Species of
Birds from Veragua. Proc Zool. Soc. Lond., 1868, pp 387-390.

44S BULLETIN OF TIIE

Sclater, P. L., and Salvin, O. Descriptions of Three New Species of
Tanagers from Veragua. Proc. Zobl. Soc. Lond., 18G9, pp. 439-440.

Honduras.

Lawrence, G. N. Catalogue of a Collection of Birds in the Museum of
the Smithsonian Institution, made by Mr. II. E. Holland at Greytown,
Nicaragua, etc. Ann. Lye. Nat Hist. N. York, 1865, pp. 179 - 185. (61
species.)

Salvin, Osbert. A Fortnight amongst the Sea-Birds of British Honduras.
Ibis, 1864, pp. 372-387.

Sclater, P. L. List of Birds collected by Geo. Cavendish Taylor in the
Republic of Honduras. Proc. Zobl. Soc, 1858, pp. 356-360. (39 species.)

Sclater, P. L., and Salvin, Osbert. List of Birds collected on the
Bluefields River, Mosquito Coast, by Mr. Henry Wickham. Proc. Zool.
Soc. Lond., 1867, pp. 278-280. (39 species.)

Taylor, Geo. Cavendish. On Birds collected in the Republic of Hon-
duras, etc. Ibis, 1860, pp. 10-24, 110-122, 222-228, 311-317. (96
species.)

Costa Rica.

Cabanis, J. Uebersicht der im Berliner Museum befindlichen Vbgel von
Costa Rica. Journ. fur Orn., VIII Jahrgang, pp. 321-336, 401-416,
1860; IX Jahrgang, pp. 1-14, 96, 241-256, 1861. (113 species.)

Cassin, John. On some Conirostral Birds from Costa Rica, etc. Proc.
Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., 1865, pp. 169 - 172. (22 species.)

[Fran zi us, V. Ueber die geographische Verbreitung der Vbgel Costa-
Rica's. Caban. Journ. fur Ornith., 1869, pp. 195, 290.]

Lawrence, G. N. A Catalogue of the Birds of Costa Rica. Ann. Lye.
Nat. Hist. New York, 1868, pp. 86 - 149. (511 species.)

Salvadori, Tommaso. Intorno ad alcuni Uccelli di Costa Rica. Atti
della R. Accad. Sc di Torino, 1868, pp. 170 - 185. (23 species.)

Salvin, Osbert. Descriptions of Seventeen New Species of Birds from
Costa Rica. Proc. Zobl. Soc. Lond., 1864, pp. 5 79-586.

Salvin, Osbert. Notes on Mr. Lawrence's List of Costa Rica Birds.
Ibis, 1869, pp. 310-319 ; 1870, pp. 107-116. (29 species added to Mr.
Lawrence's List.)

New Granada.

La whence, Geo. N. Catalogue of a collection of Birds made in New
Granada, etc. Ann. Lye. Nat. Hist. New York, Vol. VII, pp. 288-302,
315-334; 461-479, 1861; Vol. VIII, pp. 1-13, 1862. (415 species.)

LAWRENCE, Geo. N. List of Birds from near David, Chiriqui, New Gra-
nada, etc. Ann. Lye. Nat. Hist. New York, 1865, pp. 175-179. (39
species.)

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 449

THE BERMUDA AND WEST INDIA ISLANDS.
Bermudas.

Bland, Lieut. List of the Birds of Bermuda. Smithsonian Report, 1858,

pp. 286-289. (114 species.)
Wedderburn, J. W., and Hurdis, J. L. Notes and Observations on the

Birds of Bermuda, etc. Jones's The Naturalist in Bermuda. London,

1859, pp. 23-97.

Bahamas.

Bryant, Henry. A List of Birds seen at the Bahamas, from January 20 to
May 14, 1859, etc. Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. VII, pp. 102-134,
18G0. (87 species.)

Bryant, Henry. Additions to a List of the Birds seen at the Bahamas.
Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist, Vol. XI, pp. 63 - 70, 1866. (31 species.)

Cuba.

Brever, T. M. [Nominal] List of the Birds of Cuba, compiled from two

Lists furnished by Dr. John Gundlach. Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol.

VII, pp. 305-308, 1860. (251 species.)
Gundlach, John. Description of Five new Species of Birds, and other

Ornithological Notes of Cuban Species. Journ. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist.,

Vol. VI, pp. 313-319, 1852. (18 species in all.)
Gundlach, J. Beitrage zur Ornithologie Cuba's. Journ. fiir Orn., II

Jahrgang, pp. — , 1854; III Jahrgang, 465, 1855; IV Jahrgang, pp. 1,

97, 337, 417, 1856 ; V Jahrgang, pp. 225-242, 1857. (251 species.)
Gundlach, J. Tabellarische Uebersicht aller bisher auf Cuba beobach-

teten Vbgel. Journ. fur Orn., IX Jahrgang, pp. 321-349, 1861. (249

species.)
Gundlach, J. Zus'atze und Berichtigungen zu den " Beitr'agen zur Or-
nithologie Cuba's." Journ. fiir Orn., IX Jahrgang, pp. 401-416; X

Jahrgang, pp. 81-96. (249 species.)
Gundlach, Juan. Revista y Catalogo de las Aves cubauas. Repert.

fisico-nat. de Cuba, Vol. I, pp. 165-180, 221-242, 2S1 -302, 347-363,

386-403, 1865, 1866. (257 species.)
Gundlach, J. Briefliches von Cuba. Cab. Journ. fur Orn., 1866, pp.

352-353.
Lawrence, Geo. N. Notes on some Cuban Birds, etc. Ann. Lye Nat.

Hist. New York, Vol. VII, p. 247, 1860. (27 species.)
Lembeye, J. Aves de la Isle de Cuba, 8vo. Habana, 1850. (222 species.)
Ramon de la Sagra. Histoire physique, politique et naturelle de File

de Cuba, etc. Ornithologie par A. d'Orbigny. 8vo, 1839. (129 species.).
Vigors, N. A. On some Birds from Cuba. Zool. Journ., Vol. Ill, pp.
432-448, 1828. (45 species.,

450 BULLETIN OF THE

Jamaica.
Gosse, P. H. The Birds of Jamaica. 8vo. London, 1847.
Makch, W. T. Notes on the Birds of Jamaica, with Remarks by S. F.

Baird. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., 1863, pp. 150-154, 283-304;

1864, pp. 62- 72. (109 species.)
[Osuurn, W. Notes on the Mountain Birds of Jamaica. Zoologist, pp.

6709, 6761.]
Sclater, P. L. A List of a Collection of Birds made by the late Mr. W.

Osburn in Jamaica, with Notes. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1861, pp. 69-

82. (92 species.)

St. Domingo, St. Thomas, Porto Rico, etc.
Bryant, Henry. A List of the Birds of St. Domingo, etc. Proc. Bost.

Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. XI, pp. 89 - 98, 1866. (78 species.)
Bryant, II. A List of Birds from Porto Rico, etc. Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat.

Hist., Vol. X, pp. 248 - 257, 1866. (41 species.)
Cassin, John. Catalogue of Birds from the Island of St. Thomas, West

Indies, collected and presented to the Academy of Natural Science by

Mr. Robert Swift. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., 1860, pp. 374-379. (27

species.)
Lawrence, G. N., and Julien, A. A. Catalogue of Birds collected at

the Island of Sombrero, AV. I. Ann. Lye. Nat. Hist. New York., VIII,

pp. 93-107, 1864. (34 species.)
Newton, A. and E. Observations on the Birds of St. Croix, West Indies,

made between February 20 and August 6, 1857, and March 4 and Sep-
tember 28, 1858. Ibis, I, pp. 59-69, 138-150, 253-264, 365-379,

1859. (64 species.)
Salle\ Aug. Liste des Oiseaux rapportes et observes dans la Repub-

lique Dominicaine, pendant son voyage de 1849 - 1851. Proc. Zool. Soc.

Lond., 1857, pp. 230-237. (61 species.)
Sundevai.l, C. J. Aves Insula? Portorico. Ofvers. Kongl. Vetensk. Akad.

Forhand., 1869, pp. 593-603. (90 species.)
Sundevall, C. J. Aves Insulae Sancti Barthelemy. Ofvers. Kongl.

Vetensk. Akad. Forhand., 1869, pp. 579-592. (47 species.)

Cambridge, April, 1871.

N. B. — The Museum of Comparative Zoology would gladly accept books not
yet upon the shelves of its library in exchange for its publications or zoological
specimens.

::

— —

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-'•

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; i

Plate IV.*

Fig. 1 - la. Tyrannus carolinensis, specimen No. 6942, from Eastern Massa-
chusetts.

" 2 - 2a. Tyrannus carolinensis, specimen No. 6945, from Eastern Massa-
chusetts.

" 3 - 3a. Troglodytes aedon, specimen No. 10931,9, from Jacksonville, Fla.

" 4 - 4a. Troglodytes addon, specimen No. 10684, 9 , from Dummitt's, Fla.

" 5 -5a. Troglodytes aedon, specimen No. 10683, from Dummitt's, Fla.

" 6 - 6a. Troglodytes aedon, specimen No. 5212, from Welaka, St. John's
River, Fla.

" 7 -7a. Troglodytes aedon, specimen No. 10930, from Jacksonville, Fla.

" 8 -8a. Seiurus noveboracensis, specimen No. 5447, from Mount Tom,
Mass.

" 9 -9a. Seiurus noveboracensis, specimen No. 1442, from Weston,
Mass.

" i0-10a. ^Seiurus noveboracensis, specimen No. 6794, from Brookline,
Mass.

" 11 - 11a. Seiurus noveboracensis, specimen No. 4246, from Waterville,
Maine.

" 12- 12a. Mniotilla varia, specimen No. 5148, £, from Jacksonville,
Fla.

" 13 -13a. Mniotilla varia, specimen No. 6806, £, from Brookline,
Mass.

" 14 -14a. Mniotilla varia, specimen No. 8216, £, from Hudson, Mass.

" 15 - 15a. Dendrozca striata, specimen No. 5052, £, from Watertown,
Mass.

u 16- 16a. Dendrozca striata, specimen No. 4367, £, from Newtonville,
Mass.

" 17- 17a. Pipilo crythrophthalmus, specimen No. 4727, £, from "Wes-
ton, Mass.

" 18- 18a. Pipilo erythrophthahnus, specimen No. 10721, £, from Dum-
mitt's, Fla.

" 19 -19a. Pyranga cestiva, specimen No. 10629, £, from Jacksonville,
Fla.

" 20 -20a. Pyranga astiva, specimen No. 5431, £, from Jacksonville,
Fla.

* At bottom of Plata IV, last line, for " Pyranga rubra " read " Pyranga cestiva."

'

I

jg

■-

'

JB

m

I

Plate V.

Fig. 1 - la. Mgioihw linaria, specimen No. 10859, £, from Newton, Mass.
" -2a. jEgiothus linaria, specimen No. 10860, <J, from Newton, Mass.
" 3 -3a. jEgiothus linaria, specimen No. 6392, <£, from Fort Anderson,
British America. (An original specimen of jE. fuscescens
Coues. — Smith. Inst:, No. 43386.)
u 4 -4a. JEg'iothus linaria, specimen No. 4943, from Newton, Mass.
" 5 -5a. jEgiothus linaria, specimen No. 3229, from Southern Maine.
" 6 -6a. JEg'iothus linaria, specimen No. 6489, 9 > from Fort Simpson,
British America. (An original specimen of JE. exilipes
Coues. — Smith. Inst., No. 27431.)
" 7 - 7a. Chrysomitris tristis, specimen No. 6453, £, from Rocky Moun-
tains, west of Denver, Colorado.
" 8 -8a. Chrysomilris tristis, specimen No. 8125, £, from Springfield,

Mass.
u 9 -9a. Chrysomitris tristis, specimen No. 4925, from Newtonville,

Mass.
" 10 -10a. Chrysomitris tristis, specimen No. 4631, from Newtonville,

Mass.
11 11 -11a. Chrysomitris pinus, specimen No. 9556, from "Waterville,

Maine.
" 12 -12a. Chrysomitris pinus, specimen No. 10875, from Gorham, New

Hampsliire.
" 13 - 13a. Curvirostra americana, specimen No. 4639, £, from Newton,

Mass.
" 14 -14a. Curvirostra americana, specimen No. 4638, ^, from Newton,

Mass.
" 15- 15a. Curvirostra americana, specimen No. 4637, <J, from Newton,

Mass.
" 16 -16a. Passerculus savanna, specimen No. 5084, £, from Ipswich,

Mass.
" 17 -17a. Passerculus savanna, specimen No. 5175, £, from Hibernia,

St. John's River, Florida.
" 18 -18a. Passerculus savanna, specimen No. 7119, <J, from Henley
Harbor, Labrador.

.

Plate VI

Fig. 1- la. Agelceus phceniceus, specimen No. 8071, <J, from Orleans,

Mass.
" 2 -2a. Agelceus phoeniceus, specimen No. 10572, <£, from Dummitt's,

Fla.
" 3 -3a. Agelceus phceniceus, specimen No. 4589, £, from Newtonville,

Mass.
" 4 -4a. Agelceus phceniceus, specimen No. 8068, £, from Orleans, Mass.
" 5 - 5a. Agelceus phceniceus, specimen No. 10569, £, from Dummitt's,

Fla.
" 6 -6a. Agelceus phceniceus, specimen No. 10576, <J, from Dummitt's,

Fla.

Plate VH

Fig. 1 - la. Quiscalus purpurcus, specimen No. 4601, £, from Newtonville,

Mass.
" 2 -2a. Quiscalus purpureus, specimen No. 5201, £, from "Welaka, St.

John's River.
" 3 -'6a. Quiscalus purpureus, specimen No. 4603, £, from Newtonville,

Mass.
" 4- 4a. Quiscalus purpureus, specimen No. 8072, g, from Orleans,

Mass.
" 5 -5a. Quiscalus purpureus, specimen No. 6834, g, from Phillipsburg

New Jersey,
" 6 - 6a. Quiscalus purpureus, specimen No. 6848, <J, from Cape Florida.

£a

■

•

-

Plate Vm.

Fig. I -la. Siurnella ludoviciana, specimen No. 5370, 9> from Hawkins-

ville, Fla.
" 2 - 2a. Siurnella ludoviciana, specimen No. 5372, 9> from Hawkins-

ville, Fla.
u 3 - 3a. Siurnella ludoviciana, specimen No. 5339, £ , from Enterprise,

Fla.
" 4 - 4a. Siurnella ludoviciana, specimen No. 5340, g, from Enterprise,

Fla.
" 5 -5a. Colapfex auratus, specimen No. 4881, 9» from Newton, Mass.
<f 6 -6a. Colaptes auratus, specimen No. 5464, 9) from Newton, Mass.

Errata. At the upper left-hand corner of all the plates, for " Bull. M. C. Z., Vol.
II, No. 2," read " Bull. M. C. Z., Vol. II, No. 3."

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY.

451

No. 4. — Directions for Dredging. Drawn up by L. F. de
Pourtales, Assist. U. S. Coast Survey.

The results obtained in late years by dredging in various depths
have been such as to open a wide field to the naturalist. The laborers
are few as yet, and these directions are issued in the hope of increasing
their number by making them acquainted with the readiest modes of
operation.

The dredge has as yet received but few improvements sin<*e the days
of Forbes. His model has proved simple and sufficient,- and would prob-
ably gain little by being made more complicated. Its construction will
be best understood by referring to the figure below, in which a a repre-
sents an iron frame with the edges b b sharpened and slightly turned
up, and forming the scrapers- The rear edge is pierced with a row of
holes, through which the twine, or, better, brass wire, is passed by which
the net is fastened. The arms c c are hooked to the short sides of the

frame, in such a way as to allow their being folded in, for easier trans-
portation, and turned out in case they are caught among the rocks, as
will be explained further on. The net is made of strong twine with
small meshes, and may be three or four feet deep, according to the size
of the dredge. It was found convenient to have it open at the bottom,
and gathered and firmly tied only when in use. This gives greater
convenience in emptying and -washing out the bag after a haul. The
net is protected against the rocks and corals by an outer covering of
stout canvas or leather, open at the bottom. It is represented cut

452 BULLETIN OF THE

open and tliu.wn back in the figure, so as to show the net. The Eng-
lish Deep-Sea Dredging Expedition used a double bag, the outer being
a close net of sounding-line, the inner a piece of " bread-bag," a some-
what open canvas. To prevent the bag from being turned inside out
in going down, a stout brass wire, bent in a semicircle and put inside
the ba" with the ends fastened to the frame, will be found very con-
venient.

The dredge used by the Swedish expeditions is a little different, the
ba^ being simple and made of canvas with several square holes closed
with wire-gauze. Light objects would seem liable to be washed out
of this bag when hauling up, still it appears to have worked satisfac-
torily.

Mr. Bowerbank used a bag formed of two pieces of raw hide con-
nected at the ends and bottom by a net made of cod-line.

The dimensions of a dredge vary according to the depth or bottom on
which it is to be used. From two feet by six inches up to four feet by
ei^ht inches will be found the most useful dimensions. For deep-sea
dredging, the dredge ought to be heavy, so as to sink rapidly, and be
kept on the bottom by its own weight. A heavy lead was attached to it
with advantage in the United States Coast Survey Expedition. The
English dredgers consider it an impediment, and prefer to have the
weight in the metal of the dredge. The rope used by the United States
Coast Survey in deep-sea dredging was from one and a half to one and
three fourths inches in circumference, made of best Italian hemp by
Messrs. Sewall, Day, & Co., of Boston, and gave entire satisfaction.
The Porcupine Expedition used hemp rope two and two and a half
inches in circumference.

In dredging over rocky ground, the rope is fastened to the ring of
one of the°af"ms only, whilst the other is tied to it with spun-yarn.
Should the dredge get foul of a rock, the stop will break and the
dredge come up endwise, the whole pull acting then on one arm.

As a rule the length of line should be about twice the depth. On
very soft bottom it is somewhat shortened, to keep the dredge from
getting filled too soon. In very great depths it was found by the
English Porcupine Expedition that the line could be kept much shorter
by attaching to it weights of one hundred or two hundred pounds at
about one fourth the depth from the dredge. The dredging is then
carried on, as it were, from the weight, and not from the vessel. In

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 453

this way three thousand fathoms were used for a depth of two thou-
sand four hundred and thirty-five fathoms.

Dredging may be carried on from a boat, down to ten or twelve fath-
oms, with wind enough to propel it, or a good crew to pull it if calm.
From a sailing yacht two hundred and fifty fathoms have been attained,
though probably with some difficulty. For greater depths a steamer is
almost indispensable, provided also with a donkey-engine to haul up the
line. Without the latter the labor of the men is very heavy, and the
time consumed a great drawback. To ascertain the strain on the rope,
some kind of a dynamometer ought to be attached to it. A convenient
form is the " accumulator "• used in the, Porcupine. It cousists of a
number of solid india-rubber springs, about two feet long, connected at
each end with a disk of wood. One end of the accumulator is fastened
below to the derrick and above to a rope, which, passing through i
block at the top of the derrick, supports the snatch-block through
which the dredge-line goes overboard. The motions of the accumu-
lator show the variable strain on the line.

Many valuable specimens were obtained on board the Porcupine by
means of hempen tangles or swabs, attached to the ends of a trans-
verse bar made fast to the dredge. According to Mr. Jeffreys, it is,
however, more advisable to use them separately, as they interfere with
good work of the dredge itself.

In dredging it is preferable to have the dredge go over the bow,
especially on rough bottom, as it is easier, in case of fouling, to steam
ahead to release the dredge than to back up. Otherwise the stern is
more convenient, as the working-table, alcohol jars, &c, are usually
stowed on the quarter-deck.

After the dredge is brought up the contents may be emptied into a
tub, the more delicate specimens picked out and transferred to clean
sea-water if they are to be observed alive, and the residue washed in
graduated sieves of copper wire. A rough list of the contents is noted
in a book, with specification of the depth, temperature of the water,
fee. Until they can be sorted, the contents of every dredgeful can be
cied up in a bag of some loose stuff (old bunting from worn signal-flags
was used in the Coast Survey), a label written with ink and folded up
being enclosed, and the whole put in alcohol. Thus a large metallic
vessel, filled with alcohol, can be used to contain the results of many
dredgings ; bottles being reserved for the more delicate objects. Econ-
omy of space can thus be gained to a considerable extent.

454 BULLETIN OF TIIE

Surface specimens can be obtained during the dredging in tow-nets
of bunting, stretched over a hoop ; when under way very small
towing-nets raa_ occasionally be used also, if the speed is slow.

The naturalists of the Swedish Josephine Expedition used also an
implement intermediate between the dredge and the tow-net, to obtain
the small swimming Crustacea, found near but not on the bottom. It
was a sort of very light dredge, made of hoop-iron, with the end-pieces
rounded off in such a way as to lift the edge of the net some distance
above the ground, so as not to scrape. The net was made of some
strong gauze-like stuff.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 455

No. 5. — Appendix to the Preliminary Report (Bulletin No. 9,
Yol. I.) on the Echini collected by L. F. de Pourtales. By
Alexander Agassiz.

The two species of sea-urchins here briefly noticed are interesting
in a geographical point of view ; the one being a second species of a
genus thus far only known from the Indian Ocean ; the other as
additional evidence on an interesting question of geographical distribu-
tion in the Atlantic Ocean.

Among the Echini collected by Mr. Pourtales in 1868-69, during
his exploration of the Gulf Stream, were numerous fragments of spines
of sea-urchins which I was unable, at the time of writing the prelimi-
nary report, to refer to any genus of Echini known to me. Having
while in Paris had the opportunity — thanks to Professor Bayle — of
examining Michelin's collection now in the Ecole des Mines, containing
among other types a remarkable sea-urchin of which only a single
specimen exists, described by Michelin, in Annexe A to Maillard's
notes sur l'isle de Bourbon, in 1863.

This sea-urchin he named Keraiaphorus Maillardi ; it was brought
up from a depth of two hundred metres on a fishing-line, and was
called Keraiaphorus on account of its long curved spines, resembling
the antennas of Cerambycidcz. The fragments of spines collected by
Mr. Pourtales off Tennessee Reef, at a depth of one hundred and sixty
fathoms, belong to this genus, but differ sufficiently in appearance to show
they do not belong to the same species. They are of a bright vermilion
on the concave part of the spine, and a light pink on the opposite side ;
the extremity of the spine is white for a considerable distance ; the spine
is slightly curved from the base ; a section of the spines shows them
to be somewhat triangular, with rounded sides, the long convex side of
the triangle being placed on the side of greatest diameter of curvature
of the spine, and the short slightly concave or straight sides on the con-
cave part of the spine. The spine is nearly solid, with the exce ption of
a small annular space, nearer the centre than the periphery, made up of
one row of large triangular limestone cells, such as are so characteristic
of spines of Echini ; the central part and the periphery of the spine
consist of very minute circular cells closely packed together, present-

456 BULLETIN OF THE

ing a homogeneous structure ; in consequence the outside of the spine
is not striated, either longitudinally or transversely, and shows simply
a homogeneous close granulation, like very fine marble. The longest
fragments are about two inches in length, and to judge from analogy with
Keraiaphorus Maillardi, they must have attained a length of at least
five or six inches. It is to be hoped that future explorations will
bring to light this interesting sea-urchin, as the only specimen thus
far found is not in such a state of preservation as to enable us to ascer-
tain its affinities perfectly satisfactorily. As far as an examination
would allow, Keraiaphorus is identical with Ccelopleurus, and is
closely allied to Echinocidaris. There are some discrepancies between
the description of Michelin and his figures, the tubercles are not per-
forated nor crenulated, the general structure of the genital and ocular
plates is similar to those of Echinocidaris ; unfortunately the anal
plates are not preserved, and Michelin says nothing about them.
The peculiar structure of the bare portion of the abactinal part of the
interambulacra is not sufficiently brought out in Michelin's figures, in
the specimen, ridges of small tubercles, running in S-shaped curves across
this bare part of the interambulacra from the base of one plate to the an-
gle of the opposite plate, are quite prominent and fully as marked as in
the best figures of Ccelopleurus given by Cotteau in the Actes de la
Societe Linneenne de Bordeaux, pi. xii, fig. 4, Vol. 27. The spines
of Ccelopleurus are as yet not known, unless the spines cited under
the name of Cidaris incerta d'Arch, found in the same beds as those
containing Ccelopleurus, should turn out to be the spines of this genus.
They greatly resemble the smaller, shorter, and straight spines of Kerai-
aphorus found round the actinostome, as was suggested to me by Mr.
Vaillant of the Ecole des Mines.*

In addition to the foregoing species, there was a small sea-urchin, one
eighth of an inch in diameter, which will most probably turn out to be
he young of some species of the Diadematidae allied to Asthenosoma
Grup.k. It is already of a .-i/.e when a young Diadema has its plates
tolerably well defined, and when its spines far surpass the diameter of
the test in length, besides being provided with a long anal proboscis, which
at once characterizes young Diadematidae. This specimen was nearly
flat, the outline deeply cut at the ambulacra, the interambulacra pro-

• It i- interesting to note that we find a species of Ccelopleurus in the tertiaries of
Alabama, and in the Londen (

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 457

jecting as large lobes beyond the general outline ; the whole test was
made up of small limestone cells, and evidently was quite movable,
though tough, in its present condition ; there were deep actinal cuts in
the centre of the ambulacral field, the actinal membrane unfortunately
was not well preserved. The spines were very short, and bore about
the same ratio to the test which they have in Astropyga and Asthe-
nosoma. The tubercles were not yet separated from the general lime-
stone network of the test, and the spines were arranged in the
interambulacral spaces in two irregular main rows, and in one row
in the ambulacral spaces, both extending to the abactinal pole. A
species of a genus closely allied to Asthenosoma Grube has been
dredged by the Porcupine Expedition off Cape Wrath and south of
Cape Finistere, off" Vigo ; I presume this will prove to be the young
of it. Professor Wyville Thomson will soon describe this species as
Calveria hystrix, and, like several of the species first dredged by Mr.
Pourtales, and subsequently found also by the Porcupine and by the
Josephine Expeditions, will add another to the list of Echini common
to both sides of the Atlantic. They are the following, exclusive of the
circumpolar species : —

Cidaris annulata Gray. ? Diadema antillarum Phil. Calveria hystrix
W. Thoms. Genocidaris macidata A. Ag. Trigonocidaris albida A. Ag.
Echinus norvegicus D. et K. ? Echinometra J\fichelini Des. Echinocyamus
angulosus Leske (not young of Stolonoclyp. Ravenelli). Pourlalesia mi-
randa A. Ag. ? Brissus columbaris Ag. Echinocardium cordatum Gray.
Echinocardium ovatum Gray. ? Echinocardium Icevigaster A. Ag. Bris-
sopsis lyrifera Ag. Lissunolus fragilis A. Ag. Schizaster fragilis Ag.

Cambridge, April, 1871.

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