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THREE CRUISHS OF THE BLAKE, VOL. II.

BULLETIN

OF THE

Hara te
if /

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY

AE

HARVARD COLLEGE, IN CAMBRIDGE.

VOR XY,

[Published by permission of CARLILE P. PATTERSON and Junius E. Hiwearp,
Superintendents U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. ]

CAMBRIDGE, MASS., U. S.A.
1888.

A Contributton ta American Thalassographo.

THREE CRUISES

OF THE

UNITED STATES COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY

STEAMER “BLAKE”

IN THE GULF OF MEXICO, IN THE CARIBBEAN SEA, AND ALONG
THE ATLANTIC COAST OF THE UNITED STATES,
FROM 1877 TO 1880.

BY

ALEXANDER AGASSIZ.

IN TWO VOLUMES.
VOL. TE

BOSTON AND NEW YORK:
HOUGHTON, MIFFLIN AND COMPANY.
Whe Riversive JOress, Cambridee.
1888.

Copyright, 1888,
By ALEXANDER AGASSIZ.

All rights reserved.

[Published by permission of Cartme P. Parrerson and Jutius E. HiGarp,
Superintendents U. 8. Coast and Geodetic Survey.]

The Riverside Press, Cambridge:
HKlectrotyped and Printed by H. 0. Houghton & Co.

CONTENTS OF VOLUME II.

eivemeemawuer Inpran FAUNA 2.09. ws se 8 ee ee ts I
XV. SKETCHES OF THE CHARACTERISTIC DrEEP-SEA Typrs. — FISHEs.

lon ety ee ee ek ee kee

XVI. Cuaracteristic Deep-Sea Typrs.— Crustacea. (Figs. 225-259.) 37

XVII. Cnaracteristic Deep-Sea Types.— Worms. (Figs. 260-273.) . 52

XVIII. Cuaracteristic Deep-Sea Types.— MotiusKs. . ... . . 58

ISEEHREOPODS, (Ries 2i4-2elje ss ws lel CS

GASTEROPODS AND LAMELLIBRANCHS. (Figs. 282-312.) . . . . 62

PAIGE ODE t CHIDS ieee pe coclia 28 « « . oes we 6 15

ANS ITTUAISS Ley Oe. ES Se te Se, ur rr 67

Pome (ies. SST OB

XIX. CHaracteristic Deep-Sea Types.— ECHINODERMS. . . .. . 84

PIGM@RROBEANS) (Pigs. doG-oti.)). < 5 - = « . »- .. . 84

Sea WMecrwome. (hies. 345-976.) 1. ew kw tw we 8S

POMmEInEES (PIGS) GII-dOl.)-. - - «4 6 2 swe se 102

Seuimrans. (Fics. 3c6403;) . . «...- = » +s - = » . 109

rma r( iss Ad) ee ew ts 2G

XX. Cmaracteristic Deer-Sea Types.— ACALEPHS. . .. . . . 128

CTENOPHORZ AND Hypromepus&. (Figs. 422-440.). . . . . 128

HyprocoraLuine®. (Figs. 441-448.). - . . . - - - e+ . 138

XXI. Cuaracteristic Derr-Sea Types.—PoLtyps. . .... . . 142

HALcyonorps AND Actinomps. (Figs. 449-461.) .. .. . . 142

oustae (Pies, 462-493:) 2.2: a pe + se ee we 18

XXII. Cuaracteristic Deep-Sea Tyres. —Ruizopops. (Figs. 484-519.) 157

XXIII. Cuaracteristic Derp-Sea Types. — Spronces. (Figs. 520-545.) 170

CPE) 2 ee a ee we wt le wl te 18

INDEX

THREE CRUISES OF THE “BLAKE.”

XIV.

THE WEST INDIAN FAUNA.

TE inhabitants of the abyssal realm as now known differ
far more from the surface faune than the latter do from one
another, one of the most striking characteristics of deep-sea life
being the fact that there exists at the bottom of the ocean a
fauna of almost exclusively animal feeders, which, in addition
to preying upon one another, receive some of their food from
the organic matter living on or near the surface of the sea and
constantly falling to the bottom in a decaying condition. The
deep-sea fishes, the mollusks, crustacea, and other groups, are
nearly all carnivorous, no alge being found growing at any
depth.

Deep-sea forms are almost always killed in the process of
hauling, either by rough handling or else by the heat of the
surface water. We can scarcely hope ever to watch the habits
of the deep-sea dwellers, and see them in their natural atti-
tudes, and we must be satisfied to imagine what these are
by analogy with their shallow-water allies, though many species
of crustacea, echinoderms, polyps, and mollusks have been kept
alive in a casing of ice by the naturalists of the United States
Fish Commission. A similar attempt had been made on the
“ Blake” with some of the echinoderms, but they refused to be
deluded for more than a few minutes by ice-cold water into the
belief that they still lived in their normal condition.

Very frail deep-sea animals are often rapidly transferred to
the surface from a region where they are subjected to a pres-
sure of two tons or more, and it is not surprising that, after

2 THREE CRUISES OF THE ‘“‘ BLAKE.”

having been thus drawn up from a depth of two or three
miles, they should be in a very dilapidated condition.. A num-
ber of the abyssal types among the fishes, mollusks, crustacea,
echinoderms, and even rhizopods, are characterized by the loose-
ness of their tissues, which allows the water to permeate every
interstice, and to equalize the enormous pressure under which
they live. When this pressure is removed, the fishes, with their
flabby muscles, tender skins, and semi-cartilaginous skeletons,
literally fall to pieces; they suffer from the decomposition and
the dilatation of the air of the swimming bladder; the eyes
are forced out of their sockets, and the scales fall off from
the delicate skin. The mollusks present shapeless masses diffi-
cult of study. The crustacea seem to have been boiled, and
their soft and thin shells resemble those of their shallow-water
congeners just after moulting ; many of the annelids and echi-
noderms look as if they had been digested by some of the
larger deep-sea denizens, while the fragile types have lost their
delicate appendages, or have become crushed in the ascent.
Yet we know that a number of species of all these classes can
thrive under differences of pressure due to such an extreme
bathymetrical range as two thousand fathoms; but undoubt-
edly the individuals living at these enormous depths have found
their way there very gradually, or ascend and descend from one
level to another most leisurely, so as to become accustomed to
differences in pressure.

Our information regarding the abyssal realms is far from
complete, and our sketch of the natural history of the inhabi-
tants of the floor of the ocean should be regarded only as a
preliminary outline. Naturally, our knowledge of some of the
groups is more extended than that of others, and the results
obtained in any one case may differ radically from those reached
by the study of less well known groups. As in the history of
the fauna of any zodlogical province, our conclusions are con-
stantly modified by the final results derived from a more careful
study of some special case. There are of course certain rules
applicable to all the inhabitants of the deeper regions, but they
are few, and liable to constant modifications from our increasing
knowledge.

THE WEST INDIAN FAUNA. 3

bd

In discussing the results of the “ Blake” collections, I have
availed myself most freely of the work done by other expedi-
tions, as this is indeed essential for the proper understanding of
the special facts examined. We are only on the threshold
of our knowledge of the species and their exact distribution
over the sea bottom; nevertheless the data of the various deep-
sea expeditions seem to show that we know enough to form a
general idea of the biological conditions under which these spe-
cies exist, and that, judging from a few better known groups,
our ideas are not likely to be materially modified by future
researches.

This is especially the case with the West Indian fauna, and
that of the east coast of the United States. We may safely as-
sume that but little will hereafter be added to our notions
of the association of the sponges, polyps, corals, echinoderms,
crustacea, and mollusks, composing the West Indian deep - sea
fauna, and making it in certain groups by far the richest in the
world. The number of new forms from the West Indian region
constitutes such a vast addition to our knowledge of the princi-
pal classes of invertebrates of that fauna as to revolutionize our
ideas of geographical as well as of bathymetrical distribution.

No other region of the ocean bottom has yielded so abundant
a harvest, and we have therefore no data elsewhere sufficiently
complete for comparisons with regard to geographical distribu-
tion. But for ascertaining the bathymetrical distribution, and
its bearing on the determination of the probable depth in which
strata of former ages containing corals were deposited, the ma-
terial at hand is of great importance.

I cannot give a better idea of the value of the collections
brought together by the “ Blake,” than by contrasting the sta-
tistics of some of the groups before and after the Coast Survey
explorations. I should state that the collections are as yet by no
means fully worked out; but enough has been done, even in
the groups least advanced, to show the wonderful richness of
the collections, not only in new forms, but also in remarkable
types of special interest.

Before the explorations of the “ Blake” we knew nothing of

the deep-sea fishes of the Caribbean Sea and of the Gulf of

4 THREE CRUISES OF THE “ BLAKE.”

Mexico. Less than fifty years ago there were not more than
twenty known species of crustacea from the West Indian region.
The “Blake” has added no less than forty new genera and
150 new species to those thus far described. Ten of the genera
and nearly forty of the species belong to the well-known Bra-
chyura, in spite of the fact that Stimpson and Milne-Edwards
had, before the explorations made by the “Blake,” apparently
very fully worked out the species of this group from the dredg-
ings of the “Hassler” and “ Bibb”; sixteen genera and over
sixty species belong to the less known Anomiura ; and there are
fourteen genera and about fifty species of Macrura.

Among the mollusks the total number of littoral species re-
corded by Adams and D’Orbigny is 580, as compared with 461
collected by the “Blake.” This number also includes 210 lit- °
toral species, while 251 are abyssal. The number of genera rep-
resented by the former is about 110, while some 98 genera are
found in the “ Blake ” collection. These numbers are of course
approximate.

The immense collections of echinoderms are peculiarly inter-
esting. Of the deep-sea echinoderms the most striking are
the Elasipoda, a new order of holothurians, established by Dr.
Théel for the reception of these extraordinary and aberrant
types, of which no less than fifty-two species were discovered by
the “ Challenger” expedition. Previous to that time three spe-
cies of the group were known, one from the Kara Sea, and
two subsequently found in the northern parts of the Atlantic
by the Norwegian North Atlantic expedition. The “ Blake”
dredged about nine species of this remarkable order, three of
which were unknown before.

There are now described eighty-three species of sea-urchins
from the Caribbean fauna. Of these, eleven were added by the
dredgings of Count Pourtalés in the “Bibb” and “ Hassler,”
nineteen were discovered by the “ Blake,” and thirteen species
previously known from other districts were obtained for the first
time in the Caribbean and adjoining seas by the Coast Survey
expeditions, so that the list of species has been more than
doubled by the dredging made since 1876.

The “Blake” dredged fifty - four species of starfishes, of

THE WEST INDIAN FAUNA. 5

which forty-six were undescribed.. As the total number of spe-
cies does not exceed five hundred, the value of these additions
to the group is readily estimated. Prior to the explorations of
the “‘ Blake,” twenty-seven species had been described from the
Caribbean region, so that the number of the species character-
istic of the district has been nearly trebled; plainly showing
that the deep-water starfish fauna is far richer and more varied
than that of the littoral district.

The collection of ophiurans is perhaps the largest ever made.
They seem to play a very important part in determining the
facies of a fauna. They occur everywhere, at all depths, and
often in countless numbers. I hardly think we made a single
haul which did not contain an ophiuran. They often came up
when the trawl brought nothing else. In some places the bot-
tom must have been paved with them, just as the shallows are
sometimes paved with starfishes and sea-urchins, and many spe-
cies hitherto considered as extremely rare have been found to be
really abundant. Most of the deep-sea Atlantic species obtained
by the “Challenger”’ have been rediscovered in large numbers.
Such rare species as Sigsbeia murrhina, Ophiozona nivea,
Hemieuryale pustulata, and Ophiocamax hystrix, were found
in plenty. As representatives of northern seas may be cited
Astronyx Loveni, while the great rarities are represented by
a single specimen of Ophiophyllum. Of Astrocnida isidis,
of which only three specimens were known, we have half a
dozen. A large Pectinura recalls the shallow fauna of the
East Indies, while a new Ophiernus brings to mind the antarctic
deep-sea forms. Finally, the supposed existence of simple
armed Astrophytons is fully confirmed by the various species of
Astroschema, and by a new species of Ophiocreas.

The diligent search of Pourtalés in the Straits of Florida, the
“‘ Hassler” expedition, the “ Challenger” explorations, and the
expeditions of the “ Blake,’ have evidently brought up the
majority of the species of ophiurans; for in the enormous mass
of specimens gathered in the last “ Blake” expedition and by
the “ Albatross” the number of new species was small.

It is noteworthy that the explorations of the “ Blake ”’ and the
subsequent dredgings of the “ Albatross ” only added one species

6 THREE CRUISES OF THE “ BLAKE.”

to the number of West Indian stalked erinoids. Three species
of Pentacrinus were known before the explorations of the
“ Blake,’ —two of Rhizocrinus, and one of the strange Ho-
lopus. ‘The importance of the collection of the free feather-star
erinoids may be gathered from the fact that, while, according to
Mr. Carpenter, the number of species of Caribbean Comatul
is about fifty-five, three quarters of them were first obtained
by the “ Blake.”

But although the species of stale crinoids were known, the

material toate 4 at the disposal of naturalists was most scanty,
and some two dozen specimens of Pentacrinus represented prob-
ably the whole available supply. It was the fortune of the
“ Blake ” to make the first extensive collections of this ancient
genus; they were placed at the disposal of the late Sir Wyville
Thomson, and finally passed into the hands of Dr. P. H. Car-
penter, who worked out the anatomy of the genus in an ad-
mirable manner. In the Eastern Atlantic a very fine species
of the genus (P. Wyville-Thomsoni) was discovered by Gwyn
Jeffreys in the “ Porcupine,” off Portugal, in about 900 fathoms.

Innumerable fragments of stems of Pentacrinus, and portions
of the arms, frequently came up in our earlier dredgings, but
we were not fortunate enough until the last day of the first
expedition to obtain a single entire specimen, though off Bahia ~
Honda we dredged a young Holopus in excellent condition.
When Sigsbee sfionwarda discovered, off Havana, the Pentaeri-
nus eee a short distance from the Morro Light, at a depth
varying from 42 to 242 fathoms, he brought up about twenty
perfect specimens of Pentacrinus of all sizes, besides a mass of
fracments.

During the winter of 1879-80, Commander Bartlett also
found Pentacrinus off Santiago de Cuba, and off Kingston, Ja-
maica, and a number of specimens of Rhizocrinus were obtained
by the “ Blake,” but only a few were in perfect condition. Of
Holopus a mutilated specimen was dredged. It was collected
off Montserrat, and escaped my attention; as, being on the
lookout for black Holopus, I did not notice this imperfect
whitish specimen, which must have been alive, among the nu-
merous Pentacrini with which it came up. During the second

THE WEST INDIAN FAUNA: 4

eruise our collection of Pentacrini became very extensive; we
found them at Montserrat, St. Vincent, Grenada, Guadeloupe,
and Barbados, in such numbers that on one occasion we brought
up no less than one hundred and twenty-four at a single haul
of the bar and tangles. We must indeed have swept over
actual forests of Pentacrini, crowded together much as they
may have lived, at certain localities, both in Kurope and Amer-
ica, during the palzozoic period.

The monograph of Allman on the deep-sea hydroids of Flo-
rida gave us the first intimation of the wealth of forms which
flourished in deep water, forming, as Allman says, a special
province in the geographical distribution of the Hydroida.
The collection was noted for the large number of undescribed
species, and the small percentage which could be referred to
forms existing on the European side of the Atlantic.

Previous to the deep-sea explorations we knew only the shal-
low-water reef corals. The expeditions of Pourtalés, of the
“‘ Hassler” and the ‘“ Blake,” have revealed to us a whole fauna
of simple corals separated from the reef district by a barren
zone, with not a species in common between the two districts.
There are now over sixty simple deep-sea corals known from the
Caribbean district, — nearly as many species as there are from
the reef area.

It is natural that, as we pass from the littoral to the conti-
nental, and finally to the abyssal regions, we should find a grad-
ual diminution of those physical causes which we are accus-
tomed to consider as influencing the variation of individuals,
so that persistent types, as they have been called, may owe
their origin either to an absence of modifying causes, or to an
inherent tendency to retain unchanged their original organiza-
tion. The animals we dredge from deep water cannot, from
the nature of their surroundings, be affected, or only in a less
degree, in the many ways which influence their shallow-water
allies. We cannot suppose that they are subject at great depths
to any of the causes which affect so powerfully the changing
chromatophores of the littoral species; such adaptations as
those which we find in the animals of the sargasso weed,
for instance, or the littoral algze, or those living on sandy or

8 THREE CRUISES OF THE “ BLAKE.”

muddy or gravelly beaches, can hardly exist in the ooze of
the abysses.

The habits of many of the deep-sea dwellers are still those of
their shallow-water congeners, and yet their conditions of exist-
ence are so different that we can scarcely suppose them not to
have equal importance. The mollusks, annelids, crustacea, and
echinoderms which find shelter in the branches of the deep-
water gorgonians, or the cavities of the abyssal Euplectelle,
cannot be subject to the attacks of so many enemies as those
which live in shallower waters.

The metamorphoses of the deep-sea echinoderms, crustacea,
annelids, and mollusks must to a great extent be adapted to
their surroundings. Embryonic pelagic stages cannot be re-
tained among the deep-water genera; these either pass through
the so-called abbreviated metamorphosis within the egg, as in
some crustacea and annelids, or after leaving the egg envelopes
are kept in a kind of marsupium, as in some echinoderms; both
these modes of development occur in the littoral and shallow-
water species. Neither is it probable that the eggs of the deep-
sea fishes are pelagic; they may be either too heavy to float,
or in some families may be attached to the bottom.

Previous to the deep-sea explorations the collections made
near the hundred-fathom line, or thereabout, were considered as ~
belonging in “deep water,” so that, when examining the early
lists published by the English, Scandinavian, and American nat-
uralists, we should bear in mind that they represent a fauna
which scarcely extends beyond the limits of the littoral region
as at present understood, and include only the few deep-water
types which find their way to the junction of the littoral and
continental regions. Of course the comparisons made with the
strictly shore inhabitants, or those of adjacent bathymetrical
belts, were often interesting, but had not the wide bearmg of
the results of later explorations.

The bathymetrical distribution of some of the more impor-
tant types brings out strikingly the contrast between the faune
of the ~stiniseiae regions thus far recognized. An examina-
tion of the fishes obtained by the “Challenger,” the “ Blake,”
and the “ Albatross,” shows that twenty-six species have a ver-

THE WEST INDIAN FAUNA. y

tical range of nine hundred fathoms or more. This vertical
range is probably limited to the bottom, except, perhaps, in the
case of pelagic fishes allied to deep-sea species, of which the
habitat is always uncertain. The majority of fishes, to be sure,
are bottom lovers when adult, but in larval stages, in the vari-
ous phases grouped by ichthyologists in the family Leptocepha-
lide, they are carried by the Gulf Stream and other currents,
and spread far and wide over the ocean surface. Among the
flat fishes a transparent pelagic embryo flounder known as Pla-
gusia (see Fig. 78) passes under favorable circumstances into
a deep-sea flounder; an allied species is known on the coast of
Italy as Rhombodichthys.

It is an interesting problem to ascertain where the young of
these fishes remain before they become permanent inhabitants
of deep water. The same may be asked of some of the rarer
pelagic fishes occasionally caught at sea, which undoubtedly are
either fully grown deep-sea fishes or their young.

The greatest depth from which fishes have been dredged by
the “Challenger” is 2,900 fathoms, and from that depth a sin-
gle specimen ( Gonostoma microdon) was brought up. The “AI-
batross ” obtained from a depth of 2,949 fathoms a closely allied
fish (Cyclothone lusca, Fig. 196), and four others. The “ Talis-
man ” secured one species from a depth of 4,255 metres, and the
“ Challenger” two from 2,750 fathoms, three from 2,500, and
one from 2,650.

The larger part of the crustacea, both in the West Indian
region and off the Atlantic coast of the United States, were
brought from a depth of less than 500 fathoms. Out of about
100 species of Brachyura, only two were dredged below 500
fathoms ; from about 75 species of Anomura, 22 were taken at
or below 500 fathoms, five below 1,000 fathoms, and one below
2,000 fathoms ; while among sixty species of Macrura thirty
are recorded as taken below 500 fathoms, and thirteen below
1,000 fathoms.

The maximum range of the crustacea does not seem to be as
great as that in other groups of invertebrates. In the Carib-
bean, only five species have a range of nearly 1,000 fathoms,
and about the same number one of 500 fathoms.

10 THREE CRUISES OF THE “ BLAKE.”

The bathymetrical range of the mollusks is also connected
with a wide geographical extension. According to Mr. Dall, if
we consider the species dredged from the Atlantic Ocean north
of a line drawn from Hatteras to Madeira, by all expeditions up
to 1883, at greater depths than one thousand fathoms, we find
that more than forty-two per cent live in some locality in less
than one hundred fathoms.

These species of mollusks have apparently taken advantage
of the uniform conditions of existence in deep water, and have
extended the range far from thei original littoral abode.
There is a tolerable number of species, evidently unchanged,
which occur all the way from a few fathoms, on the Florida
coast, to two thousand fathoms in the adjacent deeps. A better
knowledge of the littoral fauna of the tropics would undoubt-
edly increase this percentage. We also notice that the per-
centage of the genera or families peculiar to the continental and
abyssal regions is small.

The sea-urchins and starfishes have their fullest develop-
ment in the continental zone, and there we find already many of
the genera and families which have given so characteristic an
aspect to the fauna of deep waters. Beyond that region live
the eminently deep-sea types of the Pourtalesiz and Ananchy-
tide, associated with a few starfishes and the strange order of .
holothurians, the Elasipoda. The ophiurans appear, of all the
echinoderms, to flourish best in the deepest waters from which
members of the class have as yet been dredged. The bathy-
metrical range of many of the sea-urchins and ophiurans is very
great, and extremes of depth extending to two thousand fath-
oms or more are not uncommon.

The stalked crinoids, as has been shown by Carpenter, are not
strictly abyssal types ; on the contrary, seventy-five per cent of
them have been brought up from depths of less than five hun-
dred fathoms, — somewhat deeper than the limit of the conti-
nental zone. As stated by Carpenter, out of the thirty-two
recent species of stalked crinoids, nine species may be called
littoral, living as they do at depths of less than one hundred
fathoms.

Comatulz were dredged at fifty-seven out of the two hundred

THE WEST INDIAN FAUNA. 11

stations occupied during one season’s work. Nearly all of them
were in comparatively shallow water, 7. ¢. in depths of less than
two hundred fathoms. On three occasions the depth exceeded
three hundred fathoms.

These facts agree well with the results of the ‘“ Challenger”’
dredgings, which yielded Comatule at twenty stations only
where the depth was more than two hundred fathoms. One
may fairly conclude, therefore, that these animals are essentially
inhabitants of shallow water. The crinoids form a striking
exception to the rule, which holds good among many of the
other groups, that the more ancient types also have a wide
range in depth.

The bathymetrical distribution of the corals is such that we
can readily separate the species found in depths of.less than one
hundred fathoms, where they live in the region of débris which
lies between the reefs.and the rocky or muddy bottoms. But
here again there is no sharp line of demarcation in the distribu-
tion between the continental and the deeper zones, though the
abyssal regions contain a comparatively smaller number of spe-
cies than the continental slope. They flourish upon the continen-
tal slope only on sea bottoms which are free from accumulating
silt, and remote from flat muddy shores and from the influence
of great rivers; the branching types prefer a rocky or stony
bottom, while the simple types thrive on shelly or oozy bottom.
_ It is on this slope that we also meet with the greatest number
of novelties among the gorgonians and pennatulids, while spe-
cially characteristic of the deeper regions is the family of Um-
bellulze.

The calcareous and horny sponges, of which our commercial
sponge is a good representative, are eminently littoral forms.
Beyond that depth the bright-colored sponges are replaced by
the hosts of siliceous sponges which live buried in the mud, some
of them anchored by their bundles of gigantic spicules deep in
the ooze, which also envelops them in a thick coating of fine
mud so closely held by the network of the skeleton that care-
ful preparation alone brings out the wonderful beauty of their
structure. An Euplectella when first brought up looks like a
mere mud-lined cylinder, and gives no idea of the exquisite tra-
cery formed by the siliceous skeleton.

12 THREE CRUISES OF THE “ BLAKE.”

The sponges also seem specially to dwell upon the continen-
tal slopes, and here it is that the kingdom of brightly colored
sponges displays its splendor of yellow, orange, red, and brown.
The sponge zone is comparatively narrow on the bank of Flo-
rida, where perhaps it takes its greatest development in the
districts explored by the “ Blake ;”’ it disappears at about one

hundred and fifty fathoms, sometimes before, particularly where - -

the bottom affords favorable conditions for the deposition of silt
or ooze, which is destructive to the development of all except
the siliceous sponges.

The Lithistidz and Hexactinellide do not occur in the littoral
zone, while the other families, though often extending into deep
water, also run into the littoral zone, but take their principal
development between one hundred and two hundred fathoms.

The dredgings of the “ Blake” reached from shallow water,
generally within the hundred-fathom line, to the abyssal depths
of the same area. These dredgings therefore give us terms of
comparison for the inhabitants of all depths of the same region,
many of which are missing from the collections of the other
deep-sea explorations, as they ceased work when approaching
the shore line.

We are thus able to trace far more accurately than we could
from other collections, not only the species which are merely
littoral and have migrated into deeper water, often at a con-
siderable distance from their original littoral habitat, but also
those which after migration have become modified so as to form
the characteristic faunal inhabitants of the continental and abys-
sal regions, and those cosmopolitan species, assumed to be of
arctic or antarctic origin, which have an immense geographical
range over the whole bottom of the Atlantic and Paecifie oceans.
The last may be considered stragglers or colonies, which have
found their way, towards both the littoral and abyssal regions,
into faunal districts not strictly their own, according to the dis-
tance of deep water from the shores, or the nature and direction
of currents. We may thus get a most striking contrast be-
tween the faune of adjoining littoral, continental, and abyssal
regions. This is shown by paleontological evidence from dis-
tricts corresponding to the shallower continental regions of our
day.

¢)

THE WEST INDIAN FAUNA. 13

In the experience of the “Blake” the greatest wealth of
specimens, or the principal treasures of the expedition, were not
dredged from the deepest waters of West Indian or Atlantic
areas. It was mainly upon the continental slopes, near the
five-hundred-fathom line, where food is most abundant, or the
slopes are washed by favorable currents, that the richest har-
vests came up in the trawl. Several places really phenom-
enal from their richness were met with by the “ Blake,” — off
Havana, to the westward of St. Vincent, off Frederichsted, off
the Tortugas where the Gulf Stream strikes the southern extrem-
ity of the Florida Reef, and off Cape Hatteras. We might also
name the remarkable spots found by the “Challenger ” off
Japan and off Zamboanga, and the rich dredgings of Pourtalés
on the plateau which bears his name. We may safely say that
the abundance of life in the many favored localities of the
ocean far surpasses that of the richest terrestrial faunal districts.
The most thickly populated tropical jungle does not compare in
wealth of animal or vegetable life with a marine district such as
a coral reef, or some of the assemblages mentioned above.

It will be impossible to give a good picture of the animals
which make up the fauna characteristic of certain well-defined
regions until we have the completion of the reports by the dif-
ferent specialists who have kindly consented to work up the
collections of the “ Blake.” We may, however, call attention
im a general way to their geographical and bathymetrical dis-
tribution. There can be no greater difference, for instance,
than that which exists between the animals associated in deep
water on the rocky bottom upon the southern slope of the
Florida Reef, on the Pourtalés Plateau, with its predominance
of corals, Rhizocrinus, and starfishes, and those found in the
calcareous ooze of the trough of the Gulf Stream (lamelli-
branchiates, holothurians, etc.) ; and again in the association of
the masses of Gorgoniz, Saleniz, and Terebratul, off the north
coast of Cuba, brought up in a single haul of the trawl. Nor
can there be a greater contrast than between the inhabitants of
the pteropod ooze in deep water off the west end of Santa
Cruz, with its preponderance of Phormosome, of Asthenoso-
mz, and Hyalonemez, and those of the forests of Pentacrini

14 THREE CRUISES OF THE “ BLAKE..’

and Gorgoniz, and the accompanying Comatule and Ophiuride,
living in such numbers on the windward coast of St. Vincent.

We may contrast, again, the deep-water fauna off the Tortu-
gas, in the coral ooze, mainly made up of a most characteristic
association of fishes and crustacea, with the hauls in deep water
at special localities, consisting entirely of thousands of specimens
of single species, either of ophiurans, or of sea-urchins, or of
feather-stars, or of crustaceans, or of gorgonians.

Take again the bottom around the ridges between the West
India Islands, or that along the course of the Gulf Stream off
the Carolinas, which are swept nearly clear of all animal life,
and compare their inhabitants with the rich and varied fauna of
the same depths upon the continental shelf farther north, and
along the western shelf of the Windward Islands, on the lee
side, in the Caribbean; or compare these faune in turn with
the mass of animal life, mainly composed of gorgonians and
calcareous and horny sponges, found upon the broad plateau
on the west of Florida and on the Yucatan Bank; there can be
-no greater contrasts than those of the narrowly circumscribed
areas I have mentioned, where all the animals belong to the
West Indian fauna taken as a whole. This clearly indicates
radical faunal contrasts in very limited areas, which differ prin-
cipally in the character of the bottom, and where the physical.
conditions, such as temperature, depending mainly upon cur-
rents and winds, are in striking opposition within comparatively
moderate distances.

But by far the most marked contrast is perhaps presented by
the reef fauna to that which immediately follows it towards
deeper water. None of the corals of the most abundant fami-
hes or species characteristic of the West Indian reefs extend to
any considerable depth, and simple corals, which form so large
a portion of the deep-sea fauna, are not represented at all in the
Florida reef fauna. It was on the slopes of the rocky plateau
stretching into deep water off the Florida reefs that Pourtalés
first dredged the extraordinary assemblage of ancient animals
which constitute the continental fauna, succeeding in depth the
reef fauna just mentioned. The contrast between the littoral
fauna of the tropics and that of the continental and abyssal

THE WEST INDIAN FAUNA. 15
regions is far greater than that between the inhabitants of the
same regions in the temperate or arctic provinces. This is
readily explained by the circumstance that the cold water of the
abyssal regions, with its characteristic animals, approaches nearer
the shore as we go north within the continental region, so that
the littoral fauna of the arctic circle les practically under the
same conditions of temperature as the abyssal in the tropics, or
the continental in the temperate zones. That is, the divisions
of these faunal regions are to be determined more by tem-
perature than by depth, although of course the temperature
depends upon the depth and upon the currents of the ocean.
Below a depth of seven to eight hundred fathoms, correspond-
ing to a temperature of 40° F., we pass into the abyssal regions,
while upon the continental slope at a depth of about 150 fath-
oms we reach the lower limit of the littoral region.

One of the first pots noted by Lovén in reference to the
few deep-sea types occasionally brought up from various quar-
ters of the Atlantic was their wide geographical range ; and he
first distinctly formulated the theory of the uniformity of an
abyssal fauna extending in the Atlantic from the arctic to the
antarctic regions, with a somewhat modified fauna at the two
poles, — a theory which has been slightly changed by later deep-
sea explorations. Lovén’s theory seemed to give a most natural
explanation of the marked similarity, often noticed by vari-
ous naturalists, between a number of the arctic and antarctic
invertebrates. It was therefore of the greatest interest when
Pourtalés dredged in the deep water of the Straits of Florida
the little Rhizocrinus discovered by Sars on the coast of Norway,

_ and when subsequent explorations of the “ Blake” brought to

light a large number of boreal types in the deep water of the
Caribbean district, and off our eastern coast. Professor Smitt,
who examined our collection of the Bryozoa from the West
Indian district, speaks of the interest he felt in finding well-
known Scandinavian forms among -these tropical and antarc-
tic types. The range of many of the Bryozoa is very wide.
More than ten Caribbean species are found in the North At-
lantic, and an equal number extend to the arctic regions ;
eight are Australian, and four belong also to the Red Sea.

16 THREE CRUISES OF THE “ BLAKE.”

About as many species are identical with those of the An-
tarctic Sea and the southern extremity of South America. The
species which attain the greatest depth are usually those which
have a very wide geographical distribution, generally with an
arctic or antarctic connection, or they may be species dating
back to the tertiary and cretaceous periods.

The similarity of the holothurians of the arctic and antarctic
regions has been recognized by Théel, but no species are com-
mon to the two seas; it is therefore not probable that there is
any interchange between the fauna of those distant regions,
although in former ages such a connection may have existed
from the wider geographical range of their progenitors; it 1s
interesting to note in this respect, that in the Psolide, which
find their way into very deep water, and have representatives in
the tropic, temperate, and arctic zones, it 1s often most difficult
to draw the specific limits. Still there are slight differences, in-
dications of the changed physical conditions and various modes
of life, which have caused the species to disappear from the in-
termediate localities. The same resemblance is noticed among
the sea-urchins, the starfishes, and the ophiurans.

One of the most remarkable instances of the geographical
extension of some genera is that of certain species of the family
Lithodina. Professor Sidney I. Smith says: ‘These crustacea
have been known as inhabitants only of the arctic and antarctic
regions, living in the littoral zone; but now they have been
found under the tropics, the only difference bemg that in this
latter locality they have contrived to find congenial conditions
of existence by abandoning their shallow-water life and betaking
themselves to the cool depths of over 1,000 metres. This fact
is not without its interest, showing us how some forms can
spread from the frozen seas of the north to the seas of the
tropics, and so from one pole to the other; altermg their
conditions of life as necessity demands, and resuming: their old
habits when the opportunity to do so again occurs.”

Several species of sea-urchins are cosmopolitan; a number
thus far seem peculiar to the Atlantic or to the Pacific, and
these types all have a great bathymetrical distribution, or are
representatives of fossil families that go back to the palzozoic,

THE WEST INDIAN FAUNA. 17

secondary, or tertiary times. This extension of geographical
range in the case of so many of the species of the Caribbean
fauna is most instructive. As has been observed in several
groups of invertebrates, and in fishes, the presence of identi-
cal species on the two sides of the Isthmus of Panama points
to a comparatively recent communication between the Atlantic
and Pacific, while the presence of cosmopolitan species at such
distant points as the Caribbean, Australia, and the Red Sea in-
dicates a connection which could have been effected only by
migration on the floor of the ocean or in the track of currents.

The sponges apparently have a wide geographical distribu-
tion, many of them being cosmopolitan. A number of mol-
lusks also have an extraordinary geographical range, from
Northern Europe to the Cape of Good Hope or to Patagonia.
Others are found in the seas of Great Britain, at the Cape of
Good Hope, and in the Southern Ocean. Others again are
denizens of the arctic and antarctic seas, or extend from the
northern parts of the Pacific to the Kerguelen Islands.

A number of species of deep-sea corals and gorgonians ex-
tend northward in deep water from the Caribbean district along
the east coast of the United States. A few species of simple
corals like Flabellum and Fungia have a great geographical and
bathymetrical range. Half a dozen species of corals are com-
mon to the northern seas of Europe and the Straits of Florida.
From the geographical distribution of the corals, and their affin-
ity with the tertiary fossils of Italy, Pourtalés came to the con-
clusion that the tertiary deep-sea fauna of Europe has as it were
migrated westward and maintained itself, while the greater part
of the contemporaneous forms of the West. Indian deep sea
have become extinct.

The collections obtained by the “ Blake” in the Caribbean
district are superior, as regards the number of duplicates, to
those made by the “ Challenger.” Many species occur, not only
in large numbers, but also at several localities; so that it has
been possible to study their range of variation in a more satis-
factory manner than hitherto. This opportunity has proved of
immense value in revealing the existence of many intermediate
forms between types which were considered quite distinct.

18 THREE CRUISES OF THE “ BLAKE.”

Many groups are remarkable for the variety of their forms, so
that it is almost impossible to apply to them any classification,
even that regarded as best established. From the study of these
groups, most interesting morphological and paleontological re-
Some of these are discussed in con-
nection with the account of the different zodlogical groups. As
the corals of the West Indies have been carefully studied by
Pourtalés, we may dwell more at length on the relations of that
fauna to their precursors in the tertiary period.

The corals of the European tertiaries are so well known from
the works of Milne-Edwards, Haime, Reuss, Seguenza, Duncan,
and others, that we can compare the living West Indian coral
faune, both littoral and abyssal, with that of the European
tertiaries. The resemblance is a striking one, and we may
safely, from analogy, reconstruct the physical conditions which
existed in the European tertiary seas, and picture to ourselves the
depth of the water, the purity of the sea, and the mtense aera-
tion of the waters, far from great bodies of fresh water, which
must have prevailed in those days over areas where either coral
reefs or a deep-water fauna flourished.’

Fewer deep-sea genera are common to the tertiary and living
faunz of the West Indies than to the European tertiary and the
living West Indian fauna. This may be due to smaller changes -
of level in the latter region than in Europe. Yet if we take into
account the fact that the numerous West Indian extinct genera
belong to families of deep-sea corals, we may safely conclude
that there have really been important changes of level in the
West Indian area. The presence of Kuropean cretaceous fossils

sults have been derived.

* The similarity in the deep-water rence of the recent stalked crinoids in

types and their fossil representatives may
not invariably mean existence under iden-
tical conditions. We have the most sat-
isfactory evidence that the crinoids of the
silurian deposits of the State of New
York flourished in shoal-like areas, and
that during the jurassic period their oe-
currence on the coral reefs of that time
showed these ancient crinoids to have
lived in much shallower waters than their
recent allies, the Pentacrinus and Rhizo-
crinus of the West Indies. The occur-

such deep water as compared with that of
the palzozoic period may be interpreted
to represent the conditions necessary for
the maintenance of the type down to the
present day. In the present epoch depth
represents, as has been suggested by
Pourtalés, the great pressure to which
the heavy atmospheres of earlier periods
subjected the animals of those days, and
thus perpetuates conditions recalling
those of the shoal waters of early ages.

THE WEST INDIAN FAUNA. 19

- in the West Indian miocene is not more anomalous than is the
occurrence in the deep water of the West Indian seas of living
species which perhaps characterized the Sicilian tertiaries. The
beds, forming raised terraces such as those of the Barbados and
of other islands of the Caribbean, though they seem to be the
direct continuation of the coral beds now growing, yet also give
us the measure of the physical changes which must have taken
place in the West Indian regions about the end of the creta-
ceous, at the time of the separation of the Pacific Ocean and
the Caribbean Sea.

The absence of single simple species of corals in the Caribbean
district within the reef area distinguishes this fauna at once
from that of the reef regions of the Pacific and Indian oceans,
in which are found in shoal or moderately shoal water several
species of simple corals, like Flabellum, many Fungide, and
others, besides genera and families not represented in the West
Indies. Yet the bathymetrical distribution of the West Indian
species gives us an approximate idea of the depths at which
some of the fossiliferous strata of the cretaceous and tertiaries
containing corals were probably deposited.

Pourtalés, who thoroughly studied the deep-sea corals of
Florida, was of the opinion that some of the miocene, pliocene,
and pleistocene strata of Messina, of which the fossils have been
so carefully described by Seguenza, were deposited in a depth
averaging 450 fathoms, and ranging from about 200 to 700
fathoms. In the neighborhood of Vienna we may trace from
Reuss’s monographs the fluctuations of depth which have taken
place between the deposition of the different strata. The mio-
cene beds, in which there are numerous astrans associated
with Porites, are shoal-water deposits; while the strata contain-
ing Turbinolide, Oculinide, and oo eed were formed in
deep water.

The West Indian tertiary corals are not sufficiently known to
permit us to reconstruct from them alone the past history of the
ancient Caribbean seas. Duncan observed that, on some islands,
such as Antigua and Trinidad, only reef species flourished. This
shows conclusively that in other places there must be deep-sea
deposits of the tertiary period which have not yet been brought

20 THREE CRUISES OF THE “ BLAKE.”

to light. It is possible that the massive types of the West
Indian miocene, such as the Asterosmilize and others which have
no analogues at the present time, may have been living in the
shoal water protected by reefs in the same way as the Fungie
of the Pacific, or some of the unattached compound corals, as
Manicina or Isophyllia of our coral reefs. °

According to Mr. Dall, a large proportion of the miocene and
even pliocene fossils of this country and of Sicily still exist in a
living condition near our shores. They are found principally in
the continental region. There are not, however, a sufficient
number of antique types to characterize the deep-sea molluscan
fauna as archaic, and none of them are as remarkable as the
Australian Trigonia, the Caribbean Pleurotomaria, or the Indian
Nautilus.

a

SKETCHES OF THE CHARACTERISTIC DEEP-SEA TYPES. — FISHES.

THE collections of the earlier deep-sea expeditions consisted
almost exclusively of invertebrate animals, and it was not until
the publication of the “ Challenger” results that any large num-
ber of deep-sea fishes became known. The first extensive con-
tribution to our knowledge of the vertebrate inhabitants of the
great depths of the sea was made by Dr. Giinther of the British
Museum, in 1878. He printed in the “ Annals and Magazine
of Natural History” a series of papers containing’ descriptions
of some species of fishes which had been obtained by the “Chal-
lenger.”

The deep-sea fishes, as a whole, although distinguished by
marked peculiarities, consist of types not wholly unfamiliar to the
ichthyologist. Many of the characteristic abyssal families have
representatives in the mshore faunz, less strongly specialized
perhaps than their allies in the abysses, but still structurally
the same. Others had in former years become known, from
dead individuals which floated to the surface or drifted ashore.
The latter have usually been designated as “pelagic forms,”
and until the existence of a deep-sea fauna was revealed, the
problem of their origin was much less intelligible than it is now.

Even now, the distinctions between the inhabitants of deep
water, those of the middle depths, and those of the surface
strata of mid-ocean, are not strongly defined. Such are the im-
perfections in the methods of trawling and dredging, that the

: S 3?
naturalist, when he has sorted out the fishes from his nets after

_1 1 am indebted to Professor Goode East Coast of the United States by Goode
and Dr. Bean for notes upon the Fishes. and Bean, based upon the collections of
The figures are taken from a Memoir the “ Blake” and of the U. S. Fish Com-
preparing on the Deep-Sea Fishes of the mission.

22 THREE CRUISES OF THE “ BLAKE.”

a haul in mid-ocean, is entirely at a loss to know where his cap-
tures have been made. If he has taken a flounder from a haul
in 800 fathoms, or finds a macruroid, a brotuloid, a berycoid, a
synodontoid, or a nemichthyoid in a net which has been below
the two-t housand-
fathom line, he feels
tolerably sure that he
has brought it up
from the bottom.
But who shall say
where those which
like Argyropelecus,
Sternoptyx (Fig.
195), or Cyclothone
(Fig. 196), having al-
lies among the pela-
gic fishes in the same
net, have come from? They may have come from the bottom, or
they may have become entangled im the meshes of the trawl when
but a few fathoms below the surface, in its ascent or descent.
Many of the deep-sea fishes undoubtedly lead a most active life
in spite of their cartilaginous bones and feeble muscular system,
being kept efficient perhaps by the enormous pressure under -
which they live. The abso-
lute calm of the abyssal re-
gions may be the cause of the.
extraordinary development of
some of the tactile or other
organs of sense occurring in
different parts of the skin, usually on the head or upon the
lateral lines; some of these may be, as has been suggested by
Leydig, accessory eyes, or phosphorescent organs. The acces-
sory eyes may perform the part of bull’s-eyes, thus constituting,
according to Dr. Giinther, “a very deadly trap for prey, one
moment shining that it might attract the curiosity of some sim-
ple fish; then extinguished, the simple fish would fall an easy
prey.” Some of the long filamentous organs are phosphores-
cent, while others are merely tactile.

Fig. 195. —Sternoptyx diaphana. 4.

Fig. 196.— Cyclothone lusea. }- (U.S. F.C.)

CHARACTERISTIC DEEP-SEA TYPES. — FISHES. 2d

Many surface fishes also descend to considerable depths. In
fact, the migration of our coast fishes is one of the most impor-
tant problems which the fisherman has to solve, and one of
which we as yet know but little. There seems to be no sert-
ous obstacle to extensive bathymetric movements on the part of
fishes. The silver hake, which is abundant all summer long at
the surface on the New England coast, has been taken from
487 fathoms, and appears to live in September and October at
considerable depths off Southern New England. ‘There is reason
to believe that the mackerel, menhaden, and the bluefish also go
down below the hundred-fathom line in winter.

The fishes of the abyssal realm are very distinct from those
of the surface faune. It is safe to say that there are more
genera common to the seas of Australia and North America than
to the littoral and abyssal faunz off the Atlantic coast of the
United States, — excluding the pelagic types, many of which
are cosmopolitan. Indeed, of the sixty or more genera which
have been dredged below 1,000 fathoms in any sea, only one
has been found in less than 200 fathoms on our own coast, and
four within the two hundred-fathom line in any sea, even in
polar regions. Of the same assemblage, only seven occur any-
where in less than 500 fathoms, and down to 500 fourteen are
added to the list. These fourteen genera represent ten fami-
hes. Out of the thirty-four family groups which are repre-
sented below 1,000 fathoms, or in mid-ocean beyond soundings,
only five are represented in any in-shore fauna, even in circum-
polar regions.

We have now considered the composition of the abyssal
fauna, as found at the greatest depths. A glance at its upper
limits may also prove instructive; we find below the hundred-
fathom line, and within the limit of 500 fathoms, a very hete-
rogeneous assemblage. Well-known surface species inhabit
at times water of considerable depths. The cod goes below
100 fathoms ; the halibut and the Newfoundland turbot go be-
low 300, and the haddock apparently to 500, on the New Eng-
land coast. Hake are also deep-sea lovers, being recorded at a
depth of over 304 fathoms. One of the species of Phycis (P.
regius) from 233 fathoms was discovered to be electric, giving

24 THREE CRUISES OF THE “ BLAKE.”

quite a strong shock to Commander Bartlett and me. The
goose-fish and the hag go down at least over 350, the “ Norway
haddock” to more than 150 fathoms. The swordfish, when
attacked at the surface, is able to “sound” with ease and ra-
pidity to a depth of 500 or 1,000 feet, arriving at the bottom
with such force as to imbed its sword at full length in the mud,
and there seems to be nothing to prevent powerful swimmers
from visiting the bottom at any time when the conditions of tem-
perature will permit. Scopelus, one of the most common pelagic
fishes, may live at considerable depths: it comes up to the sur-
face mainly during calm nights.

The number of representatives of shallow-water families
dredged below 100 fathoms and down to a depth of 500 fath-
oms is quite large, but diminishes rapidly below that depth, two
or three extending only to 700 fathoms, and an equal number
to 1,000 and 2,000 fathoms.

To the bottom-living species which may have made their way
gradually down to deep water upon the continental slopes be-
long preéminently the flat fishes. Fourteen species have been
detected on our Atlantic coast, livmg beyond the hundred-fathom

Fig. 197. —Monolene atrimana. About 4.

line. One of them (Monolene) (Fig. 197) comes from 300 fath-
oms, and three genera occur well down toward the thousand-
fathom line. The pole flounder ranges beyond this limit, and
breeds in deep water. It has the cavernous skeleton of the deep-
sea fishes. In Bedford Basin, Nova Scotia, and in adjacent
waters, it lives at depths of about 15 to 20 fathoms, and yet indi-
viduals captured there exhibit the peculiarities of abyssal types.

CHARACTERISTIC DEEP-SEA TYPES. — FISHES. 20

The flat fishes are represented by at least two genera fossil
in the schists of Glaris, believed to have been the bottom of a
deep sea, and in the clays of Sheppey are found fossil the three
genera Gadus, Merlucius, and Phycis, — types which rarely go
below 1,000 fathoms. Of the eleven recognized families of
anacanthian fishes (flat fishes, cods, and the like), all save four
are known from the abyssal fauna. The brotulid forms allied
to the cods represent a dominant abyssal group.

Among them may be mentioned Barathronus (Fig. 198)

Fig. 198. — Barathronus bicolor. About 4.

(1769 fathoms), a small-eyed fish with marked colored bands upon
its flanks, and Barathrodemus (Fig. 199) (647-1395 fathoms), a

Fig. 199. — Barathrodemus manatinus. About 2.

cusk-hke fish. One of the most interesting forms of the Bro-
tulide is Aphyonus, with rudimentary eyes, one species of which,

Fig. 200. — Aphyonus mollis. About 8.

having no visible eyes, was obtained by the “Challenger” at
a depth of 1,400 fathoms, south of New Guinea; another, A.
mollis (Fig. 200), by the “ Blake,” in 955 fathoms. This fish

26 THREE CRUISES OF THE “ BLAKE.”

is covered by a flaccid, scaleless skin, is toothless, and has its
head covered with a system of wide muciferous canals, the der-
mal bones being almost membranaceous. It is either a very
ancient or a very degenerate type, but bears a remarkable
superficial resemblance to its ally, Lucifuga, which inhabits the
subterranean waters of caves in Cuba, and has lost the use of
its eyes.

The typical family of cods (Gadide) is also numerously repre-
sented in the depths of the sea; those forms which descend to
the greatest depths being usually of a more elongate form
than the brotulids, and with a small, often filamentous, first dor-
sal fin.

The Ophidide (Ophidium cervinum) (Fig. 201) are elongated

Gadoids.

Fig. 201. — Ophidium cervinum. About}. (U.S. F.C.)

The Lycodide are abundant in the polar waters and lesser
abysses of the North Atlantic and Pacific, and occur also where
the Atlantic abysses merge into the Antarctic.

The macruroids (Fig. 202) are characteristic abyssal forms,
and both specifically and individually are exceedingly numerous
at all depths below the hundred-fathom line. Seventy-five per
cent at least of the fishes brought up in the trawl from the
abyssal regions are members of this family. Macrurus is rare
below 1,000 fathoms, only one species, WZ. Bairdii, having strag-
gled below this limit. It is more abundant inside the five hun-
dred-fathom line, and Steindachneria, a macruroid with a high
differentiated first anal fin, has been obtained by the “ Alba-
tross ” in 68 fathoms. The species and individuals of Coryphe-
noides and Bathygadus (Fig. 203) are as numerous below 500
fathoms as those of Macrurus are above it. The cavernous struc-
ture and membranous texture of their skeietons are very marked,
and they seem, through their elongate forms, tapering tails, im-
mense heads, and strongly armed bodies, to be especially adapted

ag 2t a
ist a)

ne

Fig. 203, — Bathygadus areuatus. 4. (U.S. F. C.)

4

> ~
ae
ine 2
“a
7 :
~ ti
' ti
.
‘«

i

Fig. 204.— Phycis Chesteri. 8. (U.S. F. ©.)

CHARACTERISTIC DEEP-SEA TYPES. — FISHES. 27

to life in the ooze and slime of the bottom. Macrurus Bairdii
and Phycis Chesteri (Fig. 204) are the two most common fishes
of the continental slope, where they occur in immense numbers,
and breed at depths varying from 140 to 500 fathoms.

The family Bregmacerotide, hitherto known only through a
single species, a native of the Indian Ocean, appears adapted to
living at considerable depths. The discovery by the “ Blake ”
of a species (the long-finned Gregmuaceros atlanticus) (Fig. 205)

Fig. 205. — Bregmaceros atlanticus. 2.

of this old-world genus in the Gulf of Mexico, at a depth of
305-390 fathoms, is very interesting to ichthyologists.

Certain groups of the blennies, gobies and the like, often send
stragglers down to the lesser abyssal depths. They are forms
with more or less elongate bodies, and low, feeble vertical fins,
adapted neither to free swimming nor to the pursuit of prey at
the surface. They are, in fact, bottom feeders, somewhat slug-
gish in habit, and usually live among stones and hide in crevices ;
while, as a rule, fishes like the perch, the sea-bream, and the
mackerel, belonging to groups with compact, short bodies, pow-
erful fins, and holdly predaceous disposition, do not descend to
great depths, and do not wander far from the coast waters. The
peer euitles, the first group of bony fishes to appear upon the
geological horizon, occurring early in the cretaceous, are repre-
sented in the deepest dredgings of the “ Albatross ” (2,949 fath-
oms) by a species of Plectromus. (Fig. 206.) The Norwegian
deep-sea expedition found a species of Beryx, and Beryx splen-
dens, a magnificent brilliant scarlet species, known hitherto only

from Madeira, was one of the most important captures of the
“ Albatross,” in 460 fathoms.

28 THREE CRUISES OF THE “ BLAKE.”

Fie. 206. — Plectromus suborbitalis. +) (USSG)

The snappers and groupers of the tropics surely range below
one hundred fathoms, but it seems hardly appropriate to regard
any of the true percoids, or any of their very near allies, as
really abyssal in habit.

Some of the scombroids seem to inhabit deep water, espe-
cially the Trichiuride, the so-called cutlass-fishes, which may
be considered a deep-sea group. They are long, compressed, of
glistening silver color; they date back to the chalk of Lewes
and Maestricht, and occur in the eocene schists of Glaris. A
number of pelagic scombroids have been taken under such
circumstances as to render it probable that they descend to
considerable depths. The lumpsuckers (Liparidze) are well rep- -
resented by four genera, which have undergone extreme modifi-
cations characteristic of abyssal forms. They have soft, cavern-
ous skeletons, immensely developed mucous canals, and are soft —
and flaccid in the extreme. The family of lump-fishes (Cyclop-
teride) is represented below the hundred-fathom line off the
Atlantic coast.

The “ ribbon-fishes”” may be named with the abyssal groups,
although they have never been dredged at any considerable
depth, but are known solely from individuals stranded upon the
shores or found at the top of the water. The largest of the
ribbon-fishes is capable of rapid motion at the surface, and is
probably the animal which has most often been taken for the
sea-serpent. The “ Bermuda sea-serpent,” Legalecus Jonesii,
was seventeen feet long, and swam with great velocity through
the surf, and dashed itself upon the shore. It seems altogether

CHARACTERISTIC DEEP-SEA TYPES. — FISHES. 29

reasonable to believe that these fishes live at comparatively mod-
erate depths, like the members of the family Trichiuride.
Among the bottom-loving groups, the sculpin descends to 732
fathoms ; its representatives go back to the tertiary formations.
The scorpzenoids descend to 440 fathoms. Scorpzna occurs
in the eocene of Oran.
The blennies are still represented at a depth of 471 fathoms.
The gobies have a representative in deep water, Callionymus

(Fig. 207), a huge sea-robin-like fish. The discovery of a mem-

Fig. 207. — Callionymus Agassizii. About 4.

ber of this old-world family in the Gulf of Mexico, at a depth
of 340 fathoms, is one of the noteworthy features of the
“ Blake” exploration.

We should also mention the tile-fish dredged off our Middle
Atlantic coast in deep water, the remarkable ae cha-
meleonticeps.

Chiasmodon niger (Fig. 208) is a species which has been

Fig. 208.— Chiasmodon niger. About 4. (U.S F.C.)

often described, but its common name, “the great swallower,”
is sO Pee iesintic that we may here recall it to memory. It is
able to take in ae fully half as large as itself. Giinther

30 THREE CRUISES OF THE “ BLAKE.”

places it in 1,500 fathoms. Most of the specimens known have
been collected at the surface, and there seems to be a reasonable
probability that this genus inhabits intermediate depths, since
mid-depth fishes only have been found in its stomach.

The gurnards have also representatives in deep water, if the
remarkable new genus Hypsicometes is one of its members.
This has been obtained both by the “ Blake” and by the “ Al-
batross”’ at various depths from 68 to 324 fathoms, and four
species of the family touch the hundred- fathom line or go
below it.

The Agonide are represented in 324 fathoms by one species
of Peristedium (Fig. 209), remarkable for its branching barbels,

Fig. 209. — Peristedium longispatha. About 3.

and three others found between 140 and 300 fathoms, — all the
result of recent American explorations.

It is worthy of note, that the characteristic abyssal families
are apparently offshoots of free-swimming species of active hab-
its, which have, in the course of time, become gradually accli-
mated in the depths of the sea. Their approach to great depths
would appear to have been in vertical lines, rather than upon
the slopes of the ocean bottom.

One of the most aberrant types, Notacanthus, was obtained by
the “Challenger” from a depth of 1,875 fathoms. WV. phasga-
norus was taken from the stomach of a shark killed on the
Grand Bank of Newfoundland.

Many members of the group of Pediculati are often met with
swimming on the surface. They are species whose habits seem
to have become modified to those of deep-sea fishes, while they ap-
parently retain the characteristics of their surface allies, the most
familiar representatives of which are the goose-fish (Lophius)

CHARACTERISTIC DEEP-SEA TYPES. — FISHES. ol

and its allies (Malthe and Pterophryne). Lophius piscatorius,
the common goose-fish of the North Atlantic, descends to 365

Fig. 210. — Nest of Pterophryne. About 4.

fathoms. Pterophryne, “the marbled angler” of the Sargasso
Sea, is specially adapted to live among the floating algz, to

Fig. 211.—Antennarius. 3.

which it clings with its pediculated fins, and in which it inter-
twines its gelatinous clusters of eggs. (Fig. 210.) Its ally,

32 THREE CRUISES OF THE “ BLAKE.”

Antennarius (Fig. 211), has become adapted to life on the
bottom, and is found nearly down to the hundred-fathom line.
Chaunax ee a closely related genus, was taken by the
“ Blake” im 288 fathoms. The Ceratiide are the only pedicu-
lates oe are exclusively and characteristically abyssal. Me-
lanocetus, a deep-sea Lophius in appearance, ranges from 360
to 1,850 fathoms; the “ Blake” took it in 992 fathoms.

The Alepocephalide, the Halosauridee (Fig. 213), and Chau-
hiontide (Fig. 214), are families which have become perma-

ee
2

ig. 215. —Ipnops Murrayi. About }.

nent residents on the bottom. ‘To the former belongs Alepo-
cephalus Agassiz (Fig. 212), a magnificent fish which attains
a length of at least three feet, is covered with silvery scales, and
is noted for its large eyes; while allied to the scopelids, but
inhabitants of deep water, belong certain genera, as Ipnops (Fig.

Fig. 217. — Bathypterois quadrifilis. About 3.

215), Bathysaurus (Fig. 216), with its huge dorsal fin and fine
teeth set in many rows, Bathypterois (Fig. 217), and Bentho-
saurus (Fig. 218), a small-eyed fish, with large ventral.

The pectoral. rays of Bathypterois are strangely modified ; the
anterior ray is independent of the others, and so articulated that

reer aera FS
A

es / 3

Fig. 213. —Halosaurus macrochir. 4.

a : eo Aree

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r .
;
we =.
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p es
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Coca's'n) “SE ‘texoig soporneyg — “FIZ “Sr

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Fig. 216, — Bathysaurus Agassizii. About }.

— ae oe = Co ee...” Bove"

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Fig. 218. — Benthosaurus grallator. #,

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CHARACTERISTIC DEEP-SEA TYPES. — FISHES. do

it may be extended in front of the head and used as an organ of
exploration, so that we may imagine this fish feeling its way in
the dark, and exploring the ooze to discover buried in it the
animal upon which it feeds.

To the “pelagic Isospondyh” belong those groups which, like
the Scopelide, are found from time to time at the surface, liv-
ing or dead, and which, there is reason to believe, inhabit the
intermediate depths of the ocean, having the power of ascend-
ing and descending developed to an extent which is not at
present understood.

Among the deep-water groups named above occur the most
abnormal specializations, such as powerful jaws, lancet-like teeth,
prolonged tactile appendages, and enlargement of the tube-bear-
ing scales. They have not the cavernous and feeble skeletons
peculiar to the deep-sea gadoids, and many other families, which
may have found their way gradually into deep water; they are,
as a rule, compactly built, muscular, and are the most actively
predaceous of the abyssal forms.

The pelagic groups do not, as a rule, exhibit special modifica-
tions of form, but they are, with few exceptions, provided with
peculiar luminous appendages, which, like the cavernous skele-
tons and exaggerated mucous systems, have been by many wri-
ters attributed to deep-sea fishes in general.

In his “Challenger” letters, Willemoes-Suhm speaks of the
luminosity of Scopelus. (Fig. 219.) It is well known to the
fishermen of the
Mediterranean
that at the death
of the fish the
luminosity ceases.
We frequently
brought im scope-
lids in our tow-

nets, and could Fig. 219. —Scopelus Miilleri. 1. (U. S. F. C)
observe the phos-

phorescence of the luminous spots, so arranged that it seems
as if the anterior ones were intended to explore the regions in
front of the fish, while those of the belly illuminated He water

34 THREE CRUISES OF THE “ BLAKE.”

beneath it. The “ Bombay duck,” so common at certain. peri-
ods in the Indian Ocean, belongs to this group of phosphores-
cent fishes. It is probably, with Scopelus, an inhabitant of
deep water, coming to the surface only at certain times.

We may imagine some deep-sea types, when in search of their
food, uluminating the water around them to a certain extent by
their feeble phosphorescent light. Others carry beacons or spe-
cialized plates on certain parts of the head; others are resplen-
dent with phosphorescent spots extending along the sides of the
body, or the back, or ventral surface ; while in others, again,
long tactile appendages play the part of lights sent out to illu-
minate dark corners, or the fins themselves may be intensely
luminous. Sometimes the whole body is phosphorescent, and
diffuses a subdued lght, as is the case with some of the deep-
sea sharks. It is hoped that future investigations will solve for
us the question whether all these phosphorescent fishes are not
to a greater or less extent in the habit of swimming far from
the bottom.

Ipnops is evidently a dweller on the bottom. The eyes of this
fish have been carefully examined by Professor Moseley. They
were at first considered phosphorescent organs, but they show a
flattened cornea extending along the median line of the snout,
with a large retina composed of peculiar rods, which form a
complicated apparatus, destined undoubtedly to produce an
image and to receive especial luminous rays.’

Malacosteus is the sole representative of a peculiar family, the
affinities of which have never been defined. Jalacosteus niger

1 The existence of well-developed eyes cialized phosphorescent plates. In fishes

among fishes destined to live in the dark
abysses of the ocean seems at first con-
tradictory ; but we must remember that
these denizens of the deep are immigrants
from the shore and from the surface. In
some cases the eyes have not been spe-
cially modified, but in others there have
been modifications of a luminous mucous
membrane, leading on the one hand to
phosphorescent organs more or less spe-
cialized, or on the other to suck remark-
able structures as the eyes of Ipnops,
intermediate between true eyes and spe-

that have been blinded and retain for
their guidance only the general sensibility
of the integuments and of the lateral line,
these parts soon acquire a very great de-
licacy. The same is the case with tactile
organs, and experiments show that bar-
bels may become organs of touch adapted
to aquatic life, sensitive to the faintest
movements or the slightest displacement,
with power to give the blinded fishes full
cognizance of the state of the medium ip
which they live.

Fig. 221. — Synaphobranchus pinnatus. 4. (U.S. F. 0.)

Fig. 222.— Nemichthys scolopaceus. }. (U.S F.C.)

<=.

tee

SS

pe

RAEN AN

223

— Nettastoma procerum,

i

Serna . Vie eee re
i '

’

A SMES L PML EL EE Ae a

sas Zs
NOLES SD ILI PLES SENATE
TORE ETO a mnt

i fe aa > fe

Fig. 224. — Gastrostomus Bairdii. 4. (U.S. F.C.)

'

7 ee . pea Nah ra

CHARACTERISTIC DEEP-SEA TYPES. — FISHES. 3D

(Fig. 220) has been taken at the surface (dead), and also in the
trawl at various depths from 335 to 1,000 fathoms, by the
“ Blake,” ‘“ Albatross,’ and “Talisman.” It has a luminous

° 991). — Ma]: i 1
Fig. 220. — Malacosteus niger. }.

body under the eyes, and is possibly a form belonging to the
intermediate depths of the ocean.

Characteristically abyssal is a familiar fish of our own coast,
Synaphobranchus pinnatus (Fig. 221), ranging from 239 to
1,200 fathoms. Next come the Nemichthyide, popularly called
the “snipe eels,” exceedingly elongate, feebly finned forms,
with the jaws prolonged and bill-hke. Nemichthys scolopaceus
(Fig. 222) occurs along our coast in 306 to 1,047 fathoms.
Another typical genus living in considerable depths is Netta-
stoma, represented by Nettastoma procerum (Fig. 223), a new
species taken by the “ Blake” in 178 to 955 fathoms.

Some of the deep-sea fishes must find it most difficult to sup-
ply themselves with food. Such types as the astonishing Kury-
pharynx, discovered by the “ Talisman,” and its American ally,
Gastrostomus Bairdii (Fig. 224), seem to meet the problem of
foraging by a policy of masterly inactivity. Water and the food
it contains pour into the mouth and the enormous cavity be-
hind it, which is formed both above and below by the lateral
folds of the head and of the anterior part of the body, consti-
tuting a huge pouch, capable of great expansion. The head
thus becomes an immense funnel, the body of the fish being its
shank. Perhaps the process of digestion is carried on in part
in this pouch.

This fish undoubtedly lives in the soft ooze of the bottom, its
head alone protruding, ready to ingulf any approaching prey.
Its fins are atrophied, and the power of locomotion of this
strange animal must be reduced to a minimum. The structure

of the lateral line as described by Ryder is unique. There

36 THREE CRUISES OF THE “ BLAKE.”

are groups of four and five stalked organs, more or less cup-
shaped, the surrounding skin deeply pigmented. The function
of these side organs is probably tactile, or they may serve some
special purpose at the great depth at which these fish live.
Analogous organs have been described in the head of the blind
cave fish. It may be that the side organs are phosphorescent,
like those of the scopelids. These side organs also recall the
sense organs of embryo fish. The respiratory apparatus is
unique among bony fishes. There are air-breathing slits, and
the water which enters the buccal cavity escapes by a small open-
ing in front of the rudimentary pectorals. The “ Blake” took
specimens of this fish in 898 fathoms. It also occurs between
389 and 1,467 fathoms.

Of the selachians, few representatives have as yet been
brought to light by deep-sea explorers, nor is it to be expected
that such large forms should be captured by the methods
hitherto employed, although, as has been stated, a regular fish-
ery for deep-sea sharks (Centrophorus) has existed from time
immemorial off the coast of Portugal. A species of skate was
taken by the “ Blake” in 253-333 fathoms. Scyllium and Spi-
nax also occur below 200 fathoms (Centroscyllium Fabrici
down to 671). Only three species of selachians at all special-
ized for deep-sea life have as yet been found, unless perhaps we
except Chlamydoselachus, the frilled shark, a representative of
the devonian selachians, which is found off Japan, where it pro-
bably is an inhabitant of deep water. This is one of those m-
teresting persistent types, like the Australian Ceratodus and the
American ganoids: the gar-pike and mud-fish. The Japanese
shark has the teeth of an ancient devonian type, and the em-
bryonic characters of the lowest orders of recent sharks.

The lamper eel (Petromyzon marinus) and hag (Myzxine
glutinosa) have both been dredged below 500 fathoms.

Fig. 226. — Anisonotus curvirostris. %. (Milne-Edwards.)

XVI.

CHARACTERISTIC DEEP-SEA TYPES. —CRUSTACEA.!

In a rapid survey of the “ Blake ” collections for the sake of
noting some of the more interesting discoveries, the large num-
ber of very small and exceedingly long-legged spider-crabs
(Maioidea) first attract attention. Species of this general char-
acter, such as Anomalopus frontalis (Fig. 225) and Anisonotus

we

Zan .
/

Fig. 225.— Anomalopus frontalis. *-35. (Alph. Milne-Edwards.)

curvirostris (Fig. 226), are found to be numerous, and many
of them very abundant, at depths between 30 and 300 fathoms,
in the West Indian region, and a few species extend northward
to the south coast of New England. Pisolambrus nitidus
(Fig. 227) represents another group of Maioidea inhabiting
similar depths.

Among the Cancroidea (crabs and their allies), which are so

1 Prof. Sidney I. Smith has kindly assisted me in preparing the account of the
crustaceans.

38 THREE CRUISES OF THE ‘“SBLAKE.”’

characteristic of our littoral fauna, and are also found pelagic
in the gulf-weed, there are comparatively few deep-water species
and not so many novelties; but there are new species of a group
of very small crabs, like Pilumnus, Neopanope, and Micropanope
(Fig. 228), charac-
teristic of the West
Indian fauna at
moderate depths.
Off the Atlantic .
coast of the United Fig. 228. — Micropanope

Fig. 227.— Pisolambrus niti- State S, however. pugilator. 4).

dus. 2. (Milne-Edwards.) (Milne-Edwards.)

: Geryon quinque-

dens, previously known only from small specimens taken off
the northern coast of New England, was found growing to
enormous size at depths of from 200 to 800 fathoms, from
the south coast of New England to points far south of Cape
Hatteras. Specimens taken by the “ Blake ” show this species
to be one of the very largest of the Brachyura, the carapace
im some specimens being five inches long by six broad. Most
interesting among the Leucosoidea is Acanthocarpus bispino-
sus. . (Fig. 229.) Here-
tofore the only species of
the genus known was A.
Alexandri, which is armed
with an enormous spine
upon the outside edge of
the claw, instead of on
the side of the carapace.

Fig. 229. — Acanthocarpus bispinosus. }. The claws are provided

REE aa with a stridulating appa-
ratus, which is rubbed against the edge of the carapace.

Quite striking is the large number of new forms of Dorip-
pidoidea, a group previously unknown from the Western Atlan-
tic and new to America. Cyclodorippe nitida (Fig. 230), a
small species with smoothly rounded (Fig. 251) and highly
polished carapace, will serve as an example. This and two
other species of the same genus were taken in 90 to 300 fath-
oms. Belonging to the same group is the remarkable and

rr

(yp “TL 'S)

§ LZIssesy Sepoluwy]

BES “SL

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SAK

ARG
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a

CHARACTERISTIC DEEP-SEA TYPES. — CRUSTACEA. 39

httle-known genus Cymopolia, of which no less than eight spe-
cies are recorded from depths varying from 50 to 300 fathoms.
Cymonomus quadratus and Cymopolus
asper represent two new species with the
carapace projecting in a
sharp rostrum in front.
The latter species, taken
in 75 to 150 fathoms,
has normally developed Fig. 231. —Cyclodorip,
ee a aadus OS™ while imthe former, 2? at, 4, (Smith,)
nitida. 2, (S.1.Smith.) taken in 200 to 500 fathoms, the eye-stalks
are immobile spiny rods tapering to obtuse
tips without visual elements; so that we may trace here, as it
were, the mode of disappearance of the eyes in different groups
of crustaceans.' The most remarkable species referred to this
group is Corycodus bullatus, of which an imperfect specimen
was taken between 175 and 250 fathoms. It has a somewhat
pentagonal thick and very swollen carapace, covered with flat-
tened tubercles resembling small rods. |
Among the great number of new forms of Anomura (crusta-
ceans intermediate between crabs and lobsters), none is more
striking than the great spmy Lithodes Agassizii. (Fig. 232.)
It is of a ight pink color. Specimens have been taken with
the carapace nearly seven inches long and more than six inches
broad, and with the outstretched legs over three feet in extent.
The whole integument of this magnificent species is very smooth,
but the spines upon the carapace and legs are of needle-like
sharpness, so that the greatest care is needful to handle even
dead specimens without wounding the hands. Considering the
pugnacious habits of crabs, it must be a formidable enemy among
the members of its class. The spines are greatly elongated and
very slender in young specimens, giving them an appearance
very unlike that of the adult. This species was taken in 450 to
800 fathoms ; it extends from the southern coast of New Eng-
land to that of South Carolina.”

ie

1 In the Pyenogonidz the shallow-water 2 Arctic species and genera were found
species have four eyes ; the deep-water by the “Blake” far south of their sup-
Species none, or only rudimentary ones. posed range; the genus Lithodes was

AQ THREE CRUISES OF THE “ BLAKE.”

Acanthodromia, which recalls from the shape of its carapace
fossil crustacea characteristic of the secondary formation, and
Dicranodromia, are peculiar new genera of Dromidz inhabiting
depths of 100 to 200 fathoms ; while Homolopsis, with eyes
nearly atrophied, is, ike Cymonomus just mentioned, a Medi-
terranean genus which has been found by the “ Blake” in the
depths of the Caribbean. Homalodromia, a genus of the fam-
ily of Homolide, is in some respects intermediate between it
and the Dromidz, two families thus far most distinet, and occurs
in greater depths, from 300 to 600 fathoms.

Among the hermit-crabs (Paguroidea) the species thus far
known were very similar, the head and claws alone being hard
and caleareous, while the soft terminal parts of the abdomen
are in the littoral species tucked away for protection into all
sorts of bodies, such as shells and
the like. It must be most difficult
often for the deep-water species to
find appropriate hiding-places, and
it is not astonishing that the
dredgings of the “Blake” have
brought to light a number of re-
markable new forms, whose char-
acteristics unite them with the .
Macrura ; as, for instance, Pylo-
cheles Agassiz, which has a per-
fectly symmetrical tail. It lives in
cavities excavated in fragments of
stone formed of agglutinated sand.
It entirely fills the cavity, closmg
the opening with the claws, which
form a perfect operculum. Xy/o-
pagurus rectus (Fig. 233), a slen-
der hermit-crab, inhabits tubes ex-

cavated in bits of wood (Fig. 234)

Fig. 233. Fig. 234.

Xylopagurus rectus. 1,

(Milne-Edwards.) or the hollow stems of plants open

previously known only from the North- the West Indian region were discovered
ern and Southern oceans. On the other off the New England coast.
hand, species previously known only from

CHARACTERISTIC DEEP-SEA TYPES. — CRUSTACEA. 41

at both ends. To adapt it to its peculiar dwelling, the posterior
rings of the tail are formed into a large and bilaterally sym-
metrical operculum of calcified plates, which closes the poste-
rior opening as effectively as the stout claw does the anterior.
The animal is straight, and has not the curved abdomen of the
hermit-crabs ; it enters its abode, not backwards, as do the her-
mit-crabs, but forwards, head first. MWixtopagurus paradoxus
has a slightly asymmetrical tail, in which the rings are more
or less distinct, but not completely calcified, so that it is inter-
mediate in this respect between Pylocheles and the typical her-
mit-crabs. All three of these remarkable forms were taken in
100 to 200 fathoms in the West Indian region.

The species of Catapagurus inhabit depths of 50 to 300
fathoms from the southern coast of New England to the West
Indies, and live in
a great variety of
houses which only
imperfectly cover the
animal, of which sf?
the front portion of #
the carapace is in-
durated. They are
often associated with
a colony of polyps,
Epizoanthus (Fig.
235), or the house
is built up by the
base of a simple
polyp, Adamsia, which has expanded laterally and united below
so as to enclose the crab in a broad cavity. (Fig. 236.) The
houses are generally built upon fragments of pteropod shells or
worm-tubes as a nucleus. This is frequently resorbed.

The Epizoanthus houses are very often disproportionately
large for the crabs inhabiting them, having grown out on
either side until they are several times broader than long.
In spite of these enormous houses, both species of the genus
probably swim about by means of the ciliated fringes of the
ambulatory legs. A similar codperative association between a

Fig. 235. — Catapagurus Sharreri. 3. (S. I. Smith.)

49 THREE CRUISES OF THE “ BLAKE.”

sea-anemone and a crab from shallow water was already known,
the polyp deriving most of its food from the remnants left by
the crab, and the latter
in its turn being hidden
by the Actinia while
creeping towards its
prey.

Ostraconotus spatu-
lipes, dredged from a
little over 100 fathoms,
is apparently the most
aberrant of all the her-
mit-crabs. It appears
to live without a house;
the carapace is flexible,
and resembles that of the Galatheoidea; the tail is so rudi-
mentary that the bunches of eggs are supported by the feet.

The large number of Galatheoidea discovered is another
prominent feature of the “Blake” collection. They were pre-
viously represented in our fauna by one imperfectly known spe-
cies. They are very characteristic of deep water in depths of
from 300 to more than 2,000 fathoms. This group of species
is well illustrated by Wunidopsis rostrata. (Fig. 237.) Some
of the Galatheoidea have enormously long legs, with which to
hunt for their prey in deep mud or in hidden corners, Munida.
(Fig. 238.) Some of the small and weak forms of the group,
Diptychus, are exceedingly abundant in 100 to 700 fathoms
among the branches of gorgonians, and others in the interior of
some of the delicate siliceous sponges; they appear greatly dis-
turbed, running in all directions, when brought to the surface.

None of the deep-water Macrura have attracted more notice
than the Eryonide, or “ Willemesia group of crustacea,” first
brought into prominent notice by the “ Challenger” expedition.
No less than five new species of this group were discovered at
depths ranging from 100 to 1,900 fathoms; they are admi-
rably illustrated by Pentacheles sculptus. (Fig. 239.) The
eyes are sessile and peculiarly modified in all the species. In
Pentacheles sculptus the eyes, or ophthalmic lobes rather, com-

Fig. 236. — Catapagurus Sharreri. 2, (S. I. Smith.)

- Smith. )

(S.1

a
T

Fig. 287. — Munidopsis rostrata.

ith.)

oly

yy

(S. L Sm

1,
1

Fig. 239. — Pentacheles sculptus.

CHARACTERISTIC DEEP-SEA TYPES. — CRUSTACEA. 45

pletely fill deep orbital simuses in the front of the carapace in
which they are imbedded. The Willemeesiz have a very wide
geographical distribution, and they are peculiarly adapted for
burrowing in soft ooze, in which they seem to live. Some of
the species are wonderfully transparent. They are the repre-

Fig. 238. — Munida. 1. (S.I. Smith.)

sentatives in our seas of the fossil Eryonidz, which flourished
in the jurassic lithographic beds of Solenhofen, in Bavaria. It
‘is interesting to note that the eyes of the fossil species were
extraordinarily developed.

Nephropsis Agassizii (Fig. 240), the only species of Astacidea
discovered, belongs to a genus previously known only from .a
single imperfect specimen dredged in the Bay of Bengal. The

44 THREE CRUISES OF THE “ BLAKE.”

genus is closely allied to our lobster : its species have very small
and colorless eyes.

Fig. 240. — Nephropsis Agassizji. 2. (S. I. Smith.)

Phoberus cecus (Fig. 241), taken in 416 fathoms off Gre-
nada, is a gigantic crustacean, combining, according to Milne-
Edwards, characters of several families of macrurans. It is as
large as-a lobster, the carapace in one specimen being seven
inches in length; and the whole animal, from the end of the
tail to the tip of the outstretched claws, is twenty-eight inches,
while the claw alone is eight inches. The eyes are rudimentary,
and do not project beyond the carapace.

It is difficult to draw any conclusions from the great diversity
presented by the conditions of the organs of sight in the crus-
taceans. Even among allied species we find that some are blind,
while others have well-developed organs of vision ; in one group
the eyestalks are flexible, while they are rigid in the next. One
cannot help being struck with the fact that a comparatively
small number of deep-sea crustaceans have lost their eyes.

Glyphocrangon (Fig. 242) represents a new family, of which
several species were taken both in the West Indian region and
off the Atlantic coast of the United States in 250 to 1,200
fathoms; these very characteristic deep-water forms are all large
and shrimp-like, with massive, highly sculptured, spiny, and tuber-
culose integument. The carapace, owing to a peculiar articula-

(‘spreapg-ouryy ydpy) “f ‘shoe snsoqoyg —"Tpz “Shy

=

Sn eraser er een wo Sooo

CHARACTERISTIC DEEP-SEA TYPES. — CRUSTACEA. 45

tion formed by a projection of its margin and by processes of
the external feet-jaws, is capable of a slight motion, a character
* unknown among decapods. The hinges of the last three articu-
lations of the rings of the tail are modified, so that they can be

Fig. 242. — Glyphocrangon aculeatus. +. (S. I. Smith.)
clamped, and the animal can hold the terminal rings firmly ex-
tended as a means of self-defence.
Sabinea princeps (Fig. 243), taken in 400 to 700 fathoms off
the Atlantic coast of the United States, and a closely allied spe-

Fig. 243.—Sabinea princeps. 4. (S. I. Smith.)

cies from off Guadeloupe, are the largest known species of the
family of Crangonid, and many times larger than the two

46 THREE CRUISES OF THE “ BLAKE.”

northern species of the genus. S. princeps reaches a length of
five inches or more.

Numerous new species of Pandalus, some of them very large
and with greatly elongated legs, and of the alhed genus Hetero-
carpus (Fig. 244), in which the carapace is beautifully carinated,

Fig. 244. — Heterocarpus carinatus. 2. (S. I. Smith.)

were taken in 200 to 1,000 fathoms ; they are apparently char-
acteristic of the fauna at that depth in the West Indian region.
The species of the new genus Stylodactylus, dredged from 400
to 500 fathoms, probably represents a new family of Caridea.

FZ

ZA
FV |

Fig. 246. — Acanthephyra Agassizii. 1 (S61 Smith. )

The oral appendages and branchie belong to a peculiar type of
structure, and the claws of the first and second pairs of legs are
very long and slender, with slender multiarticulate and hairy
digits. MNematocarcinus ensiferus (Fig. 245), of a bright rose-
color, from 800 to 1,400 fathoms, and WV. cursor, from 500

SS S /
LANNXqy =. \ a
= AN \

CHARACTERISTIC DEEP-SEA TYPES. — CRUSTACEA. 47

fathoms, represent a new and very peculiar family, of which the
species are often abundant in deep water. Their exceedingly
long and very delicate legs, three to four times the length of the
body, tipped with fascicles of long sete, are apparently intended
as an adaptation for resting on very soft oozy bottoms.

New species of the little known genus Oplophorus, and the
new genera Acanthephyra (Fig. 246), Notostomus, and Menin-
godora (Fig. 247), make up a group of species of which almost
nothing was known before the explorations of the “ Blake,”
although they are very
frequently taken in the
trawl at great depths. —
The structure of the —
articular appendages
of these species is very
much like that of the
schizopods and the ahs =z
majority ete Vana Fig. 247. —Meningodora. 4. (S. I. Smith.)
crurans. Some of the species of Notostomus grow to a large size,
are very deep crimson when first taken from the water, and
are among the most striking of all the abyssal Caridea.

The only Penzidz which have been as yet described are from

—

(> Ee

Fig. 248. — Bentheecetes Bartletti. 4. (S. I. Smith.)

off the Atlantic coast of the United States. These, though few in
number, are very interesting. Benthecetes Bartletti (Fig. 248)

48 THREE CRUISES OF THE “ BLAKE.”

will serve as an example. In this species the filaments of each
antenna are greatly elongated, — fully once and a half the
length of the body ; the legs increase in length towards the
posterior extremity, and the three anterior pairs have minute
claws ; the dactyli of the two posterior pairs, nearly twice as
long as the preceding pair, are exceedingly weak and slen-
der, and are evidently tactile rather than ambulatory organs,
— modifications which seem adapted to the deep-sea life of
these animals. We are constantly struck with the exquisite
delicacy and great diversity of the organs of vision, of hear-
ing, of touch, and even of smell, in the deep-water crustaceans.
The antenne and claws are frequently of excessive length, as
if to facilitate exploration of the ooze and the sounding of
objects.

We find in deep water huge schizopods, Gnathophausia (Fig.
249), of a beautiful red color. The majority of schizopods pre-
viously known were mainly pelagic, and belong to a group of
small crustaceans which have the thoracic feet all alike, divided
into two branches and sometimes carrying free gills. Some of
these deep-water schizopods are provided with special organs
of phosphorescence, such
as luminous plates behind
the eyes or over the legs.-
Among the various groups
of crustaceans some have
phosphorescent eyes, while
in others the phosphores-
cence is diffused, or limited
to special parts of the body
at the time of breeding, or
3 he = when uritated.

Fig. 250. —Syscenus in- Fig. 251. — Roci- Among the Atlantic spe-
hs abo” milan. + gies of isopods, we may fig
ure the bright orange Sysce-

nus (S. infelix, Fig. 250), which is found at a depth of nearly
400 fathoms, and Rocinela (/?. oculata, Fig. 251), the upper
surface of the head of which is nearly covered with large ocelli
arranged in rows. From the collection made in the West Indian

> Rio bp

AID

waz
ST apes =z
11S enee
mee eOSEPUSEAT RRNA SE Aa NG OMPRRPRNEN PS ONAT ENT range

Fig. 249. — Gnathophausia Zea, 2, (A. Milne-Edwards, )

‘
~
J
—
ae

Fig. 252.— Bathynomus giganteus. }. (A. Milne-Edwards.)

:
a

CHARACTERISTIC DEEP-SEA TYPES. — CRUSTACEA. 49

region only a single species, Bathynomus giganteus (Fig. 252),
has been described, but this is by far the largest isopod known,
and is more than eleven inches long! The eyes of this giant
are placed on the lower side of the head, and consist, according
to Milne-Edwards, of no less than four thousand facets.

The amphipods have not been studied, but the collection from
the Atlantic coast of the United States contains several inter-

esting species; among them the
great angular and spiny Lpime-
ria loricata (Fig. 253), first de-
scribed from specimens taken by
the Norwegian expedition in the
North Atlantic, and a single speci-
men of the very peculiar Meohela
pasma.

The pyenogonids from the West
Indian region have not yet been
described, but those from the At-

Fig. 253. — Epimeria loricata. 2.
(S. I. Smith. )

lantic coast of the United States, which have been studied by
Prof. K. B. Wilson, are especially interesting. The most striking

Fig. 254. — Colossendeis colossea. 4. “(E. B. Wilson.)

feature of the species is their great size, most of them being gi-
gantic as compared with shallow-water species. There were ten

50 THREE CRUISES OF THE ‘“ BLAKE.”

species in the “ Blake” collection, and half of them were new.
The largest species is Colossendeis colossea (Fig. 254), in which
the slender legs are nearly two feet in extent, and the rostrum
more than an inch long, while the more slender Colossendeis
macerrima spreads to fourteen inches, and has a rostrum fully
as long as in the larger species. ‘These species were taken in
500 to 1,200 fathoms. The new genus Sceorhynchus (Fig.
255) is remarkabie for its spiny body and swollen and reflexed
rostrum; the legs of S. armatus (Fig. 256), the single species
taken below 1,200 fathoms, are nearly five mches in length.
The most abundant species of Nymphon is also the largest
known species of the genus. One of the species of the new
genus Pallenopsis, dredged from 260 to 330 fathoms, is more
than twice as large as any of the species from allied genera
belonging near the shore or in comparatively shallow water.

There is a great contrast between the life of the communities
of barnacles, such as we find living crowded on our rocks and
floating on the surface, and that of the comparatively solitary
deep-sea cirripeds Scalpellum, Verruca, and the like. This is
readily understood when we remember that the living or dead
organic matter floating on the surface in the wake of currents,
and along the shores, supplies the former with
a large amount of food, while the conditions
of life at the bottom are far from favorable for
the species living in deep
water.

The abyssal cirripeds
are usually attached to
nodules, to dead or living
shells, to corals, large crus-
taceans, spines of sea-ur-
chins, and the like. Sca/-
Fig. 257.—Scalpel. pellum regium (Fig. 257), Ms: 2° — pees aneert

a ea # a pedunculated form, first :
named by Wyville Thomson, is one of the
largest species of the genus; it has been dredged by the
“ Challenger ” from nearly 3,000 fathoms, and is quite common
in the West Indies. Verruca incerta (Fig. 258) also is not an

Sa
\ VA iH
pf HVA
\
Fig

|
]

. 256, *

igs oe
: a t ua
ek an
Toy) ’
Pe) ne
ae ey ee 0
1
HY
Oe
I
. oe :
o*
4 “
€
- ir

CHARACTERISTIC DEEP-SEA TYPES. — CRUSTACEA. 51

uncommon West Indian type from the globigerina ooze: it be-
longs to the group having no peduncle.

As has been noticed by Hoek, the presence of Scalpellum and
Verruca in the great depths of the ocean coincides in a. strik-
ing manner with the paleontological history of these genera.
They are found in the secomdary deposits, yet the genus Pol-
licipes, another of the pedunculated cirripeds, dating back to the
odlite, is only a littoral genus in our seas.

The ostracods are minute crustaceans, the dead tests of which
occur in nearly all the bottom deposits. They are very abundant
fossils, but the deep-sea dredgings have not as yet revealed
any type of im-
portance. Many of
the ostracods (Fig.
259) are pelagic ;
only a compara-
tively small num-
ber live at any
considerable depth ; they are denizens of shallow water or of
moderate depths.

Fig. 259.—Cypris. Greatly magnified.

XVII.

CHARACTERISTIC DEEP-SEA TYPES.— WORMS.!

Tue collection of worms made by the “ Blake”
expeditions is remarkably rich, and not merely con-
firms in general the relations which similar materials
from other deep-sea expeditions had already shown,
but in a number of instances furnishes a most de-
sirable supplement to the results of the earlier expe-
ditions. Unfamiliar worms are here found in well-
preserved specimens, while worm-cases which had _ be-
fore only been seen empty have been dredged occupied
by their builders. Annelids make up the larger part
of this collection, and among them the tubicolous
annelids are by far the most numerous. One of the
large Eunicide, Hyalinecia tubicola (Fig. 260), was
specially numerous ; its tubes, sometimes fully fifteen
inches in length, often filled the bottom of the trawl
when it was dragging on muddy bottoms. Some of
these genera are most striking from the exquisite
beauty of their tubes, which are composed of siliceous
spicules, and dead pteropod shells, and also from their
strange association with corals, gorgonians, sponges,
starfishes, mollusks, and ascidians. A species of
Phorus was frequently accompanied by a large an-
nelid, comfortably established in the axis of the shell,
with its head close to the aperture. Of other worms
the Nemertinz are represented by isolated’ fragments ;
the gephyreans by Sternaspis, from a depth of 158
fathoms, and Aspidosiphon, from 190 fathoms; while

; - 5 Fig. 260.
many still undetermined species of Phascolosoma Hyalineecia.

1 The following account of the worms is taken from the Preliminary Report of
Prof. Ernst Ehlers, of Gottingen, who has supervised the drawing of the figures.

CHARACTERISTIC DEEP-SEA TYPES. — WORMS. Hod

extend from the littoral region as far as the greatest depth here
recorded, one species having mdeed been brought up in a
Dentalium shell from a depth of 1,568 fathoms. Although
so numerous, no new forms of these groups were collected
either by the “Challenger” or “Blake,” with the exception,
perhaps, of some of the tubicolous types in deep water. Fur-
thermore, these groups have but a slight significance as com-
pared with the chetopods of the collection. The existence
of chzetopods in certain localities where the animals themselves
are not found may be inferred by the presence of their tubes.
Like the littoral species of Maldanide, Clymene, Serpule, and
their allies, they must cover extensive tracts of ground with
their tubes. Yet such a conclusion is not always admissible
without further evidence ; it can be accepted only when the indi-
vidual worm builds his tube in so characteristic a way that there
_1s no possibility of mistaking it for that of other annelids. Sev-
eral times tubes which from their whole appearance have been
taken for worm-cases were discovered to be inhabited by crusta-
ceans (Amphipoda). We cannot always decide if the occupant
of the tube was also its builder.’ When no foreign material is
used in the construction of the tube except mud consolidated
by the secretions of the worm, the tubes of very different spe-

Fig. 261. —Diopatra Fig. 262. — Diopatra Fig. 263. — Hyalopomatus
Eschrichtii. 4. glutinatrix. Langerhansi. 1.
cies of worms may have a great similarity among themselves ;

when, on the contrary, various foreign materials are cemented
1 Prof. S. I. Smith has observed the of their excreta, cemented together by

peculiar tubes in which some amphipods threads spun by the little crustacean.
live ; they are mainly built up of pellets

54 THREE CRUISES OF THE ‘“ BLAKE.”

in the tubes, such marked peculiarities may occur in their choice
and application that from a fragment of the tube the builder
can be inferred with certainty, and the form of
the tubes (Figs. 261, 262,
263) may even be so char-
acteristic that there is no
danger of mistaking them
for other tubes. We have
examples of this kind
especially in the Eunicide,
and also in the Maldanide
(Fig. 264), Terebellide, Sa-
bellidze, and Serpulidee. In

determining the distribution

of the worms, it must be wg. 265, —Cirra-
Fig. 264. — Maldane remembered that uninhab- tulus melanacan-
euculligera, 2, ; thus. 2,
: ited tubes, usually filled by i
mud or other material from the bottom, may be:transported by
currents.

Many of the principal types of the littoral annelids have not

Fig. 266.— Amphinome Pallasii. 2.

been dredged beyond the hundred-fathom line; such familiar
groups as the Syllide, Nereide, Cirratulide (Fig. 265), and
Amphinomide (Fig. 266), have no
representatives at that depth, while
the Phyllodocide, Ariciidz, Tere-
bellide, and Sabellide extend to
300 fathoms, and such families as
1s, the Polynoide (Fig. 267), Eunicide,
" Opheliidze, Aphroditide, and Serpu-
lidee live beyond the five-hundred-fathom line, where occur
also the Ampharetide, many of which live in tubes lined with
a chitinous layer.

Fig. 267. —Sthenelais simplex.

CHARACTERISTIC DEEP-SEA TYPES. — WORMS. ek

Of the families here enumerated, none has so important a
bearing on the character of the faunal region as that of the
EKunicide. Thei representatives are found in far the greatest
number of localities; they range from the littoral district to
the lowest depths at which chetopods have been dredged by
the “ Blake.” They are represented by the largest number of
genera (Diopatra, Onuphis, Eunice, Rhamphobrachium (Fig.
268), Marphysa, Lisidice,
Lumbriconereis, Arabella),
and, judging from the large
number of their tubes met
with in many localities, they
must form an essential part
of the fauna. It is easily
seen, however, that the va-

_.., rious genera of this family

Fig. 268. - - 5
Rhamphobra- Show differences in their ver-
chium Agas- tical range, the bearing of

Siz7ll. 4. . .

which will perhaps be more
clearly understood when the conditions
of temperature of their habitat are taken
into account in connection with it. Thus
the Hunice conglomerans, judging from
the abundance of its paper-like irregular
tubes (Fig. 269), is a characteristic in- _ Fig. 269. — Eunice conglom-
habitant of the littoral belt, as far as rei
100 fathoms. From deeper waters come the tubes of the Lunice
tibiana Pourt.; they descend to 245 fathoms, about to the re-
gion where the Eunicidea of the species Diopatra and Onuphis
appear, some of which frequently build very peculiar tubes;
such as the flat, parchment-like tubes with cemented sponge
spicules of Diopatra Pourtalesii, and others mentioned by
Pourtalés in his preliminary account of the results of his first
expedition.

Among these chztopods species now appear which perhaps
belong exclusively to the deep sea; they are separated from
Diopatra-like forms, with large leaf-like expansions of the ante-
rior appendages, and with long hook-like curved bristles at the

56 THREE CRUISES OF THE “ BLAKE.”

point. The Diopatra (Fig. 270) group begins near the hun-
dred-fathom line; it becomes particularly numerous at about

500 fathoms, and still has one representative at a depth of nearly
1,000 fathoms. .

In connection with the important part here taken by the
Eunicide in the faunal combination of a marine area, it is in-
teresting to remark that among the annelids of the lithographic
shales of Bavaria the Eunicide are those which, in various
forms, are most richly represented.

One of the most interesting of the deep-water types collected

1

1. (MeIntosh.)

by the “ Challenger” is the eminently embryonic Buskiella (Fig.
271), which bears the closest resemblance to a chetopod larva.

Of other families found in deep water, the Polynoide and
the Aphroditidze may be especially mentioned. But as they
never live in communities, and do not, as a rule, build large
tubes, they are, like the Ophelide, less characteristic of the
localities to which they belong than the Maldanidz, or the
Ampharetide ; their large tubes, built of mud, and sometimes
associated with those of the Eunicide, must, judging from
the masses in which they are found, be a marked feature of
certain localities.

CHARACTERISTIC DEEP-SEA TYPES. — WORMS. 57

It is interesting to find that the Serpulide (Fig. 272) also
occur at great depths, because Ehlers, in working up the an-
nelids of the “ Porcupine” expedition, had no-
ticed their absence in deep water, and left it
undecided whether they were excluded by the
peculiar nature of the bottom or by the low tem-
perature of the deep sea. But it |
is not uncommon in the deep water
of the Gulf of Mexico to brmg up
rocky fragments which, judging from
the amount of mud brought up by
the trawl at the same time, must
wn form isolated patches, and in these
stegus stellatus. 3. undoubtedly the Serpule thrive.

(Fig. 275.) Terebellide and Serpu-
lidee have been obtained by the “ Challenger ” at
depths of nearly 3,000 fathoms. Of course, where
the tubes are composed of secretions, as in Hyali-
neecia, they are independent of their surroundings
-and of the character of the bottom. But the Fig. 273.
majority of the tube builders depend upon the Hyalopomatus
material at their disposal, using, to strengthen their /™s°2"s! +
tubes, either sand, or mud, or larger zalid particles, such as
foraminifers, bivalves, sponge ees and the lke.

XV:

CHARACTERISTIC DEEP-SEA TYPES. — MOLLUSKS.

CEPHALOPODS.

Tue shoal-water species of cephalopods, the squids and euttle-
fishes, live upon the bottom; but, being powerful swimmers,
they are capable of extensive migration, so that with them as
with fishes it will always be difficult to ascertain the depth from

Fig. 274. — Opisthoteuthis Agassizii. Abt. 3. (Verrill.)

which they have been obtained. Many of them are pelagic, and
serve as food for a large number of marine animals.’

Professor Verrill, who has examined the cephalopods collected
by the “Blake,” mentions as specially noteworthy the follow-
ing: Opisthoteuthis Agassizii (Fig. 274), a species with a
broad body of a dark chocolate color, long fins, and arms united

1 Very common in the Gulf Stream is surface. It is known as the “ flying

the Sthenoteuthis Bartrami, large speci- squid,” often darting out of the water in
mens of which are often caught on the the velocity of its movements.

CHARACTERISTIC DEEP-SEA TYPES. — CEPHALOPODS. 59

}

Fig. 275. — Nectoteuthis Pourtalesii. 4. (Verrill.)

Fig. 276. — Mastigoteuthis Agassizii. 3. (Verrill.)

nearly to their tips by a thick soft web ; among the cuttle-fishes,
a small reddish-brown species, Wectoteuthis Pourtalesii (Fig.
275), characterized by its short thick body and the great size

60 THREE CRUISES OF THE “ BLAKE.”

of its ventral shield; and the remarkable genus Mastigoteuthis
(Fig. 276), the type of a new family, with very unequal arms,
and a large caudal fin, of an orange-brown color, occupying

about half the length of the body.

Fig. 277. — Eledone verrucosa. 4, (Verrill.)

A stout species of octopoid, H/edone verrucosa (Fig. 277),
of a dark purplish brown, is covered above with rough wart-like
tubercles, forming a prominent circle around the eyes. One of
the species of the genus gives out a strong smell of musk.

eo, 1 o 6 &

Fig. 278. — Alloposus mollis. 8. (Verrill.)

Another characteristic species is Alloposus mollis (Fig. 278),
having a thick, soft, smooth body, and arms united by a web
nearly to their extremity.

Along the Atlantic coast a number of cephalopods were
dredged, many of them from considerable depths; among them

CHARACTERISTIC DEEP-SEA TYPES. — CEPHALOPODS. 6]

we may mention Benthoteuthis. (Fig. 279.) They are mainly
northern species, previously collected in shallower waters by
the United States Fish Commission.

Fiz. 279.— Benthotenthis. 3. (Verrill.)
But by far the most interesting of the cephalopods is a Spir-
ula (Fig. 280) in excellent condition, dredged off Grenada in the

Fig. 280.—Spirula. 4:5. (Huxley.)

os ~

ae

Caribbean by the “ Blake” from a depth of 950 fathoms. From
the condition of the chromatophores of the body, it evidently
lives with its posterior extremity buried to a certain extent in the
mud. The “Challenger” collected a specimen from 360 fath-
oms, off the Banda Islands. Cephalopods have been collected

62 THREE CRUISES OF THE “ BLAKE.”

by the Fish Commission off Martha’s Vineyard from a depth
of over 1,000 fathoms.

The giant squids (Fig. 281) of the North Atlantic (Architeu-
this), occasionally thrown up on the shores of Newfoundland,
attain an immense size, the arms measuring fully forty feet in
length. They probably live in the regions where food is most
abundant, upon the slopes, near the boundary of the continen-
tal plateau. It will be some time before we are able, with our
present appliances, to capture such monsters from the depths at
which they live. The Belemnites, so characteristic of some of
the tertiary deposits, have not as yet been dredged.

GASTEROPODS AND LAMELLIBRANCHS.’

The Mollusca obtained by the “ Blake” are notable in several
respects. We may refer to the absence or rarity of very minute
forms, which are only accidentally preserved in the contents of a
trawl net, even from comparatively shallow water. It is hardly
to be expected that, in the long washing which the contents of
a trawl undergo while hauled in from deep water, anything small
enough to go through the finest meshes of the bottom net
should be retained. Yet large shells appear to be rare in the
great depths, and are usually so fragile that their destruction or
fracture is almost inevitable. Deep-sea dredging has thus af-
forded few specimens of even moderately large size, judged by
the standard of shallow-water or littoral shells. Among naked
mollusks several species of unusual size have been found by dif-
ferent expeditions. One as large as an orange, discovered by
the “Challenger,” was named by Dr. Bergh Bathydoris abys-
sorum. It is perhaps the largest nudibranch known; it has a
transparent and gelatinous consistency, and with neither eyes
nor otocysts 1t must have led a remarkably sluggish existence,
blind and deaf as it was.

Abyssal mollusks are probably less active and energetic than
their congeners of the shores. This is indicated by the loose-
ness of the tissues, less favorable to prompt and violent action
than a more compact muscular system would be. The tena-

? Mr. Dall has kindly prepared for me mellibranchs, and supervised the drawing
the account of the Gasteropods and La- of the figures.

(Verrill.)

1

26

his princeps.

teut

i

— Arch

Fig. 281.

St

. ‘

‘ . Chea

i]
‘a
ft
a) oa |
i Gore
*-¢ i ae” & war my }
ros simaia) AN on a ‘“ PRP ’

CHARACTERISTIC DEEP-SEA TYPES. — MOLLUSKS. 63

cious character of the mud forming the ocean floor would also
tend to make motion through it slow and difficult. The deli-
cacy of the shells, their extreme fragility and tenuity often re-
minding one of the delicate dwellings of some of the tropical
land snails, would unfit them for constant friction and collision,
either from the motions of the animal itself or of the waters in
which it lives. Swimming mollusks, such as the squids and
cuttle-fishes, make an exception; but the deep-sea representa-
tives of these groups are far softer and less muscular than their
shallow-water allies.

The colors of the abyssal shells are almost always faint,
though often pretty. ‘The iridescence or pearly character of the
shell is in many groups of peculiar brilliancy and beauty, and it
seems as if the texture of the non-iridescent shells in the abys-
sal species gave out a sort of sheen which is wanting in their
shallow-water allies.

We do not find in the deep-sea species those sturdy knobs and
stout varices which ornament the turbinellas and conchs of shal-
low water, and have made the great group of rock-purples, or
Murices, so attractive to collectors; nevertheless many abyssal
shells have an exquisite and rich sculpture, and their ornamen-
tation is wonderfully delicate. There seems to be an especial
tendency to strings of bead-like knobs, revolving striz and
threads, and delicate transverse waves. Many of the deep-sea
forms, selected from all sorts of groups indifferently, have a row
of knobs or pustules following the line of the suture and
immediately in front of it. Their surface is also frequently
etched with a sort of shagreen pattern, varied in detail and
hardly perceptible except by a microscope, but extremely pretty.
In some the entire surface is profusely adorned with arbores-
cent prickles; in others, it is covered with the most delicate
shelly blisters, systematically arranged, which perish with a
touch.

Deep-sea mollusks may be understood to include all those
living on the continental shelf, and in the abysses at depths
where alg do not flourish, the limit depending somewhat on
the locality. Those living only above form the littoral fauna,
which, roughly speaking, may be said to reach from the shores

64 THREE CRUISES OF THE “ BLAKE.”

to about one hundred fathoms in depth. With them are often
mixed deep-water forms, which extend their range to shallow
water without however being characteristic of it.

As in other groups, the Gace of many species of mollusks
are more sharply defined on the side of cold than on that of
heat. The difference between 45° and 40° F. may absolutely
check the distribution of a species which would find no imcon-
venience in a rise of temperature from 45° to 80°. As has been
observed in fishes, this limit is probably connected with the tem-
perature necessary for development of the young, rather than
with the resisting powers of the adult.

It would seem as if the conditions existing on the floor of the
deeper parts of the ocean offered attractions for only a limited
variety of forms. The bottom is generally composed of ex-
tremely fine impalpable mud, and in many portions of the abys-
sal area offers no stones or other prominences as points of
attachment for sedentary mollusks. It is not quite destitute of
such irregularities, however, and all are utilized by the abyssal
population. In the absence of stones, most unusual selections
are made. The chitinous tubes of hydroids and the irregular
leathery dwellings of tubicolous annelids are occupied, after their
original owners are dead or dispossessed, by diverse little lim-
pets. The long spines of the abyssal sea-urchins offer a welcome
perch for species of Cadulus, which, when they grow too large
to find a satisfactory foothold, secrete a shelly pedestal which
serves them for life. Babe 2

A bivalve, Modiolaria polita, related to the ordinary mus-
sel of northern seas, spins a sort of nest of stout byssal threads,
in which it is completely concealed, and which protects in its
meshes not only the young fry of the maker, but various little
commensal mollusks of all orders. Only a small number of
mollusks live as commensals. Species of Stylifer, a small gas-
teropod, live associated with star-fishes, sea-urchins, and other
echinoderms. Dr. Stimpson discovered another living within
an annelid ; and they are often found imbedded in branches of
corals, of which they have become a part as it were.

Those mollusks which live on algze and other vegetable matters
are almost absolutely wanting in the depths of the sea, where

CHARACTERISTIC DEEP-SEA TYPES. — GASTEROPODS. 65

vegetation, except as a sediment from near the surface, does not
exist, so that the flesh-eating mollusks of the deep, when within
reach of pelagic food, or of the carcasses of dead fishes and
other decaying organic matter, are not obliged to prey upon
each other to the same extent as do the shallow-water forms.
The latter take part in a fierce struggle for existence amidst the
vicissitudes of tidal and storm waves, variation in elevation of
land, and a vastly denser population of all sorts. Compara-
tively few of the shells dredged from deep water show the frac-
tures and injuries so common in shells from littoral dredgings,
or the drill-holes made by the so-called lingual ribbons, a terri-
ble boring weapon of enemies of their own kind. Most of the
enemies of deep-water mollusks are blind, or at any rate can
have little power of vision for objects not luminous. The ab-
sence of violent motion in deep water removes any mechanical
effects of that medium from the category of modifying in-
fluences upon the animal. Thus it is evident that the factors
affecting the restriction of tendencies to variation in the form,
color, and sculpture of littoral species are nearly eliminated in
the abyssal regions ; so that we may expect in the deep sea a
very wide range of variation in form and sculpture within the
specific limits of the “ flexible ” species, and an almost complete
uniformity over very wide areas of the forms which we may con-
sider as “ inflexible ” species.

Many of the gasteropods must lead a more or less roving life
in search of their prey; others, like Dentalium, live buried in
ooze. A great number of the mollusks are blind. The lamelli-
branchs live either buried in the ooze, or on the surface of harder
bottoms anchored by the byssus. Most of them are stationary,
though, judging from analogy with some of the shallow-water
genera, they may be capable of considerable change of locality.

Those mollusks which subsist upon other animals, with a hard
covering, so that they have to bore or break their way to their
food, are much less numerous in the deep sea than those which
feed upon soft tissues, or kill their living prey by bites with poi-
sonous fangs. The latter, the Pieurotomide, outnumber any
other group of mollusks in the abyssal fauna; they are charac-
terized by a notch near the junction of the outer margin of

66 THREE CRUISES OF THE “ BLAKE.”

the aperture with the outside of the preceding whorl. This
notch permits the refuse matters discharged from the anal open-
ing to escape outside of the shell without fouling the water
which is used by the gills in respiration. These mollusks are
found at all depths, are animal feeders, and some of them are
provided with barbed hollow teeth, havmg a duct to which a
gland supplies a poisonous substance ; such an apparatus is even
more fully and generally developed in the related group of
Conide, few of which reach any great depth.

Among those Pleurotomidz which would attract especial at-
tention is the exquisite Plewrotoma (Ancistrosyrinz) elegans
(Fig. 282), one of the most beautiful gems of the sea. It grows
to an inch and a half in
length, and is of a light
straw color; the posterior
surface of the whorls is con-
cave and carinated, the cari-
ne being delicately frmged
with sharp triangular
points ; it has a deep notch,
which in perfect specimens
has a raised margin. This
species descends to eight
Fig. 252. — Pleurotoma hundred fathoms, and has

Fig. 283. — Pleurotoma

(Ancistrosyrinx) ele- :
ee been found alive at Bar- sahgrandivaee About

bados in seventy - three
fathoms. Its fossil allies extend as far back as the eocene.
Pleurotoma subgrundifera Dall (Fig. 283) is a form which, in-
stead of having the margin turned toward the tip of the spire,
has the sharp keel bent in the opposite direction toward the
canal, like the edge of an umbrella. Another pretty species,
dredged in deep water both by the “ Blake” and the “ Challen-
ver, ” is Pleurotoma Blakeana ; and still another, short and
stout, with delicate reticulate geulpe has also been obtained
by the Fish Commission, the P. curta of Prof. Verrill. Both
these resemble in shape the Belas of the arctic seas. A very
elegant and widely distributed little shell is the P. limacina,
polished, smooth, with a beaded garland at the suture; it is

CHARACTERISTIC DEEP-SEA TYPES. GASTEROPODS. 67

extremely thin, with peculiar flexuous growth lines and no oper-
culum. The variety in this group seems endless, and in num-
ber of species it is likely to rival even some of the great groups
of land shells.

The groups of less specialized character, such as the tusk-
shells (Dentalium), are rather abundant in species, more so than
those which intervene between them and the highly specialized
Pleurotomidz ; but our knowledge of the deep-sea mollusks is
yet too imperfect to afford any important generaliza-
tions on this score. So far as determined, the groups
systematically lowest in the scale, like the Chitonide
or mail-shells, are rare in deep water, yet the deep-
sea representatives of this family belong to the more
archaic sections of their class. The tusk-shells are
curved tubes, almost all white or delicately tinted,
and varying chrefly in curvature, calibre, and super-
ficial sculpture or color. The most remarkable of
these, among the slender species, is Dentalium per-
longum (Fig. 284), polished, white, nearly smooth,
and attaining a greater relative length than any other
species, over four inches, with a diameter of an eighth
of an inch at one end, and half as much or less at the
other. It reaches the greatest depths dredged by the
“ Blake” (over 2,000 fathoms), and has not appeared
in shallow water. There are many other species, but
it is only necessary to mention one peculiar group of
the family, the genus Cadulus, containing numerous
species, all of which are small, polished, pellucid shells.
They expand their little tubes to a sort of bulb, more
or less prominent, which diminishes before they are cate
completed, so that the calibre of the aperture is smaller ae
in the adult than in the young; while in the true Petlongum.
Dentalium the diameter gradually increases with age.
The Caduli are quite characteristic of the deeper waters of
the sea.

Another group also largely represented in the abyssal region
is that of the Trochide. These are among the most beautiful
of spiral shells, often brilliantly colored, profusely sculptured,

68 THREE CRUISES OF THE “ BLAKE.”

and very pearly. The shallow-water forms may subsist on stony
algve or other plants, but the majority are flesh-eaters, or feed
upon the corallines and foraminifers, parts of whose shells are
found in their stomachs.

While not so brilliantly colored, the deep-water Trochide are
unsurpassed in beauty by their shallow-water allies. They gain
in delicacy and iridescence what they lose in depth of tint. One
of the handsomest forms is Calliostoma Bairdii Verrill, whose
pale, depressed, and more
delicate southern variety, C.
psyche, was first dredged by
Pourtales. It is, like many
other species of similar range,
tinted with pink and _ straw-
color, while farther north it
assumes brown and red livery.
Even more delicate and pecu-
liar in the concave outline of
its granular spire and polished
base is Calliostoma aurora
(Fig. 285), of which only a
single specimen is known,—a genus most characteristic of
Western America. It seems as if differences of temperature .
and food were indicated in very similar ways between northern
and tropical animals, whether they live
in the deep sea or inhabit the land.
A real treasure of the sea is Gaza
superba (Fig. 286), one of the most
beautiful and widely distributed abys-
sal shells. Were it not for its lovely
iridescent pearly sheen, it might be
taken, on a casual examination, for yg, 986. — Gaza superba. 1:
one of our large straw-colored land
snails. Other characteristic species, widely distributed, are Mar-
gorita egleés and Leptothyra induta (Fig. 287) of Watson, small
white shells from deep water, named from examples collected by
the “ Challenger,” and especially illustrating the luxury in vari-
ation which has already been referred to, and which has led in

Fig. 285. — Calliostoma aurora. 2.

ipo

CHARACTERISTIC DEEP-SEA TYPES. — GASTEROPODS.

69

the case of the former to the application of several specific names.

The depth in which these have been found
varies from 125 to over 1,000 fathoms.
Pleurotomaria is one of the most remark-
able forms dredged in the continental region.
Four recent species of the genus are known.
Its history dates back to the earliest fossilifer-
ous rocks of the cambrian, and to the dredg-
ings of the “ Hassler” and the “ Blake” are
due the only knowledge yet acquired of its

Fig. 287. — Leptothyra
induta. 4.

soft parts. Two species are found

Fig. 288. — Pleurotomaria Adansoniana.

colt Gy

tained living by the “ Blake.”
Among: other univalves, the Mar-
ginellide are represented by such
species as Marginella succinea Con-
rad, extending from shallow water
to several hundred fathoms, and //.
Watsoni (Fig. 290), characteristic of
great depths. The Ringiculide, of
which many species are known fossil,
are illustrated by RR. leptocheila
(Fig. 291), described first by Brug-

none from the Mediterranean, and afterward from deep

1

in the
West Indies, of which the
finest is P. Adansoniana
(Fig. 288), from about 200
fathoms. The shell is four
inches in diameter, richly
pearly within, and orna-
mented with elegant red
and brown colors exter-
nally. The anal notch in
this species extends nearly
half the length of the last
whorl. A second species,
less brilhant and with a
shorter notch, is P. Quoy-
ana (Fig. 289), also ob-

Fig. 289. — Pleurotomaria Quoy-

< 1
ana. T°

water

70 THREE CRUISES OF THE ‘ BLAKE.”

Fig. 290. — Marginella Fig. 291. — Ringicula
Watsoni. 2. leptocheila. 4.

1

in the Bay of Biscay and on the coasts of America. Cancella-
ria Smithii (Fig. 292), an elegant new species
of ‘a comparatively rare group; Mitra Swainsom
(Fig. 293) of Broderip, from the deep water of the
West Indies, first described from Chilian waters;
and Typhis longicornis (Fig. 294), a pretty flesh-
colored deep-water species, — may be cited as ex-
“<r amples of other groups, the last being particu-
Fig. 292. larly remarkable from the length of its spines,
Smithiie 3. which could only exist in the shell of an animal
surrounded by a soft bottom and living im _ per-

fectly calm water.

Fig. 293. — Mitra Swainsoni. . Fig. 294. — Typhis longicornis.

mie

CHARACTERISTIC DEEP-SEA TYPES. — GASTEROPODS. Tv?

Another illustration of the fragile and delicate forms living
in the abysses is Zriforis longissimus (Fig. 295), only -thir-

Fig. 295. — Triforis longissimus. 2,
teen hundredths of an inch in diameter, with a column of
twenty or thirty whorls, reaching an inch to an inch and a
half in length; the perfect shell must have over forty turns,
but it is always decapitated. Siliquaria modesta (Fig. 296),

Fig. 296. — Siliquaria Fig. 297. ++ Vermetus
modesta. 1;°. erectus. 455,

one of the irregular gasteropods, with a slit like a Pleurotoma-
ria, so frail as almost to perish with a touch, lives in the soft
mud of the abysses, while the stouter Vermetus erectus (Fig.
297) finds a foothold on dead corals and shells. The species
of this genus are comparatively shallow-water animals.

The majority of the bivalves are characterized by great deli-
cacy of shell and sculpture. In the deep-water representatives
of the family of scallops, the constituent prisms are often large
-enough to be seen with the naked eye, and the shell is strength-
ened within by slight riblets radiating from the hinge. Pecten

(2 THREE CRUISES OF THE “ BLAKE.”

Daili (Fig. 298), of HE. A. Smith, frequently dredged by the
“ Blake,” grows to a considerable size, but is as thin as mica

and nearly as transparent; P. phrygium Dall (Fig. 299) is re-

Fig. 299. — Pecten phrygium. 1}.

=

Fig. 298.— Pecten (Amusium) Dalli. 4.
lated to miocene species, and has a very complicated sculpture.

Cetoconcha bulla (Figs. 300, 3801) and C. elongata Dall (Fig.

Fig. 302. — Cetoconcha elon-
gata. 1,

Fig. 300.
Cetoconcha bulla. 2.

302), two species of a singular new genus, are almost as unsta-
ble in their framework as a drop of water. Nuculz are abun-

Fig. 503. — Tindaria cytherea. 1-5,

Fig. 304. 2 Oardiuin Soe §,
dant. One of them, 7indaria cytherea (Fig. 303), the finest

!

CHARACTERISTIC DEEP-SEA TYPES. LAMELLIBRANCHS. 73

and largest of its genus, white, with a golden epidermis, is pecu-
liar im its shape, which resembles that of a small member of the
Veneridee. A delicately sculptured Cardium, sometimes painted
with bright touches of yellow and scarlet, Cardium perama-
bilis (Fig. 304), the most lovely species of the genus from deep
water, shares with the little Pecten (Amusium) Pourtalesianum
Dall the distinction of bright tints where pallor is the rule.
The shell is white, but the spines covering it are orange or
crimson. A common and characteristic deep-water form is
Limopsis aurita Brocchi, well known as a tertiary fossil in
Europe. A small brown Astarte is almost ubi-
quitous, ranging in depth from 13 to over 1,600
fathoms, and in locality from the tropics to New
England. The northern specimens attain many
times the size of those from the Antilles. A
highly polished rich golden brown Modiola,
M. politaV. & §. (Fig. 305), allied to our com-
mon mussel, attains a large size in great depths
on both sides of the Atlantic. But its shell is
very thin ; it spins a large nest of byssal threads,
resembling a handful of cotton waste thoroughly
drenched with the finest mud, so worthless in
appearance that only a biologist would suspect the treasure
hidden within.

The Cetoconcha above mentioned are characterized by gills
reduced to a mere interrupted
line of low lamellz on the ven-
tral surface; they are related
to Poromya, which has ordinary
gills. But there is another
group, abundant in deep
water, called Cuspidaria, still
more remarkable in having ap-
parently no gills at all; their
shells are provided with a long slender rostrum, like a handle,
as shown in ©. microrhina Dall (Figs. 306, 307), dredged from
continental depths. A striking group, from the beauty of
form and sculpture exhibited by its species, is Verticordia, the

Fig. 305. — Modiola
polita. 4.

Fig. 306.—Cuspidaria microrhina. }4.

74 THREE CRUISES OF THE “ BLAKE.”

largest known species being one of the “ Blake” treasures, V.
elegantissima Dall (Fig. 308), a
brilliant pearly shell; one of the
smallest is V. perversa Dall (Fig.
Pe. SoH. eee TR 309), which has the larger bulge
in front of the hinge, contrary to

the usual rule.
A lovely new group related to Thracia and Anatina is repre-

Fig. 309.
Woricardan Fig. 310. — Bushia ele-
Fig. 308. — Verticordia ele- perversa. 2, gans, 2.

aMtissinn: 1
gantissima. 5.

sented in deep water by a single species, which has been named
Bushia elegans. (Fig. 310.)

We may also mention, as evidently a deep-water group, the
shells of the subgenus Meiocardia, re-
lated to Lsocardia cor of Europe.
These are remarkable for the way in
which the tips of the valves are
twisted and turned away from each
other. They are common tertiary
fossils; but only a few living

Fig. 311.—Meiocardia Agas- species are known, and, excepting

rain neg Isocardia cor, these are tropical.
The dredgings of the “ Blake” and the “ Albatross” have re-
vealed a new Meiocardia in the Antilles, the others being all
Oriental, and this has been named M. Agassizii. (Fig. 311.)

A new group, differing from Isocardia and Meiocardia in hay-
ing no lateral teeth, is Vesicomya, previously unknown from
American waters, the largest known species of which is a form
now named V. venusta (Fig. 312), from Antillean specimens.
A much smaller species, named V. pilula, is reported by the

CHARACTERISTIC DEEP-SEA TYPES. — BRACHIOPODS. (t3)

“ Challenger ”’ from the deepest water in which any bivalve has
yet been found living.

There are almost innumerable ilustra-
tions of beauty, adaptation, or unusual
characteristics which might be cited, but
to those unacquainted with the objects
themselves such an enumeration would
be tedious. The enthusiastic student and
collector alone can find pleasure in what

Fig. 312. — Vesicomya
would seem to most people a dry com- venusta. 1:5,
bination of a lexicon and a catalogue.

BRACHIOPODS.

- Until quite lately brachiopods were rarities in collections ; but
since the days of dredging expeditions we know that they are
very numerous at favorable localities on rocky or stony bottoms.
They do not seem to penetrate very great depths, naturally
finding no point of attachment in the soft ooze of the deep
waters, and but few species are thus far known to extend beyond
600 fathoms. The’ largest known species have been dredged
from the abyssal region, and young specimens are frequently
found attached to the older ones. None of the deep-water spe-
cies have the brilliant coloring characteristic of the common [it-
toral species belonging to the genus Lingula. The principal
differences upon which their classification is based are those of
the so-called loop, the calcified support of the brachia, and the
structural details of the valves.

The recent brachiopods are specially interesting as represen-
tatives of a group which attained an extraordinary development
in very early ages, and has been represented in all formations.
They have a most extensive geographical distribution, and a
great bathymetrical range. They are found at all levels, from
pools left by the tides to a depth of 3,000 fathoms. The num-
ber of living species is small compared to the hosts which flour-
ished in the silurian, devonian, and carboniferous, from which
time they have steadily diminished in number. Nearly 1,700
species occur in the silurian, but there are not more than 120
known from the seas of the present day. Their position in the

76 THREE CRUISES OF THE “ BLAKE.”

animal kingdom is under discussion, though they have until lately
been generally classed with the mollusks. As the brachiopods
date back to the cambrian, it is natural that we should find it
difficult strictly to define their affinities with recent types, since
with very slight modifications they have persisted from remote
antiquity to the present day, during all the intervening con-
ditions of existence.

Like the lamellibranchs, they are provided with two valves.
These, however, as well as the soft parts, are bilaterally sym-
metrical in relation to the longitudinal axis of the shell.

The most common species we collected, Terebratula cubensis
(Figs. 313, 314), was discovered by Pourtalés, in from 100 to

Fig. 314. 1:25,
Terebratula cubensis. (Davidson.)

270 fathoms, in rocky ground off Havana and from the east end
of the Florida Reef. It attaches itself by a short and stout pe-
duncle; the shell is globular, nearly white, translucent. An-
other most abundant species associated with the former is Wa/ld-
heimia floridana (Figs. 315, 316), which is common on rocky

Fig. 316.

Waldheimia floridana. i,

bottoms between 100 and 200 fathoms. It is of a grayish or
brownish white horn-color, and belongs to a group containing
many living and fossil species. Much less common, but with a
more solid test, is Terebratulina Cailleti. (Fig. 317.) This

CHARACTERISTIC DEEP-SEA TYPES. — BRACHIOPODS. 77

small species extends to a depth of nearly 500 fathoms. A
most common Atlantic species, 7. caput-serpentis (Fig. 518), is
found along the eastern coast of the United States as far south

Fig. 317. — Terebratulina Fig. 318. — Terebratula caput-
Cailleti. §. (Davidson.) serpentis. 1:25. (Davyidson.)

as Cape Cod. A species of Platydia, identical with the Medi-
terranean P. anomioides (Figs. 319, 320), has been dredged by
the “ Blake” in 237 fathoms. It represents the group of brach-
iopods with shells having loops and conspicuous perforations.

Fig. 319. Fig. 320.
Platydia anomioides. 2. (Davidson.)

A few specimens of Crania (Fig. 321), a genus not before
obtained on the American coast, were dredged by Pourtalés off
the Samboes and Sand Key, at
depths ranging between 100 and
200 fathoms. Living specimens of
Discina atlantica (Fig. 322) have
been taken by the “ Blake” and by
the Fish Commission at the depth Fig. 321. fa tenn
Dirvesere-UGrathoms. They are Cm Fouts Mig. 322. — Discina

: lesii. 235. (Dall.) atlantica. 2. (Ver-
usually attached to concretions. j ae

The simple and compound Ascrpr1ans are eminently littoral
and shallow-water types, and but few of them extend to any
great depth. Neither the “ Blake” nor the “Challenger” col-
lected any very remarkable abyssal types, and the species were
either closely allied to or identical with well-known genera.

78 THREE CRUISES OF THE ‘“ BLAKE.’

BRYOZOA.

In the study of no group is abundant material more necessary
than in that of the bryozoans.
In the majority of animals, we are accustomed to look at dif-

Fig. 323.— Crisia denti- Fig. 324, — Diastopora Fig. 325. — Pandora
culata. 2. repens. 4. delicatissima. 4. (Busk.)
ferences due to growth as transitory, and we define species from
their full-grown stages ; but in the bryozoans the differences of
growth are persistent in the individuals of the
colony, while they may propagate at very dif-
ferent stages of the colonial development. It

Fig. 323 a. — Crisia denti- Fig. 324 a. — Diastopora repens.
culata. Magnified. (Smitt.) Magnified. (Smitt.)

thus becomes most difficult, without a full 4, 395 een

knowledge of the entire development, to char- —_naria_delicatissima.
: “ : : : Magnified. (Busk.)

acterize a species and assign it to its true

family or genus.’ Among the bryozoa, more than three quarters

CHARACTERISTIC DEEP-SEA TYPES. — BRYOZOA. 79

of the deep-water species belong to the section of the Cheilosto-
mata, while the Ctenostomata have comparatively few represen-
tatives. Busk says that the shallower-water species appear to
have the widest geographical distribution. That is apparently
not the case with the species collected by the “ Blake.”

According to Professor Smitt’s Reports we may mention
among the “ Blake” Bryozoa the cosmopolitan Crisia eburnea,
the form known as C’. denticulata (Figs. 323, 323 a), and, from
306 fathoms, the Scandinavian Diastopora repens (Figs. 524,
324 a), a well-known ramified form creeping on Jerebratula cu-
bensis. This species is also characteristic of the crag, and per-
haps identical with a cretaceous form. It seems as if the species
of this group assumed a somewhat more elongate and simpler
form in proportion to thei bathymetrical range. Busk, from
an examination of the extensive collection of the “Challenger,”
considers the species of Farciminaria (Figs. 325, 325 a) as the
most characteristic of the abyssal bryozoans, the preéminent
forms of the delicate and flexible types inhabiting the tranquil
depths of the ocean.

Membranipora canariensis (Fig. 326), a widely spread spe-

Fig. 526. — Membranipora Fig. 327. —Cellularia cervi- Fig. 327 a. —Cellularia

canariensis. 45%. cornis. ?. cervicornis. Magnified.
(Smitt.)

cies, found in both hemispheres, and common in the tertiaries *

1 There are among the Florida and period, and about five either the same or
West Indian bryozoans no less than sixteen closely allied to cretaceous types.
species identical with those of the tertiary

80 THREE CRUISES OF THE “ BLAKE.”

of Sicily and England, is abundant off Florida to a depth of
over 120 fathoms. It generally takes the shape of a hollow
cone. Among the Cellularie, Cellularia cervicornis (Figs. 327,
327 a) and Caberea retiformis (Fig. 328) are interesting repre-

Fig. 528. — Caberea retiformis. Fig. 829. — Vincularia abyssicola. 2.
Magnified. (Smitt.)

sentatives, the last closely allied to a typical Australian species.
Other species of this group are similarly allied to Australian
types. Vincularia abyssicola (Fig. 329), from 450 fathoms, is a
most variable species, likely to be placed even in distant families

Fig. 330. — Escharipora
2

stellata. 2.

Fig. 330 a. — Escharipora stel-
lata. Magnified. (Smitt.)

at different periods of its growth, while either in the creeping
or in the erect stage. Escharipora stellata (Figs. 330, 330 a)

CHARACTERISTIC DEEP-SEA TYPES. — BRYOZOA. $1

is one of the most common of the West Indian bryozoans inside
the two-hundred-fathom line, but extending to nearly 500 fath-

Fig. 331 a.— Tessadroma bo-
reale. Magnified. (Smitt.)

Fig. 831. — Tessadroma boreale.

rile

oms. Equally common is Tessadroma bo-
reale (Figs. 331, 331 a), a species not in-
frequent on the east side of the Atlantic
from Spitzbergen to the Azores.

A very common incrusting type found
growing on shells and corals is Hippothoa
biaperta (Figs. 332, 332 a), which goes
back to the tertiary.

A species of Cellepora is very abundant

Fig. 332 a. — Hippothoa

biaperta. Greatly magni- Fig. 332.—Hippothoa bia-
fied. (Smitt.) perta. 1.

82 THREE CRUISES OF THE “ BLAKE.”

in depths ranging from 15 to nearly 300 fathoms, C. margarita-

cea. (Figs. 333, 333 a.)

Fig. 333. — Cellepora margari- Fig. 335 a.— Cellepora margari-
tacea. 2. tacea. Magnified. (Smitt.)

Among the Bryozoa often found in large communities, form-
ing lawns of delicate limestone plants, may be specially men-

Fig. 334.— Biflustra macrodon. 2. Fig. 335.— Porina subsuleata. 3.

tioned Biflustra macrodon (Fig. 334), Porina subsulcata (Fig.

TERI.
SSM geo!

Fig. 336. — Retepora reticulata. 4.

335), and Retepora reticulata. (Fig. 336.)

CHARACTERISTIC DEEP-SEA TYPES. — BRYOZOA. 83

A supposed Favosites (Fig. 337), mentioned in the prelimi-

a tiie
Paes Tee,

aes

Fig. 337. — Heteropora. 3.

nary accounts of the results of the “Blake” expeditions, is
probably a bryozoan genus growing in the shape of a mush-
room and allied to Heteropora.

XN,
CHARACTERISTIC DEEP-SEA TYPES.— ECHINODERMS.

HOLOTHURIANS.

Tue order of Apoda among holothurians has neither pedicels
nor suckers, while the Pedata have a highly developed ambula-
eral system and a well-defined dorsal and ventral surface, with
pedicels scattered over the whole body. The large lobes of the
Elasipoda (the new order of deep-sea holothurians established by
Dr. Théel) are perhaps tactile. The ventral surface of the Hla-
sipoda is intended for locomotion, and, as suggested by Dr.
Théel, they probably move along the bottom with the actinos-
tome wide open, constantly filling their alimentary canal with
the ooze stirred up by the tentacles of the mouth. The cal-
careous deposits resemble those of the larval holothurians, and
they possess other features showing them to be an embryonic
type. The auditory capsules are often present in great num-
bers.

The Elasipoda are strictly abyssal types, no member of the
group having been dredged in less than 50 fathoms, and that
only in the Arctic Ocean, where, as we know, deep-sea types are
found in comparatively shallow water. Of the large number of
“Challenger ” species, only five are found within the 500-fathom
line, as many more inside the 1,000-fathom line, and the others
all below that limit. At the localities where the “Blake” was
fortunate enough to find Elasipoda, they occurred in large num-
bers, and, judging from the contents of the trawl, they appar-
ently live in communities including several species, and prefer
soft ooze. The experience of the “ Challenger” and of the Fish
Commission was a similar one. The “ Challenger ” obtained on
one occasion no less than ten species associated together.

CHARACTERISTIC DEEP-SEA TYPES. —HOLOTHURIANS. 89D

Owing to the absence of fossil holothurians we are unable, as
in the case of other echinoderms, to trace the groups from which
this peculiar deep-sea order of Hlasipoda has been derived.
While during earlier geological periods the holothurians un-
doubtedly made their way by gradual migration from the shore
into deep water, their shallow-water progenitors have left us no

Fig. 338. — Psolus tuberculosus. 2. (Théel.)

trace of their existence. The whole tribe of Elasipoda, which
stands out apparently isolated from the other orders of holo-

Fig. 339.— Echinocucumis typica. ?. (Théel.)

thurians, is found associated with such
genera as Psolus (Fig. 338), Echinocu-
cumis (Fig. 339), Stichopus (Fig. 340), Fig. 340.—Stichopus natans. }-
Trochostoma’ (Fig. 341), and Caudina, eee Den)

all of which have representatives in deep water, and some even
in very deep water.

1 Trochostoma arcticum is of a greenish violet color; the tentacles are much lighter ;
and the skin is comparatively tough.

86 THREE CRUISES OF THE “ BLAKE.”

Of the Elpidide proper, the family of the order first described
by Théel, no representative was dredged by the “ Blake”; but

Fig. 341. — Trochostoma arcticum. 3. (Koren & Danielssen.)

the Deimatide and Psychropotide (Fig. 342) are both in the
“Blake” collections. In the last-named family there extends

Fig. 342. — Psychropotes longicauda 4. (Théel.)

round the body a more or less distinct margin edged by numer-
ous lateral pedicels of small size, while in the Deimatide (Fig.
343) these are large and few in number.

|

Fig. 343. — Deima Blakei. 2. (Théel.)

CHARACTERISTIC DEEP-SEA TYPES. —HOLOTHURIANS. 87

Huge species of Elasipoda were found in great numbers at
several stations beyond 1,000 fathoms. The same species were
also dredged by the U.S. Fish Commission, and the drawings
here given of the gigantic Benthodytes and Euphronides I owe
to the kindness of the Fish Commissioner, Professor Baird.
Benthodytes (Fig. 344) is flat below, convex above, of a trans-

Fig. 344. — Benthodytes gigantea. 2. (U.S. F. C.)

lucent appearance, but of considerable consistency when fresh.
It was most difficult to preserve these huge holothurians in al-
cohol, and the specimens sent to Dr. Théel were too imperfect

for study. Euphromdes (Fig. 345) resembles Benthodytes in

Fig. 345. — Euphronides cornuta. 2. (U.S. F. C)

general outline, but in profile is high, slopes anteriorly and pos-
teriorly, and has a lobed posterior appendage and a series of ap-
pendages placed in pairs on the bevel of the anterior extremity.
It is of a reddish brown color.

88 THREE CRUISES OF THE “ BLAKE.”

Prelopatides (Fig. 346) and Ankyroderma* (Fig. 347) seem

Fig. 346. — Pelopatides confundens. 3. (Théel.)

to be the only typical truly deep-sea genera of the orders of
Apoda and Pedata collected
by the “ Blake,” not before
found in the littoral regions,
while the other deep-sea spe-
cies belonging to genera found
in shallow water are merely
specifically distinct from the
littoral forms, though undoubtedly, lke other marine animals
capable of living at extreme depths, they have become accus-
tomed to their different conditions of existence most gradually,
and those which live in deep water have acquired characters and
habits somewhat distinct from those dwelling in the more lit-
toral regions, but which a close study alone would reveal.

Fig. 347. — Ankyroderma affine.
(Koren & Danielssen.)

Colbo

SEA-URCHINS.

One of the most common sea-urchins is Dorocidaris papil-
lata (Fig. 348), a type having a very wide geographical distribu-
tion ; it is found everywhere in the Atlantic, and has even been
dredged in the Pacific ; it came up in the dredge often to the
exclusion of all other forms. It recalls a cretaceous type common
both in Europe and America. As in all the Cidaridz, the shape,
proportions, and ornamentation of the spines vary greatly, and
an exaggerated importance has frequently been assigned to char-

1 Ankyroderma affine when alive is of a grayish color, the integument is thin, and
the extremities of a lighter hue than the body.

CHARACTERISTIC DEEP-SEA TYPES. — SEA-URCHINS. 89

acters derived from the study of a limited number of specimens,
both in the fossil and recent species. In the seas of the Jura

Fig. 348. — Dorocidaris papillata. 3.

and of the chalk the Cidaride must have been common types
of sea-urchins. Dorocidaris Blakei (Fig. 349), obtained by
the “Blake,” is perhaps the most interesting of the recent Cida-
ride, from the variability of its spines. Before the “ Blake”
dredgings none were known among the recent species showing
any great or striking variety in the form of the radioles. With
the exception of some of the species of the genus Goniocidaris,
the radioles are characterized by their uniformity, while among
the fossils of the family the variation in shape and size of some
of the jurassic and cretaceous species is quite remarkable. If
the present species had been dredged without its two or three

90 THREE CRUISES OF THE “ BLAKE.”

fan-shaped spines, it would have been unhesitatingly placed in
the genus Dorocidaris. If the isolated huge fan-shaped radioles

Fig. 349. — Dorocidaris Blakei. 2.

nearly identical in shape with those of the jurassic Rhabdoci-
daris had alone been collected, few paleontologists would have
hesitated to refer them to that genus.

' Another interesting type of deep-sea Cidaride allied to ter-
tiary forms is Porocidaris (Fig. 350), which is characterized by
the peculiar serrated spines found near the mouth.

We first dredged off Havana, and subsequently in all parts of
the Caribbean, a fine species of Salenia (Fig. 351), a genus once
very common in the jurassic and cretaceous seas. The first
living species of the genus (Fig. 352) was dredged by Pourtalés

Fig. 352. — Salenia varispina. 1.

off Double-headed Shot Key, in 315 fathoms. The “ Blake”
found it to be a characteristic species of the Caribbean abyssal
fauna. This genus is characterized by the presence of a large

womvyg sueproorog — ‘0¢g “BY

‘t

a)

Fig. 351.— Salenia Pattersoni. 4.

CHARACTERISTIC DEEP-SEA TYPES. — SEA-URCHINS. 91

suranal plate of an asymmetrical apical system (Fig. 353), com-
bined with an arrangement of tubercles and of peculiar spines
which connect it on the one side with the Cidarid, and on the

Fig. 353.—Salenia Pattersoni. 3.

other with the more recent types of sea-urchins. This asymme-
try is an embryonic character of echinoderms, due to the spiral
disposition of the plates of the embryo. Traces of this arrange-

Fig. 354. —Salenia varispina. 92.

92, THREE CRUISES OF THE “ BLAKE.”

ment are plainly to be seen in the unequal development in the
size of the genital and ocular plates throughout the group of
echini. Perhaps we may trace the differences in the develop-
ment of the ambulacral and interambulacral zones in the echini
to such a primitive differentiation. This embryonic feature runs
back through the echinoid series of the earlier paleozoic times,
and I am inclined to look upon the suranal plate of Salenia as
recalling the crmoidal affinities of the sea-urchins, though it has
not taken in the development of these the important part which
it occupies in the starfishes and crinoids. The spiny primary
radioles of the large specimens are formed from the gradual wear-
ing of the delicate filaments (Fig. 354) of the corresponding
spines in younger ‘specimens.

As representatives of the sculptured echini so common dur-
ing the tertiaries, and
still prominent in the
Indo-Pacific fauna, we
find the small Tem-
nechinus (Fig. 355)
and 'Trigonocidaris.

Fig. 3 T ] (Fig. 356.) Fig. 356.— T 1
eo, 355. — Temnechi- : ig. 356. — Trigonocidaris
sgt eo The Arbaciade, a ~

nus maculatus. 2:6. albida. 2.

family of sea-urchins
eminently characteristic of the American fauna, both Atlantic
and Pacific, are represented in deep water by a highly sculp-
tured genus, Podocidaris (Fig. 357),
with primary spies recalling the em-
bryonic ones of the littoral species. The
large spines of these genera are used
for locomotion, and for protection are
tipped with a sort of shoe, which is con-
stantly replaced as it wears. This shoe
takes an immense development in Ccelo-
pleurus (Fig. 358), and grows to three
or five times the length of the spine it-
self. The primary spines are also curved, and when the urchin
is in motion it is raised far above the surface, literally walking
on stilts. The deep-water species must by means of their spines

Fig. 357. — Podocidaris
sculpta. 452,

CHARACTERISTIC DEEP-SEA TYPES. — SEA-URCHINS. 93

be capable of very rapid movements, if they at all correspond to
those of their shallow-water allies.

As it is brought to the surface Ceelopleurus is most brilliantly
colored, the test varying from a rich light chocolate in the inter-
ambulacra to the brilliant orange or yellow ambulacral areas.

Fig. 358. —Ceelopleurus floridanus. }.

The primary radioles vary greatly in color, from a delicate straw,
often nearly white, to a bright carmine or orange; the base of
the spines being usually colored, and the shaft more or less ir-

regularly banded.

94 THREE CRUISES OF THE “ BLAKE.”

The oldest known sea-urchins belong to the Palechinide, a
group of palzozoic echini, having, unlike their modern conge-
ners, more than two rows of plates in each zone of the test, and
with plates overlapping like the tiles of a roof, so that the test
must have possessed considerable flexibility. These urchins
were succeeded in mesozoic times by types with a still more flexi-
ble test, the coronal plates forming a continuous series from the
mouth to the apical system without the usual sharp distinctions
of actinal, coronal, and apical systems. This group is repre-
sented in our seas by the Echinothuriz. We may call attention
to the characteristic genus Asthenosoma, belonging to the type
of echini with flexible test
and overlapping plates
(Fig. 359 a), first described
by Grube from a single
specimen, and subsequently
collected by the “ Chal-
lenger.” Grube did not,
however, recognize the great importance of his discovery, and it
was not until Thomson and Pourtalés dredged these flexible
urchins that their affinity to the Echinothurie of the chalk and
to the Paleechinide became evident. Traces of this overlapping
of the coronal plates can still be detected in the most specialized
of the recent sea-urchins.

In one of the hauls taken between Cape Maysi and Jamaica
(1,200 fathoms), we obtained the first specimens of Asthenosoma
(Fig. 359) I had seen alive. I was much astonished to find
them, fully blown up, hemispherical or globular in shape. This
was the shape they always took in subsequent hauls, and on
several occasions, when they were obtained from comparatively
shallow water near the 100-fathom line, they came up alive,
and retained their globular outline. The alcoholic specimens I
had seen in the “Challenger” collection dredged from deep’
water were as flat as pocket-handkerchiefs, and were naturally
regarded as flat sea-urchins, although of course endowed with
great mobility of test.

Thomson speaks of the vermicular movements passing through
the test of Asthenosoma when it assumed on deck what appeared

Fig. 359 a. — Asthenosoma hystrix.

CHARACTERISTIC DEEP-SEA TYPES. — SEA-URCHINS. 95

to be its normal form and attitude. It is quite dangerous to
handle these specimens when alive, the wounds they inflict with

Fig. 359. — Asthenosoma hystrix. 2.

their numerous minute sharp stinging spines producing a decid-
edly unpleasant sensation, accompanied by a slight numbness.

The sting is fully as painful as that of a *These modern

Echinothurie were
subsequently found
very abundant at
moderate depths.
The “ Challenger”
dredged a gigantic
species from this
group, measuring’

no less than 312 .

mm. in diameter.
The spines of the
lower surface are
shed with a pecu-
har hoof-shaped
tip; on the test are
sheathed spines un-
like those of any

Fig. 360.— Phormosoma placenta. 3.

96 THREE CRUISES OF THE “ BLAKE.”

other sea-urchins; they are probably modified pedicellariz.
The test of Asthenosoma is of a deep claret-color. Phormo-
soma placenta, another of the modern Kchinothurie (Fig. 360),
is grayish, or sometimes of a deep brick-color or a yellowish
orange. The coronal plates of both zones, although they appear
at first glance similar in structure to those of the regular sea-
urchins, yet are frequently split up into four distinct plates, as
in the palzozoic Archeocidaris and the lke.

In a type recalling the Cidaride and the Diadematide, Aspi-
dodiadema antillarum (Fig. 361), remarkable and interesting
pedicellariz are found seattered over the whole of the abac-
tinal part of the test. These may be called sheathed pedicel-
lari. The shaft con-
sists of a long, slender
radiole, distinctly ar-
ticulated, surrounded
by a huge fleshy
sheath, swelling out
into three large bags
on the sides. (Fig.
362.) The sheath

Fig. 362. — Aspidodiadema an-

Fig. 361.— Aspidodiadema antillarum. 3. tillarum, magnified pedicellaria.

<

expands at the extremity into a three-lobed cupuliform tip.
These pedicellariz recall the remarkable sheathed secondary
spines of Asthenosoma, and form an additional link in the chain

CHARACTERISTIC DEEP-SEA TYPES. — SEA-URCHINS. 97

of proof that pedicellariz are merely modified spines. The only
other striking genus among the regular urchins is that of Hemi-
pedina (Fig. 365), the modern repre-
sentative of a family once greatly de-
veloped in the cretaceous period.
Although the line to the eastward
of Charleston, S. C., was commenced
off the very home of the Scutelle and
other clypeastroids, it is remarkable
that not a single Mellita or Clypeaster

Fig. 563. — Hemipedina

was dredged either on that line or the cubensis. 1

line run in the axis of the Gulf Stream
as far as Cape Hatteras. We had a similar experience while
dredging near the 100-fathom line when approaching the South
American continent. The clypeastroids are evidently shallow-
water types, with the exception of Echinocyamus, which extends
into deep water (805 fathoms), and Echinarachnius, living speci-
mens of which have come up in the trawl from a depth of 524
fathoms off George’s Bank. An immense number of dead tests
of Hchinocyamus pusillus were dredged in the Caribbean, the
Gulf of Mexico, and the Straits of Florida.'

The Nucleolide, to which Neolampas (Fig. 364), Rhyncho-

pygus (Fig. 365), and Conolampas belong, are but scantily rep-

Fig. 364. — Neolampas Fig. 365. — Rhynchopygus
rostellata. $. caribearum. 2:25,

resented in the echinid fauna of to-day. They were once among:
the most numerous of the urchins, and flourished especially

1 Tt is interesting to note, inconnection opneustes, of Trigonocidaris, of Temne-
with this, that dead tests of species of chinus, of Salenia, and of Cidaris, were
Clypeaster, of Echinanthus, of Encope, also frequently dredged, and sometimes
of Schizaster, of Macropneustes, of Tox- in considerable numbers. This has an

98 THREE CRUISES OF THE “ BLAKE.”

during the cretaceous and jurassic periods. They are, with the
Pourtalesiz, the forerunners of the true spatangoids. They have
many features in common with the flat clypeastroids, such as
their tuberculation, the character of their pedicellariz and
spines, and the structure of the apical system (Fig. 366), while
the structure of the anal system and the general facies of the
test rather allies them to the true spatan-
goids. But neither the Nucleolide nor the
Pourtalesiz are possessed of fascioles, an
eminently spatangoid structure. These
specialized bands of minute spines are
shghtly developed in some of the creta-
ceous genera, and their rudimentary form
exists to-day in such types as Hemiaster.
The exact function is not yet known.
They take their greatest developments in
such modern genera as Schizaster. Some
light has been thrown on their development by the discovery
of a deep-sea species of Macropneustes, which shows a gradual
transition between the tuberculation of the test (Fig. 367) and
specialized areas corresponding to fascioles.

Fig. 366. — Neolampas
rostellata, magnified.

Fig. 367. — Macropneustes spatangoides. 3.

important bearing as indicating the spe-
cies which are likely hereafter to be pre-
served as fossils, and shows us how diffi-
cult it may become, even when we have
such an abundant and characteristie echi-
nid fauna as that of the West Indies, to
reconstruct it from the future fossils.
We may also notice that the genera of
which we so frequently find the dead tests
are the same which have been known as

characteristic of the West Indies since
the earliest tertiary. We cannot expect
to find represented among the fossils the
Echinothuriz, Pourtalesiz, and many of
the Echinide, since after death they read-
ily fall to pieces, and may then be dis-
solved, like many species of mollusks, at
great depth, before they become protected
by a covering of deep-sea ooze.

CHARACTERISTIC DEEP-SEA TYPES. — SEA-URCHINS. 99

The genus Rhynchopygus appeared at the time of the chalk,
and is an interesting West Indian type. It is found on both
sides of the Isthmus of Panama, and is characteristic of a period
when there was a direct connection between the Caribbean Sea
and the Bay of Panama.

The allied Neolampas has no fossil representative. The allies
of Conolampas date back to the cretaceous period. Conolampas
Sigsbei (Fig. 368) is by far the most striking sea-urchin I have
seen. I shall always remember the particular haul, on the edge
of the Yucatan Bank, when the dredge came up containing half

Fig. 368. —Conolampas Sigsbei. 1,

a dozen of these huge brilliant lemon-colored echini. This mag-
nificent species was originally referred to the fossil genus Cono-
clypus ; but Zittel having discovered that some species of this
genus possessed teeth, De Loriol made an examination of the
genus, and found that it really contained two generic types, one
edentate, the other provided with teeth. These discoveries led
me to make a renewed examination of Conoclypus Sigsbei.
On opening a specimen I found that it was edentate. This
structural feature is most interesting, as it seems to show us the
direct passage, as it were, between the edentate echini and those
provided with teeth.

Another typical genus from the chalk represented among the

100 THREE CRUISES OF THE “ BLAKE.”

deep-water spatangoids is Hemiaster (Figs. 369, 370), a small
globular genus representing the earlier forms of spatangoids

Fig. 369.— Hemiaster zonatus. 4. Fig. 370. — Hemiaster expergitus. 3. (Lovén.)

characterized by a simple fasciole. Others belonging to the dis-
tinctly cretaceous family of Ananchytide are the huge violet or

XK
Fie. 371. — Paleopneustes hystrix. 2.
5 Pp . 3

deep claret-colored' Paleopneustes, characterized by their emi-
nently spatangoid mouth; by
their simple ambulacral system
and somewhat clypeastroid or
even echinidal spines, as in
Paleopneustes hystrix (Fig.
371), im which the spines re-
semble more those of a true
Echinus than a spatangoid.
Other typical modern Ananchytide are the West Indian Palzo-
brissus and Palzeotropus. (Fig. 372.)

Fig. 372. — Paleotropus Josephine. 7.

1 The colors of the deep-sea echini alcohol in which they were placed. The
and other echinoderms seem to be spe- color of the littoral or shallow-water spe-
cially fugitive, and greatly discolored the cies is far more permanent.

CHARACTERISTIC DEEP-SEA TYPES. — SEA-URCHINS. LOL

Perhaps the most interesting group of sea-urchins discovered
by the late deep-sea explorations are the Pourtalesi. The first
Pourtalesia was dredged by Pourtalés in the Straits of Florida,
—a single specimen only (Fig. 373), but sufficiently perfect to
enable me to make an examination of this extraordinary type, so
different at first glance from any sea-urchin previously known.

Fig. 575. Fig. 374.

Pourtalesia miranda. 2.

The study of that species, Pourtalesia miranda (Fig. 374),
showed affinities to a smgular family of urchins described from
the chalk, as well as extended relationship to types considered as
long extinct. The Ananchytide, to which the Pourtalesiz are
allied, are perhaps the most typical cretaceous sea - urchins.
They all have large coronal plates, recalling the Echini, with a
disconnected apical system characteristic of many cainozoic spa-
tangoids ; they have a sunken anal system, some of them a most
remarkable anal beak, and a very striking pouch, in which the
mouth is placed. They possess rudimentary fascioles, and their

Fig. 375. — Urechinus naresianus. 125,

tuberculation allies them to the clypeastroids. Another species
of the same group, which has a wide geographical distribution,
is Urechinus naresianus (Figs. 375, 376), which seems to be as
common in some parts of the Pacific as in the Atlantic.

102 THREE CRUISES OF THE ‘“ BLAKE.”

STARFISHES."

The predominant species of starfishes belong to the Gonias-
teridzee and Archasteride, families which seem thus far to have
flourished principally durmg the chalk. Not only is the number
of species belonging to these families very great, but also the
number of specimens brought up by the dredge. For instance,
Archaster mirabilis (Fig. 386) came up by hundreds ; it is

¢. 377. — Pentagonaster ternalis. Z- (Perrier. )

a most variable species, extending from 56 fathoms to a depth
of 1,920 fathoms. The species of Archaster are common in all
depths of the Atlantic, and their number is great. Among the

1 The account of the Starfishes col- lished in the “Nouvelles Archives du
lected by the “ Blake” is compiled from Muséum.”
the Report of Professor Perrier, pub-

CHARACTERISTIC DEEP-SEA TYPES. — STARFISHES. 103

novelties described by Perrier, the species of Goniopecten reveal
many points of similarity in the structure of Pentagonaster (Fig.

377), Archaster (Fig. 378), and Astropecten, which were all

supposed to be radically distinct. The
genus Anthenoides (Fig. 379) is interme-
diate between Anthenea, with large pedi-
cellariz, and Pentagonaster, with smaller
ones and granules. Ctenaster (Fig. 380),
on the other hand, recalls a gigantic Cte-
nodiscus without ventral scales; its mar-
ginal plates ally it to the Goniasteridz, and
the structure of its dorsal skeleton to such
genera as Solaster and Acanthaster. Ra-

Fig. 378. — Archaster pul-

cher. 4. (Perrier.)

diaster (Fig. 381), a large five-armed starfish, with bunches
of spines like Solaster endeca, of which it possesses the mar-

A
A

es
A a

Fig. 379. — Anthenoides Peircei. 2. (Perrier.)

104 THREE CRUISES OF THE “ BLAKE.”

ginal plates, its ventral plates allying it to the Asterinx, finds
its place between it and the Astropectinide.

aS
Fig. 380. — Ctenaster spectabilis. 3, (Perrier.)

In regard to the geographical distribution of starfishes, it was
interesting to find in the deep waters of the Caribbean district
the Northern Atlantic genera Cribrella, Solaster, Pedicellaster,

and Brisinga.

Fig. 381.— Radiaster elegans. }. (Perrier.)

CHARACTERISTIC DEEP-SEA TYPES. — STARFISHES 105

In 1874, Sir Wyville Thomson described Zoroaster, discovered
by the “ Challenger,’ — a
genus remarkable for the
thickness and regularity of
the skeleton. The “Blake”
dredged two interesting
species of this genus; the
one, Zoroaster Sigsbeei,
with large ossicles of the
disk and most distinct
arms; the other, on the
contrary, Zoroaster Ack-
leyt (Fig. 382), with arms
and disk united, giving it
an external resemblance to
Chetaster, the plates of
the actinal surface being
crowded with small flat- ,,
tened spines, recalling
Luidia, the tentacles in four rows at the base and two rows
at the tip ending in a minute disk.

Hymenodiscus Agassizii (Fig. 383) belongs to an interme-
diate type far more’pronounced even than Brisinga. It recalls
the ophiurans by its round disk, distinctly separated from the
arms, which are long, slender, and mobile, furnished with a
lateral row of spines, as in the ophiurans, which may serve as
organs of locomotion. But there are twelve arms in these star-
fishes, while there are not more than six, or sometimes eight, in
ophiurans. The disk is membranous (Fig. 384), with a circle
of ossicles formed from the first joint of the arms. The skele-
ton of the arms is most simple, consisting of four longitudinal
series of pieces; each piece carries a long lateral spine (Fig.
380), covered by a smooth sheath swollen at the extremity, and
a cluster of pedicellariz such as characterize the starfishes. The
true starfish ambulacral pieces are wanting in Hymenodiscus.
The dorsal skeleton of Brismga may be considered as only a
shield of the genital glands, which are similar in their structure,
as is the digestive cavity, to the same organs of the ophiurans,

(Perrier. )

382. — Zoroaster Ackleyi.

do

o, 3
5° 4°

106 THREE CRUISES OF THE “ BLAKE.”

while the structure of the ambulacral furrow approaches that
of the Comatule. Hymenodiscus and Brisinga thus form

Fig. 385. — Hymenodiscus Agassizii. 155. (Perrier.)

among’ starfishes a very peculiar family, marked by most excep-
tional characters. The study of Hymenodiscus, closely allied

Hymenodiscus Agassizii. (Perrier. )

to the northern Brisinga, has had an important bearing on the
morphology of the starfish skeleton.

CHARACTERISTIC DEEP-SEA TYPES. — STARFISHES. 107

There exists in Archaster mirabilis (Fig. 386) a remark-
able sort of pedicellariz,
consisting of two ossicles
placed face to face like the
hooks of a bracket, each
carrying a comb of spines
falling one towards the
other and forming a very
complicated organ of pre-
hension.

There seems to be no

doubt that the starfish
fauna becomes less and less
varied as the depth in-
creases, the maximum de-
velopment in individuals
being found at a depth of
from 100 to 250 fathoms.
The number of species
does not seem to diminish
so rapidly as the number
of individuals, nor in pro-
portion to the variation of Fig. 386. — Archaster mirabilis. 2.
the nature of the bottom. ;
Thus in depths of less than 100 fathoms it required 2.7 hauls
of the dredge to bring up one species, 15 species and 150 speci-
mens being collected in 41 hauls. Between 100 and 200 fath-
oms, 21 species and 144 specimens being obtained, the coefti-
cient was 3.6. From 200 to 300 fathoms the coefficient was
3.15, with 13 species and 66 individuals. From 300 to 400 fath-
oms only 12 individuals were dredged, belonging to 9 species,
the coefficient being 3.9. Between 400 and 500 fathoms the
coefficient was 4.6. Between 500 and 600 fathoms the coeffi-
cient had become 135. We made 15 hauls between 800 and 900
fathoms, but obtained only 3 species and 3 individuals, although
at a depth of 1,900 to 2,000 fathoms, 4 hauls gave us 7 speci-
mens of 4 species.

Of course the method of carrying on dredgings affects the

(Perrier. )

108 THREE CRUISES OF THE “ BLAKE.”

results to a certain extent. The greater length of time required
for dredging in considerable depth and the state of the weather

AS

\

\
Yf

~)

SS
Yi,

A

\

i

\
NN
i

\
Y

Tif aN
SEN

SAN
ZEW

My, —s
WW Alege

Bx \

4
ZZ WES LEE
iy Ue iafieatputi SSS

) N ASS

YS YZ,

Fig. 387. — Brisinga coronata. 2. (Sars.)

while at specially favorable localities naturally influence the

success in collecting.

CHARACTERISTIC DEEP-SEA TYPES. — OPHIURANS. 109

North of Cape Hatteras the species of starfish procured by the
“ Blake” are identical with those described by Professor V errill
from the dredgings of the United States Fish Commission.

I would only mention here, as the most interesting of the
species we found, ten-armed specimens of Lrisinga coronata.
(Fig. 387.) This species forms the subject of an elaborate
paper by the younger Sars, and I have here reproduced one of
his figures.

OPHIURANS.'

Among: Echinoderms there are two families, the brittle-stars,
or Ophiuridz, and the branching-stars, or Astrophytidee, which
are distinguished by a peculiar axis in the arms, made up of
articulated bones somewhat like vertebre. The disk or body is

Fig. 389. — Ophiocreas spinulosus. .

usually distinctly set off from the arms. These last contain no
prolongation of the central digestive cavity, as they do in the
starfishes proper.

* Mr. Lyman has prepared the account of the ophiurans.

110 THREE CRUISES OF THE “ BLAKE.”

Besides the peculiarity of branching arms (Astrophyton ca-
cilia, Fig. 388) which distinguishes some of the genera, the As-
trophytidz have characteristic joints in the arm-axis, which sepa-
rate them from the Ophiuridee. They are also usually covered,
not by conspicuous plates of lime carbonate, but by a leathery
skin (Ophiocreas spinulosus, Fig. 389). The typical Ophiu-
ride have a well-marked central disk covered with plates or
scales, and from it radiate five arms encased in four longitudinal
rows of plates (Ophiozona nivea, Fig. 390). The side arm-

Fig. 3890. — Ophiozona nivea. 2,

plates bear spines, which may lie close along the arm (Ophio-
phyllum petilum, Fig. 391), or stand out from it at a strong

Fig. 391. — Ophiophyllum petilum. 4,

angle (Ophiocamax hystrix, Fig. 392). There is an almost
endless variety in the shape, consistency, number, and size of

1
z

Fig. 588. — Astrophyton cecilia.

(Jel =

=
Fy
GE: ley

Fig. 392. — Ophiocamax hystrix. 2,

CHARACTERISTIC DEEP-SEA TYPES. — OPHIURANS. i We

the plates, scales, spines, and granules (Ophiopepale Goésiana,
Fig. 393; Ophiura Elaps, Fig. 394; Ophioconis milaria,

Fig. 393. —Ophiopzpale Goésiana. 4.

Fig. 395). So there may be every diversity of general form,
from the smooth simple Ophiomusium planum (Fig. 396) to

Fig. 394. — Ophiura Elaps. ©3245,

the highly complex Ophiomyces frutectosus. (Fig. 397.) No
conditions could well be more favorable to ophiurans than those
of the West Indian waters. A tropical sun gives to the shallows

212 THREE CRUISES OF THE ‘“ BLAKE.”

a temperature of over 80° Fahr., which decreases gradually. with
the depth, till, between 600 and 700 fathoms, it has fallen to

Fig. 395. — Ophioconis miliaria. §,

093°. The American continents on one side, and the Antilles

Fig. 396. — Ophiomusium planum. 135.

on the other, furnish those great land masses the neighborhood
of which seems essential to rich and varied marine life. Their

)

CHARACTERISTIC DEEP-SEA TYPES. — OPHIURANS. js

wash increases the already abundant supply of lime, a substance
that forms nearly the entire weight of some species ( Ophiomas-

Fig. 397. — Ophiomyces frutectosus. 3.

tus secundus, Fig. 398). These conditions naturally give rise
to much variety in form, and to a great abundance of individu-

Fig. 398. —Ophiomastus secundus. .

als. The nine species mentioned by Miiller and Troschel, in
1842, as belonging to this area, have increased to one hundred
and fifty-five, which are distributed at various depths. On the
flats and reefs, near islands and keys, may be found colonies of
Ophiothrix, blue, green, or red, with their translucent thorny arm-
spines, and the humble Ophiactis swarming on great sponges ;
while here and there a yellow or vermilion star marks the soft
Ophiomyza flaccida. To the brown gorgonians clings the large
Ophiocoma, similar in color; and sometimes a Medusa-head,
whose branching arms excited the wonder of old Rondelet,
twines about the thicker stems. These and their companions,
living in a strong light, and in warm shallow water, present
brilliant and well-marked colors. Nor are those that inhabit the
dark and cold depths of the ocean always pale; on the contrary,
many are of a bright orange or red. They are peculiar, how-
ever, in that their colors generally fade in alcohol; and in an
alcoholic collection the shallow species may readily be distin-
guished by their brighter coloration.

¢ sey)
114 THREE CRUISES OF THE “ BLAKE.

Like other marine animals, ophiurans are distributed aecord-
ing to the depth and temperature of the water. About one half
of the known species are confined to the zone between low-water
mark and 30 fathoms. These include the Medusa-heads (Astro-
phyton). But not less than one tenth of the known living
forms are found entirely below 1,000 fathoms, and of these sev-
eral, such as Ophiomusium Lymani,' Ophiocreas spinulosus, and
Ophiocamaa hystrix, live m great colonies, just as some of the

Fig. 399. —Sigsbeia murrhina. 1,

shallow-water species do. They are found in various situations.
The localization of some of these is very marked. The stiff-
armed Ophiomusium of deep water, with their swollen tubereu-
lous plates, naturally le on the bottom, while other species with
supple or prehensile arms, such as Sigsbeia (Fig. 399) and As-

1 All the way from Cape Hatteras to the extremity of George’s Bank, Ophiomu-
sium Lymani was quite common in deep water.

CHARACTERISTIC DEEP-SEA TYPES. — OPHIURANS. 115

troenida (Fig. 400), cling to corals, gorgonians, and bryozoans.
One species, Ophiomitra valida, is often found twined round
the stalk of a sea-lily (Pentacrinus). Off the mouth of the

Fig. 400. — Astroenida isidis, 4.

Mississippi we brought up from 100 fathoms a number of Ophio-
lipus Agassizii (Fig. 401), which must live buried in the mud

Fig. 401. — Ophiolipus-Agassizii. 155.
brought down by the river. Worthy of spe-
cial notice is a small soft ophiuran which
came up in the very last cast made by the
“ Blake” off Barbados. This seemed to
have little tufts resembling bunches of hy-
droids on the sides of the arms (Fig. 402): ~~~

116 THREE CRUISES OF THE “ BLAKE.”

further examination showed these tufts to be bunches of minute
spines enclosed each in a thick skin bag, resembling long-
stemmed parasols with
small shades. This struc-
ture differs radically from
that of the spines of all
other ophiurans hitherto
ig. 00.” &. Fig. 403, 50, known where there Is no
Opitohelus ambelle Mien) departure from the single
row of articulated spines.
A bunch of these umbrella-shaped spines of Ophiohelus um-
bella is given in Fig. 405.

CRINOIDs.!

The stalked crinoids are among the most interesting of the
deep-sea animals. Their paleontological relations run back in
the case of the Pentacrinoidea and the Apiocrinide (Rhizocrinus)
to the jurassic period ; while the relationship of Holopus may
probably extend to the silurian (Edriocrinus).

The Pentacrinide, of which four species were known from
the Caribbean district, are characterized by the verticillate ar-
rangement of the cirri along the whole length of the stem,
while in the Bourgueticrini the whole stem even may be free of |
cirri. Recent species of Pentacrinide have been found both in
the Pacific and Atlantic, and they are common at depths of less
than 100 fathoms. The species of the genus Metacrinus (Fig.
404) replace in the Pacific, to a certain extent, the Atlantic Pen-
tacrini. Our first accurate knowledge of the type dates from
Miller, who compared the structure of the fossil species with
that of both Pentacrinus asterius (Fig. 405) and the free Coma-
tule. This relationship was subsequently most satisfactorily
proved by J. V. Thomson, who in 1836 discovered the penta-
crinoid stage of a species of Comatula. (Fig. 406.)

There seems to be no special order in the division of the sec-
ondary and tertiary arms of the Pentacrinide, though the dif-

1 The account here given of the Cri- collections of the “ Challenger ” and
noids is drawn up from the Reports ‘‘ Blake’’ expeditions.
made by Dr. P. H. Carpenter on the

i,

a
>

PIII,
>

TEE
ef 2,

Sit

Ez
qo >,
Ss >
ge
.
aii
gS
Sy
4
= RX
= fz
=! B
=
HB
= 2
= 5 2
mH 6B F
> =| Sy
= Ky >
py PO =
s is FY
3
RY 3
= G =
Fe
Sx 3
=

Pr

ETT?

CTY

ie
sales @

23
‘< WV
coe eee

ps

Fig. 405. — Pentacrinus

asterius. 3. (Carpenter. )

me
fr
f
3
oy ae
nie
oP eae Fam oh

CHARACTERISTIC DEEP-SEA TYPES.

a
‘|
Al

aK OG

( aval if) , te,

1007556

Fig. 404. — Metacrinus angulatus. }.

ferences existing between the lassic and
the modern Pentacrinide led the Austins
to establish the genus Extracrinus for a
fossil species which seems to have been
gregarious, and of which Queenstedt has
figured a magnificent slab, some of the
specimens with a stem nearly sixty feet
long. The stems were often twisted into
a solid, ropelike mass, and are so entan-
gled on the slab that it is difficult to
make out the individual stems. A sim-
ilar entangling also occurred among the
specimens dredged by the “ Blake,” and
it was often very difficult to separate speci-

— CRINOIDS. 117

(Carpenter. )

Fig. 406. — Pentacrinus
stage of Actinometra
meridionalis, magni-
fied.

118 THREE CRUISES OF THE “ BLAKE.”

mens the cirri of which had become attached to adjoining: stems.
It is possible that they may live gregariously, more or less united
either by the twisting of the stems or the grappling of the cirri,
and be only loosely attached to the ooze on which they live, or
anchored more securely by the terminal whorl to some project-
ing piece of rock or gorgonia stem.

Crinoids both stalked and free live in colomies. Comatule
are most abundant in certain local-

k=

hey | ities. Antedon Sarsti was brought
bee Bf) up in thousands by the . Blake.
Nett he The U. 8. Fish Commission and
Wie id the “Challenger ” have had a sim-
Neds ilar experience with different spe-
is cies of Comatule. On one ocea-

sion, off Sand Key, we must have
passed over a field of Rhizocrinus
with the dredge, judging from the
number of stems and heads of all
sizes it contained. The oldest species
known, Pentacrinus asterius (Fig.
405), is marked by its greatly mul-
tiphed large and strong arms, while
in P. decorus (Fig. 407) the num-
ber is greatly reduced. We know
but little of the young of Pentacri-
nus. The youngest specimens
dredged by the “ Blake,” and fig-
ured by Carpenter (Fig. 408), show
! the great relative height of the stem
Fig. 408. — Pentacrinus decorus, 3. Joint as a characteristic feature of

(Carpenter-) young specimens. The stems of
Pentacrinus asterius and P. decorus are longer than those of
the other species of the genus. P. Miilleri (Fig. 409) was dis-
covered by Oersted, and in 1865 Dr. Liitken gave a detailed
account of the West Indian Pentacrinide ; the many speci-
mens of Pentacrinus dredged by the “ Blake” were originally
identified with it, but, as has been clearly shown by Carpenter,
they all belong to P. decorus. Both P. Miilleri and P.

gm,

Ex

ae

54049

GRRE.

oT)
FIses

(Carpenter.)

s decorus. g.

Se SRE EDA IMIR

> we
Sao

A hlbdolndale

acrinu

Fig. 407. — Pent

(
X
%

SSS
: =» “Ai iNT 7 aa | sos :
. 7; Ueno
<n %, 3, Na SE

a _— 4

to Nee —

(Carpenter. )

qt

Fig. 410.— Pentacrinus Blakei.

AN

TYPES. — CRINOIDS.

CHARACTERISTIC DEEP-SEA

corus seem most vari-

de

able species of a very

iy

co
ae

on

or sea <
bes, Panis Gees sgusanense ‘ ro 2S 1iee,
Oe aise caceebals rechuveceat ea
OREM see am “y
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3.8 bose 2.8 S Seah
Mgr ec aes ov oo g
Papel o) svaet=) ms 25 235
A ~
=| . =| << o = pS aa = S M
By MES
=) i “= > He P| aS ws 2) Dn 2 [==
Ss ee =} fa ae a
Bees Hey Ae
rr SP o ro 7 5 of
oj — a job) . | a
= o0 Oe ea ee oo 3 :
bo * Ee 3
gre = Soe eS
=| 2’ °°
2 3 So a: mo 2 ¢
_— — co mM —s DM
a SP 2,8 88 og
ge. Bi =I GC hH oO Se
He.
Sit & F B.Ed oe. PL
> Sa PooCH nH AS

——

continued to lead a semi-

Yi
ee
on thu

free existence, the lowest

2s,

ee?)
>,
ii

ieee
og 3
6 8 2
S 2 oo
gba¢
[=|

gre ace
gos So
pe: a
Ns

—_ 2.24
ao
Ses
a ha &

rift
te

ihe rim

BHO a toa S
faa FEE o
[mal
ra Se a oc
Shay aes
Sug Dey Oia
Sb ta §
om. 28 a
BIS oral ee eey te)
Cla es ae
sos oe P
g ‘ = os} y = asl } 5
‘Ss as c= oe mM p|
a nn beer ct)
Peo ES Se
sees &.e e

4
ks

OY

Ls

~ oh 1 of MD ODS
as} SS 1S) ics
ee gos
o
S903 3H
28 Gece
al eo nm 3 ae
O, BS a eR
i ees
a
geas 2%
pal
or a fig &
a Ge S88
~ oO
TOE as ara
Sedaka s
aS eo
Se, : 2s

: aed
(Carpenter. )

rnses
2
3:

Fig. 409. — Pentacrinus Miilleri.

o
oD

by Dr. Carpenter. (Fi
410.) It has a slender,

“Qn the 1st of April we put to sea

again [from Havana] ; we steamed about

1 In regard to the movements of Pen-
tacrinus the following extract from a let-

(east), and at the third haul, in 177 fath-

ter of Lieut.-Commander C. D. Sigsbee one and a half miles from the Morro

will be of interest : —

120 THREE CRUISES OF THE “ BLAKE.”

smooth stem, with a rounded pentagonal outline ; it is appa-
rently not common, having been dredged by the “ Blake” only
at four localities.

Rhizocrinus (Fig. 411) has a stem composed of dice - box
shaped joints, terminating in a spreading root or a number of
branching radicular cirri, not arranged im definite whorls, with
a high calyx. It was first named by M. Sars, who afterwards
described it, in 1868, as belonging to the Apiocrinide. But
before the appearance of Sars’s memoir, this interesting crinoid
had been rediscovered by Pourtalés, and stated by him to belong
undoubtedly to the genus Bourgueticrinus of D’Orbigny, and
he gave it the provisional name of 5. Hotessieri, thinking it
might prove identical with a crmoid of that name of which
fragments had been found in the recent limestones of Guade-
loupe. Pourtalés was the first to make out accurately the com-
position of the cup, and he of course also recognized its identity

with the Rhizocrinus of Sars’s memoi, &. lofotensis.

Rhizo-

crinus has been dredged by the Porcupine, the Hassler, the

oms, from disintegrated coral rock bot-
tom, up came six beautiful ‘sea lilies.’
Some of them came up on the tangles,
some on the dredge. They were as brit-
tle as glass. ‘The heads soon curled over,
and showed a decided disposition to drop
off. At a haul made soon after we got
more, and, being afraid to put so many of
them in the tank together, I tried to
delude the animals into the idea that
they were in their native temperatures
by putting them into ice-water. This
worked weli, although some of them be-
came exasperated and shed some of their
They lived in the ice-water for
two hours, until I transferred them to
the tank.
at a time.

arms.

They moved their arms one
Some of the lilies were white,
some purple, some yellow ; the last was
the color of the smaller and more deli-
cate ones.”

I have nothing to add to the general
description of their movements given by
Sigsbee, with the exception of their use
of the cirri placed along the stem. These
they move more rapidly than the arms,

and use them as hooks to catch hold of
neighboring objects ; and, on account of
their sharp extremities, the cirri are well
adapted to retain their hold. The stem
itself passes slowly from a rigid vertical”
attitude to a curved or even drooping po-
sition. We did not bring up a single
specimen that showed the mode of attach-
ment of the stem. Several naturalists,
on the evidence of large slabs contain-
ing fossil Pentacrini, where no basal at-
tachment could be seen, have come to
the that Pentacrini might
be free, attaching themselves tempora-
rily by the cirri of the stem, much as
Comatule do. I am informed, however,
by Captain E. Cole, of the telegraph
steamer “ Investigator,” that he has fre-
quently brought up the West Indian tel-
egraph cable with Pentacrini attached,
and that they are fixed, the basal extrem-
ity of the stem spreading slightly, some-
what after the manner of Holopus, so
that it requires considerable strength to
detach them.

conelusion

CHARACTERISTIC DEEP-SEA TYPES. — CRINOIDS. 12%

Challenger, the Blake, the Talisman, and by the U. 8. Fish
Commission ; it has a very wide geographical distribution, hay-

AVE
FAG ft 3 \fey
LD RAS. oly
Ge
Neg Fai; aI
Wi! 4
si 5]
j
E ki
;
<
k ie.
F 4
‘ ‘a
F 4
|
i 2
y Fig. 412. — Rhizocrinus Rawsoni. 4. (Carpenter.)
4 ing been found as far north as the
\ Lofoten, and as far south as 35° south
: latitude. It is very common in the
B Gulf of Mexico, the Caribbean, and

along the east coast of the United
States. It is of a brownish-chestnut
color when alive, varying from that
to a dirty white. Lt. Rawsoni, a
second species (Fig. 412), was first
dredged by the “ Porcupine ” off Cape
(yt aS ee Clear, but the specimens were con-
tensis. 2. (Sars & Carpenter.) Sidered a variety of the other species,

1D, THREE CRUISES OF THE “ BLAKE.”

until attention was again called to it by Pourtalés in 1871,
and he showed the stout-stemmed specimens collected by the
“* Hassler” off Barbados to be of a species distinct from the
one previously described.

The predecessors of Rhizocrinus were well represented in the
lower tertiary, and go back to the cretaceous, where its ally,
Bourgueticrinus, was very abundant.

In Rhizocrinus, spreading rootlets extend below the regular
joints. By expansion at the ends or sides of these rootlets the
animals attach themselves to any foreign body they happen to
find in the deep ooze in which they become anchored; when
once fixed, they probably remain so for life. The stem joints
of the Bourgueticrinide are movable upon one another ; they
are not uniformly discoidal, like those of the Pentacrinide, but
are strung as it were upon five tendons of variable length.

Agassiz, wlio watched the movements of Rhizocrinus Raw-
soni, says : —

** When contracted, the pinnules are pressed against the arms, and
the arms themselves shut against one another, so that the whole looks
like a brush made up of a few long coarse twines. When the animal
opens, the arms at first separate without bending, but gradually the tip
of the arms bends outwards as the arms diverge more and more, and
when fully expanded the crown has the appearance of a lily. I have
not been able to detect any motion in the stem traceable to contraction,
though there is no stiffness in its bearing. When disturbed, the pin-
nules of the arms first contract, the arms straighten themselves out,
and the whole gradually and slowly closes up. It was a very impres-
sive sight for me to watch the movements of this creature, for it told
not of its own way only, but at the same time afforded a glimpse into
the countless ages of the past, when these crinoids, so rarely seen now-
adays, formed a prominent feature of the animal kingdom. I could
see, without great effort of the imagination, the shoal of Lockport,
teeming with the many genera of ecrinoids which the geologists of New
York have rescued from that prolific silurian deposit, or recall the for-
mation of my native country, in the hillsides of which, also among fos-
sils indicating shoal-water beds, other crinoids abound, resembling still
more closely those we find in these waters.”

The English, French, and Norwegian expeditions discovered
also other stalked crinoids belonging to the genera Bathycrinus,

CHARACTERISTIC DEEP-SEA TYPES. — CRINOIDS. 123

Hyocrinus, and Ilycrinus; but the “ Blake” was not fortunate
enough to obtain any of these.

The last and perhaps most interesting of the West Indian
stalked crinoids belongs to the genus Holopus. (Figs. 413, 414.)
Less than half a dozen specimens of it are known to exist. The
first specimen collected is now in the museum of the Ecole des

g Fig. 414. — Half-grown Holopus Rangi.
Fig. 413. — Adult Holopus Rangi. 45°. 2. (Carpenter. )
(Carpenter.)

Mines. Sir Rawson W. Rawson, when Governor of Barbados,
obtained three specimens, which were lent to Sir Wyville Thom-
son, and have, with the material of the “ Blake,’ formed the
basis of Dr. Carpenter’s work on the subject.

The genus Holopus was established by D’Orbigny, in 1837,
from a single specimen which was brought from Martinique by
Sander Rang. Its true nature was not recognized by other
paleontologists, some of whom considered it to be a barnacle.
The dried specimens all have a blackish green tinge ; the single
arm dredged off Montserrat had a whitish tint. The arms of
all the specimens are strongly curved, closing the disk entirely ;
but of course this is not the natural attitude of the animal.
Holopus is attached by an regularly expanded base, formed by
the extension of the tubular calyx, which is slightly bent, while
a constriction separates the cup from the spreading base. The
youngest specimen (Fig. £15), of jet-black color, dredged off
Bahia Honda, only 3 mm. in diameter, differs very much from
the older specimens, as will be seen from the figures. The

124 THREE CRUISES OF THE “ BLAKE.”

specimen was attached to a piece of rock, and was not detected
until it had become dry. The general shape is a contracted
truncated cone, with wregular
contour of attachment. The sur-
face is granulated or shagreen-
like, with a few small tubercles
scattered over it.

The great peculiarity of the
Caribbean fauna is the abundance
of ten-armed Comatulze representing both the principal genera.
About two thirds of the Antedon species and three fourths of
the Actinometre belong to this simple type. In this respect
the contrast with the Comatula fauna of the Eastern seas is very
marked. 'Ten-armed forms of both genera are there decidedly
in the minority.

Of all the Antedon species dredged by the Coast Survey ex-
peditions, that with the widest range within the Caribbean Sea
is the little ten-armed Antedon Hagenii Pourt. It was obtained
by the “ Blake ” on the Yucatan Bank, and also at various sta-
tions between Dominica and Grenada, at dif-
ferent depths between 75 and 291 fathoms ;
while Pourtalés dredged it in great abundance
at several localities in the Straits of Florida.
Among the large number of individuals of An-
tedon Hagenii from the Straits of Florida, Car-
penter noticed a few examples of two new Ante-
don species. One of them is distinguished by
having enormous lancet-like processes on the
lower joints of its oral pmnules ; while the
other is a very exceptional type, with no pin-
nules at all upon the second and third bra-
chials, though those of the other arm - joints
are developed as usual. This is a smgular con-
dition, which occurs but rarely among the Co-
matule. Except in the remarkable type Atele-
Fig. 416. — Atelecri- crinus (Fig. 416), which has no pinnules at all
nue. 4. (Cespenter) upon the ten or twelve lower arm-joints, these
are the only Comatulze which Carpenter has ever met with, in

Fig. 415.— Holopus Rangi. 1°.

CHARACTERISTIC DEEP-SEA TYPES. — CRINOIDS. 125

an examination of several hundred individuals, that present any
departure from the ordinary pinnule arrangement.

The two Comatulz which from their abundance seem especially
characteristic of the neighborhood of the Caribbean Islands,
ranging from Santa Cruz to Grenada, are an Antedon and an
Actinometra, both of which had been obtained previously to
the “Blake” expedition. In the year 1870, Duchassaing
brought from Guadeloupe to the Paris Museum a fine specimen
of Antedon, with thirty very spiny arms. Carpenter readily
recognized it in the “ Blake” collection, and has named it Ante-
don spinifera. (Fig. 417.) The common Actinometra of the
Caribbean Sea _ is
a singularly protean
species, which was
obtained at thirty
stations by the
Speake.” The
“ Hassler” dredged
it off Barbados, and
it was found by the
“ Investigator ” off
St. Lucia, and also
attached to the Mar- Bete Aenadanapinifera: 1
tinique and Domin-
ica cable. It ranges from 73 to 278, and possibly to 380
fathoms. Not only is it everywhere very abundant, but it pre-
sents a most remarkable series of minor variations on one fairly
distinct type, which, under the name of Actinometra pulchella
(Fig. 418), includes no less than six forms apparently distinct
at first sight. Most of the specimens have twenty arms, occa-
sionally a smaller number ; some, however, have as few as twelve
to fifteen. Actinometra pulchella is also interesting as fur-
nishing an instance of variation from the ordinary type of five
rays. One specimen, like that dredged by the “ Challenger,” has
six rays. It is curious that this variation, which is common in
Rhizocrinus, should be so rare among the Comatule.

The results of Carpenter’s examination of the ‘“ Challenger ”
and “ Blake” collections, and of the numerous Comatule to

126 THREE CRUISES OF THE “ BLAKE.”

which he had access in the various European museums, entirely
confirm and extend the conclusions to which he had previously
been led respecting the separation of Antedon and Actinometra
as distinct generic types. A glance at the skeleton is sufficient
to enable one to distinguish the genus.

With another species of Comatula, in 450 fathoms, Pourtaleés
dredged off Cojima two mutilated specimens belonging to a type

nt

(Take
ae

‘
a

Xt
: NG
D Oy

Fig. 418. — Actinometra pulchella. 1.

of singular interest. This new Comatula may be considered as
a permanent larval form; and it is not a little smgular to find
larval characters persisting in recent Comatule. For this re-
markable combination Carpenter has established a new genus,
which he proposes to call Atelecrinus. (See Fig. 416.)

In conclusion, I may mention that many of the Comatulz ex-
amined were the hosts of Myzostomide. These curious para-
sites have been fully described by Dr. von Graff, from the ma-
terial of the “ Challenger” and ‘“ Blake.” I give here figures

CHARACTERISTIC

DEEP-SEA

TYPES. — CRINOIDS. 127

of two characteristic species of these worms, strangely modified

to adapt themselves to the peculiar conditions of their habitat.
The organs of the body are arranged radially, and the mus-

cular system so admirably adapted for attachment is wanting in

Fig. 419. — Myzostoma filicauda.
4°. (Von Graff.)

Fig. 420.— Myzostoma Agassizii.

4°. (Von Graff.)

the type which moves about freely'on its host. In another
group, a male and female inhabit a common cyst, caused by the

- presence of the parasite on the arm-joit or pinnule.

Myzos-

toma filicauda, the host of Antedon Hagenii, is one of the

species with caudal append-
ages (Fig. 419), while M/yzos-
toma <Agassizii represents a
type with long filiform cirri.
(Fig. 420.) Another group
forming no cyst has only short
curl. The cysts are sometimes.
sausage-shaped and situated on
the disk of the host, or, like
the cyst formed by JZ. cystico-

Fig. 421.
Myzostoma cysticolum. #.

Fig. 421 a.
(Von Graff.)
Parasite of Actinometra meridionalis.

lum (Figs. 421, 421 a) on the arms of Actinometra meridio-

nalis, they resemble plant galls.

XX.
CHARACTERISTIC DEEP-SEA TYPES. — ACALEPHS.

CTENOPHORZ AND HYDROMEDUSA.

As with fishes, a number of the deep-sea meduse are occa-
sionally taken at the surface, and undoubtedly many of the rarer
of our jelly-fishes are deep-water forms which have accidentally
found their way to the surface. To these probably belongs one
of the most graceful of our jelly-fishes, Ptychogena /actea (Fig.
422), which swims at a considerable depth below the surface.
The action of the light, and
the increase of temperature
at the surface, suffice to kill
the animal in a short time.
As soon as it reaches the

iy hte ri it transparency, the genital or-
\ mm Ni ih gans become dull, and the
iN Si) Ni medusa is soon completely
iy decomposed, showing that
the new conditions are to-
tally unlike those under
which it habitually thrives.
From the character of
their development we may
either find meduse on the
bottom in their fixed younger hydroid stages, or we may collect
them alive from the surface in an older stage. Others again are
always pelagic, swimming freely on the cnr Pacas in all their stages
of growth, while a limited number of the so-called deep-sea
meduse perhaps inhabit the intermediate depths far below the

Fig. 422. — Ptychogena lactea. 1,

ee i ie iag «surface, the disk loses its

CHARACTERISTIC DEEP-SEA TYPES. — ACALEPHS. 129

surface, moving from the bottom towards the surface, or even
occasionally reaching it.

Although many of the characteristic surface jelly-fishes have
been mentioned in the general sketch of the Pelagic Fauna
and Flora, a few deserve a more extended notice in the sys-
tematic account of the group. Among the ctenophores I may
mention a singular genus, Ocyroé, which has passed unnoticed
for over fifty years, since its discovery in 1829. Unlike the
other members of the group, it makes use of its large lateral
lobes as flappers, and thus propels itself through the water with
great rapidity. It is true that other ctenophores may, to a lim-
ited extent, guide their movements by the gentle undulation of
the lateral lobes of the body, but their principal means of loco-
motion are the rows of locomotive flappers, or combs, from which
the group derives its name. In Ocyroé the movement is pro-
duced by the development of muscular fibres on the inner sur-
face of the lobes. Ocyroé is also noted for structural feat-
ures of the highest interest. As has been observed by Dr.
Fewkes,’ it combines characters which exist in the two groups
into which the ctenophores have been divided. It stands inter-
mediate between the
groups, with marked
characteristics of
each. It is the only
instance of a cten-
ophore with lateral
lobes not provided
with tentacles. The
spotted Ocyroé, O.
maculata (Fig. 423),
was noticed near St.
Vincent ; and a spe-
cies without spots,
probably a young form, O. crystallina, was found at the Tor-
tugas.

One of the largest and most stately genera of tentaculated

Fig. 423.— Oeyroé maculata. 1}.

1 Dr. Fewkes has prepared the greater number of the descriptions of acalephs
here given.

1350 THREE CRUISES OF THE “ BLAKE.”

ctenophores is the well-known Hucharis multicornis (Fig. 424),
also found in the Mediterranean. This genus, which had before
escaped observation on this side of the Atlantic, was observed at
the Tortugas and at Key West.

Among the medusz called Discophore by Agassiz, one of

Fig. 424, — Eucharis multicornis. }. (Chun.)

the most interesting forms is Dodecabostrycha dubia (Fig.
425), the largest specimen measuring no less than nine inches
in height. Several specimens of a dark claret-color were brought
up in the trawl, and it is very probable, from the systematic
affinities of this medusa, that, like its allies, the Rhizostome, it
lives on the bottom, rarely coming to the surface. Belong-
ing also to the true deep-sea meduse are Periphylla, Atolla,
and a few allied genera. The first genus has a more or less

CHARACTERISTIC DEEP-SEA TYPES. — ACALEPHS. 131

pointed conical bell, widening below into a funnel-shaped mar-
gin, the upper and lower parts of the bell being divided into
well-marked regions separated by a characteristic furrow. The
margin is formed by a number of gelatinous blocks closely fitted
together, which serve as supports for important organs called
socles. These support tentacles, marginal sense bodies, and thin
leaf-shaped lappets which have given the genus its name. The

Zz ae < SS _s = \
Fig. 425. — Dodecabostrycha dubia. 4.

stomach hanes down from the under side of the bell, and in its
spacious receptacles are found prominent filaments. The color is
blue. The American species P. hyacinthina (Fig. 426) extends
as far north as the coast of Greenland.

None of these so-called deep-sea medusze, however, present
such remarkable features as the species of Atolla. The genus
has thus far been taken by the “Challenger” in the Antarctic
Ocean, on the borders of the South Atlantic and South Indian

132 THREE CRUISES OF THE “ BLAKE.”

oceans, at the depth of about 2,000 fathoms. It is repre-
sented by a single species, A. Wyvillei. In the Gulf Stream
and North Atlantic we have two species of Atolla, discovered by
the “ Albatross.” They do not appear to be confined to deep
water, but sometimes approach the surface. No discophore has
as many sense segments as Atolla; and a marked feature of the
oral surface of the bell is the large muscle found on the under

Fig. 426. — Periphylla hyacinthina. #. (Fewkes.)

side of the corona. The ovaries of Atolla consist of eight kid-
ney-shaped bodies arranged about a large and spacious stomach,
which assumes the form of an inflated bag, opening into a recess
in the walls of the corona, from which canals extend into the
tentacles and sense-bodies. A. Bairdii is here figured. (Fig.
427.)

Some of the most interesting meduse discovered by the
“ Blake” belong to the Siphonophore. They are eminently
pelagic in character, and wide-spread in their distribution. Pre-
viously to the “ Blake” expeditions we knew only a few genera
of these beautiful animals from the American coasts. Although
genera of siphonophores occur in some of the most northern
localities visited in Arctic exploration, the home of the group
is essentially in the warmer waters. This group seems to be
most varied and rich in the West Indian area. Before 1880,

CHARACTERISTIC DEEP-SEA TYPES. — ACALEPHS. 35

not more than five genera were known from the Western At-
lantic, while at the present time that number is more than
doubled.

Of the aberrant group of Rhizophysidze no less than three
species are now known from the Gulf Stream. One of the most

Fig. 427. — Atolla Bairdii. 32. (Fewkes.)

characteristic species of the group, Pterophysa, has been men-
tioned in the chapter on the Pelagic Fauna.

Agalma Okenii (Fig. 428) is common in the Gulf Stream ;
it is easily recognized by the rigid nature of the colony, and
by this can at once be distinguished from the Agalma found
at Newport. The end of the axis opposite the float bears thick
covering scales, while in the Newport Agalma the scale is leaf-
like, and not cubical or polygonal.

One of the least known genera of Physophorz is the genus
Athorybia. It is remarkable in many ways, and differs from all
known physophores in the character of its covering scales and

134 THREE CRUISES OF THE “ BLAKE.”

the absence of nectocalyces, whose function is in part taken by
the covering scales. They are capable of a slight motion on
their attachment, and by this movement an active propulsion is
produced. The float is large, and
the stem very much reduced in
length. The genus is interesting
from its resemblance to a young

Fig. 429. —Gleba hippopus. ?.
(Fewkes. )

stage of Agalma having
no nectocalyces, in which
a similar cirele of covering
scales is found. A new
species, A. formosa, from
the Florida Keys, has been

Fig. 428. — Agalma Okenii. 4. (Fewkes.) added to the medusze of

the Gulf Stream.

The close resemblance of the swimming-bells of one genus of
the floatless siphonophores to a horse’s hoof suggested the
name of hippopus to designate a wide-spread Mediterranean
species (Gleba hippopus, Fig. 429) found in the Gulf Stream

CHARACTERISTIC DEEP-SEA TYPES.

by the “ Blake.”
problematical of all the siphonophores.
it has two rows of nectocalyces, but no
true float or covering scales. Moreover,
in the physophores the nectocalyces nearest
the float are the smallest and the last to
form, while those at the opposite end are
larger. In Gleba the bells at the anterior
extremity are fully formed, while those at
the posterior end are least developed.

We have two or three species of a dis-
tinct group of siphonophores, known as the
Calycophore, one of the most common of
which is Diphyes acuminata. (Fig. 430.)
Another species, belonging to the genus
Epibulia, was also collected ; it is. similar
to a Mediterranean species, and is probably
the same as that recorded from the coast of
Greenland by Leuckart. The genus Aby-
la, A. trigona, was found in the Caribbean
Sea, and fragments of a large Praya were
observed near the Tortugas. I have al-
ready alluded to this group of siphono-
phores as driven into Narragansett Bay
during the summer.

The first extensive report on deep-sea
hydroids was based upon the collections
made by Pourtalés in the Straits of Florida.
They are described by Professor Allman,
in one of the most important memoirs ever
published on this group. The subsequent
explorations of the “‘ Blake” added a num-
ber of genera possessing most important
morphological characters. As has subse-
quently been found in other collections of
deep-sea hydroids, a majority of the genera
collected belong to the Plumularide. A spe-
cies of the genus Aglaophenia (A. crenata)

135

ACALEPHS.

In its affinities, Gleba is one of the most
Like the physophores,

Fig. 430. — Diphyes acu-
minata. 3. (Fewkes.)

136 THREE CRUISES OF THE “ BLAKE.”

was dredged from 1,240 fathoms, over 500 fathoms deeper than
the greatest depth at which any plumularian was collected by
the “ Challenger.” The Tubularians, so common in shallow
water, do not seem to extend to any considerable depths. A
characteristic plumularian is the stately Aglaophenia bispinosa
(Fig. 451), dredged off Alligator and Tennessee reefs, from
200 fathoms, surpassed in size by very few hydroids. The cor-
bule (Fig. 432) are very beautiful, and present a most instruc-
tive illustration of the morphology of the organ. The lower

Fig. 432. — Aglaophenia bispinosa, magnified. (AlIman.)

part of the stem is composed of tubes, which, at rather regu-
lar intervals, become curiously contorted into knob-like projec-
tions. (Fig. 433.) They become separated at the extreme lower
end, where they form a large entangled mass of filaments.
Cryptolaria conferta (Fig. 434), forming crowded entangled
tufts, was dredged off Cojima, Cuba, in 450 fathoms. On the

Fig. 485. — Cryptolaria conferta,
magnified. (Allman.)

Fig. 434. — Cryptolaria conferta.

1, (Allman.)

branches of one of the specimens occurred here and there ir-
regularly fusiform shaped bodies (Fig. 435), the nature of which

Fig. 433. — Lower part of stem Fig. 431. — Aglaophenia bispinosa.
of Fig. 481. (Allman.) 3, (Allman.)

een ee

at 2
aS

ae

a

x
~

Ww aawone

3, (Allman.)

Cladocarpus paradisea.

Fig. 436.—

(Fewkes.)

2
3°

Fig. 437. — Hippurella annulata.

flan nee gt

EN meee

Fig. 489. Magnified
Corbula.

ROSS

AA)
Z LLORES

Fig. 438. 1.
Callicarpa gracilis. (Fewkes.)

‘settee lin
pe i)? :

CHARACTERISTIC DEEP-SEA TYPES. — ACALEPHS. 137

is still problematical, surrounding the branch where they occur
like minute sponges. They are found to consist of a multitude
of flask-shaped receptacles. |

The genus Cladocarpus was established by Allman for a re-
markable plumularian obtained in the eastern part of the North
Atlantic during one of the expeditions of the “ Porcupine.”
Cladocarpus paradisea (Fig. 436), a beautiful species, very
striking from its deep and widely separated hydrothece, was
dredged off Tennessee Reef, and off the Samboes, from 174
fathoms.

Hippurella is a genus founded by Allman for hydroids in
which the basal ends of the branches carry normal pinne, while
the outer end of the same bear verticillately arranged ribs modi-
fied for sheltering the sexual bodies. Hippurella annulata
grows in tufts, numerous undivided stems springing from a com-
mon base. (Fig. 457.) It is of a rather rigid habit; it was
dredged off Pacific Reef, from 283 fathoms.

In Callicarpa we have whole branches specialized and modified
for the protection of the sexual bodies. In Callicarpa gracilis
(Fig. 438) the gonosome closely resembles a spike of wheat, and
springs by a short peduncle immediately from
the main stem. (Fig. 439.)

The most important of the family of Plumu-
laride devoid of movable nematophores is Pleu-
rocarpa, dredged from the neighborhood of the
island of St. Vincent in 95 fathoms. In the
single known specimen the gonosome (Fig. 440)
certainly is the most extraordinary modifica-
tion of the branch serving as a_ protection
for the sexual bodies thus far found among
plumularians. The basket -shaped structures
called corbulz, which serve the same purpose
in other genera, are, as Allman has shown,
modified pinne, and not, as in Hippurella,
Callicarpa, and Pleurocarpa, a branch or por-

: : : | Fig. 440.
tion of a branch bearing pinne modified to Pleuroearpa ramo-

become specialized bodies with the form of cor- 5%; magnified.

Fewkes.
bule. iar

138 : THREE CRUISES OF THE “ BLAKE.”

HYDROCORALLIN“.

To the hydroids we should add the account of the Hydro-
corallinee, which until recently were supposed to be true corals.
Professor Agassiz, however, observed the animal of Millepora,

Reeser t a,

(Agassiz. )

Fig. 441.— Animal of Millepora. 2.

and traced its acalephian affinity.
The polyps of Millepora are most
difficult to observe (Fig. 441),
not only on account of their small
size, but also from their extreme
sensitiveness to contact with air.
Agassiz’s observations have been
confirmed by several investigators,
especially by Moseley, who has
greatly increased our knowledge
of the group, and has in addition
shown that other families of cor-
als, the Stylasteridze and Helio-
poride, belong with the Millepo-

ride to a natural group for which he has proposed the name
Hydrocoralline. They are all characterized by havmg reproduc-
tive, prehensile, and digestive zoids composing the community.
(Fig. 442), reminding us thus somewhat of the siphonophores.

Fig. 442. — Millepora nodosa, Dactylozoid Gastrozoid ; magnified. (Moseley. )

The best known member of the group is the shallow-water
Millepora (Fig. 443), which is represented in deep water in the
Caribbean and Florida districts by Pliobothrus symmetricus.

(Agassiz. )

icornis. %

ale

Millepora

Fig. 445.

CHARACTERISTIC DEEP-SEA TYPES. — HYDROCORALLINE. 139

(Fig. 444.) It has also been found by the “ Porcupine” expedi-
tion at from 500 to 600 fathoms, in the cold area to the north-
ward of the British Islands.

= ste Rs
Set

Fig. 444. — Pliobothrus symmetricus. 1, (Pourtalés.)

The other family of the group added to the West Indian
fauna by deep-sea dredgings is that of the Stylasteridze ; in
some of the genera the simple circular digestive opening is
drawn out imto elongate chambers, while in some genera a

Fig. 445. 4- Fig. 445 a. 4.
Cryptohelia Peircei. (Pourtales. )

tongue-like process or a lid covers mm part or wholly this
opening. Such an expansion of one edge of the calycle to
form a lip (Fig. 445), folded over the opening, we find in
Cryptohelia Peircei. (Fig. 445 a.)

Among the most beautiful and delicate of the milleporian
corals found on rocky bottom is Stylaster filogranus (Fig.

140 THREE CRUISES OF THE “ BLAKE.”

446), of a light pink, fading into white in the younger branch-

eee?

Fe

: ae) i = ~ Ra

Fig. 446. — Stylaster filogranus. 4. (Pourtales.)

lets. The color is diffused through the entire thickness of the
corallum. Another common Stylaster is Distichopora foliacea-

Fig. 447. — Distichopora foliacea. 4. (Pourtalés.)

(Fig. 447), characterized by its small calycles, not placed in a
furrow, irregular lateral pores, and serrated edge.

CHARACTERISTIC DEEP-SEA TYPES. — HYDROCORALLIN®. 141

The most massive of our deep-sea corals is Allopora miniacea.

(Fig. 448.)

Fig. 448. — Allopora miniacea. 1}. (Pourtalés.)

XXI.
CHARACTERISTIC DEEP-SEA TYPES. — POLYPS.

_HALCYONOIDS AND ACTINOIDS.'

Amone the Anthozoa the deep-water groups of the West In-
dian district are most interesting. There are specimens of an
Umbellula, a genus first accidentally brought up from deep water
off the coast of Greenland early in the last century, and figured
by Ellis. His specimens were lost, and Captain von Otter was
the first to rediscover this interesting genus. The “ Blake”
dredged fine specimens of Umbellula in deep water in several
localities in the West Indies. Our species of Umbellula ap-
pears to be U. Giintheri (Fig. 449), discovered
by the “Challenger.” A second species has since
been found on our east coast by the Fish Com-.
mission.

A number of fine Pennatule were brilliantly
phosphorescent, of a bluish tint. Them lght is
very strong, a single Pennatula lighting up a whole
tub full of water. Pennatula aculeata (Fig. 450)
is a common species off our coast, extending from
Norway to the Banks of Newfoundland, and as
far south as 393° north latitude. Of the peculiar
club-shaped genus Kophobelemnon (Fig. 451) the
“ Blake” collected only a single specimen, but it
has been dredged in considerable numbers by the

Fig. 451.—Ko- Fish Commission. In certain localities it extends
phobelemnon sea- ty a depth of over 2,000 fathoms.

brum. 4, (Ver-

rill.) Several species of long sea-wands seem to be

1 The account of these Anthozoa has been prepared from the reports of Professor
Verrill on collections of the “Blake ” and ‘* Albatross.”

Fig. 449. — Umbellula Giintheri. 1}.

(Koren & Danielssen.)

Bi
q

Fig. 450. —Pennatula aculeata

iy

ore

Fig. 452. — Anthoptilum Thomsoni. }$. (Kolliker.)

Fig. 453. — Balticina finmarchica. 4. (Koren & Danielssen.)
The axis is figured in outline.

CHARACTERISTIC DEEP-SEA TYPES. — POLYPS. 143

the favorite abode of many kinds of ophiurans, and of sea-
anemones, which are attached to the bare portions of the axis.
We may mention among them a large species of Anthoptilum
(Fig. 452), and a species of Balticina. (Fig. 455.) The extrem-
ity of the axis of many of these wands is frequently laid bare
by injuries. These naked spaces, as has been observed by Pro-
fessor Verrill, are nearly always occupied by a peculiar Actinia
(Actinauge), of which the sides of the flat base spread out
longitudinally so as to wrap around the axis
of the polyp and meet on the opposite side,
forming a regular sheath by the coalescence
of opposite edges. (Fig. 454.) The base of
adjoining’ Actiniz coalesces in the same man-
ner, and thus forms a continuous covering
over the dead polyps.

Professor Kd6lliker, who examined the
“ Challenger” collection of Pennatule, came
to the conclusion that the deeper portions of
the Pacific and Atlantic oceans contain very
few Pennatule at a certain distance from
shore, and that these appear to have a wide
distribution along the shores; the higher Fig. 454.—Actinange
groups especially being characteristic of shal- rests: 4. (Vernill.)
lower water, while the simpler forms, the representatives per-
haps of an extinct fauna, inhabit the greater depths.

The gorgonians are well represented in deep water by pecu-
har genera, of which the base is specially adapted for living in
the mud, where it branches in all directions penetrating the soft
ooze as if with roots ; all the shallow-water species having usu-
ally a flat expansion of the base, by which they attach them-
selves to solid substances, rocks, mollusks, ete.

Many of these gorgo-
nians are of an orange or
reddish orange color ; and
the most characteristic of
these is the elegant Dasy-
is gorgia Agassiz (Fig.
Fig. 455. — Dasygorgia Agassizii. 1. (Verrill.) 450), a plumose much-

144 THREE CRUISES OF THE ‘ BLAKE.”

branching coral with slender terminal twigs, while the main
branches are spirally arranged, with a slender brilliantly irides-
cent calcareous axis. The polyps are large, and placed rather
far apart. It belongs to the deep-sea family of Chrysogorgidée
(Fig. 456), established by Verrill for such gorgonians as have

usually an iridescent axis with spiral branches. They are among

1

Fig. 456. — Chrysogorgia. 4.

the most beautiful and interesting of the gorgonians. A unique
and striking species of the group is Inidogorgia Pourtalesu (Fig.
456 a) with its regular upright spiral main stem,.and long, flex-
ible, undivided branches, arranged in a single row nearly at
right angles to the axis ; forming a broad spiral like the skeleton
of a spiral staircase. The species are remarkable for their ele-

CHARACTERISTIC DEEP-SEA TYPES. — POLYPS. 145

gance of form, and for the brilliant lustre and iridescent colors
of the axis, in some of a bright emerald-green, in others like
burnished gold or mother-of-pearl. The known species are all

Fig. 456 a. — Ividogorgia Pourtalesii. 3.

inhabitants of deep water, and with the exception of Dasy-
gorgia Agassizii, which occurs off the New England coast, are
all from the West Indies.

A large species is Lepidogorgia gracilis, which grows to a
height of nearly three feet. A smaller gorgonian, but perhaps
the most common off our east coast, extending from 200 to
about 1,300 fathoms, is Acanella Normani (Fig. 457), a
branching bush-like orange-brown coral. It grows to a height
of about a foot, and is nearly as broad as high, its branches
growing out three or four together from the joints.

Ceratoisis ornata is a large and beautiful species peculiarly
characteristic of deep water in all latitudes, its golden or bronzy
chitinous joints contrasting finely with the clear ivory-white
calcareous ones. Lepidisis is a gorgonian growing in the shape
of a tall thin stem a yard or more in height, its axis divided

146 THREE CRUISES OF THE “ BLAKE.”

into joints alternately long and short; the longer ones white,
hollow, and calcareous, and the shorter ones horny brown.
We should also mention Primnoa Pourtalesii (Fig. 458), a
plumose gorgonian with regularly pinnate branchlets all in one
plane. To this genus belongs also the huge bush coral Primnoa,

Fig. 458. — Primnoa Pourtalesii. 3. (Verrill.)
which grows to the height of man, and has an axis as thick as
a man’s lee.

Many of the gorgonians are beautifully phosphorescent when
brought to the surface, and their closely clustered branches, as
in Calyptrophora (Fig. 459) are the abode of hosts of crustacea,
annelids, mollusks, and echinoderms, which find shelter there
from their enemies.

The Actinidze, or sea-anemones, so common in shallow water,
are represented by a number of species in our deep waters ;
many of them are finely colored, some of them developing a
peculiar base adapted to soft bottoms, representing perhaps, as
has been suggested by Verrill, a primitive type from which the

Fig. 457. — Acanella Normani. $-

CHARACTERISTIC DEEP-SEA TYPES. — POLYPS. 147

few surviving Pennatulide may have been derived. But owing
to the difficulty of determining satisfactorily animals of this
family from alcoholic specimens, we shall notice only a few spe-
cies which have been figured from life by Verrill.

Sagartia abyssicola (Fig. 460) is often found attached to the
tubes of Hyalinecia. A large red or
orange species of Actinauge is A.
nodosa (Fig. 461), the column of
which is covered with hard warts ar-
ranged in rather regular transverse
and vertical rows, diminishing in size
from the top of the column towards

Fig. 461. — Actinauge nodosa. 4. (Verrill.)

the base. Specimens of four inches
in diameter and six inches in height
are often brought up in the dredge.
It has been dredged off our eastern
coast, and extends from the Grand
Banks to Cape Hatteras. Its bathy-
metrical range is from 50 to 600 =: = ee
fathoms. From the tentacles and ** oe Gain
upper part of the column is secreted )

an abundant mucus, which is highly phosphorescent. As has
been suggested by Verrill, these Actinize, anchored as they are
in the mud by a basal bulb, probably lose the power of loco-

148 THREE CRUISES OF THE “ BLAKE.”

motion gradually with their development, and finally when adult
remain fixed, although they certainly move freely about when
young, like other shallow-water actinie.

Epizoanthus belongs to a group of actiniz usually forming
irregularly shaped incrusting masses and incapable of locomo-
tion. The polyps have a thick leathery column of a bluish or
grayish-brown color. ‘Two species are quite common along the
east coast of the United States, in depths varying from 75 to
600 fathoms. (See Fig. 235.)

CORALS.!

A series of fine specimens of Caryophyllia communis (Fig.
462) well shows ther mode of growth. The young is erect,
with a thin peduncle attached to a small pebble or shell; as it

Fig. 462. Fig. 462 a.

: Caryophyllia communis. 4, (Pourtalés.)

grows in height, the support not bemg sufficient, it falls over
on its broadest side, and, growing upward to keep the calycle
above the mud, the curved base is produced. (Fig. 462 a.)
Stenocyathus vermiformis is a very elongate coral resembling
an annelid tube. Specimens fre-
<g en quently occur having a living and
growing polyp at either end. (Fig.
g 463.) These specimens are gener-
Fig. 463. —Stenocyathus vermifor- ally somewhat curved, as if they had
mms. g:. (Bouztales)) been lying in the mud with both
ends turned up and projecting. |

1 The account of the corals here given is taken from the various reports of
Pourtalés on the “ Blake ’’ collections.

CHARACTERISTIC DEEP-SEA TYPES. — CORALS. 149

Two species of the genus Thecocyathus have been dredged,
and are not uncommon in from 100 to 515
fathoms. One of these, 7. cylindraceus, 1s
here figured. (Fig. 464.) The genus is inter-
esting as dating back to the has; it is not
known from any of the formations inter-
mediate between the las and our epoch.
The recent forms present, therefore, a com-
paratively rare instance of the reappearance “™

: Fig. 464.— Thecocya-
of a genus apparently extinct through a con- “thus cylindraceus.
siderable succession of ages. 8. (Pourtales.)

Deltocyathus italicus (Figs. 465, 465 a-d) is an exceedingly

Fig. 465 c.

Fig. 465 d.

Deltocyathus italicus. 2. (Pourtales.)

variable living form of a tertiary fossil common in Sicily. The
polyp of a large living specimen, dredged in 115 fathoms off
the Tortugas, was whitish, with short club-shaped_ tentacles.
A most variable species is Paracyathus confertus. (Fig. 466.)
Stephanotrochus diadema (Fig. 467) seems to be a character-
istic deep-sea type. It has been dredged in 754 fathoms off

150 THREE CRUISES OF THE “ BLAKE.”

Guadeloupe, and in 1,200 fathoms fine living specimens of F/a-

Fig. 466. — Paracyathus confertus. 4. Fig. 467. —Stephanotrochus diadema, 1}.

(Pourtalés.) (Pourtalés.)

bellum Moseley: (Figs. 468, 468 a) were obtaimed; this spe-
cies has an extensive geographical range. Its ally, Plabellum

Fig. 468. Fig. 468 a.

Flabellum Moseleyi. 4, (Pourtal¢s.)

Goodei, is quite common off the east coast of the United States,
and grows to a considerable size. The stout tentacles and disk
are of a salmon-color. |

Desmophyllum Riisei (Fig. 469) is a species growing in
clusters ; it ranges from 88 to 120 fathoms off Montserrat, Do-
minica, and Martinique. Desmophyllum solidum (Fig. 470)
is the West Indian representative of several species of this type
from the tertiary beds of Sicily. A very fine specimen of Des-

CHARACTERISTIC DEEP-SEA TYPES. — CORALS. Lee

mophyllum crista-galli came up attached to the stem of a Prim-

Fig. 469. — Desmophyllum Riisei. 4, Fig. 470.— Desmophyllum solidum. ?.
(Pourtaleés. ) (Pourtalés.)

noa. Rhizotrochus fragilis (Fig. 471) was obtained in about

Fig. 471. — Rhizotrochus fragilis. ?. Fig. 472. — Lophohelia prolifera. 1
(Pourtales. )

(Pourtalés.)

forty different casts along the Florida Reef, in depths varying
from 49 to 524 fathoms. It was most abundant between 100
and 200 fathoms. The color of the polyp is greenish or pale
brick-red. Lophohelia prolifera (Fig. 472) has a very exten-

152 THREE CRUISES OF THE “ BLAKE.”’

sive distribution in the Atlantic, and is a common Caribbean
species.

One of the most elegant of the West Indian corals is the pure
white Amphihelia rostrata (Fig. 473), which must have spread

Fig. 475. — Amphihelia rostrata. 4.

at least twelve centimetres. It has been dredged to a depth of
nearly 900 fathoms. Axohelia mirabilis (Fig. 474) is very
common in the Caribbean, and is rather variable. Many spe-
cimens are deformed by barnacles occupying the end of the
branches, which soon become entirely covered by the coral,
leaving only a small opening. As representatives of one of
the most natural of the families of corals, we may mention
Thecopsammia socialis (Fig. 475) and 7’. tintinnabulum, of
which the living polyp is of a handsome pinkish orange color.

CHARACTERISTIC DEEP-SEA TYPES. — CORALS. 153

The Fungide are a very characteristic shallow-water form in
the Pacific, and it is interesting to note that from deep water

Fig. 474. — Axohelia mirabilis. 4. (Pourtales.) Fig. 475. — Thecopsammia socialis.
5; 4-5, (Pourtales.)

i
the dredge has brought up three small, simple species, the first
sunple Fungia found in our seas. Of these
we may mention Fungia symmetrica (Fig.
476), found by the dredgings of the “ Chal-
lenger”’ to be one of the most common deep-
sea corals. It has a world-wide distribution ;
it occurs in the West and South Atlantic, and
in the North and South Pacific, and has a very

Fig. 476. — Fungia

extended bathymetrical range; it has been symmetriea. 2.
dredged by the “ Challenger Pea hams (Pourtales. )

and in 2,900 fathoms, and in all inter-
mediate depths. The range of tem-
perature which it sustains varies from
1° to 20° C. It has been found by
the “ Blake” ranging from 175 to

ee ey P* & 800 fathoms in the Gulf of Mexico,
a the Straits of Florida, and the Carib-

154

THREE CRUISES OF THE “ BLAKE.”

bean. The specimens of Fungia symmetrica, and Diaseris

crispa (Fig. 477), if found in a sea where
larger Fungi were common, would natu-
rally be considered as the young of one of
them.

Antillia explanata (Fig. 478) is the
first species of this tertiary genus found
living. .

planata. j. (Pourtales. ) Attached to the test of an Asthenosoma,

from a depth of 373 fathoms near Montser-

‘at, came up a fine specimen of the delicate Leptonemus dis-
cus (Fig. 479), in which the corallum is reduced to a mere lace-

work.

Fig. 479. — Leptonemus discus. §. (Challenger.)

Among corals recalling extinct types are specially to be men-

Fig. 480.
Haplophyllia
paradoxa. 1,
(Pourtales. )

tioned Haplophyllia (Fig. 480), Duncania, and
Guynia, which were surmised by Pourtalés to be-
long to the Rugosa, an order established by Milne-
Edwards and Haime for a large number of fossil
corals, abundant in paleozoic times. Their chief
characteristic is the development of the septa from
four primary ones (Fig. 481), whilst in all of the
living corals the primary number is six. In addi-
tion, the chambers are closed by floors. Ludwig

has shown, however, that this tetrameral arrangement of the

~

CHARACTERISTIC DEEP-SEA TYPES. — CORALS. 155

Rugosa is only apparent, there being originally six primary
septa, two of the systems remaining gen-
erally undeveloped. The polyp of
Haplophyllia paradoxa is scarlet, with
about sixteen rather long tentacles. In
another species, Duncania barbadensis,
the polyp is deep flesh-colored, and
there are from 25 to 30 conical tenta-
cles with inflated tips.

The Antipathidee constitute a very Fig. 481. — Haplophyllia para-
natural and homogeneous group, hav- “®t (Peurtales-)
ing the property of secreting a horny polypidom. One of the
most common West Indian species is Antipathes spiralis ; it

Fig. 482. — Antipathes spiralis. 1°. Fig. 485.— Antipathes columnaris. 3.
(Pourtales. ) (Pourtaleés. )

has been dredged from no less than twenty-three stations, in
_ depths ranging from 45 to nearly 900 fathoms. The polyps of

156 THREE CRUISES OF THE “ BLAKE.”

this species are alternately large and small, with very long digi-
tiform tentacles. The figure (Fig. 482) represents them as they
are frequently disposed, the larger polyps alone being visible,
while the smaller ones can only be seen in the profile view. At
other times the tentacles are very much shortened and stiffened,
and stand out from the axis. The singular mode of growth of
Antipathes columnaris (Fig. 483) deserves a few words of
description. The central hollow column is occupied by an an-
nelid which appears to compel the corallum to form an abnormal
growth of that shape. Every one of the specimens dredged
was similarly affected, and the annelid was still in place in most
cases. A similar action of parasitic annelids has been noticed in
some true corals, such as Lophohelia, Stylaster, Allopora, and
others.

XXII.
CHARACTERISTIC DEEP-SEA TYPES. — RHIZOPODS.

THERE must be, all over the bottom on which reticularian
rhizopods have been found, thousands of undiscovered minute
protozoans which have no solid tests. On account of the difh-
culty of examining on the spot the samples of bottom as they
are brought up, we can only conjecture the physiology of these
lowest types, which will undoubtedly be discovered whenever the
proper methods for examination are employed. In the mean
time, we must be satisfied with a knowledge of the types which
have become known to us from their tests; but even these
do not explain the structure of their animals; this is known
to us only by comparison with that of their shallow-water
allies.

No special report of the “ Blake” Foraminifera has as yet
been completed, but I am fortunate in being able to extract from
the admirable memoirs of Brady on the ‘“ Challenger” Fora-
minifera, and of Dr. Goés on the Rhizopoda of the Caribbean,
descriptions and figures of the principal types collected by us.
Dr. Goés, during a stay of several years at St. Bartholomew,
explored a considerable area with the dredge, to a depth of
400 fathoms, and, owing to the existence of extensive sunken
plateaux and steep sloping banks, where the temperature falls
rapidly, he was able to collect the majority of the types which
we subsequently brought together from deeper waters, but which
extend upwards to depths of 200 fathoms, or 150 even, and
perhaps less.

Of the rhizopods the siliceous radiolarians play an unimpor-
tant part in the bottom deposits of the district explored by the
“ Blake.” A few surface species were collected in the track of ©
the Gulf Stream. Yet, judging from the well-known radiola-

158 THREE CRUISES OF THE “ BLAKE.”

rian earth of Barbados, there was a period when radiolarian ooze
must have been an important deposit of the West Indian region,
probably during the time when the Caribbean was connected
with the Paerfie.

The arenaceous types of foraminifera, on the contrary, abound
in the bottom deposits of the Caribbean and Mexican districts,
and along the Western Atlantic, and the principal families are
all well represented in the “ Blake” collections. On some bot-
toms, the rhizopods vie in the variety of their development with
those found in some of the celebrated tertiary and cretaceous
localities.

There is a marked absence of siliceous sand and a scarcity of
siliceous spicules from the coralline and calcareous ooze, so that
rhizopodan types are preéminently calcareous ; only a few suc-
ceed in making up their tests entirely of siliceous particles. We
shall therefore find associated siliceous and calcareous forms
greatly differmg in outward shape, but Dr. Goés is inclined to
consider this as of small importance, and due entirely to the
difference of materials employed by one and the same type,
according to the character of the bottom, and that a sort of
isomorphism is established between species formerly considered
as belonging to either the arenaceous or vitreous groups.

Where there are such enormous changes going on during the
growth of a species, it is natural that in this group, as well as
in sponges, we should find it extremely difficult to retain our old
notions of species; and until the careful investigations of Wil-
liamson, Parker, Carpenter, and Brady among the foraminifera,
and of Haeckel among the sponges, but’ little systematic order
had been established in these groups. Endless generic and
specific names followed in rapid succession, till the task of iden-
tifying any form of these groups seemed hopeless.

While among the more highly organized invertebrates the
effect of the nature of the bottom is seen rather in an association
of animals characteristic of rocky, gravelly, muddy, or sandy dis-
tricts, we find that in such groups as the sponges and rhizopods
the nature of the bottom is an all-essential factor in modifying
the organism.

The bottom of the slopes and plateaux, and of the area where

CHARACTERISTIC DEEP-SEA TYPES. — RHIZOPODS. 159

rhizopods flourish, between 150 and 400 fathoms, consists
mainly of a chalky, tough, amorphous ooze, — a modified pter-
opod and globigerina ooze. Mixed with this are grains of sim-
ilar material, but of a greater consistency, together with dead
shells of pelagic mollusks and foraminifers and a great number
of the tests of dead rhizopods, which once lived on the bottom
and among which flourished in great abundance the imnumer-
able large and small species characteristic of the Caribbean dis-
trict. The majority of the largest rhizopods occur on the
bottom, which is covered with the coarser fragments of coral-
lines, annelid tubes, and other pieces of limestone, soldered to-
gether more or less compactly, and transformed into rough
masses and lumps resembling coarse mortar or gravel.
Associated with the arenaceous, siliceous, and calcareous rhizo-
pods which undoubtedly live upon the bottom, we find the tests
of Globigerine, Hastigerinee, Pulvinuline, and many others
which have also been observed as pelagic. For a time it was
supposed that the deposits so widely extended were due to Glo-
-bigerine living on the bottom, but the evidence gradually
brought forward by Bailey, Johannes Miiller, Pourtalés, Major
Owen, and especially by Mr. Murray of the “Challenger,” seems
to leave no doubt that the Foraminifera to which the globigerina
ooze is due are pelagic, the ooze being formed by the dead shells
after they have reached the bottom.
One of the most common types of rhizopods is Biloculina

ringens (Figs. 484, 484 a, 484 6), a most abundant form in

Fig. 484a. 8.
Biloculina ringens. (Goés.)

deep water in the Atlantic ; it is found nearly everywhere, from
the littoral region to a depth of 3,000 fathoms. Along our
coast off Block Island, and in a portion of the area between

160 THREE CRUISES OF THE “ BLAKE.”

Norway, Bear Island, and Spitzbergen, Biloculina ringens forms
the most important organic constituent of the bottom deposits,
and Pourtalés and Sars have named this the Biloculina clay ;
but this term is hardly to be understood in the same sense in
which we speak of globigerina ooze, the Biloculine forming
but a very small proportion of the ooze deposit. (Fig. 485.)

Fig. 485. — Biloculina tenera. With expanded pseudopodia. 4%. (Schultze.)

Orbiculina adunca (Fig. 486) is a very common deep-water
form ; it attains a diameter of 6 mm. In both Orbiculina and

Orbiculina adunea. (Brady.)

its ally, Orbitolites, the young of the disk-like foraminifer is
nautiloid (Fig. 487); but as the chambers of the adult increase

CHARACTERISTIC DEEP-SEA TYPES. — RHIZOPODS. 16]

in number they become more circular, and finally conceal the
original nautiloid structure of the test.
The genus dates back to the miocene.
Except along the American coast,
where the genus appears to be a deep-
sea type, Orbitolites is found im shal-
low water; it is quite common on
coral reefs. Cornuspira foliacea (Fig.
488), though it occurs in the arctic
seas in great abundance in compara-
tively shallow water, is not uncommon
in the pteropod ooze of the Caribbean.

Astrorhiza (Fig. 489) is a soft-tubed
type remarkable for the absence of any
definite aperture, the pseudopodia pos-
sibly finding their way out between the loosely aggregated sand-

Lf; ee
iS

Fig. 488. — Cornuspira foliacea.
4. (Goés.)

Fig. 489. — Astrorhiza limicola. 4. (Brady.)

erains of which it is composed. It has been found off Block
Island and along the eastern coast of the United States, at mod-
erate depths. The great variety in the composition and consist-
ency of the test seems due in part to the material of the bot-
tom, and in part perhaps to the great stillness of the waters in
which it lives. This type was first described by Dr. Sundahl,
in 1847, from specimens found in shallow muddy water on the
Scandinavian coast. Allied to Astrorhiza is a not uncommon

162 THREE CRUISES OF THE “ BLAKE.”’

species of Pelosina, a flask-shaped rhizopod with thick walls
composed of globigerina ooze. Another type of the same group
resembles a long-necked flask with branching calcareous pro-
jections, but thickly covered outside with fragments of sponge
spicules. Large fragments of a mammillary mass of loosely

Fig. 490. — Sorosphera confusa. 1°. (Brady.)

crumbling character, Sorosphera confusa (Fig. 490), are not
uncommon from the Caribbean globigerina ooze.
Hyperammina elongata (Figs. 491, 491 a), almost a cosmo-

Fig. 491.

cite |
Q
co}
a:
n
~—

Hyperammina elongata.

politan species, builds a long, slender tube which attains a length
of 15 mm. Sometimes it is constructed of siliceous sand and
sponge spicules. It has been dredged
in the North Atlantic to nearly 1,800
fathoms. The genus dates back to the
silurian. Rhabdammina abyssorum
(Fig. 492), composed entirely of sili-
ceous sand-grains, is one of the most
Fig. 492. —Rhabdammina abys. Characteristic forms of the deeper-water

sorum. 5, (Brady.) thizopods of the Caribbean, Gulf of

1

CHARACTERISTIC DEEP-SEA TYPES. — RHIZOPODS. 163

Mexico, and Gulf Stream. The three (Fig. 493) or four armed
varieties often come up in great quantities in the dredge, and at-
tain a length of from 16 to 20 mm. L. abyssorwin has a world-
wide distribution ; it was discovered by the elder Sars, and de-

Fig. 495. — Rhabdammina abyssorum. §&. (Brady.)

scribed in his first list of animals living in deep water off Norway.
This species presents many interesting modifications dependent
on external conditions, and its polymorphism seems remarkable ;
it is trivadiate, quadriradiate, or a
straight tube, including all their possible 5
combinations. <A small straight POC Rae Riabdaaena Tne
of the genus, PR. linearis (Fig. 494), is seeds ead y:)
also frequent near the 500-fathom line.

One of the species of Lituoline, Reophax scorpiurus, attains
a length of 10 mm. It builds its test loosely of siliceous sand

Fig. 495. Fig. 495 a.

- 8 Be
Reophax scorpiurus. 8. (Goés.)

and sponge spicules. (Figs. 495,495 a.) A widely spread form
crowded with nipple-shaped protuberances, Thurammina papil-

164 THREE CRUISES OF THE “ BLAKE.”

lata (Fig. 496), is frequently brought up in the globigerima
ooze from depths greater than 400 fathoms.
The group dates back to the jurassic, and
seems to be a characteristic deep-sea type in
all the oceanic basins. -Ammodiscus tenuis
(Fig. 497), taken by
the “Challenger” off Fig. 496. — Thuram-

: qs, me mina papillata. %.
New York in 1,300 (gisay.)

fathoms, is a recent rep-
resentative of a very common palzozoic
type of the carboniferous period.
According to Brady, Cyclammina (Fig.
498) represents in our seas the highest
type of arenaceous foraminifers. The
genus is characterized by the labyrinthian
structure of the test (Fig. 499), and is abundant in depths
below 100 fathoms in the West Indian region.

Fig. 497. — Ammodiseus
tenuis. 4°. (Brady.)

Fig. 498. 89, Fig. 499. 39.

Cyclammina cancellata. (Brady.)

Most variable in the shape and structure of their shells are
the Textularine. A very common type
of the group is the cosmopolitan Tex-
tularia sagittula (Fig. 500), which at-
tains a length of 6 mm.; it has been
dredged in the Atlantie in 2,675 fath-

oms. Another abundant form, which
Fig. 500, —Textularia sagit- Gates back to the cretaceous, is the com-
* tula. 49. Goss.) pact and thick-walled 7. trochus (Figs.

CHARACTERISTIC DEEP-SEA TYPES. — RHIZOPODS. 165

501, 501 a), with its smooth surface covered with fine pores.

Fig. 501. Textularia trochus. 8. (Goés.) Fig. 501 a.

Valvulina triangularis (Figs. 502, 502 a), a North Atlantic

Fig. 502. Valyulina triangularis. 3. (Goés. ) Fig. 502 a.

foraminifer, is also one of the typical West Indian rhizopods ;
it is characterized by its loosely constructed test.

The Lagenide are a most widely distributed type; accord-
ing to Brady, they are found in all
seas, at all depths from the littoral
Fig. 503. —Lagena distoma. region to 3,000 fathoms. One of the

a ee common species, Lagena distoma, 1s

here figured. (Fig. 503.)

166 THREE CRUISES OF THE “ BLAKE.”

One of the most variable foraminifers is Nodosaria radicula
(Fig. 504), an Atlantic species of wide distribution.
It is known by innumerable specific names, and
the list of its varieties, as given by Dr.
Goés, fills no less than ten quarto pages,
these varieties representing all those
possible combinations of smoothness,
roughness, and striation of the test, or Fig. 504
in the shape of the chambers, which Nodosaria ra-
seemed important to their describers. ‘eva *?.
In many other species, also, names have oe
been multiphed indefinitely. A species widely
spread, both over the coralline bot-
tom and ooze, is Wodosaria com-
munis (Fig. 505), which attains a
size of 22 mm. _ It closely resem-
bles one of the cretaceous species,
and dates back to the permian.
From the same bottom comes the
| diminutive Cristellaria crepidula
Fig.505. (Fig. 506), remarkable for its beau-
Nodosaria tiful pearly shell. The West Indian
communis. 5 i _

8. (Gots) specimens of Cristellaria calcar
(Fig. 507) fully equal in size those pig. 506,— Cristel-
from the chalk and tertiaries. ay et

Closely allied to the Nodosarine is Sagrina *’ ai
dimorpha (Figs. 508, 508 a), abundant in the ooze. It attains

Fig. 507. Fig. 508. Fig. 508 a. Fig. 509.
Cristellaria calear. 49. Sagrina dimorpha. §$. (Goés.) Polymorphina ovata.
(Goés.) 49. (Brady.)

a size of 4 mm. in length. Living specimens of Polymorphina
ovata (Fig. 509) have been obtained by the “ Blake” and
“Challenger” in the Caribbean district.

ears

‘
a]
4
<—_
'
r
a
J
*
st
Dy ban

Fig. 510.— Orbulina universa. °°. Surface. (Challenger)

CHARACTERISTIC DEEP-SEA TYPES. —RHIZOPODS. 167

Orbulina universa, a cosmopolitan species, dates back to the
lias and is very common in the tertiary. It is widely distributed
on the coralline and ooze of the Caribbean, and one of the
pelagic types most frequently found. Pourtalés discovered that
bottom specimens of O. wiiversa did not always consist of a
simple chamber, but generally included three or four chambers
(Fig. 510), resembling young Globigerine more or less devel-
oped, and attached to the inside by slender spicules. Krohn
observed the same in living specimens. It seems probable that
the Globigerinz in the chamber are resorbed, and that the vis-
ible spherical chamber is the last segment, considered at one
time to be a special reproductive chamber, and capable of wide-
spread existence. The Globigerine are eminently pelagic, some
of the genera exclusively so, and the shells when alive are thin
and transparent.

The shell of Globigerina is composed of a series of hyaline
and perforated chambers of a spheroidal form, arranged in a
spiral manner, with the apertures of each chamber opening
round the umbilicus. The young shells are made up of fewer
and comparatively larger chambers. The tests of Globigerina

Fie. 511 a.
Globigerina bulloides. 15. (Goés.)

bulloides (Figs. 511, 511 a, 511 b) and of Orbulina universa
(Fig. 512) are among the most common deep-water rhizopods.
Globigerine are spinous in their early stages, and probably more
or less so when the shell has attained its full
development, but the spines are of such extreme
tenuity that, when taken with the tow-net, they
are invariably broken. Bottom specimens have
no spines, and these may be present perhaps only — ™

in the pelagic stage; the delicate calcareous Wa sl eh
spines, from four to five times the diameter of the 1y._ (Goés.)

168 THREE CRUISES OF THE “ BLAKE.”

shells, enabling them to float with greater facility by mecreasing
their surface immensely. When alive, “the sheaves of these
spines cross in different directions, and have a very beautiful
effect.’ The inner chambers are filled with a colored sarcode,
either red or orange. No trace of pseudopodia has as yet been
observed, or any extension of the sarcode beyond the shell.

Globigerina bulloides has been found pelagic everywhere in
the West Indies, as well as in the bottom dredgings of the Ca-
ribbean and the Gulf Stream. It is not so abundant after pass-
ing north of Cape Hatteras. I have not found it pelagic off the
coast of the Middle States. Hastigerina is eminently a pelagic
type. It had been known from the coast of South America
many years previously to its rediscovery by the “Challenger.”
It is not an uncommon pelagic type off the Tortugas, and was
found -on one occasion, on a very calm day, swarming on the
surface with Globigerina bulloides.

A minute scale-like foraminifer, Discorbina orbicularis, 1s
commonly found in the coral reefs of the West Indies. An-
other peculiar form, also found living in the West Indian reefs,

Fig. 515.—Cymbalopora bulloides. 4°. (Challenger.)

is Cymbalopora; one of the species of the genus, however, C.
bulloides (Fig. 513), is also pelagic.

The most protean of West Indian rhizopods is perhaps Car-
penteria balaniformis. (Fig. 514.) Its regular structure is

Fig. 514. — Carpenteria balaniformis. 8. (Goés.)

rotaline, but, owing to its propensity for developing additional
chambers from the upper extremity and from the chamber

CHARACTERISTIC DEEP-SEA TYPES. — RHIZOPODS. 169

walls, the greatest variety of forms and of deviation from the
parent type results.
Pulvinulina auricula (Figs. 515, 515 a) is a handsome hya-

Fig. 515. Fig. 515 a. Fig. 516. Fig. 517.
Pulvinulina auricula. 1°. (Goés.) Pulvinulina Menardii. 1. (Goés.)

lie species, and its ally, P. Menardii (Figs. 516, 517), is one
of the most common deep-water species. It is also pelagic.
Another deep-water form is Zruncatulina Un-
geriana. (Fig. 518.) The little Polytrema
miniaceum (Fig. 519) is a delicate red parasitic
foraminifer, occurring
3 everywhere in the
Fig. 518.—Trun- West Indies, which
eee oe resembles certain mi-
nute corals. It has a
long geological history, dating back
to the devonian. Of the Nummuli-
nide, Polystomella crispa is one of
the most abundant West Indian types Wettig Palsteca aithta-
of moderate depths. ceum. 49

XXIII.
CHARACTERISTIC DEEP-SEA TYPES.—SPONGES.!

We are led by the study of the Sponges to some of the most
interesting biological problems. All our ordinary notions of
individuality, of colonies, and of species are completely upset.
It seems as if in the sponges we had a mass in which the dif-
ferent parts might be considered as organs capable in themselves
of a certaim amount of independence, yet subject to a general
subordination, so that, according to Haeckel and Schmidt, we
are dealing neither with individuals nor colonies in the ordinary
sense of the words.

As Schmidt well says: “From the variability of all charac-
ters our ideas of an organism as a limited or centralized indi-
vidual disappear in the sponges, and in place of an individual
or a colony we find an organic mass differentiating into organs,
while the body, which feeds itself, and propagates, is neither an
individual nor a colony.”

We shall specially dwell on the more prominent Hexactinel-
hd and Lithistide of the Caribbean district. These groups
date back to the lower silurian, and take an extraordinary de-
velopment in the Jura; they are quite abundant in the upper
cretaceous, but poorly represented during the tertiaries. Wyville
Thomson was perhaps the first to insist upon the relationship of
the Hexactinellide with types of former geological periods, the
Ventriculites of the chalk. They, like the Lithistide, the re-
mains of a second fossil family, are in decided minority in the
seas of to-day.

The absence of siliceous and other sponges in the collections
made along the northern part of the east coast of the United
States is very striking, and although the number of specimens

1 The account of the sponges has been Oscar Schmidt on the Atlantic and Carib-
prepared from the memoirs of Professor bean sponges.

CHARACTERISTIC DEEP-SEA TYPES. — SPONGES. 17]

of certain species was often very great, yet the continental fauna
of that region is poor when compared with the wealth of species
found in the Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico.

Among the Hexactinellide one of the most common types is

Fig. 520. — Farrea facunda. 2.

the variable Farrea facunda (Fig. 520), which occurs either as
a simple or a somewhat complicated form ; it is found at depths

Fig. 521. — Lefroyella decora. ¥.

of 300 to 1,000 fathoms. One of the finest, figured by Thom-
son, a species called Lefroyella decora (Fig. 521), was dredged

hg THREE CRUISES OF THE “ BLAKE.”

by him from a depth of 1,075 fathoms off the Bermudas. It
must have attained at least a foot in height.
Another most common and at the same time most exquisite

type of Hexactinellide is Aphrocallistes Bocagei (Fig. 522),

Fig. 522. — Aphrocallistes Bocagei. 3.
which has been dredged by the “ Blake ” in depths of from 164
to 400 fathoms. It is also found in the eastern basin of the
North Atlantic. The network appears to be formed by the co-
alescence of stellate spicules. These sponges are often attached
to corals and soldered together, so as to form large convo-
luted masses. Dactylocalyx is one of the most characteristic
of the Caribbean types. The shape of Dactylocalyx pumi-
ceus (Fig. 523) varies from that of a cup to that of a flat
dish attached by a short stem. The surface is furrowed and

u

Fig. 525. — Dactylocalyx pumiceus. 3:

— Regadella phenix.

524.

Fig

4

vis.

— Euplectella Jo

Fig. 525.

CHARACTERISTIC DEEP-SEA TYPES. — SPONGES. 173

perforated, and the sculpture is arranged radially with some
degree of regularity.

The Euplectellidee (known principally as Venus’s Basket, from
the Philippine Islands) are represented in the West Indian region
by huge species, and by peculiar types adapted to a rocky bot-
tom, such as Regadella phenix (Fig. 524), while the typical
Euplectellz seem to have flourished best in ooze. Huplectella
Jovis (Fig. 525) must have been at least 48 centimetres in length.

Hyalonema Sieboldii (Fig. 526), a cosmopolitan species, was

Fig. 526. — Hyalonema Sieboldii. 2.

also found near Grenada in
416 fathoms. The Japanese
long deceived naturalists re-
garding a species of Hyalo-
nema representing the bun-
dle of siliceous spicules as
the axis of ‘ s Gorgonia-like Fig. 527. — Spicules of Japanese Hyalo-
animal. (Fig. at.) Leidy nema with encrusting polyps. }

3°

174 THREE CRUISES OF THE “ BLAKE.”

was the first to show that the sponge and siliceous cable were
one organism, and the polyps mere parasites attached to 1t above
the mud and below the sponge (Fig. 528), a view which has
been fully confirmed. Asconema setubalense, a magnificent sili-
ceous sponge, first dredged by Kent off the coast of Portugal,
has a wide geographical distribution. Very fine specimens were
collected by the “Talisman,” and one of the adjoming figures

Fig. 531. — Holtenia Pourtalesii. 2.

(Fig. 529) is taken from one of the best preserved specimens
of the French expedition. It is a common species in the West
Indies, in from 300 to 600 fathoms. Pheronema Anne (Fig.
530), first described by Leidy, is represented by some most

4.

yalonema.

Japanese H

. 528,

Fig

. ine
ere ie.

ys

1m. dad. —— « . i Ui © 42
g ° sASCONE a se S€ =)
) \ onema se baiense, ( I
tub lex ~ . un
I ] ol Talismaz
> an } x.)

al

2

Pheronema Anne.

.

Fig. 530

Fig. 5381. 4. 2 op :
Magnified.

Fig. 531 c. Greatly magnified.
Figs. 531 a, 531 6, 531 ¢. Spicules of Holtenia Pourtalesii. (Schmidt.)

CHARACTERISTIC DEEP-SEA TYPES. — SPONGES. Ld

beautiful specimens collected off Frederichsted in 180 to 208
fathoms, in thick globigerina ooze. A fine Holtenia Pourta-
lesii (Figs. 531, 531 a, 531 b, 531 ©) was collected by Pourtalés
off Sand Key, in depths varying from 184 to 524 fathoms.

The group of Lithistide, as defined by Zittel, includes
sponges, formerly united with the Hexactinellide, characterized

Fig. 532. — Vetulina stalactites. Greatly magnified. (Schmidt.)

by their connected calcareous spicules (Fig. 532), not built upon

the three-axis type, but forming an apparently regular maze.
The majority of the specimens of Vetulina stalactites (Fig.

533) ave thick, undulating sheets, closely perforated with irreg-

&
Fig. 535. — Vetulina stalactites. 4.

ularly placed pores. The arrangement of the calcareous skele-
ton recalls to a certain extent that of the Hexactinellide. The

176 THREE CRUISES OF THE “ BLAKE.”

genus Vetulina was previously known only from the Jura; it
was quite commonly dredged off Barbados in 100 fathoms. An
allied sponge, from 292 fathoms off Morro Light, Havana, is
the little pear-shaped Collinella inscripta (Fig. 534), of which
the fossil precursor may have been Trachysycon. Resembling

Sulcastrella clausa (Fig. 535), dredged off Sand Key in 129

Fig. 534. — Collinella inseripta. 4. Fig. 535.— Suleastrella clausa. 3.

fathoms, are a number of cretaceous sponges to which Zittel
has given the name of Astrobolia.

Cup-shaped sponges having bunches of spicules scattered over
the surface, like Setidium (Fig. 536), are unusual among the

Fig. 536.— Setidium obtectum. 3.
Lithistide. An interesting lithistid is a small form, Tremauli-
dium geminum (Fig. 537), in which the pores are replaced by
an inward tubular extension of the cuticle.

Fig. 537. — Tremaulidium geminum. 1.

Fig. 541. — Cladorhiza conerescens.

tole

CHARACTERISTIC DEEP-SEA TYPES. — SPONGES. 177

To the group of Tetractinellide belongs one of the most

characteristic of the deep-sea sponges, 7%isi-
phonia fenestrata (Fig. 538), of very vari-
able appearance, with one or more afferent
openings. These are specially protected in
the allied Fangophilina submersa (Figs.
539, 539 a) by a tuft, which serves to fix it
loosely in the mud. Closely allied to Lovén’s

Fig. 539. Fangophilina submersa. 3.

Fig. 538. — Tisiphonia
fenestrata. 2.

Fig. 539 a.

Hyalonema boreale is Stylorhiza stipitata. (Fig. 540.) Frag-

ments and moderately complete specimens of
Cladorhiza (Fig. 541) were not uncommon in
the deeper dredgings of the “ Blake.” They
are sponges with a long stem ending in rami-
fying roots deeply sunk in the mud. The
stem has nodes with four to six club-shaped
appendages. As Thomson has noticed, they
evidently often cover, like bushes, extensive
tracts of the bottom.

Among the Monactinellide we may men-
tion Rhizochalina, which grows up between
masses of coral and tubes of annelids, so as
to be freely washed by water; also a very
graceful branching form, Phakellia tenax.

Fig. 540. — Stylorhiza
stipitata. 2.

178 THREE. CRUISES OF THE “ BLAKE.”

(Fig. 542.) Nearly all the specimens of Cribrella hospitalis

Fig. 545. — Blind Isopod
parasitic of Cribrella
hospitalis, magnified.
(Schmidt.)

Fig. 542. — Phakellia tenax. 3.

are occupied by a parasitic blind isopod. (Fig. 543.) Schmidtia
aulopora (Fig. 544) represents a widely distributed West Indian .

Fig. 544.—Schmidtia aulopora. 4.

CHARACTERISTIC DEEP-SEA TYPES. — SPONGES. 179

form: a thick, coarse, smooth sheet, with stout branches, either
round or angular.

One of the most abundant sponges
is the small Ladiella sol (Fig. 545),
which extends to over 1,000 fathoms
in depth. Its general appearance is that
of a segment of a sphere surrounded by
a fringe of needles, with a layer of larger
needles radiating from the centre of

the disk and forming the base. Fie. 545. — Radiella sol. 2.

ott
the a

LIST OF FIGURES.

INTRODUCTION.

FIGURE : Vou. I. PAGE
A. Track of the “ Blake” (U.S. C. 8.1). In pocket at end of Vol. I.
B. Morro Light and Castle, Havana, with modern limestone terrace in

foreground, from a photograph : : : : : : 2 (xt
C. Western Slope of St. Kitts, from a photograph : : : . ey
D. Pitons of St. Lucia, from a photograph . : 5 : : : - xvii
E. Kingstown, St. Vincent, froma photograph . : : : ‘ . Xviil

I. EqQureMenT OF THE “ BLAKE.” (Figs. 1-33.)

Frontispiece. U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey Steamer “ Blake ” . S.C. fed

NO al
Dea)

26.

Brooke’s detacher (Sigsbee) 3
Sir William Thomson’s sounding maine (horas) ; : : : 4
Sigsbee’s sounding machine (Sigsbee) . f : : : ‘ s 6:7
Sigsbee’s poecine machine, profile (Sigsbee) . 7
Sigsbee’ s sounding machine, end view (Sigsbee) —. : - : 8
Siashee’ s detacher and Belknap sounding cylinder ( Sigsbee) ; : = 10
Section of Fig. 6 (Sigsbee) . : : : ‘ ey 0
Belknap’s cy aes detached from sist (Sissies) ; : : - 10
Comparative size of hemp and wire used for sounding (Gisstec) : = 12
Sounding lead with Stellwagen cup (Sigsbee) . - : - : ee
Miller-Casella hen anintse 4 4. : : ; : A ls
Negretti-Zambra thermometer, Masta Poel’ : é : : = fab
Siemens’s sinker and resistance coil ee Ues:C. 8. ) : ; a. Re
Wheatstone’s Bridge (Bartlett, U.S.C.S.) . : ; ‘ Lo aS
Siemens’s deep-sea thermometer (Bartlett, U.S.C. 8.) . ; : ae
Hilgard’s salinometer (Sigsbee) : : : : - : : sh ee
Sigsbee’s water cup (Sigsbee) . : s : : ‘ ‘ > ae
Section of Sigsbee’s water cup (Gites), . : : . 23
Mode of attachment of cups and thermometer (Giesbes) - ‘ : es)
Miller-Casella thermometer in protecting case, with Sigsbee’s attach-
ment (Sigsbee) : ‘ : : : ‘ : < (33
O. F. Miiller’s dredge (Thomson) : : : ; : : ‘ . 24
“Blake” dredge frame. : : : : ‘ : : ‘ 2, BF
“Blake”? dredge ; ; : - é ; é d : . 24
Bar and tangles : : : : : , 4 , ; . 25
“ Blake ” trawl (Sigsbes) - : 2 ; : : é : 26, 27
“ Blake ”’ trawl : ‘ ‘ : : : : : : : 3 ae

1 The authority from which the figure is derived is inserted in parentheses. U.S. C.S. =
United States Coast Survey.

182 LIST OF FIGURES.

FIGURE Vou. I. PAGE
27. Comparative size of steel and hemp dredging ropes (Sigsbee) . : ~ 2S
28. Accumulator (Sigsbee) . . : : : A iil
29. Deck of “Blake,” showing winding reel and winding engine, facing

bow, dredging boom, ready for dredging (Sigsiee) F ; 30, 31
29a. ‘Blake’ deck Tes as aft, ready for peer réeling engine, drum,

leading block (Siesbee) : . - : 5 32, 33
30. Plan of fens of “ Blake”’ (Sigsbee) , ; . : : : 1 ee
31. Scoop net . F : 5 : : : . : 3B
32. Tow net . F : : ; : : : es
33. Sigsbee’s grav acne on (Sezbeon : : : - : ~ 36

III. Tue Frorma Reers. (Figs. 34-54.)

34. Straits of Florida, from Coast Survey charts . : 52
35. Distant mangrove islands seen from Mangrove Beach north of ae ehies

house, Key West . . : 3 : : : ; 4 . 4
36. Coral breccia . - : : : tele : : ; f A bt
37. Coral odlite «-; : p : : : 240 04
38. Map of the Tortugas, fan Gane survey hare : : : : 7) Og
39. Barbados terraces . ; : F : : ‘ 65
40. Sections across the Petiinniila of Florida ‘ : : : 64, 65
41. Sections across the Florida Reefs, as numbered on Fig. 34 : : 66
42. Coral rock beach, north of Fort Taylor, exposed to the action of waves

of channel between outer reef and Key West 5 : . 68, 69
43. Lagoon formed by promontories and low islands covered with mangroves,

northeast shore of Key West Island. : : : 70, 71
44, Alacran Reef, Marquesas Keys, and sections across the reef and

keys > 9 ‘ : : : ; 72, 73
45. .Pelagic Porites embe yo, mente mopuned : ‘ : A of ld Manta ae
46. Marraces near Fort Charles Light House, Barbados . : 3 : oe Ree
47. Madrepora prolifera (Agassiz) . ° : : . : : 80, &1
48. Porites clavaria (Agassiz) ; : : : : : : ‘ koe
49. Udotea flabellata (Agassiz) . : : 2 : C 5 ‘ 82, 83
50. Halimeda tridens (Agassiz) . : : : : : : ; 82, 83
51. Madrepora palmata (Agassiz) . ‘ . : : : : .> 84, 85
52. Rhipidigorgia flabellum (Agassiz). : ; ° 86, 87
53. Coral sand beach south of Navy Depot, Rey Wests : ; . : 88, 89
54. Orbicella annularis (Agassiz) . : : - : : : : Shes:

TV. TorpoGRAPHY OF THE EASTERN COAST OF THE NORTH AMERICAN CONTI-
NENT. (Figs. 55-61.)

55. Atlantic basin, along Eastern United States, from model constructed

by the U.S. Cane Survey and Hydrographic Office —. : 94
56. Contour map of the western part of the North Atlantic, U. S. Coast
Survey and Hydrographic Office . , : ; 94, 95

57. Contour map of the Caribbean Sea, prepared fark Ter furnished by
the U. S. Hydrographic Office, based on the deep-sea soundings
of the U.S. C. S. S. “Blake”? and the U. S. F. C. S. “ Alba-

tOSS)0 a < 95509
58. Contour map of che Wandwaed Telnaes ad ane njncent sea (U. S.
CoS) ie : : : : - £00

59. Contour map of the Gulf ee Mesics (U. S. C. Say . : : - 102

LIST OF FIGURES. 183

FIGURE Vou. I. PAGE
60. Contour map of the Gulf of Maine (U.S.C.S.) . , : : - 103
61. Contour chart of the bottom of the Atlantic, U. S$. Hydrographic Of-
fice s : : : : ; ‘ , : : > . 108
VI. Tue PERMANENCE OF CONTINENTS AND OF OCEANIC Basins. (Fig. 62.)
Geological map of the Eastern United States, after C. H. Hitch-
cock : - - : . : ; : ae,
62. Archean map of North peeciaa (esas d : : i : . 130

IX. Tue Peragic Fauna Aanp Fiora. (Figs. 63-139.)

-~l
bo

63. <Arachnactis, embryo of Edwardsia, 1° -

64. Asteracanthion, starfish Pluteus, ee penmiied ‘

64a. Strongylocentrotus, sea-urchin Pluteus, greatly magnified
65. Cyphonautes, embryo of ee ee magniied

66. Littorina embryo, 1° ;

67. Embryo of loligo, 3; 2o ; : ; :

68. Tornaria, embryo o Eeitectoss greatly magnified

69. Pilidium, larva of Nemertean, greatly magnified

70. Leucodora larva, greatly magnified .

71. Polygordius larva, 2°

72. Meactliopris larva, g eheatly nade

73. Barnacle, aoe flees a, greatly magnified

74. Squilla embryo, 4;

75. Hermit crab, Pasuras larva, Se magniied

76. Peneus embryo, ae magnified

77. Pelagic fish egg, 1° . : :

78. Plagusia. Pelagic sy coer Sou & Pema peeent flounder, + .

-~1 1 1 1 =]
ho bh bb

~1 =]
Oo & Wb bl

=~] =~] =]

“1 =]

=~]
Ot Ot > H> He He OO OO

=~] =]

eh fh fh peek bh fk pk fk ee
~I

79. Rhombodichthys, flounder stage of Plagusia, } 76
80. Embryo fish, with lateral organs, 1° 76
81. Phronima, 2 76
82. Leptocephalus, 3 : : . : : : : ane ob
83. Polyclonia frondosa, 4 eens) : - : : : 2 : 5. AS
84. Copepod, greatly magnified : : : : : : A - 178
85. Mysis,& . ; ‘ ; : . : : ‘ - ; 5 1S
86. Porpita, 4. : ‘ ; 3 : : . 180
87. Physalia Arethusa, Barhactenn fee aoe (Agassiz) . : : . 181
88. Lepas anatifa, floating barnacle, slightly teduced ‘ : : - 7.182
89. Agalma elegans, } (Fewkes) . : ; : , ; é : . 182
90. Cunina discoides, magnified —. ; : : - - ? : . 182
91. Velella mutica,? . : : ; j ‘ , P + 183
92. Pterophysa grandis, 75 (Fewkes) 2 esas : : : : . 184
93. Linerges mercurius, 2 2 : , : : : : : . 186
94, Glossocodon tenuirostris, eee” : : é p . 186
95. Fourth stage of Glossocodon tenuirostris larva, ely paenihed : 4, 296
96. Sixth stage of Glossocodon tenuirostris larva, greatly maeniied 2 . 186
97. Janthina, slightly reduced F ; p : : : : ‘ . 186
98. Glaucus, enlarged. : : 3 é : . : - : . 186
99. Hyalea, 2. : A ; : : : 2 : é - : . 189
100. ‘Ailenta, 12, i ‘ : 3 - - F ‘ Ay : -) LST

101. Styliola, & ; ; = ; ; ° : -
102. Picueanus. 10. : : . 5 - : : : : . 188

184
FIGURE
105.
104.
105.
106.
107.
108.
109.
110.
elit:
112.
113.
114.
115.
116.
IIb
118.
119:
120.
121.
122.
123.
124.
125.
126.
127.
128.
129.
130.
131.
132.
133.
134.
113459.
136.
UH

137 a.
138.
139.

LIST OF FIGURES.

Tiedemannia, 7 ? é ; ; é 5 rs
Doliolum, 4°, from Newpers :
Doliolum, ?, Peon Florida 3 ‘

Doliolum, $, from Florida, with w eieaee loved eas
Pyrosoma, 4

Appendicularia, etl feaiaedes

House of Appendicularia, greatly magnified
Solitary form of Salpa Caboti, 235 .

Chain of Salpa Caboti, somewhat enlarged
Firoloidea, 4 2
Argonauta, 2 (Vereill)

Spirula Peroni, + : :

Shell of Argonauta, 3 (Verrill)

Sagitta, 4 : : :

Tomopteris, 2 .

male god ‘i

Eierceenoman suas ich iapaitied ie
Hialomma, 2° .

near 1)

Sphzrozoum, 12

Halobates wiillerstorffi, § (Challenger) .

Hastigerina pelagica, 35 (Challenger). ; : 5
Noctiluca, magnified

Eucope diaphana, § : : : ‘ i 3
Lizzia grata, magnified. ‘ ; 5 : : .
Mnemiopsis Leidyi, somewhat reduced . 5 z :
Zoea of Carcinus, greatly magnified 5 :

Panopus embryo, greatly magnified . : ; .
Zoea of Porcellana,$ . 5 ‘ ; ‘ ‘ 5

Pelagic refuse, magnified
Echoes er yee i :

G a Apoeeeanal

Voy. I.

Velella mutica, vascular canal filled wid velloy calls Gives ually

magnified
Single yellow cell, ignioed™
Velella medusa, with yellow cells, magnified .
Phronima sedentaria, in its Doliolum house, 7

PAGE
188
188
188
189
189
189
189
189
190
191
191
191
191
192
192
193
194
195
195
195
179
196
197
197
197
199
206
206
206
207
209
209
209
210

214
214
215
215

X. TEMPERATURES OF THE CARIBBEAN, GULF OF MEXICO, AND WESTERN AT-

140.

141.
142.

143.
144.
145.

LANTIC. (Figs. 140-167.)

Bottom temperatures, Western North Atlantic, J. R. Bartlett, U. S. N.

(U. S. Hydrographic Office)

Temperature sections (curves)

216,

Bottom temperatures of the Auntie (U.S . Hydrographic Office)

Figs. 143-167. TremperatuRE Sections (U.S. C. 8.).

Campeche Bank, Yucatan, to Cape San Antonio
Virgin Gorda to Sombrero. a
Point Rosalie, Dominica, to Point an Diable, Marceatie

217
217
218

219
221
222

LIST OF FIGURES.

Vou. I.

185

PAGE
Salines Point, Martinique, to Point Hardy, St. Lucia 222
Cape Moule & Chique, St. Lucia, to Tarratce Pt., St. V ee ae 223
Point Espada, San Domingo, to Point Jiguero, Porto Rico 223
Guanos Point, Cuba, to Tortuga Island, San Domingo 225
Morant Point, Jamaica, to Cape Tiburon, San Domingo . 225
Cape Cruz, Cuba, to Pedro Bank 226
Santiago de Cuba to Morant Point, Jamaica : ‘ 7-7 |
Isle G Pines, Cuba, to Grand Cayman and Pedro Rails. : . 228, 229
Campeche Bank, Yucatan, to Loggerhead Key Light, Tortugas . 230, 251
Coast of Mexico, south of Vera Cruz, to Galveston Isl., Texas . 228, 229
Campeche Bank, Yucatan, to S. E. Pass Mississippi Delta. . 2930, 231
Garden Key Light, Tortugas, to Port Muriel, Cuba : 231
Cape Florida Light to Gun Key Light, Great Bahama Bank . 232
Jacksonville, Florida, to 350 miles east of Jacksonville . 233
North of Cape Cafiaveral to 120 miles east of Cape Canaveral 233
South of Cape Cafiaveral to 150 miles east ef Cape Cafaveral 233
Twenty to eighty miles from Cape Cafaverai 234
Off St. Sano s Island, Georgia 235
Off Santo Domingo to 275 miles in a N. ‘E. direction 236
Bahamas to Besnidas , 237
Forty miles north of Cape ation to 110 ne ahi ae same 237
Off Montauk Point to the Bermudas 238
XI. Tue Gur Srream. (Figs. 168-176.)
Surface temperature of the Atlantic in March (Kriimmel) 241
Surface temperature of the Atlantic in September (Kriimmel) . 243
Temperature section Sambro Island, Halifax, to St. Thomas (Chal-
lenger) 244
Ideal temperature eee fon the noth én the path pale fe i
Wild) ' ; 246
Oceanic circulation, map ar the 17th penener : ebm ies ee
cheri, E. Soe. Jesu Mundus subterraneus editio tertia, Amste-
lodami, 1678 951
Franklin’s chart of the Gulf Siren (Kohl) . 252
Chart of the Gulf Stream showing its axis and limits ai 1845-1860
(U.S. C. S.) : 253
Temperature section, Sandy Hook fo the Beanudas (Chalten. 253
Chart showing “ Blake ”’ Plateau Oe velocity of Gulf Stream (U. S.
C.S., rs R. Bartlett, U. S. N.) : , 259
XII. Susmarre Deposits. (Figs. 177-192.)
Spherule of bronzite, 2°, from 3,500 fathoms, Central Pacific aa
lenger) ‘ : F . 262
Black spherule, 2,2 (C allenpen) : i 263
Spherule coated aah magnetite, 2° (Challenger) 263
Pteropod ooze, 4 Cay and Renard) . 264
Globigerina ooze, 2,° (Murray and Renard) 265
Cletieetins slab, 15, off Alligator Reef 265
Radiolarian ooze, 7,5 (Murray) 266
Diatom ooze, 13° (Murray) 266

186
FIGURE
185.
186.
187.
188.

189.
190.

HOS
192.

193.

194.

LIST OF FIGURES

Vot. I.
Sealpellum Darwinii, attached to manganese nodulc, + (Challenger)
Shark’s tooth, Oxyrhina (Challenger)
Ear-bone, Zyphius, 2,375 fathoms (Challeneés)
Section of manganese nodule showing tympanic bone of Mexentodtns
2,600 fathoms (Challenger) . :
Coneretion, 333 fathoms, from Blake station 317, 2 :
Modern greensand, 142 fathoms, from Blake bation 314, 45
Map showing distribution of bottom deposits .
Rock from Pourtalés Plateau .

XIII. THe Puysrtotocy or Deep-Sea Lire. (Figs. 193, 194.)

Bunsen’s apparatus, as modified by Jacobsen and Behrens (Vo6ringen
exp. ) :

Map of specific aeavily of bealwaten of aN eueen North Atlantic
(Buchanan)

SKETCHES OF THE CHARACTERISTIC DEEP-SEA Types. — Fisnes. (Figs.

195-22 4, )

Vou. Il. PAGE
Sternoptyx diaphana, 4+ . : ; ay ake : 5 : 22
Cyclothone lusea, } (U.S. F. C.) : : : : - ; : 22
Monolene atrimana, about 1. : 3 : : c : A 24
Barathronus bicolor, about +. : : ‘ ; 3 ; 3 20
Barathrodemus manatinus, about 2 . ; , 5 . 5 25
Aphyonus mollis, about 2 : : : : . ° 5 5,
Ophidium cervinum, about 4 (U. S. F. C. ) : : : - ; oO
Macrurus caribbeus, shout g (U. epee Daye : a j 26, 27
Bathygadus areuatus, 4 (U.S. F.C.) .. : : . ; : 26, 27
Phycis Chesteri, (U.S. F.C.) . : : : ° ; ; 26, 27
Bregmaceros nélantionss i 5 3 ; : 2
Plecironsas suborbitalis, } (U. ‘Ss. F. C. ‘ 28
Callionymus Agassizil, aed 4 : ; : : 29
Chiasmodon niger, about } (U.S. F. C. ) ; : : ; 29
Peristedium longispatha, about 2 Se : 3 : 30
Nest of Pterophryne in Gulf-weed, ara! 31
Antennarius, 2 ; ; : : : 5 5 ; : ‘ eon
Alepocephalus Agassizii . ; - : A 5 2 . ; 32, 33
Halosanrus mnaerochir, | 1. : 5 5 : F E 32, 33
Chauliodes Sloani, 75 Oe S. F. C. : : “ : : : 32, 33
Ipnops Murrayi, about 4 : : . : : . : 32
Bathysaurus Agassizii, about + : 5 ; ° 5 32, 33
Bathypterois quadrifilis, about 2. - : . . . 5 hae
Benthosaurus Jeep 2 ; : f 5 : - 2 ; 32, 33
Scopelus Miilleri, + (U. S. 1A GH) ; = ae § g : 33
Malacosteus aie, 1 : x : A 35

Synaphobranchus pinnatus,

(US F.C) vi) ) aes

1

x
Nemichthys scolopaceus, } (U.S. F. C.) : : . : . 34, 35
Nettastoma procerum, 4 ; : : ° . . ‘ 34, 35
Gastrostomus Bairdii, $ (U. S. EO a) ie : 5 : ° ; 34, 35

eh

FIGurE

LIST OF FIGURES. 187

Vou. Il. PAGE

XVI. Cwaracteristic DEEp-SEA Types. — Crustacea. (Figs. 225-259.)

225. Anomalopus frontalis, 2:25 (Alph. Milne-Edwards) : 3 , ate: {i
226. Anisonotus curvirostris, 3? (A. Milne-Edwards) . : F : 38, 39
227. Pisolambrus nitidus, ? (A. Milne-Edwards) . ‘ ; ; F o.oo
228. Micropanope pugilator, 1;5 (A. Milne-Edwards) < : d : Aso)
229. Acanthocarpus Dispimsesg : (A. Milne-Edwards) . : ; d = ae
230. Cyclodorippe nitida, ? (S. I ee F P , ; , Se 09
231. Cyclodorippe nitida, front view, ¢ (S. I. Smith) : : q : act Wee
232. Lithodes Agassizii, 4 (S. I. Smith) . che : ; : : 40, 41
233. Xylopagurus rectus, } (A. Milne-Edwards) . : } f : ee 40
234. Xylopagurus rectus in its house, } (A. Milne-Edwards) . , = eee
235. Catapagurus Sharreri, with epizoanthus house, ? (S. I. Smith) - « 42
236. Catapagurus Sharreri, with house in base of actinia, ? (S. I. Smith) . 42
237. Munidopsis rostrata, } (S. I. Smith) ; z : : : . 42, 43
238. Munida, 1 1 (S. 1. Smith) . : : : : : : ; Tra
239. Pentacheles sculptus, 4 (S. I. Smith) : 2 - : 3 : 42, 43
240. Nephropsis Agassizii, ? (S.1.Smith) . “ : : . Tages
241. Phoberus czcus, 3 (A. “Milne-Edwards) : ; - : : . 44, 45
242. Glyphocrangon aculeatus, } (S. I. Smith) - - : : - ee 22)
243. Sabinea princeps,}(S. 1. Smith) . ; - : : . : . 45
244. Heterocarpus carinatus, ? (S. I. Smith) . ; : : : : . 46
245. Nematocarcinus ensiferus, 1;5 (S. 1. Smith) . F A ‘ . 46, 47
246. Acanthephyra Agassizii, } (S. I. Smith) . : - 2 : : . 46
247. Meningodora, } (S. I. Smith) ‘ 3 : : : - ‘ a Ag
248. Benthecetes Bartletti,}(S. hk Smith) . : J A : : Pee
249. (Gnathophausia Zea, ? (A. Milne-Edwards) . °. ab é , 48, 49
250. Syscenus infelix, about 135 (Harger) ; ; - ‘ - é eas
251. Rocinela oculata, 4 (Hanger) ; : : : . 48
252. Bathynomus acer. 4 (A. Mite Bilwards) é : : , 48, 49
253. Epimeria loricata, ? (8.1. Smith) . z : f : : S ag
254. Colossendeis ie, 4 2 (E. B. Wilson) . 5 - : ‘ : stad
255. Sceorhynchus deena profile, legs omitted, + (E. B. Wilson) 3 50, 51
256. Sczorhynehus armatus, } (E. B. Wilson) F ; F : : 50, 51
257. Scalpellum regium, # (Hoek) . : : : ; , : 5 ee tel)
258. Verruca incerta, $ (Hoek) . - : : : : : : . 30
259. Cypris, greatly magnified : : : s ‘ ‘ : : .. SOL
XVII. Cuaracteristic DEEp-SEA Typrs.— Worms. (Figs. 260-273.)
260. Hyalineecia in its semi-transparent tube . : 5 : : 2 oe
261. Tubes of Diopatra Eschrichtii,+ (Ehlers!) . : . - : . 63
262. Tube of Diopatra glutinatrix 4 , : : : 3 - « Bo
263. Tube of Hyalopomatus Langerhansi,} . : - : . : es
264. Maldane cuculligera,? . : : ; ; - : . 3 . 54
265. Cirratulus melanacanthus, 2? . : ; : ‘ : : : . 54
266. Amphinome Pallasii, 2. : ‘ A ‘ : < ; : . 4
267. Sthenelais simplex, 13>. ; ; : ; : . 4
268. Anterior portion of Flange eaeieents dee 2 : ‘ : . 65
269. Eunice conglomerans in its gay tube, : 2 : : : . ie
270. Diopatra 2) ees 2:5 : ; : : . 56
271. Anterior part of Boriella abyssorum, $ CMatatosh) : : : « « OO

1 'The drawings of Annelids were all prepared under the supervision of Professor Ehlers.

188

LIST OF FIGURES.

FIGURE : Vou, Il. PAGE
272. Pomalostegus stellatus, 2 57
273. Hyalopomatus Langerhansi, + . 57

XVIII. Cuaracreristic DEEp-SEA Types. — Mouuusxs. (Figs. 274-337.)

Sd) bo bo
“1 ~] =]
DAS oe

bo
oe |

two b
=]

bo
J
we)

Cephalopods.
Opisthoteuthis Agassizii, about 4 (Verrill) . Ca
Nectoteuthis Pourtalesii, 4 (Verrill)
Mastigoteuthis Agassizii, $ (Verrill)
Eledone verrucosa, 4 (Verrill)
Alloposus mollis, 3 (Verrill) : : : :
Benthoteuthis, ¢ (Verrill) ; j : . - :
Spirula, 15° (Huxley) é ; . 5 : : ° :
Anhibeathis princeps, 3 (V aie ; ; a ; 3 - 62,

Gasteropods and Lamellibranchs.
Pleurotoma (Ancistrosyrinx) me (Dall :
Pleurotoma subgrundifera, about 2
Dentalium perlongum, } .
Calliostoma aurora, 2
Gaza superba, 18
Leptothyra induta, 4
Pleurotomaria Adansoniana, 3.
Pleurotomaria Quoyana,} . 5 : :
Marginella Watsoni, 3
Ringicula leptocheila, 4+ .
Cancellaria Smithii, ?
Mitra Swainsoni, 2 .
Typhis longicornis, 7
Triforis longissimus, ?
Siliquaria modesta, 152
Vermetus erectus, 13°.
Pecten (Amusium) Dalli, +
Pecten phrygium, t :
Cetoconcha bulla, ? ‘
Cetoconcha bulla, interior of valves 2
Cetochoncha elongata, } .
Tindaria cytherea, 15°
Cardium peramabilis, 3
Modiola polita, #
Cuspidaria microrhina, +
Cuspidaria microrhina, valve seen aon ee niet
Verticordia elegantissima, +
Verticordia perversa, ?
Bushia elegans, 2
Meiocardia Agassizii, Ls

Vesicomya venusta, 15°
Brachiopods.
Terebratula cubensis attached to piece of coral, + (Davidson)

Terebratula cubensis, interior of valve, 1:25 ae
Waldheimia floridana, } .

1 Mr. Dall has supervised the drawings of the ae and Lamellibranchs.

FIGURE

316.
317.
318.

319.
320.
321.
322

323.

O20 G:

324,

324 a.

325.

325.

326.
327.

327 a.

328.
329.
330.

330 a.

33.

331 a.

oon.
do2 a.
Boo:
330 a.
334.
335.
336.
ie

XIX. Cuaracteristic DEEp-S

LIST OF FIGURES.

Waldheimia floridana, interior of valve, }
Terebratulina Cailleti, § (Davidson)

Terebratula caput- eooaste one valve rened,

(Davidson) . :
Platydia anomioides, 2 (Dav aeoae

Platydia anomioides, one valve removed, showing arms,

Crania Pourtalesii, 23° (Dall) . : - .
Discina atlantica, ? (Verrill)
Bryozoa.

Crisia denticulata, 2

Crisia dentoulatay mapaiied. (Smit)
Diastopora repens, + :
Diastopora repens, peanced (Smit) . ;

Farciminaria delicatissima, + (Busk)

Farciminaria Toes magnified (Busk)
Membranipora canariensis, 135
Cellularia cervicornis, ? .

Cellularia cervicornis, aeted (Smitt)
Caberea retiformis, magnified (Smitt)
Vincularia abyssicola, ? .

Escharipora stellata, 2

Escharipora stellata, en ieed (Smitt)
Tessadroma boreale, #

Tessadroma boreale, magnified (Smitt)
Hippothoa biaperta, + ‘

Hippothoa biaperta, greatly qaenied (Smitt)
Cellepcra margaritacea, ? :

Cellepora margaritacea, eeentied (Sanit).
Biflustra macrodon, ?

Porina subsuleata, ?
Retepora reticulata, +
Heteropora, } .

Holothurians.

Psolus tuberculosus, ? (Théel)

Echinocucumis typica, ? (Théel)

Stichopus natans, } (Koren & Danielssen)
Trochostoma arcticum, 3 (Koren & Danielssen)
Psychropotes longicauda, 4 (Théel)

Deima Blakei, 2 a)

Benthodytes gigantea, 2 (U.S. F. C.)
Euphronides cornuta, 2 "(. S. F. C.)
Pelopatides confundens, 2 (Théel)
Ankyroderma affine, 3 (Koren & Danielssen)

Sea-Urchins.
Dorocidaris papillata,

Dorocidaris Blakei, 2
Porocidaris Sharreri, 2

colo

5
1

NODERMS.

Vou.

showing arms, 1?

(Davidson)

ey =e] =] ey =] =] «J
OOOH WOW DW OW \

82
82
82
83

(Figs. 338-421 a.)

85
85
85
86
86
86
87
87
88
88

190

FIGURE
ool,
302.
35d.
304.
DOD:
356.
357.
358.

359

359.
360.
361.
362.
363.
364.
365.
366.
367.
368.
369.
370.
371.
372.
373.
374.
375.
376.

377.
378.
379.
380.
381.
382.
383.
384.

385.
386.
387.

388,
389.
390.
391.
392.
393.
394.
395.

a.

LIST OF FIGURES.

Salenia Pattersoni, 3
Salenia varispina, +

Salenia Pattersoni, decaded test iene apical system,

Salenia varispina, young specimen, 5°
Temnechinus maculatus, partly CE of spines, 255
Trigonocidaris albida, partly denuded,
Podocidaris sculpta, partly denuded, 15 5
Ceelopleurus floridanus, $
Asthenosoma hystrix, a few Ries of eh
Asthenosoma hystrix, #
Phormosoma placenta, 2 .
Aspidodiadema Oeeieran $. ;
Aspidodiadema antillarum, ened pedicellaia ;
Hemipedina cubensis, partly denuded, 1
Neolampas restellata, denuded, 2
Rhynchopygus caribzearum, denaded
Neolampas rostellata, magnified ieee system
Macropneustes spatangoides, denuded, 3
Conolampas Sigsbei, +
Hemiaster zonatus, + : .
Hemiaster eyes ie denuded 3 (Lovén)
Paleopneustes hystrix, 2
Paleotropus Josephine, denuded: prone! 2
Pourtalesia miranda, from below, 2

2:

aS

Pourtalesia miranda, profile, 2 : : : :

Urechinus naresianus, from above, +-?4 ‘

Urechinus naresianus, profile, +75 . ‘ ; 5
Starfishes.

Pentagonaster ternalis, 3 (Perrier) 5 ; °

Archaster pulcher, + (Perrier)

Anthenoides peice 4.(Perrier) ;

Ctenaster spectabilis, disk and arm, ? (Eee
Radiaster elegans, from below, } (Perrier)
Zoroaster Ackleyi, 3 (Perrier)

Hymenodiscus Teel 1:5 (Perrier)

Hymenodiseus Agassizii, disk and base of arms, fbn bee

rier) 5
Hymenodiscus Agassizii, paeerated spine (Pemen)
Archaster mirabilis, } ( Eee)
Brisinga coronata, disk, base of arms, and emia arm, 2

Ophiurans
Astrophyton cecilia, $
Ophiocreas spinulosus, } .
Ophiozona nivea, 2 . : : ; : : :
Ophiophyllum petilum, 4 : : 5 : :
Ophiocamax hystrix, 2. ; : : : :
Ophiopepale pinnae i 5 : : 3 :
Ophiura Elaps, +25
Ophioconis alkene @ §

1 Mr. Lyman has kindly supervised the drawings of Ophiurans.

Vou. II.

PAGE

90, 91

(Per-

100
100
100

101
101
101
101

102
103
103
104
104
105
106

106
106
107
108

it
109
110
110
111
111
111
112

LIST OF FIGURES. 19]

FIGURE Vou. II. PAGE
396. Ophiomusium planum, +39 : - : : ; ° - ‘ oo Ie
397. Ophiomyces frutectosus, ? : : : : : : ‘ ; ery iS
398. Ophiomastus secundus, ? . : . : : 3 : ; «, “EES
399. Sigsbeia murrhina, + ‘ ; ; : : ; ; : : . 114
400. Astrocnida isidis, } . : - E : : ; : : , = alt
401. Ophiolipus Agassizii, 15° . ‘ . 115
402. Ophiohelus aqabell us pact of disk Pa base of ae arms, F ein: cn ae LG
403. Ophiohelus umbella, bunch of umbrella-shaped spines, *? (Lyman) = 9 elo
Crinoids.
404. Metacrinus angulatus, $ (Carpenter) —. ‘ ; ° ‘ : pe Bic ba
405. Pentacrinus asterius, } (Carpenter) 2 : wy LLG TEE
406. Petacrinus stage of Actinometra mévidionalis, muansded ; : TNT
407. Pentacrinus ns 3 (Carpenter) ‘ d : 118, 119
408. Pentacrinus decorus, youngest specimen of Bentacends obtained by
‘“‘ Blake” 2 (Carpenter) . , : : é . 2 =. ees
409. Pentacrinus Miilleri, 2 (Carpenter) : ; : : : : = HED
410. Pentacrinus Blakei, # Ce, < ‘ : : = Ss eS
411. Rhizocrinus lofotensis, ? (Sars & Carpenter)’. ee . ; ; 7 ee
412. Rhizocrinus Rawsoni, r (Carpenter) : : : - : ‘ Pee 624) We
413. Adult Holopus Rangi, 1;2 (Carpenter) . : 3 - : : «1/123
414. Half-grown Holopus Rangi, > (Carpenter). : . : : . 1233
415. Young Holopus Rangi, 1,° : : 5 : : 5 : : . 124
416. Atelecrinus, ? (Carpenter). : : : ‘ : : : . 124
417. Antedon spinifera, + 2 : : 5 - : . - : « t25
418. Actinometra pulchella, + d : : : - : : . 126
419. Myzostoma filicauda, 4° (Von Graff) : : ; : : 2 . 127
420. Myzostoma Agassizii, 4 Lo (Von Graff). ‘ : : : - ah DG
421. Cyst of Myzostoma ey anna. 4 (Von Graff) : : > 12
421a. Cyst of Myzostoma roan parasite of Actinometra Bier houals!
4 (Von Graff). - : : ‘ : : : : = elo

XX. CHaArAcTERISTIC DEEP-SEA Types.— ACALEPHS. (Figs. 422-448.)

Ctenophore and Hydromeduse.

422. Ptychogena lactea,} E : : ; : - : : 2 82S
423. Ocyroé maculata, + : : : : : : f ‘ : =) ADS
424, Eucharis multicornis, } (Chun) : : : : ‘ é : eee bs)
425. Dodecabostrycha dubia, 4 3 ; ; 2 ‘ ; F : ~ SE
426. Periphylla Epepathine, 2 3 (F Snes) : : - : . : =) 432
427. Atolla Bairdii, 2 (Fewkes) . 3 : ‘ ‘ ; : : oie, Peace
428. Agalma Okenii, | (Fewkes) . : : : : ? : : . 134
429. Gleba hippopus, ? (Fewkes) . : : : : : ~ : . 134
430. Diphyes acuminata, ? (eevee) e : ' ‘ : ; : 135
431. Aglaophenia bispinosa, ? (Allman) . - : - : 136, 137
432. Aglaophenia bispinosa, maemided corbula Gita) : : . 136
433. Aglaophenia bispinosa, ie er part of stem of Fig. 431 (Alinint) : 136, 137
434. Cryptolaria conferta, + (Allman) . : . 136
435. Cryptolaria conferta, aera Ensiform aged bodies Calta too
436. Cladocarpus paradisea, 4 (Allman) : ; : : d . 136,137

437. Hippurella annulata, 3 (Fewkes) . : : : - ; . 136, 137

192 LIST OF FIGURES.

FIGURE Vou. Il. PAGE
438. Callicarpa gracilis, 1 (Fewkes) . : : F - 136, 137
439. Callicarpa gracilis, aerned corbula (Fewkes) : ; ; .) 136,187
440. Pleurocarpa ramosa, branch modified to corbula, magnified (Fewkes) . 137

Hydrocoralline.
441. Animal of Millepora alcicornis, 25 (Agassiz) . : - 7 kS8
442. Millepora nodosa, Dactylozoid Gastrozoid, magnified (Moseley) . - 13S
443. Miullepora aleicornis, 2 Ce) ; 5 4 : 5 » 138,159
444. Pliobothrus symmetricus, + (Pouca : ; 3 : piety)
445. Cryptcohelia Peircei, part a branch, + (Couraleaye : : : 139
445 a, Cryptohelia Peircei, 1 (Pourtalés) : : 5 : 5 eee, ee Ste)
446. Stylaster filogranus, } (Pourtalés) . : ; - : : : . 140
447. Distichopora foliacea, } (Pourtalés) F % ‘ : : 3 . 140
448. Allopora miniacea, 1} (Pourtalés) . : ; ; 3 : : peal

XXII. CuaAracteristic Deep-Sea Types. — Potyps. (Figs. 449-483.)

Halcyonoids and Actinoids.

449. Umbellula Giintheri, 1. : : ; : 2 142s 143
450. Pennatula aculeata, # (Koren & Daniclescanen , & ‘ . 142, 143
451. Kophobelemnon scabrum, $ (Verrill) — . : : : : : - J42
452. Anthoptilum Thomeente 4, (Kolliker) 5 ‘ 3 ; . 142,143
453. Balticina finmarchica, } (Koren & Danielseen) , oR ke - 142, 143
454. Actinauge nexilis, } (Vv errill) . 5 : : : . : : . 143
455. Dasygorgia Agassizii, 1 (Verrill) . : : 5 5 : : . 143
456. Chrysogorgia,}—. : : : : : é 5 : . 144
456a. Iridogorgia Roe a nae Z ? : : : : : = (la
457. Acanella Moran + : : : : : : ‘ - 145, 146
458. Primnoa Pourtalesii, ¢ (V exci) : 3 : - : ; 4 . 146
459. Calyptrophora,}_. ‘ : : : ‘ - . 145, 146
460. Sagartia abyssicola, 4 (Verrill) : , , : : : : les
461. Actinauge nodosa, 4 wv errill) . : , : : j . 147
462. Caryophy Ilia communis, from above, 4+ (Pourtales), : : ee ey eran fo)
462a. Caryophyllia communis, ee 1 (Pourtalés) . - : - » g45
463. PStenéey athus vermiformis, } (Pourtalés) ‘ : : é ; . 148
464. Thecoceyathus Piiauraaaie, 2 (Pourtalés) 3 . . 149
465, 465.a,c. Deltoeyathus chest three varieties, fan nae 2 (Panriales) 149
465 6. Deltocyathus italicus, from peleN ons (Pourtales) . ; é ; . 149
465 d. Deltocyathus italicus, profile, 2 (Pomialoe : : : : . 149
466. Paracyathus confertus, 4 (onrialbe) ; : : 5 : j . doo
467. Stephanotrochus dindemn: 1 (Pourtalés) 3 : 2 : : . 150
468. Flabellum Moseleyi, profile, + (Pourtalés) ; : ; é ; 50

468 a. Flabellum Moseleyi, from above + (Pourtalés) — . ; ; : 5 lsd)
469. Desmophyllum Riisei, 1 (Pourtalés) : : ; : : ; - dot

470. Desmophyllum solidum, 2? (Pourtalés) . : : : : ‘ Berle
471. Rhizotrochus fragilis, i (Pourtales) : c : : ; : 5 eH
472. Lophohelia prolifera, 4 : (Pourtales) : 5 : 4 : : os, Mot
473. Amphihelia rostrata, 1. : ; : : : ° 152
474. Axohelia mirabilis, } (Eourtale Swe . 5 ; ‘.\i) on . 158

475. Thecopsammia socialis, 15° (Pourtalés) . . . . . . . 153

LIST OF FIGURES. 193

FIGURE Vou. II. PAGE
476. Fungia symmetrica, ? (Pourtalés) . 7 : 5 ; ; : . 153
477. Diaseris crispa, } (Pourtalés) . : : ; . F : ‘ . 153
478. Antillia explanata, } (Pourtalés) . : i : > ; : . 154
479. Leptonemus discus, § (Challenger) ; - ; : ; - . 154
480. Haplophyllia paradoxa, + (Pourtalés) . A : ; ; : . 154
481. Haplophyllia paradoxa, ? (Pourtalés) 7 , , ’ . 155
482. Antipathes spiralis, 42 (Pourtales) . i : ; : : ; . 155
483. Antiphathes columnaris, # (Pourtales) 155

XXII. Cuaracteristic Derr-SeEA Types. —Ruizopops. (Figs. 484-519.)

484, 484a. Biloculina es & (Goés) . , J : ; ’ x al59
484 6. Biloculina ringens, 1° (Goes) : ; 3 : : : , 159
485. Biloculina tenera, with expanded peutepodin, @ 5 (Schultze) . : . 160
486. Orbiculina adunea, 1° (Brady) : : - : : 7 : . 160
487. Orbiculina adunca, young, 22 (Brady) . - : é : : . 160
488. Cornuspira foliacea, % (Gots) . : : 5 : 5 : : eo!
489. Astrorhiza limicola, ¢ Ca : ‘ “ : : ; : . 161
490. Sorosphera confusa, 4° (Brady). : : : : : : . 162
491,491 a. Hyperammina Elena t (Goés ) : : : : : . 162
492. Rhabdammina abyssorum, ? (Brady). : : 2 : ‘ a LBZ
493. Rhabdammina abyssorum, § (Brady). ; : : - : * 163
494. Rhabdammina linearis, ® (Brady) . : - : : : ; . 163
495, 495a. Reophax eg & (Goés) : d é 5 , ; . 163
496. Thurammina gle 59 (Brady) ’ : : : : ; . 164
497. Ammodiscus tenuis, 4} » Brady) : ; - : : ; : . 164
498. Cyclammina Raaaliiial ig (Brady) ; : 2 5 ‘ j . 164
499. Cyclammina cancellata, 2° (Brady) : : 4 : : : . 164
500. Textularia sagittula, 1° (Goés) : : ; : : : : . 164
501, 501 a. Textularia Grachae & (Goés) : : 5 : : : . 165
502, 502 a. Valvulina triangularis, § (Goés) . : : : : : . 165
503. Lagena distoma, 2 (Brady) . : : - ‘ : f ; . “Ge
504. Nodosaria eaicale 2 20 (Goés) : ; : F é - : 266
505. Nodosaria ponerinds, & (Goés) : ‘ : : : 7 : . 166
506. Cristellaria crepidula, 3° (Goés) . : ; : : ; ‘ . “466
507. Cristellaria calear, 4° (Goés) . : : : : : : . 166
508, 508 a. Sagrina dimorpha, $ (Goés) . i ; : : : : » 166
509. Polymorphina ovata, 4° aay) : : : : : . : . 166
510. Orbulina universa, Baresi 50 (Challenger) ; ; 266, 167
511, 511a, 6. Globigerina britgides, various i ies of teats, 18 Gots) ; > 167
512. Orbulina universa, 1° (Goés) . : : : + 168
513. Cymbalopora feiteticss 45 (Challences)” : : : : : . 168
514. Carpenteria fatstornis, 3 § oo. ; : : : : : . 168
515, 515 a. Pulvinulina auricula, 42 (Goés) . : : : : : . 169
516. Pulvinulina Menardii, +2 (Goss) : ; : ; : ‘ i . 169
517. Pulvinulina Menardii, 12 (Goés) . ; : > : : : . 169
518. . Truncatulina Ungeriana, 15 (Goés) : z : : E : . 169
519. Polytrema miniaceum, 1° ; . : ; : : : : . 169

XXIII. CwHaracteristic Deep-Sea Types.—SponGes. (Figs. 520-545.)

520. Farrea facunda, 3. : : . : : : : : : peri lr al
521. Lefroyella decora, 2 : ; : : : ‘ : : : 2) a

194 LIST OF FIGURES.

FIGURE

522. Aphrocallistes Bocagei, * : : : ; “ 5 4
523. Dactylocalyx pumiceus, 4 : : : ‘ . : :
524. Regadella phenix, A ‘ : : : : . .

525. Euplectella Jovis, $

526. Hyalonema Sieboldii, 2

527. Spicules of Japanese Hy be par wh separate polyps, rope ee

axis of Gorgonia, $

528. Japanese Hyalonema, showing the oikasnie eae aud e rue po-

lyps, 34 .
529. Asconema setubalense, 4+ (Filhol. es itera af Ex.)
530. Pheronema Anne, 2
531. Holtenia Pourtalesii, 4
531 a-531 c. Spicules of Holtenia Parntaleen (Getunidiy
532. Vetulina stalactites, spicules greatly magnified (Schmidt)
533. Vetulina stalactites, 4
534. Collinella inscripta, }

535. Suleastrella clausa, 2 } =
536. Setidium obtectum, 3

537. Tremaulidium geminum, 4 : : : A : ?
538. Tisiphonia fenestrata, 3 . 5 ; : ‘ : ‘

539. Fangophilina submersa, 2
539 a. Section through Fig. 539,

9

540. Stylorhiza stipitata, 2

eolko

541. Cladorhiza concrescens, $

542. Phakellia tenax, 2

543. Blind Isopod parage of ‘Ce ‘bral hospitals, magnified (Schmit)
544. Schmidtia aulopora, 4

545. Radiella sol, 2 5 $ 2 : z F 3 : c

Vou. II. PAGE

172

172
173, 174
173, 174
173

1738

174, 175
174, 175

174, 175

Ysiize!
174, 175
175
175
176
176
176
176
177
ite
177
177
igs ater
178
178
178
179

INDEX.

ABYLA trigona, ii. 135.

Abyssal deposits, far from continents, i. 261.
position of, i. 140.

Abyssal families, offshoots of free swimming,

ii. 30.

Abyssal fauna, general character of, ii. 2.
Lovén on derivation of, i. 153.
Moseley on age of, i. 155.

Moseley on derivation of, i. 156.
Perrier on derivation of, i. 155.
Abyssal invertebrates and fishes, huge eyes
of, i. 307.

Abyssal mollusks, enemies of, ii. 65.
general character of, ii. 62.
limited by cold, ii. 64.
limited variety of forms of, ii. 64.
points of attachment of, ii. 64.

Abyssal realm, character of, ii. 1. _

Abyssal shells, colors of, ii. 63.
delicacy of, ii. 65.
ornamentation of, ii. 63.

Acalephs, ii. 128.
occurrence of on the surface, i. 177.
pelagic, i. 185.
phosphorescence of, i. 197.
report on by J. W. Fewkes, i. xxi.
shoals of, i. 186.
swimming near the bottom, i. 202.

Acanella Normani, ii. 145.

Acanthephyra Agassizii, ii. 46.

Acanthocarpus Alexandri, ii. 38.

Acanthocarpus bispinosus, ii. 38.

Acanthodromia, ii. 40.

Acanthometride, i. 195.

Accumulator, i. 30.

Ackley, S. M., i. viii, 32

ve.

Actinoids, ii. 142.

color of deep-sea, i. 312.
Actinometra meridionalis, ii. 117, 127.
Actinometra, pentacrinus stage of, ii. 117.
Actinometra pulchella, ii. 125.
Adamsia associated with Catapagurus, ii. 41.
Adrians, *‘ Ingegerd”’’ and ** Gladan’’ Ex-

pedition, 1. 40.

‘®gean Sea, Edward Forbes on, i. 40.
Agalma, i. 121, 181.

at Newport, ii. 135.

Okenii, ii. 155.
Agaricia, 1. 55.
Agassiz, A. Report on Coral Reefs, i. xxi.

Report on Gulf Stream, i. xxi.

Report on Sea-Urchins, i. xxi.

Report on Surface Fauna, i. xxi.
Agassiz, L., i. vii, 285.

on Coral Reef of Florida, i. 56.

on movements of Rhizocrinus, ii. 122.
Agassizia, i. 159.

|
|

|

Aglaophenia bispinosa, ii. 136, 137.
Aglaophenia crenata, ii. 135.
Agonide, ii. 30.
Agouti, i. 114.
Alaeran atoll, i. 70.
not due to subsidence, i. 72.
Alacran, structure of reef, i. 71.
Alaminos, expedition of, i. 251.
** Albatross,’’ i. 50.
** Albatross,’’ on Ridge between Santa Cruz
and Porto Rico, i. 98, 112.
Alepocephalus Agassizii, ii. 32, 33

my ID.

Algze, Berthold on bathymetrical range of,

Isto

ealeareous, i. 512.

Actinauge, ii. 143.
Actinauge nodosa, ii. 147.
Actinie, Hertwig on yellow cells
214.
deep-sea attached to sea wands, ii. 143.
incrusting masses of, ii. 148.
phosphorescence of, ii. 147.

of,

i.

|

parasitic, Cienkowsky on, i. 214.
Allman, G. J., on deep-sea hydroids, i. xxi ;
Nie
Allopora miniacea, ii. 140.
Alloposus mollis, ii. 60.
Altitudes near shore lines, i. 152.

Amblyrhynchus, i. 115.

196

American continent from Huronian to Ter-
tiary, i. 166.

Ammodiscus tenuis, ii. 164.

Ampharetide, tubes of, ii. 56.

Amphihelia rostrata, ii. 152.

Amphinome Pallasii, ii. 54.

Amphipods, ui. 49.

Smith on tubes of, ii. 53.
Anadyomene, i. 82.
Ananchytids, i. 159; ii. 100.

Ancient types and oceanic dredgings, i. 155.
Anguilla, fossil mammals of caves of, i. 114.
Anisonotus curvirostris, ii. 37, 38, 59.
Ankyroderma affinis, 11. 88.

Annelids, bathymetrical range of, 11. 53.

E. Ehlers report on, i. xxi.

littoral groups of, it. 55.

parasitic in corals, 11. 156.

parasitic on Antipathes, ii. 156.
Annelid tubes, composition of, ii. 53.

covering large tracts, ii. 53.

transported, i. 54.

Anomalopus frontalis, ii. 37.

Anomura, ii. 39.

Antaretie regions, Alph. Milne-Edwards on
fauna of, i. 121.

Antedon Hagenii, ii. 124.

Antedon Sarsii, ii. i118.

Antedon spinifera, ii. 125.

Antedonin, i. 309.

Antennarius, ii. 31.

Anthenoides Peircey, 1. 105.

Anthoptilum Thomsoni, ii. 142, 145.

Antigua, island of, i. xix.

Antillia explanata, ti. 154.

Antillean continent, i. 116.

Antipathes columnaris, ii. 155.

Antipathes spiralis, ii. 155.

Antipathide, ii. 155.

Antique types, i. 156.

Aphroeallistes Bocagei, ii. 172.

Aphyonus mollis, ii. 25.

Apiocrinide, ii. 116.

Apoda, ii. 84.

Appendicularia, i. 187.

Arago, i. 249.

Arbacia, i. 159.

Arbaciade, ii. 92.

spines of, ii. 92.

Archaster mirabilis, ii. 102, 107.

Archaster pulcher, ii. 105.

Archasteride, ti. 102.

Archeocidaris, plates of, ii. 96.

Architeuthis princeps, ii. 62.

Arctic current, Bartlett on southern exten-
sion of, i. 279.

INDEX.

Aretie current, course of, i. 121.
influence of, i. 134.
Arctic regions, warm climate of, i. 134.
Arctic species, cropping out of, i. 302.
Areas of depression, i. 126.
Aveas of elevation, i. 126.
Argonauta, i. 191.
Giglioli on, i. 198.
Argyope, i. 193.
Argyropelecus, ii. 22.
Ascidians, ii. 77.
Asiatic continent, relation of to East Indian
Archipelago, i. 125.

| Askonema setubalense, ti. 174, 175.
| Aspidodiadema antillarum, ii. 96.

Aspidodiadema, sheathed pedicellariz of, ii.
96.
Aspidosiphon, ii. 52.
Astacidea, 1. 45.
Astacus zaleucus, i. 308.
Astarte, 1. 73.
Asthenosoma, Grube on, ii. 94.
Asthenosoma hystrix, ii. 94, 95.
Asthenosoma, plates of test of, ii. 94.
shape of, ii. 94.
sheathed spines of, ii. 95.
Astroenida, ii. 115.

| Astroenida isidis, ii. 5.

Astronyx Loveni, ii. 5.
Astropecten, i. 105.
Astrophytidee, ii. 109.
Astrophyton, i. 114.
from Baffin’s Bay, i. 41.
swimming of, 1. 44.
Astrophyton cecilia, ii. 110, 111.
Astrorhiza limicola, ii. 161.
Astrorhiza, Sundahl, Dr., on, ii. 161.
Astroschema, ii. 5. ;
Atelecrinus, ii. 124.
a larval form of Comatula, 1. 126.
Athorybia formosa, ii. 135.
Atlanta, i. 187, 265.
Atlantic and Pacific continents, i. 125.
Atlantic and Pacific, former connection of,
i. 92.
Atlantic, eastern basin of, i. 242.
hydrographic character of, i. 242.
Atlantic ooze, Bailey on, i. 45.
composition of, i. 150.
Atlantic slope, profile of, i. 134.
Atlantic, western basin of, i. 242.
Atlantis, i. 126.
Atolla Bairdii, ii. 132, 153.
Atolla Wyvillei, ii. 152.
Aurelia, i. 186.
Austins, the, on Pentacrinide, ii. 117-

INDEX.

Axohelia mirabilis, ii. 152, 153.
Ayres, i. 45.

Bache, A. D., i. 45.
on Gulf Stream in 1845, i. 252.
Baer, K. E. y., on eastern extension of Gulf
Stream, i. 252.
Bahama Bank, eastern slope of, i. 96, 104.
formation of, i. 69.
land shells of, i. 116.
slope of, i. 288.
Bahama Banks, structure of, i. 75.
Bahama plateau, i. 75.
Bahia Honda, i. viii.
Bailey, i. 3.
on Atlantic globigerine, i. 146.
on Atlantic ooze, i. 45.
on greensand of Zeuglodon limestone,
i. 278.
Baird, S. F., U. S. Fish Commissioner, i. 50. |
Balticina finmarchiea, ii. 142, 143.
Barathrodemus manatinus, ii. 25.
Barathronus bicolor, ii. 25.
Barbados, island of, i. xix.
limestone terraces of, i. 63.
Barbuda, island of, i. xix.
Bartlett Deep, i. 100, 226.
Bartlett, John R., i. viii.
exploration of Caribbean, i 50.
on current passing over ridge of wind-
ward passage, i. 292.
on deep-sea sounding and dredging, i.
51.
on path of warm water in Gulf of Mexico
and Caribbean, i. 255.
on Pentacrinus off Santiago de Cuba,
ii. 6.
on rip off Charleston, i. 254.
on Sargassum, i. 211.
on temperature sections of Caribbean |
and of Gulf Stream, i. 217.
on temperature sections between the |
West India Islands, i. 218.
Barrett and Andrews, i. 45.
Barrett, survey of Alacran, i. 70.
Bathometer, Siemens, C. W., i. 6.
Bathybius, Haeckel on, i. 204.
Bathydoris abyssorum, ii. 62.
Bathygadus arcuatus, ii. 26, 27.
Bathymetrical faunal subdivisions, i. 162,
163.
Bathymetrical range, of corals, ii. 11.
of crinoids, ii. 10.
of crustacea, ii. 9.
of fishes, ii. 8.
of gorgonians, ii. 11.

| Benthosaurus grallator, ii. 52,

| Beryx splendens, ii.

197

Bathymetrical range, of mollusea, ii. 10.
of ophiurans, i. 168.
of sponges, ii. 11.
of sea-urchins, ii. 10.
of starfishes, ii. 10.
Bathyonomus giganteus, ii. 48, 49.
Bathypterois quadrifilis, ii. 32.
Bathysaurus Agassizii, ii. 32, 33.
Baur on range of pelagic animals, i. 200.

| Behring Strait current, i. 243.

Belknap, Geo. E., i. 6.
sounding’ cylinder, i. 5.

| Bellerophon, i. 190.

Bemini, Straits of, i. 137.

current flowing north through the, i. 234.
Benthecetes Bartletti, ii. 47.
Benthodytes gigantea, ii. 87.

2, 33.

Benthoteuthis, ii. 61.
Bergh, R., on Bathydoris abyssorum, ii. 62.
Bermuda sea-serpent, ii. 28.

| Bermudas, not inhabited by Caribs, i. 118.

origin of fauna and flora of, i. 119.
recent origin of, i. 117.
Rein on the, i. 80.
to West India islands, ocean bed from,
1. 95.
vegetation of, i. 117.
Berthold, on bathymetrical range of alge,
1. 312.
27.
LET a) re le F
Biflustra macrodon, ii. 82.
Biloculina clay, ii. 160.
Pourtalés on, ii. 160.
Sars on, ii. 160.
Biloculina ringens, ii. 159.
Biloculina tenera, ii. 160.
Bird fauna of West Indies, i. 114.
Birds, effects of currents on distribution of,
1. 120;
*“Blake2* 3" bil.

| ** Blake,’’ plan of deck of, i. 35.

eruises of, i. vili, xi, xix, 38.
rich dredgings by, off the West India
islands, ii. 15.
small size of, i. 32.
‘** Blake ’’ dredges, i. 24.
Blake Plateau, i. 96, 155.
deposits on steep slope of, i. 277.
swept clean, i. 259.

| Bland, on land shells of West Indies, i. 115.

Blennies, ii. 29.

Blind fishes, i. 30S.

Blind invertebrates, i. 307.
Block Island soundings, i. 272.

198

Blue colors, absence of, i. 310.

Boguslawski on solids in ocean water, i. 129.
Bombay duck, ii. 34.

Boring mollusks and annelids, i. 55.

Bottom deposits, amount of carbonate of

275.

lime in, i.
change in character of, i. 277.
color of, i. 289.
262.
land débris in, i. 291.
north and south of Cape Hatteras, i. 270.
of Antilles, i. 290.
of Caribbean, i. 260, 288.
of East Coast, Bailey sketch of, i. 269.
of Kast Coast, Pourtalés sketch of, i.
269. |
of Gulf of Mexico, i. 260, 280.
of Gulf Stream, i. 277.
transition of, i. 267-

how obtained, i.

vegetable matter in, i. 291.
Bottom ooze, cold, i. 303.
Bottom specimens, decrease of tints of, i.
281.
examination of, i. 3.
Bottom temperatures of Caribbean, i. 218.
of Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico, i.
245.
of Gulf of Mexico, i. 218.
Bottom water, temperature of, i. 503.

Bourgueticrinus, i. 285.
Bourgueticrinus Hotessieri, Pourtalés on, ii.
120.

Boyle and Hooke,

Brachiopods, ii. 75.
character of, ii. 75.
in paleozoic times, ii. 75.
number of fossil species of, ii.

7

75.
rare in collections, ii. 75.

small number of recent species, ii.
Brady on *‘ Challenger ’’ foraminifera, ii. 157. |
Branching ‘stars, ii. 109.
Brandt, on parasitic alge, i. 214.
Brazilian current, i. 251.
Breccia beach, i. 87.
Bregmaceros atlanticus, ii. 2 |
Bridgetown, i. xix.

lod

(.

Brisinga coronata, ii. 108, 109.
Brooke, John M., sounding apparatus and
detacher, i. 3.
Brotulids, ii. 25.
Brown, Robert, i. 180.
Brownson, W. H., i. 93.
deep-sea sounding by, i. 50, 258.
on temperature sections in Western At-
lantic, i. 221.
Bryozoa, ii. 78.

| Cardium peramabilis, 11.

INDEX.

| Bryozoa, association of with other animals,

i. 215.

forests of, i. 141.

report on by Smitt, i. xxi.

Buchanan, J. Y., chemistry of sea water, i.

2p.

on specific gravity of ocean water, i. 298.

on specific gravity of sea water of Amer-
ican coast, i. 299.

_‘* Bulldog”? machine, i. 42.
_ Bushia elegans, ii. 74.
| Busk on Farciminaria, ii. 79.

Buskiella abyssorum, ii. 56.

Burrowing animals, diversity of colors in, i.
»
510.

Caberea retiformis, ii. 80.
Cadulus, ii. 67.

Calanus, i. 179, 193.

Callicarpa gracilis, ii. 137, 188.
Callionymus Agassizii, ii. 29.
Calliostoma aurora, i. 68.
Calliostoma Bairdii, ii. 68.
Calliostoma psyche, ii. 68.

| Calycophorz, ii. 135.

Calyptrophora, ii. 146.
Cancellaria Smithii, ii. 70.
Cancroidea, ii. 37.

| Cajion between Santa Cruz and St. Thomas,

1 98. '

_ Carbonate of lime in bottom deposits, i. 271.

Carbonate of lime shells, solution of, i.
266.
Carbonic acid in sea water, determination of,
i. 295.
Dittmar on, i. 297. .
73.
Caribbean, bottom deposits of, i. 289.
calcareous ooze of, i. 290.
density of, i. 500.
eastern basin of, i. 98.
gulf of the Pacific, i. 112.
heaping up of water in, 1. 248.
superheated, 1. 245.
western basin of, i. 98.

712,

| Caribbean and Atlantic, connection of, i. 112.

Caribbean islands, affinity of fauna and
flora, i. 114.
Carinaria, i. 191.
Carpenter, P. H., on stalked crinoids, 11. 10.
on ‘‘ Blake’ erinoids, ii. 116
on ‘‘ Challenger ’’ Comatule, ii. 125.
Carpenter, W. B., i. 40, 285.
on corallines, i. 166. _
on organi¢ broth, i. 313.
thermic theory of, i. 249.

INDEX.

Carpenter, W. B., and Thomson on _phos-
phorescent animals, i. 308.

Carpenteria balaniformis, ii. 168.

Caryophyllia communis, ii. 148.

Castries, i. xvii.

Catapagurus Sharreri, ii. 41, 42.

Caudina, ii. 85.

Cellepora margaritacea, ii. 52.

Cellularia cervicornis, ii. 80.

Cellularians, allied to Australian types, ii. 80.

Central America in tertiary period, i. 116.

Centroceras, Pourtalés on, i. 313.

Centrophorus, ii. 36.

Centroseyllium Fabricii, ii. 36.

Cephalopods, ii. 58.
at great depths, ii. 62.
effect of pressure on, i. 304.

Ceratiide, ii. 32.

Ceratodus, ii. 36.

Ceratoisis ornata, ti. 145.

Certes, on microbes at great depth, i. 314.

Cetoconcha bulla, ii. 72.

Cetoconcha elongata, ii. T2.

Chzetopods, deep-sea species of, ii. 55.

Chalk, chemical constitution of the, i. 146.
composition of, i. 147.
deep-sea animals in the, i. 146.
forming at great depths near continents,

i. 148.
from New Zealand, i. 148.
near reefs, i. 286.
of New Britain, i 148.
off Nuevitas, i. 148.

Chalk marl, character of, i. 148. |

“ Challenger,’’ i. 4.
on cold bands of Agulhas current, i. 254.
rich dredgings by, off Japan, ii. 13.
saltest water found by, i. 299.

Challenger Deep, i. 106.

** Challenger ’’ Expedition, i. 43. |

Challenger ridge, i. 123, 164, 242.

Channel, between Cuba and Jamaica, i. 111.
between Jamaica and San Domingo, i. 98.
between San Domingo and Porto Rico,

i. 98.
between Santa Cruz and St. Thomas,
i. xiv, 112.

Channels between the Virgin Islands, i. 98.

Chamisso, i. 180.

Charleston, S. C., i. xix.

Chauliodes Sloani, ii. 32, 33.

Chauliontide, ii. 32.

Chaunax pictus, ii. 32.

Cheilostomata, ii. 79.

Chemical denudation, absence of, i. 104.

M. Reade on, i. 128.

199

Chemical results, of ‘‘ Challenger ’’ Expedi-
tion, i. 294.
of ‘* Voringen ’’ Expedition, i. 294.
Chiasmodon niger, ii. 29.
Chilian plain, i. 129.
Chitonidee, ii. 67.
Chlamydoselachus, the frilled shark, ii. 36.
Chrysogorgide, ii. 144.
Cidaride, ii. 88.
Cidaris, i. 158.
Cienkowsky on parasitic alg, i. 214.
Cirratulus melanacanthus, ii. 54.
Cirripeds, abyssal, ii. 50.
Cladocarpus paradisea, ii. 137, 138.
Cladorhiza concrescens, ii. 176, 177.
Cladorhiza, Thomson on, ii. 177.
Clapareéde, i. 200.
Clarke, 5. F., Report on Hydroids, i. xxi
Clay bottom near Block Island, i. 272.
Clay lumps and concretions, i. 273.
Clement, C., i. 277.
Cleve on fossiliferous rocks of West Indies,
i. 109.
Clio, i. 121.
Clypeastroids, tertiary, i. 159.
absence of, in deep water, ii. 97.
Coast line, break in, i. 95.
Coast Survey office, i. xxi.
Coccoliths, i. 209.
Coccospheres, i. 209.
Coccospheres and rhabdospheres, C. Wyville
Thomson on, i. 209.
Ceelopleurus, i. 160.
Celopleurus floridanus, ii. 93.

Collecting cylinder, specimens brought up

by, i. 262.

Collections of ‘* Blake,’’ disposition of, i. xx.

Collinella inseripta, ii. 176.

Collozoum, i. 195.

Color, blue not a protective one, i. 310.
of deep-sea crustacéa, i. 312.
of marine animals, i. 311.

Colors, Seechi on penetration of, i. 305.

Colossendeis colossea, ii. 49, 50.

Colossendeis macerrima, ii. 50.

Columbus, his theory of currents, i. 251.
in northeast trades, i. 250.
on Sargasso Sea, i. 213.

Comatul, abundance of, ii. 118.
bathymetrical range of, ii. 11.
character of Caribbean, ii. 124.

Coneretions, calcareous, off Barbados, i. 290.
Clement, C., analysis of, i. 277.

Connection, between Caribbean and Atlantie,

ts dD:

between Caribbean and Pacific, i. 112.

200 INDEX.

Conoclypus Sigsbei, ii. 99. Coral reefs, northern extension of, i. 161.
Conolampas, ii. 97. Semper on, i. 76.
Conolampas Sigsbei, ii. 99. Studer on, i. 76.
Continental areas, deposits on, i. 140. Coral rock shores, undermining of, i. 87.
Continental belt, temperature of, i. 502. Corals, ii. 148.
Continental connections, extent of, i. 121. | absence of simple species in Caribbean
Continental denudation, i. 282. area, ii. 19.
Continental fauna, i. 162. composition of, i. 148.
decrease of, i. 107. depth of, affected by local causes, i. 74.
Continental formations, i. 143, known previous to “* Blake’’ Expedition,
Continental lands, height of, i. 126. eh aie
Continental line, ancient extension of, i. limit to which they extend, i. 74.
136. living on edge of Bahama Bank, i. 75.
Continental masses, i. 126. of Chagos Archipelago, i. 74.
effect on distribution of temperature, i. of miocene beds, i. 19.
248. Sharples, S. P., analysis of, i. 62.
Kriimmel on elevation of, i. 126. | Coral sand beach, i. 86.
nucleus of, i. 126. | Coral sand, held in suspension, i. 84.
Continental plateau, edge of, i. 108. Wright, on slope of, i. 85.
Continental shelf, i. 96. | Coral silt, carried along the bottom, i. 84.
absence of argillaceous matter on, i. | Corbule of Plumularide, ii. 137.
274. | Corniferous bone beds, i. i45.
sandy plain of, i. 272. _ Cornuspira foliacea, ii. 161.
Continental slopes, abundance of animal life Corycodus bullatus, ii. 39.
on, i. 107. _ Coryphzna, i. 193.
fauna adjacent to, i. 106. Coryphzenoides, 11. 26.

Cosmopolitan species, i. 162.

Continents and oceanic basins, Agassiz, L.,

on age of, i. 127. | Crangonide, ii, 45,
Carpenter, W. B., on age of, i. 127. Crania Pourtalesii, ii. 77.
Dana on age of, i. 127. _ Cretaceous deposits of Isthmus of Panama,
Geikie, A., on great age of, i. 127. nelle:
Guyot on great age of, i. 127. | Cretaceous sea, Jeffreys on depth of, i. 146.
Thomson, Wyville, on age of, i. 127. | Cretaceous types, i. 151.
Wallace on age of, i. 127. in West Indian miocene, ii. 19.
Continents, permanence of, i. 125. Cribrella hospitalis, ii. 178.
Convection through ocean water, i. 504. Crinoid collection, disposition of, ii. 6.
Copepods, fertility of, i. 204. Crinoids, ii. 116.
pelagic, i. 178. color of deep-sea, i. 512.
Coquimbo, elevated coast near, i. 129. | known previous to ‘‘ Blake ”’ Pgadiions
Coquina of St. Augustine, i. 67, 68. ii. 6.
Coral bottom, extent of, i. 286. P. H. Carpenter on, i. xxi.
Coral boulders, 1. 55. | Crinoids and trilobites, great development of
Coral breccia, cementation of, i. 54. | in Silurian, i. 155.
Corallines, i. 55. | Crisia denticulata, ii. 78, 79.
Coral reef of Florida, Agassiz’s theory of, | Crisia eburnea, ii. 79.
i. 55. | Cristellaria calear, ii. 166.
Leconte, J., on theory of, i. 55. | Cristellaria erepidula, ii. 166.
report on by A. Agassiz, i. xxi. | Croll, i. 247.
theory of E. B. Hunt, 1. 55. Cruises of the ‘‘ Blake ’’ in 1877, i. 50, 80.
Coral reefs, ancient, near Havana, i. 71. | Crustacea, ii. 37.
Darwin’s theory of, i. 55, 80. bathymetrical range of, i. 169.
distribution of, i. 76, 286. habits of deep-sea, i. 311.
effect of light on, i. 306. knowledge of previous to ‘‘ Blake ’’ Ex-
grinding and rehandling of material on, | pedition, ii. 4.
Ho Bae living under moist stones, i. 153.
of former geological periods, i. 169. modifications of, 11. 44.

INDEX. 201

Crustacea, organs of sight of, ii. 44. Dayis, 1. 16.
Alph. Milne-Edwards, report on, i. xxi. | Dayman, ** Cyclops’’ Expedition, i. 45.
report on, by S. I. Smith, i. xxi, De Bary on Symbiosis, i. 214.
Cryptohelia Peireei, ii. 159. Deep-sea acalephs, i. 186.
Cryptolaria conferta, ii. 156. Deep-sea animals, carnivorous, ii. 1.
Ctenaster spectabilis, ii. 104. color of, i. 510.
Ctenophores, ii. 128. habits of, i. 274.
phosphorescence of, i. 174. kept alive by ice, ii. 1.
Ctenostomata, ii. 79. killed by coming to surface, ii. 1.
Cuba, barrier reef of, i. 110. looseness of their tissues, ii. 2.
bottom on north shore of, i. 288. Deep-sea annelids, characteristic, ii. 56.
fringing reef of, i. 110. Deep-sea beds, Fuchs on tertiary, i. 145.
Cunina, i. 182. | Deep-sea cephalopods, i. 144.
Currents, effect of in distribution of fauna, | Deep-sea corals, bathymetrical range of, i.
1. 92. 169.
Currents and tides, effect of on topography, i. identity of with cainozoic, i. 162.
104. Deep-sea deposits, i. 145.
Currents of early geological periods, i. 154. | Fuchs on, i. 142.
Cuspidaria microrhina, ii. 73, 74. names of, i. 265.
Cutlass fishes, ii. 28. of past ages, i. 141.
Cyanea, i. 186. Deep-sea fauna, i. 153, 162.
Cyeclammina cancellata, ii. 164. composition of, i. 162.
Cyclodorippe nitida, ii. 38. in track of oceanic currents, i. 167.
Cyclopteride, ii. 28. uniform composition of, i. 156.
Cyclothone lusea, ii. 9, 22. Deep-sea fauna and distribution of food, i.
Cymbalopora bulloides, ii. 168. 206.
Cymonomus quadratus, ii. 39. Deep-sea fishes, ii. 21.
Cymopolia, ii. 59. color of, i. 511.
Cymopolus asper, ii. 39. peculiarities of, ii. 21.
Cypris, ii. 51. specialization of, ii. 33.
young of, pelagic, i. 185.
Dactylocalyx pumicens, ii. 172. | Deep-sea flora, i. 166.
Dactylometra, i. 203. | Deep-sea formations, i. 140.
Dall, W. H., on antique character of deep- | facies of, i. 142.
sea fauna, ii. 20. | Deep-sea forms, range of, i. 302.
on deep-sea mollusks and tertiary types, Deep-sea gasteropods, blind, i. 165.
ni. 20. Deep-sea life, physiology of, i. 294.
on gasteropods and lamellibranchs of | Deep-sea sharks, i. 40.
the ‘* Blake,”’ ii. 62. Deep-sea species retaining shallow-water
Report on Mollusks, i. xxi. habits, i. 166.
Dana, J. D., i. xxi. Deep-sea sounding, deepest by Belknap, i. 47.
on limit of reef-building corals, i. 74. early, i. 47.
Danielssen, i. 44. by cup by Sands, i. 47.
Daphnia, i. 171. by detacher by Brooke, i. 47.
Darjiling, i. 106. by time intervals by W. R. Rogers, i. 47.
Darwin, i. 180. with cod-line by Platt, i. 47.
on elevation of Sonth Américan coast, i. with ‘‘ Hydra ’’ machine, i. 47.
129. with wire by Barnett, i. 47.
on formation of coral reefs, i. 76. with wire by Belknap, i. 47.
on limit of reef-building corals, i 74. with wire by Thomson, i. 47.
on pelagic alge, i. 208. with wire by Walsh, i. 47.
on resemblance of barrier reefs and | with wire by Wilkes, i. 47.
atolls, i. 72. | Deep-sea sounding and dredging, Sigsbee on;
theory of coral reefs, i. 55, 80. rh aul
Dasygorgia Agassizii, ii. 143. Deep-sea temperatures, by ‘* Challenger,”’

Dawson, on climate of arctie regions, i. 167. i, 46.

202

Deep-sea temperatures, by ‘‘ Gazelle,’’ i. 46.
by Miller-Casella thermometer, i. 46.
by ‘‘ Tusearora,’’ i. 46.
Franklin on, i. 46.
Humboldt on, i. 46.
Lenz on, i. 46.
Parry on, i. 46.
Phipps on, i. 46.
Pouillet on, i. 46.
Deep-sea thermometer, Tait, P. T., correc-
tion of, i. 16.
Deep-sea types, affinities of, i. 156.
‘* Albatross’’ on distribution of, i. 152.
characteristic, ii. 21.
fossil representatives of, ii. 18.
passage of, into continental and littoral
zones, 1. 163.
predominant tint of, i. 511.
Deep-sea work, historical sketch of, i. 39.
by Bache, i. 49.
by Craven, i. 49.
by Davis, i. 49.
by Maffitt, i. 49.
of Mitchell, i. 49.
of Pourtales, i. 49.
of Sands, i. 49.
of U.S. Coast Survey, i. 48.
Deep-sea work, publications on, i. 48.
Depths of the Sea, i. 48.
Moseley Notes on ‘‘ Challenger’’ Expe-
dition, i. 48.
Narrative of ‘‘ Challenger,’ i. 48.
Thalassa by Wild, i. 48.
Voyage of the ‘‘ Challenger,’’ i. 48.
Deep soundings by Bartlett, i. 48.
by Brownson, i. 47, 48.
Deep-water collections, ii. 8.
Deep-water deposits, Agassiz, L., on, 1. 49.
Deep-water fauna, 1. 44.
Deep-water gasteropods, blind, i. 308.
Deep-water types, identity of, i. 152.
origin of, in paleeozoic times, i. 151.
Deima Blakei, ii. 86.
Deimatide, ii. 86.
De la Beche, on siliceous matter in water,
i. 150.
Delesse lithologie, i. 49.
Deltoeyathus italicus, ii. 149.
Denmark Strait, i. 242.
Dentalium perlongum, ii. 67.
Dentalium, lives in ooze, ii. 65.
bathymetrical range of, i. 169.
Denudation, absence of aerial, i. 104.
extent of aerial, i. 127.
of Mississippi, Humphreys and Abbott,
on, 1. 128.

INDEX.

Deposition of sedimentary rocks, i. 130.
Deposits, affected by depth, i. 266.
along continental coasts, i. 263.
of past periods, compared to those of
to-day, i. 167.
Depth, greatest reached by ‘‘ Blake,” i. 97.
| Desmophyllum erista-galli, ii, 151.
| Desmophyllum Riisei, ii. 150, 151.
Desmophyllum solidum, ii. 150, 151.
Diadematide, i. 82, 159.
Diaseris erispa, ii. 153.
Diastopora repens, ii. 78, 79.
| Diatom ooze, ‘i. 266.
Diatoms, siliceous remains of, i. 271.
Diecranodromia, 11. 40.
Dietz on Florida, i. 68.
Diopatra, bathymetrical range of, ii. 56,
Diopatra Eschrichtii, ii. 53.
Diopatra glutinatrix, ii. 53, 56.
Diopatra Pourtalesii, ii. 55.
Diphyes acuminata, ii. 135.
Discina atlantica, 1. 77.
Discophorous meduse, ii. 130.
Discorbina orbicularis, ii. 168.
Distichopora foliacea, ii. 140.
Distribution, of animals and plants by cur-
rents, 1. 117.
of species, 1. 168.
Dittmar on absorbed gases of bottom water,
i, 297.
on solids in ocean water, i. 129.
Dodecabostrycha dubia, ii. 130, 1381.
Doliolum, i. 187.
Dolphin ridge, i. 125, 164.
| Dolphin Rise, i. 97, 242.
Dominica, island of, i. xvii.
| Dorippidoidea, ii. 38.
| Dorocidaris, i. 158.
| Dorocidaris Blakei, ii. 89.
_ Dorocidaris papillata, ii. 88.
| Dredge of Ball, i. 48.
of Edward Forbes, i. 48.
of O. F. Miiller, 1. 48.
modification of, by U. S. Coast Survey,
1. 26.
of the Philippines islanders, i. 25. —
speed in lowering, i. 29.
used by Péron, i. 48.
used by Stimpson, i. 48.
- used by Wilkes’ Expedition, i. 48.
| Dredge and trawl, sifting of contents of, i. 26.
| Dredge and swabs, i. 24.
| Dredging lines, 1877-78, i. ix.
| 1878-79, i. xi.
1880, i. xix.
| Tampa Bay to Mississippi, i. ix.

.

INDEX. 203
Dredging operations, 1877-78, i. viii. Ellis, i. 39.
187-79, i. xi. figures of Umbellula, ii. 142.
1880, i. xix. Elpidid, ii. 86.

Dredging in tradewinds, i. xii.
Drift of New England coast, Agassiz on, i.
122.
Driftwood, transportation of, i. 150.
Dromidz, ii. 40.
Duneania barbadensis, ii. 155.
Dunean on fossil corals of West Indies, i. 161.
on parasitic fungus, i. 166.
on tertiary corals, ii. 18.
on West Indian tertiary corals, ii. 19.
Dyplophysa, i. 181.

Earth’s crust, Saporta on formation of, i. 140.
Eastern Caribbean, topography of. i. 100.

Eastern coast of North American continent, |

topography of, i. 95.
Echinarachnius in deep water, ii. 97.
Echini, American genera of, i. 159.
bathymetrical range of, i. 168.
characteristic West Indian fossil, ii. 97.
color of deep-sea, i. 511. j
embryonic character of apical system of.
ii. 91.
list of dead tests of, ii. 97.

Echinid fauna of West Indies, analysis of,

i. 159.
former distribution of, i. 157.
origin of, i. 157.

Eechinocucumis typica, ii. 55.

Echimocyamus pusillus, ii. 97.

Echinoderms, ii. $4.
ageney of in triturating sand. i. S35.
known previous to ** Blake”

tion, ii. 4.

Echinothuriz, ii 94.
flexible test of, ii. 94.

Ehlers, Ernst, on annelids, ii. 52.
on ** Poreupine”’ annelids, ii. 57.
Report on Annelids, i. xxi.

Ehrenberg on foramimifera at great depths,

i. 45.
on globigerinz, i. 146.
on limit of reef-building corals, i. T+.

Elasipoda, abyssal types of, ii. S+.
huge species of, ii. S+.

Electrical thermometer of C. W. Siemens, i.

17.

Eledone verrucosa, ii. 60-

Elevated reefs of Barbados, i. 79-
of Cuba, i. 79.
of San Domingo, i. 79.

Elevation; lines of, in later geological periods,

i. 132.

Expedi-

Enclosed basins, i. 245.
Enclosed seas, i. 245.
density of, i. 300.
Enclosed seas and inland seas, fauna of. i. 40.
Entz, Geza, on parasitie alge, i. 214.
Epibulia, i. 151; ii. 155.
Epimeria loricata, ii. 49.
Epizoanthus, ii. 145.
| associated with Catapagurus, ii. 41.
Epizeanthus houses, ii. 41.
Equatorial circulation, 1 152.
Equatorial current, i. 92.
former course of, i 115.
hot water from, i. 255.
Equatorial drift, i. 257-
| Equatorial water, path of, i. 20-
Equipment of ** Blake.” i. 1

Eryonidz, ii. 42.

eyes of, ii. 42.

eyes of fossil, ii. 45.
| Eryon-like erustacea, i. 144.
_ Escharipora stellata, n. 50.
Eucharis multicornis, i. 150.
Encheilota, i. 185.
Eueope, i. 159.
Endowia, i. 181.

| Eunice conglomerans, ii. 55.

Enuniee tibiana, ii. 55.
Ennicidz, fossil, ii. 56.
genera of, ii. 55.
importance of, ii. 55.
tubes of, ii. 55.
Euphausia. i. 195.
Euphronides cornuta, ii. $7.
| / Enuplectella, Jovis, i. 172, 173.
| Enrypharynx, i ii. 35.
| Entima, i 185.
Everglades, i. 69.
concentric reefs of, i. 65.
Extracrinus, n. 117.
Eyes, as spectroseopes, i. 509.
of deep-water animals, i. 507.

Fangophilina submersa, i. 177.

Fareimimaria delicatissima, ii. 7S

Farlow, i. 209.

Farrea facunda, ii. 171.

Fauna, change of, due to nature of bottom,
i 2D.

j characteristic of restricted regions. ii. 15.

evidence furnished by fossils on charac-
ter of. i. 275.
in closed seas, isolation of, i 164

i)

204

Fauna, of abyssal region, ii. 14.

of bottom between Windward Islands,
ii. 14.

of calcareous ooze, i. 143.

of continental region, ii. 14.

of early geological periods, i. 154.

of great limestone banks, ii. 15.

of limestone plateaux, i. 145.

of littoral region, ui. 14.

of past periods uniform at great depths,
i. 168.

of plateaux, i. 92.

of plateaux in track of currents, i. 92.

of Pourtales Plateau, ii. 15.

of Pourtales Plateau, extension of, i. 287.

of pteropod ooze, ii. 15.

of Red Sea and. Mediterranean, differ- |

>
de

ence of, 1. 12:
of reef region, ii. 14.
of steep slope of Gulf Stream, i. 120.
of successive reefs, i. 161.
off the Tortugas, ii. 14.
Faunal districts, i. 502.
narrow limits of, i. 167.
Favosites, supposed species of, ii. 83.
Ferrell on swinging of cold water at bottom,
1. 249.
Fewkes, J. Walter, i. x. ,
on ‘‘ Blake”’ acalephs, ii. 129.
Report on Acalephs, i. xxi.
Fierasfer and holothurians, association of,
i. 215.
Firoloidea, i. 191.
Fish Commission, U.S.. explorations of, i. 50.
** Fish-Hawk,”’ 1. 50.
Fish teeth in bottom deposits, i. 281.
Fishes, bathymetrical range of, i. 168; ii. 23.
bottom feeders, ii. 27.
bottom living species, ii. 24.
cartilaginous skeletons of, i. 304.
color of deep-sea, i. 511.
known previous to ‘‘ Blake’’ Expedi-
tion, ii. 4.
92

av.

migration of, ii.
of the abyssal realm, ii.

23.

23:
pelagic types of, ii.
phosphorescent light of, ii. 34.
phosphorescent organs of, ii. 56.
predaceous, ii. 27.

report on by Goode and Bean, i. xxi.
shallow-water species of, ii. 24.
tactile organs of, ii. 36.

upper limits of, 1. 25.

Flabellum Goodei, ii. 150.

Flabellum Moseleyi, ii. 150.

Flat fishes, fossil, ii. 24.

INDEX.

| Flora, distribution of by drift, i. 122.
Florida, Agassiz on the age of, i. 88.
axis of elevation of, i. 110.
backbone of, Smith and Hilgard on the,
aol:
bathymetrical sections off, i. 66.
bryozoa of, identical with tertiary types,
ii. 79.
character of coast islands of, i. 67.
coral reef of, i. 58.
Dietz on character of, i. 68.
eastern coast-line of, i. 52.
flora of, i. 116.
geology of, Conrad on, i. 110.
| geology of, by HE. Hilgard, i. 110.
| geology of, by E. A. Smith, i. 110.
| limestone backbone of, i, 110.
limestone plateaux of, i. 122.
mangrove islands of, 1. 53.
not built up by reef, i. 69.
recent limestones of, i. 62.
submarine plateau of, i. 62.
southern coast-line of, i. 52.
west bank of, 1. 52.
| Florida Bank, i. x.
material of, i. 56.
submarine base of, i. 141.
| west edge of, i. ix.
Florida flats, keys of, i. 52.
Florida keys, structure of, i. 53.
Florida mud flats, dip of, i. 59.
Florida peninsula, age of, i. 88.
Florida plateau, animal life abundant on, ;
1. 62.
Florida Reef, i. 52.
channels across, i. 60.
curve of, i. 57.
depth of water on, i. 54. :
extension of to deeper water, i. 60.
flats of, 1. 58.
mud flats, appearance of, i. 59.
northern extension of, i. 69.
not elevated, i. 61.
Pourtalés exploration of, i. 286.
recent corals of, i. 78.
shape of, i. 55.
survey of, i. Vil.
survey of, by L. Agassiz, i. 49.
tides across the, i. 57.
Food question in distribution of animals, i. 91.
Food supply of young fishes, i. 204.
| Foraminifera and currents, i. 279.
' Foraminifera, arenaceous types of, ii. 158.
as guides to deep-sea deposits, i. 146.
at great depths, Huxley on, i. 45.
bathymetrical range of pelagic, i. 196.

INDEX.

Foraminifera, Brady on, ii. 157.
Carpenter on, ii. 158.
Ehrenberg on, at great depths, i. 45.
in littoral deposits, i. 146.
Parker on, ii. 158.
Williamson on, ii. 158.

205

| Geryon quinquedens, ii. 38.
| Giant squids, ii. 62.
Gibbs, W., determination of specific gravity,
i, 21.
Giglioli, i. 41.
Glaucus, i. 186.

Foraminiferous caleareous bottom, Pourtales Gleba hippopus, ii. 154.

on, 1. 254.
Forbes, Edward, on limit of animal life, i. 40.
on Aigean Sea, i. 40.
Forel, on penetration of light, i. 505.
on pelagic fauna of Swiss lakes, i. 199.
Formigas Bank, i. 98.
Fort Jefferson laboratory, i. xi.
Foster on temperature of ocean, i. 46.
Franklin, i. 247.
on deep-sea temperatures, i. 46.
Frankland on solid matter held in solution,
i. 128.
Fossil marine fauna, i. 122.
Fuchs, on bathymetrical faunal subdivisions,
i. 163.
on deep-sea deposits, i. 142.
on tertiary deep-sea beds, i. 145.
Fungia symmetrica, ii. 155.

Gadus fossil, ii. 25.
Galatheoidea, ii. 42.
Garay, Governor of Jamaica, i. 251.
Gardner, J. 8., on blue muds, i. 148.
on temperature of bottom of ocean, i.
132.
« Garman, Samuel, i. x.
Gas analysis, Behrens, apparatus for, i. 294.
Bunsen apparatus for, i. 294.
Gases, presence of at great depth, i. 23.
Gasteropods, ii. 62.
roving life of, ii. 65.
small size of deep-sea, i. 169.
Gastrostomus Bairdii, ii. 31, 34, 35.
Gaza superba, ii. 68.
Geddes on Philozo6n, i. 214.
Geikie, A., on great age of continents and
oceanic basins, i. 127.
on lost Atlantis, i. 127.
Gephyreans, ii. 52.
Geographical provinces, i. 302.
Geographical range of polyps, ii. 17.

Geography, of different geological periods, |

1. 132.
of time of chalk, i. 133.
of tertiary period, i. 134.
since triassic period, i. 161.
Geological time since the cretaceous, i. 139.
George’s Bank, i. 50.
George’s Shoal, i. xix.

| Globigerina, i. 171.
| Globigerina and pteropod ooze of Gulf of
Mexico and Caribbean, i. 281.
Globigerina bottom ooze, discovery of, i. 284.
Globigerina bulloides, ii. 167, 168.
Globigerina ooze, i. 272.
compared to chalk, i. 147.
composition of, i. 147.
depth at which found, i. 265.
depth at which it appears, i. 147.
Murray on, carbonate of lime in, i. 281.
northern extension of, i. 282.
transition of to red clay, i. 272.
_ Globigerinz, Bailey on Atlantic, i. 146.
bottom specimens of, ii. 167.
living on bottom, ii. 159.
Maffitt and Craven on Gulf Stream, i. 45.
Miiller on, ii. 159.
Murray on, ii. 159.
Owen on, ii. 159.
Pourtalés on, ii. 159.
\ Pourtalés on limit of, i. 284.
shell of, ii. 167.
' young shells of, ii. 167.
Glossocodon, i. 186.
| Glyphocrangon aculeatus, ii. 45.
-Gnathophausia Zcea, ii. 48, 49.
| Gobies, ii. 29.
_ Goés, i. 42.
_ Goniasteridee, ii. 102.
| Goniocidaris, radioles of, ii. 89.
Goniopecten, ii. 103.
Gonostoma microdon, ii. 9.
Goode and Bean, notes on deep-sea fishes, ii.
21.
Report on Fishes, i. xxi.
Goose fish, ii. 24.
Gorgoniz, deep-sea types of, ii. 143.
phosphorescence of, i. 199; ii. 146.
| Graff, L. v., Report on Myzostomide, i. xxi.
on Myzostomide of the ‘‘ Blake,” ii.
126.
| Grand Cayman, great depth off, i. 100.
| Grande Terre Guadeloupe, i. xvi, 65, 65.
| Gravitation theory of oceanic circulation, i.
247.
: Great Britain, former connection of, i. 125.
Greater West India Islands, affinity of
fauna and flora of, i. 115.

206

Greenland current, i. 241.
Greensand, Bailey on, 1. 45.
Bailey on process of formation of, i. 278.
deposits of, i. 141.
Ehrenberg on, 1. 278.
modern, i. 278.
Murray on composition of, i. 278.
Pourtalés on formation of modern, i.
278.
Pourtalés on position of belt of, i. 275.
on shore edge of Gulf Stream, i. 256.
off Cayo de Moa, i. 291.
Grenada, island of, i. xviil.
Grenadines, i. xvill.
Groupers, 1. 28.
Guadeloupe, island-of, i. xvi.
Guinea Stream, 1. 247.
Guppy on reef holothurians, i. 55.
Gulf of Maine, bottom specimens of, i. 261.
Gulf of Mexico, basin of, i. 100.
a hydrostatic reservoir, i. 249.
areas of basin of, 1. 101.
bottom temperature of, i. 15.
heaping up of water in, i. 248.
Howell exploration of, i. 50.
superheated water of, i. 255.
topographical features of, i. 102.
unstable equilibrium of, i. 248.
Gulf Stream, i. xx, 241.
A. Agassiz report on, i. xxi.
amount of outflow of, i. 256.
ancient course of, i. 137.
Bache on, in 1845, 1. 252.
Bache on warm and cold bands of, i.
253.
Baer, K. E. y., on eastern extension of,
1. 252:
Bailey on soundings of along course of,
1. 272.
Bartlett on course of, i. 257.
Bartlett on warm and cold bands of, i.
254.
Blagden on temperature of, i. 252.
Coast Survey on structure of, i. 253.
cold bands of, i. 234.
course of, across Gulf of Mexico, i. 113.
Craven on warm and cold bands of, i.
253:
Davis on warm and cold bands of, i. 253.
development of knowledge of, i. 249.
eastern extension of, i. 257.
Folger on, i. 252.
Franklin exploration of, i. 252.
inflow of, into Gulf of Mexico, i. 256.
Maffitt on warm and cold bands of, i.

BER
PAT Sy,

INDEX.

Gulf Stream, Mitchell, H., current observa-

tions of, i. 232.

northern course of, i. 121, 138.

outflow of, into Straits of Florida, i. 256.

path of, towards Europe, i. 2577.

temperature of, near shore, i. 258.

Thomson on cold and warm belts of, i.
254.

trough of, i. xx.

velocity of, i. 256.

velocity of axis of, i. 259.

velocity of, through Yucatan Channel,
i. 258.

wearing action of, i. 138.
Gulf Stream fauna off Charleston, i. 120.
| Gulf Stream floor swept clean, 1. 256,
Gulf Stream slope, i. 96, 274. |
Gulf Stream work, i. xi.
Giinther on accessory eyes of fishes, ii.
on deep-sea fishes, ii. 21.
Gurnards, ii. 30.
Guyot on great age of continents and oceanic
basins, i. 127.

99

ame

Habits of deep-sea animals, ii. 8.
Haeckel, E., i. 35.

on Bathybius, i. 204.

on yellow cells of radiolarians, i. 213.
Hake, ii. 23.
Haleyonoids, ii. 142.
Halimeda, i. 82.
Halobates, i. 179. :
Halosaurus macrochir, ii. 32, 33.
Hand nets, collecting by, i. 35.
Haplophyllia paradoxa, ii. 154, 155.
Harger, Report on Isopods, i. xxi.
Harvey, i. 313. a
‘* Hassler’? Expedition, i. 49, 51.
Hastigerina, i. 196; ii. 168.
Hatteras, lines run normal to coast south of,

76 131

slope of detritus off, i. 131.
Hébert on aragonite, i. 147.
Helioporidee, ii. 138.
Hemiaster expergitus, 11. 100.
Hemiaster, fascioles of, ii. 98.
Hemiaster zonatus,; ii. 100.
Hemieuryale pustulata, ii. 5.
Hemipedina, i. 158.
Hemipedina cubensis, ii. 97.
Hermit crabs, ii. 40.
Herschell, i. 247.
Hertwig on yellow cells of actiniz,
Heterocarpus curinatus, ii. 46.
Heteropods, i. 190.
Heteropora, ii. 85.

INDEX. 207

Hexactinellide, ii. 12, 170. | Ice-borne deposits and rocks, i. 271.
Thomson, C. Wyvyille, on, ii. 170. Infulasteride, i. 159.
Hierlatz, liassic beds of, i. 144. ‘‘Ingegerd’’ and ‘* Gladan,’’ Expedition of
Hilgard Deep, i. 106. the, i. 40.
Hilgard, E., geology of Florida, i. 110. Iguana of Navassa, i. 115.
Hilgard, J. E., i. 49, 93. Inland seas and enclosed seas, fauna of, i.
on Gulf of Mexico as a hydrostatie res- 40.
ervoir, i. 249. Inshore plateau, deposits on, i. 261.
Hilgard’s aerometer, i. 21. Intermediate deep-sea forms, ii. 17.
Hippothoa biaperta, ii. 51. Intermediate depths, ‘*‘ Challenger’? Expedi-
Hippurella annulata, ii. 157, 155. tion on specimens from, i. 200.
Histriophorus, i. 195. Invertebrates, coloring matter of, i. 309.
Hoek on paleontology of cirripeds, ii. 51. | subdivision of labor among, i. 215.
Hoisting engines for dredge, i. 51. | Ipnops, eyes of, ii. 34.
Holopus, ii. 6. Ipnops Murrayi, ii. 32.
young, ii. 124. | Iridogorgia Pourtalesii, ii. 144.
Holopus Rangi, ii. 125. Islands forming Central and South America,
Holothurians, ii. 84. i 143,
known previous to ‘‘ Blake’’ Expedi- | Isocardia cor, ii. 74.
tion, ii. 4. Isolated rocky patches in Gulf of Mexico, ii.
shallow-water genera of, ii. 84. aT.
Holtenia, i. 40. Isopod, blind, ii. 178.
Holtenia Pourtalesii, ii. 175. largest known, ii. 49.
Homalodromia, ii. 40. f Isopods, ii. 48.
Homolide, ii. 40. report on by Harger, i. xxi.
Homolopsis, ii. 40. Isospondyli, pelagic, ii. 33.
Hooker, i. 39. Isthmus of Tehuantepec, closing of passage
on giant kelp, i. 209. across, 1. 118.

Humboldt, i. 247.
Humphreys and Abbott on Mississippi denu- Jacoby, H. M., i. viii, 32.

dation, i. 128. Janthina, i. 186.
Hunt, E. B., on mud flats of Florida, i. 60. | Jeffreys, Gwyn, i. 43.
theory of coral reef of Florida, i. 55. on depth of cretaceous sea, i. 146.
Hutton on New Zealand fauna, i. 122. Jenkin, Fleeming, report on animals attached
Huxley, Th. H., on foraminifera at great to submarine cable, i. 44.
depths, i. 45. _ Johnson, J. A., i. 49.
Hyalea, i. 187, 265. | ** Josephine,’’ expedition of the. i. 42.

Hyalinecia tubicola, ii. 52.
Hyalineecia tubes, ii. 57.

Julien, A. A., i. 115.

Hyalonema boreale, ii. 177. Kelp, Hooker on giant, i. 209.
Hyalonema, Japanese, ii. 173, 174, 175. Keys, formation of, i. 54.
Leidy on siliceous spicules of, if. 173. Keys formed by waste, i. 57.
Hyalonema Sieboldii, ii. 175. Key West Harbor, entrance to, i. 54.
Hyalopomatus Langerhansi, ii. 53, 57. Key West, Navy Depot, i. xi.
Hydrocoralline, Moseley on, ii. 138. Kinchinjinga, i. 106.
Hydroids, report on by George J. Allman, ‘‘ Knight Errant,’’ Expedition of the, i.
rip .o:08 44.
Allman on deep-sea, ii. 155. Kohl, Geschichte des Golf Strom, i. 250.
in fresh water, i. 153. Kolliker on ‘*Challenger’’ pennatulids, ii.
known previous to ‘‘ Blake *’ Expedition, 145.
ne { Kophobelemnon scabrum, ii. 142.
S. F. Clark on, i. xxi. Kriimmel on elevation of continental masses,
Hydromedusz, ii. 128. i. 126.
Hymenodiseus Agassizii, ii. 105, 106. on oceanic basins, i. 126.
Hyperammina elongata, ii. 162. Krusenstern, temperatures taken by, i. 46.

Hypsicometes, ii. 30. | Kurtz, i. 48.

208

Labrador current, i. 241.
Lagena distoma, ii. 165.
Lamellibranchs, ii. 62.
Land animals, distribution of, from the arctic,
i. 166.
Land connections, former, i. 121.
Land tortoise of West Indies, i. 115.
Langley on color of atmosphere, i. 507.
Larval forms, retardation of development
of, i. 175.
Leconte, Joseph, theory of coral reef of
Florida, i. 55.
Lefroyella decora, ii. 171.
Lemuria, i. 126.
Lenz, i. 249.
on deep-sea temperatures, i. 46.
Lepas anatifa, i. 152.
Lepidisis, ii. 145.
Leptocephalus, i. 121.
a larval form, i. 175.
Leptonemus discus, ii. 154.
Leptothyra induta, ii. 68, 69.
Lesearbot on warm water in North Atlan-
tic, 1. 252.
Leucosoidea, ii. 38.
Level, difference of, between Sandy Hook
and Mississippi, i. 249.
Leydig, on accessory eyes of fishes, ii. 22.
on phosphorescent organs of fishes, ii. 22.
Light, absence of, beyond 100 fathoms, i. 165.
penetration of, i. 505.
Pourtales on penetration of, i. 805.
Sarasin and Fol on penetration of, 1. 505,
306.
Sarasin and Soret on penetration of,
1. 306.
Verrill on color of at great depths, i.
305.
** Lightning,,’’ deep-sea temperatures by, i.
46.
Expedition of the, i. 43.
Limestone banks, of Gulf of Mexico, i. 65.
submarine position of, i. 65.
Limestone and volcanic peaks, i. 64.
Limestone, formed by pelagic animals, i. 85.
deposits of coarse, i. 141.
of Caribbean, i. 63.
of Grande Terre, i. 63.
of Southern Cuba, i. 63.
of West India Islands, i. 64.
of Yucatan and other plateaux, i. 72.
Limestone deposits, formation of, i. 90.
Limestone plateaux, i. 131.
Limestone terraces, of Windward Islands, i.
64.
of Barbados, i. 638.

INDEX.

Limopsis aurita, ii. 73.
Limit of animal life, Edward Forbes on, i. 40.
Limits of ‘‘ Blake’’ dredgings, ii. 12.
Line of soundings, across eastern Caribbean,
i. 100.
east of Cape May, i. xx.
from Cape San Antonio to Sand Key,
re xb.
from Curagoa to Alta Vela, i. 100.
from Curagoa to mainland, i. 99.
from Yucatan Bank to Alacran Reef, i.
ix.
north of Cape Hatteras, i. xx.
Lindahl on Umbellula, i. 40.
Lindenkohl, on 140 fathom hole, i. 95.
Linerges mercurius, i. 186.
Lingula, a littoral species, i. 169.
a shallow-water animal, i. 151.
Liparide, ii. 28.
Liriope, i. 183.
List of foraminifera found in globigerina
ooze, i. 265.
Lithistide, ii. 12, 175.
Zittel on, ii. 175.
Lithodes Agassizii, ii. 39, 40, 41.
Littoral belt, i. 157.

: Littoral bottom deposits, i. 260.

Littoral fauna, i. 162, 165.
position of, i. 141.
Littoral regions, character of fauna of, i.

107.
Littoral species, bathymetrical range of, i.
302.
Littoral types, adaptation of, i. 207.
migration of, i. 207.
Lituoline, ii. 163.
Liversidge, i. 148.
Ljungman, i. 42.
Loggerhead Key, odlitie and breccia lime-
stone at, i. 67.
Lophius piseatorius, ii. 31.
Lophohelia prolifera, ii. 151.
Lopholatilus chamzeleonticeps, ii. 29.
Loriol, P. de, ii. 99.
Lovén, S., i. 42.
on derivation of abyssal fauna, i. 155.
on geographical range of deep-sea types,
ui. 15.
Lucifuga of caves of Cuba, ii. 26.
Lump fishes, ii. 28.
Lump suckers, ii. 28.
Liitken, on West Indian Pentacrinide, ii. 118.
Lycodide, ii. 26.
Lyell, on land and oceanic hemispheres, i.
241.
Lyman, T., Report on Ophiurans, i. xxi.

INDEX.

Macrocystis, i. 313.

Macropneustes, i. 159, 160.

Macropneustes spatangoides, ii. 98.

Macruroids, ii. 26.

Macrurus Bairdii, ii. 26, 27.

Macrurus caribbeus, ii. 26, 27.

Madagascar, relation to Africa, i. 126.

Madrepora cervicornis, i. 82, 36.

Madrepora palmata, i. 70, 53.
wall of, i. 70. |

Madrepora prolifera, i.

Meandrina areolata, i.

Maffitt and Craven on Gulf Stream globige-

rine, i. 45.

Magnaghi, i. 41.

Maioidea, ii. 37.

Malacosteus niger, ii. 34, 35.

Maldane cuculigera, ii. 54.

Mallet on primordial ocean, i. 155.

on atmosphere of steam, i. 128.

Malmgren, i. 42.

Malthe, ii. 31.

Mammals, distribution of, by driftwood, i.
122.

Manatee bones, i. 282.

Pourtaleés on, i. 144.

Manganese concretions and phosphate of |
lime, i. 275.

Manganese nodules, i. 141, 290.

Mangrove islands, formation of, i. 55.

Mangrove plants, i. 53.

Manicina, i. 55.

Margarita xgleés, ii. 68.

Marginella succinea, ii. 69.

Marginella Watsoni, ii. 69, 70.

Marie-Galante, i. xvi.

Marine animals, destruction of, i. 274.

food of, i. 204.

Marine deposits, character of, i. 266.

composition of, i. 262.

Marine fishes in the Amazons, i. 153.

Marine forms within 100 fathom line, i. |

142.

Marine plants, distribution of, i. 312.

Marquesas atoll, structure of, i. 75.

Marquesas islands, examination of, i. 75.
lagoon of, i. 73.

Marshall, his tangle bar, i. 26.

Martinique, i. 112.

Pita ¢ xvi. |
Mascarene islands, relation to Africa, i. 126.
Mastigoteuthis Agassizii, ii. 59.

McClintock, i. 45.
McRea, Henry, i. 32. |

Mediterranean, contrast between northern
= _ and southern shores of, i. 123.

209

Mediterranean, great changes in eastern basin
of, i. 123.
recent connection with Atlantic, i. 123.
Meduse, decomposition of, ii. 125.
deep-sea types of, ii. 128.
of intermediate depths, ii. 125.
Meiocardia Agassizii, ii. 74.
Melanocetus, ii. 52.
Mellita, i. 159.
Membranipora canariensis, ii. 79.
Meningodora, ii. 47.
Mentz, Geo. W., i. viii, 52.
Meoma, i. 159.
Merlucius, ii. 25.
Metacrinus, ii. 116.

_ Metacrinus angulatus, ii. 117.
| Metamorphoses of deep-sea animals, ii. 8.

Mexico, Gulf of, Hydrographic Chart of,
1515;
unstable equilibrium of, i. 248.
Micropanope pugilator, ii. 58.
Migration of sharks, i. 125.
Milioline, i. 271.
Millepora, Agassiz on, ii. 135.
Moseley on, ii. 138.
Millepora alcicornis, ii. 158, 159.
Miller on Pentacrinus, ii. 116.
Miller-Casella thermometer, i. 15.
Milne-Edwards, Alph., i. 40, 44, 204.
on fauna of antarctic region, i. 121.
Report on Crustacea, i. xxi.
on Sargassum, i. 212.
Milne-Edwards and Haime on tertiary corals,
u. 18.
Mississippi basin, denudation of, i. 128.
Mississippi mud, i. 57, 151.
fauna of, i. 282.
Mississippi, wearing action of, i. 158.
Mitchell, Henry, on current of Gulf Stream,
i, 232.
on Nicholas and Santaren channels, i.

235.

| Mitra Swainsonii, 1. 70.

Mixtopagurus paradoxus, ii. 41.
Mnemiopsis, i. 199.
Modiola polita, ii. 64, 75.
Mohn, i. 44.
Mollusk fauna of West Indies, i. 114.
Mollusks, ii. 58.
absence of vegetable feeders, ii. 64.
bathymetrical range of, i. 169.
carnivorous, ii. 65.
Dall, W. H., Report on, i. xxi.
distribution of, by driftwood, i. 122.
flexible species of, ii. 65.
inflexible species of, ii. 65.

210

Mollusks, known previous to ‘‘ Blake ’’ Ex-
pedition, i. 4.
with poison fangs, ii. 65.
Mona Passage, i. 98, 159.
Monactinellidz, ii. 177.
Monolene atrimana, ii. 24,
Montauk Point, i. xix.
Montserrat, island of, i. xvi.
Moote, W. S., i. x,
Moseley, on absence of palseozoic types in
deep sea, i. 157.
on age of abyssal fauna, i. 155.
on coloring matter of deep-sea inverte-
brates, i. 309.
on derivation of abyssal fauna, i. 155.
on eyes of Ipnops, ii. 54.
on fauna and flora of deep-sea explora-
tions. 1. 156.
on fructification of Sargassum, i. 212.
on pelagic conditions of littoral types,
i. 154.
on range of temperature, i. 300.
on sinking of Salpze, i. 187, 313.
Mosquito Plateau, i. 98.
Mount Maitland, i. xviii.
Mud flats of Florida, E. B. Hunt on, i. 60.
Mud holes off New York, i. 272.
Miiller, Johannes, i. 55, 200.
on yellow cells of radiolarians, i. 215.
Miiller and Troschel, on number of West

2
D2.

; Indian ophiurans, ii. 115.
Miller, O. F., dredge of, i. 24.
Miilleria, i. $2.
Munida, ii. 45.
Munidopsis rostrata, ii. 42, 43.
Murray, John, i. 4, 44.
on carbonate of lime in sea water, i. 65.
on chondres and cosmic dust, i. 262.
on Coast Survey bottom deposits, i. 280.
on composition of red clay, i. 267.
on depth of chalk sea, i. 147.
on floating pumice stone, i. 267.
on material held in suspension, i. 80.
on shallow-water deposits, i. 280.
on solvent action of sea water, i. 65.
on Tahiti Reef, i. 77, 88. d
on typical bottom deposits of Caribbean,
1.288.
on use of tow-net in deep water, i. 202.
Report on submarine deposits, i. xxi.
Murray and Abbé Renard on bottom deposits,
126i:

INDEX.

Myzostoma Agassizii, i. 127.

Myzostoma cysticolum, ii. 127.

Myzostoma filicauda, ii. 127.

Myzostomid, Report on, by L. vy. Graff,
i. xxi.

Nanomya, i. 181.
Nares, i. 44.
Nares Deep, i. 106.
Nebalia, i. 198.
Nectoteuthis Pourtalesii, ii. 59.
Nematocarcinus cursor, ii. 46.
Nematocarcinus ensiferus, ii. 46, 47.
Nemertina, ii. 52.
Nemichthys scolopaceus, ii. 34, 35.
Neohela pasma, ii. 49.
Neolampas rostellata, ii. 97, 98.
Nephropsis Agassizii, ii. 43, 44.
Nettastoma procerum, ii. 34, 35.
Nevis, island of, i. xvi.
New England coast, Agassiz on wearing of,
1. 122.
cold belt along, i. 119.
warm belt along, i. 119.
New Zealand, relation to Australia, i. 125.
New Zealand fauna, Hutton on, i. 122.
Nicholas and Santaren channels, Henry
Mitchell on, i. 235.
Noetiluea, i. 196.
phosphorescence of, i. 196.
Nodosaria, list of varieties of, ii. 166.
Nodosaria communis, ii. 166.
Nodosaria radicula, ii. 166.
Nordenskiold,-i. 42.
Norman, A. M., i. 43.
on deep-sea North Atlantic species, 1. 162.
Norse navigators and Labrador-eurrent, i.
250.

| North America, at time of chalk, i. 133.

archzan continent of, i. 129.

North Atlantic, area of maximum tempera-
ture in, i. 245.

isolation of, i. 243.
Notacanthus phasganorus, ii. 30.
Notostomus, ii. 47.
Nourse, C. J., i. x, 32.
Norway haddock, ii. 24.
Nucleolide, ii. 97.
Nullipores, masses of, i. 82. °
Nummulinide, ii. 169.

Nymphon, i. 50.

.

Murray and Pourtalés, on bottom deposits | Ocean water, Boguslawski on solids in, i. 129.

south of Cape Hatteras, i. 275.
Mysis, i. 179, 193.

Myxine glutinosa, ii. 36.

density of at equator, i. 248.
Dittmar on solids in, i. 129.
solvent power of, i. 147.

INDEX.

Oceanic basins, Agassiz, L., on, i. 4.
Kriimmel on, i. 126.
permanence of, i. 125.
pressure on rocks below, i. 152.
soundings in, by ‘‘ Challenger,’’ i. 260,
temperature of, i. 246.
Thomson, C. Wyville, on, i. 4.
topography of, i. 107.
Oceanic circulation, tradewind theory
247.
Thomson’s theory of, i. 247.
Oceanic currents, theories of, i. 247.
in past ages, i. 128.
slow movements of, i. 502.

of, i.

Oceanic deposits, organic ooze and red clay |

of, i. 264.
Oceanic districts, salinity of, i. 248.
Oceanic islands, i. 117.
Oceanic realms, specialization of, i. 160.
Oceanic temperature, disturbing factors of, i.
248.
Ocyroé eristallina, ii. 129.
Ocyroé, Fewkes, J. W., on, ii. 129.
Ocyroé maculata, ii. 129.
Oersted on bathymetrical belts, i. 162.
Old Bahama Channel, i. 2.
Old-fashioned types in shallow water, i.
156.
Oblitic and breccia limestone at Loggerhead
Key, i. 76.
OGlitic limestone, modern, i. 286.
Ooze adapted for preservation of animals,
170.
Ophiactis swarming on sponges, ii. 115.
Ophidiide, ii. 56.
Ophidium ceryinum, ii.
Ophiernus, ii. 5.
Ophiocamax hystrix, ii. 5, 110, 111, 114.
Ophioconis miliaria, ii. 111, 112.
Ophiocreas, ii. 5.
Ophiocreas spinulosus, ii. 109, 114.
Ophiohelus umbella, ii. 116.
Ophiolipus Agassizii, ii. 115.
Ophiomastus secundus, ii. 115.
Ophiomitra valida, ii. 115.
Ophiomusium Lymani, ii. 114.
Ophiomusium planum, ii. 111, 112.
Ophiomyces frutectosus, ii. 111, 115.
Ophiomyxa flaccida, ii. 113.
Ophiopzepale Goésiana, ii. 111.
Ophiophyllum petilum, ii. 110.
Ophiothrix, colonies of, ii. 115.
Ophiozona nivea, ii. 5, 110.
Ophiura Elaps, ii. 111.
Ophiurans, ii. 109.
bathymetrical range of, ii. 114.

i.

26.

211
| Ophiurans, known previous to ‘* Blake ’’ Ex-
pedition, ii. 5.
| phosphorescence of, i. 199.
Report on, by T. Lyman, i, xxi.
Ophiuridz, Lyman on, ii. 109.
| Opisthoteuthis Agassizii, ii. 55.
| Oplophorus, ii. 47.
| Orbiculina adunea, ii. 160.
Orbitolites, ii. 160, 161.
| Orbulina, i. 194.
Orbulina universa, ii. 166, 167,
Krohn on, ii. 167.
Pourtales on, ii. 167.
| Organic matter, at distance from shore, lim-
ited supply of, i. 269.
as food for deep-sea life, i. 515.
held in suspension near shore, i. 269.
| Organs of sense, in deep-sea fishes, ii. 22.
great development of, in embryos, i. 176.
Organs of vision of deep-sea invertebrates, i.
165.
| Orthagoriscus, i. 195.
| Oscillations of earth’s surface, i. 126.
_ Ostracods, ii. 51.
Ostraconotus spatulipes, ii. 42.
| Otoliths of fishes, in bottom deposits, i. 281.
in fine muds, i. 145.
| Otter, von, i. 42, 139; ii. 142.
Oxygen and carbonic acid in sea water, i. 297.
Oxygen in sea water, Dittmar on, i. 295.
| Jacobsen on, i. 295.
|

| Pacific and Atlantic isotherms, i. 248.
Pelopatides confundens, ii. 58.
Paguroidea, ii. 40.

| Palechinide, ii. 94.

| Palzotropus Josephine, ii. 100.

| Paleopneustes hystrix, ii. 100.

Palinurus, i. 175.
|

| Pallenopsis, ii. 50.

Panceri on phosphorescence of marine ani-
mals, i. 198.
Pandalus, ii. 46.
Paracyathus confertus, ii. 149, 150.
Parasitic alge, Geza Entz on, i. 214.
| Parasitic fungus, P. M. Duncan on, i. 166.
| Parasitism, different kinds of, i. 215.
Parry on deep-sea temperatures, i. 46.
| Passage of littoral to abyssal regions, ii..7.
| Passages between Windward Islands swept
clean, i. 256.
| Patterson, Carlile P., i. vii, 49.
| Patterson Deep, i. 106.
Pecten Dalli, ii. 72.
Pecten phrygium, ii.
Pecten Pourtalesianum, ii.

(2.
7

»
v-

212

Pedata, ii. 84.

Pediculati, ii. 50.

Pedro Bank, formation of, i. 69.

Peirce, Benjamin, i. 49, 122.

Pelagic alge, i. 208.

Darwin on, i. 208.

Pelagic animals, at great depths, i.
carcasses of, on bottom, i. 315.
colors of, i. 171.
distribution of, i. 169.
great destruction of, i. 205.
habitat of, i. 177.
living at intermediate depths, i. 185.
method of collecting, i. 179.
phosphorescence of, i. 171.
protective agencies to, i. 205.
range in depth of, i. 177.
range of, i. 506.
struggle for food of, i. 205.
struggle for existence in, i. 204.

Pelagic annelids, i. 195.

Pelagie cephalopods, i. 191.

Pelagic crustacea, i. 193.

Pelagic deposits, i. 148.

Pelagic embryos, i. 175.

Pelagic fauna, i. 54, 121.

‘* Challenger ’’ naturalists on the, i. 35.
Moseley on the origin of the, i. 208.

200.

of eastern Caribbean, i. 198.
of Gulf of Mexico, i. 198.
of Gulf Stream, i. 205.
of Swiss Lake, Forel on, i. 199.
origin of, i. 208.
sinking of, i. 202.
Pelagic fauna and flora, i. 171.
sinking of, i. 205.
Pelagic fishes, 1. 9.
large size of some, i. 193.
loealities of, ii. 22.
organs of sense of, i. 176.
phosphorescence of, i. 177.
Pelagic foraminifera, Bailey on} i. 272.
Pelagic globigerinz, i. 193.
Pelagic hemiptera, i. 179.
Pelagic larve, transportation of, i. 208.
Pelagic mollusks, i. 187. ;
Pelosina, ii. 162.
Pemberton, J. H., i. 52.
Penzidz, ii. 47.
Pennatula aculeata, ii. 142, 145.
Pennatulz, phosphorescence of, ii. 142.
Pentacheles sculptus, ii. 42, 45.
Pentacrinide, relation of, ii. 116.
Pentacrinin, i. 309.
Pentacrinoids, depths at which found, 1.
144.

INDEX. ‘

Pentacrinus asterius, ii. 116, 117.
Pentacrinus, bathymetrical range of, i. 169.
Pentacrinus Blakei, ii. 119.
Pentacrinus decorus, ii. 118, 119.
Pentacrinus, forest of, ii. 7.
mode of life, ii. 118.
Pentacrinus ground, i. vill.
| Pentacrinus Miilleri, ii. 118, 119.
Pentagonaster ternalis, ii. 102.
_ Periphylla hyacinthina, ii. 151, 152.
Peristedium longispatha, ii. 30.
_ Péron, i. 48.
Perrier, E., Report on Starfishes, i. xxi.
| on derivation of abyssal fauna, i. 155.
| on starfishes of the ‘‘ Blake,’’ 11. 102.
| Persons, i. 32.
Peterman on Florida Stream, i. 257.
Peters, G. H., i. viii, 32.
Petromyzon marinus, ii. 36.
Phakellia tenax, 1.177, 178.
Phascolosoma, in Dentalium, ii. 52.
_Pheronema Anne, ii. 174, 175.
_ Philozodén, Geddes on, i. 214.
Philozoén and Polyclonia, association of, i.
215.
Philozodn and Velella, association of, i. 215.
Phipps, deep-sea temperatures by, i. 46.
| Phoberus ceecus, ii. 44, 45.
| Phosphorescent animals, Carpenter, W. B.,
and Thomson on, i. 308.
Moseley on, i. 308.
Phormosoma placenta, ii. 95.
Phorus, inhabited by annelids, ii. 52.
Phosphate and carbonate of lime, Murray on
deposition of, i. 282.
Phosphatie concretions, Murray on, i. 281.
Phosphorescence, of marine aaa Panceri
on, i. 199.
of pelagie fishes, i. 179.
of ophiurans, i. 199.
Verrill on protective, i. 508.
Phronima, i. 176.
Phronima and Doliolum, association of, i.
215.
Phycis Chesteri, ii. 26, 277.
Phycis fossil, ii. 25.
Phycis regius, electric, ii. 25.
| Phyllosoma, larval stage of, i. 175.
| Physalia, i. 180.
_ Physical conditions, variations of, in contigu-
ous areas, i. 154.
| Pesan denis, ¢ ii. 183.
Pikermi, mammals of, i. 124.
Pilumnus, ii. 38.
Pisagua, elevation of coast near, i. 129.
| Pisolambrus nitidus, i. 37, 38.

|
|
|

INDEX.

Plagusia, i. 175.
range of vision of, i. 177.
Plants, absent in deep water, i. 107.
Platt, R., i. xii.
Platydia anomioides, ii. 77.
Plectromus suborbitalis, ii. 28.
Pleurocarpa ramosa, ii. 137.
Pleuropus, i. 187.
Pleurotoma (Ancistrosyrinx) elegans, ii. 66.
Pleurotoma Blakeana, ii. 66.
Pleurotoma curta, ii. 66.
Pleurotoma limacina, ii. 66.
Pleurotoma subgrundifera, ii. 66.
Pleurotomaria Adansoniana, ii. 69.
Pleurotomaria, bathymetrical range of, i.
169.
Pleurotomaria Quoyana, ii. 69.
Pleurotomide, ii. 66.
Pliobothrus symmetricus, ii. 138, 139.
Plumularide, ii. 135.
Pneumodermon, i. 121.
Podocidaris sculpta, ii. 92.
Pollicipes, ii. 51.
Polycistin, i. 195.
Polyclonia, i. 177.
lives on the bottom, i. 185.
Polymorphina ovata, ii. 166.
Polyps, ii. 142.
Polystomella erispa, ii. 169.
Polystomelle, i. 271.
Polytrema miniaceum, ii. 169.
Pomalostegus stellatus, ii. 57.
** Poreupine,”’ i. 245.
cruise of the, i. 40.
deep-sea temperatures by, i. 46.
expedition of the, i. 43.
Porina subsuleata, ii. 82.
Porites clavaria, i. 82.
Porites embryo, i. 74.
Porites furcata, i. 82.
Porocidaris, i. 158.
Porocidaris Sharreri, ii. 90, 91.
Poromya, ii. 73.
Porpita, i. 121, 180.
Porpitide, affinities of, i. 184.
Port de France, i. xvi.
Porto Rico, land shells ef, i. 115.
Pourtalés, L. F., i. vii, 3.
exploration of, in ‘‘ Bibb,”’ i. 45.
exploration of, in ‘‘ Corwin,”’ i. 45.

213

Pourtalés, L. F., on deep-sea corals and ter-
tiary types, ii. 19.
on penetration of light, i. 505.
Report on Corals, i. xxi.
Pourtalés Deep, i. 106.
Pourtalés Plateau, i. 62, 284, 286.
fauna of, i. 91.
Pourtalesia miranda, ii. 101.
| Pourtalesiz, i. 159.
affinities of, ii. 101.
forerunners of spatangoids, ii. {)7.
Praya, ii. 135.
Pre-archzean continent, i. 127.
Preservation of animals in bottom deposits,
i. 170.
Pressure, adaptation of marine animals to,
i. 304.
range of, for marine animals, i. 301.
Primnoa Pourtalesii, ii. 146.
Primordial ocean, fauna of, i. 153.
Mallet on, i. 153.
Protoplasm, i. 149.
Protozoans without solid tests, ii. 157.
Pseudodiadematide, i. 159.
Psolus tuberculosus, ii. 85.
Psychropotes longicauda, ii. 86.
Pterophryne, nest of, ii. 31.
Pterophysa grandis, i. 184.
Pteropod and globigerina ooze, i. 264.
Pteropod ooze, depth at which it appears, i.
50, 147.
depth at which found, i. 265.
in Straits of Florida, i. 283.
Pteropod shells, in globigerina ooze, i.
283.

decay and solution of, i. 283.
Murray on solution of, i. 283.
Pteropod silt in Windward Passage, i.
23D.
Pteropods, i. 190.
Pterotrachea, i. 191.
Ptychogena lactea, ii. 128.
Pulvinulina auricula, ii. 169.
Pulvinulina Menardii, ii. 169.
Pumice, decomposition of, i. 267.
floated. out to sea, i. 267.
taken by tow-net, i. 267.
Pyenogonide, eyes of, ii. 39.
Report on, by E. B. Wilson, i. xxi.
| Pyenogonids, ii. 49.

on affinity of deep-sea corals and tertiary | Pylocheles Agassizii, ii. 40.

fossils, ii. 17.
on boundary of siliceous sand, i. 279.
on characteristic foraminifera, i. 271.
on corals of the ‘‘ Blake,’ ii. 148.
on corals of West Indies, ii. 18.

| Pyrosoma, i. 187.
| Pyrosome, i. 198.

| Quoy and Gaimard on limit of reef-building
| corals, i. 74.

214

Radiaster elegans, ii. 104.
Radiella sol, ii. 179.
Radiolarian earth of Barbados, ii. 157.
Radiolarian ooze, i. 266.
Radiolarians, Johannes Miiller on yellow cells |
of, 1. 218.
E. Haeckel on yellow cells of, i. 215.
siliceous species of, ii. 157.
Raised terraces of Caribbean district, ii. 19.
Ramsay on geological time, i. 159.

Range of species, 1. 12.
Rawson, Rawson W., u. 128. |
Reade, M., on chemical denudation, 1. 128.
Record of dredging and trawling, i. 82.
Red clay deposit, i. 267.
basin of, in Eastern Atlantic, i. 295.
basin of, in South Atlantic, i. 293.
discovery of, by ‘‘ Challenger,”’ i. 292. |
in Western Atlantic, i. 292. |
slow rate of accumulation of, 1. 268.
Redonda, island of, i. xvi.
Regadella pheenix, ii. 172, 175.
Regalecus Jonesii, ii. 28.

Regnard and Certes on decay at great
depths, i. 205.
Regnard on effect of pressure, i. 305, 314.
Rein on undermining of Bermuda, i. 87.
Renard on St. Paul’s Rocks, i. 127.
Rennell, i. 247.
Reophax scorpiurus, i. 165.
Reptiles, distribution of, by driftwood, i.
122.
relation of West Indian, i. 115.
Retepora reticulata, ii. 82.
Reuss on tertiary corals, ii. 18.
Reynolds, E. L., i. viii, 32.
Rhabdammina abyssorum, ii. 162, 163.
Rhabdammina linearis, ii. 165.
Rhabdocidaris, radioles of, ii. 90.
Rhabdoliths, i. 209.
Rhabdospheres, i. 209.
Rhamphobrachium Agassizii, ii. 55.
Rhizochalina, ii. 177.
Rhizocrinus, dredged by Pourtalés, i. 285.
discovery of, i. 45.
fields of, ii. 118.
range of, il. 15.
Rhizocrinus lofotensis, ii. 120, 121.
Rhizocrinus Rawsoni, ii. 121.
Rhizopod earth of Barbados, i. 79.
Rhizopods, ii. 157.

association of arenaceous and siliceous,
ii. 158. |
calcareous, living on bottom, ii. 159.
Goés on Caribbean, ii. 157.
Rhizophysa, i. 185.

INDEX.

Rhizophyside, ii. 133.

Rhizostome, live on bottom, ii. 150,
Rhizotrochus fragilis, ii. 151.
Rhombodichthys, i. 175.
Rhynchopygus caribearum, ii. 97.

| Ribbon fishes, ii. 28.

Ridge, between Atlantic and Arctic oceans,
1. 242.
from Santa Cruz to Porto Rico, i. 98,
112.
Ringgold, i. 48.
Ringicula leptocheila, ii. 69, 70.
Ringiculide, ii. 69.
Rocinela oculata, ii. 48.

| Rocky banks off the Carolinas, i. 276.
| Rodgers, i. 48.

Roebling and Sons, wire rope of, i. 29.

Rogers, H. D., on character of Florida, i.
67. :

Rogers, W. R., i. 47.

Rondelet’s Medusa head, ii. 113.

| Ross, James, i. 39.

Jas. C., i. 42, 44.
Rosses on deep-sea temperatures, 1. 46.
Rugosa, Ludwig on, ii. 154.
Milne-Edwards and Haime on, ii. 154.
Ryder on organs of lateral line, ii. 36.

Saba Bank, i. xv.

Saba, island of, i. xv.
Sabinea princeps, i. 45.
Sagartia abyssicola, ii. 147.

| Sagitta, i. 193.

Sagrina dimorpha, ii. 166.
Saintes, the, i. xvi.
Salenia, i. 158; ii. 90.
apical system of, ii. 91.
suranal plates of, ii. 91.
young, ii. 92.
Salenia Pattersoni, ii. 90, 91.
Salenia varispina, ii. 90, 91.
Salinity of sea water, i. 300.
Salpa, i. 187.
large solitary form and chain, i. 189.
masses of, i. 171.
Salpa Caboti, i. 190.
Salpx, sudden appearance of, i. 190.
Salts, distribution of by animals, i. 153.
Sander Rang on Holopus, ii. 125.
Sandy bottom of East Coast, i. 285.
Sandy deposits, where found, i. 270.
Santa Cruz, ‘‘ Albatross’’ on ridge between
it and Porto Rico, i. 98.
connection with Porto Rico and St.
Thomas, i. 112.
island of, i. xiv.

INDEX.

Santa Cruz mollusks, affinities of the, 1. 112.
Saporta on formation of earth’s crust, i. 140.
Sapphirina, i. 171.

Sarasin and Fol on penetration of light, i. |

305, 306.

Sarasin and Soret on penetration of light, i.

306.
Sargasso Sea, i. 209.
Columbus on, i. 215.
‘*Talisman’’ Expedition on, i. 211.
Sargassum, i. 121, 210.
animals inhabiting the, i. 212.
animals living upon, i. 215.
J. R. Bartlett on, i. 211.
Alph. Milne-Edwards on, i. 212.
Moseley on fructification of, i. 212.
north of Cape Hatteras, i. 211.
reproductive organs of, i. 212.
Sargassum bank, origin of, i. 215.
Sargassum fields, off Porto Rico and San Do-
mingo, i. 211.
Sars, G. O., i. 44, 204.
deep dredging off Norway, i. 42.
on Rhizocrinus, i. 285.
Sars, M., animals from great depths, i. 42.
on Rhizocrinus lofotensis, ii. 120.
Sexorhynchus armatus, ii. 50, 51.
Scalpellum regium, ii. 50.
Scammon, J. Young, ii. xi.
Schizaster, fascioles of, ii. 98.
Schizopods, large size of, ii. 48.
Schmidtia aulopora, ii. 178.
Schmidt, O., Report on Sponges, i. xxi.
Schultze, Max, i. 35.
on chlorophyll in planarians, i. 213.
Scombroids, ii. 28.
Scopelide, i. 33.
Scopelus, ii. 24.
luminosity of, ii. 33.
Miilleri, ii. 33.
Scoresby on deep-sea temperatures, i. 46.
Scorpeena, ii. 29.
Seulpins, ii. 29.
Scutellz, absence of in deep water, ii. 97.
Sea-urchins, ii. 88.
A. Agassiz, Report onyg@@xxi.
geographical range of, u. 16.
known previous to ‘‘ Blake’’ Expedi-
tion, ii. 4.
oldest known, ii. 94.
Sea water, air in, i. 297.
analysis of, i. 21.
Buchanan, J. Y., chemistry of, i. 23.
Buchanan, J. Y., on oxygen in, i. 295. |
Dittmar composition of, i. 296.
Dittmar report on samples of, i. 296. |

|
|

’

~

215

Sea water, Dittmar on solvent action of, i. 255.
elements in solution in, i. 296.
Jacobsen on gaseous elements of, i. 204.
Murray on carbonate of lime in, i. 69.
Murray on solvent action of, i. 65.
organic matter in, 1. 205.
specific gravity of, i. 20.

Secchi, on penetration of colors, i. 305.

Sedimentary rocks, thickness of, i. 130.

Seeds, transportation of, i. 180.

Seguenza, on deep-sea fossil corals, 11. 19.
on deep-sea pliocene, i. 145.
on tertiary corals, ii. 18.

Selachians, deep-sea, ii. 56.

Garman, S., Report on, i. xxi.

| Semper, i. 76.
on coral reefs, i. 76.

Serpulz, masses of, i. 85.

Serpulidz, at great depth, ii. 57.
bathymetrical range of, ii. 57.

Setidium obtectum, ii. 176.

Sharks in Lake Nicaragua, i. 153.

Sharks and whales, remains of, on bottom,

i. 268.
Sharks’ teeth, dredged by ‘‘ Challenger,’’ i.
145.

found by ‘‘ Challenger,”’ i. 276.
in concretions, i. 276.

| Sharples, analysis of corals, i. 62, 148.

analysis of rock of Pourtalés Plateau,
1. 288.
Sharrer, W. O., i. viii, 3
‘* Shearwater,’’ cruise of, i. 40.
Sheaves for dredging, i. 35.
Shore lines and hydrographic basins, i. 100.
Siemens, C. W., bathometer, i. 6.
electrical thermometer, i. 17.
Sigsbee, C. D., i. viii, 32.
accumulator, i. 6.
collecting cylinder, i. 36, 200.
deep-sea sounding and dredgi
detacher, i. 3.
exploration of Gulf of Mexico, i. 50.
first dredging season in Gulf of Mexico,
He Ste
gravitating trap, i. 56.
on movements of Pentacrinus, ii. 119.
Pentacrinus ground, ii. 6.
sounding machine, i. 6.
Sigsbee Deep, i. 102.
Sigsbee, L. P., i. x, 3
Sigsbeia, ii. 114.
Sigsbeia murrhina, ii. 5.
Silica, carried out to sea, i. 150. |
supply of, due to deep-sea sponges, 1.
149.

2

ng, i. 51.

2

me

216

289. |

|

Siliceous bottom deposits of Caribbean, i.
Siliceous sponges, abundance of, i. 149.
Siliquaria modesta, ii. 71.
Silt, accumulation of, off Hatteras, 1. 292.

deposition of, to south of Windward

Passage, 1. 292.

deposits of, i. 141.

precipitation of, i. 158.

transfer of masses of, i. 151.
Siphonophores, ii. 132.

bathymetrical range of, i. 185.
Skates, deep-water types of, i. 195.
Slime, organic, at great depths, 1. 203.
Smith, E. A., on geology of Florida, i. 110. |
Smith and Hilgard on the Florida backbone, |

TGs

Smith, 8. [., on range of crustacea, ii. 16.

Report on Crustacea, i. xxi.
Smitt, i. 42.

on range of bryozoa, ii. 15.

Report on Bryozoa, i. xxi.
Snappers, ii. 28.
Solaster endeea, ii.
Solenodon, i. 114.
Solid matter, held in solution, i. 128.
Solution of shells in deep water, i. 1477.
Sombrero, island of, i. xix.
Sorosphera confusa, i. 162.

105.

Sounding, accumulator used in, i. 8.
deepest, by Brownson, i. 50, 238.
deepest, made, i. 97.
error in, 1. 12.

in currents, i. 1.
line for, i. 2.

records of, i. 15.

reel for, i. 7.

reeling in pulley for, i. 8.

register for, i. 8.

time occupied in, i. 12,
Soundings; along course of ee Stream, Bai-

ley on character of, i. 272.
along New England by U.S. Fish Com-

mission, i. 273.

»
wv.

extraordinary, i. 1.

from Havana to Bahia Honda, i. ix.

from Havana to Sand Key, i. ix.

Soundings: horizontal distance between the

one hundred and the fifteen hundred |
fathom line, i. 101.

one hundred fathom line, course of, i. 93.

one hundred fathom line, absence of
south of Hatteras, i. 135. |

one hundred fathom line, George’s Bank |
to Hatteras, i. 93.

one hundred fathom line south of Hat-
teras, i. 93. |

INDEX.

Soundings: one hundred fathom line of West
India Islands, i. 111.
five hundred fathom line of West India
Islands, i. 111, 112.
off Montauk Point, Bailey on, i. 272.
one thousand fathom line, i. 96.
two thousand fathom line, i. 96.
two thousand fathom line north of Cape
Cafiaveral, i. 96.
twenty-five hundred fathom line, i. 97.
Sounding wire, weight of, i. 11.
Sounding with wire, i. 2.
advantage of, i. 11.
by “‘ Blake,’’ i. 50.
Thomson on, i. 4.
South America, before the tertiary period,

1. 116.
disconnected from North America, i.
116.
South American fauna and flora, relations of,
i. 109.

Southern equatorial current, i. 248.
Southern fauna, northern extension of,
119.
Species, localization of, i. 168.
Specific gravity, of North Atlantic, i. 298.
of ocean water, i. 298.
of rocks from great depths, i. 287.
of sea water of American coast, i. 299.
Spheerozoum, i. 195.
Sphargis, i. 183.
Spirialis, i. 265.
Spirula, ii. 61.
shell of, i. 169.
Spitzbergen, rising of coast of, i. 129.
Sponges, ii. 170.
color of deep-sea, i, 512.
distribution of, ii. 17.
Haeckel on individuality of, ii. 170.
in shallow waters of cretaceous, 1. 149.
of the ‘‘ Blake,’’ Schmidt on the, ii.
170.
on West Bank of Florida, i. 149.
Report on, by O. Schmidt, i. xxi.
Schmidt on individuality of, ii. 170.
siliceous, absent on east coast ne WE Ist
11.170.
Sponge sarcode, i. 149.
Squids, giant species of, i. 191.
St. Eustatius, island of, i. xv.
St. Kitts, island of, i. xv.
St. Lucia, island of, i. xvii.
St. Paul’s Rocks, i. 127.
St. Pierre, i. xvi.
St. Thomas, island of, i. xiv.
St. Vincent, island of, i. xviii.

ie

INDEX.

Stalked crinoids, ii. 116.
Starfishes, ii. 102.
bathymetrical range of, ii. 107.

known previous to ‘‘ Blake’’ Expedi- |
}

tion, ii. 4.

prominent deep-sea families, ti. 102.

Report on, by E. Perrier, i. xxi.
Staurophora, i. 177.
Stauroteuthis, i. 191.
Steindachneria, ii. 26.
Stellwagen cup, samples brought up by,

i. 261.

Stenocyathus vermiformis, ii. 148.
Stenoteuthis, i. 191.
Stenoteuthis Bartrami, ii. 58.
Stephanomia, i. 184.
Stephanotrochus diadema, ii. 149, 150.
Sternoptyx diaphana, ii. 22.
Sthenelais simplex, ii. 54.
Stichopus natans, ii. 85.
Stimpson, i. 45.
Straits of Florida, warm current from, i. 241.
Studer, on coral reefs, i. 76.

on deep-sea siphonophores, i. 184.
Stylaster filogranus, ii. 159, 140.
Stylasteride, ii. 158.
Stylifer, ii. 64.

Stimpson on, parasitic of annelids, ii. 64.
Styliola, i. 187, 265.
Stylodactylus, ii. 46.
Stylorhiza stipitata, ii. 177.

217

| ‘* Talisman,’’ Expedition of the, i. 40.

Tangle bar, i. 25.

Tanner on ridge between Santa Cruz and
Porto Rico, i. 222.

Tasmania, relation to Australia, i. 125.

Telegraph cable, animals on, i. 40.

Temnechinus maculatus, ii. 92.

Temperature at one thousand fathoms, i. 248.

| Temperature, belt of falling, i. 501.

belt of uniform, i. 501.

between Bahamas and Bermudas, i. 237.

condition of, below five hundred fath-
oms, i. 502.

differences of, over extensive areas, i.
303.

effect upon fauna by change of, i. 119.

highest, to which man is subject, i. 501.

increase of, in interior of the earth, i. 503.

in Florida Straits, i. 246.

lowest, found by ‘* Challenger,’’ i. 246.

lowest, found by *‘ Poreupine,”’ i. 245.

lowest, to which man is subject, i. 501.

of bottom of ocean, Gardner on, i. 152.

of eastern and western continental shores,
i. 244.

of ocean, Foster on, i. 46.

of sea-water of greatest density, i. 248.

range of, for marine animals, i. 501.

seasonal differences of, i. 246.

uniform in deep water, i. 164.

Temperature and light in the tropics, i. 164.

Submarine banks, discovered by ‘* Challen- | Temperatures, of the Caribbean, i. 217.

ger,’ 1. 64.

discovered by *‘ Tuscarora,’ i. 64.
Submarine cables, i. 2.

Submarine deposits, i. 260.

John Murray, Report on, i. xxi.
Submarine disturbances, i. 104.
Submarine landscapes, i. 103.
Submarine plateaux, formation of, i. 77.
Submarine ridges, i. 245.

Submarine scenery, monotony of, i. 106.
Submarine slopes, steepness of, i. 102.
Suleastrella clausa, ii. 176.

Sulphate of lime, amorphous, i. 149.
Surface alge, field of, i. 315.

Surface animals in bottom deposits, i. 285.
Surface fauna, A. Agassiz, Report on, i. xxi.
Swordfish, sounding of, ii. 24.

Syllis, phosphorescent species of, i. 199.
Symbiosis, i. 215.

De Bary on, i. 214.
Synaphobranchus pinnatus, ii. 34, 35.
Syscenus infelix, ii. 48.

Tactile organs of deep-sea fishes, ii. 22.

of the Gulf of Mexico, i. 217.
of the Western Atlantic, i. 217.
’ off Barbados, i. 227.

off leeside Windward Islands, i. 228.

off Salines Point, Grenada, i. 228.

variable belt of, i. 247.
Temperature sections :

across Mona Passage, i.

across Windward Passage, i. 224.

across Yucatan Channel, i. 219, 250.

by ‘* Albatross*’ in Caribbean, i. 217.

from Cape Florida to Gun Key, i. 252.

225.

from Halifax to Bermuda, i. 244.

from Jamaica to San Domingo, i. 225.

from Jupiter Inlet to Memory Rock, i.
232.

from Madeira to Tristan da Cunha, i.
242.

from Mexico to Florida, i. 251.

from Pernambuco to Fernando Noronha,
Skah
1. 227

anal.

from Santiago de Cuba to Jamaica, i. 226,

218

Temperature sections :

from Sombrero to Virgin Islands, i. 219.
from Sombrero to Virgin Gorda, i. 221.

from St. Lucia to St. Vincent, i. 228.
from St. Thomas to Bermudas, i. 220.

from St. Thomas to Ham’s Bluff, i. 221.

from Teneriffe to Sombrero, i. 244.
from Tortugas to Cuba, i. 231.

from Tortugas to Yucatan, i. 230.
from Vera Cruz to Galveston, i. 231.

from Yucatan Bank to Louisiana, i. 231.

from Yucatan to Santa Rosa, i. 231.
in Gulf of Mexico, i. 230.

in Gulf of Mexico, Sigsbee on, i. 217.

of Caribbean and east coast of U. S.,

Bartlett on, i. 217.
off Cape Cafiaveral,.i. 255.
off Cape May, i. 239.
off Charleston, S. C., i.
off Hatteras, 1. 259.
off the middle states, 1. 288.
off Montauk, i. 239.
off New England, i.
off Sombrero, 1. 220.
off St. Simon’s Island, Ga., i. 233.
Terebellidze, bathymetrical range of, ii. 57.
Terebratula caput serpentis, ii. 77.
Terebratula cubensis, ii. 76.
Terebratulina Cailleti, i. 76, 77.

22Q 5)
238, 2389.

Terrestrial folds, developed by soundings, 1.

125.

Terrigenous deposits, i. 263.
Tessadroma boreale, i. S81.
Tetractinellide, ii. 177.
Textularia sagittula, ii. 164.
Textularia trochus, 11. 164, 165.
Thalassia, i. 82.
Thalassicole, i. 195.
Thalassography, i. 2.
Thecocyathus cylindraceus, ii. 149.
Thecopsammia socialis, ii. 155.
Thecopsammia tintinnabulum, ii. 152.
Théel, H., Report on Holothurians, i. xxi.

on range of holothurians, 11. 15.
Thermic theory of Leonardo da Vinci, 1. 249. |
Thomson, C. Wyville, i. xx, 285.

on Atlantic and Pacific gulfs, i. 242.

on concentration and precipitation, 1.

300.
on stem of Pentacrinus, ii. 119.
Thomson Deep, i. 106.

Thomson, J. V., on young Comatula, i. 116.

Thomson, Wm., sounding machine of, i. 4.
Thurammina papillata, ii. 164.

Tiedemannia, i. 187.
Tile fish, ii. 29.

INDEX.

| Tile fish, destruction of, i. 120.
Tima, i. 177.
_ 'Tindaria cytherea, ii.
| Tisiphonia fenestrata, ii. 177.
Tizard, i. 44.
Tobago, island of, i. xix.
Tomopteris, i. 195.
Torell, collections of, noticed by Keferstein,
i, 42.
Tortugas, action of the wind on the reef of,
i. 86.
| bank west of, i. 88.
broken ground of, i. 86.
| description of the, i. 80.
| examination of, i. 57.
fauna and flora of, i. 90.
formation of, i. 61.
knoll of, i. 59, 89.
line from, to Yucatan Bank, i. ix.
line north of the, i. ix.
physiognomy of the coral reefs of, i. 82.
sections across the, 1. 80.
visit to, i. x.
| Coe 1. 35,
| of Palumbo, i. 37.
| Trachynema, i. 183.
| Tradewinds and oceanic currents, i. 255.
| Transportation of land shells and saurians,
1 20k.
“'Travailleur,’’? Expedition of the, i. 40.
Trawl, modification of, i. 26.
used by ‘‘ Blake,” i. 48.
used by ‘* Talisman,’’ i. 48.
used by U.S. Fish Commission, i. 48.
Trawl weights, i. 29.
Trawling, time of, i. 27. °
deepest of ‘* Blake,”’ i. 50.
Tremaulidium geminum, ii. 176.
Trichiuride, i. 28.
Trichodesmium erythreum, i. 208.
Triforis longissimus, ii. 71.
| Trigonocidaris albida, ii. 92.
Trinidad, island of, 1. xix.
| ‘* Tyiton,’’ Expedition of the, i. 44.
| Trochide, ii. 67.
| Trochostoma arcticum, ii. 85, 86.
| | Truncatulina adunea, i. 271.
Truncatulina Ungeriana, ii. 169.
Tubularians, littoral, 11. 136.
_Turbot of New England, ii. 25.
‘*‘ Tusearora,’’ soundings by, i. 260.
Typhis longicornis, ii. 70.

Po

Udotea, i. 82.
Umbellula, collected by Adrians, i. 40.
Umbellula Giintheri, i. 142, 143.

INDEX.

United States Fish Commission, i. xx.
Upper Gault, depth of sea of, i. 145.

Urechinus naresianus, ii. 101.

‘* Valorous,’’ Expedition of the, i. 45.
Valvulina triangularis, ii. 165.
Vegetable parasites, Wedl and Kdlliker on,
i. 288.
Velella, i. 180, 185.
Ventriculites, Thomson, C. Wyville, on, ii.
170.
Vermetus erectus, ii. 71.
Verrill, A. E., Report on Anthozoa, 1. xxi.
on ‘‘ Blake ’’ anthozoa, ii. 142.
on ‘* Blake ’’ cephalopods, ii. 55.
on color of light at great depths, i. 305.
on fish remains, i. 145.
on floating beach sand, i. 274.
on pliocene submarine fossils, i. 273.
on primitive types of actinic, ii. 146.
on protective phosphorescence, i. 308.
Verrucea incerta, ii. 50. |
Vertebrate bones, scarcity of, i. 144.
Verticordia elegantissima, ii. 74.
Verticordia perversa, ii. 74.
Vesicomya pilula, ii. 74.
Vesicomya venusta, ii. 74, 75.
Vetulina stalactites, ii. 175.
Vicksburg limestone, i. 61. |
Vineularia abyssicola, ii. 80.
Virgin Islands, i. 105.
land shells of, i. 116.
sink off, i. 104.
submarine banks of the, i. 111. |
Volcanic bottom deposits, i. 290.
Volcanic regions, topography of bottom of, |
i. 104.
Volcanic shore deposits, i. 289. |
Volcanoes of West Indies, age of the, i. 109. |
Voluta, bathymetrical range of, i. 169.
Von Otter, i. 42; ii. 142.
‘* Véringen,’’ expedition of the, i. 44.
Vorticellidz. associated with other animals,
i, 215. .

Waldheimia floridana, ii. 76.
Wallace, A. R., i. 109.
on age of continents and oceanic basins,
re Bae
on Antillean continent, i. 116.
Wallich, on formation of flints, i. 145.
on migrations of marine animals, i. 164.
on protoplasmic deep-sea layer, i. 150.
on silex nodules, i. 150.
report on ‘‘ Bulldog’’ Expedition, i. 44,
45.

|
|

219

Wallis, i. 52.
‘* Washington,’’? Expedition of the, i. 41.
Water, disintegrating action of warm, i. 200.
Water cup, 1. 21.
of Sigsbee, i. 21.
of Tornée and Wille, i. 24.
West India Islands, appearance of, i. xii.
elevated reefs of, i. 79.
eruptive rocks of, i. 110.
history of, i. 111.
limestone of, i. 64.
southern slope of, i. 105.
time of elevation of, i. 115.
West Indian bird fauna, i. 114.
West Indian cretaceous rocks, i. 110.
West Indian deep-sea fauna, richness of,
ii. 3.

| West Indian fauna, ii. 1.

immigration into, of Atlantic types, i.
158.
transition from old fauna, i. 160.
variety and richness of, i. 91.
West Indian fauna and flora, origin of, i.
116.
relations of, i. 109.
West Indian marine animals, northern ex-
tension of, 1. 119.
West Indian miocene rocks, i. 110.
West Indian reptiles, relation of, i. 115.
West Indian specific forms, i. 116.
West Indian submarine plateau, i. 115.
West Indian types, northern extension of, i.
118.
West Indies, Duncan on fossil corals of, 1.
167.
fossiliferous rocks of, Cleve on, i. 109.
land tortoise of, i. 115.
mollusk fauna of, i. 114.
Western Atlantic, bird’s-eye view of, i. 105.

| Western Caribbean, topography of, i. 100.

Western North Atlantic, warm water of, i.
243.
White chalk, a deep-sea deposit, i. 146.
composition of, i. 291.
off Nuevitas, i. 289.
Wild, J. J., i. 246.
» Thalassa, i. 244.
Willemoesiz, ii. 42.

_ Willemoes-Suhm on luminosity of Scopelus,

ii. 55.

Weleans ESB. . ii..49.

Report on Pygnogonidz, i. xxi.

| Winds, effect of, in depth, i. 255.

frictional effect of, i. 247.
Windward Islands, bottom of plateau of, ii.
158.

220 INDEX.

Windward Islands, limestone terraces of, | Yucatan Bank, i. 141.

i. 64. depth at foot of, i. 101.
Windward Passage, depth of, i. 100. formation of, i. 69.

Bartlett on current passing over ridge north slope of, i. ix.

of, i. 292. Vicksburg limestone of, i. 69. ,

Winn, i. x. Yucatan Channel, depth of, i. 101.
Winsor, Justin, i. xxi. Yucatan, limestone backbone of, i. 110.
Wire rope, for dredging, i. 28. limestone plateau of, i. 72, 122.

kinking of, i. 30.

paying out of, i. 35. | Zanclea, i. 183.

reel for, i. 31. | Zittel on teeth of Conoclypus, ii. 99.

telephoning of, i. 50. Zoeppritz on friction of particles of water, i.
Worms, ii. 52. 255.
Wright, i. x. Zobégeographical divisions, i. 264.
Wyman, Jeffries, i. 115. Zoroaster Ackleyi, ii. 105.

Zoroaster Sigsbeei, ii. 105.
Xylopagurus rectus, i. 40. Zygodactyla, i. 177.

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