SCIENTIFIC LIBRARY, ‘?\ United States PatentOffice. Case _ Shelf _ 3L. ML S« _ ir ' • - •■'■’■/■ • §■ . I ! ■ :. • ■ • ft -v • . ■ BULLETIN OF THE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OE WASHINGTON VOL. 13 1895-1899 WASHINGTON, D. C. JUDD & DKTWKILER, PRINTERS Page Page Constitution . vii Standing Rules of the Society . viii Standing Rules of the General Committee . xii Rules respecting Publications xiv Additional activities for the Society . xv Presidents of the Society. . xvii Officers of the Society for 1900 ... . xviii List of Members : Active list . . . . ... . . xix Absent list . xxiv Central American Rainfall, M. W. Harrington . 1 Results of a Transcontinental Series of Gravity Measurements, G. R. Putnam. . 31 Notes on the Gravity Determinations Reported by Mr. Putnam, G. K. Gilbert . 61 New Cloud Classifications, A. McAdie . 77 Steel Cylinders for Gun Construction — Stresses Due to Interior Cool¬ ing, Rogers Birnie . 87 The Latitude- Variation Tide, A. S. Christie . 103 Alaska, as it was and is, 1865-1895, Annual Presidential Address, 1895, W. H. Dali . 123 Graphic Reduction of Star Places, E. D. Preston . 163 Chemistry in the United States, Annual Presidential Address, 1896, F. W. Clarke . 183 The Transcontinental Arc, E. D. Preston . . . 205 A Century of Geography, Annual Presidential Address, 1897, M. Baker . 223 On the Comparison of Line and End Standards, L. A. Fischer . 241 Recent Progress in Geodesy, E. D. Preston . 251 The Secular Change in the Direction of the Terrestrial Magnetic Field at the Earth’s Surface, G. W. Littlehales . . 269 The Function of Criticism in the Advancement of Science, Annual Presidential Address, 1898, F. H. Bigelow . 337 Obituary Notices : Thomas Antisell, 1817-1893 . 367 Stephen Vincent Benet, 1827-1895 . 370 Thomas Lincoln Casey, 1831-1896 . 374 Daniel Currier Chapman, 1826-1895. . 381 George Edward Curtis, 1861-1895 . 384 Robert Edward Earll, 1853-1896 . .... 388 William Whitney Godding, 1831-1899 . 390 (iii) iy PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. Page George Brown Goode, 1851-1896 . 396 EdWard Goodfellow, 1828-1899. . 399 Henry Allen Hazen, 1849-1900 . . . . 401 Charles Hugo Kummell, 1836-1897 . 404 William Lee, 1841-1893 . 405 Walter Lamb Nicholson, 1825-1895 . . . . 407 Orlando Metcalfe Poe, 1832-1895 . . . 409 Charles Valentine Riley, 1843-1895 . . 412 Samuel Shellabarger, 1817-1896 . . . . 416 William Bower Taylor, 1821-1895 . . 418 Joseph Meredith Toner, 1825-1896 . . 426 William Crawford Winlock, 1859-1896 . 431 Proceedings of the Society, 1895 . 435 Proceedings of the Society, 1896 . 447 Proceedings of the Society, 1897 . 459 Proceedings of the Society, 1898 . 471 Proceedings of the Society, 1899 . 484 Index . 499 LIST OF PLATES. Plate 1. Annual isohyetals of Central America . 30 2. Distribution of types of rainfall in Central America . 30 3. Types of rainfall in Central America . 30 4. Total amount of annual rainfall for each hour by months at San Jose, Costa Rica . 30 5. Cross-section of continent near 39th parallel . 31 6. Stresses in gun forgings . 87 " 7. Curves for day numbers, tangents, and secants . 181 8. Reductions in declination . 181 9. Reductions in right ascension. . . . 181 10. The transcontinental arc . . 205 11. Principal arcs, meridional, parallel, and oblique . 251 12. Principal arcs in North America, measured and in pro¬ gress . 254 Diagrams of secular change : 13. Arica, Ascension island . 336 14. Barbados, Batavia, Bombay, Callao . 336 15. Cape of Good Hope, Coquimbo, City of Mexico, Con¬ cepcion . 336 16. Fayal, Habana, Hongkong, Honolulu, Magdalena bay, Manila . . . 336 17. Montevideo, Pernambuco, Paita, Panama, Petropav- lovsk, Punta Arenas . 336 18. Rio Janeiro, St. Helena, Singapore, Shanghai . 336 19. Sydney, Tahiti, Valparaiso . 336 [20.] Portrait of G. Brown Goode . (facing) 398 [21.] Portrait of Wm. B. Taylor . (facing) 418 CONTENTS. V ILLUSTRATIONS. Page Figure 1. Theoretical iceberg . • . . . 51 2. Results of gravity measures . . . • . 55 3. Pendulums . 58 4. Lens of microscope . 242 5. Comparing apparatus . 245 6. Abutting pieces for comparisons . 246 7. Abutting pieces for comparisons . . 246 8. Abutting pieces for comparisons . 247 9. Abutting pieces for comparisons . 247 10. Same in position . 248 CONSTITUTION OF THE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. Article I. The name of this Society shall be The Philosoph¬ ical Society of Washington. Article II. The officers of the Society shall be a President, four Vice-Presidents, a Treasurer, and two Secretaries. Article III. There shall be a General Committee, consisting of the officers of the Society and nine other members and such of the Past Presidents of the Society resident in Washington and retaining membership as shall annually, before the first meeting of February of any year, notify the Secretar}^ of the General Committee of their intention to attend its meetings or whose presence may he requested by a vote of the committee * Article IV. The officers of the Society and the nine other members of the General Committee shall be elected annually by ballot; they shall hold office until their successors are elected, and shall have power to fill vacancies. Article V. It shall be the duty of the General Committee to make rules for the government of the Society, and to transact all its business. Article VI. This Constitution shall not be amended except by a three-fourths vote of those present at an annual meeting for the election of officers, and after notice of the proposed change shall have been given in writing at a stated meeting of the Society at least four weeks previously. * As amended December 23, 1899. STANDING RULES FOR THE GOVERNMENT OF THE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. AS AMENDED MAY 7, 1887. 1. The Stated Meetings of the Society shall be held at 8 o’clock p. m. on every alternate Saturday ; the place of meeting to be designated by the General Committee. 2. Notice of the time and place of meeting shall be sent to each member by one of the Secretaries. When necessary, Special Meetings may be called b}^ the Pres¬ ident. 3. The Annual Meeting for the election of officers shall be the last stated meeting in the month of December. The order of proceedings (which shall be announced by the Chair) shall be as follows : First, the reading of the minutes of the last Annual Meeting. Second, the presentation of the annual reports of the Secre¬ taries, including the announcement of the names of members elected since the last Annual Meeting. Third, the presentation of the annual report of the Treasurer. Fourth, the announcement of the names of members who, having complied with section 14 of the Standing Rules, are en¬ titled to vote on the election of officers. Fifth, the election of President. Sixth, the election of four Vice-Presidents. Seventh, the election of Treasurer. Eighth, the election of two Secretaries. Ninth, the election of nine members of the General Committee. (viii) STANDING RULES. IX Tenth, the consideration of Amendments to the Constitution of the Society, if any such shall have been proposed in accord" ance with article VI of the Constitution. Eleventh, the reading of the rough minutes of the meeting. 4. Elections of officers are to be held as follows : In each case nominations shall he made by means of an in¬ formal ballot, the result of which shall be announced by the Secretary ; after which the first formal ballot shall be taken. In the ballot for Vice-Presidents, Secretaries, and Members of the General Committee, each voter shall write on one ballot as many names as there are officers to be elected, viz., four on the first ballot for Vice-Presidents, two on the first for Secretaries, and nine on the first for Members of the General Committee, and on each subsequent ballot as many names as there are per¬ sons yet to be elected ; and those persons who receive a majority of the votes cast shall be declared elected : Provided , That the number of persons receiving a majority does not exceed the num¬ ber of persons to be elected, in which case the vacancies shall be filled by the candidates receiving the highest majorities. If in any case the informal ballot result in giving a majority for any one, it may be declared formal by a majority vote. 5. The Stated Meetings, with the exception of the Annual Meeting, shall be devoted to the consideration and discussion of scientific subjects. The Stated Meeting next preceding the Annual Meeting shall be set apart for the delivery of the President’s Annual Address. 6. Sections representing special branches of science may be formed by the General Committee upon the written recommen¬ dation of twenty members of the Society. 7. Persons interested in science, who are not residents of the District of Columbia, may be present at any meeting of the So¬ ciety, except the Annual Meeting, upon invitation of a member. 8. On request of a member, the President or either of the Sec¬ retaries may, at his discretion, issue to any person a card of in¬ vitation to attend a specified meeting. Five cards of invitation 2— Bull. Phil. Soc., Wash., Vol. 13. X PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. to attend a meeting may be issued in blank to the reader of a paper at that meeting. 9. Invitations to attend during three months the meetings of the Society and participate in the discussion of papers may, by a vote of nine members of the General Committee, be issued to persons nominated by two members. 10. Communications intended for publication under the au¬ spices of the Society shall be submitted in writing to the General Committee for approval. 11. Any paper read before a Section may be repeated, either entire or by abstract, before a general meeting of the Society, if such repetition is recommended by the General Committee of the Society. 12. It is not permitted to report the proceedings of the Society or its Sections for publication, except by authority of the Gen¬ eral Committee. 13. New members may be proposed in writing by three mem¬ bers of the Society for election by the General Committee ; but no person shall be admitted to the privileges of membership unless he signifies his acceptance thereof in writing, and pays his dues to the Treasurer, within two months after notification of his election. 14. Each member shall pay annually to the Treasurer the sum of five dollars, and no member whose dues are unpaid shall vote at the Annual Meeting for the election of officers, or be entitled to a copy of the Bulletin. In the absence of the Treasurer, the Secretary is authorized to receive the dues of members. The names of those two years in arrears shall be dropped from the list of members. Notice of resignation of membership shall be given in writing to the General Committee through the President or one of the Secretaries. 15. The fiscal year shall terminate with the Annual Meeting. STANDING RULES. XI 16. Any member who is absent from the District of Columbia for more than twelve consecutive months may be excused from payment of dues during the period of his absence, in which case he will not be entitled to receive announcements of meetings or current numbers of the Bulletin. 17. Any member not in arrears may, by the payment of one hundred dollars at any one time, become a life member, and be relieved from all further annual dues and other assessments. All moneys received in payment of life membership shall be invested as portions of a permanent fund, which shall be directed solety to the furtherance of such special scientific work as may be ordered by the General Committee. STANDING RULES OF THE GENERAL COMMITTEE OF THE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. AS AMENDED NOVEMBER 12, 1898. 1. The President, Vice-Presidents, and Secretaries of the Society shall hold like offices in the General Committee. 2. The President shall have power to call special meetings of the Committee, and to appoint Subcommittees. 3. The Subcommittees shall prepare business for the General Committee, and perform such other duties as may be entrusted to them. 4. There shall be six Standing Subcommittees : I. On Communications. II. On Publications. III. On Grants. IV. On Mathematical Science. V. On Physical Science. VI. On General Science. 5. The General Committee shall meet at half-past seven o’clock on the evening of each Stated Meeting, and by adjournment at other times. • 6. Six members shall constitute a quorum for all purposes, except for the amendment of the Standing Rules of the Com¬ mittee and of the Society. 7. The names of proposed new members recommended in conformity with Section 13 of the Standing Rules of the Society (xii) STANDING RULES. Xlll may be presented at any meeting of the General Committee, but shall lie over for at least two weeks before final action. No rejected candidate shall be eligible to membership within twelve months from the date of rejection. The Secretary of the General Committee shall keep a chronological register of the elections and acceptances of members. An affirmative vote of three-quarters of the members present shall be necessary to an election. 8. These Standing Rules, and those for the government of the Society, shall be modified only with the consent of a majority of the members of the General Committee, but by unanimous consent of a quorum any rule except numbers 6 and 7 of the Standing Rules of the General Committee may be temporarily suspended. RULES RESPECTING PUBLICATIONS OF THE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. ADOPTED DECEMBER 22, 1888. 1. The regular publication of the Society shall have the form of a series of completed papers or memoirs, to which the transac¬ tions of the Society shall be added. Publication shall not be made at stated intervals, but whenever directed by the General Committee. 2. Each paper read before the Society and offered for publica¬ tion shall be at once referred to a special committee of two appointed by the President, which shall submit to the General Committee at its next meeting a written report on the paper, and the General Committee shall decide respecting its publica¬ tion. The annual address of the retiring President and the an¬ nual reports of the Treasurer and Secretaries shall be published in full, without reference. The journal of the Society shall be published in condensed form at the end of the volume. 3. Papers read before a Section of the Society and offered for publication shall be referred to a committee appointed as the Section may direct. The paper, accompanied by a written report, shall be laid before the General Committee, which shall decide respecting publication. 4. Papers approved by the General Committee for publication shall be printed forthwith, and one hundred copies shall be gratuitously furnished to the author. 5. The papers published from time to time shall be paged con¬ secutively, and when sufficient material has accumulated to form a volume of convenient size, a title page, table of contents, and index shall be prepared, and the whole issued as a volume of the Bulletin of the Philosophical Society. (xiv) ADDITIONAL ACTIVITIES FOR THE SOCIETY* REPORT OF A SPECIAL COMMITTEE, COMPOSED OF F. H. BIGELOW, J. HOWARD GORE, AND W. H. DALL. Submitted, Amended, and Adopted in the Following Form at the 490th Meeting of General Committee, November 26, 1898. It is proposed to assume some additional functions, and in nowise to abandon any ground now held by the Society. The general scope of science and exact knowledge may be cultivated, not only by the reading and discussion of papers explaining the researches carried out by individuals, as in the past, but also by direct agencies tending to promote science where it most needs active wTork ; therefore, I. Resolved , That three standing committees be appointed an¬ nually, as follows: 1. Committee on Mathematical Science , including Astronomy, Geodesy, Mechanics, and allied subjects. 2. Committee on Physical Science , including Electricity and Magnetism, Meteorology, Terrestrial Magnetism, and kindred topics. 3. Committee on General Science, including subjects not re¬ served for the other committees but suitable for discus¬ sion by this Society. The chairmen of these committees shall be chosen annually by a majority vote of the General Committee ; the members shall be appointed by the chairmen of the same from the Society at large, and associate members from outside the roll of the Society may also be added, if desired. These committees shall each make a specific report annually upon one or more of their special topics, which shall be published in the Bulletin, stating the re¬ cent progress and the desiderata of science in the respective branches. They shall also, under the direction of the Commit- (xv) XVI PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. tee on Communications, bring before the Society from time to time popular statements and illustrations of matters of interest likely to be of value to the members of the Society. They shall especially seek to enlist the active cooperation of those who are working along the same lines of research, where such mutual support will be likely to promote scientific discoveries. II. Resolved , That there shall be a Committee on Grants in Aid of Research , to be composed of three members, appointed by the President, to serve for one year like the other standing committees. The duties of this committee shall be to receive applications for grants, to consider them, and in such cases as they may ap¬ prove, to report the same to the Council for action. Applica¬ tions disapproved shall not be reported to the Council unless it is so requested by the applicant : Provided, , That the committee may call upon any member of the Society for advice or infor¬ mation in any case where they may deem it advisable, and that all such communications shall be regarded as confidential un¬ less communicated to the Council by vote of the committee : Provided , That the membership of this committee shall be an¬ nounced to the Society at the next meeting after its appoint¬ ment, by the incoming President of each year : Provided , That the committee shall make such rules in regard to the matter of applications and publication of results as they may deem proper, the same to be approved by the Council of the Society before going into effect. It frequently happens that a member of the Society has in mind some query which he would like to have answered, but is uncertain as to the person to whom he should address him¬ self ; again, it sometimes occurs that a member has devised some method of solution, or made a discovery of interest, but not of sufficient importance to warrant its elaboration in a set paper; therefore, III. Resolved , That to give a hearing to persons of either of the classes named, the first half-hour of each regular meeting shall be reserved for informal communications, when any mem¬ ber may propose for answer or discussion such topic or question as he has under consideration. IV. Resolved , That an electric lantern be procured and kept permanently in place for use in illustrating the work of authors who present communications. PRESIDENTS OF THE SOCIETY, * JOSEPH HENRY . 1871-78. SIMON NEWCOMB . 1879-’80. * J. J. WOODWARD . 1881. *W. B. TAYLOR . 1882. J. W. POWELL . 1883. * J. C. WELLING . 1884. ASAPH HALL . 1885. J. S. BILLINGS . 1886. WM. HARKNESS . 1887. * GARRICK MALLERY . 1888. J. R. EASTMAN . 1889. C. E. DUTTON . 1890. T. C. MENDENHALL . 1891. G. K. GILBERT . 1892. * G. BROWN GOODE . 1893. ROBERT FLETCHER . 1894. W. H. DALL . 1895. F. W. CLARKE . 1896. MARCUS BAKER . 1897. F. H. BIGELOW . 1898. O. H. TITTMANN . 1899. G. M. STERNBERG . 1900. * Deceased. 3— Bull. Phil. Soc., Wash., Vol. 13. (xvii) OFFICERS THE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON, 1900. (Elected Decpimber 23, 1899.) President . G. M. Sternberg f H. S. Pritchett. Vice- Presidents . C. D. Walcott. 1 Richard Rathbun. Lester F. Ward. Treasurer . B. R. Green. Secretaries . E. D. Preston. J. Elfreth Watkins. MEMBERS AT LARGE OF THE GENERAL COMMITTEE. Cyrus Adler. W. A. Be Caindry. J. Howard Gore. G. W. Littlehales. C. F. Marvin. H. M. Paul. F. W. True. C. K. Wead. Isaac Winston. STANDING COMMITTEES. I. On Communications: ,T. Howard Gore, Chairman. J. F. Hayford. C. F. Marvin. II. On Publications : Marcus Baker, Chairman. G. W. Littlehales. J. Elfreth Watkins. III. On Grants : Richard Rathbun, Chairman. Bernard R. Green. H. S. Pritchett. 0. H. Tittmann. IV. On Mathematical Science : J. F. Hayford, Chairman. J. G. Hagen. F. G. Radelfinger. T. J. J. See. V. On Physical Science : G. W. Littlehales, Chairman. Cleveland Abbe. L. J. Briggs. C. F. Marvin. L. A. Bauer. F. H. Bigelow. Cyrus Adler. F. W. Clarke. R. A. Fessenden. R. A. Harris. VI. On General Science : L. P. Shidy. C. K. Wead. W. H. Dall, Chairman. Whitman Cross. G. K. Gilbert. Herbert Friedenwald. Bernard R. Green. J. Elfreth Watkins. (xviii) LIST OF MEMBERS OF THE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON, together with YEAR OF ADMISSION TO THE SOCIETY, POST-OFFICE ADDRESS, AND RESIDENCE. Corrected to July 1, 1900. ACTIVE MEMBERS. 1871. Abbe, Cleveland, Weather Bureau. 1875. Abert, S. T. (Silvanus Thayer), Metropolitan Club. 1881. Adams, Henry, 1603 H street. 1893. Adler, Cyrus, Smithsonian Institution. 1876. Baker, Marcus, Geological Survey. 1888. Bauer, L. A. (Louis Agricola), Coast and Geodetic Survey. 1879. Bell, A. Graham (Alexander Graham), 1331 Connecticut ave. 1890. Bigelow, Frank H. (Frank Hagar), Weather Bureau. 1625 Massachusetts avenue. 1899. Bliss, Louis D. (Louis Denton), 614 Twelfth street. 1443 Chapin street. 1892. Blount, H. F. (Henry Fitch), 1405 G street. “ The Oaks,” 3101 U street. 1898. Briggs, Lyman J. (Lyman James), Department of Agriculture. 56 S street. (xix) 2017 I street. 725 Eighteenth street. 1603 H street. 943 K street. 1905 Sixteenth street. 1925 I street. XX PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 1897. B rockett, Paul, National Museum. 3425 Holmead avenue. 1886. Bryan, J. H. (Joseph Hammond), 818 Seventeenth street. 1644 Connecticut avenue. 1879. Burnett, Swan M. (Swan Moses), 916 Farragut square. 1874. Busey, Samuel C. (Samuel Clagett), 1545 I street. 901 Sixteenth street. 1891. Carr, W. K. (William Kearny), 1008 F street. 1413 K street. 1896. Casanowicz, I. M. (Immanuel Moses), National Museum. 1104 Sixth street. 1874. Chickering, J. W. (John White), The Portner, 15th and U streets. 1877. Clark, Edward, Architect’s Office, Capitol. 417 Fourth street. 1874. Clarke, F. W. (Frank Wigglesworth), Geological Survey. 1612 Riggs place. 1889. Cross, Whitman (Charles Whitman), Geological Survey. 2138 Bancroft place. 1871. Dall, Wm. H. (William Healey), Smithsonian Institution. 1119 Twelfth street. 1880. Davis, Capt. C. H. (Charles Henry), U. S. N., Naval Observatory. 1881. De Caindry, Wm. A. (William Augustin), Commissary General’s Office, War Dept. 1816 H street. 1896. Dodge, Charles R. (Charles Richards), Department of Agriculture. 1336 Vermont avenue. 1872. Dutton, Maj. C. E. (Clarence Edward), U. S. A., War Department. Army and Navy Club. 1884. Eimbeck, William, Coast and Geodetic Survey. 1014 Fourteenth street. 1881. Farquhar, Henry, Department of Agriculture. 1890. Fischer, E. G. (Ernst Georg), Coast and Geodetic Survey. 1893. Fischer, L. A. (Louis Albert), Coast and Geodetic Survey. West Brookland, D. C. 436 New York avenue. 923 Massachusetts ave. 1873. Fletcher, Robert, Army Medical Museum. The Portland. LIST OF MEMBERS. XXI 1881. Flint, Dr. J. M. (James Milton), U. S. N., Smithsonian Institution. The Portland. 1896. Flynn, Harry F. (Harry Franklin), Coast and Geodetic Survey. 1701 Sixth street. 1897. Friedenwald, Herbert, Library of Congress. 943 K street. 1875. Gallaudet, E. M. (Edward Miner), Deaf Mute College, Kendall Green NE. 1898. Garriott, E. B. (Edward Bennett), Weather Bureau. 1248 Princeton street. 1894. Gates, Elmer, Chevy Chase, Md. 1878. Gilbert, G. K. (Grove Karl), Geological Survey. 1880. Gore, J. Howard (James Howard), Columbian University. 237 R street NE. 1879. Green, Bernard R. (Bernard Richardson), Library of Congress. 1738 N street. 1889. Hagen, J. G. (John George), Georgetown College Observatory. 1871. Harkness, Prof. William, U. S. N., Naval Observatory. Cosmos Club. 1891. Harris, R. A. (Rollin Arthur), Coast and Geodetic Survey. 49th and Albany sts. 1886. Hayden, Ensign Everett, U. S. N., 1889. Hayford, J. F. (John Fillmore), Coast and Geodetic Survey. 1514 Howard avenue. 1885. Hodgkins, H. L. (Howard Lincoln), Columbian University. 1830 T street. 1898. Hodgkins, William C. (William Candler). Coast and Geodetic Survey. 1874. Howell, Edwin E. (Edwin Eugene), 612 Seventeenth street. 2032 G street. 1879. Johnson, Joseph Taber, 926 Seventeenth street. 924 Seventeenth street. 1884. Kauffmann, S. H. (Samuel Hay), 1101 Pennsylvania avenue. 1421 Massachusetts ave. 1875. King, A. F. A. (Albert Freeman Africanus), 1315 Massachusetts avenue. XXII PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 1887. Langley, S. P. (Samuel Pierpont), Smithsonian Institution. Metropolitan Club. 1895. Lindenkohl, Adolphus, Coast and Geodetic Survey. 19 Fourth street. SE. 1898. Little, F. M. (Frank Milton), Coast and Geodetic Survey. Ill C street NE. 1889. Littlehales, G. W. (George Washington), Hydrographic Office. 2132 Leroy place. 1891. McCammon, Jos. K. (Joseph Kay), 1420 F street. 1324 Nineteenth street. 1883. McGee, W J, Bureau of American Ethnology. 1620 P street. 1879. McGuire, F. B. (Frederick Banders), 1419 G street. 1333 Connecticut avenue. 1885. Mann, B : Pickman (Benjamin Pickman), Patent Office. 1918 Sunderland place. 1886. Martin, Artemas, Coast and Geodetic Survey. 1885. Marvin, C. F. (Charles Frederick), Weather Bureau. 1897. Maynard, Geo. C. (George Colton), National Museum. 1886. Merriam, C. Hart (Clinton Hart), Department of Agriculture. 1886. Mitchell, Henry, Santa Barbara, California. 1871. Newcomb, Prof. Simon, U. S. N., 1620 P street. 1879. Nordhoff, Charles, Coronado, San Diego county, California. 1885. Nott, Charles C. (Charles Cooper), Court of Claims. 826 Connecticut avenue. 1884. Ogden, H. G. (Herbert Gouverneur), Coast and Geodetic Survey. 1610 Riggs place. 1896. Page, James, Hydrographic Office. 1836 California avenue. 1871. Parke, Gen. John G. (John Grubb), U. S. A., 16 Lafayette square. 1877. Paul, H. M. (Henry Marty n), Navy Department. 2015 Kalorama avenue. 1534 Columbia street. 1404 Binney street. 1407 Fifteenth street. 1919 Sixteenth street. Nantucket, Mass. LIST OF MEMBERS. XX111 1874. Peale, A. C. (Albert Charles), National Museum. 1010 Massachusetts avenue. 1896. Phillips, W. F. R. (William Fowke Ravenel), Weather Bureau. 141 8 L street. 1884. Poindexter, W. M. (William Mundy), 806 Seventeenth street. 1874. Powell, J. W. (John Wesley), Bureau of American Ethnology. 910 M street. 1892. Powell, W. B. (William Bramwell), Franklin School. 1404 M street. 1888. Preston, E. D. (Erasmus Darwin), Coast and Geodetic Survey. 44 M street. 1879. Pritchett, H. S. (Henry Smith), Coast and Geodetic Survey. 1524 P street. 1892. Putnam, G. R. (George Rockwell), Coast and Geodetic Survey. 1898. Radelfinger, F. G. (Frank Gustav), Le Droit Building, 802 F street. 912 S street. 1882. Rathbun, Richard, Smithsonian Institution. 1622 Massachusetts avenue. 1871. Saville, J. H. (James Hamilton), 1420 Seventeenth street. 1871. Schott, C, A. (Charles Anthony), Coast and Geodetic Survey. 212 First street SE. 1890. Searle, G. M. (George Mary), Catholic University of America. 1899. See, T. J. J. (Thomas Jefferson Jackson), Naval Observatory. 2715 N street. 1895. Shidy, L. P. (Leland Perry), Coast and Geodetic Survey. 1617 Marion street. 1891. Smillie, Thos. W. (Thomas William), National Museum. 1808 R street. 1876. Smith, Capt. David, U. S. N., Navy Department. 1714 Connecticut avenue. 1880. Smith, Edwin, * Coast and Geodetic Survey. Rockville, Maryland. 1896. Sternberg, Gen. George M. (George Miller), U. S. A., War Department. 1019 Sixteenth street. 1900. Stetson, George R. (George Rochford), 1441 Massachusetts avenue. XXIV PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 1900. Strother, R. H. (Robert Henry), Patent Office. 861 M street. 1896. Taylor, Naval Constr. D. W. (David Watson), Navy Department. 1640 Twenty-first street. 1888. Tittmann, O. H. (Otto Hilgard), Coast and Geodetic Survey. 1617 Riggs place. 1890. True, A. C. (Alfred Charles), Department of Agriculture. 1604 Seventeenth street. 1882. True, Frederick W. (Frederick William), National Museum. 1320 Yale street. 1899. Updegraff, Milton, Naval Observatory. 1883. Walcott, C. D. (Charles Doolittle), Geological Survey. 1889. Watkins, J. Elfreth (John Elfreth), National Museum. 1894. Wead, C. K. (Charles Kasson), Patent Office. 1709 Seventeenth street. 1889. White, Dr. C. H. (Charles Henry), U. S. N., Naval Museum of Hygiene, 23d and E streets. 1891. Winston, Isaac, Coast and Geodetic Survey. 1325 Corcoran street. 1895. Woods, Elliott, Architect’s Office, Capitol. Congressional Hotel. 1874. Yarrow, Dr. H. C. (Harry Crecy), 814 Seventeenth street. 1897. Yates, Charles C. (Charles Colt), Coast and Geodetic Survey. ABSENT MEMBERS. 1884. Bean, T. H. (Tarleton Ploffman). 1875. Beardslee, Rear Aml. L. A. (Lester Anthony), U. S. N. 1881. Bell, C. A. (Chichester Alexander). 1886. Beyer, Dr. H. G. (Henry Gustav), U. S. N. 1871. Billings, Dr. J. S. (John Shaw), U. S. A. 1876. Birnie, Capt. Rogers, U. S. A. 1884. Bowles, Nav. Con’r F. T. (Francis Tiffany), U. S. N. 1882. Caziarc, Capt. Louis V. (Louis Vasmar), U. S. A. 2113 S street. 1626 S street. LIST OF MEMBERS. XXV 1883. Chamberlin, T. C. (Thomas Chrowder). 1880. Comstock, J. H. (.John Henry). 1890. E akins, L. G. (Lincoln Grant). 1871. Eastman, Prof. J. R. (John Robie), U. S. N. 1888. Edes, R. T. (Robert Thaxter). 1871. Eldridge, Stuart. 1897. Emerson, L. Eugene. 1873. Endlich, F. M. (Frederic Miller). 1874. Ewing, Hugh. 1889. Fassig, 0. L. (Oliver Lanard). 1882. Flint, A. S. (Albert Stowell). 1891. Gihon, Dr. Albert L. (Albert Leary), U. S. N. 1885. Gooch, F. A. (Frank Austin). 1886. Gordon, J. C. (Joseph Claybaugh). 1878. Graves, W. H. (Walter Hayden). 1875. Green, Comdr. F. M. (Francis Mathews), U. S. N. 1871. Greene, Prof. B. F. (Benjamin Franklin), U. S. N. 1883. Greene, Brig. Gen. Francis V., U. S. A. 1879. Hains, Lt. Col. P. C. (Peter Conover), U. S. A. 1871. Hall, Prof. Asaph, U. S. N. 1884. Hall, Prof. Asaph, Jr. 1885. Hallock, William. 1891. Harrington, Mark W. (Mark Walrod). 1880. Hassler, F. A. (Ferdinand Augustus). 1894. Hedrick, J. T. (John Thompson). 1874. Henshaw, H. W. (Henry Wetherbee). 1879. Hill, G. W. (George William). 1884. Hitchcock, Romyn. 1873. Holden, E. S. (Edward Singleton). 1887. Holmes, Jesse H. (Jesse Herman). 1885. Iddings, Joseph P. (Joseph Paxson). 1884. Kerr, Mark B. (Mark Brickell). 1880. Kilbourne, Maj. C. E. (Charles Evans), U. S. A. 1886. McAdie, Alexander. 4— Bull. Phil. Soc., Wash., Vol. 13. XXVI PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 1876. McMurtrie, William. 1885. Mendenhall, T. C. (Thomas Corwin). 1885. Moser, Lt. Com’r J. F. (Jefferson Franklin), U. S. N. 1884. Murdoch, John. 1878. Osborne, J. W. (John Walter). 1895. Pawling, Jesse, Jr. 1882. Pope, Dr. B. F. (Benjamin Franklin), U. S. A. 1884. Ray, Capt. P. H. (Patrick Henry), U. S. A. 1884. Ricksecker, Eugene. 1879. Ritter, W. F. McK. (William Francis McKnight). 1884. Robinson, Thomas. 1872. Rogers, Joseph A. (Joseph Addison). 1882. Russell, Israel C. (Israel Cook). 1883. Sampson, Rear Adm’l W. T. (William Thomas), U. S. N. 1896. Saussure, Rene de. 1883. Skinner, Dr. J. O. (John Oscar), U. S. A. 1887. Smyth, H. L. (Henry Lloyd). 1874. Stone, Ormond. 1881. Taylor, F. W. (Frederick William). 1878. Todd, David P. (David Peck). 1886. Trenholm, Wm. L. (William Lee). 1880. Upton, Winslow. 1890. Van Hise, C. R. (Charles Richard).. 1881. Waldo, Frank. 1882. Webster, Albert L. (Albert Lowry). 1887. Wilson, H. C. (Herbert Couper). 1875. Wood, Joseph. 1885. Wright, Geo. M. (George Mitchell). 1887. Wurdemann, H. V. (Harry Vanderbilt). 1884. Yeates, W. S. (William Smith). 1885. Ziwet, Alexander. Active members . 105 Absent members . 73 Total . . . 178 CENTRAL AMERICAN RAINFALL. BY Mark Walrod Harrington. [Read before the Society March 2, 1895.] CONTENTS. Page. 1. The observations . 1 2. General geographic conditions . 3 3. The annual rainfall . 6 4. Distribution through the year . 11 5. Distribution through the day at San Jose, Costa Rica . 17 6. Yariations of rainfall . 19 7. Tables . 22 8. Plates . . facing 30 1. The Observations. — The best series of rainfall observa¬ tions in Central America is that taken at San Jose, Costa Rica. The series is a long one, and in its last three years the ob¬ servations were taken with the outfit and under the condi¬ tions and requirements for a station of the first order, as agreed upon by the international committee representing the chief government weather services. This means that the record of the principal elements is made automatically, and also that it is published in extenso. The observatory is conducted by Professor Enrique Pittier. The next best series of rainfall observations is that of Dr. Earl Flint at Rivas, on the western shore of Lake Nicaragua. Here we have an uninterrupted series for fifteen years taken by the same observer, and this observer an educated physician who takes especial interest in problems of rainfall. Next to these come the observations made along the course of the Panama 1— Bull. Phil. Soc., Wash., Vol. 13. (1) 2 HARRINGTON. canal. Of these we have nineteen years at Colon or Aspin- wall, six .years at Gamboa, on the watershed, and fourteen years at Panama, Naos island, and Taboga island. Naos is a small island in the Gulf of Panama, about a mile south of the town, and Taboga is a larger island, about 10 miles south. The last six years of the observations at Colon and all those at Gamboa and Naos island were taken under the rules of the French meteorological service. The series at Guatemala City come next in order of im¬ portance. They were apparently taken with care, although by several different persons, and in part were cared for by the director of the astronomical observatory. At Belize the number of years is greater, but the series is much broken, be¬ ginning in 1848 and ending in 1894. There are probably fortyfive years of rainfall observations at Belize existing, but they do not seem to have been consulted by any me¬ teorologist who has discussed the Central American rainfall, are apparently not in print, and no trace of them was found when I visited that city several years ago. Most of them will probably be found among the papers of Judge S. Cock- burn, who took great interest in the rainfall of the colony. I have been able to use a publication of his for private cir¬ culation, with manuscript additions, sent to the Smithsonian Institution in 1870. The records of a few years’ observations at San Salvador, taken in connection with an astronomical observatory, have been published. At the remaining points (twentyone in number, making thirty one stations in all ; see Table I) the observations are more fragmentary, the usual guarantees of minute care are generally lacking, and our information about details is incomplete. These observations have been dug out from many publications, chiefly the Meteorologische Zeitschrift and the dozen or so government reports on the various proposed canals from Darien to Honduras. In Alta Verapaz, a recently formed province of Guatemala, Dr. Karl Sapper has lately established a series of stations among the coffee planters to study the remarkable rainfall of that district. With one station (Salama) in Baja Verapaz he has CENTRAL AMERICAN RAINFALL. 3 ten in all, nine in Alta Verapaz. The latter department is on the northern slope of an eastern and western moun¬ tain range, apparently the Sierra de las Minas of the maps, but if so the maps are wrong or the range has moved 15' or 20' north in latitude since the maps were made ; but there are many things on the maps of Guatemala which are not in Guatemala itself, and vice versa. As the reports from the various stations in Alta Verapaz are fragmentary, I have generally combined them into one and used that as a repre¬ sentative value. There is, so far as I am informed, not a rainfall observa¬ tion from the Republic of Honduras, and I have therefore pieced out my information there by reports of travelers, especially Squier, and by statements made to me when I visited that country some years ago. The information along the proposed routes of the Nica¬ ragua canal is considerable, though fragmentary, except at Rivas. At San Jose Dr. Pittier established three outlying stations, at one of which, Heredia, observations had been taken before. Of these three stations Agua Caliente proves very interesting, as it has a transition rainfall between that of the eastern and western coasts. Of those who have previously studied the Central Ameri¬ can rainfall we may mention the papers of Dr. Moritz Wagner,* Dr. A. von Frantzius,t Pittier, { and the more general studies shown in rainfall publications of Schott, of Loomis, and those of Koeppen § and Hann.|| 2. General Geographic Conditions. — From Darien to Yuca¬ tan stretches a narrow, irregular land surface, washed on * Beitrage zur meteorologie und klimatologie von Mittel- Amerika. 4°. Dresden, 1864, 31 pp. Separate from vol. 31 of Yerh. der kais. L. C. deutschen akademie der naturforscher. fVersuch einer wiss. begrundung der klimat. verhaltnisse Central Amerika’s. In Zeitschrift fur erdkunde. 8°. Berlin, 1868, pp. 289-319. t Annales del instituto fisico-geografico, etc. 4°. San Jose de C. R., 189—. I Berghaus’ physik. atlas, fol. Gotha, 1887. Abtheil. Ill, 1887, Atlas der meteorologie. || Handbuch der klimatologie. 12°. Stuttgart, 1883. 4 HARRINGTON. each side by a tropical sea. It extends through ten degrees of latitude (from 8° north to 18° north) and is 1,200 miles long by from 30 to 300 miles broad. It has an average width of 150 miles and a population of 18 per square mile — a density closely equal to that of the United States as a whole, includ¬ ing Alaska, or that of Minnesota or Kansas. Through the center of this band runs a backbone of mountains, generally less than 10,000 feet high, and for full half of the distance less than 6,000 feet, sometimes descending to moderate hills, at others expanding fan shaped to form extensive plateaus of 3,000 feet or more. The coasts are rarely high, and along a considerable part of them is an area little above sealevel, marked by lagoons and floods. Generally this strip is nar¬ row, but along the Mosquito Coast for a distance of 300 miles it has a breadth of 100 to 150 miles. The western versant is more rapid than the eastern. Over this area, twice in its annual course, the sun occupies the zenith at noon. Except for the variations caused by the sun’s annual motion the whole east coast is reached by the northeast trades, and these in many places appear to cross the divide and descend on the western side. None of the mountains are so high as to have perpetual snow, and on only a few in the north is there a regular snowfall in winter. The division into temperature zones here is better marked than in Mexico. The lowest is the hot zone, along the coast to elevations of 300 to 400 feet. It is hot, humid, marshy, and malarial, and especially along the Atlantic side makes one of the hottest regions in the world, though its reputa¬ tion for especial unhealthfulness does not appear to be justi¬ fied. This zone is the home of the banana. The second extends up to 3,500 feet, is warm and vernal, only moderately well watered, and is the home of the coffee tree and pine¬ apple. The third is cool, rather dry, the home of the cereals and the fruits of the temperate zone, while the sugarcane and cotton are found in its lower altitudes and the upper of the preceding zone. These two zones form the most thickly populated part of Central America and are entirety salu- CENTRAL AMERICAN RAINFALL. 5 brious. They are often classed together as the tierra tem- plada. The last is the cold zone, above 7,500 feet, where precipitation is scanty, frosts abound, and snow is no rarity. The rainfall in this region is typically tropical and fol¬ lows the sun, giving a dry season when the sun is south of the equator and a wet season when he is north, and giving a maximum rainfall in or near the month when he is in the zenith of the station of observation. This means two maxima per year ; so that there are two rainy seasons, with a long and a short interval between them. The long dry season is in the months corresponding to our winter and spring, and is called the verano. It extends from December to April. The wet season is from May to November, and is called the invierno , while the short drier season is in August, and is called the veranillo or little verano ; also the verano de Augosto. As a simple means of distinguishing these seasons, verano (long dry), invierno (wet), and veranillo (short dry) will be used. Following the seasons through, we have this succession: Beginning with the height of the verano, in April, the weather is serene, clear, and the hottest of the year. On the plateaus it is delightful. With May or June the rainy season {in¬ vierno) sets in.' It is due to local storms, with a striking diurnal course. The morning is cool and fresh. In the later hours of the forenoon cumulus clouds begin to appear about the mountain peaks, and are specially picturesque when hanging about volcanoes. They steadily grow and spread until cirrus streaks begin to extend from their tops, their bases become dark and threatening, and finally, late in the afternoon, the lightning flashes brilliantly, the thunder is loud and startling in its suddenness, and cataracts of water fall from the clouds. This lasts but a short time, and before one retires at night the sky is again clear and the stars re¬ markably brilliant. These thunderstorm phenomena grad¬ ually increase in daily duration and intensity, extending especially into the night, until the time of maximum rain¬ fall, in June. At that time it may begin to rain early in the afternoon and continue nearly all night. The thunder- 6 HARRINGTON. storms then decrease to the veranillo, at which time they may cease entirely for a few days or weeks. They begin again after it and reach a second maximum in October, when they gradually decrease until December. The rainfall phenom¬ ena, though short and intense, are very local in area and have marked limitations in time. Their intensity is largely a question of topography and wind. Hence the most marked and striking variations exist, similar to those of local storms elsewhere, but more marked in character. Hence also marked localization of rainfall. A few rods will sometimes make one pass from within a torrential rain to a spot without rain. Hence also remarkable variations in the rainfall from year to year or in the same month of successive years or in the monthly rainfall at adjacent stations. 3. The Annual Rainfall. — The observations on which we have to rely are rarely synchronous, and consist chiefly of a few years’ observations at each station, but scattered at the various stations through half a century. This makes it necessary to compare the longer series and see if there is any periodicity to be found of such character as to render it necessary to adjust the observations to the same date. Such a comparison is given in Table II for the ten or (combining Panama, Naos, and Taboga) eight best series, and a succes¬ sion of maxima and minima at once appear, the ratio be¬ tween the two being 4 to 7, 5 to 9, and even greater in some cases. It appears that the times of maxima are practically the same throughout Central America, and are as follows : Maximum. 1856.. . 1861.. . 1866-7 1872 . . 1878-9. 1886-7 1893. . . Interval of years. 5 8 6* These show a fairly regular periodicity of 5 to 8 years, not regular enough to justify discussion in such a fragmen¬ tary series of observations, but regular and large enough to CENTRAL AMERICAN RAINFALL. 7 require adjustment if we are to have amounts for which comparisons are significant. I have therefore adjusted the actual annual values to get comparable means, using both the periods and a well known and safe principle of meteor¬ ological interpolation, which runs as follows: “In the long run the meteorological elements of neighboring stations vary together and in much the same ratio.” To piece out my statistics I have further interpolated an¬ nual values when I had less than twelve but more than eight months’ of observations. In the case of Punta Gorda, in British Honduras, I have gone so far as to make an annual mean based on two months’ observations, an inspection of the place, and common report. For instance, about Lake Izabal, at sealevel and not far from Punta Gorda, the com¬ mon saying is that it rains thirteen months out of every twrelve. There is no doubt that the rainfall at the head of the Gul'f of Honduras is very high, and the two months’ observation available from Punta Gorda, compared with Belize, enabled me to guess how high with an approxima¬ tion better than nothing. The adjusted annual values appear in the second column of Table III and are entered on the chart for annual rainfall, Plate 1. Several interesting conclusions appear at once : 1. The rainfall is greater on the Atlantic than on the Pacific side as two or three to one. 2. The greatest annual rainfall observed is at Greytown, Nicaragua, where it reaches the enormous total of over twenty feet — a figure surpassed in America only on the Mexican Gulf coast, in the West Indies, Guiana, and on the coast of Brazil. 3. The next greatest is in Alta Verapaz, on the northern slopes of mountains, and on the adjoining southern part of British Honduras. Next to this comes the east coast of Panama. 4. The region of smallest rainfall is along upper plateaus in most of Central America proper, but moving to the south¬ ern coast in the Isthmus region. The area sketched on the 8 HARRINGTON. map as below fifty inches of annual rainfall is based on the rainfall observed at Salama, in Baja Verapaz ; on the state¬ ment quoted by Beclus from Dollfuss and Mont Serrat for the altos or high plains in northwestern Guatemala, the re¬ gion from which the streams radiate; on the common state¬ ment in that region that the upper part of the Motagua basin is the most arid part of Guatemala; and on state¬ ments of Squier, especially his estimate of forty eight inches for the upper part of Honduras. This region occupies the higher plateaus, but appears to extend farther down on the Pacific versant than on the Atlantic. I have terminated it near the Nicaraguan border simply because I have no evi¬ dence to take me further. It reappears in Costa Pica, at Agua Caliente, and then apparently passes over into the Gulf of Panama. To account for this distribution of rainfall we have the following causes of rain : The equatorial rainbelt which accompanies the sun in his annual journeys north and south, and gives rain at the station when he is in the zenith ; the trade winds, which are here northeast and which since leaving the West Indies have traversed the warm Caribbean sea ; the rains which come down on winds from the north after crossing the warm Gulf of Mexico ; and the cyclonic rains, which accompany the great atmospheric disturbances occuringat certain seasons in the West Indies. Calling the first the invierno rain, the second the trade rain, the third the norther ram, and the fourth the cyclonic rain, we have : On the Pacific coast, invierno alone. South of the Gulf of Campeachy and north of the moun¬ tain ranges, Invierno + norther , or more easterly, Invierno + cyclonic. From Cape Gracias a Dios southward, Invierno + trade , and possibly for its northern part also + cyclonic. CENTRAL AMERICAN RAINFALL. 9 That the cyclones reach at times to the Bay of Honduras is known by the fact that they have at least twice devastated Roatan. In Belize people are accustomed to say that the hurricane winds do not reach them, but the accompanying rain and sea do, and, as a matter of history, there appears to be no record of injury in Belize by hurricane winds. The cyclones are certainly felt to the north of Cape Gracias a Dios. How much farther south this influence extends is not so clear. The character of the rainfall and the baro¬ metric variations would indicate that they occasionally affect the Mosquito Coast, and a slight barometric variation here means a heavy response in rainfall. The northers give a heavy autumn and early winter rainfall in Alta Verapaz, according to the testimony and observations of Dr. Sapper. This rainfall comes with char¬ acteristics of our northern general rains. The sky is con¬ tinuously cloudy, the rain is steady and lasts several days. On the north coast of Spanish Honduras the northers are well known, but here a distinction is made between dry northers and wet ones ; the former are more easterly and bring charming dry weather; the latter bring heavy rains. Still farther south, but now on the plateaus, as far south as Rivas and even to the Gulf of Panama, perhaps once or twice a year at Rivas and once in two or three years at San Jose, there occurs a week or so in autumn which is called temporal . During this time the sky is continuously cloudy, the air is chill, the wind is northerly, and it fogs or mists or gently rains. The native, with his love of warmth and brightness, has a horror of the temporal. It appears, there¬ fore, that the northers may reach far south on the plateau, though they drop the most of their rain on the northern mountains and coasts. An interesting fact to be deduced from the observations is the variation of the rainfall wflth elevation. Taking the Alta Verapaz stations with a full year’s record, we have: 2 — Bull. Phil. Soe., Wash., Vol.13. 10 HARRINGTON. Station. Elevation. Rainfall. Cubilguitz . Feet. 984 2,395 2,789 3,248 4,100 4,285 Inches . 167 202 222 170 150 98 Setal . . . Chiacam . . . Senahu . Panzamala . Chimax. . . In this case we have a maximum at about 2,500 feet of elevation — the decrease below due perhaps to sheltering mountains to the north. These winds, as was to be ex¬ pected, are of very considerable depth or force and carry rain up to heights of 4,000 or 5,000 feet. On the east coast the stations are at sealevel, and we have no opportunity to test the effect of elevation except at Colon and Gamboa. In the investigations for the Nicaragua canal, however, observations were taken in the San Juan valley by the engineers from April to September, 1851. Reducing these by means of Rivas to the later years, and then expand¬ ing by comparison of the months with those at Greytown, we get an annual rainfall of about 120 inches. The region occupied by the surveying party was well down the San Juan river, at a height certainly less than 100 feet (Lake Nicaragua, 130 feet). From this it appears that the trade which brings such enormous rains at Greytown is lessened in effect by a half or more in an ascent of less than 100 feet. Facts of the same character appear at Colon and Gamboa. The latter is on the watershed, and the instrument was 102 feet above sealevel. The rainfall at the former is a third larger than at the latter. If we consider that only a part of this rain is of trade origin, and that, as is to be shown, the invierno is little affected at elevations below 3,000 or 4,000 feet, we may conclude that the rain bearing stratum of the trades here is very shallow, and that most of its rain is dropped at elevations less than 500 feet. CENTRAL AMERICAN RAINFALL. 11 Turning now to the lower central plateaus and the Pacific versant, where we have the typical invierno , we find : Station. Elevation. Rainfall. Cor into . Feet Sealevel 200 218 2,156 3,724 4,265 4,856 Inches. 90 |}eo± 72 S}64± 54 Rivas . Granada . . . San Salvador . . . San Jose . Tres Rios . . . . . Guatemala . Here the interpretation is not simple, but it is safe to conclude that up to 4,000 feet there is very little varia¬ tion with height, and that the variation with topogra- Phy [ { Granada ( or { Tres Rios } ] is much more imPor- tant than that with the elevation. There is some indication of a maximum at 2,000 to 2,500 feet, as in Alta Verapaz. 4. Distribution through the Year. — If we examine the dis¬ tribution of rainfall and of rainy days we find that there are four fairly distinct types, as shown by Table IV and Plates 2 and 3. I. A type with typical invierno occupying the plateaus of moderate elevation and the Pacific versant from the north to southern Costa Rica and probably to the Gulf of Panama. It is characterized by maximum rainfall in June and in October, by almost no rainfall from November to April (the verano), and by a secondary minimum in August. The last is the veranillo, already referred to, and often consists of an almost complete cessation of rain for a week or fortnight. Comparing the curves of amounts of rain with that of the number of rainy days in the diagram, we find that what little rainfall comes in the verano is scattered through a rela¬ tively large number of days and is therefore very light, while that of the maxima (June and October) is scattered through relatively few days and is consequently heavy. This is 12 HARRINGTON. especially and remarkably true for October, when what rain falls is very heavy. The succession of the seasons on the more southern coasts in this region are thus described by Findlay in his Direc¬ tory of the North Pacific : On the coast during the fine season, which commences in November and ends in May, the land and sea breezes blow alternately, with a clear sky and but little rain. Strong winds rarely occur during this period. * * * Occasionally a strong breeze from the northward may be ex¬ perienced. In the rainy reason, May to November, heavy rains, calms, light vari¬ able breezes, with a close, sultry atmosphere, heavy squalls, with thunder and lightning, and not unfrequently strong gales from the southwest, are prevalent. During the fine season the land and sea breezes set in regularly ; the former are called el Terral and the latter la Virazon. The only winds to be guarded against at this season are the northers [more properly the Papagayos]. These violent gusts give no warning but the noise created by them a few. moments before they burst. Sometimes a thick fog sets in beforehand, which is dissipated at the first gust. These gusts are more frequent near the Gulf of Tehuantepec or abreast of the Gulf of Papagayos. In the rainy season calms are frequent and the sea and land breezes which are felt on fine days have no regularity. The prevalent winds then are from southeast to southwest, blowing strongly and in squalls, bringing bad weather and torrents of rain for twelve or fourteen days in succession. During this season, nearly every afternoon about 3 or 4 o’clock a violent gust sets in from the northeast and lasts until daylight. These gales are called chubascas, and resemble the tornadoes of the African coast. On the Mexican and Guatemalan coasts the invierno rains often come on strong, squally winds from the southwest, called Cordonazo de San Francisco (Castigation of St. Francis), and suspected of being occasional extensions of the southern trade winds. They occur from July to October. It may be noted that throughout the region of Type I an idea is prevalent that the rainfall is decreasing and that this decrease is due to the rapid deforesting of the country. This idea is not justified by Table II, which gives the annual rainfall for the years, and its basis is probably to be found in the marked periodicity already pointed out. CENTRAL AMERICAN RAINFALL. 13 II. The second type is in the northeast and has the in- vierno extended to January, with maxima in June and Octo¬ ber, as in No. 1 . The verano is encroached upon ; there is no absolutely dry month, but April is the driest ; and the verano rainfalls are relatively light. The veranillo is well marked and the rainfall in June and October is very heavy when it does fall — that is, its intensity or density is great. As to details for Alta Yerapaz, which are of great interest and have only recently become known, the following ac¬ count is condensed from the statements of Dr. Sapper in the last three volumes of the Meteor ologische Zeitschrift. The chief climatic peculiarity of this northern slope is the occurrence of winter rains (October to January) in ad¬ dition to the usual invierno. In the winter rainfall season electric phenomena are unusual, and for a month or two completely fail; moreover, the rain when it comes is gentler than in summer, shows no distinct diurnal period as it does in the summer season, and may last several days. In short, it shows rather the character of the general storms of the temperate latitudes, while the summer season rainfalls are more of the nature of our local storms. During these win¬ ter rains stratus is the characteristic cloud form, the sky is often clouded continuously for days, and a light rainfall may continue with slight interruptions from day to day. The wind is higher than in the summer rains and the tem¬ perature is cool. From February to April in Alta Verapaz the weather is relatively dry; both the number of days of rain and the rainfall of each are relatively small. In autumn the sum¬ mer and winter rains are sometimes separated from each other b}r a short dry period. Sometimes the former passes into the latter without an interruption of the rains. In 1889 such a dry season occurred, but in 1890 it was not distin¬ guishable. The two zenithal maxima of thunderstorm fre¬ quency can usually be distinguished and the first is the greater. In general the changes of the barometer are here small, the wind is generally light, moving east and west on 14 HARRINGTON. account of the topography, but the cirrus clouds usually pass north and south. As there are no observations for Spanish Honduras, its division between Types II and III must be justified. This has already been done for its part of Type I. The only thing like observations on rainfall in the Re¬ public of Honduras are those of Thomas Young at the mouth of Rio Negro (latitude 16° north, longitude 85° west) about 1840 and quoted by Squier,* and from this author practically all the notes which follow are taken. According to Young’s notes, March to June was dry, with northeasterly winds and sea breezes; July was wet, with strong sea breezes; August to September was dry, with calms and light variable airs ; October dry or wet, accord¬ ing to the wind, and November to February were wet, with northers. Thus the dry season here extends from March to September, July only being wet in these eight months. The wet season is the four months from November to Feb¬ ruary, with sometimes October. A residence of a few weeks at Puerto Cortez and the reports given me there would in¬ dicate about the same course of the seasons, but July and August were wet. The northers to which reference is here made are thus described in Henderson’s “ Honduras: ” At the beginning of October, what are called the norths commence and generally continue, with little variation, till the return of February or March. While these winds last the mornings and evenings are cold, frequently unpleasantly so ; and what in this country is understood by a wet north might perhaps furnish no very imperfect idea of a November day in England. A dry north , on the contrary, is beautiful, agreeable, and invigorating. At Truxillo rains occur in June and July ; at Santa Tomas, at the extreme west of the north coast of Honduras, they have much rain, with a climate as at Punta Gorda, not far distant. In general, along the north coast from Santa Tomas * Squier (E. G.), The States of Central America. 8°. New York, 1858, pp. 25-43; also Squier (E. G.), Honduras. 8°. London, 1870. The latter is little more than a reprint of that part of the former which relates to Honduras. CENTRAL AMERICAN RAINFALL. 15 to Cape Gracias a Dios, the wet northers occur in the winter months and bring rain. Passing inland to the mahogany districts, and therefore at no great elevation and not far from the coast, the invierno proper resumes sway and heavy rains begin in the latter part of May or in June. The mahogany cutters must “truck” their logs to the river in the dry, to float them in the wet season, and they must not be left exposed long without cov¬ ering or they will “ check.” Squier says (op. cit., p. 197) : “ In the months of April and May, all the various preparations having been completed and the dr}^ season having become sufficiently advanced, the ‘trucking’ commences in earnest. This may be said to be the mahogany cutters’ harvest, as the result of his season’s work depends upon a continuance of the dry weather, for a single shower of rain would materially injure his roads.” And again, as to the floating, he says (p. 198) : “About the end of May the periodical rains again commence. The torrents of water discharged from the clouds are so great as to render the roads impassable in the course of a few hours, when all trucking ceases; the cattle are turned into the pasture and the trucks, gear, and tools, etc., are housed. The rain now pours down incessantly till about the middle of June, when the rivers swell to an immense height. The logs then float down a distance of 200 miles, being followed by the gangs in pitpans (a kind of flat-bottomed canoe) to disengage them from the branches of the overhanging trees, until they are stopped by a boom placed in some situation convenient to the mouth of the river.” At Comayagua, inland and about half way between the Atlantic and Pacific coasts, rain falls every month in the year, but in the dry season of the western versant this rain is only in showers of brief duration, while during the wet season of that coast the Comayagua rains are long and many. Con¬ tinuous rains or temporales are infrequent. Snow sometimes falls on the high plains of Inticubat, but only in thin layers, which soon disappear. In my own observations the evi- 16 HARRINGTON. dences of heavy rainfall rapidly disappeared as one ascended to the interior plateaus, where the population is chiefly gathered. III. The third type has well marked summer, autumn, and winter rains, with three distinct maxima both in amount and intensity, viz., July, November, and January. There is no really dry month, but March is the driest. The veranillo is characterized by slight intensity rather than by absence of rainfall, and the intensity is greatest in the winter rains. At Greytown, says one of the reports on the Nicaragua canal, “ the rainy season ends in January with a norther, which is usually the worst gale at this port. The dry season then lasts until in May, when the rains set in. The begin¬ ning of the rains shift from the first of May to the first of June, but is usually late in May. In the latter part of Au¬ gust and in September there is pleasant, serene weather, with less rain, but in October again set in the daily rains, with disagreeable weather. The only regular winds found at this place are the trade winds, which, however, do not blow constantly. They vary from east by north to north¬ east, generally at east-northeast, are not strong, and rarely last all night, being succeeded about 10 p. in. by light and baffling land breezes, varying between south-southeast and northwest. This place seems to be near the limit of the trades, so they cannot be depended on, though they usually blow every day, but sometimes very light and only for a few hours. Along the coast to the southward still less depend¬ ence can be placed on them, while at Monkey Point, 40 miles to the northward, they are stronger and more reliable.” In the San Juan valley, between Greytown and Lake Nicaragua, there is a record of six months (April to Septem¬ ber) in 1851. They show that the rainfall decreases as the river is ascended and give less than one half as much as at Greytown, and Menocal in 1885 * estimated the annual rain¬ fall of the whole basin at more than 100 inches. Dr. Brans- *Nic. Canal Route Report. 49th Cong., 1st session, Sen. Ex. Doc. No. 99, 1886, p. 37. CENTRAL AMERICAN RAINFALL. 17 ford also says : * “ The rainfall diminishes as we ascend the River San Juan, and after passing the mouth of the San Carlos the weather is bright and pleasant in the dry season, vegetation is not so rank, the land is well adapted to agri¬ culture, and, as it is sufficiently damp for the growth of grass, cattle raising is an easy and lucrative business.” IV. The fourth type is one of transition. It is one in which the zenithal maxima of the invierno of higher lati¬ tudes are separating from each other in preparation for change into the opposite months of the year south of the meteorologic equator. The verano is well marked but brief — January, February, and March. The maxima are in April and November, and the summer dry season is here extended, but only relatively dry, while there is a brief drier season. There is also a season at the end of June when the rains are altogether suspended, but this is too brief to be noticeable on the diagram. This is the veranito or verano of St. John. The succession of the seasons is given by the Hydro- graphic Office in their Coast Pilot : t The wet season commences in May and lasts till November. The rainfall gradually increases until it is fairly established in June, and con¬ tinues through July, August, and September, with strong southerly winds. In December the rains cease, the northwrest and north-northwest winds set in, producing an immediate change. During the dry season regular land and sea breezes blow. The sea breeze sets in about 10:30 a. m. from south-southwest, and generally increases in force until about 3:30 p. m., after which it gradually subsides and at sundown is quite calm. 5. Distribution through the Day at San Jose , Costa Rica. — The rainfall of the invierno has a marked diurnal periodic¬ ity ; with the trade-wind rainfall this periodicity is less marked, and with the rain from cyclonic sources or from northers the diurnal variation is nearly suppressed. The diurnal features are, therefore, best marked in the region of typical invierno , and, as a matter of fact, the observations *43d Cong., 1st session, Sen. Ex. Doc. No. 57, 1874, p. 114. t Publication No. 84. West Coast of Mexico and Central America, etc. 8°. 2d edition, 1893, p. 238. 3— Bull. Phil. Soe., Wash.. Vol. 13. 18 HARRINGTON. published permit us to study its details only at San Jose, which is in this region and is, moreover, quite free from non¬ periodic disturbances of the barometer, and therefore from cyclonic action. The hourly observations available were for the three years 1889, 1890, and 1891. The combination of these observations by hours and months is given in Table VIII and represented graphically on Plate 4, where the hours (two by two) are represented by the horizontal lines, and the months by the vertical lines, the annual rainfall for the hour in that month in inches being placed at the inter¬ section of these lines. The culmination of the rainfall at from 4 to 6 in September and October is very manifest. In October more than half the rain falls in the three hours from 3 to 6 p. m., and two-thirds in the five hours from 1 to 6 p. m. A similar statement may be made for the months, viz., at 4 p. m. more than half the rain falls in August, Sep¬ tember, and October. In January the little rainfall is in the morning hours, but generally speaking the rain does not begin here until noon, nor fall after 10 p. m., so that practically all the rainfall is confined to the afternoon hours and nearly all to the five hours from 1 p. m. to 6 p. m. The same order of facts is shown in the number of hours of rainfall for each month of the year, for the calculation of which observations are available at San Jose for ten years. The results are : January . . per year. February . U i t March . . . U C6 April . . 16 << CC U May . . 74 (C t c u June . . 66 u 1 1 u July . . . 65 u u u August . . 89 C i u cc September . . 77 i c cc cc October . . 94 u cc cc November . . 34 u cc cc December . . 18 C l cc cc Total . . 550 < c ti u CENTRAL AMERICAN RAINFALL. 19 6. Variations of Rainfall. — The periodic variations have already been noted. The values for different years may vary as 2 to 1 or even as 3 to 1 (see columns 5 and 8, Table III, p. 24.) The monthly variations are still greater, and are greatest for the months following the dry season, especially May. This means only that the invierno begins earlier some years than others, and the date of its commencement may vary a full month. Of yet greater interest are the maximum daily rainfalls (see column 7, Table III, p. 24), and these are most significant when given as percentages of the total annual rainfall. Maximum Daily Rainfall. Station. Month. Inches. Percentage of annual rainfall. Guatemala . . August . 3.88 7.2 Alta Verapaz (Setal) . November . . . 9.58 (212) 3.39 4.5 Salamd . . . June . 12.1 San Salvador . October . 2.38 3.3 Rivas . . . October . 4.58 7.0 San Jos6. . . July . 5.04 7.4 Tres Rios . October . 3.43 5.7 Colon . May . 5.17 4.2 Gamboa . . August . 6.23 6.6 Panama . August . 6.42 13.1 Of the 9.58 inches at Setal, 7.12 inches fell during the night. The absolute maxima of rainfall can be obtained only from long series of observations, and these series are gener¬ ally short. It is therefore safe to say that from 7 to 10 per cent of the total annual rainfall may descend in one day in Central America, and that for the drier invierno region this percentage may reach from 10 to 15 per cent. This sounds extraordinary, and certainly the fall of from 4 to 10 inches of rainfall in one day, and usually in a few hours, gives one a striking idea of how the rain descends in 20 HARRINGTON. tropical regions. It is sometimes not a rain, but a celestial cataract. At San Jose we are able to get some idea of the maximum rainfall per hour during the three years of hourly observa¬ tions available. It is, of course, an afternoon hour, and is noteworthy only from May to October, when the maxima actually observed had the following values : May . June . July . August. . . . September Oct.ober. . . 1.90 inches. 1.02 “ 1.36 “ 1.13 “ 1.15 “ 1.39 “ That is, the greatest hourly rainfall observed at San Jose wTas 1.9 inches, or a rate of 46 inches, nearly 4 feet, per day. The results of such enormous falls of rain have often been described and can easily be imagined. The dry stream beds or quebradas, very common on the plateaus, are rapidly filled; the water comes down in a wall several feet high ; the camp¬ ing place, 2 to 6 feet above the water, is overflowed, and soon the new camping place, hastily sought in the dark and several feet higher, is also overflowed. In such a country as Mosquitia dry stream beds become rivers, marshes change to lakes, and the. natives temporarily take to the trees or to their boats. While all this is striking, it is by no means unparalleled in temperate regions. Symons records an English rainfall of 6.8 inches in one day ; 7.5 inches in a day is no great rarity in the United States, while the Gulf and Atlantic coasts are subject to occasional falls of 10 inches in one day, and Boise, Idaho, once reported 18 inches. At Joyeuse,* in the Rhone valley, 29.3 inches were recorded in one day in October, 1827, and at Gibraltar* November, 1826, 30.9 inches are said to have fallen in that time. The difference between such falls of rain in the tropics and in the temperate zones is chiefly that in the latter they are occasional, while in the * Wagner, op. cit., p. 16. CENTRAL AMERICAN RAINFALL. 21 tropics they are customary. These conditions are especially interesting from the standpoint of the possible ship canals in Central America. Though the information is scanty, it appears to have been such a rainfall in 1887 which began the disasters of the Panama canal. It must be acknowl¬ edged that the conditions at Suez, Sault Ste. Marie, and the Welland canal are in this respect very favorable, for with them the question of sudden floods does not enter. It enters in the case of the great ship canal of St. Petersburg-Cron- stadt and of those of the Ganges-Brahmaputra delta, but in these cases there are no changes of level sufficient to make the use of locks necessary. Indeed, the use of locks on ship canals whose feeders are subject to sudden and violent floods appears to present a new engineering problem, first met in the Panama canal. Note. — Since reading this paper my attention has been called to two remarkable daily rainfalls recorded in Nature , vol. xlviii, pp. 3 and 77. At Crohamhurst, Queensland, Australia, from 9 a. m. February 2 to 9 a. m. February 3, 1893, there fell 35.7 inches of rain. Crohamhurst is in latitude 26° 50* south, longitude 152° 55' east, and has an elevation of about 1,400 feet above the sea. The report was made by Mr. Clement L. Wragge, government meteorologist for the colony. Mr. E. Douglas Archibald reports for Chirapunji, Khasia Hills, British India,, on June 14, 1876, 40.8 inches of rain. These are probably the highest daily rainfalls recorded. 22 HARRINGTON Table I. Stations. Station. State. Latitude north. Longitude west. Altitude in feet. Begun. o' 52 srva- ns. ■73 O T5 a ■ w Number of years. Guatemala City . Guatemala . 14° 38' 90° 31' 4,856 1856 1883 13g- yrs. Chiacam . 15° 50' 90° 15' 2,789 1890 1892 2 “ Chimax . . tt 15° 51' 90° 15' 4,285 1891 1892 2 “ Cubilguitz . it 984 1891 1892 20 mos. Panzamala . a 4,100 1892 12 “ Samae . (( 4,265 1892 6 “ Secoyote . . a 3,806 1892 3 “ Senahn . . it 3,248 1891 1892 16 “ Setal . a 2,395 1891 1892 13 “ Oampnr . . it 15° 54' 90° 10' 2,789 1891 1892 8 “ Sal am A . it 15° 15' 90° 25' 3,068 1891 1892 12 “ Belize . Bi'itish Hon¬ 17° 29' 88° 16' sea 1848 1894 18 yrs. duras. level. Punta Gorda . tt 16° 20' 88° 35' a 1894 2 mos. San Salvador . Salvador . 13° 44' 89° 9' 2,156 1889 1892 40 “ Bluefields . Nicaragua . 12° 0' 83° 43' sea 1883 1886 32 “ level. Greytown . tt 10° 59' 83° 42' 1890 1893 41 “ Rivas . 11° 30' 85° 47' 200 1850 1893 16 yrs. Granada . it 11° 56' 85° 54' 218 1883 1884 2 “ Virgin Bay . it 11° 25' 85° 47' 120 1872 1873 8 mos. Corinto.. . tt 12° 28' 87° 12' sea 1850 1851 13 “ level. San Jose . Costa Rica 9° 56' 84° 8' 3,724 1866 1891 19 yrs. Heredia . . . 9° 59' 84° 9' 3,776 1865 1868 4 “ Tres Rios . . . U 9° 55' 84° 15' 4,265 1889 1890 22 mos. Agua Caliente . it 9° 50' 83° 57' 4,364 1889 1890 2 yrs. Port Limon . tt 10° 0' 83° 3 sea 1865 1866 11 mos. level. Colon . Colombia . 9° 22' 79° 55' «( 1862 1888 19 yrs. Gamboa . it 9° 10' 79° 43' 102 1881 1888 6 “ Naos . t. 8° 57' 79° 31' 46 1881 1888 7 “ Taboga island . ti 8° 48' 79° 32' sea 1861 1866 4 “ level. Panama . 8° 57' 79° 32' it 1879 1882 4 “ Napipi river . a 6° 38' 78° 13' 100 1875 2 mos. CENTRAL AMERICAN RAINFALL. 23 Table II. Annual Rainfall at Principal Stations in Inches. Year. Guatemala. Belize. San Salva¬ dor. GQ Cg > s VD m O l“5 a o3 m Colon. Gamboa. Naos. Panama. Taboga isl¬ and. 1848. . 47.2 1856. . 1857.. 1858. . 1859.. 1860.. 1861.. 1862.. 1863.. 1864. . 1865. . 63.0 54.5 50.2 59.3 48.3 71.7 48.0 42.7 49.8 71.9 48.5 45.2 30.2 53.2 78.8 75.3 67.9 88.9 59.8 86.3 109.4* 115.7* 107.4 129.6 1866. . 63.4 73.5 . 56.1 62.9 75.1 75.6 86.8 55.8 60.8 59.8 50.4 53.4 60.3 86.4 61.5 ' 1867. . 121.6* 120.4 114.2 149.6 99.6 170.2 87.1 137.7 1868 1869 1870 1871 . 1872 . 1873. . 1874. . 1875. . 1876. . 1877. . 1878. . 105.3 91.3 77.6 91.3 63.0 79.4 1879.. 1880. . 1881.. 1882. . 1883 . . 60.6* 49.4 55.2 49.5 84.7 66.3 70.5 45.6 64.4 79.2 61.3 49.8 54.7 34.5 87.2 74.9 55.5 84.4 31.8 66.0 78.3 105.1 103.0* 124.1 111.7 104.5 146.3 137.2 159.7* 69.0 29.5 37.2 41.8 42.6 69.9 51.0* 1884. . 90.6 97.6 103.0 127.4* 1885. . 89.0 69.3 100.2 72.2 1886. . 1887. . 1888. . 59.2 85.2 71.8 65.2 1889. . 106.5 1890. . 1891. . 34.4 73.6 1892. . 1893. . 1894. . 47.3 - Refers to maximum. * refers to interpolations. No interpolations made for less than nine months of a year. 24 HARRINGTON. Table III. Annual Means {adjusted) and Other Annual Values in Inches. Station. Annual. No. of days of rain. Intensity per day. Maximum* Min. in any year. Days of more than one mm. rain. Thunderstorm, days. Vt o3 >* > 03 s June. >> "s t-s 60 3 <1 | Sept. -4-3 O o > o £ © © fi Annual. Guatemala City . 4 3 3 5 15 23 20 21 22 18 7 4 145 Salama . 0 3 3 2 14 19 15 8 15 2 4 0 88 San Salvador . 0 2 3 7 13 23 27 23 21 11 7 2 139 Rivas. . . . . . 4 3 0 1 8 17 13 15 19 22 12 6 120 San Jos6 . . . 5 2 5 8 21 25 23 25 25 26 15 8 188 Heredia.. . . . . 1 1 2 8 18 21 22 18 24 23 14 7 159 Tres Rios . 0 0 1 7 14 16 10 15 18 11 2 0 94 II.— Through the year. Station. a =« l“S 42 <32 P March. April. | May. | June. 3 bo < 3, <32 so o O Nov. © © Q Annual. Chiacam . 20 11 11 10 15 20 21 21 25 20 18 16 208 Chimax . 15 12 10 9 13 23 23 21 25 21 18 15 204 Cubilguitz . 10 8 9 6 20 22 26 15 23 23 17 15 194 Panzamala . . 12 7 6 3 21 19 17 10 11 17 14 8 145 Senahu . 8 6 13 8 24 27 28 26 28 24 18 21 229 Setal . 17 12 14 3 15 27 28 24 28 27 15 13 223 Campur . [15] 13 11 8I 22 25 21 26 27 22 24 21 *231 III.— Through the year. Station. d o3 42 © | March. | April. May. | June. 3 t-s Aug. Sept. o O 18 20 > o £ 22 12 © © P 12 19 eS 3 3 3 223 171 Bluefields . Agua Caliente. . 18 15 10 4 13 5 14 10 12 13 25 18 31 18 25 18 33 19 IV.- -Summer and winter rains. Station. 3 03 •-S 43 © | March. j April. >> «3 a June. July. to 3 Sept. Oct. > o £ © © Q Annual Colon and Aspinwall . 11 10 7 10 20 23 25 24 21 22 25 19 217 Gamboa . 3 2 2 8 19 18 19 21 21 20 21 11 165 Naos island . 4 1 1 5 13 13 12 15 15 17 17 12 125 28 HARRINGTON, Table VI. Bays of more than 1 mm. of Rainfall. I.— Typical invierno. Station. a ►"3 Feb. March. | April. >> <3 June. 3 1-5 60 S3 <3 +3 ft ® 32 o O > o & 4 8 2 © © ft 0 4 0 oS S3 S3 S3 <3 63 130 94 Salama . San Jose . Heredia . . . 0 2 0 0 2 0 0 0 1 0 2 7 11 16 14 15 20 16 12 13 10 6 22 15 13 23 18 2 18 11 II. — Rainfall through the year. Station. a c3 •“5 X! 0) P A © s $ >> oS £ © S3 S3 1-5 >> 3 1-5 60 S3 <3 ft © CQ "© O > o £ 6 ' > 3 1-5 60 S3 <3 ft © CO +3 o O > o £ © © P S3 S3 a > 3 l-S ■ Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Max. Guatemala City . 1.57 0.72 1.17 2.22 1.93 3.00 2.96 3.88 3.37 332 1.00 0.29 3.88 Rivas . 1 36 0.33 0.07 0 67 4 09 3.40 2.71 3 98 2.83 4.58 3.15 1.21 4 58 San Jos6 . . 0.51 0.08 0 79 0,75 3.31 2.05 5,04 2.40 2.40 2.24 1.02 0.42 5.04 Tres Rios . 0.0 0.0 1.02 1.22 3.31 1.77 1.18 1.69 1.38 3.43 1.57 0.0 3.43 II. — Rainfall throughout the year. Jan. Feb. March. | April. May. 1 June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Max. Belize . . Setal . 2.0 1.2 1.5 0.5 2.2 1.5 1.6 7.4 60 4.7 3 1 4.2 7.4 9.6 III. — Rainfall throughout the year. d c3 £ (D o u cS § Cl, <1 >> c3 s © a 2 *-z >» 3 ►-s 2 < Cu o £ 6 © ft a s Bluefields . Agua Caliente . 2.4 0.6 1.2 0.5 1.0 1.4 0.7 0.8 1.0 2.0 1.5 1.1 3.4 1.5 1.6 1.9 1.4 1.3 0.6 2.2 1.3 0.7 1.4 1.9 34 2.2 IV. — Rainfall summer and winter. 2 o3 *-s ,Q 3 o 3 S < >> 03 s 6 d a 3 l-S SJC 2 < -A cu © CO O O cJ © ft o3 £ Colon . Gamboa . Naos island . 1.2 1.0 0.8 1.8 0.5 0.2 0.6 0.4 1.3 4.5 2.8 1.0 4.1 38 2 5 3.3 5.5 2.4 4.2 3.2 26 5.6 6 2 1.9 3.2 3.2 3.1 4.7 5.4 1.8 6 2 4.0 2.2 3.8 3.4 2.1 6.2 6.2 3.1 30 HARRINGTON. Table VIII. AMOUNTS OF HOURLY RAINFALL. Mean for three Years (1889-91). Station, San JosS, Costa Rica. d cS ,Q o o CD U CROSS SECTION OF CONTINENT NEAR 39th PARALLEL. RESULTS OF A TRANSCONTINENTAL SERIES OF GRAVITY MEASUREMENTS. BY George Rockwell Putnam. [Read before the Society, February 2, 1895, and published by permission of the Superintendent of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey.] The value of pendulum measurements of gravity in con¬ nection with problems important alike to geodesy and terres¬ trial physics can be fully developed only by their systematic distribution over the earth’s surface. A prominent member of this Society wrote a few years since “pendulum observa¬ tions are far too few for the wants of geographic or geologic science.” The great expense and labor connected with these determinations, using the older instruments and methods, acted as such a prohibition to their extension that the entire subject was practically neglected for half a century, but within recent years interest has revived to so great a degree that the total number of stations determined is now prob¬ ably five times the number available (122) when Professor Helmert, in 1880, made his elaborate discussion of pendulum observations to deduce the figure of the earth. This has been largely brought about by the introduction of more portable apparatus. A quarter meter pendulum and an elegant method of using a chronometer in observing coinci¬ dences were first employed by Lieutenant Colonel Yon Ster- neck, in Austria, about thirteen years ago, and the use of a half meter pendulum was developed by Commandant Def- 5 — Bull. Phil. Soc., Wash., Voh 13. (31) 32 PUTNAM. forges, in France, a little later. At present almost every nation carrying on geodetic surveys has taken up this sub¬ ject to a greater or less extent. A few years since, Dr. T. C. Mendenhall designed for use on the Coast and Geodetic Survey a half second pendulum apparatus differing in im¬ portant respects from that used in Austria, although previous to that time valuable experimental and field research had been carried on for the Survey in this line by Mr. Charles S. Peirce, Mr. E. D. Preston, and others, principally in connec¬ tion with various foreign expeditions. During the past year an extensive series of gravity measurements was made in the United States with the half second pendulums, employing convenient methods not heretofore thought applicable to such small apparatus, and in addition instruments more portable than any before used, were tested. It is the pur¬ pose of the present paper to briefly describe this work and to give a summary of the results. Measurements of the force of gravity relative to the base station, Washington, were made at twenty six stations, the fieldwork occupying 150 days. The famous series carried out in India in connection with the Great Trigonometrical Survey, comprising thirty one stations, required six years for its completion. Some allowance should, however, be made for the poor transportation facilities existing there. It is true that work more rapid than that of the past season, has been performed in Europe, but this has been done only by using approximate methods in rating chronometers and in comparing the pendulums therewith. Of the present series as planned by Dr. Mendenhall, eighteen stations follow at fairly systematic intervals the course of the transcontinental triangulation along the thirtyninth parallel as far west as Salt Lake City ; the others are located further north, in the eastern and central part of the country, with three stations in the Yellowstone park. The series along the thirtyninth parallel, on account of the wide variety of orographic feat¬ ures traversed so nearly in the same latitude, is peculiarly well adapted to throw light on important questions, such as I GRAVITY MEASUREMENTS. 33 the continental variation of gravity, the condition of the earth’s crust, and the proper method of reduction to sea level. This line of stations, commencing at the Atlantic coast, ascends to near the crest of the Appalachians, trav¬ erses the great central plain, gradually increasing in altitude from 495 to 6,041 feet (151 to 1,841 meters); then rises to the high elevations of the main chain of the Rocky moun¬ tains, reaching an altitude of 14,085 feet (4,293 meters) at Pikes Peak; descends into the eroded valleys of the Grand and Green rivers, crosses the summit of the Wasatch ridge, and finally descends to the great western plateau of the con¬ tinent. The half second pendulum apparatus used in this work was exhibited before this Society in February, 1891, and is described in the Report of the Coast and Geodetic Survey for 1891, pages 503 to 564, so that only a brief description is needed here. The complete outfit comprised a set of three quarter meter invariable pendulums, an air tight case in which they were swung, a dummy or temperature pendu¬ lum, flash apparatus, light air pump, dry cells and various other accessories, a portable astronomical transit suitable for either time or latitude observations, a small chronograph, and an astronomical tent. Including packing cases, the whole weighed about 700 pounds (318 kilograms). The pendulums are of the new type, with agate knife-edge and plane inverted from the usual position, following the idea of Dr. Mendenhall. The case is a heavy metal one, provided with leveling screws, windows, arrangements for starting, stopping, raising, and lowering the pendulums from the out¬ side, and is air tight when the lid is properly placed. There is a microscope for reading the arc of oscillation, and a small pendulum with level tube in its head for making the knife- edge horizontal. The temperature is obtained from a ther¬ mometer whose bulb is inserted in the stem of a dummy pendulum, which is of the same size and metal as the swing¬ ing one and is held in the case near it. The pressure is read by a small manometer hung in the case, the air being ex- 34 PUTNAM. hausted to about 2.4 inches (60 millimeters) with a portable air pump. The flash apparatus is for the purpose of observ¬ ing coincidences between a chronometer and a swinging pendulum. An electromagnet in circuit with a break circuit chronometer moves a shutter at the end of each second, thus throwing a flash of light through a narrow slit. The image of this slit is seen in an observing telescope as reflected from two mirrors, one moving with the pendulum and the other fixed. As the pendulum is slightly slower than the chro¬ nometer, the image reflected from its mirror will be seen in a somewhat retarded position at the end of each second, and once in five or six minutes the two images will be in the same horizontal line, which is the moment of coincidence. Between two such phenomena it is evident that the pendu¬ lum makes one less oscillation than twice the number of seconds beat by the chronometer, and hence its period is easily deduced. These pendulums are of the invariable type — the theory of their use depending on the length re¬ maining constant except for changes due to temperature. Their periods at different stations are then inversely pro¬ portional to the square root of gravity, after allowance has been made for all variations of conditions which influence the time of oscillation. To eliminate these disturbing effects the observed periods of the pendulums require five correc¬ tions, known as the arc, temperature, pressure, rate, and flexure corrections. By applying these the periods are re¬ duced to what they would have been under certain standard conditions, those adopted for this work being: arc, infinitely small ; temperature, 15° C.; pressure, 60 millimeters at 0° C., true sidereal time and inflexible support. The arc correc¬ tion is based on the usual theoretical reduction and the assumption that the arc diminishes in geometrical ratio as the time increases in arithmetical ratio. The effects of changes of temperature, pressure, and flexibility of support were investigated experimentally and coefficients deduced. An elegant comparative method, first used by Airy,* was *Phil. Trans, of the Royal Society, 1856, p. 297. GRAVITY MEASUREMENTS. 35 employed for this purpose. The pendulum whose coefficients were desired was swung successively under the various con¬ ditions to be investigated, while in another room a second pendulum whose period was known was swung simultane¬ ously under uniform conditions. By suitable electric con¬ nections the same chronometer was used in observing both pendulums and its rate deduced from the observations with the second pendulum. With this rate correction applied, the periods of the first pendulum were obtained entirely free from the irregularities of rate of chronometer. This same method, which obviates the necessity for time observations, has been applied successfully in this country and elsewhere for comparing gravity at two distant stations telegraphically connected. The following are the corrections in seconds that were applied in reducing to standard conditions : Arc correction = — PM sin (

where dg is the correction to ob¬ served gravity, g is gravity at the sea level, H is elevation above sea level, r is radius of the earth, d is density of mat¬ ter lying above sea level, and 4 is mean density of the earth. The first term takes account of the distance from the earth’s center and the second term of the vertical attraction of the matter lying between the sea level and station on the sup¬ position that the latter is located on an indefinitely extended horizontal plain. Whenever the topography about a station departs materially from this condition a third term must be 44 PUTNAM. added to the above formula, being a correction to the second term or to observed gravity on account of such irregularities.* This topographical correction will always be positive, as the effect of all deviations from the horizontal plain,, whether hills or mountains rising above the station or valleys or canyons lying below it, will be to diminish the force of gravity. It is evident that an elevation of any sort exactly neutralizes the vertical attraction of a similar but inverted mass below the station level, so that the removal of both would not change the force of gravity at the station. This correction may be readily computed for any point where contour maps of the surrounding country are available by describing thereon concentric circles about the station and drawing radial lines therefrom at equal angular distances, or such a figure may be drawn on tracing paper and used on successive maps. The space included between two circles may be designated as a zone, and the part of a zone between two radii as a compartment. The vertical attraction of a cylinder of radius a, height h, and density d on a point at one extremity of its axis will be 2 ~d (a + h — j/a2 + h 2). As a zone is the difference between two cylinders, say of radii a and a\ its vertical attraction will be 2 7zd (a — a' — }/ a2 -j- A2 -f- j/ a'2 -j- A*). The attraction at its surface, of the earth considered as a sphere is f n A r, where 4 is the mean density and r the radius of the earth. Therefore the effect on gravity of a zone is which becomes with a sufficient degree of approximation when h is small compared with a * The method of computing this correction here described is partially similar to that given by Professor Helmert, “ Geodasie,” vol. II, p. 169. GRAVITY MEASUREMENTS. 45 This approximate formula may be readily computed with a table of squares and reciprocals if convenient numbers are taken for a' and a , and will be sufficiently accurate except when the topography is very uneven near the station, in which case the preceding formula must be used, h is to be taken for each compartment as the difference in elevation, re¬ gardless of sign, between the station and the average surface of the compartment. As this will vary for different portions of a zone, the parts of the formula involving h must be com¬ puted separately for each compartment therein and the mean applied in the formula for the zone. When these zones have been carried to such a distance from a station that their effect becomes small, the vertical attraction for the remaining region may be computed by the formula dg = (Va? + K — a), where a is the outer radius of the last zone, this being the formula for the difference between an infinite plain of thick¬ ness h and a cylinder of height h and radius a. The area immediately about the station within the first circle may often be neglected as approximately level, or otherwise the effect of its irregularity may be computed by taking the difference between a cylinder and a cone, the formula be¬ coming , 3 q d ( ^ a2 ; \ dg 2 r d\ i/a 2 + li‘) ’ where a is the radius and h the difference of elevation at distance a from the station taken for each compartment separately, keeping in mind always that we are computing only the correction to the vertical attraction of an infinite horizontal plain through the station and therefore only need take account of deviations therefrom. The total correction for a station will of course be the sum of the corrections for the separate zones. Where the station is at the summit of a small hill rising out of a comparatively level country, it will generally suffice to treat the hill as a cone, without 46 PUTNAM. dividing the country into compartments. The formula for this case is dg = A£i y y 2 r A y/a2 + h? which represents the difference between the vertical attrac¬ tion of an infinite plain of thickness h and a cone of height h and radius a. The effect of topographical irregularities has been inves¬ tigated in the manner described for all the stations of the past season, using where available the contour maps of the Geological Survey. Although applied in all cases where appreciable, at only one station (Pikes Peak) was this correc¬ tion found to be of real importance. This is partly due to the favorable location of the stations, but also to the fact that, except on the summit of rugged mountains or very close to their base or in deep narrow valleys, this correction must necessarily be small. The effect of placing an indefi¬ nitely extended horizontal plain 114 feet (35 meters) in thickness or a sphere 338 feet (103 meters) in diameter and of density equal to one half the mean density of the earth immediately above a station would be to diminish gravity by only .004 dyne, or about the 2 ToVoo^1 Parh which may at present be taken as the utmost limit of probable accuracy of observation. The question of the proper reduction of pendulum obser¬ vations to the level of the sea, involving as it does the vari¬ ous theories of the condition of the earth’s crust and affecting very materially the use of such observations in deducing the figure of the earth, is a most important one and has led to the expression of many different opinions. Bouguer’s reduction, already described, has been frequently employed. Professor Helmert, in the discussion of pendulum observa¬ tions in his “ Hohere Geodasie ” (vol. II), develops and uses the condensation method, assuming that all the overlying material is condensed onto a surface twenty one kilometers below the sealevel. As approximately applied by him in the discussion of continental stations, this reduction amounts GRAVITY MEASUREMENTS. 47 to omitting the correction for attraction (second term) in Bouguer’s formula, but not so in coast and oceanic island stations where the effect of the lesser density of sea water is taken into account. On the theory that the surface of the earth is in a state of hydrostatic equilibrium, M. Faye, in papers published in “ Comptes Rendus,” in 1880 and 1883, advocated that the continental attraction term in Bouguer’s formula be omitted, but that all local deviations of the ele¬ vation of the station from the general level of the land surface or sea bottom be allowed for, as, for instance, the attraction of a mountain on a station at its summit or of an isolated island. This subject has also been discussed by Stokes, Peirce, Ferrel, and others. In the recent reports on pendulum observations in the proceedings of the Interna¬ tional Geodetic Association, the reductions have been made by two methods — first, with Bouguer’s formula, and, second, omitting the attraction term and using the reduction for elevation, and the same plan is followed in the summary of results given in Table C (see p. 48). For use in Bouguer’s formula the mean density of the earth has been taken as 5.58. The surface densities used are from information kindly fur¬ nished by Mr. G. K. Gilbert, of the U. S. Geological Survey, and are based on a personal examination in many cases. These represent the -estimated averages for the entire mass above sea level. In order to be able to study the results more intelligently, the values at sea level have been compared with those com¬ puted by an assumed theoretical formula, g = 978.066 (1 + .005243 am2 O CO T* o rJH t- • CC S JC^ CO CD ^ II ++ llillpll II is § to.™ 9 !o *o io ^ eo d d d d d d d co d d co 4,293 2,340 1,398 1,243 2,386 2,276 2,200 2,191 1,322 1,282 114 105 02 02 106 56 02 108 33 56 110 09 56 110 29 44 110 42 02 110 48 08 111 00 46 111 53 46 121 39 ... 122 26 ... 38 50 20 38 32 33 39 04 09 38 59 23 44 43 16 44 44 09 44 33 21 39 50 47 40 46 04 37 20 ... 37 47 ... nmn i I i Mi i jilil lijlll if mam II ..Jills al 50 PUTNAM. While it is somewhat unsafe to draw general conclusions from a single series of observations, yet the favorable and systematic situation of these stations with respect to an un¬ usual variety of continental conditions perhaps warrants the pointing out of a few possible inferences. With Bouguer’s reduction there is apparently a considerable defect of gravity on the western mountains and plateaus, increasing with the average elevation of the country. This cannot be accounted for to any great extent by a supposed abnormal condition in the mass above sea level, as it would require that that mass should have a density of zero to offset this defect. The pre¬ sumption is, therefore, that there is a deficiency of density below sea level, which in general compensates the elevated masses. Contrary to a recent assertion, the residuals do not appear to have any relation to distance from the sea or to the elevation of the particular point of observation, as is shown by the fairly horizontal line under that part of the central plain (Cincinnati to Ellsworth) where the altitude is nearly the same, and the nearly equal deficiencies found at stations which, like Gunnison, Pikes Peak, Colorado Springs, and Denver, vary enormously in elevation. It is interesting to note that the defect is largest at Gunnison, which is nearest the main mass of the Rocky mountains, and not at Pikes Peak, the most elevated station. With the reduction for ele¬ vation the apparent defect of gravity largely disappears, as shown by the nearly horizontal line of residuals under the great central plains, where the altitude varies from 495 to 6,041 feet (151 to 1,841 meters), and by the average result in the mountain regions. In the latter, however, the line shows considerable departures from the normal, both positive and negative, the residuals showing a striking relation to the elevations of the stations as compared with the elevation of the surrounding country. Mount Hamilton, Pikes Peak, Pleasant Valley, and the Yellowstone Park stations are above the average level and show an excess of gravity, while the remaining Rocky Mountain stations are below the general level and all show a defect of gravity. This condition is especially marked in the case of Green River and Grand GRAVITY MEASUREMENTS. 51 Junction, in the bottom of great eroded valleys, and Pikes Peak station, on the summit of an isolated mountain. The residuals are not proportional to the elevation of the station itself above sea level, as is at once seen by comparing|Mount Hamilton, Salt Lake, Green River, Grand Junction, and Denver, which are of nearly equal elevation. Finally, with either system of reduction the residuals point to the possi¬ bility that gravity is large on the sea coast as compared with the interior. Whether this can have any connection with the effects of erosion and deposition of continental matter is a question upon which the observations in this series are far too limited to throw any clear light, but for investigating which certain portions of the United States would furnish an excellent field. The results of this series would therefore seem to lead to the conclusion that general continental elevations are com¬ pensated by a deficiency of density in the matter below sea- level, but that local topographical irregularities, whether elevations or depressions, are not compensated for, but are maintained by the partial rigidity of the earth’s crust. The residuals with Bouguer’s reduction should then be inter¬ preted as a measure of the general deficiency of density, and, on the other hand, the residuals with the reduction for eleva¬ tion only should be taken as a measure of the lack of local compensation, after allowing for uncertainties of observation and the effect of local geological conditions. Without desiring to advocate any theory as to the condi¬ tions of the earth’s crust, it is of interest to note in compari¬ son the results for gravity that would be obtained on an ice¬ berg floating in the ocean and having an ideal cross-section such as that shown in Fig. 1. Here the excess of matter 52 PUTNAM. above the sea level is exactly compensated by the deficiency in density of the mass below as compared with sea water, but there is a lack of local compensation, and if the berg were not sufficiently rigid and strong it would bend up at the sides or split in the middle. Let gravity be measured at A on the surface of the water ; at B at the same level, but over the ice ; at C the average level of the surface of the ice, and at D higher than the average surface. Neglecting the fact that the different surfaces of the iceberg are not indefinitely extended, it is evident that if we reduce to sea level by allow¬ ing for the attraction of the ice lying above that level we will obtain at the three stations B, C, and D equal values for gravity, but values which are less than that at A, and that this difference will be a measure of the deficiency of density in the mass below sea level. If, on the other hand, we neglect the attraction term and reduce for elevation only, we will find as compared wTith A that at B gravity is in defect, at C normal, and at D in excess, and the differences at B and D will be a measure of the lack of local compensation and will be equal in amount to the attraction of a horizontal plain whose thickness is the difference in elevation between the station and the average surface. B is overcompensated and D is undercompensated — a condition maintained by the rigidity of the ice. If we consider that these conditions apply to continental elevations, and that local irregularities in surface are not compensated by the general lack of density or other cause below sea level, we may then, following the idea of M. Faye, apply a further correction to the observed force of gravity at any point to reduce to the normal condition. This cor¬ rection may be expressed dg — 2g ~ which represents the attraction of an indefinitely extended horizontal plain of thickness h and density <5, and the correction is evidently posi¬ tive for stations below the average level and negative for those above. h = Hx — H where Hx is the average elevation and H the station elevation. This method has been tested by applying it to the stations most affected in the present series, GRAVITY MEASUREMENTS. 53 Hx being approximately estimated from a contour map for the country within an arbitrarily adopted radius of 100 miles of each station and the surface densities taken for d. The resulting corrections are shown in the following Table D, together with the residuals,^ observed minus g computed, under the head of Faye’s reduction, when this compensation correction was applied together with the elevation and topo¬ graphical corrections. For comparison the residuals are repeated from Table C for the two methods of reduction there given. Table D. Station. Appalachian (and ad¬ jacent) • Ithaca . . Charlottesville . Deer Park.. . Sums. Central plains : Colorado Springs... Denver . Sums Elevation. I'ltf Meters. 345 341 479 2,258 2,212 Meters 247 166 770 1,841 1,638 > ® i * <*>1 ©“ o.S II G C rf* © G ||l Meters. + 98 + 175 — 291 + 417 + 574 eZj -4_> Z/G col'# G g cn O § A I. 34 second pendu¬ lums on knife W A II. C. h a CD . P.® 'S S o CD GO Defforges. O > I Q A-D. Meters. Dynes. Dynes. Dynes. Dynes. Dynes. Dynes. Chicago. . . . . . . 182 980.264 98C.263 980.249 980.276 +.015 —.012 Washington... . . 14 .098 .098 .098 .098 .000 .000 San Francisco.... . . . 114 979.951 979 947 +.004 Salt Lake Citv... . . . . 1,322 .789 .747 +.042 Mt. Hamilton.... . . 1,282 .646 .614 +.032 Denver . . . . 1,638 .595 979.596 979.593 .615 +.002 —.020 Pikes Peak . . . . . 4,293 978.940 978.945 -—.005 NOTES ON THE GRAVITY DETERMINATIONS REPORTED BY MR. G. R. PUTNAM BY Grove Karl Gilbert [Read before the Society, March 16, 1895, and published by permission of the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey.] 1. Corrections based on the Local Geology. By some physicists it is thought probable that the mate¬ rial of the earth’s crust is highly rigid, and that by this rigidity the continents are upheld. By others it is thought more probable that the earth’s crust is somewhat plastic, and that the continents stand high because their material is light. The question of high rigidity versus isostasy affects the theories of geologists, and hence they are interested in the diagnosis of the crust by means of the pendulum. Ameri¬ can geologists have reason to be specially interested in the recent pendulum work of the Coast Survey, not only because the efficiency of the new apparatus enables it to multiply accurate measurements with unprecedented rapidity, but because the results are related to geologic provinces .with whose structure we are acquainted. Already much light has been thrown on the problem of crustal rigidity, and it is hardly rash to look forward to a satisfactory solution if the work is continued for a few years with equal energy and skill. Last autumn I followed in Mr. Putnam’s tracks so far as to visit ten of his stations, namely, Colorado Springs, Denver, Wallace, Ellsworth, Kansas City, St. Louis, Terre Haute, Chicago, Cincinnati, and Cleveland. At each station I ex¬ amined the local geology with reference to the density of (61) I 62 GILBERT. the formations and the influence of their peculiarities of density on the local attraction. Special attention was given also to the records of deep borings, and beyond the depths penetrated by borings the characters of the sedimentary rocks were afterwards inferred from a variety of geologic data, gathered, chiefly by others, in localities more or less remote. The results may in each case be regarded as rough approximations, but they serve fairly well the purpose of this inquiry, which was to determine whether a correction to the observed gravity may advantageously be based on such information as the geologist can adduce as to the density of the subjacent rocks. In Table I column 2 gives the observed value of gravity, in dynes, after correction for latitude, altitude, topography, and the attraction of matter between the surface at the sta¬ tion and sealevel beneath it. The latitude correction was a reduction to 40°; the altitude correction, a reduction to sealevel. The topographic correction, in effect, substitutes a level plain for the diversified topography about the sta¬ tion.* The correction for the attraction of matter above sea¬ level recognizes the theory of high rigidity, and in the treat¬ ment of observations distinguishes that theory from the theory of isostasy. It gives, indeed, an imperfect recogni¬ tion, because under that theory the sealevel, or geoid of ref¬ erence, rises in continental regions above the spheroid of reference, thus making the apparent altitude too small, but it is probable that this imperfection does not affect the quali¬ tative results of the present inquiry. Column 3 gives the same values as column 2, except that the correction for the attraction of matter above sealevel was omitted. As compared with column 2, it represents the theory of isostasy. Column 4 gives the geologic correction. At each station the surface rocks are sedimentary and have small dip. The sedimentaries vary in thickness from one-half mile to three * The nature of the topographic correction is described by Mr. Putnam on pages 43^16. I employed the values computed by him. The Application to Gravity Determinations of a Correction for the Density of the Local Rocks. NOTES ON GRAVITY DETERMINATIONS, 63 Departures from mean of quantities in columns 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6. 2 a. 3a. 4 a. 5 a. 6a. (yfrHairH-rHt^CT> cgOrHOOOi-HrHOOrH goooooooooo (§“+ 1 I++ l/f I++ 600’ ' •NOIhhcOh^tHOiO i g O O O O O O O O T-H o 1 (?+++++++ f f r .054 joohhoocshcooo §OHOHHOOOHTt( gOOOOOOOOOO 1 $ f r f r f f r+++ .010 ^CiGOOfMTHOOGO^OOT-l SOOOrHOOr-IOOC^ gOOOOOOOOOO (§*+ 1 '++ r + \ r r 600’ ^lO^NHCOOWNOiC =2 io eo co >o co co ^ co gOOOOOOOO—irH §+++++++ f r r .064 6. Gravity as per column 3, cor¬ rected for sediment¬ ary rocks. (Column 4.) .COCOrHt^C500OqTHGonciitty stresses deduced Oy theory, - " stresses /or the state oh section, (ho. rnocjzcrtu. /Sho/r st/'oem areas /or the state oh rest. " ” ” " " *• " section . Common to doth strain areas. After Annealing- Muzzle Section .598*5 /BREEXJH Mlf^ [OLE \ L | “| . \ ®T 7 f: ojU% . j ] preecH fp' lice's *j _ lL _ i _ STRESSES IN GUN FORGINGS. STEEL CYLINDERS FOR GUN CONSTRUCTION- STRESSES DUE TO INTERIOR COOLING. BY Rogers Birnie. [Read before the Society May 11, 1895.] This experiment is the first important step taken by the Ordnance Department of the United States Army to inves¬ tigate the merits of making cannon from a single steel forg¬ ing with initial tension produced by interior cooling. The experiments of similar import with reference to built-up or hooped steel guns which were made by this department in 1884-6 established on a very firm basis the manufacture in this country of that description of gun, and it is not im¬ probable that the present investigation may lead to equally important results for the single forging construction. The inception of this work is due to Captain Frank Hobbs, of the Ordnance Department, and the experimental forging was furnished, through his instrumentality, by the Bethle¬ hem Iron Co. The subject has received attention in other places, particularly in the interesting work of General Nicholas Kalakoutsky,* of the Russian artillery, but up to this time guns have not been made upon the plan proposed. At Le Creusot, France, interior cooling has, however, been used to improve the condition of cylinders used in built-up guns. As to the treatment of the forging, it may suffice to say that its preparation was similar to that of a forging in¬ tended for a hooped gun, by the usual methods of casting, * Kalakoutsky (General Nicholas). Investigations into the internal stresses of cast iron and steel. London, George Reveirs, 1888. 13— Bull Phil. Soc., Wash., Vol. 13. (87) 88 BIRNIE. forging, annealing, oil-tempering and annealing. In the final annealing, while still in the annealing furnace and uniformly heated to redness, water was passed into and through the bore of the forging until it was cool enough to handle. The several circular sections shown in the drawings, each about 0.5 of an inch thick, were then cut from different parts of the forging to ascertain the strains in concentric element¬ ary cylinders of which the section may be conceived to be composed. Each section was marked to be divided into a number of circular rings about 0.15 of an inch in radial thickness. Before cutting out these rings datum points wrere marked on the face of each to measure two diameters at right angles. The rings were removed consecutively and measurements of the diameters made at each stage of the operation. The change in diameter of a ring on being re¬ leased from the section is taken as a measure of the circum¬ ferential strain or stress to which it was subjected in the forging. A ring which expands on being released was evi¬ dently under circumferential compression in the forging, and one which contracts was under tension. The datum points for the curves of initial tension shown in the figures are de¬ rived from the difference in the original diameters of the rings and their diameters after release. As seen in these curves, the compression is greatest at or near the surface of the bore, whence it gradually decreases to zero at the neutral point. At this point the strains of tension begin and in¬ crease gradually toward the exterior of the cylinder. The strains of compression and extension are in equilibrium. Duplicate sections from the breech and muzzle ends of the forging are illustrated, the originals being taken directly after the treatment by interior cooling and the duplicates when the parts of the forging to which they belonged had been subjected to partial annealing. The object of this treatment was to show how the strains originally produced could be controlled and ameliorated, if necessary, by anneal¬ ing a forging after interior cooling. STRESSES IN GUN FORGINGS. 89 The accuracy of the results is of course dependent upon the measurements of diameters. Of this, however, there is every indication that proper care and skill were exercised. The measurements were made with a micrometer scale and read to the fractional part of tofoo °f an iuch. The sensi¬ tiveness of the results is such that an error of joiroo °f an inch in the reading of an average diameter (five inches) cor¬ responds to 600 pounds per square inch in the expressed stress of tension or compression. Deductions from the Application of the Formulas for Gun Construction. — These and other similar experiments show the favorable condition of strains produced in a hollow forg¬ ing by interior cooling. The strains are analogous to those produced by shrinkage in the built-up construction and serve the same purpose. The present experiments are particularly instructive in that they deal with a hollow forging of vary¬ ing thickness of wall, with sectional dimensions correspond¬ ing to the service field gun. The strains directly produced by the treatment are found to be more intense than is necessary and show the desira¬ bility of an amelioration of that treatment in future opera¬ tions ; but the strains left after annealing the treated forging are moderate and satisfactory. The elastic resistance of the sections, both before and after annealing, is shown to be superior to that of corresponding sections of the built-up field gun. This, however, is in part attributable to higher qualities of metal. The physical qualities of the forging, determined from tensile-test specimens taken from it after treatment, are as follows : Breech end. Muzzle end. Elastic limit, pounds per square inch . 68,000 75,500 Tensile strength, “ “ “ “ . 126,500 128,400 Ultimate extension, per cent . 9.50 11.625 Reduction of area, “ “ . . . 12.14 16.35 For present purposes the elastic limit for extension will be taken at a reduced value, 0 — 60,000, and the elastic limit for compression will be defined in each section by the actual 90 BIRNIE. measurements made, the highest being p = 78,280 at the bore of the breech middle section. It will be understood that the stated measured stresses correspond to the measured strains per inch for a modulus of elasticity, E = 30,000,000 pounds. For example, the value of p just stated is derived as follows : 0.00835 (strain) ' 3.2 (diameter) 30,000,000 = 78,280 (stress). (i) The sections taken for examination are the breech, breech middle, muzzle middle, and muzzle before annealing, and the breech and muzzle after annealing. In the dimensions of these sections we have -nearly the counterpart of four principal cross sections of the 3.2-inch field gun. The principal objects of discussion will be — 1. To compare the measured stresses in the forging after treatment with those anticipated by theory and required to make the resistance to interior pressure a maximum. This will show the degree of uniformity in the actual stresses and how nearly they conform to the requirements of the law for maximum resistance. ‘ 2. Taking the actual stresses as measured in each section, to determine the elastic resistance of the section to interior pressure. This, while admitting every irregularity of the stresses or strains induced by the treatment, will give a final measure of its efficacy. The formulas* to be applied, which are fundamentally the same as those for the built-up construction, relate to a gun or cylinder made of a single piece, with initial tension produced by interior cooling. (2) P = 3 (Pi R0 given, we find : 3 X 20.38 X 86477 —91870 pounds. 07.00 0u = a Pu = 0.70997 X 91870 = 65225 pounds. These latter values express the theoretical condition, assumed only for auxiliary purposes, that, having a com- STRESSES IN GUN FORGINGS. 93 pression of 71,260 pounds at the intermediate radius, 1.905 inches, an applied interior pressure of 91,870 pounds would produce throughout the whole wall of the cylinder an uni¬ form tension of 65,225 pounds per square inch. The remaining points of the deduced curve of stresses for the state of rest are now derived by equation (5). Having 0u = 65,225 and I\ = 91,870, we find : P = 55488 — 459970 in which, by substituting the several values of r, there re¬ sults : D0= 3.6, R0 = 1.8 : P= 55488 — 141965 = — 86477 d = 3.81, r = 1.905: p = 55488 — 126750 = — 71260 d = 4.41, r = 2.205: p = 55488 — 94604 = — 39116 &c., &c., as given in table A and shown on the accompanying plate 6. The “ deduced ” stress curves for the state of rest in the remaining sections considered are derived in a similar manner. In each case the measured stress which is taken as a basis and so forms a common point on both the meas¬ ured and deduced curves of stress is designated (see table and plate 6) by figures in parentheses, as, for example (75,000) in the breech middle section, (59,910) in the muzzle middle section, and so on. Resistance to Interior Pressure. — The limit of elastic resist¬ ance of the metal under extension will be taken as before stated, 0 — 60,000. The value of P0 will then depend upon the condition that this limit shall not be exceeded at any point. By a comparison of the measured and deduced stress curves for the state of rest, or, if need be, by a pre¬ liminary computation, the most dangerous measured stress — that is to say, the one which, under the action of an interior pressure, would be the first to reach the limit, 0 — 60,000, can readily be selected. Consequently the points which must be taken upon which to base the value of P0 for the several sections are selected and designated (see table) by 94 BIRNIE. underlining the critical measured stress ; for example, 42920 on the diameter 9.54 inches in the breech section, and so on. In each case it is seen from the table that the corresponding stress in action is 60,000 pounds, while the stresses on other diameters are less than this ; hence the condition is fulfilled. Taking again the breech section (second stage) before an¬ nealing as an example of the method of computation, the elastic resistance of the section and the stresses on given diameters for the state of action are derived as follows : The measured stress which in this section will first reach the limit, 60,000, is 0 = 42,920 on the diameter, 9.54 inches. The increase of stress allowable on this diameter in passing from the state of rest to action is therefore : 0 = 60000 — 42920 = 17080 pounds. The corresponding value of P0 is then found from (4), with r = 4.77. 0 = 17080 H 0.32602 P0 . * . P0 = 52390 pounds. The interior pressure being thus determined, equation (4) is further applied to determine the increase of stress at other given radii. For this purpose it is convenient to reduce it to the form by substituting known values : 0 = 5553 + 262300 in which, by substituting the several values of r, we obtain the increase of stress for that radius, and, taking the alge¬ braic sum of this result and the measured stress at the same point (at rest), we have finally the stress pertaining to the applied interior pressure, P0 = 52,390 pounds. Thus: Increase. Measured, f) {action). d =- 3.81, r = 1.905 : 6 = 5553 -f 72280 = 77833 — 71260 = + 6573 pounds. d — 4.41, r = 2.205 : 6 = 5553 + 53949 = 59502 — 56800 = + 2702 “ ******* d = 9.54, r — 4.77 : 0 = 5553 + 11528 = 17080 + 42920 = -f 60000 ‘ ‘ (Proof.) as given in table A and shown on the accompanying plate 6. STRESSES IN GUN FORGINGS, 95 The radius of the neutral circle of stress for each section has been computed by (7) and is noted in the table. Table A. Measured and Deduced Stresses for the State of Rest and Action. BEFORE ANNEALING. Breech section, second stage. Original diameters, 1 II 9' 77 inches Diameters. State of rest — stresses. State of action. Measured. Deduced. Pressure. Stresses. Inches. Bore, 3.6 Pounds per sq. inch Pounds per sq. inch — 86,477 —(71,260) — 39,116 — 16,658 — 1,142 Pounds per sq. inch. Pounds per sq. inch. + 34 Thickness of section in 3.81 4.41 5.05 5.70 — 71,260 — 56,800 — 30,000 — 2,370 ffi O a c3 + 6,573 + 2.702 + 1,694 + 35,477 calibers, 0.85. 6.30 6.95 7 57 8.20 8.82 9.54 Exterior, 9.72 + 14,290 + 23,960 + 32,900 + 35,400 + 36,700 + 42,900 + 9,132 + 17,396 + 23,382 + 28,125 + 31,837 + 35,272 + 36,014 i‘| *° O Cfl % + 46.278 + 51,235 + 56,762 + 56,557 + 55,740 + 60,000 Elastic limit. * Neutral point, d — 5.76. Breech middle section, second stage. Original diam¬ eters, f J90 = 2.80 inches. \D1 = 8.68 inches. Bore, 3.20 3.38 4.02 4.64 — 78,280 — 75,000 — 42,910 — 10,670 — 90,721 —(75,000) — 35,169 — 11,209 © o p a + 21,115 + 14,789 + 22,595 + 40,146 Thickness of section in calibers, 0.81. 5 26 5.90 6.50 7.08 + 7,410 + 18,560 + 28,380 + 34,320 + 4,791 + 16,304 + 24,159 + 29,934 ©2 + 48,450 + 52,566 + 57,587 + 60,000 Elastic limit. 7.65 8.24 Exterior, 8.38 + 35,490 + 30,760 + 31,330 + 34,378 + 38,041 + 38,799 GS 13 + 58,454 + 51,485 + 51,593 * Neutral point, d = 5.04. Muzzle middle section, , second stage. Original diam¬ eters, f Dq — 2.80 inches. \ Dl = 6.44 inches. Bore, 3.20 3.38 4.02 * 4.64 5.26 5.90 Exterior, 6.06 — 65,300 — 59,910 — 13,430 + 19,070 + 30,500 + 22,630 + 24,510 — 77,348 —(59,910) — 15,737 + 10,838 + 28,583 + 41,352 + 43,930 CG *35 CO O'.H ° + 60,00u Elastic limit. * . . ,IB,II,,III; cg -g g 3.90 — 3,460 + 1,861 — "to + 55,467 Thickness of section in • 4.46 + 10,100 + 12,586 (SI qi ..I . _ . w + 58,825 calibers, 0.22. Exterior, 4.60 + 14,676 0> * Neutral point, d — 3.82. The Possible Maximum Resistance of the Sections. — Suppose the initial tension curve to be such as is required by theory to give a maximum resistance, several propositions may be stated : 1st. The point of critical strain may always be taken at the surface of the bore where the compression at rest or the STRESSES IN GUN FORGINGS. 97 extension in action cannot exceed the elastic limit of the metal. 2d. To make the resistance to interior pressure a maxi¬ mum in any cylinder, the state of initial tension should be such that when the pressure acts from within the whole thickness of metal in the wall should be, as nearly as prac¬ ticable, uniformly strained to the elastic limit of the metal. 3d. If p and 0 be taken equal and the compression of bore carried to the limit p, there is but one thickness of cylinder (0.65 caliber, nearly)* for which a condition of uniform strain in action equal to the elastic limit of the metal can be attained. 4th. For cylinders of greater thickness than 0.65 caliber a state of uniform strain in the wall will be reached in action and passed before the elastic limit of the metal is attained, and with increasing pressure this limit will be fully reached only at the surface of the bore, thus determin¬ ing the limit of pressure. For such cylinders the best con¬ ditions of resistance will be obtained by utilizing the full limit of compression of the metal in the initial tension. 5th. But for cylinders of less thickness than 0.65 caliber a state of uniform strain in action equal to the elastic limit of the metal can be attained with a compression of bore less than the limit p. The thinner the cylinder the less should be the initial compression imposed. It follows that the possible maximum resistance of such cylinders will be ob¬ tained by adjusting the initial compression within limits. If the full limit of initial compression were given, the elastic limit of the metal would be reached in action at the exterior of the cylinder sooner than at the bore. 6th. As a consequence, also, of the preceding, the resist¬ ance of cylinders of less thickness than 0.65 caliber, treated by interior cooling, should be directly proportional to the thickness. This treatment gives the means of imparting the ' greatest resistance so far known to such cylinders. *See Appendix B, “Gun Making” and “ Modem Gnn Construction and Breech Mechanism,” Congress of Engineers, 1893. 98 BIRNIE. 7th. When one point of the initial tension curve is given (either an assigned or measured value of p) the curve will be fixed, as has been illustrated in the examples worked out. It is important to observe that this curve as defined and laid down is, barring the presence of local strains in the metal, that which should be naturally formed under the conditions of equilibrium between the positive and negative strains in the wall of the cylinder at rest. This equilibrium must exist, and the curve as defined fulfills this condition, since it is dependent upon it. The straight line, represent¬ ing the state of uniform strain in action, used in every case as the datum line for the initial tension curve, is dependent upon the condition of equilibrium between the pressure and the elastic strains in the metal. That line, however, is the initial tension curve itself in a particular position. On the withdrawal (supposed) of the force P the right line falls to the position of the initial tension curve, having lost nothing of its property to express the equilibrium of the forces which cause it to exist. This being, then, the only curve which can be formed under the circumstances, and since the value of p cannot exceed the given elastic limit, it may be seen why in cylinders thicker than 0.65 caliber the conditions of maximum pressure and uniform strain to the elastic limit of the metal in action cannot exist together. An initial ten¬ sion curve, starting with the limit p at the bore and having higher strains than the natural curve toward the exterior, might be laid down which would become a straight line with P increased sufficiently to stretch the bore to the elastic limit, but such an initial tension curve is not attainable in practice. To compute the possible maximum resistance of the pres¬ ent sections of cylinders we will take, as before, the con¬ servative limits, & = 60,000 = p. The breech (after anneal¬ ing) and the breech middle sections are respectively 0.75 and 0.81 caliber in thickness. Their maximum resistance will therefore depend upon the assumption that the bore is ini¬ tially compressed to the limit p at rest and extended to the STRESSES IN GUN FORGINGS. 99 limit 9 in action, and its value will be found from equation (1) (Appendix B, “ Gun Making ”) ; whence Breech: P- (, + *) = X 120000 = 70000 pounds per square inch. 44 09 Breech middle: P— X = 71652 pounds per ' square inch. The muzzle middle and muzzle sections are less than 0.65 caliber thickness, being respectively 0.45 and 0.22 caliber. The desired initial compression, or that value of p, in terms of the limit 9, which will cause the wall to be uniformly strained to 60,000 pounds per square inch when the limit of interior pressure is reached, is found by combining equa¬ tions (1) and (2) of the work cited; whence |-4 R> + 2 jy L_3 ( From which we find : Muzzle middle : p — 0.6769 X 60000 = 40614 Muzzle : P = 0.3174 X 60000 = 19046 These reduced values of p being given, the maximum re¬ sistance will be found by applying equation (1) as for the other sections. Then Muzzle middle: P — (40614 -f- 60000) = 47650 pounds per square inch. ft i q Muzzle : P — (19046 + 60000) = 24634 pounds per Zv.Zo square inch. The value 24,634 for the muzzle section is less than 24,920, which was computed, from the most dangerous one of the actually measured stresses, to be the resistance after anneal¬ ing. This slight discrepancy is due to the irregularities of 100 BIRNIE. the curve of measured stresses and that there is no measured stress for the exterior surface, where, as every indication points, the critical strain should actually be located. It will be observed that the curve of deduced stress at rest in¬ dicates a stress of 14,676 pounds at the exterior surface. Taking the latter to govern the resistance, we find, from equation (4), P0 = 24,167. It may be said, therefore, that the probable resistance, based upon an extension limit of 60,000 pounds as taken, lies between 24,167 and 24,634 (theo¬ retical maximum) instead of being 24,920. Similar conditions are also present in the breech and muzzle sections before annealing, and the values given for them in table A and drawing should probably be reduced in the same proportion, or about 3 per cent. This reduction is made in the following table, which gives a comparison of the resistance of these sections and those of corresponding dimensions in the built-up field gun as now made. It must be observed, however, that in the field gun the tube is not hooped in the two forward' sections. Comparative Resistance of Initial Tension Cylinders and the 3.2-inch Built-up Field Gun. Resistance, estimated. Breech sec¬ tion. Breech mid¬ section. Muzzle mid¬ section. Muzzle sec¬ tion. T i ( On measured) Before annealing . . Initial tension! Btresses> j After annealing.?......... Pounds per sq. inch. 50,818 52,015 Pounds per sq. inch. 59,350 Pounds per sq. inch. 31,316 Pounds per sq. inch. 15,578 24,167 24.634 cylinder. ] T£eore& maximum . fZ IZ" 70,000 71,652 47,650 3.2-inch field gun computed resistance . 38,250 41,030 21,730 13,995 Conclusions. — The graphic representation of the curves of stress, &c., on the accompanying plate 6 affords the best means of judging the results of the treatment of the forging. The close accordance of the measured and deduced curves of stress in the forging after treatment is not accidental, because, as previously stated, both curves depend upon the STRESSES IN GUN FORGINGS. 101 equilibrium of the strains in the forging, and by construc¬ tion they have one point in common. Their further coin¬ cidence, therefore, is evidence of the uniformity of results obtained by the treatment. The somewhat marked irregu¬ larity of the measured stresses near the bore in the breech section, both before and after annealing, has led to the con¬ struction of two deduced curves, of which it will be seen that the one marked No. 2 coincides most nearly with the measured curve. This No. 2 is based upon the measured compression on the second circle from the bore. There is apparent evidence in this section that the contractile force of the outer layers of metal in cooling was sufficient to over¬ compress the metal near the bore. The strains engendered in all the sections by the interior cooling were apparently unnecessarily severe, and tended to produce too great a strain of tension toward the exterior for economy of resistance to interior pressure. Thus, in all of the sections, before annealing, it is seen that the curve of stress in action departs considerably from a horizontal line, and the limit of stress in action is reached first at or near the exterior surface.* Of the four, however, the breech middle section is exceptionally well disposed. It is important to note the general resemblance of the measured curves of stress in the four sections as showing the regularity of the cooling treatment throughout the length of the forging, and that an inspection of the end sections would have disclosed the condition of initial tension in the whole forging. This forging, as shown on the drawing, had marked irregularity of sectional dimensions, yet the degree of initial tension in the several sections is in general propor¬ tional to the thickness of the section, and there is no gen¬ eral abnormal distortion of either thin or thick sections. * The position of the stress curve for the state of action is necessarily influenced by the selection of the value 0 = 60,000. If this value had been taken equal to 68,000, as given in the report of physical qualities of the metal before quoted, the stress curves in action would be considerably more elevated next the bore, and the estimated values of P0 would be correspondingly increased. 102 BIRNIE. This result was, however, to be expected, inasmuch as the theoretical curve of initial tension depends upon the thick¬ ness of wall in calibers, and the actual curve evidently obeys the same law. This experiment leaves no room to doubt that initial ten¬ sion strains of as great intensity as are desirable can be pro¬ duced in a hollow forging by interior cooling, and if these strains should be more than needed they can be reduced by annealing. The effect of the subsequent annealing in the present case was beneficial, particularly in the muzzle section, which now shows the peculiarly interesting case of a resistance to interior pressure which closely approximates the possible maximum. The ordinates of the stress curve in action are all nearly equal and differ but little from the limit of 60,000 pounds. Without disparagement to the built-up, hooped gun, which has proved to be excellent, it may be said that the apparent superiority of a gun made of a single forging, with initial tension produced by interior cooling, rests not only upon claims for reduced cost and increased longitudinal stiffness, but also for increased tangential strength in every section where the actual thickness of wall is insufficient in practice for the division of the built-up gun into as many as four layers, since this number of layers is in general required in that construction to enable the bore to be worked through the double limit of elastic movement. Inasmuch as the walls of built-up, hooped guns below 10 or perhaps 8 inches caliber cannot be conveniently divided into four layers, and this division, moreover, can only be applied in the thicker portions (i. e., the reinforce), the con¬ clusion from the theoretical standpoint, at least, is that an equality of tangential strength will exist under the two modes of construction for the reinforce of guns of 8 or 10 inches caliber and upwards ; but for guns of smaller caliber and for the chase portions of all guns the greater tangential strength will pertain to the single forging with initial ten¬ sion produced by interior cooling. THE LATITUDE- VARIATION TIDE.* BY Alexander Smyth Christie. [Read before the Mathematical Section May 23, 1895. The non-mathe- matical part was read before the Society May 11, 1895.] I. The Derivation of the Formulx. Let H = h + 2 (cr cos ir t -j- sr sin ir t) r = h-\- Z ar COS (ir t — er) r be the height of the surface of the sea at time t above any datum plane, then for a series of v observations at equal time intervals r we have, t denoting the middle of the series, * General W. W. Duffield, Superintendent of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey, has very courteously granted me permission to publish the data given below, and has also favored me with copies of several papers on file in his office prepared by me while engaged in the search for this tide. A paper containing the full discussion is reported to him by his subordinates as not found. 15-Bull Phil. Soc., Wash., Vol. 13. (103) 104 CHRISTIE. Summing, dividing by v, and putting U H0+H1+ . . . +Hv_i)=T, 1 . sin v ft 2 ^T = /3,, 7i^r = W'’ uc= C, us = S, ua = A, we obtain T— h + 2 (Or cos it t + Sr sin iT t) r = h 4- 2* ^4r cos ( ir t — er) (2) h For every value of t employed in the numerical summa¬ tions the terms in (2) arising from tides other than the one sought may be computed and removed whenever their de¬ fining elements are known, but the process would be very laborious, and for the present purpose is unnecessary. Let m be a positive integer, j the speed and mvr the com¬ plete period assumed for the tide sought, and put 2 ( Gr cos ir t + Sr sin ir t) — 2 0r , r r where ir no longer includes j ; then (2) becomes h + Cj cosj t + Si sinj t G2j cos 2 jt + . . . — (T7 — 2 0t) — 0. m — 1 m — 3 Putting in this successively^ m — 1 m m • + G m t r, where n — 180°, we have S "J _ nyt "I _ ivvj 1 _ ryv) 1 + cos - 7i -f sin - 7t -f cos 2 — — — tt + ... — ( T — 2 0r) 1 _m = 0 2 2 m m m 1 -j- cos m , . 3 — m , 0 3 — m , V/1N tt + sin — — - X + cos 2 ——— * + . . . — (T — 2 0r)3 _ m m 1 + cos m- m 1 . m — 7r -j- sm — m 1 . 0m — tt -f cos 2 — m «+ . ..-{T-20X-x= 0; THE LATITUDE-VARIATION TIDE. 105 of which the least square solution is h = h' + h" } 3, = (/ 2 ft |~3 V 2 m > V 2 21-i=A + 2:-| Or cos ix | ft-UN-1mvrS ) -j- ST sin ij. 1 ft , ^-1 + 2 to >- ^ V + 2 1 ^ 1 -mvTj > •)} are N consecutive derivative ordinates T separated by a com¬ plete ^'-period, and hence relating to the same phase of the j- tide. Summing, putting N (^0+^1+ • • • + - l) — Q, sin Nmv (3 r N sin mv U , we obtain or, putting UC = r , Q = h -j- 2 (jx cos ir t -f- sin iv t) ; 2 (yr cos irt-\- pqi — [A — 2 cT Vr sin v /?,.] = O') q r C 5 2* sqi Vqi cos v/9qi — [B — 2 sr Vr cos v ft] = 0 ) ’ q r where ^ = . 2 Tkcosp(2&-f- 1)^ (7) B = v cosec p — . 2 2! sm p (2 & -f 1) — r m k k ' m Vx = s^n v /3r sin- m v pr v*- sin ft sin (v ft — p sin (v ft + p sm v p . sm m v /? . sm /5ql sm (v /Jqt - P sin (v /Sql + p and ir includes neither y nor i. The summations with re¬ spect to k are from & = 0 to k — m — 1. Equations (7), in which each unknown is affected by a factor of diminution, take the place of the last two series of equations given by (3) and afford by their solution the c’s and s’ s, and hence the a’s and e’s, for substitution in the forms (4). In like manner we have from (6) 0 =F Yvy + Tv" 0 = tfp/ + 2 cqi Wqi sin v pqi — \E — 2 cr Wr sin v /?r] = 0 q r 2 sqi Wqi cos v /Sqi — [F — 2 sr TTr cos v /5r] = 0 or (8) where E=Nv seep ^ . 2 Qk cosp (2 & + 1)~ m k F= Nv cosec p ^ . 2 Qk sin p (2 £ + 1) ^ THE LATITUDE-VARIATION TIDE. Ill sin v j8r sin N m v ftr sin ft sin (v ft — p ^ sin (v ft + P w _ sin v ft, sin N to > ft, _ ( ft, sin (v ft, - p » (* ft, + p and includes neither y nor i. The summations with re¬ spect to k are from k = 0 to k — m — 1. Equations (8) take the place of the last two series of equations given by (6), and afford by their solution the c’s and s’s, and hence the a’s and s’s, for substitution in the forms (4). The generality and flexibility of this solution may be re¬ marked. The ordinary solution, when the period of the inequality is known in advance and the observations are grouped in accordance with that period, is obtained from it by putting i —j. The method here given applies whether the period of the inequality sought is known in advance exactly, with considerable precision, or only roughly, and I would suggest that it might prove useful in picking up ine¬ qualities when nothing is known of their periods. The transference of the secondary time zero to the midde instant of the observations preserves in both the solutions of this paper the inherent symmetry and simplicity of the forms • in the last one it effects a complete axial revolution, separat¬ ing the cosine from the sine coefficients, and thus notably diminishing the labor of solution. From a theoretical point of view, the most remarkable thing about the second solution is that the /-coefficients, to which is assigned the title role in the formation of the normal equations, are not the quantities sought, and when the solution is effected it inures to the benefit of other coefficients — that is to say, other coefficients are thereby determined. I do not recall any other instance in mathematics where a like distinctively vicarious action appears or is noted. That this vicarious solution is logically sound may be shown in various ways. It may be made to repose upon the fact that the certain and only possible value 10 — Bull. Phil. Soc., Wash., Vol. 13. 112 CHRISTIE. of the ./-coefficients derivable from the equations of condition is zero, and the obvious principle that certainty is probability, namely, the highest degree of probability, a probability that excludes every alternative. Thus, wherever there is a system of n simultaneous linear equations in n unknowns, the method of least squares affords a valid transformation, which at times may facilitate their solution. Take, for example, the derivation of Fourier’s integral : The problem is, first, to determine the unique, the only possible, values of the coefficients in P= 00 cQ + 2 (cp cos pj x -j- sp sin pj x) p = o so that the series may be the equivalent of

hydroid zoophytes and corallines; part of the sponges; the limpets, chitons, and nudibranchs among the mollusks; have been monographically studied. The Crustacea, insects, and a large part of the mollusks yet remain to be worked up in a similar manner. To close the record of achievement, I may mention the bibliography of Alaskan literature prepared by Mr. Baker and myself, wdiich, up to May, 1879, when it went to press, comprised 3,832 titles in eleven languages. Since it was published by the Coast Survey nearly as many more have been accumulated, and the list probably will continue to increase from year to year. Since my field-work closed, in 1880, Alaskans have not been idle. The prospector has invaded the recesses of the land, and surveys, explorations, and mountaineering have been almost constantly carried on. The tourist has discov¬ ered the country and written books which, although they have the resemblance of one pea to another, have neverthe¬ less carried tidings of Alaska to most corners of the Union. Alaska in one sense is no longer unknown, and she is even beginning to be somewhat understood and appreciated. The missionary has been up and down in the land, and has done much good in many ways, not without occasional mistakes. It was, therefore, with curiosity as well as interest that I returned to the territory last May, after an absence of fifteen years. In looking back on the summer’s experiences, a com¬ parison between the Alaska of 1865 and that of 1895 natur¬ ally suggests itself. I was rash enough twenty-five years ago to indulge in prophecy as to the future of the territory. ALASKA AS IT WAS AND IS. 143 I did not count on the inertia of Congress or the stupidity of officials, as I might now. Nevertheless progress has been made, and a summary of present conditions, perhaps even a peep into the future, is not inappropriate at this time. Since 1865 the fur-seal fishery has risen, produced its mil¬ lions, and declined to a point where its close in a commercial sense may almost be predicted. The first fisherman sought the cod in that year, and a modest fleet has kept the busi¬ ness going ever since, with more or less fluctuation in the catch. The salmon canner was then unknown, but has since invaded nearly every important fishing site. The placer miner has developed and exhausted the gold of the Stikine region, and pushed on to the headwaters of the Yukon and its affluents. The clink of the drill and the monotonous beat of the stamp-mill are familiar sounds on the quartz ledges, which in 1865 lay peacefully under their blankets of moss. The whaling fleet has laid its bones on the sandy bars of the Arctic coast, while the innovating steam whaler has pushed its way past Point Barrow into the very fastness of the ice at Herschel island, to find, in its turn, its occupa¬ tion gradually passing away. The imperial sea-otter is on the way to becoming a memory, and the Aleuts, his perse¬ cutors, are not unlikely to follow him. As regards the inhabitants of the territory, a complete change is conspicuous. Some thousands of white fishermen, hunters, miners, and prospectors are now scattered along the coast and rivers, on the whole a hard-working, orderly set, with here and there a rascally whisky smuggler or a stranded gentleman. Apart from a few mining camps, the parasites who live by the vices of others are few. A country where he who would live must work is not attractive to them. Cut off from direct contact with the rest of the United States, Alaska is really a colony and not a frontier territory in the sense usually understood. As such, its needs should have been the subject of study and appropriate legislation, the neglect of which by Congress so far is bitterly and justly resented by the entire population. Into political matters I 144 BALL. shall not enter, but must observe that among the numerous ill-paid officials few are well prepared to handle all the diffi¬ cult questions presented in such a community, and the ex¬ ecutive, such as it is, is without the legal authority or the proper facilities for governing or even visiting the greater part of the region it is supposed to control. The state of the law is uncertain, the seat of authority obscure, divided ille¬ gitimately between naval officers, the revenue-cutter service, and a powerless governor, who, whatever his wishes and intentions, is not permitted by the law to control anything. If it were not for the orderly character and good sense of the white population, the territory might easily become a pandemonium. This condition of things is disgraceful, and reform is urgently needed. The change in the native population of southeastern Alaska is very rqarked. In a general way a similar change has taken place all over the territory. The primitive con¬ dition of the natives has almost wholly disappeared. The turf-covered hut has given way to frame shanties ; log houses are rarely built; the native dress has disappeared, replaced by cheap ready-made clothing; native manufactures, uten¬ sils, weapons, curios, all are gone, or made only in coarse facsimile for sale to tourists; the native buys flour and tea, cooks his salmon in a frying-pan, and catches his cod or halibut with a Birmingham hook and a Gloucester line. In the whole of southern Alaska, thanks to the schools, the children and many young people speak fairly good English. If the present influences continue, another generation will see the use of English universal and the native languages chiefly obsolete. The day of the ethnological collector is past. Southeastern Alaska is swept clean of relics; hardly a shaman’s grave remains inviolate. In other parts of the territory the same is more or less true. The native population is focusing about the commer¬ cial centers. The people gather where work and trade afford opportunities, and I have seen more than one pretentious church standing empty among the abandoned houses of a ALASKA AS IT WAS AND IS. 145 formerly prosperous village. There is some admixture of blood in marriages between the often attractive “ Creole ” women and the incoming settlers. These marriages are often very fruitful, but the pure-blooded natives seem to be diminishing. The Aleuts, whose census is accurately made annually by the Greek church, are distinctly losing ground, and will doubtless pass away in a few generations. The same is probably true of the Tlinkit people. As we ap¬ proach the Arctic region, changes of all sorts are less marked and civilization has had less effect. Here the subsistence of the natives presents serious and increasing difficulties. Their natural food supply has been practically destroyed by the whites and by repeating firearms, of which the natives have many. The whales are almost extinct, and the whaling fleet itself is nearly so. The walrus preceded the whale, and the hair seal has never been sufficiently abundant in this region for a sole resource. The chief salmon streams are or soon will be monopolized by the whites near the sea, and the natives of the upper Yukon will go hungry. The present law allows unrestricted fish¬ ing to the natives and a close time of one day a week for the whites. The latter hire the natives to fish during the prohibited day, and so the salmon have no close time. Where a salmon stream is monopolized by one firm, they do not usually cut their own throats by taking all the salmon, but where there are several competing firms there is little respite for the fish. The cod fishery was for some years carried on by two competing firms, who have now composed their differences. They had salting stations on shore, and bought fish at so much a thousand from fishermen, who used small sailing vessels or dories and fished near shore. Now it is found cheaper and, for other reasons, preferable to return to the older system of fishing in the open sea from a sea-going vessel, as on the banks at the east. The preparation of the Alaska fish has often been hasty, careless, and inferior to that done in the east ; so Alaska codfish, originally of equal 146 BALL. quality, are less esteemed commercially than the eastern cod. For some reason I do not understand the Pacific ocean at best offers but a small market for fish under pres¬ ent conditions, and so I look to see the codfishing industry develop slowly and perhaps be the last as it is, in my opin¬ ion, the most substantial and important of the resources of the territory. At present the salmon are commercially more important, but unless more effectively supervised and regulated they will meet with the same fate as the fisheries of California and the Columbia river. There should be a resident inspector at every important fishery, and as the business is carried on for at most two or three months in the year, a vigilant inspection by a cutter or fisheries vessel told off for this especial work would counteract any tendency to bribe the resident inspector. I have seen 3,500,000 pounds of canned salmon taken in one season from one small stream, representing at least 5,000,000 pounds of eat¬ able fish, and it seems that an annual supply of the best fish food like that is worth preserving ; but if the work is to be put into the hands of the lowest class of political appointees instead of intelligent experts, making the offices will not save the fish. In the matter of furs we may regard the fur-seal fishery as doomed. It is probable that few of the pelagic sealers will pay expenses after this season, and two or three years are likely to see the end of the business. It is costing us much more than the catch is worth now, and the most sensible way of ending the matter is generally felt to be the destruction at one fell swoop of all the seals remaining on the islands and the abandonment of the business. The continental furs, owing to competition between traders, are now selling for nearly their full market value, and little profit can be expected from them. They are also growing more and more scarce, as the high prices stimulate trapping. The natural and satisfactory offset to this would be the estab¬ lishment of preserves, such as the afox farms,” of which men¬ tion has been frequently made in the daily press. Many of ALASKA AS IT WAS AND IS. 147 these have been started, and the multitudinous islands offer opportunities for many more; but the business is hazardous, since there is no protection against poachers, and a very ill- judged attempt has been made by the Treasury, I am in¬ formed, to impose, in addition to the annual sum for which the island is leased, a “ tax ” of $5 on each fox killed over twenty from each “ farm.” It is doubtful if the Treasury is entitled to tax anybody without the explicit authority of Congress, and a tax of 50 per cent, on the gross value of the product not only is oppressive and exorbitant, but will put a stop to a business which should be encouraged. The timber of Alaska, though by no means, insignificant, is not likely to be much sought for, except for local purposes, for many years. I may point out, however, that there are millions of acres here densely covered with the spruce best suited for wood pulp, and plenty of water power for pulp- mills, so that this resource is not without a future. A forthcoming report of the United States Geological Survey will treat of the existing and prospective mining industries. To sum up, it may be said that the whaling and sealing industries of Alaska are practically exhausted, the fur trade is in its decadence, the salmon canning in the full tide of prosperity, but conducted in a wasteful and destructive man¬ ner which cannot long be continued with impunity. The cod and herring fisheries are imperfectly developed, but have a substantial future with proper treatment. Mineral resources and timber have hardly been touched. No busi¬ ness-like experiment with sheep or cattle on the islands has been tried by competent hands, while the introduction of reindeer, though promising well, is still in the experimental stage. Socially, the territory is in a transition state, the industries of the unexploited wilderness are passing away, while the time of steady, business-like development of the more latent resources has not yet arrived. The magnificent scenery, glaciers, and volcanoes make it certain that Alaska will in the future be to the rest of the United States what Nor- 21 -Bull. Phil. Soc. Wash., Vol. 13. 148 BALL. way is to western Europe — the goal of tourists, hunters, and fishermen. Agriculture will be restricted to gardening and the culture of quick-growing and hardy vegetables for local use. The prosecution of most Alaskan industries being in untrained hands, failures and disappointment will no doubt be frequent, but when the pressure of population enforces more sensible methods the territory will support in rea¬ sonable comfort a fair number of hardy and industrious inhabitants. List of Scientific Publications based on the work of the Scien¬ tific Corps of the Western Union Telegraph Expedition to Alaska (1865-68), and on the United States Coast Survey ex¬ plorations (1871-80), under the direction of W. H. Dali , in the same region. The following list is intended to comprise the titles, in brief, of the more important publications which have arisen directly from the work of the Scientific Corps of the Western Union Telegraph Expedition, and of the supplemental ex¬ plorations by parties under my direction, in connection with the work of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey, in the endeavor to complete the interrupted plans of the earlier expedition. For a more complete Alaskan bibliography, to 1879, reference may be had to the publication on that topic hereunder cited. The present list is brought to date, but publications relating only to Siberia are not included ; it does comprise, in addition to articles printed by members of the expedition, others by specialists in various departments based on collections brought back for study. Considerations of space forbid an attempt to make this list complete, but, such as it is, it is hoped that it may give a better idea of the additions to knowledge which resulted from the labors of Kennicott and his associates and serve to illustrate a not un¬ interesting chapter in the exploration of Northwest America. It should, however, be clearly understood that a considerable amount of exploration, growing out of subsequent events not ALASKA AS IT WAS AND IS. 149 connected with the Telegraph expedition, has produced a re¬ spectable body of literature which finds no place in the pres¬ ent list as above limited. The members of the Scientific corps in 1865 were Robert Kennicott, H. M. Bannister, F. Bischoff, W. H. Dali, H. W. Elliott, Charles Pease, and J. T. Rothrock. In the scientific work done under the auspices of the Coast Survey (1871-’85) I was joined by Mark W. Harrington and Marcus Baker, of the Survey, and in 1880 by T. H. Bean, of the United States National Museum. Publications by Bush, Dali, Elliott, Kennan, and others on material not connected with the explorations previously enumerated or relating wholly to Siberia are not included in the list. GEOGRAPHY AND EXPLORATION. (See also under Meteorology and Geology.) Baker (Marcus). Boundary line between Alaska and Siberia. Bull. Phil. Soc. of Wash., iv, pp. 123-133, 1881, with maps. Dali (William Healey). Report on the operations of the Scientific Corps of the Western Union Telegraph Expedition during the season of 1865. Proc. Chicago Academy of Sciences, i, pp. 31, 32. 1866. - Explorations in Russian America. American Journal of Science, xlv, pp. 96-99. Jan., 1868. - Exploration of the interior of Russian America. Mining and Scientific Press, San Francisco, Oct. 3 and 10, 1868. - Remarks on Alaska. Proc. Cal. Acad. Sci., iv, pp. 30-37, 268, 293, 294. 1868. - Die telegraphen expedition auf dem Jukon in Alaska. Petermann’s Geogr. Mittheil., xv, pp. 361-365, with map. Oct., 1869. - Alaska and its resources. Lee & Shepard, Boston, 8°, xii, 628 pp., 15 pi., 1 map. 1870. - Survey of Alaska. House Reps. Exec. Doc. No. 255, 41st Congr., 2d sess., 8°, Washington, Gov’t Printing Office, May 11, 1870. 150 DALL. Dali (William Healey). On exploration in Russian America. Proc. Am. Acad. Arts and Sci., viii, pp. 297, 298. 1870. ■ - — Die aufnahme der Aleuten und die untersuchung der Behring See. In Hydrogr. Mitth. Berlin, 1873, pp. 316, 317. Dec., 1873. - Forschungen in den Aleutischen Inseln, 1873. Petermann’s Mitth., xx, pp. 151, 152. March, 1874. - Explorations in the Aleutian islands and their vicinity. Journ. Am. Geogr. Soc., v, pp. 243-245. 1874. - Harbors of Alaska and the tides and currents in their vicinity. U. S. Coast Survey report for 1872, App. 10, pp. 177-212. 1875. - Arbeiten der Kustenaufnahme von Alaska in jahre 1874. Petermann’s Mitth., xxi, pp. 155, 156. May, 1875. - Report of explorations on the coast of Alaska. U. S. Coast Survey report for 1873, App. 11, pp. 111-122. 1875. - Report on Mount St. Elias, with map and view. In same for 1875, App. 10, pp. 157-188 ; extras, Nov., 1875. - Scientific results of the exploration of Alaska by the parties under the charge of W. H. Dali, during the years 1865-1874. Washington, W. H. Dali, 1876-1880, 8°, pp. 1-276, with 36 plates. ' [A uniformly paged reprint of papers by Dali and others on various topics. The papers will be referred to separately here. ] - Neuere Forschungen auf den Aleuten. Deutsche Geogr. Blatt., Bremen, ii, pp. 38-43 and 84-101, with map, Jan. to April, 1878. - Alaska forschungen im Sommer 1880. Petermann’s Geogr. Mitth. 1881, pp. 46, 47. Feb., 1881. - U. S. Coast Survey operations in the vicinity of Bering strait. Proc. Royal Geogr. Soc., London, Jan., 1881, pp. 47-49. - Pacific Coast Pilot. Coast and islands of Alaska. Dixon entrance to Yakutat bay with the Inland passage. Washington, U. S. Coast Survey, 1883. Royal 8°, pp. x, 333, 16 maps and 13 plates. The appendices include : List of charts useful for navigation in the region. Isogonic chart of Alaska and adjacent region. ALASKA AS IT WAS AND IS. 151 List of astronomical positions and magnetic declinations. Table of distances. Table of routes. Note on pronunciation of native and Russian names. Meteorological tables. Index to the work. Indices to geographical authorities used in compiling the work and not indexed in the original, comprising Beechey, Billings, Cook and King, Dixon, Langsdorff, La Perouse, Lisianski, Liitke, Meares, Portlock, Vancouver, and the voyage of the Sutil and Mexicana (Alcala Galiano). Dali (William Healey). Alaska. American Cyclopedia, New York, Appleton, 1883, with map. - On the position of Mt. St. Elias and the Schwatka expedition to Alaska. Proc. Royal Geogr. Soc., x, No. 7, pp. 444, 445. July, 1887. - Alaska revisited. I-VI. The Nation, New York, 1895, vol. 61, No. 1566, pp. 6, 7, July 4 ; No. 1567, p. 24, July 11 ; No. 1572, p. 113, Aug. 15 ; No. 1573, pp. 131, 132, Aug. 22; No. 1576, p. 183, Sept. 12; No. 1578, p. 220, Sept. 26. Also in the New York Evening Post of July 4, 11, Aug. 19, 22, and Sept. 21, 28, 1895. Rothrock (Joseph Trimble). Northwestern North America ; its resources and inhabitants. Journ. Am. Geogr. Soc., iv, pp. 393-415. New York, 1874. Whymper (Frederick). A journey from Norton sound, Bering sea, to Fort Youkon. Journ. Roy. Geogr. Soc., London, xxxviii, pp. 219-237. 1868. METEOROLOGY AND HYDROLOGY. Bannister (Plenry Martyn). Meteorological correspondence. Smithsonian Report for 1866, pp. 411, 412. 1867. Dali (W. H.) Coast Pilot of Alaska. Appendix I, Meteorology and Bib¬ liography. 376 pp., 13 pi., 28 maps, 4°, U. S. Coast Survey, 1879.' - Ueber das Klima von Alaska. Zeitschr. der Oesterreichischen Ges. fur Meteorologie, xvii, pp. 443, 444. Nov., 1882. 8°. - Hydrologie des Bering-Meeres und der benachbarten gewasser. Petermann’s Mitth. , pp. 361-380, with map and sections, and pp. 443-448. Oct. to Nov., 1881. 152 DALL. Dali (W. H.) The currents and temperatures of Bering sea and the ad¬ jacent waters. U. S. Coast Survey Report for 1880, App. No. 16, separately printed, 4°, pp. 46, maps and section. March, 1882. MAGNETISM. Schott (Charles A.) U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. Methods and re¬ sults. Terrestrial magnetism. Collection of results for declina¬ tion, dip, and intensity (etc.). U. S. Coast Survey Report for 1881, App. No. 9 (separately issued), 67 pp., 4°, 1882; cf. pp. 5-7, 37-39. - On the secular variation of the magnetic declination in the United States (etc.). In the same, Report for 1882, Appendices 12, 13, pp. 211-328 ; also separately; cf. pp. 243, 246-249, 285, and isogonic chart of Alaska. - The magnetic observations made on Bering’s first voyage (etc.). U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey Bull. No. 20, vol. i, pp. 211-214. 1891. HISTORY, BIBLIOGRAPHY, AND ECONOMICS. Dali (W. H.) Robert Kennicott. Trans. Chicago Acad. Sci., i, part 2, pp. 133-226, with por¬ trait. 1869. A biographical sketch prepared by a committee of the Academy appointed at the meeting of Nov. 13, 1866. Dali’s contribution occupies pp. 216-224. - Is Alaska a paying investment ? Harper’s Monthly Magazine, xliv, Jan., 1872, pp. 252-257. - Abstract of the population of the native tribes of Alaska. U. S. Comm’ r Indian Affairs, Rep. for 1874, pp. 198-201. 1875. - Documents relating to the Alaskan boundary question. Senate Ex. Doc. No. 146, 50th Congr., 2d sess. Washington, Govt. Printing Office, 1889, 8°, pp. 1-40, charts 10-17. - A critical review of Bering’s first expedition, 1725-1730, together with a translation of his original report upon it, with a map. Nat. Geogr. Mag., ii, No. 2, June, 1890, pp. 1-57. - Geographical explorations. Early expeditions to the region of Bering sea and strait. From the reports and journals of Vitus ALASKA AS IT WAS AND IS. 153 Ivanovich Bering, translated by William Healey Dali. Wash¬ ington, Government Printing Office, 1891. U. S. Coast Survey, Report for 1890, Appendix 19, pp. 759- 774, 4°, with two maps. March, 1891. This paper, separately printed as above with title page and cover, appears in the annual volume with the following heading : ‘‘Notes on an original manuscript chart of Bering’s expedi¬ tion of 1725-1730, and on an original manuscript chart of his second expedition, together with a summary of a journal of the first expedition kept by Peter Chaplin and now first rendered into English from Bergh’s Russian version.” Dali (W. H.) and Baker (Marcus). Partial list of charts, maps, and pub¬ lications relating to Alaska and the adjacent region. U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, Pacific Coast Pilot, Alaska, second series, Appendix 1, pp. 163-375, 4°, Washington, 1879 ; also separately. GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY. (See also Botany.) Dali (W. H.) Observations on the geology of Alaska. U. S. Coast Survey, Coast Pilot of Alaska, part 1, pp. 193-202. 1869. - Notes on Alaska and the vicinity of Bering strait. Am. Journ. Science, third series, xxi, pp. 104-111, with maps. Feb., 1881. - Note on Alaska Tertiary deposits. Am. Journ. Science, third series, xxiv, pp. 67, 68, July, 1882. - Glaciation in Alaska. Proc. Phil. Soc. of Washington, 1883, vol. vi, pp. 33-36. - A new volcanic island in Alaska. Science, iii, No. 51, Jan. 25, 1884, pp. 89-93. - Further notes on Bogosloff island. Science, v, No. 101, Jan. 9, 1885, pp. 32, 33. - Bulletin of the U. S. Geological Survey, No. 84. Correlation Papers. Neocene, by William Healey Dali and Gilbert Dennison Harris ; Washington, Government Printing Office, 1892, 8°, 349 pp., with many illustrations and 3 maps. Geology of Alaska, pp. 232-268, with map. 154 DALL. White (Charles A,) On a small collection of Mesozoic fossils obtained in Alaska by Mr. W. H. Dali (etc.). U. S. Geol. Survey, Bulletin No. 4, Washington, the Survey, 1884, pp. 10-15, pi. vi. FAUNAL DISTRIBUTION. Dali (W. H.) On the trend of the Rocky Mountain range north of lati¬ tude 60°, and its influence on faunal distribution. Proc. Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci., xviii, p. 247. Aug., 1869. - On the marine faunal regions of the North Pacific (etc.). Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Phila. , 1876, pp. 205-208; Sci. Results, pp. 1-4. Dec., 1876. - Faunal regions. Distribution of plants and animals. Charts xxvii and xxviii. In Coast Pilot of Alaska, App. I, Meteorology. Washington, U. S. Coast Survey, 1879. ANTHROPOLOGY. Dali (W. H.) On the distribution of the native tribes of Alaska. Proc. Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 18th (Salem) meeting, 1869, xviii, pp. 263-273, 1870. Synopsis in Am. Nat. Oct., 1869. - On prehistoric remains in the Aleutian islands. Proc. Cal. Acad. Sci., iv, pp. 283-287. Nov., 1872. - On further examinations of the Amaknak cave. Proc. Cal. Acad. Sci., v, pp. 196-200. 1873. - Notes on some Aleut mummies. Proc. Cal. Acad. Sci., v, pp. 399, 400. Oct., 1874. - Alaskan mummies. Am. Naturalist, ix, pp. 433-440. Aug., 1875. - — Tribes of the extreme Northwest. Art. I. On the distribution and nomenclature of the native tribes of Alaska and the adjacent territory, with a map, pp. 7-40. Art. II. On succession in the shell heaps of the Aleutian islands, pp. 41-91. Art. III. Remarks on the origin of the Innuit, pp. 93-106. Terms of relationship used by the Innuit, pp. 117-119. Table showing relationship of tribes of Puget sound, etc., p. 241. In Contr. to Am. Ethnology, i, 4°, Washington, Gov’t Print¬ ing Office, July, 1877 ; extras, May, 1877. ALASKA AS IT WAS AND IS. 155 Dali (W. Ii. ) Social life among our aborigines. Am. Naturalist, xii, pp. 1-10. Jan., 1878. - On the remains of later prehistoric man obtained from caves in the Catharina archipelago, Alaska Territory (etc.). Smithsonian Contr. to Knowledge, 318, 4°, pp. 40, 10 pi. 1878. - The Chukches and their neighbors in the northeastern extremity of Siberia. Proc. Roy. Geogr. Soc., London, Sept., 1881, pp. 568-570. - On the so-called Chukchi and Namollo people of Eastern Siberia. Am. Naturalist, xv, 857-868. Nov., 1881. - On masks, labrets, and certain aboriginal customs, with an enquiry into the bearing of their geographical distribution. U. S. Bureau of Ethn., Annual Rep. for 1882, Washington, 1884, 8°, pp. 67-200, pi. v-xxix ; also separately. - The native tribes of Alaska : An address before the Section of Anthropology of the American Association for the Advance¬ ment of Science, at Ann Arbor, August, 1885, by William H. Dali, vice-president. Proc. A. A. A. S., xxxiv, 1885, pp. (1-19) 363-379. Otis (George A.) List of the specimens of the anatomical section of the U. S. Army Medical Museum. Washington, Army Med. Museum, 1880, 8°, pp. viii, 194; cf. pp. 35-39, 54-56, 166, 167, for description and measure¬ ments of crania. Wyman (Jeffries). Observations on crania. Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., xi, pp. 440-462, 1868, 8°, cuts; also separately. ZOOLOGY. Mammals. Bannister (Henry Martyn). The Esquimaux dog. Am. Naturalist, iii, No. 10, Dec., 1869, pp. 522-530. Coues (Elliott) On the Muridse. Philadelphia, Collins, 1874 [N. W. Boundary Survey], 8°, pp, 28. Based partly on Alaskan material. Dali (W. H.) List of the mammalia of Alaska. Alaska and its Resources, pp. 576-578. 1870. 22— Bull. Phil. Soc., Wash., Vol.13. 156 BALL. Dali (W. H.) Catalogue of the Cetacea of the north Pacific ocean, with osteological notes, etc. In Scammon’s Marine Mammalia of the Northwest Coast of North America, 4°, San Francisco, 1874; Appendix, pp. 278-307. Separately printed, 1873. True (Frederick W. ) On the skeleton of Phoca (Histriophoca) fasciata, Zimmerman. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vi, 1883, pp. 417-426, pi. xi-xiv. 1884. - On a new species of porpoise, Phocsena Dalli, from Alaska. The same, viii, 1885, pp. 95-98, pi. ii-v. Birds. Baird (Spencer F.) On additions to the bird fauna of North America made by the Scientific Corps of the Russo-American Telegraph Expedition. Trans. Chicago Acad. Sci., i, pp. 311-325, pi. 27-34. 1869. Bean (Tarleton H.) Our unique spoon-billed sandpiper. Forest and Stream, xvi, No. 12, p. 225. April 21, 1881. - Notes on birds collected during the summer of 1880 in Alaska. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 1882, pp. 144-173. 1882. Cabanis (J.) Ueber Pyrrhula cassini und P. cineracea aus Siberien. Jour, fur Ornith., 1881, p. 318 ; 1872, pp. 315, 316 ; 1873, pp. 314, 315. Dali (W. H.) and Bannister (H. M.) List of the birds of Alaska, with biographical notes. Trans. Chicago Acad. Sci., i, pp. 267-310, pi. xxvii-xxxiv. 1869. Dali (W. H.) Birds of Alaska. Alaska and its resources, pp. 580-586. 1870. - Notes on the avifauna of the Aleutian islands from Unalashka eastward. Proc. Cal. Acad. Sci., v, pp. 25-35. Feb., 1873. - Notes on the avifauna of the Aleutian islands, especially those west of Unalashka. Proc. Cal. Acad. Sci., v, pp. 270-281. March, 1874. Newton (Alfred). Notes on the birds of the Yukon region. The Ibis, 2d series, vi, p. 521. 1870. Tristram (H. B.) Notes on some passerine birds, chiefly palearctic. The Ibis, 3d series, i, No. 2, pp. 231-234. 1871. ALASKA AS IT WAS AND IS. 157 Fish and Fisheries. Bean (Tarleton H.) Description of a new fish from Alaska (etc.). Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., ii, pp. 212-218. 1879. - Descriptions of some new genera and species of Alaskan fishes. The same, pp. 353-359. 1880. - Descriptions of new fishes from Alaska and Siberia. The same, iv, pp. 144-159. 1881. - A preliminary catalogue of the fishes of Alaskan and adjacent waters. The same, v, pp. 239-272. 1881. - Description of a new species of Alepidosaurus from Alaska. The same, vi, pp. 661-663. 1883. - A partial bibliography of the fishes of the Pacific coast of the United States and of Alaska (etc.). The same, iv, pp. 312-317. 1882. - List of fishes known to occur in the Arctic ocean north of Bering strait. Report on the cruise of the Corwin. Washington, Govern¬ ment Printing Office, 1883, pp. 118-120, 4°. - The fishery resources and fishing grounds of Alaska. Fishing industries of the U. S., i, sect. 3, pp. 81-113. 1887. - The codfishery of Alaska. Fishing industries of the U. S., i, sect. 5, p. 198. 1887. - The Burbot, Lota maculosa. Fishing industries of the U. S., i, sect. 7. 1887. Dali (W. H.) The food-fishes of Alaska. U. S. Com’r Agriculture, Report for 1870, pp. 375-392. 1871. Milner (James W.) Notes on the grayling of North America (etc.). U. S. Com’r Fisheries, Report for 1872-73, pp. 729-742. 1874. Mollusca and Brachiopoda. Bergh (Rudolph). On the nudibranchiate gastropod mollusca of the north Pacific ocean, with special reference to those of Alaska. Part I. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Phila., for 1879, pp. 71-132, 1. pi-viii. May, 1879. - Part II. In the same, pp. 40-127, pi. i-viii. 1880. The two papers above cited appear in Sci. Res. Expl. of Alaska, pp. 127-276, pi. i-xvi. 158 DALL. Dali (W. H.) Materials for a monograph of the family Lepetidae. Am. Journ. Conch., v, pp. 140-150. 1869. - On the Limpets, with special reference to the species of the west coast of America and to a more natural classification of the group. In same, vi, pp. 228-282, pi. xiy-xvii. April, 1871. - Diagnoses of sixty new forms of mollusks from the west coast of America and the North Pacific ocean. In same, vii, pp. 93-160, pi. xiii-xvi. Oct., 1871. - Preliminary descriptions of new species of mollusks from the northwest coast of America. Proc. Gala. Acad. Sci., iv, pp. 270, 271. Oct., 1872. - Preliminary descriptions of new species of mollusks from the northwest coast of America. In same, iv, pp. 302, 303. Dec., 1872. - Descriptions of new species of mollusca from the coast of Alaska, with notes on some rare forms. In same, v, pp. 57-62. April, 1873. - Catalogue of shells from Bering strait (etc.). In same, v, pp. 246-253. 1874. - Preliminary descriptions of new species of mollusks from the northwest coast of America. In same, p. 6 ; extras, March 19, 1877. - Aleutian cephalopods. Am. Nat., vii, No. 8, Aug., 1873, pp. 484, 485. - Report on the brachiopoda of Alaska (etc.). Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Phila. 1877, pp. 155-170 ; Sci. Results, art. iii, pp. 45-62. July, 1877. - Descriptions of new forms of mollusks from Alaska (etc.). Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 1878, pp. 1-3. Feb., 1878. - Report on the Limpets and Chitons of the Alaskan and Arctic regions. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 1879, pp. 281-344, pi. i-v. 1879. Sci. Results Expl. Alaska, pp. 63-126, pi. i-v. - Report on the mollusca of the Commander islands, Bering sea, collected by Leonard Stejneger in 1882 and 1883. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 1884, pp. 340-349, pi. ii. 1884. ALASKA AS IT WAS AND IS. 159 Dali (W. H.) New or specially interesting shells of the Point Barrow expedition. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 1884, pp. 523-526, pi. ii. 1884. - Report on Bering island mollusca. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 1886, pp. 209-219. 1886. - Supplementary notes on some species of mollusks of the Bering sea and vicinity. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 1886, pp. 297-309, pi. iii, iv. Oct., 1886. - Report on the mollusks. In Report of the International Polar Expedition to Point Barrow, Washington, Gov’t, 1885, 4°, pp. 177-184, with plate. - On the genus Corolla (Dali). The Nautilus, iii, No. 3, July, 1889, pp. 30, 31. - Notes on some recent brachiopods. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Phila. for 1891, pp. 172-175, pi. iv. - On some new or interesting west American shells (etc.). Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., xiv, pp. 173-191. 1891. See also the same, xvii, pp. 706-733, pi. xxv-xxxii. 1895. Lea (Isaac). Description of five new species of Unionidse (etc.). Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Phila., xix, p. 81. 1867. Crustacea. Benedict (James E.) Preliminary descriptions of thirty-seven new species of hermit crabs of the genus Eupagurus. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., xv, pp. 1-26, 1892. - Corystoid crabs of the genera Telmessus and Erimacrus. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., xv, pp. 223-230, pi. xxv-xxvii. 1892. - Descriptions of new genera and species of crabs of the family Lithodidse, etc. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., xvii, pp. 479-488. 1894. Dali (W. H.) Descriptions of three new species of Crustacea, parasitic on the cetacea of the northwest coast of America. Proc. Cal. Acad. Sci., iv; pp. 281-283. Nov., 1872. - On the parasites of the cetaceans of the northwest coast of America, with descriptions of new forms. In same, iv. pp. 299-301. Dec., 1872. - On new parasitic Crustacea from the northwest coast of America. In same, v, pp. 254, 255. March, 1874. 160 DALL. Lutken (Christian Frederick). Tillseg til Bidrag til kundskab om Arterne af Slsegten Cyamus Latreille (etc.). Vid. Selsk. Skr. 6 Raekke, iv, pp. 317-322 and pi., also sepa¬ rately. Rathbun (Mary J.) Catalogue of the crabs of the family Maiidse (etc.). Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., xyi, pp. 63-103, pi. iii-viii. 1893. - Descriptions of new genera and species of crabs from the west coast of North America. Proc. TJ. S. Nat. Mus., xvi, pp. 223-260. 1893. - - Notes on the crabs of the family Inachidse (etc.). Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., xvii, pp. 43-75. 1894. Insects. Hagen (Herman). List of neuroptera of Alaska. Alaska and its Resources, pp. 588, 589. 1870. Packard (Alpheus S., Jr.) List of nocturnal lepidoptera of Alaska. Alaska and its Resources, p. 587. 1870. - List of hymenoptera of Alaska. The same, pp. 587, 588. 1870. - Notice of hymenoptera and nocturnal lepidoptera collected in Alaska by W. H. Dali, director of the Scientific Corps of the Western Union Telegraph Expedition, with a list of neuroptera by P. R. Uhler and Dr. H. Hagen. Trans. Chicago Acad. Sci., vol. ii, pp. - , with a plate. Chicago, 1870. This report was printed, but nearly all the copies were destroyed in the great fire at Chicago, and it cannot be considered as effectively published. Scudder (Samuel Hubbard). List of diurnal lepidoptera of Alaska. Alaska and its Resources, pp. 588, 589. 1870. - Report on a collection of diurnal lepidoptera made in Alaska by the Scientific Corps of the Russo-American Telegraph Expedi¬ tion under the direction of Lieut. W. H. Dali. Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., v, pp. 404-408. 1869. Also in Entomological Notes, ii, pp. 42-46. 1869. Ccelenterates. Clark, (Samuel Fessenden) . Report on the hy droids collected on the coast of Alaska by W. H. Dali, U. S. Coast Survey, and party. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Phila., for 1876, pp. 209-238, pi. vii-xvi. 1877. Sci. Results Expl. Alaska, pp. 5-34, pi. i-x. ALASKA AS IT WAS AND IS. 1G1 Dali (W. H.) On some hydrocorallinse from Alaska (etc.). Proc. Biol. Soc. of Wash., ii, pp. 111-115. April, 1884. Porifera. Lambe (Lawrence M. ) Sponges from the western coast of North America. Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada, 1894, sec. iv, pp. 113-138, pi. ii-iv. 1895. BOTANY. Dali (W. H.) Report on the agricultural resources of Alaska. U. S. Com’ r Agriculture, Report for 1868, pp. 172-189. 1869. - List of useful plants indigenous in the Territory of Alaska. Alaska and its Resources, pp. 589-594. 1870. - Arctic marine vegetation. Nature, July 1, 1875, p. 166. Knowlton (F. H.) A review of the fossil flora of Alaska, with descrip¬ tions of new species. Proc. TJ. S. Nat. Mus. 1894, pp. 207-240, pi. ix. See also Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., v, pp. 573-590. 1893. Lesquereux (Leo). Contributions to the Miocene flora of Alaska. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 1882, pp. 443-449, pi. vi-x. 1883. Mann (Horace, Jr.) Sketch of the flora of Alaska. Lichenes. Smithsonian Report for 1867, pp. 462, 463. 1868. Rothrock (Joseph Trimble). Sketch of the flora of Alaska. Smithsonian Report for 1867, pp. 433-461. 1868. - List of and notes upon the lichens collected by Dr. T. H. Bean in Alaska and the adjacent region in 1880. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 1884, pp. 1-9, 1884. GRAPHIC REDUCTION OF STAR PLACES.* BY Erasmus Darwin Preston. [Read before the Society January 4, 1896.] Introduction. — The reduction of stars from their mean places at the beginning of the }^ear, as given in the Catalogue, to their apparent places at any given time as found by ob¬ servation, forms a very considerable part of the astronomical calculations made in the Coast and Geodetic Survey Office. This work is especially heavy in the latitude computations, and the labor has been accentuated in recent years by the attention given to the subject of latitude variation. There are several ways of abridging the numerical calcu¬ lations, depending on the relation between the number of stars observed and the number of nights on which obser¬ vations are made. For example, if many stars are observed on two or three consecutive nights, differential formulae may be applied by means of which the position having been obtained on any one date, that on succeeding dates may be found in about one-third the time required to get the first one. This method is given in Appendix No. 13, Coast and Geodetic Survey Report for 1888. When, however, obser¬ vations are continued for a long time on the same stars, a condition that necessarily follows in researches on the varia¬ tions of latitude, the reductions can be very much facilitated by a method employed in Appendix No. 2, Report of Coast and Geodetic Survey for 1892. This method, which con- * Published by permission of the Superintendent of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey. 23— Bull. Phil. Soc., Wash., Vol. 13. (163) 164 PRESTON. sists in applying Bessel’s numbers by differences, enables the computer to obtain the places for succeeding dates in about one-fourth the time required by the usual way. There are many cases, however, that do not fall strictly within the two foregoing categories, and to meet these the present graphic method has been devised. Its advantages are rapid¬ ity and ease of application. No numerical work being neces¬ sary, the fatigue attending such operations is entirely avoided. The accuracy of the method can be increased to any desir¬ able extent by enlarging the scale. That adopted in the following description will, however, meet all the require¬ ments of our present instruments and methods of observation. This method was originally devised to shorten the work in the latitude computations, and has therefore been used for declinations only, but following the same principles its ap¬ plication to right ascensions is easily made. Description arid Explanation. — Three general diagrams are given. The first (plate 7) shows the lines necessary for all the stars and is a reduced copy of the regular working sheet. The second and third (plates 8 and 9) are intended to show the construction for star No. 1381.* In plate 7 we have a graphic representation of the day numbers, A , B , C, D. The dimensions given refer only to the scale used in actual work and not to the illustrations, which have necessarily been reduced for convenience of publication. On a quadrant drawn with a radius of 20 inches (plate 7) spaces are laid off equal to half degrees, corresponding to two minutes of right ascension. By this scale declinations to the nearest tenth of a degree and right ascensions to the nearest half minute may be indicated with the greatest facility. With the exercise of a little care, on a slightly increased scale the error in plotting the former need not be more than a minute or two of arc, and the latter may be plotted with a corresponding accuracy in time. Roughly speaking, the uncertainty of plotting the two functions may * Catalogue of Stars for Observations of Latitude, Appendix No. 7, C. and G. S. Report for 1876. GRAPHIC REDUCTION OP STAR PLACES. 165 be stated as about 6 seconds for the right ascensions and 1J minutes for the declinations. With the above stated di¬ mensions the trigonometrical functions may be read off to three places, and the multiplication, by the graphical method, of these functions by the day numbers can be accomplished so that the greatest error will be only a few hundredths of a second of arc, which is abundantly sufficient for the reduc¬ tion of star places for the ordinary latitude observations with the zenith telescope. Concentric with the quadrant having a radius of 20 inches, another is drawn with a radius of 20.05 inches. This is for the purpose of finding 20.05 cos a. The two radii bounding the quadrants are subdivided into spaces of tenths of an inch. Each radius is therefore divided into 200 parts. Thus by estimating tenths of these divisions readings may be made to the two thousandth part of the radius. Through these points of division lines are drawn parallel to the radii, the result being that the entire surface is divided into small squares. The divisions of the quadrant are numbered for declina¬ tion in the center and for right ascension on either side. The degrees of declination are not indicated again on plates 8 and 9, as these are only intended to illustrate the method by application to a special case. The trigonometrical func¬ tions for the declination are used, however, on these sheets as they would appear on plate 7. The hours for the last argument are so chosen that the lines representing the star numbers a, b, c, d will fall horizontally. This facilitates their multiplication by the day numbers A, B , G, D, which are all plotted vertically. On the margin is indicated the space in which the right ascensions must be sought for the different star numbers a, b, c, d. A negative sign before the hours indicates that the trigonometrical function is to be taken in this sense. The quantities A, B, C, D are plotted on the largest scale possible with the accompanying quadrant. This necessitates a slight change in the values of A, and they are laid down 166 PRESTON. on a scale ten times their real value ; for example, the value on June 9 is 0.507, but is plotted as 5.07. B may range from about + 9" to — 9", so the marginal numbers are used, and the correct value of this quantity multiplied by any of the trigonometrical functions will be given by reading the result from the scale at the left. C and D range from about + 20" to — 20". They are plotted so that the radial value would be 20. Since both are symmetrical with reference to the horizontal line pass¬ ing through the center, all values are plotted above the horizontal radius, and negative values in all day numbers are made apparent by using a curve in which dots are made for each individual day. The scale of dates is laid off in the middle of the sheet, and the value of any of the day numbers at a specified time may be found at the intersection of the corresponding curve, with the vertical line through the given date. By means of the horizontal lines the values of A, By Gy D may be transferred visually to the margin. For example, on June 9 we have the values A = + 5.07, B = — 8.35, O = — 3.57, D = - 20.07. Referring now to plate 8, we shall show the construction, i. en the graphic computation of the quantities a? A = 20.05 cos a x A. V B = — sin o. x B. c' C = (tan oj cos d — sin a sin 5) X O. d! D— cos a sin d X D. It should be borne in mind, however, that in actual prac- , tice the method is very much shorter than would appear from the lines drawn in plate 8. For example, in finding the value of a' A, when. we have once located the position of the right ascension, 16h 33m.5 on the quadrant, it is seen by mere inspection that the quantity 20.05 cos a is equal to — 7.38. In fact it is not necessary to know the numeri¬ cal value of this quantity, since it is to be multiplied by A, and it is only the final product that we care to determine. GRAPHIC REDUCTION OF STAR PLACES. 167 We need only know that the value of a' is the line F G. This factor enters the computation as a line without reference to its numerical value. A fine thread being attached at the center 0, and the other end being held by the hand at J, the intersection of this thread with the vertical line through the point of right ascension, G, gives at once the value of a ' A, or — 3.74. No lines are actually drawn, but the final products are found by projecting selected points, with the eye, either horizontally or vertically until they meet the line of the thread. This visual projection is rendered easy and accurate by the small spaces into which the sheet is divided. Moreover, on the regular working sheet both the quadrants indicating right ascensions and declinations and the curves for the day numbers are drawn. The diagrams are separated for illustration and to avoid confusion in the construction lines, which in the regular work are never drawn. For comparison, the logarithmic computation, em¬ ploying Bessel’s numbers, is given on the following page for the apparent declination of star No. 1381. GRAPHIC DETERMINATIONS. Reductions in Declination. — Proceeding now to determine the quantities a ' A, b' B, c' C, d' D for star No. 1381, we shall indicate data and final results by full lines. Construction lines are dot'ted. Partial results, which are intermediate be¬ tween the data and final results, such as the values of tan oj cos sin « sin <5, etc., are shown in broken lines. The reduc¬ tion is made from the mean place on January 0, 1895, to its apparent place on June 9, 1895. The position of the star is (taking the nearest half minute in «) : Right ascension — a = 16h 33m.5. Declination = S = 53° 7'. First term. — To get a' A = 20T05 cos a x A (see plate 8). We seek the value of a in the quadrant marked (a and d) and read at once the value of 20.05 cos « or F G on the outer one 168 PRESTON. of the arcs. The negative sign before 16 indicates that the cosine of the right ascension is minus. This quantity, which is — 7.38, is to be multiplied by the value of A on June 9. On this date we see, by inspection of plate 7, that A equals + 0.507 X 10 or the line HI. In order to multiply the two lines F G and H I, I is projected to J. The point J is the intersection of a horizontal line through I and a vertical line at a distance of 10 units from the origin 0. The point of intersection of the vertical through G and the line J 0 de¬ termines the length of the line K L, which is equal to F G multiplied by HI, or 20.05 cos a X i; therefore a' A = Star No. 1381. — Catalogue of Stars for Observations of Latitude. (Report of U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey for 1876, Appendix No. 7.) Reduction from mean to apparent declination. Log. No. a= 16h 33m 41s = 248° 25' sin a = 9. 9684n — 0. 930 d = 53° V cos a = 9. 5657n — 0.368 sin d = 9.9030 +0.800 cos d — 9.7783 +0.600 Terms a/ 20,052 cos a b' — sin a c ' tan uj cos d — sin a sin d d' cos a sin d Logs Logs Logs Logs Logs Computation. 1.3022 9.5657n 9.6373 9.9684n 9.7783 9.9030 9.5657n 9.9030 Log a/ V c/ d/ . 0.8679n 9.9684 9.4156 9.8714n 0.2604 0.7437 + 1.004 0.0017 9.4687n “ A B C D . 9.7055 0.9215n 0.5521n 1.3026n 0.5734n 0.8899n 0.5538n 0.7713 Nos ..a'A,b'B, c'C,d'L>. — 3.74 — 7.76 — 3.58 + 5.91 For June 9 : Nos. a' b' c' d' ... . — 7.38 + 0.930 + 1.004 — 0.294 “ ABC D . + 0.508 — 8.35 — 3.57 —20.07 GRAPHIC REDUCTION OF STAR PLACES. 169 — 3.74, agreeing with the logarithmic computation previ¬ ously given. This follows from the proportion or Hence h J : h 0 : : L K : L 0 HI: 10 :: L K: F G. L K = HIX FG 10 which gives L K in correct units, since the value of A, or 0.507, was plotted on a scale 10 times its true value. When a number of stars are to be reduced for the same date, the point J applies to all, and the values of a' A for the separate stars are the vertical lines included between the axis of abscissas and the line J O. The lines are, of course, vertically under the points on the arc corresponding to the right ascensions. For the sake of uniformity in the process of multiplication, the day numbers A, B , C, D are always projected to the ver¬ tical scale at the right when finding the products a' A , b' B, c' C, d' D. It is evident that the same result would ensue by projecting the star numbers a', b ', c', d' to the horizontal scale at the top, drawing the radial line and measuring the intercept obtained by projecting the day numbers to the left. For example, if G is projected to m" and m" O is drawn it will intersect the line //prolonged, in K", giving L " K" = — 3.74, as before. The algebraic proportions may be written out similarly to those above. If G is projected to m' and the line m' O is drawn it will intersect the line Jf I' pro¬ longed, in K' giving L' K' = — 3.74, as before. To avoid confusion with lines already given in the figure G m' and m' O are not drawn. Without writing out the proportions it is quite evident that in the triangle so that it is equal to L’ K' O the line U K' is ^ of L’ 0, of (2 X 5.05). Likewise in the tri- angle L” K” O the line L" K" is O, and is there. 170 PRESTON. 7 38 fore HP of 5.05; both of these being equivalent to the first construction, viz., 7.38 X 0.505. In cases where the value of 20.05 cos a is represented by a line longer than ten units, extrapolation is avoided by plotting on a scale twice as large as that just used, which would make the point I fall at I'. I' is then to be projected to J', and the value of a' A is, as before, — 3.74. If A is plotted on this scale nearly every value of 20.05 cos « will be shorter than the horizontal distance between 0 and the point to which I' is projected, or J', and the values of a' A will be vertical lines lying between J' and the center, so that the only extrapolation resorted to is that for values of a' between 20.00 and 20.05 ; but no sensible error would be introduced by following the first construction. The scale at the left or right gives the result in correct units. This follows from the proportion H’J H' O: : L K : LO or HI' : H' O :: L K : F G, as previously given. Hence r V_HI'XFG= (0.505 X 20) (— 7.38) = - 0.505 X 7.38. H' O 20 Second term. — To get V B = — sin ax B (see plate 8). In this case we make use of the inner quadrant or the one described with a radius 20. Find the right ascension in the quadrant marked {b and c). The sine for radius 20 is equal to M N or — 0.930 X 20. The value of B on June 9 is HP or — 8.35. Project P to Q. The intersection of the vertical line through IV with the line O Q gives the point P, and the distance R S, read from the scale, gives 7.76, which is the value of sin ax B. In actual work the thread being held at Q and the point N being selected by inspection, the position of P and its value on the scale are read off at sight without either drawing GRAPHIC REDUCTION OP STAR PLACES. 171 lines or writing figures. This advantage, of course, applies to all determinations by this method. We have the proportion or H' Q : H' 0 : : S R : S 0 HP: H 0 : : SR: M N. Hence qj?_HPX MN _ (— 8.35) (—0.930 X 20) _ , 7 WO 20 + Mb- The value of b' B is then — 7.76. As in the case of a' A, all reductions for stars on June 9 have one point in common (here Q)> and the values of sin a X B will appear as vertical lines included between the line Q 0 and the axis of X. In giving the values of the trigonometrical functions the factor 20 is always written, as that is the number of units in the radius. The natural value of the function is, of course, the first factor. Third term. — To find c C= ( tan o> cos d — sin a sin S') O, (see plate 8). Here oj = 23° 27'== obliquity of ecliptic and tan a> = 0.434 We first find the second term of the parenthesis. By the same construction as was used for bf B the sine of « is — 0.930 X 20 = MN. The sine of 9 is T For +0.800 X 20. These quantities must be multiplied in such a way that the product is a horizontal line, viz., by projecting N to U and noting the point where the line U O intersects the horizon¬ tal line through V. The line X Y is equal to — 14.88 or — 0.744X20. We therefore have for the second term of the parenthesis on the actual scale sin a sin d — — 0.744 X 20= — 14.88. 24— Bull. Phil. Soc., Wash., Vol. 13. 172 PRESTON. This follows from the proportion q U:q 0::XY :XO or MN:q 0 : : X Y : T V. Hence y y _M N X T V __ sin a sin d (— 0.930 X 20) (0.800 X 20) qO ~ qO | 20 = — 0.744 X 20 = — 14.88. We now find the first term of c' =■ tan w cos d. The co¬ sine of * is X For + 0.600 X 20 = 12.00. Project V to W ; draw O W. Where this intersects the horizontal line through Z determines the distance Z E, which is tan o) cos d or + 0.260 X 20 = + 5.20. The sum of the two terms of c' is therefore (5.20 + 14.88) or 1.004 X 20 = 20.08. The distance Z O is 20 times the natural tangent of the obliquity of the ecliptic, and the line through Z is drawn once for all, as it is common to all the stars. In order to have the two terms of c' on the same scale, Z is taken at a distance from the axis of X of 20 X 0.434 = 8.68. So that we have the proportion q W : q O : : ZE : ZO or X V : q O : : Z E : tan w X 20. Hence Z E = X Vtan - - — = (Q,60Q x 20-> ( tanco X 20) q O 20 = 0.600 X 0.434 X 20 == 0.260 X 20. The value of Z E is laid off on the prolongation of X Yy giving the point A, where XA = X F+ YA = (0.260 + 0.744) X 20 = +1.004 X 20; the first term of the value c'C being positive and the second GRAPHIC REDUCTION OF STAR PLACES. 173 term negative, their difference is + 20.08. This is to be multiplied by the value of C on June 9, which is — -3.57 ; project B to C; draw C 0. Where the vertical line through A meets C 0 prolonged gives the point D and the line D D' is the product c' C or ( tan

C bV > r - V.p ^ MS & 02 S3 M S3 r— I b>© § 02 oO « gs M M 2 fa m ■M M oi 3 02 M M 4h P £ ^ ^ -*-’ o O ^ r3 m MHk8 02 -M> _ c3 M 02 . ^ tfg -i § ® ®-3 .2-J o g 1 s M bo 'cS e 02 t> •a p tb . b*s £»>>£“ . s l°c = ®3®SS ®.S § o S3 o S2 -M> O ,rt! O -s3 2 o3 'o '■§ § o go’ O.S N O Ecffeq. C} Cq o be r* 02 + + s b*^ be 8 S3 02 <4-h O S3 .2 *-M c3 t> M 02 CQ S3 O 02 II II P + ^ . <3 j m * 02 co *43 ~02 02 be ^ § § C3 o3 ^ QQ «2.a 3^ S3 £_g '£'§ § a c w a 5 u l-M ^CQ 'bO -M O a % K p= »- «3 <3 m-5 FUNCTION OF CRITICISM IN ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE. 361 This analysis of phenomena shows that variations of energy in their transformations are known only as the product of two terms. Of energy itself, the primal quantity, we know nothing as yet. Whether it ever can be known to man re¬ mains to be seen. Of the two factors which measure the change in energy, the first is called the intensity and the second the capacity. Examples of intensity are the absolute temperature, velocity of motion, the potential function, the double kinetic energy, force, surface tension, pressure, height, the Newtonian potential function, chemical intensity, electric and magnetic tension, electric and magnetic currents. These quantities are the gauges of the condition of the substance through which the work of the transformation of the energy is performed. Thus the temperature or pressure of a body prescribes the amount of the work required to produce a given rise in its heat or volume respectively. Now, the pre¬ requisite that there shall be any transfer of energy whatso¬ ever is that there must be differences of intensity in contact with each other. For any transfer of heat there must be two bodies in contact having different temperatures, as hot and cold pieces of metal ; or two bags of air with different pressures, which are spherical before contact, but become deformed on touching each other, the bag of low^er pressure yielding more than the one at higher pressure. Next, the transfer of energy is always from the substance of higher in¬ tensity to the one of lower intensity, as from the hot to the cold body, from the high pressure to the low pressure body. The second law of thermodynamics therefore becomes gen¬ eral by saying that every energy form endeavors to go over from a higher to a lower intensity. This is the intensity law and is universally applicable, so far as now known. The second factor in energy changes is called the capacity, and examples of it are entropy, force, molar mass, the cyclic moment, distance, surface, volume, weight, resistance, chem¬ ical mass, electricity, magnetism, electric and magnetic density. The capacity measures the amount of the energy transferred from one body to another. If intensity measures 52— Bull, Phil, Soc., Wash., Vol. 13. 362 BIGELOW. the amount of the disturbance of equilibrium, and conditions the rate at which the transfer of energy takes place, the ca¬ pacity measures the amount of energy that is transferred when the form of energy is changed. Hence under the law of conservation the amount of energy that one body loses the other gains, and therefore the sum of the capacities taken throughout the process is constant. The amount of heat one body loses the other gains in the new equilibrium ; the amount of pressure one body loses the other gains, in order that equilibrium may be restored. If this equilibrium is dis¬ turbed by some change in the intensity, then the capacity measures the amount of the energy that can transfer under these circumstances, and the total energy transformed is the product of the intensity and the variation of the capacity. It may seem strange that the terms that we employ freely — force, mass, surface, volume, weight, electricity, and magnet¬ ism — are only forms of this capacity function, and that they are apprehended only during the instantaneous transfers of energy. It may cause surprise to perceive that the other set of terms we commonly talk about as entities, namely, temperature, velocity, potential and kinetic energy, height, pressure, tension, current, are perceived only during the transfer of energy ; and it may be difficult to realize that we know nothing of heat, kinetic and potential energy, work, gravitation, friction, chemical, electric, and magnetic energy in their entities, but only in their processes of transfer. En¬ ergy is the great unknown entity and its existence is recog¬ nized only during its state of change. It may be surmised that we are here on the borderland of profound metaphysical speculations which we have no opportunity to enter upon at this time. For our immediate subject in hand, namely, the illustra¬ tion of the third canon of criticism, that every valid and new fact or law must be assigned to its proper rank in the hierarchy of science, we see at once that the foregoing analysis is of special significance. Here are more than a dozen examples from the processes of nature which can be classified under FUNCTION OF CRITICISM IN ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE. 363 one comprehensive general law, whose principle once fully comprehended makes it possible to critically analyze a multi¬ tude of subordinate statements regarding the details of thought and theory which are found in current scientific literature. The above law has been stated as an equality dE~ J. dM, but this is applicable only to the cyclically reversible phe¬ nomena. Now there is the second great class of phenomena, called the irreversible, which are not cyclic ; that is to say, if a certain state exists in a body at an initial moment, and if after goingthrough transformations it can be brought back to the same state again, it is reversible ; but if it cannot return to that state, it is irreversible. Now there are many forms of energy- transfer which are irreversible ; that is where the energy is wasted, so far as the efficient value of it is concerned, as where heat is lost by dissipation, electric and magnetic energy by radiation. Hence there is the law of dissipation of energy as well as the law of conservation, and the dissipation of higher power energy seems to be the dominant practical fact in the world around us. Let us glance backward once more to a previous statement regarding the onward march of mechanics as the means of solving the physical problems of the universe. At first, under the influence of astronomy and mechanics of large masses, there was every prospect of its success ; but when these principles were applied to molecular or atomic masses, and to physical laws of greater complexity, the difficulties of the mathematicians and physicists began, and they have con¬ tinued to be insuperable to this day. The essence of the mechanical theory is d’Alembert’s law of work, that force operating through a distance is the measure of such work, dA = X . ds. Lagrange’s equation of work is derived by essentially ignoring spacial coordinates and substituting the parameters (intensities) which determine the condition of a substance while coupling it with the other quantity (capacity) which denotes the direction of the change. In doing this two steps are involved : (1) the potential energy of the me- 364 BIGELOW. chanical system is ignored or thrown out of consideration, and the kinetic potential is alone employed ; (2) the change in kinetic energy is assumed to he equal to the change in the energy of the system. In a word, all energy is kinetic, and no energy is potential — that is, after all the grand change from the mechanical system to the energy system of treatment. Lagrange made it possible by his equation ; Maxwell first rec¬ ognized the importance and necessity of this reformation, and out of it came his splendid electric and magnetic equations ; Helmholtz adopted the same plan and found the laws of the cyclic and reciprocal system ; Hertz , in his great treatise on modern mechanics, excludes the potential energy from his system ; J. J. Thomson has successfully applied this method to a great number of physical problems, and he says, “ We may look upon the potential energy of any system as kinetic energy arising from the motion of systems connected with the original system, and from this point of view all energy is kinetic, and all terms in the Lagrangian function express kinetic energy, the only thing doubtful being whether the kinetic energy is due to the motion of ignored or positional coordinates” (Dynamical Methods, p. 14). Poincare states, “ I have demonstrated that the principles of thermodynamics are incompatible with mechanical principles of direct action and action at a distance ; also mechanism is incompatible with the theorem of Clausius. ” Helm makes a long argu¬ ment in favor of the view that energy transformations cannot be explained by mechanical analysis of the most advanced type. All this applies to the type of reversible or cyclic processes ; but in the case of the irreversible or acyclic phenomena, even this law of Clausius is not available, for Poincare states (Thermodynamique, p. 422), “ it results from this that irreversible phenomena and the theorem of Clau¬ sius are not explicable by means of Lagrange’s equations.”' In a word, the first law of thermodynamics may have some mechanical analogues, but in connection with the second law there are no such analogues from mechanics. Heaviside has made a very stout effort to secure such analogues for FUNCTION OF CRITICISM IN ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE. 365 electric and magnetic relations, but each type has ended in some irreconcilable difficulty, and therefore no such ana¬ logues are known. The attempts of Lodge , Boltzmann , and others to illustrate the electric and magnetic phenomena by means of mechanical pictures must always be considered under the reservation that they can be only partially true. I have thus attempted to give some idea of the battle royal between mechanics and energetics that is now going on, and have indicated that the banners of mechanics are cer¬ tainly drooping, and that their standard-bearers are weary. Whether energetics is to be the final victor, or whether some stronger idea will be discovered, remains beyond the fore¬ cast of today. It looks now as if science were fast approach¬ ing those impenetrable mysteries which have confronted the metaphysician and the theologian for centuries; it seems certain that the attempt to construct this universe out of pure matter and the three simple lawTs of force is a failure ; it may not be improper to assert that the available energy for doing useful work is being expended and that the world’s supply is running down. There arises further ques¬ tions : Where did energy spring from originally ? What keeps up the supply, if it is now running down. What is to be the final state of things when the supply has gone ? If the uni¬ verse in its physical processes is really exhausting itself, what is this theory of evolution by which it is claimed that some combinations of energy, animal and human life, organic life, is coming up ? Is inorganic life running down, and is organic life coming up ? If this is so, what is the difference ? In fact, what is life ? Is mechanics destined to give place to energetics, and is energy finally to become tributary to the science of life whose first law has not yet been discovered ? If not this, what is the true hierarchy in the existences, and does the pathway lead up from man and his little spark of life to some immense oversoul, and is that life the sub¬ stance of the temporary phenomena we call this world ? OBITUARY NOTICES. THOMAS ANTISELL. 1817-1893. [Read before the Society, May 23, 1896.] The ancestors of Dr. Antisell were French Huguenots, who fled from persecution to England, where part of the family remained and changed the name to “ Entwisel.” Another part settled in Kings county, Ireland, where the last male descendant died a few years ago. Dr. Antisell was born in Dublin, Ireland, January 16, 1817, of Christopher and Margaret Antiseil, formerly Margaret Daly. His father was a lawyer, who refused the “ silk gown,” or appointment as Queen’s counsel, because he was not favor¬ able to British rule in Ireland. The Doctor was the second son in a family of three sons and two daughters, and commenced his medical education with Surgeon Daly, of Dublin, graduating from the Royal College of Surgeons, London. He studied chemistry with Sir Robert Kane, and for many years acted as his assistant. While residing in London he visited Paris and Berlin, and later settled in his native city, where he became a successful physician, also giving some lectures on agricultural chem¬ istry. In 1848 he was obliged to leave his country on account of his connection with the young Ireland party, and chose New York city as the place of his political exile. Here he practiced medicine from 1848 to 1854, at the same time hold¬ ing the position of lecturer on chemistry in a number of col¬ leges, among them those at Woodstock, Vermont, at Pittsfield, Massachusetts, and at the Berkshire Medical Institute. In 1854 his taste for travel led him to accept the position 53— Bull. Phil. Soc., Wash., Vol. 13. (367) 368 THOMAS ANTISELL. of geologist with the Parke expedition in the railroad survey of southern California and Arizona, returning to Washington in 1856, where, on June 1, he was appointed first assistant ex¬ aminer in the Patent Office. His work in the office related chiefly to chemistry, and he was promoted to be principal examiner on May 3, 1861. On September 30 of the same year he resigned to enter the army as brigade surgeon of volunteers, with the rank of major. He served first with Banks’ division and the Fifth army corps, then became successively medical director of the Department of the Shenandoah, Second corps, Army of Virginia, and Twelfth army corps ; in October, 1862, was in Harewood hos¬ pital, Washington, D. C., and in 1863 president of a medical examining board, and post surgeon to August, 1865. He was brevetted lieutenant colonel, United States volunteers, March 13, and honorably mustered out of service October 7, 1865. In the service he was noted for his reckless disregard of per¬ sonal danger for himself or his assistant surgeons when the wounded required attention in the rear of the line of battle, and probably saved the life of many a poor fellow by the prompt and skillful aid he rendered. In 1866 he was appointed chief chemist in the Department of Agriculture, where in 1869 the writer first met him. The Japanese government was then trying to secure the services of competent foreigners to teach them modern civilization, and among their enterprises included an effort to improve the northern islands which form a part of their empire. General Horace Capron, at that time Commissioner of Agri¬ culture, was engaged for this purpose, and among the assist¬ ants he selected to go with him was Dr. Antisell, as technol¬ ogist for the expedition. The party arrived in Japan in 1871, and the ability of Dr. Antisell in chemical work was so marked that he was soon transferred to the service of the Im¬ perial government in Tokyo in connection with the making of inks for a new system of paper currency, dextrin for the post-office, and similar work. While in Japan he received a pressing invitation from General Stone, then in Egypt, to OBITUARY NOTICES. 369 take charge of a university at Cairo ; but the climate of the East proved injurious to the health of his wife, who, with a daughter and infant son, had followed him to Japan, and he reluctantly returned to the United States in 1877. He was decorated by the Emperor of Japan with the Order of the Rising Sun of Meiji, thus making him a nobleman of Japan, with the right to carry two swords, and he always regarded his life in Japan with the utmost satisfaction. On May 10, 1877, he was reappointed to the position in the Patent Office which he had resigned sixteen years before. He remained connected with that office until so much en¬ feebled by progressive paralysis that he could no longer per¬ form his duties, and relinquished the service on September 30, 1891. He was tenderly cared for by his daughters, dying on June 14, 1893, in his seventy-seventh year, and was buried in Congressional Cemetery. Dr. Antisell was twice married ; first to Eliza Anne Nowlan, of Dublin, who died after his removal to New York city, and a second time to Marion Stewart Forsyth, of Detroit, Michigan, daughter of a paymaster in the United States Army. He had twelve children, of whom three died in infancy. Six daughters and two sons survived him ; both the latter re¬ moved to Montana some time before his death. In person Dr. Antisell was short and rather stout, with a florid complexion, especially in his younger days. In offi¬ cial life he had the reputation of being reserved and even somewhat brusque, but among his friends he was cordial and even warm-hearted, with an abundant supply of the wit and humor for which the Irish race have been always noted. The writer has abundant reason to remember many sponta¬ neous acts of kindness from him in our occasional early in¬ tercourse, which were greatly augmented when the changes of official life brought us into closer relations. During his whole career he was preeminently a teacher, especially of physiological chemistry, of which he had a thorough knowledge, as it was then understood. He was for thirty years connected with the Medical Department of 370 STEPHEN VINCENT BENET. Georgetown University, from which he received the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. He was frequently in request as a lecturer before scientific bodies, and was connected with many scientific societies, such as the Royal College of Sur¬ geons, England ; the Royal Dublin Society, the Geological Society of Dublin, the Philosophical Society of Washington, and corresponding member of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, and the Geological Society of New York; also Fellow of the American Association for the Ad¬ vancement of Science. He was one of the original founders of the Washington Chemical Society, being its first president, elected January 31, 1884 ; and he was the only honorary member ever elected of the Medical Association of the District of Columbia. Before leaving Ireland he published some small works, such as a “ Manual of Agricultural Chemistry with its Application to the Soils of Ireland,” Hodges & Smith, Grafton street, Dublin, 1845, and “ Irish Geology,” in 1846, and after his arrival at New York he wrote a “ Home En¬ cyclopedia of Arts and Manufactures,” 12mo, 1855, and a book on the “ Manufacture of Photogenic or Hydrocarbon Oils from Coal,” etc., 8vo, New York, 1859. He also made numerous contributions to technical literature in the shape of essays in Government reports, and addresses before scien¬ tific and educational associations, especially the colleges with which he was connected. W m. H. Seaman. STEPHEN VINCENT BEN^T. 1827-1895. [Read before the Society, May 23, 1896.] Brigadier General Stephen Vincent Benet, United States Army, died January 22, 1895, at his home, 1717 I street north¬ west, in this city, aged just 68 years, having been born at Saint Augustine, Florida, January 22, 1827. He entered as OBITUARY NOTICES. 371 a cadet at the United States Military Academy in 1845, and served actively in the army from graduation, in 1849, to his retirement, in 1891, for about 42 years. He occupied an emi¬ nent position in his military career, and was identified with the important work of the Ordnance Department during this period, and attained distinction in a civil capacity as a writer and an authority on military law. His ancestors on both sides were of Spanish origin, and were among the first settlers of Saint Augustine. His father was a highly respected citizen of that place, and for a long time surveyor of the port. Young Benet passed through four years at the Hallowell school at Alexandria, Virginia, and then entered the junior class of the University of Georgia at the age of sixteen. It was intended that he should, on graduating from the university, enter the profession of law, but before completing his course there he was offered and accepted an appointment to the Military Academy, where he maintained a high standing and graduated number three in his class. He was the first cadet from the State of Florida, which was admitted to the Union March 3, 1845. His in¬ telligence, good habits, discipline of mind, and well-balanced physical and mental temperament were well developed during his student days, and served as elements of strength in his responsible and successful career through life. On graduation he was assigned directly to the ordnance, as a brevet second lieutenant. His studious habits were pre¬ served and his literary tastes made manifest, not only in the line of his chosen profession, but in that of his early predi¬ lection for the law. A translation from the French of J ornini’s account of the campaign of Waterloo was made by him and published in 1853, and his treatise on “ Electro-ballistic ma¬ chines and the Schultz chronoscope ” was published in 1873. When on duty at West Point, as assistant professor of geog¬ raphy, history, and ethics, he prepared his well-known treatise on military law and the practice of courts-martial, which was published in 1862 and afterward carried through several editions. This book was an authority on military law dur- 372 STEPHEN VINCENT BENET. ing the period of the Civil War, and was for many years used as a text book at the Military Academy. In 1868 he served as assistant counsel in the Dyer court of inquiry, and ac¬ quitted himself with credit in the long and intricate pro¬ ceedings accompanying that case. In 1855 the University of Georgia conferred upon him the degree of A. M., and in 1889 Georgetown University conferred that of LL. D. As an ordnance officer, Benet was promoted in due course through the consecutive grades of lieutenant, captain, and major, and, skipping those of lieutenant colonel and colonel, received the marked distinction of being promoted at once to be Chief of Ordnance, with the rank of brigadier general. In the meantime he had served as assistant at Watervliet, Frankford, and St. Louis arsenals, and in the Bureau at Wash¬ ington, and had two tours of duty at the Military Academy, first in the department of ethics and law, already mentioned, and afterward as instructor of ordnance and gunnery, at the head of that department. While serving in the latter ca¬ pacity, 1861-1864, he was also employed as inspector of ord¬ nance and projectiles and in experimenting at the West Point foundry with the Parrott rifled guns, which were extensively used during the war. In 1864 he was assigned to command the Frankford arsenal. He was thus during the period of the Civil War engaged upon most important duty connected with the proper manufacture and supply of war material, and for this reason his application to take an active part in the field operations was denied. By the act of Congress of March 13, 1865, he was made brevet major and brevet lieu¬ tenant colonel for faithful and meritorious service in the performance of these duties. His services in command of Frankford arsenal were con¬ spicuous for the successful introduction of the metallic car¬ tridge for breech-loading small arms in the United States service, and the unexampled development of the machinery for making this ammunition, in which he was ably assisted by Master Armorer R. Bolton and Foreman Jabez H. Gill. The Springfield rifle of this period was caliber .50. The OBITUARY NOTICES. 373 center-fire cartridge was adopted for manufacture October 5, 1866, being chosen for its several apparent advantages over the rim-fire cartridge, which was then generally in use in arms made by private manufacturers. The proper develop¬ ment of breech-loading small arms had been chiefly retarded up to this period by the defects of the cartridge, but owing largely to what was then accomplished at Frankford arsenal in perfecting the cartridge, the successful and rapid develop¬ ment of breech-loading arms was assured. Appointed Chief of Ordnance in 1874, General Benet ad¬ ministered the affairs of that department for the seventeen years following with much ability and clear foresight into the rapid and extensive changes in ordnance construction that marked this period. He took special interest in the dis¬ semination of knowledge of current improvements to the whole army, and gave every encouragement to the officers of his own corps for study and investigation. Between 1873 and 1884 there was published from the Ordnance office a series of 357 ordnance notes, now comprising 12 volumes, which were distributed to the army, and in 1882 there was instituted a series of more technical papers, entitled “ Notes on the Con¬ struction of Ordnance,” which is still continued and has reached the seventy-first number. General Benet always evinced a deep interest in the militia, and was instrumental in having the annual appropriation for it increased from $200,000 to $400,000. The splendid system of target practice in the army also owes much to his s efforts. The .45-caliber Springfield rifle was introduced in the service about the date of his accession, but before his retirement the preliminary steps had been taken to introduce the present service .30-caliber magazine rifle. Probably the most important change of recent years in ordnance has been the substitution of steel for cast and wrought iron in the con¬ struction of guns, and in this General Benet was an advanced advocate. He clearly foresaw the benefit of the change, and directed the experiments necessary to lead up to it in a man¬ ner that made it an assured success, and, following this, under 374 THOMAS LINCOLN CASEY. many difficulties and embarrassments, succeeded in establish¬ ing the extensive factory for steel guns which is now in opera¬ tion at Watervliet arsenal, West Troy, New York. He was happily married in 1856 to Miss Laura Walker, of Kentucky, who survives him, with two sons, Captain J. Walker Benet, Ordnance Department, United States Army, and Lawrence Y. Benet, Ordnance Engineer of the Hotchkiss Ordnance Company. Rogers Birnie. THOMAS LINCOLN CASEY. 1831-1896. [Read before the Society, May 23, 1896.] One of the forty-three signers of the initiatory letter to Professor Joseph Henry, in the early months of the year 1871, looking to the establishment of the Philosophical Society of Washington and requesting him to preside at its first meet¬ ing for organization, was Major Thomas Lincoln Casey, of the Corps of Engineers, United States Army, then in charge of the Division of Fortifications in the office of the chief of that corps. He had been stationed in Washington somewhat more than three years and had become well known among the learned men of the city for his interest in and acquaint¬ ance with the sciences qualifying him to aid materially in the foundation of this Society. He was born on May 10, 1831, at Madison Barracks, Sacketts Harbor, New York, where his father, the late Brevet Major General Silas Casey, a regular army officer and grad¬ uate of the West Point Militar}^ Academy, was then stationed. Naturally the child thus born and growing up in the army became a part of it, following the steps of his father and en¬ tering the Military A cademy himself at the age of seventeen, on July 1, 1848. From this time onward to the day of his death his career was unusually successful and brilliant. It OBITUARY NOTICES. 375 is probably quite true to say that he failed in nothing that he undertook, great or small. He was soon near the head of his class at West Point, then first captain of the Corps of Cadets, and finally at the very head of his class on graduation. Being then, July 1, 1852, promoted to brevet second lieutenant in the Corps of Engi¬ neers, he was assigned to duty on the construction of Fort Del¬ aware and on river and harbor works for two years. During the next five years he was assistant instructor and then prin¬ cipal assistant professor of engineering at the Military Acad¬ emy. From 1859 to 1861 he was in command of engineer troops in Washington Territory, one of the works there ac¬ complished being the construction of a wagon road from Vancouver to Cowlitz river, through the difficulties presented by primitive forest and remoteness from civilization. This road was the first land communication between the Colum¬ bia river and Puget sound. In the first year of the rebellion, 1861, he returned to the East and served as assistant engineer on the staff of the com¬ manding general of the Department of Virginia. At this time he reached the rank of captain in his corps, when, al¬ though but thirty years of age, he was immediately ordered to take charge of the construction of the several heavy per¬ manent fortifications on the coast of Maine, consisting of Forts Preble, Gorges, and Scammell, in Portland harbor; Fort Popham, at the mouth of the Kennebec river, and Fort Knox, at the narrows of the Penobscot river — operations re¬ quiring the maturest engineering and administrative ability. All these were masonry forts of the highest order in solid granite and brick-work. At that critical period, with the activity incident to extensive military operations in the field, great demand was made on the professional resources of the Corps of Engineers, and it was a high honor for a young captain to be entrusted with so responsible a duty. It was necessary that he should work out problems of management inevitably new to a young man, for those works were not only extensive individually, but numerous and widely sep- 54— Bull. Phil. Soc., Wash., Vol. 13. 376 THOMAS LINCOLN CASEY. arated along a coast at that time slow to traverse, where tidal foundations had to be considered, workmen trained and organized, water transportation provided, and the rigors of Maine winters encountered. But the celebrated General Totten, then for many years the chief of the corps, knew his man, and that he possessed the qualities of good sense, in¬ genuity, and perseverance, as well as sterling ability and integrity, warranting the trust reposed in him. These char¬ acteristics had been up to that time, and were ever after¬ ward throughout his whole career, so evident that his supe¬ riors never seemed to feel hesitation in assigning him to any duty whatever. For six years he carried forward the construction of these forts, bringing them within the first three years to a high condition of efficiency — excellent progress for works of that kind at that time. On March 2, 1863, Captain Casey became a major in his corps, and in that year was sent on special duty with the North Atlantic squadron in the first expedition for the cap¬ ture of Fort Fisher, North Carolina. Many other duties of an important nature were performed by him during those years. On November 18, 1867, Major Casey came to Washington to enter upon the duty in which he was engaged when he took part in the founding of this Society. At the first meeting of the Society, on March 13, 1871, he was elected a member of the General Committee, to which he was twice reelected, serving continuously for three years. In the early years of the Society he was active in its affairs and a frequent attendant at its meetings, occasionally taking part in the discussions. In the later years increased duties and responsibilities and less robust health combined to with¬ draw him from further activit}^ in the Society and keep him at home with his family during most of his leisure hours, although he continued his membership to the last. On March 3, 1877, he was relieved from duty in the office of the Chief of Engineers and placed in charge of the con- OBITUARY NOTICES. 377 struction of the new building for the State, War, and Navy Departments, then about one-quarter built, the care and main¬ tenance of the Washington aqueduct, and the Office of Pub¬ lic Buildings and Grounds in the city of Washington. The condition of affairs at that time called for a strong, fearless, tactful, active, judicious officer, qualifications that Colonel Casey was known to possess. In a very short time the busi¬ ness and operations that had become loose and uncertain were proceeding by simple, direct, and expeditious methods, doubts as to the outcome being dispelled and large sums of money saved in all directions. In this way the State, War, and Navy building was completed, as proposed a few years before, on March 1, 1888. Had the Washington Aqueduct remained in his charge, instead of being transferred to other hands when the extension of the conduit to the heights north of the city was undertaken, the misfortune of the so-called Lydecker tunnel would never have occurred. Hardly had Colonel Casey mastered the main questions involved in the management of the construction of the great department building and the other affairs referred to when he was ordered to add to his duties that of engineer to the joint commission created by Congress for the completion of the Washington monument. For nearly a quarter of a cen¬ tury a short but heavy section, 156 feet in height, of a pro¬ posed obelisk of some 600 feet for this purpose, had stood awaiting the provision of means for its continuance and com¬ pletion. Finally the Congress accepted the responsibility, and received the work from the hands of the society which had hitherto had control of it. Investigation proved that the foundation was entirely inadequate to carry the proposed shaft, and that the first requisite was to sufficiently strengthen it, if possible and practicable. No adequate plan for this had been proposed, and when Colonel Casey took charge, on June 25, 1878, he found himself face to face with an entirely new and most difficult engineering problem. The sentiment against removing the old masonry, and building entirely anew, with a new foundation, the great weight of the existing 378 THOMAS LINCOLN CASEY. masonry, and the known weakness of the foundation, all ren¬ dering operations on it exceedingly delicate, were most serious elements in the case. What sort of strengthening was needed and how to execute it safely were the questions. The problem was at once attacked with characteristic vigor and energy by Colonel Casey. Night and day for a few weeks the subject was studied and plans of operations devised, and in the amaz¬ ingly short space of one month from the day he took charge an original project was prepared and submitted to the joint commission, which immediately approved it. The work was undertaken as soon as materials and machinery could be procured, and the extremely delicate operation of underpin¬ ning and buttressing with concrete a foundation carrying some 35,000 tons on an earth bed yielding under its enormous load at every touch was successfully accomplished in less than a year and a half. The structure naturally moved somewhat during the operations, leaning slightly one way and another as the inevitable slight settlements took place, but the alge¬ braic sum of these movements was zero, and the total settle¬ ment of the center of gravity only about 2J inches. The performance of this wTork properly gained for its engineer a world-wide reputation, particularly in the profession of civil engineering, but the special problems of the completion of the whole monument had not all been solved in the founda¬ tion. The construction of the shaft proper was a compara¬ tively simple matter, but its walls were necessarily made as thin as possible to reduce to a minimum the load on the foundation, and this led to the unique problem of placing, without the use of metal, a stone apex or pyramidion, 55 feet in height, on the 18-inch edge of the four walls of the square shaft, whose sides were 34 feet 5J inches in length, at 500 feet above the ground. This square was entirely hollow, without cross-ties of any kind. The design and execution of this por¬ tion of the monument was also expeditiously accomplished, and on December 6, 1884, Colonel Casey himself set the cap¬ stone, amid the cheers of the people and the salute of cannon, and the monument was successfully finished, six years after OBITUARY NOTICES. 379 he took charge of it. The graceful proportions of the shaft largely resulted from the taper fixed by the original builders, but those of the pyramidion were the result of his own in¬ vestigation, bringing the noble pile to that acme of delicate, beautiful simplicity which, combined with the whiteness of its material, reflecting the ever-changing atmosphere and cloud colors, makes it an object of unceasing admiration by all beholders. Such a desirable outcome was not anticipated by the public, which hardly knew what the real proportions of the monument were to be, until the apex was set and the structure finally laid bare to be viewed as a whole. The manner in which Colonel Casey carried through this particular work is the best illustration of his qualities as a man. No man of less tenacity of purpose, force of character, energy, and industry could have accomplished it in so short a time. Nothing that he ever undertook was allowed to lag for a moment. He was uneasy and under strain constantly until the point under consideration was settled or the work in hand finished. He became a colonel in the Corps of Engineers in 1884 and in 1886 president of the Board of Engineers for Fortifi¬ cations in New York city, where he remained until 1888, when he was appointed brigadier general and chief of his corps, and returned to spend the remainder of his days in Washington. At this time Congress was in a dilemma re¬ garding the construction of the new building for its library on Capitol Hill. The work having been begun was proceed¬ ing unsatisfactorily. Uncertainties as to its ultimate cost, design, and time of construction had so impressed Congress that it was quite on the verge of suspending the operations indefinitely when the return of General Casey to Washington determined them to place the whole charge independently upon his shoulders, one of the highest compliments ever paid by Congress to the sound sense, judgment, and real use¬ fulness of an individual. The law was promptly passed, and on October 2, 1888, he took charge of the work. The office was at once reorganized on the simplest business lines, and 380 THOMAS LINCOLN CASEY. from that day the work, beginning with the foundations, moved in a quiet and uninterrupted progression until nearly completed at the time of his death. Without premonition he was taken suddenly ill on his way to the Library building on March 25, 1896, and in a few hours passed away. Throughout his whole professional life he was constantly in busy harness, generally charged with heavy and responsi¬ ble works and duties far more numerous and absorbing than even those here specially mentioned would indicate. As a member of his corps in the army, he was ever intensely loyal to its best interests and jealous of its good name as a servant of the Government. In conversation and business he was direct, thorough, and painstaking, considering in advance every step in detail. His nature was unusually sensitive, causing him often to be blunt in manner, especially to strangers, and to have a keen eye for men with selfish motives ; but he was always frank and outspoken, and those who knew him well realized his solid honesty and kindness of heart. He possessed a re¬ markably social and genial disposition and a lively sense of humor, and his friendships, though not numerous, were of the sweetest and heartiest kind. He wrote little and rarely appeared in public, but almost constantly confined himself to the Government duties in which his life was bound up. General Casey was a member of the National Academy of Sciences, an officer of the Legion of Honor of France, mem¬ ber of the Society of the Cincinnati, Loyal Legion, Century Association of New York, and New England Historical and Genealogical Society. In early life he married Emma Weir, daughter of Prof. Robert W. Weir, of the Military Academy, who, with two sons, Captain Thomas L. Casey, of the Corps of Engineers of the Army, and Edward P. Casey, an architect in New York city, survives him. Bernard R. Green. OBITUARY NOTICES. 381 DANIEL CURRIER CHAPMAN. 1826-1895. [Read before the Society, October 24, 1896.] Iii complying with the request to present a memorial address of our late associate, Daniel Currier Chapman, a duty I can hardly hope to perform with justice to the man, a high appreciation is felt of the privilege of preparing for the archives of the Society the record of his successful labors. Mr. Chapman was born at South Corinth, Vermont, Octo¬ ber 27, 1826, and died in Washington, January 3, 1895. He was the son of a farmer and miller, said to have been one of the progressive men of his district, and gifted with a me¬ chanical skill that enabled him to make his own improved implements of labor. The son inherited the skill in me¬ chanics that later in his life did him good service and helped him to render the valuable assistance uniformly accredited to him by his employers. As a boy and youth he labored on a farm in summer to earn the money for his winter schooling, until his gradua¬ tion from Bradford Academy. After teaching school several winters he went to Manchester, New Hampshire, and learned the trade of machinist. In 1852, at the age of twenty-six, he moved to New York, and seems to have established himself as a machinist, with a more ample range for his inventive skill. At this time, it is said, he produced the first button¬ hole machine ever made; he was also engaged in manufact¬ uring the separate parts of sewing machines, then in their earlier stage of development. In 1863 Mr. Chapman purchased a small gallery in the upper part of the Bowery, in New York, and laid the foun¬ dation for the reputation he subsequently earned as an ex¬ pert, or, more properly, a scientific, photographer. His skill as a mechanic was, doubtless, of great help to him in these 382 DANIEL CURRIER CHAPMAN. early days of photography, as it was subsequently, when called upon, in the application of the art to the more precise measurements of scientific work. The late Prof. Louis W. Rutherfurd, doubtless attracted by the reputation Chapman had acquired, combining the qualities of mechanician and photographer, had employed him at intervals for a number of years, and secured his services for the observatory in 1868. When we recall the nature of the investigations Professor Ruth¬ erfurd was then engaged upon, we can realize the wisdom of his selection. Mr. Chapman continued at the Rutherfurd Observatory until 1879, when he accepted an offer from Dr. Henry Draper ; and in February, 1882, he received an ap¬ pointment, under the Superintendent of the Coast and Geo¬ detic Survey, in the United States Bureau of Weights and Measures. During these fourteen years Mr. Chapman won the friendship of many men of science, and is remembered by them for his valuable services to Professor Rutherfurd. It was during this period, also, that he gained his greatest reputation as a photographer, his development of some of Professor Rutherfurd’s negatives proving almost marvelous in their effects. In 1870 he accompanied one of the United States parties, as photographer, to observe the eclipse of the sun. While’ employed in the Bureau of Weights and Meas¬ ures his skillful work was highly appreciated, and was prob¬ ably most fully exemplified, in ruling gratings with a little machine of his own construction worked by electric power. In February, 1886, on my solicitation, Mr. Chapman was transferred to the position of electrotyper and photographer in the engraving division of the Coast and Geodetic Survey Office. This division was at that time my personal charge, and continued under my direction until shortly after his death. The last nine years of his work were, therefore, under my supervision. In this time I learned more fully to appre¬ ciate the man, his sterling integrity, unity of purpose, and unflagging energy in solving the problems that beset us. I found him a man with a large fund of information, but so unostentatious that it was only in the heat of discussion I OBITUAHY NOTICES. 383 could sound the depths of his knowledge. Association with him was a pleasure I can only look back upon, but the lessons taught me in his experience are treasures to be ever remem¬ bered. In electrotyping, Mr. Chapman essayed a new role, but his studies in electricity and practical experience with its appli¬ cation in other branches equipped him, with very brief in¬ structions, to undertake the work and carry it on most suc¬ cessfully. I need not enter upon the difficulties he overcame, nor the experiments he conducted while obtaining a mastery of the subject, interesting and creditable as they were ; let it suffice that in the end he secured an average increase in de¬ posit of reguline copper of over 30 per cent, with the same consumption of fuel — in this case the zinc battery plates — and at times almost reached the maximum deposit to be ob¬ tained with a perfect plant. As photographer he had only to adapt his knowledge to a new class of work, but, learning the requisite conditions, he was not satisfied until he had filled them and could furnish photographic prints for the engraver’s use on the exact scale proposed for the engraving. His marked ability as a mechanic helped him in this, as in other work, having devised and constructed a machine for adjusting to true scale prints of negatives from a distorted drawing ; but his reputation as a photographer was made long before his entry upon the Survey — a reputation that has been cordially expressed in a recent number of the Photographic Times , and to which I am indebted for some of the facts of his life re¬ ferred to in this paper. Mr. Chapman was elected a member of the Philosophical Society December 22, 1888. He was a constant attendant at the meetings, contributed to the discussions, and evinced a laudable interest in the welfare of the Society. He was a life member of the Polytechnic Club of the American Institute of New York City and a member of the National Geographic Society. If our success in life is measured by the warmth of the friendships we leave behind us, or by the record of the work 55-Bull. Phil. Soe., Wash., Vol. 13. 384 GEORGE EDWARD CURTIS. we have accomplished in our careers, Mr. Chapman was a successful man. But these are the product of honor and in¬ telligence, the embodiment of the Christian spirit, whatever may be our professed belief. Under the guardianship of an upright life, Mr. Chapman held the doctrines of pronounced spiritualism, and surely we can wish for him now no happier - fate than the realization of the belief of his manhood. Herbert G. Ogden. GEORGE EDWARD CURTIS. 1861-1895. [Read before the Society, May 29, 1897.] George Edward Curtis was born July 8, 1861, at Derby, Connecticut, and died February 3, 1895, at Washington, D. C. His father, George S. Curtis, and his mother, whose maiden name was Catherine Lewis Curtis, were descendants of the Curtises who settled at Stratford, Connecticut. He lost his father when but fifteen months old. An only child, he was much with his mother, and early developed a love for books and an ambition to get a college education. His youth was spent in his native town, where he attended the public schools and fitted for Yale College, entering that institution in 1878. His life was so regular and methodical that it contained few incidents of unusual importance. He was of small stature and always bore himself erect. His sense of justice and equity was acute, and he possessed a consideration for the feelings of others which brought him to their defense. The principal of a school Curtis once attended placed in the school a copy of Harper’s Weekly. At that time the paper was, to say the least, radically anti-Catholic. Young Curtis, desirous of defending such of his schoolmates as might take exception to the paper, wrote a very able criticism concerning the matter. Although only a schoolboy’s composition, in OBITUARY NOTICES. 385 finish and argument it would have done credit to one of much maturer years. He had a keen appreciation of humor in others, but pos¬ sessed little in his own constitution. Not precocious, though gifted, he was conscious that success demanded the best use of all his energies. His school friends say he never had time for anything but work. Early in life he became a Christian and member of the Methodist Episcopal Church. During his residence in Wash¬ ington he was a member of the Congregational Church. His bright and sunny disposition brought him many friends. In college he was very enthusiastic in his work and took the first prize in mathematics in his sophomore year, as well as the first mathematical prize in his senior year and the prize for solution of astronomical problems. A good student in all subjects, he excelled in mathematics, and graduated with honor in 1882, twelfth in a class of 13 9. In 1887 he was granted the degree of A. M. in recognition of his advanced work. About the year 1880 the National Weather Service, then known as the Signal Corps of the Armjq was reorganized by General Hazen, thus opening up a new and attractive field of activity for young college men with a taste for meteorology. In March of 1883 Mr. Curtis enlisted in the service and en¬ tered upon his new career with enthusiasm. He came well equipped for the physical problems to be dealt with. He was at once assigned to duty in Washington with Mr. C. A. Schott, of the United States Coast Survey, who was engaged upon the reduction of the magnetic observations of the in¬ ternational polar stations at Lady Franklin bay and Point Barrow. After the completion of this work Mr. Curtis was for several years associated with Professor Abbe in the general scientific work of the Weather Bureau. His work during this period called forth high praise from Professor Abbe, who recognized in Mr. Curtis a man of excellent abilities and one well equipped to do original scientific work. In 1884 Mr. Curtis published his first contribution to 386 GEORGE EDWARD CURTIS. science, “The Effect of Wind Currents on Rainfall,” which appeared as one of the series of Signal Service Notes of the Weather Bureau. Mr. Curtis rendered valuable assistance in the preparation of certain sections of Professor Abbe’s “Trea¬ tise on Meteorological Apparatus and Methods,” which formed part 2 of the Annual Report of the Chief Signal Officer for 1887. Probably the best work which he did while connected with the Weather Bureau is contained in this treatise and in papers embodying studies made in connection with the preparation of this report. In September of 1887 Mr. Curtis was assigned to duty at Topeka in connection with the work of the Kansas State Weather Service ; he remained there only a few weeks, how¬ ever, before severing his connection with the Weather Bureau to become associated with Washburn College, in Topeka, as assistant professor of mathematics. This position he held until December of 1890, when he received an appointment in the United States Geological Survey. Under the direction of Captain Dutton he took up the meteorological problems connected with the irrigation survey of the Western States and Territories. His duties in the survey enabled him to live an outdoor life in the high and dry plateau regions of the West— a matter of vital importance to him, as symptoms of tuberculosis were already apparent. Mr. Curtis remained in the West until June, 1890, and then returned to Wash¬ ington to work up the results of his observations. In August the work of the irrigation survey came to an end, and Mr. Curtis accepted a position in the Smithsonian Institution. Here he was chiefly engaged upon the revision of the Smith¬ sonian meteorological tables. He also assisted Professor Langley in the preparation of his memoir on “ Experiments in Aerodynamics,” in the preface of which the author refers to Mr. Curtis as giving most efficient aid in the final computa¬ tions and reductions. In the summer of 1890 Congress authorized the expendi¬ ture of a large sum of money for carrying on experiments in the artificial production of rain. These experiments were OBITUARY NOTICES. 387 carried on mostly in Texas, under the direction of a special agent appointed by the Secretary of Agriculture. Mr. Curtis was appointed meteorologist to accompany the expedition and report directly to the Secretary of Agriculture. His re¬ port, which attracted attention at the time, was unfavorable to the claims of the leader of the expedition and did not find place in the official report of the experiments, but was pri¬ vately printed in several scientific journals. While connected with the Smithsonian Institution Mr. Curtis prepared the definitions of the meteorological words from M to Z of the Century Dictionary. He was also asso¬ ciated with Professor Abbe in the establishment of a course of instruction in meteorology in the Columbian University. After three years’ residence in Washington Mr. Curtis found it necessary, on account of dangerous symptoms, to return to the dryer regions of the West. He reentered the United States Weather Bureau and was assigned to duty at Tucson, Arizona, in December of 1893. Here he remained only six months. Not getting the relief he hoped for, he wandered from place to place in Arizona and Colorado in the vain hope of improving his health. In January of 1895, despairing of recovery, he returned to Washington to spend his last days among his many friends. While devoting his best energies to the study of meteor¬ ology, Mr. Curtis always maintained a lively interest in other fields of inquiry and in the absorbing events of the day. He delighted in controversy. Aggressive in manner, he was always a conspicuous figure in a discussion. His strong aver¬ sion to the military organization of the Weather Bureau, combined with a spirit of independence, brought him into frequent collision with higher officials. This disposition doubtless stood in the way of a more rapid advancement in the service which his abilities merited. J. S. Diller and 0. L. Fassig. 388 ROBERT EDWARD EARLL. ROBERT EDWARD EARLL. 1853-1896. [Read before the Society, May 23, 1896.] Robert Edward Earll died at Chevy Chase, near Washing¬ ton, March 19, 1896. He was a native of Illinois, whither his parents had gone as pioneers in 1835, settling in the northeastern part of the State, near Lake Michigan. His father, Robert C. Earll, a native of the State of New York, belonged to the well-known Earle family of New Eng¬ land, the peculiar spelling of the name with the double terminal “1” having been adopted by himself. His mother, Sarah Montgomery, was of Virginian parentage. Mr. Earll was born at Waukegan, August 24, 1853, and was prepared for college in the public schools of his native town. In 1873 he entered the old University of Chicago, where he remained one year, then was transferred to the Northwestern University at Evanston, where he was gradu¬ ated in 1877 with the degree of Bachelor of Science, sub¬ sequently obtaining, in due course, that of Master of Science. He had a fondness for natural history, and through the influence of Mr. James W. Milner, a fellow-townsman and a graduate of the same university, who was at that time deputy United States Commissioner of Fisheries, he secured a posi¬ tion upon the United States Fish Commission, and was ap¬ pointed to the position of fishculturist by Professor Baird in 1877. In 1878 he was transferred to the scientific staff of the Commission, and engaged in the same summer upon work at the Gloucester station. From 1879 to 1882 he was employed as special expert in the Fisheries division of the Tenth Census, and collected the statistics of the sea fisheries of northern New England and of the Middle and Southern States. In 1883 he was appointed a member of the staff of the United States Commissioner to the International Fisheries OBITUARY NOTICES. 389 Exhibition in London, and rendered efficient service as exec¬ utive officer and deputy of the Commission. His remarkable aptitude for exposition work was first demonstrated on that occasion. Shortly after his return from London, in 1883, he was appointed chief of the Division of Fisheries in the Fish Com¬ mission, and also an honorary curator in the National Mu¬ seum. In 1888 he resigned his place in the Commission and became a regular member of the Museum staff. In this ca¬ pacity he served for the remainder of his life, much of his time being occupied in work for the several expositions in which the Smithsonian Institution has participated. He was chief executive officer for the Institution at Louisville in 1884, at New Orleans in 1885, at Cincinnati in 1888, at Chicago in 1893, and at Atlanta in 1895, and for three years past has also acted as editor of the Proceedings and Bulletins of the National Museum. He was a man of great force of character, and recognized as one of the most efficient of exposition administrators. His unselfish devotion to his work and his absolute trustworthi¬ ness were appreciated by all who knew him. He published a considerable number of important papers upon the habits of fishes and the methods of the fisheries. He made extensive collections upon the Atlantic coast and the Great Lakes, and discovered many species of fishes and invertebrates new to science. He was one of the best authori¬ ties upon the natural history of our anadromous fishes. He was also a skillful and ingenious fishculturist, and ren¬ dered excellent service in the early experimental work in the propagation of the shad and in the establishment of the cod-hatching station at Gloucester, Massachusetts. He was a man of the purest personal character and deeply interested in philanthropic work, and the time which was his own was devoted chiefly to efforts for the moral and material good of others. His reputation as a naturalist would un¬ doubtedly have been more widely established had he confined his efforts entirely to research. He chose, however, to give 390 WILLIAM WHITNEY GODDING. his attention chiefly to administrative work, and his efficiency in this was of the highest character. He was a man who, more than almost any whom I have known, corresponded to Emerson’s ideal of independence. He did what concerned him, not what others thought he ought to do. In the midst of the crowd “ he kept with per¬ fect sweetness the independence of solitude.” G. Brown Goode. WILLIAM WHITNEY GODDING. 1831-1899. [Read before the Society January 6, 1900.] William Whitney Godding, the subject of this memoir, was of English descent, but his ancestors had resided in Mas¬ sachusetts for three or four generations. He was born in the town of Winchendon, in Massachusetts, May 5, 1831. His native place is a typical New England town — clean, bright, well lighted, well paved, and with the never-failing public library, lyceum, and school-house. It is a picturesque place. A busy manufacturing town forms a part of it, and beyond is the “ middle town,” as it is called, full of comfortable resi¬ dences. A friend who accompanied Dr. Godding’s remains to their place of interment in Winchendon describes the resi¬ dence in which he was born as an old-fashioned house, with curious gables and broad piazzas, embowered in maples and fruit trees, and with a fragrant flower garden in front. In the distance the towering peak of Monadnock, in New Hamp¬ shire, was clearly visible. In the life of a man who has attained to high distinction it is always interesting to be made aware of the surround¬ ings which influenced his boyhood days. Our friend’s father was Dr. Alvah Godding, a well-edu¬ cated, well-cultured physician, whose skill, kindness, and benevolence are remembered to this day. He was emphat- OBITUARY NOTICES. 391 ically the “ poor man’s doctor,” for his unpaid service was given without stint to the poorest and humblest of his neigh¬ bors. This tender generosity of mind was amply inherited by his distinguished son. Dr. Godding’s mother was Mary Whitney, of an English family of that name which settled in Waterford, Massachu¬ setts, in 1635. She was a woman of remarkable character, strong in her beliefs, an admirable mistress of her household, devoted to her good husband and her children, and so force¬ ful that a minister once said of her, that “ half a dozen men with her firm convictions and moral courage would revo¬ lutionize a town.” It was under the training and example of such parents that young Godding grew up as a boy. He was educated at the district school, and later at a private academy. In his sixteenth year he was sent to Brown University, at Provi¬ dence, Rhode Island. He had not been there many months before he was convinced that he needed a more thorough education to prepare him for a collegiate course. He went therefore to an academy in Andover, Massachusetts, where he passed two years in diligent study. In the year 1850 he entered the freshman class at Dartmouth College, where he graduated as Master of Arts in 1854, being then 23 years of age. After graduating he began the study of medicine in his father’s office. Later he was sent to New York, and passed a year in the College of Physicians and Surgeons. Twelve months after his return he received the degree of Doctor of Medicine from the Medical College of Castleton, Vermont. Being now fully equipped for his professional career, he was associated with his father in the practice of medicine at Winchendon, but eighteen months later, in June, 1859, he accepted the position of assistant physician in the State Hospital for the Insane at Concord, New Hampshire. It was in this way that he entered upon the study and care of the insane, which was to be his life’s work and source of distinction. Marrying in 1860, he took his wife to the Con¬ cord Hospital and remained there two years longer, when 56— Bull. Phil. Soc., Wash., Vol. 13. 392 WILLIAM WHITNEY GODDING. he resigned his position and entered upon the practice of medicine in Fitchburg, Massachusetts. This was the only break in his long career as a psychiatrist. At the end of a year he was offered by the late Dr. Charles H. Nichols, then superintendent of St. Elizabeth, the Government Hospital for the Insane, the position of second assistant physician in that institution. He came to Washington in September, 1863, and in the following seven years he established a high reputation for indefatigable industry and for skillful and tender care of the hapless beings under his charge. So well had he become known that in 1870 he was appointed super¬ intendent of the State Hospital for the Insane at Taunton, Massachusetts. He remained there seven years, and Dr. Crayke Simpson, who has written a most loving and grace¬ ful tribute to his deceased friend, and to whose memoir I am indebted for much of the foregoing details, says that Dr. Godding always looked back upon that period as the hap¬ piest years of his life. He was in his native State, for which he entertained a most loyal affection, and he felt the satis¬ faction which an able man experiences in the consciousness of thorough discharge of his duties. In 1877 Dr. Nichols resigned his position as superintendent of St. Elizabeth in order to accept the superintendency of the Bloomingdale Asylum in New York city. He recommended to the Board of Visitors and the Secretary of the Interior the appointment of Dr. Godding as his successor. Dr. Godding assumed the office in September, 1877, and remained in it until his death. The work which he achieved in those twenty-two years can only be briefly alluded to in this sketch, but it may be justly characterized as immense. His high character, his earnestness, and his genial manner soon acquired for him the confidence of men in official sta¬ tion. As a result, he succeeded in obtaining liberal appro¬ priations of money from the Congress, with which substantial buildings were erected, and the grounds were laid out in a tasteful manner for the comfort and enjoyment of the patients- It is to be remembered that not only the insane from the Dis- OBITUARY NOTICES. 393 trict of Columbia, but insane patients from the army and navy, and from the numerous homes for disabled volunteer soldiers are received at St. Elizabeth. During the past year insane soldiers have been brought thither from Manila even to find a kindly refuge until reason may be restored or death bring a happy escape. It may seem strange that soldiers, young and active men, should furnish such a contingent to the hospitals for the insane. It is to be remembered that this occurs chiefly among volunteers, men who without the preliminary training of the soldier have left the farm and the village to take part in the tragic scenes of war. During the war of the rebellion many a man was found in a ragged uniform wandering aimlessly through the county, his “ descriptive list ” gone, and no means of identi¬ fication possible. Such unfortunates were sent to the nearest State asylum, where the Government humanely provided for them, and many hundreds lived and died in these places, unknowing and unknown. In some instances, when reason was recovered, friends were sent for and carried away a rela¬ tive literally “ called back to life.” There is something very pathetic and not generally thought of in the fate of these victims of war’s “ fierce alarms.” In the last report of the Government hospital, under Dr. Godding’s care there were nearly 2,000 patients under treat¬ ment. Think of the incessant watchfulness and vigilant care needed to provide the feeding, clothing, nursing and treat¬ ment of such an army of the diseased in mind, many of whom are turbulent and hopelessly mad. The superintendent has the assistance of five zealous and able assistants, besides a “ night physician,” whose title indicates his duty ; but Dr. Godding was the ruler, and to him all repaired for counsel and aid. He never failed to meet them — officers, nurses, at¬ tendants, and patients— with kind words of encouragement, ready advice, and the exercise of authority to remedy their difficulties. It has been often felt to be a matter of grave regret that the engrossing household cares, to use a familiar phrase, 394 WILLIAM WHITNEY GODDING. should fall to the lot of the superintendent of a hospital for the insane. It would seem better that such a man should be able to devote himself exclusively to the care of his patients, to the study of the varying phases of insanity, and to the perusal of the writings of his confreres in such pur¬ suits. Instead of these lofty occupations, he is in fact obliged to serve, in military phrase, as quartermaster and commis¬ sary for a small army of patients, attendants, and skilled and unskilled laborers. He must understand the running of the powerful engines required to supply the water and to keep the great fans moving which pump fresh air into the hospital. If new buildings are to be erected and old buildings repaired and altered, the superintendent must oversee the work as it is done. It can be imagined that with such constantly re¬ curring claims for his attention there can be but little time available for his intellectual work. The attempt to separate these purely administrative duties from those of the physician in charge has been tried, but, it must be admitted, with no satisfying result. The functions of the administrative official have been found to clash with those of the scientific superin¬ tendent. The latter is undoubtedly the best, indeed the only, judge as to what is needed for his patients. In spite of theory, therefore, our great hospitals for the insane are still managed on the old plan. It is true that in most cases the man who has reached the high position of superintendent is one whose force of character and long experience has fitted him for his arduous task. Dr. Godding was one of these, and notwith¬ standing the heavy drafts upon his time from his adminis¬ trative duties, he found leisure for professional studies and for the lighter elegancies of English literature, of which he was a diligent student. He had a warm love of poetry, and indeed had a happy faculty of composing graceful verses. Of the many societies which elected Dr. Godding to member¬ ship, I think perhaps he enjoyed the meetings of the Literary Society of Washington more than any others. It was a relief and a happiness to throw off the cares of his great office and listen to essays on pure literature. He took a ready part in OBITUARY NOTICES. 395 the ensuing discussions, and occasionally gave us a paper of his own. He was at one time president of the society. Dr. Godding was a member of the Philosophical Society during twenty years, but I cannot find that he ever read anything before us. His own studies were exclusively pro¬ fessional, and he had that recommendable quality of never speaking of what he did not thoroughly understand. Though firm and courageous in the discharge of his official duties, Dr. Godding was essentially a modest, unobtrusive gentleman. His published writings were numerous, but all related to his especial line of work. He was a member of many distin¬ guished scientific and medical societies, a list of which forms an appendix to this memoir. In his family relations Dr. Godding was to be seen at his best. Adored by his wife and children, he repaid their devo¬ tion with all the tenderness and love of his great heart. His widow, with two daughters and a son, survive him. In the spring of 1899 his health began to fail, undermined by his many years of arduous and unselfish labors, and he died on the 6th of May, 1899. Some time ago, at a meeting of the Literary Society, I hap¬ pened to quote to him a stanza from a poem the title of which was “ Evening thoughts on death.” The author was Sir John Bowring, well known as a scholar and linguist, but whose poems and translations are less remembered than they de¬ serve to be. The good doctor’s eyes moistened at the recital, for he had a keen sensibility to the tender and pathetic in poetry. He was younger than I, and I little thought that I should furnish a modest tribute to his memory by quoting the same stanza. When I think of this good man at rest in the peaceful cemetery in his native town, his life-work well done, his father and four generations of his forbears lying around him, and the beautiful New England scenery which he loved so well hallowing his grave, I think the lines in question singularly appropriate. This is the stanza : * * Bowring (John) : Matins and vespers, 1823. 396 GEORGE BROWN GOODE. No sorrows now disturb him, No disappointment there ; No worldly pride to curb him In his sublime career. Heaven’s azure arch is over him, Earth’s tranquil breast beneath. The stars are brightly glowing, The breezes play around, The flowers are sweetly blowing, The dew is on the ground, And emerald mosses cover him, How beautiful is death ! Robert Fletcher, M. D. The following list comprises the societies to which Dr. Godding be¬ longed : Medical Association, District of Columbia ; Medical Society, District of Columbia ; Massachusetts State Medical Society, American Medical Asso¬ ciation, American Medico-Psychological Association, British Psychological Society, Medico-Legal Society, Columbia Historical Society (charter mem¬ ber), Literary Society of Washington, Colonization Society, American Social Science Association. GEORGE BROWN GOODE. 1851-1896. [Read before the Society, December 9, 1899.] George Brown Goode was born in New Albany, Indiana, February 13, 1851, and died in the city of Washington Sep¬ tember 6, 1896. He traced his ancestor in this country to John Goode, of Whitby, who settled in Virginia prior to 1661. He was educated at Wesleyan University, Middletown, Con¬ necticut, being graduated in 1870, and early showed a de¬ cided taste for natural history, taking a post-graduate course under Agassiz at Harvard, whence he returned in 1871 to Middletown to assume charge of the small University mu¬ seum. He became associated with the National Museum and engaged in the work of the Fish Commission under Pro¬ fessor Baird in 1873 and soon was a leading spirit in the OBITUARY NOTICES. 397 Smithsonian Institution. He was made Assistant Director of the National Museum in 1881, and Assistant Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, in charge of the National Mu¬ seum, in 1887. He also held for a time, after the death of Professor Baird, .the post of United States Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries, and was connected officially with every exposition save one in which the United States participated from 1876, either at home or abroad. Careful biographies of Mr. Goode have been prepared by others, and a memorial volume is now printing which will give a record of his life and work. It will be fitting before this Society to speak of him in but a general way, since any detailed account would far transcend the limits which the Society allots to biographies of its members. Mr. Goode was a naturalist of the broad old-fashioned type. Although he specialized in fishery work and in later years on the fauna of the deep seas, he always stood for catholicity ; he thought that every scientific man should have his foun¬ dations laid on the old academic lines, and viewed with a certain disfavor the highly specialized methods of the modem biologists. Working under unfavorable conditions, in an unsuitable building, and with great restrictions in funds, he yet became one of the foremost Museum administrators of his time, com¬ bining to the full a sympathy with the special student and the general visitor, bringing to bear his fine artistic instincts as to color and form, developing a system of labeling which has nowhere else been equaled, and being the first to reduce to a method the principles of Museum administration. He was a lover of books, of prints, of autographs, and all these he collected systematically and successfully. He was an accomplished musician, and collected American linguistic dialectic forms with such assiduity that his manuscript of these is probably the largest in existence. He was an American deeply interested in the welfare of the whole country, a devoted student of the writings of the Fathers of the Republic, a hater of all injustice, greed, and 398 GEORGE BROWN GOODE. oppression. He had an especial interest in Virginia history and genealogy, and made substantial contribution to both subjects. He was the pioneer historian of American science. He was prominent as an organizer of scientific, historical, and patriotic societies. I can say of my own knowledge that in no society of which he was a member did he have a keener interest than in this, the Philosophical Society of Washing¬ ton. He was attracted by its traditions, it is true ; but Mr. Goode was not a man to live in the past ; it was the breadth of scope of this Society, the fact that it was the only common meeting ground in Washington of men interested in all science — in all knowledge, in fact, since science is a restricted word — that caused him to impress upon all his colleagues and friends the necessity of preserving our organization on a broad foundation in consonance with the purpose of its founders. He was elected a member of the Society on January 31, 1874; a member of the General Committee December 19, 1885 ; Vice-President December 21, 1887, and was President for the year 1893. The papers he read before the Society were : “ The Sword Fish and its Allies,” April 18, 1881. “ The Fisheries of the World,” October 7, 1882. “ Fisheries Exhibitions,” March 29, 1884. “The Systematic Care of Pamphlets,” November 21, 1885. “ The Distribution of Fishes in the Oceanic Abysses and Middle Strata,” April 24, 1886. “ Museum Specimens Illustrating Biology,” May 22, 1886. “ The Geographical Distribution of Men and Institu¬ tions in the United States,” February 12, 1887. “ Origin of Our National Scientific Institutions,” March 1, 1890. And as President delivered an unpublished address on “ What has been done for Science in America.” Born 1851. February 13— -Died 1896, September 6 OBITUARY NOTICES. 399 The memorable 400th meeting of the Society was held under his presidency. But above and beyond all, Mr. Goode was a man — wise, kind, strong, forbearing — a man who could bravely lead and follow loyally; the strength, beauty, and sweetness of whose disposition made other men his own peculiarly ; with such vast learning, keen insight into men and affairs, grasp on everything that related to the advancement of the highest interests of the country, and willingness to give his time, his mind, his life, to the advancement of those interests, as to entitle him to be classed among the great men of the days in which he lived ; if I may speak personally, a man whose place no other friend can supply. It is three years and more since he was laid to rest, and not a day has passed that I have not missed him, have not grieved for him, have not felt my life was poorer without him. Cyrus Adler. EDWARD GOODFELLOW. 1828-1899. [Read before the Society, December 9, 1899.] Mr. Edward Goodfellow, the subject of this sketch, was my friend and comrade for many years. I was familiar with his aspirations, and know only too well the failure of his hopes in the undeserved misfortune that overtook him in after life, in his separation from the work he had served so faithfully and well for more than a generation ; and yet I can do but scant j ustice to the man, his gentle nature, high sense of honor, and the many traits that compel us to call a man our friend, for diffidence was also a pronounced characteristic, and yielded only when assailed in the briefer hours of a ripened friendship. Mr. Goodfellow was born in Philadelphia, February 23, 1828, and died in Washington, May 7, 1899. He received his 57-Bull. Phil. Soe., Wash., Vol. 13. 400 EDWARD GOODFELLOW. primary education in a private school of which his father was the principal, and subsequently attended the school for classics under Joseph Engles, and the University of Penn¬ sylvania, graduating from the latter institution in June, 1848. He had taken a great interest in Greek during his college course and won at least one prize for that tongue, and was honored at his graduation by the appointment to deliver the Greek salutatory. His decided inclination to literature led him to a warm friendship with Prof. Henry Reed, the pro¬ fessor of English literature at the university, which ended only with the Professor’s death. It was through Professor Reed’s influence that Mr. Good- fellow was appointed on the Coast Survey, in August, 1848, the Professor having been a warm friend of Alexander Dallas Bache, then the Superintendent of the Survey. His first appointment appears to have been a clerkship, but in De¬ cember, 1849, we find him as aid in the Superintendent’s party on the measurement of the Edisto base in South Caro¬ lina. He was shortly afterward transferred to astronomical work, and during the continuance of his service on the Coast Survey was, with few interruptions, engaged upon this class of work until his assignment to duty at Washington as execu¬ tive officer to the assistant in charge of the office, April 1, 1873. In 1861, at the outbreak of the Civil War, Mr. Goodfellow served for a year as assistant in charge of the office, being relieved of that duty at his own request. In August, 1864, he resigned and accepted a commission as captain in the Forty- fifth regiment of United States volunteers, but was unfortunate in receiving a sunstroke shortly after his appointment that prevented his entering upon an active campaign. He there¬ fore secured his discharge, and in November, 1864, was re¬ appointed an assistant in the Coast Survey. During Mr. Goodfellow’s long career on the field-work of the Survey he had charge of many important stations and assisted in some of the operations of the Survey that have become historical. In 1866-1867 he was at Hearts Content, the American end of the first exchanges of time by cable to determine difference OBITUARY NOTICES. 401 of longitude from Greenwich. In 1868 he accompanied the Coast Survey expedition to Labrador for observing the total eclipse, and in 1872 was at St. Pierre, Miquelon island, again on cable longitude work. In 1882 Mr. Goodfellow was assigned the duty of prepar¬ ing the Annual Report of the Superintendent, to which was subsequently added the editorial work for all the publications of the Survey, continuing upon this duty until his separation from the Survey, in August, 1894. The last years of his life were a continued struggle. At first he manfully attempted new work, at best a difficult task even in the prime of manhood ; but the growing financial depression of the period prevented success, his cheerfulness left him, and finally he wras only too glad to accept a subor¬ dinate position in the National Museum, where he diligently labored until the unfortunate accident that caused his death. Mr. Goodfellow was a founder of the club in whose hall we hold this memorial, and was a member of a number of scien¬ tific societies, to which he occasionally made contributions. He was an earnest worker, honest and sincere in his friend¬ ships, too retiring for his own welfare, but those who knew him well, I feel assured, must always carry a soft spot in their hearts in tender remembrance. Herbert G. Ogden. HENRY ALLEN HA ZEN. 1849-1900. [Read before the Society, March 3, 1900.] On the evening of Monday, January 22, 1900, Prof. Henry Allen Hazen, while riding rapidly on his bicycle, hastening to his night work at the Weather Bureau, collided with a pedestrian and was dashed to the ground. After lying un¬ conscious for twenty-four hours, he expired on the 23d. 402 HENRY ALLEN HAZEN. Professor Hazen was born January 12, 1849, in Sirur, India, about 1 00 miles east of Bombay, the son of Rev. Allen Hazen, a missionary of the Congregational Church. He came to this country when ten years old, and was educated at St. Johns- bury, Vermont, and at Dartmouth College, where he was graduated in 1871. After this he removed to New Haven, Connecticut, and for four years subsequent was assistant in meteorology and physics under Prof. Elias Loomis. He was also privately associated with the latter in meteorological researches and the preparation of many of the Contributions to Meteorology published by Professor Loomis, some of which bear evidence of the reflex influence of the pupil on the teacher. In the spring of 1881, when the present writer first saw Professor Hazen in New Haven, the latter showed such an earnest interest in meteorology as to justify recommending him to the position of computer in the study-room, which was then being organized by Gen. W. B. Hazen, the Chief Signal Officer, for the purpose of developing the scientific work of the Bureau, as a necessary adjunct to its important practical work. After his entry, May, 1881, into the mete¬ orological work of the Signal Service, Professor Hazen took a prominent part in this field. The works specially assigned to him were by no means sufficient to absorb his energies, and we find him writing and publishing on many subjects, such as barometric hypsometry and the reduction to sea- level, the testing of anemometers, the study of tornadoes and the theories of cyclones, atmospheric electricity, balloon ascensions, the influence of sun spots and the moon, the danger lines of river floods, the sky-glows and the eruption of Krakatoa. His enthusiastic advocacy of the importance of the balloon to meteorology was very highly appreciated. Plis five ascensions (1886, June 24-25 ; 1887, June 17 and August 13 ; 1892, October 27) undoubtedly gave very accu¬ rate temperatures and humidities. After the death of Gen¬ eral Hazen and during the administration of General Greely the computers of the study-room became junior professors at OBITUARY NOTICES. 403 a higher salary and were assigned to official duties of a broader aspect. In the course of such duties Professor Hazen frequently took his turn as forecast official and as editor of the Monthly Weather Review , while also acting as assistant in the Records Division. In July, 1891, in accordance with the terms of the transfer to the Department of Agriculture, he was appointed one of the professors of meteorology in the Weather Bureau, where he was at once assigned to regular and congenial duties in the Forecast Division. Having shown that the Hazen thermometer shelter was much better than the large, close double-louvered one for¬ merly used, his form was adopted by the Weather Bureau in 1885 and still remains in use. His experimental work with the sling psychrometer and dew-point apparatus was executed with great care and refinement, but his resulting psychrometer formula differs from those in current use, in that he rejected the important term depending on the baro¬ metric pressure. Professor Hazen was a frequent contributor to meteor¬ ological and other scientific journals. He was one of the supporters of Science during the years 1882-1889, and of the American Meteorological Journal , 1884-1896. He also published independently his “ Meteorological Tables 55 and “ The Tornado; ” and possibly other works. A complete list of his published writings would include about eight hundred titles. It must be confessed that a peculiar temperament some¬ times led him to beliefs and statements in scientific matters entirely untenable at the present day, but to which he ad¬ hered with such pertinacity that to some he occasionally appeared obstinate and headstrong. This was simply a result of the intense earnestness of his own convictions, which so completely absorbed his mind that there was no place for further considerations. However, the amiability of his char¬ acter always prevented any enduring unpleasant feeling be¬ tween himself and his associates. In addition to his work in meteorology, Professor Hazen, 404 CHARLES HUGO KUMMELL. like his master, Professor Loomis, was greatly devoted to the study of family history and genealogy, and it is understood that his collections in that line are in proper shape for the publication of a large volume. Certainly the widespread family to which he belonged includes very many distin¬ guished names in theology, literature, commerce, and mili¬ tary matters. A great tenacity of purpose, independence of character, boldness in the defense of personal convictions and energy of execution are prominent characteristics of all the families bearing the name of our departed colleague. Himself unmarried, he cared lovingly and dutifully for rela¬ tives who depended on him. His heart was as many-sided as his intellect. Cleveland Abbe. CHARLES HUGO KUMMELL. 1836-1897. [Read before the Society, May 28, 1898.] Charles Hugo Kummell was born August 26, 1836, in Wetler, Kurfiirstenthum, Hessen, Germany, and died in Washington, D. C., April 17, 1897. He received his early education at home, from his father and from private tutors. At the age of fourteen he entered the Technological Institute at Cassel, and two years later, in 1852, entered the University at Marburg. He early showed a strong liking for classical music, and his spare moments while at the university were given to the study of Mozart and Beethoven. In August, 1866, he came to the United States and settled at Norfolk, Virginia, where his elder sister was then living. Here he lived for nearly five years, finding occupation as a teacher of music. In April, 1871, he secured employment with the United States Lake Survey, and was thereafterward employed as a computer in the office at Detroit, Michigan, OBITUARY NOTICES. 405 until the completion of that survey, in 1880. He then came to Washington and entered the office of the Coast and Geo¬ detic Survey as a computer, a position which he held for seventeen years, till his death, of pneumonia, in April, 1897. Joining the Philosophical Society in March, 1882, he be¬ came a regular attendant at its meetings and a contributor to its program up to the very last. During his fifteen years of membership he presented to the Society and its Mathe¬ matical Section eighteen communications — -the first June 17, 1882, the last on April 3, 1897, just two weeks before his death. All these papers were of a mathematical character, and related for the most part to the theory of errors, elliptic functions, and geodetic problems. In all of these his work is character¬ ized by neatness, thoroughness, and practical application, with examples carefully wrought out. Accustomed to com¬ putation, he set forth his results with a fullness of example well adapted to the computer’s needs. Of a retiring disposition, he mingled little in society, but spent his leisure at home, devoting his spare hours to music and mathematics. He married, in Detroit, Michigan, Sep¬ tember, 1873, Miss Wackwitz. She, with a son and a married daughter, Mrs. Beresford, survive him. Marcus Baker. WILLIAM LEE. 1841-1893. [Read before the Society, May 23, 1896.] Doctor William Lee, born in Boston, Massachusetts, March 12, 1841, was the eldest son of William Barlow and Ann (Whitman) Lee. When 13 years of age he came, with his parents, to Washington. Four years later, at the age of 17, he accompanied the military expedition of Captain J. H. Simpson to Utah. On his return to Washington he took up the study of medicine. 406 WILLIAM LEE. In 1861 he was acting medical cadet at the Infirmary (Judiciary Square) Hospital, District of Columbia ; in 1862 medical student at St. Elizabeth Hospital; from 1865 to 1867 lecturer and adjunct Professor of Physiology in the Medical Department of Columbian University, District <$ Columbia, and full professor of the same subject in the same institution from 1872 till his death, in 1893. In 1863 he graduated M. D. from the College of Physi¬ cians and Surgeons, New York, and for two years thereafter was resident physician to Bellevue Hospital. He returned to Washington in 1865 and entered upon the practice of his profession. In 1871 he was co-editor of the National Medical Journal, Washington, District of Columbia. He was a mem¬ ber of the Medical Society and the Medical Association of the District of Columbia; also member of the American Medical Association, of which he was librarian for many years. His fondness for books brought him into association with librarians, and thus we find him librarian of the Medi¬ cal Society, librarian of the Cosmos Club, of which he was one of the founders, and a diligent worker on the Toner collection, now a part of the Library of Congress, upon which collection he performed valuable work in cataloguing and classifying. He was a member, of the New England Historical and Genealogical Society, of the Sons of the American Revolu¬ tion, of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, and of the Numismatic Society. He was on the medical staff of the Emergency Hospital, in charge of the section of general diseases, and was on the consulting staff of the woman’s clinic. His interest in coins and medals is shown by his member¬ ship in the Numismatic Society and by his collection of medals, which is deposited in the Army Medical Museum and is known as the “Lee Collection.” On medical subjects he wrote numerous articles, which were published in the med¬ ical journals. He also published an article, “ Currency of the Confederate States, 1875,” and another on “John Leigh and his Descendants, 1889.” OBITUARY NOTICES. 407 His chief life work, and that which he best loved, was in connection with the Chair of Physiology in Columbian Uni¬ versity. Above all else he aimed to teach his subject, and in this he succeeded. He was a favorite with both students and professors. With his confreres in the medical profes¬ sion he stood deservedly high, having been honored with the presidency of both the Medical Society and the Medical Association of the District of Columbia. In his work he was careful, painstaking, and methodical, as he was in all the relations of life. He was unobtrusive and modest in claiming credit for what he did. For several years preceding his death he suffered from diabetes, which rendered the performance of his manifold duties more difficult, but he persevered in his work up to his last illness, which was pneumonia following grip. He died in Washington, March 2, 1893. On April 2, 1885, he was married to Mary Agusta Gadsby (daughter of William Gadsby and Mary Agusta Bruff), but left no children. D. W. Prentiss. WALTER LAMB NICHOLSON. 1825-1895. [Read before the Society, May 23, 1896.] Walter Lamb Nicholson was born in Edinburg, Scotland, in 1825, and was educated at the high school, where he dis¬ played unusual proficiency in languages and mathematics. At the age of sixteen, upon the death of his father, William Nicholson, one of the founders and for four years honorary secretary of the Royal Scottish Academy, he went to England to study civil engineering, and was employed in the office of the London and Great Midland railroad until 1851, when he came to America to take a position as assistant engineer on railroads in Kentucky and Arkansas. This duty occupied * 58— Bull. Phil. Soc., Wash., Vol. 13. 408 WALTER LAMB NICHOLSON. him until 1856, when he was offered a position in the United States Coast Survey under Professor Bache. There he had charge of the preparation for publication of the records and results of the work of the Survey, his taste and thorough knowledge of mathematics particularly fitting him. for a suc¬ cess in this work which was highly appreciated by Professor Bache. On the breaking out of the war his experience as a civil engineer in the South was at once utilized in the prep¬ aration of maps for the use of the army. In 1863, when the Postmaster General asked Professor Bache to recommend some one as topographer of that depart¬ ment, Mr. Nicholson was at once selected, and filled the posi¬ tion for twenty-two years. During the war, and for some time after, this office was one of peculiar importance to the Gov¬ ernment, all questions of distance and mileage being referred to it for verification. Here again his knowledge of mathe¬ matics and extreme accuracy were of untold value, and are to this day often referred to in the office. He originated and carried into successful operation the use of post-route maps, the value of which was immediately recognized. Mr. Nicholson was one of the founders of the Philosophical Society of Washington. He enjoyed in a marked degree the friendship and esteem of Professor Henry, and was associated with him in a number of scientific investigations. He was known to both Bache and Henry as a man in every respect worthy of their confidence. Socially of a kindly and generous temperament, with re¬ fined and scholarly tastes, he was thoroughly conversant with the history, the traditions, and the literature of his native land. These were his favorite themes, and he knew how to make them of unfailing interest to his friends. For some years before his death, which took place at his home in Washington in April, 1895, he was in failing health, but retained his mental faculties to the last. Edward Goodfellow. OBITUARY NOTICES. 409 ORLANDO METCALF POE. 1832-1895. [Read before the Society, May 23, 1898.] The name of Orlando Metcalf Poe does not appear among the names of those who in the spring of 1871 requested Joseph Henry to preside at a meeting to be held for the pur¬ pose of forming a society having for its object the free ex¬ change of views on scientific subjects and the promotion of scientific inquiry among its members, a meeting which re¬ sulted in the organization of the Philosophical Society. / Rut Joseph Henry was then and until his death a warm personal friend of General Poe, and the latter’s personal and social relations with the founders of the Philosophical Society were very close. He was elected a member of the Society in 1874, but long before that time he had been a member of a small club of distinguished men out of which grew the Philo¬ sophical Society. This club numbered among its members Bache, Henry, Meigs, Barnard, Newcomb, Hilgard, Chase, and McCulloch. The latter was then Secretary of the Treas¬ ury, and later in life, in his published reminiscences, entitled “ Men and Measures of Half a Century,” he gave an account of the club. He declares that the most delightful hours which he spent in Washington were spent at its meetings. Describing the characteristics of the men composing it, he says that “ all of them were interesting men — all well known to each other, and some of them to the public, by their scien¬ tific and literary attainments ; there was not one who would not have been distinguished in any literary and scientific club in this country or in any other country ; there was not a money-worshipper or time-server among them all.” * * * 11 0. M. Poe, whom I knew very well, was one of the youngest members of the club. He was regarded as a young man of great promise, which promise has been fulfilled. He has become, while still in the prime of life, one of the ablest and most distinguished engineers connected with the army.” 410 ORLANDO METCALF POE. This casual tribute, from so eminent a source, to the im¬ pression which Poe’s strong personality created is, however, in one sense misleading. Poe was at that time not merely a man of promise ; the record of his life was already more full of things accomplished than fall to the lot of most men, as will appear from the brief statement of his career which this sketch permits. His paternal ancestor was George Jacob Poe, who emigrated to this country from Germany, and who settled in Maryland in 1745. Thence members of the family migrated westward and settled in Ohio, where, in the town of Navarre, Stark county, Orlando Metcalf Poe was born on March 7, 1832. He received his early education at public schools and at the Canton Academy, and was teaching a district school when a fortunate opportunity, which he was quick to seize, enabled him to carry out a long cherished wish to enter West Point as a cadet. One day while he was in a neighboring town he met, on a passing train, a youth who had been appointed, but who had failed to maintain himself at the Military Academy. Poe, realizing his opportunity, mounted a horse and rode sixty miles to see the member of Congress from his district, from whom he solicited and obtained the appointment to the vacant cadetship. He graduated from West Point in 1856, and served as topographical engineer on the survey of the Great Lakes until the threatened outbreak of the Civil War, when he offered his services to Governor Dennison, of Ohio, who summoned him as soon as hostilities commenced. He assisted in organizing the first Ohio regiments of volunteers, but declined a proffered command because it was then the intention of the War Department to keep the regular army together. Poe, however, suggested to the governor to ap¬ point George B. McClellan, who was then in civil life, to the command of the Ohio troops. He sought out McClellan and introduced him to Governor Dennison, who, acting on Poe’s advice, appointed him to the command. It would be out of place here to give General Poe’s mili- OBITUARY NOTICES. 411 tary record. It will suffice to say that he was made colonel of the Second Michigan volunteers in September, 1861, and brigadier general of volunteers in November, 1862. He served with great distinction, taking part in more than a score of battles. From time to time he received promotion in the regular army, each time for gallant and meritorious services, culminating in the rank of brevet brigadier general in 1865. That he was closely associated with General Sher¬ man for a period of twenty years is alone evidence of the regard in which he was held by that great soldier, on whose staff he served ; but the letter, since published, which the retiring General of the Army addressed to him at the close of his military career shows clearly the deep friendship and esteem in which Poe was held by his chief. Distinguished as General Poe was as a soldier in war, he was no less distinguished as an engineer in time of peace. Of his works as engineer, the construction of Spectacle Reef light-house, in Lake Huron, and the design and construction of the great locks at Sault Ste. Marie are the most note¬ worthy. It was while he was inspecting a break in the lock just mentioned that he slipped and fell, abrading the skin of his leg. He paid but little attention to the injury, but ery¬ sipelas developed, from which he died on Wednesday, Octo¬ ber 2, 1895. To this barren outline of a life of ceaseless activity but little can be added in the allotted space to describe the man and his relation to his family. In person he wTas of soldierly bearing, tall and straight, broad-shouldered, and of massive mien. His appearance showed his great physical power, his conversation his wide range of knowledge and sympathetic nature, and the direct¬ ness of his speech his open heart. Early in his career he won the hand of a worthy helpmate in the person of Eleanor Carroll Brent, daughter of Thomas Lee Brent, of Virginia, a captain in the army. He was married to Miss Brent in Detroit, June 17, 1861. Four children were born to them, but, of these, three died within the last six years of his life, 412 CHARLES VALENTINE RILEY. his eldest son dying but five months before his own death — a series of terrible afflictions which he bore with a soldier’s fortitude. His widow and youngest daughter survive him- His deeds are his best eulogy. 0. H. Tittmann. CHARLES VALENTINE RILEY. 1843-1895. Since the shocking death of Professor Riley, on the 14th of last September, very many obituary notices have been published in America and abroad, and every reading scien¬ tific man must have become familiar with the details of his most useful life. Perhaps the best of these obituary notices are those by Dr. G. Brown Goode and Dr. A. S. Packard, the first prepared for the Joint Commission of the Scientific So¬ cieties of Washington and afterward published in Science (n. s., vol. iii, No. 59, February 14, 1896), and the second pub¬ lished some weeks previously, also in Science (n. s., vol. ii, No. 49, December 6, 1895). So full are these two notices, and so particularly complete and appreciative in their estimates of Riley’s scientific work and his influence upon American science, that there seems to be almost nothing to be said ; yet on account of his earty con¬ nection with this Society, and the great interest which he always took in its work and in its prosperity, it seems most fitting that at least a brief account of his life and death be presented at this time. Charles Valentine Riley was born near London, 18th Sep¬ tember, 1843, and spent his boyhood there. His father was a clergyman of the Church of England. On his mother’s second marriage he was sent to boarding school at Dieppe, at the age of eleven, and later to Bonn, and at the age of seventeen took his fortune in his own hand and came to America. He farmed for a while in Illinois, and then went OBITUARY NOTICES. 413 to Chicago, where he did journeyman printing, drew portraits, acted as a reporter for one of the papers, and finally became permanently attached to the office of the Prairie Farmer , the leading agricultural journal of the West. In 1864 he en¬ listed in one of the Illinois regiments, and served to the close of the war, returning then to his agricultural editorial work. While still a mere boy he became greatly interested in the study of insects. He showed me once a note book which he had started at the age of nine or ten years, in which he intended to describe the transformations of all the insects of the neighborhood, and in this book were drawings which in¬ dicated a most unusual artistic talent. This interest in insects, in studying their habits and drawing their different stages, lasted through his life, and eventually became his great work. He continued drawing while at school on the continent, and developed so great a talent that one of his instructors advised him strongly to become a professional artist. While on the farm in Illinois his attention was first drawn to the damage which insects do to cultivated crops, and he subsequently owed his position on the Prairie Farmer to articles which he had written and handed in, in which he suggested new remedies for crop pests. As an attache of this great agricultural newspaper he attended the gatherings of farmers, and particularly the meetings of the prominent Il¬ linois Horticultural Society. In this way he became ac¬ quainted with the leaders in agriculture and horticulture, and made the acquaintance of Benjamin D. Walsh, a man of remarkable character and great ability, of English univer¬ sity education, who was in 1867 appointed the first State entomologist of Illinois. Walsh exercised a great influence upon Riley’s future. Together they founded and edited the American Entomologist , and when, in 1868, the State of Mis¬ souri passed a law providing for a State entomologist, through the influence of Walsh and prominent Illinois agriculturists, led by the value of the work which he had already done, Riley was chosen to fill the place. 414 CHARLES VALENTINE RILEY. His great opportunity had now come. At this time he was twenty-five years of age. He entered upon his new duties with tremendous enthusiasm and long before the com¬ pletion of his series of nine annual reports his name was known in all parts of the civilized world as the foremost living economic entomologist. In this work Riley followed in the main the methods which he had learned from Walsh. His early reports show a touch of the discursiveness which forms the only blemish in Walsh’s published writings ; but this bit of discursiveness was just enough to make them thoroughly readable to the agricultural population. His ability as a delineator of insects was unsurpassed, and his reports from beginning to end were filled with pictures of insects of lifelike character and marvelous scientific accuracy. Their equals had hardly before been seen. The reports were almost entirely based upon original ob¬ servations. He kept abreast with the scientific thought of the times, the field was almost entirely his own, and he made many discoveries of far-reaching practical and scientific im¬ portance. When we stop and consider that this Missouri work, which has been called epoch-making in its character, was accom¬ plished by Riley between the ages of 25 and 34, and that he did it single-handed, then we begin to realize that we are dealing with a most extraordinary man. Toward the close of his term of office in Missouri the dis¬ astrous outbreak of the Rocky Mountain locust or “ grass¬ hopper ” in Kansas, Colorado, and Nebraska attracted his attention to this line of investigation, and in 1876, through his efforts, the United States Entomological Commission was founded by Congress and placed under the Interior Depart¬ ment for the purpose of investigating this insect. This work brought him to Washington, and two years later he was ap¬ pointed Entomologist to the Department of Agriculture in place of Townend Glover, who had held that position for many years, but whose health had at that time failed. With the exception of an interval of nearly two years, Riley held OBITUARY NOTICES. 415 the position, called by courtesy that of United States Ento¬ mologist, from that time until June, 1894. The Entomolog¬ ical Commission was continued, and published bulletins and reports down to 1884. In the Department of Agriculture Riley was a leader. His interest in agricultural science extended beyond the bound¬ aries of his own specialty, and he was practically responsible for many reforms and for many innovations of great value in the department. He was the warm personal friend of two of the Commissioners, and his advice had great weight with them. Aside from his work during these years in the Department of Agriculture, he was an active man elsewhere. He became a member of the Philosophical Society when he first came to Washington, and was afterward prominent in the work of the Biological Society, of which he was president for two years. He was the founder and first president of the Entomological Society of Washington, and one of the founders of the Cosmos Club. The scientific and agricultural societies of which he was a member are so numerous that they cannot be listed here. Many of them were foreign, and he was most prom¬ inent in many American societies. One of the saddest facts connected with his early death is associated with his plans for future work. In 1886 he gave his collection of insects, amounting to 115,000 specimens, to the United States National Museum to help form a Depart¬ ment of Insects, and held the office of Honorary Curator of that department until his death. It was his intention after his resignation from the Department of Agriculture, in 1894, to devote the remaining years of his life to pure scientific re¬ search, and he rejoiced at having thrown off the cares of routine work connected with the office which he had previ¬ ously held in the department. His death in little less than a year thereafter seems a shocking example of the irony of fate, and certainly it occasioned a loss to pure science the extent of which cannot be estimated: It is safe to say that in the comparatively new science of 59— Bull. Phil. Soc., Wash., Vol. 13. 416 SAMUEL SHELLA BARGER. economic entomology no man’s name stands on the same plane with that of Riley. Outside of economic entomology, his contributions to science were many and of great value. He possessed the friendship and confidence of many of the leaders in scientific thought. Honors came to him abun¬ dantly from the time when he first became prominent as a writer. He died at the comparatively early age of 52, after having accomplished an amount of work which, when one sums it up, would seem sufficient to occupy the lifetime of many men of ordinary capacit}L Mentally he was one of the most active men of the age. He was many-sided and of broad interests. Had he been a man of university training and of exceptional advantages, the record of his life would still have been wonderful. As it is, it is practically without parallel. L. 0. Howard. SAMUEL SHELLABARGER. 1817-1896. [Read before the Society, March 31, 1900.] Samuel Shellabarger was born December 10, 1817, in Mad Run township, Clarke county, Ohio, and died August 6, 1896, in Washington, D. C. On his father’s side he descended from a Swiss family whose lineage is said to have been traced back to the four¬ teenth century. On his mother’s side he was of Irish descent. He was the eldest in a family of eight children, of whom he outlived all save one, John Shellabarger, of Beatrice, Ne¬ braska. His early life was spent on his father’s farm and at the district school, from which he went to Oxford, Ohio, and attended Miami University, where he graduated in his twenty-fourth year, in 1841. For a profession he chose the law, and this profession, in¬ terrupted by intervals of public service, he pursued to the OBITUARY NOTICES. 417 end with diligent application, unswerving rectitude, and dis¬ tinguished success. He studied law with the Honorable Simson Mason, and was admitted to the bar in Troy, Ohio, in 1846, in his twenty-ninth year. Four years later, in 1850, we find him a member of the legislature of his native State, and thus serving his law¬ making apprenticeship in the session at which the present constitution of Ohio was framed and adopted. He contin¬ ued his service in the State legislature for several terms, and in the fall of 1860 was promoted by election to membership in the Thirty-seventh Congress from the Springfield district. Thus he began his career in the national legislature in the stormy days of 1861. Ending his term in March, 1863, he was not returned. Two years later, however, he was again chosen, and served as a member of the Thirty-ninth and Fortieth Congresses, from 1865 to 1869, thus participating in the ex citing, controversies over reconstruction and impeach¬ ment. It was in the debate upon reconstruction that his strength as lawyer, debater, and orator shone forth with their greatest clearness. Section 6 of the reconstruction act of March 2, 1867, as it now stands in the statute book, was drafted by him as an amendment late at night on February 20, 1867, immediately offered, and adopted without change. The original manuscript is preserved as a family heirloom. It was in this same year that Alaska was purchased, a measure which Judge Shellabarger, as he was usually called, opposed because, said he, “ Those nations which have been most compact and solid have been most enduring, while those which have had the most extended territory have lasted the shorter time.” At the close of his third term in Congress, President Grant appointed him, in 1869, United States Minister to Portugal. He accepted the appointment and went to his post, but re¬ signed it in December of the same year and returned home. He was for the last time elected as a Member of Congress in 1870, and served during the Forty-second Congress, 1871™ 1873, but declined a renomination, 418 WILLIAM BOWER TAYLOR. The earliest movement toward a reform in the civil service, it will be remembered, occurred early in the seventies, under President Grant, and one of the compliments paid to Judge Shellabarger’s ability and integrity was his selection as a member of that earliest Civil Service Commission. From 1848 to 1874 Judge Shellabarger’s home was in Springfield, Ohio. In 1875, however, he moved to Washing¬ ton and formed a law partnership with Honorable Jeremiah M. Wilson, a former associate in Congress — a partnership which lasted till death. His relations to this Society were not intimate. He became a member on April 10, 1875, shortly after taking up his resi¬ dence in Washington, and retained his membership to the last. In appearance, as we saw him in the afternoon of his life, he was a tall man, of large frame, deliberate in his walk and manner, slightly bent, and having the appearance of a scholar or philosopher rather than that of a man of affairs. He married, May 25, 1849, Elizabet h Henrietta Brandriff, of Troy, Ohio. She, with two daughters, Miss Anna A. Shellabarger, of Washington, and Mrs. J. H. Young, of Spring- field, Ohio, survive him. Marcus Baker. WILLIAM BOWER TAYLOR. 1821-1895. [Read before the Society, May 23, 1896.*] William Bower Taylor, born in the city of Philadelphia May 23, 1821, was the son of Colonel Joseph Taylor and Anna Farmer Bower, both of Philadelphia. Colonel Taylor was a bookbinder, and in 1821 was elected colonel of the Seventy-ninth regiment of Pennsylvania mili- * This memoir, as here printed, is an abridgement of the paper as read. The memoir, in full, was published in Smithsonian Institution Annual Report for 1896, vol. 1, p. 645. From photograph by Gutekunst about 1885 Bprn 1821, May 23-~Died 1895, February 25 OBITUARY NOTICES. 419 tia, which commission he held for seven years. He was well educated, early in life became interested in politics, and was elected to the Pennsylvania legislature. Having removed to his farm near Millville, New Jersey, for the benefit of his health, he was in 1 843 elected to the legislature of that State. William’s mother died while he was quite young. His father provided him with a liberal education, sending him to a Baptist college at Haddington, Pennsylvania, then to an academy taught by Professor Walter E. Johnson, and subsequently to the University of Pennsylvania. Professor Johnson, one of the most learned men of that time, was sec¬ retary of the Academy of Natural Sciences, member of the National Institute, professor of physics and chemistry in the University of Pennsylvania, and an able writer on scientific and technological subjects. In 1835-1836 several gentlemen formed a society, with the name of The Franklin Kite Club, for the purpose of making electrical experiments. For a considerable time they met once a week at the Philadelphia City Hospital grounds and flew their kites. These were generally square in shape, made of muslin or silk, stretched over a framework of cane reeds, varying in size from 6 feet upward, some being 20 feet square. For flying the kites annealed copper wire was used, wound upon a heavy reel 2 or 3 feet in diameter, insulated by being placed on glass supports. When one kite was up, sometimes a number of others would be sent up on the same string. The reel being inside the fence, the wire from the kite some¬ times crossed the road. Upon one occasion, as a cartman passed, gazing at the kites, he stopped directly under the wire and was told to catch hold of it and see how hard it pulled. In order to reach it he stood up on his cart, putting one foot on the horse’s back. When he touched the wire the shock went through him, as also the horse, causing the latter to jump and the man to turn a somersault, much to the amusement of the lookers on, among whom was Taylor. It was this incident and others of a similar character con¬ nected with the kite club that turned his youthful mind to 420 WILLIAM BOWER TAYLOR. science, and especially to electrical phenomena. He made a number of kites himself and also endeavored to make a flying machine. He made a clock wholly of wood, which kept good time. In 1836 Taylor entered the University of Pennsylvania, became a member of the Philomathean Society, and later its moderator or president. He was graduated in 1840 and com¬ menced the study of law at the university and also in the office of Mr. Rawle, an eminent attorney. He was admitted to the bar of Philadelphia November 15, 1843. His retiring disposition, studious habits, stern integrity, and high sense of honor were not conducive to securing many clients, and he looked with aversion on the practices of at¬ torneys who were willing to sacrifice truth to gain an unright¬ eous cause. After four years’ experience of an unsatisfactory character as a lawyer, in November, 1848, he became an assist¬ ant in the drug store of his brother Alfred, on Chestnut street, near Ninth, and remained there until February 1, 1853. By special invitation of his cousin, Mr. William Ellis, who was in charge of the navy yard in Washington, he accepted the position of draftsman in the yard February 17, 1853, and a few months later became foreman of the engineer and machinist department. He filled this position acceptably until his resignation, December 31, 1853, receiving a letter from Chief Engineer Henry Hunt, U. S. N., expressing “ great regret in his leaving the situation wherein his serv¬ ices and knowledge had been valuable and his deportment most gentlemanly.” In May, 1854, he was appointed by Hon. Charles Mason, Commissioner of Patents, to a temporary clerkship, and on the 1st of April, 1855, was made an assistant examiner in the division under Prof. George C. Schaeffer, the eminent chem¬ ist, engineer, and general scientist. Dr. Schaeffer used to relate of this appointment that, finding himself in need of an assistant, he was told by the Commissioner that a young man was in consideration for the place who seemed intelli¬ gent and capable, but spoke doubtfully as to his own qual- OBITUARY NOTICES. 421 ifications for the work. “ Then please appoint him at once,’’ said Dr. Schaeffer ; “ he will be just the man I want.” The augury was abundantly fulfilled, and was the beginning of a cordial lifelong friendship between the two men, amid various strong differences of opinion. Their debates on matters of high interest were remembered as contests of giants by their hearers. Mr. Taylor was appointed principal examiner on Novem¬ ber 10, 1857, in the class of firearms, electricity, and philo¬ sophical instruments. His early legal education and prac¬ tice fitted him admirably for the position of examiner and enabled him for more than twenty years fully to meet the requirements of an office which Commissioner Mason de¬ clared should command the highest order of talent, “ where all learning connected with the arts and sciences finds an ample field for exercise and questions of law that tax to their uttermost the abilities of the most learned jurists ; ” and another Commissioner, Judge Holt, said : “ The ability and requirements necessary to a proper discharge of the duties of an examiner must be of a high order, scarcely less than those we expect in a judge of the higher courts of law.” In 1873, the temporary position of librarian being vacant, Mr. Taylor was detailed to this service on account of his ex¬ tensive information, and was of great assistance to the exam¬ iners through his ability to give them references to aid in making up reports of applications for patents. The Patent Office library was indeed a grand school of instruction and a mine of inexhaustible wealth for a scien¬ tific inquirer. Designed as a collection for reference in the examination of applications for patents, in order to deter¬ mine the question of novelty of invention, it has grown mainly in the direction of technological publications, includ¬ ing full sets of the periodicals devoted to special industrial &rt and all the more important treatises on machines, arts, processes, and products, in the English, French, and German languages. Besides this, there are the records of foreign pat¬ ents of inestimable value. 422 WILLIAM BOWER TAYLOR. In 1876 Congress provided for the permanent appointment of a librarian in the Patent Office at a much lower salary than that of an examiner, and as Mr. Taylor still held the appointment of principal examiner, he was not an applicant for the new position, which was filled by' a political appoint¬ ment. Mr. Taylor then expected to be restored to his former duties as examiner ; but by reason of smaller congressional appropriations, which necessarily reduced the number of appointments, he was unfortunately legislated out of office. In a letter dated December 6, 1876, in relation to this matter, Professor Henry remarks : “ Mr. Taylor, I can truly say, without disparagement to any officer of the Patent Office, is, for extent of knowledge and practical skill in reporting on the originality of inventions, without a superior in the office. He has long been a collaborator of the Smithsonian Institution, is a member of the Washington Philosophical Society, and has achieved an extended reputation as an active contributor to science by his publications. His separation from the Patent Office I consider a public loss, and justice to himself and the interests of the inventors require his resto¬ ration.’’ In a private note to a prominent Senator, Professor Henry commends Mr. Taylor to his “ special attention,” and says : “ He is held in the highest estimation by all who know him and can appreciate his character. He is not only a gentle¬ man of extensive information and refined culture, but is admirably constituted in regard to intellectual and moral qualities.” While Mr. Taylor was librarian he also acted as examiner of interferences — -a very important duty. In fact, Prof. Ed¬ ward Farquhar, his assistant at the time, remarks that “ the various functions he discharged in the office were endless. When a committee was needed to revise the whole classifi¬ cation of the office he was one of the leading members. He was perpetual referee and consulting examiner in a general capacity, as necessarily resulted from his extraordinary knowledge and readiness to impart it, supplying more espe- OBITUARY NOTICES. 423 cially, perhaps, the principles of science and of law than their practical applications. In the Patent Office, as else¬ where, he was a constant fountain of instruction to all.” In 1872 Professor Henry strongly recommended Mr. Tay¬ lor, without his knowledge, for a chair in one of our leading colleges, as one “ who from the clearness of his conceptions and the lucidness of his expositions has the elements of an excellent teacher.” Other occasions offered for the employment of Mr. Taylor as a teacher or professor, but he always shrank from assum¬ ing the duties of a public instructor and preferred the retire¬ ment and privacy of closet study and editorial impersonality. Mr. Taylor was one of the founders of the Washington Philosophical Society, which grew out of the Saturday Club just alluded to. He signed the call for the first meeting, re¬ questing Professor Henry to preside, March 12, 1871, and on the organization of the Society, March 13, 1871, was elected a vice-president. This office he held until December 17, 1881, when he was elected its fourth president. Between 1871 and 1881 he had presided at forty-five meetings of the Society. His first paper was presented June 10, 1871, “ On the Nature and Origin of Force,” and was published in the Smithsonian Report for 1870, which was issued late in 1871. At almost every meeting of the Society he either presented an original communication on astronomical, mathematical, or physical subjects, or discussed with freedom, clearness, and marked ability the papers of others. Among his most important addresses before the Philosophical Society was one in 1878 on the “Life and Scientific Work of Joseph Henry.” This work was peculiarly agreeable to him as an ardent admirer and strong advocate of Henry’s policy, his warm personal friend and intimate associate, and of whom he speaks thus : “ Few lives within the century are more worthy of admira¬ tion, more elevating in contemplation, or more entitled to commemoration than that of Joseph Henry.” On the 5th of May, 1882, he made a report as chairman of a joint committee on the Philosophical, Biological, and 60— Bull. Phil. Soe., Wash., Vol. 13. 424 WILLIAM BOWER TAYLOR. Anthropological societies, favoring a scheme of consolidation or union of the scientific societies of Washington, an event which, after a lapse of thirteen years, has only recently been in some degree accomplished. In February, 1883, a Mathematical Section of the Philo¬ sophical Society was organized, of which he became one of the leading spirits, taking part in every meeting, and on March 24, 1886, he was elected its chairman. On the 23d of October, 1886, he was elected to the general committee of the Society, which position he held until his death, giving to every detail of business the same attention he did to solving the greatest problem of nature. To the Journal of the Franklin Institute, of which society he was long a member, he contributed, in 1876, a paper on “ Physics of the Ether,” consisting principally of a review of a work by S. Tolver Preston, of London, as well as numer¬ ous brief notices or reviews. In the American Journal of Science and Art , New Haven, he published a paper in 1876 on “ Recent Researches in Sound,” and in 1885 “ On the Crump¬ ling of the Earth’s Crust.” His “ Kinetic Theories of Gravitation ” was published by the Smithsonian Institution in 1876. An editorial in the American Journal of Science refers to this work as “ a valuable historical resume of the various attempts that have been made by the most eminent philosophers to account for the phenomena of gravitative attraction from the time of New¬ ton to the present day, concluded by a vigorous criticism of the leading theories, in which the author, passing over the consideration of the statical method of explaining gravita¬ tion by pressure, finds that kinetic systems are essentially of two classes — the hypothesis of emissions or corpuscles, and the hypothesis of fluid undulations— and proceeds to show that neither form of either hypothesis can satisfy the two Newtonian conditions of a scientific theory — verity and sufficiency.” He became a member of the American Philosophical So¬ ciety of Philadelphia on the 19th of October, 1877, but does not appear to have contributed to its transactions. OBITUARY NOTICES. 425 He was elected a member of the American Association for the Advancement of Science at its twenty-eighth annual meeting, in August, 1880, and at the meeting of August, 1881, was made a fellow of that society. The only paper he contributed to the proceedings of this Society was on “A Probable Cause of the Shrinkage of the Earth’s Crust.” On leaving the Patent Office he was engaged by Professor Henry to edit his researches on “ Sound ” and “ Illuminating Materials ” for the reports of the Light House Board, and in 1878 was appointed by Henry as an assistant in the Smith¬ sonian Institution, a position which he continued to hold for seventeen years, until his death. On the death of Professor Spencer F. Baird, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution and United States Commissioner of Fisheries, August 19, 1887, the Washington Philosophical Society, as the senior of the Washington scientific societies and the one with which Professor Baird had been most closely connected, took initial steps in arranging for a joint meeting to commemorate his life and services. To Mr. Taylor was assigned the theme of “ Professor Baird as an Administrator,” and on account of an intimate knowledge of his great work in the Smithsonian he was eminently fitted to discharge the duty assigned him. His eulogy of Professor Baird was pub¬ lished in the bulletin of the Philosophical Society, vol. X, 1888 ; also in the Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections. He was president of the District of Columbia Alumni As¬ sociation of the University of Pennsylvania, and presided at its annual banquets. During the life of Professor Henry no formal office existed as “ editor ” of the Smithsonian publications. Every article submitted for publication was carefully examined by Pro¬ fessor Henry himself, all doubtful points discussed with the authors, and every line closely scrutinized in the proof-sheets, independent of, and in addition to, the examination made by his assistants. Mr. Taylor’s distinctive labors as “ editor ” commenced with Professor Baird’s accession to the secretary¬ ship. 426 JOSEPH MEREDITH TONER. The most important duty Mr. Taylor performed as editor while at the Smithsonian was the collection and publication of the Scientific Writings of Professor Henry. To this labor of love, for which he was perhaps better fitted than any other person, he gave a year or two of untiring devotion. Mr. Taylor enjoyed good health nearly the whole of his life, though for many years he had not taken the customary leave of absence from office, for rest and recreation. An attack of the grip in 1894, however, seemed to enfeeble him and he never regained his former vigor. His last ill¬ ness was brief. After much suffering from an incurable malady, and submitting to a surgical operation, he died in Washington on February 25, 1895, in the seventy-fifth year of his age, and his remains were buried in Woodlawn Cem¬ etery, Philadelphia, his native city. “ 0, good old man ! how well in thee appears The constant favour of the antique world, When service sweat for duty, not for meed ! Thou art not for the fashion of these times, Where none will sweat but for promotion.” JOSEPH MEREDITH TONER. 1825-1896. [Read before the Society, January 9, 1897.] To commemorate, however briefly, the talents and char¬ acteristics of those who have gone from among us is due alike to this Society and to the memory of the departed. Our late associate, Dr. Joseph Meredith Toner, filled during more than forty years an increasingly marked and influen¬ tial position in the city of Washington. Born at Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, April 30, 1825, he died at Cresson, Pennsyl¬ vania, July 30, 1896, while sitting in his chair, during a brief summer vacation. His early training was in the public schools, and later at the Western Pennsylvania University and at St. Mary’s College at Emmitsburg, Maryland, though OBITUARY NOTICES. 427 his only degrees of graduation were from the Medical College at Woodstock, Vermont, in the year 1850, and the Jefferson Medical College, Philadelphia, in 1853. Dr. Toner inherited from his parentage, which was of the good old solid stock of Pennsylvania farmers, an ample physical frame and an excellent constitution. His temper¬ ament was cheerful and hopeful, his manner winning, and his sunny smile is remembered as a marked personal charac¬ teristic. He very early developed a strong ambition for learning, and having chosen the profession of medicine as his business, he perfected his knowledge of the art by several years of study and practice in western Pennsylvania. Am¬ bitious for a wider field, the young practitioner removed to Washington city in 1855, and soon acquired a large and remunerative practice. His genial, hearty manner came to the invalid like a ray of sunshine, infusing hope and pleasure. During the Civil War period of 1861-1865 he did much gratuitous service in the hospitals. At the same time his active zeal was devising aid toward the estab¬ lishment of institutions of charity in our city, and Provi¬ dence Hospital, two orphan asylums, and in later years Garfield Hospital owe very much to Dr. Toner’s activity in their foundation, and gratuitous medical aid to some of them for a long series of years. Pie was long a leading member of the board of managers of the Government Hos¬ pital for the Insane at St. Elizabeth’s, and became president of the Medical Society of the District of Columbia, and of the American Medical Association. He established the “Toner Lectures” in 1872 by a fund of $3,000, one-tenth of the income of which was added to the principal annually, while nine-tenths went to compensate skilled lecturers on some newly developed feature of medical science. He also gave annual medals for scientific essays by students of Jefferson Medical College and Georgetown University. But it is chiefly Dr. Toner’s labors as a writer and a col¬ lector of books that enlist our attention. From the year of his arrival in Washington to the time of his decease, he was 428 JOSEPH MEREDITH TONER. ever a vigilant and intelligent book-buyer. Though his earlier purchases were of medical and hygienic literature, he soon grew into a zealous collector of local history and biog¬ raphy. In his later years he devoted much time and money to the collection of the widely scattered biographic notices of American physicians, which expanded into a passion for sketches of the lives of all Americans. In this he cultivated an almost neglected field, by seeking to accumulate from a wide range of newspapers, magazines, etc., all the obituary and biographic portions. These he had mounted on manila paper and arranged in alphabetical order for ready reference. These fugitive biographical data are more valuable because not readily found by any ordinary researches. His zeal as a collector was further exemplified in his great assemblage of W ashingtoniana, or of all the writings of George Washington. Of no American public man, perhaps, are there more extensive written remains than our first Pres¬ ident left behind him, but these autograph memorials are unhappily as widely dispersed as they are extensive. Dr. Toner set himself the task of securing for his collection au¬ thentic copies of everything which had ever been written by this illustrious man. Not satisfied with copying the long series of Washington’s private diaries in the Department of State, and arranging the wThole of the writings as published in Sparks’s collection, with numerous corrections from the originals, he copied every letter not there found, from the many periodicals which have printed any such during this century or the last one, and made interest with the authori¬ ties of historical societies, libraries, and the many private owners of Washington autographs to permit copies to be made of all. Thus he accumulated and arranged in strict chronological order unquestionably the most complete as¬ semblage of the writings of Washington anywhere to be found. The crowning act that evinced the public spirit and benev¬ olence of our late associate was his gift to the nation, through deposit in the Library of Congress, of his entire collection of books, pamphlets, periodicals and manuscripts. This OBITUARY NOTICES. 429 generous purpose was consummated in the year 1882, when the donor was in the zenith of his powers, and it was his pleasure and pride to make constant additions to the gift every year during the remainder of his life. The benefac¬ tion was recognized by Congress in a special act of acceptance, and a marble bust of the donor, by J. Q. A. Ward, has been placed, with his full-length portrait by Andrews, in the new Library building. The library contains about 28,000 vol¬ umes, medical, historical, and miscellaneous, besides a mul¬ titude of unbound pamphlets, periodicals, and manuscripts. It remains to notice briefly the literary and scientific labors of Dr. Toner, and his membership in the Philosoph¬ ical Society. His habit of mind was instinctively that of an inquirer. He sought to investigate many subjects, and, while he cannot be styled a profound thinker or a discoverer, his researches in many directions were notably thorough. This was true especially of his historical and biographical labors, and the annotations made by him to the various journals of Washington which he published attest a wide and comprehensive inquiry into all that could elucidate the text. He gathered and published the first extended Diction¬ ary of Elevations of American localities. He invented an ingenious scheme for denoting the relative positions of places on the map, which was adopted by the Post Office Depart¬ ment in its publications. No full bibliography of Dr. Toner’s writings can here be attempted, from lack of space. More than fifty books, pamphlets, and articles in periodicals from his pen were published in his lifetime, of some of which brief mention may be made : Maternal Instinct. 1864. Free Parks and Camping Grounds in Summer for Children of the Poor in Large Cities. 1872. A Dictionary of Elevations, and Climatic Register of the United States. 1874. Contributions to the Annals of Medical Progress and Medical Education in the United States. 1874. 430 JOSEPH MEREDITH TONER. The Medical Men of the Revolution. 1876. Notes on the Burning of Theaters and Public Halls. 1876. Address before the Rocky Mountain Medical Associa¬ tion. 1877. Washington’s Rules of Civility and Decent Behavior in Company. 1888. Wills of American Ancestors of George Washington. 1891. George Washington as an Inventor and Promoter of Useful Arts. 1891. Journal of George Washington’s Journey over the Mountains beyond the Blue Ridge, in 1747-’48. 1892. The Daily Journal of Major George Washington on a Tour from Virginia to the Island of Barbadoes, in 1751-52. 1892. Some Account of George Washington’s Library and Manuscript Records, and their Dispersion from Mount Vernon. 1893. Diary of Colonel Washington for August, September, and October, 1774. 1893. Inaugural Address as President of the Columbia Historical Society. 1894. Washington in the Forbes Expedition of 1758. 1896. Dr. Toner was elected a member of the Philosophical So¬ ciety about a year after its organization, in 1871, and became one of the most regular attendants at its meetings, frequently participating in discussion. Among his contributions were papers on “ Earth Vibrations at Niagara Falls,” “A Method of Describing Places by the Approximate Position of Geo¬ graphical Regions,” “ Coins and Medals,” “ On the Burning of Theaters and Public Halls,” “ The Care of Pamphlets,” an exhibit of a case of animal malformation, and remarks commemorative of Professor Henry, the President of the Society. A. R. Spofford. OBITUARY NOTICES. 431 WILLIAM CRAWFORD WINLOCK. 1859-1896. [Read before the Society, January 9, 1897.] William Crawford Winlock, the eldest son of Joseph and Isabella Lane Winlock, was born in Cambridge, Massachu¬ setts, March 27, 1859. His parents were descended from that sturdy Virginian stock that served their country long and faithfully in the War of the Revolution, and then moved westward to found new States beyond the mountains. The father, Joseph Winlock, was born in Shelby county, Ken¬ tucky ; was educated at Shelby College, in that State ; became Professor of Mathematics, U. S. Navy, then Superintendent of the American Ephemeris and Nautical Almanac, and in 1866 was made Director of the Harvard College Observatory. It was during his father’s residence at the observatory in Cambridge that young Winlock reached the age wThen defi¬ nite tendencies of thought are likely to indicate the line of work that is to absorb the interest of active manhood. Reared under the influences and unconscious training of a cultivated home and in daily contact with men whose zeal and enthu¬ siasm carried them cheerfully through all the laborious routine and details of exacting scientific work, it is not sur¬ prising that his interest in the work of the practical astron¬ omer was developed at an early age. His preparatory training as a student was obtained in the public schools in Cambridge, and he graduated at Harvard College in the class of 1880. During the last years of his college life he improved opportunities for obtaining valuable information regarding the construction and use of several of the principal instruments of the observatory, and under the direction of Prof. W. A. Rogers he gained considerable expe¬ rience as an observer wTith the meridian circle. While studying with Dr. Wolcott Gibbs, of Harvard Col¬ lege, he prepared, from his own observations, a paper “ On 61-Bull. Phil. Soc., Wash., Vol. 13. 432 WILLIAM CRAWFORD WINLOCK. the Group b in the Solar Spectrum.” This paper was pub¬ lished in the “ Proceedings of the American Academy,” vol. xvi, 1881. In July, 1880, the number of observers at the Naval Observatory was seriously reduced by the resignation of two assistant astronomers, and the unusual pressure of work at that time made it very desirable to secure efficient assistance without waiting for the usual routine of a competitive exam¬ ination. As the work was in my own department, I was authorized by the Secretary of the Navy to select the most competent men I could find, to be employed on six months’ probation. At my request, Mr. Winlock accepted one of the positions as an assistant astronomer, and reported for duty on August 2, 1880. From the beginning of his work at the observatory until the last day of his service there, he was an important member of the working force. Quiet and unassuming, he was always courteous, obliging, and mindful of the rights and feelings of all his associates. His cheerful zeal in the prosecution of the duty assigned him left nothing to be desired, and in the nine years of hard and continuous labor as an observer and computer under my direction, I can remember no cause for criticism save a not infrequent caution against overtaxing his physical strength. He continued as an assistant in the work with the transit circle during his entire service at the ob¬ servatory, and more than nine thousand observations with that instrument constitute a lasting monument to his ability, fidelity, and industry as an observer. As a computer he was methodical and accurate, finding satisfaction only in the best results. His most important work at the observatory, outside of the continuous routine of meridian work, was a monograph on the great comet of 1882. This paper of 38 quarto pages, with five plates, appeared as Appendix I in the annual volume of the Naval Observa¬ tory for 1880. A large majority of the observations of this comet with the transit circle were made by Mr. Winlock, OBITUARY NOTICES. 433 who also made the excellent drawings of the different phases of the comet as shown on the accompanying plates. In the later years of his service at the Observatory he pre¬ pared for each annual report of the Smithsonian Institution a paper on the “ Progress of Astronomy,” giving, in consid¬ erable detail, an account of the work of the principal obser¬ vatories, a list of the discoveries, a brief resume of the more important astronomical publications, together with a com¬ plete astronomical bibliography for the year. This interest¬ ing and valuable work was continued from 1885 to 1892. In 1886 he was appointed Professor of Astronomy in the Corcoran Scientific School of the Columbian University, meeting his classes principally in the evening, and at the time of his death he held the same position, together with a similar professorship in the Graduate School of the same University. As the years of exacting work passed by, Mr. Winlock lost no interest in astronomical pursuits, which he had early chosen to follow, but he began to realize that the chances for promotion or increase of pay at the Observatory were almost infinitesimal, and that such advantages must be sought in other directions. Accordingly, when the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution offered him the office left vacant by the death of Dr. J. H. Kidder, he felt that duty to himself and to his family impelled him to accept the position, ar¬ dently hoping that he might in his new field find an oppor¬ tunity to devote a portion of his time to some branch of astronomical investigation. On May 14, 1889, he was appointed “ Curator of Inter¬ national Exchanges” in the Smithsonian Institution. In 1891 his sphere of work was enlarged by assignment as “ Assistant in charge of Office,” and still later he was made “ Curator of Physical Apparatus ” in the U. S. National Museum. In this new field of activity his innate liking for scientific work was held in abeyance by the pressure of administrative business, and by his dominant desire to see that every duty was faithfully performed. His buoy- 434 WILLIAM CRAWFORD WINLOCK. ant, hopeful spirit, however, led him to find great satisfaction in the systematic, daily attention to the details of the plans that constantly tended to widen the scope of the Smithsonian Institution. To this work he brought all the care, method, perseverance, and courtesy which had made him a valuable assistant and an agreeable colleague at the Naval Obser¬ vatory. On December 4, 1880, Mr. Winlock became a member of the Philosophical Society, and at subsequent meetings read several interesting papers. On December 21, 1887, he was elected a Secretary of the Societ}^ and continued to hold that position until his death. Those who have had an op¬ portunity to see his work know the value of his faithful service in that capacity. On June 2, 1883, Mr. Winlock married Mrs. Alice B. Munroe, of this city, who, with their children, two sons and a daughter, is still living in the family home in Washington. For several years Mr. Winlock had been aware of the existence of an affection of the heart, which, although possibly serious, had given no sign of immediate danger. With characteristic courage and reticence he went steadily and cheerfully about his daily duties, making no sign, even to his more intimate friends, of the constant burden of the disability. A severe cold in the winter of 1895-J96 reduced his strength and he was unable to regain his wonted vigor before the exhausting heat of the early summer. With the hope of recovering his strength, a trip to Europe was undertaken, but neither that nor the tender, watchful solicitude of anxious friends availed to restore his flagging energies. On his return in September he joined his family at Bay Head, New Jersey. There his vitality rapidly failed until Sunday, September 20, 1896, when, surrounded by those he loved, he peacefully lay down the burdens, duties, and joys of this life, passing from our sight, but leaving in our hearts a precious memory of an active, useful life, a kindly, manly, steadfast spirit. J. R. Eastman. PROCEEDINGS OF THE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. From the 429th Meeting, January 5, 1895, to the 509th Meeting, December 23, 1899. FROM THE MINUTES.* 429th Meeting. January 5, 1895. President Dale in the chair. Twenty-five members present. *The proceedings here printed were compiled, by the chairman of the Publication Committee, from the Minutes of the General Meetings. The references to places of publication are not recorded in the minutes. To obtain these the following circular letter wTas mailed to all living persons (except a few whose addresses were not known) who had read papers before the Society : [June 2, 1900.] Dear Sir : From the minutes for the years 1895 to 1899 it appears that you have presented to the Philosophical Society of Washington the follow¬ ing communications : Have these papers ever been published ; and, if so, where and when ? The proceedings of the Society, 1895-1899, are now nearly ready for the press. Added value will be given them by inserting references to places of publication. Will you kindly supply without delay the necessary references to your own papers above cited? If any are unpublished, please so state. Very truly yours, Marcus Baker, Chairman Publication Committee. From the replies to this circular, supplemented by additions and veri¬ fications in libraries, the citations of places of publication have been prepared. 62— Bull. Phil. Soc., Wash., Vol. 13. (435) 436 PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. Announcement was made of the death, on January 3, 1895, of Mr. Daniel Currier Chapman. The Auditing Committee elected at the last meeting submitted its report, which was adopted. REPORT OF THE AUDITING COMMITTEE FOR 1894. Washington, January 5 , 1895. To the Philosophical Society of Washington : The undersigned, a committee elected at the annual meeting of the Society, December 22, 1894, for the purpose of auditing the accounts of the Treasurer, respectfully report as follows : We have examined the statement of receipts, including dues, interest, and sales, and find the same to be correct. We have examined the statements of disbursements, compared it with the vouchers, and find that they agree. We have examined the returned checks and vouchers and find two vouchers unrepresented by checks, these checks being for $10 and $27.74 respectively. We have examined the bank book and find that the balance reported by it December 18, 1894, was $633.45, being $37.74 in excess of the balance reported by the Treasurer. The difference is accounted for by the two checks referred to, which had not been presented at the time the bank book was settled. We have examined the United States and Cosmos Club bonds belonging to the Society and find them to be in amount and character as represented in the Treasurer’s report, aggregating $5,500. W J McGee, Chairman. Isaac Winston. Cleveland Abbe. Mr. William Harkness read a paper on shade-glasses for tele¬ scopes in observing the sun. [Not published.] Remarks were made upon this paper by Mr. Paul. Mr. J. W. Powell presented a communication on The four methods of interpreting nature. [Not published.] It was discussed by Messrs. Ward, Doolittle, and Bigelow. PROCEEDINGS. 437 430th Meeting. January 19, 1895. Vice-President Clarke in the chair. Thirty-two members present. Mr. G. K. Gilbert read a paper on The stratigraphic meas¬ urements of geologic time. [Published under the title Sedi¬ mentary measurement of Cretaceous time, in the Journal of Geology, 1895, vol. 3, pp. 121-127.] It was discussed by Messrs. Dutton, McGee, E. Farquhar, and Willis. 431st Meeting. February 2, 1895. Vice-President Clarke in the chair. Thirty-five members and guests present. Announcement was made of the death, on January 22, 1895, of Mr. S. V. Benet. Mr. G. R. Putnam read a paper entitled Results of a trans¬ continental series of gravity measurements. [Published in this volume, pp. 31-60.] This was supplemented by Mr. G. K. Gilbert with Geolog¬ ical notes concerning the same. [Published in this volume, pp. 61-75, and under the title, New light on isostasy,in Journal of Geology, 1895, vol. 3, pp. 331-334.] The papers were discussed by Mr. Preston. Mr. W. M. Davis read a communication on The need of re¬ organizing geography as a university study. It was discussed by Messrs. Abbe, Harrington, Harkness, Walcott, Clarke, Goodfellow, H. Farquhar, and Hayden. 432d Meeting. February 16, 1895. President Dall in the chair. Thirty-seven members and guests present. 438 PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. Announcement was made of the death, on February 3, 1895, of Mr. George E. Curtis. The following biographical sketches were read : Mr. James Clark Welling, written and read by Mr. J. Howard Gore. [Published in Bulletin of the Philosophical Society of Washington, vol. xii, pp. 486-496.] Mr. Robert Stanton Avery, written and read by Mr. L. P. Shidy. [Published in Bulletin of the Philosophical Society of Washington, vol. xii, pp. 435-442.] Mr. Garrick Mallery, written and read by Mr. Robert Fletcher. [Published in Bulletin of the Philosophical Society of Washington, vol. xii, pp. 466-471.] Mr. Mark W. Harrington read a paper on The Central American rainfall. [Published in this volume, pp. 1-30.] 433d Meeting. March 2, 1895. President Ball in the chair. Thirty-two members and guests present. Announcement was made of the death, on February 25, 1895, of Mr. William B. Taylor. Mr. Wm. H. Dall read a paper on The discovery of marine fossils in the Pampean formation by Dr. H. von Ihering. [Pub¬ lished in Science, 1895, April 19, new series, vol. 1, no. 16, pp. 421-423.] Mr. Alexander McAdie read a paper entitled New cloud classifications. [Published in this volume, pp. 77-86.] It was discussed by Mr. Harrington. Mr. Rogers Birnie read a paper on The army magazine rifle, caliber 30, model of 1892. [The facts presented in this paper were published in the Report of a Board of Officers convened to select magazine arms for the United States military service, in pamphlet form and as Appendix 9, Report of the Chief of Ordnance, U. S. Army, 1892.] PROCEEDINGS. 439 434th Meeting. March 16, 1895. President Dall in the chair. Thirty-two members and guests present. Mr. G. K. Gilbert read a communication giving Additional notes on gravity determinations. [Published under the title Report on a geologic examination of some Coast and Geodetic Survey gravity stations, in U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey Report for 1894, Appendix no. 1, pp. 51-55.] It was discussed by Mr. Harkness. Mr. Cleveland Abbe discussed the paper of Mr. McAdie, read at the last meeting. Mr. F. W. Clarke read a paper on The new gas in the atmos¬ phere. [Not published.] It was discussed by Messrs. Baker, Doolittle, Kummell, Chatard. McAdie, Dall, and Ward. 435th Meeting. March 30, 1895. President Dall in the chair. Twenty-four members present. Announcement was made of the election to membership of Elliott Woods and Leland Perry Shidy. Mr. C. V. Riley read a paper on Caprification. [Published under the title Some entomological problems bearing on Cali¬ fornia pomology and the caprification of the fig, in Proceedings of the American Pomological Society, 1895, 24th session, p. 113.] It was discussed by Messrs'. Kummell and Ashmead. Mr. Charles H. Kummell read a paper on The logical neces¬ sity that if the attraction of gravitation depends on distance it must be in the inverse square. It was discussed by Messrs. PIall, Doolittle, Wead, Chris¬ tie, H. Farquhar, and Gore. 440 PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 436th Meeting. April 13, 1895. President Dall in the chair. Thirty-four members present. Mr. Simon Newcomb read a paper on The variation of latitude as affected by meteorological causes. [Published in the Astro¬ nomical Journal, vol. xvi, p. 81, and vol. xix, p. 158.] It was discussed by Messrs. Bigelow, Dall, Abbe, PI. Far- quhar, Christie, Harkness, Kummell, and Gilbert. Mr. Cyrus Adler read a paper on The cotton grotto, an ancient quarry in Jerusalem. Mr. W J McGee read a paper on Certain influences of aridity on life. [Published in revised form under the title The begin¬ ning of agriculture, in the American Anthropologist, 1895, Octo¬ ber, vol. viii, pp. 350-357.] 437th Meeting. April 27, 1895. President Dall in the chair. Thirty-one members and guests present. Announcement was made of the death, on April 12, 1895, of Mr. W. L. Nicholson. Mr. J. S. Billings read a communication on Municipal mor¬ tality statistics in the United States. [Not published.] It was discussed by Messrs. Pawling, Tittmann, and New¬ comb. Mr. F. H. Bigelow read a paper on The earth, a magnetic shell. [Published in American Journal of Science, 1895, August, vol. 50, no. 296, pp. 81-99.] It was discussed by Messrs. Christie and Dall. PROCEEDINGS. 441 438th Meeting. May 11, 1895. President Dall in the chair. Eighteen members present. Announcement was made of the election to membership of Jesse Pawling, Jr. Mr. Rogers Birnie read a paper on Steel cylinders for gun- construction; stresses due to interior cooling. [Published in this volume, pp. 87-102.] It was discussed by Mr. Wead and the author. Mr. Alexander S. Christie read a communication on The latitude- variation tide. [Published in this volume, pp. 103-122.] It was discussed by Messrs. Martin, Paul, Kummell, and Hayford. 439th Meeting. May 25, 1895. Vice-President Clarke in the chair. Twenty-five members and guests present. Announcement was made of the election to membership of Adolph Lindenkohl. Mr. L. A. Bauer read a communication on The secular varia¬ tion of terrestrial magnetism. [Published in American Journal of Science, 1895, August, vol. 50, no. 296, pp. 109-115 ; also Sep¬ tember, pp. 189-204 ; and October, pp. 314-325.] Mr. Bauer also read a paper entitled A preliminary analysis of the problem of terrestrial magnetism and its variations. [See reference above ; also Science, vol. i, no. 25.] These papers were discussed by Messrs. Abbe, Harrington, Christie, and Baker. 442 PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 440th Meeting. October 26, 1895. President Dall in the chair. Twenty-four members and guests present. Announcement was made of the death of General Orlando M. Poe, on October 2, 1895, and of Prof. C. V. Riley, on September 14, 1895. Mr. Cleveland Abbe read a paper on Cloud formation and cloud nomenclature. [Not published.] It was discussed by Mr. Littlehales and the author. Mr. E. D. Preston read a paper, written by Mr. Adolph Lxn- denkohl, on Results of density observations made between 1874 and 1878 in the Gulf Stream and in the Gulf of Mexico. [Pub¬ lished in U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey Report for 1895, Ap¬ pendix no. 6. An abstract was published in Petermann’s Mit- theilungen, 1896, heft 2, and also in Science, 1896, February 21.] It was illustrated by maps and discussed by Messrs. Abbe, Littlehales, Bigelow, Preston, Dall, and the author. Mr. Frank H. Bigelow read a paper on Distribution of the sun spots on different meridians. [Published in U. S. Weather Bureau, Bulletin no. 21, chapter vi, 1898, pp. 140-146.] It was discussed by Messrs. Powell, Paul, and the author. 441st Meeting. November 9, 1895. President Dall in the chair. Thirty members and guests present. Mr. J. Howard Gore read a paper on International bibliog¬ raphy of mathematics. It was discussed by Messrs. Martin, Mann, Abbe, Wead, and the author. Mr. J. W. Powell read a paper on Matter. [For substance of this paper see a voluue by J. W. Powell entitled Truth and PROCEEDINGS* 443 Error, or the science of intellection. 12°, Chicago, Open Court Publishing Co., 1898.] It was discussed by Messrs. Bigelow, Doolittle, W. B. Powell, Ward, Wead, and the author. 442d Meeting. November 23, 1895. President Dall in the chair. Twenty-six members and guests present. Announcement was made that the General Committee had authorized the Secretary to furnish to “Science” from time to time abstracts of the proceedings of the Society, and that authors of papers desirous or willing to do so may prepare abstracts of their papers to be forwarded by the Secretary for publication in “ Science.” Mr. F. M. Little read a communication on A mechanical method of reducing circular to linear harmonic motion. Mr. J. Howard Gore read a communication on the Poor col¬ onies of Holland. It was discussed by Messrs. Dall and Bigelow. Mr. H. A. Hazen read a paper on Aberrations of fog signals. It was discussed by Messrs. Dall, Paul, Kummell, H. Far- quhar, Wead, and the author. 443d Meeting. December 6, 1895. By the courtesy of the authorities of Columbian University, the meeting was held in the lecture- room of that institution. Mr. William H. Dall, President of the Society, delivered the annual address ; subject, Alaska as it was and is, 1865-1895. [Published in this volume, pp. 123-162.] 63— Bull. Phil. Soc., Wash., Vol, 13. 444 PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OP WASHINGTON. 444th Meeting. December 21, 1895. TWENTY-FIFTH ANNUAL MEETING. President Dall in the chair. Twenty-four members present. The minutes of the Twenty-fourth Annual Meeting were read and adopted. The annual report of the Secretaries was read and accepted. ANNUAL REPORT OF THE SECRETARIES FOR 1895. Washington, D. C., December 21, 1895. To the Philosophical Society of Washington : The Secretaries have the honor to submit the following annual report for the year 1895 : The number of active members given in the last annual report was 155, of which number 6 have died, 5 have resigned, 4 have been dropped, and 4 transferred to the absent list. The total loss has thus amounted to 19 members, while but 4 new mem¬ bers have been elected during the year and 2 transferred from the absent to the active list, leaving a net loss to the Society of 13 members. The present active membership is therefore 142. On the absent list there were 70 members at the beginning of the year, of whom 3 have died and 1 has resigned. This deple¬ tion and the balance of transfers above noted between the active and absent lists leaves at the present time a net total of 69 on the absent list. The grand total of members, both active and absent, is there¬ fore 211. The active members who died were : John Mills Browne. Daniel Currier Chapman. Stephen Vincent Benet. The new members elected are : Elliott Woods. Jesse Pawling, Jr. William Bower Taylor. Walter Lamb Nicholson. Charles Valentine Riley. Leland Perry Shidy. Adolph Lindenkohl. PROCEEDINGS. 445 The General Committee has held 16 meetings in all — 15 reg¬ ular and 1 special — the average attendance at which was 11, the maximum being 22 and the minimum 8. Sixteen meetings of the Society have been held, 14 of which were devoted to reading and discussion of papers, 1 to the Pres¬ ident’s annual address, and 1 to the annual reports and. election of officers. The average attendance at the 14 meetings was 29. Thirty-one separate papers were presented by 23 different members and 1 guest, and 3 biographies of deceased members, namely, James Clark Welling, Robert Stanton Avery, and Gar¬ rick Mallery, were read. All meetings have been held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club, except that of December 6, which, being the occasion of the annual address of the President, William H. Dali, was held in the lecture-room of the Columbian University by the courtesy of the authorities. On February 20 the organization of the Joint Commission of the Scientific Societies of this city, which was effected originally in 1888, was made more comprehensive by the adoption of a new constitution and the enlargement of the Commission to include the entire councils or governing bodies of the respective societies. Previously the Commission consisted of three dele¬ gates from each of the societies. The original Commission represented five societies, namely, the Anthropological, Biological, Chemical, National Geographic, and Philosophical. The present Commission includes, in addi¬ tion to these, the Entomological and Geological societies, making seven in all. A joint directory is published, and other arrange¬ ments are made from time to time of general interest and value in the form of joint meetings for special purposes and joint con¬ sideration of questions of common interest to the several societies. On the 17th of April a meeting of the secretaries of these so¬ cieties, called by the President of the Joint Commission, heard and considered favorably a request by Prof. J. McK. Cattell, editor of Science, that the secretaries should furnish from time to time, for publication in that journal, abstracts of the proceed¬ ings of the societies. This is being done by some, if not all, of the other societies, and recently the General Committee of this Society has authorized the Secretary to send to Science the titles of papers presented and names of the authors, and to forward 446 PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. also such abstracts as the authors themselves may choose to prepare for that purpose. It is apparent that the membership of the Society is slowly declining, being now but about 70 per cent of the maximum reached a few years ago. The average attendance at meetings was also less during the past year by 20 per cent than during the year 1894, and it is believed that these facts should receive the thoughtful consideration of the membership. In this con¬ nection, many members may be interested to read again the paper of Mr. G. K. Gilbert, presented November 26, 1887, and published in volume X of the Bulletin, analyzing the attendance and work of the Society from its organization in 1871 to that date, and alluding to the recent formation of special societies. Bernard R. Green, W. C. Winlock, Secretaries. The annual report of the Treasurer was read and referred to an auditing committee consisting of Messrs. Eastman, Abbe, and Winston. ANNUAL REPORT OF THE TREASURER FOR 1895. December 21, 1895. To the Philosophical Society of Washington , D. C. : The Treasurer has the honor to submit herewith a statement of the finances of the Society for the period beginning December 23, 1894, and ending December 21, 1895. The income of the year 1895 was $830.76; the expenses prop¬ erly chargeable to that year were $1,055.22, a difference of $224.46 against the Society on the year’s transactions. The investments of the Society amount to $5,500, the securities for which are on deposit in the Society’s box at the office of the National Safe Deposit, Loan and Trust Company. A list of these securities, and of the furniture belonging to the Society, will be found at page 542 of volume XII of the Proceedings. The assets of the Society are as follows : The securities on deposit as above . $5,500 00 Cash balance at Riggs & Co., per statement herewith . 516 25 Unpaid dues . 131 00 Total. . w ....... . . . . . $6,147 25 PROCEEDINGS. 447 The outstanding liabilities, if any, are trifling in amount. Respectfully submitted. Wm. A. De Caindry, Treasurer. The election of officers for the ensuing year was then held, with the following result : President . Vice-Presidents Treasurer . Secretaries. . F. W. Clarke. Marcus Baker. 0. H. Tittmann. F. H. Bigelow. L. F. Ward. . W. A. De Caindry. . B. R. Green. W. C. Winlock. MEMBERS AT LARGE OF THE GENERAL COMMITTEE. Cyrus Adler. H. H. Bates. Rogers Birnie. J. Howard Gore. C. D. G. W. Littlehales. H. M. Paul. E. D. Preston. J. Stanley-Brown. LCOTT. 445th Meeting. January 4, 1896. Vice-President Marcus Baker in the chair. Twenty-two members present. Announcement was made of the standing committees for the year as follows : Committee on Communications : Cyrus Adler, Chairman. E. D. Preston. J. Stanley-Brown. Committee on Publications : Marcus Baker, Chairman. W. A. De Caindry. W. C. Winlock. The Auditing Committee appointed at the last meeting sub¬ mitted its report, which was accepted. 448 PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. REPORT OF THE AUDITING COMMITTEE FOR 1895. Washington, D. C., January 3 , 1896. To the Philosophical Society of Washington : The undersigned, a committee elected at the annual meeting of the Society, December 21, 1895, for the purpose of auditing the accounts of the Treasurer, respectfully report as follows : We have examined the statement of receipts, including dues, interest, and sales, and find the same to be correct. We have examined the statement of disbursements, compared it with the vouchers, and find that they agree. We have examined the returned checks (including the two checks, amounting to $37.74, referred to in the last auditing re¬ port) and vouchers and find that they agree. W e have examined the bank book and find that the balance reported by Riggs & Co. December 18, 1895, viz., $516.25, agrees with the Treasurer’s report. We have examined the United States and Cosmos Club bonds belonging to the Society and find them to be in amount and character as represented in the Treasurer’s report, aggregating $5,500. J. R. Eastman. Isaac Winston. Lieut. W. H. Beehler, U. S. N., read a communication on The compensation of vibrations and other motions of a vessel at sea for the constant level base of the solarometer. [On this subject see a paper entitled The Solarometer, a modern navi¬ gating instrument, in Proceedings of the United States Naval Institute, vol. xxi, no. 1, whole no., 73.] It was illustrated by diagrams and a solarometer. Discussed by Messrs. Bigelow, Baker, and the author. Mr. E. D. Preston read a paper entitled Graphic reduction of star places. [Published in this volume, pp. 163-182.] It was illustrated by diagrams and discussed by Messrs. Big¬ elow, Win lock, Baker, Farquhar, and the author. PROCEEftlNdS. 449 446th Meeting. January 18, 1896. Vice-President Tittmann in the chair. Forty members and guests present. Mr. G. Brown Goode read a paper on The principles of mu¬ seum administration. [Published in Annual Report of Museum Association, York (England), 1895, 73 pp. ; also separately.] It was discussed by Mr. Baker and the author. Mr. Isaac Winston made a communication on The present form of precise leveling apparatus in use by the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. [Not published.] It was illustrated with instruments. Mr. G. R. Putnam read a paper on Results of recent pendulum observations. [Published in American Journal of Science, 1896, March, vol. i, pp. 186-192; also separately.] 447th Meeting. February 1, 1896. President Clarke in the chair. Thirty-two members and guests present. Mr. Lester F. Ward read a paper on The filiation of the sciences. [An abstract of this paper was published in Science, 1896, February 21, new series, vol. iii, no. 60, pp. 292-294.] It was discussed by Messrs. J. W. Powell and Henry Far- quhar. 448th Meeting. February 15, 1896. President Clarke in the chair. Thirty-five members and guests present. Announcement was made of the election to membership of Ren£ de Saussure. 450 PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. Mr. W J McGee read a paper on An expedition to Seriland. [Published in Science, 1896, April 3, vol. iii, pp. 493-505.] Mr. A. M. Ritchie described the Thermophone, showing the instrument. Mr. W. H. Dall presented a communication on Some char¬ acteristics of the genus Spirula. [Published in Science, 1896, February 14, new series, vol. iii, no. 59, pp. 243-245.] It was illustrated with diagrams and sketches. Mr. J. H. Gore read a paper on The Groningen land-lease system. 449th Meeting. February 29, 1896. President Clarke in the chair. Twenty-five members and guests present. Mr. Charles H. Kummell made a communication entitled A new solution of the geodetic problem. [An abstract of this paper was published in Science, 1896, March 20, new series, vol. iii, no. 64, p. 453.] Mr. J. Walter Fewkes read a paper on The prehistoric cul¬ ture of Tusayan. [Published in the American Anthropologist, 1896, May, vol. ix, pp. 151-173; also separately. An abstract was published in Science, 1896, March 20, new series, vol. iii, no. 64, pp. 452-453.] It was discussed by Mr. Ward and the author. 450th Meeting. March 14, 1896. President Clarke in the chair. Twenty-seven members and guests present. Announcement was made of the election to membership of James Robison Cook. PROCEEDINGS. 451 Mr. Carroll D. Wright read a paper on The factory system as an element in civilization. [Published in the Journal of Social Science, 1883, May, no. xvii.] It was discussed by Messrs. Blount, Ward, Henry Farquhar, Gore, Wm. B. Powell, Wead. Hall, Clarke, and the author. 451st Meeting. March 28, 1896. President Clarke in the chair. Twenty-three members present. Announcement was made of the death of Robert Edward Earll, on March 19, 189B, and of Thomas Lincoln Casey, on March 25, 1896. Announcement was made of the election to membership of Mr. Immanuel .Moses Casanowicz. Mr. C. R. Dodge read a paper on Some undeveloped American fibers. [An abstract of this paper was published in Science, 1896, April 24, new series, vol. iii, no. 69, pp. 639-640.] It was discussed by Messrs. Baker, Shidy, H. Farquhar, Bigelow, and the author. Mr. Henry Gannett read a paper on Geographic names. It was discussed by Messrs. H. Farquhar, Goode, Doolittle, Dodge, Baker, Clarke, Paul, Bigelow, Gilbert, and the author. 452d Meeting. April 11, 1896. President Clarke in the chair. Thirty-four members and guests present. Mr. S. P. Langley made a communication entitled More recent observations on the infra-red spectrum. [An abstract of this paper was published in Science, 1896, April 24, new series, vol. iii, no. 69, pp. 640-641.] 64— Bull. Phil. Soe,, Wash., Vol. 13. 452 PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. Mr. R. A. Harris read a paper on The analysis and predic¬ tion of tides. [An abstract of this paper was published in Science, 1896, April 24, new series, vol. iii, no. 69, p. 641.] Mr. E. D. Preston read a paper on French, German, and En¬ glish systems of shorthand writing. [Not published.] 453d Meeting. April 25, 1896. President Clarke in the chair. Thirty-two members and guests present. Mr. William Martin Aiken read a paper on The influence of climate upon architecture. It was illustrated by photographs and maps and discussed by Messrs. Adler, Bigelow, Wead, and the author. \ Mr. Glenn Brown read a paper on Early government archi¬ tecture. It was illustrated by photographs and discussed by Messrs. Clarke, Poindexter, and the author. 454th Meeting. May 9. 1896. President Clarke in the chair. Twenty-five members and guests present. Announcement was made of the election to membership of George Miller Sternberg. Mr. Rene de Saussure read a paper on The motion of solid bodies. It was discussed by Mr. Kummell and the author. Mr. J. Elfreth Watkins read a paper entitled A chapter in the early history of transportation in America. PROCEEDINGS. 453 455th Meeting. May 23, 1896, President Clarke in the chair. Thirty-four members and guests present. Announcement was made of the election to membership of Mr. Harry Franklin Flynn. The following biographical sketches were read : Thomas Antisell, by W. H. Seaman. [Published in this volume, pp. 367-370.] Stephen Vincent Benet, b}^ Rogers Birnie. [Published in this volume, pp. 370-374.] J. Mills Browne, by Robert Fletcher. Thomas Lincoln Casey, by Bernard R. Green. [Published in this volume, pp. 374-380.] Robert Edward Earll, by G. Brown Goode. [Published in this volume, pp. 388-390.] William Lee, by D. Webster Prentiss. [Published in this volume, pp. 405-407.] Walter Lamb Nicholson, by Edward Goodfellow. [Pub¬ lished in this volume, pp. 407-408.] Charles Valentine Riley, by L. O. Howard. [Published in this volume, pp. 412-416.] William Bower Taylor, by W. J. Rhees. [Published in abridged form in this volume, pp. 418-426. Published in full in the Smithsonian Institution Annual Report for 1896, vol. i, p. 645.] 456th Meeting. October 31, 1896. President Clarke in the chair. Twenty-five members and guests present. Announcement was made of the election to membership of Charles Richards Dodge. Announcement was made of the deaths, on July 30, 1896, of Mr, J. M. Toner; on August 7, 1896, of Mr. Samuel Shella- 454 PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. barger ; on September 6, 1896, of Mr. G. Brown Goode ; on September 20, 1896, of Mr. W. C. Winlock. Mr. H. G. Ogden read a biographical sketch of Mr. Daniel Currier Chapman. [Published in this volume, pp. 381-384.] Mr. Simon Newcomb presented a communication on the Bib¬ liographical conference at London. [Not published.] It was discussed by Messrs. Baker, Adler, Dall, Sternberg, Mann, Paul, and the author. Mr. Rene de Saussure read a paper on A new trigonometry. It was discussed by Messrs. Baker, Harris, and Kummell. 457th Meeting. November 14, 1896. President Clarke in the chair. Twenty-two members present. Mr. C. D. Walcott presented a communication on A geologic reconnaissance in western Nevada and eastern California. [Pub¬ lished under the title The Post-Pleistocene elevation of the Inyo range and the lake beds of Waucobi embay ment, Inyo county, California ; in Journal of Geology, 1897, vol. 5, no. 4, pp. 340-348 ; also separately.] * It was illustrated by a map and diagrams. Mr. T. W. Stanton read a paper, written by Mr. Wm. H. Dall, on Recent advances in malacology. [Published in Science, 1896, November 27, new series, vol. iv, no. 100, pp. 770-773.] Mr. J. Howard Gore read a paper on A Dutch experiment in socialism. 458th Meeting. November 28, 1896. President Clarke in the chair. Twenty members present. Mr. Lester F. Ward read a paper on A reconnaissance through Indian Territory, Oklahoma, and southwestern Kan- PROCEEDINGS. 455 sas. [An abstract of this paper was published in Science, 1896, December 11, new series, vol. iv, no. 102, pp. 883-884.] Mr. Walter Hough read a paper on The Hopi in relation to their plant environment. [Published in the American Anthro¬ pologist, 1897, February, vol. x, pp. 33-44; also separately.] Mr. G. W. Littlehales gave an exhibition and description of a new machine for engraving parts of the plates from which charts and maps are printed. [Published in United States Let¬ ters Patent no. 561,677.] This was discussed by Messrs. Clarke, Preston, Wead, Green, Hough, Harkness, and the author. 459th Meeting. December 12, 1896. Vice-President Baker in the chair. About one hundred and fifty members and guests present. By the courtesy of the authorities this meeting was held in the Builders’ Exchange, nos. 719-721 Thirteenth street. Mr. Frank Wigglesworth Clarke, the retiring President, delivered the annual address on Chemistry in the United States. [Published in this volume, pp. 183-204.] 460th Meeting. December 26, 1896. TWENTY-SIXTH ANNUAL MEETING. President Clarke in the chair. Twenty-three members present. The minutes of the Twenty-fifth Annual Meeting were read and adopted. The annual report of the Secretaries was read and accepted. 456 PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. ANNUAL REPORT OF THE SECRETARIES FOR 1896. Washington, D. C., December 26, 1896. To the Philosophical Society of Washington : The Secretaries have the honor to submit the following report for the year 1896 : The number of active members at the date of last report was 142. Of this number 6 have died, 6 have resigned, 10 have been transferred to the absent list, and 6 have been dropped for the non-payment of dues. Thus there has been a loss of 28. The membership has been increased b}' the election of 9 new mem¬ bers. The net loss in active membership is therefore 19, and the present active membership is 123. The number of members on the absent list at date of last report was 69. This number was increased during the year by 10 transfers, making the total number on the absent list, so far as known, 79. The total membership, both active and absent, is 202. The list of deceased members is : Thomas Lincoln Casey. Robert Edward Earll. George Brown Goode. Samuel Shellabarger. Joseph Meredith Toner. William Crawford Winlock. The list of new members is : Immanuel Moses Casanowicz. Charles Richards Dodge. Walter Hough. Rene de Saussure. George Miller Sternberg. James Robison Cook. Harry Franklin Flynn. William Fowke Ravenel Phil¬ lips. David Watson Taylor. The following members were transferred to the absent list : Tarleton Hoffman Bean. Lincoln Grant Eakins. Mark Waldo Harrington. William Henry Holmes, Alexander McAdie, Oliver Lanard Fassig. John Fillmore Hayford. Joseph Paxson Iddings. Jefferson Franklin Moser. Jesse Pawling, Jr, PROCEEDINGS. 457 The following is the list of resignations : Henry Hobart Bates. Alexander Smyth Christie. Frederic Perkins Dewey. Joseph Silas Diller. John Henry McCormick. Robert Simpson Woodward. The General Committee held 16 meetings ; average attend¬ ance, 10; maximum, 14; minimum, 7. The Society held 16 meetings, 14 of which were devoted to the reading and discussion of papers, one to the President’s annual address, and one to the annual meeting for reports and election of officers. The average attendance at the 14 meetings was 28, one less than last year. Thirty-one papers were presented by 20 members and 6 guests. Ten biographical notices of deceased members were read, as follows : Thomas Antisell. John Mills Browne. Daniel Currier Chapman. William Lee. Charles Valentine Riley. Stephen Vincent Benet. Thomas Lincoln Casey. Robert Edward Earll. Walter Lamb Nicholson, William Bower Taylor. All meetings were held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club except that of December 12, which, being the occasion of the annual address of the President, was held at the Builders’ Exchange, No. 719-721 Thirteenth street. Two papers were published during the year, viz., Alaska as it was and is 1865-1895, the presidential address delivered by Mr. W. H. Dali; and, Graphic reduction of star places, by Mr. E. D. Preston. On January 18, 1896, Mr. Rogers Birnie was elected Treasurer in place of Mr. W. A. De Caindry, resigned. On October 31, 1896, Mr. J. Elfreth Watkins was elected Sec¬ retary in place of Mr. W. C. Winlock, who died September 20. Bernard R. Green, J. Elfreth Watkins, Secretaries. The annual report of the Treasurer was read and referred to an auditing committee consisting of Messrs. Henry Farquhar, C. K. Wead, and Walter Hough. 458 PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OP WASHINGTON. ANNUAL REPORT OF THE TREASURER FOR 1896. Washington, D. C., December 26, 1896. To the Philosophical Society of Washington, D. C. : This report of the finances of the Society covers the yearly period from December 21, 1895, to December 26, 1896. The funds and property of the Society for which the Treasurer is accountable, including the balance of $516.25, per last annual report, were received from Mr. Wm. A. De Caindry on January 21, 1896. The income of the year 1896 is $797.35, the expenses properly chargeable to the year are $479.08, leaving a surplus of $318.27 on the year’s transactions. On January 21, 1896, three Cosmos Club 5.20 bonds of 1886 (Nos. 17, 132, and 153), were relinquished, having been per¬ emptorily redeemed by the Cosmos Club as determined by draw¬ ing by lot. The investments of the funds of the Society now amount to $5,200, in securities, which are deposited in the So¬ ciety’s box at the office of the National Safe Deposit, Loan and Trust Company, as follows : Two U. S. 4 per cent, bonds, No. 64,596, for $500, and No. 135,639, for $1,000. Thirty-seven Cosmos Club 5.20 bonds, 1886, $100 each, Nos. 16, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 45, 70, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, 135, 136, 155, 156, 159, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 185, 193, 194, 195. The assets of the Society are : k The securities deposited as stated . $5,200 00 Cash balance at the Riggs National Bank, per state¬ ment herewith . 1,230 38 Unpaid dues . 120 00 Total . $6,550 38 There are no outstanding liabilities to report. Respectfully submitted. R. Birnie, Treasurer. PROCEEDINGS. 459 The election of officers for the ensuing year resulted as follows President . Marcus Baker. Vice-Presidents I F' H- Bigelow. L. P. Ward. Vue- 1 residents . { O. H. Tittmann. C. D. Walcott. Treasurer . Rogers Birnie. Secretaries . J. Elfreth Watkins. B. R. Green. MEMBERS AT LARGE OF THE GENERAL COMMITTEE. Cyrus Adler. William A. De Caindry. J. Howard Gore. G. W. Littlehales. H. M. Paul. E. D. Preston. G. M. Sternberg. F. W. True. Richard Rathbun. 461st Meeting. January 9, 1897. President Baker in the chair. Thirty-five members and guests present. Announcement was made of the standing committees as follows : Committee on Communications : Cyrus Adler. G. K. Gilbert. E. D. Preston. Committee on Publications : H. M. Paul. F. H. Newell. G. W. Littlehales. The report of the Auditing Committee appointed at the last meeting was read and accepted. REPORT OF THE AUDITING COMMITTEE FOR 1896. Washington, January 5, 1897. To the Philosophical Society of Washington : The undersigned, a committee selected at the annual meeting of the Society, December 26, 1896, to audit the accounts of the Treasurer, respectfully report as follows : 65— Bull. Phil. Soc„ Wash., Vol. 13. 460 PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. We have examined the vouchers of expenses of Mr. R. Birnie, Treasurer, and find them correct. We have examined his statement of receipts from dues of members, interest on bonds, and sales of publications and find said receipts to be in accordance with said statement. We have examined the United States and Cosmos Club bonds belonging to the Society and find them to be in amount and character as reported by the Treasurer, aggregating $5,200. Henry Farquhar. Walter Hough. Mr. J. R. Eastman read a biographical sketch of Mr. William Crawford Winlock. [Published in this volume, pp. 431-434.] Mr. Ainsworth R. Spofford read a biographical sketch of Mr. J. M. Toner. [Published in this volume, pp. 426-430.] Mr. L. A. Bauer read a paper entitled Earth-air electric cur¬ rents. [Published in Terrestrial Magnetism. 8°, Cincinnati, 1897, March, vol. ii, pp. 11-22.] It was discussed by Messrs. Bigelow, Littlehales, Baker, and the author. 4623 Meeting. January 23, 1897. Vice-President BiGELOwin the chair. Seventeen members and guests present. Announcement was made of the election to membership oi Philip Rounseville Alger and James Page. Mr. Frank H. Bigelow read a paper on The problem of inter¬ national cloud observations. [Not published.] It was discussed by Mr. Abbe and the author. Mr. C. H. Kummell read a paper on A binomial theorem ex¬ pressed in the form of a factorial which is always convergent. It was discussed by Mr. Gore and the author. PROCEEDINGS. 461 463d Meeting. February 6, 1897. President Baker in the chair. Forty-three members and guests present. Mr. Cyrus Adler presented a communication on The Jewish calendar. It was discussed by Messrs. Newcomb, Baker, and the author. Mr. J. R. Eastman read a paper on The relations of science and the scientific citizen to the general government. [Published in Science, 1897, April 2, new series, vol. v, no. 118, pp. 525-531.] Mr. Marcus Baker made a communication on The Philo¬ sophical Society. [Not published.] These papers were discussed by Messrs. Walcott, Gore, Stern¬ berg, Eastman, Dall, Ward, Adler, and Bigelow. 464t,h Meeting. February 20, 1897. Vice-President Bigelow in the chair. Twenty-seven members and guests present. Mr. E. D. Preston read a paper on The transcontinental arc from Cape May to San Francisco. [Published in this volume, pp. 205-222.] It was discussed by Messrs. Green, Kummell, Bigelow, and the author. Mr. William Eimbeck read a paper on The new primary base apparatus of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. [Published in Coast and Geodetic Surve}r Report for 1897, Appendices 11 and 12, pp. 737-774.] It was illustrated by an exhibition of a five-meter bar, and discussed by Messrs. Preston, Tittmann, Birnie, Bigelow, Kum¬ mell, and the author. Mr. Charles Richards Dodge read a paper on The systematic classification of textile and other useful fibers of the world , 462 PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. Mr. J. Howard Gore read a paper on A Dutch practical charity. It was discussed by Messrs. Bigelow, G. L. Burr, and the author. 465th Meeting. March 6, 1897. President Baker in the chair. Seventeen members present. Mr. J. W. Powell read a paper on Principles of classification. [For the substance of this paper see “ On Regimentation,” Fif¬ teenth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, pp. civ- cxxi, Washington, 1897.] It was discussed by Messrs. Ward, Baker, and the author. Mr. J. Elfreth Watkins read a paper on A forgotten experi¬ ment of Franklin’s. Mr. Baker read a paper on The boundary of the District of Columbia. [Published in the Records of the Columbia Historical Society, 1897, vol. i, pp. 215-224.] 466th Meeting. March 20, 1897, President Baker in the chair. Eighty-two members and guests present. Mr. S. P. Langley made a communication on Mechanical flight. [For the substance of this paper see McClure’s Maga¬ zine, 1897, June.] This was discussed by Messrs. Paul, Gilbert, Hazen, and Spofford. Mr. George M. Sternberg made a communication on Toxins and anti-toxins. [Not published.] It was discussed by Messrs. Kummell. Gordon, Mann, and the author. PROCEEDINGS. 463 Mr. C. K. We ad read a paper on Mediaeval church organs. [Published in full in Music, Chicago, February, 1897 ; also in Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1899, pp. 96-102.] 467th Meeting. April 3, 1897. President Baker in the chair. Eighteen members and guests present. Announcement was made of the election to membership of Mr. Paul Brockett and Mr. L. Eugene Emerson. Announcement was made of the arrangement between this Society and the Chemical Society of Washington, in accordance with which members of either Society may, upon giving notice to the Secretary of the other, receive the regular notices of its meetings, and be welcome to attend them. Mr. Gilbert Thompson read a paper on The Washington monument as a sun dial. [Not published.] It was illustrated by diagrams and discussed bv Messrs. Baker and Kummell. Mr. Charles H. Kummell presented a communication entitled Discussion of merit contests in college examinations by the method of least squares. It was discussed by Messrs. Bigelow, Gore, Baker, and the author. 468th Meeting. April 17, 1897. President Baker in the chair. Fifty-one members and guests present. Announcement was made of the election to membership of Mr. Frederick Haynes Newell. Mr. B. E. Fernow read a paper on The policy of forest reser¬ vations. [The substance of this paper was published in a sepa¬ rate pamphlet by the American Forestry Association in 1895.] 464 PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. It was discussed by Messrs. Tittmann, Walcott, Abbe, and Steele. Mr. C. F. Marvin read a paper on Recent progress in the development of the kite. [Published, under the title The me¬ chanics and equilibrium of kites, in Monthly Weather Review, 4°, Washington, 1897, April, vol. xxv, pp. 136-161 ; also sep¬ arately as “ W. B. no. 122,” entitled A monograph on the me¬ chanics and equilibrium of kites.] It was illustrated by models. Mr. H. A. Ha zen read a paper on The evolution of a soaring kite. It was illustrated by lantern slides. 469th Meeting. May 1, 1897. President Baker in the chair. Twenty-one members present. The two papers on The evolution of the kite, presented at the last meeting, were discussed by Messrs. Marvin, Bigelow, Lang ley, Paul, and Hazen. Mr. C. K. Wead read a communication on A system of genea¬ logical notation. [Not published.] It was discussed by Messrs. Paul, Hazen, and Mann. Mr. Cyrus Adler spoke on the subject of A proposed cata¬ logue of Egyptian papyri and royal monuments. This was discussed by Mr. Hough. 470th Meeting. May 15, 1897. President Baker in the chair. Eleven members present. Announcement was made of the death, on April 17, 1897, of Mr. Charles Hugo Kummell. PROCEEDINGS. 465 Mr. F. H. Bigelow read a paper on The earth’s magnetic field. [Published in U. S. Weather Bureau Bulletin no. 21 (W. B. no. 150), 1898, chap, iv, pp. 81-98.] It was discussed by Messrs. Baker and Wead. 471st Meeting. May 29, 1897. President Baker in the chair. Twenty-eight members and guests present. Mr. J. S. Diller read an obituary notice, prepared by him¬ self and Mr. 0. L. Fassig, of Mr. George E. Curtis. [Published in this volume, pp. 384-387.] Mr. W J McGee read a paper on Some relations between man and lower animals. [Published under the title Beginning of zooculture ; in the American Anthropologist, 1897, July, vol. x, pp. 215-230.] Mr. Baker made a communication on The Venezuelan Bound¬ ary Commission and its work. [Published in the National Geographic Magazine, July-August, 1897, vol. viii, pp. 193-201.] It was illustrated by maps. 472d Meeting. October 16, 1897. President Baker in the chair. Seventeen members present. Announcement was made of the election to membership of Mr. Charles Colt Yates. Mr. G. W. Littlehales read a paper on Secular change in the direction of the terrestrial magnetic field at the earth’s sur¬ face. [Published in this volume, pp. 269-336.] It was discussed by Messrs. Bigelow, Gilbert, and Tittmann. Mr. H. A. Hazen read a paper entitled Is the water-level of Lake Michigan gradually diminishing? It was discussed by Messrs. Gilbert and Birnie. 466 PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 473d Meeting. October 30, 1897. President Baker in the chair. Thirty-four members present. Announcement was made of the death, on October 18, 1897, of Mr. Newton Lemuel Bates. Mr. R. T. Hill read a paper on Geographic changes in trop¬ ical America in late geologic time. [Published in Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard College, Cam¬ bridge, 1899, September, vol. xxxiv (geological series, vol. iv), pp. 198-224.] It was illustrated by maps and diagrams and discussed by Mr. Bailey Willis. Mr. McGee opened a discussion on the Two Associations for the Advancement of Science, viz., the American and the British. The discussion was continued by Messrs. PIarkness, Gill, Dall, Bigelow, and Wiley. 474th Meeting. November 13, 1897. President Baker in the chair. Seventeen members present. Mr. Bigelow read a communication on The probable state of the sky along the eclipse track of May 28, 1900. [Published in Monthly Weather Review, 4°, Washington, 1897, September, vol. xxv, pp. 394-395 ; also separately by the Weather Bureau as “ W. B. no. 142.”] It was discussed by Messrs. Abbe, Bigelow, Birnie, and Baker. Mr. J. Howard Gore read a paper on the Antwerp nations — profit-sharing labor organizations. It was discussed by Messrs. Watkins, Blount, Wead, Baker, and the author. PROCEEDINGS. 467 Mr. Baker presented some notes on The origin of the dollar symbol. [An abstract of this communication was published in the Independent, 1899, March 16, vol. li, pp. 756-757.] It was discussed by Messrs. Martin, Blount, H. Farquhar, Birnie, Gore, and the author. 475th Meeting. November 27, 1897 President Baker in the chair. Twenty-eight members present. Announcement was made of the election to membership of Herbert Friedenwald. Mr. George M. Sternberg read a paper on The Twelfth Inter¬ national Medical Congress. [Not published.] Mr. O. H. Tittmann read a paper on A year’s work of the In¬ ternational Bureau of Weights and Measures. It ’was discussed by Messrs. Harkness, Wead. Eimbeck, Henry Farquhar, and Baker. Mr. George P. Merrill read a paper on The Seventh Inter¬ national Congress of Geologists. [Not published.] It was illustrated by maps and photographs. 476th Meeting. December 11, 1897 TWENTY-SEVENTH ANNUAL MEETING. President Baker in the chair. Twenty-six members present. Announcement was made of the election to membership of Mr. George Colton Maynard. The minutes of the Twenty-sixth Annual Meeting were read and adopted. 66— Bull. Phil. Soc., Wash.. Vol. 13. 468 PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. The report of the Secretaries was read and accepted. The following is the ANNUAL REPORT OF THE SECRETARIES FOR 1897. Washington, D. C., December 11 , 1897. To the Philosophical Society of Washington : Gentlemen: Your Secretaries have the honor to submit the following report for the year 1897 : The number of active members at the date of the last annual report was 123. Of this number 2 have died, 4 have resigned, 2 have been transferred to the absent list, and 4 have been dropped for non-payment of dues. There has thus been a loss of 12 members. The membership has been increased by the election of 8 new members and by the transfer of 2 from the absent to the active list. There has thus been a net loss of 2, and the present active membership is 121. The number of members on the absent list at date of last re¬ port was 79. This number was decreased by 2 transfers to the active list and increased by 2 transfers from the active lisf, leav¬ ing the number on the absent list the same as at date of last report, viz., 79. The following is the list of new members : Philip Rounseville Alger. L - Eugene Emerson. George Colton Maynard. James Page. Paul Brockett. Herbert Friedenwald. Frederick Haynes Newell. Charles Colt Yates. The active members who died during the year are : Newton Lemuel Bates. Charles Hugo Kummell. The transfers from the absent to the active list are : William Henry Holmes. Henry Smith Pritchett. And from the active to the absent list : Asaph Hall. Charles Richard Van Hise. The resignations are : Philip Rounseville Alger. Stimson Joseph Brown. Myrick Hascall Doolittle. John Sherman. PROCEEDINGS. 469 The General Committee held 15 meetings ; average attend¬ ance, 10. The Society held 16 meetings, of which 15 were for the read¬ ing and discussion of papers and one was the annual meeting for reports and election of officers. The average attendance was 29. Thirty-five papers were read by 24 members. Also bio¬ graphical notices were read of — George Edward Curtis. Joseph Meredith Toner. William Crawford Winlock. All meetings were held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club, 1518 H street. Two papers were published during the year, viz., Chemistry in the United States, by F. W. Clarke; The transcontinental arc, by E. D. Preston. Bernard R. Green, J. Elfreth Watkins, Secretaries. The report of the Treasurer was read and referred to an auditing committee, consisting of Messrs. McGee, Winston, and Martin. The following is the ANNUAL REPORT OF THE TREASURER FOR 1S97. Washington, D. C., December 11, 1897. To the Philosophical Society of Washington , D. C. : This report covers the yearly period from December 26, 1896, to December 11, 1897. The income and expenses of the year 1897, aside from the redemption, sale, and purchase of bonds, are as follows : Income, $826.46 ; expenses, $284.61, leaving a surplus of $542.05 on ordi¬ nary transactions for the year. On February 6, 1897, acting upon a report of the same date, submitted by a subcommittee composed of Messrs. Baker, East¬ man, and Birnie, that had been appointed to consider the matter of investment of funds of the Society, the General Committee directed the Treasurer to purchase one $1,000 6 per cent, bond of the Columbia Street Railway Company, and at the same time 470 PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. authorized him to exchange Cosmos Club bonds of the first issue on hand for those of the second and third issues, so as to retain, if practicable, the same amount of investment in these bonds as then held, inasmuch as the bonds of the first issue are now being redeemed by the Club. Several exchanges of these bonds have been effected through the kind cooperation of Mr. Wm. A. De Caindry, treasurer of the Cosmos Club. The transactions in bonds during the year are as follows : Redeemed one $100 Cosmos Club 5 per cent, bond of 1886 ; sold two $100 Cosmos Club 5 per cent, bonds of 1886 ; purchased two $100 Cosmos Club 5 per cent, bonds of 1891 ; purchased one $1,000 Columbia Street Railway 6 per cent, bond ; exchanged five $100 Cosmos Club 5 per cent, bonds of 1886 for five of 1893, making a net increase of $900, face value, in the bond invest¬ ments of the Society. These investments now amount to $6,100 in securities, which are deposited in the Society’s box with the National Safe Deposit, Loan and Trust Company, as follows : Two U. S. 4 per cent, registered bonds, No. 64,596, for $500, and No. 135,639, for $1,000 ; twenty-nine Cosmos Club 5 per cent, bonds of 1886 for $100 each, Nos. 70, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125. 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 135, 136, 155, 156, 159, 161, 162,163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 185, 193, 194, 195 ; two Cosmos Club 5 per cent. bonds of 1891 for $100 each, Nos. 217 and 245 ; five Cosmos Club 5 per cent, bonds of 1893 for $100 each, Nos. 1, 53, 56, 57, and 81 ; one Columbia Street Railway 6 per cent, bond, No. 299, for $1,000. The present assets of the Society are : The securities, deposited as stated, face value . $6,100 00 Cash balance with the Riggs National Bank, as per statement appended . 712 42 Unpaid dues . 110 00 Total . $6,922 42 There are no outstanding liabilities to report. Respectfully submitted. R. Birnie, Treasurer. PROCEEDINGS. 471 The election of officers for the ensuing year was then held, with the following result : President . Vice-Presidents , Treasurer . F. H. Bigelow. ( G. M. Sternberg. \ 0. H. Tittmann. Rogers Birnie. Secretaries . J. Elfreth Watkins. C. D. Walcott. L. F. Ward. E. D. Preston. MEMBERS AT LARGE OF THE GENERAL COMMITTEE. Cyrus Adler. W. A. De Caindry. J. H. Gore. Bernard R. Green. F. W. G. W. Littlehales. H. M. Paul. H. S. Pritchett. Richard Rathbun. True. 477th Meeting. January 8, 1898. President Bigelow in the chair. Twenty-nine members present. Announcement was made of the standing committees for the year as follows : J. H. Gore. Committee on Communications : H. S. Pritchett. F. W. True. Marcus Baker. Committee on Publications : J. Elfreth Watkins. Cyrus Adler. The report of the Auditing Committee appointed at the last meeting was submitted and accepted. REPORT OF THE AUDITING COMMITTEE FOR 1897. Washington, D. C., December 16 , 1897. © To\the Philosophical Society of Washington : The undersigned, a committee appointed at the annual meeting of the Society, December 11, 1897, for the purpose of 472 PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. auditing the accounts of the Treasurer, respectfully report as follows : We have examined the statement of receipts, including dues, interest, and sales, and find the same to be correct. We have examined the statement of disbursements, compared it with the vouchers, and find that they agree. We have examined the returned checks and vouchers and find one voucher unrepresented by a check, this check being for $0.30. We have examined the bank book and find that the balance on deposit reported by Riggs & Co. December 11, 1897, viz., $712.72, agrees with the Treasurer’s report if the outstanding check for $0.30, above mentioned, is deducted. We have examined the United States and Cosmos Club bonds and the bond of the Columbia Street Railway Company and find them to be in amount and character as represented in the Treasurer’s report, aggregating $6,100. Isaac Winston. Artemas Martin. Mr. J. E. Watkins read a paper on The transportation and lifting of heavy bodies by the ancient engineers — a possible method. [Published in Cassiers Magazine, New York, 1898, December, vol. xv, no. 2, pp. 108-114; republished, with addi¬ tions, in Smithsonian Institution Annual Report for 1898.] It was discussed by Messrs. Adler, Bigelow, Dall, Wead, and the author. Mr. T. J. J. See read a paper on Recent discoveries of double stars in the Southern hemisphere. It was discussed by the President and by Messrs. Hedrick, Abbe, Walcott, and the author. Mr. C. D. Walcott read a paper on The United States forestry reserves. [Published in Popular Science Monthly, 1898, Feb¬ ruary, pp. 1-13 ; also separate^.] It was discussed by Mr. Birnie and the author. PROCEEDINGS. 473 478th Meeting. January 22, 1898. President Bigelow in the chair. Twelve members present. Mr. Walter Hough read a paper on The origin and range of the Eskimo lamp. [Published in the American Anthropologist, 1898, April, vol. xi, pp. 116-122; also separately. J It was discussed by Messrs. Dall, Watkins, the President, and the author. Mr. J. H. Gore read a paper on Gheel, a colony of the insane. It was discussed by Mr. Bell, the President, and the author. 479th Meeting. February 5. 1898. President Bigelow in the chair. Twenty -six members present. Mr. H. W. Wiley addressed the Society on the subject of Useful bacteria. [Not published.] It was discussed by Messrs. Sternberg, Bigelow, and Shidy. Mr. George M. Sternberg read a paper on Pathogenic bac¬ teria. [Not published.] It was discussed by Messrs. Bigelow, True, and the author. Mr. E. A. de Schweinitz read a paper on Toxins and anti¬ toxins. [Published as Bulletin no. 23, Bureau of Animal In¬ dustry, Department of Agriculture, 1898 and 1899; also in Annual Report of Bureau of Animal Industry for 1898.] It was discussed by Messrs. Bigelow, Sternberg, and the author. 480th Meeting. February 19, 1898. President Bigelow in the chair. Eighteen members present. 4?4 PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. Mr. H. A. Hazen read a paper on Weather folk-lore, its origin and value. It was discussed by Messrs. Bigelow, Sternberg, Ball, Green, and the author. Mr. W. H. Ball read a paper on The condition of Tertiary paleontology in the United States. [Not published.] 481st Meeting. March 5, 1898. President Bigelow in the chair. Nineteen members present. The Secretary read a paper prepared by Mr. A. Lindenkohl on The specific gravity of the waters of the northeast Pacific ocean. [Published in U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey Report for 1898, Appendix no. 10 ; also in Petermann’s Mittheilungen, 1897, heft xii; also in Science, 1898, Becember 30, new series, vol. viii, no. 209, pp. 941-944.] It was discussed by Messrs. Ball, Preston, Littlehales, and the author. Mr. F. H. Bigelow read a paper on The results of balloon ascensions in determining the temperature of the air. [Pub¬ lished in International Cloud Report, 1899, p. 750.] It was discussed by Messrs. Hazen, Tittmann, Ball, and the author. 482 d Meeting. March 19, 1898. President Bigelow in the chair. Twenty-six members present. Announcement was made of the election to membership of William Candler Hodgkins. Mr. H. Friedenwald read a paper on The Beclaration of Independence : A summary of colonial grievances. [Not pub- linhecL] PROCEEDINGS. 475 Mr. Bigelow read a paper on The state of the Philosophical Society. [Not published.] It was discussed by Messrs. Mann, Gore, Clarke, Wead, Farquhar, Dall, Eastman, Baker, Adler, and the author. 483d Meeting. April 2, 1898. The address of the retiring President, Mr. Marcus Baker, on A century of geography in the United States, was delivered at the Cosmos Club. [Published in this volume, pp. 223-240 ; also in Science, 1898, April 22, new series, vol. vii, no. 173, pp. 541-551.] 484th Meeting. April 16, 1898. President Bigelow in the chair. Twenty-two members present. Mr. C. C. Yates read a paper on Personal equation in esti¬ mating tenths. [For brief abstract of this paper see Science, 1898, May 6, new series, vol. vii, no. 175, p. 647.] It was discussed by Messrs. Paul, Preston, Baker, Bigelow, Gore, and the author. Mr. G. W. Littlehales read a paper on The progress in trans¬ oceanic navigation in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. [For brief abstract of this paper see Science, 1898, May 6, new series, vol. vii, no. 175, p. 647.] Mr. Signe Rink read a paper on The origin of the Eskimo name for the white man. It was discussed by Messrs. Ball and Bigelow. 485th Meeting. April 30, 1898. President Bigelow in the chair. Twenty-three members present. 67— Bull. Phil. Soc,. Wash., Vol, 13. 476 PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. Mr. William Eimbeck read a paper on Terrestrial refraction. [To be published in Coast and Geodetic Survey Report for 1899.] It was discussed by Messrs. Pritchett, Bigelow, Preston, We ad, and the author. Mr. E. D. Preston read a paper on Recent progress in geodesy. [Published in this volume, pp. 251-268.] It was discussed by Messrs. Gore, Bigelow, Wilczynski, and Pritchett. * 486th Meeting. May 14, 1898. President Bigelow in the chair. Twenty-four members present. This evening was devoted to a discussion of plans for the work of the Society. 487th Meeting. May 28, 1898 President Bigelow in the chair. Fourteen members present. Mr. Baker read a biographical notice of Charles PIugo Kummell. [Published in this volume, pp. 404-405.] Mr. Tittmann read a biographical notice of Orlando M. Poe. [Published in this volume, pp. 409-412.] Mr. L. A. Fischer read a paper on The comparison of line and end standards. [Published in this volume, pp. 241-250; also an abstract in Science, 1898, June 17, new series, vol. vii, no. 181, pp. 839-840.] It was discussed by Mr. Hayford. Mr. A. Lindenkohl read a paper on The submerged terminal moraines of the southern coast of New England. [An abstract of this paper was published in Science, 1898, June 17, new series, vol. vii, no. 181, p. 840.] It was discussed by Messrs. Dall and Bigelow. PROCEEDINGS. 477 483th Meeting. October 29, 1898. President Bigelow in the chair. Twenty-three members present. Mr. Cleveland Abbe read a communication on Weather, climate, and crops. [Not published.] It was discussed by Messrs. Baker, Paul, Bigelow, Doolittle, and Gore. Mr. Rollin A. Harris read a communication on Particular solutions of certain partial differential equations occurring in mathematical physics. It was discussed by Messrs. Bigelow, Abbe, and Gore. 489th Meeting. November 12, 1898. President Bigelow in the chair. Twenty-two members present. Mr. E. Goodfellow read a paper on The Philippines. It was discussed by Messrs. Abbe, Bigelow, Dall, Gore, Proctor, and Ogden. 490th Meeting. November 26, 1898. President Bigelow in the chair. Twenty-six members and guests present. Mr. E. D. Preston read a paper on The International Geo¬ detic Association meeting at Stuttgart, October 3-12, 1898. [Pub¬ lished in Science, 1898, December 16, new series, vol. viii, no. 207, pp. 841-847.] It was discussed by Messrs. Bigelow, Pritchett, and Gore. Mr. Cyrus Adler read a paper on The International Catalogue of Scientific Literature. It was discussed by Messrs. Bigelow, Paul, Dall, and Wead. 478 PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. Mr. Ren]i! de Saussure read a paper on Graphical determina¬ tions of stream lines. It was discussed by Mr. Bigelow. 491st Meeting. December 10, 1898. President Bigelow in the chair. Thirty members and guests present. Messrs. Wead and Goodfellow were appointed an auditing committee. Mr. Adler made an informal communication on The forging of antiquities. Mr. Ren£ de Saussure read a paper on Graphic determina¬ tions of stream lines in vortex motion. It was discussed by Messrs. Bigelow, Gore, and the author- Mr. W. H. Dall read a paper on The proposed University of the United States. [Published in the American Naturalist, 1899, February, vol. xxxiii, no. 386, pp. 97-107.] It was discussed by Messrs. Sternberg, Ward, Adler, Abbe, and Gore. Mr. Bigelow read a paper on Two remarkable semi-diurnal periods. [Published in International Cloud Report, 1899, p. 474.] 492d Meeting. December 22, 1898. TWENTY-EIGHTH ANNUAL MEETING. President Bigelow in the chair. Fourteen members present. The minutes of the Twenty-seventh Annual Meeting were read and adopted. The annual report of the Secretaries was read and accepted. PROCEEDINGS. 479 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE SECRETARIES FOR 1898. Washington, D. C., December 22, 1898. To the Philosophical Society of Washington : The Secretaries have the honor to submit the following annual report for the year 1898 : The number of active members at date of last annual report was 121. Of this number 6 have resigned, and 1 was dropped for non-payment of dues. Thus there has been a loss of 7. The membership has been increased by the election of 4 new mem¬ bers. The net loss is 3, and the present active membership is 118. The number of members on the absent list at date of last report was 79. So far as known this number remains unchanged. No deaths have occurred among the active members. The new members are : Lyman James Briggs. William Candler Hodgkins. Frank Milton Little. Frank Gustav Radelfinger. The members who resigned are : Edward Farquhar. Bernhard Eduard Fernow. John Nelson James. Ainsworth Rand Spofford. Joseph Stanley-Brown. Gilbert Thompson. The General Committee held 15 regular and 2 special meet¬ ings. The first special meeting was held December 18, 1897, “ to consider the report of a conference committee upon a joint organization of the Scientific Socities of Washington.” The second special meeting was held July 23, 1898, to electa Treas¬ urer to serve during the absence from Washington of Mr. Birnie. The average attendance at the meetings of the General Com¬ mittee was 11. The Society held 16 meetings, 13 of which were devoted to the reading and discussion of papers, one to the President’s annual address, one to a discussion of the work of the Society, and one to the annual meeting for reports and election of offi¬ cers. The average attendance at the 15 meetings was 22. Thirty -two papers were presented by 24 members and one 480 PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. guest. Two biographical notices of deceased members were read, viz : Charles Hugo Kummell. Orlando Metcalfe Poe. All meetings were held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club. One paper was published during the year, A century ot geography in the United States, b}^ Mr. Marcus Baker. E. D. Preston, J. Elfreth Watkins, Secretaries. The reports of the Treasurer and Auditing Committee were read and accepted. The Auditing Committee consisted of C. K. W ead and E. Goodfellow. ANNUAL REPORT OF THE TREASURER FOR 1898. Washington, D. C., December 7J, 1898. To the Philosophical Society of Washington : From December 11, 1897, the date of the last annual report, until July 13, 1898, Captain Rogers Birnie held the office of Treasurer, when, being suddenly ordered to the seat of the war with Spain, his accounts were transferred to the undersigned as his successor, elected by the General Committee. This report covers the whole period from December 11, 1897, to December 14, 1898. The income was $767 ; the expenses were $276.40, leaving a net gain of $490.60. To this should be added the value of cou¬ pons due December 1, 1898, not yet cut from $2,400 of Cosmos Club bonds, $60, making an actual gain of $550.60. On August 5 the Treasurer of the Cosmos Club called in $500 of the Cosmos Club bonds of 1886, but was able to exchange therefor an equal value of bonds of the same Club of the 1891 issue, which your Treasurer took advantage of. By this trans¬ action bonds Nos. 70, 135, 136, 159, and 185, 5.20’s of 1886, were exchanged for Nos. 240 to 244, inclusive, 10.30 s of 1891. By last years report the investments of the Society appeared to be a total of $6,100, as follows : U. S. bonds, at 4 per cent . $1,500 Columbia Street Railway bond, at 6 per cent . 1,000 Cosmos Club bonds, at 5 per cent . 3,600 $6,100 PROCEEDINGS. 481 These investments remain unchanged, excepting the exchange above mentioned. They are in detail as follows, and the securi¬ ties are deposited in the Society’s box in the vaults of the National Safe Deposit, Loan and Trust Company of this city : Two U. S. 4 per cent, registered bonds, No. 64,596, for $500, and No. 135,639, for $1,000; one Columbia Street Railway 6 per cent, bond, No. 299, for $1,000; twenty-four Cosmos Club 5 per cent, bonds of 1886 for $100 each, Nos. 119, 120, 121, 122, 123? 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 155, 156, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 193, 194, 195 ; seven Cosmos Club 5 per cent, bonds of 1891 for $100 each, Nos. 217, 240, 241, 242, 243, 244, and 245; five Cosmos Club 5 per cent, bonds of 1893 for $100 each, Nos. 1, 53, 56, 57, and 81. The present assets of the Society are : Face value of securities as above . $6,100 00 Cash balance with Riggs National Bank . 1,183 02 Cash on hand . . . . . 20 00 Interest coupons, due December 1, 1898 . 60 00 Unpaid dues . 110 00 Total . . . $7,473 02 The Treasurer is aware of no outstanding liabilities. His predecessor, Captain Birnie, turned over to him on July 13, 1898, the following list of property belonging to the Society, namely : One fine mahogany table and chair, one iron reading stand, one large blackboard. Respectfully submitted. Bernard R. Green, Treasurer. 482 PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OP WASHINGTON. £ © f 1 t- co o © © CM O I CM l© CCOlOO o o "f C5 CO 1© 00 co o 1 a c© l© T*< 00 CM i w €*©■ r— < T_^' | €©> : oq ; j . 2 . . o . g . 0) . g • s • : « g 2 •15.23 : s >u C5 m •° a g-s *43 8 o 5 gjX'd ^ g c S o 5 o3 c5 § L’ sc 2 a* o & £c S-gQ ^3 § «*§ bcls tg _. G& OJ )=r fl « t3 35 .2 eito S 03^ 2 W) *r ** if 03 3 2 0) ^ £ *V *d .£3 K w;© ■*■§3.3 2 £ 'StOH^O Su a Oh.3 Jq C ?H Q , pH ?H ^ rfl O ffiopftopo2.H t*/5 >» « PQ — 02 2