% =!

■ I? VNa®*’

Q X^OSV'^1

H11WS S3 I avaan“LI BRAR I ES_SMITHS0NIAN~INSTITUTI0N”N0linillSN|JNVIN0SHllWSZS3iavai

O

. _ £ Vaa^ I ^ S — E m

ONIAN INSTITUTION NOIlfUllSNI NVIN0SH1IKIS S3 I H V a 8 11 LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN “INSTITUTE

rS* . ' CO “ — ____ . ^ CO 2 „ ,• , CO *™’

Z

o

CO
2

ccy r- - ^ X t " =<£ ,—

2^ S ^ 5 S ^ 5

CO *•- Z , , 00 X CO V 2 ^

HiiiAis saiavaan libraries Smithsonian institution NouniiiSNi nvinoshiiws saiavasi

co 2 ^ 2 CO :z co

SX w ^ _ .« w ^ /jSDx » .^kL ^

:ia —

| ®

ONIAN'jNSTITUTION NOIlfUllSNI “WlNOSHlIWS^S 3 I ava a n^LI B RAR I ES^SMITHSOmAN^INSTITUTl
z r- * z m 2

m x^osv^x ^ x^vasv^ m :-W £! xjvasv^ m

<n £ co ' • £ tn — £ co

hums SBiavaan libraries Smithsonian institution NoiiniiiSNi nvinoshiiims S3iavaar

m 5 ■» <o „ 2 c co 2 co

< ^ S < U S 2

T. I >#PgP | 1 (If |f § JH s

vv/ >’ 5 ’'^jr > s >-• s >•

X CO ■ x CO ** Z CO z

)N!AN INSTITUTION NOIlfUUSNI_ NVIN0SH1IINS S3iavaai1 LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTE

y> CO Z \ *0 -y CO "

w co V * w /f^L SX w w

0 r o ■' -W “ X^VA^X - UJ •• 5

mws S3 lavaan^LiBRARi Es^sMiTHsoNiAN^iNSTiTUTioN^NouniiisNi^NviNOSHiiws ZS3 i ava ai

1 5 . . .-ro 1 E ^

W s | m

_ CO £ — ^ -

)NIAN INSTITUTION NOIlfUllSNI NVINOSHlItMS S3 I BVd a IT LI B R AR 1 ES SMITHSON!AN~INSTITUTIO

(S) "Z. C/5 2! . C/5

g ,< x^so^x 5 . <

§ t t " UW*7 r-

I 5 | | \ I i

uiw.sws3 1 avaa n_ L| B RAr i es smithsonian^institution" NouniusNr^NviNosHiwscns3 1 ava ai

CO z ^ ^ CO -» CO — . CO

LU /^vaSOnTTN. UJ ><<vaSOa7^s. SjJ ^yTTcvTT^

)NIAN INSTITUTION NOIlfUllSNI NVIN0SH1IINS S3iavaaiT LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTIO

» 2. r~ 2! i— 2 r-

lii

oc ~

< If l w,.

o ■ •' ^ o x^gfe^x "‘ o

{R I ES^SMITHSONIAN^lNSTITUTION^NOlinillSNl^NVINOSHlllAIS^SH IHVaail t-IBRARI ES ^SMITHSONU
Z [I! ^ _vsc / 5 —* Xiviso J\ O

o

H ./ *;/’ >Xk/
y t 33

^X w m «g ^ ^ m __

1IISNI_NVIN0SH1IWS^S3 I H VH 9 ! 1 ~L 1 B RAR 1 Es“sM!THSON!AN”iNSTITUT!ONw NOSinillSNI^NVINOSHill

<
z

» t -waww- s -ram 1 | | ~"Y | = WBn#

\ r | ESt/,SMITHSONiANJNST!TUTION£/5NO!inillSNI_NV!NOSHi!WS^S3 i U VH 8 ll_ Ll B RAR 1 ES^SMITHSONL
2 . w “ X^5n W 1 /^m^\ “

|

I <«ea

-• 03 5 ■ 5 m

lllSNl“lNVIN0SHHWS:2S3iavaan'JLIBRARIESZSMITHS0NIAN“IlNSTiTUTI0N NOIlfUllSNI NVIN0SH1II
Z r* 2 ~ ^ *

^irf^0A 03

33
>

33

\R IESt/ISMITHSONIAN"’!NSTlTUT!ON1/>NO!inillSNl“NVINOSHl!lAlS SBlMVaan LI

c/3 ^ ^ z * <5 ^.5 ^ iP <

s s - Xfs^ox — Mow,. ^

■^iKo

m

B RAR I ES SMITHSON:
c/>

S /

— )

L— \ j-

lUSNlf NVINOSHlIWS^Sg ! HVHS lift! B RAR 1 ES^SMITHSONIAN ^INSTITUTION ^NOIinillSNI_NVINOSHl
w %k ^ X5i§££\ w XH5q> “ ^ ^ W

_ O “

6*R I ES^SMITHSOMSAN INSTITUTION NOIlfUllSNI NVIN0SH1IWS S3 1 HVa a H^LI B RAR I ES ^SMITHSON

I , 2 ro jSfc °

tr ./,«/ XW

PI ?

^ f— 30 P 'TV,

c^ m ^£2$^ «g m ^ “ X^g^x m

So ^ —*sS^ 2^ CO ®==s

! HIS NrNVINOSHlI IASS "S3 I H VH a II ”l I B RAR 1 ES SMITHS0NIAN”lNST!TUT10N, NOIlfUllSNI NVIN0SH1

rn •?> W sy .... W ^

in

S

I

vm t

5 X25L2SX | '*#? S ^ w

AR I ES^SMITHSONIAN^ INSTITUTION NOlinillSNI^NVINOSHlIWS^Sa lavas

3 (|F^| 5 ^

Ak3§) £K 'Wj&, 5 02

x . '/Tl
<^3 X
z
>

!2 Ll BRAR I ES^SMITHSON

Oh

O ~ X4£?lllS^X q >\ " X^OlllS^X O

UlSNI^NVINOSHimS^Sa I ava a n^LI B RAR I ES^SMITHSONIAN^INSTITUTION^NOlinillSNI^NVINOSHI

^ " 4k V i /#^\ » I 2

s g m 39 > iral = '

•**•**» Of Fishes,

•• Wrtlensl Museum

BULLETIN

OF THE

UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

VOL. XXI,

FOR

1901.

GEORGE M. BOWERS, Commissioner.

WASHINGTON:

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE,

C O N T E NTS.

Page.

Biological Notes No. 2 27-33

Calkins, Gary N. Marine Protozoa from Woods Hole 413-468

Coker, Robert E. Notes on a species of Barnacle (Dichelaspis) parasitic on the Gills of

Edible Crabs 399-412

Goldsborough, Edmund Lee, and Evermann, Barton Warren. A Report on Fishes
collected in Mexico and Central America, with Notes and Descriptions of Five New

Species , 137-159

Eigenmann, Carl H. Description of a New Oceanic Fish found off Southern New England. 35-36

The Egg and Development of the Conger Eel 37—44

Investigation into the History of the Young Squeteague 45-51

and Kennedy, C. H. The Leptocephalus of the American Eel and other Amer-
ican Leptocephali 81-92

Evermann, Barton Warren. List of Species of Fishes known to occur in the Great Lakes

or their Connecting Waters 95-96

and Goldsborough, E. L. A Report on Fishes collected in Mexico and Cen-
tral America, with Notes arid Descriptions of Five New Species 137-159

Green, Erik H. , and Tower, Ralph W. The Organic Constituents of the Scales of Fish . . . 97-102

Herrick, Francis H. The Reproductive Period in the Lobster 161-166

Kennedy, C. H., and Eigenmann, Carl H. The Leptocephalus of the American Eel and

other American Leptocephali 81-92

Moser, Jefferson F. Alaska Salmon Investigations in 1900 and 1901 173-398

Parker, G. H. The Reactions of Copepods to Various Stimuli, and the Bearing of this on

Daily Depth Migrations : 103-123

Pieters, A. J. The Plants of Western Lake Erie, with Observations on their Distribution . 57-79

Smith, Hugh M. Description of a New Species of Blenny from Japan 93-94

Notes on Five Food-fishes of Lake Buhi, Luzon, Philippine Islands 167-171

The French Sardine Industry 1-26

Thompson, Millett T. A New Isopod Parasitic on the Hermit Crab 53-56

Tower, Ralph W. The Gas in the Swim-bladder of Fishes 125-130

Biliary Calculi in the Squeteague 131-135

and Green, Erik H. The Organic Constituents of the Scales of Fish 97-102

in

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

Facing

page.

Plate 1. Sardine Boats sailing to the Fishing-grounds. A Sardine Fisherman’s House 1

2. Fleet of Sardine Boats Fishing off Concarneau. Sardine Boat Fishing 4

3. Sardine Boats at the Wharf discharging their Catch G

4. A Part of the Sardine Fleet at the Dock in Concarneau 10

5. Sardine Boats on the Shore, Concarneau. A Glimpse of the Water Front, Concarneau 1G

G. Yard of a Cannery; Women Cutters awaiting the arrival of Sardines. Frying Sardines in Oil 20

7. The Drying Yard of a Cannery. Women with Sardines on Grills 22

8. Yard of a Large Cannery, showing Sardines drying on Grills 2G

9. A New Isopod Parasitic on the Hermit Crab. (Figs. 1-8) 5G

10. A New Isopod Parasitic on the Hermit Crab. (Figs. 1-10) 5G

11. (1) View in East Harbor Swamp. (2) Sand Beach Vegetation. (3) Lichen-grown Rocks near Gibraltar

Island. (4) Rocky Shore of South Bass Island. (5) Shore of Squaw Harbor, showing Nuphar in the
Foreground. (6) Sandy Beach at Cedar Point, Ohio 57

12. (1) Waves washing the Shore. (2) Nelumbium luteum, a few acres growing at East Harbor, Ohio GG

13. (1) Bidens beckii, cross section of a portion of a stem. (2) Potamogeton lonchites, cross section of a

portion of the stem. (3) Potamogeton zosteraefolius, cross section of central cylinder. (4) Potamo-
geton zosteraefolius, cross section of a stem. (5) Ceratophyllum demersum, cross section of the central
cylinder. (6) Ceratophyllum demersum, cross section of a stem 72

14. (1) Sparganium eurycarpum. (2) Scirpus lacustris. (3) Potamogeton heterophyllus. (4) Juncustorreyi. 80

15. (1) Sagittaria rigida. (2) Winter Buds, etc 80

16. (1) Scirpus pungens. (2) Chara fragilis forma brevibracteata 80

17. (1) Chara contraria forma subinermis. (2) Chara contraria. (3) Chara liydropitys. (4) Typha latifolia.

(5) Nuphar advena 80

18. (1) Nitella subglomerata. (2) Naias fiexilis. (3) Nitella subglomerata 80

19. (1) Chara gymnopus michauxii. (2) Nitella polyglochin 80

20. Chara coronata 80

21. Biliary Calculi from Squeteague 131

22. Cakes of dried “Sinarapan” (Mistichthys luzonensis) 167

Plate I. Humpback Salmon ascending Low Falls 175

II. Native Village and Ukala Racks, Naknek River 17G

III. Native Barabara and Storehouse near Naknek River. Bidarka and Kayak on Beach, Ugashik River.

Ukala Racks, Naknek River 178

IV. Salmon Trap, Nushagak River f 182

V. Salmon Trap on Nushagak Bay 182

VI. Salmon Trap on Nushagak Bay 182

VII. Salmon Trap near Graveyard Point, Kvichak Bay 182

VIII. Salmon Trap, Ugashik River 182

IX. Native Method of setting Gill Nets, Nushagak Bay 182

X. Chart of Nushagak Bay 196

XL Running Sketch of Wood River and Lake 200

XII. Cannery of Arctic Packing Company, Nushagak Bay 202

XIII. Cannery of Bristol Bay Canning Company, Nushagak Bay 202

XIV. Cannery of Pacific Steam Whaling Company, Nushagak Bay 202

XV. Salting Station of C. E. Whitney & Co., Nushagak Bay. Arctic Packing Company, Naknek River 202

XVI. Salting Station of C. E. Whitney & Co. Loading barkentine Willie R. Hume, Nushagak Bay 206

XVII. Canning Plant of Point Roberts Packing Company, Kvichak Bay 208

jCVIII. Canning Plant of Arctic Packing Company, Naknek River. Canning Plant of Point Roberts Packing

Company, Kvichak Bay 214

XIX. Chignik Lagoon 218

XX. Head of North Olga Stream, Alitak, Kadiak Island. Zapor in Stream entering Litnik Bay, Afognak

Island 230

XXL Chart of Afognak Bay, Alaska 240

XXII. Cascades in Litnik Stream 244

XXIII. Chilkoot Stream, showing Native Fishing Platforms in Current 252

XXIV. Chilkoot Stream showing Native Fish Runs and Traps in Current 258

V

VT

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

Facing

page.

Plate XXV. Native Village near Cannery of Icy Strait Packing Company 262

XXVI. Salmon Bay Stream, Prince of Wales Island. Tebenkof Stream 268

XXVII. Kutlakoo Stream, Kuiu Island 271

XXVIII. Behm Canal, Naha Stream, and Lake System 292

XXIX. Lake and Stream at the Head of McHenry Inlet 304

XXX. Mouth of Karluk River. Callbreath’s Hatchery, Etolin Island 330

XXXI. Sketch Plan of Salmon Hatching Plant, Shasta Creek, Kadiak Island 332

XXXII. Karluk Hatchery, showing Corrals. Ripening Pond 330

XXXIII. Transferring Stock-fish to Corrals at Karluk Hatchery. M ethod of drawing off Fry from Nursery Ponds. . . 840

XXXIV. Sketch Plan of Red Salmon Hatchery at Shasta Creek, Kadiak Island 348

XXXV. Cheniga Stream, Prince William Sound 352

XXXVI. Sketch of Tamgas Lake and Stream System 358

XXXVII. Sketch of George Inlet, Lakes, and Stream, Revillagigedo Island 360

XXXVIII. Kah-Shakes Lagoon, Revillagigedo Channel. Checats Stream, Behm Canal 302

XXXIX. Cannery of Alaska Packers’ Association, Point Highfield. Kunk Lake, Southeast Alaska 364

XL. Racks used to Barricade Kushneahin Stream. Cannery of Alaska Packers’ Association at Loring 366

XLI. Sketch of Kushneahin Lake and Stream 368

XLII. Sketch of Sitkoh Bay, Stream, and Lake 378

XLIII. Sketch of the Alsek River Delta 382

XLIV. Hubbard Glacier, Yakutat Bay and Vicinity. Fourth Lake, Jackpot System, Prince William Sound 392

Plate A. Alitak Bay, Snug Harbor, and Lazy Bay 224

TEXT CUTS.

Page.

The Sardine or Pilchard (Clupea pilchardus) 2

The Sea Herring (Clupea harengus) 3

Washing Sardines on the Beach 12

A Sardine Fisherman bringing Fish ashore in Baskets. 13

Beheading and Eviscerating Sardines 18

Psenes edwardsii 35

Embrvological figures 40

Embryological figures 41

Embryological figures 42

Embryological figures 43

Embryological figures 44

Figures of the Young Squeteague 48

Figures of the Young Squeteague 49

Figures of the Young Squeteague 50

Soil-sampler 58

The Grapple 58

Potamogeton lonchites (2 figures' 69

Potamogeton lonchites 70

Bidens beckii (2 figures) 71

Naias flexilis (2 figures) 72

Leptocephalus grassii 84

diptychus 85

rex 86

amphioxus 87

caudomaculatus 87

latus 88

gillii 88

strommani 89

morrisii, 90

mucronatus 91

discus 91

humili.s 92

gilberti 92

Eulophias tanneri 93

Conorhynchos nelson i 140

Notropis santamarire 147

lerm* 147

Aplodinotus grunniens 154

Petenia splendida 155

Cichlasoma teapte 156

Heros urophthalmus 158

Batrachoides goldmani 159

Page.

Lobster Eggs 162

Lobster Eggs 163

Mistic-hthys luzonensis 168

Gobius sternbergi 170

Columbia River Salmon Boats and Flat Bottom Salmon

Skiff 181

Eskimo Women cleaning Salmon 186

Fish Trap in Wood River 200

Mouth of Naknek River, Bristol Bay 209

Entrance to Egegak River, Bristol Bay 213

Lower Ugashik River, Bristol Bay 215

Olga Bay and Narrows 222

Cape Alitak 223

Floating Trap on North Shore of Cannery Cove, Olga

Bay . 225

Olga Bay and Vicinity 227

North Olga Stream and Lake , 228

South Olga Stream and Lakes 230

Horse Marine Lagoon 232

Exits of Ayakulik River 234

Hog Island 242

Cannery Building near Dot Island 242

Chilkoot Lake and Stream 257

Cascade Stream east side of Wrangell Narrows 265

Stream and Leads, Salmon Bay, Prince of Wales Island . 266

Lake and Stream at Head of Red Bay 268

Lake and Stream, Shipley Bay 270

Humpback Stream, Shipley Bay 271

Kutlakoo Lake and Stream, Kuiu Island 273

East and West Streams, North Bay of Pillars 275

Aleck Lake and Stream, Tebenkof Bay 278

Salmon Trap on Zimovia Strait 281

Thoms Stream and Lake, Wrangell Island 282

Meyers Stream, Cleveland Peninsula 284

Lake and Stream, Kina Bay, Prince of Wales Island.. 287
Lake and Stream, Ward Cove, Revillagigedo Island .. 289

Ruins of Troughs and Baskets, Callbreath’s Hatchery. 302

Trap, Pen, and Barrier, Callbreath’s Hatchery 303

Perspective Sketch of Richardson Filter 337

Plan of Richardson Filter Troughs 338

Pacific Steam Whaling Company’s Hatchery, Hetta
Lake 354

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

VII

Page.

Sketch of Hetta Hatchery, Prince of Wales Island 355

Hetta Lake and Stream 356

Peter Johnson Stream and Lake 357

Kah-Shakes Lake and Stream 362

Checats Lake and Stream 363

Kunk Lake and Stream 366

Salmon Bay, Lake, and Stream 367

Sar-Kar Lake and Stream 370

Kook Lake and Stream 372

Stream, Lake, and Feeder, Pablof Harbor.. 373

BartlettBay, Lake, and Stream 375

Dundas Bay, Cannery, and Stream 377

Hanus Bay, Lake, and Stream 378

Gut Bay, Lake, and Stream 380

Rubber Boot and Cheniga Lakes 392

Jackpot Lake and Stream System 391

Miners Stream and Lakes 395

Billy’s Hole and Outlet 396

Dichelaspis mulleri (2 figures) 401

(4 figures) 404

(2 figures) 405

(2 figures) 407

(1 figure) 109

(2 figures) 410

(1 figure) 411

Amoeba guttula 417

sp '. 417

Trichosphaerium sieboldi 417

Gromia lagenoides 418

Actinophrys sol 419

Heterophrys myriapoda 420

Mastigamoeba simplex 423

Codonoeca gracilis 423

Monas sp 424

Monosiga ovata 424

fusiformis 424

Condonosiga botrytis 424

Bodo globosus 425

caudatus 425

Oxyrrhis marina 425

Astasia contorta 426

Anisonema vitrea 426

Exuvisella lima 428

marina 428

Gymnodinium gracile, var. sphserica 429

Glenodinium compressa 429

Page.

Peridiniumdigitale 430

divergens 430

Ceratium tripos 431

fusus 432

Amphidinium operculatum 432

Lacrymaria lagenula 434

eoronata 434

Trachelocerca phoenicopterus 435

Mesodinium cinctum 436

Loxophyllum setigerum, ,var. armatum 437

Lionotus fasciola 439

Nassula microstoma 440

Chilodon cucullulus 441

Hysteria lanceolata 441

Frontonia leucas 442

Colpidium colpoda 442

Uronema marina 442

Pleuronema. chrysalis 444

setigera 445

Lembus infusionum 446

pusillus 447

Anoplophrya branchiarum 447

Oondylostoma patens 449

Strombidium caudatum 450

Tintinnopsis beroidea 451

davidofii 451

Peritromus emmte 452

Epiclintes radiosa 453

Amphisia kessleri 454

Euplotes charon 455

harpa 456

Hiophrys appendiculatus 456

Uronvchia setigera 457

Aspidisca hexeris. 458

polystyla 459

Lichnophora macfarlandi 459

Vorticella patellina 460

marina 460

Zoothamnium elegans 460

Cothurnia crystallina 461

imberbis 462

nodosa 462

Podophrya gracilis 464

Ephclota eoronata 464

Acineta divisa 465

tuberosa 465

Trichophrya salparum 466

i

.

-

Bull. U. S. F. C. 1 901 . (To face page 1 .) PLATE 1.

SARDINE BOATS SAILING TO THE FISHING-GROUNDS.

A SARDINE FISHERMAN’S HOUSE,

THE FRENCH SARDINE INDUSTRY.

By HUGH M. SMITH.

GENERAL IMPORTANCE OF THE INDUSTRY.

Few if any foreign fishery industries are of greater interest or importance to
Americans than the sardine industry of France. The wholesome, palatable, and
convenient canned sardine is consumed in nearly every community, and the annual
importations of French sardines into the United States are worth about $1,000,000,
a sum exceeded by the value of but few imported fishery food products. This is
perhaps sufficient reason for the presentation of this report; but another consideration
is the advantages that may accrue to the fishermen and fish-canuers in the United
States from a knowledg-e of the methods pursued in the sardine fishery ancl canning
industry of France.

The sardine is the leading fishery product taken in the waters of France, From
official statistics1 it appears that in 1898 the sardine fishery gave employment to
31,871 fishermen; the number of boats used was 8,164, with a tonnage of 32 863
and valued at 5,934,633 francs; the apparatus employed was worth 7,030,945 francs;
the quantity of sardines taken was 53,924,275 kilograms (or 118,633,400 pounds;, and
the selling price of the fish was 9,204,988 francs (or about $1,840,997).

The information on which this paper is based was obtained by the writer during
a visit to Brittany in September and October, 1900, and represents the conditions
especially prevailing at and in the vicinity of Concarneau, where most of the time was
spent. The fishing and canning methods of the various centers are so much alike
in all essential respects that the descriptions here given are applicable in a general
way to the entire coast.

THE SARDINE.

There has been and still is considerable uncertainty among the fishing interests
in America and Europe regarding the specific relations of the sardine of the Bay of
Biscay and the Mediterranean Sea. Some persons have believed that the sardine
canned in France is a distinct species, while others have held that the French sardine,
like the sardine of New England, is simply the young- of some herring-like fish. The
term sardine is a general one, applied to various clupeoid fishes, mostly of small size,
in different parts of the world, and can not be restricted to any particular fish. Thus,
there are the Spanish sardine of the West Indies and Florida; the California sardine,
found along the entire west coast of the United States; the Chile sardine; the oil
sardine of India; and the sardines of Japan and New Zealand. But the sardine par
excellence is the French sardine, called also celeren, celan, yoyan, galice, and cradeau

1 Statistiques des Pecbes Mari times, Annee 1898. Paris. Impriroerie Nationale, 1900.

F. C. B. 1901—1

1

2

BULLETIN OE THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

on various parts of the French coast. The name sardine has reference to the island
of Sardinia, in the Mediterranean, about whose shores the fish is abundant.

As early as 1553, Pierre Belon, a French naturalist, asserted that the sardine is
the young of the pilchard; and at present this is the view of nearly all authorities.
The pilchard, as is well known, is one of the most important fishes of the southern coast
of England, being especially abundant in Cornwall. Young pilchards or “sardines”
are found on the Cornish coast, but are apparently not so numerous as in France and
are in little demand, as canning is very limited in extent; on the other hand large
sardines or pilchards are caught on the French coast, but are much less abundant and
less important than the small fish.

In allusion to the small sardine being caught almost wholly by means of bait
consisting of fish roe {rogue), the French call it sardine de 'rogue, in contradistinction
to the large fish which is taken without bait by means of drift nets, and hence called
sardine de derive. Modern French writers on the sardine fishery seem averse to
acknowledging the specific identity of the sardine and the pilchard; some even fail
to explain or suggest the relation between the large and small fishes of the west coast

of France, but Messrs. Fabre-Domergue and Bietrix, of the French department of
fisheries, in a paper1 on the reproduction of the oceanic sardine, state that they con-
sider the sardine de derive as the adult individual of the species, which toward spring-
lays pelagic eggs in local waters; the sardine de rogue , on the contrary, is the young-
form, whose age, according to their reasonably exact computations, does not exceed
two years.

This fish has been referred to by most American and European systematic
writers under the name Glupea pilchardus Linmeus. Cuvier, in 1829, described the
small fish under the name C lupea sardina , which designation is still retained by some
writers. In 1803 Lacepede separated the pilchard with several other species from the
genus Glupea, because of supposed peculiarities of dentition, and referred it to a new
genus, Glupanodon , which has been revived in a recent American work2 and made
to include the West India sardine, C. pseitdohispanieits (Poey), and the California sar-
dine, C. eceruleus (Girard). Modern European writers on the pilchard (Cunningham,
McIntosh, and others) apparently have seen no necessity for taking it out of the
genus Clupea .

1 Proceedings of the International Congress of Maritime Fisheries, Sables-d’Olonne, 1896.

2 The Fishes of North and Middle America, by Jordan & Evermann. Part 1, 1896.

THE FRENCH SARDINE INDUSTRY.

3

The pilchard is a well-marked species, easily distinguished by prominent radiating
lines on the operculum and by large scales, as well as by other features. In general
shape it resembles the sea herring ( Clupea harengus Linnaeus), but is less elongated
and compressed. The greatest depth of the body is about one-fourth the length, and
the length of the head is somewhat greater than the depth of the body. The lower
jaw projects slightly; the upper jaw extends to a point opposite the front third of the
eye. No teeth are found on the vomer, palate, or tongue, and on the jaws the teeth
are either small or absent. The dorsal fin contains 17 or 18 rays, and begins nearer
to the end of snout than to the base of tail. The anal tin has 19 to 21 rays. The
ventral fins begin under the middle of the dorsal base. There are about 30 scales in
a longitudinal series between the gill-opening and the end of the body. The back of
the fish is a deep olive green, the sides are silvery, and the belly is white. In the
full-grown fish there is a small dark spot in the scapulary region. The normal
length attained by the pilchard is 8 or 9 inches; the length of the largest recorded
specimen was 11 inches (taken in Cornwall).

The sardine of the French coast is a handsome little fish, whose beauty is not
entirely lost in canning. In the water the back is of a greenish color, but out of the
water the upper parts are rich dark-bluish, contrasting strongly with the silvery and
white colors of the sides and abdomen. The scales are very easily detached, but their
loss does not detract seriously from the appearance of the fish, either when fresh or
canned, as the skin is rather thick and has a brilliant uniform silvery color. There are
no evident spots on the sides in life, but after the scales are detached a few dark lateral
spots may be seen. The back and belly are well rounded, being less compressed than
in the young sea herring.

Several American fishes resemble the pilchard, among them the sea herring and
the California sardine. The former, which is extensively canned on the coast of
Maine, may be distinguished from the pilchard by its more elongate form, by the
more posterior origin of the dorsal fin, by the smaller and more numerous scales, by
the presence of teeth on the vomer, by the much projecting lower jaw, by the smooth
operculum, and by the much compressed abdomen. The California sardine is dis-
tinguished from the pilchard in having a more elongate form, fewer dorsal rays, a
somewhat longer maxillary, and a series of dark spots along the side.

4

BULLETIN" OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

The flesh is dark-colored, rich, and oily. The fresh sardine, when broiled or
grilled, has a delicate flavor and is very palatable. It is improved by the slight
salting that it usually receives when intended for immediate consumption. The
California sardine resembles the French Ash in character of flesh and is a more
perfect substitute for it than any other American species.

The range of the sardine or pilchard extends from Sweden to the Madeira Islands.
The southern coast of England, the Atlantic coast of France, and the Mediterranean
Sea are the chief centers of abundance.

On the coast of Brittany the sardine de rogue is found for about nine months of
the year, being absent from the inshore waters most of the winter. When the fishing
season opens, the fish are reported first about February at Arcaebon and other
southern points on the west coast, and gradually reach the districts toward the north.
During the winter, however, the large fish — some a foot in length — are observed at
various places on the coast.

The immature sardines frequent the coast waters throughout the summer and
remain in Brittany until late fall. Some years, if the season is mild, they are caught
until the first or second week in December; but a storm coming any time in Novem-
ber is likely to drive the fish away and terminate fishing for the season. In 1900
sardine -fishing at Concarneau was ended November 5 — the same date as in 1899 — by
a southwest storm, which swept away all the sardines in the bay.

The spawning time on the coasts of England and France is .from June to October.
Spawning takes place at a considerable distance from the land, and ripe or spawning
fish are seldom caught, as fishing is done mostly in the inshore waters. The small
fish used for canning purposes on the French coast are never found with ripe eggs or
milt, and are now known to be immature fish hatched in the summer and fall of the
previous year. The eggs are buoyant, and the average number extruded is reported
as 60,000. In the Mediterranean the sardine apparently belongs to a different race,
which is smaller than the oceanic form and reaches maturity when under T inches
in length.

When sardines first arrive they are poor and unsuitable for canning; but as the
season advances they improve in quality, and are fatter in September than in June
and in December than in September. Their food consists mainly of copepods and
other small Crustacea. Small fish eggs are also a favorite food. The fondness of
the sardine for such eggs plays an important part in the fishery.

The sardines go in schools and swim at or near the surface. As many as 100,000
fish have been taken in one net from one school, but the usual size of the schools is
small. They are preyed on by cetaceans and by many fish — on the French coast the
mackerel, the haddock, and the dolphin being especially destructive.

Dike other free-swimming oceanic fish, the sardine varies in abundance from
year to year; but there is no evidence that the extensive fishing is effecting any
permanent reduction of the supply. During the years 1887 to 1890 there was an
alarming scarcity of sardines on the French coast, and the outlook for the industry
was serious, but after four years the fish returned in their former numbers. The
history of the sardine fishery shows what extensive operations may be supported
annually when the natural conditions permit the fish to spawn unmolested, the
spawning-grounds in this case being many miles offshore.

Bull. U. S. F. C. 1901. (To face page 4.)

Plate 2

FLEET OF SARDINE BOATS FISHING OFF CONCARNEAU.

SARDINE BOAT FISHING.

THE FRENCH SARDINE INDUSTRY.

THE SARDINE FISHERY.

The sardine fishery of France dates back many years, and even in the early part
of the eighteenth century it was an important industry, but it has become much
more extensive since the introduction of canning. The building of railroads has also
benefited the fishery by providing means of shipping to inland points that part of the
catch which can not be disposed of locally. In all of the centers of the west coast
essentially the same methods of fishing are followed, with slight local variations. The
methods have an important bearing on the quality of the canned sardines, and will
therefore be noticed with some detail.

The province of Brittany supports by far the most extensive fisheries and is the
center of the canning industry. Here in 1898 were 21,684 sardine fishermen, with
4,611 boats, valued at 3,759,403 francs, and apparatus worth 3,307,643 francs; and
here were caught 49,478,365 kilograms of sardines, selling at 7,572,347 francs. The
leading center in 1898 was Douarnenez, which was credited with 4,200 fishermen, 710
boats, and over 18,000,000 kilograms of sardines, valued at 2,442,000 francs. Next-
in importance was Concarneau, with 2,695 fishermen, 490 boats, and 9,163,000
kilograms of sardines, worth 1,719,890 francs. Other important places in Brittany
are Audierne, Quimper, Port Louis, Etel, Quiberon, La Turballe, and Le Croisic.
Outside of Brittany the fishery is most extensive at Sables-d’Ol on ne, St. Gilles-sur-
Vie, and Arcachon.

On the Mediterranean coast of France sardines are caught at numerous places
and by many fishermen, but only in relatively small quantities. The fisheries here
in 1898 gave employment to 7,794 men, using 2,861 boats, valued at 1,607,930 francs,
and nets valued at 3,386,742 francs; the catch was 2,129,519 kilograms of sardines,
valued at 987,738 francs.

BOATS.

All of the boats engaged in the sardine fishery are registered, and have their
numbers in large white figures on both sides of the bow, preceded by a letter or
letters indicating the town to which they belong (thus, CC for Concarneau). Each
boat is taxed about 4 francs yearly by the department of marine and 2 francs by the
department of customs. Formerly the boats were smaller, flatter, slower, and less
seaworthy. The larger boats, such as are used at Sables-d’Olonne, require rowboats
for operating the nets.

Boats are built locally, and cost 1,200 francs when of oak and 1,000 francs when of
Norway pine. They do not vary much in size in the different sections. In Concar-
neau and other parts of Finistei’e the average dimensions are as follows: Length of
keel, 25 feet; length over all, 35 feet; beam, 9 or 10 feet; depth amidships, 6 feet;
depth aft, 10 feet; length of foremast, 33 feet; length of mainmast, 36 or 37 feet.

The stern is pointed, the prow is sharp and straight, and the sides flare consider-
ably, so that there is great carrying capacity. There is a broad floor about 2 feet below
the rail, and on this platform most of the work is done and most of the fish carried;
but when there is a large catch, some of the fish are put below to avoid crushing.

There are two long masts, the foremast raking aft, while the mainmast is nearly
vertical. The masts may be lowered if desired. The raising and lowering of the
foremast are facilitated by a rope running from its base through a pulley at the head
of the mainmast. Each mast carries a large, square, lugger sail, and sometimes a

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

6

topsail and a jibsail are employed. The sails are either linen or cotton, the latter
being used in summer fishing. Linen sails are tanned brown with catechu and cotton
sails are colored with ocher.

The oars are large and heavy, 33 feet long, with a very small, narrow blade, and a
square butt about b inches in diameter. Owing to the great length of the oar, the butt
is large and heavy in order to balance the oar when in use, and stones are sometimes
piled on it in rowing. There are four oars to a boat, each used by one man.

NETS.

In parts of Brittany nets were formerly used to surround the schools, and then
stones were thrown in to frighten the fish into the meshes. In this way large catches
were often made and the market was glutted; but the method came into disrepute and
is no longer followed. Fishing is now carried on exclusively with gill nets made
of very tine cotton twine. Some of the nets come from Germany, and some are made
locally, at Nantes and Douarnenez. Those from Germany are cheaper. The nets are
uniformly 45 yards long and 500 meshes deep. A change in depth has taken place
within a comparatively few years; formerly they were only 200 to 300 meshes deep.
The mesh is necessarily very small, as it is intended to gill the tinv sardines. Its size
is determined or designated by stretching the meshes and measuring the distance
apart of the first and last knots of a series of five — equivalent to two meshes.

The nets vary in fineness to suit the different runs of sardines, and are of about
three standard sizes. The largest mesh, designated 66 mm. (as measured according
to foregoing rule), is equal, in America, to 0.66 inch, bar measure, while the smallest
size, 40 mm., equals 0.40 inch, bar measure. The intermediate size is 52 mm.

The complement of each boat is 10 nets, representing three sizes of mesh, adapted
for small, medium, and large fish. When actively used the nets last only three or
four months, but with proper care they often last six months, or even an entire sea-
son. When rigged for use they are worth about 100 francs apiece.

The nets are dyed a bright greenish blue, and when suspended from the masts to
dry add to the picturesqueness of the fishing boats and the wharf scenes. The dyeing
is for the twofold purpose of preserving the nets and rendering them less conspic-
uous when in the water. The practice of dyeing the nets blue has been in vogue only
a short time and appears to have begun shortly after the introduction of cotton nets.
Formerly, when linen twine was employed, the nets were stained brown by tannin.
The dye substance is an aniline, in the form of a powder, and 50 grams are used
on one net. This quantity, with a little alum, is dissolved in enough hot water to
thoroughly wet a net. The nets are soaked in the solution and spread out to dry
before use. Fishermen are often seen with their hands and wrists stained a uniform
blue from handling wet nets. The blue dye is reported to be better than tannin for
cotton nets and to render nets less conspicuous. The dyeing is repeated from time
to time as the color becomes soaked out.

The nets are kept in position in the water by numerous cork floats and a few
sinkers. The corks are 4 inches in diameter and half an inch thick, and about 400
are used with each net. For about feet below the cork line the net consists of
coarser twine of large mesh, to give strength, as, owing to the method of fishing, this
part of the net is subjected to great strain. The lower edge of the net for a depth
of 3 or 4 inches is also of coarse twine, to support the stone sinkers, two or three
sinkers about the size of a man’s fist being attached to each net.

SARDINE BOATS AT THE WHARF DISCHARGING THEIR CATCH.

Bull. U. S. F. C. 1901. (To face page 6.)

PLATE 3,

THE FRENCH SARDINE INDUSTRY.

7

BAIT.

In the fishery for sardines for canning, bait is almost as important as the boats
and nets. In no other net fishery in the world is bait so extensively employed and
so essential to the success of the industry. The scarcity of bait is always a serious
matter in fishing districts, curtailing the catch, reducing the income of the fishermen,
and often producing distress among the fish erf oik. It is therefore remarkable that
for this indispensable article the French should be absolutely dependent on other
countries and that the success of the fishery for sardines should be intimately related
to the fisheries for other species in distant lands.

In the early days of the sardine fishery, especially prior to the establishment of
canning, small shrimp-like animals, about half an inch in length, were much used as
bait. These are one of the natural foods of the sardine and are considered the best
bait, but can not be procured in sufficient quantities to meet the demand and are now
rarely used. The gathering of this kind of bait was an occupation of the women,
who sought the schools in the bays and coves, catching them in large canvas bag-nets.
They frequently made their best catches in water up to their necks, when the weather
was bad and the water along the shores was thick. The Crustacea were heavily salted
in barrels and retained until required. The taking of these little creatures appears
to have been prohibited many years ago, because of the supposed destruction of fish
eggs at the time of catching the shrimps. Although the interdiction is now removed,
little effort is made to secure this form of bait.

The bait now in general use is the salted eggs of the cod ( Gatins callarias ), though
the eggs of hake, haddock, pollock, cusk, herring, mackerel, and many other fishes
are also employed. Cod eggs are not known to possess any properties which make
them superior to the eggs of several other species, but owe their prominence to the
abundance of cod in regions on which the sardine fishermen depend for their bait
supply.

Well-prepared roe has a not unpleasant fishy odor; but the odor is not a matter
of any special importance, and the production of any peculiar odor is neither sought
nor realized. When the roe becomes old it acquires a rank smell. The sardines are
attracted by the sight of the bait rather than by the smell, although it is possible that
the strong odor of the old roe used in the early fishing, when the fish are more
scattered, may serve to attract the fish. The color of salted roe is a delicate salmon.
The ovarian membrane is normally transparent or light; when brown or dark, it is
an indication of age or of fresh water (usually rain) having fallen in the barrel.

The annual consumption of roe in France at present is 40,000 to 45,000 barrels,
for which the fishermen pay about 1300,000. It is reported that in favorable seasons
as many as 25,000 barrels of roe have been expended in Concarneau alone.

For at least two centuries cod roe has been imported from Norway, which country
has always furnished the greater part of the sardine bait. Other countries which
have contributed supplies are Holland, Newfoundland, and the United States. From
time to time the French Government has encouraged its own cod fishermen (at St.
Pierre and Miquelon; on the Grand Banks; in the waters of Iceland, and in the North
Sea) to preserve the roes of cod and other fish, and in 1816 offered a bounty of $4 a
barrel for roe made from fish caught by them; but this and other inducements have
had little effect on the supply from native sources.

8

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

The price ot’ roe has varied greatly from year to year. In the early part of the
eighteenth century, bait was bought for 50 cents to $1 a barrel, and throughout that
century prices were comparatively low. In the second decade of the last century
prices reached their highest point; they were apparently never less than $32, and
ranged from that to $60 per barrel. By 1822 the price had fallen as low as $5 or $6,
and since then has seldom been as high as $25 or $26, averaging $12 or $15.

The average price for Norwegian roe recently has been about 35 francs ($7) per
barrel. In 1900, owing to the failure of the Norwegian cod fishery and the resulting
scarcity of roe, the price for Norwegian bait rose to 120 francs ($21) per barrel, or
about 7i cents per pound. The price of American and Newfoundland roe is but little
more than half that of the Norwegian. In 1900 the best American roe was selling at
$8.60 a barrel and in the previous year at only $1.60.

Mackerel roe, which ranks next to cod in quantity used, brings uniformly 10 to
50 per cent more than the latter.

The sardine fishermen also use peanut meal or flour to mix with the roe, it being
much cheaper. It comes in bags holding 75 kilograms, and costs 15 francs a bag.
Floating lightly and being quite conspicuous, it attracts the attention of the sardines,
which readily devour it. When they gorge themselves, however, the mass swells so
as to burst their intestines. The relative quantities of meal and roe used depend on
the scarcity of roe and the personal preference of the fishermen. The two articles
are often mixed in about equal proportions, but rather more roe than meal is usually
employed. In the case of a certain sardine boat in Concarneau, whose operations
are elsewhere referred to, the bait consumption one season was 7,500 kilograms of
roe and 6,000 kilograms of meal.

The following description 1 of the methods of preparing roe for sardine bait was
issued by the French Government in 1817 for the information of the native fisher-
men, and applies well to the present time:

The ovary of the cod or of the other fishes of the same family that are fished for on the same
bottoms incloses the eggs in a double sac, which is ordinarily thrown into the sea with the refuse. To
convert these eggs into rogue, several methods can be pointed out.

The first consists in separating the ovary from the body without tearing the covering, and placing
it, with the inclosed eggs, on a plank pierced with holes or in an inclined position, or on a .small-
meshed net, in order that the drying may ensue equally at all points. When this covering is dry,
several ovaries are brought together and placed in a barrel, the bottom of which is spread with salt;
and, without pressing them too much, the ovaries are piled one above the other, separated by light
layers of salt, until the barrel is entirely full. Then it is closed sufficiently tight to prevent the air
from penetrating into it; otherwise there will ensue a fermentation injurious to the quality of the rogue.

Another manner of preparation is to put the eggs into barrels without drying them. The layers
of salt and of rogue are put in alternately, as in the preceding case;, but as the barrel becomes full the
quantity of salt should be increased. Four days suffice for the rogue to sink; the barrel is filled to the
top again, and this is continued until the vessel is ready to be closed. To provide for the escape of the
brine the precaution is taken to pierce several holes in the lower end of the barrel: by this means the
brine escapes and the rogue forms a mass, which keeps in good condition up to the month of June,
when the fishermen carry it to Bergen. There the salting is finished by adding a quantity of salt
equal to the first; the rogue is put into new barrels, which are also pierced, and these can immediately
be delivered to the merchants, who ship them to France. It is said that formerly the Hollanders

1 Instruction sur la Maniere de preparer les Rogues de Morue et de Maquereau employees comme Amorces dans la
Peche de la Sardine.

THE FRENCH SARDINE INDUSTRY.

9

bought in Norway a certain number of barrels of this rogue, to which they gave this last treatment,
and that they sold it afterwards to advantage in barrels of oak wood under the name of rogue of
Holland fish. In Norway use is not made of Portuguese or Spanish salt, but of French salt; that of
Croisic or of lie de Re seems to possess the desirable qualities.

The preparation of the rogue, according to the two processes which have just been mentioned, is
susceptible of improvement. It has been improved in Norway, especially since the very much higher
price obtained in the markets of France has stimulated the activity of fishermen; for it must not be
supposed, because the importation of rogue into Brittany has diminished, that less rogue is manufac-
tured at Loffoden. It has simply found another market in Biscaye and in Galicia; but its importation
into Brittany would very soon be resumed if French trade were not promptly supplying our wants in
this direction.

The proportion of salt to rogue is as one. to four, 25 kilograms of salt sufficing for 100 kilograms
of rogue.

The method of improving this substance consists particularly in ridding it of all fatty and muci-
laginous parts and in rejecting the envelope of the eggs, over the length of which are spread a number
of blood vessels, which render it all the more susceptible of fermentation, since salt has little effect on
them. It is important to preserve the eggs from contact with the air, which gives them a yellowish-red
tint, especially if the temperature is high. Fine salt is more suitable than coarse salt, and marine salt
should be preferred to mineral salt. Cod eggs derived from summer fishing require more salt than
those from the winter fishing, decomposition being less active in winter than in summer. It is nec-
essary to exclude from salting all rogue of fish too ripe; the rogue has not the necessary consistency
when the eggs are about to be extruded. It is what the Norwegians call blode rami, soft rogue.

The barrel should be hermetically closed except a hole in each end, one to give passage to the
brine, the other to let the gas freely escape. There should be no space between the upper end of
the barrel and the rogue, which can easily occur if the barrel is closed only several days after it is
filled. As much as the arrangement of the building permits, the barrels should be sheltered from
dampness.

By taking these precautions one is sure to prepare rogue superior to that which the Norwegians
put on the market, especially if the quantity of salt employed has been calculated, according to its more
or less penetrating qualities, as new salt or old salt.

In the respective interests of the cod and sardine fishermen, it would perhaps be well to make
use only of barrels of a uniform gage; but this is a matter which could be settled later.

Finally, the French fishermen ought to prepare the rogue with all possible care. It is the best
means of assuring sale, of obtaining preference in the markets of Brittany, and of having no longer to
fear there foreign competition.

In the ports in which mackerel fishing is conducted the rogue of this fish can be prepared in the
same manner as that of the cod, and is in fact so prepared in some of them. In applying to the prep-
aration of the eggs of the mackerel the simple and easy methods indicated for the eggs of the cod, both
will be improved in the same degree; they can very soon supply the place of each other and maintain
the equilibrium between the needs and resources of each year. The union of their respective products
will then free the sardine fishery from the tribute which it has paid to foreigners, a tribute which they
themselves are no doubt astonished at receiving for so long a time.

In an article on “The Sardine Industry in Vendee”1 Dr. Marcel Baudouin has
the following references to bait:

The rogue or r6sure is that which serves as bait for taking the sardine on the coast of the ocean,
while in the Mediterranean no use is made of it. The rogues are called natural or artificial. The
natural rogue, the most prized, is of a very high price.

Since it is necessary to employ large quantities, it can easily be conceived that an attempt would
be made to substitute other substances; whence the invention of artificial rogues, which are manufac-
tured especially in Brittany. In Vendee these artificial rogues are little employed. Some fishermen
sometimes prefer to them bait yet more simple and common, bran incompletely sifted, the product of
the flour mill, of which the cost price is almost nothing (it has been employed at Saint-Gilles recently),

1 Revue des Sciences Naturelles de l’Ouest, 1893.

10

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

or else a sort of special bait called gueldre, a mixture of the fry of fish and little crustaceans, especially
prawn and shrimps, broken and pounded. Forbidden in 1726 by a declaration of the king, the use of
gueldre was allowed in 1853, then forbidden a second time. Now it is employed again, not only at
Croisic, and at Turballe, but in Vendee— at Noirmoutiers, for example — where it has procured good
fishing. There, as well as elsewhere, it. is said to spoil the fish by facilitating decomposition. The
manufacturers reluctantly buy sardines caught, with this bait.

A number of artificial rogues have been tried in Vendee. We will point out from memory the
principal ones which, successively, have been used in commerce: (1) The artificial rogue called “de
Douarnenez,” prepared by Messrs. Morvan and Delasalle. (2) The same rogue, modified by Mr.
Morvan in 1876, which contains pickled meal and a small quantity of natural Norwegian rogue; this
is the “farinaceous mixture of Morvan”; it. is no longer manufactured; in 1877 a barrel of 130 kilo-
grams of this rogue was worth 25 francs, while a barrel of good natural rogue was worth 40 francs at.
least. (3) The “ heterogeneous rogue” of Mr. Ispa (of Douarnenez) is composed of cakes formed of
oleaginous grains (sesame, arachide) diluted with water and a quarter of Norwegian rogue. (4) Caillo,
senior, about 1818, made a trial of artificial rogue, composed of boned sardines, pounded and reduced
to a paste; he used the flesh of all fish except of those called fat fish. (5) Caillo, junior, reports that a
long time ago a pharmacist, of Leon d’ Angers prepared and sold as rogue grains of linseed or rape seed.

While these artificial rogues may still be occasionally used in Vendee, recourse is usually had to
the two natural and well-known rogues. At the Sables, on the Isle of Yeu, among others, the rogue
of Norway or of Bergen is employed (rogue made with the eggs of salted cod, stockfish) to cause the
fish to come to the surface of the sea at. the beginning of the fishing. The rogue made with the eggs of
the mackerel serves to keep the fish on the water. This last costs 70 francs a barrel of 130 kilograms;
the Bergen rogue, very much in use on the Vendeen coast, is not worth more than 55 to 60 francs.

FISHING SEASON, GROUNDS, AND METHODS.

Sardines are caught in greater or less numbers throughout the year. On the
west coast, however, the fishing season opens in February and continues to Novem-
ber, rarely extending into December. In Brittany the fishing begins rather later and
continues longer than at points farther south on the Bay of Biscay. Fishing in the
canning district is continued as late as practicable, usually as long as the fish remain
in abundance, as their condition at that time is good. In the Mediterranean sardines
are caught during every month of the year.

The sardine fishery is emphatically a shore fishery, and most of it is done within
a very short distance of the home ports. This permits the use of smaller and less
expensive boats than would otherwise be required, and insures the landing of the fish
a short time after capture.

The early fishing for the sardine de derive is mostly within 1 or 2 miles of the
shore and rarely beyond 5 or 6 miles. In the summer and fall fishing with bait, the
boats may go 10 miles to sea, but the largest part of the catch is taken within 3 or 1
miles of shore, and a very considerable proportion close inshore in the bays.

The fishing in the early part of the season — that is, in March, April, and May —
is done mostly with old nets and is conducted only at night. About 20 nets are used
by each boat. These are tied together and submerged about 1 yard, the corks being
attached in bunches of four or five at intervals of 2 yards. While the boats are lying
near by under a small aft sail and the men sleeping, the nets are allowed to drift. No
bait is used. The fish thus caught are not fat and not used for canning, but are salted
or sold for immediate consumption.

The regular fishing is carried on only by day. The boats start for the fishing-
grounds early in the morning (2 to 1 o’clock), so as to be there when day breaks;

PART OF THE SARDINE FLEET A^ THE DOCK IN CONCARNEAU.

Plate 4.

THE FRENCH SARDINE INDUSTRY.

11

they may also have to leave earlier if the tide would otherwise beach them. The
best fishing is in the early morning, and the boats are often back to port by 9 or 10
o’clock with full fares.

When waiting on the fishing-grounds (at night, early in the morning, or at any
other time) the fishermen place one of the long oars obliquely upward and backward
from the bottom of the boat to the rear mast (where it is fastened), and over this they
spread a sail. Under this shelter they sleep or rest.

When a boat arrives on the fishing-grounds the rear mast is taken down and the
boat is headed toward the wind. If fish are present a net is shot and slowly towed
by means of a short line attached to the cork line and fastened in the stern of the
boat. When there is no wind, or when the wind is from an unfavorable quarter
with reference to the water currents, the sails are lowered and the crew row the
boat. In the sardine fishery at Sables d’Olonne, where large boats are used, the nets
are not towed therefrom, but are pulled by means of rowboats.

Bait is always used in the day fishing, being necessary in order to attract the
fish to the vicinity of the boats and into the nets. The casting of the bait, on the
proper use of which a great deal of the success of fishing depends, is always done by
the master or “patron,” who stands in the stern of the boat on a little platform and
uses the flour and roe as required. When the fish have come toward the surface
and are on one side or the other of the net his object is to cast the bait in such a way
that they will rush against the net and become gilled.

Considerable skill and experience are of course necessary in managing the net
and in having it hang properly in the water and not become folded or wavy owing to
currents or tide. Unless the net is straight or gently curved, the fish will see and
avoid it. When a net contains fish and is ready for hauling, it is taken in the boat
and the fish are removed from the meshes by gently shaking the net or by hand.
The fish are put in a compartment in the bottom of the boat. When large catches
are made other receptacles are provided.

In summer fishing, when sardines are abundant, the fishermen often let one net
go adrift when it is full of fish, trusting to pick it up later, and put out another net.
Indeed, a boat may have fish in three nets at one time, though this is rarely the case.

The sardines are often found in a more or less compact body, and the boats will
be concentrated in a comparatively small area, at times so close together that the
operation of the nets would seem almost impossible and the chance of catching fish
very improbable. The entire fleet of a given port — consisting of several hundred
boats — may be at work on one school and fishing literally en masse instead of indi-
vidually. This is shown in a measure in the upper figure of plate 2.

No ice or other preservative is used on the fish, which are landed a short time
after gilling. The fish reach port in good condition, and are often at the canneries
within one or two hours after capture. Should the failure or unfavorable direction
of the wind threaten to delay the arrival of the boats, and hence impair the quality of
the fish, the crews row leisurely back to port.

Soon after reaching port the nets are spread for drying, being hauled to the top
of the masts and suspended between them for this purpose. When all the fleet has
arrived and the nets are spread, the view of the maze of blue nets, sails, and masts is
most interesting and unique.

12

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

WHARF SCENES.

When the fishing floats begin to arrive, the wharves, which have practically been
deserted, assume a very busy and animated appearance, and as the arrivals increase
in number the bustle among the different classes of people becomes intense, although
good nature and good order prevail. The foreign visitor here witnesses some
exceedingly interesting and picturesque fishing scenes — thousands of fishermen in
their coarse blouses and flat cloth caps, with trousers rolled up and their feet bare
or in the huge wooden shoes of the country, unloading their fish and carrying them

to the canneries; hundreds of women and girls in short dark skirts, white caps and
collars, and wooden shoes, negotiating for sardines, receiving the fish from the fish-
ermen, and dispatching them to the canneries; sardine boats, either rowed or sailed,
entering the harbor in groups or. singty and coming up to the already congested
docks; fish wagons going to and from the factories, and a mixed crowd of merchants,
sight-seers, artists, and idlers. The commingled noise of waves, boats, wagons, and
tongues is underlain by the incessant rattle of wooden shoes on the stony pavements.

At Concarneau and other places the sardine canners have on the water front

Washing Sardines on the Beach.

THE FRENCH SARDINE INDUSTRY.

13

A Sardine Fisherman bringing Fish ashore in Baskets.

basket having 200 iish (plus 5 per cent for possible imperfect fish). When the tide
is low some men remain in the boats and count the fish into baskets, while others
haul the baskets to the wharf by ropes and cany them to the shore. The baskets
could hold three to five times as many sardines as are put in them, but it is the desire
not to crowd the fish. If sardines of different sizes have been caught, it is necessary
to sort them into separate baskets; as a matter of fact, however, the nets do the
sorting, as each kind of mesh takes fish of a rather uniform size.

Before the sardines pass into the hands of the canner, the fishermen take baskets

small one-room wooden houses which serve as their headquarters for the purchase of
fish. To some of these cabins a telephone wire runs from the factory, so that instruc-
tions as to prices and information regarding the quantity of fish landed may be
mutually communicated.

The cannery managers, having determined on the approximate prices they will
pay for the different sizes of fish, send their purchasing women to the wharf as the
boats come in and the bargains are then made. Sometimes the fishermen hold out
for better prices and animated discussions ensue.

On arriving at the wharves the fishermen at once begin to discharge their catch.
The fish are counted by hand into wicker baskets with round bottoms and sides, each

14

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

of fish and move them rapidly up and down in the water in order to remove the dirt
and loose scales from the fish and make them look bright. Many scales come off,
and the shores of the harbor are lined with them after a day’s fishing. The water
about the shores is usually quite foul, and the rinsing of the fish therein seems very
objectionable.

The fish are then taken by the fisherman to the agent of the cannery to which
the cargo has previously been sold, and the contents of each basket are poured into a
fiat box or basket. If a cannery is conveniently located the fishermen may carry the
fish directly thereto; but as a rule the fish are taken to the factory in wagons, the
trays being carefully packed so that no pressure comes on the fish. From the time
the sardines are first caught everything that will bruise, mash, or otherwise impair
the soundness of the fish is carefully avoided. The method of discharging the catch
in small lots insures the arrival of the fish at the cannery in similar quantities and
obviates the formation of large piles in the cutting room, as the cutters are in ample
numbers promptly to dispose of the fish as brought in.

v PRICES RECEIVED FOR SARDINES, ETC.

The prices received by the fishermen are regulated by the factory operators,
and depend on the supply, the size and quality of the fish, the weather, and other
considerations. The fish of each boat are virtually sold at auction, only there is as a
rule no counter bidding, the prices offered by one or two factories being adopted by
the others and accepted by the fishermen. If a fisherman is not satisfied with the
price offered by one factory, he is at liberty to seek a higher price elsewhere. Some
boats always sell their catch to the same factory, and all of them, to a greater or less
extent, deal with particular factories.

The maximum price which factory operators can profitably pay for sardines is
25 francs ($5) per 1,000 fish. The dealers in fresh sardines can pay as much as 35
francs per 1,000. At times the demand for sardines to be sold fresh (cm vert) tends
to keep up the prices; but this use is limited and does not interfere greatly with the
cannery demands.

The following are the average prices for sardines at Concarneau in 1900, and
about the same prices prevailed in other parts of the coast:

Size of nets in which caught.

Price per

1,000 Ash.

Francs.

17 to 18

7 to 9

21 to 5

Women represent the factories as purchasing agents. They are given consider-
able discretion by their employers and are very sharp in making bargains. The
price agreed on is for the entire cargo. Payments are not made in money, but in
tokens or tickets which are redeemed weekly. As the fishermen deliver their fish,
two baskets full at a time, to the agents of the canneries, they receive a metal tag' or
token with the name of the buyer on it. When all the fish are landed the metal

THE FRENCH SARDINE INDUSTRY.

15

pieces are counted and surrendered and a claim check is issued in their place. At
the end of each week the master or the owner of the boat (often the same person)
goes to the factory, receives the money due, and apportions the earnings of the crew.

The boat, nets, equipment, and bait usually belong to a non-fisherman (who may
own a number of boats). The men of the crew furnish their own food, fuel, and
clothing. The owner is entitled to half of the sales of fish, and the remainder goes
to the crew in the following proportions: There being fi men in the crew, 4 of them
get equal parts, the captain or patron receives the share of one man plus 10 per cent,
and the cook half a share. Dividing the proceeds into 22 parts, the owner is entitled
to 11 parts, 4 members of the crew to 8 parts, the master to 2 parts, and the cook to
1 part; the share of the master being increased by 10 per cent of 2 parts and that of
each member of the crew diminished by 2^ per cent.

At the end of the season the boat owners usually give to each master a quarter of
a share (“quart cle lot”) as a bonus, if the crew have been selected and engaged for
the next year’s fishing. In this way it is possible for the owners and the masters
to select the best men. During the winter, say in January, the crew will report,
and each man will receive, as a kind of bonus, about 5 francs and perhaps a loan of
money. Advances are repaid in fish or cash after the season opens.

From the time the men begin to fish until the close of the season, they pay to
the government 1.10 francs per month, in consideration of which they are pensioned
on attaining the age of 50, provided they have served 300 months on sea duty (either
in fishing or in any other maritime occupation). They also pay 1.50 francs per
month as premium on an insurance fund which the government allows for injury due
to the vicissitudes of sea life. In case of death, the family of the fisherman receives
an annual pension depending on the size of family and on the age and length of sea
service of the deceased, the minimum sum being 300 francs; naval service increases
the pension.

DETAILED FISHING RECORDS.

The average stock per boat in a given season varies greatly on different parts of
the French coast, depending on various local causes besides the abundance of fish,
such as weather, bait supply, local demand, shipping facilities, energy with which
fishing is prosecuted, and other evident factors. The boats fishing out of Brittany ports
have a larger average yield than those of other ports of the west coast; and those in
the Mediterranean have by far the smallest stocks. Thus, in 1898, the average catch
per boat was about 10,700 kilograms of sardines in Brittany, 3,300 kilograms in the
southern part of the Bay of Biscay, and only 745 kilograms in the Mediterranean.

Considering the record for 1899 of a certain boat in Concarneau which fished
regularly, it appears that the aggregate stock was 4,400 francs, of which the crew of
5 men and a boy received 2,200 francs in the proportions elsewhere mentioned. The
owner of the boat had the following expenses to meet out of his half of the proceeds:
Twenty-five barrels of bait, at 35 francs; 2 new nets, at 100 francs; 40 bags of peanut
flour, at 15 francs; and miscellaneous items, bringing the total to 1,725 francs, leaving
a net profit of 475 francs.

Some idea of the energy with which the sardine fishery is pursued at times may
be gained from the following outline of one day’s fishing operations at 15 centers on
the coast of Brittany. The data are compiled from a local newspaper (La Depeche

16

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

de Lorient), and relate to September 17, 1900, for .some of the places and September
18 for others. The number of boats fishing was about 1,500, the approximate total
catch was at least 17,000,000 sardines, having a value of 200,000 francs, or $10,000.

Audierne, September 18: Number of boats going out, 200; average number of fish per boat, 6,000 to
8,000; average price. per thousand, 13 francs; size of sardines, 12 to 14 to the quarter can (quart) .
Concarneau, September 17: Number of boats going out, 500; average number of fish per boat, 2,000;
sold fresh ( au vert), 30,000; sold for frying (future), 970,000; average price per thousand, 18
francs; highest price, 24 francs; lowest price, 2.50 francs.

Croisic, September 18: Number of boats going out, 2, which have caught 6,000 to 7,000 sardines;

highest price per thousand, 28 francs; lowest price, 26 francs.

Douarnenez, September 18: Number of boats going out, some hundreds; average number of fish per
boat, 45,000; average price, 14 francs; size of sardines, 8 to 17 to the “quart,”

Etel, September 17: Boats not going out because of bad weather. Sept. 18: No fishing. The boats
going out late have been unable to fish on account of a calm and have not returned at evening.
Gavres, September 17: Number of boats going out, 86; average number of fish per boat, 9,000; numoer
of fish to the “quart,” 10 to 12; average price per thousand, 4.50 francs; highest price, 7 francs;
lowest price, 3 francs. Some boats have an average of 18,000 to 20,000 fish.

Guilvinec, September 17: Number of boats going out, 20; average catch per boat, 15,000 to 20,000;
number of fish to the “quart,” 14 to 16; average price per thousand, 4 francs; highest price, 5
francs; lowest price, 3 francs. Some boats have an average of 25,000 fish.
lie Tudy, September 17: Number of boats going out, 35; average number of fish per boat, 15,000;
number of fish for frying, 535,000; highest price per thousand, 7 francs; lowest price, 2 francs.
Some boats have an average of 20,000 fish.

Lannion, September 18: Number of boats going out, 67; average number of fish per boat, 1,100; average
price per thousand, 9 francs; highest price, 10 francs; lowest price, 8 francs. Some boats have
an average of 5,000 fish.

Loctudy, September 18: Number of boats going out, 35; average number of fish per boat, 15,000;
average price, 6 francs.

Palais, September 17: Number of boats going our, 75; average catch per boat, 3,000; sold fresh, 50,000;
sold for frying, 165,000; average price j>er thousand, 15 francs; highest price, 16 francs. Some
boats have an average of 6,000 fish.

Penrnarch, September 18: Number of boats going out, 45; average catch per boat, 10,000; average price,
4.50 francs; size of sardines, 12 to 18 to the “quart,”

Port Louis, September 18: Number of boats going out, 55; average number of fish per boat, 6,000 small;
10 boats with 4,000 large; average price, small, 5 francs; large, 18 to 22 francs; sizes of fish, 7 to 8
and 16 to 20 to the “quart.”

Saint Guenole, September 17: Number of boats going out, 100; average catch per boat, 15,000; number
of fish sold for frying, 15,000; average price at midday, 4 francs; highest price, 6 francs; lowest
price, 2.50 francs. Some ooats have an average of 20,000 to 25,000 fish.

Sauzon, September 17: Number of boats going out, 84; average catch per boat, 10,000; number of fish
to the “quart,” 7 or 8; average price per thousand, 15 francs; highest, 16 francs; lowest, 14
francs. Some boats have an average of 13,000.

The following similar record is for several of the foregoing places and some
additional ones on September 22 and 23, 1900:

Croisic, September 23: Number of boats going out, 30; average catch per boat, 2,000; average price per
thousand, 24 francs; highest price, 28 francs; lowest price, 20 francs. Some boats have an
average of 5,000 fish.

17 Herbaudiere, September 22: Number of boats going out, 25; average catch per boat, some hundreds;
number of fish sold fresh, 30,000; uniform price per thousand, 12 francs. Some boats have an
average of 6,000 to 7,000 fish.

Lannion, September 22: Number of boats going out, 65; average number of fish per boat, 1,300; average
price per thousand, 9 francs; highest price, 10 francs; lowest price, 8 francs. Some boats have
an average of 6,500 fish.

La Turballe, September 22: Number of boats going out, 60; average catch per boat, 3,000; number of
fish to the “quart,” 9 to 10; sold fresh, 120,000; sold for frying, 80,000; average price per
thousand, 18 francs; highest price, 23 francs; lowest price, 15 francs. Some boats have an
average of 4,000 and 5,000.

Lcs Sables, September 22: Number of boats going out, 150; average catch per boat, 6,000; number of
fish to the “quart,” 14 to 16; average price per thousand, 4 francs; highest price, 6 francs;
lowest price, 2.50 francs. Some boats have an average of 17,000 fish.

Lomener, September 22:— Number of boats going out, 40; average catch per boat, 7,000; number of fish
to the “quart,” 15 to 20; uniform price per thousand, 4 francs. Some boats have an average of
10,000 sardines.

Port Louis, September 23: Number of boats going out, 86; average catch per boat, 8,000; number of fish
to the “quart,” 10 to 12; average price per thousand, 3 francs.

Bull, U. S. F. C. 1901 . (To face page 16.)

SARDINE BOATS ON THE SHORE, CONCARNEAU

|

THE FRENCH SARDINE INDUSTRY.

17

THE CANNING INDUSTRY.

THE FACTORIES.

The construction of tne first sardine-canning establishments dates from about
1845, since which time the growth of the business has been almost uninterrupted.
The factories gave to the sardine fishery a great impetus, and to-day are the chief
supporters of the very extensive fishing operations in the Bay of Biscay.

The factories are generally large stone structures surrounded by a stone wall
and inclosing a courtyard. They cost from 30,000 to 75,000 francs or more to build
and equip. Their capacity varies greatly. Some are able to utilize upward of a
quarter of a million fish daily. The _y earhy output of individual establishments is
from 300,000 to 4,000,000 or 5,000,000 boxes. They pay no special license tax,
but have the same taxes as other manufacturing establishments, based on number of
employees and size of plant. The output is not taxed.

In no lino of the business is there any standard to be followed, except what the
trade demands and the interests of the canners dictate. There is no government or
other official inspection of the canned products.

The sardine canners, not unnaturally, are averse to naving strangers enter their
works and are circumspect in granting permission to do so. Almost every canner
has some slight peculiarity in method of preparation which he thinks advantageous
and worth being kept to himself. As the factories are surrounded usually by high
stone walls, and entrance is oidy through a guarded gate, a stranger might remain in
some of the fishing villages for a long time without being able, from personal inspec-
tion, to learn anything about the canning methods.

No complete statistics for the -canning industry are available, but it may be
stated that over 100 factories are operated, and not less than 15,000 persons, mostly
women and girls, are employed therein. Concarneau and Douarnenez have more
factories than any other localities, the number operated in 1900 being 29 and 25,
respectively. A large number of the canning establishments are owned or leased by
companies having headquarters at Bordeaux and Nantes.

CANNING PROCESSES AND MATERIALS.

When the fish are taken to the factory they are spread on large tables and sprin-
kled with a little salt. The women who remove the heads and viscera either stand or
sit, and perform their work with great rapidity. They hold the fish in the left hand
and with the right hand press the knife into the back and side of the head of the fish,
using the. right thumb for a counter pressure. The head is pulled or torn off, rather
than cut, and the esophagus, stomach, and most of the intestines go with it. The
body drops into one basket, the refuse parts into another. The refuse is disposed of
to farmers for fertilizing their fields.

Immediately after evisceration the fish are sorted by size into large tubs (half
oil barrels holding 250 liters) containing a brine strong enough to float a potato.
Here they are left for half an hour to an hour, depending on their size, quality, and
the condition of the weather. They are then placed in small wicker baskets and taken
to the yard, where they are washed in either fresh or salt water (salt preferred) while
in the baskets, each basket being put through two waters. This washing, which takes
but a few seconds, removes from the fish any undissolved salt, loose scales, and dirt.

F. C. B. 1901—2

18 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

Drying, which is the next step, is preferably done in the open air, and a large
part of the product is so treated. For open-air drying the fish are arranged by
hand, one by one, in wire baskets or trays holding about 150 fish of medium size,
placed on wooden frames or flakes. The baskets are 16 or IS inches long, 9 inches
wide, and 61 inches deep; are made of coarse wire with a polygonal mesh two-thirds
or three-fourths inch in diameter, and have a long bridle-like wire handle on each
side by which they are suspended on the flakes, each bridle having at its middle a
loop or ring which interlocks with its fellow. The distinctive feature of this wire
tray is its division into about 7 crosswise compartments, V-shaped in section, the
spaces being pointed at the bottom and open above. The divisions are of coarse
wire, and one side of the V forms a wider angle with the basket bottom than the

Beheading and Eviscerating Sardines.

other. Against the more oblique sides the sardines are placed in regular rows, with
their tails upward, so as to promote the escape of water from the abdominal cavity.
By means of the loop in the handle some of the baskets are hung on the frames, some-
what above the head; others are rested on lower frames. Wooden baskets or trays
are used in some places.

The sardines remain out for a variable time, depending on their size, the state of
the atmosphere, etc. The usual time in favorable weather is one hour.

In damp, foggy, or rainy weather (especially in autumn), the sardines must be
dried indoors by artificial heat, and drying ensues much sooner than in the open air.
Some factories, not being provided with driers, are unable to operate in such weather.
In most of the factories — especially those more recently constructed — artificial heat
is supplied in a special drying chamber by means of steam pipes; but in some of the

THE FRENCH SARDINE INDUSTRY.

19

older canneries the wire baskets are suspended from a wire lattice under which are
small charcoal furnaces.

From the drying flakes the fish are taken in the same wire baskets to the cooking
room and immersed in boiling oil, in open vats of various sizes and construction.
As the fish are quite dry, much of the oil is taken up in cooking and has to be
replaced from time to time by fresh oil. The immersion in oil usually lasts about
two minutes, but depends on the size of the fish and is best gaged by experience.
When the caudal fin will break easily, the fish are said to be cooked enough. The
baskets are then removed to a table or platform with an inclined metal top, where the
surplus oil is allowed to drain from the fish. After a few minutes the baskets are
taken to the packing room, where they are hung on wooden frames over metal-top
tables for further draining and cooling. The oil which drips oft' here is in some
places used in soap-making.

The sardine manufacturers employ two kinds of oil in their canning operations —
oiive oil and araehide or peanut oil; and small quantities of sesame oil have at times
been used. While it is reported that the manufacturers knowingly handle only the
oils named, it is understood that cottonseed oil, being tasteless and cheap, is used by
the French oil-dealers for adulterating both olive and peanut oil. Information on
this subject is naturally difficult to obtain; but the testimony of several oil-manu-
facturers and dealers clearly indicates the existence of the practice. It is interesting
to note, in this connection, that during the fiscal year 1899 the United States exported
to France nearly 17,000,000 gallons of cotton-seed oil, having a value of $4,000,000.

French olive oil is used with the best quality of canned sardines. Fish packed
in it will remain in good condition ten years or longer, and are reported to be
better the second year after packing than earlier. The cost of olive oil to the canners
is from 175 to 300 francs ($35 to $60) per 100 kilograms.

Araehide oil is extensively employed. It is made in Bordeaux, Fecamp, and
Marseilles from peanuts imported from India, Senegal and other parts of Africa,
and other countries. It comes in three grades and costs 65 to 95 francs per 100
kilograms, the best quality being worth less than one-third that of the best olive oil.
The mass remaining after the expression of the oil from the peanuts is made into
cakes and used as food for cattle. The cakes are ground into flour and employed as
bait in the sardine fishery.

Peanut oil is largely used to meet the American demand for a low-priced sardine.
Most of the cheaper French sardines exported to America are packed in peanut oil,
which is practically tasteless.

A canner may fry his sardines in peanut oil and fill the cans with olive oil, or vice
versa; or one oil, with or without the admixture of cotton-seed oil, may be used
throughout the process.

The following account of the utilization of peanuts in France is quoted from the
Philadelphia Manufacturer:

Americans have come to look upon the peanut chiefly as an article of food, associating it with
circuses and country fairs. Its employment for food purposes is, however, one of the least important
of its uses. Although Europeans seldom eat the nuts, Marseilles is the peanut center of the world. In
1899 that city imported 61,241 tons of unshelled and 9,579 tons of shelled peanuts, and that was not
an unusual year. Bordeaux also uses large quantities every year, but the first-named city stands in
Europe at the head of the production of vegetable oils from oleaginous seeds. The chief sources of

20

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

the city’s peanut supply are Bombay, Mozambique, and Senegal, although large quantities are received
from other places.

In the Marseilles crushing mills for handling the peanuts, the shells are broken by means of
toothed rollers and the kernels separated by a.system of winnowing machines, such as are used in flour
mills. The inside red skin is then removed by revolving sieves and air blasts, and the kernels are
ground, after which they are ready to be pressed. The pressing takes place in the same manner in
which other oleaginous seeds are pressed, the meal being enveloped in strong fibrous mats and
subjected to hydraulic pressure. The resulting cake is then reground, the oil remaining in the meal
secured as in the first instance. The oil is graded according to first, second, or third extraction. This
oil, after being clarified by filtration and the admixture of fuller’s earth, is put on the market and
used as an illuminant, and more extensively as an adulterant in olive oil, in which latter field its
chief competitor is cottonseed oil.

The cake left is sometimes chemically treated to secure the oil that may have escaped the presses,
but whether thus treated or not, it is valuable as a food for cattle. The husks are sometimes used for
fuel, and they have some value as fodder, although goats are about the only animals that will eat them
when not mixed with the peanut cake.

Sesame oil comes from Egypt, and costs about 80 francs per 100 kilograms.

There are various other ingredients with which or in which the sardines are
packed to give them flavor or piquancy. Some of the very best goods are prepared
with melted butter of good quality instead of oil; these are mostly for special French
trade. Tomato sauce, pickles, and truffles are also used. With all of these the
sardines are packed precisely as when oil is employed and in cans of the same sizes.
Only relatively small quantities of such goods are prepared.

When the fish reach the packing room, the women who had been cutting will
probably have finished that task and are seated at a table ready to take up the
packing of the sardines in tin boxes; they carefully place the fish in the cans, and
then pass them along to another set of women who fill the boxes with oil from a faucet
or with other materials used with the sardines — tomato sauce, mustard, truffles, etc.

In some countries (United States) the trade demands that the blue back of the
sardines be uppermost when the box is opened; while for other countries (France,
Belgium) the white belly should be uppermost. The position of the fish when the top
of the can is removed by the consumer is reversed in packing, as what is the bottom
of the can from the packers’ standpoint is in reality the top.

With most of the oil sardines a small quantity of spices is used in order to
impart a flavor. The usual ingredients for each can are 1 or 2 cloves, quarter or
half of a laurel leaf, and a small piece of thyme; these are put in the can before the
fish, so that they will be on top when the can is opened. The fresh leaves of tarragon
{estragon) are sometimes used.

Sardines are packed in tin boxes of a large varietj^ of sizes and shapes, some of
which are well known to the American public, while others do not enter into the
general trade here. Among the kinds which have received special designations are
the “quart bas,” “quart haut,’' “ demi,” “huitieme,” and “triple.” The “quart”
can is the standard. It ordinarily contains 12 to 1-f fish, but sometimes as many as
20 and sometimes only 6 or 8. The “demi” is twice as large as the “quart,” and
the “huitieme” is only half as large; while the “triple” contains 12 times as much
as the “quart.” Lozenge-shaped and boat-shaped cans (which are protected by
patent) are also employed by a few companies; and some factories put up fish in
glass vessels. The standard wooden cases in which the cans are packed and sent to
market contain 100 “quarts,” 200 “ huitiemes,” 50 “ demis,” etc.

Bull. U. S. F. C. 1901. (To face page 20.)

Plate 6

YARD OF A CANNERY. WOMEN CUTTERS AWAITING THE ARRIVAL OF SARDINES.

FRYING SARDINES IN OIL,

THE FRENCH SARDINE INDUSTRY.

21

At one factory the writer observed that the fish in course of canning were for
the most part mutilated, soft, and uneven, and were being put up in peanut oil, and
learned that these sardines were destined for the American market.

Sealing the bottoms on the cans —the next step in the preserving process — is one
of the few things done by men. Soldering appliances of various types are used in
the different factories. The most convenient, time-saving, and modern soldering iron
would appear to be that which is kept constantly heated by gas. The handle of the
iron is pierced by two pipes, one conveying gas and the other air for admixture
with the gas; and the gas is ignited in the head of the iron in such a way as to keep
the soldering edge continually at a white heat. The free movement of the iron is
effected by rubber tubes connecting it with the main supply pipes extending length-
wise under the table at which the solderer works. While being closed the can is
held in a frame on a small turn-table moved by the foot of the solderer. The cover
is applied so as to force out the air, and at the same time a good deal of oil escapes.
The soldering begins in this oil, at the middle of one end of the can, and is continued
around by the revolution of the turn-table rather than by the movement of the iron.

From the soldering table the cans are taken to another room in which they are
placed in large square iron vessels, open at the top and holding several thousand
“ quart ” cans. The vessels are then immersed in boiling water for two hours. This
accomplishes a fourfold purpose: (1) The cooking of the fish is completed; (2) the
bones are softened; (3) the bacteria in the oil and fish are killed, which would
otherwise produce putrefaction ; (4) the presence of leaks in the cans is disclosed.

After cooling, the cans are placed in dry sawdust and stirred from time to time;
this absorbs the oil and moisture on the surface and renders the cans clean and
ready for packing.

There is a comparatively small proportion of the fish prepared as “ boneless
sardines,” which are rendered “boneless” by bending the caudal peduncle until the
backbone breaks, and then drawing out the vertebral column with special tweezers
or pincers. Fish intended for this purpose require more prolonged drying (2 to 3
hours), so that the muscular tissue may separate more completely from the vertebrae.
Only fish 60 mm. long or over are made “boneless,” and of even the larger fish
only a small quantity is so treated. The best sardines are not so prepared, as they
are fresher when they reach the cooking room, having required only one-half or
one-third the time for preparation up to that stage. The “boneless” fish, while
undergoing the additional drying, are deteriorating. The removal of the backbone
adds about 6 per cent to the value of the fish, although the women who prepare
them receive no additional wages.

Tin plate for sardine cans is manufactured at Nantes and other places in France.
In Concarneau, Nantes, Hennebont, and elsewhere cans are made for the canneries
at special establishments and are sent to the factories in the same boxes in which
they are subsequently shipped when filled. At Hennebont there is a plant for the
decoration of tin plate.

Most of the canning factories receive their cans ready-made, but some simply
have the separate parts cut, and during winter give employment to the can-makers.
Nearly all of the sardine cans are now provided with keys, which are placed on
the cans as the sardines are boxed for market. The sardines of the best quality

22

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

have keys for use on the side or edge of the can, rather than on the top, which
remove a thin strip of tin.

Labeling of French sardines is an important branch of the canning business, and
although the use of labels is not required by French law, labeling is almost invariably
practiced. The most popular and generally employed label is that which is stamped
on the tin. Very few paper labels are used, and these are chiefly for special French
trade. Some of the best grades of sardines are labeled with brass labels of oval or
oblong shape, attached to the side of the cans by solder.

CANNERY EMPLOYEES AND THEIR WAGES.

The canning of sardines gives employment to many thousand persons, at what
are considered good wages, and in some of the fishing towns gives work to practically
all able-bodied persons who are not engaged in fishing. In Concarneau, a town of
10,000 people, fully 3,000 men, women, and children are directly connected with the
sardine-canning business, besides the fishermen. The average number of employees
at the factories in Brittany is over 100, and at the largest cannery in Concarneau
about 335 persons are employed. Living in the fishing towns is very cheap. The
principal diet is fish and bread, and meat is eaten usually but once a week.

Most of the work in connection with the canning of sardines is done by women
and girls, a few men being employed for special duties for which women are not
adapted (can-making, soldering, boxing, etc.), together with a small number of boys
who are apprentices.

Among women and girls in the Brittany factories uniform wages prevail. The
rate in 1900 was l£ francs for each 1,000 fish, the aggregate being divided equally
among employees. A good week’s income for cutters and packers is 30 francs ($6).

The solderers, who seal on the tops of the cans, receive 1.50 francs for 100 cans.
In winter many men devote their time to can-making and are paid 3 francs per 100
cans. Other employees about the factories are paid by the month and receive an
average of 70 francs. A good solderer can seal 1,100 to 1,300 cans daily, and some
men do considerably more. Boxes that are badly soldered are returned, and, with
their contents, charged to the solderer, who is not allowed to sell them. M. Deyrolle-
Guillou, of Concarneau, communicates the following interesting note on the work of
apprentice solderers :

I have heard of a solderer who could seal up 1,800 “quart” cans of sardines in a day, but an
ordinarily good worker does about 1,300. It is very easy work to learn. I have recently spoken with
a cannery director, who told me that he had six young apprentices of last year, one of whom can now
(1900) solder 1,200 boxes in a day, two can do 1,100, two can do 1,000, and one can do 900. These
are only 15 to 17 years old, and must be apprentices three years and get only half pay during that
time, that is to say about 75 centimes for 100 “quarts” soldered up.

PRICES OF SARDINES.

In 1900 the sardine packers received an average of 50 francs per 100 “ quart” cans
for fish of good quality in “olive” oil; in 1899 the average price for the same goods
was 13 francs per case. Some “quarts” in oil, however, bring as much as 100 francs
per 100 cans, and retail in Paris at 2 francs per can. These are the fish with which
special care is taken; they are brought to the factories early in the morning and are
canned with the minimal amount of softening and deterioration. Fish intended
for the average American trade are quoted at about 35 francs per case of 100 cans.

THE DRYING YARD OF A CANNERY. WOMEN WITH SARDINES ON GRILLS,

Bull. U. S. F. C. 1901 (To face page 22.1

Plate 7,

THE FRENCH SARDINE INDUSTRY.

23

During the first week of July, 1900, the wholesale prices of French sardines in
New York were $10.50 to $14 per case for choice “quarter” oils, $6.75 to $11 for
ordinary “quarter” oils, and $16 to $23 for boneless “ halves.” During the last week
in December, 1900, the quotations were $8.50 to $12 for choice “quarter” oils, $7.25
to $11 for ordinary “quarter” oils, $14 to $17 for choice “halves,” and $16 to $23
for boneless “halves.”

COMPARISON OF FRENCH AND AMERICAN SARDINES.

Observation has shown that French sardines, when of the best quality, have a
'’avor and richness which make them preferable to any sardine prepared on the
Atlantic coast of the United States from the young of the sea herring; French sar-
dines of average grade, even when canned in peanut and cotton-seed oil, are much
superior in palatability to the great bulk of the American output; while the cheaper
grades of French sardines — which unfortunately find a ready market in the United
States — are certainly not preferable to much of the native pack.

The conditions which underlie the general superiority of the French canned sar-
dines, and the steps which may be adopted in America for narrowing the gap which
now separates the product of the two countries, appear to the writer to be chiefly as
follows:

(1) The methods adopted in the French sardine fishery result in the landing of
the fish in excellent condition. This is the main object and is never lost sight of.
The fish are caught singly in a delicate mesh, removed by hand, carefully kept on
board the boats so as to avoid crowding and mashing, counted by hand into small
baskets, taken to the factories within a few hours after being caught, and promptly
put through the preserving processes, so that ordinarily the deterioration which
ensues is not worthy of mention. The sardine fishery on the coast of Maine is a
weir fishery and the unit of measure is not the individual fish, as in France, but the
hogshead. A large number of fish — sometimes a vast school— may be in a weir at
one time, and are often held in the weir for many hours, sometimes for several days,
during which they are without food, are incessantly harassed by their fellows and by
other fish, and necessarily undergo deterioration; they are then taken from the trap
with large dip nets and transferred to the collecting boat, where they are piled deep
in bins or in the hold, and are often many hours in reaching the cannery. There the
unloading results in further mashing, crushing, and bruising, so that by the time the
sardines reach the cooking room they have lost so much of their flavor and firmness
that no amount of subsequent care and no kind of oil or spice can replace or restore
their quality. Although fish are liable to more rapid decomposition after capture
than any other class of food animals, there are no products with which greater
liberties are taken, and none in which the lack of care results so disastrously; this is
especially true of the American sardine, and, in the writer’s opinion, is largely
responsible for the unsatisfactory quality of the canned fish.

(2) In France the sardines caught in the early part of the season are not canned,
because they are not in the best condition. It is only after the fish have become fat
that they are considered suitable for canning. The fattening depends on an abun-
dance of proper food, and along with it is an improvement in the flavor and general
quality of the flesh. In the case of our sardines, fishing for the canneries is carried
on from April to December, without reference to the fatness of the fish.

24

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

While the young sea herring- is an excellent fish, it may be admitted that even
when at its best its meat is inferior to that of the fat young pilchard in richness.
The latter has a peculiar flavor which, to a considerable degree, is preserved in
canning, and which probably can not be successfully imitated in the sea herring.
However, the difference in flavor between the French and the American sardines, on
which many persons lay much stress, appears to the writer to be of only secondary
importance. The taste for French sardines has been acquired and perpetuated in the
United States because of the long-continued unsatisfactory quality of American
sardines. The herring is naturally no less wholesome than the pilchard; if it is
caught for canning only when in prime condition, and if, in the form of canned
sardines, it is placed on the markets with the minimum amount of deterioration and
with such adjuvants in the way of oil, spices, etc., as may be suitable, it should and
will receive ample recognition at home, and meet with a constantly increasing demand,
at' prices that now are hardly dreamed of.

The history of a few canneries on our east coast during recent years has shown
that a very marked improvement in the quality of American sardines is entirely practi-
cable and, furthermore, is highly appreciated by consumers, as evidenced by the much
higher prices they are willing to pay and the steady demand beyond the capacity of
the factories. With regard to the sardines of the Pacific coast of the United States,
there is no reason why they should not, when properly canned, prove equal to the
French fish in every respect. The high reputation which has been acquired by the
comparatively small quantities packed in California during the past five or six years,
and the excellent prices which they have commanded, argue well for the success of
an extensive business.

AMERICAN BAIT FOR THE FRENCH SARDINE FISHERIES.

The matter of supplying bait for the extensive sardine fisheries of the French
coast has received some little attention in a few New England towns during the last
few years, resulting in a small increase in the trade; but the consumption of bait is
so large, the demand is so great, and the prices are so remunerative, that the American
trade should be very much extended, especially as the bait material is now a waste
product and ma}7 readily be prepared at a trifling cost.

Upward of ten years ago the United States Commission of Fish and Fisheries
brought this subject to the attention of the New England fishermen, but with no
noteworthy results. Now, owing to a shortage of the cod catch in the country which
furnishes the principal part of the bait supply, the opportunity is unusually favorable
for our fishermen to enter the market and establish a permanent trade. Having
recently visited the sardine district of France for the purpose of investigating the
industry and having given special attention to the requirements of the sardine fisher-
men in the matter of bait, the writer here presents the results of his inquiries and
observations with a view to show the benefits that will arise from the utilization of
an article that is now generally thrown away.

The preparation of sardine bait from cod eggs is entirely feasible in all the coast
States from New Jersey northward, and if proper precautions are observed the business
should result in a very substantial increase in the incomes of many of our cod fisher-
men. There would seem to be a similar opportunity for fishermen in other fisheries
and in other parts of the country. The eggs of the cod are an artificial food of the

THE FRENCH SARDINE INDUSTRY.

25

sardine, and are not known to possess any properties, especially when salted, which
make them an indispensable bait. So far as known, all fish eggs not over one-sixteenth
of an inch in diameter are suitable for bait. Among the gadoid fishes, the haddock,
the hake, the pollock, and the cusk should yield eggs not inferior to those of the cod.
Reference has already been made to the value of mackerel eggs as bait. Many other
common species inhabiting our salt or fresh waters might be mentioned.

Norwegian roe has for many years practically monopolized the trade, and is still
the leading bait as regards quality, quantity used, and price. American roe, as such,
is just as good and just as satisfactory to the sardine fishermen as the Norwegian,
but, owing to certain differences — amounting to positive defects- in the methods of
packing, it is far less acceptable than the Norwegian, and will inevitably bring much
less money per barrel until other methods are observed. The roe brought in by the
French fishermen of Newfoundland is inferior to the American.

A description of the manner of preparing cod roe, as practiced in Norway years
ago, and of the improvements therein suggested by the French Government, has
already been given. The features which give to the Norwegian roe the superiority
which it has continued to maintain, and the points to which Americans must give
careful consideration if they would hope to receive a fair share of the trade, appear
to the writer to be as follows, after a critical comparison of the product of the two
countries as seen in France:

(1) The Norwegian roe is closely packed in the barrels, and when the barrels are opened the
sardine fishermen find them practically full. The roe is evidently salted on shore and then repacked
and pressed in the barrels with some force; and after standing and settling the barrels are apparently
filled again before being finally closed. Barrels of American roe, on the other hand, although the
same size as the others, invariably contain less bait, owing to shrinkage incident to salting, to failure
of the packers to properly fill them in the first place, or to both these causes combined. The roe is
taken from the barrels and carried to the fishing-grounds in buckets. A barrel of Norwegian roe will
fill eight buckets, while often a barrel of American roe will fill only five or six buckets. Barrels of
Newfoundland roe, while larger than the Norwegian, often contain 20 to 25 pounds less of roe.

(2) Norwegian roe is packed dry, and remains dry unless it becomes very old. The barrels con-
tain no undissolved salt and no free brine. The brine which may form after the closing of the barrels
escapes through holes, about one-fourth inch in diameter, bored in the sides of the barrel. Barrels of
American roe are either dry or may contain more or less brine; they are also liable to have consider-
able undissolved salt in the bottom or mixed with the roe. The barrels should contain nothing but
dry roe, as the French fishermen are too economical and too keen to knowingly expend their hard-
earned money for salt and water as bait for sardines. Small shipments of roe from America ten or
more years ago were very unsatisfactory and gave rise to a well-founded prejudice which still prevails
to a considerable extent. Barrels were occasionally found that contained very little roe and were filled
chiefly with salt. “Salt is not good for sardine bait,” was the remark of a dealer at Concarneau. The
quality of American roe in the foregoing respect is now better, although, in the opinion of the fishermen,
there is still much room for improvement.

. (3) The Norwegians observe several grades of roe, depending on the ripeness of the eggs, and
pack them in separate barrels, which bring different prices. The ripeness of the roe determines its
quality as bait, because of the plus or minus of ovarian capsule or membrane, which is thinner and
relatively less in quantity when the eggs are riper. With the American roe no distinction of this kind
is made, but eggs of all degrees of ripeness are mixed. Large pieces of thick ovarian membrane are
often found in the roe from the United States.

(4) The ovaries are salted more or less entire in Norway, and when a barrel is opened the
individual organs may be removed one by one. As the roe needed for fishing is transferred from the
barrels to the buckets by hand, the existence of the whole roe facilitates the work and is appreciated
by the men. American roe is largely a concrete mass of wet eggs with strings of membranes running
through it.

26

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

The foregoing considerations lead to the presentation of the following suggestions
and information for persons who may he in position to undertake the preparation of
bait for use in the sardine fishery:

(«) Ovaries in which the eggs are sufficiently developed to be separable are suitable for bait.
They should be removed and salted as soon as possible after the fish are caught. In the offshore
vessel fisheries the roes may be salted loosely in barrels or vats, and repacked in suitable barrels after
the vessels return to port. In the shore fisheries the salting may be deferred until the boats land their
catch. When practicable, the ovaries should be removed entire and salted between layers of dry,
rather fine, salt. The salting should be thorough, so that no salt need be put in the barrels in which
the roe is shipped.

(b) The repacking of the roe is to be commended and will amply repay the extra labor involved.
The barrels should be of uniform size, neat, and well made. While the size of the barrels is not a
matter of much importance, the sardine fishermen have become accustomed to a barrel holding about
140 to 144 kilograms (308 to 316 pounds) of roe, and their preference should be borne in mind.
Barrels should have not less than 300 pounds of roe, net, and should have no unoccupied space. The
pressing of the roe, in order to completely fill the barrel, is desirable. Escape should be provided for
the brine that may run from the eggs, by boring several small holes near the ends of the barrel.

(c) The grading of the eggs is recommended. Eggs of different degrees of ripeness and from
different species should not be mixed in the same barrel. The amount of ovarian membrane should
be reduced to a minimum; after salting, this can be stripped off more easily than when the eggs were
fresh. Loose eggs, resulting from ovaries ruptured while fresh or in process of salting, should he
packed in separate barrels.

( d ) The barrels should be marked with the name of the packer, together with the kind and grade
of the roe. The eggs of all the members of the cod family may properly he labeled “cod.” The net
weight of the roe (in kilograms) might also be put on each barrel. Backers desirous of establishing
and increasing their trade will of course see that no discrepancy exists between the contents of the
barrels and the marks on the outside.

(e) American bait now goes by steamer to Havre and thence by rail to the fishing towns. The
freight on a barrel of roe from Havre to Concarneau is 6 francs. Roe might be sent directly to the
fishing towns, or to some center on the west coast, from which it might be distributed at less cost than
from Havre. The present duty on roe is about 1 franc per barrel of 144 kilograms. Bait-dealers or
agents may be found in all the leading fishing towns. It is reported that they make a net profit of 20
per cent on the roe handled.

Bull. U. S. F. C. 1 901 . (To face page 26 )

Plate 8.

Contributions from the Biological Laboratory of the U. S. Fish Commission,
Woods Hole, Massachusetts.

BIOLOGICAL NOILS.

No. 2. Issued August, 1901.

NOTES ON THE MIGRATION, SPAWNING, ABUNDANCE, ETC., OF CERTAIN

FISHES IN 1900.

By George IT. Sherwood and Vinal N. Edwards.

Observations on the habits, abundance, spawning, migrations, and on the
influence of physical changes on these phenomena, are here presented for a number
of fishes of the Woods Hole region during the season of 1900:

Tarpon atlanticus, Tarpon.

Mr. H. M. Knowles, of Wakefield, It. I., is authority for the statement that a tarpon 5 feet
long, and so slender that it weighed only 30 pounds, was caught in a fish trap near Dutch Island
Harbor, Narragansett Bay. Another weighing 80 pounds was taken at Marthas Vineyard, and a
smaller one in the Fish Commission trap at Woods Hole. The northern limit of range of this species
is southern New England, but it probably does not breed north of Cuba.

Brevoortia tyrannus, Menhaden.

Although the menhaden season of 1900 was regarded as the most successful in three years, the fish
were exceedingly scarce in this vicinity, particularly during the last of August, at which time it was
impossible to procure any, either in Boston or Newport; and on this account a contemplated trip to
the tile-fish grounds had to be postponed. In Buzzards Bay, however, where all net fishing is
prohibited by law, large schools were present all summer.

Hippocampus hudsonius, Sea-horse.

In August a fine specimen of Hippocampus was dredged by the U. S. Fish Commission steamer
Fish ITawk, outside of Devils Bridge, Gay Head. It was taken to the laboratory and lived for several
days in the aquarium. This is the only one caught for several years.

Scomber scombrus, Mackerel.

Notwithstanding the catch of mackerel along the Atlantic coast was phenomenal, very few were
taken in inshore waters. Even the traps far from the shore off Seaconnet and Newport took scarcely
any. The failure of the mackerel to enter Buzzards Bay and Vineyard Sound is to be attributed in all
probability to the remarkable scarcity of small fish of all kinds. Indeed, seining has never resulted in
the capture of fewer small and young fish than in 1900.

The first mackerel reached Chatham April 29, and on the following day were taken at Cuttyhunk
and Menemsha. The temperature of the water at Woods Hole at this time was 46° F., although
50° F. is apparently more favorable for them. The presence of so many spawning fish near the coast
in 1900 led one to expect that young mackerel would be numerous, but this was not the case. On
July 9 a few young mackerel 2.5 to 3 inches in length were seen in a trap at Woods Hole, but in
a few days they disappeared and no more were recorded in the vicinity until late in the fall, and even
then only in small numbers.

As throwing some light on the question of the equatorial migration of the mackerel, it is of
interest that in 1898 they appeared at Seaconnet, R. I., Chatham, Mass., and Yarmouth, Nova Scotia,
on the same day, May 3.

27

28

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

Sarda sarda, Bonito.

Seventy-five bonito from a trap at Cedar Tree Neck on June 18, 1900, were reported to be the
first arrivals of the season, and throughout the summer on almost every clear day the schools were
breaking at the surface from Gay Head to Woods Hole. On account of the peculiar flavor of its flesh
the bonito has not found a ready market, but it is growing in favor. In 1900 there was a considerable
demand for it, and it brought even better prices than the squeteague. The indications are that the
bonito may largely supplant the latter as an article of food.

Scomberomorus maculatus, Spanish Mackerel.

This delicious food-fish, once quite abundant in Buzzards Bay, is now very scarce. One was
taken in the Fish Commission trap in 1898, and three were caught at different times during the summer
of 1900 in the trap in Vineyard Sound. These were all small fish, weighing 1.5 to 2 pounds.

Trichiurus lepturus, Cutlas-fish.

A specimen 3 feet 8 inches in length was caught in a trap off Newport. Several smaller specimens,
which were also caught in Narragansett Bay, were sent to the Rhode Island Fish Commission. In
October one was taken in a trap at Menemsha.

Pomatomus saltatrix, Blue-fish.

In a note on the abundance of the squeteague reference is made to the gradual decrease in the
numbers of blue-fish which enter the waters of Buzzards Bay and Vineyard Sound. Simultaneously
with this change there has occurred another, equally difficult to explain, in the time of their arrival.
Some twenty years ago the fish were sure to be taken i n t he traps the first or second week in May, while
recently they may be as late as the middle of June. The presence of large schools of blue-fish off
Nantucket and No Mans Land all summer makes it evident that they have not completely deserted
our coast; but just why so few come inshore and why they are so much later in their arrival is not
apparent. In spite of the scarcity of mature fish the young have been very abundant everywhere,
and particularly at Katama Bay, where undoubtedly they have destroyed many of the rare bright-
colored southern forms referred to in Biological Notes No. 1. The rate of growth of the young, as
found in Katama Bay in 1900, is as follows: July 27th, 3 inches; August 8th, 3 to 5 inches; August 29th,
5 to 7 inches; September 24th, 7 to 9 inches; October 3d, 8 to 11 inches.

Centropristes striatus, Sea Bass.

It is to be regretted that, this gamy fish is decreasing so rapidly in numbers. In a short time it
will probably become a rare species in this locality. Hand-lining, even on the spawning-grounds off
Hyannis, was remarkably poor this season, and the abundance of the young does not give promise for
the coming year. As a rule the first adults appear in their seasonal migration during the first
or second week in May, when the water has reached a temperature of 48° to 50° F. However, in
spite of the cold of 1900, they appeared at Cuttyhunk and Menemsha Bight on April 28 — with one
exception the earliest arrival recorded in twenty-five years. Formerly the young were abundant
everywhere, but at present they are restricted to a few localities — Katama Bay, Quisset Harbor, and
Wareham River. The first fry were seined July 31 and measured three-fourths of an inch in length.
On the 20th of October young fish 2 to 3 inches long were very plentiful in Katama Bay.

liobotes surinamensis, Flasher, Triple-tail.

The Rhode Island Fish Commission has in its possession a specimen of Lobotes weighing 6
pounds and measuring 22 inches in length, caught on September 10 in a trap off Prudence Island,
Narragansett Bay. This inhabitant of all tropical seas is a very rare visitor in the waters of southern
New England. Not more than six specimens have been recorded from this vicinity in the last
twenty years.

Stenotomus chrysops, Soup.

The catch of scup this year has been good, but not extraordinary. The first arrivals were taken
off Newport April 21, at Cuttyhunk April 26, and five days later at Woods Hole. This was an average
arrival, although the water was 2° to 3° F. below the average. The adult fish usually leave in October,
while the young may remain a month or more longer. Hundreds of the latter are killed every year
by the sudden changes of temperature.

The growth of fry as observed at Woods Hole is as follows: July 3d, 0.5 to 1.5 inches; August
2d, 1.5 to 2 inches; September 6th, 2 to 3 inches; September 29th, 3 to 4 inches; November 1st, 4 inches.

BIOLOGICAL NOTES.

29

Roccus lineatus, Striped Bass.

Three specimens of striped bass were caught in the Fish Commission trap on July 21, 1900. The
largest weighed 20 pounds. Several others were taken by the summer sportsmen with hook and line,
and at Cuttyhunk they were reported as large and more plentiful than usual.

Cynoscion regalis, Squeteague.

The first squeteague of the season were taken at Cuttyhunk on May 5, 1900, and nine days later
they reached Woods Hole. The water temperature at this time was 50° F. Compared with previous
years, the arrival was a little later than usual; but since the temperature of the water during the spring
was below the average, this was to be expected. As a rule, the first run of squeteague, like that of
other migratory species, is composed of large adult fish, while the yearlings appear about two weeks
later. During the spring of 1900, however, the reverse was true, small fish, weighing from 2 to 3
pounds, coming first. Toward the last of May, during the run of large fish, one was caught at
Cuttyhunk which weighed 14 pounds. The abundance of the squeteague was remarkable. In the
Menemsha traps alone 10,000 were taken in a single day (July 31); and, in fact, they were so plenty
throughout the season that they ruined their own market and did not bring enough to pay the
shipping bills. Many of the Vineyard fishermen retained the fish in the pockets, waiting for better
prices, but a heavy northeast storm tore up the nets in the fall, and most of the summer’s catch
was lost.

Observations on the first appearance of the fry, their growth, and their abundance have been
continued. The results are given in the following table, although much more complete data have
been collected by Professor Eigenmann. The rate of growth corresponded with that of the blue-fish:

Date.

Locality.

Length.

Julv 25

Wareham River

Inches.

1. 25 to 2. 25

Very scarce.

Aug. 2

do

2

3

Do.

Aug. 5

Red Bridge, Providence River

1.25

2.25

Abundant.

Aug. 22

Wareham River (farther up)

3.75

5

Very scarce.

Oct. 5

Acushnet River

6

7.25

Do.

When, a few years ago, a bill to prohibit all net fishing in Buzzards Bay was presented to the
Massachusetts legislature, one of the strongest arguments of its supporters was that the bay was the
natural spawning-ground of the food-fishes, and therefore their decrease was attributed to excessive
trap fishing. A careful study of the records of the movements of the squeteague for the last thirty
years has revealed some striking facts which have an important bearing on this question. Notwith-
standing protective legislation, it is very evident that breeding squeteague have ceased to enter
Buzzards Bay in any considerable numbers; for while twenty years ago the young could be seined
almost anywhere in the vicinity of Woods Hole (at Great Harbor, Hadley Harbor, Nobska Beach, and
Quisset), there are now only two localities in Buzzards Bay and Vineyard Sound where they are
found — at Ware ham, near the head of the bay, and in Acushnet, River, on the New Bedford side.
Even in these places their numbers are greatly reduced.

The former abundance of the young was due in all probability to the fact that the adults spawned
in the open bay or outside waters, and since the buoyant eggs were subject to the influence of winds
and currents, they were carried hither and thither until finally lodged in the protected harbors and
inlets. Such conditions would tend to distribute the eggs more or less uniformly along the shores of
the bay, and the fry would not be restricted to the present areas. On the other hand, with the
remarkable increase of the adults, if they still continued to spawn in the same places, there would
have been a correspondingly large increase of the young.

It may be argued that the spawn is deposited in the same places as formerly, but that the eggs
merely drift into the estuaries — Wareham River and Acushnet River. But this does not seem at
all probable, since the outward current in these rivers is stronger and longer continued than the
inward. A more plausible explanation is that the few adults entering these rivers find conditions
favorable, and therefore spawn, while the great majority of the fish seek other localities. The Rhode
Island fishermen who control the sea traps off Seaconnet and Newport say that whereas years ago
they used to catch plenty of squeteague at the mouth of the bay, very few are ever seen there now.
They believe that the fish no longer run in offshore waters, but enter the bays and inlets. Substantiating

30

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

this is the extraordinary abundance of the fry during the past few years in Narragansett Bay, particu-
larly in its upper part, near Red Bridge and India Point. Even here great numbers of them were killed
in 1900 by Peridinium. For two weeks or more in September this small protozoan infested the waters
of the upper bay in such numbers that the water was almost a blood-red color, and as a result young
squeteague, together with fish of several other species, were piled in windrows on the shore. There is
but one conclusion to be drawn from the foregoing facts — the squeteague has changed its spawning-
grounds within a few years, and, judging from the abundance of the young, Narragansett Bay is the
more favorable locality at the present time.

The study of the yearly records has also shown that a definite relation exists between the
abundance of squeteague and blue-fish. Twenty years ago 100 squeteague were considered a remarkable
catch, but now it is not uncommon to take 4,000 at a single draft of a trap. On the other hand,
twenty years ago blue-fish were so plentiful that barrels of them were shipped daily, while in 1900 not
over 50 were recorded from the bay or sound. There can be but little doubt that the marvelous increase
of the squeteague has been made possible by the disappearance of one of its most dangerous enemies —
the savage blue-fish.

Tautogolabrus adspersus, Gunner.

Barrels of cunners were killed by the extreme cold of February, 1901, and were seen floating on
the surface with the tautog.

Tautoga onitis, Tautog.

Fewer tautog were caught in the vicinity of Woods Hole than last year. In fact, many liook-
and-line fishermen were compelled to seek other employment, but just the reverse obtained in Narra-
gansett Bay. According to the report of the Rhode Island Fish Commission for 1900, the tautog in
Narragansett Bay were very abundant and of large size, some weighing 13 pounds. Capt. Isaac L.
Church, of Tiverton, R. I., who has followed tautog fishing for many years, says that they are as
abundant now as they ever were. Young tautog were numerous along all shores during the summer,
but more particularly at Katama Bay, where they actually occurred in shoals. For several days in
February, 1901, tautog were found floating on the surface, evidently killed by the anchor ice, which
formed nearly all the month. The outlook for next season’s fishing is less promising than ever.

Lagocephalus lsevigatus, Smooth Puffer.

During 1900 several specimens of this occasional visitor were taken in the vicinity of Woods Hole.
In the fall two adults were caught in a trap at Cedar Tree Neck. The Rhode Island Fish Commission
reports three specimens from Narragansett Bay; the largest, taken October 4 at Tiverton, R. I., weighed
10 pounds; the other two were caught the week before at the mouth of the bay. The smooth puffers
are common in the South, but very rare north of Cape Hatteras. Their average length is 2 feet. The
young from 2.5 to 4 inches long were found by the U. S. Fish Commission in the waters of Porto Rico.

Pollachius virens, Pollock.

During the spring of 1900 the young appeared as usual with the small cod. Years ago the adults
were plenty in the sound, but now only a few stragglers are seen.

Microgadus tomcod, Tomcod.

The tomcod during the winter of 1900-1901 were entirely free from parasites (Lernxonema radiata) .
Some seasons nearly all the fish are infected.

Gadus callarias, Cod.

The number of cod taken in Vineyard Sound during the fall of 1900 was unprecedented. Off
Bowbell Ledge the fishermen gave up fishing for tautog and made cod fishing their business. The cod
were all plump and in good condition, weighing from 4 to 20 pounds. In Great Harbor, where the
cod seldom enter, they were so plenty that 10 specimens were taken in the fyke nets in October, 15
were taken in November, and 45 in December. With one exception these were good marketable fish,
weighing from 4 to 16 pounds, and were quite different from the thin, flabby specimens occasionally
taken here. Five were spawners.

That the cod have not decreased off Nantucket is evidenced by the remarkable catch made by the
Grampus in this locality during November and December, 1900. More than 3,000 brood cod were
brought back to the station for the hatching season. The cod were equally abundant around No Man’s

BIOLOGICAL NOTES.

31

Land, but the fisheries were a failure because of the scarcity of bait. Herring were not running and
quahogs could not be obtained in sufficient numbers.

On January 30, 1901, 500 to 600 cod, of which 48 had been stripped and the remainder were barren
fish, were left in the cars to be tagged. On the following day there was a fall of snow and the temper-
ature of the water began to fall from 31° F. and for the greater part of February remained at 28° F.
Ice was formed in the harbor and all the cod died. This would go to show that the cod adapt them-
selves to abrupt changes in temperature by migrating to deeper water.

Rhinonemus cimbrius, Four-bearded Rockling.

Young rockling were taken in the surface towings at the Fish Commission wharf from June 27 to
July 6, 1900. They formed in schools in the eddies around the wall and were mixed with young
sticklebacks ( Gasterosteus bispinosus). Their length was 0.5 to 1.375 inches. The rockling is found in
all North Atlantic waters, and although it is said to be abundant in Massachusetts Bay, only two
specimens have been reported from Woods Hole. One measuring 10 inches in length was speared in
the Eel Pond January 5, 1889; the second was caught in Little Harbor also in the winter, but there is
no record of the exact date. The young have never before been taken here.

Hippoglossus hippoglossus, Halibut.

On April 16, 1900, there was brought into Newport a halibut weighing 100 pounds, which with
others was caught off Block Island by cod-fishermen. Halibut were formerly abundant in this locality
and in Vineyard Sound, but none have been taken for several years. This catch leads one to hope
that this valuable food-fish may return to its old grounds.

Pseudopleuronectes americanus, Flat-fish.

An illustration of the effect of a sudden fall of temperature on the behavior of fish was given in
February and March, 1900. The flat-fish had been plentiful both at. Great Harbor and Waquoit Bay
throughout February up to the 23d, when they entirely disappeared, and none were taken again until
March 6. The records show that after the 23d the temperature of the water dropped from 35° F. to
29° F., and that on March 6 it rose again to 32° F.

The normal breeding season of flat-fish is from February to May, and it is very unusual to find
them with mature sexual products before January; but in 1900 seven specimens of the hatch of 1898,
caught in Eel Pond on November 20, had ripe milt. Again, on November 27, three out of four flat-
fish caught in a fyke net set in Great Harbor were ripe milters, and on the following day, at the same
place, two females were taken, swollen with eggs, and in such condition that had they been taken in
February they probably would have spawned within two days. Never before have flat-fish with ripe
sperm been taken so early, and it is possible that the unusually warm water of October and November,
1900, may have caused this premature development of eggs and milt. The last flat-fish with ripe eggs
for the season of 1899-1900 was taken April 25. Although it is generally believed that flat-fish extrude
their eggs only at night, on March 14,1901, a large fish, which had been in the fish-boxes at the
hatchery a day or two, spawned in the middle of the afternoon.

In regard to the “black-bellied” fish, the report of the Rhode Island Fish Commission for 1900
states: “ It is an extremely interesting fact that the dark-bellied variety, which gradually came into
notice several years ago and attained the maximum of its abundance in 1898, is on the decline. Last
season, according to a trustworthy estimate, only about 4 per cent were colored on the under surface,
while three years ago at least 33 per cent were so colored.” Among 300 flat-fish from Waquoit Bay
this season (1900-1901) there was not a single specimen of the black-bellied variety, although last
year Ur. Bumpus reported several. This variation seems to have completely disappeared.

A young flat-fish, 1.5 inches long, was seined at Katama Bay August 15, 1900; the posterior two-
thirds of its upper surface was devoid of pigment, and a distinct line separated the two areas. The
scales were different in structure from the normal, and the presence of a deep notch on the dorsal side
of the tail suggested that the lack of pigment may have been produced through injury or disease,
although the surface was apparently free from any lesion. This is the first time that this variation
has been observed, although Mr. Edwards has seined in the vicinity of Woods Hole for thirty years.
Lophius piscatorius, Goose-fish.

During the fall of 1900, goose-fish were very abundant in Great Harbor, and late in the fall
several large ones were washed ashore. This is of considerable interest, because the fish is not often
seen near Woods Hole, although numerous at Menemsha and Cuttyhunk, where the shores are
frequently lined with their bleached skeletons.

32

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

ADDITIONS TO THE FISH FAUNA IN 1900.

By Hugh M. Smith.

The already surprisingly large fish fauna of the Woods Hole region was
augmented by four southern species during the fall of 1900. These bring the
total number of species known from the vicinity to 213. Following are the species
new to the region:

Exocoetus rondeletii (Cuvier & Valenciennes). Flying-fish.

This common species of the West Indies and the Mediterranean has been recorded from United
States waters only in Florida. A specimen 7.25 inches long was caught in a trap at Menemsha Bight,
October 13.

Ocyurus chrysurus (Bloch). Yellow-tail.

The normal range of this species is southern Florida to South America. It is an abundant food-
fish at Key West. On October 4, an example 5.5 inches long was seined in Katama Bay.

Scarus croicensis (Bloch). Parrot-fisli.

This is a common West Indian species, the northern limit of whose known range heretofore has
been Key West. Two specimens 3 inches long were taken in Katama Bay, October 20, the water
temperature being 57° F.

Sparisoma flavescens (Bloch & Schneider). Mad Parrot-fisli.

This, the commonest species of the genus, is abundant at Key West and throughout the West
Indies. It was not known north of Florida until a specimen 6 inches long was found at Woods Hole
on November 13; it had been benumbed by the cold and was picked up on the shore of Buzzards Bay.

NOTES ON THE SUBTROPICAL FISHES OBSERVED IN 1900.

By Hugh M. Smith.

The season as a whole was unfavorable, and compared with 1899 there was a
scarcity of tropical species. No gulf weed was seen in any of the inshore waters, and
there was little wind from the direction of the Gulf Stream. Nevertheless, some rare
fishes were found, and a number of species which until 1899 had been considered very
uncommon were taken in abundance. Most of the collecting was done in Katama
Kay, which the previous season’s experience had shown to be the most favorable
locality in the vicinity of Woods Hole, and only in this body of water were any of
the typical southern fishes found. Large blue-fish and flounders were abundant at
the inlet of the bay through the summer, and may have picked up many of the small
gaily-colored stragglers from the south.

Clupanodon pseudohispanicus (Poey). Spanish Sardine.

There was a sudden fall of temperature on November 16, and a number of these fish, 5 to 6 inches
long, were picked up on the shore in a benumbed condition; these were the first specimens observed
in four or five years.

Holocentrus sp. Squirrel-fish.

One very small specimen, apparently representing the same species as the one taken in 1899, was
obtained August 28.

Epinephelus niveatus (Cuvier & Valenciennes). Snowy Grouper.

Thirty-five small specimens were seined in Katama Bay on nine occasions between August 15 and
October 26. The largest number taken during one day was 12, on September 8.

Epinephelus morio (Cuvier & Valenciennes). Red Grouper.

A small specimen, similar in size and appearance to those obtained in the same locality in 1899,
was taken September 26.

BIOLOGICAL NOTES.

83

Mycteroperca bonaci (Poey). Marbled Rock-fish.

One specimen, 3 inches long, was taken August 15.

Mycteroperca venenosa (Linnaeus). Yellow-finned Grouper.

Eight small specimens were secured on four different days (August 8 and 28, September 8,
and October 20).

Pseudopriacanthus altus Gill. Short Big-eye.

Comparatively rare, only 9 being observed between August 15 and September 8, whereas in the
previous year over 100 were taken.

Neomaenis griseus (Linnaeus). Gray Snapper.

Five specimens, the largest 1.875 inches long, were seined in Katama Bay on August 29. The
general color is pale, with 6 or 8 narrow, dark, longitudinal stripes; spinous dorsal tin dark, with a
sharply defined blackish bar involving the distal part of the fin, the extreme edge being white. Only
two specimens, taken in September, 1897, were previously obtained in this region. The species appears
to range normally as far north as Chesapeake Bay.

Neomaenis apodus (Walbaum). Schoolmaster.

There has been only one previous record of the occurrence of this snapper north of Florida —
namely, September 20, 1888, when an example 5.5 inches long was taken at Woods Hole. On August
29 and September 11, 1900, two specimens, 1 inch and 1.5 inches long, respectively, were caught in
Katama Bay. The general color of the body is pale yellow, with 6 to 8 dark crossbands; a dark line
extends from snout through eye to upper end of gill opening; several narrow dark lines run on head
posterior to eye; anal fin red. ,

Neomaenis blackfordi (Goode & Bean) . Red Snapper.

Nine specimens, the largest under 2 inches long, were seined September 7, September 11, and
October 20. Their colors in life were as follows: General color, red like the adult fish; body marked
by about 7 double dark crossbands; in the crossband nearest the junction of the two parts of the dorsal
fin is a large jet-black blotch extending from the fin to below the lateral line; spinous dorsal dusky;
soft dorsal with a dusky median zone and a dark edge; caudal pale, with a dark narrow border. The
only other red snapper recorded for this region is a specimen 'weighing 8.5 pounds, taken in
October, 1890.

Neomaenis analis (Cuvier & Valenciennes). Mutton-fish.

Twenty specimens of this snapper were taken, between August 28 and October 12, the largest
being 2 inches long. These resemble the young red snapper in being banded and having a black
lateral spot; the bands, however, are rather broader and more sharply defined, and the spot is smaller,
less distinct, and does not extend to the median line of the back. This species was regarded as very
rare until 1899, when more than 20 small examples were observed.

Chaetodon ocellatus Bloch. Butterfly-fish.

This species, formerly a rare straggler, must now be regarded as common, in the light of the
experience of the past few years. In 1900 123 specimens were taken; the fish being found in Katama
Bay on 13 different occasions between August 15 and October 26; 26 were seined on September 8, and
21 on October 3.

Chaetodon bricei Smith. Butterfly -fish.

About 35 were observed on ten different days, in company with the preceding species.

Teuthis coeruleus (Bloch & Schneider). Blue Tang.

Teuthis hepatus Linnaeus. Tang.

Teuthis bahianus (Castlenau). Tang.

A few specimens of each of these species were taken in August, September, and October. They
were last observed on October 3, when one of each was secured.

Lactophrys tricornis (Linnaeus). Cow-fish.

Two specimens only 0. 25 of an inch long were taken October 4.

Scorpaena plumieri Bloch. Scorpion-fish.

Two small specimens were obtained October 20 and 26.

F. C. B, 1901—3

Contributions from the Biological Laboratory of the U. S. Fish Commission,
Woods Hole, Massachusetts.

DESCRIPTION OF A NEW OCEANIC FISH FOUND OFF SOUTHERN NEW

ENGLAND.

By CARL H. EIGBNMANN,
Professor of Zoology , University of Indiana.

Psenes edwardsii, sp. now

Head 3; depth 2; I), xii-i, 30; A. in, 28; V. i, 5; lateral line about 140. Depth
of head over middle of eye little less than its length; eye 1 in snout, 3.6 in head, 1.4
in interorbital; width of body at axils 2.5 in length of head; maxillary reaching front
of eye; no adipose lid; top of head fatty, with few pores; pectoral broadly rounded,

Psenes edwardsii.

1.5 in head; ventral shorter than head by half diameter of eye; highest dorsal spine
2 in head; highest dorsal ray 1.T5 in head. Translucent; back thickly covered with
pigment cells; these extend below the lateral line, and along base of anal; abdominal
region entirely free from pigment; spinous dorsal, ventrals, and caudal dark; other
tins dusky; a dark band on the soft dorsal and anal just beyond the scaly base.

36

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

Type (No. 4974:5, U.S.N.M.), a single specimen, 90 mm. long, taken about July 28,
1900, by the schooner Grampus, from under a medusa, 30 miles south of Newport,
Rhode Island. This species is evidently closely related to Psenes pellucidus, from
Avhich it differs in the longer snout, smaller eye, fewer fin rays, rounded fins, etc.

I take great pleasure in associating with this species the name of Mr. Vinal N.
Edwards, who has been connected with the U. S. Fish Commission as collector since
its establishment thirty years ago, and who assisted Prof. S. F. Baird as collector
before the establishment of the Commission.

The genus Psenes is distinguished by Goode & Bean (Oceanic Ichthyology, p. 219)
from Nomeus and other genera of the Nomeidce by “Pectorals long, surpassing ven-
trals * * but in their description and figure of Psenes pelUtcidus the ventrals

are given as 5 mm. longer than the pectorals. The first dorsal of Psenes is said to
possess 6 to 10 spines, while Psenes pellucidus is figured as possessing 12 spines. In
the description of the family of Nomeidce the palate is said to possess teeth, while in
their description of the genus Psenes teeth are described for the jaws only. These
mistakes are repeated by Jordan & Evermann in The Fishes of North and Middle
America (pp. 948-950). In their synopsis of the families of the Scombroidei , Jordan
& Evermann (p. 863) distinguish the Norneidm from the Stromateidce by the absence
in the latter of tooth-like processes in the oesophagus. The specimen of Psenes
under consideration has an enlarged oesophagus with denticles like those found in the
Stromateidce. As far as I am able to make out in small specimens of Nomms the
oesophagus is similarly modified. The Nomeidce are readily distinguished from
the Stromateidce by their large number of vertebrae.

Contributions from the Biological Laboratory of the U. S. Fish Commission,
Woods Hole, Massachusetts.

THE EGG AND DEVELOPMENT OE THE CONGER EEL.

By CARL H. EIGENMANN,

Prof essor of Zoology , University of Indiana.

On July 31, 1900, at 10 o’clock a. in., the U. S. Fish Commission schooner
Grampus, while on the tile-fish grounds about 30 miles south of South Shoal, secured
some pelagic fish eggs. These egg's were collected by Dr. Porter E. Sargent.
Among them were many which he supposed to be the eggs of the tile-fish, which
they resembled in many respects.1 They were brought to the Woods Hole labora-
tory on August 1. It was soon seen that they were the eggs of some eel, and since
no eel eggs had been observed in American waters, in fact, none outside a limited
region in the Mediterranean, it seemed doubly desirable to follow their development.

When the eggs were secured, the gastrula was said to cover about half of the
yolk. On August 1 the tail was well developed. During the night between August
2 and 3 many of them hatched. The last one died in the night between August 13
and 11. The eggs were divided into two lots on August 1. Some were left in running
sea water, others placed in a shallow dish of standing water. Since, on August 2,
many of those in the running water had died while none of those in standing water
perished, they were all placed in standing water, which was occasionally changed.

Before describing these eggs more in detail, a brief review of the eel-development
question may be given. The ancient history is given fully by Jacoby.2 The modern
history begins with the discovery of Raffaele,3 who in 1888 described five species of
pelagic fish eggs secured during August, September, October, and November, which,
on account of the character of the larva? they produced, he referred to species of eels.
This is the first description of the developing eggs of any eel-like fishes. The common
characters of the eggs described by Raffaele are: (1) Their large size; (2) the large
peri vitelline space; (3) the delicate membrane lacking pore canals and usually with
iridescent reflections; (1) the vesicular yolk. They differed from each other in size
and in the possession or absence of an oil -sphere.

The eggs and larva? derived from the eggs secured by Raffaele. were characterized
as follows: No. 6 had a large peri vitelline space, diameter of the eggs 2 to 2.5 mm.,
diameter of thevitellus 1.20 to 1.50 mrn.,1 to 3 oil-spheres of 0.30 to. 0.35 mm. The
larva developing from this possessed 72 (or 73) abdominal segments. No. 7 had a

'Ripe eggs taken from a tile-fish and preserved in formalin measure as follows: The yellow oil-sphere 0.2 mm., the
yolk 1.09 mm., from membrane to membrane 1.25 mm. The eggs are much smaller than those of the eel here described.

2 Report U. S. Risk Commission, 1879.

3Le Uova Galleggianti e le Larve dei Teleostei nel Golfo di Napoli. Mittheilungen aus der Zool. Station zu Neapel,
8, pp. 1-84, tav. 1-5.

37

88

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

diameter of 3 mm., 6 to 12 oil-spheres which occupied the posterior (ventro-anterior
in the figure) part of the vitellus when the embryo developed; 59 (60?) abdominal
segments were developed. No. 8 had a diameter of 2 mm. and about 30 oil-spheres;
the larva had 72 (73?) abdominal segments. No. 9 had a diameter of 2 mm., the yolk
attached to the membrane by filaments; when the young developed, the oil-sphere
occupied an anterior position and had the form of a club; 66 (67?) abdominal
segments; larva much smaller than that of No. 6. No. 10 had a diameter of- 2.7
mm., was without oil-sphere, and yielded a larva with 44 (45?) abdominal segments.

All of these were taken between August and November, being more abundant in
September and October. The earlier stages had a well-formed blastodermic callote.
The yolk becomes well constricted after the blastodermic rim has passed the equator.
The larvae had a number of characters in common, viz, an enormous fourth ventricle,
a large oesophageal pouch, an elongate body with numerous abdominal segments, the
position of the anus about halfway to the margin of the ventral fin fold, very large
and striking teeth, and a series of pigment spots along the lower parts of the sides.

When the larva is five or six days old it is slender and elongated, with a greatly
compressed body, very transparent, and with little pigment. The vitellus is very
elongated and diminishes from in front backwards. The intestine ends in the ventral
fin fold a short distance from the body in a small accumulation of cells. The noto-
chord is formed of a single series of segments. The mouth opens during the second
day after hatching. The teeth develop rapidly. Three pairs are developed in the
upper jaw. This dentition is absolutely exceptional among fishes. Contemporane-
ously with the development of the mouth the choroidal pigment and five or six black
pigmented spots form along the body. No noteworthy changes take place between the
fourth and fifth days after hatching. Beyond this time Raffaele was unable to rear the
eggs. He supposed these eggs to be those of eels, without more closely identifying
them. Grassi, in his epoch-making researches in eel development,1 identified Raffaele’s
egg No. 10, without oil-spheres and with a diameter of 2.7 mm., as that of the com-
mon European eel, Anguilla vulgaris. While unable to keep eggs like those described
by Raffaele — which he secured at Naples — alive for many days, he showed that the
newly hatched larvae described by Raffaele have essentially the character of Legyto-
cephali. He states that females of eels can only mature in very profound depths, i. e.,
at least a depth of 500 meters. The male can mature in shallow water:

Fertilization takes place at great depths; the eggs float in the water; nevertheless they remain at
a great depth in the sea, and only exceptionally, for unknown reasons, some of them mount to the sur-
face. From the egg issue rapidly a prse-larva, which becomes a larva {Leptocephalus) with the anus and
urinary opening near the tip of the tail. The larva then becomes a hemi-larva, the two apertures
just named moving their position toward the anterior part of the body, which becomes thickened and
nearly round. By further change the hemi-larva assumes the definitive or adult form. The larva, as
well as the hemi-larva, shows a length of body much greater than that exhibited by the young Murse-
noid of adult form into which they are transformed. By keeping specimens in an aquarium I was able
to establish a diminution of more than 4 cm. during the metamorphosis. With regard to the greatest

1Grassi, B. The Reproduction and Metamorphosis of the Common Eel (Anguilla vulgaris), Q. J. M. S., vol. 39, page 371.

Grassi, B., and Calandruccio, S.

a. Ulteriori ricerche sulle raetamorfosi dei Murenoidi. Rend. Acc. Lincei, vr, p. 43.

b. Descrizione d’ un Leptocephalus brevirostris in via di trasformarsi in Anguilla vulgaris. L. C. pp. 239, 240 (Trans-

lation in Nature, LVi,p.85).

c. Reproduzione e metamorfosi della Anguille. Giorn. Ital. Pesca e Acqui., 1887, Nos. 7, 8. (Abstract in Monit. Zool.

Ital., vin, pp. 233 and 234.)

THE EGG AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE CONGER EEL.

3V)

length which the larva can attain in a given species, and the amount of diminution which accompanies
metamorphosis, there are great individual variations.

Grassi assumes that three vertebrae develop to correspond to the first four proto-
vertebrae and one for each following protovertebra. He “ascertained in an absolute
manner that during the metamorphosis of the Muraenoids the number neither of the
myomeres, nor of the vertebral arches, nor of the spinal ganglia, is subjected to any
change.” He referred the following Leptocephali to their respective species:

Leptocephalus brevirostris Anguilla vulgaris.

Leptocephalus stenops (in part), morrisii, punctatus Conger vulgaris.

Leptocephalus haeckeli, yarreli, bibroni, gegenbauri, koilikeri, stenops (in pariJ.Congromurtena mystax.

Leptocephalus ttenia, inomatus, diaphanus Congromuraena balearica.

Leptocephalus kefersteini Numerous species of Ophichthys.

Leptocephalus longirostris and Hyoprorus messanensi.s Nettastoma melanuruni.

Leptocephalus oxyrhynchus Saurenchelys cancrivora.

The eggs described by Raffaele have all the characteristics of pelagic eggs, and the
one to be described here, which is very closely related to No. 6 of Raffaele, is
certainly a typical pelagic egg. Grassi also secured the eggs of eels on the surface at
Naples. Why, under the circumstances, he concludes that “they remain at great
depths in the sea, and only exceptionally, for unknown reasons, some of them mount
to the surface ” is not apparent. Being lighter than sea water, having oil-spheres, and
being in all respects typical pelagic eggs found on the surface, we must conclude
that “if fertilization takes place at great depths” it must be “only exceptionally,
for unknown reasons,” that they remain at the great depths. The fact that Raffaele
never secured eggs younger than when the gastrula was well formed would favor the
supposition that they were fertilized at a great depth and rose slowly in the water.

Cunningham’s interesting observations on the conger eel, if they are generally
true for eels, would account for the fact that ripe females are rarely taken, and those
of Schmidtlein and Hermes point against the supposition of Grassi that the females of
eels in general ripen only at depths of at least 500 meters.

Schmidtlein 1 2 and Hermes 8 both noted that female conger eels sometimes died in
confinement, the result of excessive development of ovaries which were not emptied.

In 1888 Cunningham3 wrote:

No one has yet, I believe, seen the fertilized egg of either the eel or the conger, although the
ovaries and testes have been recognized and described.

He had not at that time found a male conger. In a later paper4 he gives a
general resume of the work done on the conger. He himself found a perfectly ripe
male 45 cm. long on December 13. Its eyes were strikingly prominent and its mouth
short and broad. On December lb, among 9 congers caught, one 48 cm. and one

1 Schmidtlein, R.

Beobachtungen fiber Trachtigkeits- und Eiablage-Perioden verschiedner Seethiere. Mitth. aus der zool. Station su
Neapel. I, p. 135, 1879. (Young conger eels scarcely 3 cm. long are captured in the middle of April.)

Beobachtungen fiber die Lebensweise einiger Seethiere innerhalb der Aquarien der zoologischen Station. Mitth. aus
der zool. Station zu Neapel. I, p. 492. (Ripe female conger eels sometimes come to the surface and die from the
presence of excessive numbers of ripe eggs, which for unknown reasons are not expelled.)

2 Hermes, Otto.

Zoologischer Anzeiger, vol. iv, 1881.

The Propagation of the Eel. Rept. United States Fish Commission, 1879, pp. 457-463, 1882. Translated from circula-
No. 6, November 25, 1880, of the Deutscher Fischerei-Verein.

The Migration of Eels. Rept. United States Fish Commission, 1884, p. 1123, 1888.

3The Breeding of the Conger. Journ. M. B. A., old series, No. 2, p. 245, 1888.

,On the Reproduction and Development of the Conger. Journ. M. B. A., new series, n, p. 16, 1891.

40

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

66 cm. were males. The sexes can be detected by the following constant secondary
sexual characters: The head in the female from above appears triangular, in the male
the snout is distinctly blunter. In the
female the snout is rounded in transec-
tion, in the male the surfaces of the
snout are flat. 1 During December, Jan-
uary, and February Cunningham col-
lected 8 male congers. The largest
female conger ceased to feed in March.

On July 24 a few eggs were obtained by
squeezing. These contained no oil-
spheres and sank in water with a density
of 1.027. The diameter of one after the
formation of the perivitelline space was
1.6 mm. This female died on Septem-
ber 10. Her ovaries weighed 7 pounds
5 ounces. The “ovaries increase very
much in size and weight during the fast-
ing period at the expense of the rest of
the body, while in the total weight of
the fish a great reduction takes place.

Each conger eel breeds only once in a
lifetime.” He calculated the eggs in another female to be 7,925,280. Out of a total
number of 34 congers 11 were males and 23 were females. That no ripe congers are
caught is because they do not feed for weeks before becoming ripe.

Fig. 1. — Outline of embryo, showing position in membrane and
shape of the yolk. August 1.

Fig. 2. — Outline of enlarged part of the
yolk and yolk-sac of an embryo of
the same age as fig. 1 , from below.

Fig. 3. — Embryo freed from its membrane, showing beginning
of the constriction of yolk at its anterior end. August 1.

The eggs secured by Dr. Sargent measure 2.4 to 2.75 mm. from membrane to
membrane.2 The yolk, as in the eggs described by Raflaele, is made up of trans-

1 In Nineteenth Report of the Commission of Fisheries of New York, page 280, Bean describes 5 male eels. It is very
probable from Grassi’s observations that these were the males of the common eel in their nuptial dress.

2 Among other eggs collected by Dr. Sargent and preserved in formalin were six with many of the characters of eel
eggs. They were large, with a very large perivitelline space, the yolk in spheres and with one large and a number of
smaller oil-spheres. These eggs were notably larger than those brought home alive. They measure 3 mm. from membrane
to membrane; the yolk measures 1.75 mm, or a little more. It is possible that these are identical with those to be described.
The germ lies at one side of the egg, the oil-sphere at the other.

THE EGG AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE CONGER EEL.

41

parent spheres not unlike those of the eggs of certain clupeoids. There are present,
from one to six light-yellow oil-spheres of variable size. If more than one are present,
then one is always much larger than any of the others. The yolk measures 1.75 to 2
mm. Some of the young were found to be hatched on the morning of August 3.

d'

Fig. 4. — Embryo freed from its membrane, showing continued constriction of anterior end
of yolk and general diminution of the enlarged anterior portion of yolk with the corre-
sponding increase of caudal portion of yolk. August 2, 7.30 a. m.

Since many of these developed gaping jaws and some others, which did not hatch till
several days later, developed normally, it is possible that the early hatching was
not normal, Raft'aele’s eggs hatched in five or six days. He was able to keep them
four or five days after hatching. For some time after hatching the larvae floated
with their heads upward — the probable
result of the location of the oil-spheres.

On August 6 they had assumed a normal
horizontal position and the characteristic
eel-like progression, but the pectorals
were not yet used in swimming. Later
they were seen eeling their way through
the water, not infrequently nosing about
the bottom and voraciously seizing any-
thing that came in their wa}f.

The characteristic feature of the
eggs at the time I began to observe them.

August 1, was the shape of the yolk.

The bulk of this occupied the usual posi-
tion, but a narrow stalk extended back
below the alimentary canal. The oil-
sphere or spheres occupied the extreme
anterior part of the yolk 1 (figs. 1 and 2).

The further history of the yolk in this
species is unique among fishes and not
sufficiently emphasized by Raffaele. In

fig. 3 it is seen that the yolk is no longer rounded anteriorly, but that it ends j n a
marked protuberance and that the oil-sphere lies in this. The general mass of the
yolk still retains the original shape and distribution. The anterior protuberance
now becomes longer and at the same time narrower, so that the oil-sphere loses its
rotundity and becomes elongate (fig. 4). At the same time the general mass of the

Fig. 5. — An embryo, of the same stage as Fig. 4, in its mem-
brane, from below.

1 All drawings were made from living specimens, or such as had just been killed by formalin,
alimentary canal; fv, fourth ventricle; ylk, yolk; l, liver; h, heart; o, oil-spheres.

In the drawings, al,

42

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

yolk diminishes rapidly in the yolk-sac, while in the elongated pouch along the
ventral side of the alimentary canal no diminution is evident. On the contrary, there
is an apparent increase; the entire yolk-sac becomes notably longer with the increase
in the length of the body. Very soon (figs. 6 and 7) the oil-spheres, much elon-
gated, with a small surrounding-
mass, are all that remains as a
spindle-shaped figure (fig. 6) in
the yolk-sac.

The yolk-sac does not at once
lose its shape and bulk, but serves
as an unusually large pericardial
chamber which is equaled only in
the practically yolkless Cymato -
gaster. On August 5 the yolk
along the alimentary canal had
suffered little diminution, and its
outlines were quite regular (figs.

8 and 9). On August 6 this part
of the yolk had become constricted
in places, the outlines being less
regular (fig. 10). The yolk had
become yellowish in color and
more fluid than vesicular. On the following day the constriction had deepened, and
on August 11 the remains of the yolk were located in a series of minute globule
more or less widely separated from each other. Long before this condition wa.-
reached, about August 8, the larvae were taking food.

The number of segments developed in front of the anus differs slightly, ranging
from 65 to 71. The number beyond this point could not be determined exactly. The

Fig. 6. — Head and anterior part of body, showing the continued reduc-
tion of the yolk and the very large fourth ventricle. August 3.
Fig. 7. — Outline of a larva somewhat older than that of fig. 6.

notochord consists in its anterior fourth of single segments (fig. 11). In its middle;
region the segments do not extend through its entire thickness, but in the tail it is
again formed of single segments. The lines separating these are so much more
conspicuous than the lines separating successive myotonies that it is impossible to

THE EGG AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE CONGER EEL.

43

make out the latter in the thin transparent tail of living specimens. The segments
represented in the last half of the tail in hg. 10 are therefore not at all reliable.

Color is late in making its appearance. It is first evident at the end of the tail.
At 6 p. m. on August 5 some of .the larvae had the following six spots above the
alimentary canal and along lower margin of the myotonies of the tail: (1) About

middle of yolk; (2) halfway between this and end of yolk; (3) at end of yolk; (4) in
front of anus; (5) some distance behind anus; (fi) about the tip of the tail. The
location of the spots coincides roughly with the moniliform enlargements of the
abdominal yolk. Other spots are added between these already formed. The rela-
tive and actual size of the spots differ greatly, but the number is the same in differ-
ent specimens of the same age. In the oldest larvae the spots represented in fig. 14
were developed. Aside from those along the lower part
of the sides there were a few cells on the upper jaw, and
the scattered cells seen near the tip of the lower jaw as
early as August 7 (fig. 12) have developed into a well-
marked spot. The character of the pigment about the
tail is also noteworthy. In the last stage figured the
processes of the cells show a tendency to lie parallel to
the embryonic fin rays. Pigment is formed in the eve
with its earliest appearance on the body. No color,
aside from the black pigment spots and the yellowish
yolk, is seen anywhere about the larva during the time
the larva: were under observation.

The fin fold is well developed, reaching from the
nape around the tail to the yolk-sac. It is much wider along the back and in the
region of the vent than about the tip of the tail or the ventral line of anterior
abdomen. No rays had appeared in the oldest larva* observed except about the tail,
where there appears a distinct radiation.
tv

Fig. 11. — Head of larva of the same age
as that of fig. 10, the mouth normal.

The enormous development of the posterior half of the fourth ventricle is similar
to the condition figured by Raffaele. In all but the last stage figured this part of the
fourth ventricle is a large thin-roofed vesicle, separated from the fin fold in the earlier

44

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

stages by a distinct notch (figs. 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11). The auditory capsules are con-
spicuous, and, viewed from above, are seen to protrude from sides of head (fig. 13).

The alimentary canal is marked (1) by large fang-like teeth, (2) the early vesic-
ular development of the liver, (3) the position of the anus near the body and remote
from the margin of the ventral fin fold. As soon as the mouth is open, about the

fourth or fifth day from the beginning of
development, the margins of the jaws are
seen to be marked by small protuberances.

These are the swellings within which the
teeth are developing. In the upper jaw
four pairs of teeth are developed, graded
from in front back, the anterior ones being
comparatively enormous fangs. In the
lower jaw four pairs are also developed.

These are more uniform in size, but with the second one larger than the rest. In
the oldest individual there were five pairs of teeth in the lower jaw. I am unable
to say whether this was a normal condition. The teeth of the upper jaw close over
those of the lower jaw.

Fig. 13. — The head of a larva of August 7, from above.

Fig. 14. — A larva of August 4. The fin fold of this larva is probably represented as too low.

The oesophageal pouch of Raffaele has been mentioned. Even before hatching,
it is a conspicuous pouch behind the heart. Later, when the anterior yolk has been
largely consumed and is separated from the posterior yolk by a constriction, the
vesicular structure becomes converted into a
lobulated organ about this constriction.

The evidence that the eggs here described
are those of Leptocqplialus conger is circum-
stantial rather than positive. There are two
eels found in this region — the conger and the
common eel. The common eel egg has been
identified as one without an oil-sphere. This
would leave the conger as the only possible
parent of the present species. The conger
was abundantly taken on the trawl at the

" Fig. 15. — Dentition of a larva of August 14.

bottom over which these eggs were secured.

•On the other hand, the ripe conger egg has not been described, in spite of the fact
that Hermes and Schmidtlein have both seen it. The egg of the conger described
by Cunningham was obviously not ripe. The present eggs may provisionally be
identified as those of the conger.

Contributions from the Biological Laboratory of the U. S. Fish Commission,
Woods Hole, Massachusetts.

INVESTIGATIONS INTO THE HISTORY OF THE YOUNG SQUETEAGUE.

By CABL H. EIGENMANN,
Professor of Zoology , University of Indiana.

In July, 1900, I was instructed by the U. S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries
to make certain studies of the squeteague, in accordance with the following:

The Commission desires that you take up the study of the young squeteague ( Cynoscion regalis)
which is found schooling in Buzzards Bay, Narragansett Bay, and other waters of southern New
England. As the squeteague is one of the most important food-fishes of this region, a more thorough
knowledge of the young is very much needed. The following topics are suggested for your consider-
ation: Habits; physical and biological surroundings; food; enemies; diseases; sexual conditions; rate
of growth; changes in appearance incident to growth; length of sojourn in local waters; movements
preceding and attending departure; route of migration, etc.

1 herewith present my report on the work done during July, August, and
September of 1900. I take pleasure in acknowledging my indebtedness to the
director of the Woods Hole laboratory, Dr. H. C. Buinpus. Mr. Vinal N. Edwards,
the collector of the station, has in most cases selected the site for making examina-
tions, and, owing to his long experience, his advice has always been of great value.
I am indebted to him for his ever-ready assistance.

I have not been able to approach a solution on the following topics:

(1) The diseases of the young squeteague, if it has any, are not known. The
Peridinium which is destructive to the adult is probably also destructive to the young.
The appearance of the Peridinium is periodic, with long intervals between. After the
young leave the shallow water they are probably subject to the same enemies that
the young of all fish are subject to, viz, adult squeteague and blue-fish.

(2) The line of migration has not been even remotely established.

DISTRIBUTION OF YOUNG SQUETEAGUE.

During the early period covered by this report, the latter half of July and
August, 1900, the only location where young squeteague were found in Buzzards Bay
was in the extreme upper parts, near Wareham. Mi-. Edwards states that this is the
only place where he has secured them during corresponding periods in previous
years. In the region mentioned they were found in loose schools,1 with occasionally
stray individuals. Only occasionally a single individual was found in a haul of the

1 The following record of catches near Wareham may be of interest as bearing on the matter of schooling:

July 25. First haul, about 100: second haul, about 25, made alongside the first.

Aug. 2. First haul, 7; succeeding hauls, none.

Aug. 9. First haul, 1; second haul, 6; third haul, none; made side by side.

Aug. 22. Three specimens in one haul, none in six other hauls.

45

46

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

.seine. Usually, if any were caught at all, there were several or many individuals,
the maximum being about 100. They were much more abundant at Wareham in
the earlier part of the season than at the latter part, in the proportion of about 40
to 1. The^ were also found at Fields Point, Indian Point, and in Seekonk River at
Providence. No further collections were made in Narragansett Bay. The young
appear at the lower end of Buzzards Bay during September and October.

On September 9, 1893, several young squeteague, from 80 to LOO mm. long, were
taken in Hadley Harbor and are preserved in the U. S. Fish Commission Museum
at Woods Hole. On September 7, 1900, a single young specimen was taken in the
Fish Commission trap on the Vineyard-side of Nonamesset, near the gut separating
Nonamesset from Naushon. Mr. Edwards states that occasionally they are found
in Quissett Harbor during the latter part of the summer, but none was found at
Quissett Harbor, Hadley Harbor, or at the Breakwater during 1900.* The line and
rate of migration could not be determined from the few data secured. The one
specimen caught in the trap was just large enough to be held by the meshes. Any
smaller ones that may have gotten in are not available for record.

GENERAL HABITS.

Over 20 young were put into an aquarium, where they could be watched without
disturbing them. They were entirely pelagic, never being found either at the bottom
or at the top of the water. They kept together in a loose school, but without any
definite coordination of the individuals of the school, either when they were undis-
turbed or when disturbed.

PHYSICAL AND BIOLOGICAL SURROUNDINGS OF YOUNG SQUETEAGUE.

The examination was limited to drawing a 150-foot seine, which enabled me to
determine their distribution in a limited area about the shore. They were found
here during July and August in water with a low specific gravity. They were most
abundant in floating weeds and other places where shrimp were abundant. They
were found most plentifully when it was scarcely possible to draw in the net on
account of the masses of floating weeds. Their associates were almost invariably
young eels, silversides, puffers, sea-robins, tautog, dinners, minnows, hog-chokers,
scup, and king-fish, and occasionally toad-fish, bill-fish, various flounders, alewives,
menhaden, sea bass, and young dog-fish. A direct connection of only two of these
with the squeteague was established, i. e., the silversides and alewives, which serve
the squeteague as food.

FOOD.

The food of the young squeteague consists exclusively of shrimp and young fish.
In young individuals, 43 mm. long, the contents of the stomach made about 4 per cent
of the total weight. The proportion of the shrimp and fish making up the food may
be gathered from the following — it should be borne in mind that the stomach is
usually full:

Of 14 specimens, with an average length of 60 mm., 9 contained shrimp only, 5
contained shrimp and young fish. One specimen, 55 mm. long, contained a silver-
sides 28 mm. long. In another, the fish in the stomach was a clupeoid, probabty an
alewife. The other fish found in the stomach defied identification.

* Young squeteague were abundant at New Bedford on October o, 1900.

INVESTIGATIONS INTO THE HISTORY OF THE YOUNG SQUETEAGUE.

47

Of 7 specimens, with an average length of 89.5 mm., 4 contained shrimp, 2 con-
tained debris of fish, and 1 was empty.

Of 3 specimens, with an average length of 117 mm., all contained shrimp and
hsh, the latter in excess of the former.

The details of the food of 6 small specimens from Providence may be given here:

No. of
speci-
men.

Length
of speci-
men.

Stomach contents.

1

mm.

33

Fragments of 8 small shrimp.

2

33

Fragments of 11 shrimp (heads with eye-stalks forming the basis of the

3

45

count); 3 silversides, longest 11 mm.
13 shrimp, 3 silversides.

4

61

7 shrimp, 1 fish.

5

47

4 shrimp.

6

45

10 shrimp.

Observations on those in the tank showed that they would readily take chopped
fish dropping through the water, but not after it had reached the bottom. They are
exclusively pelagic, and in nature confine themselves entirely to living or moving
food. Even such unsatisfactory creatures as sticklebacks were taken by those in
confinement.

RATE OF GROWTH.

The rate of growth during the period of observation is practically uniform, the
young doubling their length in about thirty days. The details may be gathered from
the accompanying table which gives the rate of growth of this species and also of
some of the constant associates in the same water:

Date.

Sque-

teague.

King-fish.

Swell-fish.

Scup.

Bill-fish.

Sea bass.

July 12
July 25
Aug. 2
Aug. 9
Aug. 22
Sept. 7

mm.

mm.
a 32. 6
68.2
79
107
123

mm.

mm.

mm. .

mm.

59.5

79.5

89.5
117

c 200

29

35.6

45

58

123

155

b 25

63

67

d 76

Sept. 20
Oct. 5

e92. 5
/180

-

a 1899. Based on 11 specimens ranging from 28 to 30 mm.

6 July 24, 1899. Based on 9 specimens ranging from 23 to 26 mm.

cOne specimen, probably much above the average; 6 in collection at Woods Hole,
taken in Hadley Harbor Sept. 9, 1893, range from 80 to 100 mm., and average
91 mm. in length.

d Based on 3 specimens ranging from 73 to 82 mm.

e Based on 4 specimens from Seekonk River, 70, 85, 95, and 120 mm. long, respectively.

/On October 5 Mr. Edwards found young squeteague 6 to 8 inches long quite
abundant in New Bedford River. Many were caught off the wharf with hook
and line by fishing on the bottom. No definite measurements were recorded.

At the rate of growth indicated here, the size of many adults (400 mm.) sent to
the market would be reached in about seven months, but the rate of growth in length
very probably decreases with age. Nevertheless, it seems very probable that the
fish reaches marketable size in about a year from birth.

The specimens collected in Narragansett Bay were much smaller than those of
Buzzards Bay of the same date; 41.9 mm. in Narragansett Bay on August 3 and 4; 79.5
in Buzzards Bay on August 2. If the rate of growth is uniform, the Narragansett
specimens are eighteen days younger than the Buzzards Bay specimens.

48

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

CHANGES AVITH AGE.

The young of the fish differs so strikingly from the adult that it would readily
be referred to another species or genus. The more striking changes with age occur
in the relation of depth to length, in the relative size of the eye. in the color, and in
the shape of the caudal fin. The smallest secured came from the head of Narragansett
Bay ; it is 25 mm. long to the base of the caudal. The greatest depth is beloAV the

Fig. 1. — Smallest specimen, 32 mm. long, Indian Point, July 5, 1900, showing color pattern in deeper layer of skin.

Fig. 2. — Specimen 41 mm. long, Indian Point, July 5, 1900, showing color pattern. Color entirely in deeper layer of skin.
Fig. 3. — Specimen 70 mm. long, Indian Point, July 5, 1900, showing addition of color cells between those grouped into bars-

Fig. 1. — The left side of a specimen 95 mm. long, Wareham, August 9, showing indistinct bars and oblique streaks.

Fig. 2. — The right side of the same specimen with the outer skin removed and showing the bars made less distinct than
in younger specimens by the appearance of numerous color cells between them. No evidence of oblique streaking,
which is entirely due to color cells in the outer layer of the skin. The blood vessels are surrounded by pigment cells
and show as black lines.

first dorsal spiue and measures 8 mm. The average depth in 10 individuals from
the same place, with an average length of 29.2 mm., is 8.7 mm., or 29.4 per cent of
the length. The average width is 4 mm., or 13.7 per cent.

In 7 specimens from the same place, taken at the same time, ranging from 46 to
60 mm., and with an average length of 50.6 mm., the depth averages 13.14 mm.,
or 25.96 per cent; the width 5.71 mm., or 11.08 per cent. In 3 specimens from

INVESTIGATIONS INTO THE HISTORY OF THE YOUNG SQUETEAGUE. 49

Wareham, taken August 22, averaging 97 nun., the depth averages 26 mm., or
26.8 per cent. The average width is 13 mm., or 13.41 per cent.

In 1 specimen, 170 mm. to base of caudal, the depth is 40 mm.

In 2 adult specimens, 420 (415 and 425) mm. long to the base of the caudal, the
depth measures 86.5 mm., or 20.59 per cent. The width at the axils averages 67 mm.,
or 15.95 per cent.

In 2 specimens, 50.6 mm. long to base of caudal, the depth is 113 mm.

The fish when adult are much more cylindrical than the young, which are com-
pressed and elevated. In the adult the head is nearly conical, but little deeper than

Figs. 1 and 2. — The left and right sides respectively of a specimen 120 mm. long taken at Wareham, August 22. Fig. 1 rep-
resents the general color which is largely due to the color cells in the outer layer of the skin. The streaking which
is conspicuous in the adult is here still obscured by the general distribution of pigment in the deeper layer shown in
fig. 2, which represents the coloration of the right side after the removal of the outer skin.

high; in the young it is much deeper than high. The eye changes its relative propor-
tions to the size of the head, as in other fishes. This is due to the fact that while the eve
grows throughout life it does not grow in the same proportion as the rest of the fish.

Length of fish.

Length
of eye.

26 mm. to base of caudal

44 mm

108 mm

170 mm

415 mm

560 mm

mm.

2.5

4.5
8

11.5

20

22

F. C. B. 1901—4

50

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

A very marked change takes place in the shape of the caudal. In the adult the
margin of the caudal is distinctly concave or lunate. In all stages of the young, on
the other hand, the caudal rays between which the lateral line extends are the longer,
the caudal being obtusely pointed, with 9 rays in the upper and 8 in the lower lobe.
The upper lobe of the caudal is slightly lunate, while the rays of the lower lobe are
graduated, and this lobe is rounded.

Very marked changes take place in the color with age. The changes occur
largely in the sides of the body. The color pattern of the head changes little with
age. There is here chiefly an addition of color cells to those already present in the

Figs. 1 and 2. — The left and right sides, respectively, of a specimen 200 mm. long taken September 7, 1900, in the Commis-
sion’s net in Vineyard Sound. The left side shows the characteristic markings of the adult which are due entirely
to the color in the outer layer of the skin. The nearly uniform distribution of color in the deeper layer of the skin
seen after removal of the outer skin is represented in Fig. 2. This deeper layer of color no longer enters into the general
coloration owing to the formation of connective tissue between it and the outer layer.

smallest specimens. In the smallest specimen there is a series of four pigmented
bands, extending across the back. The first at the spinous dorsal, the second at the
beginning of the soft dorsal, the third some distance in front of the end of the soft
dorsal, and the last across the caudal peduncle. All of these extend but little beyond
the lateral line. Their margins correspond roughly with the margins of myotonies.
At the dorsal angle of the myotonies the bands are usually bent, but without regu-
larity. In the specimen under discussion, those on the left side are shifted backward,
at this point, of those on the right side; two are continued straight down, one is
shoved forward and the other backward. The region between the bands is not free

INVESTIGATIONS INTO THE HISTORY OF THE YOUNG SqUETEAGUE.

51

from pigment, but the cells are here smaller and contracted. A line of cells extends
along the base of the anal and to the tail. The spinous dorsal is largely black; the
soft dorsal and caudal have pigment cells along the membrane. All the chromato-
phores at this stage are in the deeper layers of the dermis below the scales.

With an increase of a few millimeters in length additional bands are interpolated
between those mentioned, first one between the two under the soft dorsal, then
one below the end of the soft dorsal, and lastly one between the two dorsals. All of
these are formed by the time the fish has reached a length of 44 mm. to the base
of the caudal. Eventually the deeper layer becomes deeply pigmented through the
appearance of eh romatophores in the spaces between the bands. Numerous small
chromatophores have also appeared in the superficial layer of the dermis, especially
along the edge of the scales, so as to give a distinct black margin. With growth the
chromatophores at the margin of the scales and those in the superficial layers of the
dermis, as well as those on the fins, become very numerous. In specimens 75 mm.
long to the base of caudal the bars are still faintly visible but the whole fish has
taken on a dusky color on the sides, back, and fins, with a distinct black border to
the dorsal and caudal.

In a specimen 110 mm. long the black margins of the fins are less conspicuous,
the black edge of the scales has become obscure on account of the great multiplication
of superficial pigment cells. The bars of the young stage are entirely obliterated and
the superficial pigment shows the characteristic oblique streaking of the adult, but
much less conspicuously than in the adult.

At this stage the color is due to the now uniform pigmentation of the deeper
layers of the dermis blending with the streaked pigmentation of the superficial part
of the dermis. With age the connective tissue between these two layers of pigment
becomes so thick as to entirely eliminate the deeper pigment as a factor in the
formation of the color pattern. The surface pigment, which is from the first laid
down in streaks, alone gives value to the pattern in the adult.

The obvious differences of the sexes appear so late that I can only report on the
sex relations that no sex differences are apparent at a length of about 100 mm.

Contributions from the Biological Laboratory of the U. S. Fish Commission,
Woods Hole, Massachusetts.

A NEW ISOPOD PARASITIC ON THE HERMIT CRAB.

By MILLETT T. THOMPSON.

While at Woods Hole, in the summer of 1897, studying the small hermit crab
(Pagurus loru/icarpus Say), 1 found parasitic upon this crustacean a hitherto unde-
scribed Bopyrid, allied to Phryxus resupinatus Muller, and apparently representing
a new genus. About 1.5 per cent of the crabs at Great Harbor were thus infested
(1898), and from 8 to 1 per cent of those at Hadley Harbor. A single specimen was
taken at Edgartown in 1898, and another at Warwick, Ehode Island, in 1900. In the
channels where there is a swift current the percentage of infested crabs is low, due
probably to the more effectual dispersal of the free-swimming larva?.

The female parasite occurs on the abdomen of the hermit, to which it is attached,
back downward, by its mandibles and legs. The male is found on the posterior part of
the marsupium of the female, usually lying to the right (apparent left) of the median
line, the head directed anteriorly. The presence of the parasite does not effect any
alteration in the case of the secondary sexual characters of its host. On the average
the infested crabs seem quite as resistant to adverse conditions as the uninfested ones.

Stegophryxus hyptius, genus et species nov.

Adult Female (Plates 9 and 10).

Broad in proportion to length, marsupium very large, abdomen about half the length of thorax,
distinct from it, 6-joinl;ed, with five pair of triramous pleopoda and a pair of oval uropoda. Length,
about 9.1 ram. Color, yellowish-white, opaque. Ovaries, when full of ripe eggs, orange-yellow.

Head (pi. 9, figs. 5 and 6), from the dorsal side appears as an oblong elevation ending anteriorly
ilia blunt lobe, which represents the median portion of the much-reduced front (Fr). As the lateral
portions of the front are almost wholly obsolete, appearing only as two inconspicuous lobes, the
greater part of the antennules, antennae, and tip of rostrum, is visible dorsally. The antennules are
3-jointed and consist of a large globose basal joint, surmounted by a small cylindrical second and a
minute third joint; outer joints bristle-tipped. Each antenna (A2) arises along the side of rostrum as
a columnar ridge, whose distal end is visible dorsally (fig. 7, A2). From this ridge a 4-jointed
flagellum arises, its proximal joint stout, the three distal joints slender; all the joints bristle-tipped.
Ventral surface of head broader than dorsal surface and sharply elevated at posterior border, giving a
strong antero-dorsal slope so that the erect hypopharynx points almost anteriorly. At sides of pos-
terior border three curved processes arise (fig. 7, Pro), and in the midline are two thin foliaceous plates
(fig. 7, Fp). Rostrum conical. Mandibles (Mncl) slender, with expanded tips, the edges of which are
incurved so that, pressed together, they form a sucking-tube. Near the bases of mandibles appear the
oval maxilluke {Mxx). Hypopharynx (fig. 7) erect, highly keeled, and plays no part in formation of
rostrum. Maxillipeds (fig. 5) large; each consists of a foliaceous anterior and a somewhat thicker
posterior blade; during life these organs keep up a rapid fanning motion. There is no trace of a palpus.

The thorax (pi. 9) is concealed ventrally by an enormous marsupium, built up of five pairs of

53

54

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

thin brood-plates, each strengthened by a median chitinous rod. The posterior or fifth pair (fig. 4,
Bpb) lie externally to the others and form the major part of marsupium; they are attached along the
border of fifth and sixth thoracic segments. The posterior angle of each forms a shallow pouch (fig.
4, Po). Nearly concealed by these plates, and almost closing the marsupium anteriorly, are the third
and fourth pairs of plates, similar to each other in shape (fig. 2, Bps) and having an oval ventral and
a rounded dorsal portion (fig. 3, Dbp3 and Dbp 4). This dorsal part conceals the legs of the parasite.
The second pair of plates are oblong and are hidden under the others (fig. 2, Bp 2). The first pair
consists of a rather oval anterior and a triangular posterior blade. The latter (fig. 2, Phpx) is strength-
ened along its outer (longest) border and across its base by a chitinous rod. The anterior blades
(fig. 2, Abpj), in company with the dorsal portions of the third pair of plates, form the funnel-like
anterior end of the marsupium.

The details of the thoracic segments are shown in fig. 3. The first five are crowded together,
their fleshy lateral portions strongly bent toward the head. The lateral parts of first four segments
end in a small roughened boss or cushion, on which the roughened third joint of the pereiopod
impinges. This cushion ( C'u ) may represent a modified epimeron. Internally to this cushion is a flat
shield-shaped area which comes in contact with the abdomen of the host (fig. 6, Sh). The lateral
portions of fifth segment end in a sharp crest, and there is no “shield.” The sixth segment is very
long; it narrows posteriorly, has a fleshy median keel and only slightly developed lateral portions.
The seventh segment is short, fleshy, about as wide as sixth and similar to it except that it is not
keeled. Ventral surface of thoracic segment fleshy, posterior borders of sixth and seventh modified
into complex elevated keels (fig. 8). ( In the plate it will he noted that the first serrated keel belongs

to segment 6, the second to segment 7, the third ( X ) to the first abdominal segment.) Pereiopoda of
the sixth and seventh segments are alike and quite simple in construction (pi. 10, fig. 7); those of
the other five segments are modified, the last three joints being twisted to one side (pi. 10, fig. 6).
Extensor muscles enormously developed.

The abdomen (pi. 9) consists of six fleshy segments, five of which bear a pair of pleopoda: Each

pleopod has three oval blades arising from a short common hase. Two of these are subequal and
extend in a lateral direction; the third is smaller and points ventrally. Tins ventral ramus is broadly
expanded in the pleopoda of the first abdominal segment, especially on the right side (fig. 4, Vplx ) .
The first segment has ventral keels, similar to those on the last thoracic segments. Between the oval
uropoda of the sixth segment ( Ur) is a minute conical prominence.

Description of Adult Male. (Plate 10. )

Three and two-thirds longer than broad. Abdomen unsegmented, about a third of entire length.
Color dull yellowish. Around the heart in the abdomen is an orange-colored area and a narrow streak
of same color runs forward along the mid-dorsal line. Sometimes splashes of black occur on the sides
of the head and thorax. Length about 3 mm.

Head (pi. 10, figs. 1 and 2) oval, elevated in center, the margin entire and not inflexed. Eyes
minute (fig. 1, E). On the under side is a shallow central depression, in front of which arise the
short 3-jointed antennuhe (Aj). From the depression the 8-jointed antennae (A2) and the conical
rostrum take their origin. First joint of antennae elbowed, the others cylindrical, the distal ones
bristle-tipped. Sixth, seventh, and eighth joints very small, together scarcely equaling the fifth in
length. Rostrum prominent, built up dorsally by the lahrum ( La) and ventrally by the hypopharynx.
Apex of latter conceals tips of mandibles and median part of labrum. Mandibles ( Mnd ) slender
with thick bases and sharp chitinous tips. I have not found maxillulae. Between the maxillae, and
extending forward from a transverse ridge, are the 3-jointed (?) maxillipeds ( Mxp ). The thorax
consists of seven fleshy segments. It narrows slightly posteriorly and is moderately convex. Sides
subparallel, somewhat deflexed, epimera not distinct. First segment notched for reception of head.
Seven pairs of pereiopoda, whose structure and musculature can be understood by reference to the
plate (pi. 10, fig. 8). Abdomen ovoid or sometimes pear-shaped, shows no signs of segmentation, and
has no traces of appendages.

Description of Immature Forms.

I. The development of the youngest female specimen taken (pi. 10, figs. 9 and 10) was a little
more advanced than the stage which Giard has called the “phryxoid” stage. It may he termed the
metaphryxoid stage. More slender than adult; nearly three times longer than broad. Lateral
portions of the thorax distinct from and scarcely wider than median part. Marsupium present but

A NEW ISOPOD PARASITIC ON THE HERMIT CRAB.

rudimentary. Abdomen as long as thorax. Length, 5 mm. Head short. Front ( Fr ) prominent,
transverse, with a straight, entire, uninflexed margin, which conceals the month parts, antennules,
and the basal joints of antennae. Mouth parts much like those of adult, but the hypopharynx is flatter
and less erect and the mandibles are stout and have sharp tips ( Mud ). Indexed border of labrurn
narrow, maxillipeds small and not inflated at base. They consist of an oblong-oval posterior and a
smaller rounded anterior blade. No palpus. The rostrum points anteriorly, rather than, as in the
adult, dorso-anteriorly. Thorax narrow and not quite as long as abdomen. Segments subequal,
fleshy, with the median and lateral parts of nearly same width (fig. 9). Sixth and seventh segments
narrower than the rest, distinct from them, and have only rudiments of ventral keels. Epimera (?)
of thorax distinct ( Ep ), no “cushions” or “shields.” Pereiopoda like those of adult. Brood-plates
small and flat; those of third and fourth pairs are without dorsal portion, those of fifth pair lack
pouches at posterior angles. The abdomen is like that of adult in form, except that the ventral rami of
first pair of pleopoda are not expanded ( V pl^).

II. Three cryptoniscid-stage larvae, probably males, were taken from the female just described.
One was in the marsupium; the others were clinging to the appendages (pi. 10, figs. 3, 4, and 5).
Abdomen proportionally longer than in adult and consisting of 0 segments. Pleopoda and uropoda
present. Epimera distinct. Color white with black blotches. Length about 0.7 mm. Margin of
head narrow, indexed at sides and in front. Rostrum prominent, Antennules complex in structure
and provided with long bristles (fig. 4, A.i\). Antennae 8-jointed and very long and slender. Thorax
of 7 smooth segments, with distinct strongly deflexed epimera (Ep); 7 pairs of pereiopoda similar in
form to those of adult, but more delicate and slender. The abdomen consists of 6 segments, is highly
convex, the first 5 segments having deflexed epimera. Five pairs of flat biramous pleopoda (fig. 5),
the blades standing with their faces at right angles to the long axis of body. Uropoda (fig. 3, Ur)
biramous, consisting of a cylindrical protopodite, a cylindrical exopodite, and a shorter cylindrical
endopodite. Each endopodite and exopodite bears one long bristle and a tuft of short hairs.

III (not figured). Several females, of a stage considerably more advanced than the one described
above, were taken. In all cases they had a male of about 2 mm. in length, of adult form, clinging
to them. Length varying from 6 mm. to 7 mm. Appearance much like fig. 9 of plate 10, but the
whole thorax is wider. Lateral parts slightly broader than median portion. The head is adult in
length, but the front is still rather wide, very fleshy, and trilobed, the lateral lobes being larger than
the median. Tip of rostrum and distal portions of an ten nuke and antennae visible dorsally; otherwise
the head and mouth parts are adult in structure. Thorax narrow and as long as abdomen. Dorsal
segments fleshy, though less so than in preceding stage, and the first five segments have begun to
crowd anteriorly. Sixth segment fleshy, not keeled, scarcely longer than fifth or seventh. Ventrally
the transverse keels on sixth and seventh segments are rudimentary, but more developed than in
metaphryxoid stage; marsupium larger, though the brood-plates are still quite rudimentary. Brood-
plates of third and fourth pair have developed the dorsal portion; first pair nearly adult in shape, and
the funnel under the head has begun to form. Tips of first brood -plates and maxillipeds are visible
from dorsal side, much as in adult. The pereiopoda are adult in form, and “cushions” and “shields”
are present. Abdomen like that of the metaphryxoid stage.

IV (not figured). One specimen of a female nearly mature was taken. In this the abdomen was
nearly as long as the thorax, sixth thoracic segment not yet of adult proportions. Length, 10 mm.

As mentioned above, the nearest relative of this species is Bopyrus ( Phryxus ) resupinatus Muller,
described in 1870 from a small hermit-crab at Desterro, South America. This parasite was attached,
in its early larval stage at least, at the roots of Sncculina purpurea, or less frequently Peltogaster sociulis,
both of which Cirri peds were extremely common on the hermit-crab mentioned, the name of which is
not given. This is strikingly unlike the condition in regard to' Stegophryxus hyptius, for I have never
taken the latter in association with any other parasite. I have examined several thousand specimens
of Pagurus longicarpus from the vicinity of Woods Hole, but have never found any external parasite
other than the Bopyrid. The proportions and structure of body of the Desterro species are also different
from those of Hyptius , as far as can be judged from the very imperfect knowledge of the anatomy of
resupinatus at our disposal. Hence I consider the two forms to be distinct, though the likeness of the
Woods Hole form to Muller’s species suggested the name hyptius (vTCvio<;=resupinalus) .

As will be noted, the male is similar to the male of Athelges (Hesse), Pleurocrypta (Hesse), and
Phryxus (Riithke) , and on this basis apparently some authors have grouped the species of these three
genera under Phryxus. Phryxus thus defined will of course admit hyptius and resupinatus, but when we

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

56

consider how little is really known about these genera, and how dissimilar the females are, it seems
better to retain them as distinct genera until detailed knowledge of the anatomy of the various species
furnishes the basis for more accurate classification. Sars in his “Account of the Crustacea of Norway”
lias thus regarded them.

Hyptius is more closely allied to the members of Alhelges than to those of either of the other genera,
but its female presents characters, especially in the uropoda and pleopoda, which seem to prohibit its
reference to that genus as defined at present. As writers on this family prefer to institute tentative or
even undefined genera for new species where there is doubt as to their exact position, I suggest that
resupincitus and hyptius be placed in the following tentative genus, having tire characters given below
as its probable limits.

STEGOPHRYXUS, nov. gen.

Male, abdomen ovoid, without appendages or traces of segmentation. An term ul;e 3-jointed,
antennae 8-jointed. Female, abdomen distinct from thorax, 6-jointed, with five pairs of triramous
pleopoda and a pair of oval uropoda. Legs modified for clasping dorsal ward. First five segments
of thorax crowded anteriorly. Nearly symmetrical.

dr sy slv =to roof or cover (in allusion to marsupium covering the parasite when on host).

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

1. Bate. Spence & Westwood. History of British Sessile-eyed Crustacea, vol. n, pp. 232-250, 1868.

2. Giard. “ Sur la Phylogenie des Bopyriens.” Compt. Rendus, tome 104, 1887.

3. Hesse. Annales Science Naturelles, ser. 4, xv, pp. 112-115, 1861; s6r. 5, hi, pp. 226-242, 1865.

4. Muller. Jenaische Zeitschrift, vi, pp. 57-60, 1870.

5. Saks. Account of Crustacea of Norway, n, pts. 3-8. 1897.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES.

Plate 9.

Fig. 1. Herm it crab with parasite attached. Natural size.

2. Anterior portion of adult female, ventral, somewhat diagrammatic. On the right side, all the brood-plates except the

first, and on the left the fourth (Bpt) and fifth have been cut away. The third (Bps) is reflexed to show the
second ( Bp.,).) Abpu Pbpl = the anterior and posterior blades of first brood plates. Pif, Pr., = pereiopoda of
first and second parrs, respectively. Dbp3 = dorsal portion of the third brood plate.

3. Adult female with marsupium distended with, eggs. Dorsal. x8. Bpi = funnel formed by first brood-plates. Dbp.t,

Dbpx = dorsal portions of third and fourth plates, respectively. Bp-, = the distended fifth brood-plate with the
pouch (Po) at its posterior angle. Prit Pr 0, and Pr 7 = Pereiopoda of fifth, sixth, and seventh segments, respect-
ively. 4?,, Rami of first pleopod. Ur = Uropoda.

4. (The dotted outline shows the position occupied by the male.) Adult femalcwitb empty marsupium. Ventral. x7.

Bp,, Bp.., Bpi = brood plates of first, third, and fifth pairs, respectively. Po = pouch at angle of fifth pair.
Vplx = enlarged ventral ramus of the first pleopod. Vpl, = ventral ramus of second pleopod.

5. Left imaxilliped of adult female. Ventral (outer) surface. <15. Ab = anterior blade. P b = posterior blade. X =

point of attachment'. (Two of the processes at the side of the head are shown.)

Ci. Head of the adult female. Dorsal. 17. Fr = median part of front. Mnd = mandibles. La = dorsal part of labrum.
Mxp = maxillipeds. Dbp3 = dorsal part of third brood plate. T., = antenna. C'tt = “cushion.” &h = “shield.”
E = eye

7. Head of adult, female. Antcro-ventral. Free-hand. (The posterior brood plates are removed, and the first pair with
the maxillipeds are reflexed to show the ventral surface of the head, etc. The base of the right maxilliped is
cut away to show the processes at border of head (Pro).) Ax = antennula. A., = ridge which forms the basal
joint of the antenna. La — indexed margins of labrum. Mxx - maxillula. Mx» = maxilla. Mxp = maxilliped.
Pp = leaf-like platen at median posterior border of head.

•S. Abdomen and posterior part of thorax of the same. Ventral. < 8. (All the brood plates except the pouch-like posterior
angle (Po) of the fifth plate have been removed.) A'=keel of the first abdominal segment (see page 54).
If. PI, = pleopoda of first and third segments, respectively.

Plate 10.

lug. 1. Adult male. Dorsal, x 18. A., = Antenna. E = eye. Int = intestine. Lit = heart.

2. The same. Under surface of head, x 33. The right pereiopod has been removed; x marks its position. At =anten-

nules. Xa = the inflexed border of labrum. Mnd = basal portions of the mandibles, the median and apical
parts being concealed by the labrum and liypopharynx. iix., = maxilla. Mxp = maxillipeds.

3. Cryptoniscicl from young female. Lateral, x 87 (?)'. Ax = antennula. A., = antenna. Ep — epimeron of first

thoracic segment. Ur = uropod. PI - pleopoda.

4. The same. Under surface of head, x 165 (?). At = Antennula. R = rostrum.

5. The same. Pleopod. of tided abdominal segment. 105 ( ? ) . Ex = outer ramus. En = inner ramus.

Ci. Adult female. Musculature (diagrammatic) of one of the first four thoracic pereiopoda. Lateral, x 30. (From speci-
mens cleared in cedar oil and from reconstructions.) Cu =" cushion.” Sh = “ shield.” Bp = base of brood

plate (mostly cut away). Ex= extensors.

7. Adult female. Musculature (diagrammatic) of pereiopod of sixth or seventh segment. To show approach to the simpler
nude pereiopod. Lateral, x 30. Ex. = extensors.

s. Adult, nude. M usculature of .pereiopod.. -Lateral. x60. Ep = border of segment. Fl = flexors. Ex = extensors.

9. Larval female (metaphryxoid stage). Dorsal, x 18. (Only the thorax and part of the abdomen are shown; most of

the pereiopoda are bent ventrally and are hidden by what may be the epimera (Ep).) Fr = front. A« = anten-
nae E=o yes. Pr7 = pereiopod of seventh pair. PI, — pleopod of second pair.

10. The same. Ventral, x 10. .(Showing the positions in which the three males (?) were found)* <f = position of the

one which was in the marsupium. Mnd = mandibles. A, = antennula. JSp(, Bpt, Bp& = brood plates of first,
fourth, and. fifth pairs. Pr6 — pereiopod of fifth pair. Vpf = ventral ramus ot first pleopod. Ur = uropoda.

Bu II. U. S. F. C. 1901. (To face page 56. '

Plate 9.

M. T. Thompson del.

Bull U. $. F. C. 1901. (To face page 56.)

Plate 10.

.)/. T. Thompson del.

Bull. U. S. F. C. 1 901 . (To face page 57.)

Plate 1 1

1 VIEW IN EAST HARBOR SWAMP. 2 SAND BEACH VEGETATION.

CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE BIOLOGY OF THE GREAT LAKES.

THE PLANTS OF WESTERN LAKE ERIE, WITH OBSERVATIONS ON THEIR

DISTRIBUTION.

By A. J. PIETERS,

Assistant Botanist, Department of Agriculture.

INTRODUCTORY.

In the spring of 1893 the writer accompanied a party sent out by the Michigan
Fish Commission, under the direction of Prof. Jacob Reighard, to study the biology
of the Great Lakes. The lake chosen for the study that year was St. Clair. This
small lake presents in many respects ideal conditions for the study of lacustrine
plant life. The extensive swamps and the gradually sloping mud bottom of its
northwest side, which is also protected from the most violent winds, and therefore
seldom experiences a heavy surf, provide an environment admirably suited to the
growth of a variety of plants. The results of that year’s work were published as
the “Plants of Lake St. Clair,”1 and is believed to be the first study of the kind
undertaken in American lakes. It was therefore a pleasure to continue this line of
work in Lake Erie. The United States Fish Commission, having entered upon a
systematic investigation of the biology of the Great Lakes, placed the work under
the direction of Professor Reighard, and the place chosen was Put-in Bay, Ohio. A
United States fish-hatchery is located there, and the buildings and boats were placed
at the disposal of the party.

The present paper covers the work on the Phanerogams, Characete, and Desmidese.
The work on the algue, except Desmids, was in charge of Dr. Julia Snow, of Michigan
University. The field work was done during the summer of 1898.

APPARATUS USED.

Much of the work was done from a row boat in Put-in Bay and in the swamps on
the mainland, but the deeper parts of the lake were examined by means of an ocean
dredge let out from the steamer Shearwater , while going at a low rate of speed.

The plankton and tow nets used in collecting the microscopic organisms have
been described by Reighard.2 For collecting the larger plants growing in water
more than a foot or two deep a grapple was used (fig. B, page 58). This was made
by passing four or five bent steel wires through a piece of 1.5- inch pipe and bending
back the free ends to make hooks. The pipe was filled with lead to make it heavier

1 Bulletin of the Michigan Fish Commission No. 2, 1894.

s Reighard, .1. E. A biological examination of Lake St. Clair. Bull. Michigan Fish Commission, No. 4, 1894.

57

58

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

and a rope fastened through the loops of the wires. For taking soil samples an
instrument was made after drawings in Delbecque, “ Les Lacs Francais” (fig. A).
This gave satisfaction in soft bottom, but when the clay was stiff, or mixed with
coarse sand or gravel, the point was unable to penetrate. These samples were sent
to the Division of Soils, United States Department of Agriculture, for analysis.

DEPENDENCE OF FISHES UPON PLANT LIFE.

It is needless to go into the statistics of the value of the fish industry. The
fresh-water fisheries alone amount to more than $4,000,000 annually, not to mention
the capital invested in trout, bass, and other game fish. The importance of the
subject from an economic point of view fully warrants an exhaustive study of tin

A. Soil sampler, after B. The grapple.

Delbecque.

conditions of fish life and a thorough understanding of their food supply. As has
been pointed out by both Reighard ' and Ward,2 a complete knowledge of the life of
a fish can only be obtained by a study of the entire chain of biological relations
existing in lakes and streams. In this chain plant life constitutes an important link.
Plants stand between animal life and the inorganic substances it is unable to use.
All aquatic animal life is ultimately dependent upon plants, which transform carbon,
nitrogen, and other inorganic substances into organic compounds fitted for animal
use. Directly or indirectly, then, plant life is necessary to the support of the fishes

1 Loe. cit.

2 Ward, H. B. A Biological Examination of Lake Michigan. Bull. Michigan Fish Commission No. 6, 1896.

PLANTS OF WESTERN LAKE ERIE.

59

in our lakes and streams. The vigorous growth and reproduction of plants furnishes
a large food supply for the smaller animals, which in their turn can reproduce more
abundantly and provide a greater amount of food for the fish.

Barring enemies ancl artificial hindrances to increase, such as overfishing, fish
will multiply up to the limit of the food supply, hut can never overstep that limit.
If the food supply can be increased, an increase in the number of fish will naturally
follow.

PROBLEMS OF AQUATIC PLANT LIFE.

To understand the factors controlling the primary source of food in th*e Great
Lakes, we must study the plant life from every standpoint; we must learn the life
history of each species, its physiology, distribution, and methods of reproduction.
The important problems are, of course, physiological: The relations between the

plant and the medium in which it lives; what it takes from the water and what it
returns to it; the character of the bottom most favorable to certain species; the
methods of passing the winter and of reproduction; the relations between the larger
plants and the microscopic plant and animal forms that live on and among them, and
the physical conditions of the lake — all these must be studied and, in great part,
understood before we can determine what plants should be placed in a given lake
and how we can best introduce them.

These are some of the problems that most plainly present themselves and to
which a study of the species found, together with their distribution, may be regarded
as preliminary. This “taking an inventory,” as Zacharias aptly expresses it, is
useful, but not final. We desire to know with what forms we have to deal, but the
addition of a few more names to our list must not be thought of equal importance
with a study of the life histories of these species.^

MACROSCOPIC AND MICROSCOPIC PLANT LIFE.

The plant life of the Great Lakes may be roughly grouped into macroscopic and
microscopic. It is exclusively the latter that enters into the plankton. These
unicellular plants are the primary source of the food supply, their great reproductive
power supplying a constant source of food for the plankton animals, which, in turn,
feed the larger forms.

Although the higher plants are not known to enter to any large extent into the
diet of mature food-fishes, yet their importance in the economy of aquatic life must-
be great because of the myriads of minute animal and plant forms that find shelter
and subsistence among them. These forms— the insect larvae, mollusca, Crustacea,
rotifera, and others — are important as fish foods, and their absence must adversely
affect the distribution of fish. The importance of shore and bottom vegetation was
recognized by Ward (loc. cit. ), who, in his report on the biology of the Traverse Bay
region, makes constant reference to the scarcity of certain animal forms as due to the
lack of plant life. The relative scarcity of hydra, worms, certain forms of rotifera.
insect larvae, and mollusca he attributes to the lack of bottom and shore vegetation,
and says: “The barrenness of the littoral zone eliminates from the question of the
food supply of this region one element which in Lake St. Clair was of extreme
importance.” This is recognized by Reighard (loc,. cit.), who makes frequent refer-
ence to the abundance of certain animal forms in Lake St. Clair and connects it
with the richness of the bottom flora.

60

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

TOPOGRAPHY.

The conditions in that portion of Lake Erie around Put-in Bay and Sandusky
differ from those at St. Clair and at Traverse Bay. While the bottom and shore
formations are not as abundant as in Lake St. Clair they are very much more
abundant than at Charlevoix. The region about Put-in Bay and Sandusky is of
limestone formation, Put-in Bay, or South Bass Island, East and West Harbor,
belonging to the waterlime group, while about the mouth of the Portage River there
is an outcrop of Salina shale. The channels between the islands have been scooped
out of the limestone rock by glacial action, and the bottom is either of this rock or
is covered with drift clay.1 Much of the coast on the mainland is rocky and pre-
cipitous, but a great part of it is sandy beach (pi. 11, fig 6), especially at East and
West Harbors and at Port Clinton, while at Catawba Island and at Marblehead light
the limestone rock juts out into the lake, breaking the continuity of the sand beach.
The islands, of which there are on the American side six larger and as many smaller,
usually present rocky shore lines to the waves (pi. 11, fig. -1), but there is one sand
beach on South Bass Island and portions of the bay are less rocky than the west
shore. The water is generally of considerable depth close to the rocks, and the
bottom is covered with stone and gravel overlying a blue clay that comes to the
surface in the deeper parts. In Put-in Bay the bottom is generally muddy close up
to the shore, and in the western end, at Squaw Harbor, and also near the United
States fish-hatchery, the bottom slopes gently, thus furnishing the conditions favor-
able to the growth of water plants. These parts of the harbor are, too, the most
protected from the violence of the waves.

At four points on the mainland between Sandusky and Port Clinton there are
extensive swamps, about upper Sandusky Bay, at East and at West Harbors, and
along the Portage River at Port Clinton. These swamps are characterized by a great
extent of low-lying muddy bottom, covered with varying depths of water and sloping
back to low wet ground (pi. 11, fig. 1). They are intersected by many channels,
some opening out to the lake or river, while others lose themselves in the body of the
marsh. Pools of greater or less extent frequently occur. At Port Clinton and at
Sandusky the swamps border the rivers and extend for miles up the stream, while at
East and West Harbors they open directly into the lake by narrow channels, which
are protected from wave action by sandbars.

DISTRIBUTION OF AQUATICS.

Phanerogamic water plants form a class distinguished from land plants by many
differences of structure and form due to their peculiar habitat. The variety of form
and the high development of land plants is wanting in aquatics, because a few types
and relatively simple structure suffice to meet the nearly uniform conditions of their
existence. Their distribution is almost world-wide, many of the species being found
throughout the temperate zone and some even from the Arctic Ocean to the Equator.
They grow in streams, pools, and lakes, in flowing and in still water; some species
even flourish in stagnant water; and, together with marsh plants, they form the bulk
of the vegetable matter m lakes and streams.

1 Ohio Geological Survey, vol. n.

PLANTS OF WESTERN LAKE ERIE.

61

PLANT GROUPS.

The plants of this region may he roughly divided into swamp plants and water
plants, the latter being such as are wholly submersed or have only their reproductive
and small portions of their vegetative parts above water, or which float wholly or in
part on the surface. The regions occupied by these forms can not be sharply
delimited, because true water plants grow between the swamp plants throughout the
greater part of the marsh. To these two groups must be added a few shore plants
that affect, though perhaps to an insignificant degree, the vegetable matter in the
lake. The shore line in this region is either sand or limestone, and the characteristic
plants are such as are commonly found in similar locations. Euphorbia p>olygoni-
folia , Triodia purpurea , El/yrrms canadensis , Cenchrus tribuloides , Salix longifoUa
and 8. cordata , Cakile esculenta , and Polanisia gra/veolens grow on the sandy beach
(pi. 11, fig. 2). This vegetation has, however, no influence on the biology of the lake
other than an occasional accidental one, such as the washing into the lake, by a storm,
of parts of these plants. The same is true of the rock plants, although being almost
constantly subject to wave action they are more frequently washed into the lake.
Along a great deal of the shore of South Bass Island, as well as on the other islands of
the group, the broken limestone rock is washed by the waves, and in the crevices of
this rock a multitude of plants find a footing. The principal species in bloom during
J idy and August were Campanula rotundifolia , Steironema ciliata , Aster ericoides
and A. pobyphyllus , Carex eburnea , and Lobelia kal/mii. The rocks were nearly
covered with lichens and a reddish alga. The unicellular algae, which flourish in the
many small pools among the rocks, are constantly washed out by the waves (pi. 12,
fig. 1).

DESCRIPTION OF PRINCIPAL PLANT REGIONS.

Plants in Put-in Bay. — The plants in this bay were studied more thoroughly
than elsewhere, owing to accessibility. Careful dredgings were made throughout
the western part of the bay, including Squaw Harbor and the vicinity of the hatchery.
Squaw Harbor is a shallow body of water averaging about 1 feet in depth and not
exceeding 7 feet in the deepest part, with a rocky border which prevents a swamp for-
mation of any extent (pi. 11, fig. 5). The mud bottom slopes gradually and is covered
with a dense mass of vegetation. From the entrance of Squaw Harbor to the end of
Gibraltar Island the water becomes gradually deeper, but does not exceed a depth of
15 feet, and reaches that depth only near the end of Gibraltar Island. The bottom
changes as gradually from mud to clay, with some sand and gravel along the shore.

A bar separates Squaw Harbor from Hatchery Bay,1 which is also shallow,
nowhere over 11 feet deep and averaging perhaps 5 feet. The bottom of this bay
varies much, being stony in some places and muddy in others. The water is turbid,
and it is usually impossible to see plants more than 2 or 3 feet below the surface.

Plants in 'Squaw Harbor . — Squaw Harbor is bordered by a narrow strip of
rush like plants. These plants are limited abruptly on the land side by the rocks
and on the other side by a depth of from 2 to 2.5 feet of water. Toward the east
Sagittaria rigida forms a prominent group, extending about 30 feet from the shore
and finding its limit of depth in about 2.5 feet of water. Looking over the plants

1 For convenience I have applied this name to that part of Put-in Bay lying between Gibraltar Bar and the United
States fish-hatchery. It opens by a ship channel directly into the lake.

62

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

from the water side, a gradual but striking change in the character of the leaves is
evident. In the deeper water the petioles are rigid, sharply triangular, and tipped
with a narrow blade sometimes scarcely distinguishable from the petiole. Nearer the
land the blades are broader and the petioles shorter, and in the mud along the shore
plants grow with broadly lance-shaped blades on petioles 8 to 10 inches long (pi. 15,
fig. 1). Not infrequently blades are found with one or both sides lobed. This species
also occurs on the other shore with Sciipus lacustris, but is not as abundant as on the
east side. Wherever Sagittaria rigida and Scirpus lacustris occur together the former
always occupies the deeper water. Near the shore Typha latifolia , Carex pseudo-
cyperus var. comosa , and species of Scirpus form a background for the Sagittaria.

Scirpus lacustris is scattered along the cast shore, but is not as abundant as on
the other side, a few hundred feet away, where Scirpus pungens is the prevailing
species. There are relatively few macroscopic forms in the water among the plants
of Sagittaria and Scirpus , although various species of algae are attached to the
Sagittaria petioles. Ceratoph yllum occurs, but not as abundantly as in the water
between the two shore regions. Along the south shore there is a thick growth of
Dianthera americana , and the shallow water of the harbor is tilled with submersed
forms, of which Vallisneria spiralis, MyriophyUum spicatum, Nairn jlexilis , Cerato-
phyllum demersum, and the various species of Potamogeton are the principal ones.
These all grow together freely, the Naias in company with Ohara, mostly Ohara
fragilis , covering the bottom as clover covers a field, while the other species nearly
all rise to the surface. In the early part of the season few or no plants can be seen,
but after the middle of August the surface of the water is covered with their floating
branches. A patch of Nuphar advenct and one of Nelumbium luteum , the latter but
recently established, occupy part of the head of the harbor. Characece are scarce in
this harbor, excepting some Ohara fragilis in the deeper parts and a few smaller
species on the edges of a little clay bank near the south end. Here were found, in
water from 2 to 10 inches deep, a number of species, some in vigorous condition,
other’s barely holding their own. Here I also found Zannichellia palustris.

The growth of Sagittaria rigida along the east side of Squaw Harbor is doubtless
due to the protection from wave action afforded by Gibraltar Island and Bar in the
mouth of the main harbor. The west side is more exposed to waves than the east
side, and while Sagittaria is not a plant that endures heavy wave action, Scirpus
pungens grows equally well on a muddy fiat or on a surf-beaten bar. In this place
it runs out along the point toward Gibraltar Island as far as it can find footing
among the rocks where the water is not too deep. The thick growth of filamentous
algie on the petioles of Sagittaria 'rigida and over the stones along the east shore
must also be attributed, at least partly, to protection from wave action. (Edogonium
and Spirogyra grow luxuriantly attached to Sagittaria petioles just beneath the
surface of the water, and these masses swarm with minute forms of animal and plant
life. Pithophora sp. covers the stems and petioles in shallow water as well as the
mud and damp stones along the shore. The coarse filaments of this alga form a
network whose meshes are filled with Crustacea, insect larvae, and unicellular algae.

Plants near Gibraltar Island. — The same species that flourish in Squaw Harbor
extend out into the main bay to a depth of 10 feet or a little more. Everywhere
from Gibraltar Island to the shore of South Bass Island the bottom of the bay is
covered, generally thickly, with plants of which Naias jlexilis and var. robusta ,

PLANTS OF WESTERN LAKE ERIE.

63

VaUisneria spiralis and Heteranthera graminea are most abundant, but Ceratophyllum
demersum, Mgr lop hyllum spicatum, Potamogeton zoster afolius , I*. perfohatus , /*.
perfoliatus richardsonii , /■*. pectinatus, and El-odea canadensis are also plentiful. In
some spots an abundance of Chara contraria was found with a trace of C. coronata
and Tolypella intertexta , but there are few Characece in Put-in Bay. In the deeper
parts of Lake St. Clair Tolypella intertexta covers the bottom with a luxuriant growth,
but in Put-in Bay this species is scarce and the plants are. small.

The sandbar running from Gibraltar Island to South Bass Island separates to
some extent this part of the bay from the part about the fish-hatchery. The bar is
usually covered with water from 1 to d feet in depth, but at times a great part of it
is above water. On the east side of the bar the slope is steep, while on the other
side the bar slopes gradually into Hatchery Bay. In the deeper water just east of
the bar the vegetation is most luxuriant, great quantities of Nonas and of VaUisneria ,
with other species, being brought up at every cast of the grapple. The bar is covered
with a layer of cobblestones and pebbles, overlying the blue clay which covers the
bottom throughout this part of Lake Erie. Of all the plants found on the east side
of the bar, but one grows on it; this is VaUisneria , which in many places forms dense
patches. Besides the VaUisneria the principal plant on the bar is Potamogeton
heterophyllous, and this I did not find elsewhere in the bay except in one wave-washed
place on the south shore. This species flourishes all along the bar, but especially
toward the Gibraltar end, where it is accompanied by a few plants of Potamogeton
filiformis and a dwarf form of JVaias jlexilis with close, compact habit and strong root
system (pi 18, fig. 2). These plants root in the clay between the stones and flourish
wherever the stones and pebbles are not too thick.

Plants in Hatchery Bay and in the open lake. — In Hatchery Bay the narrow-
leaved Potamogetons , such as P. pusillus , P. zoster osfolvus, and P. peetinatus , with
TIeteranthera graminea and JVaias Jlexilis, are especially abundant, and in quiet places
on muddy bottom Ceratophyllum demersum, Myriophyllum spicatum, and Elodea
canadensis are common. A few species of Characece also occur in this part of the
bay, but nowhere in great abundance. Beyond a depth of 10.5 feet no plants were
found, except one small plant of VaUisneria in the channel at a depth of 13.5 feet.
A depth of 10.5 feet corresponds roughly with a 'line drawn from the northern
extremity of South Bass Island to Gibraltar Island. Beyond this is the lake, and
although the bottom is free from stones and of a soft clay, not a plant was found
growing in it. This was the case wherever the lake itself was examined. Dredging
trips were made to various points and the bottom carefully dragged, but without
finding as much as a Chara , except that on one occasion a small amount of Lyngbya
wollei was brought up. This alga grows much more abundantly later in the season,
often choking up the fishermen’s nets with its coarse filaments. Close along the
shore the stones are covered with Cladophora glomerata, to which many diatoms are
attached, and among which many minute forms find a home.

East Harbor. — At East Harbor there is a wide stretch of swamp intersected by
channels which open into the lake by one deep and narrow channel protected from
severe wave action by a sandbar. The bed of the channel is entirely free from plants,
but along each side is a border of VaUisneria and Potamogeton, the side toward the
water being sharply defined by the current. On the west side there is a small bank
of VaUisneria with some, Potamogetons in the shallower water, while beyond these are

64

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

Scirpus pu/ngms and S. lacustris , growing in wide stretches over the low sandbar
and in the shallow lagoon behind the bar. The old rootstocks of these species of
Scirpus can be seen everywhere in 6 to 9 inches of water, forming a network over
the sand. In the lagoon, with Scirpus pungens , grows JVaias flexilis robusta. long
and slender, while in the shallow water on the exposed bar the dwarf form of JV.
flexilis , previously found in similar places in Put-in Bay, is not uncommon.

On the east side of the channel the number and kinds of plants is greater, in spite
of the fact that the prevailing winds drive the waves against the shore. The probable
reason is that these waves have washed a great deal of mud to that side, making more
favorable soil for the growth of the plants. Vallisneria occupies the deeper parts on
the east side of the channel as well as on the west, growing in 6 to 7 feet of water,
but is present also among the other species in shallower places. Toward the land from
the Vallisneria are the Potamogetons , P. zostercefolius , P. pectinatus, P. lonchites ,
and P. perfoliatus richardsonii, with Heteranthera graminea occupying the ground
in 3 to 5 feet of water and occasionally in the shallower places. In 1 to 2.5 feet
of water, among the Scirpus lacustris and S. pungens , Myriophyllum , JVaias, and
Elodea are the principal species, but, as already remarked, the forms common in
deeper water also frequently occupy this ground. In some places along this shore
the Scirpus is mixed with Zizania aquatica , and on the sandy bank Scirpus pungens
shares the ground with Equisetum robustum.

The sandbar which protects the channel entrance is large and is covered with
water varying in depth from 6 inches to 2 or 3 feet. Scirpus pungens grows in
many places on the most exposed situations in water up to a foot deep. Beyond the
Scirpus , in places exposed to the heaviest surf during storms and where the water is
6 to 12 inches deep, I found scattered tufts of Potamogeton heterophyll/as. The form
is the same as that growing abundantly on the bar at Gibraltar Island, where it was
found in fruit, but no fruiting specimens were found at East Harbor. In neither
case did it have floating leaves, the plants growing in tufts with many branches
coming out from near the base of the stem. This is the form which Dr. Morong
named var. longipedunculatus.

Character of the vegetation up the channel. — A short distance from the entrance
the channel divides, one branch going east, the other west; the latter again divides,
one branch turning southwest, the other continuing in a westerly direction. With
slight exceptions a description of the vegetation along the eastern branch will apply
to this entire swamp region.

Just where the channel turns toward the east is a sandy beach covered with 2
feet or less of water, and here grow two forms of JVaias , JV. flxxilis robusta and the
dwarf form of JV. flexilis , besides several species of Characece , which are more
abundant here than elsewhere in the swamp. In an area not over 200 feet long by 10
wide I found four species of JVitella and four of Ohara, all of low, compact habit,
though in other locations plants of some of the same species grow long and of open
habit. JVitella subglomerata and JVitella polyglochin grow in clusters a few inches
across and as many high, while JV. temdssima and JV. batrachosperma grow in about 1
foot of water with their branches spread out flat on the sand. Cliara frag ilis grows

with close, compact habit; Ohara contraria and its variety subinermis are here low,
delicate plants, growing in the shallower places; Ohara coronata has a habit different
from that of the same species in the deep, quiet pools, being stocky, with short

PLANTS OF WESTERN LAKE ERIE.

65

internodes and very compact. Ohara sejuncta is the largest species here, and is
notable for its long runners.

Here Vaucheria tuberosa , a plant usually found in deeper water, grows on the
sand in thick, compact tufts, and looks almost black at the bottom of 2 feet of water.
No Phanerogams, save a few plants of Naim, grow in this bed of Characece , but
nearer the channel, in deeper water, is a bank of Vallisnerm and Potamogeton. The
current is slower here, and in many places the channel is entirely tilled with vegetation
consisting mostly of Vallisneria , Ileteranthera graminea , Potamogeton pectvnatus, P.
loncMtes , P. hccens, close along shore where the water is quiet, and P. per foliatus
with some Nv/plidr and Nelumbium in about 3 feet of water. Nearer shore the entire
channel is lined with Sagittaria rigida , which nearly everywhere occupies the deepest
water within the zone of submersed forms. In quiet places there are beds of Elodea
with Myriophyllwm , CeratoplvylPum , and TJtricidaria vulgaris , while Naias flexilis
and Nitella polyglochin , which here grow long and slender, with open spreading-
habit, are scattered everywhere between the stems of the larger plants in 1 to 2 feet
of water. From the Sagittaria rigida zone, toward the land side, we come in succession
to Scirpus fl/wviatilis, with a little S. pungens and S. lacustris , Sparganium eury-
carpum , Typha latifolia , and Sagittaria latifolia. Dianthera americmia begins in
about 18 inches of water and continues to the muddy shore, mixing, in 6 to 10 inches,
with Scirpus atrovirens, Acorus calamus , Polygonum muhlenbergii , and Asclepias
incarnata , while on the muddy shore it accompanies Phalaris arundinacea , Galuma -
grostis canadensis , and Convolvulus septum. Everywhere on the water, between the
larger plants, are Lenina minor and Lemna polyrhiza.

A species of Sagittaria not in fruit, but probably S. latifolia , is mixed with the
more landward specimens of Sagittaria rigida and continues toward the shore, its
leaves becoming constantly broader as it approaches shallower water. On the wet
bank groups of Hibiscus moscheutos make the swamp gay with their flowers.

The swamp on the south side of the channel. — On the south side of the channel
the swamp covers many acres and is overgrown with rush-like plants. The species
are always somewhat mixed, but in each association some one tall species is clearly
predominant. Sometimes the boundaries are sharply limited and this in spite of the
fact that no differences in soil or in depth of water can be detected. Sagittaria '
rigida, which is nearest the open channel, gradually gives place to S. latifolia , which
is mixed with a little Zizania aguatica and Sparganium. Following this is a broad
zone of Scirpus lacustris of nearly pure growth, then Scirpus fuviatilis mixed with
a little S. lacustris , which soon increases to a second broad belt mixed this time with
some Sparganium.

Throughout all these associations both Sagittaria rigida and S. latifolia occur,
the latter being common. The water is about the same depth throughout this region,
varying from 1 to 1.5 feet, and the bottom is a soft mud. The second zone of Scir-
pus lacustris encircles and sharply limits a large bed of Sparganimn eurycarpum.
The water here is a little deeper, being nowhere less than 1.5 feet, and the bottom
seems softer, no other differences being noted. The Sparganvum is sparingly mixed
with Pontederia cordata , Sagittaria rigida , S. latifolia , and a few plants of Scirpus
lacustris and some Wetumbium. Beyond the border of Scirpus lacustris , which
encircles this bed of Sparganium , is a bed of Typha latifolia in the same depth
of water as the Scirpus. Naias flexilis grows among the taller plants, and other

F. C. B. 1901—5

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

(36

low-growing aquatics are not uncommon. In shallower water Dianthera grows
abundantly, and Slum cicutcefolium occurs in 6 inches of water with Asclepias
incarnata. Beyond the Typha is a vast stretch of Phraymites communis occupying
shallow water or exposed muddy places.

Such is the nature of the swamp and the arrangement of the species. A few
may he called dominant species. These grow. in groups from which the other domi-
nant species are nearly or quite excluded, but the spaces between the larger plants
are occupied by many small forms which occur throughout the swamp.

Plants (/rowing about the head of the channel. — At the head of this branch of the
channel is a quiet pool some 3 to 5 feet deep, where such forms as Utricularia vulga-
ris, Myriophyllum , Ranuncidus divaricatus , Bidem becMi , and Ceratopliyllum find a
congenial home and fill the water. Ilet&pcmthera graminea and Potamogetons also find
favorable conditions here; P. natcms, P. pectmatus, P. pusillus, P. zoster of olius,.
P. robbinsii , P. lucens , and P. amplifolius grow together in the clear, quiet water.
Nuphar advena and Nyniphim tuberosa grow in places not occupied by Utricularia
and Ceratophyllum , while the bottom is overgrown with Elodea , Ohara coronata , and
C. gy mnophila var. michauxii. The average depth of water is 3 feet, with a soft mud
bottom. On all sides this pond is surrounded by Zizania aguatica, which grows on a
similar bottom and in the same depth of water as the Scirpus and Typha found down
the channel.

Growth of Nelumbium luteum. — The conditions along other channels are very
similar to those just described, except that along the west channel Nelumbium luteum
flourishes. The immense yellow flowers rising just above the great dark-green
standing leaves and the water covered with huge floating pads make this the most
striking formation of the swamp (pi. 12, fig. 2). The Nelumbium grows in from 2 to 4
feet of water, or stray plants may be found in less than 2 feet. Many of the floating
leaves were 20 to 24 inches across and the standing ones not much smaller. At
Upper Sandusky Ba}r I found a floating leaf 26 inches in diameter and another with
a petiole more than 5 feet in length. Both at Sandusky Bay and along the Portage
River the acreage of Nelumbium was greater than at East Harbor, but nowhere did
the plants present a more vigorous growth or so magnificent an appearance.

Portage River swamps. — The Portage River swamps differ somewhat from those
just described, but not sufficiently to require a detailed description. A much greater
area is covered, and the swamp extends for miles up the river; but in general the
distribution of plants is the same — Ileteranthera , Vallisneria , and Potamogetons along
the stream, followed by Sagittaria rigida and the other marsh plants. The vast
swamp is dotted here and there with pools in which. Utricularia and similar plants
flourish. Here also I found Naias gracillima and Typha angustifolia , the latter
growing in a brownish clay differing from that common along this stream. In many
places the bed of the river was entirely devoid of plants, although there was no per-
ceptible current. On the muddy shore in a quiet place the bottom was covered with
a thick growth of Ohara sejuncta , accompanied by Nitella subglomerata , and in some
pools Nitella tenuissima and N. polyglochin grew in 3 feet of water.

Swamps about Sandusky Bay. — At the head of Sandusky Bay the swamps are
also very extensive, the general features being about the same as of those along
the Portage River. Much of the water is from 3 to 6 feet deep and supports only

WAVES WASHING THE SHORE. 2. NELUMBIUM LUTEUM, A FEW ACRES GROWING AT EAST HARBOR, OHIO.

Bull. U. S F. C. 1901, (To face page 66 )

Plate 12.

PLANTS OF WESTERN LAKE ERIE.

67

a moderate growth of Vallisneria and Idotamog etov , mostly 1*. perfoltaMus and I*,
jjectinatus. The water is very muddy, and this may account for the scarcity of
vegetation; for near the shore, where the water is clear, plants are more abundant,
such bottom forms as Ohara , Nitella , and Naias, as well as Potamogetons , being
present.1 In the clear water also were floating great masses of a species of Mesocarpus
swarming with Crustacea and other minute forms of animal life, while in some quiet
places Ilydrodictyon was found. Lower Sandusky Bay averages 10 to 12 feet deep,
and no plants were found except scattered clumps of Potamogeton pectinahus and
P. perfoliatus. The parts of the bay above and east of the city were but hastily
examined. For the most part there is a scanty growth of Potamogeton lonchites,
P. perfoliatm , P. peetinatm , P. prwlongns , and P. zizii. In some places the water
is clear, and one sees on the bottom, at a depth of 5 to 8 feet, Potamogeton ampli-
folius and P. lucens and the straight, slender shoots of P. roUbinsii, as well as most
of the other species native to these waters. Here Eleocharis palustris vigens grows
just beyond Scirpus pungens, its stem below the water line covered with colonies of
Pividaria.

ESTABLISHING ZONES.

It is clear that such a grouping of plants into zones as was established by
Magnin2 for the lakes of the Jura and by myself for Lake St. Clair is impossible
for any region examined in 1898. Only two groups are possible — one including all
submersed forms and those with floating leaves, the other all the remaining species
with emersed leaves and growing with roots and parts of the stem in water. All
the species of the three submersed and floating zones arc either mixed together in a
narrow border along the channels or cover the entire bottom of shallow harbors.
Among the swamp plants it is sometimes possible to draw a more or less definite line
between the landward forms and those growing in deeper water, but even this is so
often vague and unsatisfactory that I do not consider it of any real value. The
species intermingle so much on common ground that an attempt to separate them
would only result in confusion.

INFLUENCE OF VARIATION OF DEPTH OF WATER ON PLANTS.

The influence of changes in the depth of water on the distribution of aquatics is
important, but unfortunately we have little data on this subject. Through the kind-
ness of Col. James Smith, of the engineer’s office in Cleveland, Ohio, I secured a
table showing the depths of water at Cleveland from 1859 to June, 1898. From the
table it appears that since the records began the greatest difference in water level has
been 2.86 feet between high water in 1859 and low water in 1895. In L859 the water
was nearly 1.5 feet higher than it was during the summer of 1898. This must have
made a great increase in the extent of the swamp, especially of those portions in
which the submersed forms could flourish. In 1895, however, the water suddenly
fell from 0.4 foot below mean in 1894 to 1.39 feet below in 1895, causing a decrease
in the submerged area and the destruction of a great deal of submersed vegetation.
In the following year the water rose 0.64 foot and has continued to rise slowly

!This may also be connected with the character of the bottom. In the first locality the bottom contains a much
larger percentage of clay than in the second.

-Magnin, M. Ant. Recherches sur la Vegetation des Lacs du Jura. Revue Gen. de Bot., t. V (1893), p. 303.

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

68

since that time. Absence of data concerning the aquatic plants growing during those
years makes it impossible to sajr what effect this change of level has had, but it is
certain that data collected in any one year can not be depended upon to give the
normal depth at which certain plants flourish. Most species of aquatics being
perennial, they may start during periods of low water in places that will be too deep
for them during high water, but where they can struggle along for a season or two
before perishing.

ECOLOGICAL GROUPS.

Many attempts have been made in recent years to arrange all plants into groups
according to the conditions under which they flourish and the manner in which they
adapt themselves to their environment. 'Warming, Drude, and others have adopted
certain groupings, but as yet, save on the main divisions, there is no agreement among
plant geographers. All classifications, however, include the hydrophites, or water
plants, as one of the main divisions, and split this up into a number of smaller groups,
each group including all those plants having more or less similar life habits, although
perhaps belonging to widely separated families. Ecological groups, indeed, are not
in the least based on taxonomic characters. Among the free-swimming, submersed
forms are such widely different species as Utricularia vulgaris , Lenina trimica, and
species of Mesocarpus , Spirogyra , and Lyngbya , besides many others, both macro-
scopic and microscopic. The attached, low-growing, submersed forms include the
JSTaiadacece and Characeoe , while species of Potamogeton and JV-ymphcea belong to the
group with floating leaves. It would be possible to make a large number of groups,
attempting to express in this manner all the ways in which water plants are influenced
by currents, depth, light, and the other factors bearing upon an aquatic habitat, and
in so far as such groups represent biological facts they have a value. It is doubtful,
however, whether any but the broader divisions are sufficiently stable to be of use,
the great adaptability, within certain limits, of the aquatic organism rendering the
boundaries of the smaller groups too indistinct to be readily recognized. This is
illustrated in Vallisneria spiralis , the long ribbon-like leaves of which are thought
by some to be especially well fitted for floating downstream in a rapid current, but
it grows equally well in almost stagnant water. Potamogeton heterophylhis, when
growing in quiet pools, produces floating leaves, but when on a surf-beaten bar it
branches freely from the base and the floating leaves are absent. I shall therefore
divide the water plants of our region into only five groups, as follows:

1. Free-swimming, microscopic forms in the open lake: The Plankton.

2. All other unattached species, macroscopic and microscopic: Utricularia vulgaris, Lcmme , Cerato-

phyllum demersum, and many algte growing in quiet places.

3. Attached submersed plants: Naias, Cliara, Cladophora, Vallisneria , Potamogetons.

4. Attached plants with floating leaves: Nymphoeaceee, Potamogetons.

5. Swamp plants.

The Plankton includes, of course, both animal and vegetable forms, among the
latter being species of Merisrnojjedia , Pediastrum , Sphazrozyga, Clathrocystis , and
many diatoms. Species of Desrnidem sometimes occur, but probably by accident.
The species of the plant Plankton being mostly without voluntary motion, are subject
to all the currents and movements of the water.

In the second group are many widely distant forms, all growing in quiet pools
and sheltered places. Among the higher plants Utricularia vulgaris , Ceratophyttum

PLANTS OF WESTERN LAKE ERIE.

69

demerswn , Lemna trisulca , L. minor , L. polyrhiza , and Wdlffia Columbiana are free-
swimming forms, either submersed or floating. With them are associated masses
of ALesocarpus , Spirogyra , Ilydrodictyon , and frequently quantities of Osdllarid ,
Lyngbya , and other related forms.

Microscopic algge, especially Desmidece and Diatomaceai , occur in great numbers
upon the larger plants in quiet water. They are especially numerous in the silt and
dirt that collect upon narrow-leaved plants, as Utricularia vulgaris and Bidens beckii,
but they are infrequent on Oeratophyllum , even when this grows near plants of
Utricularia well supplied with microscopic life.

The plants of the third group occupy by far the largest place in aquatic
vegetation. Though not always as conspicuous
as the plants with floating leaves, they cover a
much greater area and make up the mass of
the vegetation. The Characeos combine with
Naias and Elodea to cover the bottom in water
up to 10 or 12 feet in depth. Ileteranthera
graminea , Vallisneria spiralis , Bidens bechii ,
species of Myriophyllum , Ranunculus , and Potamogeton grow to near the surface
of the water, and in favorable locations make a dense growth. Bidens bechii also
has aerial leaves. In this group must be included the attached submersed algae,
as Chcetophora , Clddophora , species of
CEdogonvum and the like.

The Potamogetons and Nymjdnm-
cece of the fourth group are nearly all
vigorous plants and form the most con-
spicuous feature of aquatic vegetation.

In our waters the plants of this group
are Nymplum tuberosci , Nupliar advma,

NelvmMwnluteum , Polygonum muhlen-
bergii , and several species of Potamo-
geton. Nelumhium lutewm has both
floating and emersed leaves. The root-
stocks of the Nyrn phcmcece are thick
and stout, while those of the Potamo-
getons are slender. The floating leaves
are always thick and leathery.

To the swamp-plant group belong
all of the species rooting in the mud
and not truly aquatic, including such
forms as Sagittaria , Typha, Spargan-
iwn, Alisma , Acorns , Dianthera , many
Gyperacece , and some grasses. These
all root in the mud in shallow water
and have nearly their entire vegetative system exposed to the air. They are
generally characterized by slender stems and long, narrow leaves. In Sagittaria ,
Sparganiurn , and Typha the lower portion of the stem is usually thick and spongy;

Fig. D. — Potamogeton lonchites, section through a bundle.

Fig. C. — Potamogeton lonchites, section through a
portion of submersed leaf.

70

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

the stems are in all cases well supplied with air spaces. Rootstocks are common
and the plants generally spread locally by this means.

ADAPTATION OF WATER PLANTS TO THEIR ENVIRONMENT.

It is not the purpose of the writer to enter into the details of the structure of
water plants, but a few general remarks indicating the relation between the structure
of leaf and stem and the medium in which these plants grow will not be out of place.

Aquatic plants show in form and structure special adaptations to their environ-
ment. Their development is affected by dim light, the motion of the water, absence
of transpiration, difficulty in obtaining oxygen, and the necessity of taking the min-
eral substances needed through the entire plant system instead of by means of roots.

Even in clear water there is some loss of light by filtration and by reflexion, and
in the muddy water common in the Put-in Bair region this loss must be considerable.
Other things being equal, plants would lie limited in their growth by the depth of the
water. That the plants within our region do not occupy all the places where depth of
water would allow will be shown later on to be perhaps due to the character of the
bottom. To make the most of the dim light that reaches them at the bottom of
several feet of water, such plants as Earns and the Characea ? have numerous narrow
leaves, always ascending and of the same structure on both sides (fig. H). The stem
also is green and assists in the work of assimilation. A narrow or finely divided leaf
is common among water plants. In TJtrimlaria , Ceratophyllum , Bidens beckii , and
Ranunculus the leaf is split into many narrow divisions; in Elodea , JVaias, and in

PLANTS OF WESTERN LAKE ERIE.

71

Fig. F . — Bidens beckii, section through portion of
aerial leaf.

Steffi

the tine-leafed Potamogetons the leaves are linear or narrowly lanceolate, sometimes
almost capillary, while Vallisneria has long ribbon-like leaves that frequently attain
a length of 6 feet. The broad submersed leaves
of such species as Potamogeton perfoliatus , P.
amplifolius , P. Zonchites , and P. lucens are very
thin and consist in great part of but three cell
layers, an upper and lower epidermis and a
median layer, all of the cells having essentially
the same character.

This broad, thin leaf is an ideal one for
making the most of the dim light, but it is not
so well adapted to withstanding the motion of
the water. To offset this, these broad leaves
have ribs that are wanting in other submersed
leaves, and in these ribs bast fibers are found

which, according to Schenck,1 are absent in all other submersed leaves. In Eaias
flex'di* the leaf is but two cell layers in thickness except at the midrib, and in
Elodea an upper and a lower epidermis alone make up the thickness of the leaf.

A palisade parenchyma, so universal
in the leaves of land plants, is entirely t ppor surface,

wanting in submersed leaves, the chlo-
rophyll being arranged in the epidermal
cells and on the tangential as well as the
radial walls (see figs. F and G, portions
of aerial and submersed leaves of Bidens
beckii). The absence of stomata from
most submersed leaves and the thinness
of the epidermal cell walls are to be
expected in a medium where adaptations
for controlling transpiration arc unnec-
essary.

The stem of the submersed aquatic
with its central cylinder and reduced
mechanical elements is well adapted to
the movements of the medium, while
the numerous and often large cavities
supply an abundance of air to all parts
of the plant. The reduction of the vas-
cular bundles is one of the most striking
features. In some aquatics, as Edicts,
no vascular bundles remain, their place
being taken by a central canal (fig. Iv).

This canal is also present in the Potamo-
getons and in some dicotyledons, as Ceratopliyllum (pi. 13, fig. 5), and represents the
wood portion of the bundle, an occasional ring or spiral indicating the former

1 Schenck, H. Vergleichende Anatomic cler Submersen Gewachse. Bibliotheca botanica, Heft 1, 67 pp.,1886.

Lower surface.

Fig. G. — Bidens beckii, submersed leaf.

72

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

presence of vessels. In Bidens beckii the dicotyledonous type of bundle is found, but
the bundles are small and far apart. Between the bundles and the epidermis there
are numerous cavities separated from each other by layers of tissue one cell in thick-
ness (pi. 13, tig. 1). In Oeratophyllum the dicotyledonous type of stem lias been
obliterated and the entire stem is composed of parenchymatous cells, those of the

central cylinder being only slightly differentiated. The stem is strengthened by
collenchymatous thickening of the angles of the cell walls (pi. 13, fig’. 6).

The Potamogetom having the monocotyledonous type of bundle differ from
Bidems beckii in the central cylinder, but outside of this central cylinder the two
forms have a similar structure. A sheath of thick- walled cells surrounds the central
cylinder, and such cells are also frequently clustered about the inner side of each
bundle. In some flat-stemmed Potavioqe-
tons , as P. zoster ecefolius, groups of thick-
walled cells are placed at irregular inter
vals just beneath the epidermis (pi. 13,
tig. -1).

The structure of the floating leaf shows
many striking differences from the sub-
mersed leaf, due to the difference in envi-
ronment. The cells of the upper epidermis
of the floating leaf are smaller than in the
submersed leaf, with thicker outer walls,
and frequently of more irregular outline.

Stomata are confined to the upper epider
mis. Below the epidermis are one or two
layers of palisade tissue with the chlorophyll
arranged on the radial walls. Between the
palisade tissue and the lower epidermis there
are large cavities separated by partitions
one cell-layer thick (figs. C, E).

The lower epidermis is composed of
larger, thinner-walled cells than the upper epidermis, and is devoid of stomata.
Floating leaves are of firmer texture than submersed ones and have some protection
against injury by water. This protection in most aquatics is a waxy covering
(Schenck), but in Nelumbium luteum it consists of countless papillae, each arising from
an epidermal cell. A layer of air is always held by these projections, so that water
falling’ on the leaf stands in great drops, as if on an oiled surface, until it can run off.

Nelumbiuvn luteum has both floating and emersed leaves. There is no essential

L/rTW

Fig. K. — Naias flexilis, cross section of central cylinder.

(Bull. U. S. F. C, 1 901 . (To face page 72.)

Plate 13.

3. POTAMOGETON ZOSTER/EFO LI US, CROSS SECTION OF
CENTRAL CYLINDER.

5. CERATOPHYLLUM DEMERSUM, CROSS SECTION
OF THE CENTRAL CYLINOER

6. CERATOPHYLLUM DEMERSUM, CROSS SECTION OF A STEM.

PLANTS OF WESTERN LAKE ERIE.

73

difference in the structure of these two, except that the emersed leaf is much better
provided with ribs, which, besides being more numerous, are stronger than those in
the floating leaf.

ROOTS AND RHIZOMES.

Some aquatic phanerogams have so completely adapted themselves to a watery
medium that they have dispensed with roots except in the germinating seedling, and
in Ceratophylluin even these are almost wholly suppressed. With the exception of
Utricularia , Ceratophyllum, , and Wolffia , all phanerogams in our waters produce some
roots. In Lemnacece these are slender organs serving to keep the plant in position
on the surface. The rooting aquatics, as the Potamogetons and Myriophylhum , are
provided with roots that, according to Schenck,1 have no purpose save to anchor the
plant. Hochreutiner 2 has endeavored to show that the roots of Potamogeton have
another function. In experiments tried by him at Geneva, it appeared that eosine
solution was absorbed by the roots and passed up the stem much more readily than
it passed through the leaves. If this function of the roots of aquatics can be proven,
it will help to explain some observations referred to under the discussion of the soil
samples.3

ROOTSTOCKS.

Most aquatics and swamp plants have rhizomes or running rootstocks by which
the species often spreads over considerable areas. On Gibraltar Bar the runners of
Potamogeton heterophyllus ramify in all directions, and specimens of Potamogeton
lonohites were collected at Sandusky showing extensive runners bearing buds at their
ends. Heteranihera graminea has long black rootstocks. The thick rootstocks of the
Nymphcmceaz buried in the mud give rise year after year to leaves and flowers and
produce an abundance of strong fibrous roots. Sparganiurn eurycarpum , Sagittaria
latifolia , Typha latifolia, Juncus torreyi , Scirpus pungens , and S. lacustris , among
swamp plants, were specially examined for root systems. All are well supplied with
running rootstocks, those of the species of Typha and Soirpus being particularly
strong and widely spreading. Probably many square feet in an association of Soirpus
and Typha are occupied by the plants of one system, each plant connected with all
others of its species by the thick rhizomes. (See pi. 14, figs. 1—4; pi. 16, fig. 1; pi.
17, figs. 4, 5. Typha , Nupha/r , Potamogeton , Juncus , Soirpus, Sparganiurn.)

REPRODUCTION, PROPAGATION, AND WINTERING.

In most aquatics the reproductive organs show the influence of the medium less
than any other part of the plant. Such typical aquatics as TJtricularia produce
showy flowers and the seeds ripen above water. Most aquatics, however, ripen their

1 ScKenck, H. Die Biologie tier Wasscrgewiichse, Bonn, 1886.

2 Hochreutiner, Georges. Etudes sur les phanerogames aquatiques du Rhone et. du port Geneve. (Revue gen. de Bot.,
t. vin, p. 158.)

3 Since writing the above, Mr. R. H. Pond, while a special assistant to the United States Fish Commission, has
investigated the relation of water plants to the solid substratum. A summary of results has been published in Science,
vol. xni, No. 320, February 15, 1901, and is in part as follows:

"1. Plants rooted in soil exceed in vegetation and dry weight plants rooted in sand or merely suspended.

“2. Plants rooted in sand or merely suspended contain starch, calcium, and magnesium in excess, while they are
lacking in nitrogen, potash, and phosphoric acid.

“3. Lithium nitrate is absorbed by the roots and conducted to the upper portions of the plant, where it may be
detected with the spectroscope.”

These results confirm the work of Hochreutiner and justify the views expressed on page 70 as to the importance of
the soil for the growth of aquatics.

74

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

seeds below the surface, although the flowers are borne on emersed peduncles and
have no adaptation for water fertilization. In the well-known case of Vallisneria
spiralis the water assists in fertilization. The male flowers are borne on scapes at
the base of the plant. When the inclosing spathe ruptures, the flowers rise to the
surface and float about until they come in contact with the stigma of the female
flower, to which some of the pollen adheres. After fertilization, the female flower
is drawn below the surface, where the seeds ripen.

Our knowledge of the germination of the seeds of aquatic plants is still very
fragmentary. The seedlings of rootless aquatics show the greatest departure from
land forms. In Ceratophyllum a short radicle is developed, but it never grows out
into a primary root, nor are other roots formed. In the Potamogetons and other
rooting species the special adaptations for an aquatic existence in the seedling are
not so marked. A primary root is developed, which later perishes and gives place
to adventive roots.

Kolpin Ravn 1 has studied the power of seeds of aquatic and marsh plants to float
and he finds that most seeds are heavier than water and thus can not float unless
adhering in masses; or they may not be easily wet, when they will float in spite of
their weight. Some float but a few days and their distribution is local. Many seeds,
however, are doubtless carried by currents and water fowl, although the seeds of
true aquatics are not well adapted to spread by animal agency, and it is probable that
waves, floods, and water currents are more important in this respect than animals.

The active vegetative propagation and the perennial character of water plants
have tended to reduce the importance of seed production. Many aquatics produce
seed much less freely than land plants and in some seed production occurs but seldom
or has never been recorded. Ceratophyllum , Elodea , and Lernnaceoe may grow for
years in one locality and never produce seed. Potamogetonrobbinsii is not known to
seed. I n the Put-in Bay region I was unable to find Potamogeton amplifolius in fruit,
and fruits were scarce on P. zoster cefolius, P. pusillus , and P. freisii. The last three
propagate by winter buds, and are perhaps losing the power to produce seed.

BUDS AND OFFSETS.

Besides rhizomes water plants propagate vegetatively by simple offsets and pass
the winter by various means. Almost any fragment of a plant of Elodea when .in
water may continue to grow and produce a new plant. The same is true of Cerato-
phyllum , Utricularia , many Potamogetons , Myriophyllums , etc.

Some species pass the winter unchanged at the bottom of the water. Of these
are Zannichellia palustris, Ceratophyllum , Vallisneria , and some species of Potamo-
geton. Among Potamogetons , P. pectinatus is remarkable for wintering by means
of tubers produced at the ends of special roots. Vallisneria also produces a pseudo
tuber, which is really a bud at the end of a rootstock. This tuber is eagerly sought
after by water fowl. A third method of wintering is by means of hibernacula.
TJtricularia is the best example of this. Toward the fall the tips of the branches,
instead of elongating, cease growth, and the leaves are crowded into large, compact
buds. When the plant dies on the advent of cold weather, these buds sink to ne
bottom, where they remain until spring. The winter buds of certain Potamogetons

Kolpin Ravn, F. Om Flydoevnen hos Froeneaf vore Vand og Supplanter. Bot. lidsskrilt. vol. 19, pp. 143-177. '76 tig

PLANTS OF WESTERN LAKE ERIE.

75

are of this nature, and Myr iop hyll/um also passes the winter in this way. Winter
buds were common on three species of narrow-leaved Potmnogetons , P. zoster wfolius,
P. pusillus , and P. freisii (pi. 15, tig. 2). Potamogeton lonchites sometimes propa-
gates by means of short branches, which produce buds at their ends. Roots and
leaves grow out from these buds, and the result is a small plant, ready to root and
grow whenever it is detached from the parent plant.

ANALYSIS OP SOIL SAMPLES.

The samples of soil collected at Put-in Bay, East Harbor, and Sandusky Bay
were analyzed by the Division of Soils, U. S. Department of Agriculture. The
results of the analyses are given in Table I. The number of samples is not sufficient
to make general deductions possible, and therefore I shall merely indicate the
direction in which the results seem to point, leaving it to future work to establish
the relation, if any exists, between the texture of the soil and the plants growing
upon it.

By reference to Table I, it will be seen that, as a rule, the soils on which plants
occurred in abundance were composed largely of fine sand and very line sand, and
contained relatively little silt, fine silt, and clay, while the soils on which few or no
plants occurred, although the depth of water and other physical conditions were
favorable, were composed largely of silt, tine silt, and clay, and were poor in fine
sand and very tine sand. The other items are of no practical importance, the amounts
of gravel, coarse sand, and medium sand being very small, while the amount of
organic matter is not at all regular, being relatively large in all samples from places
where no plants grew and irregular in the other samples. Of all the samples taken,
six must be excluded from the comparisons on account of other factors coming
prominently into play. Sample 1, from Gibraltar Bar, is not comparable with the
others, both on account of its mixed character and the exposed position of the bar,
and the three samples from the open lake, Nos. 3, 4, and 7, were taken at a depth of
33 to 36 feet, and hence can not be compared with samples taken at depths not
exceeding 7 feet. The two samples, 11 and 12, collected on the lake shore,' were taken
to determine the cause of the presence or absence of Scirpus. All the other samples,
ten in number, were taken from places where the depth of water ranged from 6 inches
to 7 feet, and where all the other physical conditions were nearly similar. 1 have,
therefore, divided these ten samples into two sets, six in one and four in the other,
and have added together for each sample the percentages of fine sand and very tine
sand to make the first column of Table II, and the percentages of silt, fine silt, and
clay to make the second column. The six samples of the first set represent localities
well stocked with plants, while the four samples of the second set were taken from
bottoms either bare or on which but a few plants were growing.

The agricultural value of soils is largely determined by their power to retain
water — sandy, dry soils being good for early truck crops, but almost useless for the
heavier late crops, as wheat or corn; while soils containing much clay retain water
better and are consequently later and colder but more valuable for wheat and grass
crops. As shown in pi. 2, Bulletin No. 5, Division of Agricultural Soils, a typical
truck land contains 79.69 per cent of medium, fine, and very fine sand and 14.36 per
cent of silt, fine silt, and clay. It is somewhat similar, therefore, to the sample of

76

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

the first group on which the heaviest growth was found (No. 2), the greatest difference
being in the fact that in truck lands the percentage of medium sand is large while in
our sample it is insignificant. The samples on which practically no plants were found
are more uniform in texture than those of the first group and very much resemble
the typical wheat lands, as given in plate 3, Bulletin 5, in which the percentage of
fine sand and very fine sand is 36.90 and that of silt, fine silt, and clay 55.91.

The water in sandy soils is undoubtedly better aerated than that in clay soils,
though both are under water, because in the former case the water passes through
the soil more rapidly than it does in the latter, and it would seem that even the roots
of aquatics are unable to thrive in a soil so poor in oxygen as the saturated heavy clays.

It will be necessary in future work to take many samples of the bottom under
all conditions of vegetation and to take the temperatures not alone of the water but
of the soil in which the plants are growing. A large series of such samples would
make possible general conclusions that might be of practical value.

Table I. — Mechanical analyses of soil samples taken from bottom of Put-in Bay and vicinity.

Division No.

Locality.

j Collection No.

Vegetation.

Moisture in air-
dry sample.

Organic matter.

i

'Z s
> 0

o

Coarse sand |
(1-0.5 mm.).

Medium sand ;
(0.5-0.25 mm.).

lO

CM

o

•a a
S0

p

E

Very fine sand
(0.1-0.05 mm.).

Silt (0.05-0.01
mm.).

Fine silt (0.01-
0.005 mm.).

Clay (0.005-0.0001
mm.).

P. ct.

P. ct.

P. ct.

P. ct.

P.ct.

P.ct.

P.ct.

P.ct.

P. ct.

P.ct.

3852

Near West Harbor

11

Scirpus pun-
gens.

0. 14

0.88

0.20

0. 22

0. 78

83. 70

12.80

0. 35

0.07

0. 65

3853

do

12

do

0.21

1.99

1.40

1.59

3.82

67.11

23. 82

0. 38

0.12

0. 75

3847

0. 88

3. 68

0. 00

0. 00

0. 38

74 15

18.65

1.04

0. 31
0.67

1.86
2. 55

3858

Edge of water near swamp . .

17

Fair

0.40

1.15

0.00

0. 02

0.09

11.42

82. 50

1.72

3857

Upper Sandusky Bav

16

2

Very good

0. 74

2. 02

0. 00

0. 05

0. 12

20. 66

5. 64

1 . 52

5.85

3844

Southeast of Gibraltar Bar. .

Excellent

0.26

4. 52

0. 67

1.64

6. 36

38. 45

35. 90

3.36

2.35

8.10

3851

Portage River

10

Good

2.54

7. 07

0. 00

0.00

0. 68

4.70

62. 00

9.51

2.92

12. 55

3848

East Harbor

6

do ...

2. 80

7. 79

0. 00

0. 48

21.58
12. 15

7.53

4. 68

17.13

3843

On Gibraltar Bar

1

Scant

1.56

6.26

7.73

7.13

14.20

8.59

16.58

6. 09

21. 60

3850

Portage River, broad part. . .

9

Nothing

3.13

8.49

0.00

0. 00

Trace.

1.86

27. 46

24. 37

7.63

27. 39

3854

Upper Sandusky Bay

13

do

2.47

7. 76

0. 35

0. 00

0. 12

2. 13

35. 73

16.85

6. 68

28. 11

3855

1 ,000 feet from swamp

14

Very scant . . .

2.34

6. 45

0. 00

0. 29

Trace.

2.40

29. 60

21.75

7.95

28. 23

3856

Near Winona Point Club-
house, Sandusky Bay.

15

do

3. 62

7. 23

0.00

0.00

Trace.

1.10

30. 43

19. 76

7. 99

28. 46

3845

Near fish hatchery in open
lake.

3

Nothing

2. 88

5. 76

0.19

0.48

1.35

19. 15

15. 78

19. 54

7.62

29. 00

3846

In open lake

4

do

2. 26

5. 65

0. 05

0. 17

0.37

1.65

20. 61

29. 21

9. 20

32. 50

3849

East point of Middle Bass
Island, open lake.

7

do

1.63

7. 46

0.21

0.41

0. 86

2. 77

16.77

26. 06

9.33

36.10

Table II. — Comparison of samples collected at Put-in Bay and vicinity, with typical truck and. wheat soils.

Division No.

Collec-
tion No.

Depth
in feet.

Condition of
vegetation.

Per cent
of medium
sand, fine
sand, and
very fine
sand.

Per cent of silt,
fine silt, and
clay.

3847

5

1 to 2

Good

93. 18

3. 21]

3858

17

. 5 to 1

Fair

94.01

4.94

3857

T6

3.5

Very good

84. 34

12. 99

■Set I

3844

2

7

Excellent

80. 71

13.81

3851

10

3

Good

67.38

25. 08

3848

6

3 to 4

do

60. 71

29. 34

79. 69

14.37

3850

9

6

Nothing

29.39

59. 39

3854

13

6

do r.

37.98

51.64

► Set II

3855

14

Very scanty ......

32

57.93

3856

15

6

do

31. 53

56. 21

Wheat soil. Plate 3, Bull. 5, Division of Agricultura

Soils

38. 07

55.91

PLANTS OF WESTERN LAKE ERIE.

77

Alphabetical list of plants occurring in Lake Erie and in swamps h„ the vicinity of Put-in Bay, Sandusky,

East Harbor, and Portage Hirer, Ohio.1

PHANEROGAMS.2

Acorns calamus L. East Harbor.

* Alisrna plantugo L. Portage River.

Apocynum cannabinunt L. With Scirpus pungens

in shallow water, West Harbor.
Asclepiasincarnatu L. Everywhere in very shallow
water or on exposed muddy banks.

Bidens beckii Torr. Pond in East Harbor and in
Squaw Plarbor.

Boltonia asteroides L’Her. With Scirpus pungens
in shallow water near West Harbor.

* Brasenia schrcberi J . F. Gmel. Cedar Point.

* Carex aijuatilis Wahl. Cedar Point, Sandusky.
Carex pseudo-cyperus var. comosa Boott. Squaw

Harbor. Seen only in one place.

Carex stricta Lam. Pond on South Bass Island
near hatchery.

* Carex torta Boott. Cedar Point, Sandusky.
Ceratophyllum deinersum L. Everywhere.

Cyperus erythrorhizgs Muhl. Muddy shores, Upper

Sandusky.

Cyperus strigosus L. Upper Sandusky Bay.
Deyeuxia. canadensis Munro. Muddy banks, East
Plarbor.

Dianlhera americana L. Squaw Harbor, Put-in
Bay, and East Harbor.

* Eleocharis acicularis R. Br. Cedar Point.
Eleocharis intermedia Schultes. Cedar Point.
Elodea canadensis Michx. Common.

Eupatorium perfoliatum L. With Scirpus pungens

in shallow water, Squaw Harbor.

* Fimbristylis autumnalis R. S. Cedar Point,
Heteranthera graminea Vahl. Everywhere. One

of the most common submersed aquatics.
Found on mud flat at Portage River.
Hibiscus moscheutos L. East Harbor on muddy
banks.

Ily.santhus riparia Rafin. Upper Sandusky Bay.

* Juncus balticus Willd. Cedar Point., Sandusky.

* Juncus brachycephalus (Engelm. ) Buch. West

Plarbor.

Juncus torreyi Coville. Squaw Harbor in shallow
water and on mud 1 tanks.

Leerzia oryzoides Sw. With Scirpus pungens, West
Harbor.

Lenina minor L. In ponds on South Bass Island
and at East Harbor.

Lemna polyrhiza L. Common.

Lemna trisulca L. Pond on South Bass Island.
Lippia lanceolate Michx. Upper Sandusky Bay.
Mentha canadensis L. Muddy banks, Upper San-
dusky Bay.

Myriophyllum spicatum L. Everywhere in quiet
water, 2 to 4 feet deep.

Naias flexilis Rost. & Schmidt. Common.
iVaias flexilis robusta Morong. More common than
the species.

Naias gracillima . Morong. Pond in Portage River
swamp near Port Clinton.

Nasturtium palustre D. C. Muddy banks, Upper
Sandusky Bay.

Nelurnbium luteum Willd. Abundant at East Har-
bor, Portage River, and head of Sandusky
Bay. Introduced into Squaw Harbor and
near fish-hatchery.

Nuphar advena Ait. Common.

Nymphxa tuberosa Paine. East Harbor in 3 or 4
feet of water.

Phalaris aruridinaceci L. East Harbor, on mud
banks.

Phragrnites communis Trin. East Harbor. Forms
extensive associations.

Physostegia virginiana Benth. Muddy bank, in
Upper Sandusky Bay.

Polygonum muhlenbergii S. Wats. East Harbor
and Sandusky Bay.

Polygonum acre PI. B. & Iv. Muddy shores, Upper
Sandusky Bay.

Populus monilifera Ait, Beach at East Plarbor.

Potamogeton amplifolius Tuckerman. Near fish-
hatchery and in Sandusky Bay: Not found

with floating leaves.

Potamogeton foliosus Raf. Put-in Bay.

Potamogeton freisvi Ruprecht. Put-in Bay. Not
abundant.

Potamogeton heterophyllus Schreb. Gibraltar Bar,
East Harbor, and Sandusky Bay. Floating
leaves on specimens from Sandusky Bay.

* Potamogeton hill'd Morong. East Harbor.

* Potamogeton interruptus Kitaibel. Sandusky Bay.

Potamogeton lonchites Tuckerman. Put-in Bay,

East Harbor, Sandusky Bay. One of the
commonest species.

Potamogeton lucens L. East Harbor and Sandusky
Bay.

Potamogeton jiliformis Pers. Gibraltar Bar.

Potamogeton natans L. Put-in Bay, East Plarbor.

Potamogeton pectinatus L. Everywhere. Extremely
variable in size and habit.

Potamogeton perfoliatus L. Everywhere.

Potamogeton perfoliatus richardsonii A. Bennett,
Put-in Bay.

Potamogeton pruiongus Wmf. Portage River.

Potamogeton pusillus L. Put-in Bay, East Plarbor.

Potamogeton robbinsii Oakes. East Harbor, San-
dusky Bay.

Potamogeton zizii Roth. Sandusky Bay.

Potamogeton zoster nfolius Schum. Everywhere.

Ranunculus divaricatus Schrank. Sandusky Bay.

Ilumex verticillatus L. Pool on South Bass Island.

Sagitlaria arifolia Nutt, Muddy shore, Fpper San-
dusky Bay.

Sagittaria graminea Michx. Muddy shore, Upper
Sandusky Bay.

Sagittaria latifolia Wild. Squaw Plarbor, East
Harbor.

Sagittaria rigida Pursh. Everywhere.

Salix longifolia Muhl. East Harbor. Frequently
in several inches of water on the beach.

[ Salix nigra Marsh. East Harbor, on sand liar in
4 to 10 inches of water.

1 Species marked with an asterisk were found in the herbarium of E. L. Moseiy, of Sandusky, Ohio, and were not

observed by me. w

2 Nomenclature generally according to Index Kewensis.

78

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

Alphabetical list of plants occwring in Lake Erie and in swamps in the vicinity of Put-in Bay, Sandusky,
East Harbor, and Portage River, Ohio — Continued.

PH AN EROG AMS — Con ti nued .

Sali.r wardii Muhl. East Harbor. Sometimes in
shallow water.

Scirpus atrovirens Muhl. Muddy banks, East Har-
bor.

Scirpus pungens Vahl. Everywhere.

Scirpus eriopliorum Michx. Shallow water, Upper
Sandusky Bay.

* Scirpus erect us Poir. East Harbor.

Scirpus fluviatilis A. Gray. Everywhere.

Scirpus lacustris L. Everywhere.

Scirpus sylvaticus L. Shore of pool on South Bass
Island.

* Scirpus torreyi Olney. East Harbor.

Scutellaria galericulata L. East Harbor swamps.

Sium cicutxfoliurn Gmel. East Harbor swamps.

charI

Ohara contraria A. Br. , forma gymnoliles (No. 2).
Abundant in Hatchery Bay, the common
species.

< 'hara contraria A. Br., forma paragymnophylla (No.
17). This was identified with a doubt by
Dr. Norstedt. The form is rare in Put-in
Bay, growing in only one spot near Gi-
braltar Island, in 7.5 feet of water. It is so
peculiar that a brief description will be
given. Fruiting plants 5 to 10 cm. high;
mostly with incomplete cortication, one
plant of the collection being fully corticated,
some not corticated at all, others with one
or two, joints of the leaves corticated; in
these cases the second and third leaf joints
are corticated with eight cells. Stipular
whorl inconspicuous but double. Stipules
short, less than one-half to one-third length
of carpogone. End segment of leaf either
obtuse and 1-celled or acute and 2-celled.

Char a contraria A. Br., forma (28). On sandy
beach at East Harbor, Ohio. (PI. 17, fig. 2. )

Chara contraria A. Br. (29) . A low-growing deli-
cate form found with 28, but having longer
stipules and dwarfer habit.

Chara contraria, A. Br. forma subinermis (30).
Found with 28 and 29. Very dwarf habit;
leaves much longer than the internodes and
cortication imperfect; identified by Dr. Nor-
stedt. No. 66, identified bj' Dr. Allen as
belonging to this species and form, was col-
lected on a clay bank in Squaw Harbor;
water 6 to 12 inches deep. (PI. 17, fig. 1.)

Chara contraria A. Br. (62). Very small speci-
mens with extremely long leaves; collected
in Lake Erie a mile outside of Sandusky
^ Bay and in 6 to 8 feet of water.

Chara contraria A. Br. (68, 69, 70). In Put-in Bay.

Chara contraria, A. Br. forma elongatci, macroptila,
macrotiles, gymnotiles (72). Put-in Bay.

Chara coronata Ziz. forma microptila, incrustata
(23) . Dr. Allen says this is a very unusual
form with very short bracts. (PI. 20, fig. 5. )

Chara coronata Ziz. (41,42). East Swamp and East
Harbor. (PI. 20, figs. 1, 2. )

Sparganium eurycarpurn Engelm. Everywhere.

Spartina cynosuroides Willd. Upper Sandusky Bay.

Stachys aspera Michx. Borders of pool on South
Bass Island.

Typha angustifolia L. Rare, along Portage River
and Upper Sandusky Bay.

Typha latifolia L. Everywhere.

* Utricularia gibba L. Cedar Point, Sandusky Bay.

Utricular ia vulgaris I East 1 larbor, Portage River.

Vallisneria spiralis L. Everywhere.

Wolffia columhiana Karst. Abundant in pool on
South Bass Island.

Zannichellia paluslris L. Squaw Harbor.

Zizania aquatica L. East Harbor, Portage River,
Upper Sandusky Bay.

OEM. i

Chara coronata Ziz., forma meiocarpa, meioptila
(32). On sandy beach, East Harbor. (PI.
20, fig. 4. )

Chara coronata Ziz., forma incrustata, (74). Clay
bank in shallow water, Squaw Harbor.
(PI. 20, fig. 3.)

Chara sejuncta A. Br. (31). On Sandy beach, East
Harbor.

Chara gymnopus var. michauxii A. Br. (53). On
mud bottom in shallow water, Portage
River. ( PI. 19, fig. 1. )

Chara fragilis Desv. , forma brevibracleata ( 33 ) . East
Harbor, Ohio. (PI. 16, fig. 2.)

Chara fragilis Desv., forma subinermis (36). Put-ir
Bay.

Chara liydropitys Beichenbach, forma compacta
(65). On clay bank in very shallow water,
Squaw Harbor. ( PI. 17, fig. 3. )

Char a aspera (Dethard) Willd. (67). On clay bank
in very shallow water, Squaw Harbor. This
species was not found in fruit.

Chara intermedia, A. Br. (71 probably) (73). Both
in Put-in Bay.

Nitella subglomerata A. Br. On sandy beach at
East Harbor (75). (PI. 18, fig. 3. ) In mud
with Chara gymnopus michauxii, Portage
River. (55). (PI. 18, fig. 1. )

Nitella polyglochin A. Br. (26). With other Char-
aceas on sandy beach at East Harbor.' ( 55 ) .
(PI. 19, fig. 2. )

Nitella batrachasperma (Reichenbach) A. Br. (27).
On sandy beach East Harbor and on mud
bottom in Portage River.

Nitella tenuissima Desv. (272-). Two specimens of
27 were sent to Dr. Allen, and they were
thought to belong to the same species. It
appears, however, that one was A. batrachas-
perma and the other, which Dr. Allen num-
bered 271, was N. tenuissima. The one sent
to Dr. Nordstedt as 27 was N. tenuissima.

Nitella gracilis Ag. vel sp. affinis (64) . Upper San-
dusky Bay, in quiet water. Immature.

Tolypella intertexta, Allen (No. 1). Occurs, in
Hatchery Bav, but the plants are nowhere
thrifty. ‘ July.

!The Characete were kindly determined by Dr. T. F. Allan and Dr. Otto Nordstedt.

PLANTS OF WESTERN LAKE ERIE.

79

Alphabetical, list of plants occurring in Lake Erie arid in swamps in the vicinity of Put-in Bay, Sandusky,
East Harbor, and Portage River , Ohio — Continued.

DESMIDE/E.

Closterium ehrenbergii Menegh . In tow, Put-in Ray.

Closterium Icibleinii Kuetz. In washings from
Bidens beckii and Utricularia vulgaris.

Closterium parvulum Naeg. In washings from
Bidens beckii and Utricularia, vulgaris.

Closterium veirus Kuetz. In tow, Put-in Bay; in
Utricularia washings and in pool on Starve
Island.

Closlerium diuntv Ehrenb. In washings from fta-
gittaria rigida, Squaw Harbor.

Cosmarium angular e Johnson. In Utricularia wash-
ings. Mr. Johnson described this species
from material collected by myself at Lake
St. Clair in 1893. It will probably be found
at other points along the lakes.

Cosmarium botrytis Menegh. In tow, Put-in Bay,
and nearly all plant washings.

Cosmarium brebissonii Menegh. Starve Island.

Cosmarium depressum Lund. Put-in Bay.

Cosmarium grahalum Breb. In Utricularia wash-
ings.

Cosmarium Ixve Rabenh. In washings from Eny-
conema, and Sagittaria.

Cosmarium margaritiferum Menegh. In Utricularia
washings.

Cosmarium rneneghinii Breb. In Utricularia wash-
ings.

Cosmarium moniliforrne Ralfs. In Bidens beckii
washings.

Cosmarium nitidulum De Not. In washings from
Enyconema and Sagittaria.

Cosmarium ornatum Ralfs. In Bidens beckii wash-
ings.

Cosmarium. portianum Archer. In Utricularia
washings,

Cosmarium punctula turn Breb. In tow and in wash-
ings from various plants.

Cosmarium reniforme Archer. In tow and in wash-
ings from various plants.

Cosmariumrenifotine var. compressum Nordst. Put-
in Bay.

Desmidium swurtzii Breb. Put-in Bay.

Disphinctium connalum (Breb.) De Barv. Put-in
Bay.

Euastrurn degam Kuetz. In Bidens beckii wash-
ings.

Euastrurn binale Ralfs. In washings from Bidens
beckii, and Utricularia vulgaris.

Euastrurn eleguns var? In Utricularia washings.

Gonatozygon khiuhani ( Archer) Rabenh. In Bidens
beckii, washings.

Gonatozygon ralfsii De Bary . In Bidens beckii wash-
ings.

Ilycdolheccidissiliens Breb. In Utricularia washings.

Hyalotheca mucosa Ehrenb. In Bidens beckii wash-
ings-

PleuroUeniopsis ralfsii. (Breb.) Lund. In Utricu-
laria washings.

Pleurotscnium trabecula (Ehrenb.) Naeg. In Utri-
cularia washings.

Staurastrum avicula Breb. In Utricularia washings.

Staurastrum brebissoni Archer. In Utricularia wash-
ings.

Staurastrum crenulatum (Naeg. ) Delponte. In Utri-
cularia washings.

Staurastrum, dejectum Breb. In towr, Put-in Bay.

Staurastrum dilatatum Ehrenb. In Utricularia~w ash-
ings.

Staurastrum fur rig eruin Breb. In Utricidaria wash-
ings.

Staurastrum punctulatum Breb. In tow, Put-in
Bay.

Staurastrum striolatum Archer. In Sagittaria wash-
ings.

Staurastrum tetracerum (Kuetz.) Ralfs. In Bidens
beckii washings.

Xanthidium antilopxum Kut.z. In Utricularia wash-
ings.

Bull. U. S, F. C. 1 901 . (To face page 80.)

1. SPARGAN I U M EURYCARPUM, ROOTSTOCK.

Plate 14.

2. SCIRPUS LACUSTR IS, ROOTSTOCK.

3. POTAMOGETON H ETERO PH Y LLUS.

Bull. U. S. F. C. 1 901 . (To face page 80.)

Plate 1 5.

1. SAG ITT ARIA RIGIDA.

The leaf in the center is from deep water; that at the right from shallow water near the shore.

2. WINTER BUDS: POTAMOGETON ZOSTER/EFOLI US AT THE LEFT; P. PUSILLUS, UPPER RIGHT;

P. FREISII, LOWER RIGHT,

Bull, U. S. F. c. 1 901 . (To face page 80.)

Plate 1 6

SCIRPUS PUNGENS, ROOTSTOCK, 2 ■ CHAR4 FRAG I LI S FORMA B R EV I B R ACTEATA.

Plate 1 7.

3. CHARA HYDROPITYS.

,u' J. S. F. C. 1901. (To face page 80.)

4, TYPHA LATI FOLIA. ROOTSTOCKS.

1. CHARA CONTRARIA FORMA SUBINERMIS.

2. CHARA CONTRARIA.

5. NUPHAR ADVENA, ROOTSTOCK.

Plate 18.

2. N A I AS FLEX I LIS.

Dwarf compact form growing on surf-beaten shore.

3. NITELLA SU BGLOM ERATA. SANDY BEACH.

Bull. U. S. F. C. 1901. (To face page 80.)

Plate 19

i1

CO

cc

D

cc

e5

£

0

1
CO

x

D

<

X

o

co

D

Q_

o

z

<

cc

<

X

u

NITELLA POLY G LOCH I N .

Plate 20.

3j II. U. S. F. C. 1901. (To face page 80.)

2. CHARA CORONATA, TYPICAL FORM.

V"-'

3. CHARA CORONATA,

From shallow water in Squaw Harbor.

4. CHARA CORONATA

In shallow water on sandy beach.

5. CHARA CORONATA.

An anomalous form from Put-in Bay growing at
the bottom of 7 feet of water.

Plate 20.

Bull. U. S. F. C. 1901. (To face page 80.)

Qy

1. CHARA CORONATA.

On mud bottom in shallow water.

V

, 41 \ ,»j ' p*

.■i '

2. CHARA CORONATA, TYPICAL FORM.

3. CHARA CORONATA
From shallow water in Squaw Harbor.

4. CHARA CORONATA
In shallow water on sandy beach.

An anomalous form from Put-in Bay growing at
the bottom of 7 feet of water.

THE LEPTOCEPHALUS OF THE AMERICAN EEL AND OTHER AMERICAN

LEPTOCEPHALI.

By CARL H. EIGENMANN and CLARENCE HAMILTON KENNEDY.

It is an anachronism to describe “species” of Leptocephali , since Gill, Delage,
Gilbert, and Grassi have definitely traced various “species” to their adult forms.
Nevertheless this is what we have done. Our excuse is that with but two exceptions
we have not been able to connect any of the forms examined with their adult stage.
It may take many years to complete the series demonstrating the life history to which
each of the species described belongs, and in the meanwhile it will be advantageous
to have definite forms placed on record for the benefit of all who may secure Lepto-
cephali and may not be within reach of the specimens examined.

In preparing this account we have found Stromman’s “ Leptocephalids in the
University Museum at Upsala” of great value. It is unfortunate that Stromman
neglected to count the segments, since Grassi has demonstrated that this is one of
the characters in which a Leptocephalus agrees with its adult form.

Several of the species to be described here are of great interest. One of these
is the Leptocephalus of the American eel, Anguilla chrysypa. We have taken pleasure
in associating the name of Grassi with this species in recognition of his identification
of Leptocephalus hreviceps with the European eel. Incidental to the identification of
the Leptocephalus of the American eel, we have found that the American eel has but
105' to 110 segments, several less than the European eel possesses. Another interest-
ing species is Leptocephalus diptychus, in which the color of each side is asymmet-
rically arranged as to the distance between successive spots, but the blending of the
color of the two sides of the transparent creature gives the effect of symmetrically
arranged markings.

Most of the species described here are new and belong unquestionably to different
adult forms. Concerning others we are not at all certain whether the species belong
to different adult eels or are different stages of the same eel. Thus we are not certain
whether L. amphioxus and L. rex are different stages of the same form or not. The
same is true of L. gillii and Z. latus.

The name Leptocephalus was originally proposed in 1777 for Z. morris ii , the larva
of the conger eel. Since this name is older than any other that has been applied to
the adult conger, it has recently been appropriated by Jordan & Evermann (Fishes
of North and Middle America, p. 353) for the conger eel. This leaves us without a
distinct appellation for larval eels of the Leptocephalus type. It might be advantageous
to use the second name proposed for a larval eel, if the possibility of losing it as soon

F. C. B. 1901— 6 81

82

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

as the adult form was determined did not stare ns in the face. We have, therefore,
retained the name LeptocepliaVus for the larva?.

The specimens forming the basis for this paper belong to the U. S. National
Museum. We wish to express our thanks to the authorities for the privilege of
examining them. Most of them were collected by the Fish Commission steamer
Albatross at the following stations:

Date.

Station

No.

Lat. N.

Long. W.

Approximate location.

1883.
Nov. 5

2103

O I II

38 47 20

O ! U

72 37 00

100 miles SE. Atlantic City, N. J.

1885.
Aug. 29

2566

37 23 00

68 08 00

250 miles SE. Nantucket.

Sept. 3

2575

41 07 00

65 26 30

160 miles S. Cape Sable, Nova Scotia.

Sept. 20

2588

39 02 00

72 36 00

95 miles E. by S. Long Branch, N. J.

Oct. 17

2596

35 08 30

75 10 00

20 miles SE. Cape Hatteras.

Oct. 18

2597

34 57 00

75 43 30

20 miles S. Cape Hatteras.

Oct. 18

2600

34 39 30

75 35 30

40 miles S. Cape Hatteras.

Oct. 19

2611

34 15 00

76 11 30

55 miles SSE. Cape Lookout.

Other localities will be given with different specimens.

Grassi has demonstrated that the Leptocephali possess as many segments as the
adult and we have found that the number of segments in the different specimens of
a given Leptocephalus varies but little. The following table of the LeptocepKali,
arranged according to the number of segments, may therefore assist in referring
these species to their other larval phases and adult forms. It ivill also serve as a
Ivey to the species described and permit other species that may be discovered to be
r eadi ly i nte updated :

Protovertebrae.

Species.

Length.

Abdom-

inal.

Caudal.

Total.

mm.

Leptocephalus grassii

1 47

i 49

65

68

40

40

105

108

Leptocephalus diptychus r

/ 38

l 51

76

73

38

43

114

116

Leptocephalus rex

f 87

\ 100

59

60

119

123

Leptocephalus amphioxus

65

102

20

122

1 42

71

57

128

Leptocephalus caudomaculatus

54

1 57

70

71

72

58

128

127

1 59

58

130

Leptocephalus latus

70

98

35

133

Leptocephalus gillii

50

96

41

137

Leptocephalus strommani

61

70

71

141

Leptocephalus morrisii

I 74

1 86*

54

69

88

73

142

142

1 75

65

79

144

Leptocephalus mucronatu -

{ 80

66

80

146

1 82

67

80

147

Leptocephalus discus

1 69

1 71

72

75

83

84

155

159

1 75

68

91

159

Leptocephalus humilis

76

| 78

69

71

93

90

162

161

1 85

68

89

187

Leptocephalus gilberti

73

100

80

180

*The larger specimen is tire younger.

THE LEPTOCEPHALUS OF THE AMERICAN EEL.

83

Several characters used in the following key have proved of but transient value.
The approximation or separation of the nares we have found in one case to depend
on the age of the specimen. The presence or absence of the pectorals we have also
found to depend at times on the age of the specimen. Whether these two characters
are ever of permanent value we are unable to say.

Key to the species of Leptocephali described in the present paper .

a. A series of three or four large conspicuous black spots on each side. Segments 114 to 116. Other charac-
ters differing greatly with age diplychus

act. Sides without large conspicuous black spots.

6. Pectorals none; nostrils remote.

c. Head depressed between the eyes; 96 abdominal, 40 caudal segments giltii

cc. Head swollen between the eyes; a series of black dots along back and belly.

d. Anus near middle of length; eye large, 1.6 in snout; gradually tapering from snout to anus,

thence decreasing gradually to the tail; no pigment about

head, except in gular region; segments 70 + 71 strommani

dd. Anus much nearer tip of caudal than snout; eye small, 2.5 in snout; rapidly widening from nape

to about the twenty-fifth segment, then of nearly uni-
form width to anus at ninety-eighth segment, thence
tapering to tip of tail; pigment dots on top of head; seg-
ments 98 + 35 .lotus

bb. Pectoral fins present.

e. Caudal suddenly contracted; head conical; eye small, 2.66 in snout; nostrils remote; seg-
ments 66 + 80 mucronat.us

ee. Caudal not contracted, the vertical fins continuous with it.

/. Nostrils remote.

g. Snout obtuse, lower jaw the shorter.

li. No color along the middle of the sides. Segments about 60 + 60 rex

hh. A series of spots along the middle of the side; another along the ventral margin;

segments 54 + 88 (see also n) morrisii

gg. Snout pointed, jaws equal.

i. Body short, elliptical; no pigment; tongue free in front; segments 68 + 40 grassii

ii. Body elongate, band-shaped.

j. Eye 1.5 in snout; nostrils above the level of the middle of the eye; a series
of rounded spots along the middle of the sides, one to

each 2 to 3 segments; segments 72 + 83 discus

jj. Eye 1.5 in snout; nostrils on level with middle of eye; tongue not free in
front; a series of elongate spots along the middle of the

sides, one to each segment; segments about 160 humilis

ff. Nostrils approximated; body elongate, nearly band-shaped; a series of spots below the mid-
dle of the sides.

k. Vent near the posterior end of the body; color along sides consisting

of a series of round chromatophores on the somites amphioxus

kk. Vent near the middle of the body.

1. A series of spots in the tail just beneath the notochord; segments

127 to 130 caudomaculatus

. K. No spots in the tail.

vi. A series of chromatophores along the base of the dorsal rays;

segments about 159 to 162 humilis

mm. No chromatophores along the base of the dorsal rays.

n. Segments 142 morrisii

nn. Segments 180 gilberti

All drawings illustrating this paper were prepared by Mr. Clarence Hamilton
Kennedy.

84

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

DESCRIPTIONS OF SPECIES.

Leptocephalus grassii, sp. nov. = Anguilla chrysypa. Figs. 1, la, 16.

One specimen 47 mm. long, Albatross station 2103. One 49 mm. long, Albatross, lat. 38° 25'
N., 72° 40/ W.

This species is distinguished by its broad, well-developed vertical fins, deep and robust body, and
absence of all pigment. Body lanceolate, sharp at both ends, deepest at the middle; its depth 5.66
in the length; dorsal beginning about 8 segments in front of anus, its rays becoming gradually longer
to the caudal, whose rays are about 1 m. long; anal similar to the dorsal; pectoral well developed;
head sharply conical, upper and lower profile equally slanting; eye large, 1.33 in snout, 4 in head; no
pigment cells; segments 65 + 40 and 68 + 40.

This species very closely resembles Leptocephalus breviceps, which Grassi has shown to be the
young of the European eel. The segments of the European eel are given as 116. The vertebrae of
seven young eels taken at Woods Hole during the summer of 1900 range from 106 to 110, as follows:
35+71, 35 + 72, 36 + 71, 36 + 71, 36 + 73, 36 + 74, 42 + 65. This number agrees with the number of
segments in L. grassii.

1.

The close similarity of this species to Leptocephalus breviceps, the absence of color, the structure of
the caudal, and the difference of this species from breviceps in just that character, viz, number of
vertebrae, in which the American eel differs from the European eel, make it quite certain that the
present species is the larva of the American eel.

We take pleasure in associating the name of Professor Grassi with the larva of the American eel.

Leptocephalus diptychus E. & Iv. Figs. 2, 2a, 2b, 2c, 2d, 2e.

Leptocephalus diptychus, Eigenmann & Kennedy, Science, xii, p. 401. 1900.

Type, one specimen 38 mm. long, Albatross station 2566; surface, evening. Cotype, one specimen
51 mm. long, Albatross, New Providence; surface, electric light.

This species differs from all other species of Leptocephalus in the presence of eight large chromato-
phores, one in the alimentary canal a short distance in front of the anus, and seven along the middle
line of the body, three of which are on the left side and four are on the right. Those of opposite sides
alternate with each other, so that they appear in the translucent fish as a series of seven spots placed
at more or less regular intervals along the side. Each one of the spots of the side consists of a large

THE LEPTOCEPHALUS OF THE AMERICAN EEL.

85

chromatophore extending over three to four somites. At the margin of these larger chromatophores
there are rarely minute chromatophores.

The two specimens differ from each other very greatly in the shape of the head, the nostrils, the
development of the pectoral, and the shape of the body. The fact that the large one has lost its teeth
and its head has assumed a distinct eel shape, together witli the similarity of the structure of the
caudal, the unique coloration, and the similarity in the number of myotonies, make it very probable
that the two specimens are different stages of the same species.

Leptocephalus diptychus, small specimen.

Leptocephalus diptychus.

The two specimens differ as follows:

a. Body more elongate; pectorals a mere ridge; nostrils remote from each other for a distance nearly equal to
the diameter of the eye; leptocephalous teeth wanting; lower jaw projecting, its tip rounded and enter-
ingthe profile; no pigment spots about the head; depth 8.6; head distinctly more than half the depth of

the body, nearly 11 in the length; eye 7 in head, 1.5 in snout; segments 73 + 43 type

aa. Body elliptical; pectorals well developed; nostrils not yet separated; leptocephalous teeth; jawsnearly equal;
a pigment spot near the end of the lower jaw, another within the anterior nares, two succeeding each
■ other between the lower margin of the pupil and the lower margin of the auditory capsule; depth 6;

head less than half greatest depth; eye 5 in head; segments 76 + 38 cotype

86

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

Details of the distribution of spots on the two sides of L. diptychus.

Younger specimen.

Older specimen.

No. of seg-
ments between
centers of suc-
cessive spots.

Serial number of proto-
vertebrae over which
a spot extends.
(R=right side; L=lel't.)

No. of seg-
ments between
centers of suc-
cessive spots.

Serial number of -proto-
vertebrae over which
a spot extends.
(R=right side; L=left.)

12

f 15,16,17 R

| 27, 28, 29 R

12

f 12, 13, 14 R.

13

12

1 24, 25, 26 L.

11

j 40,41,42 L

} 51,52,53 R

12

| 36, 37, 38 R.
| 48, 49, 50 L.

11

1U-.

14

1 62, 68, 64, 65 L

13

| 58, 59, 60 R.

| 76, 77, 78 R

17

J 71,72,73 L.

15

{ 91, 92, 98 L

1 87, 88, 89, 90 R.

Leptocephalus rex, sp. nov. Figs. 3, 3a, 3/).

One specimen, 87 mm. long, Albatross, San Salvador, 1886. One 105 mm. long, Albatross, New
Providence. The first specimen may represent a later phase of the species' called amphioxus,

The head has taken on its adult form, the snout is rounded, the lower jaw is shorter than the
upper, and the larval teeth have dropped out. The body is not as compressed as in true larval forms.

The tail is long and pointed. The greatest depth is 11.5 in the length. The head is nearly 13 in the
length. The dorsal begins a few segments in front of anus. The caudal is rounded, continuous
with the high dorsal and anal. A series of color cells along base of anal and caudal rays; a few
cells in deeper parts of tip of tail; no color elsewhere about body or head; segments 59 + 60.

The second specimen differs from the one above described in having a series of spots along the
base of the dorsal as well as the anal, and in having 123 segments. The difference in color may be
due to difference in age. This specimen is much shriveled by alcohol.

Leptocephalus amphioxus, sp. nov. Figs. 4, 4a, 4b.

Type, one specimen, 65 mm. long, Albatross, lat. 38° 25' N., long. 72° 40' W.

This species is evidently very closely related to Leptocephalus immaculatus Stromman , from which
it differs in the more pointed snout and tail and the presence of a series of chromatophores along the
middle of the side. Body tapering nearly equally from both ends to the middle; depth about 9.5 in
the length; head depressed in front of the ejms, snout pointed, jaws equal; eye 1.66 in snout, 4.4 in
head; nostrils near together; head 14.5 in the length; pectorals well developed; alimentary canal
extending to near the tip of the tail; caudal well developed, not separated from the dorsal and anal:

THE LEPTOCEPHALUS OF THE AMERICAN EEL.

87

head without pigment, an irregular series of small round chromatophores on the somites near the
middle of the body; a series of chromatophores at the base of the vertical fins, a series of chromato-
phores above the alimentary canal. Segments 102 + 20.

Leptocephalus caudomaculatus, sp. nov. Figs. 5, 5a, 5 h.

Four specimens 42, 54, 57, and 59 mm. long. Albatross station 2597.

This species resembles L. humilis in most characters. It is most readily distinguished from that
species by the absence of chromatophores along all but two or three of the dorsal rays. The rayed
dorsal begins about the fourth segment in front of the anus. Greatest height 13 in the length. The
body is nearly of uniform height from the head to beyond the alimentary canal. Head about 1.25 in
the greatest height; eye 2 in snout, 5.5 in head; snout pointed; profile straight or slightly depressed over
eyes; pectorals well developed; nostrils close together, anterior about half way between eye and tip
of snout; one or two chromatophores at the margin of the upper jaw; no other chromatophores about

Leptocephalus caudomaculatus.

the head; a series of 9 pigment spots above the alimentary canal; no pigment spots at base of anal or
dorsal; a few chromatophores at base of tail; a spot at the upper surface of the spinal cord at its end; a
series of about four spots in the tail just beneath the notochord; the myocomma with 1 to 3 insignificant
chromatophores below the median line; myotonies 70-72+56-58.

Leptocephalus latus, sp. nov. Figs. 6, 6«, 6 b.

Type, one specimen 70 mm. long. Albatross station 2611; surface.

This species is evidently very closely related to L. fulginosus Stromman. It differs from the latter
principally in the size of the eye and in pigmentation. Since his specimen was larger (78 mm.), the
difference in the size of the eye is not attributable to age. Body very thin and elevated, rather sud-
denly widened at the nape and reaching its maximum height near the middle of the body, where it
remains the same to near the anus, the tail broadly rounded; greatest height 7.4; head small, about 17

88

BULLETIN »! THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

in the length; lower jaw distinctly shorter, leptocephalous dentition persisting; eye small, 2.5 in snout,
7 in head; nostrils remote; pectorals not developed; a few scattered pigment cells in the opercular
region, a few cells on top of the head, a series of pigment cells along the base of the dorsal, anal, and
ventral line, those along the liases of the fins forming a nearly complete line, those along the lower
surface of the abdomen more widely separated; segments 98-|-35.

Leptoeephalus latus.

Leptocephalus g-illii, sp. nov. Figs. 7, 7a, 7b.

Type, one specimen 50 mm. long. Albatross, lat. 38° 25' north, long. 72° 40' west.

This species differ from L. latus in the shape of the head and body. The specimen is, however,
somewhat shriveled, and the differences may be due to age and to preservation.

The body tapers gradually to the middle of the body; the tail is rather pointed; greatest height
7.5 in the length; eye 13.5 in the length; profile depressed between nostrils; jaws equal; distance

THE LEPTOCEPHALUS OF THE AMERICAN EEL.

89

between nostrils about equal to pupil; eye 5.33 in head; pectorals none; a group of pigment cells on
top of head and a similar group below gill opening, an irregular row of spots along ventral side of
abdomen, a more regular row of smaller spots along base of dorsal and anal fins. Segments 96 + 41.

We take pleasure in associating with this species the name of Dr. Theo. Gill, the first to express
the conviction (Proceedings Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences, 1864) that a Leptocephalus is
the larva of an eel.

Leptocephalus strommani, sp. nov. Figs. 8, 8a, 8 b.

Type, one specimen 61 mm. long. Albatross station 2596.

This species is evidently closely related to L. latus. It differs from that species chiefly in the posi-
tion of the anus and the folding of the posterior section of the alimentary canal. The body is not
so deep nor so suddenly expanded behind the nape, tapering instead rather evenly in front and behind.
Its greatest depth is near the anus and is 7.5 in the length, and the tail is rounded, without a distinct
caudal, but with the middle rays longer than in L. latus. The head is about 15.5 in length. The lower
jaw is distinctly shorter than the upper, the profile rounded; eye medium, about 5.5 in head, 1.6 in
snout; nostrils remote by a distance about equal to the diameter of the eye; pectorals not developed;

a group of pigment cells in the gular region; no other pigment cells about the head; a series of pigment
cells around the edge of the body, those in the abdominal region above the alimentary canal, except
along its anterior third, where they are along the ventral surface; no color on body. Segments 70 + 71.

We take pleasure in dedicating this species to the author of “ Leptocephalids in the University
Zoological Museum at Upsala,” Dr. Strdmman.

Leptocephalus morrisii Scopoli = Leptocephalus conger. Figs. 9, 9a, 95; 10, 10a, 105.

One specimen 86 mm. long. Albatross station 2588. ,0

Body gradually tapering from the head to behind the anus, where the depth is 10.33 in the
length; fins very low; rayed dorsal beginning four segments in front of the anus; tail pointed; head
pointed; jaws equal; profile nearly straight; eye 1.6 in snout, about 5 in head; nostrils approximated;
pectoral well developed; three or four pigment cells over the eye; two chromatophores below the
pectoral; a series of eight pigment spots above the alimentary canal; a pigment spot beneath the
alimentary canal opposite the second one above; a row of pigment cells along the base of the anal,
beginning about two segments behind anus and extending to caudal; several chromatophores at base
of caudal and two at base of dorsal near tail; none at base of any other dorsal rays or along the back;
sides with a series of linear spots on the myocomma beneath median line; segments 69 + 73.

90

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

A specimen 74 mm. long from New Providence ( Albatross , surface), which has undergone a
partial metamorphosis, seems to be referable to this species. The leptocephalous teeth have been lost,
the snout has become rounded, and the alimentary canal shorter. Body long and band-shaped, taper-
ing gradually from head to midway between caudal and anus; depth about 11 in length; head small,
about 16 in length of body; snout rounded; lower jaw shorter than upper; mouth extending beyond
eye; pectorals well developed; eye 1.5 in snout, about 5 in head; dorsal beginning in posterior fourth
of alimentary canal, increasing in height to caudal; anal similar to dorsal; one or two chromatophores
below pectoral; a series of six spots along alimentary canal, a few cells scattered between them; a series
of spots along base of anal and caudal; a few spots on caudal and a few along the bases of last dorsal

rays; sides with an irregular series of spots on the myocomma, each spot, composed of from one to three
chromatophores, which are expanded on surface over the myocomma rather than in them, as in
the younger specimens; two minute chromatophores on one side of head.

Leptocephalus mucronatus, sp. nov. Figs. 11, I la, 115.

Specimen No. 1, 75 mm. long; No. 2, 80 mm. long; No. 3, 82 mm. long. Albatross station 2575,
lat.. 38° 25/ north, long. 72° 40' west.

This species differs from all others in our collections, or in descriptions accessible to us, in its
suddenly contracted or mucronate tail, the fin folds being imperfectly continued around it, and by the
greater pigmentation. The specimens appear to have reached the point of metamorphosis, the head
being well round and conical, but the leptocephalous dentition .persists. Elongate band-shaped, the
body tapering gradually to about midway between anus and tip of caudal; depth, 11.5; head, 14.33;
eye small, 2.66 in snout, 9 to base of pectoral; nostrils remote from each other by a distance equal to
diameter of eye; pectorals well developed; gill slit nearly vertical; somites 66-f-80; tongue not free
in front.

THE LEPTOCEPHALUS OP THE AMERICAN EEL.

91

Coloration all formed by minute chromatophores, a spot near ends of jaws, a spot behind eye,
another above it at nape, a series of lines of irregular length and irregularly placed at bend of the
myocomma along middle of sides, a few spots near upper bend of the myocommas; a similar series of
spots along lower bend of myocommas of the tail, a series of spots along dorsal, a series of spots along
anal, a series of double spots above and below the alimentary canal.

Leptocephalus discus, sp. nov. Figs. 12, 12a, 12 b.

Two specimens, 71 and 69 mm. long. Albatross, San Salvador.

This specimen differs from all others in the collection except L. amphioxus in possessing along
the middle of the side a series of circular chromatophores placed on every second to fourth somite.

Body of nearly uniform width, tapering for a short distance in front and behind; depth about
10 in the length; head 15.5 in the length; head short and conical, the upper and lower profiles with
similar slopes; pectorals well developed; dorsal beginning about the twentieth segment; caudal

11a

Leptocephalus mucronatus.

pointed, rays little developed; tail lanceolate; no pigment about head, except a series of three or four
chromatophores on each side of throat; a few chromatophores above alimentary canal near its posterior
end, another series on sides near base of anal; pigment between anal rays in its posterior half; a few
pigment cells about base of caudal and two or three at base of some of posterior dorsal rays; middle
of sides with a series of round chromatophores more numerous toward caudal; two or three chromato-
phores above or below this series on tip of tail.

92

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

Leptocephalus humilis Stromman. Figs. 13, 13a, 136.

Two specimens 75 and 76 mm. long. New Providence. One 85 mm. long. Albatross station
2600. One 78 mm. long. Alhcdross station 2596.

This species agrees closely in most respects with Stromman’ s description. It differs in having
a series of spots above the alimentary canal. There is a series of three or four chromatophores along
the edge of the upper jaw half way between its tip and the eye; a chromatophore near the base of the
pectorals; mid-dorsal line in front of the dorsal fin with a series of widely separated chromatophores;
dorsal, caudal and anal with a series of chromatophores; a few chromatophores on the caudal rays; a
series of spots above the spinal cord at its posterior part, these sometimes aggregated into two spots;
myocommas below the median line, each with a series of from one to four chromatophores except
near the head. The body is long and slender, tapering from the very slender head to behind the
alimentary canal; tail pointed; segments 71 + 90; 68 89; 68 + 91; 69 + 93.

13

Leptocephalus humilis.

Leptocephalus gilberti, sp. nov. Fig. 14, 14a, 146.

Type, one specimen 73 mm. long. Albatross station 2597.

This species resembles Leptocephalus humilis, morrisii, and caudomaculatus in shape of the head,
the nostrils, the shape of tail. It differs in number of segments, distribution of spots along alimentary
canal, and length of rayed dorsal. Body tapering equally to both ends from middle; depth about 12
times in length; head about half the greatest depth; snout pointed; upper and lower profiles nearly
equally slanting; dorsal beginning on seventh segment behind pectoral; a chromatophore on margin
of upper jaw; no other pigment about head; a chromatophore below pectoral, a series of chromato-
phores along upper margin of alimentary canal, congregated in places to form more or less distinct
spots; a few chromatophores along ventral margin of alimentary canal; base of anal with a series of
chromatophores to near caudal; a few chromatophores at base of caudal; none at base of the dorsal; a
few chromatophores on tip of tail; the usual series of linear spots on myocomma beneath lateral line;
segments 100 + 80,

We take pleasure in dedicating this species to Dr. Charles H. Gilbert, in recognition of his
demonstration of the metamorphosis of the Leptocephalus of Albula vulpes into its adult form.

DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES OF BLENNY FROM JAPAN.

By HUGH M. SMITH.

Among the miscellaneous zoological collections made by the Fish Commission
steamer Albatross on the coast of Japan in 1900 is a small blennioid fish belonging to
a species not heretofore met with by ichthyologists and representing a new genus.
The specimen was dredged at a depth of 67 fathoms, at the head of the Suruga Gulf,
island of Nipon.

ETJLOPHIAS, new genus of Blenniidse.

Generic diagnosis: Body very elongate; dorsal fin low, extending entire length
of body and consisting of numerous rigid spines succeeded by a few simple rays;
anal tin long and low, composed of one spine and numerous simple soft rays; caudal
fin small but distinct, blended with the dorsal and anal; pectoral fins short and
pointed; ventral fins absent; scales absent; no lateral line; gill membranes broadly
united, free from the isthmus; nostrils tubular; ventral opening in advance of middle
of body.

Eulojphias, from t v, well; Ao^zag-, one having a bristly back; in allusion to the
very long spinous dorsal fin.

Eulophias tanneri H. M. Smith, new genus and species. (Enlarged about 2^ times.)

This genus falls within the limits of the heterogeneous family Blenniidoe , but
must there be placed in a separate subfamily (Ealophiasince) based on the very
elongate form, the shape and size of the pectoral fins, and the few soft rays in the
dorsal fin, combined with the presence of a pre-anal spine and the absence of a
lateral line.

This genus seems to be nearly related to no other genus. From Gebedichthys
(represented by a single species from the Pacific coast of the United States), which
it appears most closely to resemble, it differs in being much more elongated, with
lower fins, more numerous dorsal soft rays, more anterior origin of the dorsal and
anal fins, absence of lateral line, absence of a prominent longitudinal cephalic crest,
etc. From Neozoarces , the type of which is from Okhotsk Sea, this genus may be
distinguished by its more slender form, the presence of a caudal fin, the absence of a
tentacle above the nostril, etc.

94

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

Eulophias tanneri, new species.

Body elongate, eel-like, cylindrical anteriorly, compressed posteriorly; tapering gently back-
ward and terminating in a blunt point; greatest depth about 0.05 total body length. Head rather
long, conical, not larger than body, its length 0.12 body length, terminating posteriorly in a rounded
flap. Eye large, directed slightly upward, rather less than 0.33 length of head; interorbital space con-
tracted, not wider than pupil. Snout short, rounded, 0.5 length of eye. Mouth rather large, terminal
slightly oblique, jaws equal, maxillary extending to vertical of anterior edge of pupil; nostrils tubular,
midway from eye to end ox snout; gill membranes broadly united, not attached to isthmus. Anal
orifice 0.4 distance from snout to end of body. Dorsal fin low, continuous, beginning slightly in
advance of posterior edge of opercle and extending to caudal fin, gradually increasing in height from
before backward; composed of 121 stiff spines and 13 simple soft rays; anal fin long and low, begin-
ning under thirty-sixth dorsal spine and extending to caudal; consists of 1 spine and about 75 simple
rays, the length of the spine being about twice that of the adjoining rays; caudal fin blended with
dorsal and anal, composed of 7 simple rays; pectoral fins short, pointed, and narrow, less than half
length of head. Length of specimen, 45 mm.

Colors: Underparts whitish; a series of brownish elongated blotches, about 20 in number, extends
along side from head to tail; above these a series of smaller blotches of same color, about twice as
numerous; a dark-brown stripe, less than width of eye, extending behind eye; a blackish blotch on
cheek beneath eye, extending anteriorly and posteriorly on the branch iostegal membrane; gill mem-
brane with dark-brown area; fins unmarked.

Type (No. 49798, U. S. National Museum) collected by Albatross, in about 67 fathoms, at station
3715, in Suruga Gulf, Japan, May 11, 1900.

This interesting species is named for Commander Z. L. Tanner, U. 8. N., com-
mander of the Fish Commission steamers Albatross and Fish Hawk from 1879 to
1894, the foremost exponent of the methods of modern deep-sea exploration, whose
intelligent and zealous investigations have led to most valuable contributions to
oceanic biology and physics.

U. 8. Fish Commission, Washington , D. C.

LIST OF SPECIES OF FISHES KNOWN TO OCCUR IN THE GREAT LAKES OR

THEIR CONNECTING WATERS.

By BARTON WARREN EVERMANN, Ichthyologist , U. S. Fish Commission

la the following list are given the fishes known to occur in the Great Lakes or
then connecting waters. This includes not only the streams and smaller lakes
directly tributary to the Great Lakes but also the upper St. Lawrence River and the
waters tributary to it. The species not known to occur elsewhere than in the hydro-
graphic basin of the Great Lakes are indicated by a star.

The fish fauna of the Great Lakes is not particularly rich as to species, the
number being scarcely greater than that known from the Wabash Basin. Of this
list of 152 species and subspecies, only 27 are peculiar to the Great Lakes Basin.

1. Petromyzon marinus unicolor (De Kay).

Lamprey eel.

2. * Ichthyomyzon concolor (Kirtland). Silver

lamprey.

3. Lampetra wilderi (Ctage). Brook lamprey.

4. Polyodon spathula (Walba'um). Paddle-fish.

Only one specimen recorded from Great
Lakes Basin; that from Lake Erie.

5. Acipenser rubicundus Le S. Lake sturgeon.

6. Lepisosteus osseus (L.) . Long-nosed gar.

7. Lepisosteus platostomus Rafinesque. Short-

nosed gar.

8. Amia calva Linnaeus. Dog-fish or bowfin.

9. Ietalurus punctatus (Rafinesque). Channel

cat-fish.

10. Ameiurus lacustris (Walbaum). Great Lakes

cat-fish.

1 1. Ameiurus natalis(Le Sueur). Yellow cat-fish.

12. Ameiurus vulgaris (Thompson). Bullhead.

13. Ameiurus nebulosus (Le Sueur). Common

bullhead.

14. Ameiurus melas (Rafinesque) . Small black

bullhead.

15. Noturus flavus Rafinesque. Stone cat.

16. Schilbeodes gyrinus ( Mitchill ) .

17. Schilbeodes exilis (Nelson).

18. Schilbeodes miurus (Jordan).

19. *Carpiodes thompsoni Agassiz. Lake carp

sucker.

20. Catostomus catostomus (Forster). Long-nosed

sucker.

21. Catostomus commersonii (Lacepede). Com-

mon sucker.

22. Catostomus nigricans Le S. Black sucker?

23. Erimyzon sucetta oblongus (Mitchill). Chub

sucker.

24. Minytremamelanops (Raf. ). Striped sucker.

25. Moxostoma anisurum (Rafinesque). White-

nosed sucker.

26. Moxostoma aureolum (Le Sueur). Common

red horse.

27. Moxostoma breviceps (Cope). Short-headed

red horse.

28. Campostoma anomalum ( Raf. ) . Stone-roller.

29. Chrosomus erythrogaster Rafinesque. Red-

bellied dace.

30. Pimephalespromelas Raf. Fat-head minnow.

31. Pimephales notatus (Rafinesque). Blunt-

nosed minnow.

32. Semotilus corporalis (Mitchill.) Fall-fish.

33. Semotilus atromaculatus (Mitchill). Creek

chub.

34. Leuciscus elongatus (Kirtland). Red-sided

minnow.

35. Leuciscus neogseus (Cope).

36. Leuciscus margarita (Cope) .

37. Opsopoeodus emiliae Hay.

38. Opsopoeodus megalops (Forbes).

39. Abramis crysoleucas (Mitchill). Roach.

40. Hybognathus nuchale Agassiz.

41. -Cliola vigilax (Baird & Girard)

42. Notropis anogenus Forbes.

43. Notropis cayuga Meek. Cayuga minnow.

44. Notropis heterodon (Cope).

45. * Notropis fretensis (Cope).

46. Notropis blennius (Girard). Straw-colored

minnow.

47. * Notropis volucellus (Cope).

48. Notropis hudsonius (DeWitt Clinton). Shiner.

49. *Notropis hudsonius selene (Jordan). Lake

Superior shiner.

50. Notropis whipplii (Girard). Satin-fin min-

now.

51. Notropis cornutus (Mitchill). Red-fin.

52. * Notropis cornutus frontalis (Agassiz).

53. * Notropis cornutus cyaneus (Cope).

54. Notropis atherinoides Rafinesque.

55. Notropis arge (Cope).

56. Notropis rubrifrons (Cope).

57. Notropis umbrati! is (Girard).

58. Noti'opis umbratilis cyanocephalus (Cope-

land).

95

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

96

59. Ericymba buccata (Cope).

60. Rhinichthys cataracts® (Cuvier & Valen-

ciennes). Long-nosed dace.

61. Rhinichthys atronasus (Mitchill). Black-

nosed dace.

62. Rhinichthys atronasus lunatus (Cope).

63. Hybopsis dissimilis (Kirtland).

64. Hybopsis storerianus (Kirtland).

65. Hybopsis kentuckiensis (Raf. ). River chub.

66. Couesius plumbeus (Agassiz).

67. Couesius dissimilis (Girard).

68. Exoglossum maxillingua (Le Sueur). Cut-

lip minnow.

69. Anguilla chrysypa Rafinesque. Common eel.

70. Hiodon alosoides ( Rafinesque) . Mooneye.

71. Hiodon tergisus Le Sueur. Toothed herring.

72. Dorosoma cepedianum (Le Sueur). Hickory

shad. Probably introduced through canals
from Mississippi basin, and possibly also
through the Erie Canal.

73. Pomolobus chrysochloris Rafinesque. Prob-

ably mot native, but introduced from the
Mississippi basin by means of canals.

74. Pomolobus pseud oharengus (Wilson).

75. Coregonus quadrilateralis Richardson. Round

white-fish.

76. Coregonus clupeiformis ( Mitchill ) . Com-

mon white-fish.

77. Coregonus labradoricus Richardson. Labra-

dor white-fish.

78. * Argyrosomus osmeriformis (H. M. Smith).

Smelt of New York lakes.

79. Argyrosomus artedi (Le Sueur). Lake her-

ring.

80. Argyrosomus artedi sisco Jordan. Cisco of

Lake Tippecanoe. Only in certain small
lakes in Wisconsin connected with Lake
Michigan and certain small lakes in north-
ern Indiana in the Wabash basin.

81. * Argyrosomus hoyi Gill. Hoy’s white-fish.

82. * Argyrosomus prognathus (H. M. Smith).

Long-jaw white-fish.

83. * Argyrosomus nigripinnis Gill. Blaekfin

white-fish.

84. *Argyrosomus tullibee (Richardson). Tulli-

bee white-fish.

85. * Argyrosomus tullibee bisselli Bollman.

86. Cristivomer namaycush (Walbaum). Lake

trout.

87. ^Cristivomer namaycush sisco wet (Agassiz),

Sisco wet.

88. Salmo salar Linnaeus. Atlantic salmon.

89. Salmo salar ouananiche McCarthy. Guana-

niche.

bO. Salvelinusfontinalis (Mitchill). Brooktrout.

91. *Th ymallus tricolor Cope. Michigan grayling.

92. Umbra limi (Kirtland). Mud minnow.

93. Lucius vermiculatus (Le Sueur). Grass pike.

94. Lucius reticulatus (Le Sueur) . Pickerel.

95. Lucius lucius (Linnaeus). Great pike.

96. Lucius masquinongy (Mitchill). Muskal-

lunge.

97. Fundulus diaphanus (Le Sueur). Grayback

minnow.

98. Fundulus diaphanus menona (Jordan & Cope-

land).

99. Fundulus dispar (Agassiz).

100. Fundulus notatus (Raf.). Top minnow.

101. Eucalia inconstaiis (Kirtland) . Brook stick-

leback.

102. '"Eucalia inconstans cayuga Jordan.

103. *Eucalia inconstans pygmsea (Agassiz).

104. Pygosteus pungitius (Linnaeus). Nine-spine

stickleback.

105. Gasterosteus bispinosus (Walbaum). Com-

mon stickleback.

106. Percopsis guttatus Agassiz. Trout perch.

107. Aphredoderus sayanus (Gilliams). Pirate

perch.

108. Labidesthes sicculus (Cope). Skipjack.

109. Pomoxis annularis Rafinesque. Crappie.

110. Pomoxis sparoides (Lacepede). Calico bass.

111. Ambloplites rupestris (Raf. ). Rock bass.

112. Chsenobryttus gulosus (Cuv. & Val.). War-

mouth.

113. Apomotis cyanellus (Rafinesque). Blue-

spotted sun-fish.

114. Lepomismegalotis (Rafinesque). Long-eared

sun-fish.

115. Lepomis pallidus (Mitchill). Bluegill.

116. Eupomotis euryorus (McKay). Red-eared

sun-fish.

117. Eupomotis gibbosus (L. ). Pumpkin-seed.

118. Micropterus salmoides (Lac4pede). Large-

mouthed black bass.

119. Micropterus dolomieu Lac4pede. Small-

mouthed black bass.

120. Stizostedion vitreum (Mitchill). Wall-eyed

pike.

121. Stizostedion canadense (Smith). Sauger.

122. Stizostedion canadense griseum (De Kay) .

123. Perea flavescens (Mitchill). Yellow perch.

124. Percina caprodes (Rafinesque). Log perch.

125. Percina caprodes zebra (Agassiz).

126. Hadropterus aspro (Cope & Jordan). Black-

sided darter.

127. Cottogaster copelandi (Jordan). Copeland’s

darter.

128. ^Cottogaster cheneyi Evermann & Kendall.

Cheney’s darter.

129. Cottogaster shumardi (Girard) . Darter.

130. Diplesion blennioides (Rafinesque) . Green-

sided darter.

131. Boleosoma nigrum (Rafinesque). Johnny

darter.

132. Boleosoma nigrum olmstedi (Storer). Darter.

133. Ammocrypta pellucida (Baird). Sand darter.

134. *Etbeostoma boreale (Jordan). Northern

darter.

135. Etlieostoma coeruleum Storer. Rainbow

darter.

136. Etlieostoma (label lare Raf. Fan-tailed darter.

137. Etlieostoma fiabellare lineolatum (Agassiz).

138. Boleichthys fusiformis (Girard).

139. Microperca punctulata Putnam. Least darter.

140. Roccus chrysops (Raf. ). White lake bass.

141. Aplodinotus grunniens Rafinesque. Fresh-

water drum.

142. Cottus ictalops (Rafinesque). Blob.

143. *Cottus ricei Nelson. Rice’s blob.
144^*Cottus pollicaris (Jordan & Gilbert).

145. *Cottus spilotus (Cope) .

146. '^U ran idea franklini (Agassiz).

147. *Uranidea kumlienii Hoy.

148. Uranidea gracilis (Heckel).

149. *Uranidea formosa (Girard).

150. *Uranidea hovi Putnam.

151. *Triglopsis thompsoni Girard. Fresh-water

sculpin.

152. Lota maculosa (Le Sueur). Ling.

Contributions from the Biological Laboratory of the U. S. Fish Commission,
Woods Hole, Massachusetts.

THE ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS OF THE SCALES OF FISH.

By E. H. GREEN and R. W. TOWER.

Morner 1 has shown that the scales of many species of fish contain, in addition
to mineral matter and collogen, a peculiar albuminoid. To this albuminoid he gave
the name ichthylepidin. Previous observers had overlooked this substance and had
considered that the organic matter in tish scales consisted wholly of collogen. The
present study was undertaken to determine how widely ichthylepidin is distributed
in the scales of the common American fishes.

Morner prepared his ichthylepidin in the following way: The clean scales were
digested at room temperature with a large excess of 0.5 per cent hydrochloric acid,
0.05 per cent caustic potash, and 0.01 per cent acetic acid. Each digestion extended
over several days. This treatment removed soluble proteids, most of the guanin,
the chrondroitin-sulphuric acid, and the inorganic matter. The residual scales were
then digested with 0.1 per cent hydrochloric acid at 10° C. The residue thus freed
from collogen was washed with alcohol and ether, and dried. The substance so
obtained (pure ichthylepidin) was insoluble in boiling water, in cold dilute acids, and
in alkalies; but it was soluble in hot solutions both of dilute acids and alkalies, and
in the cold concentrated solutions of the same. It gave a strong Millon’s reaction
and contained much loosely combined sulphur (as shown by the blackening of the
substance when boiled with an alkaline solution of lead acetate). By the two latter
reactions the presence of ichthylepidin may, according to Morner, be determined in
i fish scales.2

Morner examined the scales of 12 species of fish, all of which showed the presence
of ichthylepidin; in the ganoid scales of the American gar-pike ( Lepisosteus osseus),
however, he found no trace of it.

In the course of our work we have studied 10 species of American fish repre-
senting 25 families. In every case the scales were taken from fresh, healthy fish, and,

!Zeit. f. phys. Chemie, 1898, vol. 24, p. 125.

-Morner, op. cit. , p. 136: “Wenn man untersuchen will, ob die Sehuppen einer Fisehart ichthylepidinhaltig sind
Oder nicht, geniigt es, sie nach vorgangiger Bntkalkung durch Kochen, theils mit Millonschen Reagens, theils mit
alkalischer Bleilosung zu priifen; wenn dabei tief dunkelrothe Farbung, resp. Schwarzfarbung ausbleibt, ist die
' Gegenwart des ichthylepidins ausgeschlossen.”

F. C. B. 1901—7

97

98

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

after being carefully freed from adhering tissue, were thoroughly scrubbed with
water and washed by decantation until the water remained perfectly clear. The clean
scales were then twice extracted with a large excess of 0.5 per cent hydrochloric
acid (real HC1), each extraction lasting 12 hours. The scales were then washed with
water until free from chlorides and finally tested for ichthylepidin as mentioned above.
In some cases, where the scales could not be removed mechanically, the integument was
dissolved by dilute (5 per cent) sodium hydroxide, and the scales so separated were
then treated as above described. Morner found ichthylepidin to be unchanged after
several days’ exposure to 5 per cent sodium hydroxide. We confirmed this fact by
ti’eating some menhaden scales with the alkali for three days, after which the presence
of ichthylepidin was detected as readily as before. It was found necessary to treat the
integument of all the elasmobranehs, the sun-fish (Mold mold), the puffer {Spheroides
maculatus) , and the remora ( Echeneis ncm crates) with 5 per cent alkali.

The scales of the following fish gave positive reactions for ichthylepidin when
treated as described above:

1. Winter flounder (. Pseudopleuronecles amer-

ica.nus).

2. Alewife (Pomolobus pseudoharengus).

3. Blue-fish (Pomatomus saltatrix).

4. Hickory shad [Pomolobus mediocris) .

5. Chogset ( Tautogolabrus adspersus) .

6. Butter-fish (Rhombus triacanthus).

7. Tarpon ( Tarpon atlanticus) .

8. Mackerel scad (Dccapterus macarellus).

9. Sea robin (Prionotus carolinus) .

L0. Salmon ( Salmo salar).

11. Cod (Gadus callarias).

12. Haddock (Melanogrammus seglifinus) .

13. Crevalle ( Caranx crysos ).

14. Summer flounder ( Paralichthys denlatus).

15. Menhaden (Brevoortia tyr annus).

16. Tile-fisli ( Lopholatilus cliarnicleonticeps ) .

17. Squeteague ( Cy noscion regalis).

18. Bonito (Sarda sarda) .

19. Soup (Stenoiomus chrysops).

20. Hake ( Phycis chuss).

21. Sea bass (Centropristes striatus).

22. Silverside (Menidia notata) .

23. Striped minnow ( Fundulus majalis) .

24. Tautog (Tauloga onitis).

25. Mummichog (Fundulus heteroclitus) .

26. Remora (Echeneis naucrates).

27. Rudder-fish ( Palinurichthys perciformis) .

28. Common shad (Alosa sapidissima).

29. Sturgeon (Acipenser sturio).

30. Perch ( Morone americanus) .

31. Jumping mullet (Mugil ccphalus).

32. King-fish (Menticirrhus saxatilis) .

33. Broad minnow (Cyprinodon variegatus).

In all the above cases the reactions given by Millon’s reagent were very marked,
the red coloration being brilliant. The darkening caused by warming with the lead-
alkali solution was very variable in intensity. This reaction was strong in Nos. 3,
11, 20, 21, 22, and 29 of the above list, very faint in Nos. 1, 11, 15, 27, and 28, and
in the other cases ranged between the two extremes.

It is interesting to note that the ganoid scales of the sturgeon ( Acipenser sturio )
gave strong reactions with both Millon’s reagent and with the lead-alkali solution,
although Morner, as above noted, found the ganoid scales of the gar-pike ( Lepisosteus
osseus) to give negative results with these reagents. In our experiments the scales
were taken from the median portion of the “lateral line.” They were extracted with
5 per cent HC1 for 5 days, washed free from acid, and extracted with 0.05 per cent
caustic potash in excess and again washed. After reextraction with 0.5 per cent
HC1 for 2 days, the scales were given a final washing and submitted to the tests for
ichthylepidin.

In the remora (No. 26) both the scales and “sucking disk” were examined. The
scales were obtained by digesting the integument with 5 per cent caustic soda for 36
hours (in the cold). The scales so removed were variable in size and shape; they
were cycloidal, usually long and narrow, and were mostly pointed at one end and

ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS OF THE SCALES OF FISH.

99

rounded at the other. Intermixed were other more circular scales somewhat smaller
and not pointed. They gave, after decalcitication, positive reactions for ichthylepidin.
The “sucking disk” of the remora, when removed and treated in the same way as the
integument, also gave strong positive reactions for ichthylepidin. This fact indicates
that the substance may be present not only in scales, but also in highly specialized
modifications of the fins.

All the elasmobranch fishes examined gave negative results for ichthylepidin, as
did also two teleosts, the sun-fish and puffer. The species investigated, with detailed
analyses, are here given:

34. Dog-fish (Mwtelus canis).

35. Sand shark {Carcharias littoralis) .

36. Dusky shark ( Carcharhinus obscurus).

37. Bonnet skate {Raia erinacea).

38. Sun-fish ( Mold mold ).

39. Puffer (Spheroides maculatus) .

The scales of the above-named species were isolated by means of caustic potash and
then decalcified and tested. In no case was there any indication of loosely combined
sulphur. Millon’s reagent, though it gave a slight reaction in most experiments, did
not }Tield the characteristic rich ruby-red color given by the scales cited in the first
list. The test indicates that these scales have an organic basis quite different from
the others, as the following analyses will show:

Dog-fish (Mustelus canis). — Portions of the integument of several specimens
recently killed were freed from extraneous matter, so far as possible, then washed
thoroughly and placed in 5 per cent caustic soda. After three days the connective
tissue had dissolved and the minute scales were washed carefully by decantation.
They were now extracted with 0.5 per cent HC1 for several days, the acid being
frequently renewed. The washed, decalcified scales were now tested, as usual, with
Millon’s reagent and lead-alkali. With the former there was a faint pink coloration;
with the latter there was no blackening. About a gram of the decalcified scales was
now boiled in a liter of water for some time, the water being renewed as it evaporated.
After a few hours the liquid became yellowish, and gelatin was detected in solution
by the usual tests; after boiling for 30 hours the scales had almost completely gone
into solution, a very minute quantit}^ only remaining undissolved. The solution had
the characteristics of a solution of gelatin, although it did not gelatinize, even after
concentration. This was doubtless due to the long-continued boiling, which, as is
well known, converts gelatin into its ungelatinizable form, B-glutin. The dog-fish
scales thus seem to have only collogen as their organic basis, and to be quite free from
ichthylepidin.

Sand shark ( Carcharias littoralis). — The scales were isolated and treated as
described above, except that the alkali extraction lasted five days. They behaved in
every way like those of the dog-fish, and like them are free from ichthylepidin and
have collogen as their organic basis.

Dusky shark ( Carcharhinus obscurus). — The isolated scales reacted in every way
like those of the dog-fish and sand shark.

Bonnet skate {Raia erinacea). — The skin with scales, or rather spines, attached
was removed from the caudal and posterior portions of the pectoral fins and treated
with 5 per cent alkali (NaOH) as before. The star-shaped spines thus isolated were
washed thoroughly, extracted several days with 0.5 per cent HC1 which was fre-
quently changed. The residue was washed until the filtrate was free from chlorides.
The scales gave no blackening with lead-alkali and only a faint pink color with

100

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

Millon’s reagent. When boiled with water for 30 hours the scales were almost com-
pletely dissolved, and after 36 hours the undissolved residue was so small as to be
negligible. The solution gave all the tests for gelatin. It gave also a strong biuret
test, but not Adamkiewcz’s test. Nitric acid gave no yellow color or precipitate, but
subsequent addition of ammonia caused a yellow coloration. The solution responded
to the alkaloidal reagents, and gave Allen and Tankard’s1 test for gelatin. No
ichthylepidin is present. The organic matter of skate spines thus appears to be
identical with that of the scales of the other elasmobranch fishes.

Sun-fish (Mola mold). — The integument was freed as far as possible from the
subdermal collogenous tissue and treated with caustic soda, as before. The scales so
isolated were washed thoroughly and extracted with HC1 as usual. They gave a
strong Millon’s test, but no lead-alkali reaction. The decalcified and extracted scales
were soluble in 5 per cent NaOH in 2d hours (differing from ichthylepidin, which
remains unchanged for 5 days).2 The decalcified scales were slowly but almost com-
pletely soluble in boiling water, and after 3 days only a trace remained undissolved.
The solution was concentrated but did not gelatinize, although it gave all the reactions
of gelatin. The scales of Mold are thus analogous in composition to those of the
elasmobranchs above noted, and are quite different from those of the higher fish with
which it is classified. It is interesting to note in this connection the studies of Milne
Edwards3 and of Parker4 on the vascular system of this species. Milne Edwards
observed that in this fish “the coronary arteries are supplied not only from the
fourth gill -arch as in other teleosts, but also from the third, fifth, and sixth arches, as
in elasmobranchs.” Parker has confirmed this, and has shown also that the sun-fish
has two coronary arteries, as is general in elasmobranchs. To quote Parker:5

This confirmation of Milne Edwards’s description shows that a really remarkable condition
exists in the coronary arteries of the sun-fish. The presence of dorsal as well as of ventral coronaries,
and the origin of the latter from more than one pair of visceral arches, are features so universally
characteristic of elasmobranchs and so generally absent from teleosts that, while the sun-fish has most
of the characteristic structural features of the latter, the arteries of its heart ally it unquestionably
with the elasniobranchs.

This is interesting, as the composition of the scales (exoskeleton) is also analogous
to that of elasmobranch scales, and the morphological structure of the scale is also
very similar.6

Puffer ( Spheroides maculatus). — The skin of a puffer was removed, freed from
adhering tissue, and treated with 5 per cent caustic soda. After 2 days the residue
of star-shaped spines was washed thoroughly and decalcified with 5 per cent HC1 as
above. The extracted scales gave no blackening with lead-alkali; Millon’s test was
distinct. The decalcified scales were treated with boiling water to determine if the
basis was all collogen or if ichthylepidin was present. After boiling 30 hours there
was a small residue; whether this was ichthylepidin or not we were unable to decide.
The solution gave all the reactions for gelatin.

1 Allen, Commercial Organic Analysis (189S), vol. 4, p. 469.

2Morner, op. cit., p. 131.

3 Milne Edwards (1858), Lemons sur la physiologic et 1'anatomie comparfie de l’homme et des animaux. Tome 3, p. 341-

4 Parker. Note on the blood vessels of the heart in the sun-fish. Anatomischer Anzeiger, vol. 17, No. 16-17.

5 Parker, op. cit., p. 315.

6Cf. Turner, Natural History Review (1862), p. 185.

ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS OF THE SCALES OF FISH.

101

SUMMARY.

The above experiments show that in the scales of the teleosts ichthylepidin is
widely distributed; in the scales of elasmobranchs and of Mola viola and Spheroides
maculatus it is absent. The species cited by Morner in his paper as having ichthy-
lepidin in their scales are here given:

1. Abramis brama.

2. A spins rapax.

3. Carassius vulgaris.

4. Clupea harengus.

5. Coregonus lavaretus.

6. Esox Indus.

7. Leudscus idus.

8. Leudscus rutilus.

9. Lucioperca sandra.

10. Perea fluviatilis.

11. Salmo salar.

12. Sebastes marinus.

In the ganoid scales of the gar-pike (Lepisosteus osseus) lie found no ichthylepidin.
Our experiments, however, show that it is detected by Morner’s reactions in the
scales of the sturgeon (Acipenser sturio).

The scales of the sun-fish have the same general chemical composition as those
of the elasmobranchs, and quite different from the scales of other higher fishes.

PROPORTION OF COLLOGEN AND ICHTHYLEPIDIN.

Morner found the relative amounts of collogen and ichthylepidin in the organic
matter of the scales of four species of fish to be, approximately, 1 parts of the former
to 1 part of the latter. The determinations were made indirectly by estimation of
the total sulphur. In two cases we have found the relative amounts directly by
separation of the ichthylepidin and weighing it, the collogen being calculated from
the difference. The process was carried out as follows: The scales were removed,
cleaned, and decalcified until no more mineral matter was removed by the 0.5 per cent
HC1 used. The residual scales were washed free from chlorides with water, then
with alcohol and ether, and dried to constant weight at 105 1 C. The dry organic
matter so obtained was weighed, and digested with a large excess of 0.1 per cent HC1
at 40 to 45° C. for 12 days. Thymol was used to prevent, putrefaction. The residual
ichthylepidin was filtered off, washed thoroughly with water, alcohol, and ether, and
dried at 105° C. The loss in weight which the organic matter had suffered was taken
as collogen.

17.7950 grams of dry organic matter from menhaden scales left a residue of
4.2255 grams (ichthylepidin) when treated as described above.

8.1550 grams of dry organic matter from shad scales left a. residue of 1.9570 grams.

Menhaden.

Sliad.

Per cent.
23.74
76.26

Per cent.

24. 00

76. 00

The two species thus have nearly the same relative organic composition, and the
numbers found are in close agreement with Morner’s estimations. It seems that the
ratio between the amounts of the two albuminoids is nearly constant in various fish
whose scales contain ichthylepidin.

It may be remarked that a great difference exists (apparently) in the collogen of
scales containing no ichthylepidin and those containing the latter substance. In the
latter case the collogen is very loosely combined (also noticed by Morner), a large

102

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

proportion of it being removed by boiling for 2 hours and also by digestion at 40° C.
for a day with 0.1 per cent HC1. In the former case, however, the collogen is very
firmly combined and is dissolved only by long-continued boiling (30 to 40 hours), and
is much less affected by dilute acid digestion. Whether this is due to an essential
difference in the nature of the collogen itself or to a difference in the chemical com-
bination of it with other constituents of the scale is a subject now under investigation.

UTILIZATION OF THE COLLOGEN.

Some experiments relating to the use of the large amount of collogen present in
fish scales were made tentatively. Menhaden scales were used, as these fish are now
utilized in immense quantities in fertilizer works, and the removal and use of their
scales, if possible, could be made at least expense. The scales can be readily removed
from menhaden — more readily, indeed, than in the case of most fish.

Analyses were made to determine the amount of the collogen in the scales, both
when dried at 150° C. to constant weight and when only air- dried. Also the scales from
an average-sized specimen were removed and weighed to get data for determining
the amount of gelatin which large quantities of moist fish would yield.

The scales from one menhaden (one-half hour after removal from the water and
weighing 155 grams) were removed, washed, and thoroughly scrubbed to remove
adhering tissue and then dried in the air at 20° C.

The scales, air-dried, weighed 6.9565 grams; dried to constant weight at 105° C.
they weighed 5.5215 grams. The moisture in the air-dried scales then is 20.58 per
cent, and the fish thus yielded 1.26 per cent scales, air-dried, or 1.004 per cent scales
dried at 105° C. ; that is, an average moist menhaden yields 1 per cent of its weight
in anhydrous scales. One ton of fish would yield 20 pounds of dry scales.

The scales from several specimens were removed, cleaned, and dried in the air,
and then to constant weight at 105° C. ; 3.8180 grams of these scales were ignited and
gave 1.5679 grams of ash, or 41.07 per cent ash. The organic matter by difference
was 58.93 per cent. As shown above, the dry organic matter of menhaden scales
contained 23.74 per cent of ichthylepidin and 76.26 per cent of collogen. Hence
the following protocol:

Scales.

Air-dried.

Dried at 105° C.

P.ct.
20. 58

P.ct.
00. 00

32. 61

41.07

Organic matter

(Ichthylepidin, 11.11.
46. 801

(Ichthylepidin, 13.99.

58. 93 ■>

(Collogen, 44.94.

(Collogen, 36.69.

1.26 scales.

1. 00 scales.

Thus a ton of menhaden should yield nearly 10£ pounds of pure scale-gelatin (16
per cent moisture, as in the usual commercial article). As Morner has shown this
gelatin to be remarkably pure, containing only about 0.1 per cent ash, it should
command, when properly prepared, a high commercial value.

Brown University, Providence , Rhode Island.

Contributions from the Biological Laboratory of the U. S. Fish Commission,
Woods Hole, Massachusetts.

THE REACTIONS OF COPEPODS TO VARIOUS STIMULI AND THE BEARING
OP THIS ON DAILY DEPTH-MIGRATIONS.

By G. H. PARKER,

Assistant Professor of Zoology , Harvard University.

INTRODUCTION.

Although the marine copepods are almost microscopic crustaceans, they are so
numerous and so widely distributed that they form one of the most important con-
stituents in the surface life of the ocean. As a food for fishes, especially the newly
hatched fry, they have been justly regarded by fish-culturists as almost indispensable,
and their remarkable daily migrations have been a matter of growing interest and
speculation for the naturalist.

From the standpoint of oceanic food supply, the copepods form an important
link between the microscopic plants and the larger animals. In the ocean, as on the
land, animals feed either directly on plants or on other animals that in turn feed on
plants, and, though this regression may sometimes go back several steps, all animals
are ultimately dependent on vegetable life for their food. Since plants are the only
forms that have the capacity of elaborating food from strictly inorganic materials, they
are in reality toe only independent organisms. The vegetation of the ocean, except
on the very shore, differs from that of the land chiefly in being composed almost
entirely of plants of microscopic size. A vegetation of this kind can not give sup-
port to large herbivorous animals such as find easy nourishment in the luxuriant
plant growth of the land, but it affords an abundant supply of food for small animals
like the copepods. Many copepods feed almost exclusively on the minute plants of
the sea, and then fall a prey to small fishes, which in turn are eaten by larger ones. Thus
the copepods form a link in the chain of food supply that reaches from the independ-
ent microscopic plants to the largest marine animals. Their place in this chain is
admirably illustrated by Peck (1S96, p. 353) in his account of the food of the squeteague.
In the stomach of a large squeteague Peck found an adult herring in which were two
young scup besides many small crustaceans. The stomach of the scup contained
copepods, and the alimentary canals of these showed remains of microscopic plants
(diatoms). Thus plant substance served as food for copepods, copepods for scup,
scup for herring, and herring for squeteague. This sequence makes evident the
importance of copepods as collectors of vegetable food which after assimilation serves
as nourishment for the larger fishes.

103

104

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

Although many copepods have been obtained from great depths in the ocean,
they are, for the most part, surface or pelagic animals. This even applies to shallow
waters. Thus, in Buzzards Bay, which is probably nowhere over 20 fathoms deep,
the copepods, according to Peck (1896, pp. 356-368), are about twice as abundant
in the more superficial waters as in the middle depths or near the bottom. Those near
the top show a remarkable daily rhythm in their movements. During the night they
swarm in great numbers on the immediate surface, but from sunrise to sunset they
desert the surface almost completely. This change makes itself felt in their availa-
bility as a food supply, for Peck (1894, p. 117) has observed that menhaden taken in
the daytime contain fewer copepods than those caught at night. Thus the question of
what determines the daily migrations of copepods is a problem not only of general
interest to the naturalist, but also of practical importance to the fish-culturist.

According to Giesbrecht (1892), Weismann (1877) was the first to suggest a solu-
tion for this problem. He believed that light determined the upward and downward
migration of pelagic animals and that most animals, being adapted to light of medium
intensity, retreated from the surface when the light increased and moved upward
when it diminished. An explanation essentially like this was accepted by F uchs (1882).
Chun (1887) opposed this view and maintained that temperature changes were probably
the means of inducing daily as well as yearly migrations. The first to approach the
question from an experimental standpoint were Groom and Loeb (1891), who studied
the reactions to light of the free-swimming young of barnacles (Balanus perforates).
Their experiments showed that the animals were not constant in their reactions.
When placed in a glass vessel in bright daylight they eventually deserted the side of
the vessel next the window and swam away from the light, i. e., became negatively
phototropic; when, however, they were placed in dim light they sooner or later
reversed and swam toward the light, i. e., became positively phototropic. Since the
barnacle larvae in the aquarium, where the only changes were in the intensity of
illumination, went down by day and came up by night as they did in the open sea,
Groom and Loeb believed that this reaction in nature was conti'olled by light in essen-
tially the same way as it could be controlled in the laboratory. Thus, while they did
not deny that temperature changes might have some influence on the movements of
the animals, they concluded that light, not heat, was the chief factor in controlling
the daily migrations. In copepods studied by Groom and Loeb (1891, p. 176) no
change in reactions to light such as that observed in the barnacle larva1, could be
discovered. Subsequently, however, Loeb (1893, p. 96) studied at Woods Hole certain
copepods, most of which were probably of the species Temora low gicornis / these
could be made negatively phototropic by increasing the temperature of the water or
by decreasing its density, and positively phototropic by decreasing the temperature
or increasing the density. Although Loeb does not state that these factors play any
important part in daily migrations, he does call attention (Loeb, 1893, p. 105) to gravity
as an effective element in this respect. Animals that respond negatively to the force
of gravity, i. e., are negatively geotropic, would, so far as this factor alone is con-
cerned, continually move toward the surface. Thus one of the migratory movements
might be accounted for.

From the preceding survey it is evident that the daily migration of pelagic
animals is not the result of as simple a combination of circumstances as was at first
supposed, and, further, that what may be effective in bringing about migration in

DAILY MIGRATIONS OF COPEPODS.

105

one species may not in another. So far as the very few copepods that have been
studied are concerned, the chief factor seems to be light, though reaction to gravity
has not been shown to be without influence, and heat and density of the sea water
may play subordinate parts.

In attempting to ascertain the factors that determine the migration of copepods,
1 have carried out a series of experiments on one of the commonest summer species
from the region about Woods Hole, Mass., namely, Labidocera cestiva Wheeler (1900,
p. 178, tig. 16). This is an inconspicuous copepod of usual proportions and about 2
millimeters in length, i. e., a dozen of them placed end to end would measure very
nearly an inch. The males differ from the females in three conspicuous features:
First, the dorsal eye lenses in the male are larger than those in the female; secondly,
the right anterior antenna of the male is partly modified to form a grasping organ,
while the antenna? of the female are unmodified and symmetrical ; and, thirdly, the first
abdominal segment in the male is simple, and not swollen and covered with hairs, as in
the female. This species was found to predominate in the tow taken during the whole
of August, 1901. and served in every way as satisfactory material for experimentation.

My work was carried on in the laboratory of the United States Fish Commission
at W oods Hole, and 1 take pleasure in expressing my indebtedness to Dr. H. M. Smith,
director of the laboratory, as well as to the station corps, for many courtesies shown me.

MOVEMENTS.

At the outset I put several hundred Labidocera? in a large, cylindrical, glass aqua-
rium nearly filled with sea water and placed on a table near a window. In a short
time the Labidocera; had distributed themselves in a very characteristic way. One
set formed a densely packed row at the top of the water on the side of the aquarium
next the window; the other was formed of individuals rather uniformly scattered
through the whole aquarium. The following enumerations will suffice to show the
composition of these two sets: Of 25 individuals taken from the row next the light, 11
were females and 11 males; of 25 caught swimming at large, 23 were males and 2
were females. The almost complete absence of females from the latter set makes it
obvious that in experimenting on this species the material should not be considered
as homogeneous, but males and females should be dealt with separately.

The movements of the Labidocera? are in part due to the animal’s activities and
in part to its weight. If a number of females are isolated in a small aquarium and
watched, they will be seen sporting about close to the upper surface of the water.
From time to time one or other will sink through the water for a distance of an inch
or more, and then with a few sudden leaps will regain its former place. The sinking
is apparently due entirely to the animal’s weight, for it is unaccompanied, so far as
can be seen, by the movement of any locomotor organs. The upward leaps are due
to vigorous muscular action.

The sinking of the animal through the sea water implies that its specific gravity
is greater than that of the water, and such, in fact, is the case. The specific gravity
of the sea water in which this species was ordinarily taken proved on determination
to be 1.025, and that of a solution of common salt, which just kept slightly etherized
individuals from sinking, was found to be 1.109; the specific gravity of Labidocera?,

in reference to sea water, is, therefore, ^ or 1.082 — . In consequence of this the

106

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

animals sink in sea water, and sink at a considerable rate. The time taken by each
of 10 etherized individuals to fall through 20 centimeters of sea water varied from
35.2 seconds to 17.2 seconds, and averaged 40.7 seconds. The rate of fall over
different parts of the course seems to have been rather uniform, for in a second series
of observations the first 10 centimeters were passed over in an average of 21.68
seconds, and the second 10 in 18.58 seconds, giving a general average for the whole
20 centimeters of 40.26 seconds. From this and the preceding observations it is fair
to assume that the animals fall through the water at the average rate of about half a
centimeter a second. They would thus drop a fathom in about six minutes.

The positions that the animals assume in falling through the water are different
in different cases. When they are killed suddenly by adding a small amount of alco-
hol, formaldehyde, or corrosive sublimate to the water, and are then transferred to
ordinary sea water, they descend head downward. When, however, they are placed in
water containing a small amount of ether and are thus made motionless without being
killed, they fall through ordinary sea water with the head uppermost. This, too, is
the position assumed by the living animals when descending. The difference in the
mode of descent of the dead and of the etherized animals is due to the disposition of
the appendages. Strong killing reagents, such as alcohol, formaldehyde, etc., act so
vigorously on the animals that they die with all their muscles contracted. Since the
flexors are stronger than the extensors, the appendages, and particularly the anterior
antenna?, are folded alongside the body in death and the animal moves head first
through the water, probably because of the greater specific gravity of the head. In
the etherized and the normal animals, on the other hand, the anterior antennas are
kept spread and the resistance that they meet in their passage through the water
retards the falling of the head so that the animal descends with the head uppermost.
This is of no small importance to a living Labidocera, for, being thus oriented in its
fall, its first efforts at locomotion must be effective in carrying it toward the surface.
Thus, irrespective of other functions that have been ascribed to the anterior antennae,
the}7 undoubtedly serve as organs for the orientation of the body. It is not without
interest to recall that the function of orientation in the higher crustaceans is also
dependent, in part at least, on the anterior antennae, although in these forms this
function is connected with a special sense organ, the statocyst, whereas in the Labi-
docerae the antennae as a whole probably act in a purely mechanical way.

What has been said about the movements of female Labidocerae applies also
to the males, except that in their locomotion this sex often does what the other rarely
attempts, namely, swims downward. Thus the males gain a much moi’e general
distribution than the females.

In both males and females the kinds of locomotion, except for direction, are much
the same. Both sexes at times exhibit a uniform continuous movement, as though
the animals were creeping rapidly through the water; at other times, and this is the
more usual, they pass through the water by relatively enormous leaps, carried out at
such high velocities that it is sometimes impossible to follow the animal with the eye.
Although intermediate forms of locomotion occur, such as a succession of short leaps,
the majority of movements belong to one or other of the two kinds just described.

The leaping movements of the copepods have been usually ascribed to the vigor-
ous action of the anterior antennae. Recently MacBride (1899, p. 505) has called this
opinion in question and has maintained, on the grounds of observations on the slower
leaping movements, that the leap is effected entirely by the simultaneous action of

DAILY MIGRATIONS OF COPEPODS.

107

the thoracic feet, and that during this operation the antennae are held as rigid as
possible at right angles to the chief axis of the body. As MacBride remarks, the
extended leaps are carried out with such quickness that the parts taken by different
appendages can not be directly observed, and his conclusion, therefore, is based on
inference, not on direct observation. But direct observation is not the only means of
ascertaining how the leap is accomplished. It is an easy matter to render copepods
quiescent by putting them for a few moments in sea water containing a very little
ether. Such animals recover on being placed in ordinary sea water and act in all
respects normally. With a sharp-pointed knife it is possible to cut off the anterior
antenna? and expanded tail ends of etherized Labidocera?, though the other parts are
too closely attached to the body to admit of easy removal. Animals from which both
anterior antennae and the tail have been removed have been kept a day or more after
recovery from ether and their movements observed. They swim with great agility
and seem quite as vigorous as normal specimens, but they seldom live beyond IS hours
after the operation. In their locomotion they show only one type of movement, the
uniform rapid creeping. This is modified now and then by becoming somewhat
uneven, but in no instance have 1 observed a Labidocera without anterior antenna?
and tail take even a short leap.

Since in these specimens the thoracic legs are sill intact and yet no leaps are made,
I feel certain that these appendages are not used in the way that MacBride supposed.
A Labidocera from which the anterior antennae have been removed makes leaps that
differ from the normal ones only in being somewhat shorter. If, now, the tail of
such an animal is removed, the animal ceases to leap. Thus the tail is unquestionably
connected with this method of locomotion. A Labidocera from which the tail has
been removed can likewise leap, though in this case, also, the leaps are shorter
than the normal ones. When, however, the anterior antennae are also removed the
leaping ceases. Thus the anterior antennae, contrary to MacBride’s opinion, are, in
Labidocera mtiva at least, connected with leaping. In this species, then, the leap is
performed almost exclusively by the combined action of the anterior antennae and
the tail; and the thoracic and other appendages, though they may aid it, are not
capable in themselves of carrying it out. Since the anterior antenna? and the tail
are not in action when the animal is creeping rapidly through the water, this motion
must be ascribed to the action of other parts, probably the thoracic appendages.

From the preceding account it might be inferred that the female Labidocera'
retain their positions at the surface of the water and the males keep from accumu-
lating on the bottom by incessant muscular activit\T, whereby they lift themselves
against gravity; but, though this is in large part true, it is not entirely so, for it is a
most usual occurrence to find both males and females attaching themselves to fixed
objects, such as the sides of a glass aquarium. This they can do even when the glass
is so tilted that they are well on the under side of it. If such a suspended animal be
approached by a sucking tube the current of water that can thus be produced may
be made to swing the animal back and forth on its support, and it can then be seen
that the only parts in contact with the glass are the anterior antenna?. Not only is
this so, but a careful adjustment of the strength of the current will often partially
loosen the animal, so that for a while it hangs in the water with an attachment to the
glass by only the tip of one anterior antenna. It is really remarkable with what
success an animal thus almost completely loosened from the glass will still retain its
hold. That the other appendages are not concerned in thus anchoring the animal is

108

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

made clear in two ways: First, when the animal hangs from the under side of a piece
of glass the main axis of the body is nearly vertical, and thus the, other appendages
are not in a position to touch the glass; and secondly, when animals anchor themselves
to vertical surfaces of glass they do so quite as frequently by the dorsal surface of
the body as by the ventral, and, since their appendages other than the anterior
an ten use are on the ventral side, it follows that when they rest with the dorsal surface
to the glass the only appendages that can touch the glass are the anterior antennae.
How the antennas adhere to the glass is not certainly known, but it is quite probable
that the attachment is accomplished by means of the numerous hairs that cover these
organs and that are especially abundant at the tip. (Wheeler, 1900, p. 179, fig. 16c.)

Not only can Labidocerae anchor themselves by their antennae to fixed objects in
the water, but they can likewise hold to the surface of the water. A jar of water
containing many Labidocerae can he so placed that the animals may be seen hanging
from the surface of the water exactly as they would hang from the under surface of
a piece of glass. To the surface of the water as to the glass the animals are attached
by their anterior antennae. Slight waves are sufficient to dislodge them, but in quiet
water great numbers hang in this way for considerable periods.

The mechanism of attachment in this as in the former case has not been definitely
ascertained, though it is very likely, as Scourfield (1900, p. 307) has suggested, that
the hairs of the anterior antennae pierce the surface film of the water and produce
capillary depressions by which the weight of the body may be supported.

Thus, Labidocerae, whose weight ordinarily causes them to sink in sea water,
overcome this tendency by gliding movements involving’ the action of their more
centrally placed appendages, by leaps accomplished through the combined action of
tail and anterior an ten me, and by attaching themselves through the anterior antennae
to fixed objects in the water or to the surface film. In these operations the anterior
antennae perform at least three functions: They orient the animal mechanically as it
falls through the water, they are organs of positive locomotion in connection with
the leaping habit, and, finally, they are organs of attachment while the animal rests.

REACTIONS TO GRAVITY (GEOTROPISM).

As already pointed out, most female and many male Labidocerae frequent the top
of the water in any large aquarium much as the3r do the top of the sea, and, as we
have seen, they are continually falling from this situation because of the influence of
gravity and as continually exerting themselves to regain it. Do the Labidocerae
move toward the surface because it is nearer the source of light, i. e., are they posi-
tively phototropic, or do they move in that direction because it is away from the
earth’s center of gravity, i. e., are they negatively geotropic?

To test this question a large glass tube about 8 centimeters in diameter and
some 60 long, with one end open and the other closed, was set up vertically and
nearly filled with sea water. On the side of the tube, and beginning at the bottom,
five intervals of 10 centimeters each were laid off and marked, and the water in the
tube was made to stand at the 50-centimeter mark. The apparatus was so arranged
that the tube could be inclosed in a light-proof jacket without disturbing the con-
tents by jarring, etc.

The first experiment consisted in putting five female Labidocerae in the tube and
recording their distribution under the influence of diffuse daylight. The sections in

DAILY MIGRATIONS OF COPEPODS.

109

the tube were numbered from the bottom up, I to V, and the records were taken at
the ends of five-minute intervals till ten records were obtained. The results are
indicated in Table 1, where it appears that in eight records out of ten all five animals
were in the uppermost section, and that in two records one animal in each case had
descended to the fourth section:

Table 1.

Five-minute

intervals.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

Totals.

V

5

5

4

5

5

4

5

5

5

5

48

° QJ

IV

0

0

1

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

2

d 3
o

III

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

-d

O rj
<V +2

II

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

I

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

To ascertain how much influence light had in bringing about this condition, the
tube with its contents was now placed in perfect darkness and exposed for a moment
to light every five minutes to record the distribution of the Labidocene. Table 9
shows the results of this experiment.

Table 2.

Here in seven records out of ten all five animals were in the uppermost section;
in the remaining three records four animals were in the fourth section. Thus the
record in Table 2, though not quite so nearly uniform as in Table 1, differs so little
from the latter that the conclusion that female Labidocene stay at the top of the
water because of some other stimulus than light is entirely justifiable.

Although, next to light, gravity is the most probable factor in determining the
distribution of female Labidocerse, it might be assumed from anything that has thus
far been shown that these animals seek the surface because of the greater abundance
of oxygen there. To test this assumption a large glass tube, such as that described
on page 108, was filled with sea water and inverted in an aquarium in such a way that
no air entered it. Five female Labidocerse were introduced at the lower open end;
they swam rapidly to the upper end, where they were, of course, at the top of the
water, but without being in contact with the air. Here they remained till their
deaths stopped the experiment. The first one died 68 hours after introduction; the
last one 85 hours. As the animals remained persistently at the upper closed end of
the tube, it is evident that the atmosphere is not a factor in determining this feature
of their distribution. If, then, neither light nor atmosphere is essential in keeping
female Labidocerse at the surface of the water, the only other probable factor is
gravity, and, as these animals persistently work against gravity in keeping near the
surface, their geotropism is negative.

110

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

With the male Labidocerse the case is quite different. First of all, they can be
divided into two classes — those that are found at the surface with the females and
those that are scattered through the water. Individuals from both these classes were
subjected to experiments such as have been already described for the females. Table
3 shows the distribution at five-minute intervals of five males taken from the class of
scattered individuals and open to the action of both light and gravity, as in the first
experiment with the females (Table 1).

Table 3.

Five-minute

intervals.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

Totals.

V

2

1

1

0

1

1

i

1

0

0

8

o ai
□0,0

IV

1

1

2

2

0

1

0

1

1

1

10

G 3
O

III

0

1

0

2

2

1

2

0

1

1

10

II

2

2

1

0

i

0

0

2

2

1

11

I

0

0

1

1

1

2

2

i

1

2

11

The distribution as shown in this table indicates almost complete indifference, as
might have been expected from the previous distribution of these animals in the water.

Table 1 shows the results from the same five males when the tube was placed in the
dark, as in the second experiment with the females (Table 2).

Table -1.

Five-minute

intervals.

1

2

3

4

5

6

.

7

8

9

10

Totals.

V

o

i

1

2

i

1

i

1

2

1

11

O 6

IV

2

1

1

0

2

1

i

2

0

1

11

G 3

o-G-j

III

l

2

1

1

0

1

2

0

1

0

9

f* 0)
O ri

II

1

0

1

9

1

0

1

1

1

1

9

zn

I

l

i

1

0

1

2

0

1

1

9

10

The results shown in this table are so nearly like those in Table 3 that it is safe
to assume that light plays no important part in the distribution of this class of males.

The second class of males, those found at the surface with the females, might
naturally be expected to show the same reactions to light, gravity, etc., that the females
do. This, however, is far from the case. Table 5 gives the distribution of five males
taken from among the females at the top of the water, and placed by themselves in a
glass exposed to diffuse daylight, as in the first experiment with the females.

Table 5.

Five-minute

intervals.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

Totals.

V

1

1

0

1

0

1

1

1

2

1

9

°

IV

2

1

1

1

1

0

1

1

i

2

u

Js

III

0

0

2

1

2

2

1

0

1

0

9

O r-
(L> T".
Z/j

II

I

1

1

2

1

1

1

2

0

2

0

2

0

0

2

0

3

1

0

0

2

11

10

DAILY MIGRATIONS OF COPEPODS.

Ill

It is evident from this table that the separation of the males from the females
totally changes the plan of distribution of the males. They become scattered more
or less uniformly, as in the case of the first class of males. They likewise are undis-
turbed in their new distribution by the absence of light, as is shown in Table 6, in
which the distribution of the same five males used for Table 5 is recorded, but with
the difference that the tube was kept in total darkness except for the brief periods of
observation.

Table 6.

Five-minute

intervals.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

Totals.

v

0

i

1

2

1

1

0

i

i

1

9

° oi

IV

1

0

1

1

1

1

9

i

i

2

11

O 4- •

4-S <D
O c*

III

II

I

1

2

1

2

0

2

1

1

1

0

1

1

1

1

1

0

l

1

l

0

1

2

0

1

0

1

1

10

9

11

The essential agreement of Table 5 with Table 3 and of Table 6 with Table 1
shows that all males react or fail to react to light, gravity, etc., in much the same way,
and that it is the responses to the females rather than to other factors that divide the
males into two classes. So far as their reactions to light, gravity, etc., are concerned,
all males form in reality only a single class.

It must be evident from the preceding experiments that light is a very subor-
dinate factor in determining the distribution of the males, if, in truth, it is to be
reckoned with at all, and it might further be supposed, since the males when left to
themselves do not collect either at the top or at the bottom of the aquarium, that
they therefore are also uninfluenced by gravity, i. e., that they are not geotropic.
This conclusion, however, would be erroneous, in my opinion, for the bodies of the
males are quite as heavy as those of the females, and are continually falling toward
the bottom. If the males did not react against this, i. e., were slightly negatively
geotropic, they would eventually all reach the bottom, a form of distribution which
we know does not occur. 1 therefore believe that the males also are negatively
geotropic, but only sufficiently so to keep them from collecting at the bottom and
not enough to cause them to collect at the top, as the females do.

Two conclusions may now be regarded as well established: first, that the female
Labidocerse are strongly negatively geotropic, and, secondly, that the males are
slightly so. The first of these makes clear why under natural conditions the females
come to the surface of the sea and stay there; neither helps us to understand why
the males congregate with the females or why the latter at stated intervals desert
the surface of the sea.

Loeb (1893) long ago pointed out that by appropriate stimulation the sense of
an animal’s response might be inverted; thus an organism positively phototropic
under ordinary conditions might by a slight change in its environment become
negatively phototropic. It is therefore necessary, in attempting a further insight
into the daily migrations of the copepods, to ascertain whether there are not means
at hand for converting the negative geotropism of the females into a positive geo-
tropism, thus establishing a sequence of events that might offer an explanation of
daily migration. Heretofore some of the most successful means in accomplishing
such inversions have been mechanical stimulation, as agitation of the water in which
the animals are, and changes in the density and in the temperature of the sea water.

112

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

Both the male and the female Labidocerse, after the rough handling incident on
being squirted several times from a pipette into a vessel of sea water, still showed
unchanged their characteristic geotropic responses; and even after they had been
violently shaken in a test tube partly filled with sea water no alteration in their
geotropism was observed. Mechanical stimulation, therefore, seemed insufficient to
change their reactions to gravity. This accords with what was observed on the
surface of the sea, for at night Labidocerse were often as abundantly obtained when
the sea was rough as when it was smooth.

Changes in density were next tried. Sea water of a specific gravity 1.025 was
filtered, concentrated by boiling, cooled, and aerated, and then diluted with distilled
water till the requisite densities were obtained. Females introduced into waters of
specific gravities 1.050 and 1.035 retained their negative geotropism and showed no
differences from normal animals except that they moved more frequently by leaps.
Males when placed in similar concentrations frequented the upper portion of the
vessel more generally, i. e., had their negative geotropism somewhat increased, and
leaped more frequently. Concentrated sea water then induced leaping movements in
both sexes, increased slightly the negative geotropism of the males, without, however,
making any noticeable change in the geotropism of the females.

In sea water of less density than the normal, the reactions of the males and the
females, unless otherwise stated, were similar, and the following records apply to
both sexes. In sea water diluted from 1.025 to 1.020 the animals darted about when
first introduced and then gradually became distributed as was usual, the females near
the top and the males scattered. In water of the specific gravity 1.015 the animals
introduced darted about vigorously, after which some went to the bottom, 50 centi-
meters distant, and some remained above. In water of a specific gravity 1.010 all
animals exhibited darting movements and went to the bottom in irregular spirals.
They were left in the mixture, and all died in the interval between a half hour and
an hour after introduction. In water of a specific gravity 1.005 all fell rapidly,
each making one or two leaps and reaching the bottom apparently dead. In pure
Water the animals made one or two leaps, and were dead before they reached the
bottom. The effect of diluting the sea water did not seem in any case to change
geotropic responses. Slight dilution stimulated the Labidocerse to leaping, and
greater dilutions, after stimulating them to a few leaps, rendered their movements
incoordinate, so that they fell to the bottom without showing responses which at any
time could have been interpreted as a change in the sense of their geotropism.

When ordinary sea water was covered by an inch or so of sea water diluted to a
specific gravity 1.015 and Labidocerse were liberated at the surface, they almost
always sank with a few violent leaps till they entered the ordinary sea water,
whereupon they became normally distributed, in that most of the males dispersed
and the females congregated near the upper surface, not of the water as a whole, but
of the normal sea water.

This experiment indicates that under natural conditions even excessive rain is
not likely to change essentially the distribution of Labidocerse, for they would at
most be driven only a few inches from the surface. Dropping fresh water into a
tube of sea water containing female Labidocerse, so that in the course of about an
hour the level of the tube rose a centimeter, could not be said to have driven the
animals from the surface, though they occupied a somewhat deeper position at the

DAILY MIGRATIONS OF COPEPODS.

113

end of the experiment than at the beginning. The exposure of a similar tube to an
actual shower of rain on a very dull day was followed by no observable change in the
distribution of the animals. Rain, therefore, with the slight accompanying change
in the density of the surface waters, plays no part worthy of consideration in the
distribution of Labidocerse.

Temperature changes were next tried. In testing the effects of these changes,
animals were used that had been kept several days in a large glass aquarium, whose
temperature was uniformly 23° C. Five male Labidocerse were transferred from
the general aquarium to the large glass tube described on page 108, now filled with
sea water at 23° C. to the 50-centimeter mark. The animals were soon scattered
through the water, as characteristic of males. They were now carefully taken out,
and the water changed for some at 15° C. On reintroducing the males, they again
gradually scattered through the water. The same was true for watei at 10° C., as
well as for that at 30° and 35°. These temperature changes, therefore, did not
alter the distribution of male Labidocerse.

Five females were then subjected to a series of corresponding experiments. At
23° C. the females remained near the top, and the same was true at 15° and 10° C.
At 30° C. and at 35° G. all the animals swam rapidly downward to the bottom. To
ascertain whether this reaction was in any way connected with a possible change of
the animals in reference to light, the experiments were repeated in the dark. Five
females were introduced into the tube containing water at 30° C. and the tube
placed in a light-proof chamber. After 10 minutes the tube was inspected, and
all five animals were found at its bottom. There thus seems to be no question but
that an increase of temperature over the normal converts the geotropism of female
Labidocerse from negative to positive.

Something of the nature of this change may be inferred from the following
experiments. Five negatively geotropic females were introduced into a large vessel
filled with sea water at 30° C. They immediately became positively geotropic and
swam to the bottom. After having remained there some minutes they were trans-
ferred by a pipette to the bottom of a second vessel filled with sea water at 21° C.
They immediately became negatively geotropic and swam to the top. The change
from one condition to the other, as these experiments showed, takes place almost
instantly, and the condition lasts only as long as the appropriate stimulus is present.
This may be illustrated by another experiment. The lower half of a large glass tube
was filled with sea water at 21° C., the upper half with sea water at 30 C. The warmer
water was poured into the tube so as to mingle as little as possible with the cooler
water. A female Labidocera was now introduced at the top to ascertain whether she
woidd swim to a point deeper than the separation between the waters of different
temperatures. She swam rapidly downward, but stopped almost exactly at the plane
of separation for the two temperatures. A second tube was prepared containing
sea water at 21° C. in the lowest third, at 23° C. in the middle third, and at 35° C. in
the uppermost third. In this tube a thermometer was hung by a thread and a female
Labidocera introduced at the top. She swam down almost at once to a point near the
middle, which, the thermometer having been adjusted, was found to have a temper-
ature of 23° C. ; she then rose somewhat, and live minutes after introduction was in
water of 26° C. Ten minutes later she had risen somewhat farther, but was still
in water registering 26° C. After half an hour, when the water in the top of the

F. C. B. 1901—8

114

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

tube was at 26.5° C., she was still some inches from that level and in water at 26° C.
It would therefore seem that 26° C. is the temperature limit above which this femaie
Labidocera became positively geotropic.

That there should be no question about the difference between the males and the
females in their capacity to be transformed geotropically, the following experiment
was tried. Ten animals taken at random from the top of the general aquarium were
suddenly introduced with as little water as possible into a tube tilled with sea water
at 30° C. They quickly separated into two sets, one going to the bottom, the other
remaining near the top. The six that remained near the top were picked out and
all proved males; the four that swam to the bottom were then recovered and found
to be females. These observations show that the temperature of the water has no
obvious effect on the slight geotropism of the males. The geotropism of the female
is negative in cold water and positive in warm, and for normal animals the critical
temperature seems to be about 26° C.

It thus appears that of the three means Suggested whereby the sense of the
geotropism of Labidocera? might be changed, only one, namely, temperature, has
proved really effective. The critical point in the temperature change is, however,
so high, compared with any temperature range the animal is likely to meet with
naturally, that the assumption that the daily migrations of the females depend on
geotropism changed from negative to positive and back again by temperature dif-
ferences is wholly unwarranted. So far as one can see, the only part played by
geotropism in the daily migrations affects the females; they rise to the surface and
stay there because of their strong negative geotropism.

REACTIONS TO LIGHT (PHOTOTROPISM).

Light, like gravity, influences bodies of water, as a rule, from one side only, and,
since it increases and decreases during the day, it has naturally been regarded as a potent
factor in determining the daily migrations of pelagic animals. That it plays a part
in the distribution ot copepods can be seen from the fact that in an aquarium standing
near a window many Labidocera? congregate near the surface of the water on the
side next the window; i. e., they are positively phototropic.

If a considerable number of male Labidocera? are placed in a large glass jar filled
with sea water and illuminated from one side, they will soon be found scattered through
the water. A close inspection, however, will show that rather more are in the half
of the jar away from the light than in the half toward it. To determine with greater
accuracy what this difference amounted to, a nearly cubical glass jar tilled with sea
water was so arranged that a temporary glass partition could be slipped into it
vertically, thus dividing its contents into a front and a back half. One meter in front
of the jar was placed an incandescent electric lamp of about 14-candle power. The
light from this fell perpendicularly on the front face of the jar and the partition was
so placed that of the two chambers formed by it one was toward the lamp, the other
away from the lamp. The partition having been withdrawn, ten male Labidocera?
were liberated in the. middle of the jar and after ten minutes exposure to the light the
partition was inserted and the numbers in the chamber toward the light and in that
away from it were counted. The experiment was then repeated, the Labidocera? being
each time liberated at the center of the jar and allowed ten minutes in which to
become distributed. Table 7 gives the result of ten such trials.

DAILY MIGRATIONS OF CO PE PODS.

115

Table 7.

Number of experiment.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

0

10

Totals.

Number of animals in chamber to-

ward light

5

4

4

6

4

3

6

4

5

5

46

Number of animals in chamber away

from light

5

6

6

4

6

7

4

6

5

5

54

These results support in the main the opinion formed from the more cursory
inspection of the jar. As a whole the assemblage of males shows slightly negative
phototropism. These experiments do not, however, preclude the possibility that
some individuals are slightly positive and some indifferent; they merely show that
more individuals are slightly negative than otherwise. When a single male is put in
a large open glass jar, the animal can usually be driven about from one side to the
other by holding an electric light (14-candle power) close to the jar. The reaction is
never very quickly performed and sometimes fails entirely, but usually after a few
minutes the animal swims from the illuminated side to the opposite one and stays
there persistently. Although it is generally not difficult to drive a male Labidocera
by light back and forth horizontally through a jar, I found it almost impossible to
drive them up or down through a thickness of water equal to that through which
they" would move horizontally. Sometimes this seemed to succeed, but generally not,
and I was finally forced to conclude that, slight as the geotropisnr of the males was, it
was more effective than their phototropism.

Female Labidocerte collect on the light side of a jar with great precision. Since
they are also negatively geotropic they keep close to the top of the water. When ten
females were exposed to light in the square glass jar with the partition as described
for the males (p. 114), all were found in all ten trials in the chamber next the light.
Their positive phototropism is thus clearly indicated.

Further evidence of this peculiarity was observed in several ways. The large
upright glass tube marked off at 10-centimeter intervals (p. 108) was tilled with sea
water to the 50-centimeter level and five females were placed in it. The whole was
exposed to diffuse daylight in a room, and the Labidocerte soon congregated at the
top of the water on the side of the glass nearest the window. An opaque cover was
now slipped over the top of the tube and down to the 40-centimeter mark. In a few
moments all five animals had dropped to this level, and remained here as long as the
cover was kept in this position. This result was essentially the same as that observed
by Loeb (1893, p. 160) for Temora longicornis , except that in Loeb’s experiments the
copepods were checked in their upward movements by the opaque cover instead of
being driven downward by it. In either case it shows that the animal’s positive
response to light is stronger than its negative response to gravity. By lowering
such an opaque hood over the tube the Labidocerte were driven to the bottom of the
tube, where they remained as though imprisoned. They retained this position as
long as a small amount of light was allowed to enter at the bottom, but the moment
this was cut off they presumably began to rise, for on removing the hood ten minutes
later they were all found at the top of the water. Thus their negative geotropism
is at once made effective by complete darkness.

116

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

The rates at which some of these reactions were carried out are not without
interest. In one set of experiments the females were made to descend 15 centi-
meters from the surface by means of the opaque hood. From the time the hood was
put on, which presumably marked the beginning of the descent, till the arrival of
the animals below, was exactly 30 seconds. This indicated a descent at the rate
of half a centimeter per second, which has already been shown to be the rate of
passive falling. So far as one could judge from the first sight of the animals as they
emerged below the level of the hood, they did descend by falling and not by any
form of positive locomotion. It would, therefore, seem that diffuse daylight from
below acts on female Labidocerse rather as an inhibiter of their negative geotropic
reactions than as a positive phototropic influence. On the removal of the hood the
females returned to their original position, but required 14 minutes to perform this
migration. They thus descended three times as rapidly as they ascended — i. e., if
they can descend a fathom in about 6 minutes they could probably not make that
ascent in less than 18 minutes.

In another experiment five female Labidocerse were put in a glass tube, of large
caliber and about 50 centimeters long, and hung vertically in a dark chamber. When
an incandescent electric lamp (14-candle power) was brought near the side of the
tube, the five animals crowded close to it. When the lamp was held at the top they
all ascended to the top, and they could easily be induced to descend through 50 centi-
meters of water by holding the lamp under the bottom of the tube. Their descent
was accomplished chiefly by passive falling, with the anterior end uppermost, though
now and then they swam downward, an unusual action for a female. In this experi-
ment, as in former ones, the responses of the females to gravity were always subor-
dinate to those to light — i. e., geotropism was less pronounced than phototropism.

A curious relation between these two sets of reactions was seen in the following
experiment. The large tube, graduated to 10-centimeter intervals, was filled with
sea water to the 50-centimeter mark; into it were put five females and the apparatus
was covered with an opaque hood from the top to within 5 centimeters of the bottom.
In this lowest section of 5 centimeters all the females congregated. The hood was
now taken off in sections, beginning at the top. First, the top with 5 centimeters of
the side covering was removed, leaving the tube covered for a distance of 40 centi-
meters, beginning at 5 centimeters from the bottom. On thus illuminating the
interior of the tube from above, it might have been expected that the five females
would have risen through the dark section to the now light top; they, however,
remained at the bottom. The uppermost 10 centimeters of the side covering were
next removed, leaving 30 centimeters still covered, but without effect on the animals.
The next lower 10 centimeters were now taken off:', leaving 20 centimeters covered,
whereupon four of the Labidocerte immediately swam upward through the dark
section to the light at the top. On removing the next 10 centimeters of the side
covering the fifth animal ascended. Thus it appears that a dark region between a
light top and light bottom may prevent female Labidocerge from ascending, an opera-
tion, however, that they may perform before all the dark section has disappeared.

The experiments on light thus far described make it clear that the phototropism
of the male Labidocerge is at most slightly negative, that of the females strongly
positive. So far as these facts are concerned they seem to have little bearing on daily
migrations, for the slight negative phototropism of the males is not sufficient to over-

DAILY MIGRATIONS OF COPEPODS.

117

come their negative geotropism and the positive phototropism of the females might
be expected to bring them to the surface of the sea in the day instead of in the night,
as is their habit.

The positive phototropism of the females is, however, so strong that the question
arises here, as it did in connection with geotropism, Are there not perhaps natural
means of inverting this? Certainly the conditions in the laboratory did not reproduce
those in the outer sea water, for in a large jar kept on the laboratory table the female
Labidocerje kept persistently near the top of the water day and night, although in
another large jar floated in the outer basin of the Fish Commission dock, and thus
freely exposed to the elements, the females made regular migrations, being close to
the surface in the night and at the bottom in the day.

Experiments were now undertaken to ascertain whether the sense of the photo-
tropism of the females or possibly even of the males could be changed. Loeb (1893,
p. 96) found that for the copepod Temora longicornis an increase of temperature
changed positively phototropic individuals into negatively phototropic ones and inten-
sified the negativity of negative specimens, and that a decrease of temperature changed
negative into positive individuals and increased the positivity of positive ones.
Holmes (1901) found that in certain amphipods an increase of temperature certainly
hastened and perhaps induced the positive condition. Yerkes (1900, p. 117) was unable
to change the sense of the light reactions of Daphnia and of Cypris by temperature
differences. All efforts to change the phototropism of Labidocerse by changing the
temperature of the sea water were without avail. Both males and females taken from
water at 23° C. and placed in waters at 10°, 15°, 30°, and 35° C. remained, so far as
their phototropism was concerned, unchanged.

Density differences were next tried. Loeb (1893, .p. 97) had shown that in Temora
dilution of the sea water made positive individuals negative, concentration the reverse,
but in Labidocera, animals taken from sea water of a specific gravity 1.025 and placed
in waters of 1.050, 1.035, 1.020, 1.015, 1.010, 1.005, and 1.000 specific gravity showed
no phototropic changes.

Loeb (1893, p. 96) noticed that when Temora was first caught, it was often posi-
tively phototropic, though under ordi nary circumstances it was negatively so. Shaki ng
made the animals temporarily positive, and probably explains the peculiarity just
mentioned. Towle (1900), by. a most painstaking series of experiments, showed that
Cypridopsis was usually negatively phototropic, but that contact with a pipette and
other slight mechanical stimulations were sufficient to make it temporarily positive.
Conditions parallel with those in Temora and in Cypridopsis were often found in
Labidocera. Females are ordinarily positively phototropic, but after having been
several times vigorously ejected from a pipette into sea water, the majority of them
become temporarily negative.

The following laboratory record will show clearly the nature of this change.

Aug. 20 (1901), 7.35 p. m. Five positively phototropic females were ejected, each one three times,
from a pipette into sea water. Two remained positive and three became negative, swimming to the
side of the glass vessel away from the light.

7.45 p. m. One of the three negative individuals became positive and swam with some irregularity
to the two positive individuals on the light side of the vessel.

7.58 p. m. The second negative individual became positive.

9.20 p. m. The third and last negative one became positive.

118

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

Since females can be rendered negatively phototropic for a period of almost
two hours byT handling them with a pipette, it might be inferred that this is due to
simple mechanical stimulation. That such is not exactly the truth is seen in the
fact that female Labidocerse agitated in the water do not become negative even when
this process is several times vigorously repeated, although these same animals easily
change on being handled with a pipette. Apparently, then, it is a very special form
of mechanical stimulus that is necessary to call forth this reversal.

Pipette experiments with five males, which in the beginning were almost indif-
ferent or only slightly negative to light, resulted in making all distinctly negative, a
condition which lasted at most an hour and a quarter.

Although certain forms of tactual stimulation are a means of making both males
and females move away from a source of light, even, as 1 found by experiments, down-
ward through the water, they can not for a moment be regarded as the efficient cause
in the downward movements of the Labidocerse each morning, for the animals are quite
as much open to agitation at other times of day as in the early morning.

Notwithstanding that this change has probably no connection with the daily
migrations, it may have, a very important connection with the pairing habits of the
animals. As is well known, the right antenna of the male is modified to form a
grasping organ, and by means of this the male seizes the female in pairing and holds
her till he has deposited a spermatophore on the posterior part of her body. I have
observed pairing among Labidocerse a number of times, and it has alwaj's taken
place between individuals at the top of the water. After the male has seized the
female, the pair plunge about in a most violent manner, and it has occurred to me
that the mechanical stimulation thus produced might be sufficient to render both
negatively phototropic, so that after release they would move downward to the water
where fewer individuals were. This operation, if it really takes place, would have
the effect at least of removing from the pairing individuals any two that had recently
been in union. After this idea occurred to me, I observed only one pair in copula-
lation. These were removed from the general aquarium to determine whether after
separation their light reactions had changed. After separation, however, both male
and female exhibited their usual phototropic responses, no change having taken place,
but on examining the female no spermatophore was found on her, and possibly the
operation was incomplete in respect to light as it was in sexual matters.

Attempts were next made to ascertain whether the continuance of light action
or a difference in its intensity could induce changes in the Labidocerse. Groom and
Lovb (1891) observed that the free-swimming larvae of a barnacle were positively
phototropic in the morning, but that before noon and without other changes than
continued light action they became negative. These in the course of the night all
became again positive. Thus the continued action of bright light gradually made
the larvse negative, of dim light positive.

To ascertain the effect of this form of continuous light action on Labidocerse, I
put five males in one large jar of sea water and an equal number of females in another.
These were exposed to diffuse daylight in the laboratory, as in Groom and Loeb’s
experiment, the jars having been set up August 12. On August 20 one male died,
the other four succumbed between August 2d and 26. One female died August 2d,

DAILY MIGRATION'S OF COPEPODS.

119

and the experiment was discontinued August 26. During all this period the males
and females retained their characteristic distribution, and nothing whatever suggestive
of daily migrations was observed. Thus the changes noticed by Groom and Loeb in
barnacle larvae failed entirely to appear in Labidocene.

Lights of different intensities were next tried. When an electric incandescent
lamp of about 14-candle power was held at 10 centimeters from a glass vessel con-
taining female Labidoeerse, the animals came to the side next the light; they like-
wise went to the top or to the bottom of the vessel, depending upon whether the
light was held above or below it. These same reactions obtained when a concentrated
solution of alum was used as a means of excluding heat rays. The reactions are
therefore due to light.

When, in place of a 14-candle lamp, one of about 100-candle power was used,
the results were very different. The Labidoeerae, on first being approached by the
intense light, made one or two leaps and then swam directly away from the light. If
the lamp was placed above them they moved to the bottom of the aquarium (about 30
centimeters); if, now, the light was quickly brought under the vessel, the animals
rose. This latter response was doubtless coupled with their negative geotropism.
Thus it is obvious that female Labidoeerae are positively phototropic to light of low
intensity, and negatively so to light of high intensity.*

The phototropism of the males was not noticeably different in the intense light
from what it was in the dim light. Under both conditions the}7 were, as a rule,
slightly negative.

These observations make clear why the female Labidoeerae are not at the surface
of the sea in the daytime. They are negatively phototropic to its bright light, and
therefore pass downward to the deeper water, where, from absorption by the upper
layers, the light has decreased in intensity.

To demonstrate the validity of this conclusion, a jar of female Labidoeerae was
covered with a glass dish containing 4 inches of a saturated alum solution to absorb
heat rays and then exposed to direct sunlight about noon. Immediately on being7
put in the sunlight the animals retreated from the source of light and went to the
bottom of the jar. In this respect they were like Simoc&phalus sinia as observed by
Radi (1901, p. 83). On excluding sunlight from the jar the Labidoeerae again rose,
and they could be thus driven up and down at will.

The migrations thus produced undoubtedly imitated in miniature the natural
daily migrations of female Labidoeerae in the sea. These animals migrate into deeper
waters on the coming of daylight because of their negative phototropism to strong
light. They return to the surface on the approach of night because of their positive
phototropism for weak light and their negative geotropism, a combination which
Loeb (1890, p. 42) has already shown in the larvae of the brown-tail moth. In this
way the migrations of the females are accomplished, and the only reason why these
animals do not carry out similar daily movements in the laboratory is because of the
absence of one factor, intense light.

♦ Conditions of this kind, so far as reactions to light intensities are concerned, were apparently first noticed by
Famintzin (1867) in the protozoans C'hlamidomonas and Euglcna , and have since been observed in the following animals:
Hydra (Wilson, 1891), Polygordius larva! (Loeb, 1893), Daphnia (Lubbock, 1884), and Lima x (Frandsen, 1901).

120

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

Although this explanation makes clear the movements of the females, it in
no wise applies to the males, for, as we have seen, they are almost indifferent to the
effects of light and gravity. The occasion of their migrations must be sought for in
other factors.

REACTIONS TO SUBSTANCES IN THE WATER (CHEMOTROPISM).

The Labidocerge that collect at the surface of the water on the light side of an
aquarium have already been shown to be some males and some females. A hundred
or more of these were placed in an aquarium tilled with sea water and in a short
time the majority of the newcomers were found at the top of the water near the
light; others, however, were scattered throughout the whole body of water. These
scattered individuals were then picked out, and, as might have been expected, were
found to be almost exclusively males. An hour or so after this the aquarium was
again examined and was apparently as full of scattered males as before. These, like
their predecessors, were removed. After a time, however, they seemed to reappear,
although in diminishing numbers. The process of picking out was continued until
few or no scattered individuals could be found. An examination of the assemblage
at the top now showed it to be made up almost exclusively of females, the males
having escaped for the most part to the lower water, where they were picked out.
Under ordinary conditions, then, males are continually escaping from the assemblage
of males and females at the surface and swimming oil' to become scattered individuals
in deeper water.

The males not only are continually leaving such an assemblage; they are also
continually entering it. At the bottom of a glass aquarium containing only female
Labidocerse ten males were liberated. They swam about as scattered individuals for
some time, but after half an hour only six could be seen; four, as a close inspection
showed, had joined the assemblage of females at the top. The females must, there-
fore, be admitted to have some power of attracting the males.

It occurred to me that the possible phosphorescence of the female might, at least
at night, be a means of attracting the males. Among the abundant phosphorescent
organisms in the summer waters at Woods Hole small luminous points had often
been shown me as phosphorescent copepods. By taking at random test tubefuls of sea
water at night a single such phosphorescent point could be isolated. Such samples
of sea water contained sometimes one, sometimes more copepods, but they were so
frequently without copepods at all that I was forced to decide that the luminous
points were something other than these animals. Moreover, when a single male or
female Labidocera was put in a test tube containing sea water which on previous
agitation showed no phosphorescence, and the whole vigorously shaken, not the least
phosphorescence was ever observed. Labidocera eestiva is, in my opinion, not phos-
phorescent, and therefore this factor can have no part in causing the males to be
attracted hy the females.

Since phosphorescence seems to play no part, and since the higher sense organs
of the Labidocerge, the eyes, etc., are so very rudimentary, some form of scent would
seem the most natural way by which the males might be led to the females. This
would probably depend upon some substance given out by the females to which the
males would react. That there probably is such a substance is seen from the following

DAILY MIGRATIONS OF COPEPODS.

121

experiments. A piece of glass tube about 2 centimeters long was filled with sea
water, its ends were plugged with wet cotton, and it was wrapped in a little more
than one fold of white filter paper. A thread was tied around the tube, thus holding
the filter paper in place, and the apparatus prepared in this way was lowered into the
surface water of a small aquarium containing five male Labidocerse. These swam
freely to and fro, and now and then collided with the tube. They were watched
accurately for thiily minutes, and the number and character of the collisions noted.
In all, ten collisions occurred, after each of which the animal usually deserted the tube
at once. Those animals that just missed the tube in passing went on by it without
special reaction. The tube was now withdrawn from the aquarium and five females
were introduced into it. Because of the filter paper and the plugs of cotton these
were not visible from the outside. The tube was again placed in the aquarium, and
after five minutes the actions of the males were again observed for thirty minutes.
Under these conditions the males collided sixteen times with the tube instead of ten.
Moreover they seldom passed near the tube without some characteristic reaction.
Usually they made one or two quick circles as they swam by, or even a somersault-
like motion; these were observed fifteen times when the females were in the tube,
never when they were not.

The experiment was now varied b}r dropping the small piece of tube to the
bottom of the aquarium and recording the reactions of the males as before. During
the half hour in which no females were in the tube, males collided with it thirteen
times, but showed no inclination to play about it. After the introduction of the
females eighteen collisions were observed and eight playing movements as males
swam by. I am, therefore, thoroughly convinced that males respond to females even
when they can not see them or come in contact with them. As the females are not
known to have any power of producing sound, they probably give rise to some sub-
stance that serves as a scent for the males; in other words, the males are probably
positively chemotropic toward the females.

Admitting this last conclusion, we have now all the facts needed for a satisfactory
explanation of the daily migrations of Labidocene. The females come to the surface
as daylight vanishes because they are positively phototropic to weak light and because
they are negatively geotropic. They descend from the surface into deeper water at
the appearance of daylight because they are so strongly negatively phototropic to
bright light that they overcome their negative geotropism. The males follow the
females because they are probably positively chemotropic toward them.

THEORIES OF DAILY MIGRATIONS OF PELAGIC ANIMALS.

It is now comparatively simple to discuss the more important theories advanced
to explain the daily migrations of pelagic animals. Chun’s (1887) hypothesis that the
migration depended primarily on temperature changes is absolutely without support
from what has been learned about the daily movements of labidocera cestiva. Weis-
mann’s (1877) opinion that light governs the migration is very close to the truth,
though it requires modification in the direction pointed out by Loeb (1891, p. 67),
who, after having shown the general importance of light in the daily migrations of
pelagic animals, expresses his belief “that light is not the only physical influence

122

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

that determines the depth-migrations of sea animals.” This has been abundantly
demonstrated in Labidocera, where geotropism and chemotropism play parts as well |
as phototropism, and probably much the same complexity obtains in many other
organisms whose depth-migrations, though made simultaneously, may be really the
results of quite different causes.

CONCLUSIONS.

1. Labidocera cestiva has a specific gravity in reference to pure water of 1.109,
to sea water 1.082—.

2. It falls through sea water at the average rate of about half a centimeter a
second (a fathom in six minutes). It swims upward at about one-third this rate.

3. In its fall it is oriented by the spread antennas, which keep the head upper-
most.

4. Its locomotor movements are either rapid uniform runs, or leaps, or rarely
some intermediate form of movement.

5. The runs are accomplished by the appendages between the anterior antennas
and the tail.

6. The leaps can be carried out by the anterior antennae, by the tail, or by these
combined, but not I iy the other appendages except in con junction with either anterior
antennae, or tail, or with both.

7. Labidocera cestiva may attach itself to fixed objects in the water by the ante-
rior antennae. It may also hang from the surface of the water by these organs.

8. The anterior antennae perform at least three functions — mechanical orientation
of the animal in falling, positive locomotion in leaping, and attachment to fixed
objects or to the water film.

9. Males and females react in characteristically different ways to light,
gravity, etc.

10. Females have a strong negative geotropism. Males have a weak negative
geotropism.

11. The geotropism of Labidocera is not changed by shaking it in water or by
other forms of mechanical stimulation. Increasing the density of the sea water from
1.025 to 1.035 and 1.050 increases slightly the negative geotropism of the males, but
does not influence the females. Decreasing the density of the sea water from 1.025
to 1.020, 1.015, 1.010, 1.005, and 1.000 does not influence geotropism. Temperature
changes between 10° and 35° C. have no influence on the geotropism of the males.
The geotropism of the females is negative in cold water and positive in warm, the
critical temperature being about 26° C.

12. Females have a strong positive phototropism for light of a low intensity.
Males have a weak negative phototropism. The positive phototropism of the females
is stronger than their negative geotropism. The phototropism of both sexes is
unaltered by temperature changes between 10° and 35° C. It is also unaltered when
the density of the sea water is varied from 1.050 to 1.000. Certain forms of mechanical
stimulation (handling with a pipette, but not agitation in water) make females tempo-
rarily negatively phototropic and increase the natural negativity of males. Females
are negative to light of high intensity (100-candle power incandescent light at 10
centimeters distance, and direct sunlight). Males are apparently indifferent to
changes in light intensity.

DAILY MIGRATIONS OF COPEPODS.

123

13. Males are positive toward females and probably chemotropically positive.

14. Ldbidocera cestiva frequents the surface of the sea from sunset to sunrise.

From sunrise to sunset it is presumably in deeper waters. Its migrations are
explained as follows: Females rise to the surface with the setting of the sun, because

they are positively phototropic to faint light and negatively geotropic; they descend
into deep water with the rising of the sun, because they are negatively phototropic
to strong light (their negative geotropism being overcome by their negative photo-
tropism); the males follow the females in migration, because they are probably
positively chemotropic toward the females.

Cambridge, Mass., December 31, 1901.

PAPERS QUOTED.

Chun, C. 1887. Die pelagische Thierwelt in grosseren Meerestiefen und ihre Beziehungen zu der
Oberflachenfauna. Bibliotheca Zoologica. Bd. i, pp. 1-66, Taf. i-v.

Famintzin, A. 1867. Die Wirkung des Lichtes auf Algen und einige andere ihnen nahe verwandte
Organismen. Jahrbiicher fur wissenschafttiche Botanik. Bd. vi, pp. 1-44.

Frandsen, P. 1901. Studies in the reactions of Limax maximus to directive stimuli. Proceedings
American Acad. Arts and Sciences. Vol. xxxvii, pp. 185-227.

Fuchs, T. 1882. Was haben wir unter der “ Tiefseefauna ” zu verstehen und durch welches physika-
lische Moment wird das Auftreten derselben bedingt? Verhandlungen k. k. geologischen
Reichsanstalt. Jahrgang 1882, pp. 55-68.

Holmes, S. J. 1901. Phototaxis in the Amphipoda. American Journ. of Physiology. Vol. v, pp.
211-234.

Giesbrecht, W. 1892. Systematik und Faunistik der, pelagischen Copepoden des Golfesvon Neapel.

Fauna und Flora des Golfes von Neapel. xix Monographie. 831 pp. 54 Taf.

Groom, T. T. , und Loeb, J. 1891. Der Heliotropismus der Nauplien von Balanus perforatus und die
periodischen Tiefenwanderungen pelagischer Tiere. Biologisches Centralblatt. Bd. x, pp,
160-177.

Loeb, J. 1890. Der Heliotropismus der Thiere und seine Uebereinstimmung mit dem Heliotropis-
mus der Pflanzen. Wurzburg. 118 pp.

. 1893. IJeber kiinstliche Umwandlung positiv heliotropischer Thiere in negativ helios-

tropische und umgekehrt. Archiv fur gesammte Physiologie. Bd. 54, pp. 81-107.

■. 1894. On the influence of light on the periodical depth migration of pelagic animals.

Bulletin U. S. Fish Commission for 1893, pp. 65-68.

Lubbock, J. 1884. On the sense of color among some of the lower animals. Part ii. Journal of
the Linnean Society. Zoology. Yol. xvm, pp. 205-214.

MacBride, W. E. 1899. The movement of copepods. Quart. Journ. Microscop. Science. Vol. xlii,
pp. 505-507.

Peck, J. I. 1894. On the food of the menhaden. Bulletin U. S. Fish Commission for 1893, pp.
113-126, pis. 1-8.

. 1896. The sources of marine food. Bulletin U. S. Fish Commission for 1895, pp. 351-368,

pis. 68-71.

Radl, E. 1901. Ueber den Phototropismus einiger Arthropoden. Biologisches Centralblatt. Bd.
xxi, pp. 75-86.

Scourfield, D. J. 1900. Note on Scapholeberis mucronata and the surface-film of water. Journ.
Quekett Microsc. Club. Vol. vn, pp. 309-312.

Towle; E. W. 1900. A study in the heliotropism of Cypridopsis. American Journ. of Physiology.
Vol. m, pp. 345-365.

Weismann, A. 1877. Das Thierleben im Bodensee. (Not accessible to me. )

Wheeler, W.M. 1900. The free-swimming copepods of the Woods Hole region. Bulletin IT. S.
Fish Commission for 1899, pp. 157-192.

Wilson, E. B. 1891. The heliotropism of Hydra. American Naturalist. Vol. xxv, pp. 413-433.
Yerkes, R. M. 1900. Reactions of Entomostraca to stimulation by light. II. Reactions of Daphnia
and Cypris. American Journ. of Physiology. Vol. iv, pp. 405-422.

Contributions from the Biological Laboratory of the U. S. Fish Commission,
Woods Hole, Massachusetts.

THE GAS IN THE SWIM-BLADDER OF FISHES.

By R. W. TOWER,

Associate Professor of Chemical Physiology, Brown University.

The function of the swim-bladder of fishes has attracted the attention of scien-
tists for many centuries. The role that this structure plays in the life of the animal
has been interpreted in almost as many ways as there have been investigators, and
even now there is apparently much doubt as to the true functions of the swirn-
bladder. Consequently any additional data concerning this organ is of immediate
scientific value.

Aristotle, writing about the noises made by fishes, states that “ some produce it
by rubbing the gill arches * * * ; others by means of the air-bladder. Each of

these fishes contains air, by rubbing and moving of which the sound is produced.”
The bladder was thus considered a sound-producing organ, and it is probable that he
arrived at this result by his own investigations.

Borelli* (1680) attributed to the air-bladder an hydrostatic function which
enabled the fish to rise and fall in the water by simply distending or compressing the
air-bladder. This hypothesis, which gives to the fish a volitional control over the
air-bladder — it being able to compress or distend the bladder at pleasure — has pre-
vailed, to a greater or less degree, from the time of Borelli to the present. To my
knowledge, however, there are no investigations which warrant such a theory, while,
on the other hand, there are many facts, as shown by Moreau’s experiment, which
directly contradict this belief. Delaroche f (1807-1809) decidedly opposed the ideas
of Borelli, and yet advanced an hypothesis similar to it in many respects. Like
Borelli, he said that the fish could compress or dilate the bladder by means of certain
muscles, but this was to enable the fish to keep the same specific gravity as the sur-
rounding medium and thus be able to remain at an}7 desired depth (and not to rise
and sink). This was also disproved later by Moreau. Delaroche proved that there
existed a constant exchange between the air in the air-bladder and the air in the
blood, although he did not consider the swim-bladder an organ of respiration.

♦Borelli, De Motu Animalium, 1680.
f Delaroche, F., Annales da Mus. d’Hist. Nat., tome xiv.

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

126

Biot * * * § (1807), Provencal and Humboldt f (1809), and others made chemical
analyses of the gas in the swim -bladder and found 1 to 5 per cent of C02, 1 to 87
per cent of O.,, and the remainder nitrogen. The most remarkable fact discovered
about this mixture was that it frequently consisted almost entirely of oxygen, the
per cent of oxygen increasing with the depth of water inhabited by the fish. The
reasons for this phenomenon have never been satisfactorily explained.

In 1820 Weber I described a series of paired ossicles which he erroneously
called stapes, malleus and incus, and which connected the air-bladder in certain fishes
with a part of the ear — the atrium sinus imparis. Weber considered the swim-
bladder to be an organ by which sounds striking the body from the outside are
intensified, and these sounds are then transmitted to the ear by means of the ossicles.
The entire apparatus would thus function as an organ of hearing. Weber’s views
remained practically uncontested for half a century, but recently much has been
written both for and against this theory. Whatever the vixtues of the case may be,
there is certainly an inviting field for further physiological investigations regarding
this subject, and more especially on the phenomena of hearing in fishes.

Twenty years later Joh. Miiller § described, in certain Siluroid fishes, a mechanism,
the so-called “elastic spring” apparatus, attached to the anterior portion of the air-
bladder, which served to aid the fish in rising and sinking in the water according as
the muscles of this apparatus were relaxed or contracted to a greater or smaller
degree. This interpretation of the function of the “elastic spring” mechanism was
shown by Sorensen || to be untenable. Muller also stated that in some fish, at least,
there was an exchange of gas between blood and air-bladder — the latter having a
respiratory function -and regarded the gas in the air-bladder as the result of active
secretion. In Malapteritrus he stated that it is a sound-producing organ.

Hasse, 1 in 1873, published the results of his investigations on the function of the
ossicles of Weber, stating that their action was that of a manometer, acquainting the
animal with the degree of pressure that is exerted by the gases in the air-bladder
against its walls. This pressure necessarily varies with the different depths of water
which the fish occupies. Hasse did not agree with Weber that the ear is affected by
the movements of these ossicles.

One year later Dufosse ** described in some fishes an air-bladder provided with
extrinsic muscles by whose vibrations sound was produced, the sound being intensified
by the air-bladder, which acted as a resonator. He also believed that certain species
produced a noise by forcing the gas from the air-bladder through a pneumatic duct.

At about the same time Moreau ff published his classical work on the functions
of the air-bladder. He proved by ingenious experiments that many of the prevailing
ideas about the action of the air-bladder were erroneous, and that this organ serves
to equilibrate the body of the fish with the water at anv level. This is not accom-
plished quickly, but only after sufficient time for the air in the bladder to become

*Biot, M&moires de Phys. et de Chimie de la Soc. d’Areueil, tome i.

f Provencal et Humboldt, M6moires de Phys. et de Chimie de la Soc. d’Arcueil, tome n.

JE. H. Weber, De Aure et Auditi Animalium Aquatilium.

§ Joh. Muller, Archiv f. Anat. u. Physiologie, 1842, pp. 307 et seq.

| Wm. Sorensen, Journ. of Anatomy and Physiology, vol. 29, 1894-95.

1) Discussion of Hasse’s theory by Sorensen, op. cit., p. 534.

** Dufoss6, Annales d. Sci. Nat.,5cser., tomes 19 and 20, 1874.
i f Moreau, MOmoires de Physiologie, vol. 15, p. 494 et seq.

THE GAS IN THE SWIM-BLADDER OF FISHES.

127

adjusted to the increase or decrease in external pressure that has taken place. The
fish, therefore, makes no use of any muscles in regulating the volume of its air-
bladder. The animal can accommodate itself only gradually to considerable changes
in depth of water, but can live equally comfortably at varying depths, provided that
the change has been gradual enough. Moreau’s experiments also convinced him that
the gas is actually secreted into the air-bladder, and that there is a constant exchange
of gas between it and the blood. In these investigations he has also noticed that
section of the sympathetic nerve fibers supplying the walls of the air-bladder hastens
the secreting of the gas into the empty bladder. Since then Bohr * * * § has shown that
section of the vagus nerve causes the secretion to cease. Moreau noticed in one fish
( Trigla ) having an air-bladder supplied with muscles that the latter served to make
the air-bladder produce sound.

Again, in 1885, the Weberian mechanism was brought to our attention with a
new function attributed to it by Sagemehl,f who stated that this mechanism exists
not for any auditory purposes nor to tell the animal at what level of the water it is
swimming, but to indicate to the fish the variations in the atmospheric pressure.
Sorensen tersely contrasts the views of Hasse and Sagemehl Ivy saying that “ Hasse
considers the air-bladder with the Weberian mechanism as a manometer; Sagemehl
regards it as a barometer.” The theory of Sagemehl has, naturally enough, met
with little favor. Sorensen J (1895) held that there is but little evidence for attribut-
ing to the air-bladder the function of a lung. It is to be remembered, however,
that, according to Sorensen’s criterion, no matter what exchange of gases takes place
between blood and air-bladder, it can not be considered an organ of respiration
“unless its air is renewed by mechanical respiration.”

Sorensen also refutes, from anatomical and experimental grounds, the many
objections to Weber’s theory of the function of the ossicles. He would thus attribute
to the air-bladder the function of hearing; indeed, in certain species, the only reason
for the survival of the air-bladder is that “the organ is still of acoustic importance;
that it acts as a resonator.” This idea, Sorensen states, is borne out by the anatomical
structure found in Misgurnus and Clarices, which resembles the celebrated “Colladon
resonator.” This author attributes to the air-bladder, with its “elastic spring” and
various muscular mechanisms, the production of sound as its chief function.

From the foregoing brief historical summary of the function or the swim-blad-
der it is readily seen that these investigators have not thrown an}7 direct light on the
function of the gas itself which is contained in the bladder. It would, indeed, seem
strange and contrary to general biological laws for certain gases to exist in the
bladder and not be of any use. Why, indeed, should we find a high per cent of
oxygen in the bladders of fish taken from 55 to 70 fathoms of water, especially as
the gas is actively secreted § by the, fish? Such a specialized expenditure of energy
would certainly not be accounted for on the basis of acoustic and phonation functions,
as the normal gas composition of the surrounding medium would answer all these
requirements. In the voyage of II. M. S. Challenger || it was found that “in the

* Journal of Physiology, vol. 15, p. 494 et seq.

t Journal of Anat. and Physiology, vol. 29, pp. 544 et seq.: “ Theory of Sagemehl,” by Sorensen.

I Journal of Anat. and Physiology, vol. 29, pp. 109, 205, 390, and 518.

§ J. S. Haldane, Science Progress, vol. 7, 1898.

|| Challenger Reports, vol. I, pt. 1, p. 226.

128

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

deep-sea waters the volumes of oxygen were, in general, less than those calculated
from the nitrogen-volumes on the hypothesis of surface absorption of air at the
temperature corresponding to the nitrogen found. In waters from great depths the
actual volume of oxygen was often very small.” “It is worth noting, however, that
very small quantities of oxygen present themselves occasionally at moderate depths.”
Two examples are here given:

Cubic centime-
ters per liter.

02 calcu-
lated.

Depth

(fat.h-

Per cent
of 02 in
dissolved
gas.

n2.

02.

oms).

15. 08

0.6

8.21

2,875

4.33

13.74

1.65

7.15

300

10. 72

The Challenger expedition did not find any deep-sea waters that were entirely
free from absorbed oxygen. In the surface-waters the amount of oxygen absorbed
from air at a given temperature is the product of its coefficient of absorption into its
partial pressure in the undissolved residue. Hence, in surface water, at given tem-
perature and 760 mm. pressure, there would be the following result:

Tempera-
ture C.

Dissolved N2 and 02 in
c. c.

Per cent of
02 in
dissolved
gas.

N2.

02.

0°

15.60

8. 18

34.40

35°

8.36

4. 17

33. 31

In the first table we find the per cent of oxygen in the dissolved gases to be 4.33
per cent and 10.72 per cent respectively, which, compared with the 02 per cent in
surface waters in the second table, shows an enormous deficit. As to the free C03 in
the sea, I quote again from the Challenger report: “From all the evidence afforded
by the Challenger research we see that free carbonic acid in sea waters is the excep-
tion.” It would thus seem that there is every condition offered for the elimination
of CO., from living organism, as by the gills of fishes, and the immediate absorption
of this waste product by the surrounding water. It is at least a strange coincidence
that with the gradual diminution of oxygen in the water, according to the depth, we
find an increase in percentage of oxygen contained in the bladder. Biot cites Trygla
lyra from 500 fathoms containing 87 percent oxygen; Sparus argenteus from 65
fathoms contained 50 per cent oxygen; Spar us dentex from 20 fathoms contained 40
per cent oxygen. My own observations on Lopholatilus taken from 55 fathoms
showed 66.5 per cent oxygen, and from 70 fathoms showed 69 per cent of oxygen.
May not this process be one directly to supply the animal with more oxygen under
these conditions, where the oxygen dissolved in the water is so deficient? Such an
explanation is tenable, inasmuch as Hiifner, Bohr, Moreau, and Haldane have shown
by experiment that the gas is the result of an active secretion in which almost pure
oxygen may be given to the bladder.

It occurred to me, if this process existed for the purpose of supplying oxygen
to the animal, that changes in the proportion of the constituent gases would be found
when the animal was partially or completely asphyxiated, and that these changes

THE GAS IH THE SWIM-BLADDER OF FISHES.

129

would be fairly constant in all fish subjected to the same conditions. The abundance
of squeteag'ue supplied by the Fish Commission Laboratory at Woods Hole furnished
the opportunity for a large number of analyses under different conditions. Few
analyses had been completed, however, before it was evident that the per cent of
oxygen in the air-bladder was no indication of the processes taking place there. In
the accompanying table the squeteague numbered 1 to 9 were allowed to become
asphyxiated by dying in the open air on the wharf. The animals were very active
before they were taken from the live-car. In each case the gas was analyzed at a
fixed time after asphyxiation. The bladder was rapidly removed from the dead
animal, and a silk ligature was tied a short distance from the small end. The end of
the bladder was then amputated, and the 3-way stopper of the Bunte apparatus was
inserted into the lumen and fastened by another ligature. The entire Bunte apparatus
being filled with water, the first ligature was carefully cut, and the bottom stopper of
the apparatus being opened, the gas from the bladder replaced the water in the
instrument. The stoppers were now closed and the gas analyzed by the ordinary
methods. In No. I there was found 17.51 per cent of oxygen, while in No. 6 there
was only 6.5 per cent; yet the animals were under practically the same conditions.
The amount of C03, considered independently of the oxygen, also shows no particular
characteristic, but when compared with the oxygen it is seen to vary somewhat pro-

portionately with the oxygen ; so that, in the two above cases, the quotient of

ca

02

became respectively 0.215 and 0.26. It is evident, therefore, that in all nine cases
the proportion of CO? to 02 is nearly constant, and thus asphyxia has produced a like
effect on the gases in the bladder.

This fact naturally suggested analyses of gas taken from normal live animals.
The first series were upon animals taken from the live-car and, as far as could be
judged, in normal condition. The animals were taken from the water and the gas
collected as rapidly as possible. The result of the analyses of this gas is given in the
table, Nos. 11 to 20. Here again there is a marked difference in absolute amounts of
0., in bladder, and also in absolute quantities of CO., . The extreme differences

are shown by comparing Nos. 11 and 20. The q ! coefficient, however, shows a close

agreement throughout the seven specimens subjected to the same conditions. Even
in these experiments the chances for partial asphyxiation were not entirely eliminated,
for this would begin during the time that the gas was being collected. Another
set of experiments was made on squeteague in which the gas was collected while the
gills of the animals were irrigated with salt water, thus giving no possible chance
for asphyxiation; the results are given in Nos. 21 to 23 of the table. In this
experiment, as in the two previous ones, there are differences in absolute amounts of

CO

02 and CO, in the different specimens, but the q 2 quotients are very nearly the same.

Another series of experiments is recorded in Nos. 10 to 13. These squeteague
represented different stages of asphyxiation. None were dead, but none were very

active. The result of the analysis showed a ^ ( 1 quotient, which is especially inter-

esting, for it varied with the condition of the animal.

F. C. B. 1901—9

In No. 10 the

CO

03

' quotient

130

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

was 0.122, which corresponds with the series beginning with No. Id, and this animal

CO,

was the most active. In No. 12 the q ! quotient was 0.191, which corresponds to
the first series, and of the three this animal was the nearest dead.

The table records the result of the various analyses as they were made in 1900.
In the summer of 1901, at n ly request, both Mr. E. H. Green and Mr. A. K. Krause,
independently of each other, made analyses of the gas taken from animals subjected

CO

to the same conditions as described above. In both cases the -q-^ quotients fell in
their respective places in the series.

If we now compare the q-' quotients in Nos. 1 to 9 as representing asphyxiated

animals, and the quotient in Nos. 21 to 23 as representing animals in their normal
condition, it will be seen that there is a great difference between them. These results
indicate that there is an active respiratory process taking place in the bladder during
asphyxiation.

No.

Per cent

Or.

Per cent
CO.,.

co2

On '

Remarks.

No.

Per cent
On.

Per cent
CO...

C03
02 ■

Remarks.

1

14.45

3.99

0. 275

14

19. 00

2. 30

0. 121

2

3

4

5

15. 85
15.80
17. 51
15. 91

4.47
4. 70
4.30
4.20

.282

.297

.245

.264

Gas taken after the
animals bad been as-
phyxiated by dying

15

16

17

18

13.30
10.08
8. 34
10

1.28

1.26

.93

.82

.096

.125

.115

.082

Gas removed while ani-
mals were alive, im-
mediately after being
taken frcim car.

6

6 50

1. 60

. 261

on the wharf.

19

8.60

.62

.072

7

15. 64

4.54

.290

20

5. 55

.70

.126

8

12. 20

3

.247

9

9. 70

2. 90

.298

21

11.86

.75

.063

IGas taken while gills

10

18. 80

2. 30

. 122

IGas removed when

22

12. 12

.75

. 061

> were irrigated with

11

16 90

2.50

.147

1 animals were almost

23

8. 77

.92

.104

1 salt water.

12

12. 00

2. 30

.191

I dead in a crowded

13

17. 80

2.80

.157

I car.

24

11.40

1

.087

Spinal cord cut and gas

removed.

i

SUMMARY.

1. The evidence for exchange of gases between blood and air-bladder must be
sought not in the absolute amount of 02 or C02 in the bladder, but in the proportion
of these two gases.

2. The

C02

02

quotient of the gas in the swim-bladder of normal animals is small,

ranging from 0.06 to 0.10.

3. The yp1 quotient increases as the animal is asphyxiated, and reaches 0.24
to 0.29 when killed b}r this means.

4. The fact that different per cents of 02 are found in different squeteague under
the same conditions strengthens the view that the gas is a secretion; for how could
we have 19 per cent in No. 14 and 5.55 per cent in No. 20 under a process of diffusion ?

5. Fish (Lopholatilus chamcdeonticeps ) from 55 fathoms of water have 66.5 per
cent of O, and only a trace of CO.„ and from 70 fathoms of water have 69 per cent

CO,

of 02 and a trace of CO.,. The deeper the water the smaller the -77^ quotient. This
goes on until pure oxygen alone is present in the air-bladder.

Bull. U. S. F. C. 1901.

Plate XXI

BILIARY CALCULI FROM SQUETEAGUE.

The stones in each group are from one fish. A centimeter scale is introduced to show their size.

Contributions from the Biological Laboratory of the U. S. Fish Commission
Woods Hole, Massachusetts.

BILIARY CALCULI IN THE SQUETEAGUE.

By R. W. TOWER,

Associate Professor of Chemical Physiology , Brown University .

Pathological changes in marine animals seldom attract our attention, and it is
indeed surprising that abnormal conditions are not more frequently found. The
explanation of this must be either that these animals are remarkably free from disease
or that the diseased individuals are quickly eliminated by the untoward conditions.

In 1901, while at the Fish Commission laboratory at Woods Hole, my attention
was called to the presence of gallstones in the squeteague ( Cyn oscion regalis) by Mr.
A. K. Krause, who had occasion to collect the bile from some three hundred specimens
of this species during the summer. Of this number only four showed any lesions of
the liver or bile passages. In one, the liver was apparently cirrhotic; from the other
three, gallstones were collected and preserved for the following investigations.

The calculi in the first squeteague completely filled the gall bladder and the gall
duct, in which no bile was found. These calculi (shown in the first or upper group)
numbered 16 in all, weighed 2.165 grams, and were of all sizes from a big bean to a
BB shot. The largest dried over sulphuric acid weighed 0.6725 grams; was 1.5
centimeters long, 0.5 centimeter thick, and 0.75 centimeter wide. All of these calculi
were more or less nodulated, as can be readily seen from plate xxi. When bisected
in a longitudinal plane they are found to consist of concentric layers arranged around
one or more nuclei, which were very small and consisted chiefly of cholesterin. It
being impossible to pulverize the air-dried stones, they were minced as fine as possible
and boiled with water.

The aqueous extract («) contained only a trace of either organic or inorganic
matter (see p. 134). The solid residue (/>) was extracted with hot alcohol. The alcohol
( c ) was decanted and evaporated, giving a mere trace of bile pigments, with a little
cholesterin. The solid residue (d) was next digested with ether until there was no
further extraction. The ether solution (e) on evaporation yielded fat and cholesterin.
The latter crystallized in characteristic plates which were easily identified under the
microscope. Dissolved in chloroform these crystals gave the characteristic choles-
terin reaction after the addition of sulphuric acid. The solid residue (f) was now
extracted with dilute hydrochloric acid (1:3) for 12 hours. Effervescence of CO,,
indicated the presence of carbonates, but in small amounts. The acid solution (g) was
decanted, evaporated to dryness, and ignited. The ash dissolved readily in dilute
hydrochloric acid and on analysis showed the presence of calcium, magnesium, iron,

131

132

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

phosphoric acid and sulphuric acid. The solid residue (h) from the HC1 extract was
washed with water and extracted several times with hot chloroform, which took out
small quantities of bilirubin at each extraction ( i ). This method evidently did not
remove all the pigment, so the solid residue (j) was extracted with hot alcohol
containing a little HC1. This removed a pigment in considerable quantities (k)
which gave the qualitative tests for bilirubin. The solid residue (?) was digested in
ether for 12 hours, but nothing was extracted (m). The residue (n) gave strong-
reactions with M i 1 Loti’s reagent and with the xanthoproteic test. It was divided into
two proportions. One portion (o) was oxidized with KNO., and Na3C03 and tested
for phosphoric and sulphuric acids. Both were positive. A control test with the
reagents alone gave no reaction. The other portion (p) was boiled with dilute hydro-
chloric acid for two hours. The resulting solution was examined for reducing sugars,
but with negative results. It would seem, then, from the above that the proteid
substance was of the nature of a nucleo-albumin and not a mucin. (See Table I.)

The small amount of calculi in the first or upper group (plate xxi) not used in
the preceding analysis was estimated quantitatively for the principal constituents,
with the following results:

Calculi dried to constant weight over H2S04.

Per cent.

Cholesterin and fat 2. 85

Mineral 3. 65

Bilirubin 16. 14

N ucl eo-albumin 65. 59

Water

Soluble in water

Total ash of calculi

The fat was in excess of the cholesterin, although a quantitative separation was
not made.

The calculi in the second group (plate xxi) were from another squeteague (a
male). They differed from the first lot in being smoother and less nodulated. When
bisected longitudinally they exhibited the same concentric structure as the others.
These stones were found not only in the gall bladder and gall ducts, but also in the
intestines, and, strangely enough, were embedded in the tissues between the liver and
intestines. No lesions or scars appeared either in the bile ducts or in the intestines,
vet these stones must have broken through the walls of these passages at some earlier
time. The gall bladder and duct contained a small quantity of bile.

There were in all eleven stones, weighing 1.865 grams. The largest dried over
sulphuric acid weighed 0. 615 grams, was 1.7 cm. long, 0.8 cm. wide, and 0.7 cm. thick.
The qualitative analysis agreed with the preceding and was carried out in the following
way: The dried substance, finely minced, was extracted with ether until nothing more
was dissolved. The ether extract (1) on evaporation contained cholesterin and a
small amount of fat (see p. 135). The residue (2) was digested with dilute (2 per cent)
hydrochloric acid for 12 hours, giving a slight effervescence of C02. The extract
(3) on evaporation showed but little residue and was united with (5) for further
analysis. The residue (1) was now extracted four hours with warm dilute HC1,
which removed most of the mineral matter. The extract (5) was analyzed directly
for inorganic substances. This gave relatively large quantities of phosphoric acid,

Trace.
99. 75
4.32

BILIARY CALCULI IN' THE SQUETEAGUE.

133

calcium, and magnesium, smaller quantities of sulphuric acid, and a slight amount of
iron. The residue (6) was extracted with hot chloroform, and the extract (7) upon
evaporation gave but little bilirubin. The residue (8) was boiled with alcohol. The
alcohol extract (9) when evaporated gave a small amount of bilirubin. Thinking that
there might be yet. a bilirubinate which had not been decomposed by the dilute HC1,
the residue (10) was extracted with hot dilute I TCI alcohol for three hours. The
acid-alcohol extract (11) upon evaporation yielded a considerable quantity of pigment
which had the properties of bilirubin. A portion of the residue (12) gave strong-
reactions with Mil Ion’s reagent and by the xanthoproteic test. The remainder was
divided into two portions. The smaller (11) was fused with KN ()3 and HNaC03 in
order to determine the presence of P and S in the organic molecule. The product
dissolved in hot dilute nitric acid gave good reactions for phosphoric and sulphuric
acids. The larger portion (13) was washed, dried to constant weight at 105°C., and
the per cent of N estimated by the Dumas method. An accident at the close of the
determination prevented an accurate estimation. There was at this time 13+ per
cent N. The estimation, being of necessity low, can not be taken as an absolute
indication of the nature of the substance, yet it would seem to suggest a nucleo-
albumin rather than a mucin. (See Table II.)

The quantitative analysis of these calculi dried to constant weight at 100° C.
yielded:

Per cent.

Cholesterin (and fat) 0.47

Bilirubin 22.39

Nucleo-albumin 70.69

Mineral ,. 5.10

68.65

The difference in per cent of fat and cholesterin in the two analyses is certainly
striking. The amount of cholesterin in the two cases varied but little as far as could
be determined by qualitative reactions, but the fat in the latter case was evidently
very much less.

The gallstones in the third or lower group, taken from the third squeteague
(a female), were much smaller than the preceding. The largest, dried over sulphuric
acid, weighed 0. 1 1 gram and the entire 2d weighed only 0.935 gram. The appearance,
except size, did not differ from No. 2. The calculi were also found in the gall bladder,
gall duct, intestines, and embedded in the tissues surrounding the intestines and
liver. The gall bladder contained a quantity of bile. The qualitative analysis did
not differ from the two preceding, and a quantitative determination was not made.

The three fish from which the above calculi were taken were apparently in
normal condition as far as could be determined when taken from the water. The
livers were perfectly normal in appearance. It is a difficult matter to collect the
urine from these animals, as it is generally eliminated as soon as they are taken from
the water; but the small quantity of urine that was collected showed the presence of
no bile pigments. Observations of this character would certainly be of interest in
the light of comparative physiology.

Perhaps the most interesting feature in the analyses described above is the high
per cent of nucleo-albumin, differing in this respect from the gallstones reported
from other animals. Further observations on the formation of these calculi might
prove to be of value in explaining the causes of such deposits.

134

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

Table I.

The finely minced calculi boiled
with water and filtered.

Water extract (a). Traces of or-
ganic matter.

Residue (b) extracted with hot
alcohol.

Alcohol extract (c). Traces of
cholesterin and pigment.

Residue (cl) extracted with ether.

Ether
and fat.

extract (e). Cholesterin

Acid solution ( g ). Evaporated,
ignited. Ash contained Ca, Mg, Pe,
H3P04, H0SO4, Iv, and Na.

Residue (/) extracted with dilute
HC1 (1:3). Effervescence of C02.

Residue ( h ) extracted with hot
chloroform.

Chloroform extract ( i ).
amount of bilirubin.

Small

Residue ( j ) extracted with hot
alcohol containing dilute HC1.

Acid-alcohol extract (fc). Bili-
rubin.

Residue ( l ) extracted with ether,
12 hours.

Ether extract (to) evaporated. No
residue.

Residue (n) divided into two
parts.

Part (0) boiled 2 hours with dilute
HC1. No reducing substance. No
mucin.

Part (p) oxidized with KNO;l and
Na«C03. Dissolved. Tests for H3PO4
and HoS04. Nucleo-albumin.

BILIARY CALCULI IN THE SQUETEAGUE.

135

Table II.

Dried substance, finely minced,
extracted with ether.

Ether extract (1 ) . Cholesterin and
fat.

Residue (2) extracted with dilute
HC1 (2 per cent) for 12 hours. Effer-
vescence of C02.

Residue (4) extracted 4 hours with
warm dilute HC1.

HC1 extract (5) contained Mg, Ca,
Fe, K, Na, H3P04, and H»S04.

Residue (fi

) extracted with hot

chloroform.

Chloroform extract (7).
amount of bili-rubin.

Small

Residue (8) boiled with alcohol.

Alcohol extract (9). Small amount
of bili-rubin.

Residue (10) extracted with dilute
HC1 alcohol.

Acid alcohol extract (11). Bili-
rubin .

Residue (12) divided into two
parts.

Smaller part (14) oxidized with
KNO;j + HNaCCtj gave 1 1 (P04 and
H;jS04.

Larger part (13) washed, dried to
constant weight at 100° C., gave 13+
per cent N.

A REPORT ON FISHES COLLECTED IN MEXICO ANT) CENTRAL AMERICA,
WITH NOTES AND DESCRIPTIONS OF FIVE NEW SPECIES.

By BARTON WARRBN EVERMANN and EDMUND DEE GOBDSBOROUGH.

During the past ten years Messrs. E. W. Nelson and E. A. Goldman, of the
Division of Biological Survey, Department of Agriculture, have spent much time
in Mexico and Central America making collections of mammals and Girds. Inci-
dental to their regular work these gentlemen have been able, from time to time, to
make several small collections of fishes, which have been referred to the Commission
of Fish and Fisheries for identification. Certain of these collections* have already
been reported upon.

In April and May, 1900, Mr. Nelson and Mr. Goldman made a considerable
collection in the State of Tabasco at Montecristo and Teapa. The specimens from
Montecristo came from the Rio Usumaeinta, and those from Teapa from the Rio
Teapa. A few specimens were obtained at Frontera, on the Gulf of Campeche, at
the mouth of the Rio Grijalva.

Montecristo is situated on the Rio Usumaeinta some 125 miles from the sea.
This is the largest river in Mexico, it being about 300 yards from bank to bank at
Montecristo. The fishes obtained at this place were secured by means of a seine
hauled in a shallow cove behind a sand bar. The seine was hauled at night, and
several species obtained. The fishermen say that in the daytime the fish remain in
the deeper water of the river, coming out into shallow water only during the night.
The collection from this place contains 21 specimens, representing 10 species, the
most interesting of which are 2 specimens of a new species of bagre or cat-fish
belonging to a genus ( Conorkynchos ) not previously known to be represented in
waters north of Brazil, and a specimen of the fresh-water drum {Ajplodinotus grun-
niens).

Teapa is at the base of the mountains on the Rio Teapa, a tributary of the Rio
Tapijulapa, about 125 miles inland. Eight specimens of fishes were obtained here,
representing 6 species, among them a new species of CichJasouia.

I'n February and March, 1901, another interesting collection was made by Messrs.
Nelson and Goldman in Yucatan, chiefly at Chiehen Itza, Progreso, Puerto M fir el os,
Mujeres Island, and Cozumel Island.

Chiehen Itza is an interesting hacienda in the interior of Yucatan, about 110
miles from the sea. In this region, as well as elsewhere over the greater part of
Yucatan and northern Campeche, there are no streams or surface water of any kind,

* Notes on Fishes collected by E. W. Nelson on the Tres Marias Islands, and in Sinaloa and Jalisco, Mexico, by Barton
Warren Evermann. <Proc. Wash. Biol. Soc., xii, pp. 1-3, 1898 (January 27).

Notes on a collection of Fishes from Mexico, with description of a new species of Platypoecilus, by Barton A. Bean.
<Proe. U. S. N. M., XXI, 1898, 539-542.

137

138

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

except occasional natural surface tanks in which some water is found. The entire
country is, however, underlaid by water approximately at sea level. At various
places over the country are natural wells, called “cenotes.” These are natural
excavations in the limestone rock, usually with more or less water at the bottom.
The distance from the surface of the country down to that of the water in the cenotes
seems to vary with the elevation of the country above sea level. Near the seashore,
where the elevation of the country is but a few feet above the sea, the water in the
cenotes will be only a few feet beneath the land surface. The elevation of the coun-
try increases toward the interior and the depth at which the water stands in the
cenotes becomes correspondingly greater. These wells are usually approximately
circular and vary from a few feet to 50 to 75 yards in diameter. The walls are more
or less perpendicular, and it is difficult to reach the water; however, it is usually
possible to find irregularities or steps in the wall, on at least one side, by means of
which the water may be reached. Frequently the wells are wholly inaccessible.
Sometimes the well is in a sink or cave.

In some wells the water is quite shallow, while in others it is of unknown depth.
The water usually appears green, as in all limestone regions, but in some shallow
wells it seems to be somewhat muddy. There is usually a thin coating of fine dust on
the surface of the water which becomes readily noticeable on throwing any object into
it. The water is said to be pure and sweet, but strongly charged with lime. There
is a belief prevalent among the natives that these wells are connected. However
this may be, the presence of fish in them is a most interesting fact for which it is
not easy to account. How old the cenotes are can, of course, be known only approxi-
mately, but they have certainly been in existence a long time.

The well at Chichen Itza from which fishes were obtained is nearly circular,
probably 60 yards across, and very deep, the water surface being about 90 feet below
the land surface. Mr. Goldman states that he has seen fishes in several different
wells on the east coast near Puerto Morelos, and that the natives say there are fish
in all the larger ones. The only species thus far obtained from these wells is ITeros
urophthcdmus , 7 specimens of which were obtained by Mr. Nelson from the Chichen
Itza cenote. Mr. Goldman thinks the fish he saw were of this species. Mr. Nelson
heard that cat-fish occur in a well at Chichen Itza, but did not see any specimens.

According to the natives the fish in these cenotes disappear at intervals and return
again. At certain times they can neither be seen nor caught; at other times they may
not only be caught, but are seen swimming about at the surface.

At the time of Mr. Nelson’s visit, which was during the second week in I ebruary,
none could be caught, and the natives said they were away. The seven specimens
obtained had been secured previously, perhaps a year or two before, and kept in a
large masonry water-tank which was supplied with water by a wind pump. They
had been caught by means of hook and line baited with pieces of meat. They had
apparently bred in the tank, as many very young ones were seen swimming about.

Another lot of fishes, chiefly salt-water species, was obtained at Progreso, which
is on the north coast of Yucatan, only a few miles from Merida, the principal town.
Some were obtained from fishermen, while others, chiefly Cy prinodonts, were seined
in a small lagoon; others were gotten at Puerto Morelos, situated on the east coast of
Yucatan. Some five or six species were obtained here from the sea, and a lot of the
smaller species from a small lagoon.

FISHES FROM MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA.

139

Mujeres Island, about 3 miles off the east coast of Yucatan and about 40 miles
north of Cozumel Island, is about 6 miles long- and one-fourth to H miles wide. It
is separated from the mainland by shallow water, and is headquarters for the fisher-
men of this coast. The fishes obtained here came from a small salt-water lagoon.

At Cozumel Island, some 8 to 10 miles off the east coast of Yucatan and about
40 miles south of Mujeres Island, only a few salt-water fishes were obtained.

Various other small collections from Mexico have come into our hands from time
to time, which we have studied in connection with the preparation of this paper.
There is, first, a collection of 50 specimens representing 5 species obtained b}r Mr.
Nelson in July and August, 1899, from the Rio Piedras Verdes and Lake Santa Maria,
in Chihuahua, and 5 specimens representing 4 species collected at the same time in the
Rio Piedras Verdes by Prof. C. H. Tyler Townsend and Mr. C. M. Barber, of Mesilla
Park, N. Mex. We have also 2 species of Ghirostoma obtained in the market at
Guadalajara in 1899, 3 species gotten in Lake Lerma at Lerma, State of Mexico, in
1901, and one species bought in the market at Yau tepee. State of Morelos, in 1901,
all from Dr. J. N. Rose. Then there are a few specimens representing 4 species
which we have received through the kindness of Mr. Charles C. Deam, of Bluffton,
Ind., who collected them in December, 1898, at Salina Cruz, Gulf of Tehuantepec;
and lastly, 2 specimens of the very interesting species Anableps dovii , obtained by
Mr. Nelson in April, 1896, from the Tehuantepec River at Tehuantepec City.

All of these collections are reported upon in the present paper.

The nomenclature and sequence of species in the following annotated list is that
of Jordan & Evermann’s Fishes of North and Middle America:*

1. Rhinobatus lentig-inosus Garman. Guitarro.

One specimen, 18.5 inches iong, from Progreso, Yucatan, February 28, 1901. This is the most
southern record for the species.

2. Lepisosteus tropicus (Gill). Tropical Gar Pike.

One specimen, 20 inches long, from Montecristo. Head 3.5; depth 9; eye 10.5; snout 1.75; lower
jaw 2; interorbital 4; D. 5; A. 7; Y. 6; P. 12; scales 53, 17 rows from base of ventral upward and
forward to and including median dorsal row. Body rather short and stout; snout short and broad, its
length less than half that of head; upper jaw the longer; teeth sharp, those of upper jaw in 2 lateral
rows; enlarged teeth of lower jaw in one row; eye small; fins moderate, origin of dorsal slightly behind
that of anal; first dorsal ray about 1.5 in snout, with numerous small, sharp, supporting spines in 2
rows on each side; similar supporting spines on all the fins; anal high, its longest ray 1.3 in snout.
Color in alcohol, leaden silvery or plumbeous above, white on belly; no spots on body except a large
one at base of caudal fin and 2 or 3 smaller indistinct ones in front of it; rays of dorsal, caudal, and
anal dusky, the membranes pale; pectorals and ventrals pale.

3. Felichthys marinus (Mitchill). Gaff-topsail; Sea Cat-fish.

Two specimens, 10 and 12.75 inches long, from Progreso. Head 3.5 and 3.86; depth 4; eye 5;
snout425; interorbital 1.5; D. i, 7; A. ii, 20or 21. The head is larger and the anal has 2 or 3 fewer rays
than those heretofore recorded.

4. Galeichthys felis (Linnaeus). Sea Cal-fisli.

Two specimens, 9.5 and 10 inches long, from Progreso. Head 3.5; depth 5.5; eye 6; snout 3;
interorbital 2.25; D. i, 7; A. 13 or 14; maxillary barbels reaching base of pectoral.

*The Fishes of North and Middle America: A Descriptive Catalogue of the Species of Fish-iike Vertebrates found in
the Waters of North America, north of the Isthmus of Panama, by David Starr Jordan and Barton Warren Evermann;
issued as Bulletin No. 47, U.S.N.M., 4 vols., pp. i-xxiv-|-1-1240, 1896; i-xxx+1241-2183, 1898; i-xxiv+2183a-3136 1898; and
l-ci +3137-3313, plates i-cccxcii, 1900.

140

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

5. Conorhynchos nelsoni, new species. Bay re.

Type, No. 50001, U.S.N.M., a male, 16 inches long, collected May 8, 1900, by E. W. Nelson and

E. A. Goldman, in the Rio Usumacinta, Montecristo, Yucatan. Cotype, No. 2382, U. S. F. C. reserve
series, a male 13.5 inches long, collected at same time and place.

Head 3.2; depth 5; eye 8; snout 2.1; interorbital 3; D. i, 6; A. 17; gillrakers 10 + 4, short and
weak, longest scarcely greater than diameter of pupil; gill-arches very convex. Body nearly terete,
gradually tapering and becoming somewhat compressed posteriorly; width above pectorals not quite
equal to depth; head conic, about as wide as deep at any point, a granular saddle over occipital region
extending anteriorly to posterior portion of eye; a small granular saddle at base of dorsal in front,
posterior edge concave; fontanelle long and narrow, beginning air eye’s diameter in front of eye and
extending an equal distance behind eye, a narrow transverse bridge equal to diameter of pupil
just back of posterior border of eye; snout very long, pointed; mouth small, nearly circular, upper jaw
the longer; barbels all very short; maxillary barbel not nearly reaching eye, its length about 2 in
snout; other barbels shorter; no teeth on vomer and palatines; teeth on upper jaw confluent in one
broad patch, concave posteriorly; teeth of lower jaw very weak; buccal cavity very large; roof of
mouth dome-shaped; eye high, its lower edge on a line with upper part of gill-opening, its distance
from end of snout equal to distance from center of pupil to gill-opening; origin of dorsal midway

Fig. 1. — Conorhynchos nelsoni, new species. The smaller figure is nearly natural size, the other one-third natural size.

between tip of snout and posterior base of anal; dorsal spine of moderate strength, 2.16 in head,
slightly granulated along its lower front for half its length, upper posterior third roughly serrated ; the
first, soft dorsal ray about as high as body; distance between dorsal and adipose fins 1.4 in head; adipose
fin large, its height 2.25 in that of dorsal fin, its base equal to that of soft portion of dorsal; caudal
deeply forked, the upper lobe the longer, equal to snout and eye; ventral rays shorter than pectoral
rays; pectoral fin moderate, its longest ray more than half head, its spine stouter than dorsal, 2.5 in
head, its posterior edge very strongly serrate; anal large, its longest ray 2.75 in head.

General color in alcohol, light, brown above lateral line, with bluish reflections; silvery below,
becoming pale on belly; dorsal pale dusky, spine darker in front; adipose fin color of its dorsal region;
caudal pale with some indications of yellow at its base and sides, inner edge of lobes tipped with
black; anal pale; ventrals pale, slightly dusky inside; pectoral pale, dusky on inner side.

When the type specimen was obtained by Mr. Nelson there were found in its mouth 39 well-
developed eggs. The cotype, also a male, contained one egg in its mouth.

This habit of certain cat-fishes of carrying their eggs in the mouth is a curious and very interesting
one, a habit about which more or less has been known for many years.

The first and most complete account of this habit of cat-fishes carrying their eggs in their mouths
is that by Dr. Jeffries Wyman, which he communicated to the Boston Society of Natural History at its

FISHES FROM MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA.

141

meeting of September 15, 1857. In 1859, in a paper entitled “On some unusual modes of gestation,”*
Dr. Wyman published a full account of his observations as follows:

“Among the Siluroid fishes of Guiana there are several species which, at certain seasons of the
year, have their mouths and branchial cavities tilled either with eggs or young, and, as is believed, for the
purpose of incubation. My attention was first called to this singular habit by the late Dr. Francis W.
Cragin, formerly United States consul at Paramaribo, Surinam. In a letter dated August, 1854, he says:

“ ‘The eggs you will receive are from another fish. The different fishermen have repeatedly
assured me that these eggs in their nearly mature state are carried in the mouths of the parent till
:i the young are relieved by the bursting of the sac. Do you either know or believe this to be so, and, if
possible, where are the eggs conceived and how do they get into the mouth?’

“In the month of April, 1857, on visiting the market of Paramaribo, I found that this statement,
which at first seemed to be very improbable, was correct as to the existence of eggs in the mouths of
several species of fish. In a tray of fish which a negro woman offered for sale, I found the mouths of
several filled with either eggs or young, and subsequently an abundance of opportunities occurred for
repeating the observation. The kinds most commonly known to the colonists, especially to the
negroes, ar ejara-bakka, njinge-njinge, koepra, makrede, and one or two others, all belonging either to
the genus Bagrus or one nearly allied to it. The first two are quite common in the market and I have
seen many specimens of them; for the last two I have the authority of negro fishermen but have never
seen them myself. The eggs in my collection are of three different sizes, indicating so many species,
one of the three having been brought to me without the fish from which they were taken.

“The eggs become quite large before they leave the ovaries, and are arranged in three zones corre-
sponding to three successive broods, and probably to be discharged in three successive years; the
mature eggs of a jara-bakka 18 inches long measure three-fourths of an inch in diameter; those of the
second zone, one-fourth; and those of the third are very minute, about one-sixteenth of an inch.

“A careful examination of eight specimens of njinge-njinge about 9 inches long gave the following
i results.

“ The eggs in all instances were carried in the mouths of the males. This protection, or gestation
of the eggs by the males, corresponds with what has been long noticed with regard to other fishes, as,
for example, Syngnathus, where the marsupial pouch for the eggs or young is found in the males only,
and Gasterosteus, where the male constructs the nest and protects the eggs during incubation from the
voracity of the females.

“ In some individuals the eggs had been recently laid, in others they were hatched and the foetus
had grown at the expense of some other food than that derived from the yolk, as this last was not
proportionally diminished in size, and the foetus weighed more than the undeveloped egg. The num-
ber of eggs contained in the mouth was between twenty and thirty. The mouth and branchial cavity
were very much distended, rounding out and distorting the whole hyoid and branchiostegal region.
Some of the eggs even partially protruded from the mouth. The ova were not bruised or torn as if
they had been bitten or forcibly held by the teeth. In many instances the foetuses were still alive,
though the parent had been dead for many hours.

“ No young or eggs were found in the stomach, although the mouth was crammed to its fullest
capacity.

“The above observations apply to njinge-njinge. With regard to jarra-bakka, I had but few
opportunities for dissection, but in several instances the same conditions of the eggs were noticed as
stated above; and in one instance, besides some nearly mature foetuses contained in the mouth, two or
three were squeezed apparently from the stomach, but not bearing any marks of violence or of the
action of the gastric fluid. It is probable that these found their way into that last cavity after death,
in consequence of the relaxation of the sphincter which separates the cavities of the mouth and the
stomach. These facts lead to the conclusion that this is a mouth gestation, as the eggs are found there
in all stages of development, and even for some time after they are hatched.

' “The question will be very naturally asked, how under such circumstances these fishes are able
to secure and swallow their food. I have made no observations bearing upon such a question. Unless
the food consists of very minute particles it would seem necessary that during the time of feeding the
eggs should be disgorged. If this supposition be correct, it would give a very probable explanation of
the only fact which might be considered at variance with the conclusion stated above, viz, that we

*Am. Jour. Science and Arts, second series, xxvil, May, 1859, 5-13. This paper was communicated to the Boston
Society of Natural History September 15, 1857.

142

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

have in these fishes a mouth gestation. In the mass of eggs with which the mouth is filled I have
occasionally found the eggs, rarely more than one or two, of another species. The only way in which
their presence may be accounted for, it seems to me, is by the supposition that while feeding the eggs
are disgorged, and as these fishes are gregarious in their habits, when the ova are recovered the stray
egg of another species may be introduced into the mouth among those which naturally belong there.”

One of the earliest accounts of this curious habit which we have seen is that by Dr. Gunther* in
which he says, referring to specimens of Arbus fissus from Cayenne received from Prof. R. Owen:

“These specimens having had the cavity of the mouth and of the gills extended in an extraordi-
nary manner, I was induced to examine the cause of it, when, to my great surprise, I found them filled
with about twenty eggs, rather larger than an ordinary pea, perfectly uninjured, and with the embryos
in a forward state of development. The specimens are males, from 6 to 7 inches long, and in each the
stomach was almost empty.

“Although the eggs might have been put into the mouth of the fish by their captor, this does not
appear probable. On the other hand, it is a well-known fact that the American Siluroids take care of
their progeny in various ways; and I have no doubt that in this species and in its allies the males carry
the eggs in their mouths, depositing them in places of safety, and removing them when they fear the
approach of danger or disturbance.”

The following extract is from an interesting article “On the air-breathing fish of Ceylon” by
Rev. Principal Boake, published in the Journal of the Ceylon Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society
for 1865-66 (1866) pages 128-142, the extract occupying pages 138-142:

“ Having occasion to visit Caltura periodically, I was told on one of my visits of a fish which is
caught at certain seasons in very large quantities, and which has the singular habit, when held up by
the tail, of emitting from the mouth a quantity of eggs. So great is the number thus emitted that
when many fish are captured the eggs are eagerly collected from the bottoms of the boats and carried
away to be fried, and are greatly relished by the villagers when so prepared, while the fish themselves,
being too numerous to be consumed in their fresh state, are salted and dried, and often form an
ingredient in the curries which appear at our tables.

“The description which I received of the manner in which the eggs are procured seemed to point
to the conclusion, universally believed by the natives, that the regular mode of bringing forth their
young is, in the case of these fish, through the mouth; a fact which seemed to me to be so singular
that I determined to stay a day or two longer at Caltura when I next visited it, for the purpose ol
investigating the circumstances which seemed to indicate so singular a conclusion.

“The result of my investigation was, as might have been expected, that I ascertained that the
circumstances had not been fully or accurately observed, and consequently that the conclusion to which
they pointed was erroneous; but I, at the same time, satisfied myself of a fact in the natural history of
those fish, which will perhaps be regarded as but little less extraordinary than their novel mode of
parturition would have been, if it had been established as true, and which, as Ceylon has acquired
some notoriety for marvelous stories respecting its zoology, I should feel some hesitation in stating,
were it not that, in addition to the abundance of unexceptionable testimony, I was able to procure
specimens illustrating the whole extraordinary process.

“These fish produce their eggs in the first instance very much in the same manner as other
inhabitants of the waters do, with this exception, that the eggs seem to come to maturity in batches
of ten or twelve. Bottle No. 1 will illustrate this. It contains the roe of one out of a large number of
fish that I examined. You will perceive that, besides eight or ten large eggs, there is a whitish mass,
which, on being closely examined, will be found to consist of other eggs of very minute size; the differ-
ence in size between those which are ready for emission and the others which are immature being
very remarkable. The strange fact, however, is that the large eggs on being emitted are immediately
taken up, either by the fish that has laid them or by another of the same species, and, not swallowed,
but kept in the mouth until they are hatched and the fry are able to take care of themselves, a period
of some weeks, during which it is impossible that the fish, which is swimming about with so extraor-
dinary a mouthful, can swallow any food except such small nutritious particles as may be floating
about in the water. When these fish first make their appearance at Caltura, in the beginning of the

* Catalogue of the Fishes in the British Museum, by Albert Gunther, v, 1864, p. 173.

FISHES FROM MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA.

143

season, they are said to be so fat that the curry made with them resembles that made with pork; but
after swimming about for a few days, with their mouths full of eggs, they become dry and insipid. In
bottle No. 2 you will see thirteen eggs, which I shook out with my own hands from the mouth of a fish
8 or 9 inches long, each egg being about the size of a small grape. Preserved in that manner, viz,
in glycerin, the eggs retain their natural color and transparency, whereas in spirit they soon become
opaque. In the same bottle are some other eggs which were obtained by pressure, and which present
the same remarkable difference in size as those in No. 1. You will perceive that these latter are per-
fectly transparent, the smaller ones being scarcely visible, whereas those which were shaken out of the
mouth of the fish contain a perfectly formed embryo and have a system of blood vessels spreading
over their surface on one side. In bottle No. 3 you will see one of the eggs in a more advanced stage
of development. Both the head and tail of the embryo have escaped from the egg, which, very little
diminished in size, remains appended to the middle of the fish, giving it a very distorted appearance.

1 ■ This adherence of the egg to the young fish after it has been hatched is not peculiar to this
species. The same thing occurs in the case of the salmon fry, which are being produced, under the
auspices of Mr. Buekland and other eminent pisciculturists, in such quantities as to give us some grounds
for hoping that that delicious fish may become again so common in the rivers of England that it shall
no longer be a luxury accessible only to the wealthy, and that farm laborers may again, as is said
to have been formerly the case in the neighborhood of Newcastle, find it necessary to stipulate in
their engagements with their employers that they shall not be fed on salmon on more than two days
in the week.

“This is the only specimen I was able to procure in that stage of development, the time not
having then arrived for the general hatching of the eggs; but an intelligent friend, who is at Caltura at
present, has promised to procure me other specimens, which will, I trust, enable me to ascertain a
fact which I am inclined to believe, although I am not as yet prepared to assert it positively, namely,
that the egg so appended is, in fact, the stomach of the animal in the state of enormous distention,
and that, as its contents are absorbed while the other parts of the fish grow in size, it gradually
assumes a more natural proportion to the rest of the body. To this conclusion I am led by observing
the system of blood vessels, which is perceptible on the side of the egg opposite the embryo, and which
certainly looks as if it was intended to form part of the organization of the future fish. I have since
ascertained, by the aid of William Ondaatje, esq., assistant colonial surgeon, that the fish which carry
the eggs, and subsequently the young fry, for so long a time in their mouths, are all males.

“The name by which these fish are known to the natives is Anguluwa. They are regarded by
them as all belonging to the same species, nor would an unscientific observer be likely to discover any
specific difference between any of the specimens that I have seen; but having sent several specimens
to F. Layard, esq., I received a letter from him in August last, in which he informed me that he had
submitted the specimens which I sent him to Dr. Gunther, of the British Museum, who had ascertained
that they belong to two distinct species, both new, of the genus Arius. Mr. Layard further tells me
that the carrying of the ova in the mouth is not so novel a phenomenon as I supposed it to be, Dr.
Gunther having described that peculiarity in the propagation of the genus Arius several years ago,
from South American species.”

It appears that the Rev. Bancroft Boake sent some of his specimens to the botanist, Dr. Greville,
who in turn transmitted them to William Turner, who published the following account* concerning
them:

“The various plans resorted to by fish of depositing their ova, and protecting them during the
period of incubation, have not infrequently attracted the attention of naturalists. One of the most
curious and interesting observations made on this subject was brought before the Boston Society of
Natural History about nine years ago, by Dr. Jeffries Wyman. He states! that when walking through
the market of Paramaribo, in Dutch Guyana, he found the mouths of several species of Siluroid fish
belonging to the genus Bagrus, or to one closely allied, distended with ova, sometimes between twenty
and thirty in number. The eggs were in various stages of development, some recently deposited,

*On a remarkable mode of gestation in an undescribed species of Arius (A. boakcii) , by William Turner, M. B.
(Lond.), F.R. S.E., senior demonstrator of anatomy, University of Edinburgh. <Journ. Anat. and Phys., vol. I, 1867,
pp. 78-82. Beau before the British Association for the Advancement of Science, August 23, 1866.

f Proceeding-' of Boston Society of Natural History, Sept. 15, 1857, and American Journal of Science, vol. lxxvi, 1859.

144

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

others with the embryo very considerably advanced. The eggs were always in the mouths of males,
and were not bruised, and none was found in the stomach. In the fifth volume of his Catalogue of
Fishes in the British Museum* Dr. Gunther relates that, whilst examining some specimens of Arius
fissus from Cayenne, presented to the Museum by Professor Owen, he was surprised to find their
mouths and gill chambers distended with about twenty eggs rather larger than an ordinary pea. The
eggs were perfectly uninjured, and the embryos in a forward state of development. These specimens
were also males.

“Again, Professor Agassiz, writing from the river Amazon, September 22, J865,f states that he had
observed a species of Geophagus, G. pedroinus, a fish belonging to the family Chromidse, in which the
mouth and a pocket-like pouch, formed by the superior pharyngians, contained a number of ova. How
the eggs get into the mouth he is quite ignorant, but there they remain until the young are in a fit state
to take care of themselves. In all the above cases the fish are denizens of the South American Continent,
and, except the sjiecies described by Agassiz, belong to the Siluroid family.

“The observations to which I shall now direct attention prove that this remarkable egg-carrying
habit is not confined to certain species of fish dwelling in the New World, but is shared by some of the
fish of the Old World also. In the month of April of the present year I received for examination, from
the eminent botanist, the late Dr. Greville, some specimens of Siluroid fish, which had been sent him
by the Rev. Bancroft Boake, of Ceylon. The specimens were accompanied by a copy of the literary
supplement to the Ceylon Examiner, to which Mr. Boake had communicated ‘An account (dated April
20, 1865) of some peculiarities in the habits of certain species of fish that are found in the waters of
Ceylon.’ The most interesting portion of this narrative consists of an account of the habit of a fish
caught at Caltura, in that island. When held up by the tail it emits from the mouth a quantity of
eggs, which, when many fish are captured, are fried and used for food by the natives. The fishermen
suppose that the regular mode of bringing forth the young is through the mouth, but Mr. Boake
satisfied himself that the fish produce their eggs in the ordinary way, and that after being deposited
they are immediately taken into the mouth, either by the fish that has laid them or by another of the
same species, where they are kept until they are hatched.

‘ ‘ The specimens given to me were two males and one female. The female had no ova in her
mouth; but from the appearance of the abdomen it was evident that the ovaries were distended; and
on opening into the cavity I found a large sac-like ovary on each side of the middle line. Each ovary
measured 21 inches in length and extended forward almost as far as the pectoral fin, where it formed a
rounded free end, whilst posteriorly it was somewhat constricted, and opened by an orifice common to
it and its fellow immediately behind the anus. The ovisac contained a very large number of eggs in
various stages of growth. Some were like minute granules, others, and these were very numerous,
like medium-sized shot, whilst a third set equaled in size grapes or small cherries and very materially
exceeded therefore the size usually attained by the eggs of osseous fish. These last, only six in number
in each ovary, had evidently almost reached the full period of intraovarian growth. Each ovum
was attached to the inner wall of the ovisac by an independent pedicle, the atrophy of which would
necessarily precede the discharge of the egg.

“The mouth and branchial chamber of one of the male fish were distended with 10 ova as large
as those found in the ovarium, which were so closely packed together that water, or minute particles
of food, could only pass backward to the gills or the oesophagus by filtering through the narrow
interspaces between the eggs. In each ovum the development of the embryo had advanced so far
that the eyes, chorda dorsalis, and cerebro-spinal nervous axis could without difficulty be distinguished,
and from the ventral surface of the embryo numerous vessels were seen ramifying over the surface of
the yelk. The embryos measured from one-half to seven-tenths of an inch in length. Only 1 of the 10
eggs had sustained any injury, its investing membrane being ruptured, so that a portion of its contents
had escaped. It is interesting to note that the palatine teeth of the fish are granular, so that their
form is well adapted for permitting the retention of the ova in the mouth with a minimum of injury.

“Mr. Boake’s observations show that the eggs are not placed in the mouths of the fish by the
natives for purposes of deception, but that the instinct of the animal prompts it to take them into that
cavity; and it is, as these specimens show, by the male, and not by the female, that this act is performed.
In this respect this Cingalese fish agrees with those already described by Drs. Wyman and Gunther.

* London, 1864.

f Quarterly Journal of Science, p. 302, April, 1866.

FISHES FROM MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA.

145

“Opinions may differ as to the reason of this remarkable habit. It may be supposed that the
male uses the eggs for food, or that he takes them into his mouth for temporary protection, discharging
them again when the danger no longer exists, or that their presence in that cavity is connected with the
process of incubation. The last of these suppositions seems to me most probable, for the habit of
distending the mouth with eggs appears to be so common in this species of fish that it is a matter of
ordinary observation amongst the natives. The eggs are not torn or bruised, as they would have been if
subjected to the process of mastication, the stomach does not contain any fragments, and in each ovum
is situated an embryo in a more or less advanced stage of development. Again, naturalists are
acquainted with other fish which play a part in the incubation of their ova; the male pipe-fish, the
male Hippocampus, and the Aspredo Ixvis, described by Wyman, possess special arrangements for
receiving and carrying about the eggs until they are hatched. A close relation apparent! y exists
between the number of eggs which come to maturity at a given time and the number which the male
can carry in his mouth. In the female I examined, 12 eggs are evidently reaching their full growth,
whilst the male has 10 in his mouth; and from another specimen examined by Mr. Boake as many as
13 were shaken out. This is a smaller number than was observed by Drs. Wyman and Gunther in
their Siluroids, but the eggs are in this species of much larger size. As the distended condition of the
mouth would necessarily materially interfere with the reception of food by the male fish, it may be a
question if he does not eject them during feeding, or perhaps during the time he plays the part of a dry
nurse the quantity of food he takes may be almost nil.”

It also appears that the Rev. Mr. Boake sent some of his specimens to F. Layard, esq., by whom
they were submitted to Dr. Gunther, who wrote concerning them:*

“A small collection of fresh -water fishes, made by the Rev. Bancroft Boake in Ceylon, and kindly
submitted to my examination by F. Layard, esq., contained two Siluroid fishes of the genus Arius,
which are of great interest, inasmuch as they prove that the peculiar habit which I have described in
an American species, A. fissus (Fish, v, p. 173), viz, the mode in which the parent fish takes care of
its progeny, is not confined to South American species, but exists also in the East Indian ones. The
mature ova are of the same large size in all these fish, and in all it is the male which carries them in
the spacious cavity of its mouth. According to Mr. Boake, who has published an account of the habits
of these fish, they are called Angaluwa.”

In Dr. Day’s volume on the fishes of British India,)' we find the following paragraph concerning
this curious habit:

“The breeding of these fishes is peculiar and deserves attention. The eggs of Arius are large,
averaging about 0.5 to 0.6 of an inch in diameter, and I have found many males of the genus, and also
of Osteogeniosus, with from 15 to 20 eggs in their mouths. Some of these eggs were in an early stage of
development, others nearly ready to be hatched; while in the mouth of one specimen was a hatched
fry having the yolk bag still adherent. The eggs filled the cavity of the mouth and extended far back
to the branchiae.

“ In the female organs of generation the eggs seemed to come to maturity in batches of perhaps 50
at a time. On examining the conformation of the ventral fins, those of the females appeared to be
larger than those of the males; the rays were thickened by a deposit of fat, whilst the innermost one
had a large pad attached to its posterior edge. These fins can be expanded into a cup-like surface, the
use of which may be to receive the eggs as extruded, which may be vivified there by the male.

“Whether the male carries about these eggs in his mouth until hatched or only removes them when
danger is imminent from some spot where he is guarding them is questionable, but in none of the
specimens which I examined did I find a trace of food in the intestines of the males which had been
engaged in this interesting occupation.

‘ ‘ This has been observed likewise elsewhere by Mr. Boake in Ceylon, and Dr. Hensel has recorded
the same of a Brazil species, A. commersonii; Dr. Gunther, of Arius fissus from Cayenne; and the same
facts have been remarked in other Siluroid fishes.”

As already stated, when Mr. Nelson examined the specimen which we have taken as the type of
the species, he found 39 eggs in its mouth, many of which readily rolled out when he held the fish up
by the tail. Unfortunately some of these eggs were lost and only four of them came into our possession.

* Description of a new Siluroid fish from Ceylon. <Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., xvm, third series, 1866, pp. 473 and 474.
t Fauna of British India, Fishes, vol. I, 1889, pp, 169-170.

F. C. B. 1901—10

146

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

The other specimen, which we have taken as the cotype, contained but one egg in its mouth
when it came into our possession, and Mr. Nelson does not recall that any were lost from this fish.
He saw 8 or 10 other examples of this cat-fish, but did not observe eggs in the mouth of any but the
type specimen. According to his recollection, the eggs were quite uniform in size. The four which
came into our possession measure, respectively, , -J-f by f§, If by fj, ff by ff, and by of an inch.

The eggs are well developed, the embryo in each showing very distinctly. It lies wrapped
around one side of the yolk sac, the head in every case being free. The maxillary barbel is well
developed and very long, its length nearly equaling that of the head.

We have not been able to examine critically the single egg in the mouth of our second specimen,
as it can not be removed without mutilating it or the fish owing, to the small size of the oral opening.
Evidently this particular fish has not yet acquired what the Rev. Mr. Boake calls “the singular habit,
when held up by the tail, of emitting from its mouth a quantity of eggs.”

It will be noticed that the number of eggs (39) found by Mr. Nelson in the mouth of our type
specimen is much greater than hitherto reported by any observer.

The suggestion by Dr. Wyman that the eggs are removed from the mouth when the cat-fish
desires to feed is quite plausible, nay, imperative, if the fish ever feeds during the progress of the oral
gestation. But it seems to us much more probable that the fish does not feed at all during the period
of oral gestation, and begins to take food only when the young have developed sufficiently to leave the
mouth. This is evidenced by the greatly constricted condition of the oesophagus, and comports more
nearly with the habit of many other species of fishes during the spawning season.

Mr. Nelson informs us that these cat-fish are eaten by the natives, and that he himself regards
them as the best fresh-water food-fish in Mexico.

It is proper in this connection to call attention to the method of reproduction in the sea cat-fish
(Galeichthys felis) . From information obtained in 1896 by Evermann and Bean, while studying the
fishes of Indian River, Florida, they were convinced that this species is ovoviviparous. According to
the testimony of competent observers among the Indian River fishermen and dealers, the adult females
of this cat-fish are found filled with well-developed young in March, “each rolled up in a ball and the
balls connected in a long string.” While the technical description is a trifle faulty, the evidence points
very strongly toward the ovo viviparity of the sea cat-fish.

6. Hhamdia wagneri (Gunther).

The collection contains one specimen 11.5 inches long, from Teapa, and two others, 11.5 and 14.25
inches long, respectively, from Frontera. Head 4 to 4.5; depth 5 to 5.5; D. i. 6, A. 10; eye 7.5 to 8
in head, 3 in snout, high in head; snout 2.5; interorbital 2.5; barbels 6; mouth moderate, jaws
equal; teeth in broad, cardiform bands on each jaw; maxillary barbel reaching adipose fin, but probably
variable; mandibulary barbel to beyond base of pectoral, nearly twice as long as inner; head broad and
flat, slightly longer than wide, covered with soft smooth skin; fontanelle in adult not continued behind
eye; occipital process narrow, reaching about half way to dorsal spine; gillrakers 3 + 7 or 8; adipose fin
2.66 to 3 in body, reaching slightly farther than anal; caudal deeply divided, its lower lobe broad and
rounded, upper smaller and pointed; body tapering backward from head, much compressed behind.
General color, brown, lighter below, many dark dots over body; a dark lateral band; base of dorsal pale.

7. Pantosteus plebeius (Baird & Girard).

One specimen of this sucker, 5.75 inches long, was obtained by Mr. Nelson from the Rio Piedras
Verdes, near Colonia Garcia, Chihuahua, and another 4.5 inches long by Messrs. Townsend and Barber
from the Rio Casas Grandes near Old Casas Grandes, Chihuahua.

8. Campostoma ornatum Girard.

One specimen, 5.25 inches long, from near summit of the Sierra Madre Mountains in Chihuahua,
near Colonia Garcia.

9. Leuciscus nigrescens (Girard).

One specimen 5 inches long from Rio Casas Grandes, one 5.25 inches long from near the summit
of the Sierra Madre Mountains in Chihuahua, near Colonia Garcia, and one 5.75 inches long from Lake
Santa Maria.

FISHES FROM MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA.

147

10. Notropis santamari®, new species.

Type, No. 50002, U. S. N. M., a specimen 1.56 inches long, collected in September, 1899, by Mr.

E. W. Nelson, from a small pool near Lake Santa Maria, Chihuahua, Mexico. Cotype, No. 964, U. S.

F. C. reserve series, from same place.

Head 4; depth 2.65; eye 3.6; snout 4; maxillary 6; interorbital 6; scales 9-38-2, 13 pores; D. 8; A. 9.
Body short, deep, and compressed; head short; snout short, obtuse; mouth rather small, oblique; jaws
subequal, the lower slightly included; maxillary scarcely reaching eye; caudal peduncle moderate,
its least depth 2.7 in head; scales large, loose, and closely imbricated, exposed portion of anterior ones
deeper than long, 15 scales before origin of dorsal; lateral line greatly decurved and incomplete, only
11 to 13 pores; fins all small; origin of dorsal over base of ventrals, the longest dorsal ray about 1.4 in
head; anal rather larger than dorsal; pectoral short, pointed, 1.25 in head, not reaching base of ventrals;
ventrals barely reaching origin of anal; teeth apparently 4-4, slightly hooked.

Color in alcohol, olivaceous, paler below; back and upper part of side with numerous small dark
specks, the edges of the scales dark; an obscure dark lateral band plainest on caudal peduncle; median
line of back dark; top of head dark; snout somewhat dusky; dorsal and caudal dusky, other fins pale.

This species seems related to N. frigidus, from which it differs in the larger scales and the incom-
plete lateral line.

11. Notropis term®, new species.

Type, No. 50003, U. S. N. M., a specimen, 2.5 inches long, collected August 9, 1901, by Dr. J. N.
Rose, in Lake Lerma, near the town of Lerma, State of Mexico, Mexico; cotypes, 32 specimens, No.
50004, U. S. N. M. ; 10 specimens, No. 977, U. S. F. C. reserve, and 10 specimens, No. 6762, Stanford
University Museum — all from the type locality and collected under the same circumstances.

Head 3.7; depth 3.7; eye 5; snout 3.9; maxillary 3.3; mandible 3; interorbital 3; preorbital 6; D. 9;
A. 8; scales 7-47-5, 23 scales before the dorsal; teeth 4-4. Body stout, deep, not greatly compressed,
the back gently elevated, the anterior profile regularly curved from snout to origin of dorsal ; head rather
heavy; snout short and rather blunt; mouth small, oblique, the lower jaw included, the maxillary
scarcely reaching eye; teeth small, hooked, somewhat crenate, the grinding surface not well developed;

148

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

caudal peduncle rather slender, not especially deep, the least depth being 2.5 in head; eye small;
scales moderate, not closely imbricated, those before dorsal somewhat reduced in size; lateral line little
decurved, not wholly complete, an occasional scale without any pore; tins all small; origin of dorsal
much nearer base of caudal than eye, and behind insertion of ventrals, its rays about half length of
head; anal short; pectoral very short, not nearly reaching ventrals, its length equal to height of dorsal
fin; ventrals very short, not nearly reaching vent; caudal not deeply forked, the lobes about 1.5 in head.

Color in alcohol, grayish-olivaceous on back and upper part of side, the scales profusely covered
with small dark punctulations; under parts paler; a broad dark median line from occiput to origin of
dorsal, just in front of which it ends in a black blotch; a broad dark plumbeous band from humeral
region along side to base of caudal fin, this band anteriorly somewhat above the axis of the body but
following the axis posteriorly; dorsal, caudal, and pectoral fins dusky, the ventrals and anal pale.

This species seems most closely related to Notropis aztecus Woolman, from which it differs chiefly
in the more slender caudal peduncle, the larger eye, less rounded snout, and the coloration.

The numerous cotypes show no appreciable differences.

The presence of fully developed eggs in one of the cotypes indicates that the spawning time of
this species in Lake Lerma is in the late summer.

12. Notropis frig-idus (Girard).

A single specimen, 2 inches long, from a pool near Lake Santa Maria, Chihuahua, seems to be this
species, though too badly mutilated to enable us to identify it with certainty. The character of the
teeth can not be made out and the scales are rubbed off so that they can not be accurately counted.

Head 4; depth 4.25; eye 3.5; snout 4; D. 7; A. 9; scales 5-35-6, 15 before the dorsal. Body
slender, compressed; head small; mouth small, oblique, the lower jaw slightly included; scales thin,
deciduous; fins small; origin of dorsal slightly behind base of ventrals. Color, pale yellowish or
straw-color, a few dark punctulations along median line of back.

13. Agosia chrysogaster Girard.

One specimen, 3.25 inches long, of this interesting little minnow is in the collection made by
Messrs. Townsend and Barber near the summit of the Sierra Madre, Chihuahua.

14. Symbranchus marmoratus Bloch.

One specimen, 12 inches long, from Cozumel Island, and two smaller ones, each 10.5 inches long,
from Mujeres Island. Those from Mujeres Island were obtained by Mr. Goldman from the soft, slimy
mud of a swampy, fresh-water pond about 2 miles from the southern end ot the island. “This pond,”
Mr. Goldman says, “is 4 or 5 acres in extent and occupies a depression about a quarter of a mile
from the open sea and only about 250 yards from the head of a salt-water lagoon, from which it is
completely cut off, however, by a ridge 30 or 40 feet in height. The water in the pond is so shallow
that it is everywhere filled with tall, growing, aquatic vegetation. There is a ranch close by, and to
obtain water the people have dug holes at one end of the pond and walled them up with rocks to
prevent their immediately refilling with soft mud. As it is, they gradually fill and have to be
periodically cleaned. The only times the people ever see these eels are when these holes are cleaned.
I happened to be there one day hunting birds and getting fish from the salt-water lagoon, and the
people told me about the eels. After some difficulty l managed to persuade two men to undertake the
job of cleaning the holes at once. They were hard to persuade, for they claimed they were apt to get
fever from working in and overturning the mud. Many bushels of it were taken out and the eels
found in cavities between the rocks. The people believe that the eels serve to purify the water. They
assured me that no other fresh- water pond existed on the island.”

Body very slender and eel-shaped, compressed posteriorly, the deepest part through base of head;
head conic; tail very short, less than one-fourth total length; eye small, close to the end of snout;
mouth horizontal, large; distance from tip of snout to angle of mouth contained three times in distance
from tip of snout to posterior gill-opening; lijrs thin but long and overhanging; snout rounded, very
short, equal to interorbital space; teeth small, those on jaws in a single row, except in the front of upper
jaw where the rows from the sides join, forming a small patch; teeth on the palatines larger, conic, and
in a patch anteriorly where the two rows join, a single row being on each side; gill-opening narrow,
the width of the opening equaling distance between eyes; distance from vent to tip of tail 4.1 times in
entire length; no fins except dorsal and anal, the latter extending from vent, the former beginning
slightly in advance of this, both meeting at end of the narrowly pointed tail. Color in alcohol, dark
olivaceous or brown, mottled with darker brown; under part of head and neck lighter.

FISHES FROM MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA.

149

15. Dorosoma cepedianum exile (Jordan & Gilbert). Southern Hickory Shad.

One specimen JL2. 5 inches long, from Montecristo. Head 4.66, 1.5 in last ray of dorsal; depth 2.75;
eye 4.33; snout 5; maxillary 4; mandible 3; interorbital 3.5; 1). 13; A. 31; scales about 75,-30; scutes
20 + 9. Body deep, compressed, the back elevated; dorsal median, slightly behind ventrals; caudal
widely forked, the lobes equal. General color in alcohol, silvery, bluish above. This subspecies
differs chiefly from the typical cepedianum in the considerably smaller scales.

16. Sardinella humeralis (Cuvier & Valenciennes). Sardina Escamuda.

Head 3.8; depth 3.25; eye 3; snout 3.5; I). 16; A 18; scales 40; scutes about 27. Our specimens
differ from current descriptions of this species in having an adipose eyelid; in the smaller eye, which
is very slightly longer than snout; and in their greater depth. We can not, however, regard them
as being any other species. Our two specimens, each 7.12 inches long, were taken from the crop of a
brown pelican, at Puerto Morelos, April 1, 1901. Both are females, and their spawning time is in the
spring, as evidenced by the mature eggs in each.

17. Fundulus grandis Baird & Girard.

Fifteen specimens, 5.2 to 6.8 inches long, from Progreso. Head 3; depth 4 to 4.3; eye 5.75 to 6;
snout 3.3 to 3.7; mandible 2.4 to 2.5; interorbital 3; preorbital 9 to 10; D. 10 or 11; A. 9 or 10;
scales 40 to 46,-14 or 15 The scales appear considerably smaller than in F. lieteroditus, the eye
smaller, and the dorsal is more posterior.

18. Girardinichthys innominatus Bleeker.

Thirty-three specimens varying in length from 0.75 to 1 75 inches, all from Lake Lerma. Head,
3.7; depth 3.5; eye 3.5; snout 4.5; interorbital 2.5; I). 23; A. 26; scales 44,-16.

Body short, oblong, compressed; head compressed, thick, very steep; snout blunt; mandible
directed vertically upward ; premaxillaries greatly protractile; small cardiform or subconical teeth in
each jaw in a single series, followed by a few small hooked teeth; month Very small, nearly vertical;
profile concave from orbit to nape, then slightly convex to dorsal fin; caudal slightly rounded; base
of anal rather steep.

General color in alcohol, dusky gray, darker above, with many punctulations; a narrow dorsal
band of dark from nape to dorsal fin; a dark, almost black, blotch on side above space between
ventrals and vent, larger than eye; some specimens with many faint vertical broken dark bars on side
of body, these usually obscure in the larger specimens.

This species is ovoviviparous. In several examples dissected, eggs were found in the ovary, each
egg being surrounded by membranous tissue, which is attached to the sides of the ovary. Some of
these young were very well developed; others are in a very immature state; while in others the eggs
are very small. In one specimen were found 4 fully developed young showing the scales and fully
developed tins, and in all respects resembling the parent, which was 1.2 inches long, while the young
were nine-twentieths of an inch in length. In another specimen, 1.6 inches long, 24 young, two-
tenths of an inch long, were found. These were immature, no scales being visible.

These specimens differ somewhat from current descriptions in several important particulars, viz,
the dorsal and anal rays are more numerous, the eye is larger, and the color is different, no mention
being made by previous writers of the black blotch on the side. This spot is present in all our
examples

So far as we have been able to learn attention has not previously been called to the viviparity of
this little fish. Indeed, in Jordan and Evermann’s Fishes of North and Middle America it is expressly
stated to be oviparous. This opinion was probably simply an inference from the apparent fact that
the anal fin of the male is not modified into an intromittent organ. No such modification is found
in any of our 29 specimens, but we have not determined certainly that they are all females.

These fish, as well as those of all the other species obtained by Dr. Rose in Lake Lerma, are in
many cases infested with some species of abdominal parasite — a tapeworm of some kind.

19. Cyprinodon eximius Girard.

The collection contains 44 specimens, all females, of this interesting little fish, obtained by Mr.
Nelson fiom a pool near Lake Santa Maria, Chihuahua. They range in length from 1 to 1.5 inches.

Head 3 2; depth 2.5 to 3.2; eye 3.8; snout 3.8; interorbital 2.5 to 3; I). 9 or 10, length of longest
ray about 2 in head, the anterior quite spine-like; A. 8 to 10, longest ray 1.8 in head. Body oblong,
deepest in front of dorsal tin, compressed posteriorly; anterior profile evenly arched from base of
dorsa1 fin to tip of snout; head large, deep, slightly compressed; eye high, distance from posterior edge

150

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

of opercle to eye equaling distance from tip of snout to posterior edge of pupil; upper jaw protractile;
lower jaw prominent, very oblique, including upper jaw; a row of small villiform teeth on each jaw;
dorsal outline dropping downward and backward along base of fin, thence backward and but slightly
downward to base of caudal; caudal truncate; lower profile similar to dorsal, though not so greatly
arched. Color in alcohol, dusky grayish, the central portion of each scale in some cases being dark
olivaceous, making bands on each row of scales on side of body; belly and neck silvery white; 8 or 9
bands of dark about as wide as pupil, but irregular in width, on side of body; fins all dusky pale.

20. Belonesox belizanus Kner.

Three specimens, 4.2 to 5 inches long, from Progreso, Yucatan. Head 3 (2.75 to 3); depth about
6; eye 6 (5.5 to 6); snout 2.25; mandible 1.8 to 2; interorbital 3.8; scales 55 or 60,-16 or 17, about 6
rows on cheek; D. 8, the longest ray 3 in head; A. 10, the longest ray 2.8; ventrals 3.8; pectoral 2.8.
Body very oblong, compressed posteriorly; head and anterior portion of body flat; head long, very
flat above, the snout wedge-shaped; eye high; distance from tip of snout to anterior edge of eye
equaling distance from center of pupil to posterior edge of opercle; upper surface of premaxillary plate
not quite as long as postorbital part of head; upper jaw protractile, the premaxillaries forming together
an elongate triangular plate, the bones separated by membrane; lower jaw long, projecting slightly
beyond upper; mandibles formed similarly to premaxillaries; jaws arched, each with a broad band of
cardiform teeth; dorsal placed far posteriorly; caudal rounded; anal in advance of dorsal, modified in
the male into a long, slender intromittent organ. General color in alcohol, dark olivaceous, darker
above; side with longitudinal series of dark spots, the spots on the posterior central portion of each
scale; a dark spot, slightly larger than pupil, just above the central base of caudal; caudal dusky
pale with numerous dark punctulations; other fins dusky pale.

21. Anableps dovii Gill. “ Quatro Ojos ” ; Four-eyed Fish.

We have examined 2 specimens of this interesting fish, 7 and 8 inches long, respectively, collected
by Mr. Nelson in the Tehuantepec River at Tehuantepec City. Head 4; depth 6.25; eye 4.5; snout
3.75; interorbital 4; width of mouth 2.5; dorsal 8; anal 8; scales, 67,-15; pectoral 1.5; ventral 2.3;
anal 2.4; dorsal 2.4; middle caudal rays 1.4. Body long, much depressed on anterior half, posterior
half somewhat compressed; head broad, very greatly depressed; mouth small, the maxillary and
mandible short, the cleft not nearly reaching anterior border of eye; eye large, set very high, fully
one-half being above the level of the low interorbital space; fins all small; dorsal posterior, its origin
over tip of anal; caudal rather long, rounded; ventrals short, wide apart, not reaching vent; pectorals
short, reaching only halfway to base of ventrals; scales small, smooth, and moderately firm.

Color in alcohol, brownish olive on back and upper part of side, pale below; median line of back
with an obscure blackish band; a distinct black band from eye along middle of side to base of caudal
peduncle, its lower boundary very distinct, in contrast with the paler color of lower side; a similar but
paler dark line from above base of ventral to base of caudal, the pale yellowish line between these two
scarcely equal to diameter of eye in width; in some cases this second dark line begins under tip of
pectoral; dorsal and caudal dusky, other fins pale; tip of upper jaw dark; peritoneum black.

The unique structure of the eye of this curious fish merits a fuller description. Mr. M. C. Marsh,
pathologist of the Commission, has made careful dissections of the eye of this species and kindly
furnishes us the following notes:

The eye is crossed by a bar, like the diameter of a circle, and parallel with the length of the body.
This bar is darker than the other external portions of the eyeball and has its edges darker still. Divid-
ing the external aspect of the eye equally, it has its lower edge on the same level as the back of the
fish, which is flat and straight from snout to dorsal, or nearly the whole length of the fish; so that when
the body of the fish is just submerged the level of the water reaches to this bar, and the lower half of
the eye is in water, the upper half in the air. Upon dissecting the eyeball from the orbit, it appears
nearly round. A membranous sheath covers the external part and invests most of the ball. It may
be peeled off, when the dark bar on the external portion of the eye is seen to be upon this membrane,
which may correspond to the conjunctiva. The back portion of eyeball being cut off, one lens is found.
The lining of the ball consists, in front, of one black layer, evidently choroid. Behipd, there is a retinal
layer. The choroid layer turns up anteriorly, making a free edge comparable to an iris. The free edge
is chiefly evident in the lower part of the eye. A large pupil is left, but is divided by two flaps, con-
tinuations of the choroid coat, projecting from either side and overlapping. There are properly then
two pupils, an upper and lower, separated by a band consisting of the two flaps, which may probably,

FISHES FROM MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA.

151

by moving upward and downward, increase or diminish the size of either pupil; an upward motion
of the flaps increasing the lower pupil at the expense of the other, and vice versa. (Marsh).

This division of the pupil into two parts permits the fish, when swimming at the surface of the
water, as is its usual custom, to see in the air with the upper portion and in the water with the lower.
It is thus able to see not only such insects as are upon the surface of the water or flying in the air
above, but also any that may be swimming beneath the surface.

According to Mr. Nelson the individuals of this species swim always at the surface and in little
schools arranged in platoons or abreast. They always swim headed upstream against the current,
and feed upon floating matter which the current brings them. A platoon may be seen in regular
formation breasting the current, either making slight headway upstream or merely maintaining their
station, and on the qui vive for any suitable food the current may bring. Now and then one may be
seen to dart forward, seize a floating food particle, and then resume its place in the platoon. And
thus they may be observed feeding for long periods. They are almost invariably found in running
water well out in the stream, or at least where the current is strongest and where floating matter is most
abundant, for it is upon floating matter that they seem chiefly to depend. They are not known to
jump out of the water to catch insects flying in the air or resting upon vegetation above the water
surface, nor do they Seem to feed to any extent upon small crustaceans or other portions of the
plankton beneath the surface.

When alarmed — and they are wary and very easily frightened — the)' escape by skipping or jumping
over the water, 2 or 3 feet at a skip. They rise entirely out of the water, and at a considerable angle,
the head pointing upward. In descending the tail strikes the water first and, apparently by a sculling
motion, new impetus is acquired for another leap. This skipping may continue until the school is
widely scattered. When a school has become scattered, and after the cause of their fright has
disappeared, the individuals soon rejoin each other. First two will join each other and one by one
the others will join them until the whole school is together again. Rarely do they attempt to dive or
get beneath the surface; when they do they have great difficulty in keeping under and soon come to
the surface again.

The air-bladder in an example 8 inches long was three-fourths of an inch long and nearly one-
fourth inch in diameter. It was attached by a slender thread or duct three-fourths inch long to the
under side of the stomach at the anterior end. The air-bladder lies immediately ventral to the stomach,
its anterior end lying against and dorsal of the liver, in the tissues of which the duct is immersed.

No opening from the duct into the stomach could be found in the specimen dissected, though
more careful dissection of a well-preserved or fresh specimen would probably reveal one.

The specimens obtained by Mr. Nelson were secured by means of a cast net in the Tehuantepec
River at Tehuantepec City, which is situated about 50 miles from the sea at an altitude of 200 feet.
The fish are so wild that it is very difficult to catch them. They jump over a seine readily and will
not ordinarily take a hook. The cast net seems the most effective means for their capture.

This fish is viviparous, as is well known. The female (7 inches long) examined by us was collected
in April, and contains nine young, each about 1.5 inches long. In each of these the yolk sac is quite
large but flabby, as a result of the absorption of a considerable portion of its contents. In these little
young the septum in the eye is quite evident and the color pattern of the adult is well shown. After
the young are born Mr. Nelson observed that they remain for a time in quiet, protected water, not
venturing into the strong currents until of considerable size.

Further down the Tehuantepec River near the coast the individuals of this fish are said to be larger
than at Tehuantepec City. These fish are eaten by the natives, but are not often seen in market, on
account of the difficulty in their capture.

22. Poecilia butleri Jordan.

Three specimens, 1.37 to 1.67 inches long, obtained by Mr. Deam from a salt-water pool near the
seashore at Salina Cruz, Gulf of Tehuantepec.

23. Mollienisia latipinna Le Sueur.

Nine males and 7 females from Progreso, all excellent specimens, in fine condition. The males
range in length from 3.75 to 4.63 inches, and the females from 2.25 to 4 inches. Two females from
Montecristo, 2.25 and 2.75 inches long; and one female from Mujeres Island, 2 inches long.

24. Tylosurus notatus (Poey). Needle-fish; Long-jaws.

One specimen, 13 inches long, from Progreso. Snout broken; measurements not accurate. D. i,
13; scales 85 before dorsal, about 45 from front of dorsal to caudal.

I

152 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

25. Tylosurus timucu (Walbaum). Peixe Agulha; Timucu.

One specimen, 20 inches long, from Teapa. Head 2.8; depth 11; eye 3 in postorbital part of
head; A. 15; I). 16; about 135 scales before dorsal.

26. Hemiramphus brasiliensis (Linnaeus). Balao; Escribano.

One specimen, 12 inches long, from Puerto Morelos. The following measurements are from end
of upper jaw: Head 4.2; depth 5.75; eye 3.75; snout 3; interorbital 3.75; I). 14; A. 10; scales 54; pecto-
ral 1.4 in head; ventrals 3.

27. Chirostoma humboldtianum (Cuvier & Valenciennes). Pescado Blanco de Clmlso.

Five specimens, each about 5 inches long, from La Laguna, Jalisco, in the Sierra de Guanacatlan.
Head 3; depth 4.75; eye 4.6; snout 3; maxillary 3; mandible 2.5; interobital 4; scales 53,-15; D. iv-13;
A. 19; longest dorsal ray 2 in head; longest anal ray 2.2; pectoral 1.6; ventral 2.6; depth of caudal
peduncle 3.3. Body slender, compressed; eye large, nearer tip of snout than posterior edge of opercle
by a distance almost as great as diameter of orbit; interobital space flat, as is almost entire top of head;
lower jaw projecting slightly, including the upper when closed; cleft of mouth horizontal, the edge of
lower lip being on aline with center of pupil; lips thickened posteriorly, lower folding over upper at
their union; maxillary nearly vertical, its distal end in advance of a vertical from anterior edge of orbit
a distance equal to two-thirds diameter of pupil; minute teeth in small bands on jaws, none on vomer
or palatines; gillrakers about 23, very slender, length of longest about equal to diameter of pupil; first
two spines of dorsal about equal, the other two shorter; first few rays of soft dorsal highest, others
gradually shortening; when the fin is elevated its edge is straight; caudal forked; anal similar to soft
dorsal, except that its edge is slightly concave; ventrals reaching vent.

Color in alcohol, brownish-olive, darker above; a distinct dark lateral band, in which are small
darker spots extending from upper part of base of pectoral to middle of base of caudal, becoming
darker posteriorly; scales on upper part of body and sides edged with dark, sometimes with small dark
dots; fins all dusky; dorsal, caudal, and pectoral with some dark.

28. Chirostoma promelas Jordan & Snyder.

One specimen, 8.5 inches long, from the Guadalajara market, caught in Laguna de Chapala, from
which place the species was described. Head 3.3; depth 5; eye 6; snout 2.5; maxillary 3; mandible 2.25;
interorbital 4.5; scales 53,-15; D. iv-11; longest dorsal ray 2.7 in head; A. 21; longest anal ray 2.5;
pectoral 2; ventral 3.2: depth of caudal peduncle 3.8.

29. Chirostoma lucius Boulenger.

Two specimens, 8 inches long, from the Guadalajara market, caught in Laguna de Chapala, which
is the type locality. Head 3.3; depth 5; eye 5.75; snout 2.6; maxillary 3; mandible 2.2; interorbital
4.2; scales 58,-15; D. v or vi-12; longest dorsal ray 2.4 in head; A. 20; longest anal ray 2.4; pectoral
1.7; ventral 2.8; depth of caudal peduncle 3.3.

30. Chirostoma bartoni Jordan & Evermann.

Forty-five specimens, ranging in length from 1.75 to 4.2 inches, all obtained by Dr. J. N. Rose in
Lake Lerma, near the town of Lerma, State of Mexico. Until now, only the type of this species was
known. A female, 3 inches long, gives the following measurements: Head 4; depth 5.5; eye 4; snout
3.5; maxillary 3.2; mandible 2.3; interorbital space, 3.2; D. iv-i, 10; A. i, 13; scales 41,-11 , about 20
before the dorsal. Body slender, moderately compressed, the back rounded; mouth small; snout
short; lower jaw but slightly projecting. Otherwise as in the type. The anal fin formula varies from
i, 13 to i, 15; and the scales from 40,-10 to 42,-12.

31. Eslopsarum jordani (Woolman).

Among the specimens brought home from Mexico by Dr. Rose in 1901 is a package of small dried
fish, which he purchased in the market at Yautepec, State of Morelos. These specimens range in
length from less than one inch to 2.25 inches. They are thoroughly desiccated and difficult of identi-
fication, but seem to be the present species. Dr. Rose informs us that these little fish are sold in
dishes containing a dozen or more and are eaten on toast or with meat. It is called “ Charal de la
Laguna” and is much relished.

32. Caranx hippos (Linnaeus). Plorse Cravalla.

One specimen, 13.5 inches long, from Monteeristo. Head 3; depth 2.66; eye 4.66; snout 4;
maxillary 2; mandible 1.8; interorbital 3.66; preorbital 5.5; D. vi-i, 20; A. ii-i, 17; scutes on lateral
line about 26.

FISHES FROM MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA.

153

33. Caranx crysos (Mitchill). Hard-tail; Runner.

One specimen, 9 inches long, from Puerto Morelos. Head 3.5; depth 3; eye 3.5; snout 3; maxil-
lary 2.5; mandible 2.2; interorbital 3.25; preorbital very narrow, about 16; D. viii-i, 24; A. ii-i, 19;
pectoral one-eighth longer than head, 3 in body; longest dorsal ray 2 in head; about 48 scutes.

34. Trachinotus giaucus (Bloch). Old-wife.

One specimen, 10 inches long, from Puerto Morelos. Head 3.83; depth 2; eye 3.75; snout 4.5;
maxillary 2.66; mandible 2.75; interorbital 2.75; preorbital very narrow; D. vi-r, 20; A. ii-i, 17;
longest dorsal ray 1.5 in body; longest anal ray 2.33; anterior rays of dorsal and anal greatly produced,
reaching somewhat beyond middle of caudal.

35. Centropomus mexicanus Bocourt. Mexican Robalo.

One specimen, 12.5 inches long, from Montecristo. Head 3; depth 3.66; eye 5.75; snout 3.5; max-
illary 2.66; mandible 1.75; interorbital 7; preorbital 13.5; scales 11-80-14; D. viii-i, 10; A. in, 6;
longest dorsal spine 2 in head, 1.5 in depth of body ; longest anal spine 1.66 in head, 1.25 in depth of body ;
pectoral as long as ventral, 1.66 in head; ventral outline nearly straight; suborbital with 8 or 10 sharp
retrorse teeth; preorbital with teeth at angle strongly serrated; opercular flap large, nearly reaching
front of dorsal. General color in alcohol, dusky, silvery below, darker above; lateral line in a narrow
black band; a dark blotch on middle of opercle, covering nearly half of it; faint indications of dark
blotches over body above lateral line; dorsal membranes dark, other fins pale, except third anal spine,
which is dark brown.

This fish is close to C. parallelus, but differs in that C. mexicanus has more teeth on the suborbital,
those at the preopercle being fewer at the angle, larger and wider apart; those on the suprascapular
are not so large, but there are 6 or 7, while in C. parallelus only 4 or 5 are found; scales larger in
C. mexicanus , 5 or 6 fewer in lateral line, and 1 or 2 fewer between the lateral line and second dorsal.

36. Petrometopon cruentatus (Lacepede). Coney; Red Hind.

One specimen, 6.75 inches long, from Puerto Morelos. Head 2.8; depth 3.2; eye 5; snout 4.6;
maxillary 2; mandible 1.75; interorbital 6.75; preorbital 10.5; D. ix, 14; A. in, 8; pectoral 1.6; ventrals
2 ; scales about 12-85-30. Body not so deep as in specimens heretofore described, nor is the supplemental
maxillary so evident.

37. Lutianus griseus (Linnseus). Gray Snapper.

Five specimens, 8.25 to 9.5 inches long, from Mujeres Island and one specimen, 3.5 inches long,
from Cozumel Island. Head 2.7; depth 2.75 to 3; eye 4.3 to 5; snout 2.8 to 3; maxillary 2.5 to 2.8;
mandible 2 to 2.3; interorbital 6 to 6.5; preorbital 6 to 6.5; D. x, 13 or 14; A. in, 8; scales 7-54-13, 7
rows on cheek; width of interorbital and preorbital usually equal; the fourth dorsal spine the longest,
2.75 to 3 in head; second and third anal spines about equal, the second the stouter, 3.3 to 3.67 in head;
pectoral 1.5 to 2 in head; ventral 2 in head.

38. Hsemulon parra (Desmarest).

One specimen, 5.5 inches long, from Cozumel Island.

39. Pomadasis ramosus (Poey).

One specimen, 8.75 inches long, probably from Montecristo. Head 3.3; depth 3.5; eye 4.3;
snout 3 ; maxillary 3.5 ; mandible 3.5 ; interorbital 4 ; preorbital 6 ; scales 6-55-12 ; D. xm, 12 ; longest
dorsal spine 1.8 in head; A. in, 7 ; longest spine 1.5 in head; pectoral and ventral each 1.5 in head.

40. Orthopristis chrysopterus (Linmeus). Pig-fish.

Two specimens, 9.75 and 10 inches long, from Progreso. Head 3 ; depth 2.8 ; eye 5.5 ; snout 2.25 ;
maxillary 3.3 ; mandible 3 ; inter orbital 4.67 ; preorbital 3.6 ; pectoral 1.5 in head; D. xii, 16 or 17;
A. hi, 11 or 12 ; scales 10-65-17. Longest dorsal spine 3 in head ; second anal 6 in head ; base of soft
dorsal 1.5 in spinous dorsal ; highest dorsal spine 3 in head ; pectoral not reaching past tips of ventrals.

41. Xystaema cinereum (Walbaum). Mojarra Blanca.

Two specimens, each 8.5 inches long, from Mujeres Island, and one small example from Cozumel
Island. Head 3.3; depth 2.75; eye 3.25; snout 3.25; maxillary 2.8; mandible 2; interorbital 3;
scales 6-45-10; D. ix, 11; A. in, 6; second dorsal spine longest, 1.8 in head; second anal spine
longest, 2.5 in head; ventral short, not reaching vent, 1.66 in head; pectoral fin slightly longer than
head ; caudal deeply forked, lobes longer than head, scaled ; dorsal and anal fins, when depressed,
entirely concealed in a scaly sheath.

154

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

42. Gerres mexicanus Steindachner. Mexican Mojarra.

The collection contains four specimens of this1 rare species, all from Teapa, which is the type
locality. They range in length from 5.75 to 10 inches. Head 3.3; depth 2.5; eye 3 in small specimens,
3.5 to 3.67 in larger ones; snout 3.25 to 3.67; scales 6-46 to 50-10 or 11; D. ix, 10 or 11; A. nr, 8 or 9.
Body compressed, rhomboidal in form, covered with large smooth scales; back much elevated; lateraj
line continuous, concurrent with the elevated back, beginning on a line with upper margin of eye;
head flat, a slight depression above the eye; mouth moderate, upper jaw very protractile; maxillary
extending to about middle of eye, its length about 2.5 in head, exposed portion oblong, width 2 in
length; preorbital and preopercle serrate; premaxillary groove entirely free from scales; second dorsal
spine strong and long, head contained in it 1.3 times; second anal spine stronger but shorter than second
dorsal, 1.67 in second dorsal; outer edge of dorsal fin forming a deep reentrant angle; anal same
shape as dorsal but smaller; pectoral reaching beyond tips of ventrals in large specimens, not so far in
small ones, its length equaling head.

General color, bluish-silvery above, silvery below; very distinct dark longitudinal lines along the
middle of each row of scales; dorsal, caudal, and anal fins dusky; the margin of dorsal black; a dark
supraorbital spot; pectoral and ventral pale.

43. Menticirrhus littoralis (Holbrook). Surf Whiting.

One specimen, 11.75 inches long, from Progreso. Head 4.5; depth 4.5; eye 7.3; snout 3.25; inter-
orbital 4.75; D. x-i, 24; A. i, 7; scales 8-60-16. This fish has not heretofore been recorded south of
Texas. It is worth noting that the more southern specimens have smaller scales, as noted in another
member of the same family, Aplodinotus grunniens, found at Montecristo.

44. Aplodinotus grunniens Bafinesque. Fresh-water Drum; Gaspergou.

One specimen, 13 inches long, from the Rio Usumacinta at Montecristo. Head 3.5; depth 3.2;
eye 4.67; snout 4; maxillary 2.75; mandible 2.5; interorbital 3.5; preorbital 6.5; scales 9-60-12, counted
from vent to lateral line, and from first dorsal spine to and including lateral line; D. x, 31; A. ii, 7;
longest dorsal spine 2.16 in head; longest anal spine 1.67 in head; pectoral 1 in head. Body oblong;
back much elevated and compressed; profile long, steep, and straight; head slightly compressed; mouth
moderate, subinferior, low; maxillary reaching middle of eye; teeth in villiform bands, outer scarcely
enlarged; lower pharyngeals completely united; gillrakers short, thickish, 6-j-14; preopercle serrated;
snout bluntish; dorsal spines strong and high, a scaly sheath at base of spines, the two dorsals
connected; caudal doubly truncate; second anal spine unusually large and strong; scales rather thin
and deep, the series somewhat oblique, crowded anteriorly.

FISHES EEOM MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA.

155

Color in alcohol, grayish-silvery, dusky above, with indications of two or three darker hands over
|| shoulder; a dark blotch on opercle; dorsal and caudal same as body, the upper half of membrane
j| darker, other fins pale. This fish differs from more northern Specimens in the long, narrow, falcate
pectoral fin.

The finding of this species so far south is a very interesting discovery. Though a fish of wide
j distribution, occurring throughout the Great Lakes region and southward in the larger streams of the
Mississippi Valley and Texas, it has not hitherto been noted from any point south of Matamoras near
|j the mouth of the Rio Grande, from which place Girard, in 1859, described it as a new species under
jl the name Amblodon neglectus. It was obtained by Drs. Jordan and Gilbert in the Red River at
j| Fulton, Ark., and the Colorado River at Austin, and the senior writer of this paper has seen, in
the Houston market, numerous examples from near the mouth of the Trinity River, Texas. He has
| also recorded it from the Neches and Angelina rivers in eastern Texas, and from Lakes Tasse and
{ Peigneur, Louisiana. The Rio Usumacinta is about 600 miles south and 300 miles east of the mouth of
the Rio Grande.

45. Petenia splendida Gunther.

The collections contain 3 specimens of this fish from Montecristo and 1 from Frontera. Head 2.87;
j depth 2.6; eye 5.3; snout 2.8; interorbital 4; maxillary 1.8; mandible 1.5; D. xv, 13; A. v, 10; scales
j 6-38-12, 8 vei’tical or 6 horizontal rows on cheek; longest dorsal spine about 3 in head; longest dorsal
j ray about 1.8; last anal spine 2.75; longest anal ray nearly 2; pectoral 1.5; ventrals 1.6.

Fig. 5. — Petenia splendida Gunther.

Body stout, greatly compressed; dorsal outline strongly arched; snout long and pointed; eye large,
high up; mouth large, lower jaw projecting; maxillary long, clavate, reaching much beyond eye;
preorbital very narrow; caudal peduncle much compressed, width 2.5 in least depth; form and general
appearance very much resembling the crappie ( Pomoxis annularis ); dorsal and anal fins large, tips of
the rays reaching beyond base of caudal; ventrals long and pointed, their tips reaching base of anal.

Color, silvery on side, darker above, body everywhere with numerous small black specks, these
especially plain on side of head and humeral region, the dark on rest of body taking the form of dark
borders on the scales; middle of side, especially in younger individuals, with 6 or 7 dark vertical
blotches appearing as half bars extending from median line of back to below middle of side; the first
of these rather as a dark blotch on upper part of opercle; base of caudal with a large round black spot,
more or less definitely surrounded by a white border, the white in most specimens as a distinct white
border, but in others breaking up and penetrating the black spot; dorsal, anal, and caudal with numerous
small round black spots, plainest and most numerous on the soft dorsal, and arranged more or less
definitely in rows extending downward and backward; pectoral pale; ventrals somewhat dusky.

The above description is based chiefly upon the largest specimen, which is from Montecristo.

156

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

46. Cichlasoma teapae, new species.

Type, No. 50005, U.S.N.M., a mature male 9.5 inches long, collected April 1, 1900, by E. W. Nelson
and E. A. Goldman, in the Bio Teapa, at Teapa, Tabasco, Mexico. Cotype, No. 976, U.S.F.O. reserve,
a well preserved specimen, 8 inches long, collected at the same time and place.

Head 3.75; depth 2.6; eye 5; snout 2; maxillary 4.5; mandible 3.5; interorbital 2.6; preor-
bital 3.2; D. xvn, 13; longest dorsal spine 2.3 in head, ray 1.2; A. vi, 9, longest anal spine 2.2, ray
1.25; pectoral 1.5; ventrals 1.2; caudal 1.5; scales 6-33-12, 5 rows on cheek. Body comparatively
slender, compressed; caudal peduncle much compressed, its least width 3 in its least depth; head
short, compressed, its anterior profile ascending very abruptly from the short, blunt snout; a high
nuchal crest or hump, highest above eyes, the anterior profile thus made concave in front of eyes;
snout short, anterior profile ascending abruptly; mouth small, nearly horizontal; jaws subequal, or
the lower slightly included; teeth strong, canine-like, tips brown; eye rather small, entirely above tip
of snout; dorsal fin beginning over base of pectoral, the spines rather slender and weak; soft rays of
dorsal long, reaching base of caudal; anal spines stronger than those of dorsal, the rays somewhat
longer; caudal fin truncate; pectoral rather broad, not reaching tips of ventrals; ventrals long and

Fig. 6. — Cichlasoma teapse, new species.

l'V<

c , ..

n i V* I

'i i

pointed, extending slightly beyond vent in type, not quite reaching it in cotype; tips of dorsal and
anal extending slightly beyond base of caudal.

Color in alcohol, dusky white, paler on belly, the outer half of exposed portion of each scale
brownish black, the distinction between this and the pale base of the scale being very marked; traces
of four or five dark vertical blotches on side under dorsal fin and one at base of tail; trace of black
blotch under and above tip of pectoral; entire head pale brownish; dorsal, anal, and caudal brownish,
apparently without spots; pectoral and ventrals pale.

This species is related to C. melcmurus, but differs from it in the more slender body and very
different coloration. It also resembles IJeros gibbiceps Steindachner, the type of which also came
from Teapa, in the strong development of the nuchal crest. From that species it differs in the presence
.of a frenum on lower jaw, which makes it a true Cichlasoma, and in the different coloration.

47. Cichlasoma parma (Gunther).

One specimen, 9 inches long, from Frontera, and One 4.13..inches long, from Montecristo. Head
3; depth 2; eye 4.75; snout 2.17; preorbital 3.75; interorbital 2.6; maxillary 3.5; mandible 2.4; D.
xvn, 11; A. vi, 8; scales 6-30-12, 6 rows on cheek; longest dorsal spine 2, ray 1.1; longest anal spine 2,

uS.l->

FISHES FROM MEXICO AMD CENTRAL AMERICA.

157

ray 1.2; pectoral 1.4; ventral 1.1; caudal 1.25. Body oblong-ovate, much compressed; dorsal profile
strongly and regularly arched, slightly concave between anterior part of eyes; snout moderate; mouth
moderate, jaws subequal, maxillary not nearly reaching ej^e; teeth in front of jaws strong, canine-like,
somewhat recurved, tips brown; caudal peduncle much compressed, least width 2.5 in least depth;
fins large; soft lobes of dorsal and anal reaching past middle of caudal; pectoral broad, scarcely reaching
vent; ventrals pointed, reaching base of anal.

Color, pale brownish, side with several more or less indistinct diffuse black blotches; a more or
less ocellate black spot at base of caudal; pectoral pale, other fins dusky, the soft dorsal, anal and
caudal with numerous obscure small black spots.

This species resembles C. melanurus, but seems to differ in the somewhat deeper body, longersnout,
and more spotted coloration on the caudal and soft dorsal and anal.

48. Cichlasoma melanurus (Gunther).

Four specimens, each about 8 inches long, 3 from Montecristo and 1 from Teapa. Head 3; depth
2.2; eye 4.5; snout 2.4; preorbital 3.5; interorbital 2.75; premaxillary 4; mandible 2.75; D. xvii, 11;
A. vi, 8; scales 6-33-12, 5 rows on cheek; longest dorsal spine about 2, ray 1.17; last anal spine 2.17,
ray 1.2; pectoral 1.4; ventral 1, caudal 1. Body rather oblong, compressed, the back considerably
elevated; snout short; anterior profile more or less concave, depending upon the development of the
fatty nuchal hump; eye entirely above level of upper lip; mouth small, slightly oblique, jaws subequal;
anterior teeth in jaws moderate-sized canines, brown at tip.

Color, dirty white, marbled and blotched with darker, the dark tending to gather in irregular
vertical bars; a more or less distinct ocellated black spot at base of caudal, this sometimes obscure;
pectoral pale, other fins more or less dusky ; soft dorsal and anal black at base, the outer part pale.

This species resembles C. parma, but seems to differ from it in the more slender body, the shorter
snout, the more abrupt anterior profile and in the coloration.

c.

49. Heros afiinis Gunther.

One specimen, 3.4 inches long, from Progreso.

50. Heros cyanoguttatus (Baird & Girard).

One example, 8 inches long, from Montecristo. Head 3.2; depth 2; eye 4; snout 2; preorbital 3;

interorbital 2.3; maxillary 3.5; mandible 2.75; D. xvi, 11; A. vi, 9; scales 6-30-11, Grows on cheek;
longest dorsal spine 2.2, ray a little longer than head; last anal spine 2.25, ray 1.2; pectoral 1.2; ventral
1; caudal 1. Body short and deep; head very short, anterior profile very high, gently curved from
tip of snout to origin of dorsal; eye very high; mouth low, small, nearly horizontal; teeth rather small,
canine-like in front of jaws, tijos slightly brown; soft dorsal and anal extending to or beyond middle of
caudal. Color in alcohol, dirty white, blotched and spotted with black, the black most evident below
lateral line; outer half of many of the scales black; middle of side with numerous small, irregular
wavy lines and roundish pale spots, these probably blue in life; pectoral pale; the other fins dusky or
even black, the ventrals and anal blackest.

This species has not hitherto been reported from southern Mexico.

51. Heros urophthalmus Gunther.

Head 2.9; depth 2; eye 4.3 (4 to 4.5); snout 2.6 (2.5 to 3) ; maxillary 2.67; mandible 2.25; inter-
orbital 3; preorbital 4; D. xvi, 10; A. vi, 7 (v to vii, 6 to 8); scales 5-29-10, 5 rows on cheek; longest
dorsal spine 2.25, ray 1.25; last anal spine 2.25, ray 1.4; caudal 1.4; pectoral 1.25; ventral 1.25. Body
short and robust, compressed, the caudal peduncle deep and narrow; back considerably elevated,
anterior profile concave between the eyes; no nuchal crest on any of the specimens examined; head
large, snout rather long; mouth rather large, somewhat oblique; maxillary reaching orbit; jaws equal;
teeth conic, the tips brown; scales large, smooth, lateral line complete, but dropping three rows under
middle of soft dorsal; fins all well developed; pectoral rather long, nearly reaching origin of anal;
ventral reaching past vent; soft portion of anal and dorsal reaching middle of caudal.

Color, dark or brownish, with 7 broad black vertical crossbars, the first extending from in front of
dorsal fin to upper end of gill-opening, the second from under front of dorsal to base of pectoral, the
third and fourth from spinous dorsal to belly between ventrals and anal, the fifth from front of soft
dorsal to front of soft anal, the sixth across base of caudal peduncle, the seventh across middle of
caudal peduncle; a large ocellated black spot at base of caudal fin; pectoral pale, all other fins dark,
sometimes almost black, probably bluish in life.

158

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

This species is well represented in the collection, there being 7 specimens 7 to 8 inches long from
Mujeres, Island, 7 specimens 8 to 9.5 inches long from Montecristo, 7 specimens 6.75 to 8.25 inches long
from Chichen Itza, and 3 specimens 3.5 to 4 inches long from Progreso. It is easy to distinguish the'
specimens from any of these localities. Those from the salt or brackish waters at Mujeres Island are
shorter, plumper, and decidedly darker than those from either of the other localities; the black bars
are very distinct, as is also the caudal ocellus. The specimens from Montecristo are more slender
and the color very much paler; the black vertical bars are in each case quite indistinct, in some
instances being almost or quite lost. The black caudal spot is less black and the white border more
evident. The 7 specimens from the cenote at Chichen Itza are intermediate in color between those
from the two other places, and are considerably more slender. They have an emaciated, starved
appearance, which is doubtless accounted for by the fact that they had been caught from the cenote
and kept in a trough or small artificial inclosure, presumably without sufficient food, for some time
previous to coming into Mr. Nelson’s possession.

Fig. 7. — Iieros urophthalmus Gunther.

Although it is easy to pick out the individual fish from any one of these localities, we do not find
any structural differences of value. The color differences are due simply to the character of the water
in which they were found. The difference in form is simply a question of food supply. Had all
received the same food or in the same amount, these differences probably would not have appeared.

52. Spheroides marmoratus (Ranzani). Swell-fish.

One specimen, 10.75 inches long, from Cozumel Island.

53. Spheroides testudineus (Linnaeus). Swell-fish; Puffer.

One specimen, 9 inches long, from Mujeres Island. Head 3; eye 8; snout 2; interorbital 2.5 in head,
1.3 in snout; D. 8; A. 6. No cirri, no prickles, but many pores over most of anterior half of body.

54. Philypnus dormitor (Lacepede). Guavina.

Two specimens, 6 and 10.5 inches long, from Teapa. Head 3.6; depth 6.6; eye 7.5; snout 3.25;
maxillary 2.33; interorbital 4.87; preorbital 7.5; D. vi, 10 or 11; A. i, 8; scales about 60,-22.

FISHES FROM MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA.

159

55. Dormitator maeulatus (Bloch). Mapiro.

Four small specimens, 1.7 to 2.3 inches long, collected December 25, 1898, by Mr. C. 0. Deam
from a salt-water pool at Salina Cruz.

56. Batrachoides goldmani, new species.

Type, No. 50006, U. S. N. M., a specimen 10.5 inches long, collected May 7, 1900, by E. W. Nelson
and E. A. Goldman, in the Rio Usumacinta, at Montecristo, Tabasco, Mexico.

Head 2.75; depth 5; eye 9; snout 4.25; D. iii, 24; A. 18. Body fusiform ; head very broad, much
depressed; caudal peduncle slender, much compressed; mouth large, lower jaw strongly projecting;
maxillary reaching far beyond eye; teeth small, those on vomer in two irregular rows, about 26 in
number, the inner the larger; palatine teeth about 15 on each side, irregular in size and position; teeth
of lower jaw in 2 large patches in front, the outer somewhat enlarged; eye small; dermal fold on side of
occiput obscure; dermal filaments on jaws and sides of head rather small; operclewith 2 rather strong

divergent spines, but covered by skin; suboperele with 2 similar stronger spines; dorsal spines short
and blunt; soft dorsal long, about half length of body; anal base 2.5 in length; caudal rounded;
pectoral moderate, 1.67 in head; ventrals short, 2 in pectoral.

Color, grayish, with 4 irregular dark cross-blotches, the first under base of pectoral and involving
the 3 free spines; the second under first one- third of dorsal and extending upon it; the third under last
(^ie-third of dorsal and likewise extending upon it; the fourth, a dark bar at base of caudal; top of head
and back olivaceous or dusky, blotched irregularly with dark; under parts of head paler, with dusky
and violet markings; spinous dorsal dark; soft dorsal violet or rusty with 2 large black blotches on base;
a smaller one between them, the fin crossed by irregular short dark and pale lines; anal similar to soft
dorsal; caudal dark, irregularly barred at the base; pectoral dark at base, the rest of fin with irregular
bars of white an,d brownish; axil pale; ventrals somewhat dusky.

This species differs from B. surinamensis in several important particulars, but chiefly in the smaller
size of the anal and dorsal fins. In B. surinamensis the anal has 26 rays and its base is nearly half the
length of the fish, and the dorsal has 29 rays, the base being more than half length of body.

Contributions from the Biological Laboratory of the U. S. Fish Commission,
Woods Hole, Massachusetts.

THE REPRODUCTIVE PERIOD IN THE LOBSTER

By FRANCIS H. HERRICK.

Whenever it is impracticable to determine the reproductive periods in an animal
by watching its behavior, the structure of the ovary will usually furnish a clew. This
is true of the Crustacea, and probably of all other animals. My present aim is not
only to illustrate this fact, but to settle certain questions concerning the breeding
habits of the American lobster about which doubt is still expressed. To state the
question briefly: How often does the adult animal lay eggs? — Every year, once in
two years, or at longer intervals, for these diverse answers have been given by
various writers.

Over ten years ago 1 found that a study of the comparative anatomy of the
ovaries taken at different seasons seemed to prove the impossibility of annual
spawning,* and to demonstrate that eggs were not laid of tenor, as a rule, than every
other year. This was further illustrated in a fuller work published in 1895. f While
confident that these conclusions were reliable, the main evidence in their support was
indirect, as I took pains to state at that time. It is now possible to supplement
these earlier observations by direct experiments upon living animals, and the theory
of biennial spawning is supported by a variety of testimony. The true answer to
the question, How often does the mature lobster lay her eggs? is, therefore, Once
in two years, as a rule.

We will now consider the evidence upon which this conclusion is based. Apart
from the question of the frequency of spawning, the following facts are known: (1)
The majority of the egg -producers for any given year lay at a definite season — namely,
in summer. The breeding or egg-laying- season at Woods Hole, Massachusetts,
reaches its height during the latter part of July. (2) Following ovulation comes a
long period of fosterage, inaccurately called incubation, which lasts from ten to eleven
months, during which the eggs are carried under the “tail” or abdomen. (3) The
hatching of this generation of external eggs follows in Mav or June.

To revert now to the question of the frequency of spawning. Do the berried
females whose young hatch in May, 1902, lay again in July of that year, or not
until July, 1903, or in some subsequent year?

In 1895 I recommended that the direct experiment should be tried of keeping-
female lobsters alive from the period of the hatching of their last broods until the

* Notes on the Habits and Larval Stages of the American Lobster, Johns Hopkins University Bulletin, No. 88, May 1891.
t The American Lobster; A Study of its Habits and Development. U. S. Fish Commission, Washington, 1895.

161

F. C. B. 1901—11

162

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

laying of the next generation of eggs, which upon the theory of biennial spawning
would be due in one year.* Through the courtesy of the United States Fish Com-
mission this experiment was made in 1900-1901. On June 19, 1900, Mr. Vinal
Edwards placed in a floating car thirty-six lobsters from which the old external eggs
had been removed, fed them regularly, and on the first of each month following
caught one of the animals and preserved its ovaries. When the last survivor was
taken, May 1, 1901, just ten months and twelve days from the beginning of the
experiment, not one of the animals had laid eggs. Further, an examination of
the ovaries disclosed no evidence of absorption of the ova or abnormal retardation
of their growth, such as we might look for upon the theory of annual spawning —
nothing in fact but a slow, regular growth of the organs.

2. 3.

Fig. 1. — Initial stage of ovarian egg shortly after egg-laying in the lobster. Radius, 5.7 min.; contents, 0.77
c. c. Animal taken 36 to 48 hours after egg-laying, July 29.

Fig. 2. — Ovarian egg in intermediate stage, one year after egg-laying. Radius, 14.1 mm.; contents, 11.71 c. c.;
average of ten ova from animal taken June 19, and ten ova. taken June 28.

Fig. 3. — Ovarian egg in final stage, when ready to be laid. Radius, 32 mm.; contents, 136.97 c. c.; average
of five unextruded ova from the oviduct of a lobster which had recently laid eggs, August 17.

The testimony which is plainly borne by the structure of the ovaries of these
animals is of much importance, and will be briefly analyzed.

In a single generation of ovarian eggs three stages are entitled to special con-
sideration: (1) The initial stage, when the ova of the preceding generation are laid;
(2) the intermediate stage, when these eggs are hatched; and (3) the final stage, when
the ovarian eggs have reached their full size and are ready to be expelled from the
body. (Figs. 1-3. )f The time interval between stages 1 and 2 is known to be
approximately one year, being measured by the development of the external eggs

*Ibid, p. 72.

fAll the figures in this paper are drawn to the same scale, with an enlargement of 40 diameters. Unless other-
wise stated, the size of each egg figured represents an average of ten of the larger peripheral ova from the ovary of the
same individual, all being subjected to the same treatment. The eggs were rolled under slips of glass and then outlined
with the camera, the measurements being made from the sketches thus obtained. Several measurements of each egg
were required, owing to the distortion which arises from mutual pressure in the ovary.

THE REPRODUCTIVE PERIOD IN THE LOBSTER.

163

which serve as a handy and convenient chronometer. The ratio of growth in stages
1 and 2 can also be determined. The volume of the laid egg in the final stage is also
known, so that it only remains to ascertain the time interval between stages 2 and 3.

Pig. 4. — Series to illustrate the growth of the ovarian eggs during first year after spawning, (a) Ovarian egg
in initial stage as shown in Fig. 1. ( b ) Ovarian egg fifteen days after egg-laying. External eggs borne on
the swimmerets, in “nauplius” stage. Radius, 8.6 mm.; contents, 2.67 c. c., August 6. (c) Ovarian egg

forty-two days after egg extrusion, the age being determined by state of development of attached ova.
R. 12; contents, 7.22 c. c., August 21. ( d ) Ovarian egg, after approximately one year from egg-laying, average
of ten ova from lobster taken June 19, 1900, with external egg ready to hatch. R. 16.2; contents, 17.77 c. c.

The relative volumes of the ovarian eggs at these successive periods are as fol-
lows: 0.77 c. c., 11.71 c. c., 136.07 c. c. Accordingly, during the first, period of
growth the ova increase in volume fifteen times, or the ratio of growth may be
expressed by I : 15. Upon the theory of biennial spawning we should expect the
ratio of growth for the second period to be approximately the same. The values

Fig. 5.— Series illustrating the growth of the ovarian eggs during the second year after spawning, (a) Ova-
rian egg one year ten months after egg-laying. The female from which this ovary was taken was kept
in a floating car from June 19, 1900 (period of hatching), until May 1, 1901. Radius 17.9; contents, 23.97.
( b ) Average size of two fresh ova, taken August 19. These eggs were soon to be laid as shown by their
size, color, and general appearance ot ovary, (c) Unextruded ovarian eggs, taken about three days after
egg-laying. The external eggs were in segmentation. Radius, 27.1; contents, 83.19 c. c.

given above, for which only a relative degree of accuracy can be maintained, give
this ratio as 1 : 12. This result supports the conclusion that the ovarian ova which in
spring following the last ovulation attain the size shown in tig. 2, experience a second
period of rapid growth and are laid during the following summer. This is rendered

164

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

all the more certain from the characteristic appearance of the ovaries of certain
lobsters taken in summer in the very midst of the spawning season. There are
certain infallible signs which prove that the ovarian eggs are due in the current
season, the most conspicuous of which is the color change. From a light pea-green
the ovary becomes a dark olive or rather a greenish-black color, which is often
noticeable at the very beginning of the period of rapid growth, or at least when
many of the ova are scarcely more than £ mm. in diameter (see fig. 5, «), and not due
for some weeks. Then with the further growth of the ova the transparent elastic
wall of the ovary becomes distended and assumes, a beaded appearance. As the
period of ovulation approaches, the ovarian eggs become free, and, if the wall is cut,
flow out in a stream. It is thus evident that during the second year the ovary under-
goes little change with respect to the size of the ova up to the beginning of summer
or of the second period of rapid growth. Further direct observations upon lobsters
kept alive for upwards of ten months after the hatching of a brood demonstrate that
their ovarian eggs attain that size which the theory of biennial spawning demands.

Accordingly, a very slight change from the condition shown in stage 2 ushers in
a second period of rapid growth, and this period, beginning usually sometime in June
or early July, is brought to a close in the course of a few weeks, when the new gen-
eration of eggs is extruded.

The rapidity of growth of the ovarian eggs for a period of six weeks, as meas-
ured from the initial stage bv means of the chronometer provided by the eggs
attached to the swimmerets, is illustrated by figures 4 and 5. The egg more than
doubles in volume during the first fortnight, while in seven weeks the initial volume
has been increased 9.3 times.

While we speak of “stages” and “periods of growth” as a matter of conven-
ience, it is hardly, necessary to bo reminded that every change is gradual, and that
no abrupt transitions are known.

The theory of biennial spawning is supported: (1) By the statistics of the
fishery; (2) by the anatomy of the ovary of the adult female taken at different
seasons; (3) by the ratio of growth of a given generation of ovarian ova for stated
periods; (4) by observation on animals kept alive for long periods; (5) b}r the evi-
dence of the rapid growth of ovarian eggs of spawners for any given year during
the height of the breeding season.

It is to lie expected that the rule to which the majority conforms has many
exceptions in individual cases, for variation is the rule of life. It seems quite probable
that occasionally a lobster may lay eggs in two consecutive -seasons, and that in other
cases the normal biennial. period may be even prolonged, but I have nothing to offer
under this head.

I have shown in an earlier work* that a considerable number of spawners laid
their eggs out of season, as in the fall and winter months. How can we account for
these fall and winter eggs? An experiment tried by Mr. Cunningham, f in the
summer of 1897, on the European lobster, suggests an answer to the question. At

Falmouth, England, five female lobsters bearing external eggs about ready to hatch

* Ibid, p. 44.

f Contributions to the knowledge of the national history of the lobster and crab. Journ. Royal Inst. Cornwall, No.
xliv, 1897.

THE REPRODUCTIVE PERIOD IN THE LOBSTER.

165

were placed in a floating box in summer time. When their ova had all hatched out
these females were kept confined with two males until after October 1-1, when one
was found to have newly spawned. This proves that it is possible for the European
lobster to spawn in two successive years, but it does not prove that this is the com-
mon habit of the species. It also strongly suggests that these October eggs corre-
spond to the “fall” and “winter” eggs occasionally produced in the American
form. By accelerated growth of the ovary, eggs might be laid in fall or winter
when not normally due until the summer following. Under such circumstances the
ovarian eggs would come to maturity in fifteen instead of twenty-three months. It
would be interesting to know when these fall eggs hatch. As already suggested, it is
possible that they do not give rise to the regular summer broods. In the American
species hatching of larva? has been casually detected in November and January.

Professor Prince, who rejects the idea of a biennial spawning period, expresses
surprise that the notion first advanced by persons wholly untrained and unqualified
to form a reliable judgment has received support recently from men of scientific
standing. A statement of mine is given a construction which might seem to support
the idea that eggs are laid in consecutive years. Thus he says that I found in paper-
shell lobsters in July that just after the brood had hatched and the molting was over
the eggs in the ovaries were no less than half the size of mature ova. I speak of the
diameter of these ova which, if by size is implied their volume, is quite a different
matter.*

Again, it is said that I do “ not hesitate to affirm concerning this supposed bien-
nial spawning that to prove it requires only the dissection of a female ivith eggs
ready to hatch in June, July, or August, and it will be found that “the ovarian
eggs have had, in all these cases, from ten months’ to a year’s growth” — the very
point, in fact, being assumed which requires proof.” It would be a work of superero-
gation to go over in detail this ground again, but I can reaffirm the statement with
added emphasis. That the majority of female lobsters which spawn in summer carry
their eggs attached to the swimmerets until these same eg'gs hatch ten or eleven months
later is a proved and settled fact admitting of no doubt. It was proved at Woods
Hole, and the same experiment was conducted on a large scale by Mr. 11. P. Green-
leaf, at Southport, Me. f In July and August, 1892, he placed 300 egg lobsters
in a pound at that place. In April, 1893, he seined and found the females still carry-
ing their eggs; again, he seined the pound in June, when most of the eg’gs were
hatched. Moreover, I have determined the rate of growth of the external eggs from
actual observation, from the time of extrusion to hatching. The external summer
eggs are a pei’fect chronometer for measuring the rate of growth of the ovary during
the first period — that is, during the fall, winter, and spring following any given
ovulation.

“The fact,” says Prince, “that the lobster spawns annually is evidenced by:

(1) The fairly uniform proportion of ‘berried’ females taken season after season.

(2) The occurrence of the berried conditions in all sizes of females from 7 inches to 18
inches. It might be expected that females of certain specified sizes would never or
rarely be found with eggs were biennial spawning a fact. (3) Exact researches upon

*Ibid, p. 152.

•jTbid, p. 58.

166

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

allied decapod crustaceans prove the greater frequency of spawning. (4) The rapid
growth of ovarian eggs so familiar to embryologists is unfavorable to the biennial
theory.”

The last two clauses (3 and 1) may be ruled out because this is a matter of fact
concerning a specific animal, not a question of analogy with what may or may not
occur with other species.

The first clause (1) is somewhat obscure. So far as my observations at Woods
Hole have gone, the proportion of berried to adult females without berries is fairly
uniform— that is, about one-half the adult females captured in winter and spring
are without eggs. Whether this is what Professor Prince means or not, the fact is
fatal to the theory of annual spawning. For, upon this hypothesis, during late
winter or spring every female of breeding age should carry eggs, excepting here and
there a solitary individual which had postponed egg-laying to an extraordinarily late
period, or which had met with an accident and lost her cargo. I have never found a
single instance of egg-laying in spring. On the other hand, the records of the catches
made under my directions by the United States Fish Commission at Woods Hole
confirm the statement just made and support the biennial theory of spawning, the
proof of which has been given. Thus, in the month of March, 1894, 71 female lobsters
10 inches or more in length were captured in Woods Hole Harbor. Of these, only
9 bore external eggs. How are facts of which this is a sample to be explained on
the theory of annual spawning, according to which all such animals should have borne
eggs, or, at least, all but a very few which may not have reached maturity? The
second statement -“the occurrence of the berried conditions in all sizes of females,
from 7 inches to 18 inches,” has no bearing on the question of frequency of spawning,
since there is no fixed limit at which lobsters mature.* Again, the remark “it might
be expected that females of certain specified sizes would never or rarely be found
with eggs were biennial spawning a fact,” is open to the same objection. New female
recruits, of all sizes from 8 inches up, come to their first spawning period every year,
and would do so whatever the length of the reproductive cycle.

In conclusion I wish to quote the brief summary which was placed under the
description of a drawing of the ovary, which I believe gives a true picture of the
growth of the ovarian eggs: “We thus see that a generation of ovarian ova grow
very rapidly during the first summer following the last ovulation. They then enter
upon a period of quiescence, growing but slowly, like the external embryos during
the succeeding winter. At the beginning of the third summer after ovulation this
generation of eggs is ready for extrusion. That the spawning periods are thus two
years apart is a valid inference drawn from the study of the anatomy of the repro-
ductive organs.” f

*Ibid, p. 68.

f Ibid, p. 246.

Bull. U. S. F. C. 1901. (To face page 167.)

Plate 22.

CAKES OF DRIED " S I N ARAPAN ” (MISTICHTHYS LUZONENSIS). NATURAL SIZE.
Prepared by the natives of Luzon.

NOTES ON FIVE FOOD-FISHES OF LAKE BUHI, LUZON, PHILIPPINE

ISLANDS.

By HUGH M. SMITH.

As a meager contribution to the ichthyology of the Philippine Islands, the fol-
lowing notes on a few specimens of fishes recently sent to the United States Commission
of Fish and Fisheries are offered. The fish were collected in Lake Buhi, province of
Camarines Sur, Luzon, in July, 1901, by Dr. F. W. Richardson, contract surgeon,
U. S. Army, and forwarded through the Surgeon-General’s Office. Dr. George A.
Zeller, acting assistant surgeon, U. S. Army, had previously sent from Lake Buhi
specimens of dried fish-cakes made by the natives.

Lake Buhi is described as a beautiful mountain lake, 3 miles wide and 6 miles
long, and 500 to 1,000 feet above the sea. It is reputed to be very deep, and is said
to have been formed by a volcanic upheaval before the Spanish occupation, when one
side of Mount Iriga was blown out, and hills of lava were scattered for miles to the
southeast of the mountain.

All of the species hereafter referred to are used for food. The size of some of
them indicates that nothing is too small or insignificant for the Filipinos to eat. In
Lake Buhi very few fish are caught with hook and line, the native appliances being
a fine-meshed net used as a seine and a trap made of bamboo.

Mistichthys luzonensis II. M. Smith. “ Smarapan.”

In an article {Science, January 3, 1902) entitled “The Smallest Known Vertebrate,” the writer
gave a preliminary notice and brief description of this new genus and species of goby from Lake Buhi.
The genus Mistichthys {/ isidro s, the smallest; lyObs, fish) may be diagnosed as follows:

Body elongate, compressed. Head rather large. Dorsal fins widely separated, the anterior very
low, containing 3 weak spines joined by a membrane, the posterior high, with 8 or 9 branched rays;
anal fin similar to soft dorsal; pectorals long and rounded; ventrals i, 5, coalescent, not adnate to
abdomen; caudal well developed, bluntly pointed. A single series of rather long, curved conical teeth
in each jaw. Scales large, ctenoid. Gill membranes joined to isthmus. A large genital papilla in
each sex. Coloration plain. Size minute, the males rather smaller than females.

Mistichthys luzonensis may be more particularly described as follows:

Form elongated, compressed, tapering but slightly to the rather wide caudal peduncle. Depth of
body equals about one-fourth total length, the female being slightly deeper than the male. Head
large, its length contained 3.3 times in body; mouth large, oblique, the maxillary extending to a
point under anterior border of pupil; lower jaw slightly longer than upper, the chin projecting; teeth
short and numerous, arranged in a single row in each jaw; eye large, 3.3 in head; snout blunt, two-
thirds diameter of eye; interorbital space about one-half eye; branchial membranes not united and
joined to the isthmus. The dorsal fins are separated by an interval rather less than half the head; the
anterior consists of 3 weak spine's and a rudiment adnate to the first spine, and is very low, its height
being less than half diameter of eye; the second dorsal contains 8 or 9 rays, of which the posterior

167

168

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

are longest, and is comparatively high, the longest rays being nearly two-thirds length of head
and 5 times length of dorsal spines; the origin of anterior dorsal is 0.4 distance from end of snout to
base of caudal, that of the posterior dorsal is 0.4 distance from base of caudal to end of snout, and over
origin of anal. Anal fin large, of 11 branched rays of nearly equal length, rather less than height of
second dorsal. Pectorals two-thirds as long as head, rounded, with broad base, the central rays
extending as far as vent; rays 15. Ventrals i, 5, short, coalescent, not adnate to abdomen. Caudal
large, central rays produced, its length equal to five-sixths of head. Genital papilla in the male
slender, tapering, longer than first, anal ray and 1.5 times diameter of eye; that in the female half as
long and twice as broad as in the male. Scales large, strongly ctenoid, 23 or 24 in lengthwise series
and 6 in transverse series.

Colors: In life, apparently almost transparent; muzzle black; a black line at base of anal; back
and head sparsely spotted with black; a narrow black stripe under eye.

Average length about 12.5 mm., the males somewhat smaller than the females.

Types (Nos. 50303 and 50304, U. S. National Museum), collected in Lake Buhi, Luzon, Philippine
Islands, July 5, 1901, by I>r. F. W. Richardson.

This is apparently the smallest known species of fish. The average length of females among the
specimens at hand is 13.5 mm., the minimum under 12 mm. The average length of males is 12.5 mm.,
the minimum under 10 mm., and the maximum 13.5 mm. The average length of 50 specimens taken
at random, both sexes about equally represented, was 12.9 mm.

That these specimens are mature is shown by the presence of ripe ovarian eggs and by the extru-
sion of perfect eggs when the fish were placed in the preserving fluid. The average diameter of the
extruded eggs is 0.5 mm.

The shape of the genital papillje suggests that the eggs are deposited in crevices or under objects,
and there fertilized.

Prof. H. V. Wilson, of the University of North Carolina, has examined this fish with reference to
its eggs, and communicates the following notes thereon:

“The ripe ovarian egg is uniformly filled with granular yolk. It is of a rounded shape, frequently
elliptical in outline. It lies inside a comparatively thick shell, which has an irregularly polyhedral
shape. Oiie facet of the shell is convex and bears a small, rounded depression, from which radiate

NOTES ON FIVE FOOD-FISHES OF LAKE BUHI.

dichotomousl y branching libers, which cover all facets of the shell except the one opposite the depression.
The libers adhere closely to the surface of the shell and may be continuous with it. Around the
margin of the bare surface the fibers may extend beyond the egg, lying in an intricately coiled condition
in the spaces between the eggs. The fibers are probably to be looked on as ridges of the eggshell
which become free with continued growth.

“The ripe eggs are packed together closely in the ovary, adhering by their flattened surfaces.
Between and beneath them numerous small ovarian ova, with relatively large nucleus and nucleolus,
are present. Such small ova have not yet developed a shell. I believe the ripe eggs are arranged in a
single layer around the axial cavity of the ovary, with the convex depression-bearing surfaces facing
the cavity. The fibers or filaments suggest, of course, that the egg is attached to something during its
development.

“In the discharged eggs examined the filaments project from one side in the form of a tuft. No
signs of segmentation could be made out in surface view of eggs in clove-oil, and yet the shape of the
blastoderm was so embryo-like that I thought it necessary to section a mass of the eggs taken directly
from the fish. The sections permit the blastoderm to be seen distinctly as well as the yolk. The
blastoderm is much thicker on one surface of the yolk than on the opposite surface, but is quite
unsegmented. I have examined a large number and find no trace of segmentation.

“The highly developed egg-membrane, with its filaments, is certainly a very unusual feature. I
know of no similar case, but I have not at hand literature which would enable me to say whether or
not such a membrane has been described. The disk-like area from which the filaments radiate is
exceedingly thin in the center, but is not perforated. I can not make out a micropyle. The appear-
ance of several eggs indicates that when the egg is laid an outer membrane, with the filaments; is split
and recurved, leaving the egg surrounded by a thin membrane, at some point of which the micropyle
should be.

“There is certainly nothing in the appearance of the eggs (egg-membrane, yolk, blastoderm) to
suggest that they develop in the mother. The complicated egg-membrane, on the contrary, strongly
suggests that the egg develops outside the mother, attached by filaments to some body. All this is, of
course, negative evidence.”

An interesting fact regarding this species is that it is a food-fish of considerable importance. In
forwarding samples of the fish as dried for food, Dr. Zeller wrote as follows:

1 1 1 inclose herewith samples of a strange article of diet greatly relished by the Bicols, among
whom I have been stationed for the past eighteen months. Rice and fish are the staple articles of
diet for most Filipinos, and in the provinces of the Camarines there i§ little variation from these two.
Fishes of every size and many varieties are prepared in every conceivable form, but the samples
inclosed are unique in that they are found here and nowhere else. * * * Many varieties of fish
abound in the lake, but by far the most numerous are these minute specimens. They are called in the
native Bicol tongue ‘sinarapan,’ and when dried in the sun on a leaf are called ‘badi.’ They are caught
by a large sheet of close web, which is dipped under wherever a school congregates. They are put
into tightly woven baskets from which the water soon drains, leaving a compact mass of fish. They
are not minnows or immature fish. They are adults and attain no greater size. The natives buy them
eagerly; and when the little fleet of fishermen return from their morning’s quest and place their bas-
kets upon the ground on the market place, thej^ are instantly surrounded by a crowd of waiting children
who, armed with every sort of dish, are anxious to take home the family meal. They bring three or
four potato tubers, a handful or two of rice, or a few copper pennies, and in exchange receive about a
pint of fish. In the kitchen the fish are made up with peppers or other spiced herbs, and they do not
taste bad. The soldiers have become quite fond of this food, and liberally patronize the little native
restaurants where it is served.”

Gobius sternbergi, new species.

Form elongate, rather robust, slightly compressed, the depth contained 4 times in length. Head
rather large, its length about one-third total length of body; mouth rather small, terminal, nearly
horizontal, the maxillary not extending to vertical from anterior edge of pupil; snout short and very
blunt, about three-fourths diameter of eye; eye large, superior, bulging, less than 4 in head; interorbital
one-half eye. Teeth in upper jaw in about 3 irregular rows, of which the outer row contains the largest
teeth; teeth in lower jaw in a band, some larger than others and canine-like. Branchial membranes
broadly united to the isthmus. D. v, 8; A. 8; caudal pointed; ventrals long, extending nearly or

170

BULLETIN OE THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

quite to vent; pectorals long, the central rays produced and extending opposite origin of second dorsal.
Scales large, those on sides, abdomen, and most of back finely ctenoid, those on anterior part of back
mostly cycloid; posterior edge of scales angular; opercle, preopercle, and top of head as far forward
as interorbital space covered with large cycloid scales; scales in lateral series 25 or 26, in transverse
series 8; 12 scales before anterior dorsal.

Colors: Head, sides, and back dusky, the under parts white. Sides marked by about a dozen short,
irregular, vertical, blackish blotches, a prominent one above base of pectorals; muzzle dark; a dark
area on opercle; anterior dorsal pale at base, blackish distall y; second dorsal irregularly marked with
dark stripes; anal and caudal dusky; pectorals and ventrals plain.

Types (No. 50536, U. S. National Museum), 6 specimens 20 to 27 mm. long, collected in Lake
Buhi, Philippine Islands, by Dr. F. W. Richardson, July 5, 1901.

This species seems to agree with none of the 20 or more species of Gobius already described from
the Philippine Islands. It is named for Dr. George M. Sternberg, Surgeon-General of the United
States Army.

Gobius sternbergi, new species.

Hemirhamphus cotnog1, new species. Half-beak; “Cotnog."

Body rather slender, the depth contained 8 times in length (from end of upper jaw to caudal base) ;
sides somewhat compressed, vertical; thickness of body one-half less than depth; length of head (with
lower jaw) 2.3 in total length of body; length of lower jaw (beyond extremity of upper jaw) rather
greater than remainder of head and 4.4 in body; premaxillaries broader than long, their length less
than eye; eye large, 1.6 in postorbital space; top of head Hat; interorbital 1.2 width of eye. Dorsal
very low, the longest of the 12 rays not exceeding eye; dorsal origin slightly in advance of anal; anal
very short, but much higher than dorsal; 13 anal rays, the first short, the next 4 long and broad, the
middle rays shorter than the last, the free margin of the fin incised and nearly vertical ; caudal rounded;
ventrals very short, less than eye, much nearer to base of caudal than to axil of pectorals; length of
pectorals slightly exceeding depth of body. Scales 65 in lengthwise series, about 9 rows between
dorsal and anal.

Colors (in formalin): Greenish above, the scales with dark edges; white below; a silvery lateral
stripe increasing in width from before backward; dorsal dusky, other fins plain; lower jaw black.

Type (No. 50537, U. S. National Museum), a specimen 106 mm. long, collected in Lake Buhi,
July 5, 1901.

The writer hesitates to add another species of half-beak to the already large number of real and
nominal forms recorded from oriental waters, but is unable to make other disposition of the specimen
in hand. The combination of reduced number of dorsal and anal rays, small scales, and rounded tail
with the modified anal rays suffices to distinguish it.

This fish is called “cotnog” in the Bicol tongue, and is said to attain a weight of 11 to 2 pounds
in Lake Buhi.

Anabas scandens (Ilaldorf). Climbing Perch; “Allas”; “ Poyo.”

Two young examples, 4 and 4.5 cm. long, are referable to this species. Head 2.5 in length; depth
2.5 in length; D. xix, 8 and xvm, 9; A. x, 9 and xi, 9; scales 31. Color greenish, lighter below; body

NOTES ON FIVE FOOD-FISHES OF LAKE BUHI.

171

marked by about 12 narrow, dark vertical stripes; a blackish spot at base of caudal surrounded by
a lighter area. The deriticulations on the preorbital are concealed by a fold of skin, and the spines
on the opercle are less numerous and less strongly developed than in a specimen of similar size in the
U. S. National Museum from Ceylon and than in examples figured by Bleeker and Day, but in other
respects these specimens conform with the descriptions of - I. scanclens.

Dr. Richardson states that this fish is known as “attas” at Buhi and as “poyo” in other Bicol
towns. It is reported to attain a weight of 1J to 2 pounds. If this is correct, the Lake Buhi fish is
larger than the specimens recorded from any other waters.

This is the celebrated climbing perch of the fresh waters of India, China, and the East Indies.
By means of a freely movable opercle, it is enabled to ascend trees for a distance of 5 to 7 feet; and the
possession of an accessory breathing apparatus makes it adapted to both an aquatic and a terrestrial
existence. The fish is said to die when prevented from exercising its aerial respiration.

The climbing fish is highly esteemed for food, and in India is extensively employed for stocking
ponds.

Ophiocephalus striatus Bloch. “ Ovoon”; “ Terehog” ; “ Tnlosog.”

Two young specimens, 73 and 87 mm. long, respectively, were received. Head 3 in length; depth
6 in length; eye 7 in head, 1.5 in snout; dorsal 44; anal 26; scales 53-15.

According to Dr. F. W. Richardson, this fish in Lake Buhi attains a weight of 5 pounds and is
called by the Bicols “ovoon” when young, and “terehog” or “talosog” when grown. It is an
important food-fish of the lake, probably exceeded in importance only b}^ the “sinarapan.”

This species is known from other parts of the Philippine Islands, and is widely distributed in the
fresh waters of China, Burma, and India. According to Day (Fishes of India), it attains a length of
3 feet or more, takes a bait, especially a frog, very readily, and is said to rise to a salmon fly. Day
gives the following general information about the Ophiocephaliclue, or serpent-headed fishes:

The Ophioceplialidx, having hollow cavities in their heads and an amphibious mode of res pi ration,
are able to exist for lengthened periods out of their native element and can travel some distance over
the ground, especially when moist. They possess an accessory cavity to the gills, and are able to
respire direct from the atmosphere. Jugglers both in India and China exhibit these fishes walking
on the land, and children amuse themselves by making them crawl along. “In China they are often
carried alive in pails of water and slices are cut for sale as wanted, the fish selling dear whilst it retains
life, w'hile what remains after death is considered as of little value.” Owing to the breadth of their
bodies, they are able to progress in a serpentine manner, chiefly by means of their pectoral and caudal
fins, first one of the former being advanced and then its fellowT. They are exceedingly difficult to
retain in aquaria, unless the top is covered over, as otherwise they manage to escape and proceed on
their travels. These fishes appear to be .monogamous, some breeding in grassy swamps or the edges
of tanks; some in wells or stone-margined receptacles for water, and others again in holes in the
rivers’ banks. When very young the fry of all these species keep with and are defended by their
parents, but as soon as they are sufficiently strong to capture prey for themselves, they are driven
away to seek their own subsistence; those which are too obstinate to leave being, it is believed, eaten
by their progenitors. The varieties which live in tanks and swamps delight in residing at their
shallow and grassy edges, so that they can take in with ease their modicum of air for the purpose of
breathing, or capture any frog that may incautiously venture too close to their lair. These fishes
appear to be well adapted for pisciculture, as some grow to a large size, whilst all are good eating.
The smallest, 0. gachua, attains about a foot in length and thrives in almost any situation. They are
rather voracious, but appear to consider a frog, mouse, or rat as luscious a morsel as a fellow fish.
They assist in keeping water pure by destroying either animal or vegetable substances which may
come in their way.

i

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1900 AND 1901.

BY

JEFFERSON K . MOSER,

Commander , United States Navy.

173

Bull. U. S. F. C. 1901. (To face page 175.)

F’late !.

HUMPBACK SALMON ASCENDING LOW FALLS, LITNIK STREAM, AFOGNAK ISLAND.

SALMON INVESTIGATIONS OF THE STEAMER ALBATROSS IN THE

SUMMER OE 1900.

By JEFFERSON F. MOSER,
Commander , United Slates Navy , Commanding.

INTRODUCTION.

The main features of the work of the Albatross during the summer of 1900 were
a continuation of the exploration and examination of the stream and lake systems of
Alaska, their general features and characteristics so far as they relate to salmon and
other fishes, spawning-grounds, condition and nature of the water, character of shores
and vegetation, the species of salmon entering and their movements, the time and
duration of runs, the size and abundance of fish, waste species, signs and causes of
depletion, the mortality of different species on the spawning-grounds, natural and
artificial obstructions to the passage of fish, fishing methods and their relation to the
maintenance of supply, and data relating to conditions for hatcheries. At the can-
neries statistics were obtained. of the streams fished by them, and detailed statistics
relating to the men, vessels, boats, and apparatus employed in the fisheries, together
with the catch and pack of the various species forTho years 1898, 1899, and 1900.
The photographic and hydrographic works, so far as they relate to the subject, were
also continued.

Except in the interior waters of southeastern Alaska, the salmon streams lie in
unsurveyed localities usually dangerous to approach without local knowledge, and,
while we were able when detained in port to add something to the hydrographic
information bv surveys and sailing directions, yet but little was accomplished in a
field where much remains to be done.

Before proceeding with my report, 1 desire to express my appreciation of the
work performed by the officers of the Albatross and the courtesies extended by those
interested in the salmon fisheries. Lieut. Hugh Rodman, U. S. N., besides his
duties as executive and navigating officer, was indefatigable in conducting the stream
and lake explorations and in making the local surveys. Ensigns A. J. Hepburn,
U. S. N., and Cyrus R. Miller, U. S. N., assisted in the field work. Ensign Clarence
S. Kempff, U. S. N. , besides his duties in charge of the engineer’s department, made
a number of the stream and lake examinations and assisted on the surveys. Mr.
H. C. Fassett assisted me generally in the collection of data, and had charge of all
the photography, in which he rendered valuable service. All performed their duties
to my entire satisfaction.

175

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

176

Mj thanks are due to the superintendents of all the canneries we visited for the
courteous manner in which we were everywhere received and for the assistance they
offered. No obstacles were placed in our way, and, while they did not volunteer to
tell us all they knew about the business, they cheerfully answered all the questions of
which they had any knowledge.

As this report will be an addition or appendix to my report on the same subject,
published under the title The Salmon and Salmon Fisheries of Alaska, 1899, it is
unnecessary to repeat here the subjects therein treated, and which remain unchanged.
Reference is therefore made to that report for the introductory remarks, the district
divisions, the manner of conducting our investigations and the difficulties encountered,
the species of salmon and their various names, the relative importance of the species,
the salmon runs, spawning habits and enemies; the history of the canneries and the
canning industry; salteries, fishery and cannery methods; the fisheries, labor, weight
of fish, labels and brands, market prices, cans and boxes, the depletion of streams,
barricades, and salmon laws; relation of the salmon fisheries to the Indian; complete
statistics, and descriptions of all the canneries and streams visited from Dixon
Entrance to Bering Sea.

The first day of the fiscal year found the Albatross at Unalaska, having arrived
there June 29, via Japan and Kamchatka, from a cruise of scientific investigation in
the South Pacific Ocean.

On account of the rush to the gold fields at Cape Nome, we had to await our turn
to coal, finishing on the evening of July 3, when we entered Bering Sea once more
and laid the course for Bristol Bay.

The following was our itinerary during the investigation:

Bering Sea district:

Left Unalaska July 3.

Bristol Bay, July 5-19.

Unalaska, July 21-24.

Kadiak and Chignik district:

Chignik Bay, July 28-29. ,

Alitak Bay, July 30-August 7.

Karluk, August 7-9.

Uyak, August 9-11.

Afognak, August 11-16.

Southeast Alaska district:

Sitka, August 19-21.

Killisnoo, August 21-22.

Pyramid Harbor, August 22-23.

Chilkoot Inlet, August 23-25.

Taku Inlet, August 25-26.

Taku Harbor, August 26-27.

Port Snettisham, August 27.

South Bay of Pillars, August 28-September 2.
Shipley Bay, September 2-4.

Southeast Alaska district— Continued.

Duncan Canal, September 5-8.

Point Hightield, September 8-10.

McHenry Inlet, September 10-12.

Zimovia Strait, September 12-13.

Union Bay, September 13-14.

Ward Cove, September 14-15.

Loring, September 15-17.

Yes Bay, September 17-21.

Karta Bay, September 21-23.

Loring, September 23-24.

Ketchikan, September 24.

Boca de Quadra, September 24-25.

Metlakahtla, September 25-27.

Comox, British Columbia, October 2-3.

Tacoma, Washington, October 4-17.
Quartermaster Harbor, Washington, October 17-21
Comox, British Columbia, October 24-26.
Sausalito, Cal., October 30.

/

NATIVE VILLAGE AND UKALA RACKS, ON BLUFF TO WESTWARD OF ARCTIC PACKING COMPANY (A, P. A.), NAKNEK RIVER.

Bull. U. S. F. C. 1901. (To face page 176.)

Plate II

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1900.

177

BRISTOL BAY DISTRICT.

TOPOGRAPHIC AND GEOGRAPHIC FEATURES.

The commercial .salmon fisheries included in the division laid out in my pre-
vious report as the Bering Sea district are confined entirely to Bristol Bay, and if
the wide limits ascribed by some to this bay are accepted, the canneries and fisheries
are all in the northeast section or on the rivers that empty there. One authority
states that “Bristol Bay maybe said to include all that part of Bering Sea lying
east of a line drawn from the northwest cape of Unimak Island to the Ivuskokwim
River.” In my opinion, a better western boundary, topographically, would be a
line from Port Moller to Cape Newenham.

The commercial salmon fisheries of this district are on the Ugashik, Egegak,
Naknek, Kvichak, Nushagak, and Wood rivers, and their sea approaches. These
rivers are all large, with large lake sources, and, except Wood River, drain the
western slopes of the mountain range that traverses the Alaska Peninsula and
extends along the western border of Cook Inlet.

This mountain range lies close along the eastern side of the peninsula, and at
intervals it rises into volcanic peaks of considerable height, some of which, by^ their
smoky wreaths, still indicate activity. The greater part of the ridge is snow-
covered, and its northern extension forms the mountain masses which extend along
the western side of Cook Inlet, where the volcanoes Ilianma (12,000 feet) and
Redoubt (11,000 feet) rise conspicuously above the lower masses.

This ridge is not altogether continuous; there are a few breaks which admit of
portage, and as the end of the peninsula is reached there are a number of depressions.
It is said that formerly sea-otter hunters from Bristol Bay, by ascending the Kvichak
River to Lake Ilianma, made a portage to Kamyshak Bay. In the early da}7s the
Russian promyshleniks found their way from Kadiak Island to Bristol Bay, using the
pass across the peninsula from Katmai to the headwaters of the Naknek.

For many years the Russian - American Company transported their merchandise
across from Katmai, thus reaching the Bristol Bay, Nushagak, Yukon, and St. Michael
regions. At Chignik there is a well-known portage, and beyond to the westward
there are several which are still used. The mountain range shows two distinct
benches of upheaval, and the theory has been advanced that in former ages, not very
remote geologically, these depressions were submerged, forming waterways into
Bering Sea, and the present ridge was then broken into islands, of which the present
Aleutian chain is a continuation.

As the divide of this ridge lies close to the eastern shore, the watersheds on that
side are short, the streams are numerous and small, and there are no great lakes and
rivers. At Chignik, where probably the largest river on the eastern side has its
outlet, there is a depression in the mountain chain, and the lakes in which the river
has its source lie in a plain beyond, to the westward of the mountain masses. It is
here that the portage referred to exists. It. extends from the Chignik lakes to a
stream which empties into Bering Sea near Port Hadden.

On the western slope of the peninsula there is a different topographical condition.
The shore generally is low, with here and there an isolated mountain or projecting

F. C. B. 1901—12

178

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

spur, and in the vicinity of the larger rivers, where the peninsula expands to a
width of from 60 to 90 miles, the mountains in the distance are visible only on a clear
day. Along this shore there is an occasional high bluff which marks the sea terminus
of a ridge of hills.

From the western shore to the mountains the country is a gradually ascending,
rolling plain, hillocky in places, dotted with lakes fed by the glaciers and melting
snows in the east, with much marshy tundra cut up by streams and mud sloughs.

It is on this western watershed of the Alaska Peninsula that the large lakes,
Ugashik, Becharof, llliak, Naknek, and, on the northern extension, lliamna and
Clark, are situated. These form the sources of the rivers on which the salmon
fisheries in Bristol Ba}7 are located.

Referring to the topographical features of the Bering Sea district, the Russian
missionary, Veniaminof, says:

Slight elevations can be found along the whole extent of the American coast of Bering Sea; they
are in nearly all cases connected with the mountains in the interior. If the observer ascends to a
height the country appears to him like a heaving ocean suddenly become stationary, with its waves
transformed into sand and mud; these waves are now covered with vegetation, but their outlines are
still very striking. In the midst of this dry sea we find occasionally high, rocky islands entirely
separate< 1 from the neighboring hills.

Of the interior of this country no exact information is at hand, and it still awaits
the intelligent explorer. But little information can be obtained from the natives,
and not much more from the prospector who occasionally finds his wa}r into the
interior, or the worthless squaw man, who at times is infused with sufficient energy
to look for game.

The population is not large and consists of Innuits or Eskimos, who live in small
villages located on high ground, on hills or bluffs bordering a river or lake. They
subsist by hunting and fishing, and, when located near a cannery, earn good wages,
if they desire to work. Their food is largely salmon, though seal, beluga, and walrus
also enter their diet when they can be obtained, and occasionally a deer or moose is
taken. Their food is all preferred “high” — not high in the sense of the epicure, but
rotten; rancid oil is generally cooked with it or used for sauce. The decaying carcass
of a whale cast on the beach attracts the natives for many miles, and a grand feast is held
over it; rotten salmon heads are a bonne bouche. They are very filthy in their habits
and live in very primitive dwellings, made by forming a shallow circular excavation
and erecting over it a framework of driftwood, or whale ribs, with double walls
filled with earth and stones and covered over with sod. A small aperture is left in
the apex for the escape of smoke, though many of their dwellings now have side
openings with a small window. The outside, or the roof, as it were (for all above
ground is rounded in shape), is a gathering place for children and dogs, and is sur-
rounded by mud and offal. The entrance is a low square hole, to enter through
which one must stoop very low, or crawl, and then pass through a gallery or tunnel
into the inner chamber, which is irregular in shape and from 10 to 15 feet in diameter.

In the center, and under the smoke opening, is the fireplace, and along the walls
are couches of skins or mats slightly elevated above the floor; frequently there are
several of these dwellings connected by tunnels, all having one common entrance.
Storehouses are built on driftwood posts 4 or 5 feet from the ground; in these the

Bull. U. S. F. C. 1901. (To face page 1 78.) PLATE III.

NATIVE BARABARA (SOD HOUSE) AND STORE HOUSE, NEAR NAKNEK RIVER.

BIDARKA AND KAYAK ON BEACH, UGASHIK RIVER.

UKALA RACKS NEAR CANNERY OF ARCTIC PACKING COMPANY (A. P. A.), NAKNEK RIVER.
On the left is a typical diminutive tent, such as is used by the Bering Sea Eskimos and Aleuts.

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1900.

179

winter supply of ukala is kept, inaccessible to dogs, foxes, and wolves. Salmon are
dried in large numbers to make ukala for the winter supply.

In the interior, where it is obtainable, timber enters largely into the construction
of the house. Near trading posts the dress is a combination of native and European,
though many still wear skin coats (parkas) and skin trousers and boots. They travel
by land with dog teams, and by water in skin boats (kayaks and bidarkas).

The Bristol Bay salmon rivers, of which we are now treating, are all large and
How great volumes of water. The banks are frequently low, cut by numerous mud
sloughs, in places flooded at very high water, and at low water uncovering a beach of
mud on which a landing can not always be made. The rolling tundra through which
these rivers flow looks like a grass-covered plain, but it is all cut up into hillocks and
hollows, marshes and ponds, making it generally impassable, except during the winter.
Throughout this section travel, except by boat, must be confined to the winter months,
when everything is frozen solid. The country is treeless. A belt of timber stretches
from the northward to Lake Becharof and then makes a wide circuit and impinges on
the Nushagak. The rivers widen considerably at the mouth, forming broad, shallow
bays, though still called rivers at the canneries. As there is a rise and fall of the tide
of from 18 to 24 feet, the change in the appearance of the tidal area at high and at
low water is striking, for at high water the lower courses are filled to the banks,
forming rivers as wide or wider than the Mississippi, while at low water they are
confined to narrow, shallow channels running between uncovered shoals and banks.
This subject will be referred to later under the heads of the several rivers.

As there seems to be some confusion in the geographical division of some of the
rivers and bays, it is deemed advisable to state here the application of certain names
in this report.

By some authorities the large arm of Bristol Bay, which receives the waters of
the Nushagak and Wood rivers, is called the Lower Nushagak River. It is about 30
miles in length, 13 miles in breadth at the seaward entrance, and 4 miles at the head,
and does not in any way partake of the nature of a river. Therefore this body of
water, opening into Bristol Bay between Protection Point and Etolin Point and
extending northward to the junction of the Nushagak and Wood rivers, will be
called in this report Nushagak Bay, and the two rivers named will be regarded as
emptying into the head of that bay.

The next great arm of Bristol Bay to the eastward of Etolin Point and extend-
ing to the northeastward will be called Kvichak Bay, for the seaward boundary of
which will be taken a line from the southern point of entrance of the Egegak River
to Etolin Point, and for the northern extreme a point above Koggiung, where the
Kvichak River is confined in banks within the usual acceptation of that term. The
Lockenuck, Kvichak, Naknek, and Egegak rivers will be considered as entering
Kvichak Bay.

EARLY RECORDS OF SALMON FISHERIES IN BRISTOL BAY.

The history of the salmon fisheries of Bristol Bay for commercial purposes is
given under the several cannery headings. The earliest record in the history is the
salting of salmon on the Nushagak by the schooner Neptune in 1883, and the erection
of cannery buildings that year for the Arctic Packing Company, which made a trial

180

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

pack of 400 cases the year following (1884). It is noticed, however, that Petroff, in
the census report of 1880, states:

The salmon family, the great feeder of all the Alaskan people, frequents in astonishing numbers
the Nushagak and other streams emptying into Bristol Bay. The facilities for building traps and
weirs are also extraordinary, and American fishermen have for some years been engaged here every
season in reaping a rich harvest and shipping the fish, salted in barrels, to market. Hundreds of barrels
have been filled with a single clean up of a trap. The only drawback to this business is the short
period over which the run extends, necessitating the employment of a very large number of hands
while it lasts. * * * Exports from this section have thus far been limited to from 800 to 1,200
barrels of salted salmon per annum from the Nushagak River.

It is probable that this latter reference was to the salting done by traders on a
limited scale. The Alaska Commercial Company, or their agents, salted salmon at
various stations prior to 1880, and, as they had an important station at Fort Alex-
ander, on the Nushagak, it is probable that some salting was done there.

FISHING METHODS AND FISHERMEN.

Two methods only are employed in taking salmon for commercial purposes in
th is district, viz, by gill nets and by traps, and both are well adapted to the local
conditions.

The strong currents and comparatively narrow deep-water channels, together
with the discolored water, permit the use of gill nets with great success. The
dimensions of the nets vary according to the depth of water and the individual
ideas of the different cannery superintendents. For redfish the length varies from
75 to 80 fathoms; the depth from 20 to 26 meshes, and the mesh from 6-| to 61 inches
stretched. For king salmon the length is from 120 to 125 fathoms, the depth 24
meshes, and the mesh 91 inches stretched. Floats are rigged 3 feet apart and leads 21
feet apart. The average value is about 65 cents per fathom, depending on the market
and the quantity purchased. The large companies use a great amount of web, and
have special arrangements with the manufacturers. By watching the market closely
and buying when the price is low they have a great advantage over small operators.

The gill-net boats used on the Nushagak and the Ugashik are regular Columbia
River boats, built in San Francisco at an average price, complete, of $200. The
usual dimensions are: Length, 25 feet 1 inch; beam, 7 feet 8 inches; depth, 2 feet
6 inches; capacity, 300 cubic feet. They have a centerboard and spritsail, and will
carry, as an extreme, 1,400 redfish The boats used on the Kvichak, Naknek, and
Egegak are flat-bottom double-enders, about 1 foot longer than the Columbia River
boats, but have the same rig and the same capacity, and on the water resemble them
very closely. Their value is about $100, complete. Two men form a gill-net crew —
a netter and a boat-puller. They work on tides, and when the fish are plentiful remain
near the canneries, but when the run is slack they may drift 15 or 20 miles away.

Traps, used extensively in the Bristol Bay district, are a subject for criticism
throughout Alaska. They are expensive to build and maintain, but have many
advantages to the canner. The great benefit of a trap is not only that it fishes day
and night, but, if the run is heavy for a few days and the cannery fully supplied by
the gill-netters, the fish in the traps can be held for a time until the catch of the gill-
netters is slack. These advantages have frequently led the trapmen beyond the limits

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1900.

181

of' the law, and the time has come when the use of traps must be regulated and the
law enforced, or else they must be abolished. Having in mind now the whole of
Alaska, it is my opinion that if this be not done they will work a great injury to the
fisheries.

Columbia River salmon boat.

Columbia River salmon boats and flat bottom salmon skiff.

Traps catch not only the salmon wanted, but all other species of salmon and other
fish not wanted. Practically all fish taken in the traps, except redfish, are waste,
and until one sees the tons of this waste product, one can not realize the magnitude
of this giant octopus that grasps everything in its tentacles.

Fish were very plentiful this year, and the gill-netters were able to supply most
of the fish used. It was said on this account that traps took more fish than were

182

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

wanted, and that they were frequently opened to let the impounded fish escape.
This statement may be true, but there never was a cat that held a mouse with more
tenacity than a eanneryman holds a salmon, and it is doubted if a salmon of choice
species is ever allowed to escape as long as it is lit to be put inside a tin can.

1 have said here that practically all fish taken in the traps, except redlish, are
waste. This should be slightly modified, though practically it is true; yet, in justice
to the cannery-men, it may be said that the records of the past few years show that,
besides redfish, on the average less than 8,000 cases of king and 8,000 cases of all other
species were packed per year in the whole Bristol Bay district, and some of these no
doubt were taken in traps.

There is a question arising in my mind which now can only be stated and left for
the future to decide, as follows: Traps take all fish of all sizes; gill nets take only the
large fish; will gill-net fishing result in decreasing the size of the fish?

In one locality trap men informed me that trap fish are more expensive than gill-
net fish. In another place it was said that this year two gill-net boats secured more
fish than one trap, but when asked why the traps were maintained the reply was
that the fish were held in the traps until wanted.

One eanneryman, whose resources seemed limited and who did not feel able to
maintain traps, frankly said that traps should be abolished; but, when asked if he
believed that traps were injurious to the fisheries, he was equally frank in saying
“ No.” The motive is evident.

The traps used are of the general type illustrated in my report of 1897, page 170.
They consist of the usual shore and channel leads, with hearts and pots, but there are
all kinds of variations to meet local conditions or the fancy of the “trap boss.”
Some have two pots and some have additional appendages in the shape of corrals.

Not only is the first cost of a trap in this country large, but its maintenance
forms a big item of expense. All piling must be imported, and the strong currents
frequently damage both piles and web. The piles are pulled up when fishing ceases
on account of the ice, and are redriven in the spring as soon as the ice is out of the
river and before the fish begin to run. The largest trap seen in the Bristol Bay district
had about 2,700 feet of leads laid out in a rather complex wajq with two pots, 75 feet
by 75 feet, and a large corral. (See sketch on page 200.)

Seines are not used in this district, largely on account of the strong current,
although this could be overcome if there were good seining beaches. There are a few
bowldery beaches, but, as a rule, the banks and beaches are soft mud, so that at low
water landing at many points, if not impracticable, can only be effected with great
effort. On one occasion, in landing at low water near a cannery on the Nushagak,
we became mired to such an extent that it was only by clinging to a bidarka, pushed
out to us by the natives, that we were extricated and hauled ashore.

The fishermen are white, usually foreigners, chiefly Scandinavians, with some
Italians. They contract with the cannery for the season, and receive $50 per man
for working the cannery ship from the home port to the cannery and back, discharg-
ing and loading the vessel at the cannery, getting the nets and boats ready, and doing
other beach work until fishing begins. They receive full and excellent board and
lodging from the time of leaving their home port until their return. The wages of
trap and beach men are $30 per month and one-third cent per case. The gill-netters

SALMON TRAP, BELONGING TO ALASKA PACKERS ASSOCIATION, NUSHAGAK RIVER.

Bull. U, S. F. C. 1901. (To face page 182.)

Plate IV,

SALMON TRAP BELONGING TO C. E. WHITNEY & CO., NEAR THEIR SALTING STATION ON NUSHAQAK BAY.

Bull. U. S. F. C. 1901. (To face page 182.)

Plate V.

SALMON TRAP, BELONGING TO ALASKA PACKERS ASSOCIATION, ON BEACH NEAR CANNERY OF ALASKA PACKING COMPANY (A. P. A), NUSHAGAK BAY

Bull. U. S. F. C. 1901. (To face page 182.)

Plate VI.

NORTHERN AND INSHORE POT OF SALMON TRAP, BELONGING TO ALASKA PACKERS ASSOCIATION, NEAR GRAVEYARD POINT, KVICHAK BAY.

View from beach at low tide, showing tunnel down; steamer Sayak at anchor beyond.

Bull. U. S. F. C. 1901. (To face page 182.)

Plate VII.

SALMON TRAP, BELONGING TO ALASKA PACKERS ASSOCIATION, NEAR CANNERY OF BRISTOL PACKING COMPANY, UGASHIK RIVER.

Bull. U. S. F. C. 1901. (To face page 182.)

Plate VIII.

NATIVE METHOD OF SETTING GILL NETS, ON BEACH NEAR PACIFIC STEAM WHALING COMPANY'S CANNERY, NUSHAGAK BAY.

Bull. U. S. F. C. 1901. \To face page 182.)

Plate IX.

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1900.

183

and boat pullers receive 2 cents for each redtish and 10 cents for each king salmon
per boat of two men, the fish being delivered and tallied at the cannery or to a tender
of the cannery. During a good season they average as high as $75 per month. If
during the fishing season a man is taken from his boat to do other work, he receives
as wages an amount equal to the average share of that day.

When the run is heavy and more fish are supplied than the cannery can use, the
fishermen may be limited in their catch to 1,000 a day, but not under that amount.
It is not rare, when redtish are plentiful, for industrious and expert netters, by work-
ing early and late, to make two loads, or 2,400 fish, which nets $24 to each man in the
boat. This season it was noticed at three places that limits of 1,000, 1,100, and 1,200
redtish, respectively, were placed on the boats, and with the fh\st limit at one cannery
it was necessary to take some men out of the boats to clean fish, the Chinese being-
unable to keep up the supply for the machinery. These men, therefore, received
$10 per day for butchering.

Unless one has seen the bins of a large cannery in running order words can not
fully convey an impression of the masses of fish used in a single day. A thousand
salmon seems to the ordinary observer a large number, yet a single three-filler
cannery will utilize each day 25,000, and this district, when running full, will pack
each day 250,000 in its thirteen operating canneries. It is difficult to understand
how it is possible to maintain the supply, although the run is immense.

In Nushagak Bay, off Clark Point, on two occasions the fish were running so
heavily that they were caught in the propeller of the launch of the Albatross , stopping
the engines.

THE RUNS AND CANNERY WORK.

'Die season in Bristol Bay is short. Not only do the fish run a very limited time but
good weather lasts but a few months, although the conditions are far more agreeable
during the summer than over Bering Sea generally. There are many bright, sunny
days, frequently quite warm, fewer gales and less ’fog-, but with September come the
gales and cold.

The cannery ships try to reach their destinations as soon as the ice will permit
them to enter the bays, as there is only a short time after their arrival to make the
necessary preparations before the runs begin. They expect to arrive not later than
the middle of May, and to do this they must enter Bering Sea early, often encoun-
tering much ice to the eastward, though the rivers may be mostly clear. Cannery
steamers (tenders) sometimes reach their destinations in April, but frequently are
obliged to lie outside or to haul into a mud slough at high water and lie ashore until
the rivers have discharged the floating ice.

Bristol Bay is essentially a redtish district, and while all other species occur they
do not run in large numbers. They will be referred to under the cannery headings.

When the vessels arrive in May there are no salmon in the streams, even for the
cannery tables. The earliest arrivals are king salmon, which appear from June 6 to
16, depending upon the river conditions. They are followed a few days later by the
redtish which, about June 16 to 20, run in sufficient numbers to warrant operating
the canneries for them. The king salmon run scatteringly throughout the season;
but even on the Nushagak, the only Bristol Bay locality where a regular pack of this

184

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

species is made, they cease fishing for them soon after the redfish commence to run,
as the latter is the more profitable fish. King salmon are nowhere abundant in this
district and the few taken in the traps and redfish nets after the packing of the
former species is closed are used on the cannery tables, or their bellies are salted for
personal use.

It is said that there is quite a run of cohoes after the canneries have “cleaned up.”
A few are taken at the close of the redfish run, and it is probable that they are
present in numbers until cold weather sets in.

The canneries are practically in full operation about one month, as the redfish
run is over by July 20 to 25, and during this time they present a busy scene; every
one is worked to his full capacity, and nothing is thought of, talked of, dreamed of,
but fish. The hands of the clock are moved ahead in the morning, righted at noon,
and moved back in the evening to gain time; work starts by 3 in the morning, and
the bathroom is frequently not cleaned up, if it is cleaned at all, until 10 and 11 at
night. The employees appear weary; the Chinese, never very robust-looking, seem
to drag along as though they would drop in their tracks. The tinned fish, after cool-
ing, are stacked in great warehouses, for there is no time to lacquer, label, and box,
as the energy of the whole force is concentrated in putting fish into tin cans and
sealing them. The leaky cans accumulate, as the menders can not keep up with the
work, resulting in a large percentage of do-overs. At last, when the force is about
exhausted, a respite comes; the run slacks and there is a sigh of relief by all except
the superintendent, who swears that he has not packed enough, though every can
may be filled. The relief is only temporary, however; the lacquering, labeling, test-
ing, and boxing must now be done, and there is a rush for the final clean up, all
being eager to take their departure. While the Chinese are engaged in lacquering,
etc., the fishermen and the beach gangs are pulling up the traps, drying and storing
the nets, hauling out the fishing boats, and loading the transport vessels. When the
cargo is on board, lighters, scows, and tenders are hauled out and put under cover,
the doors are closed, the watchman takes charge, and the ships sail away with the
pack and the human freight.

Cannery men expect to be “cleaned up” in this district by the middle of August.

CANS IN BRISTOL BAY.

On account of the short time intervening between the arrival of the cannery ship
and the beginning of the runs it is impracticable to carry the tin plate and make all
the cans by hand on the working ground, according to the practice in the other dis-
tricts. Until recent years all the cans were transported. At the present time 30 to
40 per cent are made at the canneries and the rest are carried from the home port.
It was noticed that some of these were rusty, and upon inquiry it was learned that
many were in this condition, caused probably by being packed in boxes made of
green lumber.

Can-making machines are now being installed, and the latest pattern seems to work
well, so that the day is not far distant when the cans will be made from day to day as
they are wanted. This will effect considerable saving in labor, in storage room, and
injury in handling. Besides, the machine-made can is better than the one made by
hand. It has fewer defects, fewer leaks, and consequently there are fewer do-overs.

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1900.

185

CHINESE.

An account of the Chinese cannery labor in the other Alaska salmon districts is
given in the 1897 report, page 23, and it does not differ materially here.

The arrangement for the employment of Chinese is made through the labor agen-
cies of the large cities, principally in San Francisco. They work under a “boss” of
their own, who guarantees each man a certain amount for the season. They do all the
work in connection with the pack. They receive the uncleaned fish at the bins and
deliver them canned, lacquered, and labeled, in cases, at the other end of the cannery.
The packing company transports the Chinese to the field of work and carries them to
the home port at the end of the season ; it provides them with a bunk house and
furnishes fuel, water, and salt. The “boss” supplies the Chinese “ chow,” but during
the height of the season they also receive some food from the white mess.

The Chinese contract this year (1900), in Bristol Bay, was 15 cents per case for
machine-filled and 60 cents per case for hand-filled pack. A certain number of cases
are guaranteed in the contract, which must be paid for whether packed or not, and
if the pack runs over the guaranty the extras are paid for at the same rate. On
the other hand, they are under contract to pack a certain number per day if fhe fish
be on hand; and if they are unable to do so the superintendent may employ extra
hands and charge them against the Chinese “boss.”

These hands are usually very satisfactory, but in 1900, on account of the scarcity
of labor all over our country, particularly on the west coast, an inferior class of
Chinese was obtained in many canneries, and there was great complaint. At one
three-filler cannery visited, and rated at 2,100 cases capacity per day, 1,900 cases
was the largest number that could be made, and this number only by the greatest
effort. It was noticed that the Chinese appeared weak, and many seemed ill; in fact,
the sick list was large, and it required much persuasion to turn them to work in
the morning. The Chinese bosses in several instances could not till the quota with
their own kind and substituted some Japanese coolies, which complicated matters
materially. At one cannery, usually employing 300 Chinese, there were 250 of that
nationality and 50 Japanese. These latter were not only lazy and worthless, but
were constantly raising a disturbance. Of the two classes the Chinese are greatly
preferred. It must be remembered, however, that the work in Bristol Bay is very
trying, the season is short, the working hours are long, and the laborer is on a
constant rush from the time of landing until the pack is loaded.

The most arduous work in a cannery falls upon the butchers and fish-cleaners
and the bathroom men. The former are on their feet during the long hours of each
day, standing in slush and gurry, and suffer much with swelled feet and ankles, while
the latter are on the constant move and are the last to clean up at night. The men
that work at the lye tanks, with the hot spluttering lye splashing over them, have no
sinecure.

NATIVE LABOR.

The canneries gladly employ every native who is willing to work; nay, more,
they seek for this labor in the villages and offer every inducement for them to work,
and would employ man}7 more if they could be obtained and were reliable. This is
not done for charity’s sake — the canneries are not in the field for that purpose, though

186

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES PISH COMMISSION.

they are far from being uncharitable — but because the labor is needed, particularly
when the rush is on, and for which profitable provision can not otherwise be made.

When the cannery ships arrive in the spring the native, having struggled through
a long, severe winter, is hungry and has many wants. He greets the cannery ship
with childish glee and wishes work. It is given him, his hunger is appeased from
the overflowing cannery table, his daily wages soon supply the few luxuries he desires,
and then he no longer cares for work. Why should he work? Hunger no longer
worries him, his immediate wants are satisfied, and he has no others!

The condition of native labor is the same here, among the Eskimo, as it is in
other sections of Alaska, to which feature reference was made in the former report;

Eskimo women cleaning salmon.

only here the canneryman, being entirely out of the lines of communication with the
labor market, seems still more desirous of employing natives and frequently sends
some distance to their villages to enlist them in his work. Statistics show that the
largest number employed in any one cannery is from 25 to 30 for a short period.
Some days there may be 40 and the next only 10.

It is true that the canneries can not give them constant employment, as their
intelligence only warrants giving- them certain work; still a good, reliable native will
have work the greater part of the time, and can earn during the short season from
$100 to $125, also having his board furnished him during the time emplojmd.

The wages paid this year to adult males was $2 per day; reliable men received
$2.25; boys from 12 to 14 years of age received $1 per day, and children were seen

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1900.

187

piling cans who were not more than 6 years of age, and who received 50 cents a day.
They demand and receive their wages daily.

Formerly the wage of adult males was $1.50 per day, but in the early part of this
season a “walking delegate,” in the shape of a “tyone” (chief), appeared at the can-
neries and the natives struck for $2 and promptly got it.

Money seems to have no value to the native except to satisfy his immediate wants,
and the traders cater to their taste for gewgaws by supplying them with things for
which they have no use. They have a fancy for cuckoo clocks and watches, though
they can not read the time; cheap jewelry and perfume; and a silk dress is more than
tempting. One woman was noticed wearing- the usual skin trousers and boots, and
over all a velvetine dress, well tucked up, and as greasy as if it had been soaked in a
pot of rancid oil. As before mentioned, the canneries supply board to all the natives
employed; the food is abundant to the point of wastefulness; it is of excellent qual-
ity, well cooked, in large variety, and given with a generous hand; none need go
hungry; even the hundreds of sled dogs from the villages greet the cannery ships,
gather around the canneries during the season, and grow fat, sleek, lazy, and good
natured.

Of the large supplies of food carried up in the spring a considerable quantity
usually remains over when the cannery closes. This is stored at some of the can-
neries and the watchman is instructed to distribute food in case of distress.

A large amount of salmon is cured by the natives for their own use and for the
dog supply during the winter. These fish are caught with the greatest ease. A
small piece of condemned gill net is obtained from a cannery and is stretched between
poles planted in line from high to low water mark. When the tide falls the net is
frequently so full of fish that they can not all be utilized. Nets were noticed in which
it appeared as if nearly every mesh held a fish, and others were seen in which the
meshed fish were decaying, the natives being too lazy to remove them "in proper time.
(See plate ix.)

There can be no doubt that the canneries have benefited the native by adding to
his physical comfort. The fish supply for his use has not been reduced; on the con-
trary, the cannery has placed in the hands of the native a means for taking fish far
superior to anything he ever dreamed of, and if lie is willing to work he can earn
money and procure civilized comforts. Whether his contact with the fishermen and
Chinese during their yearly visits adds anything to his moral well-being is a question,
but he suffers no more here than natives do in all parts of the world when they come
in contact with our civilization.

At Nushagak a large number of tyones called on board to pay their respects to
the commanding officer. In answer to an inquiry, they said they had no complaints
to make and they were satisfied with the surrounding conditions.

CANNERY WASTE.

The waste in the Bristol Bay district is strikingly large, due, in the first place,
to the greater abundance of fish, and, secondly, to the necessity for rushing the pack
on account of the short season. To the novice who is accustomed to see fish only in
a market, where salmon are sold at from 10 to 20 cents per pound, this waste is the
first thing to impress him. It is probably within the limit when it is said that the

188

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

waste in this district for the present year is not under 50,000 cases of redfish alone.
The waste here referred to is in marketable salmon, and does not include other fishes
wasted in the traps or nets. It runs through the whole process, from the time the
fish are captured until the last tapping test is made.

The largest waste, probably comes from holding the fish until they are unfit to
pack and then throwing them away. This may occur at the traps, in the tenders, or
in the fish-bins. Many are lost in passing from fishing boat to receiving scow; others
again in pewing from scow to fish-house. In this district only three cuts are made, the
end pieces being thrown away; then comes the waste in machines, which, including
the loss of the tail pieces, is 32 per cent greater than with a careful hand-filled pack.

The do-overs should also be considered waste, though they reach consumers in
out-of-the-way places. A certain percentage is unavoidable, but in a well-conducted
establishment this should not exceed 1£ per cent. In this district it is over 4 per cent.

In front of every cannery in this district, and along the beaches for several
miles, thousands of dead fish are seen. Usually the tide serves well and carries other
thousands away, but sometimes the wind is unfavorable and win rows of decaying
fish, a hundred feet in width, along the beach, testify to the enormous waste during
a canning season.

There is another source of waste that may be mentioned, which consists of the
king salmon, the finest salmon that swims the Pacific waters. This species does not
run abundantly anywhere in Alaska. An average of less than 8,000 cases are packed in
the Bristol Bay district, of which all but a few hundred are packed on the Nushagak.
They run, however, in a scattering way in all the rivers where packing is done.
Very few are canned after July 1, for the entire energy is then bent upon the redfish.
As a few king salmon are taken every day during the season in the traps and nets,
the bellies of those not used on the cannery table are cut out and salted for private
use, and the remainder of the fish is frequently thrown away. Great, beautiful fishes,
weighing from 25 to 40 pounds, from which the bellies had been removed, were seen
at several places lying on the beach, to be carried away by the tide or consumed by
the birds.

POUNDS OF LIVE FISH TO THE CASE.

In Southeast Alaska and in Prince William Sound, where redfish are not plentiful
all parts are utilized and carefully packed. Upon investigating this subject in 1897
(see report, p. 31), it was concluded that, if care were taken, from 65 to 68 pounds
of live fish would make a liberal case of 48 1-pound tins, depending somewhat upon
the size of the fish. In a certain locality this year conditions made it possible to
make a comparison between machine-filled cans and a hand pack, and it may lie of
interest on account of what has been said under the subject of waste.

A small cannery that made a very careful hand pack this season by using the
whole fish averaged 8.3 redfish to the case. Near by is a larger cannery making a
machine pack and using fish from the same stream. By making three cuts and reject-
ing the tail pieces this cannery averaged 11 redfish to the case. Thirty-three redfish
taken in one haul of the ship’s seine averaged 8.25 pounds, and 30 redfish from the
cannery bin averaged 7.5 pounds, giving a mean of 7.875. Using these factors, it will
be seen that in the hand pack 65.3 pounds of fish were used to the case, the same
amount as shown in my previous investigation, while in the machine pack 86.6 pounds

ALASKA SALMON' INVESTIGATIONS IN 1900.

181)

were used, an increase of 32.5 per cent. It should be noted, however, that in the
latter the tail pieces were rejected, but were packed under a separate brand.

Inquiry made of cannerymen in the Bristol Bay district shows that it was gen-
erally conceded that it took from 80 to 85 pounds of live redfish to make a case in
this district. It is my own opinion that if the waste from all sources be considered,
at least 100 pounds of live redfish are .used, destroyed, or wasted for every case
of this species of salmon packed in this district.

INFLUENCE OF WINDS ON MOVEMENTS OF FISH.

So far as observations have been made it has been noticed that salmon in inland
waters, and upon approaching- them, swim at a depth estimated at from 6 to 12 feet
below the surface, and that they favor a course with the wind in approaching fresh
water. At Koggiung, Naknek, and Egegak the southwest winds bring an abundance
of fish during the run. At Ugashik the southwest winds are best, but northwest
winds also are favorable, while on the Nushagak it is claimed that south and south-
east winds give the best results in the fisheries. Upon examining a chart it will be
noticed that these directions of winds are over the sea and toward the several locali-
ties mentioned. As before noted, in midsummer the weather over the land in the
Bristol Bay district is frequently quite warm and sunny, often too warm to keep the
fish in good condition very long. It is claimed that cold weather, with light rain,
gives the most favorable conditions for the successful operation of a cannery.

SALTING.

Every cannery in Bristol Bay, or, if more than one cannery in a locality is
operated under one management, then every group of canneries, is fitted for salting
salmon. When the fish run in such numbers that the cannery can not utilize all, the
surplus goes to the salting tanks. Practically all the fish used in this manner are red-
fish, of which 16,778 barrels were salted in 1900 and in addition 558 barrels of king
salmon.

During 1900 there was but one saltery operated solely as such in this district. It
is situated on the Nushagak and had an output of 7,186 barrels of redfish and 536
barrels of king salmon for the season.

It is claimed that if salmon are dry-salted in kenches, and then boxed or barreled,
they will become rusty, though this method ivas practiced in several instances in
Southeast Alaska this year. The usual method in Alaska is to salt the fish down in
wooden tanks or vats, and leave them until they are thoroughly shrunk and the water
in them has been replaced by brine. They may then be washed out at any time and
resalted into barrels.

It is very difficult to obtain correct salting statistics, but the following, taken from
the books of the Merchants’ Exchange at San Francisco, may at least show the varia-
tions in different years.

Total pack of Alaska salt salmon.

1889

1890

1891

1892

1893

1894

Barrels.

... 6, 930

1895

... 13,417

1896

... 8, 913

1897

... 17,895

1898

... 21,290

1899

... 29,096

1900

Barrels.
.. 14,234
.. 7,700
.. 15,127
.. 18,718
.. 22,872
.. 17,687

190

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

Formerly from 46 to 47 redfish were counted as making a full barrel of 200
pounds of the salted product in this district. Inquiry at different places this season
showed that the number ranged from 48 to 52 redfish to the barrel. The largest
saltery averages 50 redfish, 50 cohoes, or 14 king salmon to the barrel.

For other saltery notes reference is made to my former report, page 21.

CANNERIES AND CANNERY METHODS.

In my former report this subject was fully referred to and described, and it is
not my intention to indulge in useless repetition; but since my last inspection many
other canneries have been visited and considerable time has been spent in observing
the processing of the fish. Some new “wrinkles” have been noted which, though
possibly of minor importance, may be of interest.

The general methods are quite similar in all canneries, though the arrangement
of buildings and machinery, the amount of the latter, and the detailed appliances
differ materially. There seems to be no standard; a cannery is built and arranged
according to the individual ideas of its superintendent, and no two appear to be alike,
except a few built by one company, which all seem badly arranged. It is rather
surprising that some model cannery is not constructed as an object lesson.

It is not ray intention to lay out a plan for a cannery, but simply to make a few
suggestions and point out special features which may improve them. A cannery
building should have an abundance of light, be thoroughly ventilated, well drained,
whitewashed inside, and washed down with a steam hose every working da}r. A
three-filler cannery should have a width of at least 50 feet, and the length should
correspond to the machines used in processing, giving ample room, so that the cans
may go uninterruptedly throughout the whole length of the building. If the ground
will not admit a building long enough to have the bathroom on the extension, the
the latter, with the boilers, may be located in an ell. From the door where the fish
are received to the bathroom, except the mending tables, there should be nothing
but the machinery and appurtenances for processing the fish. A second floor may
be necessary over the filling machines for the storage of cans and for the purpose of
feeding them from an elevation, but it were better to feed with a traveler and leave
the roof clear for skylights and ventilation. If, however, a second floor is insisted
upon, it should be double-layed, one course diagonal, to keep out infiltration of dust
and dirt over the machines. A separate two-story building, parallel with the cannery,
and joining it by a platform at least 40 feet wide, should be erected for a warehouse,
the platform to be used for a cooling space.

The fish-house should be over the water at all stages of the tide, so that boats and
lighters may discharge at any time, and the muck and gurry be carried away by the
current. The other buildings, mess-houses, bunk-houses, etc., should be placed con-
veniently, having due regard for protection from fire.

A very convenient rigging for transferring fish from the boats to the fish-house
was noticed at a cannery where there is a large rise and fall of tide, uncovering a
Hat in front of the building. An inclined plane led from the side of the fish-house to
below the low-water mark, and a car operated by cable and steam traversed the plane.
The fishing boats hauled on either side at all stages of the tide and, lying at the same

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1900.

191

level, tallied the catch into the car, which, when full, was run to the tish-house and
unloaded by dumping.

At another cannery, where fish are conveyed to the cannery by steam tenders, an
inclined plane was used, extending to deep water, having the end V-shaped, admitting
the cannery steamer into the V and allowing her to discharge from either side. In
this case the tilled cars were run over an elevation into the bins and then dumped.

In a locality where the conditions" did not permit the tish-house to be located over
the water at low tide, and where the cannery supply of running water was large, an
immense hopper was built under the door, with an inclined trough, through which
the gurry was washed by a constant stream.

In a few canneries it was noticed that each fish-cleaning table had a spray of
water from several jets playing over it, thus washing off the blood and gurry. This
feature might be more extensively copied, as it promotes cleanliness in a place which
is never too clean or free from odor.

At several canneries a neat and satisfactory contrivance was seen in operation
for transporting fish from the fish-house to«the cannery, which consisted of a shallow
trough having for its bottom an endless chain of buckets. As a neat addition, a
spray, formed by a perforated pipe about 8 feet long and suspended over the buckets,
washed the fish while passing under it.

A new solderer was noticed, having, instead of the endless chain to give motion
to the cans, a metal spiral running the length of the machine and revolving on an
axle through the center. Each loop grasped a can and followed it to the end, thus
giving the cans the proper motion and preventing them from rolling side by side and
lapping the solder over the ends, as is frequently the case with the chain machines.

An effective contrivance was seen by which the can, after leaving the solderer,
was turned upon an endless belt so as to permit the solder to set into the top, and
carried upright for a distance of about 20 feet, when it was again turned on its side
automatically and rolled under the cooling spray. New retorts with quick closing-
doors were also seen.

The Alaska Packers Association sent several fish-cleaning machines into the field
for trial, but none was seen in operation. It is understood, however, that one, the
invention of William Munn, the superintendent of their cannery at Alitak Bay, has
been perfected after several trials, and is said to work so satisfactorily that a number
are now under construction for the season of 1901. If a machine for fish-cleaning
can be successfully operated it will be a great boon to the canneries.

Can-making machines are now being extensively introduced by the Alaska
Packers Association, and the season of 1901 will probably see all their canneries
equipped with these machines. A set consists of one cutter, which cuts the sheet
tin into exact lengths for the bodies; one body-maker, which forms the body, makes
the seam, and solders it; one topper and one solderer, both of which are of the same
form as those used in the cannery. In the can-making department there are also
dies operated by steam for cutting tops and bottoms and an extra one for cutting-
floats — the small piece of tin used inside the can under the top to keep the vent clear
in processing. The feed for the plate in the body-maker seems to be the most imper-
fect part of the machine, causing frequent jams; but even allowing for delays due to
these jams, a set will turn out an average of fifty cans a minute.

192

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

BRANDING SALMON.

Attempts have been made at different points on the Pacific coast to mark salmon,
and it would be interesting if the facts in all cases were recorded as well as the results.
It is well known that at several points young salmon have been marked by cutting
off the fleshy (adipose) fin; but, unfortunately, this seems to be the only method
offering any facility for marking these fishes, and if all localities adopt the same
system but little benefit will be derived.

attention has, on several occasions, been invited to so-called marked fish other
than those from which the fleshy fin had been removed, and it may be of some inter-
est to give a brief description of them. In 1897 it was called to a mark on the gill
cover of a redfish at Uyak. The mark was elliptical in shape, with three-fourths inch
and one-half inch as the respective major and minor axes; the edge appeared milled,
and there were some blurred marks around the inner circle, while in the center there
was a design which might be taken for a crown surmounting a sphere. At San
Francisco, in the office of the Alaska Packers Association, a similar mark, also on
the gill cover, is preserved in alcohol. This year, on the Nushagak, a mark of the
same kind, though less distinct, was seen on the gill cover of a humpback. My first
impression was that these marks had been made b}" a coin, but this would be imprac-
ticable unless made on an adult tish. It is my belief now that the mark is that of
some parasite which had become firmly attached to the gill cover and left its impres-
sion. This year two redfish were taken on the Nushagak that had the dorsal-tin rays
entirely removed and the skin was apparently joined smoothly over the back.

One fish was taken in the same locality with an impression resembling an M or a
W, If inches square on its side; and another with the same letter, and a scroll drawn
out from the end. At Koggiung two fish were taken with the M or W marks, and
one with H W or M II. These marks were midway on the side of the tish, brown
in color, and apparently the scales were wanting in the wake of the lines, which had
the appearance of having been traced with an iron. It is doubtful if young tish can
be marked in this manner, and the suggestion is offered that it is possible that the
marks may have been produced by the fish tying on a piece of webbing in the bottom
of the boat, and that the tish piled on top may, under proper conditions, have fur-
nished sufficient pressure to form the marks.

OTHER SALMON STREAMS IN BERING SEA.

The question is frequently asked whether there are any streams in Bering Sea,
other than those of the Bristol Bay region, which carry salmon that may be utilized
for commercial purposes. To this no definite reply can be made for the reason that
other factors enter into the proposition besides the one of an abundance of salmon.
Accessibility is an important factor; feasibility in making a catch, length of season,
and climatic conditions are others. It is customary, before building a cannery in a
new locality, to thoroughly prospect it first. A saltery is often maintained for sev-
eral seasons and the values of the streams ascertained. It is known that salmon of
different species run in numbers in the rivers on the American side, as far north as
the Noatak, which empties into Kotzebue Sound, and it is probable that other rivers
emptying into the Arctic Ocean also carry salmon.

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1900.

193

The Nushagak is the northernmost river now fished for commercial purposes; to
the westward of it is the Togiak, emptying into Kululak Bay, between Cape Con-
stantine and Cape Newenham. The Alaska Packers Association prospected this
river by maintaining a saltery near its mouth for two years, seasons of 1895 and
1896, and then abandoned it as unprofitable.

The next large river to the northward is the Kuskokwim, which, so far as known,
is not accessible to vessels. The tides in this river are far greater than on the
Nushagak, and the entrance is choked with banks and shoals. The census report of
1890 states, page 101:

But a few miles to the northward of Quinhaghamiut [which is 55 miles to the northward of
Goodnews Bay, according to the same report] is the present limit of navigation for seagoing crafts, at
the mouth of the Kuskokwim, and even that point is reached with difficulty and at considerable risk,
owing to shoals of unknown extent and shifting channels; and as at this point the anchorage is entirely
exposed to prevailing winds and sea, the Kuskokwim River can scarcely be considered open to com-
merce. At present but one vessel a year runs in when the indications are favorable to discharge a
cargo of goods sent up for the Kuskokwim trade by the Alaska Commercial Company.

The census report of 1880, in relation to salmon on the Kuskokwim, states:

Altogether these people would be in a sorry plight indeed were it not for the abundant supply of
salmon during the summer. * * * They all Hock together on the banks of the Kuskokwim and
fairly line the river with fish traps and drying frames, or poles, and from the beginning of June to the
month of August the traps are constantly being emptied and filled again. The quantity of fish secured
during the season is very great, even in proportion to the number of inhabitants, but when we con-
sider the wasteful habit of drying the fish until only a small fraction of the original substance remains
it can not astonish us to hear the natives compla'n of an insufficient supply. Over 4,000 people lay in
the winter supply for themselves and for their dogs during a few months of summer, but it is safe to
state that with a more economical mode of preserving the fish four times the number could live in
comfort within the same space.

In the next stretch to the northward there are doubtless other rivers carrying-
salmon, but of these there seems to bo no information, until we arrive at the Yukon,
and here no exact data is obtainable. The census report of 1880 states, page 11:

The ice came down the Yukon in such masses and in such profusion that it grounded in the
deltoid mouth in the month of July so as to form a barrier against the running of the salmon.

Again, in reference to the Yukon, page 73:

We know that the run of the various species of salmon is very large, though not extended over a
large period, and also that a large proportion of the catch is preserved by the wasteful process of drying
only. * * * As far as the Eskimo race has extended its settlements on the banks of the river, to

a distance of from 200 to 300 miles from the sea, the fish-traps already described lie on both banks; but
as the mode of fishing affects only such fish as ascend the stream along the banks and eddies, the
number of salmon which complete their journey of reproduction without meeting any obstacles must
exceed by far the number secured by the natives. In view of the immense width and depth of the
river, it seems very doubtful whether any of this immense mass of fish could be secured by fishermen,
even were they provided with all the appliances now in use on the Columbia River, in Oregon, and the
Sacramento, in California.

This great river we know is not accessible to any seagoing vessel, as none but
those of the shallowest draft can enter.

In reference to rivers farther north, quoting from the census report of 1880:

Of the consumption of fish along the Arctic coast of Alaska to the northward of Bering Straits, no
reliable data are accessible. The people subsist to a greater extent upon seals, walrus, and the meat of
whales. The run of salmon in the few larger rivers is necessarily short, and the fish are much smaller
than we find them to the southward; the natives, however, manage to put up during the brief summer
a small supply of dried salmon and whitefish.

F. C. B. 1901—13

194

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

All the northern rivers probably carry large numbers of salmon, but, owing to
their inaccessibility and the shortness of the season, it is doubtful if there is any
locality on the American side of Bering Sea, except the Bristol Bay region, where
commercial salmon fishing can be profitably conducted until salmon become very
scarce. On the Asiatic side, so far as my inquiry extends, the rivers carry the same
’ species of salmon as on the American side, and the fisheries each year are being
extended. Large numbers of salmon are dry-salted on the Amur River and shipped
to Japan. The Russian Seal-Skin Company, which has large concessions covering
eastern Siberia, including Kamchatka, is extending its fisheries year by year. On
our recent visit to Kamchatka information was obtained at Petropaulski, from their
Russian manager, to the effect that they have been exporting salt salmon for the last
three or four years and have now 25 fishing stations, 9 in the Sea of Okhotsk, 9 in
the Bay of Avatcha, 4 on the approaches to that bay, and 3 on the outer coast in the
vicinity of Cape Tschipunski. The company employs, distributed amongst these
stations, 500 Japanese fishermen, who, with their sampans, nets, etc., are brought
from Hakodate in the spring and returned there in the fall. The fish are dry-salted,
packed in wooden crates of about L20 pounds each, and find a ready market in Japan.
In 1899 the company shipped 900,000 salmon. It was the intention of this company
to erect a cannery in Avatcha Bav during the year 1900, for operation in 1901.

It was stated that Kamchatka River carried an abundance of salmon of all species;
but it is understood that the locality has not been prospected and the commercial
value is therefore unknown. Probably all the Kamchatka rivers carry salmon.

The Albatross arrived in Bristol Bay July 5, making an anchorage off Cape Grey,
the northern entrance point to Ugashik, but, being unable to communicate on account
of unfavorable weather, we proceeded the following day to Nushagak Bay, making
an anchorage off Protection Point. Expecting to obtain the services of a pilot, but
no one appearing, communication was opened with the canneries, some 25 miles dis-
tant. On July 8, Mr. P. H. Johnson, the superintendent of all the Alaska Packers
Association canneries on the Nushagak, came on board and kindly piloted the vessel
to an anchorage in 3£ fathoms, at low water, off' the cannery of the Alaska Packing
Company; this is the upper cannery on the western shore, immediately below the
junction of the Nushagak and Wood rivers. Here it was learned that it was imprac-
ticable to carry the Albatross , on account of her draft, to the canneries on the Kvichak
and vicinity, and, as a cannery tender was about to leave for that section, the com-
manding officer and two assistants took passage on her and left that day for Kvichak
Bay. In no other way could this investigation have been carried on so effectively
and in so short a time, and my thanks are due to Mr. Johnson, not only for this
courtesy, but for others extended to myself and the officers of this vessel.

NAVIGATION NOTES.

Until a proper survey of the Bristol Bay region has been made, it must be
regarded by mariners as a dangerous locality to navigate; it is only by the greatest
vigilance and constant use of the lead that disaster can be avoided upon approach-
ing the land. This is especially true of the northern arms and approaches, which
receive the waters of the great salmon streams on which all the Bering Sea canneries
are located. These rivers are the Egashak, Wood, and Nushagak, emptying into
Nushagak Bay; the Kvichak, Lockenuck, Naknek, and Egegak. which empty into

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1000,

195

Kvichak Bay; arid the Ugashik next to the southward of the Egegak. These rivers
are large, and discharge a great quantity of water into wide indentations, locally
still retainingthe name of rivers, which open on the arms of the great bay. The banks
of the rivers are frequently marshy, generally muddy, and the discolored water is
charged with a large amount of sediment, which, when deposited, forms the dangers
to be encountered.

On account of the funnel-shaped configuration, the tidal currents run with great
force, having a velocity, at times, of at least 6 knots, and a rise and fall of from 18
to 21 feet; vast areas of shoals are uncovered at low water, leaving only pools and
shallows, with generally narrow channels between. Navigation in the arms and
approaches is only successfully accomplished at, or near, high water, even by those
thoroughly acquainted with the channels.

From a point about 3 miles to the westward of Cape Grey, the Albatross kept
along the coast, at a distance of 6 to 8 miles, for 25 miles, and then steered a course
to clear the shoals off Cape Constantine. Acorn Peak was made and mistaken for
Nichols. Hills, but before the latter were well made out we were inside the shoals, as
indicated on Coast Survey chart No. 8800, and Cape Constantine was in sight from
aloft. After bringing Nichols Hills on a bearing WNW., as advised in the sailing-
directions, the course was laid for them and an anchorage made in 8 fathoms at low
water, with Point Protection bearing SSW., distant 2y miles. This anchorage,
according to directions, is not considered a good one, and, according to the cannery
people, should not be selected.

It is regretted that, as our visit to the Nushagak was for only a few days in
connection with the special fishery investigation, exact directions can not be given
for the navigation of these waters, but, from inquiry and my own limited experience,
the following notes may be of service to others. No regular survey has yet been
made of this locality. The published charts are not based upon surveys, but are
compilations from all available sources, for the most part from sketches, and at best
from recon noissances, so that they should by no means be strictly followed. The
mariner must regard these charts as maps and a general guide only.

“Nichols Hills,” as indicated on Coast Survey chart No. 8800, and on others, is
very misleading. There are no high isolated hills in the vicinity. A line of high
bluffs from Egashak River border this shore to the southward, fringed by a narrow
belt of marsh, and about I miles northwest from Protection Point these bluffs are
broken on top into mounds which are the Nichols Hills, locally known as The Knolls.
Under average conditions they do not afford a leading mark, as stated, for guidance
from seaward, as they rise but little above the bluff line, and it is not believed they
can be made out by a stranger in time to avoid the dangers oil' Cape Constantine.

About 2 miles northwest from Point Protection the bluffs referred to breakaway
to the westward, and are lost on approaching the beach 2 miles south from the same
point. Point Protection and its vicinity for several miles is low and marshy, with an
occasional low mound and hillock. The flagstaff and pilot station no longer exist.
The old Eskimo who formerly piloted the cannery vessels is dead, and a hut in
ruins and a grave are all that is left to mark the former site. There are no inhabitants
in the vicinity. The nearest village is Ekuk, 15 miles to the northward, on the
eastern side of the bay.

196

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

The. coast between Cape Constantine and Point Protection is generally low.
The interior is rolling, broken into high mounds, ponds, and marshes.

Very little is known of the extent of shoal water off Cape Constantine. It is
probable that the bottom is much broken and lumpy off the whole entrance to the
bay. The Albatross , two hours before low water, had several soundings of 5 fathoms,
well outside of the bajy in what is considered to be the best water.

On May 20, 1898, the Alaska Packers Association cannery ship Sterling , with
the spring outfit for Ivoggiung on board, was lost on the shoals about 5 miles to the
southward of Cape Constantine. At the point where the vessel struck, Cape Con-
stantine and Point Protection are in range.

At Point Etolin there is a line of low bluffs, which at three points shows a bald
yellowish face, the highest to the westward. The land in this vicinity is generally
low. It. is said the shoal off Point Etolin does not extend as far offshore as indicated
on Coast Survey chart No. 8800. The cannery tenders in running from the Nushagak
to the Kvichak usually round Point Etolin by the lead, keeping in 3 or 1 fathoms of
water, which they expect to find about 1 miles from the shore.

It is my opinion that a vessel bound for the Nushagak should make Cape Grey,
the northern entrance point to the Ugashik, which is high and easily recognized,
and from this position take her departure and shape the course for the entrance,
favoring the Etolin side in preference to the Cape Constantine side, and using the
lead constantly in approaching these shoals. A vessel should arrive in the entrance
of the hay midway between Point Protection and Point Etolin, and from this posi-
tion a course northwest for a distance of 5 miles will carry outside the lower bar,
where a stranger must anchor and communicate for a pilot. Judgment must be used
in making allowance for tidal currents, and it is needless to sa}^ that the right arm
of the navigator in this region is the lead.

The following notes, made upon leaving the Nushagak, may be of service. A
vessel bound out should leave the upper anchorage two hours before high water, so
as to have the best water on the bars. The Albatross left the anchorage at the upper
cannery at high water and followed the western shore, at a distance of 300 or 100
yards, to the lower cannery on the same side (Bristol Bay Canning Company). After
rounding the point below this cannery, the distance from shore was increased to avoid
a spit making out from the first valley beyond the point, on which the bark Wildwood
was lost. Having passed the spit, the western shore was kept well on board, making
allowances for the beach that uncovers at low water. A short distance above Coffee
Point the Albatross laid a course SSE. f E. for 2.3 miles, then SE. ^ E. for 1.1 miles,
which carried over what is known as “The Cross-over” and to Clark Point. The
eastern shore was then followed at a distance of one-quarter to one-half mile, and on
arriving off Ekuk we hauled sharp across the river bar on a course SW. This course
was kept until the cannery at Clark Point came on with the second depression in the
distant blue ridge to the northward, and the right tangent of the ridge on the south
side of the Egashak River came on with the left tangent of the first high mountain
of the ridge beyond the low land. The course was then changed to SE. ^ S. , and
after running about 3^ miles the outer bar was crossed.

The Albatross made the shoal water of the outer bar on the following bearings:
Clark Point, N. by W. ; Nichols Hills, S. by W. ; right tangent of bluff south of the

Plate X.

,

'

'

'

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1900.

197

Egashak River, W. f N. From the outer bar the cannery vessels are said to steer
SE. by S. to sea. The Albatross , with an ebb tide, steered SE. until clear of all
shoals, and then laid her sea course. On a sketch made of this locality by the Alba-
tross in 1890, a few additions have been noted and the approximate track of the
Albatross m July, 1900, has been plotted, all of which may be of service.

The following observations were made, using an artificial horizon:

Protection Point. — Latitude, 58° 27' north, 5 sets circum-meridian altitudes.
Longitude, 158° 12' 19" west, mean of 15 post-meridian altitudes.

Upper cannery , Alaska Packing Company , 150 yards southwest of cannery build-
ing. — Latitude, 59° 00' 22" north, 2 circum-meridian and 1 meridian altitude. Long-
itude, 158° 29' 22" west, mean of ante-meridian and post-meridian sights. Variation,
by compass declinometer, 23° 20' E.

From three days’ observations, near neap tides, at the upper cannery, the
approximate establishment is 0 h. 59 m. ; approximate rise and fall, 21.55 feet. But
as the former observations of the Albatross were probably for a longer series, that
data has been retained on the chart, viz, local establishment, approximate, 0 h. 53 m. ;
rise and fall, approximate, 21 feet.

NUSIIAGAK RIVER (tAHLEKUK).

This river, with its headwaters and tributaries, is not well known, and but
little definite information could be obtained at the canneries, where it is locally
referred to as the Main River. The system drains the hills and mountains between
lakes Clark and Iliamna on the east and the Kuskokwim on the west. Above
Kakwok, about 50 miles from the mouth, it receives a tributary from the westward
which is the outlet of Lake Tikchik, and possibly a chain of lakes extending toward
the Kuskokwim. This lake is by some referred to as Lake Nushagak, but the main
river seems to extend to the northeast, where it has many tributaries and is known
as the Mulchutna. According to the census report of 1890, page 92 —

The watershed between the Nushagak Valley and the Iliamna Basin is low and dotted with lakes
and ponds, the general characteristics of these slopes being the same near the divide. * * * The
whole Nushagak, or, better, Tahlekuk River Valley, including Tikchik River and Lake, is .densely
wooded with trees not more than a foot in diameter, which, however, increase in size as the upper
courses are reached, so that on the Mulchutna and the Kokhtuli (Forest) rivers exceptionally large
trees may be found in numbers.

The river on its lower course is large, and flows a great quantity of water into
the head of Nushagak Bay, where it forms a junction with Wood River.

Fishing on the Nushagak is carried on entirely by traps and gill nets, and, for
king salmon, commences from June 6 to 16, depending upon the season; at the large
canneries fishing for this species is finished by June 30. They run scatteringly
throughout the whole season, but after the redfish come in in abundance, the king-
salmon gear is taken in and those found in the traps and the stray ones taken in nets
are used fresh; the surplus bellies salted are for private use. The smaller canneries,
however, pack the king whenever a sufficient number accumulate to make a few cases.

The redfish run in sufficient numbers to commence packing from June 16 to 20,
and they are expected to run until July 20 to 25. This year the redfish run was so
large that the gill-netters were limited. It is said that they supplied nearly all the
fish, and of the number packed only 20 per cent were taken from traps.

198

BULLETIN OF THE . UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

Occasionally there are a large number of dog salmon, and in the early part of
the season, before the redfish run strong enough to keep the full force employed,
some ave packed under pink-label brands. Scattering dog salmon are taken through-
out the season. There is a prejudice against these fish, caused, it is believed, by the
name. The sea run, in my opinion, is a very good fish, and many are consumed
fresh every year, but not under that name.

At intervals of several years there is a large run of humpbacks, but so little
attention is paid to this species that the date of the run is not available, but, approxi-
mately, from the middle of July to the middle of August covers the period.

Cohoes are not plentiful, and are not regularly packed. Occasionally a bunch is
captured large enough to induce the canner to turn the machinery on a few hundred
cases. They usually commence to run early in August, and continue after the can-
nery is closed, probably until after cold weather sets in.

There are no steel heads and no sturgeon. Trout are plentiful, and occasionally
a shad has been taken so it is said; sole and smelt also are taken.

WOOD RIVER AND ALEKNAGIK LAKE.

The commanding officer examined the river for a distance of 15 miles, and Lieu-
tenant Rodman, with the steam launch, made a running sketch of the river and lake.
It is from Lieutenant Rodman’s notes that the following remarks are largely written,
and reference is made to the sketch accompanying the report.

W ood River empties into the head of Nusnagak Bay at its junction with the
Nushagak River, about If miles above the cannery of the Alaska Packing Company.
The mouth is much obstructed by shoals and flats, making the entrance difficult at
low water, even for small boats, without, local knowledge. Its length to the lake
entrance is about 21 miles; the width at the mouth is about three-fourths mile, and
thence for 15 miles it varies from 600 to 200 yards; above, it narrows very much
until, arriving at the lake entrance, it has a width of about 50 yards. The left bank,
fora distance of about 16 miles from the mouth, is a low marshy plain, treeless until
the upper part of the stretch is reached, where small clumps appear. The right bank
is generally low, with bluffs bordering the stream in places, or separated from it
by a belt of marsh land from one-fourth to one-half mile in width. The bluffs and
the high rolling land back from the river are wooded with spruce, broken here and
there by tundra flats. The banks on the upper course are high and more heavily
wooded, the last 2 miles lying between steep banks from 100 to 200 feet high.

There are three low islands in the lower part of the river and one in the upper
part. The first is about a mile from the mouth and is over a mile in length; the
second and third are 8£ and 9£ miles respectively from the mouth, each situated in a
sharp bend. In ascending, these islands are left to the eastward. The fourth is very
small, about 20 miles from the mouth, and should be left to the westward.

The banks and bottom are of mud and gravel. In the upper course there are a
number of sand and gravel bars, extending entirely across the channel, but it is
probable that 2 feet can be carried across them at any time. For the first 15 miles
the water is discolored and muddy, but above this it is usually clear, though at high-
water spring tides the discoloration continues farther up. About 10 miles from the
mouth it receives as a tributary the Maklau River, which is said to be about 8 miles

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1900.

199

long. From 3 to feet can be carried up the river at low water for a distance of
15 miles, and thence to the lake not more than feet, though at high water 4 feet
can be carried this distance. Local knowledge is required in its navigation at all
stages of the tide, to avoid the numerous shoals and bars. The channel crosses and
recrosses the river, and while the best water can usually be found on the outer
course of the bends, this is not always the case.

Fifteen miles from the mouth there is a rise of tide, on the springs, of about 12
feet, at which point it is either slack or ebb current for about nine- hours on each full
tide, and at the lake entrance it rises about H feet, but, from the size of the lake,
there can be no material change in its water level due to tidal influence.

A current of about 3 knots sets out of the lake at all times and a continuous set
of not less than 2 knots down the upper course. The flood current reaches a point
about 18 miles from the mouth.

The head of the river flows from a shallow basin, about a mile in diameter and
1 to 2 fathoms deep, with a sandy and gravelly bottom, and at the head of this basin
is a passage, several hundred yards in width, marked by low gravel tongues making
out from either side, which opens upon the lake proper.

The lake is about 24 miles long, the general direction being northwest by west,
and has an average width of about 2 miles.

Generally speaking, the shores are mountainous, the estimated heights ranging
from 500 to 2,500 feet, those on the north, where a long flat-topped ridge parallels
the shore for a distance of at least 10 miles, being the highest. The southern shore
for the first 3 or 4 miles is low and rolling, with alternate open flats and woods run-
ning back several miles to the mountains. From the middle of the southern shore a
narrow peninsula, about 6 miles long and 500 feet high, with a rise of 700 to 800 feet
at each end, parallels the general axis of the lake and forms a deep narrow bay about
three-quarters of a mile wide. The country generally is well wooded, though the
mountain tops are bare.

There are many islands in the lake scattered throughout its length, mostly along
the northern shore and extending to within 6 miles of the head. The large ones are
well wooded, and, along the northern side, blend with the mainland, making them
difficult to distinguish when seen from a point along the middle line of the lake.

Along the center line the water appears deep; soundings were obtained in from
9 to 35 fathoms, but between some of the islands gravel bars with less than 2 feet
obstructed the passage.

The water is clear; the bottom, when visible, is gravelly with small bowlders,
but clean and free from grass. Gravel banks are found along the main and island
shores, even bordering the rocky outcrops.

The main feeder is on the northern shore about 6 miles from the head; it is
about 50 yards wide at the mouth, and 3 or 4 feet deep, and flows from the north-
ward. It is said this stream is the outlet to two more lakes. At the head of the
lake entering from the westward is a small feeder which is about 20 yards wide at
the mouth and 3 feet deep. The other feeders indicated on the sketch were not
visited for want of time; they were simply reported to exist, and are said to be
small. Apparently the feeders flow through valleys of gentle declivity, as no falls
or strong rapids were noticed, nor were any cascades seen in the mountains.

200

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

There is a village on a low sandy flat at the head of Wood River, at the northern
entrance to the basin, and a second village at the mouth of the main feeder on the
western shore. A large amount of salmon is taken and cured by the natives near
these places and at several other points on the northern shore.

It is said that both Doll}7 Varden and cutthroat trout are taken on the lake. j
Salmon were present in very great numbers and were not only seen jumping from
the surface of the lake, but, when the bottom was visible, great schools could be
seen both near and away from the streams. Around the mouths of the streams they
appeared in masses and a great many were noticed in Wood River ascending to the

o

Fish trap in Wood River, about 15 miles above mouth.

spawning-ground. In and around the feeders they had turned deep red in color,
and it was particularly noticed that they seemed free from signs of injury or disease,
due, doubtless, to the scarcity of obstructions in the river.

Time did not permit specific investigation relating to hatcheries, as such work
would probably have to extend over quite a period in order to report with any
degree of intelligence, but the general situation seems to be favorable. The basin at
the outlet would make an excellent retain ing-pond for ripening the fish, and, with pure
water near by, two of the hatchery problems would be solved. The temperature
would probably be the drawback, and some method would have to be adopted for
warming the hatching water during the fall and winter.

ft

WOl

8:> 1
U.

Co m

-/Approved *

7^ 77tA<2&r.

Commander*, O. S Nowy, Com’dL’a?.

(To face page 200.)

Plate XI.

& /N <>»•»>

o|mauntain$
estiovated, in

pprov/ed

"'manden v

RUNIViNG SKETCH or
WOOD RIVER AND LAKE
BRISTOL BAY,
Alaska.

8«j Lieul ftocl rn. an. U.S N

U.SF.C.S ALBATROSS.
Cai*A.Je^U f Moser, 1). S N, C<

Jaltj , 19 0 0

A Astronomical S^o
a\ Cann«i*«j

LatltuAe S3* oo' ZZ N.
LonyituAe IS8° 2.9 £z"w.
Oomfjajj Variation 2.3* to £

S. Na Cotnld’^.

Alaska Pack!

_N USHAQAK
RIVER

.

■ 10 ft TA8 J A 2 .3 ?, Z v '

_ ■ fcsvc-terq K.

C jo if VV ‘ |

■Y'JiVvOv • ^ 2 .U 'fS'Jbwo.rrj/rroD J

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1900.

201

On the western bank of Wood River, about 15 miles from its mouth, is a trap
and a trap house. This trap is the largest that was seen in the Bristol Bay district
and is rather a complex arrangement. It has 2,700 feet of leads, with two hearts,
75 by 75 feet, and a corral. A description of it is rather difficult, and reference is
therefore made to the sketch.

NUSIIAGAK CANNERIES.

All the canneries on the Nushagak are located on the upper end of the bay, two
on the western side, and four, besides a large saltery, on the eastern side; and, if one
which has not been in operation since 1891 is excepted, all are within 6 miles of the
mouth of the river. A brief history of the canneries was given in the report of 1897,
page 173, but, as the district had not then been visited, the data was incomplete. In
order to cover the whole subject in this report, it is deemed advisable to give the
history anew, even at the expense of some little repetition.

On the Nushagak this year (1900) there were live operating and one reserved can-
neries, and one salteiy, as follows: Arctic Packing Company, Nushagak Canning
Company (reserved), Bristol Bay Canning Company, and the Alaska Packing Com-
pany, all belonging to the Alaska Packers Association; the Nushagak Cannery of the
Pacific Steam Whaling Company, and the Alaska Fishermen’s Packing Company.
The saltery is known as the C. E. Whitney & Co, station.

Arctic Packing Company. — In 1883 the schooner Neptune was sent by Mr. Rohllfs
to prospect for fish on the Nushagak, and a large number of redfish salted. The
same year cannery buildings were erected for the above-named company, and in 1881
an experimental pack of 100 cases was made. This is the first cannery that operated
in Bering Sea. It has made a pack every year to date, excepting 1892, when it
joined the pool of the Alaska Packing Association and was closed; in 1893 it became
a member of the Alaska Packers Association. The cannery is located on the eastern
shore If miles above Fort Alexander, at a place called Kanulik, and known as the
Mission. The Moravian mission and the village are situated on the bluff overlooking
the cannery. The Nushagak post-office is also located at this point. The capacity
of the cannery was increased this year and now has a daily output of 2,100 cases.

Alaska Packing Company. — This company was organized at Astoria, and in the
spring of 1886 sent a cannery outfit on the schooner Sadie P. Caller and the brig
Courteney Foard to the Nushagak, where a cannery was built at the head of the bay
on the western side, at the village of Kanakanek (also called Chogiung) about 1| miles
below the junction of the Wood and Nushagak rivers. It made a pack that year and
every year since to date. It entered the pool of the Alaska Packing Association in
1892, and became a member of the Alaska Packers Association in 1893. The capacity
was increased this year, and it now has a daily output of 2,100 cases.

Bristol Bay Canning Company was organized in San Francisco and built a can-
nery in 1886 on the western shore of Nushagak Bay, in a bend about 2 miles below
the cannery of the Alaska Packing Company. It made a pack that year and every
year to date. In 1892 it entered the pool of the Alaska Packing Association, and
in 1893 became a member of the Alaska Packers Association. The capacity was
increased in 1900, and it now has a daity output of 2,100 cases.

Nushagak Canning Company built a cannery on the eastern shore of Nushagak

202

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

Bay in 1888, at a place called Stagarok (also known as Clai'k Point), 5^ miles below
Fort Alexander and 3 miles above Ekuk. It was operated in 1888, 1889, 1890, and
1891, but has not since been used. In 1892 it joined the pool of the Alaska Packing
Association, and became a member of the Alaska Packers Association in 1893. This
cannery is held in reserve and at present is used as a fishing station.

These four canneries are all owned and (except the reserve cannery) operated by
the Alaska Packers Association, under one local management. There is a foreman
at each cannery, all under the orders of one superintendent, Mr. P. H. Johnson, who
resides, during the packing season, at the cannery of the Alaska Packing Company,
where he is in communication with all the canneries. The greatest distance between
any two in operation is 1 miles in a straight line, but on account of shoals and banks
long detours are necessary in going from one to another. The association now
contemplates establishing a telephone service to connect the several establishments.

The supplies are common to all the canneries of this system and are kept at the
Alaska Packing Company’s cannery, where there are large storehouses and consider-
able machinery for work in wood and metal. The fish are distributed so as to give
each one a supply in order to keep all in full operation. In the statistics the pack
only is kept separate. Until the present year the canneries had each a two-filler
outfit, but in the spring of 1900 an additional filler was installed, and each has now a
daily capacity of 2,400 cases. They all have practically the same machinery for
processing the fish, which consists in each of 8 retorts, 3 fillers, 3 toppers, 2 solderers,
and 1 cutter, with spare ones at headquarters to supply breaks. There are no fish-
hoists or elevators; fish are pewed from boats and lighters, at low water, to platforms,
and thence to fish-house, and, after cleaning, are conveyed in cars to the cutters.

About 33 per cent of the cans are made at the canneries and the rest brought from
San Francisco; 100-pound domestic tin plate is used for tops and bodies. A few
can-making machines were supplied in 1900, but at the time of our visit had not been
set up. It is hoped eventually to make all cans at the canneries. All transportation
is done by the association’s own vessels, or by chartered vessels, all of which are kept
moored during the season in the channels of the bay near the canneries.

The Chinese and the fishermen’s contracts, and native wages for this district,
have been given on preceding pages.

The Alaska Packers Association has in its employ a physician and surgeon, who
attends to the employees of the association. His otfice and dispensary are at the
cannery of the Alaska Packing Company.

In 1900 the three operating canneries of the Alaska Packers Association employed
215 white fishermen, 66 white cannery-hands, 450 Chinese, and 75 natives. They used
two sets of gill nets, 80 nets in each set, for redfish, each net 75 fathoms long, 24
meshes deep, and 61-inch stretched mesh; l\ sets of gill nets, 80 nets to each set,
for king salmon, each net 125 fathoms long, 24 meshes deep, and OJ-inch mesh; value
of all about 65 cents per fathom. Besides these they had on hand a large quantity of
web and material for making nets.

They used four traps — one at Clark Point, and one on the right bank of the Nush-
agak above the junction, each having a shore lead 500 feet long and an outside lead
350 feet long, with a square pot 40 feet by 40 feet; one trap, immediately below the
cannery of the Alaska Packing Company, on Nushagak Bay, had leads 50 feet and

CANNERY OF ARCTIC PACKING COMPANY (A. P. A.), NUSHAGAK BAY.

Bull. U. S. F. C. 1901. (To face page 202.)

Plate XII.

CANNERY OF BRISTOL BAY CANNING COMPANY (A. P. A.), N US H AG AK BAY.
View from bluff to eastward.

Plate XIII.

Bull. U. S. F. C. 1901. (To face page 202.)

CANNERY OF PACIFIC STEAM WHALING COMPANY, NUSHAGAK BAY.

Bull. U. S. F. C. 1901. (To face page 202.)

Plate XIV,

Bull. U. S. F. C. 1901. (To face page 202.)

Plate XV

SALTING STATION OF C- E. WHITNEY & CO., NUSHAGAK BAY.
View from bank to northward.

ARCTIC PACKING COMPANY (A. P. A.), NAKNEK RIVER.
View of wharf, steamers, fish railroad, etc.

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1900.

203

300 feet, pot 40 feet by 40 feet; and the large trap on Wood River which has pre-
viously been described. These traps must cost from $1,200 to $1,500 each, except
the Wood River trap, which can hardly have been completed under $4,000.

The following boats were used: 18 lighters, value, $600 each; 25 skiffs, $30 each;
80 Columbia River gill-net boats, $200 each, and 2 pile-drivers, $1,200 each.

The following vessels were employed:

Class ana name.

Tons.

Crew.

Value.

Owned or
chartered.

Steamer Polar Bear

28

5

*12, 000

Owned.

Steamer Queen

18

3

10, 000

Do.

Launch Amy S

5

2

4, 000

Do.

Launch Tvone

5

2

6, 000

Do.

Ship Oriental

1,550

(')

55, 000

Chartered.

Ship Ectlip.se

1,469

(')

35, 000

Do.

Ship Tacoma

1, 671

(b

60, 000

Owned.

1 Fishermen.

The following was the output in 1900:

Alaska Packing Co.

Arctic Packing Co.

Bristol Bay Canning Co.

Species.

No. to

No. to

No. ti

Cases.

the

Dates.

Cases.

the

Dates.

Cases.

the

Dates.

case.

case.

case.

King salmon..

2, 543

3

Junel7-June 25

3, 530

3

Junel5-June 25

2, 256

3

June 17 -June 28

Redfish 1

56, 228

13

June25-July 24

57, 230

13

June23-July 23

57, 079

13

June 20- July 25

Cohoes

332

13

July 21-July 24

1,254

13

July 22- July 23

931

13

July 23-July 23

Dog salmon . . .

1,694

13

Junel9-June 27

1,921

13

June 19-Ju ne 27

2,331

13

June23-June 27

1 The Alaska Packing Co. also put up 1,420 barrels and 698 half barrels, averaging 50 to the barrel.

The Nushagak Cannery , of the Pacific Steam T X haling Company, is located on
the eastern shore of Nushagak Bay at Fort Alexander, which is also known as
Nushagak Village. The cannery outfit was transported by vessels of the company
and arrived on the Nushagak April 12, 1899. The erection of the buildings was com-
menced at once and the cannery was ready for work June 8. A pack was made in
1899 and in 1900. It is a modern cannery, well built and equipped, has good light,
and is clean and airy. The capacity is 1,600 cases per day. The cannery machinery
consists of 4 large retorts (90 cases each), 2 fillers, 2 solderers, 1 topper, and 1 cutter.
Fish are pewed from lighters and boats to the fish-house, and, when cleaned, are
carried to the cannery by a conveyor consisting of an endless chain of buckets
passing under a shower. Fifteen per cent of the cans used this year were made at
the cannery, the remainder being transported. One-hundred-pound tin plate was used
for tops and bodies, 20 per cent of which was imported. It is proposed to increase
the capacity of the cannery to three fillers and to install can-making machinery.

The fishermen’s and the Chinese’ contracts and natives’ ivages were the same as
previously noted. In 1900 the cannery employed 56 white fishermen, 10 white can-
nery-hands, 35 natives, and 100 Chinese.

The cannery used for redfish two sets of gill nets (25 to a set), each net, length
75 fathoms, depth 24 meshes, 6i-inch mesh; and for king salmon two sets of nets
(22 in a set), each net, length 125 fathoms, depth 24 meshes, 91-inch mesh; value of
all, 65 cents per fathom.

204

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

The following boats were used: Six lighters, value, $300 each; 4 skiffs worth
$30 each, and 25 Columbia liiver gill-net boats worth $200 each.

The following vessels were employed:

Class and name.

Tons.

Crew.

Value.

Owned or
chartered.

15

1.647

9

(')

S4, 500
60, 000

Owned.

Chartered.

1 Fishermen.

The following was the output in 1900:

Species.

Cases.

No. to
the
case.

Dates.

King salmon

2,291

3. 6

June 12-July 22.

Redfish 1

39, 223

13

June 22-July 22.

Dog salmon

1,873

13

June 20-July 1.

1 Salted, 415 barrels redfish, 48 to the barrel.

The Alaska Fishermen's Packing Company, of Astoria, built a cannery immedi-
ately below that of the Pacific Steam Whaling Company in the spring of 1899. The
canning outfit arrived May 27, and the plant was ready for operation June 25. They
made a pack in 1899 and in 1900. The cannery has a daily capacity of 1,600 cases, and
the following machinery is used in processing the fish: Six retorts (capacity, 47 cases
each), 2 fillers, 2 toppers, 1 wiper, 2 solderers, and 1 cutter; 28 per cent of the cans
were made at the cannery, using 100-pound domestic tin for bodies and tops. The fish
are pewed to the fish-house and the cleaned fish then transferred by cars to the cutter.

In 1900 the cannery employed 55 white fishermen, 7 white cannery -hands, 35
natives, and 93 Chinese.

They used for redfish 30 gill nets, each 70 fathoms long, 30 meshes deep, 64- inch
mesh; for king salmon, 25 gill nets, each 70 fathoms long, 22 meshes deep, 10-inch
mesh; all valued at 75 cents per fathom.

The following boats were used: Four lighters, value, $700 each; 3 skiffs, value,
$30 each; 17 Columbia River gill-net boats, value, $200 each.

The following vessels were employed:

Class and name.

Tons.

Crew.

Value.

Owned or
chartered.

34

4

$15, 000
20, 000

Bark Harry Morse

1,241

(b

Chartered.

1 Fishermen.

The output of the cannery for the year 1900 was as follows:

Species.

Cases.

No. to
the
case.

Dates.

1,990
38, 100

3

12.5

June 15-July 22.
June 25-July 22.

Redfish1

1 Salted, 445 barrels and 105 half-barrels of redfish, 48 to the barrel.

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1900.

205

Saltery of G. E. Whitney & Co. — This saltery was built and operated by the
Bristol Bay Canning Company, on the Egashak (Snake) River in 1886; three years
later three fishermen acquired each a one-quarter interest and moved the outfit to
the mouth of the Nushagak. Upon the formation of the Alaska Packers Association,
Messrs. C. E. Whitney & Co. purchased the one-quarter interest of the Bristol Bay
Canning Company, and also that of one of the fishermen, and in 1895 purchased
another quarter. In 1899 the firm became the owner of the saltery by purchasing
the remaining quarter. The saltery was moved to its present site about 1892. It is
the largest in Alaska and is located on the eastern shore of the Nushagak Bay, 41
miles above Fort Alexander, at a point where the bluff recedes and the long, broad
low point commences to make out to form the head of the bay.

The following are the statistics for 1900: 62 whites employed as fishermen, trap-
men, saltery hands, etc., and 3 natives.

Fishing gear: One trap, near the saltery, having leads of 150 feet and 50 feet,
with a pot 20 feet by 20 feet; 14 gill nets, for redfish, each 85 fathoms long, 23
meshes deep, 61-inch mesh; 14 gill nets, for king salmon, each 120 fathoms long, 25
meshes deep, 91-inch mesh.

Boats, lighters, etc.: 3 lighters, valued at $500 each; 5 skiffs, value, $30 each;
14 Columbia River boats, value, $200 each.

The following vessels were employed:

Class and name.

Tons.

Crew.

Value.

Owned or
chartered.

Steamer Usok

2

(i)

*3. 000
25, 000

Owned.

Barken tine Willie R. Hume

589

Chartered.

1 Fishermen.

The pack was completed very early on account of the large run of fish, and on
July 17 the vessel was loaded and ready for sea.

The saltery output for 1900 consisted of 536 barrels of king salmon, June 14 to
July 11, 14 to the barrel; 7,186 barrels of redfish, June 14 to July 11, 50 to the barrel.
The following is the output of the saltery from 1889 to date:

Year.

No of
barrels.

Y ear.

No of
barrels.

1880. .

250

400

700

1,000

1,400

050

1895

1,043
1,74]
2, 436
4, 112
6, 225
7, 722

1890

1891

1896

1897...

1892

1898...

1893

1899

1894

1900. . .

About 90 per cent of the pack consists of redfish; the remaining 10 per cent is
made up of king salmon and cohoes — very few of the latter.

THE KVICHAK.

The large arm at the head of Bristol Bay, extending to the northeast and bounded
on the south by a line from the southern entrance point of Egegak River to Etolin
Point, has been designated in a previous paragraph as Kvichak Bay. The upper

206

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

part of the bay is very shoal, and as the current is strong it can be safely navigated
only by small vessels built to resist the shock of repeated grounding. It is said that
the banks from the Etolin side project halfway across the bay, and, with those from
the peninsula side, coniine the channel to a comparatively narrow limit. A seagoing
vessel, however, under skillful guidance and with local knowledge, may reach a point
a few miles below the mouth of the Naknek River, which is about 30 miles below the
head of the bay; but some cannerymen, considering the risk too great to carry their
transport vessels even to the mouth of the Naknek, leave them there for the season.

Above the mouth of the Naknek River the shoals begin to extend across the
channel, and as a point higher up i° reached the whole bay, at low water, is filled
with uncovered banks having shallow, narrow channels winding through them.

At the head of the bay is the mouth of the Kvichak River, which is the outlet to
the great lakes, Iliamna and Clark, lying on the western side of the mountain system
bordering Cook Inlet. Very little is known of this lake region, as it has been visited
by very few white men.

Mr. A. B. Schanz, the census enumerator of this district for 1890, and Mr. John
W. Clark, of the Alaska Commercial Company, ascended the Nushagak and, taking one
of the tributaries, made a portage to the Chultina, which was followed to Lake Clark.
A description of the source of the Kvichak is given in the Census Report of 1890,
page 92. From it the following quotation is made:

We discovered Lake Clark on the morning of Sunday, February 15, 1891. It is a typical Alaskan
mountain lake, for it has all the characteristics in a marked degree. It is very long, very narrow, very
irregular, and very deep, and is surrounded on all sides by high mountains. It is nearly 70 m les long,
is at the widest point hardly 10 miles wide, and is crooked and very full of bays and bights. We tried
in vain, with a sounding line over 100 fathoms long, to find its bottom; and the mountains hemming
it in tower in altitude from 5,000 to 12,000 feet. The general direction of the lake is northeast and
southwest, and extends from the base of the Alaskan range bordering Cook Inlet to the one hundred
and fifty-fifth meridian. The longitude of the geographical center of the lake is about 160° 15 7 W.
It has five noteworthy affluents, and its outlet, the Noghelin River, was found to be an important
stream of great volume, open throughout the winter on account of its force, and running generally
almost due south. The Noghelin supplies the great Lake Iliamna with its vast store of crystal water,
the source of which has hitherto been absolutely unknown to geographers.

Lake Iliamna is the largest lake thus far discovered in Alaska. Its greatest length is about 90 miles,
and its greatest width about 40. It therefore extends over one-half the width of the peninsula, and
together with its outlet, the Kvichak River, it provides a waterway from Bristol Bay to within 20 miles
of Cook Inlet, and an easy portage over a mountain pass completes the route.

The river is large and discharges a great quantity of water. It is said that the
influence of the tide is felt 30 miles from the mouth. The Kvichak flows into the
head of the bay on the western side; on the eastern side a smaller river, the Locke-
nuck, having a lake source, it is said, discharges its water. At the head of the bay
there is an extreme rise and fall on spring tides of over 25 feet.

The Kvichak is purely a redtish region. All the other species occur, but in a
scattering way. The traps take a few trout, but no steelheads, shad, or sturgeon.
The times of the runs are about the same as those given for the Nushagak. Inquiry
was made regarding a hatchery site, but no information could be obtained of any
location in the vicinity suitable for the purpose.

Koggiung, the location of the cannery of the Point Roberts Packing Company,
is on the eastern shore at the upper end of Kvichak Bay, about 6 miles below the

SALTING STATION OF C. E WHITNEY & CO. LOADING BARKENTINE WILLIE R. HUME, NUSHAGAK BAY.

Bull. U. S. F. C. 1901. (To face page 20 6.)

Plate XVI

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1900.

207

mouth of the river, and, according to the chart (which is only a sketch), is in latitude
59° 01' north; longitude 156° 56' west.

Point Roberts Packing Company. — The Prosper Fishing and Trading Company
established a saltery at Koggiung in 1894 and salted that year and in 1895. In 1896
it was sold to the Alaska Packers Association under the name of the Point Roberts
Packing Company. The Alaska Packers Association established a saltery at Kog-
giung in 1894, near that of the Prosper Fishing and Trading Company, and after the
purchase of the latter in 1896 consolidated the two. This saltery has been operated
every year except 1899.

In 1895, under the same name (Point Roberts Packing Company), the Alaska
Packers Association built a cannery at Koggiung, utilizing the available machinery
from the cannery of the Central Alaska Company at Thin Point. It was a two-filler
cannery of 1,500 cases capacity per day. It made the first pack in 1896 and a pack
every year since to date. In 1897 it was enlarged to three fillers, and in 1898 a
second three-filler cannery was built close to and connected with the first, so that
the plant now practically consists of a six-filler cannery and a saltery.

The cannery is substantially built, light, roomy, airy, and clean. It is well
equipped, and has a rated capacity of 4,800 cases per day. It has 18 retorts, of 47 cases
capacity each; 4 boilers, 6 fillers, 6 toppers, 4 solderers, 2 cutters, and 5 can-makers.
Fish are transferred from boats and lighters by steam hoists to the fish -house, and
from the latter, when cleaned, to the cannery by a conveyor consisting of an endless
chain of buckets. About 33 per cent of the cans are made at the cannery and the
remainder brought from San Francisco; 100-pound tin plate is used for bodies, and
90-pound for tops; 50 per cent of the plate is imported.

The fishermen’s and Chinese’ contracts, and native wages, are the same as previ-
ous^ stated.

The Kolchak Packing Company. — Under this name the Alaska Packers Associa-
tion built a cannery in the spring of 1900, on the eastern shore of Kvichak Bay,
about 6 miles below the cannery of the Point Roberts Packing Company, and on the
northern point of entrance to Bear Slough. It is a three-filler cannery with a daily
capacity of 2,400 cases, and has substantial warehouses and quarters. It is well
lighted, roomy, and well ventilated, and contains the latest machinery and cannery
improvements. It was ready and commenced packing June 29.

This cannery is operated under one management with the Point Roberts Packing
Company, in a manner similar to those of the association on the Nushagak. They
are under the superintendency of Mr. H. C. Jansen, who has his headquarters at the
former cannery, with telephone communication, so as to direct the affairs of all. The
cannery machinery of the Kvichak Packing Company consists of 9 retorts of 47 cases
capacity each, 3 fillers, 3 toppers, 2 solderers, and 1 cutter. Can-makers will be
installed in 1901. Fish are transferred from boats by steam hoists to cars, thence to
fish-house, and, when cleaned, by conveyor to cannery.

As the two Alaska Packers Association canneries are under one management
the supplies, fish, etc., are common to all, and the field statistics given, except the
pack, will be combined, therefore, for the two canneries.

The cannery transporting vessels — those that bring the spring outfits to Bering
Sea and return with the pack in the fall — are moored in the channel in Nushagak

208

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

Bay in the vicinity of Clark Point. The transfer is made to and from the canneries
by large, specially constructed steamers, drawing from 10 to 12 feet of water, heavily ,
built and quite flat on the bottom, so that when they ground on the mud banks they
may stand up when the tide leaves them, with cargo and vessel uninjured. The
largest, built this year, the Kvichak , has a capacity of 32,000 cases, and the second, j
the President , can carry 11,000 cases.

In 1900 the Point Roberts and the Kvichak together employed 154 white
fishermen, trapmen, etc., 38 white cannery-hands, 33 natives, and 447 Chinese and
Japanese. The Alaska Packers Association has a physician in its employ at
Koggiung, who attends the employees from Koggiung to Ugashik. There were on
hand 100 gill nets for redfish — length, each, 75 fathoms; depth, 20 meshes, 6|-inch
mesh; value, 65 cents per fathom. One trap, located on the eastern shore of the
bay, about 12 miles below the Point Roberts cannery, had an inshore lead of 60
feet, an offshore lead of 300 feet, with a 40-foot by 40-foot pot. The offshore lead
was parallel with the shore and not more than 100 feet from it; value about $1,000.

The. following vessels were emplojmd:

Name and class.

Tons.

Crew.

Value.

Owned or
chartered.

Steamer Kvichak

610

13

$200, 000

Owned.

Steamer Savak

90

4

8, 000

Do.

Steamer Lillian

19

3

9, 000

Do.

Launch Herbert

5

0

4,000

Do.

Ship St. Nicholas

1,687

0)

50, 000

Chartered.

Ship Servia

1,736

9

55, 000

Do.

Ship Bohemia

1 , 528

’)

55, 000

Owned.

Schooner (3-mast) Prosper

229

9

15,000

Do.

1 Fishermen.

The boats used were: 7 lighters, worth $800 each; 6 trap-scows, $100 each; 10
skiffs, $30 each; 50 flat-bottom gill-net boats, $100 each; 2 pile-drivers, $1,200 each.
The following was the output in 1900:

Species.

Cases.

No.
to the
case.

Dates.

Point Roberts Packing Co.:

Redfish 1

99, 578

12. 5

June 23-July 25.

King salmon

341

3

Do.

Cohoes

297

10

July 20-July 25.

Humpbacks

Kvichak Packing Co.:

1,676

19

July 15-July 25.

Redfish .

45, 200

12.5

J une 28-Aug. 1 .

1 Salted: 92 barrels and 115 half-barrels of redfish, 50 trap fish, or 40 gill-net fish, to the barrel.

These canneries obtain their fish by gill nets and traps. During the 1900 season
but one trap was used — that referred to on a preceding page. In 1898 and 1899 an
additional trap was used in the Kvichak River, about 15 miles above the cannery.
About 30 per cent of the catch is made by this means. Preparations for salting
about 1,500 barrels are usually made, but very few were cured in this way during
the 1900 season. It is said that, in salting, trap fish run about 50 to the barrel, while
gill-net fish run about 42, which is a marked illustration of selection by gill nets.

May 20, 1898, the ship Sterling , with the outfit for the Koggiung cannery, was
lost on the shoals off Cape Constantine. No lives were lost.

View from sand dune to southwest.

Bull. U. S. F. C. 1901. (To face page 208.)

Plate XVII.

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1900.

209

Worth Alaska Salmon Company. — This compan}r, organized from the Sacramento
River Packers’ Association and incorporated under the laws of California, sent a
large cannery plant to Bristol Bay in the spring of 1900 and built two canneries on
the left bank of the Kvichak River, near the mouth, about 6 miles above Koggiung.
The plant was placed in two canneries, 1,000 feet apart, for the purpose of obtaining
tire protection. They will be operated, however, under one management during the
season of 1901, when the first pack is expected. Each cannery will have 1 retorts,
2 tillers, 2 toppers, 2 solderers, 1 cutter, and 1 set of can -makers. As the, cannery
will employ 50 hands to the tiller, a daily capacity is expected of 1,800 cases, or 3,600
cases for the two canneries; a conservative rating, however, would be 3,200 cases.

THE NAKNEK RIVER.

The next large salmon river is the Naknek, which enters Kvichak Bay, on the
eastern side, about 25 miles to the southward of Koggiung, in latitude 58'J 12' north,
longitude 157° 02' west (approximate). The river has its source in a large lake of
the same name (at one time also known as Lake Walker), on which two villages are

located. The river is large, about 60 miles in length, and flows a great body of water
in a general westerly direction. It is said that tide water extends about 25 miles from
the mouth, at which point the river is about one-half mile in width, and that at the
mouth there is an extreme rise and fall of spring tide of over 20 feet.

Shoals and banks, many of which uncover at low water, fill the lower course of
the river and extend 3 or 1 miles off the mouth, then trend around to the northward
and join the body of banks that fill the upper end of Kvichak Bay. At low water
the channel between the banks and the flats is very shallow; cannery steamers, draw-
ing but 7 feet of water, await half tide before entering. Navigation is done on the
rising tide or at high water.

The mouth of the river is about 3 miles wide between the headlands, which consist
of bluffs about 100 feet high. Within the entrance the banks converge quite rapidly,
and about -1 miles from the mouth the river is about three-fourths of a mile wide

F. C. B. 1901—11

210

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

between the banks. At this point the canneries are located, that of the Arctic Pack-
ing Company on the left bank, and nearly opposite, on the right bank, that of the
Naknek Packing Company . Abreast of the cannery and for a long distance below
the river bed at low water is four-fifths uncovered, and it is said that at very low
water it may be forded above the cannery; nevertheless, it runs a large body of
water. V eiw little is known of the interior. During early Russian times this lake
and river formed a connecting link of the trail from Kadiak to the Nushagak, by
way of Katmai.

The Naknek is essentially a redfish river, though members of all other species are
present, but only in a scattering way. During the season a few king salmon and cohoes
are taken. Exceptionally, there is a small run of humpbacks, but practically no dog
salmon. There are a few trout, but no steelheads, shad, sturgeon, halibut, or cod.

The redfish commence running about June IT, when about 100 cases may be
packed. Eight or ten days later they are running strong. July 16-20 they begin
to slack, and by July 25-28 the run, for cannery purposes, is finished. In the spring
very large schools of young salmon, about 4 inches in length, are seen passing out
to sea. There does not appear to be any site for a hatchery in the vicinity.

Fishing is carried on entirely by gill nets and traps, which were used by both
companies until this year, when the Naknek Packing Company abandoned trap fish-
ing as too expensive to maintain.

Arctic Packing Company.- — In 1890 this company built and operated asaltery on
the Naknek, at a point indicated in the preceding paragraph. This saltery was sold
to the Alaska Packers Association in 1893. In 1894 the association built a cannery
at the same point, utilizing in its construction the available machinery of the cannery
of the Thin Point Packing Company, at Thin Point, and made the first pack in 1895.
A pack has been made every year since to date. The saltery has been operated every
year except 1897. The original plant was a two-filler cannery, but in the spring of
1900 an additional machine was installed, and it now has a daily capacity of 2,400
cases. A pack of 55,000 cases is expected during a good average season.

The canning machinery consists of 3 fillers, 3 toppers, 2 solderers, 1 fish-cutter,
and 9 retorts. Fish are transferred from boat to fish-house by cable cars running on
an inclined plane and operated by steam. Can-makers have been installed, and when
in thorough running order will probably make most of the cans used, though this
year only 30 per cent were made on the ground, the remainder being brought from
San Francisco. One-hundred-pound tin plate was used for bodies, and 90-pound
plate for tops, all imported, as the pack of this cannery was for export trade.

Transportation is by the company’s vessels, which in the spring approach the
mouth of the river as closely as safety permits, and after discharging are moved to
Nushagak Bay, where they are loaded with the pack at the end of the season.

Fishermen’s and Chinese’ contracts and native wages are the same as previously
noted. In 1900 the cannery employed 58 white fishermen, 54 white cannery-hands,
trap and beach men, and salters, 20 natives, and 140 Chinese.

The following boats were used: Eight lighters, worth $800 each; 10 skiffs, $40
each; 34 flat-bottom gill-net boats, $100 each; and 1 pile-driver, $1,200. The gill-net
boats are of the same type as those used on the Kvichak, and described on page 180.

There were in use for redfish 29 gill nets, besides 47 spare ones, and sufficient

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1900.

211

webbing for 12 more. The nets are each 75 fathoms long, 22 meshes deep, and 6^-inch
mesh. King-salmon nets are not used. In addition three traps were driven, but as
the netters brought in an abundance of fish only two were used. One was located on
the left bank of the river, about 6 miles above the cannery, with inshore and offshore
leads of 750 feet and 1,900 feet, respectively, heart 80 feet by 160 feet, and pot 40
feet by 40 feet. Another, at the northern point of entrance to the river, had leads
of 750 feet and 1,100 feet, respectively, pot 40 feet by 40 feet, but no heart; and the
third, of the same dimensions, which was not used, on the southern shore near the
entrance. These traps are driven in the spring and pulled up when fishing ceases.
They are valued at about $1,200 each. About 20 per cent of the fish used by this
cannery are taken in traps.

The following vessels were employed, all owned by the company:

Class and name.

Tons.

Crew.

Value.

238

5

4

1,413

1,134

9

2

2

(’)

0

$40, 000
4,500
3, 000
50, 000
20, 000

Launch Ralph L

Launch Northern Light

Ship Indiana

1 Fishermen.

The following was the output in 1900:

No. to

Species.

Cases. the

case.

Dates.

King- salmon

69 6

June 18-June 24.

Redfish 1

61,816 12.5

Junel8-Ju!y 28.

Humpbacks

449 22

On July 25.

1 Salted, 1,356 barrels and 1,141 half-barrels of redfish; 52 to the barrel.

Naknek Packing Company. — In 1890 Air. L. A. Pedersen established and
operated a small saltery on the right bank of the Naknek about 3 miles above the
mouth. In 1894 a company under the above title, incorporated under the laws of
the State of California, absorbed the saltery and erected a cannery near it. The first
pack was made in 1895, and a pack has been made every year to date. The saltery
has also been operated every year, and in 1897 an additional one was built and
operated on the shore of Kvichak Bay, about 2 miles above the mouth of the Naknek.
The latter was abandoned in 1900. During the present season (1900) the cannery
plant was enlarged by the addition of a small cannery building, warehouse, bunk
houses, etc., and it is expected to have three fillers ready for operation in 1901 and
the cannery equipped for a pack of at least 40,000 cases.

The following cannery machinery is now installed: Eight retorts, 2 fillers, 3 top-
pers, 2 solderers, and L cutter. Fish are pewed from boats and lighters to fish-house.
Thirty-three per cent of the cans are made at the cannery; the rest are brought from
San Francisco. Can-makers have been installed, and it is expected to make a large
proportion of tins at the cannery in the future. One-hundred-pound tin plate is
used for bodies and 95-pound plate for tops, 50 per cent of which is imported.

The transportation was by a vessel of the company, which was kept moored in
Kvichak Ba}r below the mouth of the river.

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

01 2

U JL U

The fishermen’s and Chinese’ contracts and native wages were the same as given
on previous pages for this district.

In 1900 the company employed 60 white fishermen and beach-hands, 12 white
cannery-hands, 11 natives, and 131 Chinese. Twenty-one redfish gill nets were used,
each 75 fathoms long, 22 meshes deep, 6i-inch mesh; value, 65 cents per fathom.

They have 7 lighters, $600 each; 5 skill's, $25 each; and 28 flat-bottom gill-net
boats, $100 each.

The vessels employed were: Steamer Fram , 12 tons; crew, 3; value, $8,000;
owned. Barki?. P. Cheney , 1,200 tons; crew, fishermen; value, $20,000; owned.
The following was the 1900 output:

Species.

Cases.

No. to
the
ease.

Dates.

31

4.8

Throughout the season.

35, 675
352

12

July 23-July 28.

'There were salted 22 barrels of king salmon and 1,150 barrels of redfish, the latter
running 47 to the barrel.

THE EGEGAK RIVER.

This river empties into the outer limits of Kvichak Bay about 31 miles south of
the Naknek, and has Cape Chichagof for its northern entrance point. It is a large
river about 2 miles in width at the cannery, and is the outlet to Lake Becharof. It
flows in a general westerly direction for about 50 miles. Tide water is said to extend
about 25 miles up the river; very little is known of the locality.

The lower part of the river is a wide bay, contracted at the mouth, and, like
other rivers of this district, at low water a large part of the bed is exposed in shoals
and banks, with narrow channels winding through them. At the entrance shoal water
extends several miles 'offshore, and the small cannery steamers enter only from half
to full tide. The channel into this river is wider and deeper than in the Naknek and
Kvichak, and, if it were properly buoyed, vessels of moderate draft could enter at
high water; there is, however, no swinging room inside. The cannery transporting
vessel, a bark of 554 tons, is carried in at high water and moored head and stern
alongside of the low-water bank.

This river is also essentially a redfish stream, though all other species are found,
but they are scattered throughout the season and are few in number. There are a
few trout, but no steelheads, shad, sturgeon, halibut, or cod. The time of run of
the redfish is the same as given under the Naknek, to which reference is made.

Fgegak Fishing Station. — Under this name the Alaska Packers Association, in
1895, established and operated a saltery on the right bank of the Egegak about 5
miles from the entrance, and salted every year until 1900, when the apparatus was
moved to the new cannery site, though the buildings were left standing.

Egegak Packing Company. — In 1899 the Alaska Packers Association, under this
title, commenced building a cannery on the left bank of the Egegak, opposite and a
little above the salting station, utilizing the available machinery of the cannery
of the Baranotf Packing Company, of Redfish Bay, Southeast Alaska. This plant
had been purchased during the winter of 1898 and 1899, when that locality was
abandoned. The new cannery was completed in 1900, and the first pack commenced
July 1. It has substantial buildings, and is clean and well arranged. The cannery

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1900.

213

machinery consists of 5 retorts, 2 fillers, 2 toppers, 2 solderers, and 1 cutter; can-
makers will be installed. This year all cans were brought from San Francisco, 100-
pound tin plate being- used for bodies and 95-pound plate for tops; all domestic.

Fish are pewed from boats to cars which are hauled by cable, operated by steam,
over an inclined plane leading- from the fish-house to the water at all stages of the tide.
After cleaning, the fish are passed directly from the draining table to the cutter.

The saltery, which has been moved to the cannery site, is operated in conjunction
with the cannery.

The fishermen’s and Chinese contracts and native wages were the same as for
other canneries of this district. In 1900 this cannery employed 39 white fishermen,
16 white cannery-hands, 10 natives, and 80 Chinese.

They used 20 gill nets, each with a length of 80 fathoms; depth, 26 meshes,
6|-inch mesh; value, about 65 cents per fathom. No traps were driven, but they

Freehand sketch of entrance to F.gegak River, Bristol Bay.

were prepared to drive two with leads of 200 and 250 feet and pots 10 feet by 10
feet, valued at about $1,000 each.

They used 5 lighters, $200 each; 7 skiffs, $30 each; 19 flat-bottom gill-net boats
$100 each, and one pile-driver, $1,500.

The following vessels were employed:

Class and name.

Tons.

Crew.

Value.

Owned or
chartered.

Launch Llewellyn

5

2

fl.OUO

Owned.

Launch Corinne

5

2

2, 000

Do.

Bark Charles B. Kenney

1,014

554

(-)

;io, ooo

Chartered.

Bark Will W. Case

(2)

18,000

Owned.

1 Employed at Naknek also, which see. - Fishermen.

The following was the output in 1900: Redfish, 21,652 cases, 12.5 to the case,
July 1 to July 25. Redfish, salted, 582 barrels and 1,513 half-barrels, 50 to the barrel.

214

' BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

THE UGASHIK RIVER.

The mouth of this river is about 40 miles below the Egegak, and, according’ to
the chart, is in latitude 57° 38' north, longitude 157° 48' west; but the chart is appar-
ently much in error. The river, it is said, has its source in a lake system of consid-
erable extent, about 50 miles in the interior of the peninsula. In its lower course
it has as tributaries King Salmon River, which enters through the left bank from the
southeast about 5 miles from the pilot station, and Dog Salmon River, which enters
through the left bank about 15 miles from the pilot station. These are large streams,
and it is probable there are others higher up.

The Ugashik is a large river and discharges a great quantity of water into the
wide indentation that has Cape Grey for its northern point and Cape Menchikolf
for its southern. Cape Gre}r is a prominent bluff about 200 feet high, ranging
several miles along the shore, brownish in color, with a few yellow vertical stripes.
It appears to be the terminal point of a low ridge, which itself slopes to low land
on each side. Cape Menchikotf is also a high bluff having a wider range along the
shore and more hilly country back of it.

From seaward the near land visible between the capes, including the river valley,
appears to be all low. The capes can be approached from the westward to within a
distance of about 2 miles. The distance between them is estimated at about 20 miles,
though the chart would seem to indicate the distance as about 2 miles. From the
capes the low land converges to the eastward to a point where the river may be
said to enter. Here it is about 6 miles across between high-water banks, and has on
the northern side a bluff, 10 to 12 miles from Cape Grey, known as Smoky Point.
This is recognized as the northern entrance point to the river.

The indentation formed by the two capes, the converging land, and the lower
courses of the river are filled with shoals and banks. There is, however, a fair
channel, through which, it is said, 9 feet may be carried at low-water spring tides.
This channel is buoyed during the canning season by the Alaska Packers Association
for the convenience of their vessels, but no regular system is adopted and a stranger
would be unable to follow it with safety. The outer buoy is on the bar, which is
nearly on a line between Cape Grey and Cape Menchikotf, 9 miles from the former.
From this buoy it is about 6 miles to Smoky Point.

About 6 miles higher up the river, on a bluff on the right bank, is a native village
which is called the “Pilot Station,” and immediately above it, on a lower bluff, is
the cannery of the Alaska Packers Association, called the Ugashik Fishing Station.
It is about 17 miles from Cape Grey. An Eskimo formerly lived in the village who
piloted vessels through the channel, hence the name, Pilot Station. The river is
very tortuous, and winds and recurves to such an extent that at a point about 20
miles by river from the Alaska Packers Association cannery the distance across
country is about 7 miles.

The Ugashik, like the rivers previously described in this report, is essentially a
redfish river, and some years these salmon run in very large numbers. King salmon
occur scatteringly throughout the season, and at times dog salmon are plentiful.
There are practically no humpbacks, but it is said there is a run of cohoes after the
canneries close. There is, at times, an abundance of trout, flounders, and crabs, but

View from stream to northea

Bull. U. S. F. C. 1 901 . (To face page 214.1)

Plate XVIII

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1900.

215

no halibut, shad, or sturgeon. The runs correspond to the times given for the
Naknek River.

Johnson Saltery. — Mr. C. A. Johnson salted salmon on the Ugashik from 1889 to
1898, both inclusive. He was the pioneer in this business on the river and built and
operated a saltery in 1889, on the left bank, about 23 miles above Smoky Point and

2 miles below the trading post of the Alaska Commercial Company. This saltery
was merged in the cannery of the Bering Sea Packing company. In 1891 Mr.
Johnson established and operated another saltery on the right bank of the river,
about 1| miles above the pilot station, which he sold in 1899 to the Alaska Packers
Association, who absorbed it in their cannery plant.

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

216

Bering Sea Packing Company. — In 1890 this company, a branch of the Alaska
Improvement Company, though a separate corporation, purchased the machinery of
the Western Alaska Packing Company at Ozernoy, and commenced building a can-
nery on the left bank of the Ugashik, near the first Johnson saltery. In transporting
the machinery on the schooner Premier , that vessel went ashore in Stepovak Bay and
the machinery did not all reach the Ugashik until 1891, when it was installed and a
small pack made that year. As the site appeared unsuitable, the cannery remained
closed in 1892 and 1893, and in 1894 it was moved to a point on the left bank, about
15 miles above Smoky Point, where it was operated in 1894, 1895, and 1896. In
1897 it was sold to the Alaska Packers Association, with other property of the
Alaska Improvement Company, and the machinery and equipment were utilized in
the Alaska Packers Association cannery. Nothing remains but the dwelling of the
superintendent, now used as a fishing camp by the Alaska Packers Association.

Nelson saltery. — In 1893 Mr. Charles Nelson established a saltery on the left
bank of the Ugashik, immediately above the last site of the Bering Sea Packing
Company. After operating it in 1893 and 1894 it was sold to the Alaska Packers
Association and closed.

Alaska Packers Association Saltery. — In 1893 the Alaska Packers Association
built a saltery on the left bank of the Ugashik, about a mile below the last site of the
Bering Sea Packing Company. It was operated in 1893, 1894, and 1895, and then
merged in with the Alaska Packers Association cannery, built the latter year near
the pilot station.

Ugashik Fishing Station. — In 1895 the Alaska Packers Association built a can-
nery on the right bank of the Ugashik immediately above the pilot station, where
the river is about 3 miles wide, utilizing in its construction the available machinery
of the Russian -American Packing Company’s cannery at Afognak. It made the first
pack in 1896, and has packed every year since to date. Originally it was a two-filler
cannery, but in 1900 another filler was installed, and it now has a capacity of 2,400
cases per day. The machinery consists of 7 retorts, 3 fillers, 3 toppers, 2 solderers,
1 cutter, 1 spare filler, 1 spare topper, and 2 sets of can-making machines.

Fish are pewed from boats and lighters to platforms and thence to fish-house, and
when cleaned are transported in cars to the cutter. Seventy per cent of the cans are
made at the cannery and the rest transported from San Francisco. One hundred
pound tin plate is used for bodies and 95-pound tin for tops, all imported.

Fishermen’s and Chinese’ contracts and native wages were the same as mentioned
under other canneries.

The transporting vessels enter the river at high water, and during the season
are moored in the channel, one near the cannery and two near the left bank about 5
miles above the cannery.

In 1900 this cannery employed 64 white fishermen and trapmen, 24 white cannery
and saltery hands, 20 natives, and 140 Chinese.

It used two sets of gill nets, 24 to a set, each 85 fathoms long, 26 meshes deep,
6^-inch mesh; value, about 65 cents per fathom. There were 3 traps; one about a
mile above the cannery, on the right bank, with leads each 500 feet and pot 40 by
40 feet; one about 18 miles above the cannery, on the left bank, with leads each
400 feet and pot 40 by 40 feet, and one about 22 miles above the cannery, with leads

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1900.

217

of COO feet and 400 feet, respectively, and pot 40 by 40 feet. These traps are valued at
about $1,000 each. It is stated that about 20 per cent of the fish are taken in traps.

The following boats were used: Nine lighters, valued at $800 each; 10 skiffs, $25
each; 30 Columbia River gill-net boats, $200 each; 1 pile-driver, $1,500.

The following vessels were used:

Class and name.

Tons.

Crew.

Value.

Owned or
chartered.

Steamer Thistle

56

5

|25, 000

Owned.

5

2

2

7,000
2, 500

1 )o.

Launch Cathie K

3

Do.

Bark Nicolas Thayer

555

(>)

(■)

15, 000

Do.

Bark Coryphene

733

15, 000

Chartered.

Three-masted schooner Premier

292

(>)

15,000

Owned.

1 Fishermen.

The following was the output in 1900: King salmon, 101 cases, 4 to the case,
June 18 to June 29; redtish, 54,581 cases, 13 to the case, June 21 to July 29. There
were salted C03 barrels and 606 half-barrels of redfish, 50 to the barrel, and 10
barrels of coho bellies.

Bristol Packing Company. — This company, organized largely by the stockhold-
ers of the Naknek Packing Company, sent a cannery outfit to the Ugashik early in
the spring of 1900 and located on the left bank of that river about 25 miles from
Smoky Point, near the site of the old trading post of the Alaska Commercial Com-
pany. The cannery was ready for packing July 9. It was not fully equipped, but
had at the time of our visit 2 retorts, 1 fruit topper, 1 solderer, and 1 cutter. The
work was done largely by hand, but it was estimated that 500 cases could be packed
per day. All the cans were brought from San Francisco; they were made of 100-
pound imported tin plate. It is said that in 1901 the cannery will be equipped with
3 fillers and the corresponding machinery, and it is anticipated that a pack of 40,000
cases will be made during the season.

The transporting vessel ascended the river to a point about 8 miles below the
cannery, where she was moored in the channel for the season.

In 1900 this cannery employed 27 white fishermen and beachmen, 6 white
cannery-hands, 10 natives, and 48 Chinese.

They used 8 gill nets, each 75 fathoms long, 23 meshes deep, 6^-inch mesh, valued
at 65 cents per fathom. No traps were used.

The following vessels owned by the company were used: Gasoline launch Amelia ,
5 tons; crew, 2; value, $2,000; bark Agate, 595 tons; crew, fishermen; value, $10,000.
The}T have 1 lighter, value, $250; 1 skiff, $25; 7 gill-net boats, $100 each.

The output in 1900 was: Redtish, 6,653 cases, 12 to the case, July 9 to July 29.
Commenced salting July 2, and salted 1,150 barrels of redfish, 46 to the barrel.

With the Ugashik our examination of the Bristol Bay district was finished. It
is a wonderful salmon country, and can not be equaled. The redtish still run in
countless numbers, and, as the rivers can not be barricaded and as overfishing has
not yet produced its effect, there seems to be no depletion. The next few years,
however, will see many new canneries established by the capital that was used in
the canneries on the failing waters of the northwest coast of the United States.
But in the absence of proper laws, or the enforcement of such poor ones as now
obtain, these streams, too, will become depleted in time.

218

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

CHIGNIK DISTRICT.

This district was visited the latter part of July. The remarks made in my
former report (pp. 161-171) on this locality hold good at the present day, and it
appears unnecessary to make any changes or modifications after this second visit
and examination. There have been no additions to the three operating canneries,
which have packed every year to date.

The cannery men still contend that there is no diminution in the numbers of
salmon taken from the river and lagoon, yet the locality no doubt is badly over-
fished. The lagoon and approaches and the river approaches are studded with traps,
some with leads 3,500 feet long, and sometimes so interlaced that at a distance the
channel appears completely blocked, and it hardly seems possible for a fish to pass.
Plate ix indicates the positions of these traps at the time of our visit, and it will be
seen that while 12 have but one pot, 6 have two. As the latter really consist of 2
traps joined on the leads, there were actually 21 traps, or one more than during the
season of 1897, at the time of our visit.

My opinion of traps has been expressed and the waste from them referred to,
but as a further illustration of this trap waste a single occurrence related to me
may be given: A lighter having a capacity of 15 tons, and having nearly that
amount of fish aboard, was towed to a cannery where the species desired for canning,
amounting to about 6 tons, were removed; the rest, consisting of cod, tomcod,
halibut, flounders, sculpins, dog salmon, trout, etc., were waste. In the spring of
the year immense numbers of tomcod are taken. It is said that as much as 15 tons
of this species have been thrown out of a trap in one day.

Trap men claim that the waste species are released, but such is not generally the
case. If the trap be full of fish not wanted, the pot may be lowered and the fish
released alive, because that is the simplest method for emptying the pot, but usually
all are dipped out together and the sorting is done afterwards.

If traps be prohibited — and in i ny opinion they should be — it is difficult to say
what the fishing results will be at Chignik. At present traps, gill nets, and seines
are used, and the catch is represented in the following proportions: Traps, 70 to 75
per cent; gill nets, 20 to 25 per cent; and seines, about 5 per cent. It is believed
that an honest effort has been made with gill nets and seines, but the results have
been very unsatisfactory. For gill-net fishing the water is too clear and the channels too
shallow and narrow. For seining there are no beaches and the bottom is unsuitable.
However, if the fish are there the cannerymen will devise some means for obtaining
them. A few years ago purse seines were tried in southeastern Alaska and pronounced
a failure; now they are very generally used in certain localities, and with such success
that the boast is made that they need no longer construct barricades, as they take
with purse seines all the fish that come to the streams.

The times of the runs of the fish are given in my former report (page 169), to
which may be added that some veai's there is a small run of humpbacks and usually
a great many dog salmon. Steelheads rarely occur. Dolly Varden trout are
numerous and arrive a few days before the redfish, remaining until late in the fall.

The Chinese contract at Chignik varied this year from 42 cents to 42| cents per
case, on guaranties of 20,000 to 28,000 cases, with the usual conditions.

1901. (To fnca page 218.)

Plate XIX.

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1900.

219

The fishermen’s contract varied in the different canneries. In one, all fishermen
and trapmen were paid $30 per month, with full board, from the time of signing’ in
San Francisco until paid off on return, and one-fourth cent per case. In two other
canneries the same contract as the preceding was made with the trapmen, except that
their pay ceased on leaving Chignik, for the reason that they were not obliged to
work the vessel. In these two canneries the gill-netters were differently paid. In
one they received $15 per month, without board, from the day of arrival until the
day of departure, 3 cents per fish to be divided among all netters, and 35 cents per
day for commutation of ration. In the other cannery gill-netters had $20 per month
from the date of arrival to that of departure, full board, and 3 cents per fish.

We spent a Saturday in the lagoon. One cannery packed a few fish in the
morning, left from the preceding day, and was then closed. The turn .els of the traps of
this cannery were all up, so far as could be seen, and upon inquiry it was reported that
they had strict orders to obey the weekly close season, and were doing so. Several
scow-loads of fish, however, were noticed during the afternoon on their way out, and
the web of a number of traps was noticed down.

For a history of the canneries, with their locations, etc., see my former report.

The Chignik Bay Company has a daily capacity of 1,600 cases, and operates in
its cannery 7 retorts, 2 fillers, 2 toppers, 2 solderers, and 1 cutter. It has two sets
of can-makers, with a capacity of 70,000 cans per day, and all the tins are made at the
cannery, largely of imported material, using 100-pound plate for the bodies and
95-pound plate for the tops. The fish are pewed from boats and lighters to the fish-
house, and the cleaned fish are conveyed by car to the cannery. It employed in 1900
63 white fishermen, 13 white beachmen, 3 white coal-miners, 1 white cannery-hands,
2 natives, and 90 Chinese. They used 1 gill net, but have 10, each 135 fathoms long,
30 meshes deep, 6^-inch mesh, value 65 cents per fathom; 3 drag seines, but have 1,
from 75 to 180 fathoms long, 3 to 3£ inch mesh, 120 to ISO meshes deep at bunt, value
$1.50 per fathom; 6 traps of L pot and 2 traps of 2 pots, shore leads varying from
150 to 3,500 feet, average 1,000 feet; channel leads, 100 to 1,600 feet, average 900 feet;
hearts 75 feet across, and pots 10 feet by 10 feet, average value $1,500 each. The
trap web is all tanned, pots 51-thread, wings 36-thread; the piles are 10 feet apart.

The following boats were used: Two schooner-rigged lighters, capacity 11,000 fish,
value $1,500 each; 1 sloop-rigged lighter, capacity 1,000 fish, value $750; 12 trap
scows, capacity 1,800 to 3,500 fish, average value $250; 3 flat-bottom seine boats, $100
each; 15 skiffs, $25 each; 7 Columbia River boats, $200 each; 8 flat-bottom gill-net
boats, $100 each; 3 pile-drivers, $750 each.

The following vessels owned by the company were employed:

Class and name.

Tons.

Crew.

Value.

Steamer Afognak

37

5

$18, 000

Steamer Baby Ruth

10

4

5, 000

Ship George Skolfield

1,275

(9

20, 000

1 Fishermen.

The following was the ouput in 1900: Redfish, 10,331 cases, 10.5 to the case,
June 10 to August 12; cohoes, 62 cases, 10 to the case, August 3 to August 12.

220

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

The Pacific Steam Whaling Company’s cannery at Chignik, located in Anchorage
Bay, operated this year in its canning plant 2 iron retorts, 4 steam boxes, 1 tiller, 1
solderer, and 1 cutter. The fish are pewed from lighters to the fish -house, and after
cleaning carried by cars to the cannery. The plant has a daily capacity of 950 cases,
and they expect to pack during the season about 30,000 cases. It has no can-makers.
The cans are all made by hand at the cannery, using 100-pound tin for tops and bodies,
of which about 13 per cent is imported. The plant will probably be enlarged.

In 1900 this cannery employed 60 white fishermen and trapmen, 10 white can-
nery-hands, 4 natives, and 60 Chinese. They used 10 gill nets, each 260 fathoms
long, 30 meshes deep, 6-inch mesh, valued at 65 cents per fathom; 3 seines, 2 of 200
fathoms length and 1 of 300 fathoms length, each 22 feet deep, 3-inch mesh, valued
at $3.50 per fathom; 4 traps (2 single pot, 2 double pot), average shore lead 800 feet,
average channel lead 800 feet, heart 80 feet each side, and pot 40 feet by 40 feet,
average value $1,500 each.

The boats used were: Four lighters, $400 each; 2 sail scows, value $200 and $800;
10 trap scows, $60 each; 10 skiffs, $25 each; 3 seine boats, $75 each; 3 gill-net skid's,
$100 each, and 3 pile-drivers, $1,000 each.

The vessels employed were: Steamer C. C. Cherry, 37 tons, crew 6, value $15,000,
owned; launch Esquimaux , 5 tons, crew 2, value $2,500, owned.

Transport of pack and spring outfit by calling vessels of company.

The following was the output in 1900: Red fish, 32,966 cases, It. 4 to the case,
June 9 to August 6; dog salmon, 120 cases, 10 to the case, July 20 to July 28.
Salted 69 barrels of humpback bellies, 450 to the barrel.

Hume Bros. <4? ITume cannery at Chignik, located at Anchorage Bay, operated
this year in its cannery plant 4 retorts, 1 filler, and 1 solderer. The fish are handled
from lighters to cannery in the same manner as noted under other canneries. The
plant has a capacity of 800 cases per day, and they expect to make a season pack of
25,000 cases. Cans are made by hand, of 100-pound tin for tops and bodies, of which
50 per cent is imported.

In 1900 this cannery employed 52 white fishermen, 10 white cannery-hands, 6
natives, and 58 Chinese. They used 15 gill nets, each 150 fathoms long, 26 meshes
deep for lagoon and 40 meshes deep for outside fishing, 6-inch mesh, value 65 cents
per fathom; 2 seines, 150 fathoms long, 25 feet deep at bunt, 3-inch mesh, value
$1.50 per fathom; 7 traps (5 single, 2 double), average shore and channel leads 800
feet, heart 80 feet on each side, pot 40 feet by 40 feet, average value $1,500.

The boats used were 13 lighters, $140 each; 2 sail scows, $300 and $600; 14 skiffs,
$25 each; 2 seine boats, $70 each; 8 Columbia River boats, $200 each; 10 gill-net
skiffs, $100 each; 2-pile drivers, $1,050 each.

The following vessels (owned by the company) were employed:

Class and name.

Tons.

Crew.

Value.

5

2

S3, 200 |

Launch Ethel and Marian

G

3

•2, 880

Bark Ferris S. Thompson

480

11

12,000

Schooner Maid of Orleans

171

8

8,000

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1900.

22 1

The following was the output in 1900: Redfish, -23,003 cases, 11 to the case,
June 6 to August 19; dog salmon and humpbacks, 3,611 cases, 10 to 21 to case, July
2 to August 19.

ALITAK BAY, KADIAK ISLAND.

On Olga Bay, and its connecting waters with Alitak Bay, locally known as
the “ South End,” there are one operating and one reserve canneries and several
excellent salmon streams. As the locality was not visited in 1897, and as the whole
region is unsurveyed, the Albatross this season, whilst engaged in the salmon inves-
tigation, made a sextant reconnoissance of a portion of these waters. The area is
so large that the live days allotted to the work were not sufficient to cover more than
the anchorages and the passages leading to them. The results, however, should be
of great service to vessels navigating these waters. In the following notes reference
is made to the drawing of the reconnoissance accompanying this report.

Alitak Bay is a large body of water on the southwestern side of Kadiak Island,
about 65 miles by sea from Karluk. The entrance, from Cape Alitak on the west to
Cape Trinity on the east, is about 8 miles wide, and in its length of 11 miles the
ba}r narrows to 5 miles at the upper end, where it terminates in two wide arms, each
several miles in length. The general direction of the bay is NNE. and SSW. The
western side has several indentations, with islands, rocks, and foul ground for a dis-
tance of 2 miles off the middle section. At the northern end of this section, about 11
miles from Cape Alitak, a passage extends westward around the upper islands and
opens upon a broad sheet of water, named Moser Bay, which, in a distance of 3 miles,
turns to the northward the same distance, where a narrow gut leads to Olga Bay.

In approaching Alitak Bay from the northward Low Cape is first made about 9
miles from the western point of entrance. The former is a low bluff, and the shore
line, which is low with high mountains in the background, extends to the latter in a
deep bend, making to the northward and eastward.

Cape Alitak is the terminal point of an undulating granite ridge, named Tanner
Head, about -1- miles in length, the northern end bordering on Lazy Bay. This ridge
is a peninsula, with the highest hills (about 600 feet) at the northern and middle
parts, from which there is a gradual roll and descent to the pitch of the cape; this,
at the extreme point, is low and rocky. In approaching from the westward it is
seen as a long point with rolling hills and knobs gradually shelving to the sea.

Five miles to the northward from Cape Alitak the western shore makes out in a
high head, named Drake Head, which separates Lazy Bay from Kempff Bay. Sur-
mounting the head are two conical peaks, Twin Peaks, about 1,200 fee* high, which,
in clear weather, can be seen a long distance from seaward. They are easily recog-
nized, and make an excellent guide to the entrance.

South of Drake Head is Lazy Bay, which may lie recognized from its position
with reference to the Twin Peaks and Egg Island, the latter a small rocky islet lying
just north of the entrance. From this bay a narrow arm, named Rodman Reach,
projects to the southwest inside of Tanner Head to Cape Alitak, where it forms a
basin from which another narrow arm extends for some distance to the northwest,
being separated from the sea by but a narrow strip of land. Lazy Bay affords good
anchorage and is very accessible.

222

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

Kempff Bay, northward of Drake Head, is about 1 4 miles long by 0.4 mile wide,
and is apparently clear of dangers. For want of time, no soundings were made, but
if upon examination proper depths are found, it should make an excellent harbor.

From Drake Head to the passage leading to Moser Bay are a number of islands,
rocks, and ledges making off from the western shore. Inside of these is Akhiok,

a native village, which, in 1890, contained over 100 inhabitants. The people here
suffered severely during the last winter (1899-1900), many dying with a disease never
properly diagnosed, but which was probably grip.

The peninsula separating the North Arm of Alitak Bay from Moser Bay is a high
ridge shelving toward the southern end, and has been used by the cannnery steamers

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1900.

223

as a leading mark. High Rock is a high, detached rock, easily recognized on
approaching the passage, with rocks and submerged reefs, covered in summer by
kelp, extending nearly two-fifths mile off the southern and eastern sides.

The eastern shore of Alitak Bay consists of high, bold bluffs, terminating in Cape
Trinity, which, from a distance, appears bold, and on the continuation of the general
line of the bluffs. This shore was not closely examined, and, while no dangers were
seen, it should be approached with caution. Near the middle of the bay, 10 miles
within the entrance point, is an extensive ledge named Middle Reef, covered at high
water, but baring over a considerable area at low water.

In the extreme western end of Moser Bay is Snug Harbor, and 2 miles to the
northward is Chips Cove, both affording excellent anchorage.

The peninsula formed by Olga and Alitak bays and the connecting waters is
treeless. It is broken up by mountain masses rising to a height of about 2,000 feet,
rolling’ tundra, marshes, and lakes.

The sextant reconnoissance extends only to the Narrows connecting Moser Bay
with Olga BajG The plan of the latter is from a running sketch made in the steam
launch, checked by a few cuts made upon mountain peaks.

SAILING DIRECTIONS.

In entering Alitak Bay, after making the Twin Peaks, shape the course to arrive
off the entrance with Cape Alitak bearing NW. distant 2f miles; then lay a course
N. by E. f E., and run 8.4 miles. This should bring a ledge, that is said to cover
only at high water spring tides, on the port beam distant 1 mile; then change course
to N. i W. bringing High Rock ahead, and run 3 miles, when the passage to Moser
Bay should be wide open. Now follow the chart, keeping in mid-channel, favoring
the northern shore for the deepest water, and, when well inside, keep in the middle
of Moser Bay; if bound for Snug Harbor, open it fair, steer for the center, and
anchor with the lead. Do not approach the head too closely, as the flats make off
some distance from the reserve cannery building. If bound for Chips Cove, keep in
mid-channel and anchor by the lead. The only danger known in Moser Bay is a shoal,
or reef, lying 1 mile to the eastward of Point Fassett and one-fourth mile off' shore,
and a spit making off a short distance from the middle point of the southern shore.

Cape Alitak, bearing SW. \ W., mag., distant 4J miles.

The bottom, in the passage, is much broken; immediately inside 3£ fathoms
were found in mid-channel at low water. It should be remembered that the work of
the Albatross was only a sextant reconnoissance and not a detailed survey, so that
every precaution should be observed in entering. It may be remarked here that the
dangers are usually marked by kelp in summer, but this is not always the case.

Lazy Bay. — The Twin Peaks and Egg Island are the guides to Lazy Bay. No
hidden dangers were found. With the bay wide open enter in mid-channel on a
west course, and anchor at discretion.

224

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

Time did not permit sounding inside of Rodman Reach, but from all appearances
it may be entered far enough to obtain shelter from all winds. The first projecting
point has a spit extending from it.

It is said that a 5-fathom ridge, or bar, extends from Cape Alitak to Cape Trinity,
and that kelp has been seen in places on it. The Albatross on entering encountered
the shoal soundings at this point, and also on leaving, as shown on the chart. The
shoals off the southwest end of Tugidak Island are said to run in ridffes.

The Narrows. — About 1 mile to the northward of Chips Cove is the southern
entrance to the Narrows which lead to Olga Ba}r. The}^ are about 1 mile in length
and in the narrowest part about 300 feet in width. The channel is tortuous with
many rocks, some of which uncover at low water, and others which are only apparent
by the heavy swirls over them when the current is running full. The small cannery
steamers use the Narrows, but local knowledge is necessary and a large vessel should
not attempt the passage. With the current running full the cannery steamers wait
for slack water, which occurs two hours after high and low water at Snug Harbor.
The current at its greatest velocity probably reaches 8 knots. It is said that
3i fathoms can be carried through the channel at low water, but this statement should
be received with caution.

Observations with sextant and artificial horizon for geographical position were
obtained at the northern entrance to Snug Harbor, which gave latitude 56° 59' 26" |

north, longitude 154° 12' 22" west. Variation by compass declinometer 29° 17' east.
Establishment from 8 successive high waters, at moon’s age from five to nine days:
XIh 38m. Mean rise and fall of tide during same period, 6.71 feet.

Olga Bay is an irregular-shaped body of water lying in a general east-and-west •
direction, rather crescentic in form, with the cusps to the southward; it is from
17 to 18 miles in length, with a width of from one-half mile to 2 miles. The western
end is the largest and is separated from the sea about 6 miles to the northward of
Low Cape by a strip of low land only three-fourths of a mile wide. The bay has the
appearance of a lake, and having such a narrow passage to the sea the tidal influence
is not very great, the rise and fall varying from 1 to 2 feet at the cannery.

OLGA BAY CANNERIES.

The only operating cannery in this section is located on the northern shore of
Olga Bay, about 10 miles from the northern end of the Narrows. The history was
given from incomplete data in my report of 1897, but as some additional information
has become available, it is rewritten here.

Arctic Packing Company. — In 1889 this company built a cannery in the south-
western end of Olga Bay, at the mouth of a small stream on the eastern shore known
as the South Olga Fishing Station. The cannery was not well equipped, and the
capacity was only from 250 to 300 cases per day. As the location was not favorable
it was moved the following year across the bay to a point S miles to the northward,
on the right bank and near the mouth of a small stream known as the North Olga
Fishing Station, which is its present position. The change of location was very
satisfactory, and the cannery was much improved in equipment, buildings, etc.

In 1891, under an agreement with the Kodiak Packing Company, in the same
locality, the cannery of the latter was closed and its quota of fish was packed in the
Arctic cannery. In 1892 it was in the pool formed by the Alaska Packing Association,

Plate A.

Scale, of Mil g. 6 .

C'ajje. Hejahurn

>

U

Middle Reef

Cov\6hvc\ions lla.cK
*Mqi\oIvI\\

d 14^ 6

3 \»olA
cliff*

Cajie Trlixl*^

1 i .atv"

SNUG HAIiBOR
LAZY BAY

IS3Li-A.TSm>

From a Sextant Reconnaissance/
hy *tkc Officers of tke
U. S- Fisk Com. £>ti: "ALBATROSS"
i‘v August 1900
vnvcler tke direction, of

Comdr. Jeff 'ii F Moser IJ. S. N. t CoituLg.

tyO.OOO.

So-undin^s are expressed in fathoms. reduced to the
mearx of all low-waters obaerv/ed.

Aslr«.«!caiat-*^iL-*- S6' 59' *6'

[Lo.v^. 1ST lZ' W w.

Yari o.t Loiv Z 9° 16‘ El’l^y, by Compass Jbeclinometev.

Trial**- til aition. Point ,
Aitr«it«M*i.a.L StibtUtb.

'

!/■

t h* oir i*iA

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIG ATIONS IN 1900.

225

and in 1893 it entered the Alaska Packers Association. It has been operated every
year since its construction, and now has a running- capacity of 1,000 cases per day.

This cannery, also known as the “Olga Bay” and the “South End,” is well
arranged and more than usually clean. The cannery machinery consists of 5 retorts,
1 filler, 1 topper, 1 solderer, and 1 cutter, with 1 filler and 1 topper in reserve. It
has a complete can-making outfit, and it is claimed that 900 cases of cans have been
made in one day, but 700 cases would be a better average. The plant has been suc-
cessfully operated bv running all the machinery together, salting the cans at once at
the can-makers, and conveying them to the filler. In this way, when the machinery
runs well, 700 cases can be turned out daily. The successful operation of this plant

Pot -

40 by 90 feet

Lead.

bOO feet.

Opening - 30 feet.

Corral -

40 by bo feet

Win<2 -
450 feet.

Sketch plan of floating trap set out on north shore of Cannery Cove, Olga Bay,
Alitak, Kadiak Island.

is due to the superintendent, Mr. William Munn, who is an expert
machinist and has invented several cannery machines.

As there is very little rise and fall of tide, the fish-house is
on the end of a wharf, alongside which there are always 2 fath-
oms of water. Here the fish are pewed directly from the boats
and steamers into the bins, and after cleaning are slid over the
draining table directly to the cutter.

Cannery fillers are run at the rate of 55 to 60 per minute at
this cannery; during a heavy run they are speeded to 70, and 500
cases have been run through at 80 per minute. This high rate requires a thorough
knowledge of the machinery and delicate adjustment, and it is doubted if the cans at
a much higher rate than 60 can be successfully handled at the filling table for any

great length of time.

The tin plate used was 100-pound for bodies and 95-pound for tops, all imported.
One pound of solder was used per case for hand-made cans and three-fourths of a
pound for the machine-made. In salting the cans one-sixth ounce of fine granulated
salt was used per can, or one-half pound per case.

Occasionally, when the run is large, a little incidental salting is done.

The Chinese contract was the same as at Chignik. The fishermen received $50
each for working the ship to and from the cannery, discharging and loading, and 8
mills per case for each man, with full board, except the Italians, who messed them-
selves and received 35 cents each per day for rations.

F. 0. B. 1901—15

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

226

Transportation is by company’s vessels, which are moored in Chips Cove.

At the time of our visit the superintendent was experimenting with a machine of
his own invention for cleaning fish, which, it is learned, has since proven successful,
and a large number have been ordered for the 1901 season. If this machine is placed
in successful operation, it will not only save much labor but will afford a great relief
in the fish-house, which is usually much crowded and overworked during a heavy run.

In 1900 the Arctic cannery employed 10 white fishermen, 9 white cannery-hands,

10 natives, arid 59 Chinese. It used six seines, having a total length of 1,200 fathoms,
each from 100 to 350 fathoms long, 100 to 130 meshes deep, 3-inch mesh, all hung
straight, valued at $1.50 per fathom. It had also 3 bales of spare web, and material
on hand to make a 100-fathom purse seine if required.

A floating trap had also been constructed by the Italian fishermen. It was first
used in 1899, when it took about one-half the pack, while in 1900 it only took about
50,000 fish. This trap was located about one-half mile from the cannery and a short
distance east from the mouth of the home stream. It had a shore lead of 100 fathoms,
a corral 10 feet by 60 feet, pot 10 feet by 90 feet, curved wing 75 fathoms, and a
30-foot opening. There were used in its construction 300 keg floats, several thousand
cork seine floats, 50 anchors from 200 to 100 pounds each, 3-inch cork line, 3^-inch
anchor line. If to 2f inch pursing line. The web was 3-inch mesh, of from 15 to 15 !

threads, disposed according to strain. This trap was valued at $2,500.

The following boats were used: Two fish lighters, $250 each; 1 cargo lighter,
$500; 6 seine boats, $60 each; 2 fish scows, $100 each; 1 otter boat, $100; 18 dories,
$30 each; 3 skiffs, $15 each; 1 hand pile-driver, $100.

The following vessels (owned by the cannery) were employed:

Class and name.

Tons.

Crew.

Value.

Steamer Hattie Gage

42

5

$17. 000

Launch Aurora

5

2

2, 500

Bark Electra .

939

(b

15, 000

1 Fishermen.

The salmon pack in 1900 consisted of 32,312 cases of redfish, 13.5 to the case,
packed June 8 to August 13. No other fish were packed and none salted.

Kodiak Packing Company. — In 1889 a company, organized under this title, sent
a cannery outfit to this district on the bark Lizzie Williams , which was wrecked
in April on Tugidak Island and became a total loss. The superintendent returned at
once to San Francisco, obtained another outfit, and erected a cannery at the head
of Snug Harbor. It was operated in 1889 and 1890, and in 1891 its quota of fish,
under previous arrangement, was packed in the cannery of the Arctic company.
It entered the pool formed by the Alaska Packing Association in 1892, and in 1893
became a member of the Alaska Packers Association. Most of the machinery has
been removed, but the buildings are substantial, in excellent repair, and the cannery
could be placed in operating condition in a short time by installing machinerv. It
may be said to be in reserve. It is locally known as the “ Snug Harbor” or “ Oliver
Smith” cannery, and, when operated, it obtained fish from the same streams as
those now fished by the Arctic Company.

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1900.

227

OLGA BAY STREAMS.

The streams fished by the Arctic Packing Company are all situated on Olga Bay,
except one on the outside coast, which, however, is only resorted to at rare inter-
vals. There are three streams which run redfish: The North Olga, or home stream,
where the cannery is now located; the South Olga stream, the original site of the
cannery; and Silver Salmon Bay stream, in the extreme western end of the bay.
The latter runs very few redfish and can not be depended upon, but, with another
smaller stream that empties into a cove west of the northern end of the Narrows, it
has a small run of cohoes. This species may be found in other streams, but they run
after the cannery closes. Humpbacks and dog salmon are found in all the streams,
but, as the cannery only seeks redfish, little is known of the abundance of other

Free-hand sketch of Olga Bay and vicinity, Alitak, Kadiak Island, showing locations of
lakes and streams and the species of salmon found.

species. The Horse Marine stream formerly carried a few redfish, but its entrance
has become grassy and they have ceased entering. The redfish school around the
shores of the bay, usually near the streams; they may appear in one place in large
numbers and a few hours later be miles away. Their movements here seem to
depend upon the state of the weather and the direction of the wind and sea.

The Olga Bay streams were examined by Mr. Fassett, and from his notes the
following account is condensed.

North Olga , or Home Stream , empties into the bay just east of the cannery.
It is about li miles in length and flows in a general south-southeasterly direction
from the lake which is its source. The stream bed winds through low rolling hills

228

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

covered with a rank growth of coarse grass and shrubs. In places it broadens out
into small grassy flats with low banks of earth and stones; again, the banks are high,
steep, and grassy, with rocky ledges outcropping in places. The bed is chiefly of
shingle and gravel, with some sand in the wider parts; at the rapids and riffles there
are bare rocky ledges, small bowlders, and heavy stones. There are no falls in the
stream, but several short rapids, none of which, however, would prevent even a
humpback salmon from easily ascending. The fall from the lake to high-water mark
of the bay is about 40 feet. At the lake the outlet is about 18 feet wide with an
average depth of l£ feet, and the current sluggish, less than 1 knot per hour.

Free-hand sketch of North Olga stream and lake, Olga Bay, Alitak, Kadiak Island.

About half a mile from the lake the stream receives a small tributary known
locally as Babbling Brook, which drains the rolling hills to the eastward. There are
also several tiny rills carrying seepage from the surrounding hills into the stream,
but their total volume is inconsiderable. At the beach the discharge of the stream
is about 12 feet wide, average depth 2 feet, and current about 1| knots per hour. A
short distance from the beach of Olga Bay the stream widens into a small lagoon-
like basin, into which the tide water backs through a narrow channel. Apparently
this channel shifts from time to time with the changing of the shingle after heavy
southerly gales; at present the outlet bends sharply to the eastward and runs parallel
to the beach, separated from it by a ridge of shingle a few feet wide, and 100 yards
distant discharges into the bay. The lagoon, so called, is about 160 yards long and

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1900.

229

half as wide; the land about it is low and fairly flat, and covered with a dense growth
of raspberry bushes, shrubs, and coarse grass. Tide water backs into the lagoon.

The water of the stream is slightly discolored by the vegetation, and does not
seem to be very pure. But few dead salmon were noticed on the banks, or about the
lake outlet; nor were more than half a dozen redfish seen to pass into the lake during
a period of over an hour. Young salmon, from L-,j to 3 and 4 inches in length, were
seen in numbers, however, in the upper part of the stream close to the lake, and a
few were noticed in the lower part of the stream in the straight runs, hugging close
to the undercut banks. Many flounders and sculpins were seen in the lagoon, and
they, with the Dolly Vardens and cut-throats, were gorging themselves with the eggs
of the humpbacks, which latter were spawning at the time.

Above the lagoon, in every broad pool or pond-like widening, mallard ducks with
young were found feeding, but upon what could not be learned. The lake could not
be examined for lack of time and facilities. The sketch of the lake was made from
the vicinity of the outlet, and can be regarded merely as a crude approximation.

The lake is said to be about 3 miles long, east-northeast and west-southwest, and
is about lh miles across from the outlet to the Ayakulik Portage. It appears, and is
reported to be, deep, with generally bold shores, dropping quickly into deep water.
The beaches near the outlet are very narrow, of water-worn bowlders and rubble,
with here and there small patches of sand and shingle. On the north the hills rise
quickly to a considerable height, and the same is true of the west end; an interme-
diate point to the northeast of the outlet, which juts into and divides the lake into
two main bodies, rises to the southward in an even gentle slope, also to a good height.
Northwest of the outlet is a low valley making back from a small inlet, and through
it a small portage leads to the waters of a lake draining into the Ayakulik River.
The shores are everywhere covered with the same rank, dense growth of shrubs and
grasses, and on the hillsides are extensive patches of scrub alders and cottonwoods.

Seepage enters the lake from every little ravine in the hills, and there are
reported to be feeders, as indicated on the sketch, none of which, however, were
examined. The large stream that enters the head of the eastern arm through a
broad valley was carefully examined some months ago for a hatchery site, and it is
reported that the conditions here are all that could be desired; there are broad
spawning-grounds, excellent natural facilities for taking ripe fish and for holding
them if necessary, ample level area for extensive nursery ponds and for building
purposes, and a splendid supply of excellent water by gravity; the chief objections
would be the cost of transporting material and supplies, and the isolation.

The Babbling Brook was also examined and found suitable for hatchery pur-
poses. Where the brook joins the main stream there is a broad widening forming
a good-sized pond in which retaining and ripening corrals could readily be fenced
off, and where fry could be looked after in the spring until large and strong enough
to beset free. The low ground in this little pocket in the hills is ample for building
purposes, and the buildings would be well protected from the free sweep of the
winter gales. The water from Babbling Brook is very clear and pure, would require
but little filtering, and is said never to freeze. There is the added advantage of its
accessibility, twenty minutes by trail taking one to the cannery. The waters of the

230

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

brook would furnish an ample supply for a plant of large capacity; any other water
required could be obtained from the stream or from the lake by gravity; the bed of
the brook at this point is about 18 feet below the normal level of the lake.

South Olga Stream is the outlet of the lower of a chain of lakes lying in a broad
low valley eastward of the southern end of Olga Bay. It Hows for about three-
fourths of a mile in a general west by south direction, winding through a ravine in
the tundra-covered mesa to the bay shore, then turns sharply to the southward par-
allel to the beach, back of a bare narrow shingle barrier, and a quarter of a mile
distant enters the bay. The outlet at the lake is about 30 feet wide, 12 to 14 inches

Free-hand sketch of South Olga stream and lakes, Olga Bay, Alitak, Kadiak Island.

deep, with a current of less than a knot an hour. The bed of the stream is broad,
full of small bowlders and rocky outcrops in its upper third, generally of gravel and
shingle, and quite gradual in descent; the fall between lake and exit being not more
than 12 or 15 feet, salmon would not have the least difficulty in ascending, as the few
rapids in the upper course are low and insignificant. About 400 yards before it
reaches the beach the stream broadens out into a lagoon like pond 100 yards wide,
with a sluggish current and marshy banks. This is a favorite breeding-place for
mallard and teal ducks. At one time, apparently, the exit was at the western end
of the lagoon, but the shingle bank, thrown up by some heavy westerly gale, has

ZAPOR IN STREAM ENTERING LITNIK BAY, AFOGNAK ISLAND

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS TN 1900.

231

driven it to the southward as described; th< present fishing station is located on the
beach at the exit. Considerable of the volume of the stream must seep out through
the shingle, for at its visible exit it has shrunk to barely 10 feet in width, 10 or 12
inches in depth, with a velocity of 11 knots an hour. In the lagoon the bottom is of
sand and shingle. The banks of the stream, except the lagoon, are steep inclines
covered with a dense growth of rank grasses and moss. Tide water rarely backs up
into the lagoon; during heavy westerly storms the seas break over the shingle barrier.
The water is rather discolored, this being particularly noticeable below the lagoon.

Red salmon were running in numbers up the stream at the time of our visit,
though very few were observed entering the lake during the short time spent at the
outlet. Large schools were seen in the lagoon, and it is possible that the fish school
there before finally ascending to the lake. No dog salmon or humpbacks were
noticed, though both species are said to run at times. The course of the stream was
followed from the lake outlet to the exit, except a short distance above the. lagoon,
and it is not believed there were any barricades at that time; no signs or indications
of them were discovered, and no well-worn trails were seen anywhere beyond the
lagoon. It is not believed, therefore, that salmon have this season been taken in any
other than the salt water of the bay. The entrance of fish could be stopped in a
moment by merely laying a small piece of web across the beach at the stream exit,
and probably this has been done when fish were scarce. Immense numbers were
jumping about the bay in all directions on the afternoon of August 2, but no fishing
was going on, as the crew stationed there had already taken their daily quota.

For want of proper facilities the lake could only be examined from a point near
the outlet. Its axis is about east by north and west by south (magnetic), a mile in
greatest length, by three-fourths of a mile average width. The shores are grassy on
all sides, and the beaches of gravel, sand, and shingle, with rocky ledges and outcrops
in places, shelve gently into deeper water. The lake did not have the appearance of
more than moderate depth. The other lakes shown on the sketch were not seen bv the
party at this time, but had been previously sketched from the mountains northwest of
Snug Harbor. Very few dead salmon were seen along the banks of the stream, and
none on the beaches of the lakes. No entering streams or feeders were to lie seen.

It did not appear that the locality is well suited for hatchery purposes; the lake
water is far from pure and would require careful filtering, and a supply, as far as
could be seen, is only to be had by pumping.

Horse Marine Lagoon , at the eastern end of the eastern arm of Olga Bay, is sepa-
rated from the latter by a narrow grass-covered shingle spit. The spit extends north
from the southern shore of the bay, leaving a narrow opening, the exit of the lagoon,
between its northern end and the opposite shore. The lagoon is about five-eighths
mile in length, east-northeast and west-southwest (magnetic), in the general direction
of the short valley into which it makes; the width is about one-third its length. It
is shallow, with bottom of sand, gravel, shells, and shingle, and is badly choked by
a thick matted growth of coarse eelgrass; the shores are indented with several small
sloughs and coves. The banks were everywhere covered (August 2) with a dense
growth of coarse grasses and rank weeds, wild flowers, and berry shrubs. The small
tides of the outer bay are felt to the head of the lagoon, but to no great extent; very

232

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATED FISH COMMISSION.

little of the lagoon bares at ordinary low water. The water is brackish and slightly
warmer than the bay; no temperature observations, however, were made. Many
humpbacks and a few dog salmon were seen schooling just inside the entrance, while
Dolly Varden trout of large size, starry flounders, and sculpins were seen in great
numbers. A few humpbacks were spawning in the lower part of the lagoon and in
the slough on the northern side.

A mile from the northeastern -end of the lagoon, at the head of the valley, is a
deep fresh-water lake. This is an irregular basin about 1£ miles in greatest length by
less than half a mile average width, the major axis lying northwest by north and
southeast by east (magnetic). It is surrounded by hills on all sides except at the
valley through which it drains. It was not practicable to examine the lake at this

time. No entering streams Avere to be seen from the outlet, though three or four
valleys in the distance probably carry small feeders, where there are doubtless good
spawning-beds. It is not doubted that there is a suitable location for a hatchery
somewhere on this lake, as the indications point to a good supply of water by gravity
from the surrounding hills. The lake is drained by a shallow stream which follows
a winding course for II miles through the valley and enters the head of the lagoon.
The floor of the valley is undulating, covered ivith grasses, moss, wild flowers, and
scrub in its greater part, Avith some fair-sized alders, willows, and spruce trees on
the northern side. The stream flows Avith a velocity of about II to 2 knots an hour
above the rapids near the lagoon, where it is about 30 feet wide by 8 inches average
depth. Above' the cascade, in the upper part, the stream is broad Avith line gravel

\

Free-hand sketch of Horse Marine lagoon, stream, and lake, Olga Bay.

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1900.

233

bottom, sluggish current, and grasses growing in the water along the shores. Else-
where the bed of the stream is rocky with some gravel and shingle in places. It is
full of low riffles and a few short rapids, besides the cascade and rapids indicated on
the sketch, and the total fall from lake to lagoon is about 45 feet.

There are no artificial obstructions in the stream, which was followed its entire
length, and no natural ones to prevent the ascent of the more vigorous species of
salmon or trout. Humpbacks would probably find difficulty in passing the cascade,
and a number of them were seen in the pools below it. Many small fry, 2 to 4
inches in length, probably young salmon, were seen in the upper reaches of the
stream above the cascade and in the lake in the vicinity of the outlet.

The Horse Marine stream is referred to in Dr. Bean’s report on the salmon and
salmon rivers of Alaska, page 183, as the North Fishing Station, and the same name
is used by Captain Larsen on his sketch map. The report gives a brief description
of the location as seen on September 9. This stream was formerly good for several
thousand red fish, but since the eelgrass grew up and filled the lagoon this species has
abandoned it. About five or six years ago 1,500 red fish were taken from the Horse
Marine, but during the last three years not a single redfish has been secured.

In Olga Bay the redfish run early. Fishing commences June 7 to 9, though
they are not numerous during June; still the cannery expects to pack 5,000 cases by
July 4, when the big run sets in and continues until the first week in August. They
then begin to slacken and by the end of the month are not numerous enough to fish
for. During this season (1900) the run was heavy and a much larger pack could have
been made had there been more material on hand. In 1896 the run of redfish was
small, but there were a large number of grilse, and it is said they were all males with
the generative organs fully developed. One hundred and ninety-five cases of these
were packed; the flesh was very red, firm, of fine flavor, but more juicy than full-
grown salmon, and their weight averaged about 1 pound each. It is estimated that
the following redfish were taken from Olga Bay during the last three years: In 1898,
430,000; in 1899, 400,000, and in 1900, 420,000. The Arctic cannery utilized all these
fish except in 1898, when the two canneries at Uyak fished here, and together took
about 50,000, and Karlulc received about 10,000; and in 1899 the Uyak canneries
received about 15,000. No stream tallies are kept, but the average value of 400,000
redfish for the section is probably a fair estimate, of which 100,000 are taken in the
vicinity of North Olga stream, 200,000 in the vicinity of the South Olga stream, and
100,000 in Silver Salmon Bay and scattering.

The cannery also receives a few fish from other places. In 1898, 60,000 redfish
were taken at Ayakulik, and 35,000 were received from Chignik. In 1900 they
received 25,000 from Ayakulik taken by Karluk fishermen.

Cohoes do not seem to be abundant; they first appear July 15 to 20, and straggle
in small numbers until after the cannery closes. They are not packed at this cannery
unless the redfish run is very slack, and then only to make up the guaranty.

King salmon occur as occasional stragglers and are rare visitors. Humpbacks
and dog salmon are waste species here, and are used only by the natives for ukala.
The former are noticed early in July and run throughout the season; the latter are
seen soon after the redfish appear, and straggle throughout the season. There is
no run of steelheads; a few individuals are taken at times and used by the cannery

234

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

hands. Dolly Varden trout appear a few days before the redfish and remain through-
out the season. Cut-throat and rainbow trout are seen in the streams, but none have
been noticed in salt water. Cod and halibut are seen in small numbers around the
fisheries, and in greater numbers around the canneries, where they are attracted by
the offal. Flounders are plentiful; shad have never been seen here.

Sketch showing changes in exit of Ayakulik River
1897 to 1900.

ide of Kadiak Island, and empties into the
s, to the eastward of Ayakulik
Islet. It is small, but discharges
a large body of water. Among
cannerymen it is known as Red
River, but this name should not
be confounded with the Red River
which lies 6 miles to the north-
ward according to Coast Survey
chart No. 8500.

The locality has I >een fished by
the canneries on Kadiak Island for
many years, but it has not been a
favorite place, as the seining must
be done on the open coast and can
only be carried on during very
favorable conditions. The seines
are hauled in the surf and the fish
thrown out on the sandy beach,
then transported in carriers to
boats in the river and carried to
the waiting steamers outside.
These fish are covered with sand
and difficult to thoroughly cleanse
on that account.

The following information
relating to the river was fur-
nished by the superintendent of
the Olga Bay cannery: In 1897
and for several years prior to
that time the stream, after leav-
ing the ravine in the bluffs,

turned sharply to the southward
and skirted the line of bluffs for Id miles, behind a broad spit of sand and shingle,
before entering the sea. In 1898 the channel broke across the spit about halfway
between the 1897 exit and the river mouth proper. In 1899 it ran straight out over
the shingle to sea. This year the stream bends sharply to the northward, flowing
along the base of the bluffs, and discharges about one-half mile above the ravine
behind Ayakulik Islet. The fresh-water discharge now passes to the northward
toward Seal Cape, and the salmon have been schooling in great numbers this year
between the island and the main shore. They come from the northward, and it is

Ayakulik River is on the western s
sea midway between Low Cape and the Seal Rock;

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1900.

235

believed that the increase in this year’s numbers is due chiefly, if not entirely, to the
fact that Karluk fish making the coast in the vicinity of Seal Cape feel the influence
of this fresh water, and, following it up, soon find themselves off the mouth of the
Ayakulik, schooling in the open water, as described. As the stream has worked to
the northward the catch of redfish has been observed to increase.

The run of redfish at Ayakulik this season has been very large, and it is estimated
that the total catch amounted to 700,000 fish from the beach around the mouth of
the stream. In the early part of August the humpbacks came in myriads; it is said
that a boat could hardly pull through the dense masses when they were schooling,
and that fishing for redfish then ceased. The weather was very favorable for
conducting the fisheries at Ayakulik this year; the sea was exceptionally smooth, an
excellent condition for outside beach work.

KARLUK.

A full account of the canneries, streams, and fisheries is given in my former
report, pages 144 to 157, to which reference is made, and only changes or omissions,
together with the 1900 statistics, will be referred to in this article. The operating
canneries at Karluk are the Karluk Packing Company, the Hume- Aleutian Packing
Company, and the Alaska Improvement Company; those of the Hume Canning and
Trading Company and the Kodiak Packing Company are held in reserve. These
are all the property of the Alaska Packers Association, and, with the cannery of the
association at Uganuk, they are operated under one superintendent, with headquar-
ters at Karluk Spit; there is a foreman at each operating plant. Karluk is the depot
of supplies for the district, and affairs are conducted in much the same manner as
noted under Nushagak and elsewhere, where several canneries under one organization
are located in close proximity, that is, the stores and equipments are common to all
and the fish are supplied equally. As the run at Uganuk is short, usually ending by
the middle of July, the force at that cannery is transferred to the Karluk canneries
on the completion of the pack. In 1898 and 1899 the three canneries mentioned
as the operating canneries at Karluk were used, but the run of fish was so slack
during those years that in 1900 only the Karluk Packing Company and the Alaska
Improvement Company were employed in packing.

The Hume-Aleutian cannery was not operated, and as it was desired to increase
the capacity of the Bering Sea canneries, the three fillers and three toppers of the
former were removed and installed in the latter district. They expect to install new
machinery in the Hume-Aleutian cannery in 1901. The reserve canneries are in the
same condition as mentioned in my last report, though that of the Kodiak Packing
Company can hardly be said to be in reserve, as practically all the machinery has
been removed and the buildings used as warehouses, workshops, etc.

There has been no increase in the capacity of the operating canneries. The
cannery machinery in each consists of 7 retorts, 3 fillers, 2 toppers, 2 solderers, 1
cutter, and 2 sets of canmakers. Usually 2 fillers only are used, giving these can-
neries a daily capacity of 1,600 cases, though by using a third filler the capacity might
be increased to 2,100 cases; but that could hardly be kept up for any length of time,
unless an additional topper is used, which may be taken from the can-making depart-
ment. A fair capacity for these canneries as now installed is 2,000 cases per day.

236

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

The spee of the fillers, running at an average rate and in such a manner that
the handlers aro not crowded beyond their capacity, is 52 to 58 per minute, though it is
claimed the ma. ines, when well adjusted, will run at a speed of 80 to 90. At this rate
the pack can not be handled unless the filling tables are very differently arranged.

A good average for the can-makers is 50 per minute. All cans are made at the
cannery, of 100-pound tin for bodies and 95-pound for tops, of which 50 per cent is
imported; 1 pound of solder is used to the case.

Transportation is by the vessels of the company and chartered vessels, and they
usually make several trips during a season. If idle for any length of time, they are
moored at Larsen Cove, a branch of Uyak Bay.

The Chinese contract was 12^ cents per case for machine-filled and 47i cents for
hand-packed, with the usual conditions. Fishermen’s contract was $25 per month
from the time fishing commenced until it ceased and 18 cents per case, divided equally
amongst all; $10 per month from the time the vessel arrived until fishing commenced
and from the time fishing ceased until the day of departure; full board from the time
of signing until paid off', except the Italian crew, who boarded themselves and
received 35 cents per day commutation. There are two classes of fishermen; one
consists of Scandinavians, who operate on the Spit, and the other of Italians, who
operate the Tanglefoot Bay side.

The streams and vicinity, together with the species, times of the runs, and other
matters relating to Karluk, were fully described in my former report. It need only
be said that the pack made here is essentially of redfish, all other species being inci-
dental. Occasionally, after long intervals, there is an enormous run of humpbacks.
There was such a run in 1890, and this season they were again very plentiful around
the whole island. During our visit the seines were choked with them, and, as pre-
viously mentioned, at Ayakulik fishing for redfish ceased on account of the great
number of humpbacks present. There are usually a few scattering king salmon
around Karluk beach, most abundant in June, when a pack of from 500 to 1,000 cases
is sometimes made. A few cohoes and dog salmon also occur, but the small pack
usually made of the former comes from Sturgeon River. Steelheads are taken, com-
mencing early in August and increasing during the latter part of the month, but
never in sufficient numbers to utilize; thirty or forty may lie taken one day and the
next few days only three or four, or possibly none. Cod are abundant. Halibut
are not plentiful, and neither shad nor sturgeon have been seen. Usually there are
many trout, but this year they were very scarce.

The Karluk canneries this year fished the Spit and adjacent waters, Ayakulik,
Uganuk, Little River, Eagle Harbor, and Kiliuda Bay, though the yield from the last
two places was not over 9,000 fish. There seemed to be no contention this year over
the fishing rights in this vicinity.

The fisheries at Karluk during the seasons of 1898 and 1899 were considered a
failure, as only about 65 per cent of the general average of the past ten years was
made. The canneries at Karluk, Uganuk, and Uyak combined have, for the ten
years ending with 1897, made an average pack of over 200,000 cases per year, and at
no time during this period has the pack fallen as low as for the years of 1898 and
1899. Some cannerymen claim that these slack runs are only temporary; others
believe that they indicate the first sign of decline, and that while some years there

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1900.

237

may again be large runs, the average will become less. In 1900, however, there was
a large increase, the canneries under consideration packing about 220,000 cases. It
will be interesting to note the future pack of this locality, as the hard fishing com-
menced in 1888, and the first output of the hatchery was made in 1896.

For future comparison it may be interesting to record the redfish statistics of the
Karluk canneries for 1900, which are as follows:

Packed at the two Karluk canneries '2,031,971

Received from Ayaknlik River - 242,500

Received from Little River 5, 800

Received from Eagle Harbor 1,000

Received from Uganuk 24, 000

— 273, 300

1,758,671

Sent to Uganuk from Karluk 9, 000

Total redfish taken at or near Karluk Spit 1, 767, 671

Packed at the Uganuk Cannery 170,960

Received from Ayaknlik River 17,500

Received from Little River 17,300

Received from Kiliuda Bay 4,900

Received from Eagle Harbor 3,000

Received from Karluk 9, 000

— 51,700

119,260

Sent to Karluk 24, 000

Redfish taken at Uganuk 143, 260

The following are the statistics for 1900 of the Karluk and Uganuk canneries
combined. There were employed 171 white fishermen, 13 native fishermen, 13 white
cannery -hands, 8 natives, and 263 Chinese.

There were used 10 seines, each 400 fathoms long and 185 meshes deep; 6 seines,
each 250 to 300 fathoms long, and 120 to 160 meshes deep; and 3 hatchery seines,
each 100 fathoms long and 80 meshes deep, all 3-inch mesh and valued at $1.50 per
fathom. This, however, only represents a fraction of the material on hand. There
is a warehouse filled with old seines, many bales of all kinds of webbing, and an
abundance of floats, sinkers, cordage, etc. At Uganuk the two floating traps men-
tioned in my former report were used. These traps fire valued at $1,500 each.

The following boats were used: Nine lighters, $500 each; 3 launch tenders, $90
each; 17 fish scows, $150 each; 20 seine boats, $150 each; 33 dories, $25 each; 1
hatchery scow, $150; 6 hatchery transporting cars, $30 each.

The following vessels were used:

Class and name.

Tons.

Crew.

Value.

Ownership.

Steamer Kadiak

58

9

820, 000

Owned.

Steamer Gertie Story

36

7

12, 000

Do.

Launch Karluk

8

2

10,000

Do.

Launch Uganuk

8

2

1(1, 000

Do.

Launch Delphine

5

2

2, 500

Do.

Launch Ida

5

2

2, 700

Do.

Ship Santa Clara

1,453

18

40, 000

Do.

The ship Indiana and the bark Heroin , which arc accredited to the Alaska Pack-
ers Association cannery at Naknek, were also employed in part at Karluk. The
bark Merom broke from her moorings off Karluk Spit on October 6, 1900, during a
gale, and was totally wrecked on the rocks, losing 12,572 cases of salmon.

238

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

The following was the output in 1900:

Species.

Cases.

Num-
ber to
the case

Dates.

Remarks.

Karluk Packing Co.:

King salmon

475

4.9

June 9-June 28. . .

i

Redlisli :

77, 558

13. 0

June 9-Sept. 14...

>None salted.

Cohoes

1,382

7.2

Aug. 25-Sept. 14. ..

1

Alaska Improvement Co. :

King salmon

012

4.9

June 5-June28...

i

Redfish

09, 712

13.9

June 4-Sept. 21...

\ I)o.

Cohoes

2,791

8.0

Aug. 25-Sept. 21 . . .

1

Uganuk:

Redfish

13,370

12. 8

June 9-JuIv 17...

The hatchery operated by the Alaska Packers Association on Karluk Lagoon was
visited by Mr. Fassett, whose report will be found on pp. 331-348.

UYAK.

The Uyak Bay canneries, of the Pacific Steam Whaling Company and Hume
Bros. & Hume, were fully described in my previous report, pages 158-159, and will
only be referred to in connection with the statistics. These canneries are practically
the same as in 1897, and as there are no redfish streams in Uyak Bay all the fish are
obtained at a distance. The principal places fished are Karluk, The Slide, Water-
falls, Avakulik. Uganuk, Little River, Eagle Harbor, Kuslmack, Kukak, and Kiliuda
Bay. Formerly the Afognak streams at Litnik, Paramanof, and Malinof were also
fished, and it is said fish are still obtained at these places.

The Pacific Steam Whaling Company cannery uses steam boxes in the canning
process for first cooking, and for second cooking 2 iron retorts; it has 1 filler in use,
and 1 spare one, 1 solderer, and 1 cutter. Topping is done by hand. All cans are
made by hand at the cannery, using 100-pound imported tin-plate for bodies and tops.

Fish are pewed from boats or steamers to the fish-house on the end of the wharf,
and when cleaned are transported fyv handcarts to the cutters. The cannery has a
capacity of 900 cases per day.

The Chinese contract was the same as that of the Karluk canneries. The fisher-
men’s contract was $25 per month from the day of landing to the day of departure,
transportation and full board from the time of leaving the home' port until the
return to the port of departure, and $15 per thousand fish.

During the season of 1900 the cannery employed 64 white fishermen, 6 white
cannery-hands, 4 natives, and 56 Chinese; they also purchased fish from 26 natives,
who were paid from $30 to $35 per thousand.

They used 5 seines; one 700 fathoms, one 550 fathoms, and three 350 fathoms
long; 21-inch to 3-inch mesh, and 180 meshes deep. They have 10 spare seines; aver-
age value of all, $1.50 per fathom.

There are 5 lighters, $450 each; 15 seine boats, $70 each; 3 sailboats, $90 each;
13 dories, $30 each; and one pile-driver, $1,000.

The following vessels (owned by the company) were employed: Steamer Sheli-
kofi\ 101 tons, crew 10, value $36,000; launch Kenai , 5 tons, crew 2, value $7,000.
Transportation of spring outfit and fall pack is by calling vessels of company.

The following was the output in 1900: Redfish, 29,384 cases, 13.7 to the case,
May 28 to August 25; humpbacks, 1,025 cases, 21 to the case, July 20 to August 25.

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1900.

239

Ilume Bros, cfc Hume. — This cannery operates 4 retorts, 1 tiller, 1 solderer, and
1 cutter, and tops by hand. All cans are made by hand at Uyak of 100-pound imported
tin for bodies and tops. The fish are handled in the manner noted under the preced-
ing cannery. The Chinese contract was the same as at Karluk and the fishermen’s
contract the same as given under the Pacific Steam Whaling Company’s cannery.

The following are the statistics for the Ilume cannery, season of 1900: Employed
52 white fishermen, 9 natives, 12 white cannery-hands, 56 Chinese; used 10 seines,
from 150 to 350 fathoms long, 160 meshes deep, 3-inch mesh, valued at $1.50 per
fathom; 1 lighters, $400 each; 12 seine boats, $120 each; 1 Whitehall boat, $75; 20
dories and skiffs, $20 each; 1 pile-driver, $1,000.

The following vessels (owned by the cannery) were employed:

Class and name.

Tons. Crew.

Value.

Steamer Equator

12 7

$12, 000

Steamer Francis < 'utting

59 1 8

10,000

Launch Herbert Hume

5 2

3, 500

Bark Harvester

710 12

12,000

The following was the output in 1900: Redfish, 27,636 cases, 13.5 to the case, June
5 to September 20; humpbacks, 2,064 cases, 21 to the case, July 5 to September 20.
Scattering cohoes and dog salmon were packed with humpbacks under pink brands.
Salted 25 barrels of redfish.

The only places in this vicinity that might offer a hatchery site are Little River
and Uganuk.

AFOGNAK.

From Uyak the Albatross went to Afognak, where an examination was made of
the Fish Commission interests in that locality. During the four clays in which these
investigations were being conducted a sextant reconnaissance was made of Afognak
(Litnik) Bay and approaches. As the locality is exceedingly foul and had never
previously been surveyed, the chart accompanying this report will no doubt be use-
ful to the Commission and to the mariner, and the following notes, so far as they
relate to Afognak Bay, are referred to it.

In leaving the anchorage off the canneries at Uyak, of which a survey was made
by this vessel in 1897 and published in Coast Survey Bulletin No. 38, a course was
laid out of Uyak Bay clearing the shores and headlands of Capes Kiliugmuit, Ugat,
and Uganuk by about 1 mile and entering Karluk Strait in mid-channel. A course
through the middle of Karluk Strait seems perfectly safe and clear, and on this
course the head of the vessel is found to point for about the center of Whale Island,
possibly a little to the southward.

The Raspberry Island side seems to be the boldest, though no outlying dangers
were seen anywhere. A short distance to the eastward of Dry Island, which lies off'
the entrance to an indentation on the southern shore midway in the strait, the tides
coming through Shelikoff Strait meet the tides from the eastward around Whale
Island. Outside and between the two small islets off the southeastern end of Rasp-
berry Island is a sunken rock known as Thomas Rock. A fair berth of these two
islets is said to clear the rock.

240

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

At Whale Island Karluk Strait forms two passages. The one to the southward,
described by this vessel in Coast Survey Bulletin No. 38, was called Whale Passage,
and the one to the northward is Afognak Strait. The latter should not be attempted
by a deep-draft vessel until a satisfactory survey has been made, as there are indica-
tions at one point that there may not be sufficient depth at extreme low water for
vessels of moderate draft, nor by any vessel without local knowledge, as the currents
are strong and the passage very foul. Time did not permit the reconnaissance made
by this vessel to extend through Afognak Strait. Sufficient only was done to appre-
ciate the strong current and foul conditions of the shore.

The northern shore of Afognak Strait is foul in patches for nearly one-third of
the width. On the southern side, at a point about one-third the length of the island
from the western end, a bank makes off from Whale Island a considerable distance,
and a reef, uncovered at low water, lies off the bight near the eastern end of the
island, but the latter is off the fairway. OH' Afognak village the reef extends a full
mile to the eastward and from one-fourth to one-half mile to the southward.

The largest island off the southeastern end of Raspberry Island is Dearborn
Island, the point of which seems to project farther into the strait. Off the southern
end of this island there is a bare rock, a I ways above water, which is a leading mark to
the western end cf Afognak Strait. The Albatross passed this rock, leaving it to the
northward, distant 250 yards, and then brought it astern, steering for the saddle in
Hog Island, which from this point is seen about one-third the length of that island
from the northern end. After running half the length of Whale Island and well
clear of the bank previously referred to on the southern side of the channel, the
course was changed to head for the southern end of Hog Island, which was kept until
that island was about 1 mile distant, when the course was gradually changed to thg
northward, rounding the reef off Afognak village into the bay.

Afognak {Litnik) Bag. — Litnik is a corruption of the Russian word Elitnik,
meaning a place where tisli are dried and prepared for future use, and is the name
given locally and used throughout the Kadiak district to the body of water known
to us as Afognak Bay, and to the river and lake at its head. Locally, the name
Afognak Bay is applied to a small, shallow, foul cove, about Id miles to the westward
of the village, on the northern side of the strait. Afognak is retained, however, in
this report, for the large bay, as the President’s proclamation and the Fish Commission
records refer to it by that name.

Afognak (Litnik) Baj7 is on the eastern side of the extreme southern point of the
island of that name. The approach from the westward (Shelikof Strait) is through
Karluk Strait and Afognak Strait or Whale Passage; from Kadiak (St. Paul), through
Usinka Narrows; and from sea, to the eastward, through the broad open waters
between Pillar Cape and Spruce Island. The bay proper may be said to include the
waters inclosed by a line drawn from Afognak village and the outlying reefs to Hog
Island, thence by Skipwith Reefs to Lamb Island and the main shore, and is, approx-
imately, 5 miles long by 2 miles greatest and one-half mile least width. The shores
are heavily wooded, with high mountains lying back, from which ridges and hills
project toward the bay. The entrance is much obstructed by islets and reefs, and
great care must be exercised in the approaches, but the bay proper, except for one
reef, is apparently clear of danger, with excellent anchorage at the head.

Bull. U. S. P. C. l$Ol. fTo face page 240.)

Plate XXL

AFOGNAK -B \ V

( L I T NIK]

AFOG N A K I S L A N D

ALASKA

From a. sextant reconnaissance by the officers of the

U.S. Fish Com’n St r, ALBATROSS,

Commander Jefferson F Moser, U. S.N., Camctjr.

Soundings cere- expressed in -fathoms,
reduced to the. mean, of ail Low -waters observed.

(latitude 5B"0&! 24 i; N.
Astronomical Station < , . i w

j Eo ngi taAe. 15 24 8 09 V/.

Variation, Lj majmetotneter observations J 2-4° 36' E .

~Tri angulation andTofiodraJzhy by Liout. /-/ugh Rodman, (J. $./V.
Astronomic. andJKcignetLc Observations hy Rnsign erfd ffephum, (J. S. //.
Jfy droqy-ap Ay by Ensigyivs C. ft Af tiler and C. S./dentpff U. S’. At.

m\>oV s.

tS Se-xt2k.vv.-fc fcr i-Ci.wqvv'-tAluvv @1 Astvovujtfu cal S’tcX't.lpn .

Comma.ivdir, U S-Nav^ CoWT\\6.ucUn£,

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1900.

241

Afognak village is located at the extreme southwestern end of the bay, and con-
sists of two parts; the most southerly is a settlement with a population of about 175
whites and half-breeds, and to the northward (separated from the other by a high
grassy bluff named Graveyard Point) is a native village of less than 100 inhabitants.
Very foul ground, marked by kelp in summer, extends one-half mile off the principal
village, increasing to 1 mile off Graveyard Point, and reaching halfway across the
passage to Hog Island, a small wooded island, slightly crescent-shaped, with the cusps
to the southwest. It is about half a mile long, in a general east-and-west direction,
about 250 yards in width, and, when seen from the westward, it has a dip or saddle
in the northern third. From high-water mark the rocky shelf projects in reefs a
distance of 200 yards on all sides, and on the western end of the reef extends toward
the village for three-tenths of a mile. These reefs are all marked by kelp in summer.

Nearly a mile to the northeastward of Hog Island are Skipwith Reefs, a line of
high rocks always out of water, which, with Lamb Island, a larger wooded island,
form the eastern side of the bay. Between Hog Island and Skipwith Reefs is a
wide, clear passage, which might be called the Eastern Passage, and is the one to be
preferred 1 >y strangers on entering or leaving the bay.

Danger Reef is a large reef, bare at low water, with deep water close to and all
around it, and lies NNE. ^ E., 1.2 miles from Graveyard Point. It is estimated that
it covers at three-quarter tide, or earlier. It is a bad reef when covered, as it is not
marked by kelp and is not easily seen.

On the northern side, outside of the point marking the contraction of the bay,
are three small, low, wooded islets lying close to the shore. The western one is
Dot Island, which, when seen clear of the adjoining land, has a conical appearance.
West of this islet, on the opposite shore, is a tine cascade, falling to the beach, from
which most excellent water may be obtained. At the head of the bay, in the north-
western arm leading to the reservation stream, are several small islands. The first
one is Winter Island, beyond which vessels should not go; it is high, rocky, and
heavily wooded with spruce. The channel to the northward of Winter Island is
obstructed by rocky ledges, and to the southward, as a point higher up is reached, it
grows shallow and grassy. The latter is the boat channel to the river mouth.

Several cannery steamers from Karluk winter in this arm. They anchor to the
eastward of Winter Island, and then haul the sterns of the vessels close up to the
rocks on the island (which are bold), where they are clear of the ice forced out of the
river in the spring.

At the extreme northern end a narrow extension of the bay, about a mile long
by G cables in width and 2 fathoms deep, is known locally as Back Bay. It should
afford good anchorage for a small vessel. At its head are two humpback streams.

On the western shore, at the point where the bay turns to form the northwestern
arm, are the locations of the canneries of the Royal Packing Company and the
Russian-American Packing Company.

The history of these canneries is given in my former report, pages 163 and 164,
to which reference is made. Nothing is left of the cannery of the Russian-American
Packing Company. The buildings of the Royal, in which are stored a number of
boats, and several detached houses are still standing and in fair condition. A watch-
man is kept here by the Alaska Packers Association during the summer, and during
the winter the ship-keepers of the cannery steamers care for the property.

F. C. B. 1901 — lfi

242

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

The anchorage in the upper bay off the cannery building is in 7 to 8 fathoms, mud
bottom. It is said an anchorage may be made in summer off the native village south
of Point Lipsett in 5 to 6 fathoms. This bight is, however, open to the eastward and
can not be recommended.

The following results by sextant and artificial horizon were obtained for geo-
graphical position at the high water, grass-covered rock on the western shore of the
bay one-tenth mile south from the cannery building: Latitude, 58° 02' 24" north;
longitude, 152° 48' 09" west; variation by compass declinometer 24° 36' east.

Establishment from seven successive high waters, at moon’s age from 17 to 20
days, XIh 25m. Mean rise and fall of tide during same period, 9.95 feet.

Sailing directions , Afognak Bay. — There are two passages used in entering this
bay, one to the eastward and the other to the westward of Hog Island. In coming
through Afognak Strait steer for Hog Island, and when three-fourths mile distant

Hog Island bearing SE. by E. J E., mag., in saddle of back range, clears Danger Reef.

Cannery building bearing WNW. } W., mag., between Dot Island and adjoining shore to
eastward, leads through East Passage and clears Danger Reef.

haul up for Lamb Island and run for it until the cannery building is open to the
eastward of Dot Island; then change course for Dot Island, and when well clear of
Danger Reef keep in mid-channel to the anchorage. At low water Village Reefs
may be rounded by the kelp, and Danger Reef is then distinctly visible. The
cannery steamers frequently pass between Village Reefs and Danger Reef, but local
knowledge is necessary for this channel. The western passage should be used with
caution, particularly at high water, as a stranger in keeping off Village Reefs may
get on the foul ground on the Hog Island shore. For a stranger the eastern passage
is recommended, as it is wide, straight, and apparently clear. In entering by this
passage keep in mid-channel between Hog Island and the southern bare rock of
Skipwith Reefs, and steer for Dot Island. On this course the cannery building will
be seen between Dot Island and the adjoining shore to the eastward. When clear
of Danger Reef follow the directions given under the eastern passage.

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1900.

243

A line between Dot Island and Hog Island clears Danger Reef to the eastward
one-fourth mile. On this line Hog Island will be seen filling a wide saddle in the
distant mountains, and Dot Island will be slightly to the eastward of a V in the back
range. The Albatross entered by the western passage and left by the eastern one.

AFOGNAK SALMON STREAMS.

At the head of Back Bay are two small streams, which at the time of our visit
were literally choked with humpbacks. Cohoes are also said to run here, and several
dead king salmon were seen. A small stream to the eastward of Bare Point carries
a large number of humpbacks and is said to have a fair run of cohoes. Back of the
village of Afognak is a shoal lagoon, or lily pond, which drains through a shifting
channel and carries a few humpbacks and cohoes.

The reservation stream, previously referred to as emptying into the head of the
northwestern arm of the bay, is the only redfish stream in this vicinity. A board of
experts was appointed by the Commissioner in 1889 to examine the salmon streams
of Alaska, and as this board spent the summer of that year in examining Karluk,
Alitak, and Afognak, the results of which, so far as they relate to Afognak, are
given on pages 185-188 and 207-208 of the U. S. Fish Commission Bulletin for 1889,
the stream and lake will here be referred to in only a general way, though both were
visited on several occasions by this party.

This year the redfish and humpbacks were very abundant in the reservation
stream, and it is said that the stream can furnish, without injury, from 100,000 to
150,000 redfish a year, but of this there is no data, as all commercial fishing in late
years has been done surreptitiously. The runs are remarkably early in this stream,
scattering redfish appearing early in May and in large numbers by the middle of
that month; by dune 1 there is usually a lull. This is called the early run. The
second run is said to commence with the spring tides in June, and the fish are then
abundant until the middle of July, when the run grows slack, and by the last of the
month it is practically over. If the water in the river is low the fish school around
the mouth in great numbers, but upon the first rise they rush to the lake in a body.
The redfish, upon arriving, school around the upper part of the bay, mostly along
the western shore, where there are several excellent seining beaches.

Cohoes appear in small numbers the last week in July; the run is at its height
the last of August, and continues, in diminishing numbers, until October. Hump-
backs appear during the middle of July, and run in large numbers during August,
growing less the latter part of that month and until the middle of September. The
last fish are, however, of very poor quality. Dog salmon are not very numerous,
and seem to run scattering^ with all other species. Straggling king salmon are
seen at irregular intervals throughout the season. They are never abundant and are
only recognized as occasional visitors. Steelheads are believed to winter in the lakes,
and descend to the sea as soon as the stream opens in the spring. They appear at all
times during the season, but are most numerous during the coho run. Dolly Varden
trout appear with the earliest species and remain throughout the season.

The estuary and river to the falls, and the tributaries below, were crowded with
humpbacks at the time of our visit. Great numbers were noticed trying to surmount

244

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

the falls, and many were seen thrown by their own velocity against the rocks in the
rush to ascend. It is probable that few of this species gain the lake, and that most
of them spawn in the lower course of the river and in the tributaries referred to.
On my visit to the lake, for want of facilities the shores could not be examined
except in the vicinity of the outlet and for about half a mile along the eastern side.
Dead fish were not very abundant along the lake shores. All the dead redfish seen
were opened, and it was found that 50 per cent of the females had not spawned and
30 per cent of the males bad milt. A similar condition was previously noticed and
referred to in my former report, pages 12 and 13. There may be some abnormal
impediment in the genital pore, but it is more probable that in ascending a difficult
stream the exertion is so great that the fish dies of exhaustion before it is fully ripe.

On August 15 the temperature of the surface water of the lake near the shore
was 62° F., at 4 feet depth 58° F. and 59° F. The stream at the falls was 65° F.

It is said that the reservation stream has been fished by all the canneries each
year until 1899, when only two corporations out of the three operatingin the vicinity
fished here. The natives report that this year (1900) one cannery obtained fish both
from Malinof and from the Afognak stream; that a small schooner in charge of a
member of the Brotherhood of Afognak Pioneers fished in the vicinity of the Royal
cannery, entering and leaving the bay undercover of darkness. Several members of
the organization, when questioned in regard to it, claimed to have no knowledge of
such fishing. It is believed, however, that the natives’ report is true.

The natives fish the stream, using, so it is said, the usual hook and pole, though
at the summer village (Litnik), on the left bank of the stream near the mouth, several
nets were seen which were also probably used.

ZAPORS.

From the earliest Russian times the natives were taught to barricade the streams
by zapors, or barricades which were maintained for generations in the principal
rivers. Upon the advent of the cannery man this method of holding the fish was
encouraged and aided in every possible way. These zapors, as originally constructed,
consisted of large cribs of heavy logs weighted with stone, placed at intervals across
the river to form piers, at a suitable location. Between the piers other logs were
secured, forming a line of support for the rails, or saplings, which were placed side
by side, in the direction of the stream, with the butts upstream, embedded in the
gravel or river bottom, and the other end resting on the timber support. The
arrangement of these rails was the same as those used in the construction of the
barricades in southeastern Alaska, and described in my former report, page 37. This
arrangement permitted the water to pass through the interstices or over the ends,
and prevented any fish from ascending. At a point below this dam a similar one was
constructed, but near the center, or wherever the depth was most suitable, an open-
ing was left for a sluice, the latter arranged to permit the fish to pass in, but not out.
The fish were then impounded between the two barricades and easily captured.

The zapors of late date, however, consist of only one barricade, which prevents
the fish from ascending. The one until lately maintained in the reservation stream
was of this construction and was located a short distance above tide water, below the
first falls, about a mile from the low-water mouth of the river proper. Three cribs

Many humpbacks in pool. Salmon struggling in falls.

Bull. U. S. F. C 1901. (To face page 244.)

Plate XXII.

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1900.

245

formed the piers, and at the time of our visit the northern crib had been removed and
was lying on the rocks a short distance below. This zapor, or rather a zapor, has
been maintained at this point for many years. It was carried away during the winter
of 1895 and 1896 and rebuilt by the natives as soon as the conditions permitted. In
August, 1S99, the master of one of the Alaska Packers Association cannery steamers,
with the assistance of some natives, pulled out the northern crib. As this made
but a small opening which could readily be closed, a party from the Albatross dis-
membered the remaining cribs, piled the timber and rails on shore, and burnt them.
The stream is now (August, 1900) clear of artificial obstruction.

INHABITANTS.

The inhabitants of Afognak consist of Kadiak Eskimos, Russian half-breeds, and
a few white hunters and fishermen. As much complaint has been made in this
locality, not only on account of the illegal fishing of the reservation stream by the
canneries, but by the inhabitants in relation to their condition and surroundings (see
salmon inspector’s report, 1899, pp. 38-48), it is deemed necessary, in order that the
Commission may be advised of the facts, to state the situation as it appears to me
after our visit.

When Alaska was under the management of the Russian - American Company
the time arrived when they had in their employ many men who had grown old in
their service or who had lost their health and could not very well be discharged and
thrown upon their own resources. Upon representing this condition to the Russian
Government an order was issued, in 1835, directing the company to locate, as per-
manent settlers, such of the employees as had married native or half-breed women,
and who, on account of age or ill health, could no longer serve the company. The
latter, under this order, was obliged to select suitable land, build comfortable dwell-
ings, furnish agricultural implements, seed, cattle and fowls, and a year’s provisions.
The settlers were exempt from taxation and military duty, and the Russians were
known as colonial citizens and the half-breeds as colonial settlers. The eastern side
of Cook Inlet, Afognak Island, and Spruce Island were selected as most suitable for
settlement, and the half-breeds now forming the larger part of the population at
Afognak village are largely descendants from these colonial citizens and settlers.
The early name of the village was liatkovsky. The half-breeds have always lived
on a higher plane of civilization than the natives and are more industrious. Among
them are a number of skilled craftsmen, such as carpenters and boat- builders, and in
the latter occupation it is said they excel the whites usually employed at the canneries.

In our investigations in Alaska we have come in contact with all the different
phases of native life, from the Haida of the south to the Innuit of the north, from
the Athapascan of the east to the Aleut of the west, and there are few places that
can equal Afognak in natural resources for native life. None need suffer here, and
if any do it is through their own neglect. Potatoes and the hardier vegetables of
all kinds grow well and can be stored for winter use; hay can be made for cattle;
the waters teem with fish, not only with salmon during the summer, which may be
cured for winter use in practically unlimited quantities, but all during the year cod
may be taken in numbers on the adjacent banks. The furs are not all gone yet;
bear, fox, and mink are still found in limited numbers, and the catch of sea otter

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

246

tliis year has been comparatively large. As for the means for purchasing other pro-
visions and clothing, it is here in the hands of any industrious man or woman. There
is a great demand for dried fish — ukala in all the mining regions of the north, prin-
cipally for dog food. The stores, of which there are two in Afognak, representing
large trading companies, pay in trade (provisions and clothing) 2 cents per pound for
ukala, and will purchase all brought to them. For the use of the natives here the
supply of salmon has not decreased, and there should not be the slightest difficulty
in easily obtaining in a short time all that is required for the family during the win-
ter, and afterwards ukala can be made for sale or trade. We were not at Afognak
during the redfish run, but it is said that it was very large; the humpbacks were
running at the time of our visit, and they were very numerous. It was not necessary
to hook them out of the stream; when wanted for examination we simply kicked
them out on the bank. To show the abundance of fish, it may be mentioned that the
ship’s dog dragged many struggling ones out of the water.

The women, assisted by the old mer and children, usually prepare the ukala and
do the garden work, so there is no excuse for the able men not seeking employ-
ment in other fields; but the latter fancy that they must hunt, and imagine that they
can do nothing else, or rather, that it is degrading to work. In former times hunt-
ing formed the chief element of support, and while the fur-bearing animals have
not entirely passed away, their numbers have declined to such an extent that the
income derived from this source can now only be reckoned as incidental. The sea-
otter hunter was an important man in his village; extensive preparations were made
before his departure and he was feasted upon his return. He was looked up to as a
leading spirit in the locality. The sea otter is practically passing away, but the
hunter remains, and reports are made that he is starving. Possibly he may be short
of food at times, but it is because he is not willing to exert himself; he is a sea-otter
hunter in a sea that has few left, and he claims he can do nothing else.

There is another field in which the native can earn sufficient money to provide
for himself and family not only the necessities of life, but many of the comforts and
a few luxuries. It is in cannery work. Frequent inquiry has been made at the can-
neries, and the repty has always been to the effect that they are more than desirous
to employ all the male population in the surrounding district, if the}’ are steady and
reliable, and to give such labor employment throughout the season. Quite a number
of the inhabitants of Afognak are so employed, several holding positions where skill
is required, but the majority are shiftless, stop work after having earned a few dol-
lars, and expend it in spirits if they can get it. The canneries, however, do not want
a class who can not be depended upon in time of need.

Unskilled labor at the canneries commands from $1 to $1.25 per day with good
board, and, as the season in this district is long, a reliable hand may earn from $125
to $150 during the summer — more than sufficient to carry him through the winter
very comfortably if he is at all thrifty. The canneries will also purchase fish from the
natives, paying from $30 to $35 per thousand for redfish. The hatchery at Karluk
is partly supplied with fish taken by natives, and the superintendent states that two
men on one occasion, in one day, made $15 each; this was, of course, very exceptional.
At one cannery no cash is paid until the cannery is closed; this is done to hold the
natives and prevent them from leaving as soon as they have earned a little money.

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1900.

247

The, native conditions here are similar to those of all other localities visited.
The native is naturally indolent and improvident. In former times he lived in his
crude way by hunting and fishing, with a feast thrown in when a dead whale drifted
to his shores. Civilization has brought new wants, to supply which he is unwilling
to exert himself, so he cries starvation, in which he is supported and badly advised by
white squawmen who settle among them and eke out an easy, shiftless existence.

Reports are frequently circulated by people who do not understand the situation,
or, understanding it, willfully misrepresent it, implying that the canneries are a
detriment to the native population; that they are taking away the food and that
starvation must follow. From my experience in Alaska, in connection with the
salmon question, it may be said that up to the present time 1 have found no truth in
these reports. The canneries have not, so far, in any locality reduced the salmon so as
to affect the native’s winter supply; instead of working an injury, they have been, and
are, a benefit to him. They bring to him better methods for obtaining his fish, and,
that which is of more importance, they bring money to all who are willing to work.
Were the canneries to close to-day the native would be the principal sufferer.

Judging from the appearance of the village at Afognak, and comparing it with
other native communities in Alaska, there seems to lie little cause for complaint.
The village has rather a neat and thrifty appearance, the log and frame houses have
a substantial air, there are many gardens growing potatoes and other truck, pigs and
poultry seem to thrive, and several families have one or two cows. The children
seen in the village appeared bright, clean, strong, and always well clad.

One of the principal half-breeds said that while there was no large amount of
money in circulation and few were prosperous, still none were destitute nor in danger
of becoming so. It may be remarked here that many of the natives in this district,
and to the westward, died during the past winter with a disease believed by some to
be grip. It is said that at Little Afognak nearly all succumbed.

The half-breeds and natives of Afognak, according to their own custom, have
three recognized districts for hunting and fishing. The half-breeds of the village fish
and hunt the northwestern section of the island, drained by the streams named Malinof
and Paramanof; the natives of the village have the southern end of the island, which
includes the reservation stream and extends to the western shore of Little Afognak
Bay; the inhabitants of the latter place claim the island to the eastward of their settle-
ment, and Marmot Island. These districts are again subdivided among the. different
families for hunting purposes, while the streams are open to all belonging to the dis-
trict. These limits are accepted by all the inhabitants, and the intrusion of any
alien is considered an abuse of their customs. It is natural, therefore, that they
resent the fishing- of the Afognak streams by the canneries, nor can they understand
how these streams, which belong to them by tribal rights, can be closed by the Gov-
ernment. The situation here is the same as it is in southeastern Alaska — the native
sees the value of the fish to the eannervman, and he wants the streams, not for his
own use entirely, but to sell the fish to the canneries. In other words, be wants to
own the streams and bar out the canneries, which is clearly untenable. To the
appeal of the natives has been added that of the white men of the district.

The village of Afognak contains a number of whites, nearly all Scandinavians,
married to half-breeds or natives or living with them, nearly all working in canneries

248

BULLETIN OF THE UNTTED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

during the summer and finding life rather eas}r during the winter. These people l
have organized themselves into an association under the name of the Brotherhood of
Afognak Pioneers and have taken upon themselves the regulation of municipal affairs.

In the salmon inspector’s report for 1899, page 47, there is an appeal addressed
to the inspector to the effect that, as the streams of Afognak are closed, they are
“ unable to obtain a living” and request the “permission of the Treasury Department
to fish the streams of Afognak Islands.” This appeal has 23 names, the nationality
of which may easily be recognized. Inquiry was made in reference to the signers,
and it was learned that they all belonged to the brotherhood. One is dead ; 1 was
injured while hunting, but does some work; 2 are Russian residents; 3 are store-
keepers and well-to-do, and the remaining 10 are employed in the canneries and fish-
eries, some in leading positions, such as master of cannery steamer, foreman of
working gang, watchman, etc. Further comment is unnecessary, as it is evident the
white population desire to have the exclusive use of the Afognak streams, so they
may sell fish to the canneries.

In concluding these remarks on the conditions at Afognak as they appeared tome,
it is my desire to say that my sympathies are entirely with the natives, and were it
possible to make any recommendations for their benefit, such would be made; it can
only be asked that whatever legislation is effected a fair balance may be cast in their
favor. We should not ask too much from a people who have for centuries lived on
the resources which nature alone has offered and who now emerge upon a destructive
civilization which holds them probably in a worse condition than in former times
when they were a more primitive people. The rich furs which they formerly poured
into the. laps of the traders, and for which they received food and a few necessities,
are gone, and the fur-trader is also going, for lie can no longer fill his coffers with
the catch of the grub-staked hunter. The first stage of the native’s life here is over;
he is now upon the second, marked on the one hand by the influence of vicious white
men and on the other by the kind and gentle teachings and example of a people who
sacrifice themselves for the native interests, but whom they usually do not understand.

If he survives these two directly opposite influences, he may become a good citizen.

It has been my experience, however, that in all parts of the world among primitive
people the second stage is deadly, and that what might be called a refined civilization
thrust upon a native race kills as many as the more vicious condition.

From Afognak the Albatross went directly to Southeast Alaska, to continue the
stream and lake investigations commenced in 1897.

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1900.

249

COOK INLET.

Alaska Salmon Association . — In the Cook Inlet district but one new cannery has
been established; it is that of the Alaska Salmon Association, which was incorporated
in San Francisco. This company, in 1899, purchased the C. D. Ladd saltery on the
left bank and at the mouth of the Chuitna River, Cook Inlet, a good-sized stream
entering the northern shore of the inlet about 6 miles above Tyonek. In the spring
of 1900 this company erected a cannery on the site of the Ladd saltery and made a
small hand-pack. The cannery machinery consists of 3 retorts, 1 solderer, 1 Columbia
River washer, 1 cutter, and the necessary equipment for making cans by hand.

The capacity of the cannery is 500 cases per day, but next year (1901) 2 tillers
and a topper will be installed, which, with the necessary hands, should increase it to
1,600 cases per day. The tin plate used is 100-pound domestic. Fish are pewed to
the tish wharf and after cleaning are conveyed to the cannery.

The Chinese contract was 45 cents per case, with the usual conditions. The
fishermen received $25 per month from the time engaged at San Francisco until paid
off, and one-half cent each per case. The sailors were paid $40 per month when
working the vessel and $50 per month when fishing, but no bonus. Full board was
furnished for all except the Chinese.

The following men were employed: Thirty-nine white fishermen and trap men,
4 white cannery men, 12 white beachmen, and 51 Chinese. The cannery used 4 traps;
leads 100 fathoms, wings 40 fathoms, pots 40 feet by 40 feet, all 6 fathoms deep;
leads, 3£-inch mesh, 48 thread; wings and pots, 3-inch mesh, 60 thread; value, $1,500
each. One drag seine 150 fathoms long, 5 fathoms deep, 3-inch mesh, value $1.65
per fathom. Sixty gill nets, each 65 fathoms long, 30 meshes deep, one-third of
them 9-inch mesh, one-third 64-inch mesh, and one-third 5f-inch mesh; value, 65
cents per fathom. The traps were located early in the season, as follows: One near
Tyonek, one between that place and Chuitna, one at the mouth of the home river,
and one about 3 miles to the eastward. Heavy winds and strong currents demolished
all these traps, except the one near Tyonek, before fishing began, and the latter was
only saved by hard labor, which the catch did not justify. About 10 per cent of the
catch was taken in traps, the remainder in gill nets.

The boats consisted of 4 scows, $250 each; 2 lighters, $150 each; 1 lighter, $50;
20 gill-net skiff's, $40 each; 5 old skiff's, $30 each; 1 yawl. $40; 1 pile-driver, $1,150.

The vessels employed were: Bark Prussia , 1,131 tons, crew fishermen, value
$25,000, chartered; launch King Fisher , 7 tons, crew 3, value $5,500, owned.

The following was the output for the season:

Species.

Cases.

No. to
the
case.

Dates.

King salmon:

Red

1 326

2 92 2
3, 640

5

12

3.5

3.5

12

June 10-July 2.
Do.

July 1-Aug. 9.

White

1 Flats. 2 Tails. 3 Salted 44 barrels of redfish and 3 barrels of humpbacks.

250

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

Pacific Steam Whaling Company's cannery at Kenai , Cook Inlet. — Reference was
made to this cannery in my former report, page 141. The buildings were erected in
1897 near the cannery of the Northern Packing Company, and the available machinery
from the cannery at Coquenhena, in the Copper River delta, was installed here in the
spring of 1898. The first pack was made that year.

The following cannery machinery is used: Two retorts, 4 steam boxes, 1 filler,
1 solderer, and 1 cutter; topping is done by hand. Fish are hoisted in buckets by
steam to the fish-house, and when cleaned are conveyed by carts to the cannery.

All the tins are made at the cannery by hand; 100-pound tin plate is used for the
bodies and tops; 46 per cent of the plate is imported.

In 1900 the following hands were employed: 40 white and 10 native fishermen,
6 white cannery -hands, 6 natives, and 60 Chinese.

They used 5 traps, averaging 1,000 feet length of lead, 240 feet length of curved
wing, 30 feet by 30 feet pot, value $500 each; 20 gill nets for king salmon, each 60
fathoms long, 22 meshes deep, 9±*inch mesh, value 65 cents per fathom, and 20 gill
nets for redlish, each 60 fathoms long, 30 meshes deep, 6-inch mesh, value 65 cents
per fathom.

The following boats were used: Seven lighters, $350 each; 20 gill-net boats, $40
each; 1 seine boat, $100; 3 skiffs, $25 each; 2 pile-drivers, $1,500 each.

The following vessels (owned) were employed: Gasoline Duxbury , 30 tons, crew
5, value $10,000; steamer Salmo, 28 tons, crew 6, value $10,000. Transportation by
calling vessel of company.

The output in 1900 was:

Species.

Cases.

No. to
the case.

Dates.

King salmon

2, 400

2.7

June 1-July 10

Redfish

20, 924

13

June-Aug. 10

Cohoes

1,765

8.1

July 1-Aug. 10

The Chinese contract was 42 cents per case. Fishermen received transportation
and board and 1 cent each per case.

Arctic Fishing Company. — The cannery of this company at Kussilof, Cook
Inlet, was fully described, together with the surrounding conditions, in my former
report, pages 142-143, and the statistics for 1900 only will be referred to here.

This company employed the following hands in 1900: Forty-five white fishermen,
10 native fishermen, 10 white cannery-hands, and 100 Chinese. Eight traps were
used, with leads from 100 to 700 feet long, pots 30 feet by 30 feet, depth at pots 30 feet,
average value $1,000; 30 king-salmon gill nets each 60 fathoms long, 22 meshes deep,
9£-inch mesh; 30 redfish gill nets, each 60 fathoms long, 28 meshes deep, 6£-inch mesh,
value 65 cents per fathom. There were used 3 sail lighters, $450 each; 7 trap scows,
$50 each; 20 gill-net boats, $40 each; 2 Columbia River boats, $200 each; 6 skiffs,
$30 each; 2 pile-drivers, $1,500 each.

The machinery consisted of 6 retorts, 2 tillers, 2 toppers, 1 solderer, 1 cutter,
and 1 can-maker; 75 per cent of the tins are made at the cannery of 100-pound tin
plate, 60 per cent of which material is imported. Fish are hoisted in tubs to the
fish-house by steam and, when cleaned, are conveyed in cars to the cannery.

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1900.

251

The Chinese contract was 45 cents per case, with the usual conditions. The
fishermen received $50 for the run and 1 cent per case, with full board.

The following- vessels (owned) were employed:

Class and name.

Tons.

Crew.

Value.

Ship Centennial

1,138

Fishermen.

#30, 000

Steamer Jennie

69

G

30, 001)

Steamer Reporter

26

3

10,000

Launch Arthur

5

2

1,800

The following- was the output in 1900p

Species.

Cases.

No. to
the case.

Dates.

King salmon

6,169

3

May 26-Aug. 10

Redfish

22, 185

13

May 28- Aug. 12

Cohoes

5, 427

12

July 15-Aug. 12

PRINCE WILLIAM SOUND AND COPPER RIVER.

This district, with the canneries, was fully described in my former report, pages
129-139. Since then the cannery at Coquenhena has made one more pilgrimage.
It was dismantled in 1897, and, as previously noted, the available machinery was
installed in the Pacific Steam Whaling Company’s cannery at Kenai, Cook Inlet.

The Pacific Packing Company , at Odiak, for the season of 1900 employed 1 doctor,
60 white fishermen, 10 white cannery and beach hands, 6 natives, and 60 Chinese.
It had 1 drag seine 250 fathoms long, 120 meshes deep, 2^-inch mesh; value, $1.50 per
fathom; 38 gill nets, each 350 fathoms long, 30 meshes deep, 6^-inch mesh; value, 65
cents per fathom. The boats were 2 lighters, $400 each; 3 house scows, $400 each;
33 Columbia River boats, $200 each; 2 seine boats, $200 each; 6 skiffs, $25 each.

The following vessels were employed:

Class and name.

Tons.

Crew.

Value.

Owned or
chartered.

Bark Kate Davenport

1,175

(')

$10, 000

Chartered.

Steamer Pacific

31

6

15, 000

Owned.

Steamer S. B. Matthews

164

G

14,000

Do.

Steamer Susanna

18

4

8,000

Do.

1 Fishermen.

The following was the output of canned salmon in 1900, none being salted:

Species.

Cases.

No. to
the case.

Date.

King salmon

473

4^

May 9-June 12

Redfish

35,049

m

May 9-Aug. 4

Humpbacks

3,888

■m

July 6-Aug. 2

The Chinese contract was 42 cents, with the usual conditions. The fishermen
received $60 for the run and 4 cents per boat of two men for redfish, 10 cents for
king, and $10 per thousand for humpbacks, with full board.

252

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

The cannery machinery consists of 8 retorts, 2 fillers, 2 toppers, 2 solderers, and
1 cutter. The tins are all made at the cannery, by hand, of 100-pound domestic plate
for bodies and 95-pound tin for tops.

The fish are pewed to the fish -house and, after cleaning, are conveyed by cars to
the cannery.

The Pacific Steam Whaling Company , at Orca, employed, in 1900, 60 white fisher-
men, 13 white cannery-hands, 2 natives, and 60 Chinese.

They used 2 drag seines, each 120 fathoms long, 40 meshes deep, 3-inch mesh;
value, $1.50 per fathom; 30 gill nets, 400 fathoms long, 28 meshes deep, 6 to 6£ inches
mesh. The boats used were 5 house scows, $400 each; 30 Columbia River boats, $200
each; 2 seine boats, $200 each; 8 skill's, $25 each; 1 pile-driver, $200.

The following vessels were employed:

Class and name.

Tons.

Crew.

Value.

Owned or
chartered.

Ship America

1,908

(9

S55, 000

Chartered.

Steamer Thlinket

90

4

10. 000

Owned.

Steamer Wild Cat

104

4

10, 000

Do.

1 Fishermen.

The following was the canned output in 1900, none being salted:

Species.

Cases.

No. to
the case.

Date.

Kin? salmon

369

4.2

May 7-.Tune 7

Redfish

28, 501

12

May 7-July 22

Humpbacks

1,718

28

July 20-July 24

The Chinese contract was 42 cents per case, with the usual conditions. The
fishermen received $15 per month throughout the season, full board and transporta-
tion, and 4 cents per boat for redrish, 10 cents for king salmon, and $5 per thousand
for humpbacks.

The cannery machinery consists of 4 steam boxes, 2 retorts, 1 filler, 1 solderer, and
1 cutter. Fish are pewed to the fish-house and, after cleaning, are passed directly
to the cutter from the draining tubs. They use 100-pound tin plate for bodies and
tops, all imported. All the tins are made at the cannery.

The redfish used in these canneries are nearly all taken from the Copper River
delta. All the humpbacks and a few redfish come from the Prince William Sound
streams. A description of the locality, time of runs, and other information is given
in my former report.

SHOWING NATIVE FISHING PLATFORMS IN CURRENT.

Bull. U. S. F. C. 1901. (To face page 252.)

Plate XXIII

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1900.

253

SOUTHEASTERN ALASKA.

Since my former report eight new canneries have been built in this district, one
of which made its first pack in 1899 and the remainder during the present season
(1900). During the same period one has been dismantled, that of the Baranof
Packing Company at Reclfish Bay, which was sold to the Alaska Packers Association
and moved to the Egagak, and one was in course of construction, in 1900, at Bartlett
Bay, which will be operated in 1901. The season of 1901 promises to see many new
canneries in Alaska, a number of which will locate in this district.

Western Fisheries Company. — A company under this title, organized at Portland,
Oreg. , built a cannery in the spring of 1900 at the head of Dundas Bay, which is on
the northern side of the junction of Cross Sound and Icy Straits. The cannery is one
of the smaller ones and has a capacity of 300 cases per day, made largely by hand.

In 1900 this cannery employed 9 white fishermen, 26 native fishermen, 5 white
cannery-hands, 20 native men, 6 native women, and 30 Chinese. The record of the
native men includes those to whom gear was furnished and from whom the catch
was purchased. They used one purse seine 150 fathoms long; 6 drag seines — length,
2 of 110 fathoms, 1 of 100 fathoms, 1 of 80 fathoms, 1 of 60 fathoms, and 1 of 50
fathoms — valued at $1.50 per fathom; -1 gill nets of 150 fathoms each, valued at 65
cents per fathom. There was 1 lighter, $250; 5 seine boats, $75 each; 1 gill-net
boats, $50 each; 2 Columbia River boats, $100 each; 1 dory, $50; 1 skiff, $50.

The transportation was by regular freight steamers. The following cannery
steamers were used: Steam tug Favorite , 7 tons, crew 3, value $2,000, chartered;
steam tug Beaver , 19 tons, crew 5, value $5,500, owned.

The following was the output in 1900, none being salted:

Species.

Cases.

Number to
the case.

Date.

Kins salmon

60

4.5

Sept. 1-Sept. 30

Redfish

r>, i3o

8 to 12

June28-Aug. 25

Cohoes

977

7.5

July 30-Sept. 20

Humpbacks

1 , 866

18 -

July 10-Aug. 10

Dog salmon

4,760

6. 5

.July 15-Sept. 20

The Chinese contract was 38 cents for 1-pound tails, 40 cents for half-pound
fiats, and 42 cents for 1-pound fiats, with the usual conditions. The white fishermen
received $40 to $60 per month, with transportation and board. Fish were purchased
at the following rates: King salmon, 10 cents; cohoes, 6 cents; redfish, 5 cents; dog-
salmon, 2 cents; humpbacks, 1 cent.

The following are the numbers of fish taken and the localities where found:
275 king salmon off' Hooniah; 66,901 redfish in Dundas Bay, Taylor Bay, Surge Bay,
Cape Spencer, Thakanis Bay, Soapstone Point, Excursion Inlet, and Glacier Bay;
8,596 cohoes, scattering on the redfish grounds; 35,383 humpbacks at Port Althrop,
Soapstone Point, and Excursion Inlet, and 29,803 dog salmon in Dundas Bay.

Pyramid Harbor Packing Company. — This cannery, the fisheries, and the general
locality were described in my former report, pages 125 to 128, so that only the
statistics for 1900, together with references to features omitted or changes made,
will be given here. The canning machinery consists of 6 retorts, 2 fillers and 1

254

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

spare one, 2 toppers, 2 solderers, 1 cutter, and 1 can-making set. All tins are made
at the cannery of 100-pound tin plate for bodies and 95-pound for tops; 60 per cent
of the plate is imported. It has a daily capacity of 1,600 cases, but this amount is
rarely attained. The pack of this cannery is the choicest in Alaska; it is mostly for
export, is made with great care, and has only about ^ per cent of do-overs. It is
very clean and free from the unpleasant odors noticed in many packing houses.

The fish are pewed from boats to a car operated by a cable and steam, traveling
on an inclined plane from the water’s edge to the fish-house, and the cleaned fish are
passed from the draining tubs direct to the cutter. The gurry is carried with a
stream of water in a wide trough under the fish-house into the bay. The Chinese
contract was 424 cents for machine-filled cans, with the usual conditions. The boss
received $50 a month and his lay, and the tester $250 for the season. The fishermen
had $50 for the run and 4 cents per fish for each boat of two men and t'ldl board.
About ten natives were employed as boat-pullers, who shared in the gill-net catch.
Klootchmen employed in the cannery received $1.25 per day.

The cannery purchased fish from about 224 Chilkat and Chilkoot Indians, paying
10 cents for redfish, though formerly 6 and 8 cents were paid. The Chilkats deliv-
ered at the cannery, while the cannery steamers called for the Chilkoot fish.

The following redfish were delivered by the Chilkat Indians: In 1898, 11,156
during August; in 1899, from July 19th to August 31st, 21,000; in 1900, from July
25th to September 1st, 47,967.

By the Chilkoot Indians: In 1898, July 12th to August 22d, 99,660; in 1899, from
July 10th to August 13th, 148,896; in 1900, from July 12th to August 22d, 169,107.

The cannery obtains its fish from Chilkat and Chilkoot inlets and rivers and
from Taku Inlet. King salmon run at Taku from May 25 to June 30; at Chilkat,
from June 10 to July 10, but they are not abundant. A few straggling redfish
appear at Chilkat about June 20, but the}7 are not found in large numbers until the
last of June or early in July. They are plentiful then until the middle of August
and straggle with cohoes until the last of September. The run in Chilkoot begins
earlier and closes earlier than in the Chilkat. (In my former report the names
became transposed and this was wrongly stated on page 128.) A good run for about
forty- five days is usually looked for. The redfish are called sock-eye, the name
used for this species in Puget Sound and on the Columbia; and it was noticed that
with the advent of canneries backed by capital from that district the name sock-eye
is becoming more common in Alaska. Cohoes are called kluks, which is the Indian
name and the same as that used at Killisnoo. They run in Chilkat Inlet from about
the middle of August to early in October, possibly later, and are quite abundant
in September. There are very few humpbacks in Chilkat, but it is said that they
are quite abundant in Chilkoot. Dog salmon straggle through the season and some
years are abundant in September.

The pack of this cannery is in redfish; the king salmon and eohoesare incidental
and the humpbacks and dog salmon are not used. The first steel head ever seen in
this locality was taken this year. The only sturgeon ever seen was mentioned in my
former report. No shad have been seen. There are many Dolly Yarden trout and
some veiy large halibut. The cannery uses gill nets exclusively, while the Indians
fish the rivers with gall's and nets, the latter about 60 fathoms long.

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1900.

255

The following are the .statistics of the Pyramid Harbor cannery for 1900:

Hands employed: 92 white and 10 native fishermen; 22-1 natives from whom
fish were purchased; 12 white cannery-hands, 16 Klootchmen, and 86 Chinese.

Fishing gear: 56 gill nets for redfish, each 300 fathoms long, 28 meshes deep.
6^-inch mesh; 11 gill nets for king salmon, each 180 fathoms long, 30 meshes deep.
8^-inch mesh.

Boats, lighters, etc.: Three lighters, $100 each; 56 Columbia River boats, $200
each; 3 skiffs, $25 each, and 1 pile-driver, $1,000.

The following vessels (owned) were employed in 1900: Steamer Elsie , 37 tons,
crew 1, value $16,000; ship Two Brothers , 1,263 tons, crew fishermen, value $35,000.
The following was the 1900 output:

Species.

( 'ases.

No. to
the
ease.

Date.

King salmon:

Red

i 2, 255

3. 5

Mav 29-June 30.

White

-977

3. 5

1 >o.

Redfish

51.856

11

July 9-Sept. 1.

Cohoes

513

7.5

Aug. 20-Sept. 1.

1 Flats. 5Talls.

CHILKOOT INLET.

Chilkoot Inlet is the arm at the head of Lynn Canal east of Chilkat and is sepa-
rated from that inlet by a long, narrow peninsula terminating in Seduction Point.

Chilkoot Packing Company. — At the head of Chilkoot Inlet is the cannery of
the Chilkoot Packing Company, organized at Aberdeen, Wash., with a capital of
$20,000. This company built their cannery in April, 1900, at the head of the inlet,
on the northern shore, in a small bend immediately outside of the line where the river
flats impinge upon the shore line. The promoters of this cannery formerly owned a
cannery at Grays Harbor, Washington.

The Chilkoot cannery in 1900 had a daily capacity of 200 cases, but this might be
doubled. The plant consists of 2 steam boxes, 2 retorts, 1 soldering machine, and
1 cutter. It is one of the smaller canneries and makes a hand pack. For the season
of 1901 they expect to have fillers and toppers in operation.

Nine thousand cases of cans were made by hand at the cannery and the rest were
purchased; 95-pound tin plate was used, all domestic. Fish are pewed from boats
to fish-house and when cleaned are carried to the cannery on a conveyer of an endless
chain of buckets. Transportation is by regular freight steamers.

The Chinese contract was 42£ cents, with the usual conditions. Fishermen
received $25 per month from the time of departure from Puget Sound to date of
return, with full board, transportation, and 5 cents for each redfish per boat of two
men. The cannery paid the Indians 10 cents for redfish taken with their own gear
and 8 cents for redfish taken with cannery boats and gear.

They used seines and gill nets and fished from the head of the iidet to Haines
Mission for redfish and in Berners Bay for cohoes and dog salmon, though all the
species occur in the inlet; scattering king salmon sometimes appear. A few redfish
have been seen as early as June 15. Trout are abundant and halibut and flounders
are not uncommon. The Chilkoot redfish run quite large. We weighed 33 taken

256

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

in the ship’s seine, and they averaged 8£ pounds; 30 from the cannery bin averaged
7j pounds. The following record of steelheads may be of interest: August 20,

1 steelhead; August 25, 3 steelheads, length 28 inches, weight 91 pounds; August 26,

2 steelheads, length 28 and 32 inches, weight 10 and 134 pounds; August 29, 3 steel-
heads. length 26, 28, and 31 inches, weight 94, 104, and 134 pounds; September -1,
•1 steelheads; September 8, 2 steelheads.

In 1900 the cannery employed 2d white and 8 native fishermen and purchased
from 16 natives; 9 white cannery-hands, IT natives, and 28 Chinese.

It used 1 purse seine, 160 fathoms by 20 fathoms, 3f-inch mesh, value $1,400;
16 gill nets, each 270 fathoms long, 25 meshes deep, 64-inch mesh, value 65 cents
per fathom; 2 Columbia River boats, $90 each, and 1 skiff, $25.

The following cannery steamers were used: Steamer Estella , 20 tons, crew 3,
value $3,500, owned; launch ./. R. Robert *, 9 tons, crew 2, value $3,000, chartered.
The following was the output of canned salmon, none being salted:

[Half-pound tins are packed in cases of 48 tins, but are reckoned in cases of 48 pounds.]

Species.

Cases.

No. to

the | Date,

case. |

[ '9,022
- - 4, 098

y 828
f 1 574

I :1 170

1 158

|- 8. 3 j j J u 1 1 e 30-Se j > t . 7 .

8 jsept. 7-Sept. In.

8 Sept. 10-Sept. 25.

1 One-pound (alls. 2 One-pound flats. y One-half pound flats.

CII ILK GOT RIVER AND LAKE.

The northwestern end of Chilkoot Inlet terminates in a narrowing, V -shaped
indentation, which receives at its head the waters of Chilkoot River. The indentation
is about one-half mile wide at the outer end by three-fourths mile in length, and at
low water is an uncovered flat, with a shallow boat channel meandering through it,
which carries the river discharge. At the apex of the V is the river mouth, which
at this point is contracted to about 100 feet by a point making from the western shore.
Within the point is a tidal basin about 100 yards wide and one-fourth mile long,
which extends to the foot of the rapids at the head of tide water. From here the
stream first curves gently to the northward and then to the westward until it reaches
the lake, three-fourths mile distant, having an average width of about 125 feet. With
the exception of a length of about one-fourth mile from the lake, where, however,
the current flows with considerable velocity, the entire river from tide water is a
rapid of gentle fall. At the middle of this length, on the western shore, is a summer
village of Chilkoot Indians, who fish the stream and, it is said, the lake also.

The bottom of the stream is rocky and bowldery. The right bank is steep to a
narrow grassy shelf which merges into rolling, densely wooded hills; the left bank
is steep and wooded, with grassy recesses, and rises rapidly to the precipitous moun-
tain masses. The rapids are all staked off, each stake indicating the fishing-place
allotted to an Indian family, which is handed down from one generation to another
and jealously guarded against intruders. During the fishing season the Indians build
platforms over or secure canoes on their claims, and from either conduct the fishing,

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN. 1900.

257

by means of a large iron barbless hook secured to the end of a stout pole. The
impaled fish is thrown into a box alongside of the fishermen. At one point of the
rapids runways have been constructed by piling rocks in parallel lines and confining
the water to narrow channels. In these runways fyke-net-shaped traps are arranged
to be raised or lowered to meet the level of different stages of the water. It is said
the}r do not work very well, but to my eyes it looked as if few fish could pass without
being trapped. It is probable that short nets are also used in the rapids.

The lake has an extreme length of 2^ miles in a northwest and southeast direc-
tion, with an average width of 1 mile. It lies in a basin nearly surrounded by lofty,
precipitous mountains reaching an altitude of 1,000 to 5,000 feet, and is largely fed
by cascades and streamlets from the melting snows and glaciers. There is one feeder
worthy of the name of stream which enters the lake at the extreme northwestern

F. C. Tt. ] 901— 17

258

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

end through a narrow valley leading to a glacier. We had no means for reaching
this stream, but at a distance it appeared as if there were considerable areas of flat
land around its mouth. The banks around the southern end of the lake, and on either
side as far as could be seen, are steep and rocky, and the bottom bowldery, shelving
rapidly to deepwater. The spawning-grounds are probabty around the feeder at the
head of the lake where, it is said, the bottom is sand and gravel. The water is quite
cold and whitish, like all glacial waters.

The only probable site for a hatchery is near the large feeder, where water by
gravity and ripe fish could be obtained. The water would probably have to be
filtered, and the question of freezing might be an important one, and can only be
solved by a series of observations over an extended period.

KILLISNOO.

The Alaska Oil and Guano Company1 s works at Ivillisnoo were again visited.
Tlrnyy were described in ray former report, pages 121 to 125. There has been no
change in the plant since our previous visit. The large trap in Hootznahoo Inlet
has been abandoned, as the results were not commensurate with the expense involved.
The herring taken in this locality are very rich in oil, and when salted have attracted
the attention of the eastern market. A large order was placed with this company
for the salt product, which, however, they were unable to fill. Fishing commenced
this year on May 26, a date much earlier than heretofore.

There were employed 20 white and 10 native fishermen; for factory and beach
hands 27 whites, 38 natives, and 13 Chinese. Their rate of pay is given in my former
report, page 122. The company used two purse seines, 150 fathoms by 15 fathoms,
value $ 1,200 each; one drag seine, 250 fathoms by 20 fathoms, $2,000; 3 lighters,
$800 each; 8 seine boats, $125 each; 6 strike boats, $75 each; 20 dories, $25 each.

The following vessels were employed on the fisheries. Their crews are included
in the numbers given under the hands employed.

Class and name.

Tons.

Crew.

Value.

Chartered or
owned.

Steamer Dolphin

60

18

$10, 000

Chartered.

Steamer Favorite

42

16

5, 000

Owned.

Launch Louise

5

3

3,000

Do.

The following was the output in 1898, 1899, and 1900:

1898. — 45,240 barrels of herring, making 165,500 gallons of oil and 886 tons of guano; from June 27 to
November 19.

1898. — Salted 1,800 half-barrels of herring and 25 half-barrels of humpback bellies.

1899. — 36,800 barrels of herring, making 128,000 gallons of oil and 714 tons of guano; from July 5 to

November 5.

1899. — Salted 1,650 half-barrels and 200 barrels of herring, and 31 half-barrels, of humpback bellies.

1900. -60,300 barrels of herring, making 172,000 gallons of oil and 1,194 tons of guano; from May 26 to

November 5.

1900. — Salted 185 half-barrels and 100 barrels of herring, 5 barrels of king salmon, 8 half-barrels and
210 barrels of redfish, and 523 half-barrels of humpback bellies.

CHILKOOT STREAM, SHOWING NATIVE FISH RUNS AND TRAPS IN CURRENT.

Bull. U. S. F. C. 1901. (To face page 258.)

Plate XXIV.

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1900.

259

TAKU INLET.

Taku Packing Company. — A company under this title was organized in Astoria,
Oreg. , by some of the stockholders of the Alaska Fishermen’s Packing Company,
Nushagak, with a capital of $20,000, and in the spring of 1900 a cannery was built
on Taku Inlet. The construction of the buildings was commenced March 28, and the
plant was ready for operation on May 17. It is located on the western shore of Taku
Inlet, 2i miles west by north from Jaw Point, on the northern side of a small bight
(Sunny Cove), which receives the waters of a small stream.

It is a small cannery, making a hand pack, and has a daily capacity of 250 cases,
with expectations of making from 15,000 to 18,000 cases a year. The capacity of
the cannery will be increased in 1901. It has 1 steam box, 1 retort, 1 solderer, and
1 hand cutter. The cans, which were purchased and carried to Alaska, were made of
95-pound tin plate. Transportation is by regular freight steamers, which call upon
notification. The Chinese contract was 42 cents for tails and 11 cents for flats, with
the usual conditions. The fishermen were transported each way, had full board,
received $80 for the season, and 5 cents for redtish and 10 cents for king salmon per
boat of two men. The native cannery-hands were paid $2 per day.

This year the fishing was confined to Taku Inlet and most of the fish were
obtained near the mouth of the river, described in my former report, page 126. It
is expected, however, in the future to expand the fisheries and include neighboring
streams. Fishing in the inlet is difficult on account of ice pouring from the glaciers,
and, as there are no seining beaches, it is confined to gill nets.

According to the cannery data king salmon begin to run in Taku Inlet May 8
and continue to June 26. The Pyramid Harbor cannery, which has fished here for
many years, gave the dates of the king salmon runs as May 25 to June 30. It is
probable that, the time depends upon the movements of the ice, and the earlier date
may be for the first arrivals whose numbers are insufficient for a large cannery. Of
the early run 15 per cent are white-meated, and this proportion increases until the
latter part of the run, when about 30 per cent are found in this condition. One king
salmon was taken weighing 61 pounds. The first arrivals of the redtish were noted
on June 20, but the}1- did not come in sufficient numbers for canning until July 1;
they then continued to August 12.

Cohoes run from August 1 to October 1, and dog salmon are noticed scattering
throughout the season, but are most abundant in August. Steel heads are quite
abundant and were first noticed from July 15 to August 1. At the time of our visit,
August 25 and 26, they formed about 10 per cent of the catch. Dolly Varden trout
are numerous, and there are a few halibut, but no shad or sturgeon.

The following are the statistics:

Hands employed: Thirty white and 11 native fishermen, 7 white and 2 native
cannery-hands, and 19 Chinese.

Fishing gear: Fifteen redfish gill nets, each 150 fathoms long, 35 meshes deep,
6^-inch mesh; and 22 king-salmon gill nets, 150 fathoms long, 22 meshes deep,
91-i rich mesh, value 65 cents per fathom.

Boats, lighters, etc. : 2 lighters, $225 each; 1 fish scow, $150; 15 gill-net boats, $60
each; 2 dories, $25 each. Launch Faum , 5 tons, crew 2, valued at $1,000, owned.

260

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

The output was as follows, none being salted:

Species.

Cases.

No. to
the case.

Date.

King salmon:

Red

13,150

f

Pink

’454

\ 2.8

May 17-June 26

White

i?71

1

Redfish

( >5,818
\ - 830

} 9

July 5-Aug. 12

Cohoes

i 3, 227

7

Aug. 1-Sept. 15

Dog salmon

i 2, 472

6.5

Aug. 15-Sept. 25

i Tails. 2 Flats.

PORT SNETTISHAM.

Taku Fishing Company. — This company, with a capital stock of $15,000, said to
be owned in San Francisco, but with home address at Portland, Oreg., commenced
the construction of a cannery on March 1, 1900, and had the plant ready for operating
-Tune 1. It is located on the southern side of the entrance to Port Snettisham, in the
first bend within the southern entrance point, 2 miles east of Point Styleman. It is
a small cannery, making a hand pack, with a daily capacity of 300 cases, and an outfit
for about 12,000 to 15,000 cases per season. It has 3 retorts, 1 solderer, and 1
hand cutter. All cans are made by hand at the cannery, of 95-pound domestic tin.

The Chinese contract was 43 cents for hand-tilled cans, with the usual conditions.
The locality has not heretofore been considered a favorable location; hence no fish-
ermen’s contracts could be made and they were paid wages throughout the season.
The white fishermen were transported and, with the natives, received from $40 to
$65 per month and board. The cannery paid 7 cents each for redfish and 50 cents
per hundred for humpbacks. King salmon were obtained from Taku Inlet and red-
fish from Port Snettisham. Humpbacks were largely from Limestone Inlet and
from small streams near the cannery.

Employees: 16 white and 20 native fishermen,! white cannery -hands, 25 Chinese.

Fishing gear: Four gill-nets for king salmon, each 150 fathoms long, 20 meshes
deep, 9i-inch mesh; 14 gill-nets for redfish, each 150 fathoms long, 30 meshes deep,
61-inch mesh — all valued at 65 cents per fathom. The cannery had 1 purse seine, 165
fathoms long, 300 meshes deep, 31-inch mesh, value $400, and 3 drag seines averaging
100 fathoms long, 5 fathoms deep, and 31-inch mesh, value $1.50 per fathom.

Boats, etc.: One lighter, $500; 3 seine boats, $50 each; 3 Columbia River
boats, $150 each; 9 gill-net boats, $50 each. The following launches were also
used: N. cfe &, 10 tons, crew 2, valued at $1,800, owned; Pescaderg , 4 tons, crew
1, value $600, owned. The transportation was by regular freight steamer

The following was the output:

Species.

Cases.

No. to
the case.

Date.

King salmon:

Red

454

3

June 1-June20

\V h i te

97

3

Do.

Redfish

2,542

9

July 9-July 27

Cohoes

756

7

Sept. 1-Sept. 24

Humpbacks

3, 593

21

July 25-Aug. 16

Dog salmon

2,016

7

July 9-Sept. 24

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1900.

261

WRANGELL NARROWS.

Icy Strait Packing Company , Petersburg . — This company, incorporated in the
State of Washington, is organized from the stockholders of the Quadra Packing
Company, who, to expand their work in Alaska, purchased the saltery interests in
Bartlett Bay, near Icy Strait, intending to build a cannery at that point during the
season of 1899. Circumstances arose which made it inexpedient to carry out the
Bartlett Bay project at the time, and, attention having been directed to a site in
Wrangell Narrows for a cannery, fishery, sawmill, etc., work was commenced on this
plant in the summer of 1899, when a small sawmill was set up, a substantial steamer
wharf built, and a warehouse, store, and residence completed. It is located inside
of the northern entrance to Wrangell Narrows on the southeastern shore, about
a mile above Turn Point and an equal distance from the open waters of Frederick
Sound. The position is an excellent one, as it is convenient to several very good
fisheries, and all steamers pass close to the wharf on their regular routes to and from
Alaska ports. A town site has been recorded, a post-office and an express office
established under the name of Petersburg, and an Indian village has sprung up close
by. During the winter of 1899-1900, and while the building operations were in
progress, the company engaged in the herring and halibut fisheries. Of the former,
during the months of September and October, 1,500 barrels were salted, mostly taken
from Wrangell Narrows. The halibut were shipped on ice to Puget Sound. As this
may become an important industry, it will be referred to under another heading.

In the spring of 1900 the cannery building, warehouse, bunk-house, etc., were
erected and the canning machinery installed. Situated on the steamer route, the
surroundings have been made attractive by gardens, plank walks, bridges, etc.., and
the buildings are substantial, well arranged, and very clean.

Fish are pewed from boats or lighters to the fish-house on the end of the wharf,
which is well arranged, clean, and clear of bad odors. After cleaning, the fish are
passed directly from the draining tables to the cutter. As the pack is made by hand,
the severed fish are carried from the cutter to the filling tables, which are arranged
for 61 fillers. Klootchmen do most of this work and receive 6 cents a case for filling.
The cans then go to the washer, after which the floats are put in and the tops put
on by Chinese; the}7 then pass to the crimpers, and in succession to the acid bath,
solderer, etc.

The cannery machinery consists of 5 steam boxes, 3 retorts, 1 cutter, 1 washer,
2 cappers, 2 crimpers, and 1 solderer. They have a good supply of hand tools,
small lathe, drill press, etc., and a well-equipped cooperage and box factory. 14,500
cases of cans were purchased; the remainder were made at the cannery. The tin
was 100-pound plate for the tops and bodies, both domestic and imported, but the
proportion of each could not be ascertained. The cannery as installed at present
has a daily capacity of 1,000 cases, hand-filled. Jt is probable that filling machinery
will be introduced, though it is believed that a hand-filled pack is preferred.

The Chinese contract was 45 cents, with the usual conditions. The fishermen
received $35 per month, board and allowances, which brings the average up to about
$50 per month. Native fishermen receive the same as whites if they complete the
season. Fish were purchased at the lowest rates for which they could be obtained.
The native work this season was very satisfactory.

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

262

The fisheries of this cannery were conducted over such a wide area and in such
an irregular way that no accurate stream data is available. The crews were moved
from place to place, as seemed to offer the best facilities and the most fish. Points
130 to 140 miles distant were reached for fish to supply the cannery, and much
enterprise was exhibited on this work. The following streams were fished, and the
numbers taken by this cannery, where known, are given: Taku Inlet; North Stream,
Stikine Delta; Blind River, Wrangell Narrows; North End, Wrangell Narrows;
head of Duncan Canal; Redtish Bay, 34,000 redfish; Freshwater Bay, 25,000 redfish;
Basket Bay, 30,000 redfish; Sitkoh Bay, 30,000 redfish; North Bay of Pillars; South
Bay of Pillars, 6,500 redfish; Tebenkof Bay, 7,000 redfish; Shipley Bay; Rocky
Straits, 25,000 redfish; Red Bay, 30,000 redfish.

In addition to the plant at Petersburg this company operated salteries in con-
junction with it at Taku Inlet, Shipley Bay, and Bartlett Bay, and also on the hulk
Blanche , and as the men and material are interwoven with the cannery operations
these salteries will be referred to and the statistics given as a whole.

Bartlett Bay saltery is located on the abandoned cannery site of the Bartlett Ba}r
Packing Company, once the property of the Alaska Packers Association, which, as
previously noted, was the location first selected by the Ieyr Strait Packing Company
for their cannery. During the season of 1899 two white fishermen, on the part of
the new company, prospected the place for fish and salted 200 barrels of salmon,
which were marketed from Petersburg.

During the season of 1900 regular salting operations were conducted here by the
Icy Strait Packing Company, and at the same time buildings were erected for a
cannery, in which machinery will be installed in the spring of 1901. The cannery
will be operated that season.

Shipley Bay saltery , which was formerly operated by Walter Ivosmikoff and
located at the head of that bay (see my former report, p. 109), was acquired by the
Icy Strait Packing Company and operated during the season of 1900.

Taka Inlet saltery was built in 1897 by the present Alaska manager of the Icy
Strait Packing Company on Taku Point, near the head of the inlet of that name.
In 1898 and 1899 it was operated by the Quadra Packing Company, and in 1900 by a
large force, with gear, from the Petersburg establishment.

The hulk Blanche was used by the Icy Strait Packing Company for salting
herring, and was moved in the narrows from point to point as occasion required,
though generally located off Blind River. The company fitted out to salt 4,000
barrels by the end of the year. The herring come to Wrangell Narrows in duly,
and are found in that vicinity until February.

The following are the statistics of the Icy Strait Packing Company, and in it
are included the men, boats, gear, etc., employed in the salteries at Bartlett Bay,
Shipley Bay, Taku Inlet, and on the hulk Blanche.

Hands employed: 34 white and 24 native fishermen; 10 white and 42 native can-
nery-hands, and 50 Chinese.

Fishing gear: Five purse seines, each 120 fathoms long, 10 fathoms deep, and
3 inch mesh; value, S3 per fathom. Five drag seines, each 120 fathoms long, 6
fathoms deep, and 3-inch mesh; value, $1.50 per fathom. Two drag seines (for
herring), ISO fathoms long, 15 fathoms deep, and 2-inch mesh; value, $3 per fathom.

Bull. U. S. F. C. 1 901 . (To face page 262. )

Plate XXV.

0 .

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1900.

263

Gill nets: King salmon, each 50 fathoms long, 25 meshes deep, and 9-inch mesh;
redfish, 50 fathoms long, 40 meshes deep, and 5£-inch mesh; cohoes, 75 fathoms
long, 30 meshes deep, and 7-inch mesh (120 nets in all; value, 65 cents per fathom).

Boats, lighters, etc.: 1 cargo lighter, $850; 12 seine boats, $100 each; 12 gill-net
boats, $50 each; 12 seine-boat tenders, $35 each; 1 skiffs, $20 each; 1 pile-driver, $500.
The following vessels (owned) were employed:

Class and name.

Tons.

Crew.

Value.

Steamer White Wings

34

r,

|V, 000

Steamer Annie M. Nixon

IS

G

6, 000

Steamer (stern, pad.) Gypsy Queen

Hulk Blanche •

58

107

(’)

6,000
4, 500

Scow Elliott

43

(’)

1,000

1 Fishermen.

The output of the cannery consisted of —

Species.

Cases.

No. to
the case.

Date.

f 1 8, 625

] 15

July 1-Aug. 20

Sept. 10-Oet. 10

July 20-Sept. 15
Aug. 15-Oct. 30

1 2 1,310
| 1 500

i

1 7

\ 2 1, 000
1 10,000

(

20

/ 1 4,' 800

1 8.5

( -'3,700

f

1 Tails. 2 Flats. 3Salted 100 barrels cohoes, running 27 to the barrel.

The Bartlett Bay sal ter y in 1899 salted 200 barrels of redfish. In 1900 it salted
530 barrels of redfish, 15 to the barrel, June 25 to August 7; 120 barrels of cohoes,
30 to the barrel, August 20 to September 30.

The Shipley Bay saltery in 1900 salted 200 barrels of redfish, 50 to the barrel,
June 27 to August 11.

The Taku Inlet saltery in 1898 salted 140 barrels of king salmon and 12 barrels
of white king-salmon bellies. In 1899 it salted 400 barrels of king salmon, 12£ to the
barrel, and 12 barrels of white king-salmon bellies, May 10 to June 25. In 1900 it
salted 400 barrels of king salmon, 12£ to the barrel, and 12 barrels of white king-
salmon bellies, May 7 to June 25.

On the hulk Blanche in 1899 there were salted 1,500 barrels of herring, Septem-
ber 15 to October 31; in 1900, 1,000 barrels of herring, August 1 to October 3.

Pacific Coast and Norway Packing Company , Wrangell Narrows. — This is a
company chartered in Minnesota, with main office at Minneapolis, and said to be
incorporated for $1,000,000, of which, however, a very small portion only is reported
to have been subscribed. It is a new organization, and this year was prospecting for
a cannery site on Wrangell Narrows, or in that vicinity. It is expected to build a
cannery in the spring of 1901 and make a pack that season, but none of the details
have yet been considered. This season a floating saltery outfit was operated and
salmon and herring were salted. Later the halibut industry is to be examined.

The following are the statistics, as far as they could be learned:

Men employed: 16 white and 8 Japanese fishermen and 2 Japanese cooks.

264

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

Outfit: 1 herring seine, 130 fathoms long, 40 feet deep, 14-inch mesh, value $800;
1 herring seine, 110 fathoms long, 30 feet deep, 14-inch mesh, value $600; 2 gill nets,
75 fathoms long, 30 meshes deep, 7-inch mesh, value 65 cents per fathom; 2 seine
boats, $180 each; 2 dories, $30 each; 3 skiffs, $20 each.

The vessels were the steamer Neptune , 176 tons, crew 10, value $10,000, owned;
house scows Ike, value $1,000, owned; Joe , value $1,000, owned.

This outfit reached Wrangell Narrows August 20, and has been operating in the
vicinity of Blind River. To September 5th, 250 barrels of herring and 8 barrels of
cohoes had been salted. The party was fitted out to salt 3,000 barrels of herring.
One of the house scows is fitted up as a cooper shop and the other as a bunk-house.

The Royer -Warnock Packing Company. — This firm hails from San Francisco
and located a cannery in southeastern Alaska in the spring of 1900. The site is that
of the Buck saltery, in Beecher Pass, which connects Duncan Canal with Wrangell
Narrows. The cannery is on the northern side of the pass, immediately within the
southeastern point of the largest and easternmost of three islands which lie in the pass
just south of Hood Point, with which they are connected at low water.

The cannery is a very small plant, the old saltery building having been utilized in
the so-called main building, and is without appliances usually found in a cannery
of simplest form. It is believed that under present conditions an output of 25 cases
a day would tax the efforts of the cannery. On the day of my visit 900 fish were
received, and it was said that it would take from Thursday morning until Sunday to
pack them. The superintendent stated that machinery would be introduced next
year (1901), so that a season’s pack of 25,000 cases could be made. In this event new
buildings will have to be erected, as the present ones are mere shacks.

The pack was truly made by hand. The fish were cut in sections with an
ordinary butcher’s kidfe, and the cans filled, capped, crimped, and soldered by hand.
All cans were purchased; weight of tin plate unknown. There were no fishermen;
all fish were purchased, and for them 6 cents to 8 cents were paid. There was no
Chinese contract; the Mongolians employed were paid $35 per month and received
board and transportation.

The cannery employed 2 white men, 10 Japanese, and 1 Chinese. It had 2 seines,
each 100 fathoms by 5 fathoms, value, $1.50 per fathom; 1 gill net, 100 fathoms by
30 meshes, 7-inch mesh; 1 seine boat, $30; 1 scow, $30; 1 dory, $10; and 1 naphtha
launch, the Ro-Wa , of 4 tons, crew 2; valued at $800.

Nineteen barrels of redfish were salted. The pack of canned salmon for the season
consisted of:

Species.

Cases.

No. to
the case.

Date.

Redfish

480

12

July and August.

Cohoes

1,060

7. 5

Do.

Dog salmon

20

7.8

WRANGELL NARROWS STREAM.

Emptying into Wrangell Narrows on the eastern side, opposite Finger Point and
one-half mile to the northward of the astronomical station, Coast Survey chart No.
8180, is a large stream which was said to run redfish. This stream was examined by

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1900.

265

Ensign Hepburn, and from his report it is quite probable that it is not a redfish
stream and that but few salmon can surmount the obstacles. The stream is not a
lake outlet, but drains the hills about 10 miles to the southeast from its mouth.
Throughout its entire course, and to within one-half mile of its mouth, it follows a
line of hills which lie to the northward. The opposite side is comparatively low.
Three hundred yards within the mouth, at a sharp bend, is a fall to which tide water

Scale of Miles

Cascade stream, east side of Wrangell Narrows, opposite Finger Point.

extends. At low water the fall is about 30 feet high, and it is only at high-water
spring tides that fish can ascend. Above the falls the width is 15 feet, depth 1$ feet,
and current 1^- knots. The bottom is rocky where the stream narrows, and in the
wider reaches it is sandy and gravelly. The color of the water is dark, and the
temperature (September 6) 2 miles from the mouth was 50° F. The banks are heavily
timbered, and there is a dense undergrowth. On the left bank, beyond the stream

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STaTES FISH COMMISSION.

266

lip*# &

belt, the country seemed open. A number of dead dog- salmon and cohoes were seen
below the falls, and a few cohoes were noticed jumping- at the falls, it was learned
that dog- salmon and cohoes are the only ones that try the falls at all.

SALMON BAY STREAM.

This stream was examined by Ensign Kempff and Mr. Fassett. Salmon Bay is
on the northeastern end of Prince of Wales Island, about 7 miles to the eastward of
Red Bay, at the junction of Clarence and Sumner straits. Salmon Bay is a narrow

inlet curving in a southerly direction, about one-
half mile in length, and at the head has a narrow
rocky passage which, after a few hundred yards,
widens, forming a tidal basin that receives the
waters of a redfish stream. This stream was
explored for a distance of miles to a moderate
elevation, and as the lake was not reached the
party returned. There was no one in the
vicinity from whom any information could be
obtained. It was afterwards learned that the
lake is some distance in the interior. The stream
is very tortuous and Hows through a compara-
tively level country. The land around the mouth
of the stream is low and grassy, tide water
extending about 1^- miles within the mouth.
The bottom is rocky and bowlderv, with gravel
patches over which fish were seen spawning. The
water has the brownish tinge common to lake
water in this district, and 1 mile above the mouth
had a temperature of 66° F., 3 miles above the
same point 58e F. , September 7. The average
width is about 40 feet; depth, 1 foot; current
strong. No tributaries were noticed in the dis-
tance examined. About 2 miles from the mouth
there is a fall or rapid, in steps about 4 feet
high, which, however, does not prevent the fish
from ascending. The banks are wooded, and
several open spaces were noticed back of the
fringe of growth bordering the stream.

Just beyond the head of tide water the stream during the fishing season may lie
barricaded. On each bank are heavy posts and on line a number of stakes driven in
the stream lied, with bowlders between. It is not known exactly what this may be, but
from the old web found on the banks it is believed that a net has been stretched across
the stream, supported by the stakes, with the foot held in position by the bowlders.

At two points, about one-half mile within the mouth, runways or leads have been
constructed by piling the rocks from either bank in V -shape, leaving the apex open.
It is possible that these runways are used in connection with the fyke-shaped traps

UPPER LEAD

Stream and leads, Salmon Bay, Prince of
Wales Island.

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1900.

267

used by the natives. On the left bank, at the outer runway, is the site of a saltery
formerly operated here. Humpbacks, dog salmon, and Dolly Varden trout were the
only fish seen. It is said that this stream has been much abused by barricading, and
a few years ago it was believed that it was practically exhausted for commercial pur-
poses, but redfish are still taken in considerable numbers. The stream has a probable
value of 20,000 redfish and 3,000 cohoes. The only stream data obtainable are the
following:

Year.

Time of run.

Species.

Number

taken.

I89G

July 1-30

19, 725

1896

Aug. 1-31

2, 682

1897

July 1-15

15, 012

1898

June 28-July 20

Redfish

22, 000

1899

25, 401

1900

June 18-July 27

Redfish

33, 290

Salmon Bay saltery. — On the southern point of the entrance to Salmon Bay is a
saltery formerly conducted by Mr. Tom McCauley. Several years ago the salting
tanks were moved to Whale Passage, and the saltery is now used as a cooperage.
The buildings, dwelling, store, etc., at the time visited were in good repair; a large
number of barrels were stored in a warehouse, and quite an outfit of coopering tools
was noticed, but everything was locked and no one in sight. The fish taken from
the stream are sold fresh to the Wrangell cannery by Mr. McCauley, who claims the
fishing right here.

RED BAY STREAM.

Red Bay is on the northern side of Prince of Wales Island and opens on Sum-
ner Strait. (See Coast Survey chart Nos. 8200 and 8168.) The southwest extremity
of the bay narrows to a pocket, which is an uncovered Hat at low water, and receives
at the southeastern end the waters of a redfish stream, which was examined by Lieu-
tenant Rodman September L It is about l£ miles in length, has an average width
of 30 feet and depth of 12 inches, with two rocky pools about 5 feet in depth in its
length; it flows in a northwesterly and northerly direction from the lake over a
gravelly bottom with occasional bowlders, running with a slack current, and has no
falls or heavy rapids in its course. The lake, at the point of outlet, flows in two
streams, forming an island about one-half mile in diameter. The eastern bank of the
main stream is generally low and flat, the western bank steep, and both timbered
with the usual growth of the country. Tide water extends about 150 yards within the
tree line, and the temperature of the water above this point was found to be 62° F.

The lake, which lies in a general north-and-south direction, is about 2£ miles
long by one-half mile wide; it is elevated about 10 feet above sea level, and has a
temperature of 61 F. at a depth of 3 feet. The eastern shore is generally steep,
having near the head of the lake a gray precipitous cliff, while lying off the lower
end is a small wooded island. The western shore has a more gentle slope, and all the
surroundings are heavily wooded. For want of proper facilities the lake could not
be examined, but at the head it appeared as though it received two feeders. The
shore shelf, as far as could be seen, was gravelly.

268

BULLETIN OE THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

About 200 yards from the mouth of the stream, and above tide water, forked
posts were found planted on the banks, and a large number of slat racks, 8 feet by 4
feet, were stacked near by. As the current is very gentle it is probable that a heavy
crossbeam is laid across the crotches, supported by stakes in the stream, and that
the racks are then laid across by bedding one end in the gravel, bottom upstream,

and inclining the other end
against the beam. A line of
bowlders across the stream prob-
ably served to ballast the lower
ends of the screens, thus effect-
ively closing it to fish on their
way to the spawning-grounds.
Small pieces of web and cordage
were also seen in the vicinity,
which may have been used in
closing the stream.

With the means at hand
two men could close the stream
in about two hours. Naturally,
it is free from obstruction. A
few redfish, many humpbacks,
and a few dog salmon were seen
in the stream, confined largely
to the pools, in which 500 or
600 were noticed, all in an
advanced stage of ripening.
The bed of the stream seemed
to offer a good spawning-bed.
No fish were seen in the lake,
but here and in the stream large
numbers of small fry, 1 inch to
3 inches long, were noticed.

It is said that this stream
has been much abused by bar-
ricading, and it is difficult to
obtain its real value now, as the
canneries naturally do not wish to give their stream records to the public, and they
are cautious in giving figures.

The following are the records as far as they are available:

Year.

Time of run.

Species.

Number.

1896

July 18-31

Redfish

16, 348

1896

Aug. 1-Sept. 1

Cohoes

4, 542

1897

July 7-29

12, 001

1898 . . _

July 10-Aug. 5

24, 000

1899

1900

11,243

The stream has a present value of not over 18,000 redfish and 5,000 cohoes for
a single season.

Bull. U. S. F. C. 1901. (To face page 268.)

Plate XXVI.

SALMON BAY STREAM, PRINCE OF WALES ISLAND.
Riffles where humpbacks were spawning, about 2 miles from mouth.

TEBENKOF STREAM. LOG FORMING FOUNDATION OF FISH BARRIER.

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1900.

269

The stream named “Salmon Creek”. on Coast Survey chart No. 8168 of Red
Bay was a mere rill at the time of our visit, and those named creeks Nos. 1, 2, 3,
and 4 were not seen; they are probably small waterways during heavy rains. The
stream named “Little Creek,” to the westward of the redfish stream, is about as
large as the latter and carries many humpbacks.

At the point marked “Fishery and Indian Village” is the site of the old saltery,
formerly operated by Mr. Tom McCauley, but later moved to Whale Passage. The
saltery building is in bad condition and the wharf has disappeared, except the
inshore end. There are two houses near by, but no one was seen in the vicinity; the
place looked abandoned. The fish were formerly used in the saltery, but are now
sold by Mr. McCauley to the Wrangell cannery.

SHIPLEY BAY AND STREAM.

Shipley Bay is on the western side of Kosciusko Island, which lies close to and on
the northwestern side of Prince of Wales Island, from which it is separated by Klawak
Passage. It is a very deep indentation, about 0 miles long and 1£ miles wide, but
much obstructed b}r reefs, though there is a good channel and excellent anchorage at
the head of the bay. At the eastern end, toward the northern side, is a saltery for-
merly owned by Mr. Walter Kosmikoff, known locally as “Russian Walter,” who
salted salmon and at times salmon trout. Fish were sold fresh when the opportunity
offered, but as it was out of the track of the cannery steamers, few were disposed of
in that way, though occasionally a few were sent to Wrangell on the monthly mail
boat which passes here on its run between Klawak and Wrangell.

In 1S99 the saltery was purchased in the interest of the Icy Strait Packing
Company and was operated, as noted, under that company. It was closed at the
time of our visit, and there was no one in the vicinity.

At the extreme head of the bay and about half a mile from the saltery is the
mouth of a redfish stream, which was examined by Lieutenant Rodman and Mr.
Fassett, September 3. This stream, with the lake system, lies in a general east-and-
west direction, the former about 1| miles long, 20 to 25 feet wide, and 12 to 15
inches deep. It Hows between steep timbered mountains, 2,000 feet high, with a
strong current, over a rocky bed which has occasional gravel spots. There are many
rapids in the stream, but no steep falls to prevent the fish from ascending. No
stream yet visited by this party has as many natural obstructions as this one. It is
choked from the lake to the mouth by fallen timbers which have come down the
steep mountain side, and at two points, 50 yards and 150 yards from the lake, there
have been heavy slides into the bed of the stream, the water disappearing entirely
under the detritus at each point and reappearing after it has passed the obstruction.
It is impossible for fish to overcome these obstacles, but it is probable that during
heavy rains, which are frequent in this district, the volume of water is so great that
the subsurface drains under the obstructions can not carry it all away, and there is
then a flow over the top. Below these natural obstructions, where the stream again
appears, the pools were tilled with salmon of all species, and some trout, most of the
former well matured. The stream water had the usual discoloration and a tempera-
ture of 58.5° F.

270

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

The lake is about If miles long, has an extreme width of one-half mile, and an
elevation of 55 feet. The Avhole head of the outlet is filled with logs and dead
trees-, beyond this jam the shore is rocky as far as could be seen from the outlet.
As there were no facilities for examining the lake, and it was impracticable to
follow the shore, the party ascended a high mountain overlooking the lake and from
this position made the sketch. At the extreme eastern end a second small lake was
seen, connected with the main body bjr a fair-sized stream. Several small feeders

were also seen, but none of any consequence except the lake connection, near which
some sandbars were noticed. The temperature of the lake near the outlet, at a
depth of 3 feet, was found to be 59° F.

In the stream, about 50 yards above tide water, which extends but a very short
distance from the mouth, some stakes and old webbing were found, and immediately
above a tree had been felled across. All this may have been used for barricading
the stream, but whether any obstructions have been used recently to hold the fish is
unknown to this party.

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1900.

271

On account of the natural obstructions in the stream the locality is probably not
suitable for hatchery purposes. The stream data is very meager, but the following
may be of some service, though it should be remembered that except for 1900 the
fish taken for the saltery are not included:

In 1892 the Baranoff Packing Company took 6,762 redfish from July 9 to 20; in
1893,5,295 redfish from July 8 to 30. In 1.898 the Wrangell cannery took 5,000 red-
fish from d ul}T 15 to August 15.

In 1900 the Icy Strait Packing
Company took 12,000 redfish
from June 27 to August 14.

The stream lias a pro! >able value
of 12,000 redfish.

SHIPLEY BAY STREAM No. 2.

On the southern side of the
bay a small stream discharges
into a cove formed by a long
peninsula and the point next
eastward. This stream was ex-
amined by Ensign Hepburn,
and found to carry only hump-
backs and dog salmon, though
cohoes may also run later.

The stream is not a lake
outlet, but has its source in
the mountains about 6 miles in
a general southerly direction
from the mouth. At a point 3
miles from the mouth, where
it reaches an elevation of 170
feet, it is quite small and flows
through a gently ascending and
rather flat country, increas-
ing in size toward the mouth
by conjunction with small
branches. Tide water extends
three-eighths of a mile up-
stream; immediately above this
point the width is about 16 feet,
depth 9 inches, with a velocity of about 3 knots. The bed is generally rocky, and
where it widens it is sandy and gravelly. From a point I mile above its mouth and
for a distance of about three-fourths of a mile it runs as a continuous rapid. There
are two cascades, as noted in the sketch, with the greatest sheer fall of 3 feet. The
water is dark, and at the mouth and 1 mile above had a temperature of 51° F. The
banks are densely wooded, but back from the stream belt the country seemed more
open. At the mouth is a gravel bar, and within the banks are grassy. There are no

SHIPLEY BAY •

Humpback Stream, Shipley Bay, Prince of Wales Island.

272

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

artificial obstructions, but throughout its entire length there is much fallen timber,
which in places must offer much difficulty to the fish in ascending. Humpbacks
and dog salmon were seen for a distance of about 2{- miles; all were in poor condi-
tion, and the lacerations showed the difficulties encountered in ascending. Dead dog
salmon were numerous.

BAY OF PILLARS AND STREAMS.

This bay is on the west side of Kuiu Island and opens on Chatham Strait, having
Point Sullivan for the northern entrance point and Point Ellis marking the southern.
It is a large body of water, much obstructed by islands and reefs, and has two deep
arms similarly obstructed; the one on the north will be referred to as the North Bay
of Pillars, and the other as the South Bay of Pillars.

These waters have been surveyed by the Coast, and Geodetic Survey, and as
that office has probably written sailing directions, notes for entering will not be made
here.

On the southern shore of the South Bay of Pillars, about 4 miles from Point
Ellis, the cannery of the Astoria and Alaska Packing Company was located. This
cannery was burned in 1892 (see my former report, p. 121), but the site and remain-
ing building were purchased by Mr. Jack Mantle, who lives here during the fishing
season and operates a saltery in each of the Pillar Bay arms.

The principal streams in this vicinity fished for commercial purposes are: One
at the head of the South Bay of Pillars, which, when the cannery was operated, was
known as the Home Stream or Point Ellis Stream (the Indian name for it is Kutla-
koo); one at the head of the North Bay of Pillars, which is known as the Pillar Bay
Stream; and one in the large bay to the southward (Tebenkof Bay), known as Kuiu
Stream, or Alecks Stream.

POINT ELLIS STREAM, OR KUTLAKOO.

Entering the South Bay of Pillars the ship’s course is close along the southern
shore, quite straight, and fairly clear for a distance of 5 miles, when the bay becomes
choked with islands and reefs, which straggle to the head. In the southeastern angle
an arm extends to the eastward for about a mile, and receives the waters of a small
humpback stream. On the northern side the bay terminates in the Narrows (Skookum
Chuck), which extend in a northeastern direction about three-fourths of a mile, with
a width of about 100 yards, through which the current is quite violent during the
strength of the tide. These Narrows connect with an inner bay 3 miles long, in a
northeast and southwest direction, by three-fourths of a mile wide, which at the
eastern end sends an arm at right angles to the southward about 1 mile long by one-
fourth of a mile wide, receiving at the western terminus the waters of the Point
Ellis or Kutlakoo stream. This stream, examined b}r Lieutenant Rodman and Mr.
Fassett, is a lake outlet, and from the grassy flats at its mouth to the lake is about
three-fourths of a mile long, with an average width of 18 feet and a depth of 10
inches. It has a general north-and-south direction, flowing over a gravelly bottom
between moderately steep banks heavily wooded. As the lake is not more than 15
or 20 feet above tide water the current is not strong, nor are there any falls or
strong rapids. Tide water extends about 50 yards within the mouth.

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS TN 1900.

273

The lake is slightly crescentic in shape, with a general northwesterly and south-
easterly direction, and is about 1 mile long, with an average width of one-fourth of a
mile. The shores are heavily wooded and rise rapidly to the higher mountains. The
water appears deep and clear, with a brownish tinge, and as far as could be examined
the bottom is gravelly around the shore shelf. At the point of discharge the lake is
shallow, with a grassy bottom. There are several feeders. The largest enters the

Kutlakoo Lake and Stream, Kuiu Island.

head of the lake through a narrow valley and is nearly as large as the outlet; it forms
the main spawning-ground for the redfish. A second feeder, said to be on the eastern
side, was not noticed by the party.

The temperature of the stream water on August 29 was 62 3 F., and the lake
water, at a depth of 2 feet, one-fourth of a mile from the outlet, was 61° F.

In 1892 Mr. J. C. Callbreath, the present owner of the hatchery on Etolin

F. C. B. 1901—18

274

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

Island, then part owner and manager of the Point Ellis cannery, operated a small
hatchery on the left bank of this stream (Kutlakoo), about 200 yards above the
mouth. It was rather primitive, the work all being conducted without shelter. The
hatchery water was conveyed by a box flume from a point on the stream about 300
yards from the lake, where the remnants of a barricade built to hold the spawning
fish may still be seen. About 1,000,000 eggs were fertilized and placed in the
baskets, but after they commenced hatching an exceptionally high September tide
destined the plant, and it was never rebuilt. It is said that much difficulty was
experienced with fungus. At the old hatchery site stakes were found driven in the
bed of the stream, between which, it is said, a net is stretched to hold the fish. A
few yards above this point are the remains of a picket barricade.

Immediately below the point of discharge from the lake a beaver dam was found,
built of sticks, brush, and moss, which held the waters back and allowed no fish to
pass. This was partly cleaned away by the examining party, and, as the water
rushed through, the stream rose very materially, and large numbers of salmon, held
in the pools below, ascended rapidly.

The value of the stream, as given by the cannery the last jrear it was fished, is
35,000 redfish, 5,000 cohoes, and 100,000 humpbacks. The owner of the saltery
states that the number for redfish is too large, but the stream will yield from 20,000
to 22,000 redfish, possibly a few more by hard fishing. The first run of redfish in
this stream usually occurs from June 25 to July 1, and the second run from July 10
to August 7. The length of the season varies with the condition of the weather; if
it is dry there will not be sufficient water to permit the fish to ascend, and they are
held around the mouth until the water rises. These redfish run about 50 to the
barrel, or 13 to 14 to the case. The cohoes in this stream are very large and run 24
to the barrel. They appear from the middle to the latter part of August; from
September 10 to October 4 they run strong and continue in diminishing numbers
until November. The humpbacks run from the 15th of July to the end of August,
and they are present some years in large numbers until the end of September, but
they are not then in good condition. The dog salmon run with the humpbacks.

It is said that a good hatchery site might be located near the large feeder at the
head of the lake.

Complete stream data is not available, but the following may be of interest:

The Baranoft' Packing Company took fish from the stream as follows: In 1892,
8,942 redfish, July 2 to July 25, and 2,143 cohoes, August 18 to September 8; in 1893,
2,605 redfish, July 4 to July 20; in 1894, 8,740 redfish, July 7 to July 25; in
1895, 14,572 redfish, July 4 to August 10; in 1896, 15,834 redfish, July 12 to August
28; in 1897, 11,709 redfish, July 6 to August 7.

other fisheries: In 1898, 10,000 redfish; 1899, unknown; 1900, 16,500 redfish.

The Point Ellis stream (Kutlakoo) is the only salmon stream in the South Bay
of Pillars that has any present commercial value. At the old cannery site there is a
small stream, called by the Indians Quat-a-hein, or trout stream, on account of the
abundance of that species, and around its mouth some years several thousand cohoes
may be obtained, but it is only an occasional run.

KUTLAKOO STREAM, KUIU ISLAND.

Bull. U. S. F. C. 1901. (To face page 274.)

Plate XXVII.

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1900.

275

NORTH BAY OF PILLARS.

The North Bay of Pillars, like the South, is much obstructed by islets and reefs,
and local knowledge is necessary for safe navigation. The head of the bay, however,
is clear, and is If miles in length by 1 mile in width, forming a beautiful harbor
with excellent anchorage in moderate depths. At the extreme northern head of the
bay are the mouths of two large streams, three-fourths of a mile apart, bordered by
extensive tidal flats. Neither of these streams is said to carry redflsh, but all other
species common to the district run here.

A N (r™,)

West Stream. East Stream.

Sketches of East and West streams, North Bay of Pillars.

PILLAR BAY STREAM.

This is the western stream at the head of the bay and is the most important, as it
carries a great number of cohoes of large size. It was examined by Ensign Kempt!'
August 29 a distance of 4i miles, where it is elevated 40 feet above the sea.

It flows in a general south-southeast direction between steep banks, heavily
wooded, over a gravelly bed. The water is clear, of a brownish tinge, as though
flowing from a lake (though none was found), and at each mile from the mouth the
temperature was 51° F. Tide water extends 1 mile from the mouth, at which point
the stream is 9 feet wide, 12 inches deep, and runs a 3-knot current, in the length
examined two tributaries enter from the eastward, one three-fourths of a mile, the
other If miles, from the mouth. The stream flows around several islands in its
course. The eastern channel, around an island about 2 miles from the mouth, has at
the lower end a rapid about 30 yards long, and at the other end of this, and in the

276

-BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

western channel, are the remains of barricades. Trees have been felled across these
branches and were still in position, but the split rails were washed away. A gravel
ridge was noted on the upstream side, where the rails had lodged in the bed. A large
number of humpbacks and dog salmon were seen spawning in the lower courses,
growing less in number as the higher portion of the stream was reached. It was too
early for cohoes.

This is a very large stream, flowing considerable water, and carries a heavy run
of all species of salmon common to the district, except redlish, of which, it is said,
there are none in the North Bay of Pillars. This is a noted locality for cohoes.
Fifty thousand to 60,000 of this species, it is said, may be taken around the mouth
and the head of the bay, as well as about 100,000 humpbacks. Dog salmon are also
abundant. These cohoes are large and, for commercial purposes, run from Septem-
ber ] to October 7, then in diminishing numbers until November. The humpbacks
run from the middle of July to the end of August and the dog salmon throughout the
season, but mostly during the humpback run.

There are no stream records available. Besides those salted, cannery steamers
sometimes fish here for a few days, and what can be done during that time is indi-
cated by the following record from the books of the Baranoff Packing Company:
In 1892, 1,522 cohoes, September 8 to 15; in 1895, 2,836 cohoes, September 20 to
22; in 1896, 3,607 cohoes, September 15 to 19; in 1897, 957 cohoes, September 19.

PILLAR BAY STREAM, No. 2.

This stream, next east of the Pillar Bay Stream and three-fourths of a mile from
it, was also examined by Ensign Kempff for a distance of 8 miles and no lake found.
From the most distant point reached, which is 305 feet above sea level, the stream
flows to the northwest for 3 miles and then turns in a general southerhT direction for
5 miles. The water is clear and clean and flows over a rocky bottom, interspersed
with patches of gravel and shoals, over which fish were spawning. There are
numerous rapids, and at a point 1 miles from the mouth there is a drop of 30 feet
in the main fall, besides several smaller steps. The banks are heavily wooded,
precipitous, and broken into bluffs in the vicinity of the falls and at a point about 1
mile above the mouth. Tide water extends a mile from the mouth, where the stream
is 30 feet wide, 18 inches deep, and runs with a strong current. The temperature,
taken each mile, was 51° F. (August 30). Five small tributaries were noticed in the
distance — two entering from the west and three from the east — and were examined.
There were no natural or artificial obstructions below the falls. A large number of
humpbacks and dog salmon were seen spawning in the lower courses of the stream,
diminishing in numbers as far as the falls, but none above it.

The fishing is carried on around the head of the bay. The values given under
the Pillar Bay Stream include the one just described, though it furnished but a small
part of the total.

MANTLE SALTERIES.

There are two salteries operated by Mr. Jack Mantle; one on the eastern bank
of the arm and near the mouth of the Point Ellis Stream, where there are 10 tanks
each of 20 barrels capacity, and one on the western shore of the inner North Bay of

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1900.

277

Pillars opposite the mouth of the Pillar Bay Stream, where 6 tanks, each of 20 barrels
capacity, are operated. There is also one saltery tank at the old cannery site.

He used 1 drag seine 120 fathoms by 1 fathoms by 3-inch mesh, valued at $200;
1 scow of 100 barrels capacity, value $75; 1 35-foot seine boat, value $50, and 1
small skill', value $25. During the fishing season he employed 6 men (native) for
fishermen and 1 klootchmen for butchers. The saltery at the Point Ellis Stream is
operated during the early part of the season for redfish, and when the cohoes begin
to run the gear is transferred to the Pillar Bay Stream and that species is salted.
Mantle commenced salting here in 1893, and has averaged about 350 barrels each
year to date.

TEBENKOF BAY.

This bay is on Kuiu Island, next south of the Bay of Pillars, and opens upon
Chatham Strait. It is a large sheet of water and is said to have deep channels and
good anchorages, but has not yet been surveyed. Several streams carrying various
species of salmon enter the bay, but only one that has a run of redfish in sufficient
numbers for commercial purposes. This one is known as Kuiu Stream, or Alecks
Stream. This stream was examined by Ensign Kempt! and Mr. Fassett on August
31, Avho visited it with a party from the anchorage in Pillar Bay. It is located on
the eastern side of the inner bay, about the middle of its length, and is hidden in
approaching it by islands lying off the shore, but i< maybe recognized by a log house
situated a short distance north from the mouth.

The general direction of the stream and lake system is north-northwest and
south-southeast. The former is about 2£ miles in length. The stream Hows over a
rocky and gravelly bottom between moderately steep, well-timbered banks, and at a
point midway on its course is 50 feet wide, 1 foot deep, and has a current of about
1 knot per hour. The water, though clear, has a brownish tinge and a temperature
of 55° to 56 E. There are no marked rapids, and no tributaries were noticed.
Tide water extends nearly a mile from the mouth, around which, at low water, exten-
sive flats are uncovered. The stream drains two lakes. The first, a “mud” lake, is
an irregular shaped body of water about 1 mile long, with an extreme width of one-
half mile. It is shallow, with a muddy bottom, and has three very small and shallow
feeders entering from the westward, none of which appeared to be used as spawning
ground. The temperature of the water along the shores of this lake was found to
be 63° F. This increased temperature above that of the stream is due probably to
the shallow depth along the side where there is no circulation. At the upper end
of the lake there is a narrow extension, about 250 yards long, connecting with the
second lake, which is about 2 miles in length, with an extreme width of H miles, and,
from appearances, quite deep. The banks are steep, well timbered, and rise rapidly
to the higher slopes. The beaches bordering them are gravelly with shale. The
lake is at an elevation of about 50 feet above tide water, and the surface temperature
of the water near the shore was 61° F. At the head it receives two large feeders,
which appear to flow through converging valleys, and in these feeders are spawning
beds of the redfish.

In the main stream, a short distance above tide water, posts were found which
were probably used to support a net stretched across to hold the fish, a line of rocks

278

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

indicating the foot weights that had held the net close to the bed. Above this were
the remains of three barricades, within a distance of 100 yards of one another, con-
sisting of trees felled across the stream. The rails had been carried away, probably
by freshets. Pieces of wire netting were found, indicating that this also had been
used in its construction. A large number of humpbacks and dog salmon were seen

over the gravel beds in the main stream, but no redtish, this species probably having
all ascended to the feeders; the date of visit was too early for cohoes. Large num-
bers of dead fish were noticed.

From inquiry and observation it is believed that a good site for a hatchery might
be obtained on the banks of the large feeders at the head of the lake. The redtish
running in this stream are said to be small, averaging about 65 per barrel, or 15 to 16

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1900.

279

to the case, but they run very early; in fact, the dates given are the earliest of any
stream within my knowledge in southeastern Alaska. The run of redfish commences
about June 1 and continues until the middle of July. The cohoes run for fishing
purposes from September 1 until the early part of October, and in scattering bunches
until November. The humpbacks are said to be very plentiful and are exceptionally
large and fine fish. They usually run early, the time being from July 1 to August 1.
The only record available is a statement that the Point Ellis cannery in one season
took from around this stream 38,000 redfish, 10,000 cohoes, and 200,000 humpbacks.
Mr. Jack Mantle, who has fished in this locality for many years, stated that he had
seen a large run of steelheads in the stream in May.

The following notes from the records of the Baranoff Packing Company, giving
their catches from this stream, may be of interest as indicating the catch of a cannery
steamer visiting different localities for fish: 5,990 redfish, June 15 to July 7, 1892;
3,529 redfish, June 19 to July 27, 1893; 730 redfish, July 19 to July 21, 1895; 1,500
redfish, June 15 to July 29, 1896; 4,304 redfish, June 29 to July 7, 1897.

WRANGELL.

Glacier Packing Company , Point Highfield. — The history of this cannery with
the streams fished, etc., was given in my former report, pages 103-108, and reference
here will only be made to such details as were not then recorded.

There has been no change in the cannery, but the company expects to erect new
buildings for the season of 1901.

In canning, the following machinery is operated: Five retorts, 2 fillers and 1
spare one, 2 toppers, 1 solderer, and 1 cutter.

The fish are hoisted by steam in buckets to the wharf, dumped into the bins,
and, after cleaning, transferred direct from the draining tubs to the cutters. The
daily capacity is 1,600 cases. There are no can-makers. All tins are made at the
cannery by hand, except about 1,200 cases of fiats, using 100-pound tin plate for
bodies and 95-pound for tops, all domestic.

The Chinese contract was 42£ cents, with the usual conditions. The fishermen
contracted for $125 for the run, 10 cents for king salmon, and 5 cents for redfish and
cohoes, per boat of two men, and full board. The cannery purchased fish and paid
7 cents for redfish and cohoes, if the gear (web and boats) was furnished, or 8 cents if
it was not furnished. Humpbacks were purchased at $10 per thousand. The cannery
steamers call at the fisheries for all fish. Occasionally a steelhead is taken; there are
plenty of halibut and flounders, but no shad or sturgeon since my last report.

The following are the statistics for 1900:

Hands employed: 24 white fishermen, besides purchasing from fisheries engaging
150 native fishermen, 7 white and 4 native cannery-hands, and 86 Chinese.

Fishing gear: Twelve king salmon gill nets, each 250 fathoms by 28 meshes by
8^-inch mesh; 12 redfish gill nets, each 250 fathoms by 30 meshes by 6|-inch mesh,
value 65 cents per fathom; 2 drag seines, 120 fathoms by 200 meshes at bunt and
100 meshes at wings by 3-inch mesh, valued at $1.50 per fathom; 5 purse seines, 120
fathoms by 250 meshes by 3-inch mesh, value $2 per fathom.

280

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

Boats, lighters, etc. : Two lighters, <$600 each; 7 seine boats, $60 each; 14 Columbia
River boats, $200 each; 8 old Columbia River boats, $25 each; 5 skill's, $25 each.

The following vessels, owned b}r the company, were employed:

Class and name.

Tons.

Crew.

Value.

Ship Llewellyn .1. Morse

1,271

0)

135, 000

Steamer Ella Rohlffs

36

5

15, 000

Steamer Aleut

19

5

10, 000

1 Fishermen.

The following was the output in 1900:

Species.

Cases.

Number
to the
case.

Dates.

King salmon

1,837

3.8

May 15-July 1

Redfish

10,848

10.1

June 18-Aug. 10

Cohoes

9,401

7.4

July 10-Sept. 18

Humpbacks

36, 432

15.8

July 2-Aug. 22

Thlinket Packing Company. — This company was organized at Portland, Oreg.,
and incorporated under the laws of that State. A sawmill at Point Gerard, on the
mainland opposite Point Highfield at the junction of the Eastern Passage and the
southeast stream of the Stikine Delta, was purchased, and in the spring of 1899 a
cannery was erected and a small pack was made that year. The site does not afford
much room on level ground, necessitating considerable crowding in the building
arrangements. There is a substantial wharf with the fish-house over deep water,
where the current carries away the gurry and leaves the place free from the un-
pleasant odors so frequently noticed around plants of this kind. The cannery plant
consists of 2 steam boxes, 2 retorts, 2 hand cutters, 1 can-washer, 1 crimper, and 1
solderer. The pack is made by hand, and the plant has a daily capacity of 800 cases.
The fish are pewed from boats or lighters into a chute, adjustable for different stages
of the tide, which leads to a cage car, or vertical elevator, operated by steam. When
this car is filled it is hoisted and its contents dumped into a second car which runs
to the fish-house. All the cans, except a small percentage of fiats, are made by hand
at the cannery, of 100-pound domestic tin plate. The Chinese contract was 42 cents
for tails made at the cannery, 38 cents for tails purchased, and 42 cents for flats pur-
chased, with the usual conditions. The fishermen’s contract was transportation and
board, bonis of $80 each for beach work, 10 cents for king salmon, 5 cents for red-
fish and cohoes, and 1 cent for humpbacks, per boat. The fishing bosses had allow-
ances which brought their monthly wages to $70 or $75, and the others averaged $50
and $55 per month. Indian labor was used, but it is not looked upon with favor on
account of being unreliable.

Four traps were built this year at an expense of $5,500, located as follows: One
in Dry Strait; 1 in the lower part of the southeast stream of the Stikine; 1 about 300
yards west from the cannery, and 1 in Zimovia Strait, about 10 miles below Wrangell.
The first three were complete failures, although rebuilt several times; the fourth was

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1900.

281

fairly successful and about paid the expenses connected with all. The following are
its dimensions: Lead, 150 fathoms, heart double, 15 fathoms across, and pot 3G feet
square, in 70 feet of water at high water. A short channel lead, or wing, extended
from the corner of the heart. Webbing all tarred; 4- inch mesh for the leads, 3-inch
mesh for the rest.

Sketch-plan of Thlinket Packing Co.’s salmon trap, located on Zimovia Strait.

The transportation was by regular steamer lines running from Puget Sound to
Alaska.

The following are the statistics for 1900:

Hands employed: 35 white and 30 native fishermen, 9 white and 7 native cannery-
hands, 49 Chinese.

Fishing gear: In addition to the traps referred to, 13 king-salmon gill nets, each
200 fathoms by 22 meshes, 97 -inch mesh; 12 redtish gill nets, each 200 fathoms by
24 meshes, 67-inch mesh; value, 65 cents per fathom; 4 drag seines 100 fathoms long
by 178 meshes, 3-inch mesh, value $1.50 per fathom; 1 purse seine 185 fathoms by
220 meshes, 3-inch mesh, value $600; 1 purse seine 100 fathoms by 160 meshes,
3-inch mesh, value $400.

Boats, lighters, etc.: One house scow, $400; 1 fish scow, $100; 10 Columbia
River boats, $200 each; 6 gill-net skiffs, $60 each; 6 seine boats, $60 each; 2 white-
halls, $85 each; 3 skiffs, $20 each.

Cannery tenders: Launch Perhaps , 6 tons; crew, 2; value, $1,500; owned.
Steamer Baranoff, , 10 tons; crew, 5; value, $5,000; chartered.

The following was the output in 1900:

Species.

Cases.

Number
to the
case.

Dates.

King salmon:

Red

1 1, 375
2 674
f 1 505
1 23, 460
2 2,349
215,540
21,737

} 3
}

7. 5
18

6.5

Mar 14-June 28
June 28-Aug. 16

Aug. 2-Sept. 21
July 12-Aug. 31
Aug. 1-Sept. 15

White

Red fish

Dog salmon

1 Flats. 2 Tails.

The streams fished by this cannery aie the following: Southeast Pass Stikine
River, Anan Ba\r, Seward Passage, Thoms Place, Kunk Creek, Rocky Bay, Steamer
Bay, Eagle Creek, Ratz Harbor, Red Bay.

282

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

THOMS STREAM (AW-AW), ZIMOYIA STRAIT.

Near the southern end of Zimovia Strait, on the eastern side, 4 miles northwest
from Found Island, is a bight with several islets and rocks at the entrance. At the
head of this bight is a redtish stream, referred to in my former report, page 107, as
Old Village, but better known as Thoms Stream, fished by the Wrangell and Gerard
Point canneries. It was examined September 13 by Lieutenant Rodman.

Thoms Stream and Lake, Wrangell Island.

This stream and lake drain a low, flat country, lying between mountain systems,
reaching an elevation on the east of 2,000 to 2,500 feet, and on the west 500 to 1,000
feet. In its windings the stream is fully 6 miles in length from mouth to source,
and, in a straight line, about 4£ miles in a general WNW. direction. Tide water
extends through extensive flats around its mouth, uncovered at low water and about
200 yards within the tree line, where it is 55 feet wide and from 12 to 18 inches
deep. The banks generally are low, but in places there are narrow canyons where
they rise abruptly. The borders are wooded with the usual growth, but considerable
areas of boggy, moss-covered flats were noticed. The bottom is gravelly, with patches
of rock and bowlders, but there are large areas well adapted for spawning-beds;

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1900.

283

about TV miles below the lake the stream runs over a series of rapids; the highest
fall of any of the steps is not over 2 feet. There are no falls or serious obstacles to
impede the ascent of fish, the stream is usually clear, and there were no evidences of
barricades. The water is brownish in color, with a temperature of 51° F. There
are a number of small tributaries, one of some size about 2| miles from the mouth;
this is about 2 miles long and has its source in the mountains to the eastward. The
altitude of the main stream at the mouth of the tributary is 155 feet and of the lake
295 feet. The latter is small, pear-shaped, and about 1 mile long, with a greatest
width of not much more than one-fourth mile. The lower end is narrow, apparently
shallow, and has many pond lilies. The shores are low and, though wooded, there
is considerable open country, particularly on the eastern side, where there are large
areas of grassy, boggy flats.

At the lower end on the western side there is a feeder, and one at the upper end,
in which the sound of falls was heard. It is possible that there are other feeders 01-
lake connections, as the volume of discharge is large. From the surrounding condi-
tions it is believed that a good hatchery site might be found here.

The only stream records available are the following:

Species.

1897.

1898.

1900.

No.

Date.

No.

Date.

No.

Date.

Redfish

Cohoes

17, 138
1,992
42, 109

June 28-Aug. 6 . . .

Aug. 16-31

July 12- Aug. 18 ...

10, 000
5, 000

June 28-Aug. 1

Aug. 10-Sept. 1

24, 061
7, 651
74,000

June 26-Aug. 1.
Aug. 5-Sept 12.
Aug. 5-18.

Under average conditions the stream has a value of about 20,000 redfish and 5,000
cohoes.

MEYERS STREAM, CLEVELAND PENINSULA.

Lemesurier Point, the northwestern end of Cleveland Peninsula, forms, with a
string of islands to the westward of that point, a narrow bay, at the head of which
is the mouth of a stream fished by Mr. Meyers. This stream carries a few redfish,
and was partially examined by Lieutenant Rodman on September Id.

The stream is very small, and when examined there was so little water running
in it that at low water humpbacks could not enter. At the mouth it was about 8
feet wide, with an inch of water over a riffle for a distance of 150 yards. A mile
above the mouth it was a mountain brook, flowing between rocks and bowlders, with
here and there a shallow pool. Tide water extends about 150 yards upstream. At a
distance of 1 mile the elevation is 70 feet, and the temperature of water was 51° F.
The stream bottom is rocky, with gravel patches, and the banks are well wooded.
Many of the pools were tilled with spawning humpbacks in an advanced stage of decay,
and many dead fish were seen along the banks. In places the bottom was covered
with spawn.

The stream is said to have a lake source, but the examination was not continued
to the lake. Later it was learned that the stream is usually very low and that fish
can not ascend until after the fall rains raise the water.

284

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

Formerly the fish from Meyers stream were sold to the Loring cannery. None
were purchased by Loring in 1900. The following is the only record available:

Species.

189G.

1897.

1898.

1899.

No.

Date.

No.

Date.

No.

Date.

No.

3, 211
8,760

Date.

Redfish

Cohoes

Humpbacks . . .

4,651

1,408

July 16-Aug. 7
Sept. 1-Sept. 14

4,700
2, 250
9, 874

July 20-Aug. 20
Sept. 1-Sept, 20
July 20-Aug. 26

6,838
256
11, 499

July 13-Aug. 30
Aug. 20-Aug. 30
July 20-Aug. 30

Aug. 8-Sept. 8
Aug. 8-Sept. 8

It is probable that the cohoes were obtained from the large stream at the head of
Union Bay, which is said to carry no redtish, but some cohoes and humpbacks.

It is believed that, through the rapacity and greed of fishermen, the salmon fish-
eries of the northwestern coast of the United States are rapidly declining. Other

fields are now being sought in order that these also
may pay tribute, and soon they will enter the exter-
minating process.

Great. Northern. Fish Company. — This is one of
a number of small canneries and salteries, capital-
ized from the Puget Sound and Columbia River
districts, which sprang into existence this year in
southeastern Alaska. This company, not incorpo-
rated, hails from Seattle, and fitted out for an exten-
sive salting expedition in a rather novel way. It
was arranged to follow the fish; to salt from a barge,
from shacks on shore, from salteries, if they7 could
be rented, or from schooners; to occupy a station
where fish were plentiful, and when they became
slack to pack up and locate where they were abun-
dant; to salt everything of all species, from the
best to the worst, from those fresh out of the water
to others not so fresh; to salt direct into barrels and
boxes, and to carry the product to Seattle and there
resalt and assort. The first grades were intended
for the best markets, the second for bars and free
lunches, and the third for districts where one salt fish is not known from another.
Old saltery men shook their heads and said salmon could not be salted that way. It,
was tried, however, but with what ultimate success could not be learned. It was said
this company expected to salt 20,000 to 30,000 barrels of salmon during the season.

Union Bay was one station selected to carry on this work. At the eastern point
of entrance to this bay a long tongue of land, bordered on the western side by a few
islands, makes to the southward, forming a narrow, shallow cove about a mile in
length. Inside the entrance point a bight makes into the tongue for a distance of
about 200 yards, and at the head is a saltery of the above company. At the time of
our visit the place was closed and no one was in sight.

The outfit here consisted of a rough board building 20 by 40 feet, evidently the
bunk and mess house; a rude wharf floored over with saplings cut from the adjoining
forests, and a raft of logs lashed together and floored over with saplings. There was
no equipment of any kind.

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1900.

285

It was afterwards learned that the outfit arrived at Union Ray May 27, and left
with all the gear on September 1 for Karta Bay, one white crew having been sent there
in advance August 1. The old Baronovich saltery, at the latter place, was rented by
the month and operated by this company.

During our visit at Karta Bay they were salting dog salmon for the Japanese
market, for which they said they had an order to furnish 300,000. These salmon were
simply gutted, the viscera and gills removed, and, without being otherwise cleaned,
they were salted in benches, and, after shrinking, resalted in boxes for shipment.

On September 23 the Baronovich saltery was closed, the equipment, pack, and
attendants placed on barges or transferred to the steamer Dirigo , and the outfit
transported to Cholmondley Sound, where the Miller saltery had been rented.

The following outfit was used by the Great Northern Fish Company: Launch
Griffin, crew 3, value $3,000, chartered; 1 cargo lighter, $1,000; 1 scow. $150; 2
scows, $60 each; 5 seine boats, $80 each; 3 skiffs, $35 each; 3 purse seines, 220
fathoms by 16 fathoms, 2i-inch mesh, value $750 each; 3 drag seines, each 120 fathoms
by 8 fathoms, 3-inch mesh, $1.75 per fathom; 2 gill nets, each 50 fathoms by 50
meshes, 5£-inch mesh, 65 cents per fathom.

There were employed 30 white salters and beach men, 16 white fishermen, 15
white and 1 Indian casuals; about one-half of these were hired in Alaska. From
the middle of September the white men began to leave and return to Puget Sound,
and more Indians were then employed. Steady hands received in pay and allowance an
amount equal to about $60 per month, whites and natives alike, but the casuals, who
are sailboat tramps, were paid on whatever terms could be arranged; sometimes
it was board and keep until the arrival of the Pardner , and again it was passage
to the Sound with the next shipment. The boxes used for shipping dry-salted dog
salmon to the Sound held from 750 to 800 pounds. Those used to ship to Japan
held 400 pounds, or from 48 to 50 cured fish.

This company also chartered the schooner Volunteer , 12 tons, and sent her to
Redfish Bay for salting purposes. The record to September 23 was 41,024 redfish
salted. Arrangements were also made to take the output of the Point Barrie saltery,
formerly operated by Cyrus Orr, but now by a Russian called “Zip” Moon, and 300
barrels of redfish and dog salmon were expected from this source. The company
also claimed to have made arrangements at Boca de Quadra to dry-salt dog salmon
and to put up black-cod as Pacific-coast mackerel, but inquiry at that point failed to
elicit any information confirming this. There are probably few black-cod in those
waters, except strays.

It was also proposed to carry on extensive herring salting at Point Barrie during
the fall and winter, and the barkentine Blakeley was said to be en route (September
23) to Karta Bay, to be sent later with an outfit to Port Bucarelli for 2,500 barrels
of salt herring.

It has since been learned that this company failed. Diligent inquiry was made
as to the results of its operations, and the following is the approximate output for
the season: 5,000 barrels salted salmon of all kinds, principally humpbacks; 30,000
dog salmon, dry -salted, for the Japanese market.

286

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

rice’s saltery, karta bay.

dice’s saltery , Karta Bay. — Owing to the failure of the salmon run in Puget
Sound, Mr. J. E. Rice, of Whatcom, Wash., came to Karta Bay, August 20, with a
small outfit and commenced salting salmon on the southeastern shore of the inner
bight, in a shack rented from the Baronovich family. The pack consisted largely
of dog salmon, dry-salted and shipped in boxes, though other species were not
neglected and were salted direct in barrels. No salting tanks were used.

The equipment consisted of 2 seine boats, $50 each; 1 fish scow, rented from the
Loring cannery; 3 dories, $30 each; 1 seine, 175 fathoms by 6£ fathoms, 3-inch mesh,
valued at $1.50 per fathom. All labor was hired in the vicinity; 15 to 20 men were
employed during the season, and were paid $3 per day without board or lodging.
Fish were also purchased from the Indians at the following rates: Redfish and cohoes,
10 cents each; humpbacks, $6 per thousand; dog salmon, $15 per thousand.

The following was the output for the season: Seventy-five barrels redfish, 25
half-barrels redfish, 75 barrels cohoes, 50 half-barrels cohoes, 575 boxes dry-salt dog
salmon, averaging 55 fish to the box, or 31,625 cured fish, weighing 211,100 pounds.

The barrels used were full size, machine-made, with galvanized hoops, and cost,
in Puget Sound, $1.50 each. In salting without tanks the fresh fish are salted in the
barrels, the fish forming their own pickle; after four or five days’ shrinking the
barrels are filled with fish to the top and weighted, and after complete shrinkage they
are resalted, the barrels headed and placed chime up; an auger hole is then bored in
the upper chime and the barrel kept filled with pickle.

Mr. Rice prepares his dog salmon by butchering in the usual manner, except
that the head is left on. After thorough cleansing in salt water they are salted
down with coarse salt, flesh up, in piles called “benches,” about 4 feet square and
4 feet high. In from four to six days, depending upon the weather, the fish having
shrunk sufficiently, the excess of salt is shaken off, the inside is sprinkled with clean
Liverpool salt, folded back in the shape of the fish, and boxed; a sprinkling of salt
is placed on the outside to keep the fish from sticking together. It is said that fish
prepared in this manner keep a lung period.

Mr. Rice also purchased all halibut of 40 pounds weight and over at a uniform
rate of 50 cents each; these were Hitched, dry-salted in benches, and shipped to the
Sound, where they were washed and smoked for market.

KARTA BAY STREAM.

This stream, described on pages 88 to 90 in my former report, has been very
much overfished during the past few years; it is said there were as many as 30 seines
at work in the vicinity of the mouth of the stream during the height of the last run.

The following contains only the catch of three canneries for 1898, 1899, and 1900;
that of the salteries and smaller fisheries is unknown.

Species.

1898.

1899.

1900.

No.

Date.

No.

Date.

No.

Date.

106, 876
14, 855
25, 680

June 16-Aug. 11
Aug. 25-Sept. 15
Aug. 1-Aug. 11

55, 730
4, 000
114,713

June 18-Aug. 15
Aug.. 14-Sept. 12
July 22-Aug. 14

63, 305
6, 224
185, 676

June 19-Aug. 20
Aug. 30-Sept. 20
July 18-Aug. 20

Humpbacks

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1900.

287

These numbers are probably too small by 20 per cent. An estimate made by
a cannery man, who has a very good knowledge of this stream, gives the catch of
redfish from this stream in 1898, 120,000; in 1899, 85,000; in 1900, 100,000.

KINA STREAM, KASAAN BAY.

Between Coal Bay and Twelvemile Arm there is a large unnamed bight, which
extends nearly 2 miles into the southern shore, and which receives at its head the
waters of a small stream called Kina, referred to in my former report, page 90.

This stream was examined, on September 22, by Ensign Miller who found that
it had its source in a lake. It is about 1^ miles long, with a width of from 10 to 10
feet, and depth from 12 to 18 inches, with pools 1 feet in depth. It flows through a
heavily wooded, rolling country, between rocky banks from 20 to 50 feet high, and
over a bowldeiy and gravelly bed showing here and there exposed ledges. The

288

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

water has the usual brownish tinge common to lake water in this district, and had a
temperature of 53.5° F. , while the small tributaries had a temperature of 49° to 50° F.
There are no falls, but in the lower end, where the stream narrows, there is a series
of rapids which, however, do not prevent fish from ascending. Tide water extends
about 100 yards within the mouth, and a short distance beyond is a barricade of the
usual log and sapling form, having, at the time visited, some of the poles missing.
There are numerous fallen trees across the stream. The upper half widens toward
the lake and has a sluggish current. The lake is 135 feet above sea level and
consists of three ponds, connected by small straits. The whole system is about 1
mile in length with a greatest width of less than one-quarter mile. It is surrounded
b}r many fiats and is quite shallow, with pond lilies and grasses growing over the
bed. The temperature of the lake water was 55° F. There are several small feeders
entering the lake and stream, as indicated on the sketch. The stream and lake system
lies in a general north and south direction.

Numerous humpbacks and dog salmon were seen around the mouth. This stream
was formerly fished by Mr. Myers, who sold the catch to Loring. It has not a large
output, as the following records, the only ones available, will show:

Species.

1896.

1897.

1898.

No.

Dates.

No.

Dates.

No.

Dates.

2,018

July 29-Aug. 23

1,500
470
15, 000

July 19-Aug. 16
Aug. 8-Sept. 4
July 19-Aug. 16

774
2, 291
5, 754

July 29-Aug. 16
Aug. 31-Sept. 5
July 29-Aug. 16

WARD COVE, TONGASS NARROWS.

About 5 miles to the westward of Ketchikan a small bay makes in on the northern
shore of Tongass Narrows, known as Ward Cove, and referred to in my previous
report, page 65. A mining boom has been been attempted here, and on the western
side of the cove a very small village has been built, consisting of a steamer wharf,
store, a few dwellings, and a post-office, called Revilla. A sawmill has been built at
the head of the bay on the western point of entrance to the redfish stream. Opposite,
on the eastern head, there was formerly a saltery, purchased some years ago by the
Alaska Packers Association and since dismantled. All that remains now is the shack
of an old Indian, who salts a few barrels of salmon during the season.

Ward Cove /Stream empties into the head of the cove, and is the outlet to a chain
of lakes. It was examined by Ensign Hepburn September 15. It flows in a fairly
straight course in a southerly direction over rocky bottom, with a rapid current
throughout its length, between high bluff banks well wooded. Tide water extends a
short distance within the mouth. The stream water is fairiy clear, and had a tem-
perature of 56° F. It is about three-fourths of a mile long, and 100 yards below
the lake has a width of 20 feet, a depth of 9 inches, and a 3-knot current.

The first lake is oblong, one-half mile long by one-fourth mile wide, and is ele-
vated 70 feet above tide water. On the east and west the mountains impinge on the
lake. On the southeastern side there is a narrow, swampy valley which has several
small streams draining through it. Toward the north the country is generally low,
with small hills. It is generally well timbered, and along the shore in many places

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1900.

289

there is a dense growth of grass and berry bushes. The temperature of the lake
water was 55° F. About the middle of the northern shore there is a feeder, which
is said to be a lake connection. Near the entrance point it has a width of 60 feet,
depth of 4 inches, and a 2-knot current, flowing over a coarse gravel bottom. About
1 mile from the lake and just beyond a large island the feeder has a fall of 7 feet
sheer, and one-half mile above this there is a heavy cascade extending a length of

100 feet and having sheer falls of 2 to 3 feet. There is also a cascade in the branch
that flows around the western side of the island, but the branch on the eastern side
is clear. The temperature of the water in the feeder, 2 miles from the lake, was
50° F. The feeder was followed for a distance of 2 A miles, until it was apparent
that no fish could go farther, but no other lake was seen, though it is reported by
the natives that there are two more beyond. No fish were seen above the falls.

F. C. B. 1901—19

290

BULLETIN OP1 THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

A few humpbacks were seen spawning along the shore of the lake, though the
principal spawning-beds are in the first half mile of the feeder, where humpbacks
were seen in great numbers, as well as many of another species, probably redfish. A
large number of dead fish were seen along the borders of the lake and feeder.

Judging from the surroundings, a good hatchery site might be located near the
mouth of the feeder. In the main stream outlet no sign of artificial barricades was
noted. A number of fallen trees lie in the stream, but form no serious obstacle.

The following is the only record available:

Species.

1897.

1898.

1899.

1900.

No.

Date.

No.

Date.

No.

Date.

No.

Date.

Redfish

1,500

600

11,000

July 24-Aug. 23
July 24-Aug. 13
do

1,535
743
34, 935

July 21-Aug. 25
July 19-Aug. 25
July 21-Aug. 30

1,000
1,000
15, 000

873

1,179

52,511

July 13-Aug. 23
July 13-Sept. 7
Aug. 3-Sept. 7

Humpbacks .

The above represents the catch of one cannery calling occasionally and making a
seine haul. Several other canneries, at intervals, also fish the place.

It is probable that the stream has a value of 5,000 redfish, 1,000 cohoes, and
50,000 humpbacks.

KETCHIKAN.

The saltery formerly operated here l»y Clark and Martin has been closed and
the property absorbed by a local company, who have extended the wharf for the
accommodation of steamers and made additions to the saltery for warehouse purposes.

Ketchikan cannery of the Fidalgo Island Canning Company. — This company
engaged in packing salmon at Anacortes, Wash., and built a cannery in the spring
of 1900 on the northern shore of Tongass Narrows, about one-half mile east from
the old Clark and Martin saltery (see former report, page 65). The buildings are
substantial, well located, clean, and the cannery arranged to make a hand pack. Fish
are conveyed from the boats by an endless-chain conveyor, adjustable for the tides, to
the fish-house built over the water; the cleaned fish are conveyed to the cutters on
push carts. The tables of the butchers have sprays over them.

The following machinery is used in the canning process: Four steam boxes, 3
retorts, 1 washer, 1 topper, 2 crimpers, 2 solderers, and 1 cutter, all adjustable to
the different sizes packed. The filling tables accommodate 60 workers; daily capacity
of cannery, 1,200 cases. The cans are all made at the cannery by hand, of 100-pound
domestic tin plate. It is probable that fillers will be introduced and the cannery
enlarged in 1901, though a hand pack is preferred.

The Chinese contract was 45 cents for 1-pound tails and fiats, and 43 cents for
one-half pound fiats per case of 48 cans. Filling was paid for separately at the rate
of 6 cents per case of 48 tins. Fishermen received $40 per month, and collectively,
$10 per thousand for redfish and cohoes, $2 per thousand for humpbacks, with full
board and transportation; the boss fisherman had $75 per month. Fish were pur-
chased from Indians and others at the following rates: Redfish and cohoes, 7 cents
each; dog salmon, $15 per thousand; humpbacks, $7 per thousand; the cannery pro-
viding boats and gear. Transportation is by regular line of freight steamers.

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1900.

291

The cannery obtained fish from Quadra, George Inlet, Ward Cove, Carroll Inlet,
Thorne Arm, Kah-Shakes, Duke Island, Smeaton Bay, Hassler Harbor, Point Alava,
Annette Point, Dalis Head, Bostwick Inlet, and Fish Creek.

The following are the statistics for 1900:

Hands employed: 34 white, 38 natives, and 3 Japanese fishermen; 6 white and 50
native cannery-hands, and 50 Chinese.

Fishing gear: Eight purse seines, each 175 fathoms by 10 to 12 fathoms, 3-inch
mesh, $3 per fathom; 2 drag seines, each 160 fathoms by 6 fathoms, 3£-inch mesh,
$1.75 per fathom.

Boats, lighters, etc.: Three lighters, $75 each; 2 lighters, $225 each; 2 scows,
$20 each; 12 seine, boats, $70 each; 8 dories and skiffs, $30 each. Steamer Delta ,
59 tons, crew 6, value $6,000, chartered.

No salting was done at this cannery. The following was the pack of canned
salmon in 1900:

Species.

No. of
cases.

No. to
the ease.

Date.

Redfish

I 1-437
[ 2 1,573

1 11.5

July 10-Aug.31

Cohoes

| 3 4, 389
I M70

= 112

1 10

July 13-Sept. 8

Humpbacks

1 3 250

i 8, 425
\ = 6, 175

1 19.3

July 13-Sept. 8

Do^ salmon

1 3 5, 135
>304

8.5

Aug.. 24-Sept. 8

1 1-pound tails. 2 3-pound flats. 3 One-half pound flats, 96 per case.

NAHA STREAM AND LAKES.

This stream was referred to in my former report, pages 94-97, and described as
far as the falls in the stream connecting Hake No. 1 and Lake No. 2. On September
1, Lieutenant Rodman and Ensign Kempff, with an Indian guide, examined lakes
Nos. 2, 3, and 4 as far as any fish can ascend, and from their report the following is
condensed, reference being made to the sketch accompanying this report:

Stream connecting Lakes Nos. 1 and 2. — From the falls above Lake No. 1 the
stream maintains its volume and flows over a rocky and gravelly bottom; it rises
gently to Lake No. 2. Just below this lake is a series of small cascades, none of
which is over 2 feet in height or forms any obstruction to the ascent of salmon.
One or two small tributaries enter the stream on the northern side, but they are
unimportant. The stream throughout its length was full of humpbacks. The dis-
tance between Lakes No. 1 and No. 2 by the stream bed is about 2^ miles, but by trail
along the northern side the distance from the falls to Lake No. 2 is materially less.

Lake No. %. — Altitude, 50 feet; temperature of lake and stream, 55° F. This
lake is gourd-shaped, with a rather rounding basin about half a mile in diameter,
making its length, with the long narrow neck on entering, about three-fourths of a
mile. The shores, except the western side, are rocky and gravelly, and the lake
generally has a very clear appearance. But few pond lilies and little grass were
noticed anywhere.

292

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

On the western side there is a feeder about 30 feet wide by 8 inches deep, which,
according to the guide (who owns and hunts the land bordering the lake system), S
is the outlet to a lake hung about H miles to the northward. About 1 mile from
the mouth it has a high fall, which prevents fish from ascending to the lake; as far
as the fall, however, there is good spawning-ground.

Stream connecting Lakes No. 3 and No. 3. — ' This stream is about 2 miles long, SO
feet, wide, and 14 inches deep, with a fall of 103 feet in its length. It was only
examined at the lake ends, but it can have no serious obstructions, as redfish enter
Lake No. 3. The mouth of the stream, and for one-fourth mile above, was full of
humpbacks, but they do not enter Lake No. 3. The temperature of the water in the
stream was 55° F. At the head of the stream, at its source in Lake No. 3, there is a
small island' partly in the lake, around which the waters from both lake and stream
flow.

Lake No. 3. — Altitude, 153 feet; temperature of water, 56° F. The length of
this lake is about 2i miles, with a width ranging from one-fourth to one-half mile.
The northern shore is comparatively straight, very steep, and rocky; the other shores
are low and flat, with open glades, permitting easy travel; the southern side is marked
by several deep indentations. At the extreme eastern head is a feeder which was
not examined.

Stream connecting Lakes Nos. 3 and L — This stream enters Lake No. 3 at the
eastern end, near its head, where it is about 60 feet wide, 8 inches deep, with a tem-
perature of 56° F. It is about a mile long following the stream bed, though the
lakes are only about one-half a mile apart in a straight line. It has a fall of 167 feet
in its length, part of which is over sheer falls, making it impossible for salmon of
any kind to enter Lake No. 4. The first fall is about one-fourth mile above Lake
No. 3, beyond which no fish were seen, and while it is possible that it can be passed,
it is not probable that they can pass over the series of cascades at the head of the
stream where it leaves Lake No. 4. Here the fall is at least 100 feet in one-fourth
mile, and the water rushes along with great velocity, without any eddies or resting-
places. Redfish were seen as far as the first fall.

Lake No. 4..— Altitude, 320 feet; temperature of water, 56° F. The length of this
lake is about 3^ miles, with an average width of one-fourth mile, expanding toward
the head. The banks are steep and the shore lines, as far as examined, are rocky.

It is said that there are two more lakes in this system connected with Lake No. 4, but
as no salmon can enter the latter, it was not deemed necessary for our purposes to
continue the examination any further. In Lake No. 4 many cutthroat trout were
seen, but no salmon or signs of them. The water throughout the lake system was
unusually low. In Lake No. 4, judging from the marks along the shore, it appeared
to be 2^ feet below a mean level. There were no barricades in any of the streams.
The whole system has all the natural features for excellent spawning-grounds; the
streams are clear, free from obstruction, there is much sand and gravel, little or no
mud, and plenty of water, with moderate current. The color of the water becomes
lighter as the upper lakes are reached. At Lake No. 1 it is tinged a deep brown, and
at Lake No. 4 it is much lighter in color.

Bull. U. S. F. C. 1901. (To fa

Plate XXVIII.

= F C. 1901. (To face page 292.)

cz>

BEHM CANAL

NAHA STREAM

^INTD

LAKE SYSTEM.

Sk.et ck

t’y

Llawf. Hucjk R,odLnvam awi 1v«.s.C. ,U -S.N.,
Under ^kt direction «rf
Com iwo-wd-fli- Jeff k F. MoSCr, U.S.N ,
CoWM\\a.tv cLi-113 vji.F C.S. AUsadross

Scale of TuLlas.

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1900.

293

The head of Lake No. 3 would afford an excellent site for a hatchery. There is an
abundance of water, which could be conveyed by gravity, and plenty of spawning-
fish. Another site could probably be found at the mouth of the feeder in Lake No. 2,
but it is probable that spawning fish might not be so easily obtained.

In addition to the record of the stream given in my former report, page 96, the
following may be added:

Species.

1898.

1899.

1900.

No.

Dates.

No.

Dates.

No.

Dates.

18,377
5,000
150, 000

July ‘20-Aug. 2
Aug. 15-Sept. 15
July 15-Aug. 15

13, 176
1,000
189, 650

15, 224
2, 000
150, 000

July 1-Sept. 21
July 15-Sept. 1
July 31-Sept. 1

Humpbacks . . .

LOKING.

Alaska Salmon. Packing and Fur Company. — The cannery of this company was
described in my former' report, pp. 92 to 9T, but additional information and the sta-
tistics for 1900 will be given here. The following machinery is used in canning: Six
retorts, 2 tillers, 2 toppers, 2 solderers, and 1 cutter. The daily capacity is 1,800
cases. There are no can-makers; all tins are made at the cannery by hand, using
100-pound plate for bodies and 95-pound plate for tops, of which 16 per cent is
imported. There is an inclined railway from the fish-house, Y-shaped at the tide-
water end, which admits a steamer into the Y at any stage of the tide. Fish are
discharged on either side into cars, which are hauled to the fish-house by cable
operated by steam. A new cannery is to take the place of the old one for the season
of 1901.

The Chinese contract was T2£ cents, with the usual conditions; fishermen received
$45 per month and board, from the time of signing to the day on which they were
paid off. In purchasing fish the following prices were paid: 5^ to 7 cents for redfish,
7 cents for cohoes, and $6 to $7.50 per thousand for humpbacks. All the fishing
gear and boats were supplied by the cannery.

The following are the statistics for 1900:

Hands employed: 100 white fishermen, besides 150 natives employed at fisheries
from whom fish were purchased; 20 white and TO native cannery-hands; 120 Chiuese.

Fishing gear: Twenty-four purse seines, each 150 to 200 fathoms by 7 to 12
fathoms, 3-inch mesh, valued at $2.50 per fathom; 16 drag seines, each 150 to 200
fathoms by T to 6 fathoms, 3-inch mesh, valued at $1.50 per fathom.

Boats, lighters, etc-.: Two cargo lighters, $150 each; T2 seine boats, $50 each; 20
fish lighters, $75 each; 1 Whitehall, $50; 12 skiffs, $20 each.

The vessels used were as follows:

Class and name.

Tons.

Crew.

Value.

Remarks.

Steamer Arctic

21

5

$4,000

Owned.

Steamer Novelty

33

5

12, 000

Do.

Ship Sintram

1,495

(')

60,000

Chartered.

1 Crew fishermen.

294

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

The following- was the pack in 1900:

Species.

Cases.

No. to
the case.

Dates.

Redfish

16, 219

12

June 17-Aug. 29

Cohoes

3, 825

9

Aug. 29-Sept. 18

Humpbacks

47,114

19

July 17-Sept. 6

YES BAY.

Boston Fishing and Trading Company. — In ray former report, pp. 97 to 100,
this cannery is described, together with the home stream and lake system, which
were examined at that time. Reference will here be made only to the changes and
additional data, together with the statistics for the season.

The barricade has been removed from the stream and it is now clear of this
obstruction. The trap formerly referred to is still used at the mouth of the stream.
It has a lead from the eastern shore of 300 feet, a channel lead of 100 feet, and
heart 100 feet; on the side are two pots, one 30 feet by 30 feet, the other 28 feet by
28 feet. It extends a long distance across the banks at the mouth of the stream and
with a short net extension the entire stream can be closed.

Excepting the king salmon, all the species of salmon are represented in this
stream; steel heads are rarely taken, shad and sturgeon have never been seen, Dolly
Varden trout are abundant, and at times there are numbers of halibut and flounders.
In the spring tomcod are abundant.

Practically all the redfish packed at this cannery come from the home stream.
The cohoes come from the home stream, Burroughs Bay, and scattering; humpbacks
principally from the home stream and Short Bay, though some are received from
the Hot Springs, Gedney Pass, Spacious Bay, Stewart River, and adjoining inlets.
Dog salmon are taken scatteringly from all the above places, and the king salmon all
come from Burroughs Bay. This cannery has not fished Checats since 1897.

The following is the record of the home stream since the date of my last report:

Species.

1898.

1899.

1900.

No.

Dates.

No.

Dates.

No.

Dates.

Redfish

Cohoes

Humpbacks

44,271
6,413
45, 000

July 12-Sept. 8
Aug. 11-Aug. 29
July 15-Aug. 30

69, 000
6,300
75, 000
500

July 14-Sept. 13
Aug. 7-Sept. 13
July 12-Sept. 6
July 14-Sept. 13

80, 000
7,700
60, 000
2, 250

July 14-Sepl. 17
Aug. 11-Sept. 17
July 15-Sept. 14
July 21-Sept. 17

The following machinery is used in the canning process: Four iron retorts, 1
steam box, 1 filler, 1 crimper, 1 solderer, and 1 cutter. The tops are put on by hand.
All tins are made at the cannery by hand, of 90-pound domestic plate. Fish are
pewed from boats and lighters to the fish-house, and after cleaning are passed directly
from the draining tubs to the cutter. The daily capacity of the cannery is 800 cases.
The Chinese contract was 38£ cents, with the usual conditions. Fishermen received
$40 per month, from time of arrival to day of departure, with full board and trans-
portation. The klootchmen (native women) were paid for cannery work $1.25 per
day, and the bucks from $1.50 to $2.50 per day, the butchers receiving the highest
rates. Fish were also purchased for which the following rates were paid: Redfish

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1900.

295

5 cents each, cohoes 6 cents each, humpbacks 75 cents per hundred, dog salmon, in
good condition, cents each. The cannery finds all gear.

The following are the statistics for 1900:

Hands employed: Fifteen white and 15 native fishermen, 5 white and 15 native
cannery-hands, 61 Chinese.

Fishing gear: One trap, previously described, value $1,000; 1 purse seine, 230
fathoms by 20 fathoms, value $2.50 per fathom; 3 drag seines, 175 fathoms, 150
fathoms, and 120 fathoms long by 10, 8, and 6 fathoms deep, all 3-inch mesh, value
$1.50 per fathom; 2 gill nets, each 100 fathoms by 32 meshes, 10^-inch mesh; 2 gill
nets, each 100 fathoms by 35 meshes, 6^-inch mesh, value 65 cents per fathom.

Boats, lighters, etc.: Five lighters, $50 each; 1 seine boats, $50 each; 6 skiffs,
$25 each. Steamer Rosie , 8 tons, crew 2, value $2,500, owned. Transportation by
regular line of freight steamers.

The following was the pack in 1900:

Species.

Cases.

No. to
the case

Dates.

King salmon

713

2.5

June 25-July 10

Redfish

9,825

8.5

July 13-Sept. 7

Cohoes

2, 306

7.5

Aug. 20-Sept. 27

Humpbacks

20, 051

15

July 18-Sept. 18

Dog salmon

728

6

July 10-Sept. 27

ROCA I)E QUADRA.

These waters and the cannery of the Quadra Packing Company were described
in my former report, pages 62 to 61, and only the additional information which lias
been obtained will be referred to here.

Salteries. — The Clark & Martin saltery at the mouth of Quadra redfish stream
has tumbled down through decay and is practically abandoned. Near this site a
saltery was operated in 1899 by Mr. Hilton, from Bellingham Bay, who dry-salted
about 1,000 dog salmon. In 1900 the saltery was operated by Mr. Z. Doty, from
Whatcom, who also salted a few dog salmon. Neither of these men had any gear;
they simply bought the “slop overs,” as they are called, dog salmon or “chums,”
from the cannery seines.

In 1899 a Mr. D. Blaauw, from Tacoma, built a saltery on Grouse Island and
operated it the same way as mentioned under the other salteries. He dry-salted
about 11,000 dog salmon (chums), and shipped them to the Sound. In 1900 the
saltery was closed.

Quadra Stream , described in my former report, is one of the best redfish streams
in Southeast Alaska, and is noted for the large fish which it carries. It has attracted
the attention of the canneries operated in the vicinity, and so vigorous is the fishing
carried on that it is believed very few fish ever reach the spawning-grounds. In
1899 it was fished by the Loring cannery with 8 purse seines, the Quadra cannery
with 8 purse seines, and Metlakahtla cannery with 2 purse seines, or a total of 18
purse seines. In 1900 it was fished by the Loring cannery with 8 purse seines, the
Quadra cannery with 8 purse seines, the Ketchikan cannery with 8 purse seines, the
Metlakahtla cannery with 2 purse seines, a fishery from Port Gravina with 2 purse
seines, and 2 independent gangs with 1 purse seine each, or a total of 30 purse seines.

296

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION

When it is considered that the stream is only about 50 or 60 feet in width at the
mouth, and the inlet, Mink Arm, is less than one-half of a mile in width, it majr be fan-
cied that a fish has very little chance to escape the 30 purse seines that are constantly
sweeping these waters, which are deep and bold and permit seining into the mouth of
the stream. If there is no law regulating such fishing, there is one permitting the
closing of such streams, and unless properly regulated this stream should be closed
until the rapacity and greed of the fishermen have subsided. In ray former report
the value of Quadra Stream was given as 50,000 redfish, and it is believed that this
number can be taken under average conditions with safety to the stream.

So far as data have been obtained from the different canneries fishing this stream,
the following is the record, which, however, does not include the catch of independ-
ent fisheries and salteries:

Year.

Species.

Number.

Date.

1895

97. 000

137. 000

65. 000
98, 138

5, 664

100.000
166, 232

4,522

1896. ..

do

July 13-Aug. 31

1897. . .

do

189.8

do

July 12-Aug. 29
Aug. 18-Sept. 4
July 15-Aug. 15
July 16-Aug. 28
Aug. 20-Aug. 28
July 17-Aug. 10
July 12-Aug. 31
July 15-Aug. 12

1899

30i; 000
174, 614
223, 000

1900

Quadra Packing Company. — -The cannery of this company was described in my
former report. From it has sprung the Icy Strait Packing Company, the salteries at
Taku, Bartlett Bay, and Shipley Bay, the new cannery now building at Bartlett Bay,
and it is said another cannery is to be built in Sitkoh Bay next spring (1901).

The machinery employed in the canning process consists of 4 steam boxes,
2 retorts, 1 capper, 2 crimpers, 1 washer, and 1 cutter. The cans are tilled by hand,
for which purpose there are tilling tallies for 40 operators. The daily capacity is
800 cases. The tins are all made at the cannery byT hand of 100-pound plate, 50 per
cent of which is imported.

The Chinese contract was 45 cents for hand-filled cans, with the usual conditions.
The fishermen received transportation, board, $35 per month, and, collectively, 1
cent each for redfish and cohoes, $2 per thousand for humpbacks, and $4 per thousand
for dog salmon.

Fish were purchased at the following rates: Redfish and cohoes, 7 to 10 cents;
humpbacks, $10 to $12 per thousand; dog salmon, $15 per thousand. The higher
price was paid when no gear was furnished. Native tillers received 7 cents per case.
Transportation was by regular line of steamers.

There are very few steelheads in these waters; only two were brought to the
cannery this season. Neither shad nor sturgeon have ever been taken; a few halibut
are found around the cannery during the packing season.

The following are the statistics for 1900:

Hands employed: 24 white and 40 native fishermen, 5 white and 25 native
cannery-hands, 43 Chinese.

ALASKA SALMON' INVESTIGATIONS IN 1900.

297

There were used 8 purse seines, average 180 fathoms by 15 fathoms, 3-inch
mesh, valued at $3 per fathom; 1 drag seine, 115 fathoms by 8 fathoms, 3-inch mesh,
valued at $2 per fathom; 1 house scow, $75; 8 seine boats, $100 each; 9 skill's, $30
each. Steam-tender service was furnished by the Icy Strait Packing Company.

The following was the pack in 1900:

Species.

Cases.

No. to
the case.

Dates.

Redfish

6,000

10.7

July 14-Aug. 25

Cohoes

600

7.6

Aug. 25-Sept. 20

Humpbacks

6,000

20

July 17-Aug. 31

Dog salmon

1,000

7

Do.

METLAKAIITLA.

Metlakah tla Industrial Company. — There has been but little change in this cannery
since the date of my last report, in which the conditions were described on pages
66 and 67. The money advanced by the friends of Mr. Duncan for the construction
of the cannery has been paid in full with interest, and it is now free of debt, the
profits being expended for the welfare of the community and for the improvement
of the village.

The cannery has a good location on a large wharf, which permits the largest
steamers alongside at all stages of the tide. It is well lighted, commodious, and
thoroughly clean. The buildings are large enough for a pack of 40,000 cases, and
the plant has a daily capacity of 700 cases. All the work, from first to last, is done
by Indians — men, women, and children. No whites are employed in the cannery,
fisheries, or steamers, and, as Mr. Duncan wishes to give employment to as many
natives as possible, the pack is made entirely by hand.

The only machinery used is 1 cutter, 1 crimper, and 1 solderer. On the wharf is
an elevator for transferring fish from the boats to the fish house. The first cooking is
done in boiling water, for which 5 boxes are used, and for the second cooking there
are 3 retorts. All the tins are made at the cannery, of 100-pound domestic plate.
All the packing cases are made in the community sawmill. The lacquering is done
by Indian girls, who roll the cans by hand on pads covered with lacquer.

The children receive 50 cents to $1 per day, and adults from $1 to $3 per day.

In purchasing fish the following prices are paid: Redfish, 7 cents; cohoes, 8
cents; dog salmon, 24 cents; humpbacks, 1 cent.

The following are the statistics for 1900:

Hands employed: 24 native fishermen, besides 38 from whom fish were purchased;
174 native cannery-hands.

Fishing gear: Eight purse seines, average 158 fathoms by 84 fathoms, 3-inch
mesh; 4 drag seines, average 163 fathoms by 6 fathoms, 3-inch mesh; 5 gill nets,
average 172 fathoms by 4 fathoms, 54-inch mesh.

Boats, lighters, etc. : Two lighters, $100 each; 7 seine boats, $50 each; 6 sailboats,
$100 each; 10 dories, $25 each.

Transportation by regular line of steamers.

The cannery steamers employed were: Herald , 17 tons, crew 5, value $9,000,
owned; Marie G. Ilaaven , 12 tons, crew 5, value $5,000, owned.

298

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

The following was the pack in 1900:

Species.

Cases.

No. to
the case.

Dates.

6,930

610

9,690

330

13.7

7.9

20

June 20-Sept. 5
July 27-Sept. 12
July 18-Sept. 4

Dog sal moo

No salting has ever been done here. The streams fished for the cannery are the
Home Stream, Tamgas, Duke Island, Quadra, Karta Bay, Kithraum, Peter Johnson,
Nowiskay, Old Johnson, Kegan, and Kagahine.

KLAWAK.

North Pacific Trading and Packing Company. — This cannery and its surround-
ings were described in my former report, pages 109 to 115, and only such additional
information as seems pertinent to bring the records up to date will be referred
to here.

The cannery, together with all the buildings, sawmill, store, etc., was burnt on
September IS, 1899. In the spring of 1900 the same company built a new cannery
about a mile south from the old site and on the opposite side of the arm, where it is
more accessible to vessels. It is considerably larger than the old plant, and modern
machinery has been installed. In the canning process the following machinery is used:
Four retorts, 1 filler, 1 topper, 1 solderer, and 1 cutter. This should give the cannery
a daily capacity of 800 cases. The fish are butchered on a float and conveyed to
the cutter by a conveyor on the endless-chain principle.

The Klawak cannery, representing the earliest in Alaska, was, from 1878 to
1896, operated by Indian labor. These people demanded more and more each year
until the expense of the pack became greater than it would have been had Chinese
labor been employed. The result was that the cannery slowly introduced the latter.
In 1896 there were employed in the cannery 62 natives and 2 Chinese, and in 1900
13 natives and 16 Chinese.

The following are the statistics for 1900:

Hands employed: 55 native fishermen, 10 white and 13 native cannery-hands,
and 16 Chinese.

Fishing gear: Nine purse seines, each 175 fathoms by 210 meshes, 3-inch mesh,
valued at $300 each.

Boats, etc.: One scow, $100; 11 seine boats, $80 each; 5 skiffs, $25 each.

Transportation was by special sail, chartered.

The cannery steamers were the Klawack , 10 tons, crew 1, value $5,000, owned;
Cora, launch, 5 tons, crew 2, value $1,500, owned.

The following was the pack in 1900:

Species.

Cases.

No. to
the case.

Dates.

Redfish

8, 228

14.2

June 17-Aug. 25

cohoes

3,973

8

July 21-Sept. 25

Humpbacks

15, 551

17

July 17-Aug. 27

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1900.

299

The cannery obtained its fish principally frorp the Home Stream, Sar-Kar,
Warm Chuck, and Hetta.

In order to continue the data for the Klawak Stream, given in my former
report, the following record may be added:

Species.

1898.

1899.

1900.

No.

Dates.

No.

Dates.

No.

Dates.

Redfish

36, 881

June20-Aug. 8

75, 000

Junel6-Aug. 20

31,000

Junel7-Aug. 24

Cohoes

11,661

Sept, 7-Sept. 29

5, 000

Aug. 15-Sept. 18

500

Aug. 14-Sept. 24

65, 000

53, 000

200, 000

July 16-Aug. 27

The Albatross did not visit the cannery this season, and the above information,
together with the following, was obtained by interviews with the superintendent.

Klawak Hatchery. — This hatchery, described in former report, was moved in
1898 from the head of the main stream to the mouth of Three-mile Stream, a lake
feeder on the northern side. The new hatchery house is 60 feet by 18 feet, and
contains twelve troughs, 16 feet by 11 feet, arranged in pairs, with a passage around
each pair. There are 6 baskets to a trough, each basket holding 50,000 eggs, giving
the hatchery a capacity of 3,600,000 eggs. The hatchery water is supplied by a
flume from the head of the feeder. About 50 yards within the mouth of the feeder
a fence with a trap holds the spawners, from which they are seined as wanted.

The only hatchery data available is the following: In 1898, July 23 to August 26,
736 females were stripped, obtaining 2,586,000 eggs, 2,150,000 of which were hatched.
This would give 3,513 eggs to the fish and the loss about 17 per cent.

The highest and lowest monthly temperatures of the water are as follows: June,
48°, 44°; July, 48°, 46°; August, 54°, 50°; September, 52°, 44°; October, 46°, 39°;
November, 44°, 32°; December, 40°, 35°. At a temperature of 50° F. the fish are
hatched in about 70 days; the longest period of incubation thus far has been 120 days;
eye-spots appear in 27 days, and the egg-sac is absorbed in 42 days.

The young fish are siphoned from the troughs into buckets as soon as hatched,
and planted in a shallow part of the lake. It is said here that the young fish go to
sea the spring of the second year after the parent fish has entered the stream. The
milt of 2.5 to 3 males is used for impregnating the eggs of every full female. This
year (1900) several thousand young fish were marked by cutting off the fleshy fin.

The following is the output for three years: 2,586,000 eggs and 2,150,000 fry
in 1898; 3,600,000 eggs and 3,000,000 fry in 1899; 3,600,000 eggs, about 1,000,000 fry
in 1900 (nearly all eggs were lost by a hard freeze).

Information was received that, owing to the very severe weather in Alaska this
year, all the eggs in the hatchery were frozen.

HUNTER RAY.

Pacific Steam Whaling Company. — Time did not permit a visit to this cannery
during the season of 1900. The cannery and the district were visited in 1897 and
fully described in my former report, pages 68 to 73.

The following statistics and additional information were obtained by personal
interviews with members of the company and the cannery superintendent.

300

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

The cannery machinery consists of 2 steam boxes, 5 retorts, 2 tillers, 2 solderers,
and 1 cutter, giving it a daily capacity of 1,600 cases. Topping is done by hand.
Fish are pewed to the fish-house, and thence passed by hand direct from the draining
tubs to the cutters. There are no can-makers; all tins are made by hand at the can-
nery, of 100-pound plate, 66 per cent of which is domestic.

The Chinese contract was 4-2£ cents per case. The white fishermen received
transportation and board and were paid 5 cents for redfish and the same for cohoes.
The cannery also purchased fish and paid 6 cents for redfish, 6 cents for cohoes, and
one-half cent for humpbacks. Native wages were 25 cents per hour for adult males,
and $1 to $1.50 per day for klootchmen.

The following are the statistics for 1900:

Hands employed: 21 whites, and employed and purchased fish from 121 natives:
10 white cannery-hands and 90 Chinese.

Fishing gear: Twenty-two seines, square hung, for drag seines or pursing by
hand; they average 195 fathoms by 5 fathoms, 3-inch mesh; value, $1.50 per fathom;
2 lighters, $100 each; 2 fish-scows, $50 each; 22 seine boats, $50 each; 3 skiffs, $25
each, and 1 pile-driver, $800.

The following steamers were owned and operated by the cannery:

Class and name.

Tons.

Crew.

Value.

19

5

$12, 000
25, 000
3,000

59

9

Gasoline launch Alphonse XIII

5

2

The transportation is by calling vessels of the Pacific Steam Whaling Co
The following was the pack in 1900:

Species.

No. of
cases.

No. to
the
case.

Date.

7,828

4,070

31,709

12.8

June 18-Aug. 10
July 31-Sept. 10
July 17-Aug. 28

9

18.6

The following localities are fished I >y this cannery: Karta Bay, Hetta Inlet,
Nichols Bay, Hunter Bay, Moira Sound, Klakas Inlet, Nutqua Inlet, Sukkwan Inlet,
Hessa Inlet, Peter Johnson Stream, Keke Inlet, Cholmondeley Sound, Skookum
Chuck, Klawak, and Copper Mountain Bay.

The Pacific Steam Whaling Company, in connection with the cannery, operate
a hatchery which is situated on Hetta Lake.

HETTA STREAM.

This stream was fully described in my former report, pages 73 to 75. As it is
one of the large redfish streams of southeastern Alaska, and as many wild statements
have been made in regard to the catch from it, the following data, added to that
previously given, makes a complete record from 1886 to 1900, both years inclusive.

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1900.

301

It may be added that this record is the entire catch from Hetta Stream by the
canneries at Hunter Bay and Klawak and the saltery at Hetta, but does not include
any fish taken for local use or the small salteries, if any were taken the latter.

Species.

1898.

1899.

1900.

No.

Datei

No.

Date.

No.

Date.

179, 109
290
25, 000

jjune 10-Aug. 3

July 25-Aug. 25

250,834
539
229, 556

jjune 15-Sept. 5
June 27-Aug. 23

138, 733

Junel7-Aug,23

Humpbacks

58,216

The hard fishing of this stream commenced in 1896, and unless it has received an
impulse from some other source, as from Mr. Callbreath’s hatchery, there is no doubt
that the locality is overfished.

m’iienky inlet.

On the eastern side of Etolin Island is a large bay (represented on Coast Survey
chart No. 8200 without any soundings), having numerous islands and reefs, and a
rather uninviting appearance; it is known as McHenry Inlet. At the head of the
inlet are two bights or coves, which are very foul and at low water expose many
ledges and extensive fiats. The cove at the east receives at its head a small stream,
known as Falls Creek, and, a little to the southward, a second stream called Trout
Creek. The head of the western cove receives the waters of a small stream which is
a lake outlet, and on this lake is the hatchery of Mr. John C. Callbreath.

There is a deep-water channel through McHenry Inlet which leads to a beautiful,
spacious, landlocked harbor, near the head of the inlet, for which the following
directions may be of service:

Directions for entering McHenry Inlet. — On account of the small scale of the
chart No. 8200, and the absence of names, the approach is rather difficult to describe.
At the entrance to the inlet (see chart) is a string of islets and rocks making off to
the northwestward from Avon Island. North from the rock named Quartz Rock is a
large wooded island, having an extensive reef projecting to the westward. North-
ward from this is a small wooded island, having a rock off its southeastern end, and
north of this is another small islet having a rock, marked on the chart, off' its southern
end; the latter islet is the guide to the channel and will here be called Entrance Islet.
It is small, rocky, and heavily wooded; the central trees projecting highest give it a
conical appearance, and, as it is quite symmetrical, it presents about the same shape
from all sides. In standing for McHenry Inlet bring Entrance Islet to bear ENE.,
and stand for it, shaping course on near approach to pass it close to, about 75 yards,
leaving it to the southward. Nearly ahead, and in the center of the inlet, will now
be seen Dot Islet, a low rocky islet lying close to the water, with a few low trees and
bushes growing over it, and south of it, near the southern shore, will be seen a bare
rock. The channel lies between Dot Islet and the rock. After passing Entrance
Islet, the course should bend to the southward so that in heading midway between
Dot Islet and the bare rock, Entrance Islet will be directly astern. *

Having passed Dot Islet, keep to the southward of mid-channel for 1 mile, then
haul to mid-channel and anchor about a mile below the head of the inlet, favoring

302

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

the eastern shore. Do not attempt to enter the big’ht or coves at the head, or approach
them too closely, as they are very foul. The anchorage is in 20 fathoms, soft bottom,
about one-half mile below the point of the tongue separating the two coves, and
toward the eastern side.

CALLBREATII HATCHERY.

Mr. John C. Callbreath has been a resident of Alaska for many years; ne was
the manager of the Point Ellis cannery until it was destroyed by fire in 1892, and has
lately been engaged in the transportation business on the Stikine River and in trad-
ing, making his home at Wrangell. He is a representative citizen, enterprising, and
devoted to salmon culture.

In 1892, in connection with the Point Ellis cannery, he started the hatchery
referred founder that stream heading. Having seen the rise of the salmon industry,

Ruins of trough and baskets, Callbreath’s old hatchery.

and knowing, as all must Enow who are familiar with the question, that the abusive
and excessive fishing and total disregard of the law by the fisheries must slowly but
surely exterminate the salmon for commercial purposes/ he determined to take a
salmon stream that under normal conditions carried a few thousand redfish, and by
artificial propagation increase the production to hundreds of thousands. He hoped
that, if successful, a law would be framed making all the increase his own property.

The hatchery is a private enterprise, unconnected with any cannery or fishery,
and based upon the widely prevailing belief that the salmon return to the parent
stream in four years after they are hatched. As this time has passed, however, with-
out any apparent return, Mr. Callbreath has extended his period to ten years.

In establishing the hatchery a stream was sought satisfying the conditions
imposed, and one was found at the head of McHeniy Inlet. It is small, about one-

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1900.

303

half mile in length, and Hows over a rocky and bowldery bed between heavily wooded
shelving banks. At its head is a small lake 42 feet above tide water, slightly
L-shaped, about three-fourths mile long by one-fourth wide, and bordered by low
wooded banks. The stream was never known to supply more than from 3,900 to
5,000 redfish, a number too small to attract the attention of the commercial fisheries.
In fact, it was known as a “cultus chuck” or worthless stream.

After making satisfactory arrangements with the Indians claiming the stream, a
hatchery7’ was built in 1892 on the right bank about 200 yards from the mouth, and
suitable dams were thrown across the stream to impound the fish. The hatchery
water was taken from the stream, conveying it by7 a flume from a point near the

Trap pen and barrier in lower course of stream, Callbreath’s Hatchery, McHenry Inlet.

lake, where a dam was built. After operating the hatchery during the latter part of
the season in 1892 and turning out about'600,000 fry, it was seen that the breeding
fish could not be impounded properly in the stream, many dying, probably" from
exhaustion in attempting to pass the barrier; it was also found that the stream water
used in the hatchery" was unsuitable, not only on account of the wide range in tem-
perature, but the organic matter it contained smothered the eggs and caused fungus.
An excellent site having been found on the lake in the vicinity of the streams form-
ing the natural spawning-beds, with a spring giving an abundant supply of pure
water of very7 equable temperature, the hatchery was moved in the spring of 1 893 to
its present site. It was operated that year and every year until 1900, when the pro-

304

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

jector decided that hiss means would not permit him to continue the work unless some
return was made.

From its first inception it was determined that, in order to obtain the best results,
only the most desirable species should be admitted to the lake, and that all enemies
must be removed and excluded. In order to carry this into effect dams were built
across the stream with racks below them, as shown in the sketch, at a point about 100
yards from salt water, where an islet divides the stream into two parts. The dam and
fence on the western side of the islet allow nothing to pass. The fence on the eastern
side has a trap opening, admitting fish to the foot of the dam. Here the redtish and
cohoes are lifted bv dip nets to the pool above, from which point they can ascend
quickly to the lake. Nothing can enter the lake which is not passed over the dam by
hand. The humpbacks, dog salmon, Dolly Varden trout, and all enemies, are carefully
excluded, and the lake is therefore free of undesirable and predatory species. The
lake has been carefully fished, and all enemies to the fry, sucn as cut-throats and
other trout, sticklebacks, bullheads, sculpins. etc., have been removed, so that it is
comparatively clear of enemies.

The hatchery is located on the northern side of the lake, about three-eighths
mile from the head of the outlet, and midway between a series of 11 springs and
feeders, the extreme distance being less than one-fourth mile from the main building.
The hatching-house stands on the border of the lake, partly over a small feeder, and
back of it is a substantial and comfortable log dwelling, 20 feet by 36 feet. Strung
along the lake are two houses for the hatchery hands, each 12 feet by 16 feet, a smoke-
house for smoking the stripped fish, and a tool-house. The original cost of the plant,
and all expenses connected with it to date (September, 1900), amount to $16,000.

The hatchery usually opens July 1, when preparations are begun for the season;
stripping generally commences September 1; the place is closed about March 1.

The hatchery building is 75 feet long, east and west, by 11 feet in width; south
wall 11 feet high, north wall 6 feet high; shed roof, with windows on the south side
only; on the east end is an open shed annex, 18 feet by 11 feet.

The troughs are 16 feet by 134 inches by 51. inches, inside measurement, made of
planed lumber, 11-inch bottom, 11-inch sides, covered with asphalt varnish. In the
main building are 2 lines of troughs arranged in pairs, with 8 troughs in a line,
making a total of 16, arranged with a passage around the lines as shown in the
sketch. Each pair of troughs has a drop of 1 inch in its length, with a fall of 4
inches to the next. The first compartment in each trough is 8 inches in length, and
receives and aerates the water; then come 7 basket divisions, each 24 inches long,
separated by the Williamson system of division plates, 2 inches apart; the last space
is 4 inches. The annex will accommodate 4 troughs, but it has seldom been used.

The baskets are of the usual wire webbing, five-eighths inch by one-sixth inch for
redfish eggs, and five-eighths inch by one-fifth inch for cohoes, and are 231 inches by
121 inches by 41 inches, and have no wooden rims. They are supported an inch from
the bottom of the trough by broad-headed nails and tin clips. All are well lacquered.
A full basket contains 60,000 redfish eggs, or 30,000 to 35,000 coho eggs. The capacity
of the hatchery is therefore 6,720,000 redfish eggs, and the annex 1,680,000 of the
same species, but it is doubted if the latter can be regarded as a reliable factor in
estimating the capacity.

Stretch- plan of hstcher^ and vicinity,

©

©

.n It. CIS.

©

Ccmpasa 6k.ctcW of Lake and.
Stream, by Eas C 5 Kempff, U.S N
Hatc.We.ry details by H.C.
Fassett, U. 5>. Fisk Commission.

September igoo.

ETOLIN ISLAND

Sketch of

LAKE and STREAM

at the Head, of

Me HENRY INLET

Showing location
of

CaptainJCCall breatK's

SALMON HATCHERY.

Scale 1 Nautical 1

■

.

■ '

■

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1900.

305

The hatchery water is recei ved from a pool about 150 yards north of the hatchery,
which is supplied by three springs (see sketch g) in the immediate vicinity, augmented
by an additional spring, which is connected with the pool by a ditch. From the pool
the water is conveyed by a covered flume to the west end of the hatchery building
and is then distributed, as shown in plate xxix. The flow is regulated at the closed
end of the flume in the pool by means of holes in the bottom plank, in which plugs
may be inserted, increasing or decreasing the supply as may be necessary. The main
flume, midway in its length, is joined by a flume running from a reserve pool to the
eastward, which may be used if necessary. The water is very clear and evidently
quite pure, as no trouble has ever been experienced from fungoid growth. It is not
filtered, but there are screens in the upper end of the flume to strain out foreign
particles which may fall into the pool. The water is very equable in temperature
and is said never to freeze. The lowest temperature observed in midwinter is
recorded as 38° F., and the highest in midsummer 16° F. These are the extremes,
the average range running from 39° to 15° F. During moderate winter weather the
temperature of the water runs from 40° to 43° F. — never above the latter. While
the temperature of the water is frequently taken during the season, there is no daily
record from which curves may be drawn. The following may be noted as fair
averages: July 25, 1898, 45° F. ; September 14, 1898, 43° F.; lowest during the
winter of 1898-99, 39° F. ; April 15, 1899, 41° F. The lake water ranges from the
freezing point in winter to 60° F. in midsummer. It is claimed that the present
hatchery supply is sufficient for 15,000,000 eggs and that there are additional springs
in the vicinity which, at small expense, can be utilized. In the hatchery the same
water is used through four troughs, and if the annex is used, through live. It then
passes by a sluice to the small creek under the hatchery.

The arrangements seem crude, and all fittings and appliances are constructed at
the least expense, yet it all indicates an intelligent endeavor in a direction where
there was but little previous experience in the work. Judging from the output,
however, the hatchery has been very successful, and is a striking example of what
may be done in this line of work if undertaken in an intelligent manner. Mr. Call-
breath certainly deserves great credit, not only for the work he has accomplished,
but for the proof he has given that a hatchery may be operated successfully for very
little money.

Feeders, ripening pools, and nurseries. — The redfish and cohoes after entering
the lake remain in its waters until ripe, a period varying from two to six weeks,
sometimes longer, depending upon the condition of the fish as thej^ enter from the
sea; and when ripe they seek the feeders to spawn. In the immediate vicinity of the
hatchery there are six feeders and springs which form natural spawning-beds and
are arranged for taking ripe fish, and also several nursery ponds. The mouths of
these feeders arc fenced and have trap openings, which admit the fish, but do not
permit them to leave.

Feeders a, b, and Jc are tightly fenced to prevent adult fish from entering, as
they are full of obstructions on which the fish might injure themselves, c , d, e,
and f are spring pools, which have been cleared and improved, opening on the
lake. The pool c is separated by a dam into two ponds, the inner one forming an
excellent nursery, d is not considered very good, e is the best pond, and secures

F. C. B. 1901—20

306 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

the largest number of breeders except j. f is a nursery pond; an inclined fence of
brush surmounts the dam and partly shades the pool, which is believed to benefit the
fry. g is the outlet for the overflow from the hatchery reservoir pool; it has several
small pools, formed by widen ings in the stream, where fry were one year planted but did
not do very well. The lower of these pools, shown on the sketch, was also used as a
nursery, I mtwas unsatisfactory, h is the overflow from the auxiliary pool for hatchery
supply, and receives the hatching-house waste; at times a few fish are permitted to
enter and are spawned as needed to till up baskets, j is the chief feeder entering the
lake, and is about 100 yards east from the hatchery; the mouth is fenced with the usual
trap opening, and from this point for about 70 feet upstream the banks are Availed up
with vertical slabs. At j' the stream has been dammed to make an upper pool in which,
and in the upper reaches, fry are released. The ripe fish are stripped on the west
bank of the lower reach.

Spawning . — The ripe fish enter the pens through the traps and are taken by dip
nets; they average about 7 pounds in weight. Spawning begins about September l,
and continues actively for about six weeks; a few ripe fish keep running until late in
the winter, the latest arrivals having the most perfect eggs.

In spawning the Avet process is used; a pan is half filled with water, into which
the ova are stripped and the milt added; these are mixed with the fingers, and then
set aside for or.e hour, after Avhich the eggs are thoroughly washed, transferred to
buckets, and carried to the hatchery where they are placed in the baskets.

It is found that impregnation will take place up to 3 minutes after the ova have
been ejected, and that the best results are obtained by adding the milt between i and
11 minutes after ejection.

Size of eggs. — The number of eggs of both redfish and cohoes has been frequently
counted, and it has been found that a full healthy female of each species contains
3,500 eggs, but it is rare that the full number is obtained. As frequently some are
left in the fish, and others are not in good condition, the count is made on 3,000 eggs
to the full fish, or 20 redfish, or 10 to 12 cohoes, to the basket, the eggs of the latter
being about twice the size of the former. When a large number of fish mature at
the same time it is frequently found that some eggs have been voided, and in such
cases it Avill take two and sometimes three fish to make one “count” fish.

In counting the eggs a condensed-milk can is used as a measure. This measure,
by repeated counting, has been found to contain 1,904 redfish or 848 coho eggs.
A quantity of eggs from a healthy, normal, ripe female redfish was secured and
measured Avith the following results: Forty covered 2 square inches and 20 in a line
against a straight edge occupied a length of exactly 4£ inches, giving a single egg a
diameter of 0.225 inch. It has been observed that brilliantly colored or unusually
large or small eggs are apt to prove failures.

Several hundred cohoes are usually stripped each year and the eggs hatched.
They run about six Aveeks later than the redfish.

The picking of eggs is done Avith ordinary tin forceps and is commenced six to
eight Aveeks after the eggs are placed in the baskets. It is claimed that the per-
centage of bad eggs is very small, and that very little, if any, fungus appears. The
delicate period is unknown here. It is probably covered during the time the eggs
remain undisturbed.

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1900.

307

Period of incubation. — The temperature records are not at all complete, and no
attempt has been made to determine the thermal hatching unit. Generally it may
be said that with a temperature of 45° F., the average highest, to 39°, the average
lowest, the eye-spots appear in from 30 to 38 days. A few are earlier, and a few are
45 days before they are well eyed out. In 90 days they are hatching rapidly; in 100
days two-thirds are hatched; in 110 days four-fifths are out, and the remainder
straggle along for several months. As the hatchery closes March 1 the unhatched
eggs are buried in the gravel, simulating the natural conditions. The cohoes hatch
about 10 days earlier, and an experiment made with a basket of humpback eggs
showed that they hatched in 70 days under conditions in which the redhsh hatched
in 90 days.

Eggs which hatch out well in advance of the mass (“prematures”) and those
equally late, produce usually very weak fish or “freaks.” It has been the experience
here that it is useless to waste time on these fish, as they invariably die. It has been
found that the fry just hatched collect in the lower end of the troughs, and to prevent
loss they are removed as early as possible, within a day or two after hatching, and
placed in the nursery, the upper ponds of the feeders, and sometimes in the lake,
where the bottom is grassy or covered with pond lilies.

The yolk-sac is absorbed in from forty-five to fifty days, but shows plainly at
sixty days, though skinned over and in the belly. After this has taken place they
are taken from the nursery and some are placed in the feeders and others in the lake,
where the natural conditions are most favorable for their protection.

The loss varies from 8 to 12 per cent, depending upon the season; if t here is an
abundance of rain, permitting the fish to ascend without injury, the eggs are found
in good condition and the loss is small. During a dry season the fish are kept from
ascending until the fall rains, and as they partially ripen in the salt or brackish water
the eggs are more easily injured. Realizing the advantage in having the fish arrive
in the lake in a healthy, vigorous state, considerable work has been done at the out-
let to remove obstructions and to improve the natural conditions.

Barren lakes. — Mr. Callbreath lays considerable stress upon the use of what he
terms barren lakes in connection with hatchery work. These lakes have in their sea
connections high falls or cascades preventing the passage of fish from the sea and
usually are quite clear of the enemies of salmon fry. Mr. Callbreath has planted
redfish fry in two of these barren lakes, both discharging their water into Burnett
Inlet. In 1894 and 1896, 1,000,000 redfish fry were planted each year in Burnett
Lake, about 13 miles from the hatchery, and in 1895, 2,000,000 redfish fry were
planted in Francis Lake, about 11 miles from the hatchery. The following coho fry
have been planted in Falls Creek, previously referred to: 1893, 66,000; 1894, 50,000;
1896, 135,000; 1899, 60,000. The rest of the hatchery output has been planted in
the home lake and feeders. The fry are transported as soon after hatching as the
weather permits and before the egg sac is absorbed, as they then require fewer
changes of water. Coal-oil cans are used for transportation cans; a screw-top
mouthpiece, 11-inch opening, is soldered to the top of the can and the fry are
poured in through a funnel having a large opening. A 5-gallon can will hold 30,000
redfish fry, or about 15,000 coho fry, and two such cans placed in the original case
make a load for one man carried on the back with pack straps and, if the weather
is cold, wrapped in blankets.

308

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

The following data, representing the output from this hatchery from July, 1892,
to September, 1900, was furnished by Mr. Callbreath:

Year.

Redfish.

Cohoes.

Number adults
passed over dam.

Total num-
ber of fry
hatched.

Number of fry planted
and locality.

Number adults
passed over dam.

Total num-
ber of fry
hatched.

Number of fry planted
and locality.

Males.

Females.

Hatchery

lake.

Other

lakes.

Males.

Females.

Home

lake.

Falls

Creek.

1892.. .

1893.. .

1894.. .

1895.. .

1896.. .

1897.. .

1898.. .

1899.. .

1900.. .

i 3, 000
i 3, 010
2,438
2, 799
1,617
1,817
1,189
1,058

(!)

(2)

2,016
2, 497
2,008
1,572
821
1, 175

600, 000
1, 888, 000

4. 928. 000

4. 960. 000

3. 880. 000
2, 000, 000

1.800.000
1, 385, 000

600, 000
1, 888, 000

3. 928. 000
2, 960, 000

2. 780. 000
2, 000, 000

1.800.000
1, 385, 000

31,000,000
•1 2, 000, 000
31,100,000

il,151

256

134

374

590

158

991

(2) •
230
204
338
500
142
963

416. 000

363. 000

515. 000

510. 000

526.000

250. 000
950, 000

350. 000

313. 000

515. 000

375. 000

526. 000

250. 000

890. 000

66, 000

50. 000

135, 000

60. 000

10, 918

10,089 21,441,000

17,341,000

4, 100, 000

2,503 2,377 | 3,530,000

3,219,000

311 , 000

1,991

1,863

None stripped; fish allowed to
seek natural spawning beds.

526 1 482 1 None strij

seek nati

peel ; fish allowed to
iral spawning beds.

i Both sexes; not included in total. 2 Not known. 3 To Burnett Lake. * To Francis Lake.

In this record it should be remembered that, the number of fish passed over the
dam is not the number stripped. The number recovered for spawning purposes varies
so much that no percentage can be stated, and what becomes of those not stripped is
a mystery to the hatchery people. For instance, in 1899 there were passed over the
dam between July 16th and October 26th 1,175 female and 1,058 male redfish,
a total of 2,233, and from August 29th to November 14th 963 female and 991 male
cohoes, making a total of 1,954; of this number 1,367 redfish and 1,231 cohoes were
recovered; this includes not only all spawned fish, but all found dead along the
shores after diligent and repeated search.

The following experience at the hatchery may be of interest and worthy of
record: On September 23. 1898, about 20 spawners were allowed to enter one of the
hatchery ponds and spawn. On April 13, 1899, nearly seven months later, these
spawning-beds were turned over and a number of young fish found with the egg-sac
not yet absorbed. The same run of fish stripped and hatched in the troughs had the
egg-sacs absorbed two months prior to that time. It is the opinion at the hatchery
that the young go to sea in from 10 to 15 months after they are hatched, though
some remain in the lake until they are from 20 to 24 months old.

Mr. Callbreath is positive that his fish will return, but he now believes the time
has not yet arrived for the first output to mature. It is earnestly hoped he may
realize all he anticipates, for the zeal and enthusiasm which he displays should meet
with ample reward. In the meantime he is carrying on a very interesting experi-
ment; if his fish return he will have demonstrated that salmon do return to the parent
stream , he will have thrown much light on the age of fish, and he will have proved
that a stream running a few fish can be made to yield abnormally. If this is demon-
strated a law should be passed permitting the leasing of small streams for hatchery
purposes and recognizing ownership in fish thus hatched. This would mean a great
deal to southeastern Alaska, as it would draw settlers who could make a very good
living by operating a hatchery and cultivating the little patches of land that are
favorably located.

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1900.

309

HALIBUT FISHERIES OF SOUTHEASTERN ALASKA.

Since my former report On this subject, pages 45 to 48, there has been no develop-
ment of any halibut banks in this section, but the spots in which these fish occur have
been utilized by small boats in a manner that has made them profitable.

A few years prior to 1899 the fresh-halibut fishery was conducted by a few small
schooners and sloops, chiefly from Puget Sound, which shipped the iced product by
freight steamers to the Sound market from Wrangell. The fishing, however, was
desultory, and could hardly have been called profitable until 1899, when the Icy Strait
Packing Company completed their wharf at Petersburg, near the upper end of
Wrangell Narrows, and arranged with a steamship company to make regular calls for
freight. Under this arrangement it was agreed that the halibut boats of Chatham
Strait and Frederick Sound should ship from the new station. During the first
winter, from October, 1899, to March, 1900, about 20 small schooners and sloops of
from 5 tons to 20 tons formed the fleet, calling regularly at Petersburg with fresh
halibut for shipment. The fish were obtained chiefly in Chatham Strait and Fred-
erick Sound. Twelve of these vessels averaged 2 dories and 5 men, and 8 averaged
1 dory and 3 men, making a total of 32 dories and 84 men, each of whom may be said
to have had a personal interest in a vessel. From October, 1899, to April, 1900, the
Icy Strait Packing Company also engaged in the halibut fisheries, employing their
cannery steamers for this purpose. The steamer White Wings , 34 tons, valued at
$7,000, besides her regular winter crew of 4, carried 8 deck-hands and fishermen,
working 4 dories; and the steamer Annie M. Nixon , 18 tons, valued at $6,000, in
addition to her crew of 4, employed 6 fishermen, working 3 dories. The fishermen
received board and 20 cents per fish of more than 15 pounds weight. The fish aver-
aged 40 pounds, dressed. The largest weighed 250 pounds. The catch for the season
of the Icy Strait Packing Company amounted to 700 boxes of fresh halibut iced,
500 pounds net weight per box, and was shipped to Seattle and sold at an average
price of 3 cents per pound. It is said that the 20 small craft engaged in the fishery
each averaged 40 boxes of fresh halibut per month, making 200 tons per month.

It may therefore be said that there were employed on these halibut fisheries
from October, 1899, to the end of March, 1900, two small steamers and 20 small sail
vessels, using 39 dories and employing 98 fishermen.

The ice used is gathered from the neighboring glaciers, and if ground in a mill
made for the purpose is in the best form, though many merely break it into tine
lumps with a club.

As mentioned in my former report, no great banks where halibut occur in such
numbers that a seagoing vessel may make a load and return to market have yet
been found in Alaska, but there are many spots on which halibut may be found, and
fishing from small vessels convenient to a steamer route, as outlined above, seems to
offer the best means for conducting these fisheries successfully.

It is possible that these fisheries will increase in importance until the spots are
cleaned off, when some other field will be sought until the grounds recuperate. At
present it is promising enough to attract the attention of many small fishers from
the Sound country. The gear used consists of bottom trawls and long hand lines; it
is simple and inexpensive.

310

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

GENERAL CONDITIONS.

THE LAW.

During the investigation of the salmon fisheries in Alaska in 1897, when this ves-
sel visited all the operating canneries and fisheries outside of Bering Sea, it was my
opinion, frequently expressed, that as a rule the streams were overfished and could
not continue for a long period to withstand the enormous draft made upon them.

These fisheries have grown to such an extent that unless one has been in constant
touch with the subject, the situation can not be fully grasped. In 1878, when the
first canneries were established, the total Alaska pack was 8,159 cases; seven years
later, in 1885, the pack was 83,415 cases; only four years afterwards, in 1889, the
pack had grown to be 719,196 cases; and seven years from that date, 1896, it was
966,707 cases; followed by a slack year, 1897, which yielded 909,078 cases. The past
season, however (1900), has exceeded even the canners’ expectations, and an output of
1,548,139 cases was the result. Multiplying this number by 85 may give approxi-
mately the number of pounds of live salmon taken from the Alaska streams by the
canneries. This does not include the amount taken by the salteries, or by the whites
and natives for their own local use. It may be imagined how prolific these rivers
must be when, under any condition, they can furnish this mass of fish. Every means
that man can devise is used for their capture and apparently without restriction.

In my former report, pages 38-42, the subject of the law was briefly discussed,
and, with the experience since obtained, there seems no reason for changing the
recommendations then made, but, on the contrary, they7 should be emphasized and
augmented. My opinion of traps has been given previously and need not be
repeated here, except to say that, whatever legislation is effected, there should be no
exceptions made.

Duifing the past three years so-called purse seines have grown in favor, particu-
larly in southeastern Alaska, and it is now claimed by those operating them that it is
no longer necessary to resort to barricades, as the purse seines take all the fish before
they can enter the streams. These seines are simply deep drag seines, square hung,
which, in hauling, are pursed by gathering in the foot rope. Around the larger and
more prolific streams of southeastern Alaska, such as Hetta, Ivarta Bay7, and Quadra,
there were from 25 to 30 of these seines in operation during the season of 1900, one
seine following the other in such rapid succession that few fish escaped capture.
Purse seines, or seines used as such, should be abolished; in fact, the only7 fishing
apparatus allowed should be gill nets and drag seines; no exceptions should be made.
The use of these appliances should be regulated, and competent inspectors appointed
to enforce the law and the regulations.

In the small streams examined this year those away7 from the lines of travel
were all found to have evidences of barricading. In some, where the current is not
very? strong, stakes, planted on the banks and in the stream bed to support a net
held to the bottom by bowlders, answered the fishermen’s purpose, while in other
cases the regular log barricade, referred to in my previous report, was strongly in
evidence.

Since it is believed that the Puget Sound and Columbia River salmon fisheries
are failing, attention has been drawn to Alaska. Six new canneries appeared in

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1900.

311

II

southeastern Alaska during 1900, generally small in their appointments, prepared to
make a hand pack of 12,000 to 20,000 cases for the season. It is confidently expected,
if the labor can be obtained, that from 15 to 20 additional ones will be located
throughout Alaska in 1901, and all of the older canneries expect to increase their
capacity. It is hardly necessary for me to say that the fisheries can not support all
these canneries, at the present rate, for any length of time; they will surely become
exhausted for extensive commercial purposes.

There is another point which should receive the attention of the law, and that is
the inspection of the product put in the cans and of the labeling. Compared with
the large amount of salmon that reaches the market, the. quantity that might be called
unfit bears a very small proportion. Yet salmon that should not be consumed are
packed under misleading labels, and the law should prohibit it. The law also should
require the canner to plainly label every can he produces with the species of fish
in the can, the quality, and the location of the cannery packing. The number of
different labels now used on the Pacific coast is very large; a list before me from
one lithographic company represents 702. From this it may be inferred that even
an expert finds difficulty in telling the quality of the goods covered by a label. It
was noticed in some of the new canneries that, frequently a low grade of fish was
covered by the most brilliant of labels, and in one. instance — though doubtless there
are others — dog salmon were covered by “Fresh Columbia River salmon.” Such
practices must throw discredit upon all goods, and one would fancy that reputable
canneries would ask protection against it.

It. is my opinion that a section of the law should provide for a certain time when
fishing for redfish may commence, and prohibit their capture before that time. The
object of this close season is to permit all the earliest arrivals to ascend to the lakes,
where they may spawn early and have the eggs hatched before the cold weather sets
in. It is probable that many of the feeders, used- as spawning-beds, freeze to the
bottom during the winter, and the late eggs must necessarily be destroyed. No one
appreciates the difficulty in framing such a law more than the writer; but it is not
impracticable, and with the data now at hand it is entirely feasible. Take, for
example, southeastern Alaska. We know that all redfish packed from the earliest
arrivals to about July 4 hardly pay cannery expenses. This does not take into account
the small pack of king salmon, made by a few canneries, from the Chilkat, Taku,
Stikine, and Unuk. A law, therefore, prohibiting the capture of redfish in southeast-
ern Alaska before July 4 would be an excellent provision, and other districts could
be treated in a similar manner. In order to execute the law, might it not be well to
pay informers one-half of all fines collected?

With the large accessions of canneries in Alaska the struggle in the fisheries is sure
to increase, and every means will be emplojmd for the capture of fish regardless of
the law, unless the Government enforces it by an efficient and intelligent inspection.
The future, even more than the past, requires efficient inspection, which, however
can not be realized under the present conditions.

312

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION,

STATISTICS.

Comparison table of the salmon packing industry of the Pacific coast, from its first, inception in 1866 to 1900.

[Compiled from various sources.]

Year.

1866 .

1867 .

1868 .

1869 .

1870 .

1871 .

1872 .

1873 .

1874 .
1875.
1876 .
1S77 .

1878 .

1879 .

1880 .
1881 .
1882 .

1883 .

1884 .
1885.
1886 .

1887 .

1888 .

1889 .

1890 .

1891 .

1892 .

1893 .

1894 .

1895 .

1896 .

1897 .

1898 .

1899 .

1900 .

Total.

Alaska.

British

Columbia.

Puget

Sound.

Outside

rivers.

8, 159
12, 530
6, 539
8, 977
21,745
48, 337
63, 886
83, 415
142, 065
206, 677
412, 115
719, 196
682, 591
801,400
474, 717
643, 654
686, 440
626, 530
966, 707
909, 078
965, 097
1,078,146
1, .548, 139

11, 116, 140

9,

67,

113,

57,

61,

175,

255,

243,

138,

106,

163,

201,

135,

414,

409,

314,

236,

637,

562,

564,

598,

1,015,

454,

711,

527,

7,176,869 2,439,642

248, 200

423. 500
417,700

871.500
478, 742

25, 600
24, 800
30, 000

30. 000
37, 200
48, 500
49, 000

38. 000
41,350

, 51,750
131,100

195. 400
154,000
199, 068

67, 117
78, 305
129, 000
105, 309
103, 340
205, 500

115. 400
68, 683
78, 600
82,432

106, 300

2, 195, 754

Columbia

River.

Sacramento

River.

Total .

4,000

4, 000

18, 000

18, 000

28, 000

28, 000

100, 000

100, 000

150, 000

150, 000

200, 000

200, 000

250, 000

250, 000

250, 000

250, 000

350, 000

2, 500

352, 500

375, 000

3,000

378, 000

450, 000

8,300

493, 747

460, 000

21,500

573, 687

460, 480

36, 500

648, 740

480, 000

31,009

610, 924

630, 000

51,000

786, 039

551,000

181, 200

965, 352

541, 360

200, 300

1 , 067, 466

629, 400

160, 000

1,118, 737

656, 179

81,450

981,810

524, 530

48, 500

815, 060

454, 943

39, 300

930, 412

373, 800

36, 500

1,014,367

367, 750

61, 200

1,130,665

325, 500

66, 666

1 , 724, 830

433, 500

25, 065

1 , 617, 737

390, 185

10, 353

3 , 595, 056

502, 800

2, 281

1,345,795

375, 700

23, 336

1,785, 119

511, 000

28, 463

1,891,614

627, 500

25, 185

2, 049, 592

463, 621

13, 387

2, 405, 615

552, 721

38, 543

3, 008, 002

473, 230

29, 731

2,418,858

340, 125

33, 227

3,117,030

313,417

39, 304

3,013,183

13,613,741

1,296, 791

38, 839, 937

Note. — Prior to 1896 the Puget Sound pack is included under
in cases of 48 one-pound tins.

Outside rivers.” The pack is given

Table showing by years the number of salmon canneries operated in each district of Alaska, from 1878 to 1900 ,
with the annual per cent value of total salmon pack ( canned ) for each district.

Y ear.

Southeast

Alaska.

Prince William
Sound and
Copper River.

Cook Inlet.

Kadiak and
Chignik.

Bering Sea.

Total

num-

ber

of

can-

ner-

ies.

No. of
can-
neries.

Annual

per

cent of
total
salmon
pack.

No. of
can-
neries.

Annual

per

cent of
total
salmon
pack.

No. of
can-
neries.

Annual

per

cent of
total
salmon
pack.

No. of
can-
neries.

Annual

per

cent of
total
salmon
pack.

No. of
can-
neries.

Annual

per

cen t of
total
salmon
pack.

1878

9

100

9

1879

9

100

9

1880

1

100

1

1881

1

100

1

1882

1

1

27.8

1

19. 3

3

1883

4

39

1

32

1

29

6

1884

4

31.5

1

34.7

]

33. 1

1

0. 7

1885

3

14

1

24.8

1

43.2

1

18

6

1886..

4

12.8

1

20. 1

1

32.6

3

34.5

9

1887

5

15.2

1

14.9

1

34. 7

3

35.2

10

' 1888

6

19.7

2

10.3

4

48.2

4

21.8

16

1889

12

19.1

4

3.4

2

7.1

15

54.2

4

16.2

37

1890

12

20.9

3

6.2

2

4.2

14

51.3

4

17.4

35

1891

11

19.5

3

8.5

3

7.4

8

48

5

16.6

30

1892

24.4

0

1

4.3

5

57. 9

9

13.4

15

1893

8

21.1

3

12

1

4.9

7

45.2

3

16.8

22

1894

7

20.8

3

11.4

1

5

6

47

4

15.8

21

1895

7

23.7

3

9.6

1

5.7

6

37.1

6

23.9

23

1896

9

27.1

3

9.6

1

3. 6

8

37.1

8

22.6

29

1897

9

29.9

2

5.7

1

3.6

10

32.8

7

28

29

1898

9

26.1

2

6.3

•2

5.8

10

28.7

7

33

30

1899

9

28.8

2

5.7

2

4.8

10

22. 5

9

38.2

32

1900.

16

29.5

2

4.5

3

4.1

9

23.2

12

38.7

42

Percentage of gross

24.9

6.2

6

37.5

25.4

>f season of 1900.

393.

1894.

1895.

1896.

1897.

1898.

1899.

1900.

Total.

JSCS.

12,595

Cases.

14,455

Cases.

12, 228

Cases.

16, 675

Cases.
15, 705

Cases.
16, 307

Cases.

19,100

Cases.

127,752

Cases.
267, 523
8, 612

11.400

29,500
66, 969

23. 400

413,505

17.400

367, 872
512, 863
27, 129
206, 845
14,577

96. 200

5,000

24. 200
23, 900

101,332
131,818
99, 100
174,910
36, 840
27, 256
1,660
29,941
9,458
16, 7 22
13, 793
14,850

13,668

38, 781

35, 373

47,456

37,456

39, 669

53, 237

55, 601

22, 728
25, 153

15, 102

25, 250
26, 869
Dismantled.
12,000

27, 416
32, 554

44,233

61,467

45,918
62, 040

49, 332
59, 343

50, 201
63, 390

58, 518
67, 158

14,100

24,100

22, 300

15, 174

25,504

33, 623

9, 889

11,189

14, 805

15, 358

14,070

12,681

s Aban-
doned.

24,418
12, 500

" Dismantled.
14,000

12, 000

Closed; in
17,650
8,000
27, 442

reserve.
15, 490
24, 500
34, 388

11,671

16,000

31,208

12, 322
37,000
38,265
11,200

17,560
13,600
43, 607
25, 640
27, 256
1,560
29, 941
9,458
16, 722
13, 793
14,850

36, 053

142, 544

148, 476

262, 381

271, 867

251,385

310,219

456, 639

2, 774, 475

1 , 600

16' 740

15, 270

15,000

15,000

20,672

84,027

•doned.

28, 999

28, 378

21,453

39,873

23, 301

32, 158

31,931

39,410

291,492

32, 729

35, 285

120, 089

{ 23,041

32, 321

28, 756

28, 668

29, 864

30, 588

173; 238

76, 998

78, 663

59, 494

92, 866

52,057

60, 826

61,795

69, 998

687, 186

42, 003

31,665

34, 033

36, 188

34,767

32, 532

39, 566

28, 815

33, 781

430, 156

65, 867

Closed.

12 D i s m a n -

55; 077

tied.

16,876

23, 300

25, 089

65, 265

4,905

4,905

31, 665

34, 033

36, 188

34, 767

32,532

56, 442

52, 115

63, 775

663, 273

9 Moved to Thin Point, Alaska Peninsula.

111 Machinery moved to Pacific Steam Whaling Co., Kenai.
11 Transport vessel wrecked and outfit lost.

^Consolidated with Arctic Fishing Co., Kussilof River.

Complete table of Alaska salmon {canned) pack , by canneries and districts, from its earliest inception in 187 8 to close of season of 1900.

[One ease contains 48 pounds of salmon, net weight.]

Name of company and location of cannery.

Owned in 1900 by —

1878.

1879.

1880.

1881.

1882.

1883.

1884.

1885.

1880.

1887.

1888.

1889.

1890.

1891.

1892.

1893.

189-1.

1895.

1896.

1897.

1898.

1899.

1900.

Total.

Southeast Alaska.

Cases.
5, 402

<L675

5,855

0)539'

Clo

8,977*

ted.

0 P1

Cases.
8, 240

Cases.

0,189

Cases.

8,428

Cases.

7,860

^9*562

* 12)325

ll)370

^lo)l8H

' ,tg 9*,' '250

Cases.

10, 194

Cases.
12, 595

*14,455

Cases.

12,228

Cases.

16, 675

Cases.

15,705

% 30"

S'o.Too

Cases.

>27,752

' 267s,' 623
8,612

11.400

29,500

66,969

23.400

413,505

17.400

367, 872
512, 863
27, 129
206, 845
14,577

96.200

5,000

24.200
23,900

101,332
131,818
99, 100
174,910
36,840
27,266
1,660
29,941
9,458
16,722
13,793
14,850

-•°rtll 1 a ^ , , ' ( 1 1 1 ^ i, L* ' 'r nn , f TvUiinff

^ On chflrn „non Ho Q„„,trn

2,000

3,000

5,900

500

ISold ;

moved.
| 5,500

8,000
5. 000j

Tonga!* Packing Co., Ketchikan. Tongass Narrows

Chilkat Packing Co., east shore. Chilkut Inlet

Northwest Trading Co., Pyramid Harbor

Pvramid Harbor Packing Co.. Pyramid Harbor

Aberdeen Packing Co.. Lower Stikine River

Glacier Packing Co.. Point Highficld, Wrnngell Island

Alaska Salmon Pocking and Fur Co.. Loring

Cape Lees Packing Co.. Burroughs Bay

Boston Fishing and Trading Co., Yes Bay

Bitrani'ff Packing Co.. Redoubt. Bnrunot Island

Bammifl Packing Co.. Redtish Bay. Baninof Island

Astoria and Alaska Packing Co.. Freshwater Bay

Adoria and Alaska Packing Co., Point Ellis, Kuiu Island

Bartlett Bay Packing Co.. Bartlett Bay

Chilkat Canning Co.. Chilkat Village. Chilkut Inlet

Metlakuhtla Industrial Co., Metlukahtlu

ynndni Packing Co.. Mink Arm. Boca do Quadra

Pacific Steam Whaling Co., Hunter Bay

Thlinkcl Packing Co.. Gerard Point. Eastern Passage

Fulalgo Island Panning Co.. Ketchikan

Boyer Warnock Packing Co.. Beecher Pass

Icy Strait Packing Co.. Petersburg, Wrangell Narrows

Taku Fishing Co.. Port Snettisham

Taku Packing Co., Taku Inlet

Western Fisheries Co., Dundas Bay

Cbilkoot Packing Co., Chilkoot Inlet

Total of annual packs in Southeast Alaska

::::::

::::::

11,000
Closed.
Transf. to

19, 300’
11.000

"in;™

5, 732

3 13. 000
13,500

0.000

3,800

7,000

0,000

2,400

Closed.

1,700

8,000

15,000

13, 309

Burnt.

Alaska Packers Association..
Defunct

Alaska Packers Association ..

• 1"

Defunct

Same company

Defunct

do

do

do

do

Alaska Packers Association .

Same company

Icy Strait Packing Co

Same company

do

do

do

do

do

do

do

do

<13,400

12,300

18,300

28, 904

13,068

38,781

35, 373

47, 456

37,450

39, 609

53, 237

55,601

3,400

I moved.
| 13.800

28. 802
10,574
1 500
4/454

5,000

"4.366

19,000

14.000
23, 024
10,823

9,343
10, 123

( Moved.
| 8, 000

12.000
17,000

“500

15, 870
22, 780

17,365
| Moved.

\ 7, 9-19

io/ioo

7,000

20,914

7,000

Closed.

21,446

Closed.

13, 734

io,269

Burnt May 1

Close

20,000

11,125

22, 728
25, 153

15,102

25,250
26. 809
Dismantled.
12,000

27, 416
32,554

44,233

01,407

45, 918
62, 010

49, 332
59,343

50,201

63,390

58,518

67,158

14,100

24, 100

22,300

15, 174

25,504

33, 623

9,889

11,189

14,805

15,358

14, 070

12,681

6 Aban-
doned.

i.

24,418

12,500

1 Dismantled.
14,000

12,000

Closed; it
17,650
8,000
27, 442

reserve.
15, 490
24 , 500
34, 388

U.G71

16.000

31,208

12, 322
37,000
38. 265
11.200

17,560
13.600
43,607
25.640
27.256
1.560
29,941
9,458
16.722
13, 79;$
14,850

12,530

0. 539

8.977

11,501

20. 040

22, 189

10, 728

18. 060

31,462

81,128

141,700

142,901

156,615

115, 722

136,053

142,544

148, 176

262, 381

271,867

251,385

310,219

456,639

2,774,475

Prince William Sound and Copper River.

1,000

2,540

1,600

16,740

84,027

291,492
120, 089
173,238

14,200

f Moved.

1 18,085

27,209
22, 797

Closed.

Closed.

Closed.

15,270

28,999
32, 729

15,000

28,378

35,285

15,000

21,453
| Moved.

\ 23,041

20,672

39,873

Closed.

23,301

Aban-
doned.
32, 158

5.004
15, 000

13,716

14,278

31,931

39,410

32,321

28,756

28, 608

29,864

30,588

24,204

42, 194

68,091

None.

70, 998

78,663

59, 494

92,860

52,057

60,826

61,795

69,998

687, 186

Conk Juki.

C. 044

14,818

21,1411

Transf. to
19,217'

42,003

430, 156
65,867
55,077

65,265

4,905

28, 433

30,765

29, 455
12, 996

31,782

18,712

"Closed.
15,905
12, 760

19,157
18, 254
21,580

Closed.

31, 665

34,033

32,532

39,566

28,815

33,781

20,741

C

losed.

12 Di sman -
tied.

16,876

23,300

25,089
4, 905

0,044

14,818

21,141

19,217

28, 433

30, 765

42, 451

50, 494

28, 055

58, 997

20, 741

31,665

34,033

36,188

34,767

32, 532

56,442

52, 116

63, 775

663,273

F. C. B. 1901.

1 Burnt September 18. 1899; rebuilt spring of 1900 on new site.

- Machinery moved to Arctic Packing Co., Kussilof River.

3 Burnt in August, 1889.

4 Burnt und rebuilt in spring.

Faces page 312 1 [For remaining districts see next sheet,

6 Machinery moved to Egegak Packing Co., Egegak River,

6 Hand pack; machinery installed in 1890.

' Machinery moved to Pyrumid Harbor Packing Co., Pyramid Harbor.
8 Experimental pack.

312 2.]

9 Moved to Thin Point, Alaska Peninsula.

"'Machinery moved to Pacific Steam Whaling Co., Kenai.
"Transport vessel wrecked and outfit lost.

12 Consolidated with Arctic Fishing Co., Kussilof River.

of 1900 — Continued.

1894.

1895.

1896.

1897.

1898.

1899.

1900.

Total.

Cases.

Cases.

Cases.

Cases.

Cases.

Cases.

Cases.

Cases.

220

79, 000

48, 379

68, 495

54, 777

28, 898

31,210

79,415

984, 165

138

Closed; in

reserve.

170,631

166,898

959

79, 000

47, 500

70, 320

49, 633

24, 398

18, 987

Closed.

426, 030

160,300

d.

26, 338

id.

77, 000

101 '860

076

54, 300

35, 700

87, 613

49, 852

29, 455

29, 439

73,115

532, 248

777

27, 720

15, 331

23,155

37,401

34, 168

28, 294

32,342

303, 515

dis-

In reserve.

28, 882

led.

553

| 55, 352

70, 050

48, 361

38, 159

50, 418

34, 674

40, 396

505, 579

50,487

Closed; in reserve.

49, 735

8, 598

31,768

d.

1 1 . 089

429

26, 984

15, 277

Closed-

in reserv

57, 690

21 , 005

2, 113

11,912

13, 370

55, 043

21, 515

24,000

30, 061

31 , 600

33, 086

140, 262

17, 893

12' 000

27' 400

21,500

26, 617

105,410

17’ 000

29’ 800

19,000

30, 409

96, 209

13i 375

16,' 500

15, 569

29, 700

75, 144

152

322, 356

232, 237

358, 357

298, 310

277, 741

242, 185

358, 450

4,164,881

S48

30, 413

33, 631

35, 676

35, 890

41,011

45, 383

63, 935

493, 070

188

30, 038

34, 632

39, 115

37,849

42, 306

46, 775

60, 797

515, 636

750

30, 999

33, 434

38,314

34,117

39, 962

43, 566

62, 597

514, 622

Closed; in

reserve.

98, 003

17 17, 394

12, 007

20, 004

53, 400

mantled.

22, 731

27, 133

34, 676

34, 870

43, 790

62,334

225, 534

13’ 700

8, 600

18,000

28, 000

31,000

36, 058

135' 358

29, 730

55, 508

94’ 053

116' 651

101,892

397, 834

19’ 764

38, 272

38i 501

44' 984

54, 682

196, 203

18^ 228

43, 387

61, 615

21,455

40, 090

61,545

45, 200

45, 200

21 , 652

21,652

6, 653

786

108, 844

150,135

218, 336

254, 312

318, 703

411, 832

599, 277

2, 826, 325

053

142,544

148,476

262, 381

271,807

251,385

310, 219

456, 639

2, 774, 475

998

78, 663

59, 494

92, 866

52, 057

60, 826

61, 795

69, 998

687, 186

665

34, 033

36, 188

34, 767

32, 532

56, 442

52,115

63, 775

663, 273

152

322, 356

232, 237

358, 357

298, 310

277, 741

242, 185

358, 450

4, 164, 881

786

108, 844

150, 135

218, 336

254, 312

318,703

411,832

599, 277

2, 826, 325

,654

686, 440

626, 530

966, 707

909, 078

965, 097

1 , 078, 146

1 , 548, 139

11,116,140

ibinery moved to Bering Sea Packing Co., Ugashi'k River,
ved to Arctic Packing Co., Naknek River.

-hinery moved to Point Roberts Packing Co., Kviehak Bay.

lerimental pack.

red to new site on same river.

dlable property moved to Ugashik Fishing Station, Ugashik River.

Complete table of Alaska salmon {canned) pack , by canneries and districts, from, its earliest inception in 1878 to close

of season of 1900 — Continued.

Name of company and location of cannery.

Kadiak and Chignik.

Karlnk Parking Co., Karluk, Kadiak Island

K«xl:itk parking Co.. Karluk, Kadiak Island

\!,-utiitn Islands Fishing and Mining <'o., Karluk

ilia ,< -Aleutian Pocking Co., Karluk. Kadiak Island

\r < i Packing Co., Larsen Cove. Uyak Bay, Kadiak Island . . .

H.,v.il Packing Co., Afognak Bay. Afognak Island

!;„■ - a, Aincm an Packing Co., Afognak Bay, Afognak

Hume Packing Co. Karluk, Kadiak Island

\ la>kn Improvement Co., Karluk. Kadiak Island

\n tic Packing Co., Olga Bay, Alituk, Kadiak Island

K , . i , 1 k Packing Co., Snug Harbor, Alitak, Kadiak Island

Chignik Bov Co., Chignik Lagoon, Alaska Peninsula

Shuinogin Packing Co.. Chignik Lagoon

Chignik Bav Packing Co.. Chignik taigoon

Wudcm Alaska Packing Co., Ozcrnoi, Stepovak Bay

Thin Point Packing Co., Thin Point. Alaska Peninsula

Ontnil Alaska Co., Thin Point, Alaska Peninsula

Home Canning and Tmding Co.. Tanglefoot Bay, near Karlnk

I'gHimk Fishing Station. Uganuk Bay. Kadiak Island

Pi ilic Steam Whaling Co.. Anchorage Bay, Chignik

Ilumc Bros ,v Hume, Anchorage Bay, Chignik

Pacific Steam Whaling Co . Uyak Bay, Kadiak Island

HumcBros.it; Hume, Uyak Bay. Kadiak Island

Total of annual packs in Kadiak and Chignik

Bristol Bay, Bering Sea.

Arctic Packing Co.. Nushngnk Bay

Alaska Packing Co., Nushngnk Bay

Bristol Bay Canning Co., Nushngnk Bay

Nu-hugnk Canning Co.. Nushagak Bay

Bering Sea Packing Co., Ugashik River

Arctic Packing Co., Naknck River

Naknek Packing Co., Naknck River

Point Roberta Packing Co.. Koggiung. Kviclnik Bay

Pgashik Fishing Station, Ugashik River

Pacific Steam Whaling Co., Nushagak Bay

Alaska Fishermen’s Packing Co.. Nushagak Bay

Kvichak Packing Co., Kvichak Bay

Egegak Packing Co., Egegak River

Bristol Packing Co., Ugashik River

Total of annual packs in Bristol Bay, Bering Sea

Recapitulation..

Southeast Alaska

Prime William Sound and Copper River

•'•ook Inlet

Kadiak and Chignik

Bristol Buy, Bering Sen

Brand total of annual packs in Alaska

[One ease contains 48 pounds of salmon, net weight.]

Owned in 1900 by—

1878.

1879.

1880.

1881.

1882.

1883.

188-1.

1885.

1880.

1887.

1888.

1889.

1S90.

1891.

1892.

1893.

189-1.

1895.

1896.

1897.

1898.

1899.

1900. j Total.

Cases

Cases.

Cases

Cases.

4/200

13, 479

Cases
20, 15(5

Cases.
33. 470

Cases.
46. 150

::::::::::

ST, 750

Cases.
101,30-1
2(5, 140
33. 7oo

37, 500

(52,057
30, 287
53, 551

•10,300
43,000
40, 335

Cases.

OG, 483
41,000
1 39. 312

QS 75,410
Closed.

59,220

30,138

Cases.

79, 000

a 48, *379

^68,495 |
Closed: in

Cases.

54,777

reserve.

49,633

49,852
37, 101

Cases.

28,898

•24,’ 398

'29,-155
34, 168

( 31, 210

79*415

9.8-1, 1G5
170, 631
100,898
420, 030
100,300
20, 338
77,000
101,800
532,248
303, 515
28, 882

505, 579
50, 4.87
49, 735
8, 598
31,708
11,0.89
57, 690
55, 0-13
140, 262
105,410
90, 209
75, 144

do

Defunct

Alaska Packers Association .

Defunct

Alaska Packers Association . .

do

do

do

do

\ 70,233

59,959

Clr

r> Closed.

5 Closed.

70. 320
Dismantled.
’Dismantled.
Abandoned.

44.200
16. 112

25. 500
28, 000
25. (500

10 13, 850
12. 535

21.500

11.200

10.500
0, 400

25, 161

37. 000
9, 926

26, 500
37,013

26. 000
17,800
10,347

14, 455
>'-'11,455
>- 11. 155
2,198
2, 401
7,000

3 41, 000

17 25, 000
36, 247
26. 000
26, 000
Ck

24,730
1224,832
72 24, 780
’■‘Abandoned.
4,200
•1,089

sed.

Dismantled.

'29,439
28, 29-1

73, i i-5
32,342

52,098

21,077

«cd.

49,93!

43,070
25,777
» Partly dis-
mantled.
57,553

a.

54, 300
27, 720

\ 55,352

(Consolidated.

35, 700
15, 331

70,050
Closed; in

87,013
23. 155

do

Defunct

Alaska Packers Association . .

Defunct

do

do

Alaska Packers Association . .

do

Same company

do

do

do

38, 159

50, 418

34,674

40, 396

26,98-1

Closed-

2,113

24.000

12.000
17,000
13,375

21,005

21,515

17,893

6, 043
30,061
27,400
29, 800
10,500

11,912

31.000
21,500

19. 000
15, 569

13, 370
33, 086
26,617
30. 409
29, 700

1 2 * * * 6

4,200

13, 479

20, 150

33,470

40, 150

71,750

198,650

386, 753

350, 451

384,279

274,755

291,152

322, 35C

232,237

358, 357

298,310

277, 741

242, 185

358, 450

4,164,881

Alaska Packers Association ..

,c400

14,000

19,000

24,000

25, 000

25,000

33,000

30,883

Closed.

35, 8-18

30,413

33, 631

35, G76

35,890

41,011

45, 383

63,935

493, 070

do

16,500

27,500

19,000

30,000

31 , 000

31 , 077

31,859

37.188

30, 038

34,632

39, 115

37, 849

42, 306

40,775

60, 797

515, 636

do

13,322

21 , 200

30, 000

33,221

30, 400

37, 100

31 , 0-10

34.750

30, 999

33, 434

38,314

34,117

39, 962

43, 566

02,597

514, 622

do

16,880

27, 7G4

23.990

30, 363

Closed; it

9,8, 003

Defunct

3. 995

Close

a.

>7 17, 394

12, 007

20,00-1

,8 Sold: dis-

53, 400

mantled.

Alaska Packers Association . .

22, 731

27. 133

34,070

34.870

43, 790

02, 334

225, 534

Same company

13,700

8. 000

1.8, (HHI

28,000

31.0(H)

36, 058

135, 358

Alaska Puckers Association .

29. 730

55, 508

94,053

116,651

101,892

397, 834

do

19,764

38,272

38. 501

44,984

54.682

190, 203

Same company

is. 228

43, :ts7

01,615

do

21.455

•10. 090

61,545

Alaska Packers Association . .

45. 200

do

21.052

21,052

Same company

G, (153

0,653

...

400

14,000

48, 822

72. 700

89, KH(i

115,985

118,390

133, 418

03, 499

107.780

108,844

150, 135

218, 330

254,312

318,703

411,832

599,277

2, .826, 325

8,159

12,530

0, 539

8, 977

11,501

20, 040

22,189

10,728

IS. 0G0

31,402

81,128

141,700

142,901

156,615

115, 722

130,053

142, 644

148, 476

262, 381

271,807

251,385

310, 219

450, 639

2,774, 475

24, 201

42,194

08, 091

None.

70, 998

78, 663

59, 494

92, 860

52,057

00, 826

61 , 795

69, 998

687, 186

15,044

i -i. sis

■ji.iii

i'j, 217

28, 433

30, 705

42, 451

50, 494

28, 055

58, 997

20, 741

31,605

34, 033

36,188

31,707

32, 532

56, 442

52,115

63,775

4,200

13,479

20, 15(5

33, 470

40, 150

71,750

198, 050

380, 753

350, 451

38-1,279

274,755

291,152

322, 356

232, 287

35.8, 357

298, 310

277,741

242, 185

358, 450

4,164,881

400

14, 000

48,822

72, 700

89, 880

115, 985

118,390

133, 418

03, 499

107. 786

108,8-14

160, 135

218,336

254,312

318,703

411,832

599, 277

2, 826, 325

8, 159

12, 530

'

i, 539

8,977

21, 745

48, 337

03, 880

83,415

142, 005

200, 077

412,115

719, 190

082, 591

801,400

474, 717

G43.654

686,440

626, 530

960, 707

909,078

905, 097

1 , 078, 146

1 , 548, 139

11,116,140

1 Packed in cannery of Hume Packing Co., Karluk.

2 Con. soli da ted with Hume Packing Co., to form the Hume-Aleutian Packing Co., Karluk.

; Packed in cannery of Kodiak Packing Co., Karluk.

1 Machinery moved to Uganuk Fishing Station, Uganuk Bay.

Rendered inoperative by President’s proclamation creating a Fish Commission reservation on
Afognak Island.

6 Packed in cannery of Alaska Improvement Co., Karluk.

7 Machinery moved to Ugashik Fishing Station, Ugashik River.

“ Buildings moved to Uganuk Fishing Station, Uganuk Bay.

0 Consolidated with Aleutian Islands Fishing and Mining Co., to form Hume-Alcutian Packing
Co., Karluk.

10 Moved to new site on same bay.

11 Part of machinery moved to Karluk.

12 Packed in cannery of Chignik Bay Co., Chignik.

13 Machinery moved to Bering Sea Packing Co., Ugashik River.

n Moved to Arctic Packing Co., Naknck River.

lfl Machinery moved to Point Roberts Packing Co., Kvichak Bay.

10 Experimental pack.

17 Moved to new site on same river.

18 Available property moved to Ugashik Fishing Station, Ugashik River.

F. C. B. 1901. Faces page 312 2

Salt packs of canning plants.

900 barrels redfish.

787 barrels and 362 half barrels redfish.
907 barrels redfish.

2,000 barrels redfish.

277 barrels and 496 half barrels redfish.

90 barrels humpback bellies.

90 barrels and 4 half barrels redfish.

59 barrels and 71 half barrels redfish.

650 barrels redfish; 300 half barrels bellies (Hetta).
110 barrels cohoes.

70 tierces full king; 12 barrels white king bellies.

250 cases clams; 225 cases clam juice.
680 half barrels bellies (Nutqua).

Packing —

Total num-
ber of cases

Salt packs of canning plants.

egan.

Ceased.

packed.

Arctic

Alaska

Bristol

me 20
me 22
me 23

June 24
June 26
June 24

45, 383
46,775
43, 566
18, 228
21, 455
116,651

1,095 barrels and 80 half barrels redfish.

Arctic

43) 790
31,000
44,984
34, 674

2,875 barrels and 1,000 half barrels redfish.
300 barrels and 1.500 half barrels redfish.

Ugashi

Chigni

Pacific

998 barrels and 990 half barrels redfish.

31,000

60 barrels humpback bellies.

21 i 500

Arctic

Karluk

Alaska

Httme-

Uganu

Pacific

Hume

Pacific

Arctic

Pacific

Pacific

Pyram

Glaciei

Thlink

28, 294

38 barrels and 75 half barrels redfish.

31,210

.......

29, 439
18, 987
11,912

19^ 000
15, 509

23, 300

28, 815

31 i 931
29, 804

53' 237

50 ' 201

11,200
03 390

300 barrels redfish; 350 half barrels bellies (Hetta).

Boston

Quadri

Metlak

North

Pacific

25’ 504

lly 28

Aug. 20

37, 000
12, 322

(130 casks full king; 12 barrels white king bellies; 200 barrels
\ full redfish; 1,500 barrels clean herring.

19, 100

38, 265

900 half barrels full humpbacks.

1

1,078,146

Arctic line 20
Alaskuline 22
Bristollme 20
Point 1

Packing.

egan. Ceased.

lly 20

Arctic
Nakne
Ugashi
Chigni
Pacific
Hume
Arctic
Karluk
Alaska
Hume-

Uganul

Pacific

Hume

Pacific

Arctic L

Pacific

Pacificl

Pyrami

Glaeiet

Alaska)

Bostonhly 24

Quadra

Metlak)

Baranc

North 1

Pacific

T

Total num-
ber of cases
packed.

June 29
June 24
June 29

July 26

Aug. 20

41,011

42. 306
39, 962
94, 053
34, 870
28, 000

38, 501
50, 418
30,061
27, 400
34, 168

28, 898
29,455
24, 398

6, 643

29, 800
16, 500
16, 876
39, 566
32, 158
28, 668

39, 669
49, 332
59, 343
15, 174
16,000
11,671
12, 681

16. 307
31, 208

965, 097

Nome of company and location of cnnnery.

• _ I'flckinE Co. (A. 1“. A.), Nushagak Bay..

• •« - < A. P. A.). Nuslmgak Bay
'ifirtnl Bav Canning Co. (A. I A.b ^ 'k vfehufc1 Bay

Alaska pack of canned salmon — 1898.

[Cases = 48 one-pound or 96 half-pound tins. Tierces = 400 pounds net. Barrels = 200 pounds net. Half-barrels = 100 pounds net. Casks = 800 pounds net.]

gay Canning Co. (A. !’. A.). Nushagak Bay .

Sfflrtel'ack}ngCOi(A P A.J.Kvlchuk Bay

arctic Packing Co. (A- 1 A.) Naknek River

s'aknek I'acking Co.. Nuknek River — ......

Ceasbik Fishing Station (A P. A.). Ugaslnk River

Chigoik Pay Co. (A. P. A.j.Chigmk Lagoon . .

I . ir sti-am Whaling Co.. Anchorage Bay.Chignik

Huine Bn" & Hume. Anchorage Bay.Chignik

Arctic Packing Co. (A. P. A.). Olga Bay, Alltak

Karlok Packing Co. (A. I' A.) Karluk .

Alaska Improvement Co. (A.P.A.i, Karluk

Hume Aleutian Packing Co. (A. P A. ), Karluk

I raniik Fishing Station (A. P. A.). Uganuk Buy

pacific Steam Winding Co.. Uyuk Bay

Ilume Bros, k Bnme. Uyak Bay

Pacific steam Whaling Co.. Kenai.

Antic Fishing Co. (A. P. A ), Kussilof River

Pacific Packing Co. (A. P. A.I.Odiak

Pacific Steam Whaling Co., Orca

Pyramid Barltor Packing Co. (A. P. A.), Pyramid Harbor . .

Glacier Packing Co. (A. I'. A.), Point Highfleld

A lasku Salmon Pocking and Fur Co. (A. P. A.), Loring

ftMon Fishing und Trading Co., Yes Bay

ijcadre Packing Co . Mink Arm, Boca de Quadra

Metlakahtla Industrial Co.. Mctlakahtla

Bara noli Packing Co.. Redfish Bay

North Pacific Trading anil Packing Co., Kluwak

Pacific Steam Whaling Co., Hunter Buy

Total .

Redfish.

Cohoes.

Humpbacks.

King.

Dog.

Total num-
ber of eases
packed.

Daily
capacity
in cases.

Number
of cases
packed.

Average

Packing.

Number
of cases
packed.

Average

Packing.

Number
of cases
pucked.

Average

Packing.

Number
of coses
packed.

Average

Packing,

Number
of eases
pucked.

Average

Packing.

fish per

Began.

Ceased.

fish per

Began.

Ceased.

fish per

Began.

Ceased.

fish per

Began.

Ceased.

fish per

Began.

Ceasod.

1,600

38,363

13

1,132

18

July 24

1,388

3

June 16

June 29

128

13

June 20

June 29

41,011

1,600

38, 538

13

June 21

July 25

1,321

11

July

22

do .. .

2, 265

3

June i>

June 30

182

13

June 22

June

24

42,306

1.6011

37, 950

13

June 20

752

21

Julv 23

1 , 093

3

June l'.'

July 1

167

13

June 20

June 29

39, 962

1,800

93, 963

12

June 18

July 18

90

3

June 18

July 18

94,053

1 1,600

34, 845

12.5

June 14

25

5

do . . .

June 29

3-1,870

1 , ’SKI

28, 000

12

June 20

July 23

28,000

1,600

Its, 501

13

June 19

July 21

38, 501

1,600

50, 418

10.5

.1 une 9

50, 418

900

29, 897

10.5

do...

Aug. 12

10

Aug

i

Aug. 15

10

July 20

Julv

2i

30, 061

800

27,400

10.5

J une 4

Aug. 10

27,400

1,000

34, 168

13.5

do ...

Aug. 20

3-1,168

1.800

28, 898

13

June 2

28, 898

1 . 800

27, 734

13

June 8

Sept. 17

1,721

8.5

Sept

i

Sept. 17

29, 455

1.81 HI

22, 974

13

July 21

Sept. 9

1,424

8.5

Sept

7

Sept. 0

24,398

1,000

6, 643

11

June 8

6, 643

900

29, 800

12.5

May 25

Sept 10

29, 800

900

16,500

12.5

J une 4

Sept. 14

16,500

800

11,736

12.8

July 1

Aug. 20

3.075

8.5

July

21

Aug. 20

2, 065

3

June 5

July 1

16, 876

1 , 500

28, 810

13

May 26

Aug. 10

7, 196

12

July

15

Aug. 10

3. 560

3

Muy 26

July 25

39, 566

1 , 500

17,541

10.5

Mav 10

11.433

Julv 7

184

H

May 10

June 9

32, 158

800

23,338

9.5

May 17

July 28

5. 248

20

July 23

July 31

82

May 17

June 16

28,668

1,600

34,851

11

July 6

Sept. 20

4,799

7.5

Aug.

16

Sept. 20

19

[

39, 669

1,500

10,888

11

June 25

12,053

7.5

July

5

Sept. 10

23. 700

17

Julv 1

2,091

4

May 15

June 20

19, 332

: . soo

16,416

11.5

June 22

Aug. 26

5, 4 82

8. 95

Aug.

17

— do . . .

37, 445

18. 58

July 15

Aug. 30

59, 343

800

4,919

8.5

July 14

Sept . i.

160

7.5

Aug.

18

Sept. 16

6,473

15

Julv 12

Aug. 31

4,622

6

July 21

2

15, 174

600

10, 000

11

July 15

Aug. 25

2,000

8

Aug

12

Sept. 5

4,000

18

Julv 20

Aug. 25

16,000

1,047

Aug.

Sept. 13

July 27

g

1,600

10, 147

11.5

June 22

Aug. 30

8,216

7.6

July

18

Sept. 13

12,845

14.5

July 18

Aug. 23

31,208

54,711

109, 399

12, 862

5,18-1

'

Salt pucks of cunning plants.

900 barrels redfish.

787 barrels and 302 half barrels red fish.
907 barrels redtish,

2,000 burrels red fish.

277 barrels and 490 half barrels redfish.

90 barrels humpback bellies.

90 barrels and l half barrels redfish.

59 barrels and 71 half barrels redfish.

050 barrels redfish; 300 half barrels bellies (Hetta).
110 barrels cohoes.

70 tierces full king; 12 barrels white king bellies.

Alaska pack of canned salmon, 1899.

Redfish.

Cohoes.

Humpbacks.

King.

Dog.

Daily ra-
pacity in

Number

Average
number
iish per

Packing —

Number

Average
number
fish per

Packing —

Number

Average
number
fish per

Packing—

Number

Average
number
lish per

Packing —

Number

Average
number
fish per

Packing —

Total num-

of cases
pucked.

Began.

Ceased.

of eases
packed.

Begun.

Ceased.

of eases
packed.

Began.

Ceased.

of cases
packed.

Began.

Ceased,

of eases
packed.

Began.

Ceased.

42, 932
14,044

July 20
July 23

2,229
2, 097

1,600

13

June 24

36

3

do ...

598

13

June 22

June 26

46, 775

1.600

41,662

13

June 20

July 18

1,893

3

— do .. .

111

13

June 23

43, 566

1.600

15, 978

13

June 26

July It

2, 250

2.8

June 10

18,228

1,600

1,800

July 25
July 23

July 24

July 25

116,385

12

June 18

26C

3

June 18

July 21

116,651

1 . 600

43,744

12.6

June 15

July 19

40

3

June 16

43. 790

1 . 500

31,000

12

June 22

July 24

31,000

1 , 600

44, 98-1

13

June 19

July 24

44.981

1,600

33, 561

10.5

June 10

Aug. 23

i.iiii

10.5

Allg. 9

Aug. 26

34,674

900

31 600

10.5

June 7

Aug. 12

31, GOO

800

21,245

10.5

June 8

Aug. 13

255

Aug. 12

Aug. 12

21.500

1.000

28,041

13.5

June 15

Aug. 30

253

28, 294

1 , 800

31,143

13

June 1

Sept. 2a

5

June 17

June 18

31,210

1.800

27. 786

13

June 12

Sept. 2

1,444

8.5

Aug. 31

Sept. 2

209

5

June 14

June 27

29, 439

1.800

1.000

17,366

July 24

Sept. 7
July 20
Sept. 10
Sept. 1
Aug. 12
Aug. 11

8.5

Aug. 29

Sept. 7

18,987
11,912
19,000
15,569
23. 300
28,815

Muy 24
Mav 31
Muy 30
Mav 26

14,919
17, 582
23, 342

650

21

July 30

Aug. 26

3,314
2, 489

July 27
July 16

July 18
July 24

1,500

12

12

Allg. 12

2, 98-1

3

May 26

HI

11

May 10
July S
June 25

Julv 24
Aug. 31
Aug. 1

4,310

20

July 10
July 31

Aug. 12
Aug. 7

May 9

June 17
June 8

31,931
29,864
63,237
50, 201

48, 495
10,081

7.5

Aug. 24
July 10

Aug. 30
Sept. 3

3.5

::::::::::

1,600

12

6,956

8

30, 993

18

June 29

Aug. 17

2, 171

May 15

Julv 25

800

2, 750

11.5

July 6

Aug. 1

4,650

7.5

Aug. 1

Sept. 10

2, 600

18

Julv 20

Aug. 20

1 , 200

3

— do...

July 29

11.200

Sept. 15
Sept. 13
Sept. 20

July 17
July 14
July 16

Aug. 30
Sept. 8
Aug. 30

7,965

12,600

July 14
July 4

Sept. 11
Aug. 25

7.5

Aug. 29
Aug. 25

15, 993
21,000

25,504

37,000

600

11

2,500

7.5

20

1.000

7 1 July 28

Aug. 20

July 1

Sept. 2

997

Sept. 15
Sept. 18
Sept. 13

4,952

July 19
July 24
July 25

Aug. 26
Aug. 20
Sept. 12

12,322
19, 100
38, 265

2,000

1,600

12, 770

Sept. 4

5,795

9

Aug. 17

19,700

18.9

::::::::::

86-1, 254

39, 402

23.400

1,931

1,078,146

Name of company and location of cannery.

Arctic Packing Co. (A. P. A.), Nushagak Bav

A!a»U Packing Co. (A. 1’. A.). Nushuguk Bav

Bnst.,1 Hay Canning Co. (A. P A ), Nushagak Bay

laciflc Steam Whaling Co., Nushagak Bay

Ala-ka Fishermen's Packing Co., Nushagak Bay

I "Hit Roberts Packing Co. ( A. P. A.). K vichak Bav . . .

Arctic Packing Co. (A. I’. A ), Naknek River

•Naknek Packing Co., Nuknek River

nk f idling Station (A. P. A.), Cgushik River. . . .

. ft.'* B*W Co. (A. 1*. A.),('hig»ik Lagoon

im,1 ' atean? "baling Co., Anchorage Bay.Chignik .

A Hume, Anchorage Bay.Chignik

' ^ ,'iPo'k!ng('" <A V A.),<5lga Bay, Afituk

Karl uk Packing Co. (A. P. A.), Karluk

ttl.U. !"prove“entCo- (A- »’• A.). Karluk

St1'1,'011 Packing Co. ( A. i’. A.). Karluk

Hllll8lJtion (A. P. A.). Uganuk Bay

!inln |tean? "baling Co., Uyak Bay

I me Bros. A Hume.iryak Bav

{SSfflfi?; ' 0: >'.A> , K,,«.noI River

hNm-a,Sl,VV|,ulinS Co., <jrca

CrPr„mb0r«fl,‘klng Cn <A P- A.), Pyramid Harbor. .

Thllnw* i? k in-K( 1 A *’ A ), Point Highfleld

Ala«b# ^'° ' Horara Point ...

I’,u;ki,»K and Fur Co. (A. P. A.), Ix.ring

”ashm «*tog and Trading Co., Yes Bay.

uaiim Packing Co., Mink Arm, Boca de Quadra

sSSftiSL'SJai!?*1 ^.artlatahtta.

Nnrtii n. >« “‘uustnai

fflHS and Packing Co., Klawak.!

"c stcum Wlialing Co., Hunter Bay .

Salt packs of canning plants.

1,895 barrels and 86 half barrels redfish.

2,875 barrels and 1.000 half barrels redfish.
300 barrels and 1.500 half barrels redfish.
998 barrels and 990 half barrels redfish.

GO barrels humpback bellies.
38 barrels and 75 half barrels r

0 barrels redfish; 350 half barrels bellies (Hetta).

900 half barrels full humpbacks.

F. C. B. 1901. Faces page 312 3

Arctic

Alaska

Bristol

Pacific

Alaska

Point T

Kvicha

Arctic

Naknel

Egegak

Ugashi'

Bristol

Chignil

Pacific

Home

Arctic

Karluk

Alaska

Uganul

Pacific

Hume !

Alaska

line 19
do . . .
line 23
one 20

uly 20

Pacific

Arctic

Pacific

Pacific

Westerji

Pyrami

Chilkoo

Takn P

Icy Stra:
Royer-i

Glacier
Th link!
Fidalgc
Alaska
Boston
Quadra
Metlak;
North 1
Pacific

T

Packing.

Ceased .

June 27
....do ...
....do...
July 1

Total nuni
ber of cases
packed.

July 28

flitter part of sea- \
son. I

ily 15

pt. 1(1

ug. 15

Taku Fnly 9 Sept. 24
lalv 15 Oct. 30
y 'uttering during
August.

Sept. 20

Sept. 25
do ...

ug. 1
ug. 24

uly 10
nly 17
ug. 25

Sept. 15
Sept. 8

Sept. 27
Aug. 31
Sept. 10

•63,935
(10, 797
02, 597
43, 387
40, 090
101,892
45, 200
02, 334
30, 058
21,652
54, 682
0, 053
40, 390
33, 086
20, 017
32, 342
79, 415
73,115
13, 370

30. 409
29, 700

4, 905
25, 089
33,781

39.410
30, 588
13, 793
55, 001
14,850

16, 722

9, 458
29, 941
1,500
58, 518
25, 640
27, 250
07, 158
33, 623
13,600
17, 500
27, 752
43, 607

1,548, 139

The following recapitulation shows
the total packs for 1898, 1899, and 1900,
and the percentage the different species
contribute to each pack:

Species.

Cases.

Per cent.

1898.

Redfish

782, 941
54,711
109, 399
12, 862
5, 184

81.12
5. 67
11. 34
1.33
.54

Humpbacks

Dog

Total

965, 097

1899.

Redfish

864, 254
39, 402
149, 159
23, 400
1,931

80. 16
3.65
13.81
2. 17
. 18

Cohoes

King

Dog'

1,078, 146

1900.

Redfish

1,197, 406
50, 984
232, 022
37, 715
30,012

77.34
3. 29
14.99
2.44
1.94

Cohoes

Humpbacks

King'..,

Dog

Total

1,548,139

Alaska jxivh of caznned salmon , 1900.

[For salt output of canning companies, see page 318.1

Red fish.

Colmes.

Humpbacks.

King.

Name of company and location of cannery.

Daily

capacity

Number

tow;

Packing.

Number

Avernge Packing.

Number

Average

Packing.

Number
of eases
packed.

Average

Packing.

packed.

rt£':T

Began.

Censed.

of eases
packed.

fish per |
case. Began.

Ceased.

packed.

lish per

Began.

—

Began.

Censed.

Arctic racking Co. (A. P. A ). Nushngak Buy

2. 400

57,230

13

June 23

July 23

1,254

10

July 22

Julv 23

3. 530

3

June 15

June 25

Alaska Packing f" (A. P. A.), Nushngak Buv

2, too

56. 228

13

June 25

Julv 24

332

10

Julv 21

July 21

3

— do ...

Bristol Bav Cunning Co. (A. P. A.), Nushagak Bay

J. too

57, 079

13

June 20

July 25

931

10

Julv 23

July 23

2, 256

June 28

Parilic Su nn Whaling Co.. Nushagak Bay

1.600

39, 223

13

June 22

July 22

2, 291

Julv 22

\; Fishermen's Packing Co.. Nuslmguk Bay

1,600

38,100

12.5

June 25

1 . 990

3

do ...

point Roberts Packing Co. (A. P. A ). Kvicbok Bay

Ku.hak Packing Co. (A. P. A.). Kvtchak Bay

Arctic Packing Co. (A. P. A. ). Naknek River

4,800

2. 400

2. 400

99, 578
46, 200
61,816

12.5
12. 5
12. 5

June 25
June 28
June 18

July 25
Aug. 1

July 2X

297

10

July 20

July 25

1,1.76

July 15

July 2.i

341

449

20

July 25

July 25

69

3

June 18

June 24

Naknek lacking Co., Naknek River

1,500

12

June 23

July 25

352

22

July 23

July 28

31

4.8

1 Sculteri
| part of

g latter j

Fgeeok Packing Co. (A. P. A.). Egegak River

1,600

21,652

12.5

July 1

July 28

June 29

Ugashik Fishing station ( A. F. A 1. 1 gnshik River

2, 100

54, 581

13

June 21

July 29

BriMol Packing Co , Ugnshik River

500

l 6, 653

12

July 9

do . . .

(Jhigmk Buy Co. (A. P. A.),Chignik Ijigoon

1,600

40,334

10.5

June 10

Aug 12

62

in

Aug. 3

log : '

Pacific Steam W haling Co.. Anchorage Bav, « liigmk.

900

32, 966

10.5

June 9

H ime Bros. A Hume. Anchorage Bav. Chignik

XOO

23, 003

10.5

June G

Allg. 19

'3.61 1

Julv 2

Arctic Packing Co. (A. P. A ). Olga Bav, Alitak

1 , 000

32,342

13.5

June X

Kurluk lacking Co. (A. P. A.). Karlnk

l.xoo

77, 558

13. 6

Sept. 1 1

1 . 3X2

7.2

Aug. 25

175

5

June 9

.lime 24

Alaska Improvement Co. (A. P. A.). Knrluk

1 . X0O

69, 712

13.9

Sept. 21

2,791

...do ....

Sept. 21

612

4.9

June 5

June 28

I'eanuk Fishing Station (A P A ), Ugannk Bav

1,000

13, 370

12.8

June 9

Julv 17

Pacific Steam W haling Co.. 1 vnk Bav

900

29. 384

12.5

May 28

1,025

21

July 20

liiimc Bros. A Hume, 1 yak Bav

900

27, 636

12.5

June 5

Sept. 20

2,064

21

July 5

Sept. 20

Alaska Salmon Association, Chuitna River

500

3,6-10

12

July 1

Aug. 9

5

[batter part of sea-

!

; 3.5

June 10

July 2

Pacific Steam Whaling Co., Kenni

800

20, 924

13

1,765

X. 1

July 1

2,400

3.6

May 29

July 10

Arctic Fishing Co. (A. P. A . Kussih.f River

1,500

22, 185

13

May 27

Aug. 12

5, 427

12

July 16

Aug. 12

6. 169

3

May 27

July 22

Pacific Packing C<-. A. 1*. A ). (xliuk

1 , 500

35, 019

11.5

3. X.s*

22 i

July 6

473

l‘

May 9

June 12

Pacific Steam Whaling (*o.,Orc«

XIX)

■28, 501

12

May 7

Julv 22

1,718

28

Julv 20

July 24

369

4.2

May 7

June 7

Wotem Fisheries C<>.. Dundns Bay

30U

6,130

12

June 28

Aug. 25

977

7.5

July 30

Sept. 20

1 , X66

IS

July 10

Aug. 10

60

4.5

Sept. 1

Sept. 30

ftnumd Harbor PuekmgCo. (A^. IV A ). Pyramid Harbor

1,600

51,856

11

July 9

Sept. 1

513

7.5

Aug. 20

Sept. 1

3.232

3.5

May 29

June 30

Taku Packing Co., Taku Inlet

July 5
July 9

Aug. 12

July 27
Aug. 20
Aug. 10
....do...

AUg. 16

AUg. 1

Sept. 1
Aug. 20
July 25
July 10

j -’3,150

[ 2.7

May 17
June 1

Ion,. OR

756

Sept. 24
Oct. 10

July 25
July 15

Aug. 16
Sept. 15

'771

! a

June 20

9, 911

_

10,000

20

1 >97

f

Rnyer-Wnrnock Packing Co., Beecher Pass.

July 1
June 18
June 28

7_S

'Racier Packing Co. (A. P A.), Point Highfield

Th inket Packing Co.. Gerard Point

Fi'lalgo Island Canning Co.. Ketchikan

Atoka Salmon Packing and FurCo (A. P. A), Loring

B'"lon Fishing and Trading Co.. Yes Bav

'/Nudra Packing Co.. Mink Arm. Bom dc Quadra ...T.':

M- dakahtla Ind.istrinl Co.. Metlakahtla

A'Tth Pacific Trading and Packing Co.. Klawak

Pacific Steam Whaling Co.. Hunter Buy

1.500

XOO

10,8-18
3, 965

10.1

11

9,401
2, 349

7. 4

7.5

Sept, ix
Sept. 21

36, 432
15,540

15.8

18

July 2
July 12

AUg. 22
Aug. 31

1,837
2, 049

3.8

3

May 15
May 11

July 1
June 2x

1,000

6, 399

11.5

July 10

X3'2

10

July 13

19,685

19.25

July 13

Sept. X

1 , XOO

16.219

11.6

Juno 17

Aug. 29

3, 825

9

47,114

19

July 17

800

9,825

8.5

July 13

Sept. 7

2, 306

7.5

20, 051

15

July 18

Sept. IX

713

2.5

June 25

July 10

XOO

6,000

111.7

Julv 14

600

7.5

Aug. 25

6, 000

20

July 17

Aug. 31

700

6, 930

13.7

June 20

Sept. 5

fill)

X

July 27

Sept. 12

9, 690

19.9

Julv IX

800

1,600

8, 228
7, 828

14.3

12.8

June 17
June 18

Aug. 25
Aug. 10

3,973

4,070

8

9

Aug. 17
July 31

Sept. 25
Sept. 10

15,551

31,709

17

18.6

July 17
do ...

AUg. 27
Aug. 28

Total

1,197,406

50, 9X-1

232, 022

erngc
number
fish per

1 , 094
•2,331
1,873

June 19

flu ... .

June 23 .
June 20

1 Total nnm-
I her of cases
packed.

03, 935
00, 797
02, 597
13, 3X7
10, 090
101, X92
45, 200
02, 334
30, 058
21,652
54, 6X2
6,653
40, 390
33, 0X0
26,617
32, 342
79,415
73,115
13, 370
30, 109
29,700

Sept. 20

Sept. 25

2, 016
8, 500

July 15

ScpY.'ic

i Aug. 15
July

> July 15
. ,f Scattering during
1 August.

July 10
July 17
Aug. 25

Sept. 27
Aug. 31
Sept. 10

4,905
25, 089
33, 7X1
39,410
30.5XX
13,793
55, 001
14,850

16,722

9, 458
29,941
1,560
58, 518
25, (till
27, 250
07, 158
33, 023
13, 000
17, 500
27,752
43, 007

F. C. B. 1901. Faces page 312-

1 Humpbacks and dog mixed— under •• pink " label.

The following recapitulation shows
the total packs for 1898, 1899, and 1900,
and the percentage the different species
contribute to each pack:

Species.

Cases.

Per cent.

1898.

Red fish

Cohoes

Humpbacks

King

Hog

782, 941
54,711
109,399
12, 862
5, 184

81.12

5.67

11.34

1.33

.54

965,097

1899.

Red fish*.

Cohoes

Humpback-

King

Dog

Total

1900.

Red fish

Cohoes

Humpbacks

King

I)og

Total

864,254
39, 402
149,159
23, 400
1,931

80. 1G
3.65
13.81
2. 17
.18

1,078,146

1,197,406
50, 98-1
232,022
37, 715
30, 012

77.34
3.29
14.99
2. 44
1.94

1,548,139

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1900.

313

Salt salmon pack of Alaska, 1900.

Name of concern and location of saltery.

King,

whole.

King,

bellies.

Redfish

whole.

Barrels.

Barrels.

Barrels.

1,420

415

Half bbls.

698

465

105

536

7, 186

Point. Roberts Packing Co. (A. P. A.), Kvichak Bay

92

1,356

1,150

115

1,141

22

852

1,513

606

603

1,150

44

800

530

400

12

• 900

210

8

850

220

200

200

19

100

25

179

Total

963

12

19,041

4,211

Name of concern and location of saltery.

Cohoes, whole.

Hump-

backs,

whole.

Humpbacks,

bellies.

Dog,

whole.

Remarks.

Ugashik Fishing Station 'A. P. A.) Uga-
shik River.

Pacific Steam Whaling Co., Anchorage
Bay, Chignik.

Alaska Salmon Association, Chuitna River
Icy Strait Packing Co., Bartlett Bay, Icy
Strait.

Alaska Oil and Guano Co., Killisnoo

Barrels.

10

Half bbls.

Barrels.

Barrels.

Half bbls.

Barrels.

1 Bellies.

69

3

120

523

15

half barrels herring.

2 500

Fred. Brockman, Sarcar

225

cohoes.

Icy Strait Packing Co., hulk Blanche ,
Wrangell Narrows.

Pacific Coast and Norway Packing Co.,
Wrangell Narrows.

Tom McCauley, Whale Passage

100

Also 1,000 barrels herring.
Also 250 barrels herring.

8

900

John Frey, Zimovia Strait

200

300

Great Northern Fish Co., Union Bay

3 400

4,500

3 Includes some bright-
fleshed dog salmon
packed as cohoes.

Robert Bell, Thorne Bay

140

280

500

Great Northern Fish Co., Karta Bay

4 1 , 200

John E. Rice, Karta Bav '.

75

50

5 1 . 207

5 Dry salted.

Alex. Miller, Cholmondeley Sound

700

800

Z. Doty, Mink Arm, Boca de Quadra

°150

0 Dry salted; estimated.

Alaska Packers Association, Hetta Inlet ..

61

84

Craig Miller, Copper Mountain Bay

|

400

450

Banter & West, S'ukkwan Inlet.

1

Sold fresh to canneries;

1 '

salted few for local use.

Total

S53

50

6, 318

410

3, 782

2, 557

RECAPITULATION.

Species.

Description.

Barrels.

Half barrels.

King

963

12

Redfish

Whole ...

19, 041
843

4,211

Cohoes

(Whole

50

10

Humpbacks

j Whole

6, 318

\Bellies

410

3, 782

Dog

Whole

2,557

Total

Half barrels reduced at 2 for 1 to barrels

30, 154
4,021

8,043

Grand total

34, 175

314

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

Name of company and location
of cannery.

Arctic Packing Co. 1 (A. P. A.),

Alaska Packing Co. INushagak

Bristol Bay Canning'Co.J Bay.

Point Roberts Packing Co. (A. P.
A)., Kvichak Bay.

Arctic Packing Co. (A. P. A.), Nak-
nek River.

Naknek Packing Co., Naknek River

(Jgashik Fishing Station (A. P. A. ),
Ugashik River.

Chignik Bay Co. (A. P. A.), Chig-
nik Lagoon.

Pacific Steam Whaling Co. , Anchor-
age Bay, Chignik.

Hume Bros. & Hume, Anchorage
Bay, Chignik. ■

Arctic Packing Co. (A. P. A.), Olga
Bay, Alitak.

Karluk Packing Co. (A. P. A.),
Karluk.

Alaska Improvement Co. (A. P. A.),
Karluk.

Hume-Aleutian Packing Co. (A. P.
A. ) , Karluk.

Uganuk Fishing Station (A. P. A.),
Uganuk Bay.

Pacific Steani Whaling Co., Uyak
Bay.

Hume Bros. & Hume, Uyak Bay

Pacific Steam Whaling Co., Kenai. .

Arctic Fishing Co. (A. P. A.), lvus-
silof River.

Pacific Packing Co. (A. P. A.),
Odiak.

Pacific Steam Whaling Co., Orca. . .

Pyramid Harbor Packing Co. (A.
P. A.), Pyramid Harbor.

Glacier Packing Co. (A. P. A.) ,
Point Highfield.

Alaska Salmon Packing and Fur
Co. (A. P. A.), Loring.

Boston Fishing and Trading Co.,
Yes Bay.

Quadra Packing Co., Mink Arm,
Boca de Quadra.

Metlakahtla Industrial Co., Met-
lakahtla.

Baranoff Packing Co., Redfish Bay.

North Pacific Trading and Pack-
ing Co., Klawak.

Pacific Steam Whaling Co., Hun-
ter Bay.

Vessels employed, 1898.

Steam vessels.

Name.

Class.

Tons.

Crew.

Value.

Ownership.

I Polar Bear

Steamer

28

5

$12, 000

Owned.

j Amy S

5

9

3,000

Do

iTyone

5

9

4, 500

Do

ICorrinne,

do

5

9

1,500

Do

(President

Steamer

238

9

40; 000

Do.

2

4, 000

Do

* 4

2

3, 000

Do

(Thistle1

5

25, 000

Do

2

4, 500

Do

9

1,200

Do

3

2

2, 500

Do

37

5

16, 000

Do.

(Baby Ruth

10

4

4, 500

Do.

5

2

2,500

Do.

(Ethel and Marian

6

3

2,800

Do.

"(Florence Hume

do

5

2

3' 000

Do.

42

5

17' 000

Do.

Kadiak

58

9

20, 000

Do.

do

36

7

10' 000

Do.

5

2

2, 500

Do

2

3, 500

Do

Ida

do

5

2

2,700

Do.

Julia M

2

2, 000

Do.

8

25, 000

Do

2

7,000

Do

42

10, 000

Do.

5

2

3,' 500

Do.

28

6

i»; ooo

Do.

(Anita2

5

2

l' 000

Do.

69

6

26, 000

2

2, 000

Do.

(S. B. Matthews

Stern-wheel

164

6

14| 000

Do.

31

6

14,000

Do.

18

4

8, 000

Do.

/Wild Cat

do

104

4

10,000

do

90

4

10, 000

Do.

37

4

16, 000

Do.

do

19

3

9,' 000

Do.

do

36

14,000

Do.

"1 Aleut

do

19

5

10, 000

Do.

(Novelty

do

33

5

12, 000

Do.

do

21

5

8, 000

Do.

Rosie

Launch

8

2

2, 000

Do.

34

6

7, 000

Do.

do

18

6

6, 000

Do.

(Herald

do

17

5

7' 000

Do.

do . . .

12

5

4,000

Do.

do

24

lo, 000

Do.

10

4

5' 000

Do.

(Cora

9

1,500

Do.

Alice

Steamer

19

5

io; ooo

Do.

1 Also attended Ugashik Station.

2 Lost, fall of 1898.

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1900.

315

Vessels employed, 1898 — Continued.

Name of company and location
of cannery.

Arctic Packing Co. | (A. P. A.),

Alaska Packing Co. xNushagak

Bristol Bay Canning Co, I Bay.

Point Roberts Packing Co. (A. P.
A.), Kvichak Bay.

Arctic Packing Co. (A. P. A.), Nak-
nek River.

Naknek Packing Co., Naknek River

Ugashik Fishing Station (A. P. A. ),
Ugashik River.

Chignik Bay Co. (A. P. A.), C.hig-
nik Lagoon.

Pacific Steam Whaling Co., Anchor-
age Bay, Chignik.

Hume Bros. & Hume, Anchorage
Bay, Chignik.

Arctic Packing Co. (A.P. A.), Olga
Bay, Alitak.

Karlnk Packing Co. (A. P. A.),
Karl ilk.

Alaska Improvement Co. (A. P. A.),
Karluk.

Hume-Aleutian Packing Co. (A.
P. A.), Karluk.

Uganuk Fishing Station (A. P. A.),
Uganuk Bay.

Pacific Steam Whaling Co., Uyak
Bay.

Hume Bros. & Hume, Uyak Bay

Pacifie Steam Whaling Co., Kenai. .

Arctic Fishing Co. (A. P. A.),Kus- t
silof River.

Pacific Packing Co. (A. P. A.),
Odiak.

Pacific Steam Whaling Co., Orca...

Pyramid Harbor Packing Co. (A.
P. A.), Pyramid Harbor.

Glacier 1 Packing Co. (A. P. A.),
Point Highfield.

Alaska Salmon' Packing and Fur
Co. (A. P. A.), Loring.

Boston Fishing and Trading Co.,
Yes Bay.

Quadra Packing Co., Mink Arm,
Boca de Quadra.

Metlakahtla Industrial Co., Met-
lakahtla.

Baranoff Packing Co.,Redfish Bay.

North Pacific Trading and Pack-
ing Co.. Klawak.

Pacific Steam Whaling Co., Hun-
ter Bay.

Sail vessels.

Name.

Rig.

Tons.

Crew.

Value.

Ownership

Ship

1,550

$40, 000
40, 000

1,413

| Willie R. Hume

4-mast bar ken-

tine.

589

Fishermen

25j 000

Chartered.

r\Y. H. Macy...

Ship

2, 038

50, 000

Do.

do

1,637

1,528

Fishermen

30', 000

35. 000

15. 000

Owned.

do

Do.

[Prosper

3-mast schooner . .

' 229

Fishermen

Do.

Bark

1, 134

16,000
7,000
16, 000
12,000

Do.

117

B. P. Cheney.. .

Bark .

1,200

555

do

Fishermen

Do.

\Will W Case

do

554

12, 000

Do.

Llewellyn J. Morse...

Ship

1/271

Fishermen

35, 000

Do.

(

Transports by callin

g vessel

of companj

■ )

Ferris S. Thompson. . .

Bark

480

11

9,000

Owned.

...do

733

10, 000

40, 000
35, 000

Ship

1,687

1,453

Do.

Santa Clara

Fishermen

Owned.

(Transports by calling vessel of company.)

Harvester2 | Bark | 716 | 12

(Transports by calling vessel of company.)

Centennial

Electra

America

Invincible

George Skolfield.

Hecla

Ship
Bark ..
Ship . .

do

do .

1, 138 ] Fishermen

939 I Fishermen

1, 908 j Fishermen
1, 393 j Fishermen

1 , 275 Fishermen

1,435 | Fishermen

9,000
20, 000
12, 000

40. 000
25, 000

20. 000

25, 000

(Transports by regular line of steamers.)

(Transports by regular line of steamers.)

(Transports by regular line of steamers.)

(Transports by regular line of steamers.)
(Transports by special sail charter.)

(Transports by calling vessel of company.)

Owned.

Do.

Do.

Chartered.

Do.

Owned.

( chartered

1 Lost, May, 1898.

2 Also attended Chignik.

RECAPITULATION.

Num-

ber.

Net ton-
nage.

Value.

Steam

1,515

$449, 70U

24

2G[ 971

577 [ 000

75

28, 486

1, 026, 700

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION,

316

Vessel s employed, 1899.

Name of company and location of
cannery.

Arctic Packing Co j (A. P. A.) ,

Alaska Packing Co j-Nushagak

Bristol Bay Canning Co. J Bay.

Pacific Steam Whaling Co., Nush-
agak Bay.

Alaska Fishermen’s Packing Co.,
Nushagak Bay.

Point Roberts Packing Co. (A.P. A.) ,
Kvichak Bay.

Arctic Packing Co. (A. P. A.), Nak-
nek River.

Naknek Packing Co., Naknek
River.

Ugashik Fishing Station (A.P. A.),
Ugashik River.

Chignik Bay Co. (A. P. A.), Chig-
nik Lagoon.

Pacific Steam Whaling Co., An-
chorage Bay, Chignik.

Hume Bros. & Hume, Anchorage
Bay, Chignik.

Arctic Packing Co. (A.P. A.), Olga
Bay, Alitak.

Karliik Packing Co. (A. P. A.),
Karluk.

Alaska Improvement Co. (A.P.A.),
Karluk.

Hume -Aleutian Packing Co.
(A. P. A.), Karluk.

Uganuk Fishing Station (A. P. A.),
Uganuk Bay.

Pacific Steam Whaling Co., Uyak
Bay.

Hume Bros. & Hume., Uyak Bay ..

Pacific. Steam Whaling Co., Kenai.

Arctic Fishing Co. (A. P. A.),Kussi-
lof River.

Pacific Packing Co. (A. P. A.),
Odiak.

Pacific Steam Whaling Co., Orca...

Pyramid Harbor Packing Co.
(A.P. A.), Pyramid Harbor.

Glacier Packing Co. (A. P. A.),
Point Highfield.

Thlinket Packing Co., Point Gerard .

Alaska Salmon Packing and Fur
Co. (A.P. A.), Loring.

Boston Fishing and Trading Co.,
Yes Bay.

Quadra Packing Co., Mink Arm,
Boca de Quadra.

Metlakahtla Industrial Co., Metla-
kahtla.

North Pacific Trading and Pack-
ing Co., Klawak.

Pacific Steam Whaling Co., Hunter
Bay.

Steam vessels.

Name.

Class.

Tons.

Crew.

(Polar Bear. .

28

23

3

(Arny S

Launch

2

iTyone

do

5

o

do

2

862

12

5

2

34

4

do

238

9

-j Herbert

Launch

5

2

| Northern Light

4

2

/Thistle i

Steamer

56

5

(Ralph 1

5

9

2

2

do ...

3

2

/Afognak

37

"(Baby Ruth

10

4

/C. C. Cherry

37

6

2

/Ethel and Marian

do

6

3

(Florence Hume

0

Hattie Gage

42

do

58

9

do

3G

7

8

2

do

5

2

do

2

Ida

do

9

(Wallowa

Steamer

92

10

1 Kenai

Launch

5

2

42

do

59

8

5

2

30

\Salmo

Steamer

28

6

do

69

6

/Arthur

Launch

5

2

S. B. Matthews

Stern-wheel

164

6

•{Pacific

Steamer

31

6

[Susanna

Stern-wheel

18

4

/Wild Cat

do

104

4

"(Thlinket

do

90

4

(Elsie

37

4

do

19

3

(Ella Roh Iff s

do

36

do

19

5

6

2

33

5

21

8

2

[Gypsv Queen

Stern-wheel

58

None.

Steamer

34

6

[Annie M. Nixon

do

18

6

[Herald

do

17

5

do

12

/Klawack

do

10

4

(Cora

Launch

5

2

/Golden Gate

Steamer

59

9

do

19

5

Value. | Ownership.

$12, 000

Owned.

10, 000

Do.

4, 000

Do.

5, 000

Do.

1,500

Do.

75, 000

Do.

4, 500

Do.

15, 000

Do.

40, 000

Do.

4, 000

Do.

3,000

Do.

25, 000

Do.

4, 500

Do.

1,800

Do.

7,000

Do.

2, 500

Do.

17, 000

Do.

4,500

Do.

15, 000

Do.

2,500

Do.

2,800

Do.

3,000

Do.

17, 000

Do.

20, 000

Do.

11, 000

Do.

8,000

Do.

2, 500

Do.

3,000

Do.

2, 700

Do.

12, 500

Chartered

7,000

Owned.

11,000

Do.

10, 000

Do.

3,500

Do.

10, 000

Do.

10,000

Do.

28, 000

Do.

1,800

Do.

14,000

Do.

14, 000

Do.

8,000

Do.

10,000

Do.

10, 000

Lo.

16,000

Do.

9, 000

Do.

14,000

Do.

10, 000

Do.

1, 500

Do.

12, 000

Do.

6, 000

Do.

2,000

Do.

6, 000

Do.

7,000

Do.

6,000

Do.

8,000

Do.

4,000

Do.

6, 000

Do.

1,500

Do.

25, 000

Do.

11,000

Do.

1 Also attended Uganuk.

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1900.

317

Vessels employed . 1899 — Continued.

Name of company and location of
cannery.

Arctic PackingCo 1(A. P. A.),

Alaska Packing Co j-Nushagak

Bristol Bay Canning Co.J Bay.

Pacific Steam Whaling Co., Nush-
agak Bay.

Alaska Fishermen’s Packing Co.,
Nushagak Bay.

Point Roberts Packing Co. (A. P. A.),
Kvichak Bay.

Arctic PackingCo. (A.P. A.), Nak-
nek River.

Naknek Packing Co., Naknek
River.

Ugashik Fishing Station (A. I’. A.)
Ugashik River.

Chignik Bay Co. (A.P. A.), Chig-
nik Lagooii.

Pacific Steam Whaling Co., An-
chorage Bay. Chignik.

Hume Bros. & Hume, Anchorage
Bay, Chignik.

Arctic Packing Co. (A. P. A.), Olga
Bay, Alitak.

Karluk Packing Co. (A. P. A.),
Karluk.

Alaska Improvement Co. (A.P.A.),
Karluk.

Hume - Aleutian Packing Co.
(A. P. A), Karluk.

Ug inuk Fishing Station (A. P. A.),
Uganuk Bay.

Pacific Steam Whaling Co., LTyak
Bay.

Hume Bros. & Hume, Uvak Bay ...

Pacific Steam Whaling Co., Kenai. .

Arctic Fishing Co. (A. P. A.), Kussi-
lof River.

Pacific Packing Co. (A. P. A.),
Odiak.

Pacific Steam Whaling Co., Orca...

Pyramid Harbor Packing Co.
(A.P. A.), Pyramid Harbor.

Glacier Packing Co. (A. 1'. A.),
Point Highfield.

Thlinket PackingCo., Point Gerard.

Alaska Salmon Packing and Fur
Co. (A.P. A.), Loring.

Boston Fishing and Trading Co.,
Yes Bay.

Quadra Packing Co.. Mink Arm,
Boca de Quadra.

Metlakahtla Industrial Co , Metis) -
kahtla.

North Pacific Trading and Pack-
ing Co., Klawak.

Pacific Steam Whaling Co., Hunter
Bay.

/Bohemia
(Prosper. .
Merom . .

/Coryphene

(Nicolas Thayer

Llewellyn J. Morse . . .

Sail vessels.

/Oriental

/Indiana1

j Invincible

(Willie R. Hume.
R. W. Bartlett. . .

Harry Morse.

B. P. Cheney.

Rig.

Ship

4-mastbarkentine
3-mast schooner . .

Bark

Ship

3-mast schooner . .
Bark

.do .

do .

do .

Ship . . .

Ferris S. Thompson . . .

Maid of Orleans

Electra ................

St. Nicholas
Santa Clara

Bark

Schooner .
Bark

Shi] i

Harvester I Bark

Centennial

Charles B. Kenney . . .

America

Two Brothers.

George Skolfield.

Ship .
Bark
Ship

.do

do

Tons.

Crews.

Value.

Ownership

1,550

Fishermen.

*50, 000

Chartered.

1 , 413

do....

45, 000

Owned.

1,393

do....

25,000

Chartered.

580

do....

25, 000

Do.

473

do ....

20, 000

Ho.

1,241

do

20, 000

Do.

1 , 528

do....

45, 000

Owned.

229

do ....

15, 000

Do.

1,134

do ....

18, 000

Do.

1 , 200

do....

18, 000

Do.

733

do ....

15, 000

Chartered.

555

do ....

12, 000

Owned.

1,271

do ....

35, 000

Do.

vessel

of company

•)

480

11

10, 000

Owned.

171

8

7,000

Do.

939

Fishermen.

12, 000

Do.

1,687

do ....

40, 000

Chartered.

1,453

do

35, 000

Owned.

vessel

of company

•)

710

12

10, 000

Owned.

vessel of company. )

1,138

Fishermen.

25, 000

Owned.

1,014

. . . . .do

25, 000

Chartered.

1,908

do

50, 000

Do.

1,203

do

35, 000

Owned.

1,275

do

20, 000

Do.

ir line

>f steamers.

)'

1,495

Fishermen.

50, 000

Chartered.

(Transports by regular line of steamers. )

(Blanche i Schooner, hulk .. . 107 Fishermen.

Elliott.- j Barge | 13 i do |

(Transports by regular line of steamers.)

(Transports by special sail charter.)

(Transports by calling vessel of company.)

4, 500

1,000

Owned.

Ho.

1 Also called at Karluk.

RECAPITULATION.

'

No.

Net ton-
nage.

Value.

00

2, 700

*618, 600
667, 500

26, 998

87

29, 698

1,286,100

318

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION

Vessels employed , 1900.

Name of company and location of cannery.

Arctic Packing Co,
Alaska Packing Co.
Bristol Bay Canning Co.

(A. P. A.) Nusliagak
Bay.

Pacific Steam Whaling Co., Nusliagak Bay ..
Alaska Fishermen’s Packing Co., Nusliagak
Bay.

Point Roberts Packing Co. f( A. P. A.) Kvi-
Kvichak Packing Co. \ chak Bay.

Arctic Packing Co. ( A. P. A.), Naknek River.

Naknek Packing Co., Naknek River

Egegak Packing Co. (A. P. A.), Egegak River.

Ugashik Fishing Station (A. P. A.), Ugashik
River.

Bristol Packing Co., Ugashik River

Chignik Bay Co. (A. P. A), Chignik Lagoon. .
Pacific Steam Whaling Co., Anchorage Bay,
Chignik.

Hume Bros. & Hume, Anchorage Bay,
Chignik.

Arctic Packing Co. (A. P. A.),01gaBay, Alitak.

Karluk Packing Co. (A.P. A.), Karluk

Alaska Improvement Co. (A. P. A), Karluk ..
Ugaifuk Fishing Station (A.P. A.), Uganuk
Bay.

Pacific Steam Whaling Co., Uyak Bay

Hume Bros. & Hume, Uyak Bay

Alaska Salmon Association, Chuitna River . .
Pacific Steam Whaling Co., Kenai

Arctic Fishing Co. ( A. P. A.), Kussilof River..

Pacific Packing Co. (A. P. A.), Odiak

Pacific Steam Whaling Co., Orea

Western Fisheries Co., Dundas Bay

Pyramid Harbor Packing Co. (A. P. A.),
Pyramid Harbor.

Chilkoot Packing Co., Chilkoot Inlet

Taku Packing Co., Takn Inlet

Taku Fishing Co., Port Snettisham

Icy Strait Packing Co., Petersburg, Wrangell
Narrows.

Royer-Warnock Packing Co., Beecher Pass ..
Glacier Packing Co. (A.P. A.), Point Highfield.

Thlinket Packing Co., Gerard Point

Fidalgo Island Canning Co., Ketchikan

Alaska Salmon Packing and Fur Co. (A.
P. A.) , Loring.

Boston Fishing and Trading Co., Yes Bay ...
Quadra Packing Co., Mink Arm, Boca" de
Quadra.

Metlakahtla Industrial Co., Metlakahtla

North Pacific Trading and Packing Co.,
Klawak.

Pacific Steam Whaling Co., Hunter Bay

Steam vessels.

Name.

Class.

Tons.

Crew.

Value.

Ownership.

28

5

.$12,000

do

18

3

10, 000

Do.

j Amy S

Launch

4, 000

Do.

(Tvone

do

5

9

6j 000

Do.

Rattler

do

9

4, 500

Do.

34

4

15, 000

Do.

610

13

200, 000

Do.

JSavak

90

4

8,000

Do.

i Lillian

19

3

9’ 000

Do.

9

4,000

Do.

238

9

40,000

Do.

5

2

4,500

Do.

| Northern Light. . .

do

4

2

3,000

Do.

12

3

8,000

Do.

5

1’ 000

Do.

5

2

2,000

[Thistle

56

25, 000

Do.

JCollis

5

9

l '} 000

Do.

3

2

■ 2’ 500

Do.

"Amelia

Gasoline launch..

5

2

2, 000

Do.

/Afognak

37

18,000

Do.

(Baby Ruth

10

4

5,’ 000

Do.

37

6

15,000

Do.

5

9

2, 500

Do.

(Ethel and Marian

do

6

3

2, 880

Do.

do

2

3, 200

Do.

f Hattie Gage

42

5

17, 000

Do.

5

2, 500

Do.

[Gertie Story

36

12, 000

Do.

do

9

20! 000

Do.

8

10, 000

Do.

1 Uganuk

do

8

9

10, 000

■ Do.

1 Ida

do

9

2, 700

Do.

do

5

2

2, 500

Do.

fShelikoff

Steamer

101

10

36, 000

Do,

\ Kenai

Launch

5

9

7,000

Do.

[Francis Cutting..

Steamer

59

8

10, 000

Do.

do

42

12,000

Do.

| Herbert Hume . . .

Launch

5

2

3, 500

Do.

3

5, 500

Do.

/Duxbury

Gasoline vessel . . .

30

5

10, 000

Do.

[Sal mo

28

6

10, 000

Do.

do

69

6

30' 000

Do.

26

3

10, 000

Do.

5

2

1, 800

Do.

(S. B. Matthews

Stern-wheel

164

6

14, 000

Do.

31

6

15, 000

Do.

18

4

s', 000

Do.

[Wild Cat

.. .do

104

4

10, 000

Do.

’(Thlinket

do

90

4

10, 000

Do.

19

5

5 500

Do

7

3

2, 000

Chartered.

37

4

16, 000

20

3

3, 500

Do.

9

9

3,000

do

5

2

1, 000

Owned.

(N. &S

10

9

R 800

Do.

4

1

600

Do.

58

6,000

Do.

34

6

7,000

Do.

do

18

6

e! 000

Do.

Ro-Wa

Gasoline launch . .

4

2

800

Do.

[Ella Rohlft's

36

5

15, 000

Do.

do

19

5

10, 000

Do.

10

5

5, 000

Chartered.

6

2

1,50(1

Owned.

Delta *

59

6

6, 000

Chartered.

/Novelty

do

33

5

12, 000

Owned.

do

21

5

4, 000

Do.

Rosie

Launch

8

2

2, 500

Do.

.Slowly

. . . do

5

2

1,000

Chartered.

[Herald

17

5

9,000

Owned.

/Marie G. Haaven

do

12

5

5,000

Do.

10

4

7, 000

Do.

1 Cora

5

2

1,500

Do.

59

9

25, 000

Do.

< Alice

19

5

12, 000

Do.

[Alphonso XIII . . .

Gasoline launch . .

5

2

3; 000

Do.

1 Also attended Egegak.

ALASKA SALMON' INVESTIGATIONS IN 1900.

319

Vessels employed ; WOO — Continued.

Name o£ company and location
of cannery.

Arctic Packing Co. 1 (A. P. A. )
Alaska Packing Co. [Nushagak
Bristol Bay Canning Co.J Bay.
Pacific Steam Whaling Co., Nush-
agak Bay.

Alaska Fishermen’s Packing Co.,
Nushagak Bay.

Point Roberts Packing Co.
Kvichalc Packing Co.

(A.P.A.)

-Kvichak

Bay.

Arctic Packing Co. (A. P. A.), Nak-
nek River.

Naknek Packing Co., Naknek River

Egegak Packing Co. (A. P. A.),
Egegak River.

Ugashik Fishing Station (A. P. A.),
Ugashik River.

Bristol Packing Co., Ugashik River.

Chignik Bay Co. (A. P. A.), Chignik
Lagoon.

Pacific Steam Whaling Co., Anchor-
age Bay, Chignik.

Hume Bros. & Hume, Anchorage
Bay, Chignik.

Arctic Packing Co. (A. P. A.), Olga
Bay, Alitak.

Karluk Packing Co. (A. P. A.),
Karluk.

Alaska Improvement Co. (A.P.A. },
Karluk.

Uganuk Fishing Station (A.P.A.),
Uganuk Bay.

Pacific Steam Whaling Co., Uvak
Bay.

Hume Bros. & Hume, Uyak Bay

Alaska Salmon Association, Chu-
itna River.

Pacific Steam Whaling Co., Kenai . .

Arctic Fishing Co. (A. P. A.), Kus-
silof River.

Pacific Packing Co. (A. P. A.), Odiak

Pacific Steam Whaling Co., Orca...

Western Fisheries Co., DundasBay.

Pyramid Harbor Packing Co.
(A.P.A.), Pyramid Harbor.

Chilkoot Packing Co., Chilkoot
Inlet.

Taku Packing Co., Taku Inlet

Taku Fishing Co., PortSnettisham.

Icy Strait Packing Co. , Petersburg,
Wrangell Narrows.

Royer - Warnock Packing Co.,
Beecher Pass.

Glacier Packing Co. (A. P. A.),
Point Highfield.

Thlinket Packing Co., Gerard Point

Fidalgo Island Canning Co., Ketch-
ikan.

Alaska Salmon Packing and Fur
Co. (A.P.A.), Loring.

Boston Fishing and Trading Co.,
Yes Bay.

Quadra Packing. Co., Mink Arm,
Boca de Quadra.

Metlakahtla Industrial Co., Met-
lakahtla.

North Pacific Trading and Packing
Co., Klawak.

Pacific Steam Whaling Co., Hunter
Bay.

Sail vessels.

Name.

Rig.

Tons.

Crew.

Value.

Ownershi]

[Oriental

Ship

1,550

Fishermen

$55, 000

Chartered

[Eclipse

do

1,469

Fishermen

35, 000

Do.

[Tacoma

do

1,671

Fishermen

CO, 000

Owned .

Undaunted

Bark

1,647

Fishermen

35, 000

Chartered

Harry Morse

do

1,241

Fishermen

20, 000

Do.

(Servia

Ship

1,736

1,687

55. 000

50. 000

55. 000

Do.

Do.

Owned.

1st. Nicholas

1 Bohemia

do '. . .

L 528

Fishermen

( Prosper

3-masted schooner

229

Fishermen

15, 000

Do.

(Indiana 1

Ship

1,413

Fishermen

50, 000

Do.

1 134

■ 0, 000
20, 000
30, 000

Do.

Owned.

Chartered

B. P. Chenev

...do ...

1, 200

(Charles B. Kenney

do

1,014

Fishermen

'(Will W. Case

do

554

Fishermen

18,000

Owned.

Coryphene

do

733

Fishermen

15, 000

Chartered

[Nicolas Thayer

do

555

Fishermen

15, 000

Owned.

3-masted schooner

292

Fishermen

15, 000

Do.

Agate

Bark

595

Fishermen

10, 000

Do.

George Skolfield

Ship

1,275

Fishermen

20, 000

Do.

(

Transports by callii

g vessel

of com pan >

•)

(Ferris S. Thompson. . .

Bark

4X0

H

12, 000

Owned.

| Maid of ( )rleans

171

S, 1)111)

15, 000

Do.

939

Do.

1, 453

40, 000

•)

Do.

■ (

Transports by callin

g vessel

of company

Harvester

Bark

716

12

12, 000

Owned.

Prussia

do

1, 131

Fishermen

25, 000

Chartered.

1 1 1

(Transports by calling vessel of company.)

1,138
1, 175

30. 000

10. 000

Owned.

Chartered

Kate Davenport

Bark

Fishermen

America ,

Ship

1,908

Fishermen

55, 000

Do.

Transports by regular line of steamers.

Two Brothers

Ship 1, 263 | Fishermen

Transports by regular line of steamers.

35, 000

Owned.

(Transports by regular line

)f steamers.)

(Transports by regular line of steamers.

(Blanche

Schooner hulk

107

Fishermen

•4,500

Owned.

(Elliot

Barge

43

Fishermen

1 , 000

Do.

Transports by regular line

jf steamers.

Llewellyn .1. Morse . . .

Ship 1 1, 271 j Fishermenl 36,000

1 1 1
Transports bv regular line of steamers. )

Owned.

(Transports by regular line of steamers.)

Si n tram

Ship

1,495

Fishermen

50, 000

Chartered

(Transports by regular line of steamers.)

(Transports by regular line of steamers.)
(Transports by regular line of steamers.)

(Transports by special sail charter.)
(Transports by calling vessel of company.)

1 Also called at Karluk.

2 Lost October 1900, at Karluk.

RECAPITULATION.

No.

Net ton-
nage.

Value.

Steam

78

2, 757

$856, 280
925, 500

Sail

33

34, 813

111

37, 570

1,781,780

320

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. '

Labor employed, 1898.

Name of company and location of cannery.

Fishermen.

White, i Native.

Other employees.

White. Native. Chinese,

Total em-
ployees.

Arctic Packing Co 1

Alaska Packing Co HA. P. A.), Nushagak Bay

Bristol Bay Canning Co.J

Point Roberts Packing Co. (A. P. A.), Kvichak Bay

Arctic Packing Co. (A. P. A.), Naknek River

Naknek Packing Co., Naknek River

Ugashik Fishing Station (A. P. A.), Ugashik River

Chignik Bay Co. (A. P. A.), Chignik Lagoon

Pacific Steam Whaling Co., Anchorage Bay, Chignik

Hume Bros. & Hume, Anchorage Bay, Chignik

Arctic Packing Co. (A. P. A.), Olga Bay, Alitak

Karluk Packing Co. (A. P. A.), Karluk

Alaska Improvement Co. (A. P. A.), Karluk

Hume- Aleutian Packing Co. (A. P. A.), Karluk

Uganuk Fishing Station (A. P. A.), Uganuk Bay

Pacific Steam Whaling Co., Uyak Bay

Hume Bros. & Hume, Uyak Bay

Pacific Steam Whaling Co.,. Kenai

Arctic Fishing Co. (A. P. A.), Kussilof River

Pacific Packing Co. (A. P. A.), Odiak

Pacific Steam Whaling Co., Orca

Pyramid Harbor Packing Co. ( A. P. A. ), Pyramid Harbor

Glacier Packing Co. (A. P. A.) , Point Highfield

Alaska Salmon Packing and Fur Co. (A. P. A.),Loring

Boston Fishing and Trading Co., Yes Bay

Quadra Packing Co., Mink Arm, Boca de Quadra

Metlakahtla Industrial Co., Metlakahtla

Baranoff Packing Co., Redfish Bay

North Pacific Trading and Packing Co., Klawak

Pacific Steam Whaling Co., Hunter Bay

Total employees

160

51

75 306

592

76

10

56

50

70

60

52

29

25

25

36

30

11

8

18

30

23

10

4

10

6

9

15

300

102

95

100

100

60

60

59

426

208

170

198

193

134

128

112

171

34

57

393

655

52

13

50

6

32

10

40

10

60

6

60

88

2 12

24

150

90

100

12

13

4 24

30

6

4

52

12

60

6

6

60

10

100

30

6

60

13

60

12

3 15

86

7

4

86

15

25

130

4

13

31

5

5 30

45

127

128
114
160
162

133
213
271
360

73

134

1,314

623

17

30

(8)

454

400

162

6

7 57

521

2, 450

185

57

118

5,139

Labor employed, 1899.

Arctic Packing Co I

Alaska Packing Go HA. P. A.), Nushagak Bay

Bristol Bay Canning Co )

Pacific Steam Whaling Co., Nushagak Bay

Alaska Fishermen’s Packing Co., Nushagak Bay

Point Roberts Packing Co. (A. P. A.), Kvichak Bay

Arctic Packing Co. (A. P. A.), Naknek River

Naknek Packing Co., Naknek River

Ugashik Fishing Station (A. P. A.), Ugashik River

Chignik Bay Co. ( A. P. A.), Chignik Lagoon

Pacific Steam Whaling Co., Anchorage Bay, Chignik

Hume Bros. & Hume, Anchorage Bay, Chignik

Arctic Packing Co. (A. P. A.), Olga Bay, Alitak

Karluk Packing Co. (A. P. A.), Karluk

Alaska Improvement Co. (A.P.A.), Karluk

Hume-Aleutian Packing Co. (A.P.A.), Karluk

Uganuk Fishing Station, (A. P. A.), Uganuk Bay

Pacific Steam Whaling Co., Uyak Bay

Hume Bros. & Hume, Uyak Bay

Pacific Steam Whaling Co., Kenai

Arctic Fishing Co. (A. P. A.) , Kussilof River

Pacific Packing Co. (A. P.A.), Odiak

Pacific Steam Whaling Co., Orc.a

Pyramid Harbor Packing Co. (A. P.A.), Pyramid Harbor

Glacier Packing Co. (A. P. A.), Point Highfield

Thlinket Packing Co., Gerard Point

Alaska Salmon Packing and Fur Co. (A. P. A.), Loring

Boston Fishing and Trading Co., Yes Bay

Quadra Packing Co., Mink Arm, Boca de Quadra

Metlakahtla Industrial Co., Metlakahtla

North Pacific Trading and Packing Co., Klawak

Pacific Steam Whaling Co., Hunter Bay

Total employees

> Includes 3 coal miners.

2 Purchased fish from 192 natives.
3Klootchmen.

4 Labor figures approximate.

5 Includes 25 Klootchmen.

6 Purchased fish from 32 natives.

7 Includes 12 men, 25 women, 20 children.

160

51

75

336

622

38

14

15

50

117

34

5

35

63

137

91

25

25

300

441

48

42

30

102

222

62

13

10

95 ,

180

50

18

30

100

198

70

123

102

195

60

10

4

60

134

52

10

6

65

133

30

9

15

59

113

176

34

57

393

660

60

26

6

4

52

148

50

6

12

60

128

32

10

6

6

60

114

42

10

10

100

162

60

6

30

6

60

162

60

13

60

133

88

912

12

3 17

86

215

24

150

7

4

. 86

271

12

19

1»6

3 20

16

73

100

150

20

25

130

425

15

15

5

15

40

90

26

40

5

5 29

45

145

11 24

17

41

17

17

7257

20

in

18

(13)

10

60

88

1,475

502

436

445

2, 600

5, 458

» Purchased fish from 50 natives.

9 Purchased fish from 196 natives.

10 Includes 1 woman, cooking.

11 Purchased fish from 36 natives.

12 Includes 12 men, 25 women, 20 children.

13 Purchased fish from 150 natives.

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1900,

321

Labor employed , 1900.

Name of company and location of cannery.

Arctic Packing Co 1

Alaska Packing Co M A. P. A. ) , Nushagak Bay

Bristol Bay Canning Co. J

Pacific Steam Whaling Co., Nushagak Bay

Alaska Fishermen’s Packing Co., Nushagak Bay

Point Roberts Packing Co... 1, A p A , K-vinhnk Bnv

Kvichak Packing Co j(A' 1 ' A’)’ KvlcAak Bay

Arctic Packing. Co. (A. P. A.), Naknek River

Naknek Packing Co., Naknek River

Egegak Packing Co. (A. P. A.), Egegak River

Ugashik Fishing Station (A. P. A.), Ugashik River

Bristol Packing Co., Ugashik River

Chignik Bay Co. (A. P. A.), Chignik Lagoon

Pacific Steam Whaling Co., Anchorage Bay, Chignik

Hume Bros. & Hume, Anchorage Bay, Chignik

Arctic Packing Co. (A. P. A.), Olga Bay, Alitak

Karluk Packing Co. (A. P. A.), Karluk

Alaska Improvement Co. (A. P. A.), Karluk

Uganuk Fishing Station (A. P. A.), Uganuk Bay

Pacific Steam Whaling Co.,Uyak Bay

Hume Bros. & Hume, Uyak Bay

Alaska Salmon Association, Chuitna River

Pacific Steam Whaling Co., Kenai

Arctic Fishing Co. (A. P. A.), Kussilof River

Pacific Packing Co. (A. P. A.), Odiak

Pacific Steam Whaling Co., Orca

Western Fisheries' Co., Dundas Bay

Pyramid Harbor Packing Co. (A. P. A.), Pyramid Harbor

Chilkoot Packing Co., Chilkoot Inlet '

Taku Packing Co., Taku Inlet

Taku Fishing Co., Port Snettisham

Icy Strait Packing Co., Petersburg, Wrangell Narrows

Royer-Warnock Packing Co., Beecher Pass

Glacier Packing Co. (A. P. A.), Point Highfield

Thlinket Packing Co., Gerard Point

Fidalgo Island Canning Co., Ketchikan

Alaska Salmon Packing and Fur Co. (A. P. A.), Loring

Boston Fishing and Trading Co., Yes Bay

Quadra Packing Co., Mink Arm, Boca de Quadra

Metlakahtla Industrial Co., Metlakahtla

North Pacific Trading and Packing Co., Klawak

Pacific Steam Whaling Co., Hunter Bay

Total employees

Fishermen.

Other employees.

Total em-

White.

Native.

White.

Native.

Chinese.

ployees.

215

450

806

56

10

35

100

201

55

7

35

93

190

154

f 25

1 13

25

8

1 300
2 147

672

58

54

20

140

272

60

12

11

131

214

39

16

10

80

145

64

24

20

140

248

27

6

10

48

91

63

3 20

2

90

175

60

10

4

60

134

52

10

6

58

126

40

9

10

59

118

171

13"

43

8

263

498

)

64

26

6

4

56

156

52

9

12

56

129

39

16

51

106

40

10

6

6

60

122

45

10

10

100

165

60

6

30

6

60

162

60

13

2

60

135

9

26

5

4 26

30

96

102

3 10

12

6 16

86

226

24

78

9

17

28

86

30

14

7

2

19

72

16

20

4

25

65

26

28

7

842

50

153

(9)

(9)

2

1" 11

13

24

150

7

4

86

271

35

30

9

11 7

49

130

34

i»41

7

13 50

50

182

100

150

20

40

120

430

15

15

5

15

61

111

24

40

5

6 25

43

137

H 24

174

174

372

55

16

1813

46

130

21

(16)

10

90

121

1,934

685

543

728

3,570

7,460

1 Includes a few Japanese.

2 Chinese and Japanese.

3 Includes 3 coal miners.

4 Includes 6 Klootchmen.

5 Purchased fish from 224 natives.

6 Klootchmen.

7 Purchased fish from 16 natives in addition.

8 Includes 28 Klootchmen.

F. C. B.

“Purchased all fish.

10 10 Japanese; 1 Chinaman.

11 Includes 5 Klootchmen.

12 Includes 3 Japanese.

13 Includes 40 Klootchmen.

14 Purchased fish from 38 natives in addition.

15 3 Bucks; 10 Klootchmen.

16 Purchased fish from 121 natives.

L— 21

322

bulletin of the united states fish commission.

Name of company and
location of cannery.

Arctic Packing Co. (A.P.

A.), Nushagak.

Alaska Packing Co. (A. P.

A.) , Nushagak.

Bristol Bay Canning Co.

( A. P. A. ) , N ushagak .
Point Roberts Packing Co.
(A. P. A.), KvichakBay.

Arctic Packing Co. (A.P.
A.), Naknek River.

Naknek Packing Co.,
Naknek River.

Ugashik Fishing Station
(A. P. A.), Ugashik River.

Chignik Bay Co. (A.P. A.),
Chignik Lagoon.

Pacific Steam Whaling Co.,
Anchorage Bay, Chignik.

Hume Bros.* Hume, An-
chorage Bay, Chignik.

Arctic Packing Co. (A.P.
A ),01ga Bay, Alitak.

Karluk Packing Co. (A. P.
A.), Karluk.

Alaska Improvement Co.

(A.P. A.), Karluk.
Hume-Aleutian Packing
Co. (A. P. A.), Karluk.
Uganuk Fishing Station
(A. P. A.), Uganuk Bay.

Pacific Steam Whaling
Co., Uyak Bay.

Hume Bros. & Hume,
Uyak Bay.

Pacific Steam Whaling
Co., Kenai.

Arctic Fishing Co. (A. P.
A.), Kussilof River.

Pacific Packing Co. (A. P.
A.), Odiak.

PacificSteam WhalingCo.,
Orca.

Pyramid Harbor Packing
Co. (A. P. A.), Pyramid
Harbor.

Glacier Packing Co. (A. P.
A.), Point Highfield.

Net equipment,, 1898.

Gill nets.

No.

10

Redfish, 75 fms.

by 24 m by6jin.
King, 125 fms. by
24 m. by 9j in.

Redfish, 75 fms. by
20 m. by 6} in.

Redfish, 65 fms. by
20 m. by 6j in.

Redfish, 75 fms. by
22 m. by 6j in.
Redfish, 85 fms. by
26 m. by 6j in.

Redfish, 135 fms.
by 30 m. by 6jin

/Redfish, 260 fms.
\ by 30 m. by 6 in.

Redfish, 150 fms.
by 26 and 40 m .
by 6 in.

Description.

King, 60 fms. by 22
m by 9j in.

Redfish, 60 fms. by
30 m. by 6 in.

Redfish, 60 fms. by
28 m. by 6 j in.

King, 60 fms. by
22 m. by 9| in.'

Redfish, 350 fms.
by 30 m. by 6 jin.

Redfish, 400 fms.
by 28 m. by 6 to
Oj in.

Redfish, 300 fms.
by28 m. by 6j in.

King, 180 fms. by
30 m. by 8j in.

King, 250 fms. by
28 m. by 8j in. '

Redfish, 250 fms
by 30 m. by6j in.

Value

per

fath-

om.

SO. 65
. 65

. 65
. 65

Seines.

No.

Description.

Drag, 75 to 180 fms.
by 120 to 180 m.
by 3 to 3j in.

Drag, 300 fms. by
22 ft. by 3 in.
Drag, 200 fms. by
22 ft. by 3 in.
Drag, 150 fms. by
25 ft. by 3 in.

Drag, average 200
fms. by 80 to
120 m. by 3 in.

Purse, 400 fms.
(not rigged).

Drag, 400 fms. by
185 m. by 3 in.

Drag, 250 to 300
fms. by 120 to
160 m. by 3 in.

Drag, 100 fms. by
80 m. by 3 in.
(hatchery).

Drag, 700 fms. by
180m. by Sin.

Drag, 550 fms. by
180 m. by 3 in.

Drag, 350 fms. by
180 m. by 3 in.

(Also 10 spare
seines of various
sizes in reserve.)

Drag, 150 to 350
fms. by 100 to
160 m. by 3 in.

Drag, 150fms. 3 in.

1 >rag, 250 fms. by
120 m. by 24 in.
Drag, 120 fms. by
140 m. by 3 in.

Drag, 120 fms. by
200 m.by 3 in.
Purse, 120 fms.
by 250 m. by 3 in.

Value

per

fath-

om.

SI. 50

1.50

1.50

1.50

1.50

1.50

1.50

1.50

1.50

1.50

1.50

1.50

1.50

2.00

Traps.

Description.

Double; total
leads 2,700 ft.;
pots 75 ft. square.

Single; inshore
leads 300 to 500
ft.; pots 40 ft.
square.

1 double, 1 single;
leads vary; pots
40 ft. square.

Single; inshore
leads are 775 ft.;
channel, 1,500
ft.; pots 40 ft.
square.

Single; inshore
leads are 500
ft.; pots 40 ft.
square.

Single; average
shore leads
1,000 ft.; pots 40
ft. square.

Single; average
shore leads 600
ft.; pots 40 ft.
square.

5 single, 2 double;
average shore
and channel
leads 800 ft.
each; pots 40 ft.
square.

Floating; shore
leads 1,200 and
1,800 ft. at Uga-
nuk.

[Single; leads 600
ft.; pots 30 ft.
square.

Single; leads 100
to 700 ft.; pots
30 ft. square.

Average

value.

£4,000
1, 200

1,000

1,200

1,000

1,500

1,500

1,500

1,500

1,000

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1900,

328

Net equipment, 1898 — Continued.

Name of company and
location of cannery.

Alaska Salmon Packing
and Fur Co. (A. P. A.),
Loring.

Boston Fishing and Trad-
ing Co., Yes Bay.

Quadra Packing Co. , Mink
Arm, Boca de Quadra.

Metlakahtla Industrial
Co., Metlakahtla.

Baranoff Packing Co.,
Redfish Bay.

North Pacific Trading and
Packing Co., Klawak.
Pacific Steam Whaling Co. ,
Hunter Bay.

Gill nets.

No.

Description.

Value

per

fath-

om.

1

|

r"

i

/•"

[36

■ 36
36

r

Redfish, 50 fms.by
40 m. by 5 j to 6
in.

Coho, 75 fms. by
30 m. by 7 in.

King, 50 fms. by 25
m. by 9 in.

Redfish, average
172 fms. by 4 fms.
by 5j in.

SO. 65

. 65
. 65

| . 65 •

No.

Seines.

Description.

Value

per

fath-

om.

Purse, 150 to 200
fms. by 7 to 12 m.
bv 3 in.

$2.50

Drag, 150 to 200
fms. by 4to6 m.
by 3 in.

1.50

Purse, 230 fms. by
20 fms. by 3 in.

2.50

Drag, 175, 150, 120
fms. by 10, 8, 6
fms. by 3 in.

1.50

Purse, 135 to 180
fms. by 12 to 15
fms. bv 3 in.

3.00

Drag, 115 fms. by
8 fms. by 3 in.

2.00

Purse, average
158 fms. by 8*
fms. by 3 in.

3.00

Drag, average 163
bv 6 fms. by 3 in.

1.50

Drag, 125 fms. by
3 in.

1.50

Purse, 175 fms.by
240 m. bv 3 in.

1. 50

Combination
purse and drag,
average 195 by
5 fms. by 3 in.
mesh.

1.50

Traps.

No.

Description.

Average

value.

[Double; shorelead
300 ft.; channel,
100 ft; 1 pot 30
ft. square, 1 pot
1 28 ft. square.

| $1, 000

Net equipment, 1899.

Gill nets.

Seines.

Traps.

Name of company and
location of cannery.

No.

Description.

Value

per

No.

Description.

Value

per

No.

Description.

Value,

each.

fath.

fath.

Arctic Packing Co. (A. P.

A.), Nushagak Bay.
Alaska Packing Co. (A. P.

A ), Nushagak Bay.
Bristol Bay Canning Co.
(A. P. A.). Nushagak
Bay.

120

Redfish, 75 fms.

by24ru.by6jin.
King, 125 fms. by
24 m. by 91 in.

»0.65

,

r l

Double; total leads
2,700 ft.; pots 75 ft.
square.

Single; inshore leads
300 to 500 ft.; pots
40 ft. square.

$4,000

60

30

.65

.65

1

1 1

1,200

Redfish, 75 fms.
by 24m. by 61 in.

Pacific Steam Whaling

Co., Nushagak.

30

King, 125 fms. by
24 m. by 91 in.

30

Redfish, 70 fms.
by 30m. bv6j in.

Alaska Fishermen’s Pack-

ing Co., Nushagak.

25

King, 70 fms. by
22 m. bv 1C in. '

Point Roberts Packing
Co. (A. P. A.). ICoggi-

60

Redfish , 75 fms.
by 20m. by6j in.

. 65

2

1 double, 1 single;
leads vary; pots 40

1,000

ung. Kvichak River.

ft. square.

Arctic Packing Co. (A. P.
A.), Naknek River.

48

3

Single; inshoreleads
800 ft.; channel

1,200

by 20 m. by6jin.

1,600 ft.; pots 40 ft.
square.

Naknek Packing Co., Nak-
nek River.

20

Redfish, 75 fms. by
22 m. by 61 in.

Ugashik Fishing Station
(A. P. A.), Ugashik.

42

Redfish, 85 fms. by
26m. by 6 jin.

.65

3

Single; inshoreleads
average 500 ft. ;

1,000

pots 40 ft. square.

Chignik Bay Co. (A.P.A. ),

10

Redfish, 135 fms.

. 65

4

Drag, 75 to 180 fms.

SI. 50

10

Single; aver, shore

1,500

Chignik Lagoon.

bv30m. by 6 jin.

by 120 to 180 m.

leads 1,000 ft.; pots

by3to3jin.

40 ft. square.

Pacific Steam Whaling
Co., Anchorage Bay,
Chignik.

|l2

fRedfish, 260 fms.
\ by 30 m. by 6 in.

} .65

!■

Drag, 200 fms. by
22 ft. by 3 in.
Drag, 300 fms. by
22 ft. by 3 in.

1.50

1.50

)•

[Single; aver, shore
leads 600 ft.; pots
l 40 ft. square.

| 1,500

Hume Bros. & Hume, An-

11

Redfish, 150 fms.

.65

i

Drag, 150 fms. by

1.50

7

5 single; 2 double;

1, 500

chorage Bay, Chignik.

by 26 to 40 m. bv

25 ft. by 3 in.

aver, shore and

6 in.

channel leads 800
ft. each; pots 40 ft.
square.

324

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION,

Name of company and
location of cannery.

Arctic Packing Co. (A.P.
A.), Olga Bay, Alitak.

Karluk Packing Co. (A.

P. A.), Karluk.

Alaska Improvement Co.

(A. P. A.), Karluk.
Hume-Aleutian Packing
Co. (A. P. A.), Karluk.
Uganuk Fishing Station
(A. P. A.) , Uganuk Bay.

Pacific Steam Whaling
Co., Uyak Bay.

Hume Bros. & Hume,
Uyak Bay.

Pacific Steam Whaling
Co., Kenai.

Arctic Fishing Co. (A.P.
A.), Kussiiof River.

Pacific Packing Co. (A. P.
A.), Odiak.

Pacific Steam Whaling
Co., Orca.

Pyramid Harbor Packing
Co. (A. P. A.), Pyramid
Harbor.

Glacier Packing Co. (A.
P. A.), Wrangell, Point
Highfield.

Thlinket Packing Co.,
Gerard Point.

Alaska Salmon Packing
and Fur Co., (A.P. A.).
Loring.

Boston Fishing and Trad-
ing Co., Yes Bay.

Quadra Packing Co.,
Mink Arm, Boca de
Quadra.

Metlakahtla Industrial
Co., Metlakahtla.

N orth Pacifi c Trading an d
Packing Co., Klawak.
Pacific Steam Whaling
Co., Hunter Bay.

Net equipment, 1899 — Continued.

Gill nets.

Seines.

Traps.

No.

Description.

Value
I per
fath.

No.

Redfish, 60 fms. by
30 m. by 6 in.

King, 60 fms. by
22 m. by 91 in.

Redfish, 60 fms. by
28 m. by 6} in.

King, 60' fms. by
22 m. by 9} in.

Redfish, 350 fms.
by 30m. by6jin.

Redfish, 400 fms.
by 28m. by 6 to
6jin.

Redfish, 300 fms.
by 28 m. by 6 jin.

King, 180 fms. by
30 m. by 81 in.

Redfish, 250 fms.
by30m. Dy6f in.

King, 250 fms. by
28m. by 8jin.

Redfish, 200 fms.
by 22m. by 6 jin.

King, 200 fms. by
22 m. by 9j in.

*0. 65
.65
.65
. 65
.65
.65

.65
.65
.65
.65
. 65
. 65

Redfish, 50 fms. by
40 m. by 5£ to
6 in.

Coho, 75 fms. by
30 m. by 7 in.

King, 50 fms. by
25 m. by 9 in.

Redfish, average
172 by 4 fms. by
5s in.

.65
. 65
.65

.65

Description.

Drag, average 200
fms. by 100 to
130m. by3in.

Purse, 400 fms.
(not rigged).

Drag, 400 fms. by
185 m. by 3 in. '

Drag, 250 to 300
fms. by 120 to
160 m. by 3 in.

Drag, 100 fms. by
80 m. by 3 in.
(Hatchery.)

Drag, 700 fms. by
180 m. by 3 in.

Drag, 550 fms. by
180 m. by 3 in.

Drag, 350 fms. by
180 m. by 3 in.

Drag, 150 to 350
fms. by 100 to
160 m. by 3 in.

/Drag, 150 fms. by

I 3 in.

Drag, 250 fms. by
120m. by 2/ in.
Drag, 120 fms. by
140 m. by 3 in. '

Purse, 120 fms. by
250m. by3in. '

Drag, 120 fms. by
200 m. by 3 in. ‘

Drag, 90 fms. by
190m. by 3 in.

Drag, 65 fms. by
140 m. by 3 in.

Purse, 150 to 200
fms. by 7 to 12
fms. by 3 in.

Drag, 150 to 200
fms. by 4 to 6
fms. by 3 in.

Purse, 230 fms. by
20 fms. by 3 in.

Drag, 175 fms. by
10 fms. by 3 in.

Drag, 150 fms. by
8 fms. by 3 in.

Drag, 120 fms. by
6 fms. by 3 in. '

Purse, 135 to 200
fms. by 12 to 15
fms. by 3 in.

Purse, 180 fms. by
15 fms. by 2 in.
(herring).

Drag, 115 fms. by
8 fms. by 3 in.

Purse, average
158 fms. by 8j
fms. by 3 in.

Drag, average 163
fms. by 6 fms. by
3 in.

Purse, 175 fms. by
240m. by 3 in. ’

Combination
purse and drag;
average 195 fms.
by 5 fms. by 3 in.

Value

per

fath.

II. 50

3.00
1.50
1. 50

1.50

1.50

1.50

1.50

1.50

No.

1.50
1. 50

2.00

1.50

1.50

1.50

2.50

1.50

2.50

1.50
1.50

1. 50

3.00

2.50

2.00

3. 00

1.50

1.50
1. 50

Description.

Floating; lead 100
ms.; pot 40 by f90
ft.

Floating; shore leads
1,200 and 1,800 ft.
at Uganuk.

(Also 10 spare seines
of various sizes, in
reserve.)

Single; leads aver-
age 1,000 ft.; pots
30 ft. square.

Single; leads 100 to
700 ft.; pots 30 ft.
square.

Double; shore lead
300 ft.; channel 100
ft.; 1 pot 30 ft.
square; 1 pot 28
ft. square.

Value

per

fath.

$2, 500

1, 500

1,000

1,000

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1900,

325

Net equipment, 1900.

Gill nets.

No.

Name of company and
location of cannery.

Arctic Packing Co. (A. P.l
A.), Nushagak Bay.
Alaska Packing Co. ( A. P. |
A.), Nushagak Bay. f
Bristol Bay Canning Co.
(A. P. A. ), Nushagak Bay J

Pacific Steam Whaling)
Co., Nushagak Bay.

Alaska Fishermen’s Pack-
ing Co., Nushagak Bay.'

Point Roberts Packing Co.'

(A. P. A.), Kvichak Bay.
Kvichak Packing Co. (A.

P. A. ) , Kvichak Bay.
Arctic Packing Co. (A. P.
A.) , Naknek River.

Naknek Packing Co.,
Naknek River.

Egegak Packing Co. (A. P.
A.), Egegak River.

Ugashik Fishing Station
(A. P. A.), Ugashik
River.

Bristol Packing Co., Uga-
shik River.

ChignikBayCo.(A. P. A.),\41n
Chignik Lagoon. Jl

Pacific Steam Whaling]
Co., Anchorage Bay, >
Chignik.

Hume Bros. & Hume, An-1
chorage Bay, Chignik. /

.retie Packing Co. (A. P.l
A.), Olga Bay, Alitak. J

Karluk Packing Co. (A. P.
A.), Karluk.

Alaska Improvement Co.

(A. P. A.), Karluk.
Uganuk Fishing Station,
(A. P. A.), Uganuk Bay.J

Pacific Steam Whaling]
Co., Uyak Bay. /

Hume Bros. & Hume,
Uyak Bay.

Alaska Salmon Associa-
tion, Chuitna River.

Pacific Steam Whaling
Co., Kenai.

15

Description.

Value
per
fath .

$0.05

.65

.65

.65

.75

Redfish, 75 fms.
by 24 m. by 61 in.

King, 125 fms. by
24 m. by 91 in.

Redfish, 75 fms.
by 24 m. by 61 in.

King, 125 fms. by
24 m. by 91 in.

Redfish, 70 fms.
by 30 m. by 61 in.

King, 70 fms. by
22 m. by 10 in.'

/Redfish, 75 fms.

\ by20m.by6j-in.

Redfish, 75 fms.
by 22 m. by 6f in.

Redfish, 75 fms.

by 22 m. by 61 in.
Redfish, 80 fms.
by 26 m. by 61 in.

Redfish, 85 fms.
by 26 m. by 61 in.

Redfish, 75 fms.
by 23 m. by 6jin.

/Redfish, 135 fms. I
I by 30m. by6jin. i| ■0D

/Redfish, 260 fms.
1 by 30 m. by 6 in.

Redfish, 150 fms.
by 26 to 40 m. by
6 in.

Redfish, 65 fms.
by 30 m. by 51 in.

Redfish and co-
hoes, 65 fms. by
30 m. by 61 in.

King, 65 fms. by
30 m. by 9 in.

Redfish, 00 fms.
by 30 m. by 6 in.

King, 60 fms. by
22 m. by 91 in.

. 65

. 65
.65

.65

.65

.65

Seines.

No. Description.

Drag, 75 to 180 fms.
by 120 to 180 m.
by 3 and 31 in.

Drag, 200 fms. by
22 ft. deep by 3
in.

Drag, 300 fms. by
22 ft. deep by 3
in.

{Drag, 150 fms. by
25 ft. deep by 3
in.

Purse, 400 fms.

(not rigged).
Drag, average 200
fms. by 100 to
130 m. by 3 in.
Drag, 400 fms. by
185 m. by 3 in.
Drag, 250 to 300
fms. by 120 to
160 m. by 3 in.
Drag, 100 fms. by
80 m. by 3 in.
(hatchery).
Drag, 700 fms. by
180 m. by 3 in.
Drag, 550 fms. by
180 m. by 3 in.
Drag, 350 fms. by
180 m. by 3 in.
Drag, 150 to 350
fms. by 160 m.
by 3 in.

(Drag, 150 fms. by
I 5 fms. by 3 in.'

/Drag, 150 fms., 3
/ in.

Value

per

fath.

-$1.50

1.50

1.50

1.50

3.00

1.50

1.50

1.50

1.50

1.50

I1'

65

} 1.5C

Traps.

Description.

Aver.

value.

Double; total leads, j$4,000
2,700 ft,.; pots, 75 ft. j
square.

Single; inshore leads, 1,200
300 to 500 ft.; pots,

40 ft. square.

(Double; inshore leads,
60 ft.; channel
leads, 300 ft.; pots,

[ 40 ft. square.

Single; inshore leads,
750 ft.; channel
leads, 1,400ft.; pots,
40 ft. square.

Single; inshoreleads,
200 and 250 f t. ; pots,
40 ft. square.
Single; inshoreleads,
500 ft., average;
pots, 40 ft. square.

(Aver, inshore
Sine- leads, 1,000 ft.;
5L ,?/ i aver, channel
1Joul3' leads, 900 ft.;
{ pots, 40 ft. sq.

Sing.

Doub.

(Aver, inshore
and channel
leads, each
800 ft.; pots,
( 40 ft. square.

I Aver, inshore
and channel
leads, each
800 ft.; pots,
40 ft. square.

Floating; inshore
lead, 100 fms.; pot,
40 by 90 ft.

{Floating; inshore
leads, 1,200 and
1,800 ft.; at Uga-
nuk.

((Also 10 spare seines
of various sizes, in
reserve.)

Single; inshoreleads,
600 ft,; pots, 40 ft.
square.

Single; inshore leads
average 1,000 ft.;
pots, 30 ft. square.

1,000

1,200

1,000

1,000

1, 500

1,500

1, 500

2,500

1,500

1,500

500

1 47 of these nets not in use; reserve. 3 Traps on hand but not in use; rese rve. 5 1 seine not used; reserve.

21 of these traps not equipped with web; reserve. 4 Only 1 gill net in use; 9 in reserve.

326

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

Net equipment, 1900 — Continued.

Name of company and
location of cannery.

Arctic Fishing Co. (A. P,
A.), Kussilof River.

Pacific Packing Co. (A. P.
A.), Odiak

Pacific Steam Whaling
Co., Orea.

Western Fisheries Co.,1
Dundas Bay. f

Pyramid Harbor Packing
Co. (A. P. A.), Pyramid^
Harbor.

Chilkoot Packing Co.,
Chilkoot Inlet.

Taku Packing Co., Takul
Inlet.

Taku Fishing Co., Port.
Snettisham.

Gill nets.

No.

Royer-Warnock Packing
Co., Beecher Pass.

Glacier Packing Co. ( A. P.
A.), Point Highfield.

Thlinket Packing Co.,
Point Gerard.

Fidalgo Island Canning!
Co. "Ketchikan. /

Alaska Salmon Packing!
and Fur Co. (A. P. A.),S-

Loring.

Boston Fishing and Trad-
ing Co., Yes Bay.

Qu adra Packing Co ., Min k\
Bay, Boca de Quadra, f '

Metlakahtla Industrial!
Co., Metlakahtla.

North Pacific Trading and
Packing Co., Klawak.
Pacific Steam Whaling
Co., Hunter Bay.

Description.

Icy Strait Packing Co.,)
Petersburg, Wrangell 1120
Narrows.

Redfish, 60 fms.

by 28 m. by 6 jin.
King, 60 fms. by
22 m. by 9j in.
Redfish, 350 fms.

by 30m.by6jin
Redfish, 400 fms.
by 28 m. by 6! in.

150 fms. long .

Redfish, 300 fms.
by 28m by 6 jin.

King, 180 fms. by
30 m. by 8j in.

Redfish, 270 fms.
by25m.by 6jin.

Redfish, 150 fms.
by35m.by6jin.

King, 150 fms. by
22 m. by 9j in.

Redfish, 150 fms.
by 30 m. by 6 jin.

King, 150 fms. by
20 m. by 9j in.

[Redfish, 50 fms.
by 40m. by5fin.

I Cohoes, 75 fms. by

I 30 m. by 7 in.

King, 50 fms. by

I 25 m. by 9 in.

Cohoes, ioo fms.
by 30 m. by 7 in.

Redfish, 250 fms.
by30 m. bv6j in.

King, 250 fms. by
28 m. by 8j in.

Redfish, 200 fms.
by24m.by6jin.

King, 200 fms. by
22 m. by 9j in.

Redfish, 100 fms.

by 35 m. by 6j in.
King, 100 fms. by
32 m. by 104 in.

[(Average) 172 fms.
■{ bv 4 fms. by 5j
l in.

Value

per

fath.

$0. 65
.65
.65
.65

.65

.65

.65

.65

Seines.

No.

5

16

Description.

Drag, 250 fms. by
120 m. by 2j in.
Drag, 120 fms. by
40 m. by 3 in.
Purse, 150 fms.
long.

Drag, average 100
fms. in length.

Value

per

fath.

$1. 50

1.50

3.00

1.50

Purse, 160 fms. by
20 fms. by 3$ in.

Purse, 165 fms. by
300 m. by 3j in.
Drag, 100 fms. by

5 fms. by 3j in.
Purse, 120 fms. bv

10 fms. by 3 in.
Drag, 120 fms. by

6 fms. by 3 in. '
Combination, 180

by 15 fms. by 2
in. (herring)'.
Drag, 100 fms. by

5 fms. by 3 in.
Purse, 120 fms. by

250 m. by 3 in.'
Drag, 120 fms. by
200 m. by 3 in.
Purse, 185 fms. by
220 m. by 3 in.'
Purse, 100 fms. by
160 m. by 3 in.
Drag, 100 fms. by
178 m. by 3 in.'
Purse, 175 fms. by
10 to 12 fms. by
3 in.

Drag, 160 fms. by

6 fms. by 3j in.
Purse, 150 to 200

fms. by 7 to 12
fms. by 3 in.
Drag, 150 to 200
fms. by 4 to 6
fms. by 3 in.
Purse, 230 fms. by
20 fms. by 3 in.
[Drag, 175 fms. by
10 fms. by 3 in.
Drag, 150 fms. by
8 fms. by 3 in.
Drag, 120 fms. by
. 6 fms. by 3 in.
Purse, 180 fms. by
15 fms. by 3 in.,
average.

Drag, 115 fms. by
8 fms. by 3 in.
Purse (average),
158 fms. by 8j
fms. by 3 in.
Drag (average),
163 fms. by 6
fms. by 3 in.
Purse, 175 fms. by
240 m. by 3 in.
Combination (av-
erage), 195 fms.
bv5fms. bv3in.

0)

(2)

1.50
3. 00
1.50

3.00

1.50

2.00
1.50

(3)

1.50
3. 00

1.75

2.50

1.50
2. 50

1.50

3.00

2. 00

3.00

(4)

1.50

Traps.

No,

Description.

single; leads from 100
to 700 ft.; pots, 30
ft. square.

Aver.

value.

$1,000

Single; inshore leads
average 7 50 ft.;
pots, 36 ft. square.

Double; inshore lead,
300 ft.; channel
lead, 100 ft.; 1 pot,
30 ft,, square, 1 pot,
28 ft. square.

11

1 , 37

1,000

4 Whole cost, $1,400.

2 Whole cost, $400.

3 $500 each.

4 $300 each.

I

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1900. 327

Boat equipment, 1898.

Name of company and location of cannery.

Arctic Packing Co L. P A i Nn

Alaska Packing Co ( shagak '

Bristol Bay Canning Co. . | snaS‘llk-

Point Roberts Packing Co. (A. P. A.), Kog-
giung, Kvichak River.

Arctic Packing Co. (A. P. A.), Naknek
River.

Naknek Packing Co., Naknek River

Ugashik Fishing Station (A. P. A.), Uga-
shik.

Chignik Bay Co. (A. P. A.), Chignik La-
goon.

Pacific Steam Whaling Co., Anchorage
Bay, Chignik.

Hume Bros. & Hume, Anchorage Bay,
Chignik.

Arctic Packing Co. (A. P. A.), Olga Bay,
Alitak.

Karluk Packing Co L» P * Kar_

Alaska Improvement Co.. ( Pga.

Hume-Aleutian Pkg. Co. .

Uganuk Fishing Station. ,J nuK

Pacific Steam Whaling Co., II yak Bay

Hume Bros. & Hume, Uyak Bay

Pacific Steam Whaling Co., Kenai

Arctic Fishing Co.(A. P. A.), Kussilof River.
Pacific Packing Co. (A. P. A.), Odiak

Pacific Steam Whaling Co., Orca

Pyramid Harbor Packing Co. (A. P. A.),
Pyramid Harbor.

Glacier Packing Co. ( A. P. A.), Point High-
field.

Alaska Salmon Packing and Fur Co.
(A. P. A.), Loring.

Boston Fishing and Trading Co., Yes Bay..
Quadra Packing Co., Boca de Quadra

Metlakahtla Industrial Co.,Metlakahtla...

Baranoff Packing Co., Red fish Bay
North Pacific Trading and Packing Co.
Klawak.

Pacific Steam Whaling Co., Hunter Bay. . .

Unrigged vessels.

No.

Description.

Value

each.

18

Lighters

*600

2

Pile-drivers

1,200

6

Lighters

800

6

Trap scows

100

2

Pile-drivers

1, 500

5

Lighters

500

1

Pile-driver

1,200

7

Lighters

600

9

do

800

1

Pile-driver

1,500

2

Sail lighters

1,500

1

10

Trap scows

250

3

Pile-drivers

750

4

Lighters

400

1

Sail scow

200

10

Trap scows

60

3

Pile-drivers

1,000

13

Lighters

140

i

Sail scow

600

i

do

300

2

Pile-drivers

1,050

1

Cargo lighter

500

2

Fish lighters

250

2

Pish scows

100

1

Hand pile-driver

100

7

Lighters

500

12

Fish scows

150

1

Hatchery scow

150

4

Lighters

450

1

Pile-driver

1 , 000

3

Lighters

400

1

Pile-driver

1,000

5

Lighters

400

1

Pile-driver

1,500

3

Sail lighters

450

4

Trap scows

50

1

Pile-driver

1, 500

2

Lighters

400

3

Scows

400

4

House scows

400

1

Pile-driver

200

3

Lighters

700

1

Pile-driver

1,000

2

Lighters

600

2

Cargo lighters

150

20

Fish lighters

75

5

Lighters

50

2

House scows

75

1

Fish raft

25

1

Pile-driver

500

2

Lighters

100

1

Scow

100

4

Lighters

100

2

Fish scows

50

1

Pile-driver

800

Boats, etc.

No.

Description.

Value

each.

I 60

Columbia River gill-net

*200

boats.

25

Skiffs

30

1 20

Gill-net boats, F. B 1

100

1 10

Skiffs

30

19

Gill-net boats, F. B

85

10

Skiffs

40

f 23

Gill-net boats, F. B

100

I 5

Skiffs . . .

25

24

Columbia River boats

200

10

Skiffs

25

3

Seine boats, F. B

100

7

Columbia River boats

200

8

Gill-net boats, F. B

100

12

Skiffs

25

3

Seine boats

75

9

Columbia River boats

200

3

Gill-net boats, F. B

100

10

Skiffs

25

2

Seine boats

70

8

Columbia River boats

200

10

Gill-net boats, F. B

100

14

Skiffs

25

6

Seine boats, F. B

60

1

Otter boat

100

18

Dories

30

3

15

f

Seine boats, F. B

150

1 33

Dories

25

| 3

Launch tenders

90

6

Hatchery cars

30

1 ”

Seine boats, F. B

70

3

Sail boots

90

1 10

Dories

30

1 9

Seine boats

120

1 1

Whitehall boat

75

1 17

Dories

20

2

Skiffs

25

i

Seine boat

100

10

Gill-net boats, F. B

40

1 3

Skiffs . . .

25

( 15

Gill-net boats, F. B

40

4

Skiffs

30

1 2

Seine boats

200

33

Columbia River boats

200

1 6

Skiffs

25

1 2

Seine boats

200

30

Columbia River boats

200

t 8

Skiffs

25

50

Columbia River boats

200

3

Skiffs

25

1 7

Seine boats

60

1 H

Columbia River boats

200

8

Old River boats

25

5

Skiffs

25

f 17

Seine boats

50

1

Whitehall boat

50

12

Skiffs

20

r 4

Seine boats

50

6

Skiffs

25

r 12

Gill-net boats, F. B

50

12

Seine boats

100

12

Seine-boat tenders

30

1 4

Skiffs

20

6

Seine boats

50

7

Sailboats

100

1 8

Dories

25

4

Seine boats

75

1 4

Seine boats

25

5

Skiffs

25

15

Seine boats

50

I 3

Skiffs

25

1F. B.=flat bottom.

328

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION,

Boat equipment, 1899.

Name of company and location of cannery.

Arctic Packing Co

Alaska Packing Co

Bristol Bay Canning Co..

(A. P. A.) Nu-
shagak Bay.

Pacific Steam Whaling Co., NushagakBay.

Alaska Fishermen’s Packing Co., Nusha-
gak Bay.

Point Roberts Packing Co. (A. P. A.), Kvi-
chak Bay.

Arctic Packing Co. (A. P. A.), Naknek
River.

Naknek Packing Co., Naknek River

Ugashik Fishing Station (A.P. A.), Uga-
shik River.

Chignik Bay Co. ( A. P. A. ) , Chignik Lagoon .

Pacific Steam Whaling Co., Anchorage Bay,
Chignik.

Hume Bros. & Hume, Anchorage Bay,
Chignik.

Arctic Packing Co. (A. P. A.), Olga Bay,
Alitak.

Karluk Packing Co 1

Alaska Improvement Co. . (A. P. A.) Kar-
Hume-Aleutian Packings luk and Uga-
Co. nuk Bay.

Uganuk Fishing Station . . J

Pacific Steam Whaling Co., Uyak Bay

Hume Bros. & Hume, Uyak Bay,

Pacific Steam Whaling Company, Kenai . . .

Arctic Fishing Co. (A. P. A.), Kussilof River

Pacific Packing Co. (A. P. A.) , Odiak

Pacific Steam Whaling Co., Orca

Pyramid Harbor Packing Co. (A. P. A.),
Pyramid Harbor.

Glacier Packing Co. (A. P. A.), Point High-
field.

Thlinket Packing Co., Gerard Point,

Alaska Salmon Packing and Fur Co.
(A. P. A.) , Loring.

Boston Fishing and Trading Co., Yes Bay..

Quadra Packing Co., Mink Arm, Boca de
Quadra.

Metlakahtla Industrial Co., Metlakahtla...

North Pacific Trading and Packing Co.,
Klawak.

Pacific Steam Whaling Co., Hunter Bay

Unrigged vessels.

No.

Description.

Value

each.

1 18

Lighters

$600

! 2

Pile-drivers

1,200

4

Lighters

300

I 3

do

700

r 7

do

800

I 6

Trap scows

100

1 2

' Pile-drivers

1,500

1 7

[fighters

800

1 1

Pile-driver

1,200

8

Lighters

600

\ 9

do

800

{ i

Pile-driver

1 , 500

r 2

Sail lighters

1,500

i

do

750

12

Trap scows

250

1 3

Pile-drivers

750

r 4

Lighters

400

i

Sail scow

800

l i

do

200

i ™

Trap scows

60

l 3

Pile-drivers

1,000

( 13

Lighters

140

1 1

Sail scow

600

1 1

do

300

2

Pile-drivers

1,050

| 1

Cargo lighter

500

1 2

Fish lighters

250

] 2

Fish scows

100

Hand pile-driver

100

f 9

Lighters

500

1 13

Fish scows

150

I 1

Hatchery scow

150

t 5

Lighters

450

l 1

Pile-driver

1,000

J 4

Lighters

400

l 1

Pile-driver

1,000

f 7

Lighters

350

1 2

Pile-drivers

1,500

f 3

Sail lighters

450

5

Trap scows

50

l 2

Pile-drivers

1,500

i 2

Lighters

400

l 3

Scows

400

I 4

House scows

400

\ 1

Pile-driver

200

f 3

Lighters

1.100

i 1

Pile-driver

1,000

} 2

Lighters

600

I 2

Cargo lighters

160

\ 20

Fish lighters

75

5

Lighters

50

f 2

House scows

75

1

Fish raft

25

1 1

Pile-driver

500

2

Lighters

100

} 1

Scow

100

[ 4

Lighters

100

i 2

Fish scows

50

1

Pile-driver

800

Boats, etc.

No.

Description.

Value

each.

60

Columbia River, gill-net

$200

boats.

Skiffs .

30

15

Columbia River boats

200

4

Skiffs

30

17

Columbia River boats

200

3

Skiffs

30

30

Gill-net boats, F. B

100

10

Skiffs

30

24

Gill-nets boats, F. B

85

10

Skiffs

40

25

Gill-net boats, F. B

100

5

Skiffs

25

24

Columbia River boats

200

10

Skiffs

25

3

Seine boats, F. B

100

7

Columbia River boats

200

8

Gill-net boats, F. B

100

15

Skiffs

25

3

Seine boats

75

10

Columbia River boats

200

3

Gill-net boats, F. B

100

10

Skiffs

25

2

Seine boats

70

8

Columbia River boats

200

10

Gill-net boats, F. B

100

14

Skiffs

25

6

Seine boats

60

1

Otter boat

100

18

Dories

30

3

Skiffs

15

20

Seine boats, F. B

150

33

Dories

25

3

Launch tenders

90

6

Hatchery cars

30

12

Seine boats, F. B

70

3

Sailboats

90

10

Dories

30

10

Seine boats

120

1

Whitehall boat

75

17

Dories

20

2

Skiffs

25

i

Seine boat

100

20

Gill-net boats, F. B

40

3

Skiffs

25

15

Gill-net boats, F. B

40

4

Skiffs

30

2

Seine boats

200

33

Columbia River boats

200

6

Skiffs

25

2

Seine boats

200

30

Columbia River boats

200

8

Skiffs

25

50

Columbia River boats

200

3

Skiffs

25

7

Seine boats

60

14

Columbia River boats

200

8

Old river association

25

5

Skiffs

25

10

Gill-net boats, F. B

65

3

Seine boats

50

3

Skiffs

20

25

Seine boats

50

1

Whitehall boat

50

12

20

4

Seine boats

50

6

Skiffs

25

12

Gill-net boats, F. B

50

12

Seine boats

100

12

Seine-boat tenders

30

4

Skiffs

20

6

Seine boats

50

6

Sailboats

100

9

Dories

25

4

Seine boats

25

5

Skiffs

25

15

Seine boats

50

3

Skiffs

25

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1900,

329

Boat equipment, 1900.

Name of company and location of
cannery.

Arctic Packing Co

Alaska Packing Co

Bristol Bay Canning Co.

(A. P. A.),Nuslia-
gak Bay.

Pacific Steam Whaling Co., Nushagak Bay .

Alaska Fishermen’s Packing Co. , Nushagak
Bay.

Point Roberts Packing Co. 1( A. P. A.) , Kvi-
Kvichak Packing Co / chak Bay.

Arctic Packing Co. (A. P. A.), Naknek River.
Naknek Packing Co., Naknek River

Egegak Packing Co. (A. P. A.), Egegak
River.

Ugashik Fishing Station (A. P. A.),Ugashik
River.

Bristol Packing Co., Ugashik River

Chignik Bay Co. (A. P. A.), Chignik Lagoon.

PacificSteam WhalingCo., Anchorage Bay,
Chignik.

Hume Bros. & Hume, Anchorage Bay,
Chignik.

Arctic Packing Co. (A. P. A.), Olga Bay,
Alitak.

Karluk Packing Co |(A. P. A.) Kar-

Alaska Improvement Co. > luk and Uga-
Uganuk Fishing Station . j nuk Bay.

Pacific Steam Whaling Co., Uyak Bay,

Hume Bros. & Hume, Uyak Bay

Alaska Salmon Association, Chuitna River.

Pacific Steam Whaling Co., Kenai

Arctic FishingCo.(A. P. A.), Kussilof River.

Pacific Packing Co. (A. P. A.), Odiak

Pacific Steam Whaling Co., Orca

Western Fisheries Co., Dundas Bay

Pyramid Harbor Packing Co. (A. P. A.),
Pyramid Harbor.

Chilkoot Packing Co., Chilkoot Inlet

Taku Packing Co.,Taku Inlet

Taku Fishing Co.,PortSnettisham

Icy Strait Packing Co., Petersburg, Wran-
gell Narrows.

Unrigged vessels.

No.

Description.

Value,

each.

18

Lighters

6600

2

Pile-drivers

1,200

6

Lighters

300

4

700

800

6

Trap scows

100

2

Pile-drivers

1,200

8

Lighters

800

1

Pile-driver

1,200

7

Lighters

600

5

.do

200

i

Pile-driver

1,500

9

Lighters

800

1

Pile-driver

1,500

1

Lighter

250

2

Schooner lighters . . .

1,500

i

Sloop lighter

750

12

Trap scows

250

3

Pile-drivers

750

4

Liehters

400

1

Sail scow

800

1

do

200

10

Trap scows

60

3

Pile-drivers

1,000

13

Lighters

140

1

Sail scow

600

1

do ...

300

2

Pile-drivers

1,050

1

Cargo lighter

500

2

Fish lighters

250

2

Fish scows

100

1

Hand pile-driver

100

9

Lighters

500

17

Fish scows

150

1

Hatchery scow

150

5

Lighters

450

i

Pile-driver

1,000

4

Lighters

400

1

Pile-driver

1,000

2

Lighters

150

4

Scows

250

1

Lighter

50

1

Pile-driver

1,150

7

Lighters

350

2

Pile-drivers

1, 500

3

Sail lighters

450

7

Trap scows

50

2

Pile-drivers

1, 500

2

Lighters

400

3

House scows

400

5

House scows

400

i

Pile-driver

200

i

Lighter

250

3

Lighters

400

1

Pile-driver

1,000

2

Lighters

225

1

Fish scow

150

1

Lighter

500

1

Cargo lighter

850

1

Pile-driver

500

1

Scow

30

Boats, etc.

No.

Description.

V alue,
each.

80

Columbia River gill-net

6200

boats.

25

Skiffs .

30

25

Columbia River boats

200

4

Skiffs

30

17

Columbia River boats

200

3

Skiffs . . .

30

50

Gill-net boats, F. B

100

10

Skiffs

30

34

Gill-net boats, F. B

100

10

Skiffs

40

28

Gill-net boats, F. B

100

5

Skiffs

25

19

Gill-net boats, F. B

100

7

Skiffs

30

30

Columbia River boats

200

10

Skiffs

25

7

Gill-net boats

100

1

Skiff

25

3

Seine boats, F. B

too

7

Columbia River boats

200

8

Gill-net boats, F. B

100

15

Skiffs

25

3

Seine boats

75

9

Columbia River boats

200

3

Gill-net boats, F. B

100

10

25

2

Seine boats

70

8

Columbia River boats

200

10

Gill-net boats, F. B

100

14

Skiffs

25

0

Seine boats, F. B

GO

1

Otter boat

100

18

Dories

30

3

Skiffs...

15

20

Seine boats, F. B

150

33

Dories

25

3

Launch tenders

90

0

Hatchery ears

30

15

Seine boats, F. B

70

3

Sail boats

90

13

Dories

30

12

Seine boats

120

1

Whitehall boat

75

20

Dories and skiffs

20

20

Gill-net. boats, F. B

40

' 5

Skiffs

30

i

Yawl

40

i

Seine boat

100

20

Gill-net boats, F. B

40

3

Skiffs

25

*2

Columbia River boats

200

20

Gill-net boats, F. B

40

6

Skiffs. .

30

2

Seine boats

200

33

Columbia River boats

200

6

Skiffs . . .

25

2

Seine boats

200

30

Columbia River boats

200

8

Skiffs . . .

25

5

Seine boats

75

2

Columbia River boats

100

4

Gill-net boats

50

2

Dories and skiffs

50

56

Columbia Ri ver boats

200

3

Skiffs . . .

25

2

Columbia River boats

90

T

Skiff

25

15

Gill-net boats

60

2

Dories

25

3

Seine boats

50

3

Columbia River boats

150

9

Gill-net boats, F. B

50

12

Seine boats

ICO

12

Gill-net boats, F. B

50

12

Seine-boat tenders

35

4

Skiffs

20

1

Seine boat

30

1

Dory

10

Royer-Warnock Packing Co., Beecher Pass.

330

BULLETIN OF THE UNITE1> STATES FISH COMMISSION,

Boat equipment, 1900 — Continued.

Name of company and location of
cannery.

Glacier Packing Co. (A. P. A.), Point High -
field.

Thlinket Packing Co., Gerard Point.

Fidalgo Island Canning Co., Ketchikan

Alaska Salmon Packing and Fur Co. (A. P.
A.), Loring.

Boston Fishing and Trading Co., Yes Bay. .
Quadra Packing Co., Mink Arm, Boca de
Quadra.

Metlakahtla Industrial Co.,Metlakahtla...

North Pacific Trading and Packing Co.,
Klawak.

Pacific Steam Whaling Co., Hunter Bay

Unrigged vessels.

^0.

Description.

Value

each.

2

Lighters

SHOO

1

House scow

100

1

Fish scow

100

2

Lighters

225

3

do

75

3

Scows

20

2

Cargo lighters

150

20

Fish lighters

75

5

Lighters

50

i

House scow

75

2

Lighters

100

i

Scow

100

2

Lighters

100

2

Fish scows

50

1

Pile-driver

800

Boats, etc.

No.

Description.

Value,

each.

7

Seine boats

$60

14

Columbia River boats

200

8

Old river boats

25

5

Skiffs

25

6

Seine boats

60

10

Columbia River boats

200

6

Gill-net boats, F. B

00

2

Whitehall boats

85

3

Skiffs

20

12

Seine boats

70

8

Dories and skiffs

30

42

Seine boats

50

1

Whitehall boat

50

12

Skiffs

20

4

Seine boats

50

6

Skiffs

25

8

Seine boats

100

9

SKiffs

30

7

Seine boats

50

6

Sailboats

100

10

Dories

25

11

80

5

Skiffs

25

22

Seine boats

50

3

Skiffs

25

Bull. U. S. F. C. 1901. (To face page 330.)

Plate XXX.

MOUTH OF KARLUK RIVER WHERE IT EMPTIES INTO KARLUK LAGOON.

CALLBREATH’S HATCHERY, McHENRY INLET, ETOLIN ISLAND.

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1900.

331

THE KARLUK HATCHERY.

By Harry Clifford Fassett,
U. S. Fish, Commission.

The following notes concerning the salmon hatchery maintained by the Alaska
Packers Association near Karluk, Kadiak Island, Alaska, are based upon an inspec-
tion made in accordance with instructions of Captain Moser August 8, 1900.

The plant is a model one. It is located on the southern shore, at the eastern end
of the Karluk Lagoon, near the outlet of Karluk River, where a streamlet, called by
the hatchery people Shasta Creek, enters the lagoon from the hills to the southward.
From the rising ground immediately back of the hatchery Karluk Head, 3 miles west
(magnetic), may be seen over the intervening low points, with the cannery buildings
of Karluk Spit showing to the right of it. Here ground was broken for the hatchery
May 28, 1896, and on August 29, the same year, construction work was so far advanced
that stripping was begun. The actual cost of the present plant is said to be fully
$20,000, and the annual expenditure about$10, 000 for maintenance, repairs, and labor.
Considering the extent of the establishment, the rate of wages necessarily demanded
from its isolation, the long period of incubation, and expensive methods of securing
stock tish, this hardly seems excessive.

In 1897 a party from this vessel visited this hatchery, the results of whose obser-
vations are contained in Captain Moser’s report upon “Alaska Salmon and Salmon
Fisheries, 1897,” pages 155-157, to which attention is invited.

Since then the establishment has been considerably improved, without, however,
increasing the egg capacity of the hatching-house; in fact, this has been reduced by
one trough, which was removed to make room for the hot-water drum of the heating
system. A number of new ripening ponds have been made, the rearing or nursery
pond enlarged, and the original ponds remodeled. In the main building the dining
room and kitchen have been moved upstairs, an additional room built out in front',
the basement enlarged and partly cemented, heating system enlarged and improved,
and an electric-light plant installed. The. latter has a capacity of about 10 lights,
with 25 outlets at present, and the power is generated by a small Pelton wheel fed
by a 6 -inch pipe under a head of about 60 feet.

The main building, 32 feet by 100 feet, faces to the northward (see sketch). Imme-
diately west of it are a tramway and line of ponds, the latter extending down the
slope along the original bed of Shasta Creek northward to the beach. Abutting the
eastern end of the hatching-house is a covered pond known as the “reservoir,” and
beyond, in the same direction, a narrow ditch leads to the nursery pond. A plank
walk extends from the hatchery steps across the narrow beach flat to a short wooden
pier which ends at a condemned lighter weighted with stones, forming the landing
place. Immediately westward of the landing are the corrals. On either flank of

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

332

the main building are small outhouses, sheds, etc., and close to the rear entrance is a
small shed where the thermometers are kept. South of the hatching-house, at the
head of a small ravine and on the edge of a narrow undulating terrace in the hills,
the present sources of the water supply are brought together.

Shasta Creek is a tiny rill draining the low hills to the southward and west-
ward, and has an average volume of about 10 miner’s inches of clear water of
excellent quality; it is about a mile in length from its source to the lagoon. “The
Ditch” comes in from the eastward, and carries the waters of a small creek flowing
down the side of a mountain, about a mile distant, which is locally known as Sugar-
loaf Peak. The bed of the ditch is now well settled and ballasted, smooth, free from
sudden drops, falls, or riffles, of a very gradual pitch, and carries an average of
between 25 and 30 miner’s inches of clear, colorless water of excellent quality; it is
about H miles long. At the end of the ditch its waters are received by a shed-
covered tank (the “tank house”), in the bottom of which is the connection to a line of
6-inch piping leading to the hatchery below; a branch of this system supplies the
Pelton wheel. The escape or waste from the tank-house finds its way into Shasta
Creek, close by. From this point to the lagoon beach is about 200 yards in a straight
line.

The waters of Shasta Creek are first tapped by a line of iron pipe a short distance
above the tank-house; this pipe is used for filling a car at the upper end of the gravity
tramway, which is close to the tank-house. The creek passes to northward and west-
ward of the tank-house and plunges down the small ravine previously mentioned,
and about one-fourth the distance to the beach ends in the highest pond. From this
pond, called No. 10, or the “settling” pond, a wooden flume carries part of the water
into the upper part of the hatching-house, while the overflow escapes via the old creek
bed to the next pond below. The settling-pond also receives, in its northeastern
corner, the waters of a small spring running the year round; this corner of the pond
never freezes. The escape of pond No. 10 is tapped to supply another short line of
piping which leads northward to the next pond, where it is used in connection with the
tramway. This pond, No. 9, is the upper ripening pond and located about midway
between the tank-house and the beach. In close order, terraced northward down the
gentle slope, are ripening-ponds No. 8, No. 7, and No. 6, the latter housed in. From
No. 6 the waste water escapes through open ponds No. 12 and No. 11 into No. 1, and,
by another outlet, to pond No. 13 and thence to No. 1. From pond No. 1 the water
passes in turn through No. 2, No. 3, and No. 1, and thence into the East Corral.-
Pond No. 5 is out of the direct line of the system, and was not in use in 1900. No. 13
was built this season, but had not been placed in use at the time of my visit. None
of the water used in the ripening-ponds goes into the hatching-house.

The supply for the hatching-house is first by the pipe-line which leads from the
ditch (via the tank-house), and next by flume from the settling-pond. The settling-
pond is quite deep, much more so than any other, and receives its feed so gently as
not to stir the sediment from the bottom and roil the water. As its name implies,
its function is to allow the small debris carried by the creek to settle before passing-
on into the flume or to the lower ponds. The discharge, whether from the pipe line
or the flume passes into a filter in the upper stoiy of the hatching-house, thence into
a tank, from which it is piped to the troughs. The waste water discharges into the

Bull. U, S. F, C. 1!

w00s»mmii

Plate XXXI.

Oa*A- Houses

SKETCH PLAN OF SALMON-HATCHING PLANT, OPERATED BY ALASKA PACKERS ASSOCIATION AT SHASTA CREEK, KARLUK LAGOON, KADIAK ISLAND.

Scale and dimensions arbitrary.

'

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1900.

333

reservoir, and from it escapes through the narrow ditch already mentioned into the
nursery, or rearing-pond, whence it passes through a short Hume into the lagoon.

As far as the circumstances have permitted, the ripening-ponds have been dug
rectangular in shape, and as opportunity affords they are walled up with rubble and
cement. The doors are of broken rock and gravel, but it is the intention to cover
these with cement also as soon as time permits. The fish do not ripen well in dirty
water, and their frequent violent movements stir up any mud which may be on the
bottom or in the interstices of the sides. The same movements of the fish tend to
keep in suspension any slime or other foreign material, which thus passes out
through the wasteway, and this is so slight where the ponds are walled solidly that
no deleterious effects are apparent, even after the water has passed through several
ponds full of ripening fish.

All the upper ponds have sufficient fall between one and another for excellent
aeration, a most important consideration where many fish are impounded. Covered
pond No. 6 has the best arrangement for aeration, which may be described as follows:
The feed water passes through a wooden trough suspended horizontally over the pond
and extending longitudinally toward the center. The bottom of the trough is about
4 feet above the surface of the pond, and is pierced by numerous auger holes, through
which the water falls in tiny streams. Besides giving perfect aeration this method
distributes the supply over such a large area that the impounded fish are less excited
than is the case where the same volume enters in a single stream; they keep more
quiet, ripen more quickly, and if they do leap do not strike against anything ivhich
will bruise them, but merely fall back into the pond again. This arrangement will
be extended to the other ponds whose relative elevations will admit of it, as oppor-
tunity offers. The low ponds, No. 3, No. 4, and No. 5, have not given satisfaction,
and this is due probably to lack of adequate aeration. No. 2, however, though on
practically the same level as No. 3, is an excellent pond, but its superiority is thought
to be due to being tightly walled, and consequently cleaner than its mate. No. 5 is
expected to prove satisfactory after it has been cemented.

When a pond is to be gone over for ripe fish the water is lowered to a depth of
about 24 inches, or knee-deep, the waste gates being arranged to let it fall to that
depth, but no less, for fear of smothering the fish. A panel of slat fencing is then
lowered into the water at one end and pushed slowly toward the opposite side of the
pond, the spawn-takers wading behind it. The fish are carefully dipped up,
examined, and if found ripe for spawning placed in a floating car, made of slats, for
future attention; if still green they are freed in the pond behind the fence. This
method of handling the impounded fish has proven the best with the delicately
organized red salmon, and explains the importance of having the ponds of a regular
shape; thus every fish can be handled and every ripe one secured with the least
injury. After the operation has been completed the fence is removed and the live-
car of ripe fish towed gently alongside the stripping platform, of which there is one
at each ripening-pond.

Stock fish for the natchery are secured oy seining crews working under the
orders of the superintendent of the association’s canneries at Karluk Spit. These
, crews are composed of natives who are borne on the cannery rolls. The principal
seining-ground is on the northern shore of the lagoon, opposite the hatchery, from

334

BULLETIN OE THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

the mouth of the river downstream to a rocky point three-quarters of a mile
westward. After a seine haul is made the live fish are bailed into two live-cars,
composed of old dories and skiffs with square ports cut between each frame, over
which galvanized wire netting of H-inch mesh is stretched. Two men in another
boat then tow the live-cars across to the corrals, where the fish are tallied out. It
has been observed that it is much better to impound the stock fish, especially early
in the season, in a large inclosure. When first taken they are exceedingly restless,
chafing under restraint, and if closely confined soon become scarred and bruised,
causing fungoid growths to appear quickly. The nearer the adult fish approaches
maturity the more quiet it becomes.

The corrals are two in number, and cover an area of about 3 acres, the East
Corral being about twice as large as the West. At high high water there are about
10 feet of water at the outer edge of the corrals and at the inshore edge about 2 or 3
feet; the rise and fall here, extreme range, is about 5 feet. The corral fences are
composed of wire and cotton netting, the latter above, stretched between piles and
stands of old iron pipe. Everything but the piling is removed after spawn-taking
ceases for the season; the piles are secured after the ice loosens them in the winter
and are then hauled ashore.

The mortality of the fish seined is greatest in the corrals, as they receive the
roughest treatment in the process of first capture. In discharging the live-cars into
the East Corral the cars are brought bodily inside the inclosure through a movable
panel, after which the fish are dumped out. At the West Corral the cars are towed
alongside an opening above the water line and the fish dipped over from the outside.

In taking fish from the corrals for the ripening ponds the seine is again employed,
the one used being about 12 fathoms in length. This is hauled into the shoal water
off the lower end of the tramway; four large floating cribs of slats are then secured
to the cork line outside, two being for bucks and two for females. The fish are
then picked out of the net as tenderly as possible and examined; if too green they
are passed back into the corral. When the cribs have been filled with a sufficient
number they are hauled alongside the tramway and the fish dipped out into a car,
previously filled with fresh water, in which they are transported to the pond pre-
pared for them and there left to ripen. When fish which are quite or nearly ripe
are secured they are taken care of separately. A number of fish nearly ripe are
often taken with the incoming tide from the No. 4 pond, finding their way through
the wasteway as the water rises.

The tramway is about 200 yards long and leads from the hill near the tank-
house in a straight line, crossing several ponds en route, to the lagoon beach near
the eastern end of the East Corral. It is a gravity road, built of plank, and its chief
purpose is the hauling of stock fish to the upper ripening-ponds. Two strongly
built cars, connected by a manila cable, are used, one at each end of the line. After
the lower car. which is much smaller, has been filled with water and live fish the
larger one at the upper end is loaded, also with water, its greater weight hauling
the lower car to the upper ripening-pond, No. 9, midway of the tramway, where the
two cars meet. Intermediate stops, as required, are made at the lower ponds. After
discharging the fish from the lower car enough water is drawn from the larger one
to change the preponderance of weight, and the cars then resume their original

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1900.

335

positions at either end of the line. This method of transportation is an old one,
much used by mining men.

As already indicated, there is a spawning platform adjacent to each ripening
pond, and as but one of these is covered the spawn-taking is conducted almost wholly
in the open air. In 1900 no spawning was done at one of the ponds, it being used
for the bucks alone. The methods employed on the spawning platform and in the
hatching-house were originally those followed at the salmon stations of the United
States Fish Commission, and more especially at the quinnat hatchery at Baird, Cal.,
the changes inaugurated being the result of subsequent experience in the handling
of the more delicate red salmon.

Spawning is done by hand exclusively; strait-jackets are not necessary with
these small fish. One hundred and fifty is counted a big day’s stripping, though as
high as 224 have been handled. The spawn pans are circular, 9 inches in diameter at
the top, beveled to T inches across the bottom, and inches deep; a thin coat of
asphaltum lacquer prevents their rusting and renders them easily cleansed. Two
methods are employed in the taking of spawn; the first method, which is considered
the better, is the “dry,” the mixing of eggs and milt being done with the fingers.
The eggs are not washed, but are placed directly in the baskets within two or three
minutes after stripping. The second method is similar, except that after the two or
three minutes have elapsed a little water is added; they are then allowed to stand
until adhesion ceases and basketed without washing. When circumstances permit,
tlie milt of two bucks is used to fecundate the eggs of one female.

Twenty -five females are reckoned to a full basket, which, at the estimated average
of 3,000 good eggs per fish, gives a total capacity of 75,000 eggs per basket. The
diameter of the redfish egg ranges between 0.10 and 0.31 inch, with an average of
about 0.22 inch. It is much lighter in color than the egg of the quinnat salmon, and
has a very delicate appearance. At Karluk it has been found that redfish run from
2,500 to 4,500 eggs, in rare instances 5,000, and that a fair average will be about
3,700; but there is, of course, a certain unavoidable loss in the spawning operation,
and frequently a large number of eggs come from the fish dead; 3,000, therefore, is a
fair average.

A glance at the sketch plan of the hatching-house will give a fair idea of its
interior floor arrangement. There are 12 sets, or sections, of 4 troughs each, and f
set of 3, making a total of 51 hatching-troughs. These troughs all measure 14 feet
in length, 16 inches in width, and 7 inches in depth inside. They are built of clean-
grained redwood, all sides surfaced, and all 2 inches thick. In making the joints a
thick coating of asphaltum tar is spread over the parts to be joined, with an even
layer of cotton wadding as calking material. The completed trough receives a coat
of refined tar and two coats of asphaltum varnish. Built in this manner and properly
supported the troughs will not warp or spring, and there has never been the slightest
difficulty from leaks. This is an important consideration in the hatching-house. Not
only do leaky troughs add greatly to the waste of water and keep the employees uneasy
concerning the amount of water getting to the eggs, but the unavoidable jarring and
other shocks connected with the necessary repairs are frequently fatal to a large num-
ber of eggs. A dry trough makes a dry hatching-house, and in a dry house only will
the best efficiency of the egg-picking crew obtain. Where one has to stand on a wet

336

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

cold floor all day in a chilly, drafty room, at work requiring deftness of touch and
close attention, considerable endurance is needed physically, and it is by no means
unusual at hatcheries to have to call in new help while the regular hatching-house
force are suffering from colds, rheumatic attacks, etc. In a dry, well-lighted hatchery
the interest of the fish-culturist does not wane from physical causes, and the eggs and
fry consequently receive the benefit of these comforting features. Nearly anyone
will hurry through with his allotted number of baskets in a sloppy, cheerless, and
chilly barn, slighting the work in spite of himself, and yet the same person would
almost always give intelligent attention to a task which he finds extremely interesting
under physically comfortable conditions.

Besides the superintendent the permanent force of the station numbers 6,
including a cook. All the regular work of fish-culture is done by this force, and a
large part of the building and permanent improvements is executed by the same
persons. When additional labor is necessary a request is made upon the superin-
tendent of the association’s canneries at Karluk Spit.

A furnace in the basement of the main building, directly under the hatching-
house, heats the water for a system of piping used solely for artificial heating. A
set of coils is arranged directly under each section of troughs, and there is also a
system of piping on the bottom of the reservoir pond. When artificial heat is
employed in forcing the hatching of the eggs the steam boiler is placed in use to
drive the pumps. The latter draw the water from the reservoir pond, where it has
been warmed, discharging it into the filter upstairs. It will be remembered that the
waste of the hatching-house troughs escapes to the reservoir pond, but before using
this warm water again filtering and aerating are necessary. Just enough new water
is added to freshen the supply without much reducing the temperature, and very
little is needed. If the water were not used over and over again in this manner it
would be almost impossible and entirely impracticable to heat it sufficiently during
the cold winter months, but the system of aerating and freshening is so well con-
trolled that the feed water remains perfectly good after repeated use.

The feed water of the hatching-house, whether received from the flume or pipe
line, is thoroughly filtered before passing into the troughs. Much of the coarser
debris, such as straws, twigs, leaves, etc., is cleared from the water at the settling-
pond and tank-house, and coarse-mesh wire screens in the lower end of the flume are
also employed. Referring to the sketch it will be seen that the filter is simply a set
of screens of varying degrees of fineness, arranged in a long wooden trough. The
water falls from the flume or pipe upon the upper end of the top screen, which is a
long board pierced with numerous auger holes. These holes increase in diameter as
the farther end is approached, and the board is given sufficient pitch to cause the water
to run down and cover it all, the function of the board being primarily to distribute
and incidentally to aerate.

Falling next through a fine-mesh screen of wire netting the water is received
in very fine spray-like condition by the last and lowest tra}^ or screen. This is made
of burlap, tightly stretched over a strong, light wooden frame, and has proven a
most excellent filtering material. After it has become thoroughly soaked the jute
or hemp of which it is composed swells closely and tightly, efficient^ cleansing the

Bull. U S. F. C. 1901. (To face page 336.;

Plate XXXII.

KARLUK HATCHERY, SHOWING CORRALS, AND IN DISTANCE EEL-GRASS BED.

A RIPENING POND, KARLUK HATCHERY.

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1900.

337

water of very line particles. With the more than usually excellent quality of water
here, and its lack of foreign material, the above arrangement is found to meet the
requirements of filtering. Where a refinement of this feature is necessary, however,
it will readily be seen that there is no limit to the extension of the number or fineness
of the screens.

The burlap used is of a slightly superior quality to the ordinary bagging, and in
addition to its efficiency has its cheapness to recommend it. When stretched on
frames it should be evenly secured, as its shrinking tendencies cause it to tear where
the strains are unequal. The frames should be small and in sufficient number to
allow of at least two changes in addition to the set in the filter trough. This is neces-
sary, as the burlap will rot if left continuously in water, but if removed and thor-
oughly dried every ten days or two weeks the screens will last a long time. Four
or 5 feet is a good length for the frames. When using more than one set of bur-
lap or cloth screens care should lie observed that the joints between the ends of the
frames do not occur directly below each other; they should be staggered — that is,
designed to occur at different intervals— the reason for which is plain.

While there is as yet but one filter trough in the hatchery at Karluk, the super-
intendent, Mr. James A. Richardson, is a strong advocate of three, arranged some-
what as shown in the sketch. This will allow one to be in use, one in reserve, and
the third under whatever repairs it may require. With a long hatching season and a
long nursing period little opportunity is offered to overhaul so important an adjunct
as the filter if to do so requires that it be placed temporarily out of commission. As
the expense is slight, such an arrangement has much to recommend it.

It is stated that fungus has never caused trouble at the Karluk hatchery under
the present management; at the old station, less than a mile westward on the same
side of the lagoon, much difficulty was experienced from this cause. It is due to
dirty water, unclean troughs and baskets, and careless and insufficient picking of the

F. C. B. 1901—22

338

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

eggs; it is likewise sometimes caused bjr too sluggish a current in the troughs, too
small a supply of feed water, lack of aeration, or from using the water over too
many times. In many cases fungus will not occur if troughs and baskets are kept
clean and the water is properly filtered.

The troughs are designed to hold five baskets each, allowing for the necessary
space between each for division plates, as well as the compartments at each end for
receiving and aerating and discharging the flow of water. The aerators are of tin
of the usual pattern and distribute the water well; at the opposite end of the trough
is the usual arrangement of drainage plugs. The division plates are arranged accord-
ing to the so-called Williamson system; that is, the first plate rests on the bottom of
the trough with the water flowing over it, and, a short distance beyond, the second
plate comes flush with the surface, but allows the flow to pass under it, the most

approved method of conducting feed water through salmon eggs. Instead of rigid
plates sliding in grooves at set intervals, division plates of light galvanized sheet
iron, thickly asphalted, are used; these are half an inch longer than the width of the
trough and are snapped or sprung in at any point desired. A drop of about 1 V
inches is given each trough, and the water is used four times before discharging into
the waste trough.

The waste trough is a continuous wooden box, built of heavy redwood boards,
which passes under the lower, or fourth, trough of each set and carries off the entire
waste of the hatching-house; it passes around the south wall and part of the east wall
and thence into the reservoir, where it discharges.

The baskets are 21 inches long, 15 inches wide, and 6£ inches deep, inside meas-
urement., made of galvanized-wire netting secured to a single wooden frame. The

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1900.

339

frames are of'clear sugar pine and redwood, Id inches wide by five-eighths inch thick.
The netting is five-eighths inch in the length of the mesh and 6 meshes to the inch,
which is found the best size for redfish eggs; netting with meshes per inch has
been used, but this is a tritie large. Baskets with a single wooden frame around the
top are found quite rigid enough and have a great advantage in the small space
occupied by a large number when stored away, the absence of the lower frame
admitting of very snug nesting.

While the capacity of each trough is 5 baskets, it is preferred to use not more
than 4 per trough, reserving the fifth space for “fleeting’’ in cleaning. It has been
found that redfish eggs require the cleanest of troughs and baskets, as well as the
most careful handling. The troughs are therefore cleaned as frequently as circum-
stances will admit, never less than once a week, and as often as every other day
when possible. Thus, by having the fifth space unoccupied the entire trough can
be thoroughly scrubbed without lifting a single basket of eggs; all the baskets are
moved one space toward the lower end of the trough and returned to their original
positions one at a time as their respective spaces are cleaned. By fleeting in this
manner jars are avoided and the eggs remain water-borne at all times — an especially
essential desideratum during the tender period.

As previously mentioned, a full basket of redfish eggs is reckoned as containing
75,000. Thus, with 51 troughs equipped with 4 baskets each, or 204 baskets, the
hatching-house capacity may be conservatively given as 15,300,000 eggs; and by
crowding in 5 baskets to a trough, making a total of 255 for the house, the capacity
can be increased to more than 19,000,000. These figures merely show the number
of eggs which may be placed in the baskets at one time, or what the hatching- house
will hold without using the baskets over again. Generally it does not follow that
this is the capacity for the season, but unfortunately it does at Karluk. Here the
period of incubation is so long that eggs taken at the very opening of the salmon
run, saj' the latter part of May, will not be hatched out until the close of the season,
late in September, after which but a trifling percentage of the spawn is taken. The
number of egg's basketed prior to July 1 is also quite small, and the gain in capacity
is therefore too trifling to be taken into consideration. Hence these figures may be
accounted correct as the}'' stand.

It is unfortunate that a full series of data is not available for an analysis of the
period of incubation under the various prevailing conditions. Until this season ( 1900)
the superintendent has been unable to keep complete records of anything beyond the
merest outline of the season’s work. A detailed record of temperatures and the
duration of the various stages of incubation, representative of baskets of normal
eggs taken at regular intervals during the stripping season, is being kept now, and it
is believed this material will be available for study later. These observations will
be carried on until the last of the fry shall have been planted. Such data, however,
as could be obtained is herewith submitted, believing that much of it will be of
interest and that possibly some of it may prove of value in the future.

In 1896 spawn-taking commenced on August 29 and was continued at intervals
of two or three days until November 28, 3,200,000 eggs, in fair condition, being
basketed during this time. Considering the diseased state of most of the stock fish
secured, that this was the first season of operation, and that the plant was still in

340

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

a partially unfinished state, the l'esult was deemed good, impregnation by the
methods at first employed was not always assured, and the losses were in consequence
somewhat augmented.

After stripping began daily temperature observations of the hatchery water
were recorded, from which the table below has been condensed. The highest
temperature recorded during the summer (1896) was 48° F., and the lowest, during
the following winter, 33° F.

Month and year.

Temperature of hatchery
water.

Month and year.

Temperature of hatchery
water.

Max.

Min.

Mean.

Max.

Min.

Mean.

O

O

O

o

o

o

36

42.5

35

33

+34

Oct,, 1896

40

35

39

Feb., 1897

35

33

+34

Nov., 1896

86

33

35.2

Mar.. 1897

34

33

33.8

Dec., 1896

35

33

+ 34

These figures represent the temperature of the feed water as it came from the
creek under natural conditions. During part of the time the water in the hatching-
troughs was warmed artificially and the temperature there was somewhat higher.
Unfortunately no exact data of thermal conditions during the forcing or hastening
process were kept, but it is stated that the temperature was slowly raised 10° or 12°
above that then prevailing, and then kept at that point, about 46° to 48° F.

The temperature of the air outside of the hatchery for November and December,
1896, and January, February, and March, 1897, is summarized as follows:

Temperature.

Period.

Days. hrs.
2 15

5 21

Between 10° and 20° above

Between 20° and 30° above

21 7

41 11

71 4

8 14

The eggs taken August 29, 1896, eyed in 60 days, with the water in the troughs
ranging between 45° and 35° and the mean 40.5° F. These eggs hatched out in 165
days. The eggs taken September 16 eyed in 100 days, with the temperature ranging
between 44° and 33° and the mean 36. 2° F. These also hatched in 165 days, but during
the last 42 days of the incubating period artificial heat was used. The eggs taken
September 23 were eyed in 111 days, temperature ranging between -13° and 33° and
mean 34.5° F. Artificial heat was employed to hasten development during a period
of about six weeks at the latter end of this period.

In 1897 spawn-taking was carried on from August 19 to December 9, and 2,285
females were stripped. Less than 1 per cent of them were spawned in August, about
85 per cent in September, and 14 per cent in October, November, and December.
From September 6 to 20, only 15 da\+s, 65.5 per cent of the salmon were spawned.
The greatest number spawned in one day was 224, on September 25.

Concerning the relative proportion of males to females taken and their mortality
in the stock ponds, or corrals, the following note is of interest: Of 6,640 salmon

II. U. S. F. C. 1901. (To face page 340.)

Plate XXXIII.

TRANSFERRING STOCK FISH TO CORRALS AT KARLUK HATCHERY, KADIAK ISLAND.

METHOD OF DRAWING OFF FRY FROM NURSERY POND, KARLUK HATCHERY, KADIAK ISLAND.

1

K

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1900.

341

impounded in the river corral, 4,170 were males and 2,470 females. Of 3,292 dead
salmon removed from the corral, representing the loss in the inclosure for the season,
1,998 were males and 1,294 females.

The amount of spawn placed in baskets during the 1897 season was not learned,
but the superintendent stated that “fully 6,000,000 fry were ‘turned out’ from the
eggs taken in 1897.” To this should be added the amount of eggs lost in the hatchery
troughs, say 20 per cent, and the loss from malformations, etc., say 6 to 10 per cent.
It is estimated that about 5,000,000 fry were planted.

The facilities of the establishment had been much improved since the preceding
year, spawn-taking was conducted under much better circumstances, and the expe-
rience gained may also be considered a material factor in this season’s hatching-house
results. It was observed that the fry hatched were more vigorous and healthy in
appearance, though hatching more slowly. The eggs taken August 19 were hatched in
210 days; those taken October 7 and November 2 were 123 and 138 days, respectively,
in simply eyeing out! No artificial heat was used in hastening the development of
the ova that luiar — season 1897. Beyond the foregoing there are no data available
concerning the hatching period, etc.

Preparations were being made at the time of my visit to increase the hatching-
house capacity by 13 more troughs, to bring the total up to 64; to extend Sugarloaf
Ditch so as to tap the waters of another stream farther to the eastward, a mile or
more; to extend the nursery system, and to improve the present retaining or ripening
ponds in the manner previously outlined.

The following shows the temperature recorded in the hatching-house feed water:

Month and

High.

Low.

Mean.

Month and

High.

Low.

Mean.

year.

Max.

Mean.

Min.

Mean.

year.

Max.

Mean.

Min.

Mean.

Apr., 1897...

O

37

O

-37

O

33

O

34.7

O

35.8 '

Nov., 1897

O

39

O

+30

O

33

o

35.1

O

35. 5

May, 1897 ...

47

43

34

37.7

40.3

Dec., 1897 ....

39

30

33

35.3

35.6

■June, 1897. . .

50

47. 7

40

42.5

45.1

Jan. , 1898 ....

36

34.8

33

34.3

34.5

Sept., 1897 ..

52

46.3

37

42.8

44.5

Feb., 1898 ....

30

34.6

33

34.2

34.4

Oct., 1897 ...

45

39.1

33

37.7

38.9

Mar., 1898....

39

36

33

34.6

35.3

The temperature of the air, dry bulb, outside the hatchery during the winter is
summarized as follows, for November and December, 1897, and January, February,
and March, 1898:

Temperature.

Period.

Between 10° below and zero

Dai/s. hrs.
0 2

Between zero and 10° above

12 13

Between 10° and 20° above

11 19

Between 20° and 30° above

31 22

Between 30° and 40° above

83 20

Between 40° and 50° above

10 20

The records for the spawning season of 1898 are again woefully incomplete.
Some fish are reported as spawned in June, and from July 5 to November 30, 5,000,000
eggs were placed in baskets. Of the latter 80 per cent were taken prior to October 4:
the remainder were obtained in gradually diminishing numbers until November 30.

342

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

No temperature records whatever are available, but the hatching periods were
noted as per table below. The lack of thermal data is deplored, but is accounted for
1>3t the unavoidable absence of the regular superintendent the greater part of the time.

Eggs
taken in
1898.

Hatched first.

Hatched last.

Mean hatching pe-
riod.

Range in hatching.

Eggs
taken in
1898.

Date.

Days.

Date.

Days.

Oct. 19,1898

106

Sept. 9.

July 8..

Oct. 20, 1898

104

Nov. 20,1898

135

120

31

Sept. 10.

July 11 . .

Oct. 21, 1898

102

Sept. 12.

114

Sept. 14.

July 17..

Nov. 1898

113

Dec. 6, 1898

148

132

35

Sept. 15.

July 19..

113

Sept. 16.

July 21.

Nov. 12, 189K

114

J uly 23. .

Nov. 26,1898

116

Sept. 22.

July 25..

Nov. 27,1898

125

Jan. 10,1899

169

147

44

Sept. 27.

July 29. .

Nov. 30, 1893

124

Sept. 28.

Dec. 28,1898

147

Aug.14..

Dec. 27, 1898

135

Jan. 20,1899

159

147

24

Oct. 4..

Aug. 26. .

Jan. 6, 1899

133

Apr. 11,1899

228

182

95

Oct. 7..

Aug. 30. .

Jan. 6, 1899

129

Apr. 11,1899

224

177

95

Oct. 10..

Sept. 5. .

Jan. 15,1899

132

Apr. 18,1899

225

179

93

Oct. 13..

Sept. 6..

Jan. 30,1899

146

Mav 3, 1899

239

193

93

Oct. 20..

Hatched first.

Date.

Days.

Feb.

14,1899

158

Feb.

18, 1899

161

Feb. 19-20, '99

160

Feb.

26, 1899

165

Feb.

22, 1899

160

Feb.

21 , 1899

158

Feb.

26, 1899

160

Feb.

23, 1899

154

Mar.

3, 1899

157

Apr.

11,1899

195

Apr.

10, 1899

192

May

1 , 1899

209

Mav

3, 1899

208

May

5,1899

197

Mav

8, 1899

207

May

6, 1899

198

Hatched last.

Mean hatching pe-
riod.

Range in hatching.

Date.

Days.

May 15,1899
May 15,1899
May 22, 1899

247

245

250

204

203

208

86

85

85

May 23,1899

246 203

86

1

From this record the following summary has been prepared:

Eggs taken in 1898.

Hatch first
(in days).

Hatch last
(in days).

Average

hatching

period.

Average
range in
hatching.

July

113

151

133

37

August

136

204

169

71

September

161

242

198

88

October

204

(?)

(?)

(?)

In 1899 there were spawned 2,837 red salmon, as follows:

Spring run.

Fall run.

Date.

No.

Date.

No.

June 27-30

14

Aug. 28-31

23

July 1-31

1,357

Sept. 1-30

1, 178

Aug. 1-10

60

Oct. 1-31

195

10

1,431

Total

1,406

1,431

Grand total for season,

899

2,837

Of the season’s take the spring run therefore amounted to 50.1 per cent as
against 19.6 per cent for the fall run. Considering the season as a unit, the monthly
percentages of fish spawned are as follows: June, 0.5 per cent; July, 17.9 per cent;
August, 2.9 per cent; September, 11.5 per cent: October, 0.8 per .cent; November,
0.1 per cent.

Taken at the usual hatchery count of 3,000 eggs per average spawn fish, there
should have been basketed more than 8,500,000 eggs, but the superintendent has only
credited the hatching-house with 6,000,000, “owing to shrinkage in various ways.”

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1900.

343

The first eggs were taken June 27 from a few fish, but were not basketed; the
milt curdled when it came in contact with the eggs, and it was not thought impregna-
tion would take place. Spawning was again carried on June 30, when the milt once
more curdled upon contact with the eggs, and none of the latter were basketed.
July 3 the first eggs were placed in the troughs, although the same condition of milt
was met with. This curdling tendency continued in a diminishing degree for about a
week longer, when it ceased; strange to say it did not affect the vitality of the sperm
as far as could be judged. Spawning was carried on about every other day in July,
the run slacking up toward the latter part of the month; in August eggs were taken
three times up to the 10th, from which time until the 28th none were taken. With
the beginning of the fall run work went on once more every other day until the end
of September; during October spawn was taken on an average of about once a week,
and the last stripping of 10 fish was done November 3. On the last-mentioned date
about 40 adult salmon, still unripe, were released from the reservoir and turned into
the river.

The period of incubation varies with the temperature of the water, of course, but
it is also believed to be of less duration with eggs taken from the spring run than is
the case with those of the later or fall run. That is, the eggs of the spring run of
redfish seem to have a more vigorous vitality, hatching more rapidly under similar
thermal conditions; but this is still a matter of opinion and must remain so until the
collection of sufficient data from which to draw careful conclusions.

From the meager figures at hand for the 1899-1900 season the following table
has been prepared:

Eggs taken in 1899.

Eyed.

Hatching period.

Hatch-

ing

range.

Prema-

ture

births.

First.

Last.

Mean.

Julv 3

30

74

109

92

35

23

July 13

40

125

109

132

121

23

July 31

93

185

139

92

62

Aug. 3

90

127

202

165

83

75

Aug. 28

65

126

199

163

73

74

Sept. 7

64

161

206

184

62

158

214

186

56

75

154

218

1S6

Sept. 20

81

162

223

193

61

89

207

237

222

30

Oct. 14

110

199

230

215

31

Oet. 21...

125

186

Summary.

35

91

122

107

31

July 31-Aug. 10 ...

110

193

151

83

69

152

212

182

60

Sept. 30-Oct. 27

108

197

233

215

36

Remarks

Delicate period,
Sept. 1-Oct. 15.

Delicate period,
Oct. 20- ?

Spring- run.
Fall run.

Eggs taken in 1899.

Spring run
Fall run . .
Season

Eyed.

Hatching period.

First.

100

174

137

Last.

158

222

190

129

198

163

Hatch-

ing

range.

58

48

53

Note.— In the above table a day of 24 hours is the unit.

344

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

It would appear from the above that the eggs eye very much faster with the
spring run, and that the hatching range covers a much longer period. It is also
apparent that in considering the hatching of redfish at Karluk the two runs must
be treated separately — the runs are so marked and the prevailing conditions so
radically different. For example, eye-spots have appeared in 30 days in spring-run
eggs, and have with fall-run eggs been as long as 138 days before being visible.
With the early run eye-spots are looked for between 35 and 40 days, the interval
advancing with the season; with fall eggs the eye-spots are not expected until more
than two months have passed, the time again increasing with the advancement of
the season. The “tender stage” is a variable quantity, difficult to calculate; it is
carefully looked for within about three weeks from the stripping, but may not occur
for as many months. Its duration is also variable, anywhere from one to five or six
weeks, depending upon the temperature, and it is thought, other conditions not yet
known. This season, 1900, no tender condition had made its appearance up to
August 8.

The period of incubation ranged in 1899 from 74 days to 237 days, and there is
a maximum record for some prior season of 244 days. The early run in 1899, under
natural conditions of temperature, hatched in an average of 129 days, whereas the
fall run required 198 days. Seven months is supposed to be the period of incubation
under natural conditions, with the temperature at a mean minimum during the cold-
est months of between 33° and 35° F., and this seems to be a fairly correct approxi-
mation, judging from the record of the October eggs of 1899 and the following
temperature record:

Temperatures in hatching troughs, winter 1899-1900.

Month.

Mean

maximum.

Mean

minimum.

Mean.

o

o

o

October, 1899

42

40

41

November, 1899

40

38

39

December, 1899

+3/

36

-37

January, 1900

-37

+ 35

36

February, 1900

37

35

36

March, 1900

38

36

37

April, 1900

39

36

+37

In 1900 the seining crew delivered into the river corrals 79,753 adult salmon.
Of this number 13,123 escaped from time to time through the water gate when
opened to admit live-cars, and through breaks in the corral fences during the time the
corrals were in use. 114 days; there were also lost 7,334 stock-fish at a time when the
fencing of one of the corrals blew down. The proportion of males to females
among these 20,457 fish which escaped alive is, of course, unknown. The remaining
59,296 comprised 33,523 males and 25,773 females, which are accounted for as follows:

Males.

Females.

Total.

14, 324
19, 199

19,498

6,275

33, 822
25, 474

33, 523

25, 773

59, 296

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1900.

345

Of these fish 7,270 males and 15,579 females, or a total of 22,849, were trans-
ferred to the ripening-ponds during the season, as follows:

Month.

Males.

Females.

Total.

June

1,931 .

3,974

5, 905

July

2, 296

5, 574

7, 870

August

2, 225

3, 658

5, 883

September

818

2,373

3,191

Total

7,270

15, 579

22, 849

No report of the egg-take for the season has been received, but 5,524 females
were spawned in all. Applying the usual Karluk hatchery factor of 3,000 per average
fish, the take would appear to have been 16,582,000 eggs. Allowing, however, for
“other shrinkage in various ways,” and judging from the hatchery capacity,
15,000,000 eggs would appear to be a fair estimate.

According to a report from the hatchery, under date of November 3, 1900, all
the June eggs and part of the July eggs had hatched out, producing an excellent lot
of healthy fry. It was found (1900) that the earlier eggs and the September eggs
were the best, while a portion of those taken during the middle of the season were
of indifferent quality.

The following temperatures of the water in the hatching-troughs are recorded:

Month.

High.

Low.

M can .

Remarks.

Max.

Mean.

Min.

Mean.

o

o

O

O

O

Mav, 1900

48

43

36

38.7

40.9

June, 1900

57

49.3

39

41 7

45. 5

57° June 28.

July, 1900

57

51

43

45

48

57° July 9.

August, 1900

56

50.2

42

46.3

48.2

September, 1900. .

48

46.1

39

43.1

44.6

October, 1900

46

41

34

40

40.5

November, 1900. .

39

36.6

34

36.1

36.3

December, 1900..

38

35.3

33

34.7

35

33° Dec. 22 and 31.

January, 1901

36

34.4

34

34.3

34.3

The eggs of the redtish readily admit of forcing, but to what extent is not
known. Judging from the fact that “freaks” or malformations and prematures
occur anywhere from 20 to 80 days, 90 days would seem the limit of safety, but at
what temperature the limit is reached is not yet known. At Karluk fall-run eggs
have been successfully forced to hatch in 165 days, or say 45 days sooner than would
have been the case under natural conditions. To do this the temperature during the
last 42 to 45 days — that is, after the one hundred and twentieth day — was artificially
raised to 46° and 48°, or 10° to 12° higher than otherwise would have obtained. It
has been observed that during warm misty or rainy weather eggs which are nearly
ready to hatch will be hastened by several days.

After a basket of eggs has been placed in a trough at the Karluk hatchery it
receives the most tender care. For the first two or three days the basket is not
touched, but remains “buried” under the canvas tarpaulin; it is then handled once a day
for the next four or five days by the superintendent himself, who merely floats the eggs
once, very gently, and picks off the dead eggs and “empties” showing on top; after

346

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

this, and until the “ unctuous” stage has passed, an expert egg-picker removes the bad
eggs, the superintendent having previously' floated them on top. When the unctuous
stage, lasting from eight to twenty days, during which the eggs are verv delicate and
have a certain indescribable oily appearance, lias passed, the basket is henceforth in
the hands of one of the hatching-house force, who is responsible for it until the end.

Ordinary tin forceps are employed in picking, but they are critically examined
by the superintendent before they are used, to see that there are no sharp edges or
corners to cut the tender skin of an egg. Frequent inspection of the forceps con-
tinues throughout the season. The eggs are picked very thoroughly until the second
tender period begins, usually a short time before eyeing takes place; after this stage
has passed the eggs may be handled with greater freedom, but vigilance and tender
care are observed throughout the season. Jars, sudden knocks, rapid changes in
temperature, or other shocks are particularly guarded against, and a basket of eggs
is never lifted from a trough when it can be avoided. In affixing to the trough the
small pasteboard tag describing the basket, no hammer is used, but the broad-headed
and short, sharp-pointed tack is forced home with the thumb. Great care is taken
to keep the troughs and baskets clean, and to have the feed water well filtered. As
yet there has not been the least trouble from fungus. There is a slimy vegetable
growth which forms on the sides of the troughs under certain conditions, which must
be removed, but which does not spread to the eggs like fungus; it is probably some
species of fresh-water algae.

After the fry are hatched out they escape to the bottom of the trough, there
being one-half inch clear space on either side of the basket, somewhat more than
that under it, and in addition there is the large area at the end of each trough
created by the removal of the fifth basket; this gives the fry plenty of room, and
they do very well in the troughs. As they age they require more space, but they
are usually held in the parent trough until the egg — or umbilical— sac is absorbed, a
period of about ten weeks, depending upon the temperature of the water.

The fry must then be fed, which is sometimes done in the trough and sometimes
in the reservoir pond. The only food ever used at Karluk has been tinned salmon
flesh, “ do-overs,”. furnished from the canneries at Karluk Spit. This is removed
from the can, thoroughly desiccated, and then ground up in a fine-cutting sausage
mill. For some reason the fry do not seem to thrive on this diet, refusing to take
it after ten days or two weeks, and it is therefore the endeavor to plant them as soon
after becoming free feeders as is possible; it makes a wonderful difference in the
quick growth and development of the fry if they can obtain natural food. The fry
appear to be of a generally dormant temperament during the time the sac is being-
absorbed, and there has been very little loss at Karluk during this period; the
greatest losses to fry occur at the time of first feeding.

As they become free feeders they are allowed to escape from the troughs via the
wasteway into the reservoir pond, and thence through the ditch into the rearing or
nursery pond — a large, irregular-shaped excavation, with an area of about three-fourths
of an acre. Owing to the cannibalistic tendencies of the larger fry, the young with the
egg sac still attached are kept by themselves. The tiny free feeders, however, seem
pretty well able to take care of themselves. As opportunity offers, the fry are taken

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS TN 1900.

347

from the large nursery pond and planted; or, if the nursery he frozen over, they are
taken from the reservoir and parent troughs, where they have been held on this
account. After the fry are three or four months old it lias been observed that they
seem to deteriorate in the nursery ponds, and they are never held beyond this time.

When the ponds and upper part of the lagoon are frozen over, the fry are placed
in tanks prepared for them, transported on sleds to the open water, and planted.
These tanks are made of clean, strong, salt-salmon barrels thickly coated with
asphaltum varnish and rigged with handles, or beckets, of rope. Three of these
are a sled load, and comprise a “plant,” which usually numbers about 100,000 by this
method. When the ponds and lagoon are open and free from ice, the fry are driven
out of the rearing-pond at high water, through a short flume, into a live-car made of
an old skiff. This skiff, which has a number of square ports cut in its sides, covered
with tine mesh wire netting, is brought directly under the short flume, which leads
from one corner of the pond to the lagoon beach. It has a capacity of over 200,000
fry. When the live-car is loaded the wire-screen gates are let down across the inner
end of the flume and the further exit of fry stopped.

Planting is done at high water along the shores of the lagoon between the mouth
of the river and the upper end of the village at Karluk. The location selected
depends upon the existing conditions, ice, waves, and the movements of predatory
species being considered. As far as possible a rocky shore whose crevices afford safe
retreats, away from the entrance of fresh water where trout are attracted, is chosen,
and the fry released without further preliminaries. It is claimed that no salmon fry
has ever been planted at Karluk with the egg sac not entirely absorbed.

The superintendent firmly believes that the strong free-feeding fry early crave
.salt water, and he usually has a barrel containing a small quantity of salt submerged
in the large nursery pond. It has been observed that the fry collect about this like
flies after sweets, and the salt appears to act upon them like a tonic, making them
more sprightly and vigorous in their movements.

After being set free the fry have been observed to work downstream alongshore
toward the salter portions of the lagoon, which is fairly brackish except at the higher
tides, when it is cpiite salt, or at the lowest tides when the river is full, when the
lagoon is practically fresh. Later the fry are seen along the outside beaches in the
vicinity of the shaded rocky points, but return to the lagoon at frequent intervals,
working in and out with the tides for a long time, or until late in the fall following
their birth. Some fry are much stronger and larger than others and grow very
rapidly. Two or three were seen in the nursery pond August 8, 1900, which were
from 2 to 3 inches in length and very timid. In April, 1897, fry from If to If inches
long were seen in small schools passing seaward from Karluk River, and the fry
hatched in the spring of 1898 were from If to If inches, some 2 inches, in length in
the nursery pond in August.

Trout are believed to be the most destructive natural enemies the fry have to
contend with. An individual ( Salvelinus malma ) only 2f inches in length which
once found its way into the nursery pond had 12 tiny fry in its maw when captured.
The trout are not such active feeders in the winter, and are more sluggish in move-
ment, and it is therefore deemed advisable at Karluk to plant fry at this season.
Other natural dangers are also believed to be lessened at this time.

348

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

After the trout the greatest enemies to fry are perhaps the sea birds. Flounders
and sculpins are too sluggish in their movements, besides being bottom fish, to be
very destructive. Sudden storms, raising a heavy sea on the shore along which the
fry are schooling, are also dangerous.

The loss of the hatchery in the ratio of fry planted to the number of healthy
eggs basketed it is believed at present will not amount to 25 per cent from all causes,
although during the first season it was figured at not far from 40 per cent. The
greatest present loss is from dead eggs and “empties,” or unfecundated eggs. This is
not now as much as 15 per cent, and gradually diminishing as experience is gained. The
loss from freaks and abortions and premature births, all combined, is nominal, but is
greatest in the eggs of the spring run. It is not of itself considered a factor, but is
lumped with the losses from other causes. Deaths due to smothering of the tiny fry
during the period of absorption of egg sac, through injuries received in various ways
while in the troughs and reservoir, with the other losses just mentioned, will make up
a conservative total loss of 25 per cent. The superintendent believes his 1900 loss
should not be much in excess of 20 percent unless from some unlooked-for calamity.

The superintendent believes in the parent region theory, and thinks that the
Karluk fishery has already this year (1900) felt the value and effects of artificial
propagation. He thinks that the largest and strongest of the fry planted in the winter
of 1896-97 and spring of 1897 have become matured, that this year they returned as
breeders, and that their numbers were sufficient to make an appreciable increase in
the runs of salmon schooling off Karluk Head, and possibly Ayakulik River. He
believes they first put in an appearance as grilse, invariably males, which are
thoroughly matured, and that these grilse are 2 years old, that is, from birth. Part
of the breeders, he thinks, return in three years, while others of slower development
return in four or five years, and it is not beyond the bounds of reason to presume
that some may be delayed for an even longer period before reaching full maturity.

In 1897 the adipose fin was cut from 513 fry, part of which were liberated in
Karluk River and part in the lagoon.

The approximate output of the Alaska Packers Association’s redfish hatchery at
Karluk is estimated as follows:

Fry liberated.

Season 1896-97 2, 000, 000

1897- 98 5, 000, 000

1898- 99 5, 000, 000

1899- 1900 6,000,000

1900- 1901 12,000,000

Total output 30,000,000

Bui!. U. S. F. C. 1901. (To face page 348.)

Plate XXXIV.

Sectiaw of 5«

“a

A. Su-oc

5-6S-B Rs.eeVci.tvi

C C- c- C- Bvfcc

V\a.t<ttvv.vvo^ V\ oov.se.

V2 Bet. a. of 4- l Bet: of 2>.

Totov-V 51.

of -trou.cj-t\,a r

' 4- £>ov.aVCe.ta eacVv avdUwa.nl'^ .
5 " * vf s-v.veee.SS (Vcu

204- to 2 55 eoviKu-ts;
of to a.s VCo/t * •

'2? femaA.es a.t a,v/ t\-a.«e

3,000 C^aj-3, or ^5,000
of- KoutcKervi v

' UwOLer oroLcrvd,r \i Corvct^-,

lS\2>oo,ooo,
t\£oef> a aw* vj j i <5, v 2 S , o o o.

j S. c. C. 1901. (To face page 348.)

Plate XXXIV.

S-VCeXclv- P’V.anrv Re.d. - t>aV-m.ow HoktcHe/c^
'O'j JWasVcou ?a,c\cnvs J\ ss‘ w , cut
SWasta. CrutK, K<lv*Vvx.Vc Lo-o^oow. VCcudAO/Vt ) sLa-wct

State. Ks" =

R.CStrvov.r ^oyvA
DiscKo-'-c^e. afcca.^c
R.tc,«.vJ\.r>.c|^ bascw.

w Set 4- Ha.VC-(r\.\.-rv.a^-_T\'^Aj.c^f\t>

fe> Sv>^^.V.vj - ^«*om fitter - taw,Vc.

B- B O’ B Rtc-e-vf Ci\or awL Ouuva.fi. a ar c.om^a*tm*.*vt 6.
D<«>cka/c d£tt\.o£ Co-vw^cwt mints.
Wo.5te.'trou.q-Vv "to '1‘tstrfoiv-
X- £cr<x ba.sVCe.ts.

'^Lee-tcno^'.

S Co.lt -^4." = \' .

HautcfcvLVLq^ Hovx.se..

Q'.vs - V2. Sets of 4-, \ set: of 2>.

*• Tot a.1/ 5 l .

Ca^o-eLt^ of trou-c^ks ?

' 4- ^a.svc«ts ea-cV%, ordw.n.a.ri.luj .

Co-o<^cxt\i of ba.svco.tv
'ZS females
5,Ooo «

CcL^>a.Mlt\j of- tvaAcjb-e-r m \
■' VJwKf ov*ft.C

204 to 2.5S ©averts.

2. S' femaA.es at a,Veca.a?e

i.Ooo ft^s, or ^s.ooo

?. .<Tik5i JL

®T

J

.?. . i>afevA v-ssUflfctv .’bil'iv.--.-?.-. ^thL i :

B.

E

.inar \» Corvd. - ,

IS, 2*00,000.

^ tvec xtssoux*^ , 1 2.S,ooo.

- TJ- -

1^-; -TilfL

?: 353SJ£3KS31KS3KS^i!S3 : S3TK.-S'

.

?)srat -UtJif -I litlf "ii

■

*.1 }*/. '-r*-'; ’ .vSjfe <swo.nl- ->><3

~ f oJ

••• <J '■*■ ' 'X >. : >. X X

-vrtj? rt o*h B S..S ,JT .S

/ = Si*- j>te3t}

:

SALMON INVESTIGATIONS OF THE STEAMER ALBATROSS IN THE

SUMMER OF 1901.

By JEFFERSON F. MOSER,
Commander , United States Navy , Commanding.

After refitting during the winter of 1900-01, at Sausalito, Cal., the Albatross
left that point, April 23, for Puget Sound, under instructions to dredge along the
coast in depths, greater than 1,000 fathoms. Upon the completion of this work a
special report relating to it was made, and the records are printed in the report of
the United States Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries for 1901.

Owing to the strikes and the disturbed condition of labor on the coast at this
time, the vessel was detained for docking and painting until May 22, when departure
was taken from Seattle. After coaling at Union Bay, British Columbia, the vessel
arrived, May 29, at Hunter Bay, Prince of Wales Island, Southeast Alaska, and the
same day field operations were commenced. The work for the season, under the
Commissioner’s instructions, consisted in a continuation of the explorations of the
salmon streams and lake systems of Alaska on the lines carried out during previous
years, and an examination of the canneries and hatcheries along the route.

During the progress of the work in Prince William Sound a case of small-pox
appeared among the crew, causing an earlier return to Puget Sound, for quarantine
and fumigation, than was contemplated. The stream and lake work had been practi-
cally completed, but the early return did not permit an examination of all the new
canneries. After obtaining pratique at the quarantine station at Port Discovery the
season was too far advanced to return to Alaska, and the vessel was accordingly
detailed for special work extending from Puget Sound to Monterey.

Owing to my early detachment from the command of the Albatross and the lack
of facilities for making a complete report consequent thereto, many of the details
previously referred to have been omitted, and this paper will be largely confined to
descriptions of the streams and lake systems explored by the party during the season.

It is desired in this connection to express my appreciation of the work performed
by the officers of the Albatross , and of the courtesies extended by those interested in
the canneries. Lieut. Hugh Rodman, U. S. N. , Ensign A. J. Hepburn, U. S. N.,
Ensign C. R. Miller, U. S. N., and Ensign C. S. Kempff, U. S. N. , in addition to
their duties on board the vessel, conducted the stream and lake examinations. Mr.
A. B. Alexander collected statistics, Mr. F. M. Chamberlain made the photographic
plates, and Mr. H. C. Fassett assisted me and, under my direction, made special
investigations. My thanks are due to the different companies operating canneries in
Alaska for courtesies extended during our investigations, particularly to the Alaska
Packers’ Association, which has, through the president, Mr. Henry F. Fortmann,

349

350

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

placed at our disposition the facilities of its various plants and rendered most efficient
assistance.

The following is the itinerary of the Alaska cruise:

Southeast Alaska:

Hunter Bay, Prince of Wales Island May 29-31.

Niblack Anchorage, Prince of Wales

Island May31-Junel.

Moira Sound, Prince of Wales Island June 1.

Tamgas Harbor, Annette Island June 1-3.

Metlakahtla, Annette Island June 3.

Ketchikan, Tongass Narrows, Revilla-

gigedo Island June 3-5.

George Inlet, Revillagigedo Island June 5.

Mary Island Anchorage June 5-6.

Kah-Shakes Cove, entrance to Boca de

Quadra June 6.

Smeaton Bay, Behm Canal June 6-7.

Checats Cove, Behm Canal June 7.

Yes Bay, Cleveland Peninsula June 7-8.

Loring, Naha Bay June 8-10.

Ketchikan, Tongass Narrows, Kevilla-

gigedo Is. and June 10.

Steamer Bay, Etolin Island ....June 10-11.

Kunk Creek, Etolin Island Tune 11.

Wrangell, Wrangell Island June 11-13.

Salmon Bay, Prince of Wales Island June 13.

Conclusion Island (off Kuiu Island) June 13-14.

Point Barrie, Kupreanof Island June 14.

Port Protection, Prince of Wales Island.. June 14-15.

Shakan Bay, Kosciusko Island Tune 15-17.

Kell Bay, Kuiu Island June 17-18.

Killisnoo Harbor, Kenasnow Island June 18-19.

Southeast Alaska — Continued.

Kook (Basket) Bay, Chichagof Island... June 19.

Pablof Harbor, Freshwater Bay June 19-21.

Juneau lune 21-24.

Hunter Bay, Admiralty Island June 24-25.

Bartlett Bay, Icy Strait June 25-27.

Dundas Bay, Icy Strait June 27-29.

Yakutat June 30-July 7.

Prince William Sound:

Orea July 8-10.

Port Gravina July 10-11.

Naked Island Anchorage July II.

Herring Bay, Knight Island July 11-15.

Naked Island Anchorage July 15-18.

Port Valdez July 18-21.

Southeast Alaska:

Sitka Tuly 23-25.

Nakwashina Bay, Baranof Island July 25-Aug. 3.

Schultze Cove, Baranof Island Aug. 3-4.

Ilanus Bay, Baranof Island Aug. 4-5.

Sitkoh Bay, Chichagof Island Aug. 5-6.

Hoggatt Bay, Baranof Island Aug. 6-7.

Baht Harbor, Zarembo Island Aug. 7-8.

Steamer Bay, Etolin Island Aug. 8-11.

Ward Cove, Tongass Narrows, Revilla-
gigedo Island Aug. 11-12.

Washington:

Port Discovery, Quarantine Station Aug. 17.

Before the opening of the season it was believed that there would be a very
large number of new canneries operating during the summer, but the drop in the
price of salmon made it difficult for some prospective canners to raise sufficient funds
on futures to place them on a working basis, while others feared that overproduction
beyond the world’s demand would bear market prices below cost; nevertheless, there
was a large addition, which will be referred to later. It had been the intention early
this year to form a trust of the Pacific salmon canneries, but failing to make terms
with the largest operating company, the scheme resulted simply in a consolidation of
a portion of the canneries.

An organization under the title of the Pacific Packing and Navigation Company,
incorporated under the laws of New Jersey and backed by eastern capitalists, was
formed during the spring of 1901. Its object is given in a “statement,” under date
of March 12, 1901, in which it is said:

It is proposed to consolidate into one corporation the properties and privileges of these companies
and firms, thereby controlling about four-fifths of the canned-salmon product of the world. * * *
It is proposed to capitalize the new corporation as follows: 6 per cent debentures, $7,000,000; 7 per cent
cumulative preferred stock, $12,500,000; common stock, $12,500,000.

The Alaska Packers Association, whose output in past years has been about 70
per cent of the Alaska salmon pack, demanded of the trust a cash payment for their
business at their own valuation. The trust offered the amount, but payment to be
made partly from the sale of this season’s product and the remainder in mortgages
on their own property and stock in the new company, which offer was declined.

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1901.

351

The Pacific Packing and Navigation Company acquired the following properties,
and they are now operated by that organization:

Alaska.

Canneries of Pacific Steam Whaling Company at Nushagak, Bristol Bay; Chignik, Alaska Peninsula;
Uyak, Kadiak Island; Kenai, Cook Inlet; Orca, Prince William Sound; Hunter Bay, Southeast
Alaska.

Hume Bros. & Hume, with canneries at Chignik, Alaska Peninsula, and Uyak, Kadiak Island.
Thlinket Packing Company, canneries at Gerard Point and Santa Anna Bay, Southeast Alaska.
Western Fisheries Company, with a cannery at Dundas Bay, Icy Strait.

Chilkoot Packing Company, with a cannery at Chilkoot Inlet.

Taku Packing Company, with a cannery at Taku Inlet.

Taku Fishing Company, with a cannery at the entrance to Port Snettisham.

Boston Fishing & Trading Company, with a cannery at Yes Bay.

Chatham Straits Packing Company, with a cannery at Sitkoh Bay.

Icy Strait Packing Company, with a cannery at Petersburg, Wrangell Narrows.

Quadra Packing Company, with a cannery at Mink Bay, Boca de Quadra.

Puget Sound Region, Washington.

Pacific-American Fisheries Company, with canneries at Fairhaven and one at Friday Harbor.
Ainsworth & Dunn, with canneries at Seattle and Friday Harbor.

Fairhaven Canning Company, with a cannery at Fairhaven.

The new concern also acquired a hatchery near the entrance to Freshwater Bay
and one in the Boca de Quadra, Alaska.

As the histories of the Alaska canneries have been given in my former reports,
reference will be made here to the canneries located in Washington and absorbed by
the new company.

The Pacific American Fisheries Company was incorporated in 1899 under the
laws of New Jersey. This company purchased at the time of its organization the
cannery and trap properties of the Island Packing Company, San Juan Island, and
the cannery of the Franco- American North Pacific Packing Company at Fairhaven,
the latter concern having been promoted the year previous. The “P. A. F. as it
was locally known, also acquired about thirty independent trap locations in the
adjacent waters of Washington.

Ainsworth & Dunn had one cannery at Blaine and one at Seattle, and a number
of trap locations. This business had grown up gradually, during a period of seven
or eight years, from a small beginning in the fresh-fish trade to a prominent position
in the Puget Sound salmon industry.

The Fairhaven Canning Company was a Washington State corporation, owning-
one cannery at Fairhaven and several trap locations.

The Pacific Packing and Navigation Company therefore represents a combine of
twenty-three canneries with their equipage. The company claims an Alaska pack
for 1901 of about 700,000 cases, and expects to increase its output so as to have a
total capacity of 1,000,000 per season.

Returning to the cannery conditions in Alaska, there are now two large corpora-
tions and sixteen independent canneries. The Alaska Packers’ Association easily
leads in this enterprise, with a pack this year of 50 per cent of the total. The Pacific
Packing and Navigation Company follows with about 30 per cent. The remaining 20
per cent are distributed among the following independent concerns: Alaska Salmon
Company, Columbia River Packers’ Association, Portland- Alaska Packers’ Association ,

352

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

iuul Alaska Fishermen’s Packing Company, all on the Nushagak; North Alaska Salmon
Company, on the Kvichak; Naknek Packing Company, on the Naknek; Bristol
Packing Company and Red Salmon Packing Company, on the Ugashik; Alaska
Salmon Association, on Cook Inlet; Fidalgo Island Canning Company, Ketchikan;
Metlakahtla Industrial Company, Metlakahtla; North Pacific Trading and Packing
Company, Klawak; Pacific Coast and Norway Packing Company, Blunt Point,
Wrangell Narrows; Union Packing Company, Kell Bay; San Juan Fish and Packing
Company, Taku Harbor; and F. C. Barnes & Co., Lake Bay, Prince of Wales
Island.

NEW CANNERIES IN SOUTHEASTERN ALASKA IN 1901.

In southeastern Alaska six new canneries were built and operated and two were
rebuilt during the season, as follows: Thlinket Packing Company, in addition to their
cannery at Gerard Point, at the mouth of the Stikine River, erected and operated a
plant called No. 2 in Santa Ana Bay, Seward Passage. The Pacific Coast and Norway
Packing Company, which during 1900 operated a salting plant in Wrangell Narrows,
erected and operated a cannery in the Narrows at Blunt Point. The Chatham Straits
Packing Company, a branch of, or promoted by, the Icy Strait Packing Company,
operated a cannery on the southern shore of Sitkoh Bay, about 4 miles from Point
Craven. The Union Packing Company built and operated a cannery in Kell Bay, Ivuiu
Island. Canneries were also built and operated at Lake Bay, Prince of Wales Island,
by F. C. Barnes & Co., and in Taku Harbor, by the San Juan Fish and Packing
Company. The Alaska Packers Association rebuilt their canneries at Loring and
Wrangell and installed modern plants at both places. Three new canneries only were
visited in southeastern Alaska, as time did not permit our calling at all the points.

Union Packing Company. — This company, with home address at Tacoma, was
organized under the laws of the State of Washington, and built a cannery during the
spring of the year on Kell Bay, an arm of Affleck Canal, on the southern end of
Kuiu Island. The buildings are located on the southern arm of the bay inside a
cluster of islands. The capacity of the cannery is placed at 600 cases per day. The
outfit was for 25,000 cases, with a Chinese guaranty of 20,000 cases. The Chinese
contract was 44 cents per case, with the usual conditions. The fishermen contracted
for their transportation and board, $35 per month, and for each crew of 7 men,
collectively, a bonus of 1 cent for each redfish and coho, $4 per thousand for dog-
salmon, and $2 per thousand for humpbacks. Transportation 1 >y calling freight
steamers of a regular line. If the conditions should hold good, it was the intention
to fish for halibut after the close of the salmon-packing season.

Alaska Salmon Packing and Fur Company (A. P. A.), Loring. — During the
spring of 1901 the old cannery buildings were pulled down, new buildings were erected,
and new machinery installed on the old site for a first-class three-filler plant. The main
cannery building is 240 feet by 50 feet, of which 70 feet is two-story; parallel to it
and connected by a broad platform is a two-story warehouse, 170 feet by 60 feet,
with an ell 120 feet b}T 40 feet. Part of the old building, 60 feet by 35 feet, has been
retained for a box-house. There are two wharves — the upper one having sufficient
depth alongside for vessels to lie while loading, the lower one is used for berths for
the cannery tenders. The Y slip for discharging fish from the tenders, referred to
in my 1900 report has been extended.

Bull. U. S. F. C. 1901. (To lace page 352.)

Plate XXXV.

CHENIGA STREAM, PRINCE WILLIAM SOUND, ALASKA.

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1901.

353

The following canning machinery is installed: 2 cutters, 3 tillers, 3 toppers,
3 solderers, 10 retorts, 2 sets of canmakers (complete with 2 toppers and 2 solderers),
and 2 fish -cleaning machines. The cannery has a capacity of 2,400 cases a day, and
was ready for operation for the first run of fish this season. All the tins were made
at the cannery, of 100-pound domestic plate. The canning machines were run at
the rate of 55 per minute for each set.

Glacier Packing Company (A. P. A .), Point .Uighfield , Wrangell. — As the old
cannery was no longer suitable for the purpose, it was pulled down during the season
and a new enlarged cannery with the latest machinery was constructed on the site of
the old plant. The cannery building proper, a structure 238 feet by 50 feet, of which
138 feet is two-story, was ready for the season’s pack, and the warehouses and other
buildings were erected during the season and after the runs were over. All cans
were made by hand at the cannery, except 1,200 cases of fiats which were carried
from San Francisco. T'he tin plate was of domestic manufacture, 100-pound weight.

Several of the older canneries were visited in southeastern Alaska, but no marked
changes were noted from conditions existing in 1900, except a general tendency to
improve methods, better machinery, and increased facilities for making a larger pack.

It may be of interest here to note that during our visit in the vicinity of
Burroughs Bay it was learned that the Indians during the past two years have taken
quite a number of shad.

NEW CANNERIES, WESTERN ALASKA, 1901.

From Cross Sound to Bering Sea there were no additions to the canneries, but
the latter district received six new ones and enlargements to several old plants.

The Portland-Alaska Packers’ Association built a cannery at Snag Point, on the
Upper Nushagak Bay. The location is in front of the village, a short distance above
the A. P. A. cannery known as the Alaska Packing Company, or the Johnson plant.

The Columbia River Packers’ Association constructed a cannery at the mouth of
Clark Creek, above the Nushagak Canning Company’s reserve plant (A. P. A.).

The Alaska Salmon Company erected a canning plant on the right bank of Wood
River, about 2 miles from the mouth, and abreast of the lower point of the first island
in the river.

The Red Salmon Packing Company built and operated a cannery on the Ugashik
River, about half a mile above the site of the old Bering Sea Packing Company.

The Alaska Packers’ Association built an additional three-filler cannery on the
Ugashik, on the site of the old Bering Sea Packing Company, and have retained the
latter name for the new cannery.

Under the name of the Guardian Packing Company the A. P. A. built a four-filler
cannery on the Naknek, about 2 miles below their old cannery, which is operated
under the name of the Arctic Packing Company.

The Alaska Packers’ Association has also laid the foundation for a large addition
to their plant below Koggiung, which was constructed and operated in 1900. In my
last report this was called the Kvichak Packing Company, but since then the name
has been changed to the Horsehoe Fishing and Mining Company. This addition is
to have four fillers and to be ready for operation during the season of 1902.

The Alaska Packers Association have erected a large salmon hatchery on the
Naha Lake System, at the head of the Third Lake, within the mouth of the stream

F. C. B. 1901—23

354

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

which forms the outlet to the Fourth Lake. This hatchery was located during the
season and obtained 12,000,000 redfish eggs.

The association also operated the Callbreath hatchery, on Etolin Island, obtaining
about 6,000,000 redfish eggs. At Karluk hatchery, where the run of redfish this
season was very large, 32,800,000 eggs were obtained, making the total number of
redfish eggs placed in the hatcheries of the Alaska Packers’ Association 50,800,000.
Counting upon a loss of 20 per cent, this corporation expects to liberate over 40,000,000
fry in the waters of Alaska.

The following is an account of the streams and lakes examined during the season,
together with a few remarks on special features of the salmon fisheries.

Pacific Steam Whaling Company’s hatchery Hetta Lake.

SOUTHEAST ALASKA.

PACIFIC STEAM WHALINU COMPANY’S HATCHERY, HETTA LAKE.

Hetta Stream and Lake were described in my report for 1897 (p. 73-75), and the
hatchery was referred to in my report for 1900, but not visited until June 5, 1901,
when it was examined by Ensign Kempff and Mr. Chamberlain. For a description
of the locality reference is made to former reports.

The hatchery, consisting of hatchery house, dwelling, and boathouse, is located
on low, rolling, and heavily wooded land on the southeast shore of the lake, on the
left bank of a feeder, from which the hatchery receives its supply of water. The
hatchery site is reached from the mouth of Hetta Stream by trail to the lake and by
boat across the latter. This feeder is about 10 feet wide, 6 inches deep, and flows
with a strong current in a general west-northwest direction, emptying into the lake

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1901.

355

about 100 feet to the northward of the main building. The bottom is gravelly, with
rocky outcrops in places. There is a cascade of two falls of 5 feet each about 200
yards from the mouth, and about 100 feet beyond this point the stream receives a
small tributary from the eastward, the bottom of which is gravelly. Temperature
of feeder 43° F. ; temperature of lake water 43' F., of lake outlet 50° F.

The hatchery supply is carried from a point just above the cascade for a distance
of 325 feet in a Hume, the drop of the flume being 12 feet in its length. Outside the
hatchery the water is received in a settling tank, 2 feet by 4 feet by 1 foot, partially
filled with gravel. A spout 2? inches by 3 inches leads from the tank into the
building, dropping 2\ feet to the head trough.

In the feeder near the hatchery are two nursery pools (A and B), formed by

double barricades, and covered with boughs to shade the fry and protect them from
birds.

The hatchery building is 50 feet by 26 feet, with side walls 10 feet high, of plank.
There are 10 troughs, each 20 feet long, the bottom 12 inches wide, being set in the
sides, which are 8 inches deep. They are arranged in 4 batteries, 3 of two troughs
each and 1 of four troughs, that is, a double run. They extend lengthwise of the
building and are equally distant from each other and from the sides of the building.

The basket divisions are 2^ feet in length, and the division plates, 4 inches apart,
are made of light-weight iron, asphalted. The head trough is of the same material

356

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

as the hatching-troughs. It is of 12-inch stuff and the sides and bottoms are of the
same dimensions. The gates are made by cutting out and resetting the block, leaving
a space at the bottom of three-fourths inch by 1 inches. The outflow is controlled
by a sheet-iron drop gate. A short tin spout carries water into the troughs, falling
about 1 inches. In the double-run battery a similar spout carries the water into the
second section with a fall of 2 inches. The troughs drop about 6 inches in their
length. The baskets are 21 inches by 11 inches by 5 inches, of the usual material, two-
tenths- inch by three-fourths-inch mesh. Wooden battens are secured to the two long
sides and the ends protected by a fold of tin nailed to the battens. The corners are
interlaced. The baskets are supported in the troughs either by the wooden battens
or upon four small blocks one-half inch high, nailed to the bottom of the trough.
There were 70 baskets in the house, each having a capacity of 50,000 eggs.

The stock fish are seined in the lake and kept in a retaining pond until fully ripe.
The seine used is 30 fathoms by 2 fathoms by 2^-inch mesh. The fish are spawned
by the wet process. The spawning pans are tin saucepans, 8 inches in diameter,
asphalted. The period of incubation is 90 to 120 days.

I f* 'k 1* a I t

Sci. .(

Sketch of Hetta Lake and Stream, Prince of Wales Island, Alaska,

The data from this hatchery is exceedingly meager, and not reliable enough for
record. It is said that in 1899, 2,800,000 eggs gave 2,600,000 fry (a loss of 7.11 per
cent), but this can hardly be correct; in 1900, 1,800,000 eggs were placed in baskets.
Very cold weather during the winter of 1900-1901 froze many of the eggs. The
output is not definitely known.

PETER JOHNSON STREAM AND LAKE.

This stream is known to cannery people as one of the Moira Sound streams. In
conducting the examination of that locality in 1897 it was missed, but it was visited

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1901.

357

this season by a party from the Albatross, under Lieutenant Rodman, on June L. It
is referred to on page 83 of the 1897 report.

On the eastern side of Prince of Wales Island, between the Wedge Islands and
Adams Point, is the approach to a narrow arm, about 2 miles in length, running east
and west (true), and now known as Johnson Arm or Inlet. On the northern shore,
midway of its length, is a narrow inlet, making to the northward for a distance of about
three-eighths of a mile, around which is the new mining camp and post-oftice called
Dolomi, with weekly mail from Ketchikan. The head of this small inlet receives the
waters of Peter Johnson Stream, which is the outlet for several small lakes.

Sc.-V, m'vln

Sketch of Peter Johnson Stream and Lake, Johnson Arm, Prince of Wales Island.

The main stream flows in a general southeasterly direction from the main lake
for a distance of rather less than a mile, over a bottom which is generally rocky.
About one-third mile from the mouth, at a point called The Forks, it receives a small
tributary from the northward which itself is the outlet to three small lakes. At the
forks a small basin is formed about 75 feet wide and 1-1 inches deep, the lower end of
which is reached by high-water spring tides. The main stream is from 10 to 12 feet
wide, and 15 to 20 inches deep; from its source to near the forks it is full of ripples,
flowing with a strong current to a broken fall of 4 feet drop about 50 yards above

358

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

the forks; thence to the mouth it flows over a series of small rapids. At no point,
however, are there any natural obstructions to the ascent of salmon. Near the lake a
dam has been constructed across the stream to raise the lake level. It has a board face,
sloping- at an angle of about 45°, and is arranged to contract the usual flow of water
to a width of about 6 feet, which forms a runway. With a full stream it probably
is not an obstruction to the ascent of salmon.

About 30 yards above the forks are the remains of an old barricade and a runway
formerly used in connection with the funnel-shaped baskets or traps employed by the
natives of this vicinity. At the forks are the remains of an abutment probably used
formerly in some sort of barricade.

The larger lake, from which the main stream has its source, is known as Paul
Lake; it is about 2 miles long and one-fourth mile wide, with the major axis in a
WSW. and ENE. direction. It is quite deep, one point, it is said, reaching a depth
of 120 fathoms. It is 75 feet above sea level and on June 1 the water, which
appeared clear and pure, had a surface temperature of 52° F. Its range in water
level is about 4 feet. High hills and mountains border the northern and southern
sides. Along the shore the bottom is of gravel with occasional sections of rock and
some mud. At the western end the lake receives a feeder in which are spawning-
beds for a distance of about one-fourth of a mile. A number of salmon fry were
seen in the lake and there were a few small trout above the dam.

The small tributary, previously referred to as joining the main stream at the forks,
is about half a mile long, 6 to 25 feet in width and 2 to 10 inches in depth, and flows
but a small amount of water. It drains three shallow ponds known as John, William,
and James lakes, surrounded by low banks, and full of pond lilies which grow from
a muddy bottom.

Lake J ohn is one-half mile from the forks and is 300 yards long and 100 yards wide,
with its major axis in a NNW. and SSE. direction; it is reported to have a depth of
about 12 feet. The elevation is 25 feet above high-water mark and the temperature
of the surface water, June 1, was 53° F.

A shallow streamlet one-half mile in length and with a few unimportant rapids,
connects Lake John with Lake James. The latter is about four-tenths mile long, by
175 yards wide, and lies in a general W. by N. and E. by S. direction. It is shallow,
and has an elevation of 55 feet. Temperature of surface water, June 1, 52° F.

Lake William is a shallow pond, 250 yards long by 90 yards wide; it has a short
outlet, 2-4 feet wide by 8 inches deep, flowing through the left bank of the streamlet
connecting Lake John with Lake James and very near the former. It has an eleva-
tion of 28 feet, and the temperature of the surface water on June 1 was 52° F.

The country surrounding the Peter Johnson stream and lake system is well
wooded and covered with the usual growth of the region. This stream is claimed by
a native, from whom if derives its name, and furnishes fish to the canneries at Met-
lakahtla and Loring, although prior to 1896 all of these fish were purchased at
Metlakahtla. It is remarkable for the small redfish which it carries, and it is said
there is no deviation, from one year to another, in their average weight, which is
from 34 to 4 pounds each. The redfish from this stream are frequentty quoted by
those who propound the parent-stream theory in support of the argument.

SKETCH OF TAMGAS LAKE AND STREAM SYSTEM, EAST SIDE OF TAMGAS HARBOR, ANNETTE ISLAND, ALASKA.

Bull. U.S. F. C. 1901.

(To face page 358.)

Plate XXXVI.

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1901.

359

The following is the record of the fish taken from this stream so far as any data
are available:

Year.

Redfish.

Cohoes.

Humpbacks.

Dates.

No.

Dates.

No.

Dates.

No.

1892.. ..

1893.. ..

1894.. ..

1895.. ..

Julv 8-Aug. 18
July 10-Aug. 29
July 18- Aug. 23
July ti-Aug. 1(1

8, 434

Aug. 6-Aug. 18

1, 310

17,154
15, 525

Aug. 5-Aug. 15

1,754

July 25-Aug. 23
July 26- Aug. 30

2, 329

17. 874

lj 979

July 24-Aug. 2

1,465

1890....

July 8-Aug. 2

21,700

-Sept. 10

1,900

Aug. 3-Aug. 21

8,000

1897....

July 8-Sept. 2

26,310

July 19-Sept. 9

2, 957

Julv 20-Aug. 21

10,016

1898....

July 13-Sept. 27

14, 279

July 16-Sept. 29

4,324

July 26-Aug. 29

15, 596

1899

July 6-Sept. 1

25, 018

.1 uly 19-Sept. 1

399

July 19- Aug. 25

11,223

1900....

July 7-Sept. 1

19, 036

J uly 28-Sept. 1

343

July 23-Sept. 1

11,758

TAMGAS STREAM AND LAKE.

Annette Island on its southern side has a deep bay, 5 miles in length, which
affords good anchorage in its upper part and is known as Tamgas Harbor. On the
eastern side, midway the length of the bay, at Creek Point, is the mouth of a stream,
a lake outlet, carrying redfish which are supplied to the cannery at Metlakahtla.
Ensign Miller and Mr. Chamberlain examined this system on June 2.

The stream is over half a mile in length and at its head is 30 feet wide, 1 foot
deep, and flows with a current of 2 to 3 knots, over a rocky and bowlderous bed, be-
tween moderately high banks covered with the usual growth of the country. About
200 yards from the lake the bed narrows, the stream flowing 400 yards through
a ravine, at the end of which, and about 400 yards from the beach, is a barricade
partially dismantled but appearing as if recently used. Tide water ascends about
200 yards from the beach. Temperature of water, June 2, 51° F.

The first lake is irregular in form, lies in a basin in a general NE. and SW.
direction, and is surrounded by high snow-covered peaks, from which it receives
numerous streamlets, carrying surface drainage and melting snow. It, is about 2
miles long, from three-fourths to one-eighth mile in width, is apparently shallow,
and elevated 75 feet above tide water. There are a few gravel beaches and the
immediate shore is well wooded. At the head of the lake, in the northern corner, is
the mouth of a stream which enters through a delta 200 yards long, and which is the
outlet to a second lake. This stream is 600 yards long, and at the head of the delta
is 10 feet wide, 1 foot deep, with a current of 3 to 4 knots. For the greater part
of its length it flows over a bowlderous bed through a rocky ravine, though near the
mouth it broadens over gravelly beds suitable for spawning.

The second lake is 600 yards long, 400 feet wide, and elevated 90 feet above the
first lake. At its head is a feeder that may lead to a third lake, but want of facilities
prevented a further examination. It is probable that salmon ascend to the second
lake. The color of the water throughout the system is clear and of brownish tinge.
The shores are wooded.

A hatchery site could probably be found at the head of the first lake, near the
mouth of the connecting stream.

The redfish from this stream are very small and average in weight about the
same as the Peter Johnson stream, viz, 3^ to 4 pounds. The stream may be rated as
having a value of 10,000 redfish under average conditions.

360

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

The following table shows the catch from this stream since 1892:

Year.

Redfish.

Cohoes.

Humpbacks.

Dates.

No.

Dates.

No.

Dates.

No.

1892

6, 114

1893

July 8-28 . ~

2, 328

July 19-30

3,543

1894

12, 032

Aug. 6-11

2,686

1895

12' 357

.1 uly 17-Aug. 9

5, 449

1896

8j 795

July 24-Aug. 18

2, 982

1897

13, 430

40

.] ulv 21- Aug. 26

21,918

1898

22, 678

Aug. 9-17

4, 151

1899

July 8-Aug. 29

11,026

Aug. 24-29

282

July 21- Aug. 26

29,115

1900

9,517

300

July 24-Sept. 1

17, 743

GEOROE INLET STREAM AND LAKE.

The southern side of Revillagigedo Island is penetrated by three deep inlets, the
western one of which is known as George Inlet. At its head a small cove, making to
the northward immediately west of Bat Point, receives the waters of a stream, a lake
outlet, which carries redfish.

This stream was examined, by a party in charge of Ensign Kemptf, on June 5.
It Hows in a tortuous channel in a general easterly direction, at first, upon leaving
the lake, through low grassy flats, while nearer the mouth it passes between rugged
hills carrying in the lower half of its course numerous rapids. It is about 4 miles
long, 50 feet wide, and 14 feet deep, with a current of 3 to 4 knots. The bed
throughout the rugged hills is of rock, slate, and gravel, while that portion through
the flats is largely of mud. The water is clear, of brownish tinge, and on June 5
had a temperature of 59° F.

There is an island half a mile from the mouth and another the same distance
from the lake. About one-fourth of a mile above the lower island a small trib-
utary, 31 feet wide and 4 inches deep, enters from the SW. About one-fourth of
a mile above the mouth are the remains of a barricade. The log was in place, but
most of the rails that had supported a lath fencing had been swept away. Some of
the fencing, interwoven with wire, was near at hand.

The first lake is about one mile in length with an extreme width of two-thirds of
a mile, the main axis lying in a general north-and-south direction. It lies in a low
basin and has a shallow appearance, pond lilies in places extending 200 yards from
the shore line. The beaches consist of rock, gravel, and mud. A conical hill, about
250 feet high, rises over a prominent point on the eastern shore. The lake has an
elevation of 240 feet above tide water, and the temperature of the surface water was
59° F. on June 5.

On the eastern side, one- half mile from the extreme southern end, is a stream
connecting Lake No. 1 with No. 2. It is one-half mile long, 30 feet wide, from 2 to
6 feet deep, and runs with a strong current over a gravel and mud bottom. The
water has a brownish tinge, and on June 5 had a temperature of 59° F. The lakes
are also connected by a slough, which enters the first lake at its southern end.

Lake No. 2 is of irregular form and has an extreme length of II miles by an
extreme width of one-half mile. It has a rather shallow appearance, but is deeper
apparently than the first lake. Tim beaches are of rock, gravel, and mud; elevation
above tide water, 245 feet; temperature, June 5, 59° F.

SKETCH OF GEORGE INLET, LAKES AND STREAM, R EV I LLAG I GEDO ISLAND, ALASKA-

Bull. U. S. F. C. 1901. (To face page 360.)

Plate XXXVlI.

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1901.

361

At the eastern end this lake receives from the southward the waters of a feeder,
which was examined for a distance of II miles to a deep pool, which had an elevation
of 265 feet above tide water. This feeder is 12 feet wide, 12 inches deep, and flows
with a strong current through a tortuous channel, over a gravelly bottom. It has a
number of deep pools. The water has a brownish tinge, and on June 5 the
temperature was 19° F.

A dead king salmon was found on the banks of the main stream, 2 miles from
the mouth. It was probably a straggling fish.

George Inlet stream was fished for the Metlakahtla cannery from 1892 to 1896,
and in 1900 by the Fidalgo Island Canning Co. For a number of years it was also
fished by Clark & Martin. Under average conditions it may yield 6,000 redfish.
The following- are the only statistics obtainable:

Y ear.

Redfish.

Cohoes.

Humpbacks.

Dates.

No.

Dates.

No.

Dates.

No.

1892

9, 061
3, 191

3,787

2,142

225

6,949

4, 875
9,518
11,247
7,905
1,576

1893

1894

1895

1S96. . .

July 9-Aug. 15

July 3-Aug. 0

July 1-Aug. 1

July 11-Aug. 15

July 17-Aug. 6

1,426

854

531

July 24-Aug. 17

July 17-Aug. 6

July 21-Aug. 1

1898 . . .

July 20. . . 7

1900

July 8-Aug. 1

July 25-Sept. 6

2, 358

July 20-Sept. 4

39, 085

KAH-SHAKES STREAM AND LAKE.

About 2 miles south from the entrance to the Boca de Quadra, and opening upon
the Revillagigedo Channel, is a cove named after Kah-Shakes, a chief living in the
vicinity. From the northeast end of this cove a shallow tidal lagoon extends in an
easterly direction for a distance of 11 miles. It has a width of 25 yards to 75 yards,
and receives at its head the waters of a redfish stream, having a lake source which was
examined by a party in charge of Lieutenant Rodman on June 6. The banks of the
lagoon are rocky, well wooded, and the bottom generally muddy. Spring tides reach
the head of the lagoon, which point may properly be called the mouth of the stream.

The stream proper is one-fourth mile long, 12 to 15 feet wide, 12 inches deep,
and flows over a rough, rocky bottom with a slack current, forming here and there
a pool. There are no decided rapids. There are many fallen trees, but no obstacle
to the movement of fish in ascending. Halfway up the stream are the remains of a
barricade built in the usual form of a braced log and split rails.

The lake is pipe-shaped, about II miles long in a northeasterly and southwesterly
direction, expanding at its upper end into a broad basin, and receives at its eastern
end, through a low, grassy flat, the main feeder. This stream is 8 feet wide, from 6
to 8 inches deep, and flows with a slack current over a gravelly bottom, which probably
forms the main spawning-ground. In it and in the lake numerous small fry were
noticed. The shores of the lake are low and wooded, grassy around the edges, with
beaches of rock, gravel, and sand. The vegetation common to the country surrounds
the system. Elevation of lake, 10 feet. Temperature of lake water, 61° F. ; tem-
perature of water of feeder, 50° F. ; temperature of water in lagoon, 65° F.

This stream has been fished by the canneries at Quadra, Metlakahtla, Loring,
and Ketchikan. Its value, under average conditions, may be placed at 12,000 redfish.

362

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

The following, collected from all available sources, will furnish a fair idea of the
capacity of Kah-shakes stream. There are no data available for 1896:

Year.

Number
of redfish.

Dates.

Year.

Number
of redfish.

Dates.

1892 .

9,218

14,399

10,579

16,181

July 12-Aug. 17
July 8- Aug. 28
July 12-Aug. 16
July 13-Aug. 15

1897

8, 000
14,100
15, 000
16, 600

July 9-Aug. 16
July 10-Aug. 22
July 9-Aug. 26
July 10-Aug. 15

1893

1898

1894. . .

1899

1895. ..

1900

CHECATS STREAM AND LAKE.

Checats Stream empties into the southeast corner of Checats Cove, a small inden-
tation on the eastern shore of Behm Caual, about 12 miles north of Smeaton Inlet,
and was examined by a party in charge of Ensign Hepburn, on June 7. It is the
outlet of a lake lying about three-fourths mile in a SSE. (mag.) direction from the
mouth of the stream. The course of the stream is fairly straight from tide water to
the lake. About one-fourth mile from the mouth of the stream is a small island
or cluster of islands around which the water flows, the larger volume going to the
westward of the island. Abreast the head of this island, on the left bank, was found
a panel of rails, evidently used as a barricade when fish are running. A fallen tree
spanning the stream at this point probably furnishes the support for it. Aside from
this artificial obstruction the stream was found clear and clean until the lake is

Bull. U. S. F. C. 1 901 . (To face page 362.) PLATE XXX V 1 1 1.

KAH-SHAKES LAGOON, R EV I LLAG IG EDO CHANNEL, MAINLAND, SOUTHEAST ALASKA.

CHECATS STREAM, BEHM CANAL. SITE OF BARRICADE, MAINLAND, SOUTHEAST ALASKA.

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1901.

363

reached. There are no falls, cascades, or heavy rapids, although half the length of
the stream, from the mouth up, might be called a continuous rapid. The water is of
good depth and the current not strong enough to prevent the ascent of salmon. The
bottom is stony, with bowlders in the rapid parts; near the lake, where the current

is sluggish, there are some pebbly parts, but generally it is of mud or sand, with much
water-logged timber and bark. The water has a brownish tinge, and on June Id had
a temperature of 55 0 F. The banks are steep and thickly wooded with spruce, pine,
devil’s club, and berry bushes, with an unusual number of large trees. Tide water

364

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

extends 150 yards upstream from the low-water mouth. The average width of the
outlet is 40 feet, depth 18 inches, and current 3 knots.

The lake is of an irregular, hour-glass shape, about 1^ miles long, and from one-
fourth to one-half mile broad. It has four well-defined feeders. The shores,
except for a short stretch near the middle of the eastern side and at the southern
end, are very steep and thickly wooded, and drop off into deep water a few feet from
the beach, except at the mouths of the feeders and on the northwestern end, where
there are sandy shoals. Across the outlet is a large drift of big trees, but the water
here is several feet deep and fish can readily pass underneath. The bottom, where it
can be seen, is generally of sand, sometimes of pebbles or rock, and at. t lie southern
end, where a small feeder enters, of mud with water-logged bark. The temperature
of the water was 52° F. The lake has an elevation above sea level of 60 feet.

The principal feeder enters on the northeastern side about one-fourth mile
from the outlet. It is a stream 30 feet wide, 12 inches deep, with a current of 4£
knots, and flows over a stony and pebbly bottom in a general southwesterly direction.
The water is dark and clear, a little lighter in shade than the lake water, and has a
temperature of 49° F. About 200 yards from the mouth of this feeder there are
heavy falls, which, it is believed, the salmon can not pass.

The next feeder in point of size enters the lake at a point about 400 yards south
of the mouth of the stream just described, near the narrowest part of the lake. This
stream has two mouths, forming a delta of considerable extent. The division of the
main stream occurs about 300 yards from the lake shore. It flows in a tortuous
channel through a rather low country in a general westerly direction. Half a mile
from the lake the ground rises sharply, and here is a series of cascades and falls
insurmountable for any fish, the water in places spreading out and rushing over
huge, smooth, sloping rocks with great velocity and a depth of only one or two inches
for many feet. The water is very clear and cold, temperature 39° F., and apparently
comes from the melting snows on the mountains. The average width of this stream
is 25 feet, depth 10 inches, and current. 4 knots; bottom stony and gravelly. In late
summer this volume must be very much reduced.

A small feeder enters the lake on the southeastern side. It is inconsiderable in
size and is apparently formed by seepage from the hills.

Another small feeder enters at the head of the lake in its extreme southern
part. It, is a small stream flowing through a narrow valley, low and flat near the lake
but rising to an altitude of 250 feet within 1 mile. Temperature of the water, 52°.

A few trout or, possibly, young salmon, about 4 inches long, were seen near the
drift of logs around the outlet.

A good site for a hatchery could be found at the mouth of either of the two
feeders first mentioned. The ground around the mouth of the second stream is
better adapted for building purposes, and the supply of water there is at present
ample, but this supply must be greatly reduced at times if, as is supposed, the stream
is only the result of melting snow. The volume of the first feeder is greater, and
the water in it has the appearance of being that of a lake outlet.

Checats Stream was referred to in my report for 1897, page 100, and was then
fished by canneries at Loring and Yes Bay. Since 1897 it has been fished by Loring
only. Under average conditions, it may yield 12,000 to 15,000 redfish per season.

Bull. U. S, F. C. 1901. (To face page 364.)

Plate XXXIX.

CANNERY OF ALASKA PACKERS ASSOCIATION, POINT HIGHFIELD, WRANGELL ISLAND, SOUTHEAST ALASKA.

KUNK LAKE, LOOKING UP, ETOLIN ISLAND, SOUTHEAST ALASKA.

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1901.

365

The following are the only statistics that can be obtained of Checats Stream:

1895.

1896.

1897.

Species.

Total

number.

Average
number
per case.

Season of run.

Canneries to which
consigned.

9,680
10, 712
15, 229
489
20, 682
821

Yes Bay.

Yes Bay and Loring.
Do.

Yes Bay.

Yes Bay and Loring.
Yes Bay.

Redfish

Cohoes

Humpbacks

Dog salmon

9

6

15

o

July 10-Aug. 28

Aug. 26-Sept. 1

July 21-Aug, 15

July 23-Aug. 2

Year.

Redfish dates.

No.

Coho dates.

No.

1898

. . J uly 13-Aug. 17

19, 821

Sept. 6-Sept. 10

.. 2,157 !

1899. . .

.. July 18-Sept. 2

11,816

Aug. 9-Sept, 2

.. 6,071

I960

.. July 13-Aiig. 15

4, 165

July 26-Sept. 7

. . 3, 991

Humpback dates. : No.

July 13-Aug. 26 24, 168

July 17-Aug. 20 1 32,382

July 15-Aug. 16 1 13,591

KUNK (KONKE) STREAM AND LAKE.

On the east side of Etolin Island, about midway between Chichagof Pass and
Anita Bay and opposite a point projecting from Wrangell Island, is a small stream
which carries redfish and discharges its waters into Zimovia Strait. It was examined
by a party in charge of Ensign Miller on June 11.

This stream is the outlet to a lake lying about 14 miles WSW. from the mouth.
It is 20 feet wide and 12 inches deep, with a strong current and a temperature, June 11,
of 52° E. It Hows over a rooky and bowlderous bed having at intervals small areas of
gravel and sand. About 150 yards from tide water are the remains of a barricade
and three-fourths of a mile from the same point, on the left bank, a tributary enters;
this is about one-third the size of the main stream and has an elevation at the
junction of 110 feet above tide water and a temperature, on dune 11, of 45° F.
From this point to the lower arm of the lake, a distance of three-fourths of a mile,
the main stream flows through a deep ravine in which there is a series of rapids;
the greatest fall is about T feet, but is much broken and presents no serious obstacle
to the ascent of salmon. As the head is reached the stream widens into the lower arm
of the lake, which is 1^ miles long and 300 yards wide, with an elevation above tide
water of 270 feet and a temperature of 58c F. ; this arm narrows at the head and
then opens upon the main body of water.

The main lake is heart-shaped, 1 7 miles long by about the same width. At the
head of the lake, the western end, is the main feeder, which flows through a narrow
valley and is about 18 feet wide, 5 inches deep, and has a 3 to 4 knot current; the
temperature, June 11, was 45° F.

On the southern side are four small streams together carrying a volume of water
into the lake equal to that of the main feeder and draining the melting snow from
the high mountains on that side. The vegetation around the streams and lake is
dense and consists of large trees and the usual scrub growth. At a few points on the
upper end of the lake there are small grassy flats. A few pond lilies were noticed
near the shore and numerous small fry were seen, probably salmon. The level of
the lake seemed to be at its highest point, and, from the appearance of the shore line,
it probably falls several feet during a dry season. Near the mouth of the large feeder
a site for a small hatchery might be found.

366

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

There are no records available for Kunk stream. It is one of the small redlish
streams and }Tields 2,000 to 5,000 of that species during a season. It has been fished
by the Wrangell cannery and on their books is classed as transient.

SAT, MON BAY STREAM AND LAKE

Salmon Bay is on the northeastern end of Prince of Wales Island near the
junction of Clarence and Sumner straits and about 7 miles to the eastward of Red

Bay, and receives at its head the waters of a redfish stream, which is a lake outlet.
This stream was examined during the season of 1900 for a distance of 3i miles, but
unfavorable conditions prevented the continuation of the work at that time, and it
was again visited this year. A description of the lower part of this stream is con-
tained in my report for 1900, and from that point is continued here.

It was examined by a party in charge of Ensign Kempff, who found that at the
point “F” the stream forked, the eastern branch being the outlet to the lake. It

Plate XL.

RACKS USED TO BARRICADE KUSHNEAHIN STREAM, KUPREANOF ISLAND, SOUTHEAST ALASKA.

Tf-rr

CANNERY OF ALASKA PACKERS ASSOCIATION, LORING, NAHA BAY, REVI LLAG IGEDO ISLAND, SOUTHEAST ALASKA.

■Spit ®fei itOj

Stal

HnSHI

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1901.

367

Hows in a general northerly direction over a muddy bottom between low grassy banks
which become wooded and rocky as the forks are approached. Three-fourths of a
mile above the forks the stream widens to about 50 yards and seems deep-tlowing, with
little current. The water has a brownish tinge, and on June 14 had a temperature of
61° F. There are no obstructions of any kind in the upper part of the stream.

Near the source it widens into a shallow lake with a mud bottom and covered

Sketch of Salmon Bay, Lake, and Stream, Prince of Wales Island, Alaska.

with pond lilies. This small lake lies in a general NNE. and SSW. direction, and is
about 1 mile long with an arm, rather less than one-half mile in length, extending to
the NW. Near the center is a large grassy islet. The banks, which are low and
grassy, have wooded flats extending back from them. The elevation is 145 feet;
temperature of the water, 61° F.

368

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

To the southward, and connected with the small mud lake by a short passage, is
the main lake, which lies in a general north-and-south direction and is about 3 miles
long with an extreme width of three-fourths of a mile. The banks slope from the
wooded hills to the rocky beaches, and the lake is apparently quite deep.

For want of facilities the lake could not be examined in its entire length, but no
feeders were observed in its northern half. An Indian who hunts the region during
the winter stated that several feeders of considerable size entered the lake near the
southern end, and it is probable that these feeders form the redfish spawning-ground.

The available statistics to 1900 are given in my 1900 report, page 267.

KUSHNEAHIN STREAM AND LAKE.

On the southwestern end of Kupreanof Island and a mile NNW. from Point
Barrie is a small rocky indentation which receives the waters of a redfish stream.
The mouth lies opposite a small wooded islet which is joined to the main shore on its
northern side by a line of kelp-covered sunken reefs. This stream, known as Kush-
neahin, is referred to in my 1897 report, p. 108. As it is in an exposed and dangerous
locality the conditions did not at that time, nor last year, permit an examination, but
it was examined on June 11 by a party in charge of Lieutenant Rodman.

Kushneabin Stream is a lake outlet and along its bed is 8 miles in length, though
in a straight line the distance to the lake is 25 per cent less; the general direction of
the How is southwest. At the mouth, where it is spread out and the current sluggish,
the stream is about 10 feet wide, from 1 to 12 inches in depth, and temperature
of water 53° F. Two miles above, where it is contracted in a narrow channel of
uniform depth, it is 11 feet wide and 3 inches deep.

About 1 miles from the mouth is a broken fall 8 to 10 feet high, which, however,
forms no serious obstacle to the ascent of fish. From the sea to this point, which is
215 feet above tide water, the bed rises gradually and is rocky and stony, with a
little gravel along the banks. The latter are generally low with occasional bluffs
rising from 10 to 100 feet. One mile below the falls the stream Hows through a cut
about 150 yards long and 30 to 10 feet wide, the water lying in deep pools between
the bluff's, which are from 20 to 70 feet high. Except the falls there are no strong-
rapids in the stream. In the upper half the stream flows through a low’ flat country
with a sluggish current over a gravelly bottom. The hills in this section recede fully
a mile. Half a mile above the falls it receives from the northward the main tributary
which rises in the hills forming the northern part of a valley. At the mouth it is 6
feet wide, 3 inches deep, and so far as examined it flows over a rocky and gravelly
bed. The water is clear, and on June 11 had a temperature of 16° F. The water
in the main stream above the principal tributary is tinged dark brown.

All other tributaries are insignificant, though two on the left bank may afford
spawning-beds for humpback salmon. The channel of the main stream below7 the
falls follows gentle curves, while above it is more tortuous and meandering, winding
through low, extensive flats or tundra. Except over the open flats and tundra, the
vegetation is of the usual type, heavy woodland and dense undergrowth.

On the bank and 100 yards above tide water, which ascends 200 to 300 yards
from the mouth, there were 21 frames, 71 feet by 1 feet, in good condition, neath7
piled, with some old webbing near by, evidently to be used in barricading the stream

KUSHNEAHIN LAKE AND STREAM, KUPREANOF ISLAND, ALASKA.

Bull. U. S F. C. 1 901 . /To face page 368.

Plate XLI.

co

c

to

— I

>

59^\»u jo

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1901.

369

as soon as the run set in; 50 yards above this, in the stream, is a log crib, ballasted
with stone and probably used in the barricade. The frames were burned.

Numerous small fry were seen in the pools.

The lake is about three-fourths of a mile long by one-eighth to one-fourth of a
mile wide and lies with the major axis in a north-and-soutk direction. The western
shore is low with scattering trees, while the eastern shore is high and densely
wooded. The lake appears shallow, an abundance of pond lilies cropping out,
especially around the lower end. The beaches, and bottom where it could be seen,
are stony, with gravel and some mud. The elevation is 315 feet. Temperature of
water June 14, 64° F. A small sluggish stream apparently enters the upper end,
but for lack of facilities a proper examination could not be made. It is believed the
locality would not afford a good hatchery site.

There are no stream data available for Kushneahin. Formerly it was fished
at times by the cannery at Redfish Bay. It is believed the stream is good for 10,000
redfish under average conditions.

POINT BARRIE SALTERT.

About one-fourth of a mile below the mouth of the stream (Kushneahin) is the
Point Barrie saltery, formerly operated by Mr. Cyrus Orr. It is located on a small
indentation and consists of the saltery building, store, dwelling, and wharf. The
place was closed at the time of our visit. In the saltery proper were 15 tanks of 20
barrels capacity each, all clean and in good condition, a quantity, of salt, a number of
casks, barrels, tubs, and an outfit of nets, webbing, etc.

SAR-KAR STREAM AND LAKE.

On the eastern side of Klawak Passage, western side of Prince of Wales Island,
and about 20 miles from Shakan village, is a small inlet one mile long and about
three-eighths mile wide, with a general east and west (mag.) direction. On the
northern side of this inlet, near the eastern end, are located the Brockman saltery
and a small Indian village. A narrow, crooked, salt-water strait, the outlet of a
brackish lagoon, enters the inlet at the southeastern end. From its mouth this outlet
extends ESE. (mag.) for three-eighths mile, turns sharply to the northward one-fourth
mile, and then, with another turn to the eastward, enters the brackish lagoon. The
southern shore, as far as the lagoon and a little inside, is bluff, the northern shore low.
In the stretch from the lagoon entrance to the second turn are large rocks.

About three- fourths of the distance from the entrance to the first turn is the
piling for a trap which extends entirely across the strait. The saltery owner stated
that this trap had not been used for four years. From the surrounding conditions
it is believed that fishing by any other means would be very expensive.

The brackish lagoon extends in a north (mag.) direction about 3 miles from the
strait and three-fourths of a mile south from it. The shores are low and fiat except
for two small hills on the east and a part of the southern shore. The western shore
was followed from the strait northward to the mouth of the stream and the sketch
shows its general outline, but the lagoon is so filled with islands and the channels
between are so narrow that the view is restricted in every direction, and what is
sketched as the eastern shore of the lagoon may be additional islands. The shores
are rocky, apparently limestone, low and fiat, covered with spruce and hemlock, and

F. C. B. 1901—24

370

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION

in almost every cove are grassy flats. Temperature of water, 66° F. The lagoon is
2 to 4 feet in depth except near the middle channels, where it appears quite deep.
At its northern end a small fresh -water stream enters, which is the outlet of a
chain of lakes lying to the northward. From its mouth it extends in a general
northerly direction for a distance of about 1 mile, with a gentl}r winding course.
Two hundred yards from the lagoon is a small cascade. The banks are generally
low and flat near the mouth, rising gradually toward the lake, where the stream

Sketch of Sar-kar Lake and Stream, Klawak Passage, Prince of Wales Island.

flows between low bluff's. The bottom is stomr and pebbly, gravelly sometimes in
the deeper pools, and the water dark brown and not very clear.

From the head of the stream the first lake extends to the ENE., apparently
for about one mile, with a width of from one-fourth to one-half mile. The bottom
is gravelly, the shores low and well wooded with spruce, hemlock, and berry bushes.
Elevation, 40 feet; temperature, 60° F. The Indians state that there is a system of

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1901

371

lakes and sloughs extending a very long distance, and that there is another outlet to
this system on the other side of the island. It is said that the salmon do not spawn
in the lower but ascend to the upper series of lakes. Redfish were just beginning to
run and a few were seen jumping in the lagoon outlet.

Sar-Kar stream is fished by Mr. Fred Brockman, who has liv ed here many years.
All the fish that are called for are sold fresh to the cannery at Klawak, and the
remainder are salted. This stream was referred to in my report of 1897, p. 116, to
which further reference is made, but it was not visited at that time. The examination
was made by Ensign Hepburn on June 15 and 16.

The value of this stream, under average conditions, is from 18,000 to 20,000
redfish per season. The following is the available stream record of fish taken:

Year.

Redfish.

Cohoes.

Dates.

Number.

Dates.

Number.

1887

1888

July 3 to Aug. 4

June 28 to July 11

6, 476
6,834

Aug. 7 to Sept. 8

14,528

1889

1890

July 3 to Aug. 30

11,555
16, 267

15, 331
9,033
4.700

1891.

Julie 23 to Aug. 21

35i 033
24,024

Aug. 19 to Sept. 10

1892

June 24 to Aug. 19

July 27 to August 23

1893

1894

1895

June 24 to July 30

July 7 to Aug. 2

9, 797
12, 678
11,636

July 21 to Sept. 4

3, 830

1896

20| 480
21, 667
24, 974

Aug. 2 to Sept. 2

9,643

1897

8’ 207

1898

June 20 to Aug. 18

Aug. 16 to Sept. 6

10,423

1899

36,000
26, 021

Aug. l.j to Sept. 8

7, 000

1900. .

Aug. 14 to Sept. 16

12, 000

Average weight of redfish, 51 pounds; of cohoes, 9 pounds; of humpbacks, 31 pounds.
FRED BROCKMAN SALTERY.

This saltery is located on the northern side of Sar-Kar Inlet and consists of two
small buildings on piling, each 25 feet by 40 feet, and a cooper shop. There are 14
tanks of 20 barrels capacity each. All the redfish and most of the cohoes are sold
fresh to the Klawak cannery, which calls on alternate days, so that all the salting
done here in recent years has been in cohoes and humpbacks. It is estimated that
the saltery has a capacity of 200 half-barrels of redfish, 360 half-barrels of cohoes,
and 120 half-barrels of humpbacks, but this total has never been reached here.
Transportation is through the Klawak cannery. The salting from 1889 to 1898 has
averaged less than 100 barrels a year. Salted 50 half-barrels of whole humpbacks'and
150 half-barrels of humpback bellies in 1898; 250 half-barrels of humpback bellies
in 1899, and 250 half-barrels of humpback bellies in 1900.

Most of the humpbacks used at the saltery are taken at a stream about 7 miles
to the northward of Sar-Kar, on Kosciusko Island, known as Tok-Hene, which has
a capacity of about 80,000 humpbacks. A few cohoes are obtained from a stream
known as Sar-Hene, on Klawak Passage, about 8 miles below the saltery.

KOOK (basket) BAY, STREAM, AND LAKE.

Kook, or Basket, Bay is a narrow indentation or inlet about 1 mile in length,
extending into the eastern side of Chichagof Island and opening upon Chatham Strait
about 11 miles to the northward of Point Hayes. At the head of the bay is the mouth
of a stream, the outlet to a lake, which carries a few redfish. It was examined by
Ensign Miller on June 19. This stream Hows from the lake in a general ENE. direc-

872

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

tion through a heavily wooded country, and is about a mile long, with a width at the
head of 30 feet, depth 1 foot, and a very strong current. Commencing at the lake,
from which the head of the stream is screened by a small wooded islet, it flows over
a bowlder bed through a deep ravine for one-half mile, when the water disappears in
the face of a rock mass about 60 feet high, which appears to be thrown across the
gulch. Three hundred yards beyond the water reappears and flows through a chasm
for an equal distance, after which it is again lost in a subterranean channel for another
300 yards. At the point where it again emerges the channel is choked by massive
bowlders, and on the adjoining bank were found a number of the slat frames commonly
used for barricading. From here the stream flows with a sluggish current for 100

yards through a deep cut having nearly perpendicular rock walls, and then for 50
yards under a tine arch rock, the top of which is about 4 feet above the highest tides;
50 yards beyond it enters the bay. Temperature of water June 19, 17° F.

The lake is 35 feet above tide water. It is round in shape, about 1^ miles long
by 1 mile wide, and lying in a heavily wooded basin, having at the western end a
wide depression through which the main feeder probably flows.

Around the flats at the mouth of the stream the Indians had planted some heav}r
wooden posts, though for what purpose could not be learned. As they were removed
upon the approach of the boat, it is possible that a trap was in course of construction.

The only record available for this stream is from the books of the Baranof
Packing Company, namely: In 1896, 21,175 redfish were taken July 12 to July 27.

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1901.

373

FRESHWATER RAT, STREAM, AND LAKE.

On the eastern side of Chichagof Island, about 12 miles below Point Augusta, a
deep inlet makes in to the westward known as Freshwater Bay. On the southern
side of this bay, 1 miles within the southern entrance point (East Point), is a cove
known as Pablof Harbor, which affords a good anchorage, and receives at its head the
waters of a stream carrying redfish, and known among fishermen as the Freshwater
Bay stream. It was examined by a party in charge of Ensign Kempff on June 20.

Near the mouth on the southern side is the old site of the cannery of the Astoria
and Alaska Packing Company, which made a pack in 1889 and then moved to the
South Bay of Pillars, where it was destroyed by fire in 1892.

Sketch of Stream, Lake, and Feeder, Pablof Harbor, Chichagof Island, Alaska.

Freshwater Bay stream, the outlet to a lake, is less than one-fourth mile long-, 100
feet wide, 9 inches deep, and flows with a strong current over a rocky and gravelly
bottom, between rocky, well-wooded banks. Just without the lake the water flows
over a broken fall, 10 feet high, but so stepped that fish may easily ascend at high
water. There are no barricades. Temperature of water, 13° F.

The lake is three-fourths of a mile long and one-half of a mile wide, with the major
axis NE. by E. and SW. by W. The shores are low, grassy in places, with heavily
wooded areas in the background; the beaches are muddy, and the body of water seems
moderately deep. Temperature of water near the shore, 45° F. Elevation, 20 feet.

374

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

A large feeder, which enters the lake at the southern end, around an islet in its
mouth, was examined for a distance of 5^ miles.

It flows in a winding channel, through a gradually rising country, in two general
directions from the highest point reached, first to the SE. and then to the NNE. At
a point measured it was 100 feet wide, 9 inches deep, with a strong current. In the
lower course are numerous wooded islands, and about 4 miles from the mouth is an
extensive flat, the stream at this point flowing around a low island, nearly one-half
mile long. The banks here are grassy, with much elder, while in other places they are
heavily wooded. Except through the flats the stream bed is rocky, with intervals
of gravel patches. The water has the brownish tinge usual to lake water in South-
east Alaska, and had a temperature of 40° F. Elevation of highest point reached,
180 feet. At this point there were no signs of a second lake; later, however, some
Indians stated that there was a second lake beyond, to which salmon ascended. Inac-
cessibility would make the second lake unsuitable as a hatchery site, while on the
first lake difficulty would probably be encountered in securing mature fish and pure
water for hatchery purposes.

There is no record available for this stream, but from the best authorities it is
stated that it will produce 50,000 redfish per season under good conditions.

BARTLETT BAY, STREAM, AND LAKE.

Bartlett Bay or Cove is on the eastern side of Glacier Bay, about 4 miles to the
northward of Point Adolphus, and is formed by the southernmost of the Beardslee
Islands and a projection from the mainland. The head of the bay receives the main
body of water flowing from a redfish stream, a portion of which, however, empties into
Glacier Bay to the northward of the Beardslee Islands. The stream was examined
by a party in charge of Lieutenant Rodman on June 26.

The main supply of water in the stream comes from two branches which flow
from glaciers in the mountain ranges to the eastward, the water received from
streams having a lake source forming only a small portion. The stream is about 9
miles long from its mouth to the upper lake, the width varying from 15 yards in the
upper reaches to 150 yards in the lower, and the depth from a few inches to several
feet; the general direction of the flow is south. The stream bed is gravel, sand,
mud, and bowlders. As far as the wooded bluff, which is reached by high-water
tides, and where the first rapids begin, the stream flows through low grass-covered
flats with the tree line receding for one-fourth mile. In this section there are numerous
sand bars, mud flats, islands, and pools. From the bluff to the lake the rapids are
frequent, but not very strong, and the stream meanders through low flats covered
with pussy willow and cottonwood, with scattering spruce, hemlock, alders, and elders.
Over the flats are great areas of strawberries, which are sought by the Indians during
the latter part of July and August.

Three-fourths of a mile above the bluff is an island about one-fourth mile long,
and in the first bend below is a V-shaped runway in which traps were formerly used.
There is no evidence of barricading, though the stream could easily be closed by nets
at the head of tide water.

Immediately above the wooded bluff a small tributary enters from the westward,
2 feet wide, 4 inches deep, temperature 56° F., which is said to drain a small lake
about half a mile long. One-half mile above the large island is another tributary,

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1901.

375

flowing from the eastward, which is 6 feet wide, 8 inches deep, temperature 56° F.,
and also said to drain a lake. The sources of both these tributaries are reported to
furnish a moderate area of spawning-ground for redfish.

Sketch of Bartlett Bay, Lake, and Stream, Glacier Bay, Alaska.

The water of the main stream is glacial in appearance, and at a point measured
was 48 feet wide, 20 inches deep, current strong. Temperature of the water at the
mouth, 461-' F. ; 5 miles above, 40° F. ; and below the lake outlet, 39° F.

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

376

The main lake sought by redfish lies a short distance to the northward of the
mouth of the glacial streams which furnish the main body of water. The lake lies
in a low basin at the foot of a high mountain system, at an elevation of 95 feet above
tide water. The temperature of the surface water was 56° F. It is an irregularly
shaped body of water, less than a mile in length, lying in a general north-and-south
direction. The bottom is sand and gravel. The banks are heavily wooded with the
usual growth, and on the water near the shore are large areas of a mossy scum. It is
said the lake receives two small feeders, the outlets to two small lakes, but there are
no large feeders. A number of small fry were seen in the lake.

Immediately below the main lake, and between the mouths of the glacial streams,
is a small lake or pond in which it is probable that some fish spawn.

There are no available data from which the value of this stream can be estimated;
it is said to vary considerably. During a good season it may yield 50,000 redfish.

BARTLETT BAY SALTERY AND CANNERY.

On the northern side of Bartlett Bay, about half a mile from the mouth of
the stream, is a saltery which was owned by the Icy Strait Packing Company and
operated by that organization in 1900. As a branch of their Petersburg cannery,
which was acquired by the Pacific Packing and Navigation Company this spring, it
is understood that the Bartlett Bay property was included in the transfer. At the
date of our visit, June 25, it was stated that the saltery would not be operated during
the season, but that all fish taken would be transported by steam tenders to the new
cannery of the Chatham Straits Packing Company at Sitkoh Bay. The saltery has
12 tanks of 12 barrels capacity each. A crew of 8 men, with 2 boats, arrived on the
ground June 20, .and to the 25th had taken 80 redfish.

During the season of 1900 the Icy Strait Packing Company erected a cannery
building on the southeastern shore of Bartlett Bay, opposite the saltery, expecting
to install machinery in time to operate it during 1901. At the time of our visit the
plant consisted of a simple cannery building, 150 feet long, projecting on piles over
the water. No machinery had been installed, and it was stated that no additions
would be made during the season. Like the saltery, it is believed to have been
acquired by the new combine.

DUNDAS BAY STREAM.

The Western Fisheries Company, located at Dundas Bay, obtains some redfish
from around the mouth of a stream at the northern end of Dundas Bay, the value of
which is unknown. An examination of the lower course of this stream was made
by Ensign Hepburn on June 28.

A broad, fiat valley makes to the northward of Dundas Bay which is drained
by two streams, one a glacial stream with a width varying between 60 and 100 yards,
an average depth of 2 feet, and a strong current flowing in a general ESE. direction;
the other is a much smaller stream, the outlet of a lake lying about 10 miles NNW.
from the center of the mouth of the valley. Three miles from the northern shore
of Dundas Bay these streams join at a point where the two parts of the glacial stream
unite again after flowing around a large island. From this point of junction the two
streams flow SSE. (mag.) for about a mile between well-defined banks and then spread
out over a large triangular gravel flat about 2 miles long and extending across the

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1901.

377

valley. Through this loose gravel the stream is continually cutting new channels,
making islands and sweeping them away. For this reason it is very difficult to carry
a boat upstream. Even when the depth continues sufficient the current is too strong
to pull against, and tracking becomes necessary, which is very trying in the icy
glacial waters. Above the gravel flats the banks are steep, from G to 12 feet high,
muddy, covered with a dense growth of scrub alder and berry bushes, and the
current in places runs fully 6 knots. As far as could be seen, the valley continued
broad and flat for a distance of at least 8 miles. The mountains on each side appear
moderately well wooded with spruce and hemlock, while throughout the center of the
valley, except near the streams, are many sandy and grassy flats. No fish were seen,

nor were there any obstructions. Tide water extends about a mile upstream from
the bay shore.

WESTERN FISHERIES COMPANY, DUNDAS RAY.

The cannery of this company, referred to in my report of 1900, is on the western
side of Dundas Bay, about 1 miles within the entrance. With the machinery installed
this year it was claimed to have a capacity of 500 cases per diem. Fish are pewed from
boats to hand carts and wheeled up an inclined plane to the fish-house at the seaward
end of the cannery. The transportation is by regular line of freight steamers. The
localities fished for redfish in 1900 and 1901 were Bartlett Bay, Dundas Bay, Taylor
Bay, Glacier Bay, Surge Bay, Dry Bay (Alsek River Delta), Excursion Inlet, Cape
Spencer, Hocktaheine, and Takanis; humpbacks were obtained in Mud Bay and

378

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

Port Althorp. The redfish value of these localities is unknown, but, excepting
the Alsek, is not believed to be large. In 1900 this cannery took from the various
localities 67,000 redfish, but as fishing was to be carried on more vigorously in 1901
better results were expected.

HANUS BAY, STREAM, AND LAKE.

In the eastern part of Peril Straits, opposite Lindenburg Head, on the Baranof
Island shore, is a wide bight, known as Han us Bay, which receives, in its shallow
southwestern arm, the waters of a stream, a lake outlet, carrying a few redfish.
This system was examined by a party in charge of Lieutenant Rodman, on August 5.

Sketch of Hanus Bay, Lake, and Stream, Baranof Island, Alaska.

From the lake to tide water the stream is about three-fourths mile long, and at a
point measured was 15 feet wide, 12 inches deep, flowing in a general northeasterly
direction, with a strong current. In the upper reaches the stream bed is solid rock,
and in the lower portion is of rock, sand, and gravel. The stream proper empties
into a small tidal basin, about 350 yards by 100 yards, which leads by a narrow
passage to Harms Bay. Spring tides ascend to the rapids about 200 yards above the
tidal basin. At this point are the remains of a barricade; the framework is standing,
but the slats have been removed. About one-third mile above the barricade is a
series of rapids, or cascades, having a drop of about 10 feet, which, however, offer no
serious obstruction to the ascent of salmon. Above this the stream makes a double
bend and one-fourth mile beyond emerges from the lake. Between the rapids the
stream varies from 50 to 150 feet in width, from 1 inches to 3 feet in depth, and
flows with a slack current over a sandy bottom. The water is clear, rather lighter in
color than most lake outlets, and had a temperature of 53° F.

a 0 S y VH 'S-5S3B N3QNH

Bull. U. S. F. C. 1901. (To face page 378 )

Plate XLM.

SITKOH B4V

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1901.

379

Between the barricade and the cascade the banks of the stream are low and
marshy; in other places they are high. The vegetation is that usual in the forests of
Southeast Alaska and is very dense. Back from the stream on both sides are high
hills; those on the eastern side come closer to the stream and continue to the head of
the lake. On the western side, between the lake and tide water, is quite an extensive
flat. The lake is about 15 feet above high water, is slightly crescent-shaped, extending-
in a general northeast and southwest direction for about If miles, and has in no place
a greater width than one-fourth mile. It is apparently deep, except near the outlet,
and the water is clear. The main feeder is at the head and appears to carry a large
body of water, much of which is probably received from the melting snows of the
surrounding mountains. A good hatchery site might be obtained on this feeder.

The run of redfish was evidently over, humpbacks were very abundant, and
there were many Dolly Varden and cut-throat trout, with a few of the rainbow
species. It is stated that on duly 4, 1895, redfish were running in the stream, that
many were seen on that date in the lake, and that the Indians were using their
funnel-shaped traps in the stream below the barricade.

There is no available record of this stream, but it may be said to have a value of
10,000 redfish during the season.

SITKOII BAY, STREAM, AND LAKE.

At the eastern entrance to Peril Straits, on the northern side, between Point
Craven and Point Hayes, a deep indentation makes to the northwest, which is known
as Sitkoh Bay. Within the bay, and 41 miles from Point Craven, on the southern
side, is a stream carrying redfish, which was examined on August 5 by a party in
charge of Ensign Miller. This stream is a lake outlet, is about 4 miles long with a
width at the mouth of about 30 feet and a depth of 6 inches; temperature of water
57° F. It flows with a strong current, in a general northeasterly direction, through
a wide valley, over a rocky bed having at intervals areas of sand and gravel. There
are no strong rapids or falls, and tide water ascends about 700 yards within the
mouth. There are two small tributaries which enter from the southeastward, one
near the lake having a temperature of 50° F., and the other, about midway of its
length, a temperature of 55° F. The remains of three barricades were seen, located
respective^ 100 yards, 500 yards, and 1,000 yards within the mouth, none of which,
however, had any indication of recent use.

The lake lies in a general northeast and southwest direction, is about 2 miles
long, and from one-fourth to one-half mile wide. It has an elevation of 190 feet;
temperature 55° F. at time of visit. The surrounding country is heavily wooded and
near the upper part of the stream the borders are level with large flats at different
points around the lake. The beaches are usually of sand and gravel.

The only records of this stream available are from the books of the old Baranof
Packing Company, as follows:

Year.

Species.

Date.

Number.

1890

4, 902

1895

do

4, 260

1896

do

15, 794

1897

566

1890

Sept. 2-Sept. 17...

2,354

1895

do ...

1,252

380

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

GUT BAY, STREAM, AND LAKE.

On the eastern side of Baranof Island, 31 miles north from Cape Ommaney, a
long, narrow bay makes to the westward for a distance of 4 miles. It opens on
Chatham Strait and at its entrance is less than half a cable in width. At the head of
the bay, on the southwest side, is the mouth of a small redfish stream, a lake outlet,
which was examined by a party in charge of Ensign Kemp if on August 6.

The stream flows from the lake in a general northerly direction for about 2
miles, in a channel marked by easy curves, over a bowlderous bottom, having in the
lower reaches intervals of sand and gravel patches. At its mouth it broadens into a
tidewater pool, largely bare at low water, and then widens to a narrow inlet which
leads to Gut Bay. The stream is about 25 feet wide, G inches deep, and flows with a
strong current, though there are no marked rapids or falls. The water is clear and

Sketch of Got Bay, Lake, and Stream, Baranof Island, Alaska.

had a temperature of 51° E. There are two small wooded islands in the upper reaches,
one near the head and the other one-half mile below. One-fourth mile above the
tidewater pool referred to at the mouth, the stream widens into a pool 200 feet in
diameter, with an average depth of 6 inches. Below this pool, on the western bank,
were all the materials for a barricade, but the stream when visited was free from
obstructions that would prevent the ascent of salmon. The wooded valley through
which the stream flows is strewn with large bowlders. The mountains rise abruptly
from the eastern side, while on the western side a wooded and bushy flat, about one-
fourth mile in width, intervenes between the stream and the mountains.

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1901.

381

The lake is elevated 100 feet above sea level, and, as far as could be examined,
extends in a southerly direction for a distance of H miles, with a width not exceeding
one-half mile. The shores are in the main steep and rocky , though at the lower end there
are generally mud beaches. A small feeder enters the lake from the eastward near
the outlet, but it is probable that the main supply enters near the head, which point
could not be reached. The temperature of the water was 55° F. No site suitable
for a hatchery was noticed, but it is probable upon special examination that a location
could be found. A large number of humpbacks were seen throughout the system.

The stream has never been regularly fished for cannery purposes, a seining crew
simply calling from some cannery during the fishing season, and its value in redfish
is therefore unknown, but it may be classed as one of the numerous small streams
that may yield anywhere from 2,000 to 8,000 redfish a season. The only records
available are the following, from the books of the old Baranof Packing Company:

Year.

Species.

Dates.

No.

1892

[Redfish

i Cohoes

[Redfish

June 14-June 26

Aug. 27-Sept. 8

July 3-Aug. 19

Aur-. 30

1,673
970
2, 766
293
630
6, 716
2,326

1893

1894

Redfish

July 30

1895

1896

July 1-July 20

PRINCE WILLIAM SOUND.

FROM CROSS SOUND TO PRINCE WILLIAM SOUND.

After leaving Dundas Bay, in Cross Sound, there are no canneries until Prince
William Sound is reached. There are, however, a number of streams, for the most
part small (though the Alsek and several adjoining rivers are of considerable size),
which carry commercial salmon. These streams, as a rule, empty directly into the
sea and are inaccessible for commercial fisheries, though cannery experts have been
in the field, and it is believed by next season fisheries in the Alsek region will be
attempted.

Rounding Cape Spencer to the northward, about -f miles, is an indentation which
at its head is said by the Indians to receive the waters of a stream called Nook-hook-
keen; this is the outlet to a system of three lakes, and is said to carry a few redfish.
It is probably the stream which supplies a few redfish to the Dundas Bay cannery,
and known to them as Cape Spencer.

About 3 miles to the northward of the stream just mentioned the Indians report
a small stream with lake source, carrying a few redfish, and known as An-nock-seck.

Continuing to the northward, the Indians report a small redfish stream having a
lake source midway between Icy Point and Harbor Point, and know n as Ghow-nar-har,
and about 6 miles above Harbor Point another outlet to a lake known as Hawg-heen,
which is also said to carry a few redfish. These streams are for the most part
inaccessible, and from all reports can hardly be classed as having any commercial
importance, even if the fisheries could be properly conducted.

The next region to the northward carrying salmon is the Alsek which, with the
streams between it and Yakutat, will be treated under one head.

382

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

ALSEK REGION.

About 60 miles southeast from Ocean Cape, which forms the southern entrance
point to Yakutat Bay, the high mountain range of the Fairweather system recedes
from the present coast line for a distance ranging from 6 to Id miles, forming
wooded plains, with gentle slopes ascending to the base of the mountain system. It
is probable that the sea, during an earlier geological period, lapped the foot of the
mountains and that the numerous glaciers, now visible on every hand, discharged
directly into the ocean. The plain now fringing the mountain system is formed
from the glacial debris, by moraine deposit and by stream detritus brought from the
glaciers and thrown back by the sea. Through this action the coast lind is undoubt-
edly extending seaward constantly, for the streams which drain the glaciers debouch
directly upon the ocean and bring down a large amount of sediment to be deposited
and cast up. The plains are traversed by numerous streams having their sources
frequently in lakes and ponds, which receive the glacial drains, though there are some
tributaries which drain the glaciers direct. These streams ramify in all directions,
even to the extent of occasionally forming connecting passages with each other.

The Alsek, which is at the eastern end of these plains and debouches at Dry
Bay, is independent, though it possibly receives some slight drainage water from the
plains in its lower course before it forms the delta. This river drains the great ice
fields north of the St. Elias and Fairweather ranges, one branch dipping around to
the westward and tapping the St. Elias region, and another branch extending more
to the northward into the Chilkat country. It breaks through the range back from
Dry Bay, and, after cutting a large glacier lying near the northern end of the bay,
forms its delta, which is really Dry Bay.

The Alsek and adjacent rivers to Yakutat all have runs of salmon, and in some
all species are represented. According to the Indian reports and the statements of
some fishermen who have, visited the locality, salmon are very plentiful.

In order to have a better understanding of the region, Lieutenant Rodman and
Mr. Chamberlain, with Indian guides and canoes, from July 1 to 6, made a trip from
Yakutat Bay to the Alsek, and Ensign Miller, from the head of Disenchantment Bay,
made a portage with Indian guides to the headwaters of the See-Tuck, and descending
that stream returned to Yakutat through the chain of lakes and lagoons to Monti Bay.
From the notes of these officers and from other sources the following is obtained:

It has been reported that by means of the lagoons, lakes, and intersecting streams
an inside waterway exists from Yakutat Bay to Dry Bay , but such is not the case.
It is true, however, that by waiting for the top of high water and making long
detours, a canoe can be carried through by making several portages, but the route is
impracticable for a boat of any size.

On the southern shore of Monti Bay, 2? miles from the village of Yakutat, and
a mile from Point Carrew, Cape Phipps Peninsula is penetrated by a shallow inlet,
about 2^ miles in length, and on the charts misnamed Ankau Creek. From Monti Bay,
it first tends to the southward, then to the eastward, and terminates in a T-shaped
head, which lies in a general northeast-and-southwest direction. This inlet is very
irregular in shape, and broken by islands and shoals, having narrow shallow channels
between them. In entering, about 3 feet of water can be carried at half tide to the
first turn to the eastward, when up to three-fourths tide there is a rapid.

MONTI BAT to black sand island.

U. S. COMMISSION OfFiSH AND FlSHERJES
Steamer ALBATROSS

Commander Jeff’n E Moser .U.S Navy.
Commanding.

Sketch of the

ALSEK RIVER DELTA

AND

ADJACENT STREAMS TO YAKUTAT.

July 1901.

AUTHORITIES:

(Base map - - U SC IcQ S cha-t N“8500).

AlseK River and Adjacent Streams, Lieut Huyh Rodman, U S ■ N
See -tuch. River Enei^rn Cyru6 R. Miller, U. S N.

Approved

C ■?. TT'-JW'-

^ V ^Commander, U.S.Navy.

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1901.

383

At the head of the northeast arm the inlet receives the waters of a small stream
called Ta-wah, which drains to the westward a system of shallow ponds and lakes, the
latter having also an eastern drainage along the coast in the An-kau (On-cow) River.

Spring tides ascend the Ta-wah to a pond with which it is directly connected.
This stream is less than half a mile in length and at low water is only about 6 feet,
wide and 3 inches deep. The rocks and bowlders have been removed from the bed
and piled along the side, forming a shallow channel up which canoes are tracked at
low water, but may be poled at high water. The bed is stony, with some sand and
gravel, and the current sluggish. Temperature of the water July 1, 56 F.

The pond with which the Ta-wah is directly connected is a shallow pool 300
yards long, from a few inches to 2 feet deep, bottom rocky, with sand and gravel,
over which there is a growth of grass and moss; a loaded canoe may be pulled and
poled across. At the head of this pond are the remains of a slat barricade. The
eastern end receives the waters of a small stream several hundred yards long, which
connects the pond with what is known as the first lake. This connecting stream just
permits a canoe to be hauled through, and is tortuous, with a sluggish current.

The first lake has its major axis east and west, and is about a mile long, with a
width varying from several hundred yards at the western end to one-third of a mile
at the eastern end; the depth varies from a few inches to 4 or 5 feet. The bottom is
composed of sand and gravel, over which a few logs were noticed and much grass; a
canoe may be pulled across. The first lake is connected with the second by a small
stream or brook one-third to one-half mile in length. 6 feet wide, and 4 inches to 2
feet deep, which meanders through a low, fiat country, and carries just sufficient
water for a loaded canoe to be hauled through. Temperature of water, 54 F.

The second lake is slightly crescent-shaped, with the cusps to the southward,
and lies in a general east-and-west direction. It is about Li miles long, with a
width varying from 100 yards to one-third of a mile, and has a depth of from 1 inch
to 24 inches. The bottom is sand and gravel, with an abundance of grass and pond
lilies growing over it. A canoe may be pulled across. The main feeder of this
lake enters on the northern shore near the western end. It is said to rise back of
Yakutat village and to be 3 or 4 miles long, 10 feet wide, and 8 inches deep, flowing
with a sluggish current, through a winding channel, over a sand and gravel bottom.
The water is clear and the stream bed is said to afford the main spawning-ground
for this system. On July 6 it was full of redfish. This second lake forms the
dividing line in this system, and drains both to the westward, as previously described,
and to the eastward through the An-kau and connecting waters.

At the eastern end of the second lake is a small stream draining the system to
the eastward. It Hows in a general easterly direction through a narrow, tortuous
channel for about a mile, when the so-called third lake is reached. A loaded canoe
may be tracked through this connecting stream. The remains of a slat barricade are
visible. This third lake consists of a series of small pools and swamps ramifying for
a distance of 1 4 to 2 miles in a general easterly direction, varying in width from 20
yards to one-third of a mile. It is full of small, low marshy islands and has a large
growth of weeds, grass, and water plants. The bottom is muddy and there is a
slight current. A loaded canoe may be poled through.

The eastern end of the third lake narrows into the An-kau River, which is a

384

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

fair-sized stream about 3 miles long, from 15 feet to 30 or 40 feet wide, and from 6
inches to 4 feet deep, flowing with a moderate current in a general SE. direction to
the sea, into which it empties about 9 miles east from Ocean Cape. The channel is
tortuous and the bottom is of sand and gravel. Tide water extends about 2 miles
upstream, above a point where three houses and some drying frames are located on
the southern bank and where the natives cure fish during the season.

About a mile above its mouth the An-kau receives a tributary, the Tha-ghe-an,
about one-third the size of the main stream. It is said to drain a small lake 6 miles
to the northward, which has redfish and coho spawning-grounds.

The mouth of the An-kau expands into a tide-water basin fully one-half mile in
length at high water and formed by the action of the sea. At high water a canoe can
be pulled from the mouth to a point near the third lake, and at anjr stage of the tide
above the houses, beyond which point poling must be resorted to with some tracking.

Throughout this system from Monti Bay to the mouth of the An-kau many salmon
were seen jumping. In the lower part of the An-kau redfish were very abundant on
July 1, though the natives say there are more cohoes, which species they prefer for
drying. With the spear the native is usually able to obtain all the fish he wants.

See-tuck River. — The next river to the eastward is the See-tuck, which has its
origin in two connecting lakes, and receives in its course tributaries having lake
sources. The upper lake of the main stream lies near the head of Disenchantment
Bay and about 1 mile from it, opposite the fourth glacier and across the mountain
range bordering the western side of the bay. It is 190 feet above the sea and lies
in a basin whose walls rise from 500 to 2,000 feet. It is 1% miles in length in a SE.
direction, 200 yards to 700 yards wide, and had water of a greenish color, with a
temperature of 45.5° F. on July 3. At the head is the main feeder, about 20 feet
wide and 1 foot deep, flowing with a strong current a clay-colored water from the
melting snow. The lake also receives the waters from numerous rivulets around the
border. At the southern end is an outlet connecting it with the lower lake. This
stream is 20 feet wide, 2 feet deep, and flows with a very swift current over a rocky
and bowlderous bed having in places small areas of sand and gravel. The water has
a milky tinge, and on July 3 had a temperature of 45° F. It has but one rapid, with
a drop of about 4 feet. It retains its narrow bed, except at a few points, where it
broadens out into shallows. After meandering westerly for about 4 miles the stream
enters the lower or main lake.

This lake is circular, about 2 miles in diameter, and is 110 feet above the sea, and
has clear water; temperature, July 3, 60° F. On the northern shore is a mountain
about 2,500 feet high, and the eastern and western shores are covered with dead spruce
and hemlock, caused, it is said, by a subsidence due to an earthquake in September,
1899. The outlet is on the southern side, and is the See-tuck River, which at the
head is 50 feet wide, 2 feet deep, with a strong current. It flows through a winding
channel to the sea, distant in a direct line about 13 miles. The water is clear and
has a temperature of 60° to 62° F. The bottom at first is rocky and bowlderous,
quickly changing to gravel and finally to sand and mud, as the sea is reached. The
banks are low and covered with brush, giving ample evidence of a much larger stream
during periods of freshets. About one-third its length from the lake the river receives
from the westward the On-klat, a small tributary said to have a lake source. Two

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1901.

385

more tributaries are received from the westward and two from the eastward, along
the middle third of its length, draining ponds and marshes. It is said that salmon
spawn in these tributaries and their sources. About 2 miles from the sea the Ku-na-
yosh, about half the size of the See-tuck, joins the latter from the eastward. It is
said to cany many redfish. There are several small islands in the See-tuck, but no
natural or artificial obstructions to prevent the free ascent of fish.

Numerous king salmon and redfish and a few of the other species were seen in
the river and a few redfish and one king salmon were seen jumping in the lakes.

A hatchery site might possibly be found in the locality, but inaccessibility would
probably be a bar to its successful operation.

The mouth of the See-tuck is about 120 feet wide and 14 inches deep. It widens
into a broad, sandy, tidal basin, full of bars, which connects with the sea by a channel
having strong currents, in which it is said 6 feet can be carried at low water. This
basin is connected, by a slough inside the coast line, with another tidal basin formed
at the mouth of the Ahrn-klin, the next large stream to the eastward, and together
they form an island called Black Sand Island. This slough is about 3 miles in length,
60 to 200 yards in width, and 12 to 15 inches deep at low water, with a tidal current
which enters at either end. It forms a connecting canoe passage along the coast.
At high water a canoe can be tracked from the An-kau basin into the See-tuck basin,
but at any other time of tide it is quicker to make a portage from one-half to three-
fourths mile across the fiat from the An-kau basin to the See-tuck River proper,
aiming to strike a point on the river where it leaves the tree line. No difficulty is
experienced in passing from the See-tuck to the Ahrn-klin by the slough referred to.

The Ahrn-klin is said to receive the main body of water from three sources.
First from a lake on the western foot of Yakutat Glacier, which is grayish in color,
cold, and deep, and receives part of the drainage from the glacier. The outlet, after
flowing to the southwest about 4 miles, is joined by a stream from the northward, of
equal length, draining Moser Glacier; they flow together about 4 miles and form a
junction with a stream flowing from the northwest, which is the outlet to a clear lake,
about 3 miles southeast from Disenchantment Bay, which is said to be about 1 mile
long, three-fourths mile wide, and to form a favorite spawning-ground.

There are several other small tributaries, some of which have clear water and
drain ponds and small lakes, but none of importance.

The general course of the Ahrn-klin system is a little to the westward of south
until within a mile of the coast, when it turns abruptly to the westward and follows
the coast just inside a sand bar, where it forms a tidal basin. This basin is full of
bars and strong currents, from which a channel, in which it is said 6 feet may be
carried at low water, leads to the sea at the eastern end of Black Sand Island.

The Ahrn-klin is slightly larger than the See-tuck and is similar in its general
characteristics, except that the water is glacial in color. Temperature, 51° F.

The mouths of the See-tuck and Ahrn-klin, as well as the connecting slough,
were full of jumping salmon. It is said that king salmon, redfish, and cohoes ascend
the Ahrn-klin, but that the See-tuck carries more redfish. The natives say they have
taken 10,000 redfish from the See-tuck; if this is true, the stream must have a large
fish value, as the natives have only very primitive appliances and take only sufficient
for their wants. The fact is that the value of these streams is entirely unknown, as
the natives obtain all the fish they want from the streams near their villages; and as

F. C. B. 1901—25

386

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

there are none of the latter between Dry Bay and Yakutat, the stream values for
commercial purposes must yet be ascertained.

Dangerous Diver is the next to the eastward and is well named from the fact that
it is full of quicksands, has numerous bars and islands, strong- currents, and is ever
changing its bed. It is considered a very treacherous stream and is feared by the
natives. From an account given by the latter, it has its source in a lake about
miles long by 1 mile wide, lying about li miles from Yakutat Glacier. It flows with
a strong current, in a general SSW. direction, carrying a large volume of water, and
has a width in places of 150 yards and a depth ranging from a few inches to 1 feet.
The water is very muddy and heavily charged with glacial detritus. Temperature,
47° F. It has several small feeders. The natives state that this river carries no
redfish, but a few cohoes. It is doubted, however, if anything is known of its
fishing value, as aside from the difficulty in operating a fishery there are no natives
in the vicinity. It empties into a tidal basin which discharges into the sea in a
manner similar to the other rivers. It can not be navigated above the basin except
by a very small canoe, and even this is considered hazardous.

The canoe passage from the mouth of the Ahrn-klin is made by ascending that
river and taking the first big slough on the eastern side to its head. Here a portage
must be made across a small plain to Dangerous River, which can be done in from 45
minutes to 60 minutes, and thence by canoe across the river.

The Italic River , the next to the eastward, has its source in a lake, about 14
miles long by 1 mile wide, which lies about 4 miles southeast from Yakutat Glacier.
From the lake it. flows in a southerly direction to a point where it is joined by a
stream draining a pond, or small mud lake, lying more to the eastward. From this
point of junction, which is about 7 miles from the mouth, it flows to the southwest;
when near the coast it is deflected more to the westward and parallel to the ocean
beach, from which it is separated by a low sandspit, about one-eighth of a mile wide,
for a distance of 3 miles, when its channel leads into the sea. At the seaward end is
a tidal basin, and it is probable that at high water with much surf on the outer beach
the sea may break into the lower reach. It is said that the channel leading to the sea
is working to the westward. There seems to be no reason why the river should not
break through at any point along the low sandspit under conditions favorable for it.
At the time visited the river miles above the seaward channel appeared more like
a lagoon, one-eighth of a mile wide, 8 inches deep, with sandy bottom and feeble cur-
rent, and was free from mud and plants. The volume of water is said to be about
the same as in the See-tuck. It has the appearance of being a fine stream, clean and
clear, and is said to carry about as many redfish as the See-tuck, man}7 cohoes, and a
few king salmon. The redfish are said to spawn in the lake and feeders lying toward
Yakutat Glacier. Temperature of water, 50° F.

The canoe route from Dangerous River is to drop to the mouth of that stream
and pass to the eastern end of the tidal basin; here a long portage must be made to
the tidal basin of the Italio. The quickest and safest way is to cache the canoe at
Dangerous River and pack across the sand plain to the Italio, skirting the tree line
and fording the river; the depth is less than 2 feet.

The Ah-quay River is the next eastward and has its source in a lake, about li
miles long by 1 mile wide, lying about 1 mile south from Chamberlain Glacier;

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1901.

387

from the lake it flows with many bends and curves over a generally gravel bottom
until within one mile of the coast line, where it is joined from the eastward by the
Us-tay and is deflected around a high wooded point through 180°; it then follows
the coast to the westward for 31 miles, when it breaks into the sea.

The Us-tay has its source in a lake about a mile in diameter, which lies under
Fassett Glacier, and 6 miles below it gives off a branch called the Ko-kon-hee-ni
(Stickleback), which flows SSE. The main stream continues to the southwest for a
mile^ when it gives off another branch called the Stu-hee-nook, which flows SSE. and
unites with the first branch near the village near the western side of Dry Bay, and
together they flow to the westward about a mile and empty into the sea. The
combination of the three rivers forms an island with the village on the southeast side.

The Us-tay, after giving out the branches just mentioned, receives a tributary
from the northwest which flows from the Rodman Glacier and immediately below it
divides, flowing as two streams and uniting a short distance above its junction with
the Ah-quay, thus forming an island about 4 miles in length.

All these streams are glacial. Below the junction of the Us-tay with the
Ah-quay the stream is from 75 yards to one-fifth mile in width, from -1 inches to 4
feet in depth, and of a character similar to Dangerous River. The Ah-quay above
the junction is about the size of the Italic. Its mouth, around which were many
seals, narrows to 75 yards and is moving to the westward. The Ah-quay and the
Us-tay are said to carry large numbers of king salmon, redfish, and cohoes, and the
former has a run of eulachon in the early spring. In the lower Ah-quay gill nets
could be used, and higher up seines, but navigation is hazardous on account of
numerous bars and quicksands, which have but slight surface indications.

The Stu-hee-nook is a small stream about 15 yards wide, a few inches deep, and
flows with a sluggish current, while the Ko-kon-hee-ni is probably three times as
large. Both carry redfish and cohoes in large numbers, and at their junction, on
July 4, several canoes were employed spearing redfish. This whole system, called
the Ah-quay, is said to carry a very large number of king salmon, redfish, and cohoes.

The canoe route from the mouth of the Italio River is to ascend that river,
keeping in the tributary that flows from the ENE. to the small mud lake. Here a
hard portage through the timber to a small tributary of the Ah-quay is necessary;
thence the route is down that stream to its junction with the Us-tay, up the latter to
the Ko-kon-hee-ni, and down this stream to the village.

If, however, it is concluded to pack from Dangerous River, then, after crossing
the Italio at the point previously described, take the outside beach to the Ah-quay,
following the right bank of that river for about 3 miles from the mouth, or until the
first wooded belt, a broad, treeless, sand plain, and then the second wooded belt are
passed, where there is a low, grassy plain, and where the river can be forded when
it is under normal conditions. Caution, however, must be used, as there is considerable
quicksand, but by using a pole and sounding ahead a passage can be made. A canoe
is usually kept on the eastern side of the Ah-quay, near its junction with the. Us-tay,
for feriying. Having passed the Ah-quay, the sea beach affords an excellent high-
way, particularly at low water, and can be followed to the mouth of the Ivo-kou-hee-ni,
whence a well-defined trail leads to the village.

Dry Bay, which is the delta of the Alsek River, covers from 80 to 100 square
miles, the river flowing into the sea by three separate channels. After passing the

388

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

glacier previously referred to, the main body of water is deflected to the westward
after giving one branch to the southward. A few miles beyond another part breaks
to the southward, while the remaining portion continues yet a few miles when it, too,
turns to the southward and enters the sea. From the point of departure from the
main stream the branches form very large basins which close in toward the sea
and empty through narrow channels. These basins are tilled with bars and small
islands with ramifying channels, all changing from day to day, and even from hour
to hour. The only permanent feature in the delta appears to be a large, rocky,
wooded island between the western and middle basins, which, on range with the
Alsek Glacier, leads close to the western mouth. On July d, 1901, the western
channel was the largest, about 100 yards across, and on June 8 had the best water —
6 feet on the bar at mean low water. The middle channel, 5 miles distant, was about
200 yards wide, and the eastern channel, 3 miles beyond, was 350 yards wide.
Neither the width, depth, nor position, can be depended upon, as a week later the
best water may have been in one of the other channels. The natives state that the
current usually flows out and that an anchorage maybe made by small craft in from
8 to 9 feet inside the western bar.

The bed of the river above the glacier is rocky and bowlderous, with areas of
sand and gravel. The current is very strong, but a good boat can be hauled and
poled upstream a considerable distance. The water temperature July 1 was 51° F.
The Alsek is highest in the spring and lowest in September. It is said that salmon
ascend the Alsek for 50 miles and that there is a large, clear lake in the interior.

The natives fish the Alsek but little, as the smaller streams, which furnish them
with all the fish they can use, are more accessible, but they all agree that king salmon,
redfish, and cohoes, ascend the Alsek in countless thousands. The idea of abundance
as expressed by a native, however, must be received with caution, as he usually has
no idea of the great capacity of a large cannery.

In the Alsek the natives report the king salmon as commencing to run about the
last of April, and with them are found a few redfish, which species, however, does
not run strong until July 1; the cohoes follow during the early part of August.

In a cursory examination of this kind it is impossible to state anything definite
in regard to hatchery sites. It is probable that upon thorough investigation such
sites could be located, but much difficulty would be encountered in obtaining pure
water, as all of these streams are more or less glacial in origin. Outside of these
facts, however, is the question of accessibility. There are no villages or permanent
habitations between Yakutat and Dry Bay, and the journey, even in summer, with a
light two-man canoe, is not an easy one, and is accompanied by some risk.

The plain between Yakutat and the Alsek, and bordering the mountain system to
the sea, is for the most part wooded with spruce, hemlock, alder, and cottonwood,
with a smaller growth of willows and elder, accompanied by the usual berry bushes,
devil club, etc. From Black Sand Island to the mouth of the Italio there is an
extensive treeless sand plain reaching several miles back from the coast line. This
plain is cut up by small, shallow, spreading streams, having little or no current, with
some shallow ponds, and a portion of it has a scant growth of grass and weeds. In
very dry weather sand storms occur, and it is said they are at times dangerous.

The coast seaward appears to have no outlying dangers.

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1901.

389

Since the apparent decline of the salmon fisheries on the western coast of the
United States attention has been called to Alaska, and the Alsek region has not
escaped the eye of the canner. The locality has been visited during the past two
years by several individuals with the idea of obtaining the salmon in the streams,
but as yet no steps have been taken to even prospect the region. It is reported that
canner}7 sites have been selected in Monti Bay with the idea of conveying the catch
from the Alsek and adjacent streams to that point, while other sites have been selected
in the vicinity of the Alsek. Either proposition presents conditions difficult to over-
come, and some very wild schemes are spoken of — one to build a railway from
Monti Bay to the Alsek; another to transport the fish by trolley, and another, and
the only feasible plan, to build light-draft surf tugs to cross the different bars.
There is no feasible inside water route nor can one be made and maintained at a sum
which the fisheries would warrant.

It is believed, through the reports made by the Indians and from the number of
fish seen jumping by those who have visited the section, that there are a great many
salmon of all species in the Alsek and adjacent streams to Yakutat, but nothing is
definitely known of the abundance. Yet it may be conceded that there are sufficient
salmon in these streams to supply several large canneries. To catch them legally,
to collect them at certain centers for transportation, and to transport them are
propositions that will tax the resources of the canner to the utmost.

A cannery is generally located at a point accessible to the home transporting
vessels in preference to a locality at the fisheries and inaccessible to the transports;
so that Monti Bay would probably be the most feasible point for a cannery location.

All these streams have tidal basins, greater or less in extent, into which they
discharge and from which a channel leads into the open sea, usually over a bar over
which about 6 feet maybe carried at low water. The gill-netter will find the waters
here shallow and the channels obstructed by bars and quicksands; the trap-man will
find that his piling will not stand, and the drag-seine man will find the banks giving
away under his feet. To find better conditions the higher reaches will be resorted to.
The weather in summer along the coast is usually good and the surf on the bars is not
heavy, but as fishing for king salmon would commence the last of April or early in
May gales may be expected that would interfere with transportation. In fact, even
under fair conditions it would be a question whether many fish would reach the can-
nery in Monti Bay in good condition. Experience in the locality may solve many of
the questions now presented, but at best the pack will be an expensive one.

The small steamer Beaver and a large naphtha launch belonging to the Western
Fisheries Company, at Dundas Bay, both crossed the Alsek bar during June and
carried a few king salmon to their cannery. The Beaver made one trip and the
naphtha launch at least two. The last time the latter crossed she rolled over and filled,
but was floated, with the loss of her upper works. This cannery expects next year
to fish the Alsek, making a sea run from the cannery of from 90 to 100 miles.

YAKUTAT. -

There do not appear to be any streams in Yakutat or Disenchantment Bay that
carry salmon in sufficient quantities for cannery purposes, but the prospects of the
Alsek and the adjacent streams have been an inducement for the location of several

390

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

salteries in Monti Bay each with a cannery as an objective if the fisheries should
prove of sufficient value.

Saltery of F. A. Fredericks Company. — This company hails from Seattle, Wash.,
and during the fall and winter of 1900, in the schooner Martha W. Tuft , salted 1,285
barrels of herring in the vicinity of Yakutat. In the spring of 1901 this company
built a large saltery on the northern side of the head on which the village of Yakutat
is now located. The intention was to salt herring, and if salmon could be obtained
to extend their operations to that species.

Saltery of See & Flenner. — Messrs. A. L. See and A. Flenner, at the time of
our visit (July 3), had in course of construction a saltery on the western point of the
entrance to An-kau Creek, about 2 miles from Yakutat post-office. One building,
20 feet by JO feet, had been erected in a bight within the entrance to the creek, and
another was in course of construction on the point, which was to be connected with
the first by a tramway 1,700 feet long. It was the intention to salt herring, and
salmon also if they could be obtained; for the latter, 2 salting tanks had been
provided. No salting had been done at the date of our visit.

Cannery and railroad proposition , Yakutat Bay to Alsek River Delta. — In the
fall of 1900 and spring of 1901 a gentleman from San Diego, Cal., prospected this
region with a view of establishing a cannery. He visited the Alsek and adjacent
streams, and concluded that there was an abundance of fish, but that it is impracti-
cable to transport them by water if the cannery were located in Monti Bay; also,
that it is impracticable to handle the cannery equipment and the pack over the Alsek
Bar if the cannery were located in that vicinity.

At Yakutat it was reported that a party in Seattle was interested in and intended
raising money for the purpose of building a railroad from Monti Bay to the Alsek,
a distance of about 60 miles, to carry the fish from the Alsek district. At a location
on the southern side of Monti Ba}q in a bend about one-half mile from the mission, a
wharf 300 feet long, to accommodate steamers, is to be built, and whenever the railroad
is completed a cannery plant is to be erected. This is mentioned simply to indicate
the wild schemes spoken of in Alaska. At the time of our visit all there was in the
locality to give the project any credence was a small bunk-house and a wharf about
100 feet long built from the bank to the high-water mark.

South Alaska Packing Company. — During the season of 1900 a fisherman by
the name of Flemming examined the stream conditions from Yakutat to the Alsek.
Upon his report a Mr. Shaw went over the ground during the spring of 1901, on
the part, it is said, of an organization called the South Alaska Packing Company.
Mr. Shaw had returned south before our arrival, but it was reported in Yakutat that,
several sites for canneries had been located. Inquiry in San Francisco elicited the
information that the company no longer existed.

PRINCE WILLIAM SOUND STREAMS.

The streams and fisheries of this district were referred to in my report of 1897,
pages 137-139, and as there has been no material development or change, the general
conditions need not be repeated here. At the time of our former visit we were
unable to make an examination of the streams and lake systems on account of the
lateness of the season, and therefore accepted this work as a part of the examination

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1901.

391

to be conducted this year. The streams are similar to those of Southeast Alaska,
but in proportion to the territory covered are far less prolific in choice commercial
salmon. If all the streams in the sound proper, at least so far as known, were fished
legally throughout the season, it is doubted if 100,000 redtish and 50,000 cohoes
could be taken under average conditions. The humpbacks are more plentiful and,
as far as our personal observation goes, they seemed quite abundant.

The time of runs in Copper River is early, and that in Prince William Sound
corresponds with- Southeast Alaska, so that when the redtish have stopped running
in the first-named locality they commence running in the second, and the canneries
then pick up a few redtish in connection with the humpbacks, which are packed as
soon as fishing on Copper River ceases. Were it not for this difference in time of
runs it is doubted if any redtish would be taken from the sound, particularly as the
redtish streams are from 60 to 100 miles from the canneries.

All these streams have been barricaded, the evidences of which still exist, and
it is possible that this practice is still resorted to during the fishing season.

The stream at Cheniga, which produces more redtish than the combined output
of all the other streams, it is said, was tightly dammed for many years, and it is fre-
quently referred to as an example by those who argue against the parent-stream and
four-year theories.

CHENIGA STREAM AND LAKE.

In the western end of Prince William Sound, opposite Herring Bay, on Knight
Island, a point projects from the mainland known as Point Nowell. Rounding this
point to the northward is an indentation in two parts. The outer is a round bay,
about C miles in diameter, connected by a narrow passage with a tidal lagoon of
irregular form, about 3 miles long, which receives at its head the waters of Cheniga
stream, the most productive redtish stream in Prince William Sound. It is a lake
outlet, and was examined by Ensign Hepburn on July 12.

The stream is about one-half mile long, 30 feet wide, 10 inches deep, and Hows
with a strong current over a stony bottom in a NE. direction, which is the line of bay
and stream system. The water is clear and had a temperature of 55 1 F. The upper
half of the stream is quite straight, and the lower half gently curving, and, as there
is a fall of 110 feet from the lake to the mouth, its course is almost one continuous
rapid, but there are no serious obstructions to the free ascent of fish.

The mountains forming the valley through which the stream runs lie well back on
each side with occasional projecting spurs through which the stream has cut its way
so that the banks are alternately low and flat, and steep but not very high. The
vegetation is that common to Southeast Alaska, although the forest trees are nearly
all small spruce, with a heavy undergrowth of berry bushes, devil’s club, and coarse
grass. At the head of tide water, and ranging across the stream, are three triangular
log cribs, substantially built and filled with rocks, and on the left bank is a pile of
poles that may be used for the barricade. This stream was tightly barricaded for
many years, and it is probable when the fishing gangs arrive that the stream is
closed during the season. There is a log- jam near the lake, but it forms no serious
obstruction to the passage of fish.

The lake is an irregular, triangular-shaped body of water, about a mile m length
on each side. The water is clear and the bottom, wherever it could be seen, is sandy.

392

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

The lake is walled in by high mountains, and from the general features it is likely
that there is no other lake in the system, nor any feeders that may be used for
spawning, as the shores descend very abruptly. Temperature of water, 55° F. ;
elevation, 110 feet. A few small fish were seen in the lake and redfish were seen
jumping around the mouth of the stream. The streams in Prince William Sound
give such poor returns that they are only resorted to by the canneries when the catch
at Copper River runs short or the season there is over. No accurate values therefore
can be given.

The Pacific Steam Whaling Company’s cannery keeps no record of catches by
streams and has rarely fished in Cheniga. It is believed if Cheniga were fished
legally throughout the season it might yield, under average conditions, 40,000 red-
fish. The catch for 1896 was an exceptional one. The following data are from the
books of the Alaska Packers’ Association cannery:

Year.

Dates.

No. of
redfish.

1896

77,866

1897

July 1-Aug. 10

23, 363

1898

2, 893

1899'

7, 396

1900

July 11-27

18; 587

Sketch of Rubber Boot and Cheniga Lakes, Prince William Sound, Alaska.

RUBBER BOOT STREAM AND LAKE.

This stream, a lake outlet, discharges into the northwestern side of the outer bay
described under Cheniga, and was examined July 12 by a party in charge of Ensign
Hepburn. It is a small stream, about 250 yards long in a direct line, 12 feet wide and
6 inches deep, and flows with a very strong current over a rocky bottom on a fairly
straight SE. course. The fall from the lake is about 50 feet and the stream is one
continuous rapid, which salmon can probably ascend, but with some difficulty. The
banks are heavily wooded with a scrub growth, bordered near the stream by a grassy

HUBBARD GLACIER, YAKUTAT BAY AND VICINITY, ALASKA.

Plate XLIV.

FOURTH LAKE, JACK POT SYSTEM, PRINCE WILLIAM SOUND, ALASKA.

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1901.

393

flat. The water is clear, slightly tinged, and has a temperature of 58° F. Tide water
extends about 20 yards within the mouth to a point where the remains of a barricade,
consisting of the usual felled trees and split poles, were found.

The lake is an irregular-shaped body of water, enlarging near the source of the
outlet to about one-half mile in diameter, from which a curving arm, walled in by
high mountains, extends over a mile to the westward. The bottom is muddy and
stony and the banks are steep. There is a small wooded islet near the center of the
eastern part of the lake. For want of facilities the lake could not be examined in all
parts, but a number of very small feeders were noticed flowing in on the western
side; from the configuration of the country it is not believed there is any feeder of
considerable size or other lake connection. No fish were seen in the stream or lake,
but a few redfish were jumping around the mouth of the outlet. This stream, if
regularly fished, might yield under average conditions from 3,000 to 5,000 redfish
during a season. The following are the only stream records available:

Year.

Dates.

No. of
redfish.

1896

July 24

1,759

1897

July 15-Aug. 10

3, 625

1898

July 5-July 31

2, 338

1899

July 5-July 18

881

1900

July 11

142

JACK-POT STREAM AND LAKE.

On the mainland, in the southwest end of Prince William Sound, opposite the
lower end of Cheniga Island, is a deep bay making to the northwest for several
miles, and then, by a narrow passage, connecting with a large bay extending some
distance to the southward. Beyond the connecting passage, on the northern shore,
is the outlet to a system of lakes and ponds, carrying a few redfish; this was
examined by a party in charge of Ensign Miller on July 15. The series consists of
9 lakes, lying in a narrow valley in a general north- and-south direction, 7 connected
on line, and 2 sublakes connected with No. 5. Nos. 5 and 6 are quite large; the rest
are small. Very little current was noticed in the lakes, but the connecting streams
have rapids, though the fall is not great, as No. 7 has an elevation of only 60 feet.
Temperature of No. 7, 57° F. No. 9 is elevated about 50 feet above No. 5.

Lake No. 1 is small and is reached by tide water: It is about 200 yards from

the bay, and at high water 4 or 5 feet can be carried in, while at low water there is a
fall of from 10 to 12 feet. The outlet is about 50 feet wide, 18 inches deep, and had
a temperature of 46° F. Fishing operations are carried on in Lake No. 1, and in the
passage connecting No. 1 with No. 2 the remains of a barricade were found.

The system is bordered by hills, about 300 feet high, behind which lie high
mountains. Occasional flats border the hills. The banks are rocky where observed,
and the bottom is of the same nature, though doubtless there are areas of sand and
gravel. The vegetation is of the usual Southeast Alaskan type. There are no
obstructions to prevent the ascent of fish. Humpbacks were seen spawning in the
middle lakes. No feeders of any importance were noticed, though it is probable
that there is a large stream at the head of No. 7. The system was visited after
prolonged rains, and it was with the greatest difficulty that the party was able to
traverse the western side, and it was impossible to cross to the other side.

394

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

It is estimated that by fishing throughout the season 7,000 redfish might be
obtained under average conditions. The following are the only data available:

Year.

1896

1899

1900

Dates.

No. of
redfish.

July 22 and 21

July 11 and 1ft

July 11

3,332

307

142

MINERS STREAM AND LAKE.

On the northern side of Prince William Sound, west from Glacier Island, is a
wide, deep inlet known as Salmo Sound. About 10 miles from the entrance to this
sound, on the eastern side, is an indentation marked on the southern side by a steep,
bare hill of brownish rock behind two wooded islands, which receives the waters of
a stream carrying a few redfish. This stream was examined by a party in charge of
Ensign Kempff on July 16, and is the outlet to two lakes lying in a north-and-south
direction in a broadening valley.

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1901.

395

The upper lake has an elevation of 25 feet, and is about Lv> miles long, with an
extreme width of i mile. The shores, except at the northern and southern ends, are
steep and rocky, and bordered by hills from 300 to 400 feet high, back of which the
land rises to the higher snow-covered mountains. At the northern end is a series of
ponds, lying in the lowlands and connected with each other and the lake. The water
is glacial, and had a temperature of 44° F. , which was that of the whole system.

The upper lake is connected with the lower one at the southern end by a stream,
which is 75 yards long, 35 feet wide, about 9 inches deep, and Hows with a strong
current over a bowlderous bed in a general south direction. The lower lake, about

*

one- fourth mile in diameter, is shallow, and surrounded bjr wooded and grassy flats.
The beaches are of mud and rock; the water is glacial. This lower lake empties into
the inlet through a stream one-fourth mile long, 50 feet wide, and about 0 inches
deep, flowing in a southwest direction with a very strong current over a bowlderous
bed. There are two rapids a short distance below the lake. A few redfish were seen
jumping near the mouth of the stream, but none were seen in the stream or lakes.
The spawning-beds are in the streams and ponds at the head of the upper lake.

There is no stream record available. It is estimated by those acquainted with
the locality that it should yield, under average conditions, 10,000 redfish by fishing
throughout the season.

396

BULLETIN OP THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

Sketch of Billy’s Hole and Outlet (Lake), Prince William Sound, Alaska.

narrow strait runs about due west for 400 yards and connects with a small salt-water
lagoon which receives the discharge from a lake and carries redfish. It was examined
July 17 by Ensign Hepburn.

BILLYS HOLE LAKE AND OUTLET.

On the northern shore of Prince William Sound, northwest from Glacier Island,
is a large bay. It is the second indentation west from Point Fremantle, the western
entrance point to Port Valdes and about 8 miles from it. At the head of the bay a

ALASKA SALMON INVESTIGATIONS IN 1901.

397

There is no stream of well-defined limits which forms the outlet, the waters of
the lake falling directly into the western end of the lagoon with a drop of about
6 feet at high water. In the middle of the outlet, surmounting the brink of the fall,
is an island that divides the discharge into two equal parts. That part south of the
island has a sheer fall and is not passable to salmon. The western portion is a cascade
up which salmon can run when it is not barricaded. Some logs, evidently the remains
of a barricade, were found across the top of the cascade and some wire netting lay on
the bank near by, but when visited there was no obstruction to the passage of fish.
The lake is in two parts, or it may be said there are two lakes connected by a short
broad stream. The smaller and lower lake is irregular in form, one-fourth of a mile
in length by half that width, with gently sloping banks except on the western shore,
where there are precipitous cliffs. In the center it appears rather deep. The bottom
consists principally of smooth, sloping rocks with sandy and gravelly spaces between.
The larger lake, lying just north of the smaller, extends in a WSW. and ESF. (mag.)
direction for about three-fourths mile, with a greatest breadth of one-half mile. The
eastern and about half of the northern shores are steep and densely wooded with a
tangled undergrowth. Around the western end there are flats extending from
one-eighth to one-half mile back to the foot of the mountains and hills forming the
lake basin. These flats are covered with g-rass and bushes and dense thickets of scrub
alder. Two feeders enter the lake on the northwestern side. They both flow through
a large valley extending almost north and south (mag.) and are formed from the
melting snows. The stream flowing down the eastern side of the valley is the larger.
It flows over a stony bed with a strong current, has a width of 15 feet and an
average depth of 5 inches. It had a temperature of 16° F. The other stream in
this valley is much smaller. It has a width of from 3 to 20 feet, depth from 2 inches
to 1 foot, and a moderate current. A third, formed largely by draining the melting
snows, enters the lake on the southern shore. It flows through a deep and very
narrow valley extending to the southward, has an average breadth of 20 feet, depth
•1 inches, and a strong current; temperature, 13° F. The lake water had a tempera-
ture of 50° F. and is very clear. The bottom appears to be mainly of rock, with some
sand and mud patches. The bones of fish were seen scattered all along the shores of
the lake, but no live fish were seen, except a few red salmon jumping in the lagoon.

A hatchery might be located at the mouth of the feeder on the southern shore,
though the question of a sufficient supply of water during a diy season might need
further investigation.

There is no record of this stream available. It is usually fished by the cannery
located at Orca. It is believed by those competent to. judge that the stream, under
average conditions, should yield 20,000 redfish during the run.

PRINCE WILLIAM SOUND CANNERIES.

The two canneries operating in this locality — the one by the Alaska Packers
Association (Pacific Packing Company) at Odiak and the other by the Pacific Steam
Wnaling Company at Orca — are each in about the same working condition as noted
in former reports, to which reference is made. In the Alaska Packers Association
cannery fish-cleaning machines have been introduced, but it is understood they
are still in the experimental stage and require some changes before they can be

398

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

pronounced a success. One set of can-makers was in operation in this cannery this
year, which averaged over 40,000 cans per diem. All the cans were made on the
ground except 10,000 cases which were carried from San Francisco: 100-pound
domestic plate was used throughout. The Chinese and fishermen contracted on
practically the same terms as given in my previous reports.

Halibut and cod are common around the canneries and trout are abundant in
the streams of Prince William Sound. Early in the spring a few steelheads are
taken in the delta of the Copper River.

The following averages per case of fish taken in the Copper River delta during
different years may be of interest as indicating the possible variations from year to
year: King salmon, 3 j, 4k, 4, 4k; redfish, 9f, Ilk, 10k, Hi, Ilf.

COPPER RIVER DELTA.

The conditions in this locality were fully described in my report for 1897, pages
129-139, and reference here will only be made to changes and additional information
noted. The United States Coast and Geodetic Survey has extended its work over
the delta as far as Cottonwood Point, and the location of sloughs with their distance
from the canneries can now be indicated with accuracy. The mining excitement
throughout this section has caused quite an influx of people, and communication is
therefore much better and more reliable.

The cannery of the Peninsula Trading and Fishing Company at Coquenhena,
referred to in my former reports, has been dismantled and the available machinery
utilized in the Pacific Steam Whaling Company’s cannery at Kenai, Cook Inlet.

The fishing localities in the delta are unchanged, except that the Chilkat River
east of the delta is now more vigorously fished. Cannery steamers capable of going
to sea carry the fish from the mouth of the river to the delta, and transfer them to
stern-wheel steamers, which carry them to the canneries.

The value of the Chilkat River is unknown, but the following data, from the
books of the Alaska Packers Association, may be of interest :

Year.

Dates.

Redfish.

1896

June 27 to July 15

23, 980

1897

June 15 to June 29

39, 269

1898

June 20 to June 29

39, 383

1899

June 16 to July 4

27,072

1900

June 19 to July 6

106, 167

U. s. (Wrission of Pj&h and Fisheries
Geo. M. Bowers, Commissioner.

SALMON INVESTIGATIONS

COAST Of ALASKA

DIXON ENTRANCE TO HEAD OF LYNN CAN, VI,

SHOWING LOCATIONS OF

SALMON CANNERIES AND SALTERIES

AND THE

PRINCIPAL SALMON STREAMS

By Lieut. Com'di' Jeffii F Moser, U. S.N,
CorQmatrdingU.S.FC. Six. AUiatruss.

I9QD

Settle eotyboo

Base map US.Caastand Geodetic Surrey chart No.S050.

® CANNERIES OPERATED, 1800.

S Tlilinkot Pocking Go'

Hi Boston fishing \A T»tUng Co.

11. Alaska Salmon Packing dr Fa::;

12. FMafgb: Island Cai tiling C;>.

13. Me.thtkabila Industrial Co.

11 Quadra Packing. Co
15. Pactfio Stsuj'. •■Whaling Co.

. , ■■• V. 'Tv, -I i ■ i ,■ ,v P

1. Chiisoot Packing Co.

2. Pyramid Harbor Packing Co. (A P, A.)

3. Western Fishing Co.

4. Toko Packing Co.

5. Taka Fishing Co.

6. Icy Strait Packing Co.

7. Royer-Warnock Packing Co.

8. Glacier Packing. Co (A. P. A ;

Hi. Ners.h Pacific Trading & Packing Co,

Q CANNERIES IN RESERVE, 1900.

22. Icy Strait Packing Co Building* 'erected, i

21. Chilkat Canning Co. (A. !’. A.)

(-ape Cross.

® CANNERIES DEFUNCT.

36. Baninoff Packing Co

37. Astoria A Alaska Packing Co.

38. Aberdeen Packing Co.

39. Cape Lees Packing Co.

40. Tongass Packing Co.

41. Capo Fox Packing Co.

■ SALTERIES OPERATED, 1900.

64. North Pacific & Norway Packing Co.

65. ley Strait Packing Co., hulk ' BLAKcSe.'

66. John Frey.

67. Torn McCauley,

68. Groat Northern Fish Co.

69. Robert Bell.

70. John E. Rice.

71. Great Northern Fish Co

72. Alex. Miller.

73. Z. Doty.

74. Craig Miller.

75. Banter & West.

76. Alaska Packers’ Association.

Abandoned.

Burnt.

Sold and moved.

Dismantled

Burnt,

Sold and moved.

30. Northwest Trading Co. Absorbed.

31. Chilkat Packing Co. Burnt.

32. Bartlett Bay. Packing Co! Dismantled.

33. Astoria & Alaska Packing Co. Moved.

34. Cutting Packing Co. Abandoned.

36. Barauoff Packing Co Moved.

50. Icy Strait Packing Co.

51. Perry Hinkle.

62. Perry Hinkle.

53. Icy Strait Packing Co.

54. Perry Hinkle.

56. Perry Hinkle. .

56 Alaska Oil & Guano Co.

57. Great Northern Fish Co.

58. Jack Mahtle,

59. Jack Mantle.

60. Zip Moon.

61. Finn & Young.

62. Icy Strait Pooking Co.

63. Fred Brookman.

• Killisroo

^Wcfwr

a SALTERIES IN RESERVE, 1900

77, Miller & Co.

78. Pacific Steam Whaling Co.

ffi SALTERIES DEFUNCT.

Abandoned.

Abandoned.

Abandoned.

Abandoned.

Moved.

79. D Blaauw.

80. James Turk

fap* Fanshaw

86- Indians. Abandoned.

87. Martin & McKinnon (Clark * Abandoned.

Martin.)

88. Clark & Martin.

89. Miller & Co.

90. Alaska Packers’ Association.

81. Morriasey.

82. Tom McCauley.
83 Tom McCauley.

84. Tom McCauley.

85. Robert Bell.

ilTKA P.0.

Cape Be. ode 1 1

Sboa.'i

Abandoned.

Abandoned.

Moved

Cornwulllg Pt

HATCHERIES, 1900.

▲ 95. North Pacific Trading & Parking Co. Operated.
A 96. Pacific Steam Whaling Co.

A 97. Capt. J. C. Callbreath's.

A 98. Banmoff Packing Co.'s.

A 99. Capt. John C. Callbreath’f

Abandoned.

Ku*hn«*hfn !

ihaHan

;wSifn\ '
■MCtUK*.

•Tuxecurt:

'•^KlayvaK :

Cape Chacoi

Bulletin u.S.rC. 1301

Chart B.

Bulletin U.S.FC. 1901 .

IT. S . Commission of Fish aud Fisheries

Geo, M. Bowers, Commissioner.

SALMON INVESTIGATIONS

COAST OF ALASKA

FROM CAPE SUCKLING TO UNIMAK PASS

SHOWING LOCATIONS OF

SALMON CANNERIES AND SALTERIES

I AND THE

I PRINCIPAL SALMON STREAMS

p» MacKenio

Billy!* Hole.

CaMWh'*

By Lieut. Cora'd’r Jeffn E Moser, TJ. S.N.,
iVmnmmdia^U&F.C, SlkiUbaiross.

1900

Scale ; iMfioo A

Anchor ftj

Cape tlixr t

maps:

,Cap» Doiglas

tey charts. Nos. 8500 f 8800,

Point B< r

iHagemi

kululak

c Chichagof

® DEFUNCT CANNERIES.

41. Boring Sea Packing Co.

42. Bering Sea Packing Co.

43. Thin Point Packing Co.

44. Central Alaska Co.

45. Western Alaska Packing Co.

46. Shumagin Packing Co.

47. Arctic Packing Co.

48. Aleutian Islands Fishing and

Mining Co.

49. Hume Packing Co.

50. Arctic Packing Co.

51. Royal Packing Co.

52. Russian-Aiuerican Packing Co

53. Alaska Packing Co.

54. George W. Hume.

55. Pacific Steam Whaling Co.

56. Peninsula Trading & Fishing

Company.

57. Central Alaska Co.

58. Peninsula Trading & Fishing

Company.

Moved.

Abandoned.

Abandoned.

Abandoned.

Abandoned.

Consolidated.

Moved.

Consol i dated.

G»p« Ujpt

Consolidated.

Distquntled.

Dismantled.

Abandoned.

Absorbed.

Dismantled.

Moved .

Abandoned.

Cape Orah

PocKs;

Moved.
Moved .

ffl DEFUNCT SALTERIES.

71. Togiak Fishing Station (A. P. A.)

72. Bristol Bay Canning Co.

73. Bristol Bay Canning Co.

74. Prosper Fishing & Trading Co.

76. Naknek Packing Co.

76. L. A. Pedersen.

77. Arctic Packing Co.

78. Egegak Fishing Station (A. P. A.)

79. C. A. Johnson.

80. Charles Nolson.

81. Alaska Packers’ Association.

82. C. A. Johnson.

83. Alaska Packers’ Association.

84. Alaska Coast Fishing Co.

85. Oliver Smith (A. P. A.)

86. C. D. Ladd.

Abandoned.

Moved.

Sold and moved.

Absorbed.

Abandoned.

Absorbed.

Absorbed.

Abandoned.

Absorbed.

Abandoned.

Abandoned.

Absorbed.

Abandoned.

Abandoned.

Abandoned.

Absorbed.

'HtyaroK

\Pcrt Haiden

Rocky

Chignik Bay

iTuliutnnit1

SE-MIDl

ISLANDS

£>Gh«nMu

• CANNERIES OPERATED, 1900.

L Alaska Packing Co. (A. P. A,)

2. Bristol Bay Canning Co (A, P. A.)

3. Arctic Packing Co. (A. P. A.)

4. Pacific Steam Whaling Co.

•5. Alaska Fishermen’s Packing Co.

6. Point Roberts Packing Co. (A. P. A.)

7. Kvichak Packing Co. (A. P A.)

8. Naknek Packing Co

Arctic Packing Co. (A. P. A.)

10. Egegak Packing Co,. (A. P. A.)

11. -Ugashik Fishing Station (A. P. A.)

12. Bristol Packing Co.

13. Chignik Bay Co. (A. P. A.)

14. Hume Bros. & Hume.

15. Pacific Steam Wrha!ing Co.

16. Arctic Packing Co. (A, P A.)

17. Alaska Improvement Co. (A. P. A.)

18. Karluk Packing Co. (A. P. A.)

19. Hume Bros. & Hume.

20. Pacific Steam Whaling Co.

21. Uganuk Fishing Station. (A. P. A.)

22. Arctic Fishing Co. (A, P. A.)

23. Pacific .Steam Whaling Co.

24. Alaska Salmon Association,

25. Pacific Packing Co. (A. P. A.)

26. Pacific Steam Whaling Co.

Ichovjjet

sPORT mOLLtR

jluitPt

Chernov

>»nof Ft HATCHERIES, 19i

A 91. Alaska Packers’ Association.

A 96. Karluk River Fisheries Association.

Operated.

Abandoned.

Cnernc

Q CANNERIES IN RESERVE, 1900.

31. Nushagak Canning Co. (A. P. A.)

32. North Alaska Salmon Association. (New.)

83. Chignik Bay Packing Co. (A. P. A.)

34. Kodiak Packing Co. (A. P. A.)

35. Hume Canning A Trading Co. (A., P. A.)

36. Hume-Aleufcian. Packing Co, (A, P. A.)

37. Kodiak Packing Co. (A, P. A.)

38. Northern .Packing Co. (A. P. A.)

M SALTERIES OPERATED, 1800.

61. (1 F. Whitney k Co.

62. Eagle Harbor Packing Go.

C la vrr«ff

rmak 6 ay

Pfctr iff

jjCatoa

/Yore:

Th/s sect/ on of the ntap
represents the fres tern continu-
ation of the upper section.

The Scale in both sections is
identical .

Statute Miles.

30 40 50

Kaurical lYliles^

— —

■ . " r'' 1

v

.

.

'

,

.

.

NOTES

ON

A SPECIES OF BARNACLE (DICHELASPIS) PARASITIC
ON THE GILLS OF EDIBLE CRABS.

BY

ROBERT E. COKER.

399

NOTES ON A SPECIES OF BARNACEE (DICH ELASPIS) PARASITIC ON THE

GILLS OE EDIBLE CRABS.

By ROBERT E. COKER.

Iii the summer of 1900 Prof. H. V. Wilson, at that time director of the Beaufort
Laboratory, suggested that, in view of the economic importance of the edible crabs,
a fuller knowledge of the life histories of the ectoparasites of these forms was
desirable. The following notes on one of the most interesting of such parasites
are the outcome of an investigation carried on during parts of that and the following
summer.

It is a pleasure to express my thanks to Professor Wilson for many helpful

OCCURRENCE AND HABIT OF ADULT.

A large number of the common edible crabs, or blue crabs ( Callinectes sapidus
[Ordway] Rathbun), of Beaufort, N. C., are found to be infested with a small lepadide
barnacle, ectoparasitic on the gills (tig. 1). This form was first observed at Beaufort
by Mr. T. G. Pearson. To ascertain somewhat definitely the proportion of crabs
containing this parasite, record was made of 180 mature crabs examined during
August and the first half of September, and barnacles were found in 128, or in 71 per
cent. These crabs were taken just as they were brought into the laboratory, no
selection being made except that soft crabs and evidently young- crabs were disre-
garded. The barnacles were much more abundant later than earlier in the summer.

The sexes were found to be unequally burdened; the percentage for males
infested was only 56, while for females it reached 89 per cent. It was also easily seen
that the average number of barnacles in infested females was considerably above the
corresponding average for males. A possible explanation of this difference is that

F. C. B. 1901—26

401

402

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

females when with eggs must be much less vigorous in their movements, because of
the burden, but especially because of the necessity of having some care for the eggs.
The consequently slower respiratory current would then afford better opportunity
for barnacles in the free-swimming cypris stage to attach, as they are by chance
sucked in and driven through the branchial chamber, or, if the cypris seeks out its host,
the less active crabs will, again, be the easiest to find and to obtain attachment in.

The females also bore more of the Balanus barnacles on their shells; and it was
further found that about four-fifths of those crabs on which the Balanus was seen
would also contain Dichelaspis. It was rare to find a female crab with Balanus
that had not also Dlclidaspis. This fact is quite useful to one who is in search of
the latter; promising crabs can be selected at a glance, even before capture. After
ascertaining the above percentages, the collectors were asked to bring in only such
crabs as carried Balanus barnacles.

It is to be presumed that these gill parasites are thrown off with the cuticle of
the gill in the molt of the crab, and that the frequent molts of young crabs would
prevent the barnacles on their gills from becoming conspicuous either in size or in
numbers. It would then be expected, as indeed it is observed, that this Dichelaspis
is not found in young or in soft crabs.

While one usually finds in an infested individual from two or three to eight or
ten Dichelaspis , the number varies from one to as many as can be crowded into the
branchial chambers — 500 to 1,000, or perhaps more. In one instance observed the
gill chambers had been filled to overflowing, and one or two barnacles were found
attached without to a maxilliped.

This species of Dichelaspis is not peculiar 'to CaZlinectes as a host; both the
edible stone crab [Menippe mercenaria Stimson) and the spider crab ( Libinia canali-
culata Say) contain it, but with less frequency. It is probably present in other large
Crustacea, lobsters as well as crabs, of other regions of the coast.

No organic connection between the barnacle and its host is found; and, while
histological study of the parasite has not been made, no signs of degeneration are
noted, except as to the extent of the calcified area of the valves of the capitulum; as
will be seen later, too, the mouth parts are well developed. The barnacle is, therefore,
to be regarded as a space parasite, which has become adapted to this habitat because
of the peculiar advantages it offers — protection, frequent transportation, and the
supply of a continual current of water, from which small organisms can be gathered
for food. The branchial chamber of the crab is, indeed, a particularly favorable
place for life, and is made use of by various forms. Vorticellid colonies and ac.inetid
protozoa, polyzoa — ectoproctous and endoproctous — nemerteans, etc., are found with
greater or less frequency. The considerable variation in the size and shape of the
calcified plates to be noted later (see tigs. 4 and 5) has probably no other significance
than that it accompanies the degeneration of the plates, resulting from the fact
that their function of protection is now performed by the carapace of the host. The
relation of the calcified areas {t. sc. c.) to the whole valves ( T S. C.) is shown by the
somewhat diagrammatic sketch (tig. 3) in which the outlines of the valves and the
lines of growth are added, though in nature they are seen only under the microscope.

A barnacle removed from its host, with no piece of gill left attached will live for
a considerable time with rather infrequent changes of water. One thus kept for 23

NOTES ON A SPECIES OF BARNACLE.

403

days in a flat dish molted twice and at the end seemed quite healthy. The water
was changed six times.

Those crabs whose gills are heavily burdened with Dichelaspis have less vitality;
their movements are sluggish and they are the lirst to die when brought into the
laboratory. This reduction of vitality is not an evidence of real parasitism, but may
be explained by the fact that when the cirripeds are present in large numbers much
of the gill surface is occupied, gill lamellae are fastened together, and the respiratory
current retarded by them, and the barnacles have the first chance at the water. The
health of the host being thus impaired, much harm results indirectly to it, in that it
is rendered less able to contend with its enemies or to escape their attacks.

The following is an explanation of terms used in the description:

The capitulum incloses the body, and is supported upon the stalk or 'peduncle.

The juncture of the capitulum with the peduncle is regarded as the base of the capitulum; the
angle opposite this juncture is the apex.

Upper means away from; lower toward the base.

The rostral angle or umbone is indicated by the point of union of the two segments of the scutum.

The occludent margin of the capitulum extends from the rostral angle to the apex.

All of the carina, except its basal portion, takes part in the carinal margin, which is thus approxi-
mately at right angles to the base. A tergum, therefore, has, roughly, four sides — upper, carinal,
lower, and occludent.

The term plates or valves ( terga , scuta, carina) applies to the calcified portions of the valves.

DESCRIPTION.

Darwin (1851-1854) gives this diagnosis of the genus Dichelaspis :

Valves 5, generally appearing like 7, from each scutum, being divided into two distinct segments,
united at the rostral angle; carina generally extending up between the terga, terminating downward
in an embedded disk or fork or cup. Mandible, with three or four teeth; maxillae notched, with the
lower part of the edge generally not prominent; anterior ramus of the second cirrus not thicker than
the posterior ramus, nor very thickly clothed with spines; caudal appendages uniarticulate, spinose.

As will be seen from the description given below, the cirriped under considera-
tion belongs to this genus. While the carina, which terminates downward in a fork,
usually reaches only to or barely beyond the lower edges of the terga, there is con
siderable variation in the size and shape of the plates. To this barnacle I have given
the name Dichelaspis mutter i. * After a description of the species there will follow
a comparison of D. mulleri with other species of the same genus.

Dichelaspis mulleri.

Capitulum barely longer than broad; basal segment of scutum parallel to lower margin of
capitulum, narrower than occludent segment and about five-sixths as long; tergum divided very
unequally by a notch; lower part of tergum about twice as wide as occludent segment of scutum;
carina terminating downward in a fork; mandible with four teeth.

The capitulum is less than 1 j> times as long as broad (fig. 2), generally about half as thick as long,
sometimes more compressed. In two of the largest specimens the capitula were 3mm in width by

in length. Others of a much more usual shape were 3nmi by 3$mm. These were unusually large.

The peduncle is 1 f to 3 times as long as the capitulum, but one specimen was found with a capit-
ulum 4mm in length and peduncle 40mm in length. The peduncle is translucent, except when colored
by the ova, which, when present, give to a greater or less portion of the peduncle a pink color.

* Named after Fritz Muller, who says in his “ Facts and Arguments for Darwin ” (English translation, 1869, p. 137) that
he has met with a species of Dichelaspis m the branchial cavity of Lupa dicantha ( Callinecles hastatus formerly included
under this name) He does not describe the form, which may well be identical with the Beaufort species.

404

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

The plates are small and well removed from one another. Each scutum (fig. 2) is composed of
two segments united at the umbone by an uncalcified flexible portion; the occludent segment extends
parallel and close to the occludent margin of the capitulum; is widest in the middle, where it is about
half as wide as the lower part of the tergum; is narrower near the umbone, and at its upper end is
always more or less pointed. The point is directed toward the notch in the tergum and reaches to or
a little beyond the lower edge of that plate. Between this segment and the basal segment, which lies
parallel to the base of the capitulum, is an angle varying from 70° to nearly 90°. The basal part is
narrower and about five-sixths as long as occludent portion, is of a more uniform width, and, though
often ending rather bluntly, is usually pointed. It may not reach quite to the points of the prongs
of carina, or may overlap them as much as two-thirds their length. One scutum was found with a
third narrower segment between the other two and directed toward the upper end of the carina.

Each tergum bears a notch on the occludent margin (figs. 2, 4, and 5). If the notch is measured
from its apex to the tip of the smaller, occludent portion of the plate, its depth is generally about
one-sixth (though itmay be one-third) the length of the tergum or less. The lower end of the tergum
is in width usually one-half (one-third to three-fourths) the length of the plate; generally it has a
smooth outline, though sometimes a little jagged or with a notch. The carinal margin is usually slightly
concave; this side, too, sometimes bears more or less of a notch. The upper end is blunt and rounded.
Length of tergum two-thirds that of scutum, or one-third that of capitulum. That the two terga of
the same individual are not necessarily just alike is shown by figs. 4 and 5; in each figure the dotted
line represents the tergum of one side, the continuous line that of the other side, of one barnacle.

Fig. 3. — Diagrammatic Fig. 4. — Outlines of the two terga Fig. 5. — Same of another
sketch of valves. of an individual, x 30. individual, x 30.

Fig. 6.— Lower part of a
carina. x 30.

The carina (figs. 2 and 6), terminating downward 'in a fork, is much widened at the base of the
widely separated and pointed prongs. Above the fork the carina is of very nearly uniform width.
It ends bluntly, reaching to or barely beyond the lower edges of the terga; in a few cases it extends
up between the terga as much as halfway. Within it is convex.

The mouth-parts are well developed. On the labrurn are two rows of short teeth, set closely
together in the middle; the palpi are about equal in size to the first maxillte, and are clothed on and
near the inner edge with bristles. The mandibles (fig. 7) have four teeth — the lower angle appears
as a fifth tooth — the second being farther removed from the first than from the fourth; the lower
three teeth are a little less sharp than the first; on the inferior angle are two or three very short teeth
and as many stout spines; below it are a number of closely crowded slender spines; the mandible is
hairy near the end and bears little tufts of hairs on its outer margin. The second maxilla has four
spines above the notch (one is small), two slender spines in the notch, and nine or ten below (fig. 8).

The cirri of the first pair are removed from those of the second pair and are about half as long.
Their rami are equal in length and are thickly clothed with spines. The rami of the second cirrus
are of equal thickness and little shorter than those of the sixth. The caudal appendages, which are
nearly as long as the pedicels of the sixth cirrus, are narrow and of very nearly uniform width
throughout. They taper a very little at the end where is borne a tuft of 15 or 20 bristles, the longest
of which are a little longer than the appendages. Sometimes other spines are found near the end.

As seems to be the case in most species of the genus, the penis is very large, reaching in D.
mulleri to or beyond the second cirrus. It tapers to a point and has a tuft of short bristles on the
end. On each side are scattered bristles in three rows.

NOTES ON A SPECIES OF BARNACLE.

405

COMPARISON WITH OTHER SPECIES OF DICIIELASPIS.

Darwin (1851-54) gives five species under this genus, and says of their dis-
tribution :

Eastern and western warmer oceans in the Northern Hemisphere, attached to Crustacea, sea-
snakes, etc.; attached to crabs at Madeira and off Borneo; to sea-snakes in the Indian Ocean. The
individuals of all the species appear to be rare.

Since Darwin four species have been added to the genus: I). darwinii de Filippi
(’61 and ’61a), very abundant on the gills of Palinurus vulgaris in the Mediterranean;
D. neptuni (MacDonald) Hoek (MacD. ’69 and Hoek ’83), on the gills and respiratory
appendages of “ Neptunus pelagicus, one of the swimming crabs occurring in great
plenty at Moreton Bay, Australia”;* I). aymonini Lessona and Tapparone-Canefri
(’74), found on the gills of Machrochira haemferi sent from Japan by Cav. Aymonin,

then living at Yokohama; finally, I). sessilis Hoek (’83), collected by the Challenge r
expedition in the Atlantic near the Azores, attached to a spine of an Echinid from
1,000 fathoms.

I reproduce in part a table for the identification of species, given by Dr. P. P. C.
Hoek (’83, p. 48):

1. Carina terminating in a disk D. warwickii , D. grayii, D. peUucida

2. Carina terminating in a fork D. neptuni, D. aymonini, I). darwinii, D. lowei

3. Carina terminating in a cup D. orthogonia, D. sessilis

(2) is further subdivided:

I. Basal segment of scutum directed toward centrum of capitulum D. neptuni

II. Basal segment of scutum parallel to lower margin of capitulum.

(a) Capitulum almost as long as broad [intended for almost as broad as long?].

a. Tergum triangular D. aymonini

(3. Tergum divided by a deep notch D. darwinii

( b ) Capitulum more than R- times as long as broad D. lowei

Thus the form of the carina, the direction of the basal segment of the scutum,
and the shape of the tergum, with other points of difference, exclude this barnacle from

* MacDonald describes this form as somewhat between Lepas and Dichelaspis and gives it the name Paradolepas
neptuni; but Hoek refers it to the genus Dichelaspis.

406

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

all of the above species except I). darwinii and D. lowei While I), mulleri resembles
I), lowei in many points, it differs from it chiefly in these important respects:

(1) In shape: The capital nm of I). lowei is times as long as wide, while in
D. mulleri the length barely exceeds the width. Darwin describes the capita lum as
“much compressed. 1 In I). mulleri it is one-half as thick as long; little compressed
as compared. with lepas.

(2) The segments of the posterior cirri have in D. lowei eight pairs of main
spines; in I), mulleri six pairs.

(3) In size of plates: The plates of our species are much smaller and farther
removed from one another.

(4) The segments of the scuta are separated by an angle of °70 to 80°, instead
of by an angle of 50°.

(5) The carina of T). mulleri does not “extend up between three-fourths of
the length of the terga” (or very rarely, at most), and the prongs, instead of being
separated by an angle, as in D. darwinii , are united by an even curve (tig. 6). This
latter point, however, may be subject to variability.

D. darwinii is described by de Filippi (’61, p. 76) as extremely common as a
parasite in the branchial chamber of Palinurus vulgaris , and is found in or near the
Bay of Naples. The external resemblance to D. mulleri is very close, but striking
differences exist between the nauplii of U. mulleri and those of D. darwinii as figured
by de Filippi (’61a, tav. xm, fig-s. 10 and 11). I need mention onty that in his figure
of the older nauplius (ibid., fig. 11) the frontal horns are still bent backward parallel
to the body, and the spines on the appendages are no longer than those of the just-
hatched nauplius (cf. figs. 10 and 11 of I). mulleri). Other differences in the life of
the nauplii are referred to later.

Those species of Dichelaspis having similar habitats to that of I), mulleri , and
apparently occurring in considerable numbers, are D. darwinii on lobsters of the
Mediterranean, I>. nejptuni on crabs of the Southern Pacific, and I), aymonini on
spider-crabs of Japanese water's.

SOME OBSERVATIONS ON THE DEVELOPMENT. \

The peduncle of mature individuals is generally found to be entirely, or in
part, of a pink color, this color being due to the ova seen through the translucent
integument. After the eggs have passed into the branchial chamber, where they
are cemented together into a somewhat saddle-shaped lamella, the external pink
appearance extends to the capitulum. Some idea of the condition of the eggs can
thus be gained from a glance at the barnacle.

Eggs found in the ovary, which is contained in the peduncle, are roughly
spherical in shape. Before passing out of the ovary they attain a diameter of
about 0.1 mm.; under a high power such an egg is faintly pink in color, appearing
light yellow near the circumference.

When laid the eggs are kept in the branchial chamber, where the first segmenta-
tion stages are found. The cleavage begins as total and unequal. Eggs were observed

* D. lowei Darwin. Madeira; attached to a rare braehyurous crab; very rare (Darwin, 1851-54).

fin the terminology of the following description of developmental stages, Korsheldt A Heider’s text-book (’99, pp.
209-219) and Hoek’s report (’84) have been followed. The figures and descriptions in the former are of Balcinus and of
different species of Lepas, in the latter of a species of Lepas.

NOTES ON A SPECIES OF BARNACLE.

407

that had undergone only the first cleavage; as compared with the ovarian egg they
were elongate, narrowed somewhat, and not much pointed at the future posterior end.
As the embyro nauplius within is developed the egg becomes more pointed at this
end and more square-shouldered at the other.

To understand the arrangement of the nauplial appendages in the egg, tig. 10
of the nauplius as just hatched should be compared with the egg-nauplius of fig. 9.
The latter figure is a ventral view of an egg nearly ready for hatching. The entire
second appendage with its two rami is seen (tigs. 9 and 10, II, II«, IK), but the
third appendage (see tig. 10, III, etc.) is completely hidden in this view by the
overlapping second. The first appendage, too, is folded behind the second so that
only its proximal portion is seen (fig. 9, I). The oesophagus apparently arches

over ventralward, so as to open somewhat on the ventral surface of the large “upper
lip” (ti.l.), the oesophagus being seen in optical cross-section at oes. The large
nauplius eye ( ic.e .) is closely approximated to the brain (cer.). At the posterior end
the point of the dorso-caudal spine (d. c. sp.) is seen just dorsal to the caudal fork
(cdl. f), which terminates the thoraco-abdominal region of the body.

By selecting barnacles whose capitula are tolerably well filled with eggs, and
teasing them on a slide, eggs are frequently found from which the nauplius is in the
act of hatching. In several cases observed under the microscope the process was as
follows: The appendages are pressed out against the shell, while the caudal end of the
body is bent ventrally and anteriorly against the shell. Then while the appendages
and body are pushed anteriorly as much as possible, the caudal fork slips posteriorly
along the shell. These alternate movements, bracing first with the appendages, then

408

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

with the caudal part, bring pressure to bear on the anterior end of the shell and
on other parts. Rupture was never observed to take place elsewhere than at the
anterior end. When the shell has ruptured, with the leverage afforded on all sides,
the larva is half out in a second or two; then with a single effort the shell is slipped
off from the ends of the appendages and the nauplius swims freely about.

The nauplius in this stage (tig. 10) measures 0.213”*“ in length. Of the three
pairs of swimming appendages the two posterior are biramous, the rami of the third
being very short. The first appendage bears 6 spines; the second, 5 and 6 on the
anterior and posterior rami, respectively, besides the rudiment of the “masticatory
blade” ( rnasc . 1)1.) on the protopodite; the third bears 2 on the anterior ramus, 3 on
the posterior, and 2 or 3 short spines on the protopodite and posterior ramus. The
spines are straight and without branches that could be seen with the power used.

In addition to the other parts referred to in the description of the egg-nauplius,
the alimentary canal (al. can.) can here be traced for the greater part of its course.
Alongside of it are seen two stout muscles (ms. th. ab.) attached anteriorly and
dorsally to the carapace in the region of the third appendage; posteriorly they seem
to be inserted on the ventral side of the thoraco-abdominal part, and I assume them
to be the means of the antero- ventral flexures of that section of the body observed
in the act of hatching, and when the nauplius is kept from swimming by light
pressure on the, cover-glass. The parts indicated by x are perhaps muscles to the
mouth region, but they were not so clear that muscular structure was evident. The
position of the long frontal horns (fr. A.) bent posteriorly subparallel to the sides of
the body is characteristic of this stage of the nauplius.

To obtain nauplii for study or preservation, ripe-looking barnacles may be
selected and teased as described above. It was found better, however, to keep one
or two dishes of water, each containing thirty or forty barnacles; the water need be
changed only every two or three days. The nauplii aggregate at the surface and
toward the brightest light, and can be obtained at almost any time, but, as the first
molt occurs very soon, they are almost all in the second stage. De Filippi states
that the nauplii of D. darwinii remain near the ovisacs for a long time, undergoing
further development there (’01, p. 75, and ’61 a, p. 203). The first nauplii of D. mulleri
often at least, probably as a rule, leave the branchial chamber early, undergoing the
first molt outside. Washing out the gill chamber of the crab has never yielded
more than a very few nauplii; when they pass from the capitulum of the parent they
must be carried at once out of the crab’s gill chamber.

The length of time between the hatching and the first molt was not definitely
determined, but it was evidently very short — probably usually within an hour. In
one case, when a barnacle was teased on a slide and nauplii in the act of hatching
were found in the drop on the slide and others already free, two or three vigorous
larvae of the first stage (fig. 10) were transferred to a watch glass of water. Fifteen
minutes later a nauplius was observed to have the frontal horns projecting forward,
to have the appendages placed parallel to the axis of the body, and to be evidently
longer than when first observed. The appendages were pressed more and more
closely against the sides, and slight twitching motions of the body and appendages —
apparently shrugging first one shoulder, then the other — were accompanied by a
gradual lengthening of the body to 0.387"’"', by which time it could be seen that the

NOTES ON A SPECIES OF BARNACLE.

409

nauplius was in the act of molting. The dorso-caudal spine and the thoraco-abdominai
process could be seen to evaginate as they were drawn out from the old cuticle. In
a short time the appendages and body were out except for the long spines; more
pronounced movements soon freeing these, the molt was completed. The nauplius in
this stage, represented by fig. 11, measures, from the anterior profile of the body to

jtX

S.a.

the end of the dorso-caudal spine, 82mm, or about four times its length in the preceding-
stage. Occasionally a nauplius is found with the evagination of the dorso-caudal spine
incomplete, so that the latter appears to become abruptly smaller at some point.

In tig. 11 the position of the “frontal horns” should be noted, as well as the
presence of the sensory appendages (s. a.) projecting from underneath the head
between the frontal horns. Most of the spines are branched; the dorso-caudal spine

410

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

(d, c. sp.) and the thoraco-abdominal process (th. ab.gpr.) are barbed. The alimentary-
canal can be traced. At gl is seen the gland cell produced into the frontal horn.

Fig-. 12 is a more enlarged drawing of the under surface of the body. The large
“upper lip” bears a row of seta? on each side of its distal portion. At the distal
end of this row there is a group of seta? about twice as long as the others. Along

the axis of the lip there is a band
(muscle? or gland?) which loses itself
in the horseshoe-shaped dark area
about the mouth region. The stout
masticatory blade (masc. hi.) on the
protopodite of the second appendage
is to be observed.

Fig. 13 gives a lateral view of
the anal region. The alimentary
canal is very much reduced in its
most posterior part. The dorso-
caudal spine arises just dorsal to the
anus (a) and the thoraco-abdominal
process immediately ventral. The
point of insertion of the large muscle
previously referred to (ms. th. ah.)
can be seen, and just at that place
there seems to be an articulation,
but no observations as to the actual
place of flexure were made on the
living nauplius.

Several methods were tried to raise or obtain older stages of the nauplius, but
with scant success. It was found that the nauplii of the smooth JB olanus barnacle
growing on the carapace of the crab could be raised to the cypris stage by keeping
them in an aquarium jar of water, to which was added every day or two some
sediment from another jar containing a culture of diatoms, a method suggested by
Dr. Caswell Grave. The interval between the
first and second molts and that between the
second and third molts were, with Balanus.
one to two days each. This and other aqua-
rium methods were used with Dichelaspis, but
only once was a third stage reached. In this
case the aquarium was started August 22; on
August 29 the nauplii were found to have
undergone at least a second molt; they dif-
fered from the nauplii of the second stage little, except in size, the length having
increased to 1.13mm with the other proportions likewise larger. "

Fig. 13. — Same as fig. 11. Lateral view of posterior
part of alimentary canal, etc. x 280.'

* Professor de Filippi states that he failed to get the nauplii of D. darwinii further than the second stage of their
development, and he argues from this and from other facts (form of the larva, means of locomotion, etc.) that the nauplial
life is very long (’01, p. 75, and ’61a, p. 205). But it is quite possible that further effort with Grave’s method will show
that the metamorphosis does not. take an exceptional length of time.

NOTES ON A SPECIES OF BARNACLE.

411

In two or three crabs having- a large number of barnacles of all sizes, minute
white specks on the gills, when examined with a lens, proved to be attached cypris or
stages between the attached cypris and the typical lepadide form.

Fig. 14 is a sketch made from an attached cypris that had been mounted in
balsam; the gill had been torn from the adhering antennas (ant.). The valves of
the very convex and bilaterally compressed shell are continuous dorsal ly (.$•/*.); their
ventral edges are connected by the adductor muscle (ms. ad.) and are apposed except
where the adhering antennae are protruded in front, and posteriorly where the
branchial opening, through which the thoracic feet (th. 1. /, 17) are protruded,
admits the passage of water into and out of the branchial chamber. The shell is lined
by the mantle (ml.)- anteriorly, between the mantle and the shell is seen a thick layer
of loose tissue (y), which is perhaps a thickening of the mantle, or possibly is due to
imperfect preservation; while it is not figured by Hoek or Claus (in Korsheldt &
Heider) it is in all of my specimens. The dorsal infolding (inv. d.), separating the
part that is to be the capitulum from the portion from which the peduncle is derived,

Pig. 14. — Attached cypris. Optical section, with some projections xlfi3. (Drawing from mounted specimen.)

is well developed. Just anterior to this is the ventral invagination (inv. v.), causing
the peduncular portion to be bent upon itself. In this infold are the large paired
eyes (p. e.) left behind by the withdrawal of the stalk integument, but still attached
to the cuticle, and later to be thrown off (Korsheldt & Heider ’99, p. 218). The
unpaired nauplius eye (u. e.) is seen near the ventral end of the dorsal invagination,
instead of anterior to the caeca as in Lepas (Claus’s figure of the cypris of Lepas
pectinata in K. & II. ’99, p. 210). The mouth sit, the top of the “oral cone” leads
by the oesophagus (ces.) into the enlarged stomach (st.) from which the intestine (int.)
proceeds. Opening into the oesophagus are a pair of caeca, cc, (Iloek); in Claus’s
figure a similarly placed cavity is called the liver. Ventral to the alimentary canal
is seen the chain of thoracic ganglia (g. /to g. VI) without commissures; the first is
much the largest. Just above the oesophagus from this one is the supracesophageal
ganglion (g. s.).

Specimens in all stages of the metamorphosis from the attached cypris to the
perfect lepadide adult can be found on the crab gill.

*i-

int.

412

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

ABBREVIATIONS USED WITH FIGURES.

a anus.

al. can alimentary canal.

ant adhering antennse.

c carina.

cc caecum.

c. ap caudal appendage.

cap capitulum.

cdl.f caudal fork.

cer brain.

d. c.sp dorso-caudal spine.

fr.li frontal horn.

g. I, g. VI .ventral ganglia.

gl gland cell.

g.s supracesophageal ganglion.

int intestine.

inv.d dorsal invagination.

inv.v ventral invagination.

m mouth.

masc. hi . .masticatory blade.
ml mantle.

ms. th. a&.thoraco-abdominal muscle. (?)
ms. ad . . .adductor muscle.

ces oesophagus.

ov ovary.

ped peduncle.

p.e paired (cypris) eye.

s.a sensory appendage.

sc scutum.

sh shell.

st stomach.

t tergum.

th.ab.pr . .thoraco-abdominal process.
th. I , I- VI . thoracic limbs.

u. e unpaired (nauplius) eye.

u. I upper lip.

T, .S', C uncalcified valves (terga,

scuta, carina).

■r, y (see pages 408 and 411, respec-

tively.)

/, II, III.. first, second, and third nau-
plial appendages.

Ila, lib. ..anterior and posterior rami
of second appendage.

Ilia, Illb. anterior and posterior rami
of third appendage.

LITERATURE CITED.

1851-54. Darwin, 0. “A monograph on the subclass Cirripedia.” London. Ray Society.

’61. De Filippi. “Sul genere Dichelaspis e su di uno nuova specie de. ess proprio del Mediterraneo.”
Archivio per la Zoologia, L’Anatomia e La Fisiologia. Genova. 1861. Pp. 71-73.

’61a. De Filippi. “ Seconda Nota sulla Dichelaspis darwinii.”

’83. Hoek, P. P. C. “Report on the Cirripedia,” etc. (Systematic Part. ) Challenger Reports, vm.
’84. Hoek, P. P. C. “Report on the Cirripedia,” etc. (Anatomical Part.) Challenger Reports, x.
’99. Korsheldt & Heider. “ Text-hook of the embryology of invertebrates.” Part ir.

’74. Lesson a and Tapparone-Canefri. “Nota sulla Machrochira Kaemferi Sieb, e sopra una nuova
specie del genere Dichelaspis.” Atti Acad. Torino, ix.

’69. MacDonald, J. D. “On an apparently new genus of minute parasitic Cirripeds, between Lepas
and Dichelaspis.” Proc. Zool. Soc. London. P. 440ff.

MARINE PROTOZOA FROM WOODS HOLE.

BY

GARY N. CALKINS.

413

Contributions from the Biological Laboratory of the U. S. Fish Commission,
Woods Hole, Massachusetts.

MARINE PROTOZOA FROM WOODS HOLE.

By GARY N. CALKINS,
Department of Zoology., Columbia University.

Comparatively little has been done in this country upon marine Protozoa. A
few observations have been made by7 Kellicott, Stokes, and Peck, but these have not
been at all complete. With the exception of Miss Stevens’s excellent description of
species of Liclmophora I am aware of no single papers on individual forms. Peck
(’93 and ’95) clearly stated the economic position of marine Protozoa as sources of
food, and 1 need not add to his arguments. It is of interest to know the actual
species of various groups in any7 locality and to compare them with European forms.
The present contribution is only the beginning of a series upon the marine Protozoa
at Woods Hole, and the species here enumerated are those which were found with the
algae along the edge of the floating wharf in front of the Fish Commission building
and within a space of about 20 feet. Many of them were observed in the water and
algae taken fresh from the sea; others were found only after the water had been
allowed to stand for a few days in the laboratory. The tow-net was not used, the
free surface Protozoa were not studied, nor was the dredge called into play. Both
of these means of collecting promise excellent results, and at some future time I hope
to take advantage of them.

My observations cover a period of two months, from the 1st of July to the 1st
of September. During that time 1 was able to study and describe 72 species repre-
senting 55 genera, all from the limited space mentioned above. In addition to these
there are a few genera and species upon which I have insufficient notes, and these
I shall reserve until opportunity comes to study them further.

I take this opportunity to express my thanks to Dr. Hugh M. Smith for many
favors shown me while at Woods Hole.

In dealing with these marine forms from the systematic standpoint, two courses
are open to the investigator. He may make numerous new species based upon minor
differences in structure, or he may extend previous descriptions until they are elastic
enough to cover the variations. The great majority of marine Protozoa have been
described from European waters, and the descriptions are usually not elastic enough
to embrace the forms found at Woods Hole. I have chosen, however, to hold to
the conservative plan of systematic work, and to make as few new species as possible,
extending the older descriptions to include the new forms.

415

416

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

The different classes of Protozoa, and orders within the classes, are distributed
more or less in zones. Thus the Infusoria, including the Ciliata and the Suctoria, are
usually littoral in their habitat, living upon the shore-dwelling, or attached, water
plants and upon the animals frequenting them. It is to be expected, therefore, that
in forms here considered there should be a preponderance of Infusoria. Flagellated
forms are also found in similar localities, but on the surface of the sea as well; hence
the number described in these pages is probably only a small proportion of the total
number of Mastigophora in this region. The Sarcodina, including the Foraminifera
and the Radiolaria, are typically deep-sea forms and would not be represented by
many types in the restricted locality examined at Woods Hole. Two species, Gromia
lagenoides and Trun catulina lobatula , alone represent the great order of Foraminifera,
while the still larger group of Radiolaria is not represented at all.

The Protozoa described are distributed among the different orders as follows:*

Class Sarcodina.

Subclass Rhizopoda.

Order Amcebida. Page.

1. Amoeba guttula Duj 417

2. Amoeba sp 417

3. Trichosphxrium sieboldi Schn 418

Order Reticulariida.

Suborder Imperforina.

4. Gromia lagenoides Gruber 419

Suborder Perforina.

5. Truncatulina lobatula Walker & Jacob 420

Subclass Heliozoa.

Order Aphrothoracida.

6. Actinopkrys sol Ehr 420

Order Chlamydophorida.

7. Heterophrys myriapoda Archer 421

Class Mastigophora.

Subclass Flagellidia.

Order Monadida.

8. Mastigdmoeba simplex , n. sp 422

9. Codonosca gracilis, n. sp 423

10. Monas sp 423

Order Choanoflagellida.

11. Monosiga ovata S. Kent 424

12. Monosiga fusiforrnis S. Kent 424

13. Codonosiga botrytis (Ehr.) J. Cl 424

Order Heteromastigida.

14. Bodo globosus Stein 425

15. Bodo caudatus (Duj . ) Stein 425

16. Oxyrrhis marina Duj 425

Order Euglenida.

17. Astasia contorta Duj 426

18. Anisonema vitrea Duj 426

Order Sii.icoflagellida.

19. Disteplianus speculum Stohr 427

Subclass Dinoflagellidia.

Order Adinida.

20. Exuvixlla lima Cienk 428

21. Exuvixlla marina Cienk 429

Order Diniferida.

22. Gymnodimium gracite Bergh 429

23. Glcnodinium cinctum Ehr, j 430

24. Glcnodinium compressa, n. sp 430

25. Peridinium digitate Pouchet 431

26. Peridinium diver gens Ehr 431

27. Ceratium tripos Nitsch 432

28. Ceratium fusus Ehr 432

29. Amplii&iniiim operculatum Clap. & Lach 432

Class Infusoria.

Subclass Ciliata.

Order Holotrichida.

Family Enchelinida;. Page.

30. Lacrymaria lagenula Cl. & Lach 433

31. Lacrymaria coronata Cl. & Lach 434

32. Trachelocerca phcenicopterus Cohn 435

33. Tiarina f usus Cl. & Lach 437

34. Mesodinium cinctum , n. sp 436

Family Trachylinide.

35. Lionotus fasciola Ehr 438

36. Loxophyllum setigerum Quenn 438

Family Chlamydodontidie.

37. Nassula microstoma Cohn 440

38. Chilodon cucullulus Mull 441

39. Hysteria lanceolata Cl. & Lach 441

Family Chiliferid^e.

40. Frontonia leucas Ehr 442

41. Colpidium colpoda Ehr 443

42. Uronema marina Duj 444

Family Pleuronemidjs.

43. Pleuronema chrysalis Ehr 444

44. Pleuronema setigera, n. sp 445

45. Lembus infusionum, n. sp 446

46. Lembus pusillus Quenn 446

Family Opalinidas.

47. Anoploplirya branchiarum Stein 447

Order Heterotrichida.

Family Bursaridie.

48. Condylostoma patens Miill 449

Family Halteriidie.

49. Strombidium caudatum From 450

Family Tintinnidie.

50. Tintinnopsis beroidea Stein 451

51. Tintinnopsis davidoffi Daday 451

Order Hypotrichida.

Family Peritromid^e.

52. Peritromus emmx Stein 452

Family Oxytrichidie.

53. Epiclintes radiosa Quenn 453

54. Amphisia kessleri Wrzes 454

Family Euplotidie.

55. Euplotes charon Ehr 455

56. Euplotes harpa Stein 455

57. Diophrys appendiculatus Stein 456

58. Crony chid setigera, n . sp 457

59. Aspidisca hexeris Quenn 458

60. Aspidisca polystyla Stein 458

*This classification includes only the orders and families represented at Woods Hole.

MARINE PROTOZOA PROM WOODS HOLE.

417

Class Infusoria — Continued. Page.

Subclass Ciliata— Continued.

Order Peritrichida.

Family Lichnophorida!.

61. Liclmophora macfarlandi Stevens -159

Family Vorticellid.'E.

62. VorticeUa marina Greeff 461

63. Vorticella patcllina Muller 461

64. Zoothamnium elegans D’Udek 461

65. Cothurnia crystaUina Ehr 462

66. Cothurnia nodosa Cl. & Laeh 463

67. Cothurnia imberbis Ehr 462

Class Infusoria — Continued. Page.

Subclass Suctoria.

Family Podophrvidai.

68. Podophrya gracilis, n. sp 463

69. Ephelnta coronata Wright 464

Family AcinetidjE.

70. A cincta divisa Fraip 465

71. Acineta tuberosa Ehr 465

Family Dendrosomid.e.

72. Trichophrya salparum Entz 466

Genus AMCEBA Auct.

The pseudopodia are lobose, sometimes absent, the body then progressing by a flowing move-
ment; the body consists of ectoplasm and endoplasm, the latter being granular and internal, the
former hyaline and external. There is always one nucleus and one vacuole, but both may be more
numerous. Reproduction takes place by division or by spore-formation. Fresh-water and marine.

Fig. 1. — Amoeba guttula.

Fig. 2. — Amoeba sp.

Amceba guttula Duj. Fig. 1.

A minute form without pseudopodial processes, extremely hyaline in appearance, and character-
ized by rapid flowing in one direction. The body is club-shape and moves with the swollen end in
advance. A comparatively small number of large granules are found in the swollen portion, while
the smaller posterior end is quite hyaline. Contractile vacuole absent, and a nucleus was not seen.
Frequent in decomposing vegetable matter. Length 37 fi. Traverses a distance of 160/< in one minute.

The fresh-water form of A. guttula has a vacuole, otherwise Dujardin’s description agrees perfectly
with the Woods Hole forms.

Amceba? Fig. 2.

A more sluggish form than the preceding, distinguished by its larger size, its dense granulation,
and by short, rounded pseudopodia, which, as in Arnosba proieus, may come from any part of the body.
A delicate layer of ectoplasm surrounds the granular endoplasm, and pseudopodia formation is eruptive,
beginning with the accumulation of ectoplasm. Movement rapid, usually in one direction, but may
be backwards or sideways, etc. Contractile vacuoie absent; the nucleus is spherical and contains
many large chromatin granules. Length 80/i; diameter 5 6/t.

F. C. B. 1901—27

418

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

Genus TRICHOSPH.ERIUM Schneider ’78.

Synonym: Pachymyxa hystrix Gruber.

Marine rhizopods, globular or irregular in form, and slow to change shape. Dimorphic. Both
forms multinucleate during vegetative life. Pseudopodia are long, thin, and thread-form, with rounded
ends. Their function is neither food-getting nor locomotion, but probably tasting. The plasm of both
forms is inclosed in a soft gelatinous membrane. In one form the jelly is impregnated with needles
of magnesium carbonate (Schaudinn), but these are absent in the other form. The membrane is
perforated by clearly defined and permanent holes for the exit of the pseudopodia. Reproduction
occurs by division, by budding or by fragmentation, but the parts are invariably multinucleate. At
the end of vegetative life the needle-bearing form fragments into numerous mononucleate parts; these
develop into adults similar to the parent, but without the spines. At the end of its vegetative life this
new individual fragments into biflagellated swarm-spores which may conjugate, reproducing the form
with needles. Size up to 2 mm.

Trichosphserium sieboldi Schneider. Fig. 3.

With the characters of the genus. A form which 1 have taken to be a young stage of this
interesting rhizopod is described as follows:

A minute, almost quiescent, form which changes its contour very slowly. The membrane is cap-
like and extends over the dome-shaped body, fitting the latter closely. The endoplasm is granular and
contains foreign food-bodies. Nucleus single, spherical, and centrally located. Pseudopodia short
and finger-form, emerging from the edge of the mantle-opening and swaying slowly, from side to side or
quiescent. The most characteristic feature is the presence of a broad, creeping sole, membranous in
nature and hyaline in appearance. This membrane is the only evidence of ectoplasm, and it frequently
shows folds and wrinkles, while its contour slowly changes with movements of body. The pseudo-
podia emerge from the body between this membrane and the shell margin. Contractile vacuole
absent. Length 42 ju, width 35// . In decomposing seaweeds, etc.

Only one specimen of this interesting form was seen, and I hesitate somewhat in placing it on
such a meager basis. It is so peculiar, however, that attention should be called to it in the hope
of getting further light upon its structure and mode of life. Its membranous disk recalls the genus
Plakopus; its mononucleate condition, its membranous disk, and the short, sometimes branohed,

MARINE PROTOZOA FROM WOODS HOLE.

419

pseudopodia make it difficult to identify with any phase in the life-history of Trichosphserium. I shall
leave it here provisionally, with the hope that it may be found more abundantly another time.

Genus GROMIA Dujardin ’35.

(Dujardin 1835; M. Sehultze ’62; F. E. Sehultze ’74; Leidy ’77; Biitschli '83; Gruber ’84.)

The form is ovoid or globular, and the body is covered by a tightly fitting, plastic, chitin shell,
which, in turn, is covered by a fine layer of protoplasm. The flexibility of the shell makes the form
variable as in the amoeboid types. The thickness of the shell is quite variable. The pseudopodial
opening is single and terminal. The pseudopodia are very fine, reticulate, granular, and sharply
pointed, and form a loose network outside of the shell opening. Nucleus single or multiple. Con-
tractile vacuole is usually absent. Fresh and salt water.

Gromia lagenoides Gruber ’84. Fig. 4.

This species is not uncommon about Woods Hole, where it is found upon the branches of various
types of algpe. The body is pyriform, with the shell opening at the larger end. The chitinous shell

is hyaline and plastic to a slight extent, so that the body is capable of some change in shape. The
shell is thin and turned inwards at the mouth-opening, forming a tube (seen in optical section in fig. 4)
through which the protoplasm passes to the outside. The walls of this tube are thicker than the
rest of the shell, and in optical section the effect is that of two hyaline bars extending into the body
protoplasm. A thin layer of protoplasm surrounds the shell and fine, branching, pseudopodia are
given off in every direction. The protoplasm becomes massed outside of the mouth-opening and from
here a dense network of pseudopodia forms a trap for diatoms and smaller Protozoa. The nucleus is
spherical and contains one or two large karyosomes. The protoplasm is densely and evenly granular,
without regional differentiation. 1 have never observed an external layer of foreign particles, such as
Gruber described in the original species.

Length of shell 245/<; largest diameter 1 25/< .

Genas TRUNCATULINA D’Orbigny

A group of extremely variable foraminifera in which the shell is rotaline; i. e., involute on the
lower side and revolute on the upper (Brady ). The shell is calcareous and coarsely porous in older

420

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

forms. The characters are very inconstant, and Brady gives up the attempt to distinguish the group
by precise and constant characters.

Truncatulina lobatula Walker & Jacob.

Synonyms: See Brady '84 for a long list.

“It is impossible to define by any precise characters the morphological range of the present species.
Its variations are infinite.” (Brady, p. 660.)

This very common form, which occurs in all latitudes, was found frequently among the algse at
Woods Hole. Its characters are so difficult to define that for the present I shall limit my record to
this brief notice. Size of shell 230/< by 270//.

Genus ACTINOPHRYS Ehr.

The body is spherical and differentiated into granular endoplasm and vacuolated ectoplasm, but
the zones are not definitely separated. There is one central nucleus and usually one contractile

vacuole. The pseudopodia have axial filaments that can be traced to the periphery of the nucleus.
Fresh and salt water.

Actinophrys sol Ehr., variety. Fig. 5.

Synonyms: See Schaudinn ’95.

The diameter is about 50//; the vacuolated ectoplasm passes gradually into the granular endo-
plasm. This is the characterization given A. sol by Schaudinn, and it applies perfectly to the fresh-
water forms. If 1 am correct, however, in placing an Actinophrys- like form found at Woods Hole in
this species, the description will have to he somewhat modified. In this form (fig. 5) there is no dis-
tinction between ectoplasm and endoplasm, and there is an entire absence of vacuoles. The nucleus
is central, and axial filaments were not seen. The single specimen that 1 found looked much like a
Suctorian of the genus Sphserop'hrya, but the absence of a firm cuticle and the presence of food-taking
pseudopodia with granule-streaming makes it a very questionable Suctorian, and 1 place it here until
further study throws more light upon it.

Diameter of body 40//; length of pseudopodia 120 to 140// .

MARINE PROTOZOA FROM WOODS HOLE.

421

Genus HETEROPHRYS Archer.

The body is globular with but slight differentiation into ectoplasm and endoplasm; one nucleus in
the latter; contractile vacuoles one or many; pseudopodia on all sides, thin, and with peripheral
granule-streaming; surrounded by a globular, rather thick coat of jelly, which is hyaline inside and
granular on the periphery. Fresh and salt water.

Heterophrys myriapoda Archer. Fig. 6.

Synonym: II. marina Hert. & Less. ’74.

Diameter 25 to 80//; pseudopodia twice as long as the body diameter; the plasm often contains
chlorophyl bodies (Zoochlorella). The granular part of the gelatinous layer is thick (up to 10//).
The spine-like processes are very thin and short. (Schaudinn ’95. ) The marine form found at
Woods Hole probably belongs to this species, as described by Schaudinn. The short pseudopodia
which give to the periphery a fringed appearance are quite regularly placed in connection with the
pseudopodia. The latter are not so long as twice the body diameter, the longest being not more than
equal to the diameter of the sphere. The body inside of the gelatinous covering is thickly coated
with bright yellow cells similar to those on Radiolaria. The animal moves slowly along with a rolling
motion similar to that described by Penard ’90, in the case of Acantlioeystis. Diameter of entire globe
35//; of the body without the jelly 18//. The extremely tine granular pseudopodia are 8 to 35// long.
Common among algae.

This form was probably meant by Peck ’95, when he figured “a lieliozoon.”

Key to orders of Flagellidia.

Small, body usually amoeboid; 1 or more flagella; no mouth Order Monadida.

Small; plasmie collar around the flagellum Order Choanoflagellida

With 2 or more flagella; one trails behind Order Heteromastigida

With 3 or more flagella, none of which trails Order Polymastigida.

Large; firm body wall; 1 or 2 flagella; mouth or pharynx, or both Order Eugi.enida

Medium size; with chlorophyl, no mouth, usually colonial Order Ph ytoflagelljda.

Small; silieious skeleton; parasitic on Radiolaria or free Order Silicoflagellida

(One genus, Disteplianus Stohr), p. 427

Key to the families of Monadida.

No mouth; 1 or 2 flagella; amoeboid with lobose or ray-like pseudopodia Family Rhizomastigidx

Mouth at base of single flagellum; plastic; no pseudopodia Family Cercomonadidx

One flagellum; inclosed in gelatinous or membranous cups Family Codonceeidie

One flagellum; tentacle-like process at base of flagellum; inclosed in cup Family Bikoecidx

One main flagellum and 1 or 2 accessory flagella Family Hetercmonadidx

Key to marine genera of Monadida A

Family Rhizomasligidx :

1. Flagellum repeatedly thrown off and reassumed

2. Flagellum never thrown off .

3. a. Pseudopodia lobose ._

b. Pseudopodia ray-like

Family Codonxeidx:

1. Goblet-shaped cups adherent by stalk

Family Ileteromonadidx:

1. The long flagellum vibratory

2. The long flagellum rigid; shorter one vibrates

Genus *Masligameeba in part, p. 422

3

. Genus Mastigamxba

Genus Mastigophrys

Genus * Codonceca, p. 423

Genus * Monas, p. 423

Genus Sterromonas

Key to marine genera of Choanoflagellida.

1. Without gelatinous or membranous test

2. With gelatinous or membranous test

3. a. Attached forms:

1. Without a stalk, or with a very short one

2. With a long, simple, stalk

3. With a long, branched, stalk

b. Free-swimming

4. Colonial, and with a gelatinous covering

3

4

..Genus * Monosiga, p, 423
Genus * Codonosi.ga, p. 424

Genus Codonocladium

Genus Desmarella

Genus Proterospongia

Presence at Woods Hole indicated by asterisk.

422

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

Key to families and marine genera of Heteromasligida.

1. Two flagella nearly equal in size Family Bodonidse

One main and 2 accessory flagella Family Trimastigidse

Family Bodonidse:

1. Body very plastic, almost amoeboid Genus *Bodo , p. 424

Body not plastic; with large anterior cavity, holding flagella Genus * Oxyrrhis, p. 425

Family Trimastigidse:

1. With an undulatory membrane between accessory flagella Genus Trimastix

Without such membrane; flagella contained in a ventral groove while at rest Genus Costia

Key to marine genera of Polymastigida.

1. Body flattened; ends rounded; sides hollowed; often with wing-like processes; cross section

S-shaped Genus Trepomonas

2. Body pyriform; one large asymmetrical groove; 4 flagella Genus Tetramitus

3. Body spherical; many flagella equally distributed Genus Multicilia

Key to families and marine genera of Euglenida.

1. With deeply-insunk pharynx; no mouth 2

With pharynx and distinct mouth Family Peranemidse

2. Body plastic; usually with chromatopliores and eye-spot Family Euglenida:

Body plastic; no chromatophores; no eye-spot Family Astasiidse

Family Euglenidse:

Body Euglena-Uke, inclosed in shell with round opening for exit of flagellum Genus Trachelomonas

Family Astasiida ::

Body with one flagellum Genus *Astasia, p. 425

Family Peranemidse :

1. Body striped; plastic; two diverse flagella Genus Heteronema

2. Body striped; not plastic; posterior flagellum longer than the other Genus * Anisonema, p. 426

3. Body striped; not plastic; with rod-like organ in pharynx Genus Entosiphon

Genus MASTIGAMCEBA F. E. Schultze ’75.

(Kent '81; Biitschli ’86; Klebs '92; Senn 1900.)

In general the form is oval and either regular in outline or irregular through the presence of many
pseudopodia. One flagellum usually quite large and distinct. Differentiation of ectoplasm and
endoplasm distinct or wanting. One to several contractile vacuoles. The pseudopodia are occasionally
withdrawn, and the flagellum is the sole means of locomotion. In some cases the flagellum turns into
a pseudopodium, and, conversely, the pseudopodium at one end may become a flagellum (see below).
In some rare cases the ectoplasm secretes a gelatinous mantle. Reproduction not observed.

Fresh and salt water.

Mastigamceba simplex, n. sp. Fig. 7.

A very small form, first seen in the flagellated stage, aroused my interest bv reason of the fact
that its flagellum lost its regular outline and became amoeboid, turning to a pseudopodium, while at
the same time other pseudopodia were protruded from different parts of the periphery. In this con-
dition ectoplasm and endoplasm could be made out with the clearest definition. After the pseudopodia
were well formed, the body became flat and closely attached to the glass slide. In a short time one
of the pseudopodia became longer than the rest; the body became more swollen; the pseudopodia were
gradually drawn in, with the exception of the more elongate one; this became active in movement
and finer in diameter, until ultimately it formed a single flagellum at the anterior of a small monadi-
form flagellate. The process was repeated two or three times under my observation, so that I am
convinced that it was not a developmental form of some rhizopod. Several of them were seen at
different times during the summer, and they were always of the same size and form in the flagellated
or amoeboid condition. I did not make out their reproduction, and I shall not be satisfied that this is
a good species until their life history is known.

In decaying algae. Length 10/<.

MARINE PROTOZOA FROM WOODS HOLE.

423

Genus CODONCECA James Clark ’66.

(Kent ’81.)

Small forms inclosed in cup or “house” of ovoid or goblet shape, colorless and probably
gelatinous (chitin?) in texture, and borne upon a stalk. The monad does not completely fill the test.
Contractile vacuole single, posterior.

Codonoeca gracilis, n. sp. Fig. 8.

The cup is urn-shaped with a well-defined neck or collar borne upon a shoulder-like end of the body.
It is hyaline, colorless, and carried upon a stalk equal in length to the cup or shorter than this. The
animal does not fill the cup, nor is it attached by a filament to the latter. There is a single flagellum.
The nucleus is minute and lateral in position; the contractile vacuole is in the posterior end of the
body. Total length of cup and stalk 21//; of cup alone 12//. This minute form looked so much like a
choanoflagellate that I supposed it to be one until I discovered an empty case (Fig. 8).

Genus MONAS (Ehr.) Stein ’78.

(Kent '81; Butschli ’86; Klebs ’97; Sennl900.)

The body is small, globular or oval and either free-swimming or fastened by one of the two
flagella. The body is sometimes a little amoeboid, with short pseudopodial processes. In addition to
the main flagellum, there are usually one or two small flagella at the basis of the larger one. The
nucleus is usually anterior, and one or two contractile vacuoles are present.

Monas sp. Fig. 9.

An extremely small form (3//) attached by a thread of protoplasm — perhaps a flagellum, to algse.
The body is ovoid and the main flagellum is about four times the length of the body. The contractile
vacuole is posterior. Only one specimen was seen and upon this I shall not attempt to name the
species.

Genus MONOSIGA Kent '81.

(Biitschli ’86; Franc6 ’97; Senn 1900.)

Small colorless forms of Choanoflagellida, always naked and solitary. The posterior end is attached
directly to the substratum, or there is a short stalk not exceeding the body in length. Kent ’81
distinguished nine species, but Butschli questioned the accuracy of many of these, and in this he was

424

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

followed by France ’97, who recognized three species — Monosiga ovata, M. fusiformis, and M. augustata.
Fresh and salt water.

Mcmosiga ovata S. Kent ’81. Fig. 10.

Synonyms: M. brevipes S. K.; M. consociata S. K.; M. limnobia Stokes.

The individuals are nnstalked or provided with a very short stalk less than the body in length.
The form is spherical or ovate, broadest at the base and tapering to the extremity. The collar is
somewhat variable in size. In the Woods Hole forms it was about the length of the body. Oil parti-
cles present. Contractile vacuole posterior, nucleus anterior.

Fresh and salt water. Length of body without the collar 5 /<.

Monosiga fusiformis S. K. Fig. 11.

Synonyms: M. steinii S. K.; M. longicollis? S. K.

The individuals are unstalked, minute, and of a general flask-shape. The body is swollen
centrally and tapers slightly at each end. There is no stalk, the body being fixed by the attenuate
posterior end. There are two contractile vacuoles and one nucleus, which is situated a little above
the body center. Fresh and salt water. Length without collar 9//; length of collar 3/i.

Genus C0D0N0SIGA (Jas. Clark ’67).

(Biitschli ’78; Kent '81; France '97; Senn 1900.)

This genus, as modified by Francd, is distinguished from the preceding by the possession of an
unbranched stalk much longer than the body length. The body is naked and of various shapes, and
the individuals are solitary or colonial upon a single stalk. Kent ’81 enumerates no less than 10
species, which were cut down by Biitschli to 1. F railed admits 4 — C. botrytis Jas. Clark; C. grossu-
laria; C. pyriformis, and C. furcata, all S. Kent — but regards the second and third as merely form
varieties of the first.

Codonosiga botrytis (Ehr. sp. ) Jas. Clark ’67. Fig. 12.

Franc<§ gives the following synonyms: Epistylis botrytis Ehr.; E. digitalis 1 Stein: Zoothamnium parasitica? Stein, Antho-
physa solitaria Fresenius; Codonosiga pulcherrima Jas. Clark; Monosiga gracilis S. Kent; M. globulosa S. Kent; Codonosiga
pyriformis Kent; C. grossularia Kent; (Franc6).

The individuals are small and provided with a long unbranched, or terminal, simply split stalk.
The individuals are single or colonial. The Woods Hole form measured 22 p over all; the body was
5/(, the collar 3//, and the stalk 14/t. No colonies were seen, and only a few individuals upon red algpe.

Genus BODO (Ehr.) Stein.

(Stein '59, Biitschli S3, Klebs '92; Senn 1900.)

The body is naked, usually amoeboid in its changes, and provided with two flagella, one of which
is usually trailed along under and behind the animal. The anterior end is usually pointed, with the
flagella arising from a minute depression; the posterior end is rounded. Specific characters very
difficult to analyze. Fresh and salt water.

MARINE PROTOZOA FROM WOODS HOLE.

425

Bodo globosus Stein. Fig. 13.

The body during movement is globular or ovoid, without any anterior process. The trailing
flagellum is invariably much longer than the vibratory one. The contractile vacuole lies in the ante-
rior half of the body. Solid food particles are taken in near base of flagella.

Length of body 9 to 12//; diameter 8 to 11 //. Common.

Bodo eaudatus (Duj.) Stein. Fig. 14.

Synonyms: Amphimonas eaudatus Duj.; Diplomastix caudata Kent.

The body is variable in shape, but usually flattened and pointed posteriorly. An anterior process
is almost always present, and below this the flagella are inserted in a minute depression. The con-
tractile vacuole is close to the base of the flagella. The flagella are about the same size, the anterior
one usually somewhat longer. Common. Length 12 to 18//.

This species was seen by Peck ’95 and described as a small flagellate.

Fig. 13. — Bodo globosus.

Genus OXYRRHIS Duj.

(Kent ’81; Biltschli '86; Klebs '92; Sennl900.)

Medium-sized forms, somewhat oval in shape, with a rounded posterior end. The anterior end
is continued dorsally in a somewhat attenuate pointed process. At the base of this process is a large
cavity or funnel, on the dorsal wall of which, or on a projection from this wall, are two equal-size
flagella. When at rest, the flagella are directed backwards. The nucleus is central. In moving, the
posterior end is invariably in advance. This genus is exceptional among Mastigophora in that division
is transverse instead of longitudinal.

Oxyrrhis marina Duj. Fig. 15.

With the characters of the genus. Contractile vacuole not seen. Length 28 to 40//.

Genus ASTASIA Ehr.

Flagellates with one flagellum, a spindle-form body and a high degree of plasticity, the contour
constantly changing. A distinct, usually striped cuticle is invariably present. “Eve-spots” are
absent. Fresh and salt water.

426

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

Astasia contorta Duj. Fig. 16.

Astasia inflata Duj. ’41.

The body is colorless, transparent, and flexible. It is largest in the center, thence tapering at the
two extremities. The surface of the cuticle is obliquely striated, giving to the animal a distinctly
twisted appearance. The contractile vacuole is in the anterior neck-like portion of the body. The
flagellum is inserted in a distinct oesophageal tube, into which the contractile vacuole empties. This
tube is continued into a deeper pharyngeal apparatus of unknown function.

Common in decaying algse. Length 60//; greatest diameter 30//.

Genus ANISONEMA Biitschli.

Flagellates with two flagella, of which one is directed forwards and is concerned with the loco-
motion of the animal, while the other is directed backwards and drags after the animal when in motion.
Body slightly compressed dorso-ventrally (fig. 17, section). An oral furrow is present on the ventral
side and the two flagella originate in it (fig. 17, at left). The vacuole is on the left side. Food
vacuoles are present in the posterior part. The nucleus is central. Movement creeping.

Fresh and salt water.

Anisonema vitrea (Duj.). Fig. 17.

Synonyms: Tropidoscyphus odoeostatus Stein ’83: Sphenomonas Kent ’81: Plcentia vitrea Senn 1900.

With the characteristics of the genus. It differs from fresh-water forms in having eight furrowed
surfaces running somewhat spirally from the posterior to the oral end. Length 50//; width 23//.
This attractive flagellate was quite common in decaying algse at Woods Hole; its shaking movement,

MARINE PROTOZOA FROM WOODS HOLE.

427

its peculiar furrowed surfaces, and, above all, its perfectly transparent, vitreous appearance, were well
described by Dujardin. Stein’s Tropidoscyphus octocostatus is a fresh-water form which may possibly
be a distinct species, especially as it is described with both flagella directed forwards.

Genus DISTEPHANIJS Stohr.

An aberrant flagellate bearing a single flagellum and a silicious skeleton resembling those of the
Radiolaria. The skeleton consists of two rings of different diameter parallel with one another and
connected by silicious bars. From the wider ring half a dozen liars radiate outwards and a similar
number of short thorn-like bars point inwards obliquely. The color is yellow, and except for the
flagellum the form might easily be mistaken for a Radiolarian, as has been the case repeatedly.

Distephanus speculum Stohr.

Dictyocha speculum Stohr; Dictyocha Auc.

With the characters of the genus.

A single specimen only of this very interesting form was seen at Woods Hole. It occurred in a
collection of tow made near the end of the wharf during the evening.

Key to families of Dinqflagellidia.

1. No cross-furrow; two free flagella .4 Family Prorocentridx

2. One or more cross-furrows 3

3. Cross-furrow nearly central (cf. Oxytnxum) Family Peridinidse

Cross-furrow close to anterior end Family Dinophysidse

Several cross-furrows and flagella Family Polydmidse

(One genus, Polykrikos.)

Key to marine genera of Prorocentridse.

Diagnostic characters: The transverse furrow is absent and the two flagella arise from the anterior end of the body. The
shell may be bivalved.

1. No tooth-like process dorsal to the flagellum Genus * Exuvisella, p. 428

2. With tooth-like process dorsal to the flagellum Genus Prorocentrum

Key to marine genera of Peridinidse.

Diagnostic characters: The cross-furrow is nearly central (see, however, Oxytoxu.m)\ the body may or may not have a
shell; the shell may or may not be composed of distinct plates; the plates are distinguished as equatorial ( i . e., bordering
the cross-furrow), apical, and antapieal, while still another, the “rhombic plate,” may be present, extending from the
cross-furrow to the apex.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

9.

10.

11.

Without distinct shell

With a distinct shell

Shell not composed of definite plates

Shell composed of definite plates

Cross-furrow replaced by thin-skinned band

Cross- furrow well defined; reticulate markings raised on shell-surface

Cross-furrow well defined; no markings

Two parts of shell equal or nearly equal

Two parts of shell very unequal

With transverse flagellum in a distinct furrow

Transverse flagellum not in a furrow

With horns, or with wing-like processes

Without processes of any kind

Processes small, wing-like, around flagellum-fissure

Processes horn-like

Anterior part with 7 equatorial and 1 rhombic plates

Anterior part with 5 equatorial and no rhombic plates

Anterior part with 3 equatorial and no rhombic plates

Anterior part with 14 equatorial and 1 rhombic plates

Anterior part with 7 equatorial plates

Anterior part with 4 equatorial plates

Apical extremity drawn out into a tube

Apical extremity not drawn out into a tube

Cross-furrow deep, with great ledge-like walls

Cross-furroW wide, no ledge-like walls

Genus * Gymnodinium, p. 429

3

4

Genus Ptychodiscus

Genus Protoceratium

Genus * Glenodinium, p. 429

5

11

. 6

- 10

7

9

Genus Diplopsalis

8

. .Genus * Peridinium, p. 430

Genus Gonyaulax

Genus * Ceratium, p. 431

Genus Pyrophacus

Genus Goniodoma

Genus Amphidoma

, Genus Podolampas

Genus Blepharocysta

Genus Ceratocorys

Genus Oxytoxum

428

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

Key to marine genera of Dinophysidse.

Diagnostic characters: The cross-furrow is above the center of the body, and its edges, as well as the left edge of the
longitudinal furrow, are usually produced into characteristic ledges; those of the cross-furrow usually form great funnel-
like anterior processes, while those of the longitudinal furrow usually form great, lateral, wing-like processes ornamented
by ribs and other markings.

Without shell; longitudinal furrow may open and close Genus *Amphidinium, p. 432

With shell; longitudinal furrow unchangeable 3

With distinct apical funnel 4

No apical funnel Genus Phalacroma

With great wing-like ledge 5

Ledges very small; body long, needle-like Genus Amphisolenia

Ledge of longitudinal furrow extends to posterior end 6

Ledge of longitudinal furrow does not extend to posterior end Genus Dinophysis

(Recorded by Peck (’93-’95). as very abundant at Wood's Hole and in Buzzards Bay.)

Ledge is continued dorsally to the cross-furrow Genus Ornithocercus

Ledge is not continued dorsally 7

With deep dorsal cavity; secondary funnel not notched Genus Citharistes

No dorsal cavity; secondary funnel deeply notched Genus Histioneis

Genus EXUVI.2ELLA Cienkowsky ’82.

(Klebs ’81; Pouchet ’83, ’85.)

The form varies from globular to ovoid, with occasionally a sharp posterior end. Shells are usually
somewhat compressed, and consist of two valves, which frequently slide one over the other in such a
manner as to show the structure with great clearness. The right shell may have a distinct indentation
in the anterior edge. There are two lateral, discoid, brown chromatophores, each of which possesses a
central amylum granule. The nucleus is posterior. Salt water.

Exuvisella lima Ehr. Fig. 18.

Synonyms Pyxidicula Ehr. ; Cryptomonas Ehr.; Prorocentrum lima Kent; Amphidinium Pouchet.

The shell is ovate, rounded and swollen posteriorly. The anterior border of both shells is slightly
indented. The shell is quite thick. The animal moves through the water very slowly. Dark brown
in color. Length 48/; ; width 44/.; .

MARINE PROTOZOA FROM WOODS HOLE

429

Exuvieella marina Cienkowsky. Fig. 19.

A smaller form than the preceding, more elliptical in outline, with a thinner shell and with large
granules throughout the endoplasm. The nucleus is spherical and subcentral in position and possesses
a distinct central granule. This may be a small variety of E. lima.

Genus GYMNODINIUM Stein ’78.

(Bergh ’81; Kent ’81; Pouchet ’83, '85; Entz ’84; Schtitt ’95.)

The general structure of thes& forms is similar to that
of Glenodinium; the most striking and positive difference
is the absence of a shell. The animals are, as a rule>
spherical, yet they may be pointed at the two ends or at
one of them. They are also frequently flattened dorso-
ventrally. The transverse furrow may be either circular
and straight around the body or may describe a spiral
course, passing even twice around the body. The flagella
arise near cross-furrow or, in some cases, in longitudinal
furrow. Chromatophores may or may not be present
and food-taking is holozoic, in many cases at least. In
some cases ectoplasm and endoplasm can be distin-
guished. Fresh and salt water.

Gymnodinium gracile Bergh ’82, var. sphaerica, n.

The body is divided by the transverse furrow into a
shorter anterior and a longer posterior part. The longi-
tudinal furrow is broader at the posterior extremity than
at the cross-furrow. The structural feature upon which this new variety is made is the unvarying
plumpness of the body, making it almost spherical, except for a slight flattening dorso-ventrally. The
nucleus is large and ellipsoidal, with characteristic longitudinal markings of chromatin. The endo-
plasm is evenly granular, with a number of large ingested food bodies. The color is brown, not rose-red
as in Bergh’s species, nor is the Woods Hole form as large as the latter.

Length of body 68// ; width 55//. Common.

Fig. 20. — Gymnodinium gracile, var. sphserica.

Genus GLENODINIUM (Ehr.), Stein ’83.

(Bergli ’82; Biitschli ’86; Pouchet '85; Daday’86.)

Small globular forms with two distinct furrows, one transverse around the body, the other longi-
tudinal upon the face only. The shell is soft and structureless with a distinct aperture near the meeting-
point of the two furrows. The endoplasm usually, but not always, contains a bright red “eye-spot.”
Fresh and salt water.

430

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

Glenodinium compressa, n. sp. Fig. 21, a, b, c.

This species resembles G. acuminata of Ehrenberg except that it is strongly compressed laterally.
The longitudinal furrow extends nearly to the extremity of the animal. It begins as a narrow slit and
widens as it progresses upon the left side; it also becomes
much deeper on this side and at the bottom of the depres-
sion the longitudinal flagellum is inserted. The transverse
furrow runs evenly around the body near the upper pole,
giving to the shell almost the aspect of an Amphidinium.

Brown chromatophores may or may not be arranged radi-
ally about a central amylum granule. One striking char-
acteristic is the depth of the two furrows. The nucleus
is elongate and somewhat curved; it lies against the
posterior wall of the rather thick shell. Not uncommon.

Length 40, w; breadth 32//; width 18//.

The posterior end of the animal is often somewhat
pointed and this point frequently becomes attached, so
that the animal whirls around upon it as upon a pivot.

Glenodinium cinctum Ehr. Fig. 22.

The body is globular, smooth, and homogeneous.

Brown chromatophores arranged radially, each in the form
of a cone, the base of which rests against the shell while
the points turn inward. A bright-red eye-spot may or may
not be present; when present it is placed near the junction
of the two furrows. The longitudinal furrow is small.

Fresh water and salt.

Length and diameter the same, 21//.

This species was observed by Peck ’93.

Fig. 21.— Ventral anti dorsal aspects of Pcridinium divergcns.

Genus PERIDINIUM Ehr. ’32, Stein ’83.

(Claparede & Lachmann ’58; Bergh '81: Pouchet '83; '85; Gourret ’88; Biitschli ’86.)

The form is globular, ovoid or elongate, the apex frequently drawn out into a long tube. The
transverse and longitudinal furrows are quite distinct, the former having often a spiral course about

MARINE PROTOZOA FROM WOODS HOLE.

481

the body. The two halves of the body are similar, the posterior being somewhat shorter; the anterior
half has seven equatorial plates, an oral plate, two lateral apical plates, and one or two dorsal plates.
The two antapical plates frequently have atooth-like process. The bodies are colorless, green or brown.
Fresh and salt water.

Peridinium digitale Pouchet. Fig. 23.

Synonyms: Protoperidinium digitate Pouchet; Protoperidinium Bergh p.p.: P. divergens Peck.

The shell is covered with pits of large size. The posterior part is hemispherical and surmounted
by a single horn or spine. The transverse furrow is very oblique, and its two extremities are united
by a sigmoid longitudinal furrow. The anterior half bears two spines or horns of different size, and
variable. The nucleus is spherical or ellipsoidal and placed in the posterior half of the shell.

Length 68a; diameter 54a . Common.

Although the description of Pouchet’ s P. digitale differs in some respects from a careful description
of the Woods Hole form, I think the species are the same. The chief difference is in the single horn
of the posterior half; in Pouchet’s form this is furrowed by a narrow groove which runs to the
S-sliaped longitudinal furrow. In the Woods Hole form I was unable to make out such a furrow.
The flagella, also, were not seen. This same form was pictured by Peck ’95 as P. divergens.

Peridinium divergens Ehr. Fig. 24.

Synonym: Ceratium divergens Kent.

The shell is spheroidal, widest centrally, attenuate and pointed posteriorly; the anterior portion
is armed with two short, pointed horns, each of them having a toothed process at the basal portion of
the inner margin. They are frequently colorless and beautifully transparent, the body being free
from large opaque granules; again they are colored brown or yellow. The nucleus is large and
elongate and finely granular. 75 a long and 68a in diameter. Common.

Genus CERATIUM (Schrank).

(Stein ’78; Perty ’52; Clap. & Lach. ’58; Bergh ’82; Pouchet ’83; Gourret & Roeser ’88; Btitschli '85;

Kent ’81; Senn 1900; Schutt’98.)

The general shape is a flattened sphere with three long processes or horns. The cross-furrow is
either spiral or circular; the longitudinal furrow is usually wide and occupies the greater part of the

432

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

anterior half of the shell. The shell is thick, reticulate or striped, and sometimes provided with short
spines; often distinctly porous. The anterior half is composed of 3 equatorial and 3 apical plates, the
latter being continued into the horn-like process. The posterior half is composed of 3 equatorial and
one apical plate continued into the posterior horn. The right posterior plate is continued into a
similar horn which may remain rudimentary or be continued into a considerable process. Similarly
the left posterior horn is usually developed, but remains small. There may be from 2 to 3, 4, and 5
horns. Chromatophores usually present, green to yellow brown.

Fresh and salt water.

Ceratium tripos Ehr. Fig. 25.

The body is somewhat triangular and bears three horns, two of which are shorter than the other
one and slightly curved upward.

Length, including the horns, 290/*.

Fig. 26. — Ceratium fusus.

Ceratium fusus Ehr. Fig. 26.

Synonym: Peridinium fusus Ehr.

The animal is very elongate, due to the presence of two long horns at the extremities of the body.
Color, yellow with chromatophores. Length 285/*; width 23/*.

Both of these species are common in the tow
and in the alga^ at the edge of the wharf. Both
of them are mentioned by Peck in '93 and ’95.

Genus AMPHIDINITJM Clap. & Lach.

The body is ovoid to globular and usually
much flattened dorso-ventrally. The anterior
portion is very much reduced and is somewhat
head-like or cap-like. The longitudinal furrow
extends through the entire posterior body
length and is apparently capable of widening
and narrowing. It is probably naked (see here
Klebs, Pouchet, Biitschli) , although Stein main-
tained that there is a delicate cuticle-like shell.

Chromatophores of brown or green colors pres-
ent and usually grouped radially about a central
amylum granule. The nucleus is posterior.

Fresh and salt water.

Amphidinium operculatum Clap. & Lach.

The body is oval and flattened. The trans-
verse furrow is at the extremity (posterior) of
the body and the small portion, which is thus
apparently cut off, is the cap-like or operculum-
like structure which gives the name to the species. Klebs maintains that the two furrows are not
connected, but in this he is certainly mistaken, provided we have the same species under consideration.
Very common about Woods Hole.

Length from 40 to 50//; width 30//; thickness 15//.

MARINE PROTOZOA FROM WOODS HOLE.

433

Key to Infusoria.

1. With cilia Subclass Oiliala. 3

2. Without cilia (in adult state) tentacles Subclass Suctoria

3. a. Without a specialized fringe of large cilia (ad. zone) -. Order Holotrichida

b. With general covering of cilia + adoral zone Order Ileterotrichida

c. With cilia on ventral side + adoral zone Order Hypotrichida

d. With cilia in region of adoral zone, and about mouth only . Order Pcritrichida

Key to families of the Holotrichida,

A. Mouth closed except during food ingestion; no undulating membrane 1

Mouth always open; with undulating membrane . , 2

1. Gymnostomina.

a. . Mouth terminal or subterminal. Food is swallowed and not introduced by currents Family Enchelinidx

b. Mouth terminal or subterminal; body frequently drawn out into long process; mouth may have

specialized framework Family Trachelinidse

c. Mouth central or posterior; pharynx with supporting framework Family Chlamydodontidx

2. Trichostomina.

a. Mouth anterior or central; pharynx short or absent; peristomial depression faint or absent. . . Family Chiliferidx

b. Mouth central; pharynx long, tubular; cilia in two broad zones Family Urocenlndx

c. Mouth posterior; form asymmetrical; cilia dispersed or limited to oral region Family Microtlioracidx

d. Mouth anterior or central. Peristomial depression clearly marked. (One genus, Pararruxcium.) Paramacidx

e. Mouth at end of long peristome running along ventral side; body dorso-ventrally or laterally compressed;

left edge of peristome with great, sail-like undulating membrane Family Plcuronemidx

f. Mouth and pharynx distinct, posterior; cilia uniform. Parasites in ruminants Family Isotrichidx

g. Mouth absent; body vermiform, cilia uniform. Usually parasites , Family Opalinidx

Key to marine genera of Enchelinidx.

Diagnostic characters: Form ellipsoid or ovoid; the mouth is invariably terminal and is usually round — more rarely
slit-formed; it is closed except when food is taken. An oesophagus when present is a short, invariably non-ciliated tube
which is usually surrounded by a more or less clearly defined buccal armature. The anus is usually terminal. Large
food particles are swallowed, never introduced by currents.

1. Body naked

2. Body inclosed in a shell or coat

3. a. Cilia uniform about the entire body, body symmetrical

b. Cilia in the mouth region longer than the others; body symmetrical

c. Bristles, or tentacles, in addition to cilia

4. Mouth terminal; body ellipsoidal to ovoid

5. a. Mouth terminal; body elongate, flexible, and elastic

b. Mouth terminal; “neck” highly elastic; entire body flexible; conical “head”

c. Mouth terminal; “neck” highly elastic; entire body flexible; “head” square.

d. Mouth terminal; “ neck n highly elastic; no separate mouth-bearing portion . .

6. a. Body asymmetrical; bristles in addition to cilia

b. Body symmetrical; 4 small tentacles from mouth; cilia and cirri in girdles

7. Shell composed of small sculptured pieces; cilia long, uniform

3

7

4

5

6

Genus Holophrya

Genus Chxuia

..Genus * Lacrymaria, p. 433
.Genus * Trachelocerca, p. 435

Genus Lagynus

Genus Stephanopogon

. .Genus * Mesodinium, p. 435
Genus * Tiarina, p. 436

Genus LACRYMARIA Ehr. ’30.

(Ehrenberg, C. G., 1838; Perty ’52; Clapar&deA Lachmann ’58; Stein 59-83; Quennerstedt '65, ’67; Fromentel '74;

Kent ’81; Gruber ’84; Gourret & Roeser ’86; Biitschli ’88; Schewiakoff ’89.)

Body short to very long flask-shape; for the most part contractile, especially in the neck region.
The posterior end is rounded or pointed. The main character is the mouth-bearing apex, which “ sets
like a cork in the neck of the flask.” One or more circles of long cilia at the base of the mouth
portion or upon it. The body is spirally striped. Contractile vacuole terminal, with sometimes one
or two further forward. Macronucleus central, globular to elongate, sometimes double. Food mainly
bacteria. Fresh and salt water.

Lacrymaria lagenula Clap. & Lach. Fig. 28, a, b.

Synonym: A. tenvicula Fromentel ’74.

Body more or less flask-shape, two or three times as long as broad, with conical apex, which is
slightly elastic and protrusible; surface obliquely striate, with well-defined lines, 14 to 16 in number;
cilia uniform on the body, with a crown of longer ones at the base of the conical proboscis. The

F. C. B. 1901—28

434

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

body cilia are not thickly placed except around the proboscis. The endoplasm is thickly packed with
large granules (food particles) in the anterior half and with finely granular particles in the posterior
half. The elongate macronucleus lies a little above the center among the larger granules; the con-
tractile vacuole is double, one on each side of the median line and at the posterior end of the body
among the finer granules. The anus is posterior. Length 90// to 160/<; greatest width assumed 65#.
When fully expanded the posterior end assumes a curious polyhedral form. (Fig. 28 b.)

This form differs slightly from others of the same species as described by different observers, the
most striking difference being the presence of two contractile vacuoles in place of the usual one.
These are very slow to fill and grow to a large size before diastole. The membrane is very tough
and retains its form easily under pressure of the cover glass. Another characteristic feature is the
flattening of the surfaces between the stride. Decaying algre.

a

Fig. 28. — Lacrymaria lagenula.

Lacrymaria coronata Cl. & Lach. ’58. Fig. 29. _

Synonyms: L. lagenula Cohn ’66; Mobius ’88; L. cohnii? Kent ’81; L. versalilis Quen. ’67.

Form flask-like and similar to L. lagenula, contractile but tough. The contractile vacuole is ter-
minal, the proboscis is short, slightly raised and separated from the body by a deep cleft; the buccal
cilia are inserted part way up on the proboscis. Form changeable, from short, sac-like to elongate
and vermiform. Length 85/e

This species is not very different from L. lagenula, but I noted that in addition to the elongate
nucleus, the body stripe are much more apparent here and seem to sink into the cuticle, giving the
periphery, especially at the collar region, a curious crenulated effect. The endoplasm is very densely
granular and colored a blue-green, probably from food particles. The number of strige is much larger
than in the preceding species. The membrane is very tough and retains the shape of the body, even
with the full pressure of the cover glass. - Micronucleus and trichocysts were not observed.

MARINE PROTOZOA FROM WOODS HOLE.

435

Genus TRACHELOCERCA (Ehr. ’83) Cohn ’66.

(Quennerstedt ’67; Gruber ’87; Entz ’84; Kent ’81; Gourret & Roeser ’88; Biitschli ’88; Schewiakoff ’89; Shevyakov ’96.)

Tlie only well-known representative is very elongate, large (up to 3 mm. Van Beneden) , and very
contractile. The main feature of importance in distinguishing it is the 4- part structure of the mouth
region, which, however, may not be obvious. Pharynx faint and smooth. Contractile vacuole
terminal. Macronucleus in one central body or in numerous pieces scattered throughout the cell.
Salt water.

Tracheloeerca phoenicopterus Cohn ’66. Fig. 30.

Synonyms: T. sagitta Ehr. ’40, Stein ’59; T. tenuicottis Quennerstedt ’67, Kent ’81; T. minor Gruber ’87, Shevyakov ’96.

The body is extremely elongate and ribbon-like, and this, combined with its wonderful power of
extension and retraction, makes it one of the most curious and interesting of microscopic forms. The
anterior end is square or cylindrical; the type species has a four-sided mouth, but many specimens
may be found which have a plain cylindrical mouth region. One reason for this may be the fact
that the extremity gets broken off. In one instance I noticed a very large form with the anterior end
under some debris, which evidently held it tight, for the body of the ciliate was thrashing back and
forth and twisting itself into knots, etc., like a nematode worm. Finally, the anterior end broke off
with about one-tenth of the body; the remainder, in an hour, had regenerated a new anterior end
with long cilia, but with no indication of four sides. The small anterior piece was also very lively,

moving about and eating like the normal animal; its history, however, was not followed. This species
appears to be variable in other ways as well; thus, in some cases the posterior end is rounded (cf.
Entz ’84); in others it is pointed (cf. Kent ’81, Cohn ’66, et al.) .

Again, the macronucleus may be a single round body (Entz ’84, Biitschli ’88) or in two parts
(Kent ’81), or in many parts scattered about the body (Gruber). In the Woods Hole forms the tail
is distinctly pointed and turned back sharply, forming an angle at the extremity. The cilia on this
angular part are distinctly longer than the rest. The function of this posterior part is apparently to
anchor the animal while it darts here and there upon the tail as a pivot, contracting and expanding
the while. The body is finely striated with longitudinal markings; when contracted there are no
transverse markings nor annulations. The nucleus is in the form of many fragments scattered
throughout. Length of large specimen 1.7 mm.

Genus MESODINIUM Stein ’62.

(Maupas ’82, ’84; Entz ’84; Shevyakov ’96.)

The main part of the body is globular or conical, with a short, platform-like oral region, and a
deep annular groove about the middle of the body. The (esophagus is rather long, and smooth or
longitudinally striped. One or more rings of cirri rise in the groove. If more than one ring of cirri
are present, the anterior set usually point forward and lie close to the anterior part of the body. The
posterior set, on the other hand, cling close to the posterior region of the body and give to it a peculiar
encapsuled appearance. The most characteristic feature is the presence of four short tentacle-like
processes which can be protracted and retracted from the oral region. (Mereschowsky says that
the entire anterior half is more or less contractile. ) The macronucleus is horseshoe-shaped or ovoid
and is situated in the posterior half of the body. The contractile vacuole is also posterior.

436

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

Movement consists in rapid swimming, with rotation on its axis, or in creeping by means of its
anterior cirri, or in sudden jumping, by which it apparently clears a distance of 20 times its diameter
in one bound. Mouth parts may also be used for attachment to foreign bodies. The moving periods
alternate with quiescent periods, during which the organisms with their outstretched and radiating
cirri resemble the lieliozoon Aclinophrys.

Mesodinium cinctum, n. sp. Fig. 31.

Body spherical to pyriform, constricted near the middle, the constriction dividing the body into
dissimilar parts. The anterior part is broadly pyriform, somewhat plastic and hyaline, with an oral
extremity which is sometimes hollow, sometimes evaginated and convex. Upon this flexible anterior
part there are four short but distensible tentacles. The posterior part is granular and usually filled
with food particles; it is well rounded and holds the nucleus and contractile vacuole. The entire
body is surrounded by a fine cuticle. The nucleus is elongate and extends through the greater part of
the posterior half. The contractile vacuole lies on one side, near the girdle. The mqutli is on the
anterior pole in the tentacle region. The motile organs are cirri and cilia, all inserted in the constriction.
There are two sets of cirri and one of cilia; the latter stand out radially from the girdle and are usually
in motion. The cirri of one set, the anterior, extend forward about twice the length of the anterior
half; those of the posterior set closely engirdle the lower half, reaching not quite to the posterior
extremity. These are somewhat hyaline and are closely approximated, giving the impression of a
tight-fitting crenulate casing about the lower half. The cirri are sharply pointed, much broader at

Fig. 31. — Side and top views of Mesodinium cinctum.

the base, and the two sets are so placed that, looked at from above, they have the appearance of a
twisted cord. (Fig. 31 b.) Movement erratic; sometimes the animal swims steadily forward with
mouth in front; again it shoots across the field of the microscope, either backward or forward or
sideways, through the action of its powerful cirri. It is often quiet, usually mouth downward, and is
held in place by adhesion of the tentacles. In this position it looks strikingly like a heliozoon.

Length 35// ; greatest width 30/o Uot uncommon.

The chief features by which this species is distinguished from the frequently described M. pulex
of Europe are the number of anterior cirri and the ring of true cilia in place of the central girdle of
cirri. The European form is described with four anterior bristles; the present form has from 28 to 32.
The radial cilia differ decidedly from the more powerful cirri and they are not in one plane, so that
counting is difficult; they are not closely set. The presence of tentacles makes these forms of especial
theoretical interest, especially in the light of the origin of Sudor ia.

Genus TIARINA R S Bergh ’79.

(Claparede & Lachmann ’58.)

Body subcylindrical, pointed posteriorly, two and one-half times as long as broad; encased in
covering composed of separate pieces arranged in five girdles. The pieces bear processes which rest
against neighboring pieces of the girdle. Mouth large, anus terminal near contractile vacuole. The
macronucleus is simple and round. Salt water.

MARINE PROTOZOA FROM WOODS HOLE.

437

Tiarina fusus (Cl. & Lach. ) emend R. S. Bergh.

Synonyms: Coleps fusus Cl. & Lach. '58; Daday ’86; .Mobius ’88, Lanterborn ’94; Shevyakov '86.

This form, which resembles C'olejxs rather closely, was placed as a separate genus by R. S. Bergh.
The skeletal parts consist of five zones of needles composed of an organized substance and embedded
in the cortical plasm, the last zone coming to a point at the posterior end. The needles have lateral
processes, which give a latticed appearance to the casing. The cilia are long, with a specialized crown
of still longer ones at the oral end; they arise outside of the skeletal elements and do not pass between
them, as in Coleps.

Key to marine genera of Trachelinidse.

Diagnostic characters : Body bilateral, or asymmetrical by local prolongations; usually compressed or flattened later-
ally, the left side more convex than the right. The essential feature is the position and character of the mouth. This is
either a long slit extending from the anterior end well down the ventral surface, or the posterior part only of a ventral
furrow remains open as a round or elongate month some distance from the anterior end. The entire mouth region of the
body is usually drawn out into an elongate tapering proboscis which is generally curved dorsally at the extremity. An
oesophagus is short or absent altogether; when present it is supported by a stiff buccal armature. Cilia are uniform about
entire body or limited to the flat right side. Food is swallowed.

1. a. Proboscis easily distinguished from the main body 2

b. Proboscis not marked off from main body; body flat; both surfaces striated Genus * Loxophyllum, p. 437

2. a. Mouth runs the entire length of proboscis; entire body uniformly ciliated Genus Amphileptus

b. Mouth runs the entire length of proboscis; body flat; right side only is ciliated Genus * Lionotus, p. 438

c. Proboscis much drawn out, flexible; mouth at its base Genus Dileptus

Fig. 32. — Loxophyllum setigerum , var. armatum. a b, c, ventral, dorsal, and lateral aspects

Genus LOXOPHYLLUM Duj. ’41.

(Duj. ’41; Wrzesniowski ’69; Quennerstedt ’65; ’67, Cohn '66; Entz :84; Gourret & Roeser '88; Butschli ’88; Shevyakov ’96. )

The body is flat and somewhat leaf-shape, flexible, and elastic. The anterior end is somewhat
proboscis-like and flexible, but is not sharply demarcated as in Lionolus. The central portion of the
body is developed into a more or less arched dorsal mass, which usually contains the nuclei and con-
tractile vacuoles. As a result of this local thickening, the body is surrounded by a thin hyaline margin.
This, however, may be absent on the right side in some species. The mouth reaches from the anterior

438

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

extremity to a short distance from the end, and usually approaches the left edge. An anus is present
near the posterior end of the dorsal swelling. Trichocysts are numerous on the ventral surface, and
often on the dorsal surface, where they are inclosed in minute papilla-like swellings. Cilia-distribution
controverted. Maupas and Biitschli hold that ventral surface alone is ciliated; others (Kent and Dujar-
din) that cilia are uniformly distributed. The entire body, dorsal and ventral surfaces alike, are
uniformly striated. The contractile vacuole lies posteriorly, on the right side and in the dorsal swell-
ing. In the fresh-water form L. mdeagris, it is connected with a long canal whose swellings are
frequently taken for additional contractile vesicles (Biitschli); in the marine form described below
the canal is not developed and a series of vacuoles takes its place; these are all contractile. The
macronucleus may be single, double, quadruple, band-formed, or rosette-formed, Movement is steadily
progressive and peculiarly gliding. Fresh and salt water.

Loxophyllum setigerum Quenn. ’67.

Synonyms: Litosolenus armatus Stokes ’93; Litosolenus verrucosa Stokes ’93.

The body is flattened, irregular in outline, obtusely pointed anteriorly, the point being turned to
the right; rounded posteriorly. The left edge is nearly straight, the right considerably arched with a
few setas on the posterior half. Contractile vacuoles are numerous, dorsal in position and on the right
side. The macronucleus is beaded, the several spheres connected.

Variety armatum (Cl. & Lach.). (Fig. 32.)

Under the name Litosolenus armatus, Stokes described a form from brackish water near New York,
which should unquestionably be referred to the genus Loxophyllum, and I believe to Quennerstedt’s
species setigerum. While the latter possesses only a few setse, the former has a number of them, and
Stokes described his species as having a variable number. For this reason I include the Woods Hole
form under the tentative name armatum, as a variety of Quennerstedt’s X. setigerum. The flat margins
are distinctly striated longitudinally, and faintly marked radially, on the dorsal surface. Longitudinal
elevated strire also run the length of the dorsal hump and upon the entire ventral surface. The ventral
surface is alone ciliated. Upon the edges of the flat border are sharp-pointed, colorless, spine-like
processes, situated at equal distances around the entire periphery except at the anterior end. Each
spine is thick at the base and tapers to a full point which is curved upward — i. e. , dorsally ( fig. 32,
a, h). The entire body is plastic and contractile, turning its leaf-like edge readily over objects upon
which it creeps. The cilia are fine and uniform, with a tendency to lengthen in the oral region.

Length 100// ; greatest width assumed on contraction 85// ; when normal about 50 p.

Genus LIONOTUS Wrzesniowski ’70.

(Incorrectly called Litonotus by many. Entz '84; Gruber ’84; Biitschli ’88; Kent '81; Schewiakoff ’89; Shevyakov ’96.)

The body is elongate and somewhat lance-shaped, widest at the central part and tapering to a
point at the anterior end. The posterior end may be similarly tapered or rounded. The anterior end
frequently proboscis-like, flat, and flexible, while the entire body is more or less elastic and contractile.
The right side is flattened and alone provided with cilia, while the left side of the body proper is
arched; on the left side of the proboscis is a row of coarse cilia resembling an adoral zone, and a row
of trichocysts. A long peristome stretches down the thin, ventral side of the proboscis, and the mouth
proper is situated at the junction of the proboscis and body; the mouth, as a rule, is invisible. The
ciliated right side alone is striated in the majority of species. The contractile vacuole may be single
or multiple, usually in the posterior region of the body and dorsal in position. The macronucleus is
usually double, rarely single or quadruple, but may occasionally break into numerous smaller pieces.
Movement, free-swimming or gliding, with especial tendency to get under clumps of foreign matter.

Fresh and salt water.

Lionotus fasciola Ehr. Fig. 33.

Synonyms. Amphileptus fasciola Ehr. ’38; Dujardin ’41; Lachmann ’56; Cohn '66, Diesing '65.

Loxophyllum fasciola Claparede & Lachmann ’58; Balbiani 61
Loxophyllum duplostnatum Maupas 83; Shevyakov ’96

Body frequently brown or brilliant yellow in color, somewhat sigmoid in form with tapering
anterior end, the extremity of which is turned dorsally. The proboscis is about half the entire length

MARINE PROTOZOA FROM WOODS HOLE.

439

and is not sharply marked from the rest of the body hut tapers gradually, its base being equal to the
diameter of the body at its middle point. The body is slightly contractile and the posterior end is
carried to a rounded point, but not into a distinct tail. Unlike the fresh-water variety, this one has
no hyaline margin nor hyaline caudal region, and the contractile vacuole is double or multiple on the
dorsal side near the posterior end. Cilia are present only on the under (right) side, with, however,
a row of large cilia marking the course of the elongate mouth, upon its left side. The right side is
striated, the left arched and without markings. The endoplasm is finely granular with, however,
larger food particles in the process of digestion, while specimens are occasionally seen with the natural
form completely lost through distortion caused by over-large captures (Cf. also Wrzesniowski ’70,
p. xxin, lig. 32). Movement continuous, slow, and gliding; very little tendency to jerking movements.
Macronucleus double, both parts spherical, and placed in about the center of the larger part of the
body; closely approximated but not, as Schewiakoff described, connected. In conjugation, a large
form unites with a smaller one, the mouth parts being connected. Details of conjugation and macro-
nuclei not made out. Length 200// to 600//.

Key to marine genera of Chlamydodontidse.

Diagnostic characters: Form usually ellipsoid, never very elongate. Transverse section of body circular or elliptical.
The mouth is usually some distance from the anterior end and may be in the posterior part. Sometimes it is in the center
of the ventral surface, again on the right side. The oesophagus invariably has a well-developed buccal armature, or a

smooth peculiarly built oesophageal tube. Food particles of large size.

1. Body cylindrical. Cilia about entire body Genus * Nassula p. 440

Body flat 2

2. a. Without a caudal process 3

b. With a caudal process 5

3. a. Anterior end angular on leftside 4

b. Anterior end rounded Genus Chlamydodon

4. a. Dorsal strise and cilia present, ventral cilia longer Genus Orthodon

b. Dorsal strise and cilia absent; posterior end not pointed Genus * Chilodon, p 440

c. Dorsal strise and cilia absent; posterior end pointed Genus Scaphidiodon

5. a. Caudal spine with posterior bristle-like cilia 6

b. Caudal spine without posterior bristle-like cilia, ventral cilia reduced Genus TrocliUia

6. a. With pigment spot on anterior angle Genus JEgyria

b. Without such pigment spot Genus Onychodactylus

c. Cilia on right edge only of greatly reduced ventral surface Genus * Dysteria, p. 441

440

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

Genus NASSTJLA Ehr. ’33.

(Dujardin ’41; Stein ’67; Cienkowsky ’55; Cohn ’66; Clap, et Lach. ’58; Kent ’81; Maupas ’83; Entz ’84;

Fabre-Domergue ’88; Biitschli ’8S: Shevyakov ’96.)

The body is ovoid or cylindrical, with well-rounded' ends, and in some cases slightly flattened.
The mouth is ventral and placed some distance from anterior end (\ to J total length). A slight
depression on the ventral surface marks the mouth region, which is further indicated by larger and
more powerful cilia. The rest of the body is uniformly ciliated. The entire body is marked by clearly
defined spiral stripes. The mouth is circular and the oesophagus is supported by a considerable
armature, which usually extends dorsally and to the left, rarely to the right. In some cases the
structure of this armature is indistinct; again it can be clearly seen to consist of definite rods (Stabchen) .
The anus is probably always terminal. Contractile vacuoles are variable in different species. In some
cases there is but one, which is placed at the posterior end or centrally on the ventral side; in others
there may be four — two dorsal and two ventral. In many cases trichoeysts are uniformly distributed.
Sometimes the body is colorless; again, and more often, it is brightly colored with red, blue, brown,
or black pigment. The macronucleus is
globular and central, occasionally band-
form and with numerous attached micro-
nuclei. Food substance varied, usually
vegetable matter, see, however, below.

Cysts are globular. Movement is a steady
progression, combined with rolling.

NassulamicrostomaCohn’66. Fig. 34.

Synonyms: Paramcecium microstomum Cl. et
Lach. ’58, Gourret et Roeser '88; Isotricha micrn-
stomum Kent ’81.

Body subcylindrical, rounded at each
extremity, not quite twice as long as
broad. A slight depression on one surface
marks the position of the mouth, this
depression being indicated by a row of
longer cilia. The mouth is extremely
small and is surrounded by a curious buc-
cal armature. This is not made up of
bars or rods, as in most species of Nassula,
but appears perfectly smooth and uniform
except for the considerable swelling at the inner end. The cuticle is firm and unyielding and marked
by longitudinal and somewhat spiral rows of cilia and trichoeysts. Under the microscope this is one
of the most pleasing forms found at Woods Hole. Its color is yellowish brown from the presence of
brilliant particles of coloring matter held in the cortical plasm, and, as it slowly rolls along, these
particles and the black trichoeysts give to the organism a peculiar sparkling effect. The macronucleus
is almost central; the contractile vacuole posterior. The endoplasm appears well filled with food
bodies, some of which could be distinguished as Arnphidinium and Glenodinium.

Length 55 /< ; greatest diameter 30/« .

' Genus CHILODON Ehr.

(Dujardin ’41; Engelmann ’78; Stein ’54, 58; Kent ’81; Biitschli '88; Gruber ’83; Cienkowsky ’55; Mobius ’88;

Clap, et Lach ’58; Wrzesniowski ’65; Shevyakov ’96.)

Small forms, greatly flattened dorso-ventrally and almost egg-form in outline. The anterior end
is bent distinctly to the left and forms a characteristic process, which, together with the entire margin
of the body, is soft and flexible. The posterior end is, as a rule, broadly rounded. The ventral surface
is finely striate, and this surface alone is ciliated. The lines of cilia converge at. the mouth, and at this
region the cilia are somewhat larger and more distinct, thus forming a functional adoral zone. The
mouth is median and is situated in the anterior half of the body. It is surrounded by a well-defined
armature, composed usually of from 10 to 16 rods. The contractile vacuoles are quite varied and from
one to many iu number, the number increasing with the size of the individual. The macronucleus is

' /'VTT TT

Fig. 34. — Nassula microstoma.

MARINE PROTOZOA FROM WOODS HOLE.

441

usually single, elliptical in form, and centrally placed; one micronucleus. Reddish granular pigment
and trichocysts are occasionally present.

Chilodon cucullulus Mull., sp. Fig. 35.

Synonyms: Colpodci cucullus O. F. Muller; Loxodes cucullulus? Chilodon uncmatus Ehr. ’58, Perty ’52, Dujardin *41;
L. dentcitus Duj., etc.

This extremely variable form has received so many different names that it hardly pays to enum-
erate them. It is one of the commonest and most widely spread eiliates known, although at Woods
Hole I was surprised to see it so rarely. It is the type species of the genus and needs no further
description. The specimens observed at Woods Hole had numerous contractile vacuoles and were
42 to 45// long and from 28 to 32// wide.

Genus DYSTERIA Huxley ’57.

(Cl. et Lach. ’58; Entz '84; Mobius ’88; Shevyakov ’90.)

Small forms, firm in outline, and colorless or slightly colored. The body is somewhat clam-shaped,
flattened, slightly curved or straight on the right side, the other more convex. The true ventral side
is only a narrow strip along the right and anterior edge of the body, the apparent ventral side being
a fold of the very large dorsal surface which comes around ventrally, forming a valved structure some-
what analogous to a clam shell. Cilia are limited to the outer edge of the small ventral surface, which
also bears a peculiar spine at the posterior end. Behind this spine are larger cilia. The mouth

opening lies in the anterior widened portion of the ventral surface and is connected with a smooth
tubular pharynx. The right half of the dorsal side, i. e., the apparent dorsal side, is arched and bears
longitudinal ridges. Two to four contractile vacuoles are placed on the ventral side. The macro-
nucleus is usually dorsal, elliptical, and cleft., with one micronucleus attached. Fresh and salt water.

Dysteria lanceolata Cl. et Lach. Fig. 36.

Synonym: Cypridium lanceolatum Kent ’81.

Outline of the flattened body ovoid; body consists of two valve-like portions; the edge of the
right valve is nearly straight, that of the left valve more or less sinuous; anteriorly it is cut away,
obliquely and posteriorly it has a deep indentation in which the seizing spine rests. The cilia are
confined to the ventral surface, here reaching, however, from the anterior dorsal extremity to below
the posterior indentation. Posteriorly the cilia become larger, corresponding to the larger cirri of
D. armata, which are posterior to the spine. The mouth lies between the two valves and is surrounded
by a long and smooth buccal armature which passes downward and backward to the left a distance
equal to about half the entire body length. The macronucleus is situated in the dorsal region in the
central part of the body. There are two contractile vacuoles, one behind the center of the buccal
armature, the other near the inner end of this organ. Movement is in circles, the animal moving
around quite rapidly when not attached by its posterior process. It is colorless and measures 45// in
length by 27// in width. Claparede & Lachmann and Shevyakov describe it as 70// long.

442

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

Key to marine genera of Chiliferidse.

Diagnostic characters: Mouth never lies behind the middle of the body; the oesophagus is but slightly developed. The
undulating membranes are placed either on the edge of the mouth or in the oesophagus. A peristomial depression leading
to the mouth is absent or very slightly indicated.

1. Mouth in the anterior half, undulating membrane on left edge only; right edge continued in a long

ventral furrow Genus * Frontonia, p. 442

2. Two undulating membranes; mouth central; no caudal bristles Genus * Colpidium, p. 443

3. Two undulating membranes; caudal bristle Genus * Uronema , p. 443

Genus FRONTONIA Ehr. (Cl. & Lach. ’581).

(Ehrenberg, subgenus of liter saria ’38; Claparede & Lachmann ’58; Biitschli ’88; Shevyakov ’96.)

Form elongate and cylindrical, or often flattened dorso-ventrally, with round or pointed ends. It
is usually plastic and contractile. Cilia are evenly distributed about the body and are similar in length.
The large, open mouth lies on the anterior half of the ventral surface, and is elongate and oval in out-
line. On its left edge is a well-defined membrane which stretches across to the right side of the mouth.
On the right edge is a small, longitudinally striped tract which is free from trichocysts and smooth in
appearance. This tract is continued posteriorly in a long furrow, which in some cases reaches the pos-

Fig. 39. — Uronema marina.

terior end of the animal. A few rows of cilia in this furrow vibrate differently from the others and
give the effect of a membrane (Biitschli). The oesophagus is extremely short and hard to make out.
The body is usually covered uniformly with trichocysts, often of considerable size. There are 1 or 2
vacuoles with long canals radiating throughout the endoplasm. The macronucleus is oval and cen-
trally placed. Micronuclei vary from one to many. An anal opening is placed at the end of the long
ventral furrow. The plasm is colorless or green by the presence of Zooehlorella, or colored brown or
black by pigments. In these cases there is a considerable pigment mass on the anterior end. Move-
ment is regular, forward, and combined with rotation. Food consists of foreign objects, diatoms,
other protozoa and the like. Fresh and salt water.

Frontonia leucas Ehr. Fig. 37.

Synonyms: Frontonia vernalis Ehr. ’38; Bursaria leucas Allman ’55, Carter ’56; Panophrys leucas Duj. ’41, Stein ’67;
Panophrys vernalis Dujardin ’41, Stein ’67; P. chrysalis Duj. ’41, Fromentel ’74; Cyrtostomum leucas Stein ’67, Kent ’81.

Form ovoid, elongate, occasionally a little flattened dorso-ventrally. Mouth in the anterior third
of the body. The left edge of the mouth carries a distinct undulating membrane; the right edge is
plain, longitudinally striated and bears cilia. It is slightly depressed and the depression is carried
posteriorly in the form of a shallow furrow which reaches to the posterior end. The contractile
vacuole is on the left side, the spheroidal nucleus on the right side of the furrow. The body is uniformly

MARINE PROTOZOA FROM WOODS HOLE.

443

covered with fine cilia, and the periphery is uniformly studded with large trichocysts, except along
the furrow. Food consists of dinoflagellates and other small forms. Color dark brown to black.

Length 330// ; width 200/c

This form differs considerably from the fresh -water Frontonia leucas as described by Schewiakoff ’89,
especially in the extreme length of the peristomial furrow, in the position of the nucleus and contractile
vacuole, and in the nature of the water canals. These in the Woods Hole form are very irregular in
size and very much branched, not uniform as in Lieberktihn’s (see Biitschli) figure of Frontonia leucas ,
nor radiating as in Schewiakoff’ s description. This may be the same species as Frontonia marina , of
Fabre-Domergue ’91, whose description and figure I have not seen.

Genus COLPIDIUM Stein ’60.

(Biitschli ’88; Maupas’83.)

The general form is oval, slightly compressed laterally with the dorsal side strongly arched. The
ventral side is slightly incurved. The anterior end is somewhat smaller than the posterior end,
which is broadly rounded. The mouth is placed some distance from the anterior end in an oral
depression and opens into a tubular oesophagus. There are usually two undulating membranes
which do not extend beyond the mouth borders. The right undulating membrane extends down
into the oesophagus and appears to be attached to the walls of the latter. The body stripes in front
of the mouth are twisted to the left. The anus is terminal and the contractile vacuole may be termi-
nal or situated forwards in the dorsal region. The macronucleus is spherical and has one micronucleus
attached. Food consists mainly of bacteria. Movement rapid, but interrupted.

Fresh and salt water, common in infusions.

Colpidium colpoda Ehr., sp. Fig. 38.

Synonyms: Colpidium cucuUus Kent ’81; C'. striatus Stokes ’85; Kolpoda cucullus Duj. ’41; Paramoecium colpoda Ehr. ’38,
Quennerstedt ’67; Plagiopyla nasuta Kent ’81, G. & R. ’86; Glaucoma pyriformis G. & E. ’86; Tillina campyla Stokes ’85, ’88.

The body is oval, somewhat larger posteriorly, and a little compressed dorso-ventrally. The
anterior end is twisted a little from the right to the left (more evident in fresh-water forms), and leans
somewhat toward the ventral side. Under this portion, on the ventral side, lies the mouth in a large
depression just above the middle of the body. The entire body is covered with uniform and delicate
cilia, which are placed in longitudinal rows. These rows are almost straight on the dorsal side, but
bend on the ventral surface, following the contour of the twisted anterior portion. The endoplasm is
finely granular; the oesophagus leading into it is very distinct. Schewiakoff (’89) describes two
membranes, an inner and an outer; Maupas (’83) describes them as right and left. In the present
species I was able to make out only one. The macronucleus is central, spherical in form, and bears a
single minute micronucleus. The contractile vacuole is posterior and dorsal to the long axis of the body.
The anus is ventral to this axis and also posterior. Length 45/<; width 20/4. Common.

This marine variety is much smaller than the fresh-water form and the form differs in a number
of respects, viz, in the anterior torsion and in the structure of the mouth. These may be, however,
only individual variations of a widely spread species, and I believe it is perfectly safe to describe this
as Colpidium colpoda.

Genus URONEMA Duj. ’41.

(Quennerstedt ’69; Cohn ’66; Kent '81; Biitschli ’81; Schewiakoff ’89; Shevyakov ’96.)

Minute forms; colorless and constant in body form. The form is oval, slightly compressed on the
ventral side, while the dorsal side is distinctly arched. The membrane is distinctly marked by rather
widely separated strise. These occasionally have a spiral course about the body; in all cases they
can be easily counted. The mouth is large and placed near the center of the ventral surface. It is
sometimes approached by a very shallow depression or peristome from the anterior end, and marked
by two rows of cilia. An undulating membrane extends down the mouth. (Esophagus absent. A
long, stiff bristle extends outwards from the posterior end. The contractile vacuole is terminal or
subterminal and near the anal opening. The macronucleus is spherical, centrally placed, and with
one micronucleus closely applied. Movement is rapid and usual forwards in a straight line, often
found resting, however, with outstretched cilia in contact with some foreign body. Food mainly
bacteria. Fresh and salt water, usually in decomposing vegetable substances.

444

BULLETIN OE THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

Uronema marina Duj. Fig. 39.

Synonyms: Enchelys triquetra Dujardin; E. corrugata Duj.; Cryptochilum griseolwrn Maupas ’83; Philaster digitiformis
Fabre-Domergue ’85.

Small animals with ellipsoidal form and about twice as long as broad. The moutli lies in the upper
half of the body and bears a well-developed undulating membrane upon its left edge. The membrane
is longitudinally striped and covered with long and vibratile cilia. The right edge of the mouth bears
cilia which are about the same in size as the body cilia, but are more closely inserted (Schewiakoff) .
The most characteristic feature is the long caudal bristle, which is extremely delicate and about
two-thirds the length of the body. Schewiakoff thinks this bristle has a sensory function. I could
not make this out, for although other protozoa ran against this bristle, often bending it well over to
one side, the animal shjwed no sign of irritability but lay quiescent. A spherical macronucleus with
attached micronucleus lies in the center of the body. The contractile vacuole is posterior in front of
the bristle. The macronucleus was found to be double, as though just divided, in a large percentage
of cases. This may be a precocious division of the nucleus long before signs of the body division are
evident. Such a phenomenon, however, is rare, the macronucleus usually dividing at a late stage of
cell division. Length 30 to 50 ju; width 15 to 20 /<. Common in decomposing algse.

Key to marine genera of Pleuronemidx.

Diagnostic characters: The mouth is at the end o£ a long peristome running along the ventral side; the body is dorso-
ventrally or laterally compressed. The entire left edge of the peristome is provided with an undulating membrane which
occasionally runs around the posterior end of the peristome to form a “pocket” leading to the mouth. The right edge
of the peristome is provided with a less-developed membrane. There may or may not be a well-developed pharynx.

Body small; not produced into neck-like elongation Genus * Pleuronema, p. 444

Body medium-sized; anterior end produced into neck-like elongation Genus *Lembus, p. 445

Genus PLEURONEMA Dujardin ’41.

(Perty ’52; Clap. & Lach. ’58; Stein '59, vol. 1; Quennerstedt ’67; Kent ’81; Biitschli ’88; Schewiakoff ’89; Shevyakov ’96.)

Small to medium-sized ciliates, with an unchanging form. They are somewhat lens-shape and
laterally compressed, the two surfaces about equally arched. The ventral surface is nearly straight
or but slightly arched; the dorsal is quite
convex. The anterior and posterior ex-
tremities are equally rounded. The per-
istome begins as a small depression, but
becomes larger until it takes in nearly
all of the ventral surface. The depres-
sion becomes much deeper at about the
center of the body, and is especially
marked on the left side of the peristome.

In this deeper portion is the mouth,
with an almost imperceptible oesophagus.

Upon the left edge of the peristome is a
high, undulating membrane, sail-like in
appearance when extended. This may
stretch around the posterior edge of the
peristome and upon the right side, thus
forming a pocket by means of which the
food particles are directed into the mouth. The rest of the right edge of the peristome is occupied by
closely approximated powerful cilia (Biitschli) or a second undulating membrane (Stein). The body
cilia are relatively long. Trichocysts and caudal bristles may be present. The contractile vacuole is
subterminal and dorsal; it is questionable whether there are canals leading to it. A round macro-
nucleus with one micronucleus is in the anterior half of the body. The anus is terminal. Food is
chiefly bacteria. Movement combines springing with swimming and rotation. Fresh and salt water.

Pleuronema chrysalis Ehr., sp. Fig. 40.

Synonyms: Pleuronema crassa Dujardin ’41; P. marina Duj. ’41; Fabre-Domergue ’85; P.coronata Kent ’81; Paramcccium
chrysalis Ehr. ’38, Lembadion ovale G. & R. '88; Histiobalantium agile Stokes ’85, '88.

The body is ovoid, slightly flattened, rounded at both ends, the anterior end sharper than the
posterior. The ventral surface is almost entirely taken up by a peristome which extends from the

MARINE PROTOZOA FROM WOODS HOLE.

445

anterior end posteriorly three-quarters of the body length. The posterior end of the peristome is
straight, the left curved, following the depressed portion. The body is covered with fine cilia in
longitudinal lines, except on the peristome. The mouth is small and situated in the hollow of the
peristome near the left border. On the left peristome edge is a large undulating membrane. It begins
near the anterior end of the body and increases in height posteriorly following the peristome edge
around on the right side. This posterior bend of the membrane causes the appearance of a full sail,
so often seen. It can be entirely withdrawn and folded together in the peristome. On the right edge
of the peristome are large, powerful cilia. The contractile vacuole is central and dorsal; the macro-
nucleus is in the anterior half of the body, with one attached micronucleus. Food consists of bacteria.
Not very common. Fresh and salt water. It often remains quiet, with membrane and cilia out-
stretched, as though dead, but suddenly gives a spring and is gone.

Pleuronema setigera, n. sp. Fig. 41.

Body colorless, elongate, and with the general form of a cucumber, the posterior end being some-
what pointed. The mouth and relatively small peristome are situated in the lower third of the body.
The peristome begins as a shallow furrow at the center of the ventral surface and dips sharply into the
buccal depression, which is deep and turned toward the posterior end. The left edge of the peristome
bears a high undulating membrane, which extends anteriorly only as far as the center of the body;
posteriorly it passes around to the right edge of the peristome, thus forming the characteristic mem-
branous pocket. Inside the oral depression is a second undulating membrane, running down to the

mouth. This is small and without an oesophagus. The body is clothed with long setose cilia which
are frequently fully outstretched when the animal is resting, a slight tremor . of the large membrane
alone indicating vitality. Posteriorly these appendages are drawn out into long filiform setse, the
number varying in different individuals from three to nine or ten. These are extremely fine and
difficult to see without a high power (e. g. T\- oil) and careful focussing of the substage condensor.
Like P. chrysalis, the resting periods are terminated by sudden springs, otherwise the movements are
steady and forward. The macronucleus is central, and the contractile vacuole posterior and terminal.
Length 45/r to 50 /«; greatest diameter .17//. In decaying algse.

It was this form, I believe, that Peck ’95 described as a “eiliate.”

Genus LEMBUS Cohn ’66.

(Cohn ’66; Quennerstedt ’69; Kent ’81; Fabre-Domergue ’85; Gourret & Roeser ’88; Biitschli ’88; Shevyakov ’96.)

Free-swimming animals of elongate form, more or less elastic and flexible, bending readily to
avoid obstacles, etc. The anterior half is usually drawn out into a slightly curved neck-like portion.
The peristome is a small groove leading from the anterior end to the mouth about midway down the
ventral side of the body. Biitschli, following Quennerstedt, describes an undulating membrane on
each side of the peristome groove. Other observers, however, usually describe but one, the left,
which is clearly defined and stretches out some distance from the body, while the right border is
described as having smaller but very active cilia. The general body surface is clothed with fine,
uniform cilia, and body strise are usually absent. One or more caudal bristles may be present. The

446

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

contractile vacuole is posterior and terminal, and may be multiple. The macronucleus is spherical
and perhaps double (Kent). Food is chiefly bacteria, and the animals are frequently found with the
anterior end embedded in zoogloea masses. Salt water, usually in infusions.

Lembus infusionum, n. sp. Fig. 42.

The body is elongate, lancet-shaped, with a tapering anterior extremity. The dorsal outline is
concave through the bending of the anterior end, while the ventral outline presents an even, convex
curve. The mouth lies slightly above the center of the body and marks the posterior limit of the
ventral peristomial groove, which curves slightly from the anterior extremity. Each side of this
groove bears an undulating membrane, the left being much larger and conspicuously striated. The
general form of this left membrane is triangular, the widest part is anterior, the narrowest at the
mouth. The right membrane is similar in form, but smaller and more active. The endoplasm is
colorless and finely granular, not regionally differentiated. The ectoplasm consists of a relatively
thick cortical plasm specially noticeable in the posterior half of the body and a delicate cuticle which
bears almost imperceptible longitudinal markings — the insertion points of the fine cilia. The body is
covered with uniform cilia except at the anterior extremity. Here they are much larger and bristle-
like. I was unable to find any cilia in the peristome. One long caudal bristle, one-quarter of the
length of the body, trails out behind. The macronucleus is spheroidal and placed near the center of
the body; a conspicuous micronucleus lies near it. A row of contractile vacuoles extends from the
posterior end. I have seen as many as six of nearly equal size and one or two smaller ones. The
intervals of contraction are quite long. Length 70 to 75//; greatest diameter 10 to 12 ju.

L. infusionum resembles L. elongatus in its general form and in its mode of life, for it excavates a
retreat in zoogloea masses and lies there for considerable periods perfectly quiet. It differs from
L. elongatus and from L. velifer (probably the same as L. elongatus of Claparede & Laclnnann) in the
presence of the caudal bristle, in the absence of annular markings, number of contractile vacuoles, and
in the slightly smaller size. It resembles Lembus verminus (Muller) as described by Kent ( Proboscella
vermina ), and L. intermedius as described by Gourret & Roeser ( Lembus verminus syn. ) in the absence
of annular markings and in the presence of a caudal bristle. It differs from the former, however,
in the absence of a tentacle-like process, and from both in the absence of a double nucleus and in the
presence of many vacuoles. These features are so characteristic of all the specimens examined that I
have concluded, somewhat reluctantly, to give it a specific name. It is common in old infusions of
alga;, especially after decomposition is well advanced. Its food consists of bacteria.

Lembus pusillus Quennerstedt ’69. Fig. 43.

Synonym: L. subulatus Kent ’81.

This species is much smaller than the preceding, and might easily be mistaken for Uronema marina.
It is subcylindrical in form, the anterior end bluntly pointed, the posterior end rounded. The oral
apparatus is quite different from Uronema. The mouth, as in the preceding species, is at the end of a
long peristomial groove extending from the anterior end to the middle of the body. The edges of the
peristome bear undulating membranes as in L. infusionum. Like the latter, there is one caudal bristle,
but unlike it there is only one posterior contractile vacuole, while the endoplasm is filled with large
granules or food balls. The cuticle is distinctly striated with longitudinal markings, and the cilia are
uniform in length.

Habitat similar to that of L. infusionum , in zoogloea masses. Length 26 to 30/z ; diameter 7 to 8ju.

MARINE PROTOZOA FROM WOODS HOLE.

447

Although Quennerstedt’s description of L. pusillus makes no mention of a caudal bristle, the size
and other characters are so closely similar that I hesitate to make a new species. The bristle is
extremely delicate, scarcely thicker than a cilium, and easily overlooked, yet with proper focussing
of the condenser I found it on every specimen examined.

Key to marine genera of Opalinidee.

Diagnostic characters: The form is oval, and the body maybe short or drawn out to resemble a worm. They are char-
acterized mainly by the absence of mouth and pharynx.

Anterior end not pointed; body cylindrical; tapering

Anterior end pointed; body elongate; cylindrical; tapering

Genus ANOPLOPHRYA Stein ’60.

(Stein ’60; ClaparOde ’60; Leidy ’77; Vejdovsky ’79; Kent ’81; Balbiani ’85 ; Biitschli ’88; Shevyakov ’96.)

The general form is elongate, cylindrical or slightly flattened, with rounded ends, the posterior
end tapering. The body is striated with clearly defined, often depressed lines, which run longitudi-
nally and sometimes spirally. The contractile vacuoles are usually placed in rows upon the edges. The
macronucleus is almost always long and band-formed, rarely oval, and generally extending through
the entire length of the body. Micronuclei have been made out in one case. Reproduction is effected
by simple cross division or by budding at the posterior end, and is frequently combined with chain
formation. The main characteristic is the entire absence of mouth and oesophagus, the animals being
parasitic in the digestive tract of various annelids. Parasites, salt-water forms.

Anoplophrya branchiarum Stein ’52. Fig. 44.

A. circulans Balbiani.

The body is cylindrical to pyriform, in the latter case broadened anteriorly. Cuticle distinctly
marked by longitudinal striations which take the form of depressions and give to the body a charac-
teristic melon shape. The endoplasm contains a number of large refringent granules — probably
body products. The nucleus is elongate, somewhat curved, and coarsely granular. A micronucleus
lies m the concavity. The cilia are long, inserted rather widely apart along the longitudinal mark-
ings. The contractile vacuole is single and is located at the pointed end, which is directed backwards
during locomotion. One specimen found free swimming among some algse.

Length 104/u; greatest diameter 3 6/c

Genus * Anoplophrya, j>. 447
Genus Opalinopsis

448

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

I was much surprised to find this form swimming about freely in the water; its mouthless
condition showed it to belong to the family of parasites, the Opaliniclie. As the name indicates, how-
ever, this species is an ectoparasite upon the gills, and Stein gave the name branchiarurn to a fresh-
water form parasitic upon Gannmcirus pulex. The Woods Hole form is so strikingly similar to the figure
of G. branchiarurn that, although the name was given to a fresh- water form, it obviously applies to this
marine variety. One important difference is the presence of only one contractile vacuole in the
marine form.

Key to families of Heterotrichida.

Cilia cover the body 1

Cilia reduced to certain localized areas 2

1. Polytrichina.

a. The mouth terminates a long peristomial furrow having an adoral zone along the entire left

edge Family Plagiotomiclx

b. Peristomial area a broad triangular area ending in mouth Family Bursaridx

c. Peristomial depression short; limited to the anterior end; its plane at right angles to the long axis

of body; surface of peristome striated and ciliated; no undulating membranes Family Stentoridx

2. Oligotrichina.

а. Peristome without cilia; cilia limited to one or more girdles about body .Family Halteriidx

One marine genus * Slrombidmm, p. 449

б. Thecate forms; the body is attached by a stalk to the cup; within the adoral zone is a ring of

cilia Family Tinlinnidx

c. The peristomial depression is deep and funnel-like; cuticle thick, with posterior spine-like proc-
esses Family Ophryoscolecidse

Key to the marine genera of Plagiotomidx.

Diagnostic characters: The peristome is a narrow furrow which begins, as a rule, close to the anterior end and runs
backward along the ventral side, to the mouth, which is usually placed between the middle of the body and the posterior
end. A well-developed adoral zone stretches along the left side of the peristome, and is usually straight.

1. Body cylindrical; size medium; peristome long and turns sharply to the left at the extremity Genus Metopus

2. No torsion in the peristome; undulating membrane is confined to the posterior part of peristome Genus Blepharisma

3. No peristomial torsion; body highly contractile; no undulating membrane Genus Spiroslomum

Key to the mar ine genera of Bursaridx.

Diagnostic characters: The body is usually short and pocket-like, but may be elongate. The chief characteristic is the
peristome, which is not a furrow, but a broad triangular area deeply insunk and ending in a point at the mouth. The
adoral zone is usually confined to the left peristome edge, or it may cross over to the right anterior edge.

1. The anterior half of the body tapers to nearly a point in front; the peristome is narrowest at the apex;

the mouth is the entire peristome base Genus Balantidium

2. The anterior end does not taper; the peristome is widest at the end of the body; the mouth is clearly

defined Genus* Condylostoma, p. 448

Genus CONDYLOSTOMA ( KONDYLOSTOMA Bory de St. Vincent 1824) Dujardin ’41.

(Dujardin ’41; Claparede & Lachmann ’58; Stein ’59, ’67; Cohn ’66; Quennerstedt ’67; Wrzesniowski ’70;

Btitschli ’76, ’88; Kent ’81; Maupas ’83; Shevyakov ’96.)

Colorless and more or less flexible animals of medium size. The general form is elongate and
cylindrical or somewhat smaller anteriorly. The posterior end is broadly rounded, the anterior end
somewhat truncate and oblique. The peristome is broad and triangular, the base of the triangle being
the entire anterior end of the body. The entire length of the peristome is one-fourth or less of the
body length. The mouth is large and placed at the apex of the peristomial triangle and opens into
a comparatively small oesophagus. The right edge of the peristome is lamellate and bears a clearly
defined undulating membrane. The adoral zone is well developed upon the left edge of the peristome,
from which it passes around anteriorly to the right edge. The surface of the peristome is free from
cilia, but the rest of the body is uniformly coated with small active cilia. Contractile vacuoles are
not safely determined. Btitschli thinks there is probably one terminal vacuole, but some observers
deny this (e. g. Maupas). Others describe them on the dorsal side of the posterior end (Quennerstedt).
The macronucleus is long and beaded and placed upon the right side. Micronuclei are numerous and
scattered along the macronucleus. The anus is terminal and dorsal. Food consists of large and small
particles. Movement rapid, free swimming, alternating with resting periods; in some cases an undu-
lating or wriggling movement is seen, showing clearly the flexibility of the body. Fresh and salt water.

MARINE PROTOZOA FROM WOODS HOLE.

449

Condylostoma patens Muller. (Fig. 45.)

The body is elongate, somewhat sac-like, five or six times as long as broad, plastic, and frequently
contains brightly colored food granules. The triangular peristome takes up the greater part of the
anterior end, and the mouth is situated at the sharper angle of the triangle, about one-fourth of the
total length from the anterior end. The cuticle is longitudinally striated, the lines having a slightly
spiral course. They are not closely set, and fine cilia are thickly inserted along their edges. The
endoplasm is granular and viscous. The motile organs consist of an adoral zone of membranelles,

Which stretch along the left edge of the peristome and the front edge of the body. The right edge of
the peristome supports an undulating membrane. The nucleus is moniliform and extends the full
length of the leftside; a number of micronuclei are distributed along its course (Maupas).

Length 400/;; diameter at widest part 105/;. Maupas gives the length from .305/; to 495/;; and
Stein 376/; to 564/;. Very common.

For a more extended account of the structures, see the excellent description by Maupas ’83.

Key to the marine genera of Stentoridx.

Diagnostic characters: The peristome is relatively short and limited to the front end of the animal, so that its plane is
nearly at right angles to that of the longitudinal axis of the body. The adoral zone of cilia either passes entirely around
the peristome edge or ends at the right-hand edge. The surface of the peristome is spirally striated and provided with
cilia. Undulating membranes are absent.

1. Peristome circular in outline; limited to the anterior end -. Genus Stentor

2. The peristome is drawn out into two wing-like processes; tube-dwelling Genus Folticulina

Genus STROMBIDIUM Cl. & Lach. ’58.

(Stein ’67; Biitschli ’73; Fromentel ’74; Kent ’81; Gruber ’84; Entz ’84; Maupas ’83, Biitschli '88. )

Small, colorless (except for ingested food) animals with characteristic springing movements. The
form is usually constant, but in some cases may be plastic like Astasia; it is usually globular or conical,
the posterior end being more or less pointed, the anterior end broadest. The latter is surrounded by a
complete circle of the adoral zone, the oral end of which passes into a peristomial depression which
extends deep into the middle of the body. The mouth, with a very small oesophagus, lies at the bottom
of the inturned peristome. The region surrounded by the adoral zone is frequently drawn out into an
anterior process, occasionally bearing a pigment mass. The ventral surface in some cases bears cilia,
which may be distributed or restricted to a row of large cilia. Trichocysts are usually present and

F. C. B. 1901—29

450

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

may be widely spread, limited to the posterior region, or arranged in a girdle about the middle. The
contractile vacuole is simple, and posterior in position. The macronucleus is spherical and usually
central in position. Movement is rapid swimming, combined with resting and floating periods, the
latter usually terminated by a sudden leap.

Fresh and salt water; more common in the latter.

PStrombidium caudatum Fromentel ’74. Fig. 46, a, b, c.

Fromentel described a fresh-water form of this genus with a caudal appendage. The body is
pyriform, broadly truncate on the anterior end, in the middle of which rises a papilliform process
{Schnabel) . On this process is a heap of pigment granules, which, however, are not constant. A ring
of long cirri surround the anterior end and pass into the peristome, and from the left edge of this line
of cirri a large adoral zone continues down to the mouth. The peristome is elongate and sac-form,
and the mouth lies at the posterior extremity. With the exception of a caudal filament there are
no other motile organs; this is about half as long as the body, structureless, hyaline, and sharply

pointed. It splits up into a bundle of tine fibers upon treatment with caustic potash (c). The cirri
emerge from minute hollows in the edge of the anterior border. The cortical plasm contains peculiar
rod-like bodies, which look more like lines or markings than like rods or trichocysts. The nucleus is
large, spherical, and placed in the center of the body. The contractile vacuole is posterior.

Length without appendage is about 35 ju; greatest diameter 15 to 18 /i. In decaying vegetable
matter. Common.

Although Fromentel’s species is incompletely described, it is very evident that the organism corre-
sponds fairly well with the Woods Hole variety. His was a fresh-water type; this is marine, but the
caudal filament and the contractile vacuole are similar. Certainly in this case the organism can not
be regarded as a Vorticella broken off its stalk, as Kent ’81 suspected. The anterior process with its
pigment spot; the cirri, the spherical nucleus, the position of the vacuole, etc., are all opposed to such
an interpretation which Kent applied to the original species. Neither can it be a Tintinnoid. I place
it provisionally as S. caudatum.

MARINE PROTOZOA FROM WOODS HOLE.

451

Key to the, marine genera, of Tintinnidx.

Diagnostic characters: Body attached by a stalk to a cup. Inside the zone of membranelles is a ring of cilia (par-oral).

1. The test is gelatinous and more or less covered by foreign particles Genus Tintinnidium

2. The test is ehitinous and clear. No foreign particles Genus Tintinnus

3. The test is ehitinous; covered by foreign particles, growth rings frequent Genus *Tintinnopsis

4. The test is ehitinous, often covered by foreign particles. The test is marked by discoid, circular, or hexagonal spots

Genus CodoneUa

5. The test is perforated by pores of circular or hexagonal form Genus Dictyocysta

Genus TINTINNOPSIS Stein ’67.

(Stein ’67: Kent '81; Daday '87; Biitschli ’88.)

Medium-sized ciliates, inclosed in a ehitinous lorica with embedded sand crystals. The form of
the house, or lorica, varies greatly. In some cases the mouth opening is wide, giving the lorica a bell
form; it may be long and tubular, short and spherical, or variously indented. The animal is attached,
as in the closely allied genus Tintinnus, by a peduncle to the bottom of the lorica. The anterior end
of the animal is inclosed by two complete circles of cilia; one, the outer, forming the adoral zone, is
composed of thick tentacle-like membranelles, the other consists of shorter cilia within the adoral

zone. The mouth leads into a curved cesophagus containing rows
of downward-directed cilia ( Daday ) . The entire body is covered
with cilia, but as the lorica is always opaque these can be made
out only when the animal is induced to leave the house. The
only difference between this genus and Tintinnus is the covering
of foreign bodies — usually sand crystals. Movement is rapid and
restless, and peculiarly vibratory, owing to the apparent awkward-
ness in moving the house. Salt water.

Tintinnopsis beroidea Stein, var. plagiostoma Daday. Fig. 47.

Synonym: CodoneUa beroidea Entz ’84.

The shell is colorless, thimble-shaped, with a broadly rounded posterior end. The body is
cylindrical. The internal organs were not observed. Membranelles 24 in number.

Length 50 /<; greatest diameter 40//.

Var. compressa Daday ’87.

The posterior end of the shell is pointed, the lower third of the sheil is swollen, the upper
third is uniform in diameter and without oral inflation or depression. Nucleus not seen.

Length 70/4 ; greatest diameter 48//.

Tintinnopsis davidoffi Daday. Fig. 48.

The shell is large, elongated, and provided with a considerable spine. The chitin of the shell is
covered with silicious particles of diverse size. The internal structures were not observed.

Length of shell and spine 230/4 ; diameter of the oral aperture 54//.

The variations of these species are considerable, and as the internal structures, such as the
nucleus, are essential in fixing their systematic position, I place them as above, provisionally, and
until further observations can be made.

452

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

Key to families of Hypotrichida.

a. Peristome indistinct; cilia on ventral surface uniform and not differentiated into cirri Family Peritromidx

One genus, *Peritromus p. 452

b. Peristome more or less indistinct; cilia reduced to a few rows on the ventral surface; anal and frontal cirri

present Family Oxytrichidx

c. Cilia entirely reduced; frontal and anal cirri present or reduced; macronucleus band-formed or spherical

Family Euplotidx

d. Peristome reduced to left edge and does not reach over the anterior margin Family Aspidiscidx

One genus, *Aspidisca p. 458

Genus PERITROMUS Stein ’62.

(Stein ’62, ’67; Maupas ’83.)

The body is flat, colorless or tinged with yellow, and contractile. It is elliptical in outline, with
broadly rounded ends; in some cases the left edge is slightly incurved, the right edge convex. The
ventral surface is flat, the dorsal surface is arched in the middle region of the body. The edges being
flat are somewhat more transparent than the remainder of the body. The ventral surface is striated
by longitudinal straight or slightly curved lines, the dorsal surface is smooth and without cilia.
(Maupas describes bristles on the back, but
this is not corroborated.) The adoral zone
is fairly well developed, but not distinctly
marked off from the remaining ventral surface.

It begins on the right side and extends entirely
around the frontal margin and down the left
side below the middle of the body, where it
turns suddenly to the right, entering the
slightly insunk peristome. The mouth leads
into a short, indistinct oesophagus. One
contractile vacuole is situated in the dorsal
swelling at the posterior end of the animal.

Macronucleus double, one in each side of the
dorsal swelling. Movement is slow and creep-
ing, with a peculiar method of contracting the
more hyaline edge, which may turn upward
or around a foreign object.

Fresh (?) and salt water.

Peritromus emmae Stein. Fig. 49.

With the characters of the genus. Fig. 49 .—Peritromus emmx, ventral and lateral aspects.

Key to the marine genera of Oxytrichidx.

Diagnostic characters: The peristome is not always marked off from the frontal area. In the most primitive forms
the cilia on the ventral surface are similar to those of the preceding family ( Peritromidx ). Usually some of the anterior
and some of the posterior cilia are fused into cirri, distinguished as the frontal and anal cirri, respectively. In the majority
of forms all of the cilia are thus differentiated; strong marginal cirri are formed in perfect rows, and ventral cirri in
imperfect rows. In addition to the adoral zone there is an undulating membrane on the right side of the peristome, and
in some cases a row of cilia between the membrane and the adoral zone. These are the par-oral cilia and they form the

par-oral zone.

1. The posterior end is pointed or tail-like 2

The posterior end is rounded; not tail-like 5

2. The front end is pointed 3

The front end is rounded 4

3. Frontal and anal cirri absent; often tube-forming Genus Stichotricha

Eight frontal and 3 caudal cirri; not tubicolous Genus Gonostomum

4. Anal cirri present; with or without short lateral bristles Genus *Epiclintes, p. 453

Anal cirri absent; no bristles Genus Uroleptus

5. With frontal cirri 6

No frontal cirri; 2 to 3 rows of ventral cirri; anal cirri small Genus Holosticha

MARINE PROTOZOA FROM WOODS HOLE.

453

6. Right margin of peristome straight as far as the anterior end; 5 rows ventral cirri; 5 anal cirri Genus Oxytriclia

Right margin of peristome curved I

7. Five rows or less of ventral cirri 8

More than 5 rows of ventral cirri Genus Urostyla

8. Membranelles normal; 5 to 10 anal cirri; no caudal cirri Genus *Amphisia, p.453

Membranelles normal; 5 to 10 anal cirri; 3 caudal cirri Genus Stylonychia

Membranelles very large and powerful; adoral zone not continued to mouth; 5 anal cirri Genus Actinotricha

Genus EPICLINTES Stein ’62.

(Stein ’62, ’64, ’67; Mereschowsky ’79; Gruber ’87; Biitschli ’88.)

Very active, contractile, colorless forms of rather small size. In the fully expanded condition the
hody is oval and long, with its greatest width in the center or at the front half of the body. The pos-
terior end is always drawn out into a relatively long
tail, which is extremely elastic. The peristome is
short and stretches around the front end of the ani- ' 'SN^
mal. In the frontal region are from one to three
rows of cirri. The ventral surface is covered with
longitudinal rows of cilia, the number of rows being
in dispute (6 to 7 according to Stein ; 9 according to
Mereschowsky and Rees). Some of these cilia pro-
ject from the lateral edges and from the posterior
end, where they are slightly elongated. The anus is
dorsal and placed at the beginning of the posterior
process. Macronucleus probably double. Movement
is rapid and restless, the tail process contracting to
jerk the body backward. Salt water.

Epiclintes radiosa Quenn. Fig. 50.

Synonym: Metro, radiosa Quenn.

The body is elongate, slightly narrowed anteri-
orly, and drawn out posteriorly into a long, retractile,
tail-like portion. Five large cirri extend outward
from the anterior extremity. The caudal portion
may be extended to a distance equal to twice the
length of the body or contracted to half the length.

The peculiar nervousness of this form made it ex-
tremely difficult to study, and the oral region was
imperfectly made out. The anterior cirri appear to
line the upper left border of the peristome, which is
marked by a row of large cilia. The peristome begins
upon the right side of the anterior end and passes
backward and to the left, narrowing at this point.

The mouth is very small and difficult to see. It is apt
to stay in one locality under zooglcea, switching back
and forth with great vivacity, or hanging on by the posterior cilia while the anterior end stretches
out in the surrounding medium. Nucleus and contractile vacuole were not observed. Length 45//.

Fig. 50. — Epiclintes radiosa-

Genus AMPHISIA Sterki ’78.

(Sterki ’78; Kent ’81; Biitschli ’88.)

The body is plastic and soft, colorless or slightly tinged with yellow or red. In form it is oval or
elongate, the posterior end is rounded and slightly reduced in diameter, but does not form a distinct
tail. The anterior end is also rounded and similarly reduced in width. There are two rows o-f
marginal cirri ( Randcirren ), which may be placed some distance front the edge, and two or three rows
of ventral cirri between them. There are from 3 to 5 frontal cirri of larger size than those of the ventral
rows, and from 5 to 10 anal cirri. (The genus Holosticha is similar in all respects save the presence
of frontal cirri.) The macronucleus is double; the contractile vacuole is central and on the left

454

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

side. The peristome is long and rather narrow and carries an undulating membrane on its right
margin. Fresh and salt water.

Amphisia kessleri Wrzes. ’77. Fig. 51.

Synonyms: Trichoda gibba Muller; Oxytricha gibba Stein ’59; O.SoS? Quen. ’69; 0. kessleri Wrzes. ’77.

Body elongate, slightly sigmoid and swollen in the center, about 3J times as long as broad; the
rounded anterior end is turned to the left, the similarly rounded posterior end to the right; both ends
taper slightly. The peristome is long and narrow, with a distinct adoral zone which appears broken
in its course. To the right of this adoral zone is a single line of preoral cilia. On the right border
of the peristome is an undulating membrane. The three frontal cirri form a triangle and the live
smaller anal cirri form a continuous line with the broken row of ventral cirri. There are two and
one-half rows of ventral cirri and the marginal cirri are drawn in until they are ventral in position.

Length 135/; ; greatest width 40/;.

This variety differs from 0. kessleri as described by Wrzesniowski in having three frontal cirri
instead of four. Another difference is in the structure of the nuclei and in their position. These

differences are too minute to warrant a specific name. 0. velox of Quennerstedt is probably the same
as 0. kessleri, but differs in having three complete rows of ventral cirri. 0. i velox has three frontal cirri
in a line, thus differing from the Woods Hole form.

Key to the marine genera of Euplotidx.

Diagnostic characters: Cilia, as -well as the frontal, marginal, and ventral cirri, very much reduced; the anal cirri, on
the other hand, are always present. The macronucleus is band-form.

1. Frontal cirri more than 8 2

Frontal cirri less than 8 3

2. Eleven marginal cirri on the left side; 11 frontal cirri Genus Certesia

Four marginal cirri, 2 on each side; 9 to 10 frontal cirri Genus *Euplotes , p.454

3. Seven frontal, 5 anal, 3 right marginal, and 2 left marginal cirri Genus *Diophrys , p.456

No frontal, 5 anal, 3 right, and 2 left marginal cirri Genus * Uronychia, p.457

Genus EUPLOTES (Ehr. 1831) Stein '59.

(Ehrenberg ’31, ’38; Stein ’59; Cl. & Lach. ’58; Quennerstedt '65, ’67, ’69; Btitschli ’88; Kent ’81; Gourret &

Roeser ’88; Mobius ’88.)

Small to medium-sized forms. Rigid in form, colorless, or green by chlorophyl. They are quite
flat on the ventral surface but decidedly arched dorsally, and the contour is usually oval. The anterior
end is broadly rounded to truncate; the posterior end is similarly rounded, or may be somewhat
pointed. The mouth is placed centrally or near the left margin, and from it the right edge of the
peristome forms a curved line to the left, which bends forward, thus making the greater part of the
left edge the peristomial area. In front the peristome bends sharply to the right and extends as far as
the right end of the adoral zone. Upon the frontal and median ventral surface are 9 to 10 great cirri
( Bauckwimpern of Stein). Posteriorly five great anal cirri stretch out beyond the posterior body
margin. In addition to these there are two smaller marginal cirri upon the left body edge, and two
similar ones on the hinder part of the body. The dorsal surface is rarely smooth, but usually is
marked by longitudinal ridges, and rows of dorsal bristles have been described. The single contractile
vacuole lies on the right side in the region of the anal cirri, sometimes just above them, sometimes

MARINE PROTOZOA FROM WOODS HOLE.

455

below. The anus is posterior and on the right side. The characteristic macronucleus is long and
band-form, its main portion being usually on the left side with an anterior and a posterior arm
toward the right. Movement is rapid swimming, which, however, is frequently broken by creeping
periods, during which the animals appear to he examining the foreign body on which they creep.
Fresh and salt water.

Euplotes charon Ehr. Fig. 52.

Synonyms: Triclioda charon Muller; Plcesconia charon; P. affinis , subrotunda , racliosa , longiremis, Dujardin ’41.

The body is oval, small, and somewhat variable in length. The carapace is strongly marked upon
the dorsal side by deep longitudinal grooves, 6 to 8 in number; the grooves may be absent, however.
The adoral zone extends to the posterior third of the body, the mouth and oesophagus are directed
anteriorly. There are 10 ventral cirri, 7 of which are on or near the frontal border and 3 near the

right edge. There are 5 posterior cirri and 4 anal cirri, of much smaller size. The cirri may or may
not be fimbriated, the latter condition indicating the approaching disintegration of the body and is
abnormal. The macronucleus is long and band-formed or horseshoe shape. The contractile vacuole
lies on the right side dorsal td the posterior cirri.

Fresh and salt water. Length 45;/; diameter 25//.

Euplotes harpa Stein. Fig. 53.

The body is elongate, oval, somewhat widened anteriorly, and has rounded ends. The frontal
margin is three-toothed. Ten ventral cirri. Dorsal surface provided with 8 longitudinal markings.
The peristome is long and broad, with considerable variation. The adoral zone consists of powerful
membranelles arranged in a continuous curve from the mouth to the extreme right frontal margin.
Seven of the 10 ventral cirri are situated at the anterior extremity; the remainder are arranged in a
triangle on the right edge. The anal cirri, 5 in number, are long and stiff; the marginal cirri smaller
and finer. The nucleus and contractile vacuole are similar to those of the preceding species.

Length 95//; width 54//.

Fig. 52. — Euplotes charon, dorsal and ventral aspects.

456

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

Genus DIOPHRYS Dujardin ’41.

(Biitschli ’88.)

Medium size, colorless to yellow, rigid in form. The body contour is oval, the anterior end being
rounded or slightly reduced, the posterior end usually cut in on the right- side. The peristome is
broad but less extensive than in Euplotes, and may extend beyond the middle of the body. Its right
edge is convex toward the right side, extends forward and does not turn again to the right. The
anterior ventral surface has 7 to 8 scattered cirri and just behind the mouth is a transverse row of
large anal cirri. In the sharp in-cut of the posterior end are three great angular cirri. Two lateral

cirri are placed on the left of the median line between the mouth and the anal cirri, and usually in
a slight hollow. The contractile vacuole is on the right side in the vicinity of the anal cirri. The
macronueleus is in two parts, each band-form, one anterior, the other posterior in position. Movement
is rapid and steady. Salt water.

Diophrys (Styloplotes) appendiculatus Stein ’59. Fig. 54.

Synonyms: Styloplotes appendiculatus Stein ’59; Kent '81; Quennerstedt ’67, etc.

The general form resembles Euplotes. Its outline is oval and regular except at the posterior end
on the right side, where there is a considerable indentation. The frontal margin is characterized by
a row of powerful membranelles, which become smaller at the peristome and at the mouth they are
of characteristically small size. The ventral cirri are 7 in number. Five of them are in one row from
the anterior end down the right side nearly to the anal cirri; 1 is on the frontal border between the
first two; 1 lies just anterior to the second anal cirrus from the right side. The 5 anal cirri are large
and powerful and extend some distance beyond the posterior end of the body. In all specimens
observed these cirri curve to the left. Dorsal to the anal cirri and placed deep into the dorsal pit
are 3 large, sharply curved cirri, which in most cases are fimbriated, but when the specimens are

MARINE PROTOZOA FROM WOODS HOLE.

457

normal these are pointed and curve abruptly to the right. Two smaller cirri lie to the left of the
group of anal cirri. The peristome is well-marked by the adoral zone, and upon its right border there
is a row of cilia, and a similar row of cilia runs along the base of the oral membranelle. The macro-
nucleus is double and consists of two elongate cylindrical masses lying parallel with one another.
One of these is in the anterior region; the other is posterior. The contractile vacuole lies dorsal to
the anal cirri and anterior to the three dorsal cirri. The movement and general activities resemble
those of Euplotes.

Length 50/; ; diameter 25/;.

Genus URONYCHIA Stein ’52.

(Stein ’59, ’07; Quennerstedt ’67; Kent ’81; Bi'itschli ’88.)

Medium-sized colorless ciliates of usually constant body form. The body is somewhat short and
oval in outline. The anterior end is broadly truncate, the posterior end rounded or slightly pointed.
The ventral and dorsal surfaces are considerably arched and the latter usually has a number of rows
of longitudinal stripes. The open peristome is broad and
reaches back to the middle of the ventral surface and
beyond. According to Stein, the two edges can approach
each other, thus opening and closing the peristomial area.

Its right edge forms a greater angle with the front edge
than in the genus Euplotes, and the left edge forms a greater
angle with the front edge than in that genus. The left
edge also appears to cover over the adoral zone slightly.

There are no ventral cirri in front, but on the posterior
ventral surface are 7 great springing cirri. Five of these
are inserted on the right side in a deep in-sinking, and the
other 2 in a similar depression on the left ventral surface.

Above the 5 right-side cirri, i. e., dorsal to them, but in
the same depression, are 3 angular cirri. A few edge cirri
are found to the left of them and another to the right of
the 5 cirri. The contractile vacuole is on the left side
between the main groups of cirri. The macronucleus is
band-form or spherical, and is situated in the middle region
of the body. Movement consists in forward swimming
with sudden springs.

Salt water.

Uronychia setigera, n. sp. Fig. 55.

This species is very common in the Woods Hole
waters. It is small, colorless, and very active. The most
characteristic feature is the posterior end with its relatively
enormous cirri, which are apparently large enough for an animal four times its size. The form is
ovoid, widened posteriorly.

The ventral surface is flat and has two excavations in the posterior end. The right hollow is larger
and contains 5 great cirri of unequal size, the extreme right one being the largest. The left hollow
contains 2 cirri, also of dissimilar size. Dorsal to the 5 right cirri are 3 sickle-formed cirri, which are
usually fimbriated. These are pointed and curve regularly to the left. The peristome is wide and
open, and a small pocket, -like hollow on its left border indicates the region of the mouth. The adoral
zone runs into this pocket and the mouth is located in its lower right-hand corner. In U. transfuga
the right border is generally described as having a membrane of extreme delicacy. I was unable to
see such a membrane in this form, but in its place there are 2 flagella-like cirri extending from the
margin of the mouth opening into the peristome, and these vibrate slowly. I do not believe these
could be the moving edge of an undulating membrane, for they are quite distinct. The macronucleus
is spherical instead of band-form, and a single micronucleus is closely attached. This is unlike the
European species U. transfuga, in which the nucleus is elongate. The contractile vacuole lies between
the two sets of posterior cirri. There are no marginal folds like those of the European species.

Length 40//; width 25//. Common.

Fig. 55. — Uronychia setigera.

458

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

Genus ASPIDISCA Ehr. 1830.

(Perty ’52; C1.& Lacli. ’58; Stein ’59; Quennerstedt ’65, ’67, ’69; Mereschowsky '79; Kent ’81; Biitschli ’88.)

Small, colorless, and rigid forms, with nearly circular to oval contour. The left side is usually
straight, or at least but slightly convex. The right side is much more convex, and the right margin is
considerably thickened. The ventral side is flat, the dorsal surface convex, with from one to several
longitudinal ridges which run more or less parallel with the right edge. The peristome is limited to
the left edge, where it forms a small depression which may or may not reach the anterior border, but
which in no case runs around the anterior margin. The left peristome margin in some cases grows
over the peristome depression toward the right, thus making a sort of cover for the peristome. In the
posterior region is a deep depression, from which 5 to 12 cirri take their origin. Seven or 8 cirri
are placed in the anterior half of the ventral surface and are arranged more or less in rows. The
anus is on the right side in the region of the anal cirri (Stein). The contractile vacuole is generally
on the right side and similarly located. The macronucleus is a horseshoe-shaped body. Movement
rapid, somewhat in circles, and

rather uniform.

Fresh and salt water.

Aspidisca hexeris Quenner-
stedt ’67. Fig. 56.

The carapace is elliptical,
about 1 1 times as long as broad,
roundedatthe extremities. The
left border of the carapace bears
a spur-like projection. The ven-
tral cirri are short and thick,
and are very characteristic of
the species. When moving
slowly they look much like
nicely-pointed paint brushes,
but when the animal is com-
pressed they quickly become
fibrillated, and then look like ex-
tremely old and worn brushes.

These cirri are placed in depres-
sions in the ventral surface and
each one appears to come from
a specific shoulder. At the
posterior end an oblique hollow

bears 6 unequal cirri placed side by side. The extreme right cirrus is the largest, and they become pro-
gressively smaller to the opposite end. Dorsal to these lies the contractile vacuole. The peristome is
in the posterior half of the body and an undulating membrane extends from it into the oesophagus.
The dorsal surface is longitudinally striated by 5 or 6 lines, which are usually curved. The nucleus
is horseshoe-shaped and lies in the posterior half of the body. Length 68//; diameter 48//.

This form was incorrectly mentioned as Mesodinium sp. hy Peck ’95.

In the figure given by Quennerstedt there are only 7 ventral cirri. In the Woods Hole form there
are 8, 7 of which are anterior, 6 of them about 1 central one. Tire eighth cirrus is by itself, near the
base of the largest posterior cirrus. These cirri, in spite of their size, are easily overlooked and more
easily confused, but by using methylene blue they can be seen and counted.

Aspidisca polystyla Stein. Fig. 57.

This species is similar to A. liexeris, but is smaller, very transparent, and without the spur-like
process on the left edge of the carapace. The chief difference, however, lies in the number of anal
cirri. These are 10 in number and they are arranged obliquely as in the preceding species, with the
largest one on the right and the smallest on the left. The ventral cirri are 8 in number, and are
arranged in two rows, one of which, the right, has 4 cirri closely arranged, the other having 3 cirri

MARINE PROTOZOA FROM WOODS HOLE.

459

close together and 1 at some distance, near the largest anal cirrus. The peristome, contractile vacuole,
and nucleus are similar to the preceding. Length 36//; width 22//.

Stein assigns only 7 ventral cirri to this species, but he also describes 2 very line bristle-like cilia
(p. 125) and pictures them in tigs. 18, 19, 20, and 21 of his Taf. iii in the same relative position as my
eighth cirrus. I am positive that cilia do not occur on the ventral face of this form, and that the
characteristic cirri are the sole locomotor organs.

Key to families of Peritrichida.

a. Peristome drawn out into fumjel-like process; parasitic Family Spirochonidss

b. Adoral zone and circlet of cilia at opposite end. Adoral zone left-wound. Parasitic (one genus, * Lichnophora) .

Family Lichnophoridi e

c. Adoral zone a left-wound spiral. Attached or unattached forms Family Vorticettidx

Genus LICHNOPHORA Claparede '67.

(Gruber ’84; Fabre-Domergue ’88; Biitschli ’88; Wallengren '94; Stevens 1901. )

Small or medium-sized colorless animals, extremely elastic and flexible. The anterior part, bear-
ing the adoral zone, is round or oval in ventral view, and has a flat ventral and a highly arched dorsal
surface. The posterior end of the animal is reduced to a stalk-like structure which is broadened at
the extremity to form a sucking disk. The surface of this disk and the surface of the peristome may
be brought into the same plane by the characteristic bending of the stalk portion. A ciliated girdle is
placed at the edge of the sucking disk. A well-developed adoral zone incloses the peristome; it begins

Fig. 57. — Aspidisca polystyla.

Fig. 58. — Lichnophora macfarlandi.

at the mouth on the left side and includes nearly all of the peristome in its left-wound spiral, the
extremity approaching closely the end near the mouth. The macronucleus is a long-beaded structure,
or it may be in several parts connected by strands (Gruber). The contractile vacuole is on the left
side in the region of the mouth. Salt water.

Lichnophora macfarlandi Stevens. Fig. 58.

The body is elongate; oral disk variable in form, attachment disk clearly defined and constant.
The stalk is very contractile and elastic, constantly changing in shape. When detached from the
host the animal moves with a very irregular and indefinite motion. When attached it moves freely
over the surface on its pedal disk. The latter is bordered by four membranes composed of cilia. A
distinct axial fiber extends from the pedal disc to the peristome and gives off a number of branches.
This fiber is analogous to the myonemes in Vorticella. An indistinct longitudinal furrow can be made
out occcasionally. The nucleus is in 5 or 6 separate pieces, of which 1 is found in the pedal disk and
1 or 2 in the neck.

On the egg capsules of Orepidula plana; also reported upon annelids at Woods Hole.

Length 60// from disk to extremity of the peristomial disk.

This form does not agree in all respects with Stevens’s species, but the agreement is so close in
other respects that I believe it can be safely identified as L. macfarlandi. The mode of life is different,
and the macronucleus is different, there being from 25 to 30 fragments in Stevens’s form and only 5 or
6 in the present one. There is, however, the same evidence of chain formation in both of them. The
length of the oral cilia in Stevens’s form is 18// in fixed and 30// in living forms. In the Woods Hole
form the cilia are not more than half that length.

460

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION,

Key to the marine genera of Vorticellidie.

Diagnostic characters: Attached or unattached forms of peritrichous ciliates in which the adoral zone seen from above
forms a right-wound spiral. A secondary circlet of cilia around the posterior end may he present either permanently or
periodically.

1. Posterior ciliated girdle permanent around an attaching disk

2. Posterior ciliated girdle, temporary during motile stage

3. Body cylindrical:

(а) With ring of stiff bristles above the ciliated girdle

(б) Without accessory ring of bristles; with velum

Body conical; general surface ciliated

4. No test and no stalk

6. No test; with stalk containing contractile thread

6. No test; with stalk but without contractile thread

7. With a test; with or without a stalk

8. Individuals solitary

Individuals colonial; entire colony contractile

Individuals colonial; parts only of the colony contractile

3

4

Genus Cyclocliseta

Genus Trichodina

Genus Trichodinopsis

Genus Scyphidia

8

Genus Epistylis

Genus * Cothurnia, p. 461

Genus *Vorticclla, p. 460

Genus * Zoothamnium, p. 461
Genus Carchesium

Genus VORTICELLA (Linnaeus 1767) Ehr. ’38

(Bell Animalcule Leeuwenhoek 1675; Ehrenberg ’38; Dujardin ’41; Stein ’51; Cl. & Lach. 58; Greet! ’70;

Biitschli ’88; Kent ’81; Stokes ’88; etc.)

Medium-sized ciliates of general bell -like form. They may be colorless, or yellow and green
through the presence of Zoochlorella. When not contracted, the peristome end is widespread, rarely
narrowed. The adoral zone and peristome agree with the details given in the family characteristics.
The chief character is the attachment of the posterior end by means of a single, longer or shorter,
stalk, which contains a highly contractile thread easily distinguished in the living animal. Another
character is the absence of colony formation. Contractile vacuole, single or double, usually connected
with a sac-like reservoir. The macronucleus is invariably long and band-formed, with attached micro-
nucleus. Fresh and salt water.

MARINE PROTOZOA FROM WOODS HOLE.

461

So many species of Vorticella have been described that the task of collecting data and of arranging
the synonyms is extremely irksome and difficult. Stokes enumerates 66 species, inhabiting fresh and
salt water, and several other new species have been added since his work. I am impressed with the
fact that new species have been created without proper regard for the manifold variations which
nearly all of the Ciliata show, and I believe the 66 species might be safely reduced to 12 or 15.

Vorticella patellina Muller. Fig. 59.

Body campanulate, widest at anterior border, from which it tapers directly to the pedicle. The
diameter of the peristome is a little larger than the length of the body. The ciliary disk is but little
elevated. The cuticle is not striated and the body plasm is quite transparent. Length 52//.

Vorticella marina Greeff. Fig. 60.

The body is conical but variable, and may be short or elongate, so that relative length and breadth
offer no chance of identification. In general the body is campanulate. The distinguishing feature
is the transverse annulation of the bell.

Small, but common, and grows in small social groups. Length 35/*.

Fig. 62. — Cotliurnia crystalllna.

Genus ZOOTHAMNIUM (Bory de St. Vincent 1824) Stein ’38, ’54*

Colorless and highly contractile forms growing in small or large colonies. The form and structure
of the individuals is not different from Vorticella. The colonies are usually richly branched upon the
dichotomous plan and the entire colony is contractile. The main character is that with each division
of the individual the stalk also divides, each daughter cell getting one-half of the parent stem. The
stems therefore remain in communication, so that a simultaneous contraction results, and the colony
as a whole is withdrawn. In some species so-called macrogonidia, or larger sexual individuals, are
developed alongside the usual ones. Fresh and salt water.

Zoothamnium elegans D’Udekem ’64?. Fig. 61.

The bodies are variable — peristomial border widely dilated, tapering and attenuate posteriorly.
The pedicle is slender, smooth, and transparent, and branches sparsely at its distal extremity. There
are but few zooids (3 to 4) . , The ciliary disk projects conspicuously beyond the peristomial border.
The pharyngeal cleft is very distinct and extends beyond center of body. Length of body 80// .

Genus COTHURNIA (Ehr. ’31) Clap. & Lach. ’58.

Colorless forms of medium size — in some cases they may lie green by Zoochlorella. The general
structure is similar to that of Vorticella, but the individuals are elongate and occupy houses. The
macronucleus is invariably long and band-form. The distinguishing character is the colorless or

i

462

BULLETIN OE THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

brownish lorica of quite variable form but always attached. These houses may be finger-formed, with
widened center, or widened mouth, or constricted mouth, and the like. Ring-formed swellings are
frequently developed. Sometimes the mouth becomes twisted and the lorica is therefore bilateral.
The houses are attached either directly to some foreign object or by means of a short stalk. The
animals are similarly fastened to the lorica, sometimes directly, sometimes by means of a short stalk.
When they contract they draw back to the bottom of the lorica; when expanded they usually stretch
out of the mouth opening. In some forms there is an operculum, by means of which the opening of
the shell can be closed when the animal is retracted. Fresh and salt water.

The number of species of Cothurnia has become so great that the difficulty in placing forms is
almost sufficient to discourage the systematist; as Biitschli well remarks, the variations in the theca
have been made the basis of new species so many times that the genus is almost as confused as Difflugia
among the rhizopods or Campanularia among the hydroids. The length of cup, of stalk, the presence
of annulations on stalk or cup, etc., have given rise to many specific names, the majority of which I
believe can be discarded. According to such differentials the same branch of an alga holding a
hundred specimens of Cothurnia crystallina yield 10 or 12 species, whereas they are merely growth stages
of one and the same form.

Cothurnia crystallina Ehr. Fig. 62.

Synonyms: Vaginicolla crystallina Ehr., Perty, Eichwald; V. grandis Perty; V. pedunculata Eichwald; Cothurnia
crystallina Clapar&de & Lachmann, D’Udek.; C. gigantea D’Udek; C. maritima, C. crystallina Cohn; C. grandis Meresch.

The form of the cup shows the greatest differences; sometimes it is cylindrical, sometimes elongate
thimble-shape, sometimes pouch-shape, corrugated or smooth on the sides, and wavy or smooth on
border. F requentl v the basal part be-
comes stalk-like, but this is very' short.

When present, the stalk may or may
not have a knob-like swelling. The
animal within the cup may or may not
be borne on a stalk, and this stalk may
or may not be knobbed. The cups are
colorless or brown. The animal is very
contractile and may stretch half its
length out of the cup or retract well
into it. There is no operculum. The
length of the cup varies from 70/4 to
200/4 (C. gigantea; Vag. grandis, etc.).

From Entz.

There is nothing to add to Entz’ s
characterization of this species, which
is found both in fresh and salt water.

The variability of the cup and stalk is
quite noticeable in the Woods Hole
forms.

Cothurnia imberbis Ehrenberg, var.

curvula Entz. Fig. 63. ,

Synonyms: C. imberbis Kent et al.; C.
curvula Entz; C. socialis Gruber?

The lorica is swollen posteriorly,
narrowest at the oral margin, bent on
its axis and is supported ou a short
stalk. It is perfectly smooth and with-
out annulations. The animal itself has no definite stalk. When fully expanded the animal emerges'
but slightly from the margin of the cup. Fresh and salt water. On red algae. Dimensions of Woods
Hole form: Cup 50 to 55/4 long; greatest diameter 22/4; length of stalk 4 to 5/4.

MARINE PROTOZOA FROM WOODS HOLE.

463

Cothurnia nodosa Claparede & Lachmann. Fig. 64.

A. Smooth cup. — Colhwrnia marltima Ehr., Eichwald, Stein, Kent.

B. Cross-ringed cup. — C. pupa Eichwald, Stein, Cohn; C. nodosa Cl. & L.; V. crystallina Entz ’78; C. pontica Meresch.,

Kent; C. cohnii and pupa Kent; C. longipes Kellicott ’94.

The cup is elongated, swollen centrally, tapering at oral end and conical at base or rounded.
Oral opening either circular or elliptical. Cross rings may or may not be present, and the cup is either
smooth or annulate. Length of cup 70 // to 80//. The stalk which supports the cup is extremely
variable in length. The animal is borne upon a stalk of variable length within the cup.

Entz states that the many variations which this species exhibits run into each other so gradually
that he does not believe it wise to separate them. The Woods Hole forms which I found on algte of
various kinds were nearly of a size, and did not vary much from the one figured. Kellicott ’94
described a Cothurnia from Woods Hole under the name of C. longipes, which I believe is only a long-
stemmed variety of C. nodosa. My form has the following dimensions: Cup 75//; cup stalk 38//;
animal stalk 14//.

Keg to families of Sucforia.

a. Unattached forms; ventral cilia present; one suctorial tentacle Hypocomidx

b. Attached forms; thecate and athecate tentacles simple, one or two in number Urnulidx

c. Thecate; posterior end of cup drawn out into stalk; walls perforated for exit of tentacles Metacinetidie

d. Stalked or unstalked; globular; tentacles of different kinds, some knobbed, others pointed (2 gen-

era * Ephelota * Podophrya) Podophryidss

e. Naked or thecate; stalked or not; tentacles numerous, usually knobbed and all alike Acinetidx

f. Naked; athecate; tentacles numerous, all alike, knobbed and grouped in tufts. They may be simple or

branched Dendrosomidse

g. Sessile forms resting on basal surface or on a portion raised like a stalk; tentacles many; short and

knobbed; distributed on apical surface or localized on branched arms Dendrocometidas

li. Stalked or sessile; tentacles long, rarely knobbed, supported on proboscis-like processes Ophryodendridae

Genus PODOPHRYA Ehr. '33.

(Biitschli '88; Stein ’59; Perty ’52; Oienkowsky ’55; Quenn. ’69; Hertwig ’77; Maupas ’81.)

The body is globular, with tentacles radiating in all directions. The tentacles may be very short
or very long. The stalk also is either short or long, and some species form stalks but rarely ( P. libera).
The macronucleus is centrally placed and globular to ovoid in form. The contractile vacuole is usually
single. Reproduction takes place by division; the distal half developing cilia and becoming a swarm-
spore. Fresh and salt water.

Podophrya gracilis, n. sp. Fig. 65.

Of all the Podophrya. that have been described not one approaches this minute form in the relative
length of the stalk. The body is spherical and is covered with short capitate tentacles. The stalk is
extremely slender, bent, and without obvious structure. There are one or two contractile vacuoles in
the distal half of the body. The nucleus is small and is situated near the insertion-point of the stalk.
Reproduction not observed. Diameter of body 8//; length of stalk 40//. Only one specimen seen.

Genus EPHELOTA Str. Wright ’78.

(Biitschli '88; Ishikawa ’96; Sand ’98.)

Small to medium-sized and large forms; colorless to brown. The body is globular or oval or wedge-
shape, sometimes quadrangular. The stalk is variable, sometimes 1 mm. in length. The diameter
of the stalk increases from the point of attachment to the body of the animal; it is usually striated
either longitudinally or transversely, or both. The tentacles are of. two kinds and are usually confined
to the anterior half' of the body. Some are long and sharp-pointed and adapted for piercing; others
are short, cylindrical, usually retracted and capitate, adapted for sucking. Contractile vacuoles vary
from one to many. The macronucleus is nearly central in position and usually of horseshoe shape,

464

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

but is frequently branched and irregular. Reproduction is accomplished by external multiple budding,
usually from the anterior half of the body. Salt water.

Ephelota coronata Str. Wright. Fig. 66.

Synonyms; Hemiophrya gemmipara S. K.; Podophrya gemmipara Hertwig.

The body is spheroidal, ovate, or pyriform, with numerous sharp-pointed tentacles and a few
straight, uniform tentacles. The stalk is about three times the length of the body and tapers from its

widest part at the insertion in the body to the narrowest part at the point of attachment. It may or
may not be longitudinally striated. This is one of the commonest of the Suclor ia found at Woods Hole.
It is usually present on Campanularian hydroids, but may be found on algae and Bryozoa.

Length of body 90/; to 200/;.

Genus ACINETA Ehr. ’33, Biitschli ’88.

(Stein ’54, ’59; Claparede & Lachman '58; Quennerstedt ’67; Hertwig ’76; Mereschowsky ’79; Eutz '84;

Kent ’81; Maupas ’83; Gruber '84; Gourret & Roeser '86, and others.)

Small to medium-sized forms. The distinguishing feature is that the stalk is swollen at the distal
extremity to form a cup or basin in which the animal rests. The cup may be developed until the body
is nearly inclosed. The macronucleus is spherical or band form. The contractile vacuole is usually
single. Budding, so far as known, is endogenous. Fresh and salt water.

MARINE PROTOZOA FROM WOODS HOLE.

465

Acmeta divisa Fraipont 79. Pig. 67.

This extremely graceful form is common on Bryozoa at Woods Hole. The cup is shaped like a
wine glass and is specifically characterized by a cup-formed membrane upon which the animal rests.
The animal thus has the appearance of being suspended on the edge of the cup. The stalk is slender
and about 4 times the length of the body. The tentacles are all capitate and distributed, and about
2 j times the body length. They sway back and forth very slowly. The nucleus is spherical and

central in position. The contractile vacuole
lies near the periphery.

Length of body 27//; of stalk 100//; of
extended tentacle 65//.

Acineta tuberosa Ehr. Fig. 68:

Large forms of Suctorin with tentacles ar-
ranged in fascicles. The stalk is variable in
length and the cup is frequently so delicate
that it can barely be made out. A specific
characteristic is the break in continuity of
the cup at different points, and through these

places the tentacles emerge in bundles. The tentacles are capitate and in the Woods Hole form, 15
in number in each of the two bundles. The endoplasm is granular and yellowish in color. The col-
oring matter is frequently arranged in patterns. The nucleus is spheroidal. The contractile vacuole
is in the anterior third of the body about midway between the bundles of tentacles. Reproduction
not observed.

Length of body 330 n.

F. C. B. 1901—30

466

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

Genus TRICHOPHRYA Clap. & Lach. ’58.

(See Kent ’81; Entz’84; Butschli ’88; Sand 1901.)

The body is spherical to elongate, usually, how-
The tentacles are in fascicles which are usually

Small forms to medium size; no cups or stalks,
ever, more or less irregularly lobed and changeable,
borne upon lobed or swollen places.

The body is always more or less spread
out. Contractile vacuoles variable.

The macronucleus is spherical, elon-
gate, band-formed or horseshoe-shaped.
Reproduction takes place by endoge-
nous budding, and the swarm spores
are flat, or lenticular with a distinct
ciliary girdle. They are frequently
parasitic. Fresh and salt water.

Trichophrya salparum Entz ’84.

Butschli '88; Schewiakoff '93; Trichophrya
ascidiarum Lachmann ’59; Rene Sand 1901.

The body is somewhat cup-form,
with a large, flat base. The anterior bor-
der is rounded, each of the ends being
somewhat truncate and carrying a bun-
dle of tentacles all capitate and similar.

These may be continued internally as far as the nucleus (Sand). The cytoplasm is uncolored, but may
contain some brilliant granules. The nucleus is granular and spherical, band or horseshoe formed.

This species was found by Dr. G. Hunter on the branchial bars of the Ascidian Molgulci manhat-
tensis, where great numbers of them are often parasitic.

LIST OF REFERENCES.

Auerbach, L. ’54. Ueber Encystierung von Oxytricha pellionella. Zeit. wiss. Zool., v, 1854.

’55. Ueber die Einzelligkeit der Amoeben. Zeit. wiss. Zool., vn, 1855.

Balbiani, E. G. ’61. Recherches sur les phenomenes sexuelles des Infusoires. Jour, de la physiol.,
iv, 1861.

’85. Sur un Infusoire parasite du sang de l’Aselle aquatique. Rec. zool. Suisse, ii, 1885.

Bekgh, R. S. ’79. Tiamnafusus Cl. & Lach. Vid. Med. f. d. Nat. Foren. Kjobenhavn.

’82. Der Organismus der Cilioflagellaten. Morph. Jahr., vii, p. 177.

Brady, Id. B. ’79. Report on the Foraminifera dredged by II. M. S. Challenger during the years
1873-1876. Challenger Reports, Zoology, ix.

Brandt, K. ’96. Die Tintinnodeen. Bibliot. Zoolog., xx, 1896.

Butschli, 0. ’76. Studien fiber die ersten Entwickelungsvorg. der Eizelle, die Zelltheilung, und die

Conjugation der Infusorien. Abhand. der Senck. naturf. Ges. Freiburg, x, 1876.

’83-’88. Die Protozoen. Bronn’s Klassen u. Ord. des Tierreichs.

Carpenter, W. B. ’56. Researches on the Foraminifera. Phil. Trans. (2), p. 547.

Carter, H. J. ’56. Notes on the fresh-water Infusoria of the island of Bombay. Ann. Mag. Nat.
Hist. (2), xviii.

’63. On the coloring matter of the Red Sea. Id. (3), xi.

’63a. On Amoeba princeps and its reproductive cells. Id. (3), xii.

’64. On fresh-water Rhizopods of England and India. Id. (3), xm, p. 13.

’65. On the fresh- and salt-water Rhizopods of England and India. Id. (3), xv, p. 277.

Cienkowsky, L. ’55. Bemerkungen fiber Stein’s Acinetenlehre. Bull. Pliys. Math. Acad., St. Peters-
burg, xm, p. 297 (also in Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (3), xm).

’55. Ueber Cystenbildung bei Infusorien. Zeit. wiss. Zool., vi, p. 301.

’61. Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Monaden. Arch. f. mik. Anat., i, 1865, p. 203.

Claparede, E. ’54. On Actinophrys sol. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (2), xv, 1854.

’60. Recherches sur les annelides, etc., observes dans les Hebrides. Mem. Soc. phys. d’hist.

nat., Geneve, xvi, 1860.

’67. Miscellanees zoologiques., Ann. d. sc. nat. zool. (5), vm, 1867.

Claparede et Lachmann. ’58-’ 60. Etudes sur les Infusoires et les Rhizopodes. Mem. Inst, gene-
voise, v vi, vii.

MARINE PROTOZOA FROM WOODS HOLE.

467

Cohn, F. ’51. Beitriige z. Entwicklungsges. der Infusorien. Zeit, wiss. Zool., hi, 1851; iv, 1853,

’57. Ueber Fortpflanzung von Nassula etegans Ehr. Zeit. wiss. Zool., ix, 1857, p. 143.

Cost 15, M. ’64. Developpement des Infusoires eilies dans une maceration de foin. Ann. d. sc. nat.
zool. (5), n.

Daday, E. v. ’86. Ein kleiner Beitrag der Infusorien-Fauna des Golfes v. Neapel. Mitt. Zool. St.
Neap., vi, p. 481.

’88. Monographic der Familie der Tintinnodeen. Mitt. Zool. St. Neap., vm, p. 473.

Davis, J. ’79. On a new species of Cothnrnia, Jour. Roy. Mic. Soc., ii, 1879.

Du.iardin, F. ’35. Recherches sur les organismes inferieures. Ann. d. sc. nat. zool. (2), iv, p. 343.
’41. Histoire naturelle des Zoophytes infusoires. Paris, 1841.

Ehrenbeug, C. G. ’31. Ueber die Entwickelung und Lebensdauer d. Infusionsthiere. Abhand. d.
Berlin Ak., 1831, p. 1.

’38. Die Infusionsthierchen als vollkommne Organismen. Leipzig, 1838.

Engelmann, Th. W. ’78. Zur Phvsiologie der Contractilen Vacuolen der Infusionsthiere. Zool.
Anz., i, p. 121.

Entz, G. ’84. Ueber Infusorien d. Golfes v. Neapel. Mitt. Zool. St. Neap., v, p. 289.

’85. Zur naheren Kenntniss der Tintinnodeen. Mitt. Zool. St. Neap., vi, p. 185.

Fabre-Domergue, P. ’85. Note sur les Infusoires eilies de la baie de Concarneau. Jour. d. l’anat. et
de la phys., xxi, p. 554.

’91. Materiaux pour servir a l’histoire des Infusoires eilies. Ann. d. mic., m, 1890-91, p. 49.

Fol, II. ’83. Further contribution to the knowledge of the Tintinnodea. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (5),

xii, p. 73.

France, R. H. ’97. Der Organismus der Craspedomonaden. Budapest.

Fromentel, E. de. ’74. Etudes sur les microzoaires, etc. Paris, 1874.

Gourret et Roeseii. ’88. Contributions a l’etude des Protozoaires de la Corse. Arch. d. biol., vm,
p. 139.

Greeff, R. ’66. Ueber einige in der Erde lebende Amoeben und andere Rhizopoden. Arch. f. mik.
Anat., ii, p. 299.

’70. Untersuch ungen ueber den Ban u. d. Naturgeschichte d. Vorticellen. Arch. f. Naturges.,

XXXVI, XXXVII.

’71. Ueber die Actinophryens oder Sonnenthierchen des Siissenwassers als echte Radiolarien.

Sitz. Ber. d. Niederrh. Ges. i. Bonn, xxvm, p. 4.

’75. Ueber Radiolarien u. Radiolarienartige Rhizopoden des Siissenwassers 2. Arch. f. mik.

Anat., xi.

’88. Studien fiber Protozoen. Sitz. Ber. Ges. z. Bef. d. ges. Nat., Marburg, 1888, p. 91.

Grenacher, II. ’68. Ueber Actinophrys sol Ehr. Verh. phys.-med. Ges. Freiburg (n. F. ), I.
Gruber, A. ’83. Beobachtungen an Chilodon curvidenlis n. sp. Festschr. 56. Vers. Deutsch. Naturf.
gewid. v. d. Naturf. Ges. Freiburg, ii, p. 1.

• ’84. Die Protozoen des Hafens v. Genua. Nova Act. d. Iv. Leop.-Car. Deutsch. Akad. d.

Naturf., xlvi, p. 475.

’87. Ueber der Bedeutung der Conjugation bei den Infusorien. Ber. d. Naturf. Ges.

Freiburg, ii, p. 31.

H/£ckel, E. ’73. Zur Morphologie der Infusorien. Jena Zeit., vii, p. 516.

Hertwig, R. ’76. Ueber Podophrya gemmipara, nebst Bemerkungen zum Ban u. d. systemat.
Stellung d. Acineten. Morph. Jahr., iv, p. 20.

Hertwig u. Lesser. Ueber Rhizopoden u. denselben *Tiah e stehende Organismen. Arch. f. mik.
Anat., x, Suppl., p. 35.

Huxley, T. II. ’57. On Hysteria, a new genus of Infusoria. Jour. Mic. Sci., v, p. 78.

Ishikawa, C. Ueber eine in Misaki vorkommende Art v. Ephelota, etc. Journ. Coll. Sci. Imp.
Univ. Tokyo, Japan, x, pt,. 2.

James-Clark, II. ’66. On the Spongue ciliahe as Infusoria flagellata, etc. Mem. Bost. Soc. Nat.
Hist. (3), i, p. 1.

Kent, W. Saville. ’81. Manual of the Infusoria. London, 1881.

Klebs, G. ’84. Ein kleiner Beitrag z. Kenntniss d. Peridineen. Bot. Zeit., xlii, p. 721.

’92. Flagellaten Studien 1. Zeit. wiss. Zool., lv.

Labbe, A. ’95. Sur les Protozoaires marins de Roscoff. Arch. d. zool. exper. (3), N. et R., p. xiv.
Lauterbgrn, R. ’94. Beitriige z. Siisswasserfauna der Insel Helgoland. Wiss. Meeresunt. Ivornm.
wiss. Unt. d. Meere Kiel (2), i, p. 215.

Leidy,J. ’77. Remarksupon Rhizopods and notice of a new form. Proc. Ac. Sci. Phila., 1877, p. 293.
’79. Fresh water Rhizopods of North America. Washington, 1879.

Lieberkuiin, N. ’56. Ueber Protozoen. Notes from a letter to C. Th. v. Siebold. Zeit. wiss. Zool.,
vm, p. 307.

Maupas, E. ’81. Contributions a l’etude des Acinetiens. Arch. d. zool. exper. (1), ix, p. 299.

’83. Contributions a l’etude morphologique et anatomique des Infusoires eilies. Id. (2), i.

’83a. Les sucto-cilies de M. Mereschowsky. Comp. Ren., xcv, p. 1381.

’88. Recherches experimentales sur la multiplication des Infusoires eilies. Arch. d. zool.

exper. (2), vi, p. 165.

Mereskowsky, C. ’78. Studien fiber Protozoen des nordlichen Russland. Arch. f. mik. Anat., xvi,
p. 163.

468

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

Mereskowsky, C. ’81. On some new or little-known Infusoria. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (5), vn, 1881.
Moebius, K. ’88. Bruchstticke einer Infusorienfauna tier Kieler Bucht. Arch. f. Naturg., 1888.
Peck,J. I. ’S3. On the food of the menhaden. Bull. U. S. Fish Com., 1893, p. 113.

’95. The sources of marine food. Bull. U. S. Fish Com., 1895, p. 351.

Perty, M. ’49. Mikrosk. Organ, der Alpen u. d. Italien. Schweiz. Mitt. d. Naturf. Ges. in Bern,
164-165.

’52. Zur Kenntniss kleinster Lebensformen, etc., Bern.

Pouchet, G. ’83; ’85. Contributions a l’histoire des Peridiniens marins. Jour, de l’anat. et de la
phys., xix, xxi. o

Quennerstedt, A. ’65; ’67; ’69. Bidrag till Sveriges Intusorie-fauna. Lunds Univ. Arsskrift, n,
IV, vi. .

Sand, R. 1901. Etude monographique sur le groupe des Infusoires tentaculiferes. Ann. d. la Soc.

beige de microscopie, xxiv, xxv, xxvi.

Schaudinn, F. ’95. Die Heliozoen. Das Tierreich, 1895.

Schewiakoff, W. ’89. Beitrage z. Kenntniss der Holotrichen Ciliaten. Bib. Zook, v, p. 1.

’93. Ueber einige ecto-u. ento-parasitische Protozoen der Cyclopiden. Bull. Soc. nat. Moscou,

1893, i.

Schuett, F. ’95. Die Peridineen d. Plankton-Expedition, 1. Kiel u. Leipzig.

Schultze, F. E. ’74; 75. Rhizopodenstudien. Arch. f. mik. Anat., x, xi, xm.

Schultze, M. ’62. Ueber d. Organismus d. Polythalamien. Leipzig, 1862.

Shev yakov ?. ’96. Monograph on Holotrichous dilates. (In Russian. ) Mem. of the St. Petersburg

Acad., vii.

Stein, F. ’59; 78; ’83. Der Organismus der infusionsthiere. I. Infusoria, ’59; II. Infusoria, ’78; III.
Flagellata, ’83.

’49. Untersuchung liber die Entwicklungs d. Infusorien. Arch. f. Natur. , I, p. 92.

’54. Die Infusionsthiere auf ihre Entwicklungsgeschichte untersucht. Leipzig, 1854.

’60. Ueber Leucophrys patula u. fiber 2 neue Infusoriengattungen Gyrocoris u. Lophomonas.

Sitz. Ber. d. K.-bohm. Ges. d. Wiss. d. Prag, 1860, p. 4.

— ’64. Ueber die neue Ga ttung Epiclintes. IcL, 1864, i.

Sterki, V. ’78. Beitrage z. Morphologie der Oxytrichinen. Zeit. wiss. Zook, xxxr, p. 29.

’98. On the classification of ciliate Infusoria. Amer. Natur., xxxii, p. 425. •

Stevens, N. M. 1901. Studies on ciliate Infusoria. Proc. Calif. Acad. Sciences, hi, 1.

Stokes, A. C. ’84. Notices of some new parasitic Infusoria. Amer. Nat., xvm, p. 1081.

’85. Some apparently undescribed Infusoria from fresh water. Ick, xix, p. 18.

— ’87. Some new hvpotrichous Infusoria from American fresh waters. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist,

(5), 20.

Tatem, T. G. ’67. New species of microscopic animals. Q. J. M. S. (n. s. ), vii, p. 251.

Vejdowsky, F. ’79. Monographic der Enehytraeiden. Prag, 1869.

Wallengren, H. ’94. Studier ofver ciliata Infusorier, 1. Slagtet Lichnophora. Lund, 1894.
Wallich, G. C. ’63. Observations on an undescribed indigenous Amoeba. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.
(3), xi, xii.

Weston, J. ’56. On the Aclinophrys sol. Q. .7. M. S., iv, p. 116.

Wrzesniowski, A. ’61. Observations sur quelques Infusoires. Ann. d. sc., nat. zool. (6), xvi.

’69. Ein Beitrag zur Anatoinie der Infusorien. Arch. f. mik. Anat., v, p. 25.

’70. Beobachtungen fiber Infusorien a. d. Umgebung v. Warschau. Zeit. wiss. Zook, xx,

p. 467.

INDEX.

Page.

Aclneta divisa -465

tuberosa • 465

Acorn Peak 195

Actinophrys sol 420

adspersus, Tautogolabrus 30

aftinis, Heros 157

Afognak 239,240,243,244,245

Afognak Bay Sailing Directions 242

Agosia chrysogaster 148

Ah-quay River 386

Ahrn-klm River 385

Ainsworth & Dunn 351

Alaska Fishermen’s Packing Company 204,352

Oil and Guano Company 258

Packers Association 351, 353

Packers’ Association Saltery 210

Packing Company 201

Salmon Association 249,352

Company 353

Packing and Fur Company 293

Statistics 312-330

Salt Salmon, Total Pack 189

Alaskan Labor in Salmon Canning 185

Albatross Itinerary in 1900 176

1901 350

Aleck Lake and Stream 278

Alexander, A . B , 349

Alitak Bay 221

Sailing Directions 223

Alsek Region 382

altus, Pseudopriacanthus 33

American Bait for French Sardine Fisheries 24

Sardines compared with French 23

americanus, P.seudopleuronectes 31

Arnceba guttula 417

Amphidinium operculatum 432

Amphisia kessleri 454

Anabas scandens 170

Anableps dovii 150

analis, Neomaenis 33

Anchorage Bay 220

Anisonema vitrea 426

An-kau River 383

Annette Island 359

Anoplophrya branchiarum 447

Aplodinotus grunniens 137, 154

apodus.Neomsenis 33

appendiculatus, Diophrys 456

Arctic Fishing Company 250

. Packing Company 201,210,224

Aspidisca hexeris 458

polystyla 458

Astasia eontorta 426

atlantitfus, Tarpon 27

Ayakulik River 234

Page.

Babbling Brook 228

Back Bay , . 241

Bagre 140

bahianus, Teuthis 33

Bait used in Sardine Fishery 7

Balao 152

Baranof Island 380

Packing Company 253,271,274

Barber, C. M 139

Barnacle Parasitic on Gills of Edible Crabs 401-412

Barnes & Co., F. C 352

Barricading Salmon Streams 310

Bartlett Bay 374

Saltery 262,376

bartoni, Chirostoma 152

Basket Bay 371

Batraehoides goldmani : 159

Bay of Pillars 272

Bean, Barton A 137

Belonesox belizanus 150

Bering Sea Packing Company 216

beroidea, Tintinnopsis 451

Biliary Calculi in Squeteague 131-135

Billys Hole Lake 396

Biological Notes No. 2 27-33

Blaauw, D 295

Black Cod 285

blackfordi , N eomeenis 33

Blenny, Description of New Species from Japan 93, 94

Blue-fish 28

Boake, Bancroft 142,143

Boat Equipment for Salmon Fishing 327-330

Boats in Sardine Fishery 5

Boca de Quadra 295

Bodo caudatus 425

globosus 425

bonaci, Mycteroperca 33

Bonito 28

Bopyrus resupinatus 55

Boston Fishing and Trading Company 294

botrytis, Codonosiga 424

branchiarum, Anoplophrya 447

Branding Salmon 192

brasiliensis, Hemiramphus 152

Brevoortia tyrannus 27

Bristol Bay Canning Company 201

District, Salmon Canning 177-217

Early Records of Salmon Fisheries 179

Salmon Rivers 179

Bristol Packing Company 217,352

Brockman, Fred 371

Brotherhood of Afognak Pioneers 248

Buhi Lake, Notes on Food-fishes from 167-171

Bumpus, H. C 45

Bursaridse, Key to Marine Genera of 448

469

470

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

Page.

butleri, Poecilia 151

Butterfly-fisli 33

Calkins, Gary N., on Marine Protozoa from Woods

Hole 413-468

callarias, Gadus 30

Callbreath Hatchery 302,308,354

Callbreath, John C 273,301

Callinectes sapidus 401

Campostoma ornatum 14(1

Can-making Machines 184-191

Cannery Fillers 225

Operations in Bristol Bay District 184

Waste in Bristol Bay District 187

Canning'Sardines 4 17-22

Cans in Bristol Bay District 184

Caranx crysos 153

hippos 152

caudatum, Strombidium 450

caudatus, Bodo 425

Centropomus mexicanus 153

Centropristes striatus 28

eepedianum exile, Dorosoma 149

Ceratium fusus 432

tripos 432

Chaetodon ocellatus 33

Chamberlain, F. M 349

charon, Euplotes 455

Checats Stream 3G2

Cheniga Stream 391

Chignik Bay Company 219

District 218-248

Chiliferidte, Key to Marine Genera of 442

Chilkat River 398

Chilkoot Inlet 255

Packing Company 255

River and Lake 256

Chilodon cucullulus 441

Chinese Labor in Salmon Canning 185

Chirostoma bartoni 152

humboldtianum 152

lucius 152

promelas 152

Chlamydodontida;, Key to Marine Genera of 439

Choanoflagellida, Key to Marine Genera of 421

Cholmondeley Sound 300

chrysalis, Pleuronema 444

chrysogaster, Agosia 148

chrysops, Stenotomus 28

chrysopterus, Orthopristis 153 |

chrysurus, Oeyurus 32

Cichlasoma 137

melanurus 157

parma 156

teapre 156

cimbrius, Rhinonemus 31

cinctum, Glenodinium 430

Mesodinium 436

cinereum, Xystaema 153

Clark, John W 206

Clark & Martin Saltery 295

Cleveland Peninsula 283

Close Season for Redfisli Fishing 311

Clupanodon pseudohispanicus 32

Clupea harengus 3

pilchardus 2

Coal Bay 287

Cod 30

Page.

Codonceca gracilis ■. 423

Codonosiga botrytis 424

cceruleus, Teuthis 33

Coho Salmon 198,233,243

Coker, Robert E., Notes on a Species of Barnacle ( Di-
chelaspis) Parasitic on the Gills of Edible Crabs.. 401-412

Colpidium colpoda 443

Columbia River Boats 180

River Packers’ Association 351,353

compressa, Glenodinium 430

Coney 153

Conger Eel, Egg and Development of 37-44

Conorhynchos 137

nelsoni 140

Constantine Cape 195

contorta, Astasia 426

Cook Inlet 249-252

Copepods, Reactions to Various Stimuli and the Bear-
ing of this on Daily Depth Migrations 103-123

Copper Mountain Bay 300

Copper River 251

Delta 398

Coquenliena 398

coronata, Ephelota 404

Laerymaria 434

Cothurnia erystallina 462

imberbis 462

nodosa 463

cotnog, Hemirhamphus 170

Cow-fish 33

Cragin, Francis W 141

croicensis, Scarus 32

cruentatus, Petrometopon 153

crysos, Caranx 153

erystallina, Cothurnia 462

cucullulus, Chilodon 441

Gunner 30

Cutlas-fish 28

Cut-throat Trout 200, 229

cyanoguttatus, Heros 157

Cynoscion regalis 29,45

Biliary Calculi in 131-135

Cyprinodon eximius 149

Danger Reef 241

Dangerous River 386

davidoffi, Tintinnopsis 451

Deam, Charles C 139

Depth Migrations of Copepods 103-123

Dichelaspis mulleri 401-412

digitale, Peridinium 431

Dinoflagellidia, Key to Families of 427

Dinophysidse, Key to Marine Genera of 428

Diophrys appendiculatus 456

Disenchantment Bay 389

Distephanus speculum 427

divergens, Peridinium 431

divisa, Acineta 465

Dog Salmon 198' 233, 243

Salted 286

Dolly Varden Trout 200, 218, 229, 232, 243

Do-overs 188

Dormitator inaculatus 159

dormitor, Philypnus 158

Dorosoma eepedianum exile 149

Dot Island 241

dovii, Anableps 150

Drake Head 221

INDEX.

471

Page.

Dry Bay 387

Dry-salted Salmon 189

Duke Island Stream 298

Dnndas Bay Stream 376

Dysteria lanceolata 441

Edwards, Vinal N 27,35

edwardsii, Psenes 35

Eeke Inlet 300

Eel, Conger, Egg and Development of 37-44

Leptocephalus of 81-92

Egashak River 194,196

Egegak Fishing Station 212

Packing Company 213

River 194,195-212

Eigenmann, Carl H., Description of a new Oceanic

Fish 25-36

Egg and Development of the

Conger Eel 37-44

Investigations into History of

Young Squetague 45-51

Leptocephalus of the American

Eel 81-92

Ekuk Village 195

elegar.s, Zoothamnium 461

emmte, Peritromus 452

Enchelinidte, Key to Marine Genera of 433

Ephelota coronata 464

Epiclintes radiosa 453

Epinephelus morio 32

niveatus 32

Escribano 152

Eskimo Dwellings 178

Labor 186-246

Eskimos, Food of , 178

Eslopsarum jordani 152

Etolin Point 196

Euglenida, Key to Families and Marine Genera of 422

Eulophias tanneri 93

Euplotes charon 455

harpa 455

Euplotidse, Key to the Marine Genera of 454

Evermann, B. W., Fishes collected in Mexico and Cen-
tral America 137-159

List of Fishes known to occur in the

Great Lakes 95-96

eximius, Cyprinodon 149

Exocoetus rondeletii 32

Exuviaella lima 428

marina 429

Fairhaven Canning Company 351

fasciola, Lionotus 438

Fassett, H. C 175,349

Report on Karluk Hatchery 331-348

Felichthys marinus 139

felis, Galeichthys 139

Fidalgo Island Canning Company 230, 352

Fish-cleaning Machines 191

Fishermen in Bristol Bay District 183

Fishes, Dependence on Plant Life 58

from Mexico and Central America 137-159

Fishing Methods and Fishermen of Alaska 180

Fish Scales, Organic Constituents of 97-102

Trap in Wood River 200

Traps used in Taking Salmon 180

Flagellidia, Key to Orders of 421

Flasher 28

Flat-fish ...J 31

Page.

flavescens, Sparisoma 32

Floating Trap in Salmon Fishing 226

Flying-fish 32

Food-fishes from Philippine Islands 167-171

Fortmann, Henry F 349

Four-bearded Rockling 31

Four-eyed Fish 150

Fredericks Sal tery 390

French Sardine Industry 1-26

Freshwater Bay 373

Fresh-water Drum 154

frigidus, Notropis 148

Frontonia leucas 442

Fundulus grandis 149

fusiformis, Monosiga 424

fusus, Ceratium 432

Tiarina 437

Gadus callarias 30

Gaff-topsail 139

Galeichthys felis 139

Gas in the Swim-bladder of Fishes 125-130

Gaspergou 154

George Inlet 360

Gerres mexicanus 154

Gill-net Boats on the Nushagak River 180

Gill Nets used in taking Salmon 180

Girardinichthys innominatus 149

Glacier Packing Company 279,353

glaucus, Trachinotus 153

Glenodinium cinctum 430

compressa 430

globosus, Bodo 425

Gobius sternbergi 169

Goldman, E. A 137

goldmani, Batrachoides 159

Goldsborough, E. L., on Fishes collected in Mexico

and Central America 137-159

Goose-fish 31

gracile, Gymnodinium 429

gracilis, Codonoeca 423

Podophrya 463

grandis, Fundulus 119

Grave, Caswell 410

Gray Snapper 33,153

Great Lakes, List of Fishes known to occur in 95-96

Great Northern Fish Company 284

Green, E. H., Organic Constituents of Scales of Fish. . 97-102

Greenleaf , R. P 165

grlseus, Lutianus 153

Neomsenis 33

Gromia lagenoides 419

Grouse Island Saltery 295

grunniens, Aplodinotus 154

Guardian Packing Company 353

Guavina 158

Guitarro 139

Gunther, Albert 142

Gut Bay 380

guttula, Amoeba 417

Gymnodinium gracile 429

Hremulon parra 153

Halibut 31

Fisheries of Southeastern Alaska 309

Hanus Bay 378

Hard-tail 153

harpa, Euplotes 455

Hatchery at Karluk, Report on 331-348

472

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION,

Page.

Hatchery at Klawak 299

McHenry Inlet 302

Site 278

Hemiramphus brasiliensis 152

cotnog 170

hepatus, Teuthis 33

Hepburn, A. J ^175, 349

Hermit Crab, a New Isopod Parasitic on 53-56

Heros affinis 157

cyanoguttatus 157

urophthalmus 157

Herrick, Francis H., on the Reproductive Period in

the Lobster 161-166

Hessa Inlet 300

Heteromastigida, Key to Families and Marine Genera

of 422

Heterophrys myriapoda 421

Heterotrichida, Key to Families of 448

Hetta Lake 354

Stream 300

hexeris, Aspidisca 458

Hippocampus hudsonius 27

Hippoglossus hippoglossus 31

hippos, Caranx 152

Holocentrus 32

Holotrichida, Key to Family of 433

Hootznahoo Inlet 258

Horse Cravalla 152

Horse Marine Lagoon 231

Stream 227

hudsonius, Hippocampus 27

humboldtianum, Chirostoma 152

Hume-Aleutian Cannery _ 235

Hume Brothers & Hume 220, 239

huracralis, Sardinella 149

Humpback Salmon 233,243,282,290

Hunter Bay 299,300

Hypotrichida, Key to Families of 452

Ichthylepidin , 97

Icy Strait Packing Company . 261, 271, 296, 376

imberbis, Cothurnia 462

Indian Labor in Salmon Canning 298

infusionum, Lembus 446

Infusoria, Key to 433

innominatus, Girardinichthys. . 149

Inspection of Canned Salmon 311

Isopod Parasitic on the Hermit Crab 53-56

Italio River 386

Itinerary of Albatross in 1900 176

1901 350

Jackpot Stream 393

James Lake 358

Jansen, H. C 207

John Lake 358

Johnson, P. H 194

Johnson Saltery 215

jordani, Eslopsarum 152

Kagahine 298

Kah-Shakes Stream 361

Kamchatka River 194

Karluk 235-238

Hatchery 331-348,354

Karta Bay 1 286, 300

Stream 298

Kasaan Bay 287 |

Ivegan 298

Kempff, Clarence S 175,349 |

Page.

Kempff Bay 222

Kenai 250

Kennedy, C. H., Leptocephalus of American Eel 81-92

kessleri, Amphisia 454

Ketchikan 290

Killisnoo 258

Kina Stream 287

King Salmon 233

in Alaska 188

Kithraum 298

Klakas Inlet 300

Klawak 298,300

Klootchmen 261,294

Kodiak Packing Company 224,226

Koggiung 206

ICokon-hee-ni River 387

Kook Bay, Stream, and Lake 371

1 Kosmikoff, Walter 269

Kunk Stream 365

Kushneahin Stream 368

Kuskokwim River 193

ICussilof Cannery Company 250

Kutlakoo 272

Kuiu Island 272

Kvichak Bay and River 205

Packing Company 207

River 194

Labeling Canned Salmon 311

Labidocera festiva 122

Labor employed in Salmon Fishing and Canning.. . 320-321

Laery maria coronata 434

lagenula 433

Lactophrys tricorn is 33

Ladd Saltery 249

lsevigatus, Lagocephalus 30

lagenoides, Gromia 419

lagenula, Lacrymaria 433

Lagocephalus lsevigatus 30

Lake Erie, Plants of 57-79

lanceolata, Dysteria 441

latipinna, Mollienisia 151

Laws concerning Alaska Salmon Fisheries 310,311

Lazy Bay Sailing Directions 223

Lembus infusionum 446

pusillus 446

Lemesurier Point 283

lentiginosus, Rhinobatus 139

Lcpisosteus tropicus 139

Leptocephalus amphioxus 86

caudomaeulatus 87

conger 44,89

diptychus 84

discus 91

gilberti 92

gillii 88

grassii 84

humilis 92

latus , 87

morri.sii 89

mucronatus 90

rex 86

strommani 89

lepturus, Trjchiurus 28

lermEe, Notropis -. 147

leucas, Frontonia 442

Leueiscus nigrescens 116

Libinia canalieulata 402

INDEX,

473

Page.

Lichnophora macfarlandi 459

lima, Exuviaella 428

lineatus, Roccus 29

Lionotus fasciola 438

Litnik Bay 240

littoralis, Mentieirrhus 154

Lizzie Williams, bark 226

lobatula, Truncatulina 420

Lobotes surinamensis 28

Lobster, Reproductive Period of 161-166

Lockenuck River 194

Long-jaws 151

Lophius piscatorius 31

Loring 293

Loxophyllum setigerum 438

lucius, Chirostoma 152

Lutianus griseus 153

luzonensis, Mistichthys 167

macfarlandi, Lichnophora 459

Mackerel 27

Macklau River 198

maculatus, Bormitator 159

Scomberomorus 28

Malinof Stream 247

Mallard Pucks in Alaska 229

Mantle, Jack 272

Mantle Salteries 276

Mapiro 159

Marbled Rock-fish 33

marina, Exuviaella 429

Oxyrrhis 425

Uronema 444

Vorticella 461

Marine Protozoa from Woods Hole . . . 413-468

marinus, Felichthys 139

marmoratus, Spheroides 158

Symbranehus 148

Marsh, M. C 150

Mastigamceba simplex 422

McCauley, Tom 267

McHenry Inlet 301

melanurus, Cichlasoma 157

Menhaden 27

Menippe mercenaria 402

Mentieirrhus littoralis 154

Mesodinium cinctum 436

Methods of Salmon Canneries - 190-191

Metlakahtla Industrial Company 297,352

Mexican Mojarra 154

Mexican Robalo 153

mexicanus, Centropomus 153

Gerres 154

Meyers Stream, Cleveland Peninsula 283

Microgadus tomcod 30

Middle Reef 223

Migrations of Copepods 103-123

Miller, C. R 175,349

Miners River 394

Mistichthys luzonensis 167

Moira Sound 300

Mojarra Blanca 153

Mollienisia latipinna 151

Monadida, Key to the Families of 421

Monas 423

Monosiga fusiformis 424

ovata 424

morio, Epinephelus 32

F. C. B.

Page.

Moser Bay 225

Moser, Jefferson F., on Salmon Investigations of the

Steamer Albatross in 1900 173-348

Moser, Jefferson F., on Salmon Investigations of

1901 349-398

Movements of Salmon, Influence of Winds on 189

Mud Parrot-fish 32

Munn, William 225

Mutton-fish 33

Mycteroperca bonaci 33

venenosa 33

myriapoda, Heterophrys 421

Naha Stream and Lake 291-293

Naknek Packing Company 211,217,352

River 194,206,209

Narrows 224

Nassula microstoma 440

Navigation Notes 194-197

Needle-fish 151

Nelson, Charles , 216

Nelson, E.W 137

nelsoni, Conorhynchos 140

Nelson Saltery 216

N eomtenis analis 33

apodus 33

blackfordi 33

griseus 33

Net Equipment for Salmon Fishing 322-326

Nets, Dyeing 6

used in Sardine Fishery 6

Nichols Bay 300

Hills 195

Uigrescens, Leuciscus 146

niveatus, Epinephelus 32

nodosa, Cothurnia 463

North Alaska Salmon Company 209,352

Bay of Pillars 275

Olga Stream 227

Pacific Trading and Packing Company 298,352

notatus, Tylosurus 151

Notropis frigidus 148

lermte 147

santamarite 147

Nowis-kay * 298

Nushagak Canneries 201,203

Navigation Notes on 196

River 193,194,197

Nutqua Inlet 300

ocellatus, Chtetodon 33

Ocyurus chrysurus 32

Odiak 251

Oil used in Canning Sardines 19, 20

Old Johnson Stream 298

Old-wife 153

Olga Bay 223, 224

Cannery 225

Stream 227

Oliver Smith Cannery 226

Ondaatje, William 143

onitis, Tautoga 30

Opalinidse, Key to Marine Genera of 447

operculatum, Amphidinium 432

Ophiocephalus striatus 171

Orca 252

Organic Constituents of Scales of Fish 97-102

ornatum, Campostoma 146

Orr, Cyrus 369

1901—31

474

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

Page.

Orthopristis chrysopterus . 153

ovata, Monosiga : 424

Owen.R 142

Oxyrrhis marina 425

Oxytrichid®, Key to the Marine Genera of 452

Pacific-American Fisheries Company 351

Pacific Coast and Norway Packing Company 263,352

Packing Company 251

and Navigation Company, Properties

acquired 351

Steam Whaling Company. . 238, 250, 252, 299

Pagurus longicarpus 53

Pantosteus plebeius 146

I'aramanof Stream 247

Parent Stream Theory 247, 308

Parker, G. H., on the Reactions of Copepods to Vari-
ous Stimuli and the Bearing of this on Daily Depth

Migrations 103-123

parma, Cichlasoma 166

parra, Hsemulon 153

Parrot-fish 32

patellina, Vorticella 461

Pearson, T. G 401

Pedersen, L. A 211

Peixe Agulha 152

pellucidus, Psenes 36

Peninsula Fishing and Trading Company 398

Peridinid®, Key to Marine Genera of 427

Peridinium digitale 431

divergens 431

Peritrichida, Key to Families of 459

Peritrorhus emmee 452

Pescado Blanco de Chalso 152

Petenia splendida 155

Peter Johnson Stream 298, 300, 356

Petrometopon cruentatus 153

Philippine Islands, Notes on Food-fishes from 167-171

Philypnus dormitor 158

phcenicopterus, Trachelocerca 435

Phryxus resupinatus 53

Pieters, A. J., on the Plants of Western Lake Erie 57-79

Pig-fish 153

Pillar Bay. = 272

Streams 275,276

piscatorius, Lophius 31

Plagiotomid®, Key to the Marine Genera of 448

Plants of Western Lake Erie 57-79

plebeius, Pantosteus 146

Pleuronema chrysalis 444

setigera 445

Pleuronemid®, Key to Marine Genera of : . . 444

plumieri, Scorp®na 33

Podophrya gracilis 463

Pcecilia butleri 151

Point Barrie Saltery 369

Point Ellis Stream 272

Point Highfield 279

Point Roberts Packing Company 207

Pollachius virens 30

Pollock 30

Polymastigida, Key to Marine Genera of 422

polystyla, Aspidisca 458

Pomadasis ramosus 153

Pomatomus saltatrix 28

Portland- Alaska Packers’ Association 351,353

Premier, schooner 216

Prince William Sound 251, 381

Page.

Prince William Sound Canneries 397

Streams 390

promelas, Chirostoma 152

Prorocentrid®, Key to Marine Genera of 427

Prosper Fishing and Trading Company 217

Protection Point 195,197

Psenes edwardsii 35

pellucidus 36

pseudohispanicus, Clupanodon 32

Pseudopleuronectes americanus 31

Pseudopriacanthus altus 33

Puffer ns

Purse Seines in Salmon Fisheries 310

pusillus, Lembus 446

Pyramid Harbor Packing Company 253

Quadra 295,298

Quadra Packing Company 295,296

Quarto Ojos 150

radiosa, Epiclintes 453

Railroad in Alaska 390

ramosus, Pomadasis 153

Raspberry Island 239

Red Bay Stream 267

Redfish, Small 233

Statistics of Karluk Canneries 237

Red Grouper 32

Red Hind 153

Red Salmon Packing Company 352, 353

Red Snapper 33

regalis, Cynoscion 29,45

Revilla 288

Rhamdia wagneri 146

Rhinobatus lentiginosus 139

Rhinonemus cimbrius 31

Rice’s Saltery, Karta Bay 286

Richardson Filter 337

Richardson, F. W 167

Roccus lineatus 29

Rodman, Hugh 175,349

Rodman Reach 224

rondeletii, Exoccetus , 32

Rose, J. N 152

Royal Packing Company 241

Royer- Warnock Packing Company : . . . 264

Runner 153

Runs of Salmon 183

Russian-American Packing Company 241

Russian Seal Skin Company 191

Sailing Directions 223-224

Al'ognak Bay 242

McHenry Inlet 301

Salmon Bay Saltery 267

Stream 266,366

Branding 192-

Canneries and their Methods 190-191

Cured by Eskimos 187

Eggs, Size of ... 306

Fishing on the Nushagak 197

Number of Pounds in the Case 188

Traps 218, 281

salparum, Trichophrya 466

saltatrix, Pomatomus 28

Saltery of F. A. Fredericks 390

See & Flenner 390

C. E. Whitney 205

Salting Salmon 189

Sal Salmon Pack of Alaska 313

INDEX,

475

Page

San Juan Fish and Packing Company 352

santamariee, Notropis 147

Sarda sarda 28

Sardina Escamuda 149

Sardine Canning 17-22

Industry of France 1-26

Sardinella humeralis 149

Sargent, Porter E 37

Sar-kar Stream 369

Scales of Fish, Organic Constituents of 97-102

scandens, Anabas 170

Scarus croicensis 32

Schanz, A. B 206

Schoolmaster 33

Scomberomorus maculatus , 28

Scomber scombrus 27

Scorpeena plumieri 33

Scorpion-fish 33

Soup 28

Sea Bass 28

Cat-fish 139

Sea-horse 27

Seetuck River 384

setigera, Pleuronema 445

Uronyehia 457

setigerum, Loxophyllum 438

Sherwood, George H 27

Shipley Bay and Stream 269, 270, 271

Saltery 262

Short Big-eye 33

sieboldi, Trichosphaerium 418

simplex, Mastigamceba 422

Sitkoh Bay 379

Size of Salmon Eggs 306

Skookum Chuck 300

Smith, Hugh M 32,415

Description of a New Species of Blenny

from Japan 93,94

Food-fishes of Lake Buhi, Philippine

Islands 167-171

French Sardine Industry 1-26

Smooth Puffer 30

Snettisham Port 260

Snowy Grouper 32

Snug Harbor 223

Cannery 226

Sockeye Salmon 254

sol, Actinophrys 420

Soldering Machine 191

South Alaska Packing Company 390

Southeastern Alaska 253-309

South End Cannery 225

Southern Hickory Shad 149

South Olga Stream 230

Spanish Mackerel 28

Sardine 32

Sparisoma flaveseens 32

speculum, Distephanus 427

Spheroides marmoratus 158

testudineus _ 158

splendida, Petenia 155

Squeteague 29

Biliary Calculi in 131-135

Investigations into the Young 45-51

Squirrel-fish 32

Statistics of Alaska Salmon Fisheries 312-330

Steelhead Salmon 243

Page.

Stegophryxus hyptius 53

Stenotomus ehrysops 28

Stentoridae, Key to the Marine Genera of 449

Sterling, ship 196, 208

sternbergi, Gobius 169

striatus, Centropristes 28

Ophiocephalus 171

Striped Bass 29

Strombidium eaudatum 450

Stu-hee-nook River 387

Suctoria, Key to Families of 463

Sukkwan Inlet 300

Surf Whiting 154

surinamensis, Lobotes 28

Swell-fish 158

Symbranchus marmoratus 148

Tahlekuk 197

Taku Fishing Company 260

Inlet 259

Inlet Saltery 262

Packing Company 259

Tumgas 298

Stream 359

Tang 33

tanneri, Eulophias 93

Tarpon atlanticus 27

Tautog 30

Tautoga onitis 30

Tautogolabrus adspersus 30

Ta-wah Stream 383

teapse, Cichlasoma 156

Tebenkof Bay 277

testudineus, Spheroides 158

Teuthis bahianus 33

coeruleus 33

hepatus 33

Tha-ghe-an Stream 384

Thlinket Packing Company 280

Thompson, Millett T., on a New Isopod Parasitic on

the Hermit Crab 53-56

Thoms Stream 282

Tiarina fusus 437

timucu, Tylosurus 152

Tintinnidse, Key to the Marine Genera of 451

Tintinnopsis beroidea 451

davidoffi 451

Togiak River 193

Tomeod 30

tomcod, Microgadus 30

Tongass Narrows 288

Tower, R. W., Biliary Calculi in the Squeteague 131-135

Gas in Swim-Bladder of Fishes 125-130

Organic Constituents of Scales of Fish . . 97-102

Trac-helinidae, Key to the Marine Genera of 437

Trachelocerea phcenicopterus 435

Trachinotus glaucus 153

Trichiurus lepturus 28

Trichophrya salparum 466

Trichosphaerium sieboldi 418

tricornis, Lactophrys 33

Triple-tail 28

Tropical Gar Pike 139

tropicus, Lepisosteus 139

tripos, Ceratium 432

Truncatulina loeatula 420

tuberosa, Acineta 465

Turner, William 143

476

BULLETIN OF THE UNTTED STATES FISH COMMISSION

Page.

Twelvemile Arm 287

Tylosurus notatus 151

timucu 152

tyrannus, Brevoortia 27

Ugashik Fishing Station 216

River 195,214'

Union Bay 284

Packing Company 352

Uronema marina 444

Uronychia setigera 457

urophthalmus, Heros 157

Us-tay River 387

Uyak 238

venenosa, Mycteroperca 33

Vessels employed in Salmon Fishing 314-319

virens, Pollachius 30

vitrea, Anisonema 426

Vorticella marina 461

patellina 461

Vorticellid®, Key to the Marine Genera of 460

wagneri, Rhamdia 146

Ward Cove 288

Page.

Waste in Salmon Fishing 182

Western Fisheries Company 253,376

White-meated Salmon 259

Wildwood Bark 196

William Lake 358

Wilson, H. V 401

Winter Island 241

Wood River 194,198

Wrangell 279

Narrows 261

Narrows Stream 261

Wyman, Jeffries 140

Xystfema cinereum 153

Yakutat 389

Yellow-finned Grouper 33

Yellow-tail 32

Yes Bay 294

Yukon River 193

Zapors 244

Zeller, George A 167

Zimovia Strait 282

Zoothamnium elegans 461

o

W m o '>W “ 0 v/^v^x r: ' o

z - - 2.

is saiavuan librar ies^smithsonian^institution ^NoiiniiiSNi^NViNOSHiiws^sa lava

^INSTITUTION^ NOlinillSNl^NVINOSHllWS^SH I HVH 9 ll^LI BRAR I ES ^SMITHSONIAN^INSTITUl

ms saiavaan

00

> 'w'*' ^ 2 55 —

LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOIlfUllSNI NVIN0SH1SIAIS S3iawa

00 ^ ^ „-v , 10

AN”* INSTITUTION ^ N0lini!lSNI|_NVINQSHlllNS^S3 ! aVH H B RAR 1 ES^SMITHSONIANJNSTiTU'

O — /foaTS'v O m /<TT2?Q

03

oo

m
co

«s S3 1 a va a n

OO

30

> Ip,**, -to-., r-

K'asv'X' rn
co

BR ARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOIJLfUIlSNI NVINOSHIIWS S3 I a Vi
oo z -- co 2 <2

O X O rj«

£ 8 ^#0? x k*

, »w i if // i

3> ^ "w&* .J&' ^ C/5

^INSTITUTION WWO!iniIISNI_NVINOSHillA!S S3 I HVH 8 I1_LI B RAR I ES SMITHSONIAN JNSTITU

O X^osv^>

WSZ S3 iavaan"JL!BRARI ES_ SMITHSONIAN ^INSTITUTION NOlinillSNl^NVINOSHlIINS^SS I HV

5y iT \-w
m

z • ■ - — - ^ - CO ± CO

AN ~ I NSTITUTION NO II (1X1 IS Ml NVINOSHIHAIS^S 3 1 H Va 9 I l^L I B R A R I E S ^SMITHSONIAN I NSTITI

,< ^ —

^5 h ../ X/. * ^ hi

■ ^ s i&f i %%;■ § If .1#) §

S i' 2 CD

WSC/)S3 I ava a n2U B RAR I ES^SMITHSONIAN JNST!TUTION%OlinillSm__NVINOSHiliAIS S3 1 av

CO ' - CO z „ 2 .XX . 1,1 ^

IAN-* I NSTITUTION 2 NQlXnilXSNI~JNVINQSHXI!NS S3 I HVH 8 II LI B RAR f ES SMITHSONIAN^ IN ST IT
r- z t- > z

00 *o

CO

5 ^W* “ 5 xS®/ “'' 5 o

Z _J 2 _j 2 _J 2

RARiES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOlinillSNI NWIN0SH11WS S3IHVH8n LIBRARIES SMI

z *“ ^ Z r= z ___ *z g

O y<WO/V>v O ““ O /TTkVa>\ v^TvASOa7>v O

inillSNI NVINOSHISINS S3IHVHai1 LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOlinillSNI NVI

C O Z CO

J RARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOlinillSNI NVINOSHifWS S3IUVH0

CO X CO — . CO

LIBRARIES SM!

CO

^vIso^Tx fUJ

linillSNI NVINQSHIIINS S3IHVJJ0I1 LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOlinillSNI NVI
r- v z r- z r= z _ «” \

! RARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOlinillSNI NVIN0SH11INS S3IUVUSI1 LIBRARIES SM

z «

s X^T.lr<oX < N-

— - />Lffi®v;QX —

-h r/5^>\ z

iSjJSSi CO I8SI&. CO

CO

iniiisNi_NViNosHims saiHvaan libraries Smithsonian institution NoiinniSNi_Nvi

" 3

,J?^c

/ ' H vw
O “ ’ O x^osv^i'

-I Z _} Z

3 RARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOlinillSNI NVINOSHiltNS S3IHVH8I1 LIBRARIES SM
z ^ z i- . z ^ z

rn m '«#s NiOmstjx m

— to £ co X S co

llinillSNI NVIN0SH1IIAIS SBIHVHail LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOlinillSNI NV

~ “ Z (O z v* CO z

- 5 , , A,. S sgvgy < JS- S <

z /^mwK^ -t /X z h z -i . y z

■/W °

co
X

r t

5 > XiOmsJX 2» ^ >

CO 2 CO *2 C/5 k. Z CO

BRARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOlinillSNI NVINOSHilWS SBIdVUail LIBRARIES SM

■ f ... CO ~ co — co — CO

UJ /n xTv^OfyX. uj yj X\tsv/h\ „ XvisovTx cu

tuuiism MViNosmiws saiavaan libraries Smithsonian institution NouniiiSNi^NV