Author: Pennsylvania Dept. of Forests and Waters

Title: Bulletin, no. 46 - no. 50

Place of Publication: Harrisburg, Pa.

Copyright Date: 1928-1931

Master Negative Storage Number: MNS# PSt SNPaAg251.5

FILMED WHOLE OR IN
PART FROM A COPY
BORROWED FROM:

STATE LIBRARY OF
PENNSYLVANIA

no. 46 - no. 50

1928

1931

THE BEECH^BIRCH-MAPLE
Forest Type in Pennsylvania

By

Joseph S. lUick

and

LeRoy Frontz

BULLETIN 46

COMMONWEALTH OF PENNSYLVANLfV
DEPARTMENT OF FORESTS AND WATERS

Charles E. Dorworth, Secretary
Joseph S. Illick, State Forester

Harrisburg, Pa.
1928

PPIO 1 ' 5

HE BEECH^BIRCH^MAPLE

Forest Type in Pennsylvania

Special credit is due Profes-
sor George S. Perry, of the Penn-
sylvania State Forest School at
Mont Alto, for valuable sugges-
tions and helpful assistance. Ap-
preciation for assistance and
cooperation is also due Mr.
Eobert Lyman, forester of the
Gray Chemical Company; Mr.
E. 0. Ehrhart, forester of the
Armstrong Forest Company ;
and Mr. J. N. Morton, formerly
connected with this Department.

K>scph S. llluk
LcRov Front:

1>ULLI:T!\ 46

COMMONWEALTH OF PFSN'SYIAANIA
r^F:PARTME\T CU' FX^HSTS ANP \\'ATF:RS

C"!h;irlcs H. Oorworth, .S.'v/wm
josc[^li S. 111k k, St, a, l''.r,stn-

Wax

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THE BEECH'BIRCH'MAPLE

Forest Type in Pennsylvania

Special credit is due Prrfcs-
8or George S. Peny, ol the Penn-
sylvama State ForeiEtt Sehod «.t
Mont Alto* for valuabie mgg^

prediction lor ai»iktaiiee and
ecK^eration in ako due Mr.
Bob^ Ljrman, forester of the
Oray Chemical Ooa^^any; Mr,

Amistrong Forest Company ^
and Mr. J, N. Morton, lormerly
conne<^d with this Department.

froiiiiii .11 Hill

Joseph S. lllick

and

LeRoy Frontz

BULLETIN 46

■■^

COMMONWEALTH OF PENNSYLVANIA
DEPARTMENT OF FORESTS AND WATERS

Charles E. Dorworth, Snfr/fuy
Jc^seph S. lllick, Sf^i/r I'otrstfr

Harrishur^

1928

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

INTRODUCTION

WHEN lumht'i'men began oj)erations, a}>out 1860, in the moun-
tainous sections of north-eentral Pennsylvania, they found
valleys, hillsides, and mountains covered Avith a dense growth
of enormous white pine and hemlock, amono- whicli were splendid speci-
mens of hardwoods. Early lon^inji' in these forests first took the white
pine and later the hemlock. Little liardwood timber was removed
except in clearing for settlement ; but as time went on and the demand
for lumber developed, cutting was extended to include the more valu-
able hardwoods. Even the poorest of these species are now so valuable
for certain pur]ioses that stands are usually cut clean ; and even to})s.
branches, and other small-sized materials are utilized.

Witii the culling of the softwoods from the great northern fores'.s
of IN'Tuisylvania, the area occupied by the now dominant beech-birch-
nia|)l(' type has been extended until it covers about one-third of the
total forest area. It is one of the most important types found in the
State. The species growing in these forests are extensive and intensive
reproducers; hence, in tlie future we may expect the more aggressive,
faster-growing trees gradually to crowd out and reduce the number of
tlu' h'.ss aggressive, and, in the main, i)oorer and less desirable trees,
l^ecause of the verv nature of these forests it is doubtful whether
present conditions will change to any ai)preciable degree, excei)t for
this gradual and natural improvement, and to such extent as the forest
may })e influenced by cutting and tire.

Although the demand for products of this type of forest has l)een
inci'easing from vear to vear, merchantable stands of such timber have
almost disappeared. AVliere the beech-birch-mai)le forests of market-
able size have become exhausted, the industries depending upon them
for raw material have in most instances moved to other states, or have
ceased to operate. This has resulted in impoverished forest com-
munities. For this reason, and because of tlie variety of useful woods
and other products obtained from this type of forest, it became im-
perative that a body of reliable information concerning such forests
be secured. Therefore, a study of the growth, yield, and other silvical
characteristics was made by the T*ennsylvania Department of Forests
and Waters. It is hoped that the results of this study and the con-
clusions set forth in this bulletin will be of considerable value to forest
owners in Pennsylvania, and will open a gateway to a profitable enter-
pris by encouraging the ]>ro]iei* handling of this very interesting and
use! d forest type.

INTRODUCTION

WHEN limilHTiiicn bc^aii operations, about 1S()(), in ilie moini-
lainoiis sections of nortli-crntral Pennsylvania, they found
vallev.s. hillsides, and mountains covered with a dense growth

«

of monnous wliile pine and hendock, anion«i' which were splendid speci-
iiicris of hfirdwoods. Early h>«:i:in^' in tliesc fon'sts first took the wliitc
piiif and later tlie hemlock. Litth* hardwood timber was removed
t'xecpt in ck'arinj^- for settlement : but as time went on and the demand
for liiiiiber develoi)ed, cutting- was extended to include the more valu-
able liardwoods. Even the poorest of these species are now so valuable
for certain j)ui'poses that stands are usually cut clean; and even tops,
hninclies, and otlier small-sized materials are utilized.

With the culling of the softwoods fi'om the great northern fores! s
of Pcniisvlvania, the area occupied bv the now dominant beech-birch-
iiui|)I<' type lias been extended until it covers about one-third of the
lot;d forest area. It is one of the most imi)ortant types found in the
Stcitc. The species growing in these forests are extensive and intensive
reproducers; hence, in the future we may ex})ect the more aggressive,
faster-gi'owing trees gradually to ci'owd out and reduce the nund)er of
the less aggressive, and, in the main, poorei* aiul less desirable tree?-.
Pccause of the \'e!'\' ludui'e '>f th«'sc foi-ests it is doubtful whether
present conditions will change to any a|)preciable degree, excei)t foi*
this ^i-adual and natural imi)rovement, and to such extent as the forest
iii}i\ he influenced bv cutting and tire.

AltJiough the demand for products of this type of forest has been
increasing from \-ear to xcar. merchantable stands of such timbt'i' have
almost (lisa|)i)eared. AVhere the beech-birch-ma])le forests of market -
nhlc size have become exhausted, the industries depending upon them
for law material have in most instances moved to other states, or have
ceased to ()j)erate. This has resulted in im])overishe(l forest com-
munities. For this reason, and because of the variety of useful woods
;ui(i other products obtained from this type of forest, it becanu' im-
peiative that a body of reliable information concerning such forests
he ('cured. Therefoi-e, a study of the growth, yield, and othei* silvical
characteristics was made by the i*ennsylvania Department of Forests
and Waters. It is hoped that the results of this study and the con-
<'hi ons set forth in this bulletin will be of considerable value to forest
o^v.' I rs in Pennsylvania, and will ojien a gateway to a profitable enter-
pr. l)y encouraging tlie propei' handling of this very interesting and
ns< d forest type.

3

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

CONTENTS

Page
T. Description of the Beech-Birch-Maple Type 7

n. Where the Beech-Birch-:Maple Type Occurs in Pennsyl-

vania : ^

Topography, Soil and Climate

III. Extent of Beech-Birch-Maple Forests in Pennsylvania ... 11

IV. Growth Habits of Beech-Birch-Maple Forests 12

V. Yield of Beech-Birch-Maple Forests 17

VI. Beech-Birch-Maple Products : 24

Lumber

Chemical-wood

Pulp-wood

^laple Syrup and Sugar

Birch Oil

VI r. rtilization Infiuence on the Forest : 27

Present Cutting ^Methods
Improved Cutting Methods
Brush Disposal

VIII. Kei)roduction of the Beech-Birch-^Iaple Type : 'V'^

Natural :

Seed

Root-suckers

Sprouts
Artificial When Needed

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The Beech-Birch-Maple Forest Type

in Pennsylvania

DESCRIPTION OF THE BEECH-BIRCH-MAPLE

FOREST TYPE

The beecli-bircli-maple tyj)e takes its name from tlie fact that beeeli,
bireli, and maple trees are its chief components. Sometimes this kind
of forest is described under the name of *'the northern liardwood
forest." Although this type possesses a general uniformity of char-
acter sufficient to distinguish it from other important forest types, its
com])osition varies considerably throughout its range.

Tlie more characteristic species of the type are beech (Fagus grandi-
folia, Ehrhart), yellow birch (Hetula lutea, Michx.), black birch
(Betula lenta, Linmeus), and sugar maple (Acer saccharum, ^larsh).
Associated with these princi])al species of this type are such important
trees as wild black cherry (Prunus serotina, Ehrhart), white ash
(Fraxinus americana, Linna'us), and some inferior trees such as fire
cherry (Prunus ])ennsylvanica, Linnanis), blue beech (Carpinus
caroliniaua. AValter), and ironwood (Ostrya virginiana (Miller) K.
Koch). These inferior and tomnorarv trpe sipjM'ies iisiimHv occur in
greater or lesser numbers throughout the entire range of the tyi^e.
Fire cherry ordinarily is one of the first trees to establish itself on
biiriicd-over areas in this type of forest. Often it is present in large
mimbers following lumbering. The fire cherry, blue l)eecli, and iron-
wood are short-lived trees. They act as a nurse crop, among and
iimb'r which the commercially valuable and important liardwoods
establish themselves.

Altliough this somewhat variable condition of comi)()sitiou exists,
it is obvious that to consider beech, birch, and mai)le stands or wild
I)lack cherry, white ash, and basswood stands as separate tyi)es, as
well as the temporary fire cherry stands, would lead to an almost im-
possible task when all of these trees grow together in various degree^
of mixture. Such a division would reciuire refinements in this studv
wliich would add little, if anything, to its value; hence no attempt at
Jninutc distinctions has been made.

f^t.inds of white asii, wild black cherry, and basswood, with scattei-ed
specimens of maple and beech are common in the noi'thwestern section
of tli< State, west of the Allegheny Hiver valley. The land there being
bettc- suited for agricultural purposes, |)robably less than 40 per cent

7

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The Beech-Birch-Maple Forest Type

in Pennsylvania

DKSCRIPTION OF THE BP:p:CH-BI RCH-MAPLK

FOREST TYPE

The l)«M'fli-l)ircli-nit»|)l(' tvjx' takes its luniic from tlic fact tluit Ix'ccli.
I)ircli. Miul inaplc trees are its eliief conipoTieTits. Sometimes this kind
(if forest is deserihed undei" tli<' name of ''tlie iioi'tliei'n liardwood
forest." Although this type possesses a «»('iieral uniformity of eliai'-
jK'tcr sutKieient to distinjiuish it from other impoi'tant forest types, its
composition varies eonsich'rahly thi-ouji'liout its ranjre.

Tlic more eharaeteristie species of the type are l)eeeli ( Fa^us jii'andi-
foliii, Khrhart), yellow hireh ( l^etula lutea, Michx.), l)laek i)ireh
n)('tiihi lenta, Ijinna'us), and sn«iai' tnaple (Acer saeeharum, Marsli).
Associated with these principal species of this type ar<' such important
Ij'ccs as wild black cherry (Trunus sei-otina, Ehi*hai*t), white ash
(Frfixiiuts americana. LinnaMi.s), and some infericn* trees such as lire
clicn-y ( Pi-unus pennsylvaidca, LinnuMis). blue l)eech (Cai'pinus
cHi'oliniaiia. Walter), and ii'onwood (Ostrya vii-^iniana (Milleri K.
Koch'. Th(»se infei'ior and tempoi'ary tree species usually r)ccur in
j^i'cnlei- or lesser Tiund)ei's throu^ihout the entii'e I'an^'e (d' the type.
Fire chei'i-y ordinai'ily is one of the (ii-st ti'ees to estrd)lish itself on
liiinird-over areas in this ty|)e of foi'cst. Often it is pi-escnt in lar«r<'
miiiihci's foll()win«>' hnnbei-in*:'. The tire cheri-y, blue beech, and it'on-
wood ;ire shortdived t i-ees. They act as a inn*se ci-op. amon<:' and
iindci- wliich the commeivially valuable and important hai'dwn(>;|s
•'"xtnhlisji themselves.

e condition of composition exists.

Altliou'ili this somewhat variabl

It is obvious tluit to consider beech, birch, and maple stands oi' wild

l»l<ick cherry, white ash, and basswood stands as separate types, as

well ;is the temporary fire chei'ry stands, would lead to an almost im-

ees «rrow to«r<'ther in various dej.n-ee^

"I iiiiNtiire. Such a division would recniire refinements in this studv
1

possible task when all of tiiese tr

.f

"'•'! would add little, if anvthiu"-. to its vabie: hei

'"'i"i''" distinctions lias been made
^l.'Mds of white ash. wild black cli

ice nf) attem|)t a1

1 I

ierr\-. and basswood, witii scattcrec

ith

il

^|»<'(-i;i!ens of ma|)le and beech are common in the noi-thwestern section
"t tl State, west of the Allc«»lienv K'iver vallev. The land there bein«!
"•"H" suited for a«iricultui-al pui-poses. |)robably less than 40 pry cent

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

8

Tut: 13ei:(;ii-Biucii-iMaple Forest Type in Pennsylvania

The BEECii-BiRCii-^rAPLE Forest Type in Pennsylvania

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of the area is devoted to growing trees. Existing stands cover limited
ar<'as, and belong chiefly in the farm v^^oodlot class.

The term "transition zone" is used to describe the wooded region
between two distinct and typical forest types. In the transition zone,
trees characteristic of both the adjoining types of forest usually occur
in mixture. In some instances this zone is rather narrow, and com-
paratively wide in others, its width being determined largely by
topography and partly by the direction of the mountain ridges.

In the eastern transition zone and in parts of the southern zone be-
tween hardwood types, red maple is often found in abundance. In
certain sections this tree forms almost pure stands. As is the case
in the northwestern section of the State, a considerable proportion of
the northeastern land area also is used for agricultural purposes.

Much of the southern transition zone is cut by the larger stream val-
leys. In these sections a marked intermingling of types occurs, which is
especially noticeable in the vicinity of Emporium, Cameron County,
where the beech-birch-maple type is found on the northern faces of the
hills and in the deep cool ravines ; while on the warm southern faces of
the hills and ridge tops the oak-chestnut type predominates.

The white oak is found to be the most important indicator-tree of
the oak-chestnut forest growth of northern Pennsylvania. Wherever
this tree occurs in considerable numbers in Pennsylvania, other oaks,
chestnut, and additional hardwoods, typically southern in range, are
also found. Such stands are assigned to the oak-chestnut growth, while
those containing few or no specimens of white ucik usually are classified
within the beech-birch-maple type.

WHERE THE BEECH-BIRCH-MAPLE TYPE
OCCURS IN PENNSYLVANIA

The beech-birch-maple type of forest is distinctly northern, and is
very important in the Lake States, the Adirondacks, and in New P^ng-
land. The most southerly typical and extensive beech-birch-maple
f(»rests are found on the highlands of northern Pennsylvania.

In Pennsylvania the beech-birch-maple type reaches its best develoj)-
nient on the fresh well-drained fertile soils of the north-central section,
ai elevations ranging from 1,000 to 2,500 feet. Owing to the range in
elevation, the variation in soils, and other growth factors, as well as
tiie intermingling of the oak-chestnut with the beech-birch-mai)le in the
tiMnsition zones, it is difficult to fix definite geographic boundaries for
the latter type.

In north-central Pennsylvania, where this type of forest now appears
aiiiiost to the exclusion of other forest types, it occupies tlie highlands,
♦'^tending in a practically unbroken stand westward and eastward

10

The Beech-Bikch-Maple Forest Tvi*e in Pennsylvania

beyond the boundaries of the State. Where the Susquehanna and th;'
Allejifheny River valleys break throujrh this region, and also in the
valleys of their main tributary streams, the oak-chestnut type often
appears in abudance.

From the north-central section of the State, beech, birch, and mai)le
follow the mountains in a southwesterly direction to and beyond the
State's southern boundary. In this southern part of its range in Penn-
sylvania, the type occurs in more or less detached bodies at higher
elevations, along streams, and in cool valleys. Trees characteristic of
the beech-birch-maple tyi)e and of the oak-chestnut growth are here
found growing side by side in mixture. The mountain tops, some ot*
which rise to the highest elevations in the State, are covered by ;i
growth of oak-chestnut fre(|uently interspersed witli pitch pine, exce|)t
in northern Somerset County, wliere the true beech-birch-maple type
is found. The mixed condition in soutiiern Somerset County is es|)e-
cially noticeable because of the large sugar mai)le trees in the farm
woodlots and the ''sugar bushes." Large specimens of white, rock,
red, other oaks, and chestnut are often present, and this same mixed
condition appears to a greater or lesser degree in the southern ranges,
west of the Allegheny River valley.

Isolated stands of beech-birch-maple sometimes occur in scattered
sections of the State. One of the most notable examples, a widely de-
tached outpost, is found in a deep cool narrow valley in the Mont Alto
State Forest, near Waynesboro, in Franklin Countv.

The cliief climatic factors rletermining tlie distribution of forest
tyi)es are temperature and moisture. Tlie region occui)ied by beecli-
birch-maple is distinctly humid, with normal annual [n-ecipitation rang-
ing from 40 to .lO inclies.* The temperature, in turn intiuenced bv
elevation, is the princii)al determining factor of composition and dis-
tribution. Where this type of forest is found in Pennsylvania, the
annual mean temperature ranges from -^A to 40 degrees.* Killing frosts
may occur there after May 10 and before September 30.* The growing
season is approximately four and one-half to five months in length.

Soils in the beech-birch-maple region of Pennsylvania are residual
and glacial in origin. The residual soils are for the most i)art dee]),
fresh, and fertile, of a sand or sand loam texture. They were derived
largely from sandstone and conglomerate rock formations. The fresli
well-drained soils of Potter County afford beech-birch-maple ideal con-
ditions for growth, and here this type of forest reaches its optimum
development. .Alost of these soils may be classed as Site Quality 1 for
tree growth.

The glacial soils range from deep fertile agricultural land with fe^^
boulders, to the bouldery deposits on the bedrock of the mountain tops

* Soils of Pennsylvania, bulletin No. 257, State Department of Agriculture.

The Beecii-Birch-Maple Forest Type in Pennsylvania 11

and steej) sloi)es. These areas are often almost entirely covered with
angular rock fragments. In some sections, especially in the north-
eastern part of the State, an abundance of loose rocks and boulders
occurs. However, as the greater part of the glacial region in Penn-
svlvania lies at the southern extent of the terminal moraine, these
regions were not glaciated to the same severe extent as were the regions
located further to the north. These soils, as well as those of residual
formation, are comparatively deep and fertile. There is a distinct
tendency toward sand rather than clay loam. With the exception of
some few of the larger stream vallej^s, practically all of the area wherein
extensive beech-birch-maple forests occur is naturally forest land, be-
cause of the steep slopes, the high elevations, and the comparatively
short growing season, or a combination of these factors.

EXTENT OF BEECH-BIRCH-MAPLE FORESTS

IN PENNSYLVANIA

A conservative estimate shows that we have more than 4,500,000
acres of young beech-birch-maple forest in Pennsylvania ; that is, forest
land potentially best suited for growing the kind of trees characteristic
of this forest type. More than 200,000 acres or better than 16 per cent
of the 1,285,170 acres (August 1, 1928) of tlie State forest land is
located within the region occupied by the beech-birch-maple type.

A|)proximately one-third of the total forest area of Pennsylvania is
included vritliin this forest region; hence the im])ortant i)art that tlie
l)eech-birch-mai)le forests are destined to i)lay in future lumbering
and forestry in Pennsylvania is apparent.

The extensive and valuable virgin forest growth which once covered
tliis State has almost disappeared. Today there remain in all of Penn-
sylvania only 20,000 acres of original forest. Api)roximately 10,000
acres, or one-half, lies within the boundaries of tlie territory occupied
by the beech-birch-maple type.

The virgin forests that remain are typical of the type of forest that
oc(;upied nearby regions before logging and fire entered. The few
virgin hardwood stands that may occasional! v be seen are generallv
found growing in inaccessible locations from which it was possible to
remove only the white pine and hemlock at a profit. This fact alone
hns served to preserve these old stands. A few additional old-growth
Iwirdwood stands occur as farmers' woodlots, but the aggregate of all
such stands i)robably amounts to less than 10,000 acres. This means
tliJit virtually the entire ])roduction of the northern hardwood forest
now comes from second growth or culled virgin stands. So often have
tli'se stands been culled that they are now composed of poor specimens
ot inferior species. Their yield, in both volume and (piality, is far

12 The Bei<:cii-I5ikch-]\[ai»le Forest Type in Pennsylvania

below what forest owners and lumbermen may reasonably expect froiii
this type of forest when it is managed after the manner of approved
forest practice.

Tlie area of second and third growth beech-birch-maple has been
steadily increased. Following lumbering operations, these stands re
l)roduce themselves substantially as they were. This fact indicates
that because of the virtual exhaustion of virgin stands the area now
occupied by beech-birch-maple will continue nearly constant and true
to type. Beneath older stands of hardwoods the hemlock is beginning
to re-establish itself. In the course of one or more rotations, witli
favorable conditions, the mixed forests of evergreens and hardwoods
which our forefathers discovered in northern Pennsylvania, will re-
turn.

GROWTH HABITS OF BEECH-BIRCH-MAPLE

FORESTS

Beech-birch-mai)le forests grow more rapidly than is generally be-
lieved. Lumbermen, forest land owners — even foresters — are amou"
those who hold a mistaken opinion of the growth rate. This belief is
based on data gathered largely in virgin stands or from trees that
developed under conditions similar to the virgin forest. This mistaken
opinion is easily understood and readily explained, in the light of new
data.

The virgin forest was cliaractcrized bv an extreme crown densitv.
Fertile soils supported a large number of trees per unit of area. This
fact, togetlier with differing degrees of tolerance, which is the shade-
enduring ability of a tree, gave rise to two-storied forests. Under the
crowns of tall pines and the light-demanding hardwoods, hemlock,
beecli, birch, and mai)le grew with little difficulty, their crowns forming
a liighly efficient, wood-producing lower story. But while the total
amount of wood produced was very large, the individual trees grew
with extreme slowness, especially the more tolerant.

Many of the trees which ultimately won a place in the sun, did so only
after a long struggle upward toward the light, as is evidenced by the
markedly irregular thickness of the telltale annual rings. While other
growth factors may also have influenced this, the aggregations of thin
rings represent periods of suppression by shade, while the wide rings
bespeak a more rapid growth under increased light condition. It is
very obvious, then, that growth data based upon such stands are hardly
more relial)le than a superficial estimate.

In order to arrive at a more accurate and significant criterion of
growth rate in the beech-birch-maple type in Pennsylvania, approxi-
mately 50 sample plots were established. The permanent plots are one-

The Beech-Birch-IMaple Forest Type in Pennsylvania 13

Fig. 3. Nature Provides Excellent Feproduction Under Mature Stands of
Bcech-Birch-Maple Forests. More than ] 00,000 Small Trees per Acre, Bang-
hig from a Few Inches to 6 Feet in Height, Were Counted Under This Excel-
lent 90-Year-Old Stand in Potter County.

fourth acre in area. Located in different parts of the range of the type,
lliey were carefully selected even-aged fully-stocked natural stands.
These plots are not located in the very best, nor in the very poorest
>tands, but are situated so as to reflect the influence of average jrrowth
<onditions. Growth figures collected from these stands show what
I'lay be expected from this type under favorable, but not unusual or
'leal, natural conditions.

ll' Tin: 1>i;i;(II-I>ii{(ii-.Mai'm-: Fokkst Tvi'K i\ I'kxnsvlvaxia

The J^eech-I^ihch-Mai'LE Forest Tvi'k l\ I'exxsviaaxia 13

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

14 TiiK I^KKcu-l^iiicii-MAPi.K Forest Type in Pennsylvania

The growth rate of these stands suffers none in a comparison with
that of other forest types, although it varies considerably with the com-
position of tlie stand. A 40-year-old stand in p]lk County, Pennsyl-
vania, i)rincii)ally wild black cherry under which a second story of
sugar mai)le developed, has been growing at the rate of 131 cubic
feet per acre per year. In the same locality a 45-year-old stand,
chiefly yellow birch, has grown at the rate of only 56 cubic feet per
acre per year, lioth grew under .similar conditions. In addition to the
wide difference in volume growth, these stands show a wide range in
height and diameter growth.

^ The accom|)anying tables and graphs, based ui)on the measurements
of trees found on 20 permanent sample plots, set forth the height and
diameter growth of the trees of this important forest type.

Field studies show that the best rate of growth is made by mixed
stands, that is, in stands in which the overstory is made up of the
faster growing light-demanding trees such as wild black cherry, white
ash, and basswood, and the understory consisting of sugar maple, yel-
low birch, and beech. By using simple silvicultural operations 'the
composition of future stands of this type can be improved greatly.
This will be reflected in an increased percentage of the more valuable
species in the mixture, a greater density of stock, and a better form of
the trees. Such improvements should speed the rate of growth.

Growth studies demonstrate that the beech-birch-maple type of forest
grows rapidly in youth. The period of maximum height growth
usually occurs before the fortieth and seldom after the sixtieth year.

AVERAGE AND MAXJMUxM IlEFGHT GROWTH OF BEKCH-BIRCH-MAPLF

TYPK IN NORTHERN PENNSYLVANFA
(Based upon 20 study plots)

Age
(Years)

.'j
10
l.'S
20
25
30
35
40
4o
50
55
60
65
70
75
80

Average Height
(Feet)

5
J 2

42
48
53
56
59
61
63
64
65
66
67
68

Maximum Height
(Feet)

5
13

27
39
48
54
59
62
64
66
68
69
71
71
72
73

The Beech-Birch-^Iaple Forest Type in Pennsylvania 15

80

•

vU

K*5t^

iii— —

70

60

h
1^50

lu

o

= 30

20

10

Jl_-

f

^

/

/

/

J

/

/

10

20

60

70

80

30 40 50
AGE-YE/^RS

Fig. 4. Diagram Showing Average and Maximum Height Growth of Beech-
liirch-Maple Type in Northern Fennsylvania at Different Ages up to 80 Years.

AVERAGE DIAMETER GROWTH OF BEECH-BIRCII-MAPLE
TYPE IN NORTHERN PENNSYLVANIA

(Based on 18 permanent study plots)

Age

A verage Dia m eter

(Years)

(Inches)

5

0.4

10

1.0

15

1.8

20

2.7

25

3.6

30

4.5

35

5.1

40

5.6

45

6.0

50

6.2

55

(US

60

7.0

65

7.5

70

8.1

75

8.7

80

9.6

]G The Beecii-JjIuch-Maple Forest Type in Pennsylvania

10

20

50 -10 50
/\GE-YE^RS

60

70

BO

FtV/. .5. Diagram Showing Average Biamcier Growth of Beech-Birch-ManJe

nJ!f \l ^? J'^Z Pennsylvania at Different Ages up to 80 Years. Based
Upon 18 Study Plots.

The diameter growth appears to continue and often increases somewliat,
holdinp: its own for many years after the period of maximum height
growtli is passed. As soon as a retardation of growth is manifest in
pure birch stands, heart rot begins to develop and such stands go to
pieces. This is especially true of the black birch in pure stands. Wild
black cherry, white ash, and basswood are not only fast growers, but
often attain great size. The large size of wild black cherry in north-
central Pennsylvania is attested by planks four feet in width sawed

The Beecii-Birch-^Iaple Forest Type in Pennsylvania 17

fr..m old-growth cherry logs cut on Cherry Ridge in Potter County.
The more "tolerant beech and sugar maple grow to a very large size and
oflon attain great age. ^Measurements made on a chance wind-thrown
suoar maple on State forest land in Potter County showed that it was
almost 30 inches in diameter at breast-height. It was 111 feet tall and
5] feet to the first branch. Its estimated age was approximately 200
years.

YIELD OF BEECH-BIRCH-MAPLE FORESTS

A good system of forest tendance assures not only continuous but
increasing returns from the forest so handled. Before any practical
system of forest management can be instituted, it is essential. to know
the probable yield, which is the amount and character of products it is
possible to obtain in a given period of time.

Our growth studies reveal that the average fully-stocked natural
stand of beech, birch, and maple contains approximately as many cords
per acre as it is old in years, within a certain definite period, beginning
when stands are from 20-30 years of age and continuing for approxi-
mately 30 years, or until the age is 50-60 years. Natural stands cut
during the'period of maximum volume growth will yield one cord or
more pei' acre per year of age, largely of cordwood material of a size
suitable for chemical- and pulp-wood. Such stands as contain wild
black cherry, white ash, and basswood will, after 40 years, often yield

AVERAGE AND MAXIMUM VOLUME GROWTH IX BEECII-BIRCII-MAPLE

TYPE IX XORTIIERX PEXXSYLVAXrA

Age
( Years)

5

]()
]5
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80

Average
Per .
Cubic Feet

175
425
775
1,200
1,775
2,375
2,925
3,375
3,750
4,025
4,250
4,425
4,500
4,650
4,725
4,800

Volume
icre

Cords *

2.05
5.00
9.12
14.12
20.88
27.94
34.41
39.70
44.12
47.35
50.00
52.05
52.90
54.70
55.66
56.47

Maximum
Per .
Cuhic Feet

175

450

850
1,400
2,050
2,700
3,250
3,650
4,000
4,300
4,500
4,660 ■
4,800
4,900
4,975
5.050

J'ohimc
tore

Cords

2.05
5.29
10.00
16.47
24.12
31.76
38.23
42.90
47.05
50.58
52.94
54.82
56.47
57.64
58.52
59.41

* Reducing factor from cubic feet to cords Is 85 cubic feet equals one cord.

18 The Beech-Birch-Maple Forest Type in Pennsylvania

19

20

30 10 50
A6E-YEARS

eo 70

60

Fiff 6 Dmgram Showwff Average and Maximum Volume of Beech-Birch-
IgelVpTsT/eTs!'"''^^ iV.„.s,yh«..« in CuMe Feet per Acle at mtcrL

a considerable proportion of material of .sucli size and quality as to be
suitable for saw lojrs.

Tlie aeeompanyino; table and -rapli, based upon data from 18 per-
manent .sami)le plots, jyive the cubic foot volume vield ])er acre The
tables showing: tlie yield in cords per acre were 'developed from the
cubic foot yield tables. A converting factor of eightv-five cubic feet
per cord was used.

After these stands reach an a-e of (JO yc^ars, the cubic foot volume
jrrowth increases rather slowly with the passin- years. It is after ihis
I)eriod of rapid lieight and volume growth is ended that mucli of the

The Bei:cii-Birch-:Maple Forest Type in Pennsylvania

li)

Vxq 7 A li-Yeor-Old Heech-Bireh-MnpJe Stand Aremging ]i Fret in
' ' llrighf. If Confains Approxim<ttelii 12,000 Trees per Acre

Fig. S. An 18-Year-Oid Hreeh-Bireh-Maple Stand Containing I />8S Trees
per Acre. The Averaqr Diameter ( Breast-High) of the Trees Is Three
Inches, Their Average Height .li Feet, and Their Volume 1 ,r)9!) Cubic Feet
per Acre.

\H Tm: J^kixii-J^ikch-Mai'i.k Fokkst Tvim: i\ Pknxsylvania

Till-: P,i:K(ii-HiK(n-MAiM,K Kowkst Tvi'K in ri:.\N>viAANi.\

1!)

Fiff. (). ffuif/nnti Shiririiui .tv(r

Maple Ti/pr in Xortlifin /'
Ap< s uf) to Si) Ytars.

Oflf oud Moxitniim I'ofi

« iiiisiffrdiiKi

mr of Ihtch-Birch-

ill Ciihir Frrf jHi- Acrr at iHtfcrcia

M (•onsidcrahlc j)n)|)()rt ion of uKilcrinl of .siicli
siiitjihlc for saw lo'»s.

I size and (|nalitv a.s

Tl

i(> acconi

paiiyin- tahlc and ^rapli, hascd upon data from 1

luancnt .sample |)Iots, oiv,. tlic cnbic foot vol

to h

S pcr-

1al)l('s showin*!- tlic yit'Id in cuvih

lime yield per acre. The

cnbic foot yield tables. A
p<'i' eord was nsed.

After tliese stands i-eael

per aei-e were devcdoped from tli<

eonvei'tino- faetoi- of ei«>Iitv-ti

ve enbie feet

1 an a lie o

"•rowtli inereases ratlier slowl\ willi tl

pei-iod of i-apid hriolit and volni

I b() yeai-s. IJie cubie foot noIiiiik
le |>assino- y,.ai-s. It is aftei- .lii>

ne jjirowtli is ended that

nnieli of tin

/.■,„_ ;. J I /.)■,(, r-Ohl lirrrl, /iiirh-Mai>h Stand Arn-afiiiiff If F<r( in
Ihiahl. II Conhiins A i>i>i(>.ri iiialrl n IJJi'iii T i<<s prr Ari>

Fiij. S. An IS-VtarOhl Ji< rch-Hiich-Maph Stand Confainint/

L.->SS' T

l( < N

/" ;• Acii

The A V (fa a I

Dianirtd- ( lirrast -II itili ) nf Hit Txrs Is Tlirrt

hirhis, Thrir Arrnifli Ihijihl ■! i
j» r Acii .

Frd, ami Tlnir Vohinu I ,.'>:>'■> ('nl)ir h'rrt

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

20 The Beecii-Bircii-Maple FoRE^T Type in Pennsylvania

Fig. 9. A 26-Ycar-Old Mixed Stand of Yellow and Black Birch Averaging
3.4 Inches in Diameter, and 39 Feet in Height. It Contains 1,264 Trees per
Acre with a Total Volume of 1,705 Cubic Feet.

Fig. 10 A 30-Y ear-Old Stand, rrincipally Black Birch, Averaging 3.4
Inches m Dmmeter and 40 Feet in Height. It Contains 1,476 Trees per Acre
with a Total 1 olumc of 12,223 Cubic Feet. i ^^i^

The Beecii-Bikcii-Maple Forest Type in Pennsylvania 21

Fig. 11. A 40-Year-Old Stand, Principally Wild Black Cherry and Sugar
Maple, Averaging 6.5 Inches in Diameter and 62 Feet in Height. This Stand
Contains 680 Trees per Acre with a Total Vohime of 5,254 Cub'O Feet.

Fig. 12. A 6f-Ycar-0ld Stand, Principally Yellow Biroh and Black Birch,
Ivrraging 5.4 Inches in Diameter and 72 Feet in Height. This Stand Con-
<tins 7'24 Trees per Acre with a Total Volume of 4,612 Cubic Feet.

20

Till-: P>i;i;(ii-l>iw('n-MAi'i,i-: Fokk.-t Tvim: i.\ Pi:nx.svlvaxia

Ft (J.

\ JC-Vrar-OJd M ixrd Stand of Yrlloir (in<l lilark Birch Avcmgino

3.1 lurhrs in Diamrto-, and J!> Fret in Ilriffht. It Coiitttins IJCi 7

\rrr iritli a 'J'oltil I'ol

iinii <tf 1,711.") Cubic Feet.

rces i>( r

Fif,. in A .;o.yror(Hd Stnml, rrincipatt,, lUnrl: liirch, .[vcaainq 3.4

hichrs in lHanirffi- and i'l Fr( t

irith (I Tnhil lot

iniK of jj.'.; ('nl)ic Feet

in /Icf/lit. It Contains iJ70 Tr

ec,s per Acre

The Beecii-Bikch-Maim.e Fokest Type in Pennsylvania 21

/•'///. //. .1 iO-Ymr-Old Stand, I*rincipaUy ll'ild lilack Clierrif and Stifitif
Majilr, Avvratiimj 6'. J Inches in Dianntcr and 02 F'cct in Uciglit. This Stand
Contains 68U Trees per Acre with a Tolal ]'(dume of o^.'ti CutCc Feet.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

22 Till-: Bekcii-Hiuch-Maple Forest Typp: in 1*ennsylvania

The Beech-Birch-Maple Forest Type in Pennsylvania 23

Fif/. hi. An SO-Y ear-Old Bcfch-liirch-Maplc Stand Averaging 71 Feet in
Height and !).6 Inched in Diameter. Thi.s Stanil Contains jOi Trce.'i per Acre
irith a Total Volume of 4,8r,i Cubic Feet.

<iuality jinnvtli oemirs. In the avorajre fully-stoekod natural stand at
()() years of ajrc, trees possess a bole free of limbs for 40 to nO feet, so
that all wood laid on thereafter will be absolutely clear. Lumber from
sueli stands is of tlie liijrhest <|uality, naturally eomnuindin^- ihe l)e,sl
priee.s,

AVKHA(JK XIIMHKK OP TRKK8 PKR ACHK IN 5- TO SO-VKAH-OLI) ST WIJS
OP JiH:ECI[-HIHni-MAF>LE TYPE IX XOKTITEKX PKXXSVLVAXIA

1

Age

Xumlxr of Trees

(Years)

Per Acre

5

30,000

10

8,750

15

5,000

20

1 ,650

25

],15(l

30

900

35

750

40

650

45

575

50

525

55

450

60

425

65

375

70

350

75

325

80

300

1

2500

2250

2000

^1750

o

«C

£l500

Q.
Ui

U1250

h

oiooo

750

500

250-

10 20 50 40 50

60 70

60

Fig. 14. Diagram Showing Averape Number of Trees per Acre in Beech-
Birch-Maple Forest Stands of Northern Pennsylvania at Different Ages up to
SO Years.

Stands cut at 60 to 80 years will yield ai)proximately 5,000 cubic
feet, with a good percentaj»:e of the wood yield suitable in size and
(luality for saw timber. An estimate places the percentajre of saw
timber in such stands at 50-80 per cent of the total volume.

As the age and size of trees increase, a still further reduction in nuiii-
bei>. takes place, through natural or artificial selection. With fewer
stems of larger size feeding from the soil, tiie tendency is more and
mo)<« toward quality production, with excellent yield in fine saw lumbei*.
Tlx aceomi)anying table and gra|)h, derived from 24 sample plots,
she •, how rai)idly the number of trees per acre decreases with age.

!■ was exceedingly diflficult to find even-aged fully-stocked natural
stniKis exceeding 45 years of age, for it was within that span of y<'ars

•)•) T

rill-: BKKCll-HlKCll-MAI'hK FoKKST TviM-: IX I'knnsviaania

The IIeixmi-Birch-Maple Forest Type ix Pennsylvania 23

/•'///. /./. .1// Sit-y,(ir(Htl lir< ch-l'.hcU Maplr Stdnd Aiu loti'iinj ;/ /<'«(•/ h,
Hiitfht anil :>.(! Indus in l>iiniirt(r. This SIdnil Conhiins .'C, i Tvas fur Jrir
irilh (t 'I'olnl I'dlinni nf } ,S.'> f Cubic h'rrt,

<HiciIity ^rowili occurs, in the {ivcnio«. fully -slocked natural stand -M
(10 ycai-s of a«i-c, trees possess a hole free of lind)s for 40 to ")() feet, so
that ail wood laid on thei'eafter will he ahsolutely clear, i.umher fi-oiii
such stands is of the highest (|uality, naturally c()nniian(lin<i- the he.sl
|U'ice.s.

.\vi;ka(;k \rMi^.KK of thkks i'kw xmv: in .-,. to sK-vKAirohD stwds

or liKKCll-lillx'CH MAIM.K TVI'K IN XOKT II KI.'X I'KX XSVI.NA X I .\

Afh

.\ iniilx r of 'i ft IS

(Yrars)

r<i .irn

~)

:'.(i,(i()o

30

«.:.-)( 1

15

.'),(!( 1(1

20

1 .(mO

25

i,ir,(i

30

!MMi

35

7.')(l

40

«■).")()

45

~)~~}

50

.'L'.')

55

4r,()

fiO

42.")

05

;;:.-)

70

:;.-)< 1

75

.'•.L'.l

80

;>(Mi 1

'?.m

2250

2000

^1750
o

£l500

Q.

U1250
cr

I-

oiOOO
oc

Ui
(D

r 750

3

500

250-

1

1

\

\

^

\

\

^^

•

10 20 50 40 50

60

70

60

/•'///. /•/. Dwflram Hhoning Averaqe Xnmher of Trccn per Acre in JUrch
liirrh-Maple Forr.s't Stands of Xorthrru Fnivsylrania of DifTrrrnt Ane.s nn 1o
.S'y Yrars. ■■ . t

Slands cut at (iO to SO years will yield approximately Ti.OOO cuhic
IVei. with a oQod percenta<ie of the wood yield suitahle in si/e and
MHJility for saw timber. An estimate |)laces the i)ercenta^'e of saw
tmiher in such stands at r)0-SO |)er cent of the total volume.

As the ajiv and size of trees increase, a still further reductioTi in nuin
Iht; lakes |)lace, throujih natural or artiticial selecticm. With fewer
steiiis of laro-er size feedino- from the soil, the tendency is more and
mo . t(>ward (juality jiroduction, with exc<'llent yield in fine saw liimbei-.
Til accomj)anyin«i table and "raph, derived from 24 sample plots.
>*l" how rai)idly the numbei- of trees |)er acre decreases with a«i«'.

1 was exceedino-ly difiHcult to find even-ao-ed fully-stocked luitural
Nlnt.is exceeding 4.') years of age. for it was within that span of years

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

24

The BEixii-BiKCH-^rAPLE Forest Type in Pennsylvania

The Beecii-Bikch-Maple Forest Type in Pennsylvania 25

tliat the original stands were cut cleanly, then permitted to grow again.
Tliis explains why no attempt was made to work out the actual board
foot yield of beecli-birch-maple stands.

Data supplied by Robert Lyman, forester of the Gray Chemical
Company, and collected from a natural even-aged 25-year-old beech-
birch-mai)le stand in Potter County, showed a yield of 23 stacked coids
of chemical- wood per acre. Similar stands of 45 and 80 years yielded,
respectively, 45 and 79 stacked cords. These records tend to confiim
data from the Department's permanent sami)le plots.

Yield data based on the actual volumes of even-aged fully-stocked
natui'al stands, as these are, represent the minimum yield to be ex-
pected under a system of good forest tendance.

BEECH-BIRCH-MAPLE PRODUCTS

Products sui)plied by the beech-birch-maple, or northern liardwood
forests, liave always been of lesser amount and value than products of
the softwoods. In tlie past, these hardwood species contributed little
to industry, such as general construction or box or paper making, which
require wood in large quantities.

Pennsylvania's huge wood reservoir is almost empty. The passing
of the virgin forests results in an ever-diminishing production of botli
softwoods and hardwoods. While the rate of cutting on both has been
slowing uj), the pr()j)()rti()nate amounts of each class have been chang-
ing i'aj)idly. In PH^'i about 75 j)er cent of tlie timber cut in Pennsyl-

vaii ;i was softwoods. In 1923, 64 per cent was hardwoods. By 1935,
it is estimated, 75 per cent or more of the total cutting in the State
^vill he of hardwoods. Accordingly, it may be expected tliat hardwoods
^vill substantially supplant the softwoods where the latter once were
considered essential to industry.

Woods furnished by the beech-birch-maple forests are indispensable
for hundreds of uses, which are none the less important because a rel-
atively small supply is required for the specific need. Many of these
proihiets are intimately associated with our daily lives.

Tlie principal products derived from these forests are lumber, pulp-
and ehemical-wood, fuel-wood, syrup and sugar of the maple, antl, in
.siiuill fimounts, natural birch oil.

Fig. 15. One of Pcnnsijlvania '.s Big SmvmilJs Located in the Beech-Birch-Maph

Forest h'egion at Sheffield, Warren Couiitti

Fig. 16. A Hardwood Distillation Plant Located in the Heart of the
Beech-Birch -M aide Forest in North-Central Penusylvania

LUMBER
lin])ortant among the lumber uses of these trees are interior finish-
inu>, flooring, furniture, turning stock, novelties, woodenware, handles,
shuttles, bobbins, spools, vehicles, veneer, baskets, and boxes. There
iiV'- many other uses. Eighty-one distinct articles are listed as being
ninitufactured from sugar maple alone. Articles made from the wood
of these trees are almost unlimited in number. Because these articles
ar- so widely and commonly used, one is prone to overlook the source
of hem. Amonjr them are manv of the common comforts of life.

2()

The Hekch-I^ihch-Mai'le Forest Type in Penxsyiaania

CIIKMICAL-WOOI)
Lumber and other products manufactured from these forests are im-
portant enough now; but that the future holds a still wider and iiioiv
varied demand may be expected. One of the chief demands at present.
which is .sujjplied larji:ely by culled and second growth stands, is ior
chemical-wood. Sugar maple is the most desirable .species. Kn,,,,
tliese trees tlie cliemist secures a large number of the drugs of the
pliarnuicist, explosives so necessary to the engin<'er in blasting his w;i\
tlirough mountains, alcohol for i)ower, and numy other products. Low
grade and small material from the forest is thus profitably utilized.
Recent developments in industry i)oint toward a steady future demand
for this class of material.

The very fact that chemical science utilizes beecii, birch, and maph-
woods of small size, inferior rpiality, and trees of poor form is an
eloquent i-eason for regarding this tyi)e as most i)romising for forest
management. Forestry has never been liighly i)rofitable or truly con-
servative, and indeed will not be, without complete utilization, \vher-
ever stands of this type are accessible, thinnings are practical)le now.
The future will surely increase the profits from this source.

PULP-WOOD
Softwoods have always been the most important source of raw mate-
rial for the manufacture of paper. With the disappearance of tlic
hemlock, the industry in this State has been turning toward these
hardwoods as a future source. In this, and in the chemical-wood in-

Fifi. 17 A Wooil Van! uHh Ahnut 100,000 Cords of ChemieuMVoo,! Slor,,!

The Beech-Birch-Maple Forest Type in Pennsvi.vania 27

diisli V, recent developments i)oint to new heavy demands for raw mate-
rial- a demand certain to be further strengthened by tlie improved
metliods now in use, and recently-perfected ones for reducing these

woods to pulp.

Although a relatively small amount of wood is required for each of its
speciiil uses, compared with the amount of softwoods used in general
const iiiction, the aggregate is great and constantly increasing. An
imi)()itant factor contributing to further increased demand is the c(un-
petition of hardwoods with softwoods in the field of utility once domi-
nated by the latter. Lumber manufactured from these hardwood trees
is oiowing more important in construction work.

Tiiese trees yield w^oods that are compact or solid, comparatively

heavy, and well suited to fuel purposes. Of all the sjiecies found in

this tyi)e, beech produces the most desirable fuel-wood; and as the

oreatest and most extensive beech-birch-maple forests occur outside of

the limits of the coal measures, these woods form impoi'tant sources of

local fuel sujiplies.

MAPLK SYHTP AND STOAU'

The making of some "sugar bushes" into lumber, witii (he natural
deterioration of other such stands, brought about by neglect, has re-
snlted in a decrease in the amount and value of tlie products of the sugar
majile industry in the State. Penn.sylvania maple syrup and sugar are
excellent in tpiality and generally bring top ])rices.

This subordinate by-product of forest practice in Pennsylvania pro-
duced, in 1926, a revenue of $594,000 from ai^proximately 223,000
pounds of sugar, and 2v)\,0i)0 gallons of syrup.

BIRCH OIL

Another secondary product of this forest type is natural birch oil,
which is used for flavoring and in medicines. It is distilled from the
inner bark of the sweet or black birch (Betula lenta) . Since the branch-
wood and twigs are the mo,st desirable parts for distillation ])urj)oses,
young open-grown trees or those having large wide crowns are pre-
ferred. With the branch- and limb-wood and twigs utilized to advan-
tajre, this industry offers a practical method of using profitably the
waste from lumbering operations and improvement cuttings.

niLIZATION INFLUENCE ON THE FOREST

' lilization is one of the prime factors in forest management. I'pon
tlie method and kind of utility practiced rests, not only success or fail-
ure in establishing new stands to replace those removed, but the cpial-
ity if the new stands. By cjuality is meant stands fully stocked witli
the most desirable species.

28

The Beixii-Hikcii-Mai'le Forest Type in Pennsylvania

The Beech-Birch-Maple Forest Type in Pennsylvania

29

rndcr i)resent metliods the best and lar<>'est trees become saw Imrw
Material of smaller size is worked into cordwood, which is used by liie
chemical and Avood-j)uli) industries.

Even the poorest si)ecies commonly found in culled beech-birch-m;,|)le
stands are now so valuable as a source of raw material for chemical oiul
pulj)-wood operations, and of wood for similar purposes, that cleai-rnt-
tinj,^ is the rule. Because of the complete utilization, little is left on an
area, followinjj;' a c()Mii)leted lumber and chemical-wood operation, ex-
cept small i)rush.

I'KKSKNT CUTTING .Ml<:TH()nS

Occasionally, even at the present time, utilization is practiced iiiiich
as it was years a<>'0, in that only the best trees of the most desirnblo
species are removed. This is especialy true in operations that ai'c re-

Fig. IS. A T}ipwnl Cnt-Over Area After Beech-Birch-Maple Stands Have
Been Lumbrrrd for Chemical-Wood, The Cut-Over Lands Appear to Be Der
astated hut if Protect rd Against Fire Will Soon Become Well Stocked witi,
Small Trees.

motely located, where tran.spoi-tation is a costly problem. From obser\a-
tions made in tlje tield, this system is much more to be condemned tli n
is clear-cutting of the older stands, in so far as it affects reproductirn.
It leaves only the imdformed misshapen and often stagheaded spe« i-
mens. Their crowns intercept light, their root systems occupy the so 1,
and thus they prevent the development of valuable young stands.

CLEAR-CUTTING

^Vhere old growth stands are cut and fire is kei)t out of the woods,
excellent fully -stocked even-aged natural stands of valuable young
trees develop. Studies show that fine young stands of beech, birch, and
mai)le, which follow clean-cutting operations in old-growth hardwoods,
are already established on the forest floor previous to tlie cutting oper-
ations. Likewise, most of the seed that germinates after old stands are
removed, is already present in the duff of the forest floor. The invis-
ible forest needs only light to begin active growth.

Fifi. i:>. The Same Area Shown in Fig. 1S Four Years After Lumbering.
As Man;/ As 32,45^ Small Trees Were Counted per Acre

There is little desirable reproduction ]u-esent under beech-birch-
niiiple stands that are less than 50 years of age. in the dense fully-
stocked natural stands the shade cast by the crowns, until these trees
reach tiie half-century mark, is nearly always too heavy to ])ermit
miicli vigorous voung growth to start. On the other hand, field studies
fr''<|H(*ntly show a considerable number of seedling trees present under
sl;i!i(ls that range from 20 to 50 years of age. After struggling in a
li( ivy shade, many of these seedlings die when the stand is opened and
lii^iit let in.

Also, this young growth lacks the vigor necessary to compete suc-
C' fully with sprout growth from the freshly-made stuni])s. In stands

30

The Bkkcii-I^ikch-Mai'lk Forest Type in Pennsyiaan'ia

that were less than .')() to GO years of a<ie when linnl)ere(l, most of iir
rei)ro(liiction will be of sprout origin.

Althon«>h sprout jrrowth starts more (piickly than seedlinjr, it is iinidi
less desiral)Ie, beeaiise sprout jrrowth betjins to go to pieces, and the
stands break up, at an early age. Most of the hardwood stumps sprout
freely and vigorously, especially when cutting is done during the peiiod
of vegetation dormancy; yet with few exceptions, thrifty sprouts ;iiv
produced only fi-om the smaller stnmi)s.

(irowth studies demonstrate that in longevity, .size, and (piality, seed-
ling stands are superior to those of sprout growth. To secure seedliii'-'
or seedling-sprout re|)roduction of desirable si)ecies after a chemical-
wood operation in stands of less tlian 40 to (JO years, re(iuires some
system of management otlier than wliolesale clear-cutting. I'nh-ss .Ik
latter method is discontinued, stands already jmor will continue to de-
generate.

MODIFICATION OF (LKAR-CUTTIXCJ

AVhile clear-cutting in its present form is to be discouraged, umWv
certain conditions a moditication of clear-cutting is justitiable and
I)roi)er, especially wlien there is good i)romise of seedling or seedliiir-
sprout reproduction of the desired species.

Any attempt to utilize dense fully-stocked even-aged stands under
a system of forest tendance other than clear-cutting, will be difficult
and costly. Individual trees in such stands being virtually all the same
size, possess long slender boles, and depend upon each other for protec-
tion and support. Partial cutting in such standi resulls in windiaii
and damage from snow and ice. Clear-cutting is not only cheai)er, and
consecpiently more i)r()f1table, but if modified i)roperly, results in rei)r()-
duction which produces improvement in kind and (piality of rei)r()(lu(-
tion.

It nui.st be remend)ered that improved rei)roduction results when .1
modification of the clear-cutting system is employed, the area that is
cut clear being of c()m|)aratively small size. To accomi)lish this, cuttiii-
may be dcme in strips, l)locks, groups, or patches, whichever method in
the forester's judgment seems best with regard to the nature of tlic
land or otlier growth factors. Modificati(ms in the ai)plication <.f
clear-cutting methods |)resent a wide range of possibilities. If tlie
strip method is used, the clear-cut strips may be narrow or wide, and
arranged progressively or alternate with uncut strips. A wide ran-.'
of application is also po.ssible in locating the blocks, grou])s, and patcho.
which may range in size from very small to substantial areas, depen.-
:ng u|)on the intensity of management. As a rule, the more intensi\-
the management the smaller are the strips, blocks, groups, and patch.-
cut over in a single cutting. The tendency in approved forest practi( '
is away from tlie lai'ge clear-cut area.

The Beecii-Birch-Maple Forest Type in Pennsylvania 31

]\\ cutting the desired species during a heavy seed year and the un-
desirable species in an oft* year, it may be possible in a measure to
modify the composition of future stands. The effect such a i^rocedure
will liave on the subse<pient stands is uncertain because most of the
seedlings that spring up following lumbering were already present on
the forest floor before the cutting began.

Insurance against failure of reproduction because of fire or other
causes can be provided if clear-cutting is scattered over large areas.
The final strips or blocks of old growth should not be removed until
adjacent stands of young trees have become well established.

TIIK SKLECTION SYSTEM

The .selection system of handling forest stands is very well adapted
to the beech-birch-maple forest type. It is the natural tnethod and is
('sp<'cially adapted to ])roducing a large volume of desirable kinds of
Avood. Ajiother advantage of the careful selection and removal of trees
or ti'ce groups is the opportunity afforded to control the make-up of
subsequent stands. If applied properly, the selection cuttings make
possible the development of a progressive program of forest improve-
ment.

In the past, the best trees of preferred species were removed at eacli
cutting of virgin and culled forests. This resulted in a constant de-
terioration of the quality of the forest stands. Selection cuttings tend
to build up volume and quality production, and improve growth condi-
tions.

While the selection .system may not appear to work so well from the
logging angle, it can be developed along practical lines. A modifica-
tion of this method, such as group selection, presents a wide range of
l)ossibilities and ties in rather closely with the group clear-cutting
method. Fnder the group selection metliod, trees are cut in small
groups. By this method large openings in the forest are avoided. The
advantages of maintaining a group-wise arrangement of trees is tiiat
l('s.s breakage among the young trees is caused in felling and removing
tlie oldest-aged class. The cost of logging is usually lowered and at the
same time more light is provided for the development of young trees.

Ill a forest which su|)plies necessary |)roducts that are in constant
deinand, repeated cutting and cultivation through modern methods,
fi<'Kl studies demonstrate, sjx'ed up growth and improve the quality of
tli< lumber. Aside from this, the huge (pumtities of small-sized mate-
I'ijil produced in lumbei'ing is made available to meet a |)resent big de-
in;md. Assurance of a steady supply, observation teaches, serves to m-
er( ise the demand and encourages expansion of industry.

'his, considered with the denunid foi* secondary ]U'oducts of the

32

TiiK F)i:i:(ii-IJiK('ii-M.\i'LE Forest Type in Pexnsviaaxia

maple i\m\ tlic bireli, is an added incentive; in fact, it is an eeono ;ie
reason for tlie practice of more intensive forest mana«>ement. Moi'e ; nd
better forests must follow in natural course.

BRUSH DISPOSAL

Demand for .small low-grade material means that even the braiieh-
wood is utilized down to small dimensions. The debris from lumbering
is all of small .size. In present operations this is piled in windrows, to
f>-ive clean spaces in which the men may work. Field .studies show that
tliis material be<»ins to decay three years after lumbering, and by the

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Fifj. 20. A Tifpical Chrmical-ll'ood Cuttiiu) Operation in Potter County

eight li year little I'emains excej)t small portions of the large materiiil,
usually in a rotten or semi-decayed condition. The fire hazard is grcMt-
e.st in the first two to five years following a lumbering operation. It
becomes les.s each year thereafter until about the eighth or tenth ye;ir,
when there is practically none, except for an occa.sional spring seas(»n
with unusually cold dry weather conditions. Ordinarily, sugar maple
and bii'cli establish a dense leaf canopy before the forest fioor dries out
enougli to be infiammable.

To determine ju.st how fires infiuence the forest is a big prol)lem n
itself and requires much study. As this bulletin is concerned chiet v
with growth and yield, the effects of fire dealt with here are confin. 1

The Beech-Birch-^M.vple Forest Type in Pennsylvania 33

to noting the loss of time in rotation, particularly in the reproduction

period. _ .

When fires occur and there are no seed trees in the immediate vi-
cinity, a complete restocking with valuable trees is a long and tediou.s
process. In many cases the time lost through such fires varies from a
few years (two or three in some cases), to 30 or more years, when .seed
trees or old stands are found only at a long distance from the burned
area. Most of the trees in the beech-birch-maple type sprout rather
wealdy after forest fires, as compared to oak, hickory, elm, black locu.st,
and certain other hardwood.s. Their wood is also rather subject to de-
cay, notably in the sap zone, which renders fire-copi)ice or sprouts un-
satisfactory as the basis of a new .stand.

REPRODUCTION OF THE BEECH-BIRCH-
MAPLE TYPE

The beech-birch-maple forest type employs three important nu'thods
of reproduction. ]\Iaple and birch seed freely and sprout vigorously.
The beech seeds less fre(piently and .sprouts less vigorously, but ])0s-
sesses a compensating factor in its production of vigorous root-suckers
in large numbers. The associated species, namely, wild black cherry,
white ash, and bas.swood, also seed frequently, producing large crops of
viable seed.

This seed begins to develop in early summer and matures in Septem-
bpr and October. IMuch of the seed falls from the parent tree a.s soon as
it matures. There is, however, a strong tendency on the ])art of a
number of the .species found in this type to retain a portion of their
seed until mid-winter or early spring, when the small winged seed is
blown about and widely scattered by the strong winds. This is true
of the birches and to a lesser extent of the basswood and the wiiite ash.

SEP:n

Seeding i.s the most important method by which the birches repro-
duce. They bear large quantities of viable seed each year. The birches
are les.s tolerant than the sugar maple or the beech. Their light winged
seed is widely dispersed by the wind, and wherever conditions are at all
favorable, seedlings develop. The seed of the birches is able to germi-
nate and to establish itself on bare mineral soil, among rocks, and even
Of I rotting log.s and stumps and on decaying duff of the forest fioor.
S.cd falling on top of the snow in winter, es])ecially on rocky areas, is
CfM-ried by the melting snow^ in spring, down among the crevices of the
rcf'ks, where it later germinates and young trees develop. Due to this
cl aracteristic, birches are enabled to gain a foothold on very rocky
ai d inhospitable areas.

\i2

Tin; UKi.cii-liiKcii-.MAiM.i; Kokk.^t Tvim-; in I*i;\.\svi.\ am a

iiiiipic <in(l llic l)ii-('li. i.s ail added incentive: in facl. il is an ccoik ic
i-eason for tlie pi'aeliee of inoi'e intensive foi'est inana^icnient. .More ul
hellei- foi-esls iiiiisl follow in iialui'al eonrse.

IJKM'SII DISl'OSAL

Demand for .small lo\v-<irade material means that even the l)rai h-
wood is ntilized down to small dimensions. The del)ris from lumhein^r
is all of small .si/e. In present o|)erations this is piled in windi'(»w^ to
«»ive clean spaces in which the men may work. Field studies show liuit
this matei-ial Ix'iiins to decav three vears after luml)erin<»', and Itv ihe

/''///. .'", J TiipiotI (III mical-Wood Ciitliiif/ Opt ioHoh in Potter Countii
eijilitli yeai- little I'emains except small portions of the lariic materi.:!,

nsuallv in a rotten or semi-(leca\'ed conditi(

)n.

The lire hazard is jii-cit-

e.st in the lii-st two to live years followin«i' a liimherinji' operation, it
l)ecomes less each year tlier<'aftei' until about the eighth oi' tenth >e;ir,
when there is |)ractically Tione, except for an occasional sprin*:' season
with unusually cold dv\ weathei- conditions. Ordinarilv, su<'ar maple
and l)ii-ch establish a dense leaf cano|)y before the forest Hoor dries out
enough to be inflammable.

To determine ju.st how lires intluence the foi'est is a bi«»- problem i
itself and rcMpiires much study. As this bulletin is concerned chiei
with urowth and yield, the etTects of tire dealt with here are conliii' 1

TnK P>ki:cii-Bihch-.Mai»li<: Fokest Tvpk in Pknnsviaania
to 1 otin^i- the loss of time in rotation, particularly in the reproduction

)ci 'd.

\\ hen fires occur and there are no seed trees in the immediate vi-
eiiiiiy, a complete restocldn«,^ with valuable trees is a lon«i- and tediou.s
nj.i.css. Jn many cases the time lost thi'ou«>h such fires varies from a
r,.\, vears (two or three in some cases), to 'M) or more years, when .seed
tpMs or old stands are found only at a lono- distance fnmi the burned
jnra. Most of the trees in the beech-birch-maple type sprout rather
weaklv after forest fires, as comi)ared to oak, hickory, elm, black locust,
and ci'i'tain other hardwood.s. Their wood is also rather subject to de-
cav, notably in the sap zone, which renders tire-coppice or s|)routs un-
satisfactory as the basis of a new .stand.

REPRODUCTION OF THE BEECH-BIRCH-
MAPLE TYPE

The beech-bii-ch-mai)le forest type <Miiploys three impcu-tant methods
of rei)roduetion. .Mai)le and birch seed freely and sprout vij^orously.
The beech seeds less fre<piently and si)r()uts les.s vi<i'orously, but \)os-
scsses a compensatinji* factor in its i)roducti()n of vi<i()rous root-suckers
in lar«iv numbers. The as.sociatecl species, namely, wild black cherry,
white ash, and bas.swood, also seed frecpiently, producin<i- lar^v crops of
viable seed.

This seed beoins to develop in early summer aiid matures in Septem-
ber and October. ?^Iuch of the seed falls from the i)ar«Mit tree as soon as
it matures.

muii

There is, however, a strong- tendency on the |)art ot a
her of the .species found in this type to retain a portion of their
seed until mid-winter or early si)rin«i', when the small win<ied seed is
blown about and widely scattered by the strong- winds. This is triu'
f the birches and to a lesser <'xtent of the liasswood and the white ash.

0

SIOKI)

Seeding' is the most important method by which the birches repro-

duce. They bear lar«»'e (piantities of viable see(

1 each year. The liii'ches

aiv les.s tolerant than the suj2:ar mai)le or the beech. Their li«:'ht winded
se.'d is widely dis])ersed by the wind, and wherever conditions are at all
f.'^ orable, seedlin«is develop. The seed of the birches is able to o-ermi-
ii;::<' and to establish itself on bai'c mineral soil, anion<i' rocks, and even
(•!, r()ttiii<»' loos jind stumps and on decayin«^' duff of the forest floor.

<l fallin<>' on top of the snow m winter, esj^'cially on rocky areas, i

•k

.f ill

(■ i-ied by the melting' snow m sj)rin^', down amon«r the crevices o

r^ ks, wliere it later terminates and youn«' trees develop. Due to this

<• racteristic, l)irclies are enabled to «»ain a foothold on very I'ocky

a' i inhos])itable areas.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

S4 The Beech-I^irch-Maple Forest Type in Pennsylvania

AItlioii<>:li tlu' su<i:ar maple is not an annual seeder, it does be;.r
iieavy crops of seed at frecpient intervals. As with the birches, seed-
ing? is the most important method ot* reproduction. Su^ar maple ap-
pears to establish itself most successfully in the neutral duff formed of
<lecayed beech leaves under relatively dense shade. As a result, are;is
of thrifty and dense su<»:ar maple reproduction occur under old stands
in which beech forms a considerable proportion of the mixture.

Tnder such a stand in Potter County, averajrinjr apj)roxmiately (iO
years of ajj:e, .several reproduction plots liave been established. The
forest floor was uniforndy occupied by a vijrorous and dense growth of
small sugar maple ranging in age from one to six years. These trees
occupy this site almost to the exclusion of other trees. A plot 10 x 10
feet square, contained 462 sugar ma|)le, 14 beech, J) wild black cheriy,
and 51 striped maple trees.

O— SwaAK HArkS
# — Becch

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Fig. 21. KeproiUctwn Plot (6x6 Feet) Located At About the Center of
Fig. 2S. Each Squure Bloelc Hepresents a Square Foot of Surface Area on the
Forest Floor. It Shows the Number ami Distribution of the Small Sugar
Maple, Wild Black Cherry, and lieech Trees on a Plot That Is Typical of
Large Areas in the Northwoods.

This shows the extreme density of the reproduction of this species a.^
e()mi)ared with the numbers of the seedlings of beech and other trees.
Kei)roducti(m studies show that tlie sugar maple, at least in its seedling
and small sapling stage, is the most tolerant of the species cliaracter-
istic of tlic beech-birch-maple type.

The Bee(:h-Birch-Majm.e Forest Type in Pennsylvania 85

Small sugar mai)le saplings were observed that had grown as much
as liiree and one-half feet in a single season, under a hardwood stand
approximately 125 years of age. A count of the si)ecies and numbers
of trees on several reproduction plots under this same stand revealed
more tlian 1 ()(),()()() suudl sugar mai)le trees per acre. They ranged in
liciglit from six inches to five feet. These studies also showed 436 beech,
:{,!)! 5 wild black cherry, and 8,045 white ash trees per acre. The latter
si)ecies of trees were, on the average, smaller than the sugar maple.
Field notes show that the sugar maide is ordinarily the most aggressive
reproducer in the beech-birch-maple type, doubtless because of its ex-
treme tolerance and its excellent seeding (pialities.

ROOT-SUCKERS
Beech trees produce large crops of nuts only at two- or three-year
intervals. The nuts are comparatively large and palatable and much
of the seed produced is devoured by animals. The beech is second only

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Fig. 22. A 40-Year-Qld Stand, Principally Beech of Hoot-Sucker Origin,
and Sugar Maple, Averaging i Inches in Diameter and -iS Feet in Height,
This Stand Contains '.rrc' Trees per Acre with a Total i'olume of 1 ,!)77 c'ubi<^
Feci.

t(» tlie sugar ma|)le in tolerance. Of all the s])ecies in this tyjx', llu^
hiM'ch alone apj)ears able to rei)roduce successfully by root-suckers.
AN iiere conditions are favorable to their development, dense stands of
beech of root-sueker origin develop. An excellent 40-year-old stand of

M Till-: Hkkcii-I^ihch-Mai'LK Forest Tvi'i: in I*i:xnsvlvania

Altliou*-!! Ilic sii<inr fiuiplc i.s iiot nii jiiinual seeder, it does be;,r
lienvy crops of seed nt fre(|iient iiitei'vals. As with the hirelu's, seciU
iri«'' is the most important method of i-eprodiietion. Sn*>Hr maph' aw-
pears to e,stal)lish itself most siieees.sfnlly in the neuti'al diitf" formed -.T
deeaved l)eeeh leaves under i-elativelv (h'lise sha(h'. As a r-esult,

arc

(d' thi'ifty and dense sii^ar maple reproduetion oeeiii" nnch'r oM stands
in whieli IxM'eh forins a eonsi(h'rabh' propoi'tion of tlie nnxtnre.

I'ndei- siieli a stand in l*ottei- County, avera^inji approxnnately (ill
.\-ears (d" a«i(', .several I'eproduet ion plots have heen established. Tin-
foi-est tlooi- was uinforndy occupied hy a vijiorous and dense <>rowtli <>f

ei's

small suji'ar maple ran«iin^- in aji'e fi'om one to six \-ears. These tr
occu|)y this sit<' almo.st to the exclusion of other trees. A |)lot Id x 10
feet .s<|uare, contained 4()2 su<iai- maple, 14 heech, i> wild black chejiy.
and 51 sti'iped maple trees.

O— SuQA«« MArt.e

O— Wikb Black Cmcmmi

# — Bkcch

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'.'/.

'/. L'riinHliirtiov Plot (ilxd F<ft) l.orutrd At About the Center of
lutrh Siiiiiir, lilorf: l,'r/,r,.sriits ii S<iuarr Foot of Surface Area on tin

until Su/fiir

Forr.st Floor. It Shous Ihr Xiiuihrr ami IH.strihufiou of thr. S

Mo/tir, initl ItlaeL- Clurrit, tiiid lin eh 7
Lariii Arros in the Sorlhuooil.s.

rrrs ou <l Plot 'Hull Is Tjipirol of

This shows the extreme densit\- (d* tl

compai-ed with the mimbeis of th

le reproduction of this species a.'

(' seedlinos of beech and othei" tl

ees

lu'|)ro(luction studies show that the su«iai' maple, at least in it.s seedlin;.'
and small saplin-i' sta^c. is the most tolei-ant of the species charact.-r
istic of the beech-bii'eh-ma|>l<' type.

TlIK l>Ki:(ll-15lU(Mi-MAIM,K KOKKST Tvi'K IN 1 *KNNS VI A'AN I A '^'>

Small suo-ar maple saplin«:s were ob.servcd that had j^rown as much
jis ihrce and one-half feet in a sin«ile .season, undei- a hardwood stand
}i|, proximately 12.") yeai's of ajic A count of the species and inunbers
ol" ti-ees on several i-eproduction |)lots under this .same stand revealed
nioic than lOO.OdO small sujiar maple trees per acre. They ranged in
IhImIiI from six inches to five feet. These studies also showed VMS beech.
:;.!)].") wild black cherry, and :i,04r) white ash trees jxm- acre. The latter
.species of trees were, on the averajic smaller than the sujiar mai)le.
Kicid 7H)tes show that the sujiar maple is ordinarily the most a«><iressive
i(.produc<'i' in the beech-bii-ch-maple type, doubtless because of its ex-
liniie toleraiu-e and its excellent seeding (pialities.

WO()T»sr( KKK'S

JM'ecli trees jjroduce larji'c crops of nuts only at two- or three-year
iiitci'vals. The nuts are comparatively lar<i-e and palatable and much
(tf the seed produced is devoui'cd by animals. The beech is second only

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

36

The Beecii-Birch-^Iaple Forest Type in Pennsylvania

The Beeoh-Birch-Maple Forest Tvi'k in I*ennsvlvaxia

37

beech of root-sucker origin is located near Dushore, Pennsylvania. A
permanent sample i)lot has been established in this stand. Field not' s
l)rove that this method and seed reproduction are the two successful
methods of reproducing beech.

Wild black cherry, basswood, and white ash often i)roduce seed iii
abundance. These trees do not, however, bear heavy crops of se<'d
every year, neither is their seed so widely distributed. Ordinarily th*v
require much more light for germination and growth than do other iiti-
])oi'tant trees common to tlie beech-birch-maple type.

SPROUTS

Sprouting from the stump is a method of reproduction common
among all the trees of this type. Sprouts from small stumps are vigor-
ous. At times sprouts from large basswood and wild black cherry
stumps develop into fair-sized trees. How^ever, stands of sprout origin
too often break over and go to ])ieces at an early stage. Studies show
that the cleanest fastest-growing and best-formed trees are found in

Fig. 23. Under This Mature Beech-Birch-Maple Stand Were Counted More
Than 300,000 Small Trees per Acre Banging from 4 to 11 Inches in Height

stands that have develo])ed from seedling or seedling-si)rout growtl
By seedling-si)rout growth is meant small seetllings and saplings th;;
have been cut or broken off* near the ground level when the old stanc'
were lumbered. Under a i)ermanent system of forest tendance in I*eni
sylvania, stands of this type should be so handled as to procure repn
duction of seedling origin.

Snidies show that the densest stand of seedling trees was composed of
\vil(l black cherry. On an area of one scpuire yard 177 wild black cherry
trcts were found near Wilcox in Elk (Uninty. This is at the rate of
iiioiv than 800,000 per acre. The i)lot was established under an over-
storv of wild black cherry, sugar maple, beech, and hemlock, named in
order of numerical importance in the stand, which is api)roximately 1.j(>
vears of age. Small seedlings average four to 10 inches in height and
wore from one to five years of age.

Aim FJCIAL IMOSTOIJATJON

Field observations and notes show that where lumbering first took all
old-growth timber, and successive fires have destroyed young growth
over large areas, planting is the only recourse left.

Nursery and planting records show that a total of more than
2,r)0(),00() trees characteristic of this forest type, including approxi-
mately 2,000,000 white ash, nearly 500,000 sugar maple, and more than

Fig. 24. Lumbering Followed by Hepeated Burnings Have Made Plant-
ing Necessary on This Site in the BeechBirch-Maple Begion of Pennsylvania

50. 000 wild black cherry, liave been planted in Pennsylvania. Other
hardwood trees characteristic of the type have been grown in our
nurseries only in an experimental way.

if a region is best suited to growing beech, birch, and maple, or is
n(;\v occupied by this type, but was originally stocked with stands of
mi ;ed hardwoods and conifers and is in need of restocking, it should be
])1 'nted preferably to softwoods native to the region. In time the hard-

as

TnK HEKcii-BiitCH-MAi'i.K Forest Tvi'k in Pennsylvania

The Beech-Birch-Maple Forest Type in Pennsylvania

39

woods, hccHUse of their more mobile seeds and ay-^ressiveness will ajifiui
heeoiiie established. In the course of one or more rotations, such stands
will resemble those originally provided by nature, namely, mixed hard-
woods and softwoods. Because of its more ra})id growth, greater volnine
l)roduction, and better silvicultural conditions, this mixture Ls the most
desirable ])Ossible to obtain.

SUMMARY

1. Beech-birch-maple type is the term used to describe that general
forest condition encountered in noi'tliern Prnnsylvania in which the
forests are eom|)osed chietly of beech, birch, and maple trees. The
principal trees in the type are : sugar maple, yellow birch, black bircli,
and beech, with important associated trees, such as wild black cherry,
white ash, and basswood. Tiiis natural grouping of trees is sometimes
desci'ibed as tiie noi'thern hai'dwood forest.

2. The beech-birch-mai)le forest type is distinctly northern, very im-
|)or!ant in the Lake States, the Adirondacks, \ew England, and nortli
eiTi Pennsylvania, i)articularly in the counties of Potter, McKean.
Forest, Tioga, Klk, Cameron, Lycoming, and Sullivan. Other exten-
sive areas occur in Wayne, Suscpiehanna, Bradford, Monroe, Cleai-
tield, Cambria, and Somerset ('ounties. Widely-detached outposts arc
found in Franklin and Lancaster Counties. (See map showing distil
bution of the beech-l)irch-maple type in Pennsylvania, on page 8. )

']. The area of the beech-birch-majde region in Pennsylvania occu
pies nearly 7,872,800 acres. Large continuous tracts in north-central
I Pennsylvania cover a total area of 4-,3r)2.72J) acres. Broken or farm
woodlot areas, and the region where the oak-chestnut grows in mixtur;*
with the beech-birch-maple type foi-m together an area of 3.170,071
acres.

4. The present range of the beech-l)ircli-maple type in Pennsylvania
corres])onds to the original white pine and hemlock forests, in whieli
grew scattered specimens and small groups of beech, birch, and mai)lt'.

The spruce-fir, the white |)ine-hendock, and the aspen-tire cherry tyjx's
are found in the same regions as the beech-birch-mai)le type.

The beech-birch-maple type grows best at elevations of 1,000 to 2,r)(i()
feet, where the normal annual rainfall totals 40 to 50 inches, and tin-
annual mean temjXM'ature is 44 to 41) degrees.

5. The original forest of north-central Pennsylvania was composed
of a dense growth of white i)ine and hemlock, mixed with sugar niaph .
black birch and yellow birch, beech, wild black cherry, ash, and bas.-
wood. When the virgin forests were tirst lumbered, white pine an i
hemlock were the most valuable trees, and w<'re cut most heavilv. Th '

haxlwoods were favored, not only by being cut less heavily, but by be-
ing more rc^sistant to fire and more aggressive reproducers. Hence,
they took possession of the areas they now occupy, almost to the exclu-
sion of softwoods.

(i. The disa])pearance of white pine and hemlock from vast areas in
the northern forest region is due to the great fires that have followed
hinibering. If fire is kei)t out of beech-birch-maple stands, where scat-
tered softwood s(.hh\ trees are available, young softwoods will establish
tlicniselves under the |)ro1ecti{)n of the overstory of hardwoods. The
ln.„i]< (.j^ — one of the most tolerant of all native trees — develops under
comparatively young hai'dwood stands. White pine, less tolerant, does
not begin to develo]) in the same stand until the hardwood is older,
when openings develop between the crowns and permit more sunlight
to reach the forest floor. Proper handling assures this desirable hard-
wood-softwood mixture.

7. The beech-bii'ch-maple type gi'ows moi-e rapidly than it is gen-
»'ially believed. Maximum height growth usually comes before the
fortieth, and seldom after the sixtieth, year. Growth in diameter not
only continues, but holds its own and even increases for many years
after maximum height growth is past, (ireatest volume growth is made
between the twentietli and sixtieth years. After the sixtieth year, the
total volume growth increases very slowly. However, most of the (jual-
ity growth comes after the pei-iod of maxinuun volume growth is past.

S. The best rate of growth is made by mixed stands, in which the
overstory is composed of smdi rapid-growing light-demanding ti'ees as
wild black cherry, ash, and basswood, among and under which sugar
maple, yellow birch, and black birch develop. In Elk County, a 40-
year-old stand, chiefly black cherry, grew at the rate of 131 cubic feet
per acre per vear. In the same localitv a 4r)-vear stand, dominated bv

> I • • ft •

yellow birch, produced only r)b cubic feet per acre |)er year. Both
grew under similar conditions. The best mixture is softwoods and
hardwoods of all degrees of tolerance, similar to those nature originally
provided.

10. Natural even-aged fully-stocked stands of beech-birch-maple, be-
ginning at the twentieth to the thirtieth year and continuing to ihe
fiftieth or sixtieth year, will yield one cord or more of wood per acre
per year. Because of the relativelv small average diameter attained bv

' ft c^ t

the individual trees in these stands, the yield of a stand younger than
40 !o (iO years is best suited to chemical-, pulp-, and fuel-wood. Stands
f)0 to 80 years of age will yield approximately 5,000 cubic feet. The
M'^'intity of saw timber in such stands ranges from 50 to 80 j)er cent
<>l 'he total volume. With a bettei* mixture either of hardwoods or
liaidwoods and softwoods the period of maximum vield mav be con-

40

TiiK Bi:i:(Ii-P)IH(ii-Mai'lk Fokkst Type in I^exnsviaaxia

si(lora})lv iiicTCiisiMl. The volume in cubic feet for fullv-stoeked staii Is
of M <j:iv('Ji a<i(' Jind site varies eoiisiderahly with the proportion of m\\-
tui-e.

11. The principal products supplied by these forests are lunihcr.
chemical- and j)ulp-\vo()d, fuel-wood, maple syrup and su<r{ir. To a
lessei- exteiil natural birch oil is ])roduced. Chemical- and pulp-wood
products produce such imi)ortant articles as alcohol, dru«»:s for the
l)harmaeist, j)aj)er, ;ind other products.

12. Stauds of see(lliu«»s or seedlin«»-s})rout ori<iin are necessary to
pr( (luce hi«rh-(piality wood. The beecli-birch-maple type produces
tlu'ifty and vi^'^orous si)routs only when cut wliile younji'. At times
I)asswoo(l and wild black clierry j)roduce from lar<>(' stumi)s sprouts
that «ir()w to tree size. Stands of s[)r()ut origin break up at au enily

aji'c

1^5. iu ohl-j^rowth foi'ests of tiiis ty[)e ai'c to be found dense stands
of seedliuji' trees, often inimbei'ing- 1(1(1,00(1 to tiie acre, tiifd are ready
lo shoot U|) pi'(miptly after tlie mature trees iiave been cut. In oii',*
instaiU'C more tiiau (S0(»,()0() snudl trees were present per acre. In cle;ir-
cuttinji' operations the small trees or seedliuiis are often cut or broken
otf near the jiround. These small ti'ces send up sprouts almost imme-
diati'ly and foi-m dense natural even-a<ied stands.

14. The beech-birch-maple t\pe emplo\s thi'ee imiJoiMaul metiiods of
i-epi-oduetion. In oi'dei* of their relative importance tliey are: seedinii,
^proutinjr, and I'oot-suckering. Maple and bird! seed freely and sprout
viji'orously. The beech seeds less fre(|uently and s|)routs less vi«i'or-
ously, a compensating factor being its j)roduction of large numbers nf
vigorous root-suckei's. Associated species — wild l)lack (diei-ry, white
ash, and basswood — also seed frcfjuenlly, i)i-oducing large crops of
viable seed.

1."). Seleelive cutting (d' the best trees like that practiced in tlie ]).-ist.
and (d<'ai'-cutting of large areas, should l)e dise(Miraged. Inferioi- ([u.d-
ity slamls follow both practices.

Witii care in lumbeidng, beecii-bircli-maple stands will maintain iheii'
quality in i-eproduction, and mny even show a gradual improvement.

The best trees in tiiis type are fast gi'owers ; lience, they assume a
commanding position in the new stand.

Ceitain conditions may re(piire a modified systein of cleai'-cuttinu',
for cleai--cutting h'uds itsidf best to even-aged stands.

Scdection forestry, or s(une modification of it. is a(lnurai)ly aibipted "
ihe handling of the beech-birch-ma|)le type. Carcd'ul removal of ^ -
lecte<l ti-ees makes it possible to control the c(UMjM)sit ion of succeedii i:
stands, and goes fai* to guarantee a sustained yield of iiu'reasing (pialii .

TIGHT BINDING

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PROPEETY OF. THE
T>mTTJA. STATE LIBRAHY

THE CLEARFIELD
State Forest Tree Nursery

By

William F. Dague

District Forester, Moshannon State Forest

Clearfield, Pennsylvania

BULLETIN 47

COMMONWEALTH OF PENNSYLVANIA
DEPARTMENT OF FORESTS AND WATERS

Charles E. Dorworth, Secretary
Joseph S. lUick, Deputy Secretary and State Forester

Harrisburg, Pennsylvania
1928

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THE CLEARFIELD
State Forest Tree Nursery

By

William F. Dague

District Forester, Moshannon State Forest

Clearfield, Pennsylvania

BULLETIN 47

COMMONWEALTH OF PENNSYLVANIA

DEPARTMENT OF FORESTS AND WATERS

Charles E. Dorworth, Secretary
Joseph S. Illick, Deputy Secretary and State Forester

Harrisburg, Pennsylvania
1928

FOREWORD

On June 13, 1898 Pennsylvania purchased her first land for State
forest purposes. Since then there have been purchased a total of
1 18G,000 acres. A survey of the land purchased showed that large
areas were in urgent need of reforestation at the time of their acqui-
sition. To restore these cut-over and burned-over areas to production
necessitated the planting of trees. Not having any available trees
for planting, it became necessary to grow them in forest tree nur-
series.

The first forest tree nursery operated by the State was established
at Mont Alto in Franklin County in 1901. With the enlargement
of the State forests the demand for forest tree planting stock grew
rapidly. This necessitated a corresponding increase in nursery pro-
duction. To meet this demand other nurseries had to be established.
Among these additional nurseries was the Clearfield Forest Tree
Nursery, started in a mountain pasture in Clearfield County in 1011.
From a small beginning this forest tree nursery has grown into the
largest now operated by the Pennsylvania Department of Forests
and Waters. The Clearfield nursery covers about 20 acres, and has
an annual output of approximately eight million trees. Since its
establishment about thirty-seven million seedlings and transplants
have been shipped from it. These trees have helped in a substantial
way to bring back to production thousands of acres of State-owned
and privately-owned forest land in all parts of the Commonwealth.

Since its establishment, the Clearfield Nursery has been in charge
of William F. Dague, a graduate of the Pennsylvania State Forest
Scholl in the class of 1008. In this bulletin District Forester
Dague gives the history, describes the conditions, outlines the opera-
tions, and discusses the problems of the Clearfield Forest Tree
Nursery in an interesting and accurate way. I recommend this bul-
letin most heartily to those interested in the growing of forest tree
seedlings and transplants.

Joseph S. Illick,
State Forester of Pennsylvania

THE CLEARFIELD STATE FOREST TREE

NURSERY

CONTENTS

The Clearfield State Forest Tree Xiirsery

ITow the Soil is l*repared

How tlie Seed-beds are Laid Out

The Construction of the Seed-lieds ,

The Menace of ''l)amj)injr-()rt"' and Shedding,

How tlie Seed-beds are Planted

Handling the Beds after Germination Occurs.

How Seedlings are Transplanted

Digging ihe Seedlings

How Eight Million Trees are Sliipi)ed

The Kinds of Trees Troduced at Clearfield...

Keeping K.vjienses Down

The Cost of a Ve;ir's 0]>erations

Total (N)st of the Clearfield Nursery

I'age
7
12
14
16
17
19
22

25

2(>
20
21)
30

:n

I

THE Clearfield Forest Tree Nursery, located on the Tenfield
Pike, nine miles northwest of Clearfield, in the Moshannon
State Forest, is the largest forest tree nursery in Pennsyl-
vania. At present (1028) it contains 20 acres of forest tree seedlings
and transi)lants. Its annual production, which in recent years has
been growing at the rate of nearly a million trees per annum, is
now approximately 8,000,000 seedlings. Since this nursery was
started in 1011 as a tiuy, experimental planting, approximately
37,000,000 trees have been shipped from it. The number of seedlings
and transplants now standing in the nursery totals as many more.
Thus this nursery has successfully produced nearly 75,000,000 little
forest trees. Soine of the practices evolved here have everywhere
become standard i)ractices in the raising of forest tree seedlings.

Yet this nursery, which has been so signally successful, started
with failure. Its creation was due to the Hon. S. B. Elliott, who was
a member of both the Pennsylvania Legislature and the old State
Forest Keservation (\)mniission. lie was an enthusiastic believer in
forest tree ])lanting, even in the days when very few people had any
faith in such a ])ractice. The region in which the Clearfield State
Forest Tree Nursery is located was then sadly in need of replanting.
Destructive hnnbering had entirely wiped out the magnificent stands
of pine and hemlock timber that originally covered the entire district.
This timber had been replaced largely by scrub or other inferior
growths of trees. :Mr. Elliott's thought was to grow little forest
Irees right on the si)ot and plant them in the surrounding forest area.

MOUNTAIN PASTURE SELECTED FOR SITE

The site selected was a plot that was part of an old clearing made
in the lumbering days and later used as a mountain ])asture. There
were many old stumps on the area and <piite a sprout growth. The
land was imi)overished and in poor condition. During the preceding
year, 1010, a forest ranger who lived nearby had made a rough potato
]»atch here. He had removed the largest of the stones and given
Ihe patch some cultivation. Here were prepared 30 seedbeds, each
4x12 feet in size, and making a total area of one tenth of an acre.

Thrifty seedling beds in the Clearfield Forest Tree Nursery

A block of spruce transplants

I

The seed sown was secured from the Mont Alto State Forest Tree
Nursery, being stock that remained after the planting of the seed-
beds there. It was received at the Clearfield nursery too late in
the season to make a successful planting. The weather had become
vciy dry and there was no water available for sprinkling. Never-
theless, an effort was made to start a nursery. Germination was
poor, and the planting was practically a failure. Mr. Elliott, how-
ever, insisted that another trial be made. The following spring the
nursery was doubled in size, seed was secured early, and no effort
was spared to make the attempt a success.

OVERHEAD IRRIGATION INSTALLED

That it was a success is shown by the fact that in 1914, just two
years later, the nursery was increased in size to a full acre. Also,
an overhead irrigation plant — the first sprinkling system used in
the State in a forest tree nursery — was installed that same year.

Over-head sprinkling system in Clearfield Forest Tree Nursery

'I' wo years later the nursery was expanded to four acres, and the
sprinkling system enlarged to cover the entire area. In 1917 addi-
lional clearings were made, on the opposite side of the road, and
in 1918 a half acre was added for the raising of ornamentals. Stead-
ily the size of this nursery was increased, until now it occupies the
-0 acres mentioned, all of which are under irrigation. When this
<Mitire area is fully utilized, the annual capacity of the nursery will
j)robablv be fullv 10,000,000 forest trees.

WMiM.«'.iJ'^

* 4 *

^»S^S^i:i»^affr .

Thrifty seedling beds in the Clearfield Forest Tree Nursery

A block of spruce transplants

'llic seed sown w;is sc^ciummI (roni llic Moiit All<> Slate Foiesl Tree
Nursery, iKMnj;- slock llial reiiiained afler llie piantinj; of llie s<hmI
1m. is UuMc. II was received al the Clearlield nursery too late in
the season to make a successful planting. The weallier had become
V. IV drv and ther(» was no water available for sprinkling. Never-
llicless, an ett'ort was made to start a nursery. Oermination was
jH.or, and the planting- was ]»ractically a failure. Mr. Elliott, how-
ever. insislcMl that another trial he made. The f(dlowin^ spring; the
nursery was douhle<l in size, seed was secured early, and no effort
Wiis spared to make the a 1 tempi a success.

OVERHEAD IRRIGATION INSTALLED

Tliat it was a success is shown by the fact that in 11)14, just two
years laler. llu' nursery was increased in size to a full acre. Also,
ail (jverhead irri.ualicm jdanl - the first s]>i'inklinj;- system used in
the Slate in a forest tree nurserv — was installed that same year.

Over-head sprinkling system in Clearfield Forest Tree Nursery

Two veai's laler ihe nurserv was expanded lo four acres, and the
>|irinklin«n" system enlar<;(Ml to cover the enlii-e ai'ca. In IIMT addi-
iionul clearinjis w<M'e made, on the <»p|M»silc side of Ihe i'<»ad, and
ill IIMN a half aci*e was added for the raisinj*' of ornamentals. Stead-
ily Ihe size of this nursery was incr(»ased, until now it occupies the
■-'> acres nuMilioned, all of which are under irrij»ation. When this
'•iilire ai-ea is fully ulilized, the annual cai>acily of ihe nursery will
'•robablv be fullv lO.OOO.lMM) f(U'est trees.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

10

CLEARFIELD NURSERY HAS PECULIAR CONDITIONS
The Clearfield State Forest Tree Nursery, like every other nursery,
has certain conditions iiecnliar to itself, some of which are favorable,'
while some are unfavorable. One of the rather unusual conditions
at this nursery is the plaj^ue of deer. These animals have now be-
come so numerous in this region that it is wholly impossible to
raise anything that is not protected by deer-pi-oof fences. This
situation affects the forest as well as the nursery. This immediate
neighborhood would still be benefitted immensely by reiilanting. Yet
it is utterly futile to make such plantings. The deer eat the little
forest trees almost as soon as these are set out. For this and other
reasons, practically all the ti-ees grown at the Clearfield nursery are
now shipped away, for planting in other State forests, or for use by
private planters. The early plantings near the Clearfield nursery
made m 1918 and 1914 with the first seedlings produced there, be-
fore deer were so numerous, have grown thriftily. The red pine
plantation then made opposite the ranger's house has now reached
a height of 20 to 25 feet and is a beautiful sight. It is proof con-
clusive of the value of forest tree planting.

GOOD WATER IS ABUNDANT
One of the favorable conditions at this nursery is the good supply
of water that has been made available through the utilization of an
old sawmill dam neaiby, and the in.stallalion of a pumping outfit
and springier lines. Another favorable point is the fine shipping
facilities. Clearfield is nine miles distant and Penfield seven. Four

Trees are transported by truck from the Clearfield nursery to the
shipping points at Clearfield and Penfield

11

dilferent lines of railroads enter these two towns. They are the
Pennsylvania, the New York Central, the Buffalo, Rochester and
Pittsburgh, and the Buffalo and Susquehanna. Trees for shipment
ni'c hauled in motor trucks to these two distributing points. Such
unusual shipping facilities make is possible for purchasers of trees
to get their plants at very small expense for transportation.

The Clearfield State Forest Tree Nursery is situated in the Alle-
olieny Plateau region, on land that is nearly level yet slopes slightly
toward the north. Its elevation is about 2200 feet above sea level.
The country for miles around is uninhabited forest land, occupied
by second-growth stands of hardwoods and white pines. The greater
part of the 20 acres that comprises this nursery was cleared, pre-
pared, and seeded for the first time, in the making of this nursery.

SOIL CONDITIONS ARE IDEAL

The soil here is DeKalb stony-sandy loam. The surface soil con-
sists of a light-gray loamy sand, three to four inches deep, which rests
upon a yellowish sandy loam that extends to a depth of eight inches.
The subsoil is a heavy yellow sandy loam, frequently with a notice-
able content of silt. Bedrock is encountered at a depth of 40 to 60
inches. When the land was cleared, varying quantities of sandstone
and conglomerate fragments were found strewn throughout the sur-
face layers. The soil is an ideal one for the raising of coniferous
seedlings, which do best in a sandy loam. Such land does not bake
or heave and is easy of culture.

The climate, too, is favorable, being comparatively uniform. The
winters are long and cold. Frequently the temperature falls below
10°F. The mean temperature for the winter is 24.4°F. The sum-
mers are pleasant. The mean summer temperature is 08°, while the
maximum is 08°.

Rainfall is abundant. The average ])reci])itation is 44 inches per
annum. This is well distributed throughout the year, but naturally
is heaviest durinc: the summer months. The mean rainfall for Julv
and August is 18.12 inches. The snowfall is heavy, usually covering
the beds during the entire winter.

For the raising of seedlings from seed obtained from forest trees
of the temperate and frigid zones, the climate is ideal. The growing
season is several weeks shorter than is the season in most eastern
nurseries. Although this has a tendency to produce smaller trees,
tlie altitude and climate are such that greener healthier and hardier
trees can be produced here than are produced in nurseries that have
ii longer growing season.

12

13

HOW THE SOIL IS PREPARED

The first step in preparing this nursei-y was naturally the cleariiijr
of the land. There were many stumps, some of which were larg^
The smaller ones were pulled out by a tractor. The larger ones
were blown out with dynamite. The big stones were collected and
carted away. The ground was then plowed deep, and the roots

Pulling stumps from prospective nursery site

gathered and burned. In preparing additions to this nursery, it is
the practice to fit the ground for seeding by sowing buckwheat and
turning it under at the blossom stage. To enrich the soil still fur-
ther, a mixture of well-rotted manure and woods soil is spread on
the ground. When it is possible, the woods soil is gathered from
under a stand of locust trees. Such soil is the best of all woods soil,
because it contains nitrogen gathered by the leguminous locust
trees. This material is collected in the fall and composted with
the manure. Ten tons are applied to the acre. Acid phosphate is
also used, and likewise bonemeal. In 1928 commercial supplies of
dried peat were secured. This will be used hereafter as a growth
accelerator, by mixing it with the surface soil. Peat prevents dry
ing out, lightens heavy soils, holds moisture, and aids soil drainage.
The careful preparation that has always been given to the soi!
has done much to insure the success of the Clearfield nursery The
Ideal seed-bed for forest tree seedlings should be light, loamy soil
well packed with humus and plant food. Such ground absorbs
moisture readily, holds it perfectly, drains well, and can be worked
easily and promptly after rains. Recent experiments made to de

teimine the effect of rotting organic matter upon the moisture-hold-
ino- capacity of the soil, show that 100 pounds of sand will hold only
25 pounds of water, 100 pounds of clay will retain 50 pounds of
moisture, whereas 100 pounds of humus or decaying organic matter
will hold 100 pounds of water. In addition to keeping the soil moist,
added humus makes it light and porous, so that roots and sprouts
can penetrate it with ease. Humus, of course, largely increases the
supply of plant food. It is obvious that the careful treatment of
the soil at the Clearfield nursery is the foundation of all the cul-
tural processes.

WEED GROWTH MUST BE SMOTHERED BEFORE PLANTING

In preparing a seed-bed, it is most essential that sod should not
be turned under and trees planted in the seed-bed the same season.
The buried grass will send up new leaves, which will choke out the
forest tree seedlings unless the beds are weeded constantly. The
hand-weeding of beds is very costly. By growing a crop like buck-
wheat or cowpeas, weeds and grass are smothered out. If the buck-
wheat or peas are themselves turned under before they produce seed,
the ground is freed from weeds, put into fine physical condition, and
packed with plant food. In preparing a plot for seeding, it is some-
times possible to turn under three green crops in a season. This
material will be well rotted by spring, and will improve the texture
of the soil greatly. Coarse, unrotted manure should never be ap-
plied to the beds immediately before seeding. It is sure to cause
trouble in the working of the beds, as well as the loss of plants in
drv weather.

CULTIVATION MUST BE CONSTANT

Indeed, the cultivation of the soil in preparing a seed-bed should
be done with meticulous care. At the Clearfield nursery this culti-
vation begins with the removal of the loose stones. The ground is
then plowed as deep as the plow point can be made to run. Stones
brought to the surface in plowing are ])icked up. The plowed ground
is then worked repeatedly with a spring tooth harrow or a disc
ImiTow, first lengthwise of the furrows, then crosswise, then zigzag,
in an effort to level the area. Stones are again hand-picked. A
spike tooth harrow is used in an effort to smooth and level the ground,
nnd the soil is further pulverized and smoothed with a cultipacker.
Tliis implement is kept going until the soil is as fine as it can be
made. Where inequalities in the surface exist, a drag or float is
w^ed upside down, in an effort to fill up the low places.

No efl'ort is spared to get the ground for the seed-beds. Hot only
fine and smooth, but also perfectly level. Time spent in preparing

14

a proper seed-bed is easily saved in the subsequent working of those
beds. Furthermore, the proper conditioning of the seed-bed may
make a difference of many thousands in the prospective stands of
tree seedlings.

HOW THE SEED-BEDS ARE LAID OUT

The actual laying out of the beds is done with the same care and
exactitude. After the soil is thoroughly prepared, it is the practice
at the Clearfield nursery first to stake out the beds. Four feet has
been found to be the most convenient width for these, and is tlie
standard width of all seed-beds in the Pennsylvania State forest tree
nurseries. This is the maximum width for convenient and easy
liand-weeding. Formerly seed-beds were made 4 x 25 feet in size,
thus giving a unit area of 100 square feet to the bed. The practice
at the Clearfield nursery is now to make the beds four feet wide and
as long as the planting space permits. The longest rows there are
about 280 feet. The paths between beds are two and a half feet
wide. The alh\vs at the ends of the rows may be of various Avidths,
but sliould not be less than nine feet wide. Tliere must be sufifieient
room in these alleys to permit the piling of shades and other ma-
terials, and the free passage of motor trucks, teams, carts, etc.

PERMANENT MARKERS SHOULD BE USED

When l)eds are to !)e used year after year, the corners should be
permanently marked and numbered with iron pins, set just beyond
the true corners of tlie nursery beds, across the end alleys or alonj];
the nursery fence, where the })ins are out of the way of cultivation.
When a line is drawn connecting two of tliese opposite corner pins,
the line marks one side of the nursery bed. Where there are many
small beds composing one long row, permanent pins are set in the
same way along the other two sides of the nursery, so that when
lines are drawn between two opi)osite pins, they form the end sides
of the nursery beds. These ])ermanent markers or stakes save much
time when it comes to laying out the beds. Wooden stakes used
to mark beds temporarily should be one by two inches and 18 inches
long. These are set at the corners of the little beds and left theie
until the beds have been thrown up and raked smooth. Then they
are removed.

After the stakes for the beds are in jiosition, lines are stretched
to indicate the exact boundaries of the beds. It is very important
that the stakes along a given boundary be exactly in line, in order
that the subsequent working of the beds be not impeded. When the
lines are in place and drawn taut, the soil from the paths is thrown
up on the beds to a depth of three to six inches. In small nurseri< s

Seedling beds and nursery paths are made in one operation
by use of a double-mold-board plow

:■

Nursery beds are raked down in the same fashion as the home garden,

preparatory to sowing

14

a, jnopcr seed bed is easily saved in the siibsecjuent workintij of those
beds. Furthermore, the pi-oper oonditioniiijj^ of the seedbed in;i\'
make a dilference of many thousands in the i)i'osi)ective stands of
tree seedlings.

HOW THE SEED-BEDS ARE LAID OUT

The jictnal laying out of the beds is done with the same care ami
exactitude. After the soil is thoroughly prej)are(l, it is the jnactirc
at the Cleartiehl nursei-y first to stake out the beds. Four feet lins
been found to be the most convenient width for these, and is tin*
standard width of all seed-beds in the Pennsylvania State forest tr<M'
nurseries. This is the maximum width for convenient and easy
hand weeding. Formerly seed beds wei-e made 4 x 12.*) feet in siz«',
thus giving a unit area of 100 squjire feet to the bed. The ])racti(('
at the Clearfield nursery is now to make the beds four feet wide and
as long as the planting space i)ermits. The longest rows there arc
about 280 feet. The ])aths between beds are two and a half tVct
\vi<le. The alleys at the en<ls of the rows luay be <>f various widllis.
but should not b<' less than nine feet wide. Th«M*e must be sutlicieiil
r<M>ni in these alleys to i»crmit the ]Hling of shades and oth<*r ma-
terials, ;nid the {'n^i' passage of motor ti'uc ks, teams, cjirts, etc.

Seedling beds and nursery paths are made in one operation
by use of a double-mold-board plow

PERMANENT MARKERS SHOULD BE USED

When beds ai-e to be used year after year, the corncM-s should he
l)ermanently maiked and numbei*ed with ii-on ]>ins, set just bey«Mnl
the true coi'uers of tin* nurserv beds, across the en<l allevs or ahmi:
the nursery fence, where the idns are out of the wav of cultivation.
When a line is drawn ('(^meeting two of these o]>]>osite corner ]Mns,
the line marks one si<le of the nuisery bed. Where there are maiiv
small beds comjjosiug one long i(>w, ]H'rmanent jdns are si^i in the
same way along the other two sides of the nursery, so that when
lines are drawn between two opjjosite jdns, they form the end sides
of the nursery beds. These jjcrmanent markers or stakes save nnnli
time when it comes to laying out the beds. Wood<Mi stakes used
t(» mai'k beds tem]M)rarily should be one by two inches and 18 inches
long. These are set at the corners n\' the little beds and left theiv
until the beds have been thrown up and raked smo(»th. Then tlnv
ai'c removed.

After the stakes for Ww beds ai'c in jjosition, lines are stretche.l
to indicate the exact boundaries <»f the beds. It is very importaii
that the stakes along a given boundary be exactly in line, in onh r
that the subsecpient working of the beds be not impeded. When tli-
lines are in place and drawn taut, the soil from the paths is thrown
up on the beds to a depth of three to six inches. Tn small nurseries

Nursery beds are raked down in the same fashion as the home garden,

preparatory to sowing

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

16

17

this is done by hand, with sharp-pointed spades; but at the Clearfieh]
nursery the paths are made with a specially designed plow that has
a double mold board. End paths are not spaded or plowed up.

THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE SEED-BEDS

The greatest care is now given to the actual construction of the

beds. Again the lines are checked, to make certain that everything

is right. Then laborers with rakes, working in pairs, one man on

each side of the bed, begin to smooth and level the soil. This is

carefully pulverized, and all stones and clods are raked to the paths,

for subsequent removal in wheell)arrows. The beds are usually

raked three to four inches beyond the side lines; but the greatest

care is taken to see that the completed beds are exactly four feet

wide, and the sides perfectly straight. A stake out of line catches

implements and garments, and impedes the workers. An untrue

path shunts surface water into, and sometimes through, the planted

beds. If there is much slope to the ground, the resulting damage

may be serious.

The completed l)eds at the Clearfield nursery are about four inches
higher than the paths. In moist locations, or where the soil is heavj^
It may be necessary to make the beds higher still, to insure drainage'
The surface of the beds should be perfectly level. If the ground in
the nursery slopes, the beds must of course carry the slope of the
paths, but the surface of the beds should be perfectly smooth and
even. Depressions that have not been filled bv the cultipacker and
harrow, can now be filled by throwing in well pulverized soil.

BEDS MUST BE LEVEL OR SLIGHTLY ROUNDED
Beds should never be lower in the middle than thev are at the sides
Low bed centers retard drainage and cause ^'damping-ofl'." In li<dit
sandy soils, like that at the Clearfield nursery, the tops of the beds
may be level ; but on heavy clay soils, the surface should be sliohtly
convex, being one to one-and-a-half inches higher in the center "than
at the edges. Heavy soils may be improved by mixing sand char-
coal braze, or commercial peat with it, before the beds are raked
The practice of continually adding considerable amounts of humus
to the soil, as is done at the Clearfield nursery, will do much to
lighten any ground. The degree of care necessary in finishing a bed
depends to some extent upon the nature of the seed to be sown For
sowing small seed, such as that of pine, spruce, or larch, very fine
smooth beds are desirable, such as a gardener would make fo^ seed-
ing lettuce.

In all seed-bed making the aim is to obtain a thoroughly-worked
mellow soil for a depth of about 10 inches. The first cost of a thor-
oughly prepared bed is only a fraction of a cent more per square foot
than is the cost of a poorly-prepared bed. The latter may result in
the loss of thousands of seedlings. The loss of even a single thou-
sand will amount to more than the added cost of proper preparation.
Fuilhermore, the expense in succeeding jears will be greatly reduced
by a thorough preparation when the beds are thrown up. A thin
layer of compost or bonemeal may be worked into the soil in this
pi'ci)aration.

THE MENACE OF DAMPING-OFF AND SHEDDING

The so-called "damping-oft" diseases attack seedlings of nearly all
tree species as soon as they emerge from the ground, or even before.
The specific fungi causing this loss are legion. Some are wholly
subterranean in their attack, others weaken the plants just at the
surface of the soil, while still other forms attack the crowns of the
seedlings. They cause the needles of conifers to draw together at
the tips and quickly wither. In every planting there are practically
always losses due to damping-ofl', though sometimes such losses are
negligible. These fungi, it is safe to say, are the most serious source
of loss in forest tree nurseries. Sometimes practically every tree in
a promising bed may be killed within two or three days.

Too much heat and moisture cause the activity of these fungi. It
is readily apparent, therefore, how important proper drainage and
ventilation are in the production of forest tree seedlings. Hence
the need to work the soil so carefully, until it is perfectly porous
and loose and shaped so that it facilitates drainage.

ACIDITY IN THE SEED-BED PREVENTS GREAT LOSSES
As the forest floor, in a state of nature, is always damp and moist,
one may well wonder how any seedlings in the woodlands ever
escape the dami)ing-off process. The forest floor is acid, as well as
moist, the acidity resulting from the decay of vegetable matter. It
has been found that artificially-induced aciditv in a seed-bed also
prevents serious loss from damping-off'. Hence, Avhen there is likely
to be much loss from this cause, treatment of the soil with aluminum
sulj>hate, dilute sulphuric acid, formaldehyde, or other similar
chemicals, may prevent or limit damage from this cause.

These chemicals must be used in the correct proportions, how-
ever, yet it is not possible to lay down any rule for determining
those proportions. Different soils differ in native acidity, and the
acKl added must be varied wath those differences. In other words,
the nurseryman simply supplements the acid already in the bed.

18

19

If what he adds is too weak, his solution will be ineffective; if it
is too strong, it may kill the little trees. Each nurseryman must
determine, through experiment, the proper j)roj)ortions for his ]Kir-
ticular soil. When dam])ing-off is noticed, i)romj)t spraying Avith
Bordeaux mixture may prevent serious loss.

The removal of shades from the beds during and immediately afler
wet weather, thus drying out the beds quickly and reducing the soil
moisture, is also heli)ful. But as soon as the soil on the surface
of the beds seems dry, the shades must be replaced, or loss will
result from the intensity of the direct sunlight on the tender seed
lings. When these are six weeks old they are usually woody enouuli
to resist damping-off fungi. ''Shedding" is a late summer disease.

SHEDDING USUALLY ATTACKS CONIFERS

Another difficulty that little trees encounter, in late August uv
September of their first year, is called '^shedding." It appears earlier
in the season during the second and third years. This disease com
monly attacks conifers, particularly white pines. It is w'orst in
densely-stocked beds. It may destroy all seedlings in considerable
areas. The trouble is most serious in the middle of the beds. The
leaves turn yellow and wither. This disease resembles sun-scorch,
but differs from it in that shedding attacks the tree from the ground
upward, while sun-scorch begins at the tips and works downward as
the hot sun scorches the nnper leaves of tlip trpf= Anvthin<^" +l>at
can be done in the making of the seed-beds that will prevent or lessen
the attacks of damping off" fungi or the shedding disease, is very
evidently time well spent.

One of the practices in bed making at the Clearfield nursery,
which is standard in all the State forest tree nurseries, is to use
a seeding frame in sowing the beds. This is a frame of timber,
4 X 12 feet in size, made of tw^o by one inch boards set on edge, with
cross strips for handles. It is set exactly on the side lines of the
bed, and the seeding is done within the frame. This insures Iho
seeding of a strip exactly four feet wide. As fast as sections mv
seeded, the frame is moved along the row. To give the center plants
more light and space and thus i)rovide better ventilation for the in-
terior of the beds, one and sometimes two tind^er strips, each six
inches wide, are run lengthwise of the frame in the center. No
seed can be sow n in the spaces occui)ied by these middle tind)er strips.
Thus narrow longitudinal unseeded lanes are provided in the stands
of seedlings. In addition to helping to prevent damping-off and'
shedding, these open strips allow cultivation along the centers of the
beds.

HOW THE SEED-BEDS ARE PLANTED

Seeding must be done as exactly as possible. The seed for each
bed is weighed out and sow^ed by hand. It is scattered very thinly
and the bed gone over twice. This usually gives very even distri-
bution. To guard against too dense stands, which tend to produce
damping-off, and to secure sturdier seedlings by giving each jilant
m(>re room for growth, the amount of seed sown is kept to the mini-
mum. At the Clearfield nursery the quantities have been reduced
so that at present only eight ounces of red pine seed are used to sow
100 square feet. Pitch pine, Scotch pine, and Norway spruce are
seeded at the same rate. Seven ounces of white spruce seed are used.
Japanese larch is seeded with 10 ounces to 100 square feet, and 12
ounces of white pine seed are used.

Germination tests are made before seeding, just as a farmer tests
seed corn, and detailed records are kept as to the percentage of ger-
mination, sources of seed, its ])rice, conditicm, etc. These records,
coupled with the records of the stands secured from the seed, should
in time be most valuable in pointing to the sources of the best seed
su]q)lies.

BIG ROLLER BEST FOR FIRMING BEDS

AVhen the seeds have been scattered on the beds, they are pressed
into the soil and the beds firmed by the use of a large roller, four
feet in diameter. A large roller is used because it has been found
that a small roller pushes the seed before it, and so produces uneven
stands of seedlings. In small nurseries seed-beds can be firmed with
a pressing board, 4^ x 2^ feet in size, Avhich is manipulated by two
men, one on either side of the bed, to move the board and step on it.
Whei-e heavy ground must be used for seed-beds, it may be desirable
to have a roller with a slightly concave surface, so as to produce a
rounded bed to f.acilitate drainage.

When the seed has been thus pressed firmly into the soil, it must
he promptly covered. Seed should be buried to the depth of one or
two times the length of its greatest dimension. With small seed,
like that of some of the pines, which must be covered very lightly, it
is no easy task to apply the covering evenly and to a given depth.
At the Clearfield nursery this is done with an improved lime
si)reader. A sifting box has also been used. This is carried by tw o
men, one on either side of the row . Such a box is 2x8 feet and 10
inches deep, with handles at either end, and a wire-mesh bottom.
Well-rotted compost or woods soil is best for this purpose, although
charcoal braze has given good results. Sand has been used success-
fully on Scotch, pitch, and other "hard" pines. It can be used on
white pine in fall seeding, but is too hot for most small seed. The

Sowing seed beds with the aid of a planting-frame

Freshly sown seed is pressed into the soil by means of a large

heavy roller

21

cliiof aclvantaj^e in the use of sand lies in its freedom from weed seed
and the spores of fungi. However, this is to be remembered: nature,
through millions of years, evolved the very best methods. At the
Clearfield nursery an effort is made to duplicate those methods
so far as possible. Hence woods soil or some similar material, such
as well-rotted compost, is preferred for covering seed. For spreading
til is material, wire with three meshes to the inch is suitable for use
in a hand sifter. Sand should be applied through a wire with four
meshes to the inch.

THE BEDS ARE MULCHED WITH STRAW

After the seed is covered, the beds are mulched with about an inch
of straw that is free from weed seed. Leaves, bracken fern, or pine
needles can be used if available. At the Clearfield nursery a spe-
cially-constructed cart is employed for mulching. Its wide-set
wheels straddle the bed. The back of the cart is open. Two men,
one on either side of the bed, draw the cart by its long cross-handle,
and a worker back of the cart pulls the straw out behind as the
cart moves slowly along. When the mulch has been spread,
cross-strips and shades are laid on it to hold it in place. The pur-
pose of this mulch is, of course, to insure both good shade, moisture
conditions, and to keep the soil loose and prevent it from baking,
so the seed can sprout. If the season is dry, it is advisable to
s[)rinkle the beds either before seeding or after applying the mulch.

Newly sown nursery beds mulched with straw held in place by wooden

screens. When the seed germinate the straw is removed

and the screens raised on the posts

22

Careful watch is kept of the freshly-seeded beds; and when ap-
proximately half of the seed has becjnn to send up sprouts, the mulch
is removed. This is carefully forked off and j^athered. When ger-
mination is slow and irrejjular, extreme care must be exercised. The
mulch must be allowed to remain as long as possible, yet removed
before the quickest-sprontinj^ plants are weakened. Daily examina-
tions of the beds are made. Severe injury may be done to the stand
at this time if extreme care is not used. Mulch should preferably
be removed on cool or cloudy days, or in the early morning or hUe
afternoon. So far as possible, conditions of shade found in the
forest should be maintained. The beds must neither be allowed to
dry out nor be soaked with water at this time. When sprinkling
is necessary, it should be done in the form of light showers.

SEEDING RECORDS ARE KEPT

In connection with this matter of germination, the seeding rec-
ords kei)t at tlie riearfiebl nursery should eventually prove veiy
valuable. They will indicate the sources of the quickest-sproutiiii?
most vigorous seed. In time this should lead to the selection of
special groups of trees to be set apart for the distinct purpose of
supplying suiierior seed. Indeed, the location of one or two such
stands of trees has already been noted.

HANDLING THE BEDS AFTER GERMINATION

OCCURS

When the little seedlings have at last emerged and stand clear
above the seedlxMl, every effort must be made to duplicate naturnl
<^onditions of growth. Shade is a first requisite. At the Clearfield
nursery, as at all other Pennsylvania State forest tree nurseries, an
adequate supply of shades is on hand to cover all beds. These shades
are made on the grounds, of lund)er esi)ecially sawed for the purpose.
Laths lix% inches and four feet long are nailed to 12-foot strips
that are 2^x1 inch. The laths are spaced about their own width
apart— li inches— so that when it is desirable loose laths may be
laid between them. Thus conditions of half shade or full-shade\'an
l)e had at will. These shades are supported by frames made by driv
ing two stakes, IxlixU inches, into the ground on opposite sides
of the beds, with cross i)ieces laid on the stakes. The stakes are 2
feet long, and are driven down a foot. The cross-pieces are of one
inch material. The stakes must be very carefully driven, in line,
so as not to interfere with cultural operations. When these stakes
are j.roperly set, the shades are ap])roximately 12 inches above th.-
l)eds. At the Clearfield nursery the beds run east and west. It i>

Young seedlings require shade. Artificial shade is provided by means
of lath screens set on posts over the nursery beds

One-year old seedlings are protected with a covering of straw

during their first winter

22

('arffnl wjilcli iv kcjH of Hu. f'l-cslily sccmUmI IkmIs: :mi<1 wImmi iip
pi'oxiiiuitcly lujlfol' tlu'S(V(l luis l)ci;iin to s<mi(I up si)i'(mls, tin* nnih h
is r('ni(»v(Ml. Tliis is cMrcfiillv loi-kcd ^^\\ and "Mthcrcd. WIumi n,-]..
iniii.-it ion is slow :nnl irrcunlju*, cxtrcinc cMn* must lu* exercised. 'Plic
imiicli iiinst !)(' jillowed i*> j-euunii jis ]<m«»- as possil)le, yet leniovt-d
l)ef(n-e llie (|Mi('kes( s])i'<nil iui;- jdauls are weakened. Daily exaiiiiii;i
tions of the Ix'ds are made. Severe injury may he (h)ne to tlie stand
at this time if extreme eare is not used, ^fuh-h shonhl preferal>l\
he removed on coid (h- (doudy days, or in tlie early morninj*- or hiic
afternoon. So far as ])ossihh', conditions of shade found in ih.^
forest sliouhl he maintained. The heds must neither he alh>\ved to
dry out nor he soaked witli wat(M' at this time. When sprinklini;
is necessary, it sliouhl he done in the form of li^ht showers.

SEEDING RECORDS ARE KEPT

In conned ion with this matter of iici-minat ion, the se<Mlin<' rec-
oi-ds kept at the (Mearlicdd nursery sliouhl eventually jirove vci.v
valuahle. They will indicate the sources of the (piickest sjUMHit iiii^
most vigorous seed, in tiFue this slnndd lead to the s«de<-tion of
s])ecial jiroups of trees t<» he set apart for the <listinct jMirpose of
supplying- sjiperior seed. Imleed. the location of one or two such
stanils of ti-ees has alieady heen noted.

HANDLING THE BEDS AFTER GERMINATION

OCCURS

When the little seedlings have at last emcM-jied and stand (dear
ahove the seed hed, eveiw elVoit must he imule to iluplicate natural
conditicms of .ur<»wth. Shade is a tirst recpiisite. At the (M<«artiehl
nursrry, as at all other Pennsylvania State foi-est tree nurseries, an
Jid( (|uate sujjjdy of shach-s is on hand to cover all heds. These shades
are made on the .unmnds, (►f lumher espe<dally sawcMl for the pur|.os<'.
I.aths Ux% in<dies and four feet loiio are nailed to lL>foot strips
Hint are 2] x 1 inch. The laths are spaced ahout their own widlu
npart-H inches so that when it is desirahle hM)se laths may h-
hiid hetween them. Thus conditions of liaH'shaile or full shade' ca'.
'►e had at will. These vliades are supi»orted hy frames niad(> hv <lri\
in^- two stakes. 1 x 1] x I] inches, into the -round on (opposite si(h-.
of the heds, with cross pieces lai<l on the stakes. The stakes are J
feet lono-, and are driven <lown a f(Md. The cross pieces are of om
•"<••' Miaterial. The stakes must he very carefullv driven, in liiM .
s(» as not to interfere with cultural oiH'i-at icms. When these stake
nre properly set. the shades are approximately lL> inches ahove tli^
h(Mls. At the (Meartield nursery the heds run east and west. It i^

Young seedlings require shade. Artificial shade is provided by means
of lath screens set on posts over the nursery beds

.^ ".'♦>4?:^c'''/

One-year old seedlings are protected with a covering of straw

during their first winter

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

24

25

always desirable to run the beds this way when it is possible, as the
direct rays of the early morning and late afternoon snn will then
strike the fewest possible seedlings.

FOREST TREE SEEDLINGS NEED SHADE
Half-shade is sufficient for most coniferous seedlings. Si)rnce and
hemlock do best in full-shade. Practically all forest tree seedlings
prefer some shade. The laths in the screens are adjusted to the
requirements of the seedlings. Weeding must be done when neces-
sary. This is of course hand-weeding. The worker props the screen
up on one side and is able to weed half the width of the bed with
ease.

If birds become troublesome by picking the seed caps from the
seedlings, boys can be employed for a week or ten days to scare the
birds away. After that period the danger is past. Tn small nur
series wire screens can be set over the beds.

During the summer months beds are watered whenever three days
of sunshine have passed without a shower. Waterings should be in
the late afternoon or at night or early morning, but never duiinjr
the hot part of the day. The overhead irrigation system at the Clear
field nursery makes it possible to wet every inch of the seed-beds
simultaneously.

REMOVING SHADES HARDENS TREES FOR WIxNTER

Late in September the shades are removed from the beds, so that
the trees are exposed to full sunlight and frost. This checks further
growth and hardens the wood in preparation for winter.

After the ground has frozen several times, and the forest leaves
have fallen, seedling beds should be mulched with straw, leaves,
bracken fern, or pine needles. Here again the nurseryman is merelv
duplicating nature's process. She covers her seedlings with fallen
leaves.

At the Clearfield nursery straw is used almost exclusively for
mulching. This has been found to be the most practicable material
to use. It is easy to secure, it can be used repeatedly, it occupies
relatively little space (baled straw is purchased), and it is easily
handled. Yet so much straw is required to cover 20 acres that at
the Clearfield nursery n large storage shed is practically filled w.rh
straw. In spring the mulching material must be promptly remov(<l,
lest the young trees mold or mildew.

The care of the two- and three-year-old seedlings at the Clearfic id
nursery is limited to weeding and watering as is necessary, with some
cultivation. Very little or no hoeing is needed, as the paths are cul-
tivated with a horse drawn cultivator with the blades set close (o-
gether, or with a gasoline-driven cultivator operated by one man.

HOW SEEDLINGS ARE TRANSPLANTED

The setting of seedlings into transplant beds is done by the use
of transplant boards. Three types of such boards are in use at the
Clearfield nursery. One, with coiled springs to hold the plants, was
invented by Mr. T. O. Bietsch of the Pennsylvania Department of
Forests and Waters. These boards are six to eight feet long, and
are so made that they hold the seedlings upright in little slots. One
board Avill hold 30 to 00 seedlings. Seedlings are brought from the
beds by one set of workers, while another inserts the seedlings in
the boards, which are then passed to a third set who do the actual
planting. Trenches are dug with short, square-ended shovels, which
are thrust straight down along the edge of a trenching board, in
order to make the trench perfectly straight. When a trench is ready,
a transplant board filled with seedlings is set upright in it, and
earth is drawn over the roots of the plants and tamped firm. The
trees are then released from the board, and the board drawn out of
the trench. The planted section is now filled level with earth, and
another board of trees set in. Thus transplanting can be carried
on rapidly and cheaply.

Great care is exercised to see that wind and sun do not dry out
the seedlings during the handling. The roots of the little forest
plants are kept moist at all times, the main supply standing in tubs
that contain some water. Cultivation of transplants is done as
needed, and a light covering of straw^ is applied for the first winter.
Older transplants need relatively little care.

DIGGING THE SEEDLINGS

To transplant thousands of little seedlings, each but a few inches
high, involves a great amount of labor ; but the work entailed in trans-
planting is trifling in comparison with the task of shipping the mil-
lions of trees annually sent out from the Clearfield nursery. Origi-
nally trees for shipment were lifted by w^orkers with spading forks.
An instrument is now in use, however, that does away with all this
hihor. This tree lifter consists of a steel blade three eighths of an
in<'h thick, 12 inches wide, and four feet long, attached to a metal
fi'JHne. This lifter is drawn along the bed, with the blade 10 inches
under the surface, by a cable pulled by a tractor. The cable passes
through a i)ulley fastened to a tree or heavy post at the far end of
the bed. The tractor moves one way while the lifter goes the other.
A heavy team of horses can also be used. As the lifter moves along.
It heaves up all the seedlings in the bed, lifting them bodily and
loosening them in the earth. It is then a simple matter for the
workers to gather them, shake the earth from the roots, and pack

26

them in boxes for hauling to the storage pit. A commercial sliiub
digger, with a U-shaped blade, is nsed to lift transplants and lai^^er
trees. This implement not only digs trees clieai>ly, but also lifts
the entire root systems. It gives much more saisfactory results than
can be obtained by the use of a spade or fork.

FIVE THOUSAND CUBIC FEET OF TINY TREES

The storage pit or cellar mentioned is a portion of the basement
of the packing shed, enclosed with stone walls, and having an earthcii
floor. It is 3G X 20 feet and seven feet high. In small nurseries,
trees can be packed in the open, as they are lifted from the beds.
But where millions of seedlings are to be shii)ped, field packing is
out of the question. Also, the work must be carried on during every
working minute, regardless of the weather. Planters must receive
their shij)ments of little trees at the earliest possible moment in
spring. The moment the frost is out of the ground, therefore, and
the soil sufficiently dry for handling, the tree lifters are started, and
a steady stream of trees movies to the packing house. At the same
time, shipping goes on. But the lifting of the trees progresses so
much more rapidly than the shipping that the storage cellar soon
begins to till. It is no unusual thing to have this cellar, which con
tains more than 5,000 cubic feet, entirely tilled with tiny seedlings.
Sometimes the seedlings are piled four boxes high. As the capacity
of the nursery grows, it will be necessary to enclose additional stor
age space.

HOW EIGHT MILLION TREES ARE SHIPPED

In the si)ring of the year the nursery force of 40 or more men is
enlarged to fully 00, and nursery and packing house present a busy
picture. For an entire month or more before shipments begin, a
force of stenogra])hers has been busy making out shipping tags and
bills of lading. F(mr copies of each ship])ing order are made — the
original and three carbon copies. One is kept at the forester's oftice,
one is sent to the district forester in whose district the jdanting is
made, one goes to the Dei)artnient headcpiarters at Harrisburg. and
one is ior the reci])ient of the trees. These shipi>ing orders, willi
addressed shipping tags, and the necessary wooden labels to mark
the various species of trees that make up the order, are put togetlu'i'
in units. Thus everything needed for one shi])nient is cli])]»ed to-
gether. A packer makes u]) an order, labeling each bundle of se« d
lings with the jn-oper labels, ])acking the roots in moist sjdiagniini
moss, then bundling the shipment in an appro])riate container, and
attaching necessary shipping tags to it.

Lifting seedlings by means of the Clearfield tree lifting machine.
A broad blade severs the soil beneath the roots

Grading and counting seedlings in the packing house

26

llicin in 1m)x<'s for liaiiliii};; 1o the sloraj»(' jmI. A coinniciM-ial sin iil»
<lijiii<M-. willi a r sIimjkmI l)la<l(*, is iisod to lift traiisjilants and liii-ci-
ti'CM's. Tliis inipIcnicMit not only clip's Irct^s cheaply, hnt also lit'iK
the (Mil ire i'o<d systems. It i;ives nincli more saisfact(n-y r(*sults tliaii
<an l»e ohlaimMl by the use of a spade or fork.

FIVE THOUSAND CUBIC FEET OF TINY TREES

The st(M-aji(' ]>it or <'ellar menti<nied is a ])orti(m of the haseiiiciil
of the jKiekinj^ shed. en(lose<l with stone walls, and havin«» an ejiiliuii
floor, it is :U» \ 20 feet an<l seven feet hij»h. In small nni-seiies.
trees can he ]>acked in the <>pen. as they ;\re lifted from the hcds.
I»nt where millions of s<M'diinj»s are to he shij»]»ed. held jKickinu is
ont of the (piestion. Als<>. the woi-k must he carried on dnrinj»' evciy
working minnte. regardless (d' the weather. Planters mnst re<('iv('
theii* shipments of little ti-ees at the earliest ]>ossihlo moment in
spiMnji". 'IMie moment the frost is ont (d" the j^ronnd, therefore. mikI
tlie Sid! snllicienlly di-y for handlinii'. the ti-ee lifters are starte<l. jiiid
a steady sti-eam of 1 i-ees mcjves to the packing honse. At the s.iiih'
time, shipjdn^ iioes cm. Hnt the liftinj; of the trees jno^resses s(»
mnch moi-e i-apidly than the shippinn that the stoi-a^e cellar soon
hejLiins lo lill. It is no nnnsnal tliinji' to havi* this cidlai', which cuii
tains moi-e th:in r),(l(l() cnhic feet, entirely filled with tiny seedliiiLis.
Sometimes the seedlings ai-e piled foni* Imkxcs hijih. As the cjijunilv
of the nnrsery ^lows, it will be n.e<-essary to enclose additional sh»r
ajj^e sj)ac<'.

HOW EIGHT MILLION TREES ARE SHIPPED

hi the sj>rin«»" of the year the nnrsery foi-ce of 4(1 or ni(M-e nwii is
enlarjjod to fnlly (10. and nni'seiy and packinj^ house present a hii^v
])ictni*o. I^)r an entire month or more hefoi-e slii]>menls heiiiii. ;i
force of sjeiiij^raphei-s has lieeii hnsy nuikin^ ont shijjpiiiii taj^s jiiid
hills <d' la<lin«^. l''(nir co|>ies cd' each slii]>]>iiiii ordei- are made- Mic
orijiinal and three c.-ii-hon cojiies. One is ke|»t at tiie forestei-'s olli. c.
one is seiil lo the disli'icl forester in whose district the jdanliiiiL: i^
made, one i-oes lo the I)ei>arliiient liead(pniilei's al Ilari-ishnrii. .i i<l
one is for the reciidenl <d" llie li-ees. TJM'se slii]>|>in,ii <n'<lei's. \\;:li
addressed shiiijiiiiii la.L's, :ind the necessary wooden labels to in;! I<
the vari<Mis s|>ecies <d" h-ees that make n]> the in-der. are put lo^ell • r
in nnils. Tims everylhin^ needed foi' one shiimienl Is cli|»|MMl :o
«j;etlier. A packer mak<'s n]> an order, labelinj^ each bundle <d sc« il
lin<>s with the |n-oper labels. i):ickin_n the i-ools in nndsl sphaj-ni. ii
moss, then hnndlinii' the shipment in an appropriate c<Mitainer. ;i d
attachinjn necessjiry sliii>idiui tn^s to it.

Lifting seedlings by means of the Clearfield tree lifting machine.
A broad blade severs the soil beneath the roots

Grading and counting seedlings in the packing house

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

28

29

SMALL SHIPMENTS GO BY PARCEL POST

Small shipments of trees j>o by i)arcel i)ost. Some of these iimy
merely be wrapped in heavy pai)er. Collapsible mailing tubes of
cardboard and waterproof paper stand ready, that will contain 100
to 200 trees each. Largei- shipments go into corrugated pasteboard
containers. The i)roper formal labels were pasted on these montlis
previously. They come in knockdown form, and are opened and
stapled. It has been found that containers glued together often
come apart in shipment, the moisture from the moss loosening tlio
glue. The largest shipments go into wooden crates. Some aie
made of veneering, and the largest of all are of heavy slat material.
These large shipments go by express.

CLEVER DEVICES SAVE TIME IN PACKING

All trees have their roots packed in moist sphagnum moss and
are wrapped in water i)roof paper. This paper is secured in rolls,
which ai-e mounted on cutting frames, similar to those used in gro-
cery stores or butcher shops. Thus strips of paper, of any desired
lengths, can be cut off quickly and smoothly. Originally this water-
I)roof paper came in sheets and was cut by hand with shears. The
new device is a tremendous time saver.

In much the same way strings for tying bundles of trees are cut
most expeditously. Hempen twine, with 70 or more separate ends
twisted loosely in a long roll like a rope, is drawn over a sharp
scythe blade fixed in a frame. Thus with one motion of the hands a
worker cuts 70 or more lengths of twine. The strings are cut to
a standard length suited to tying the bundles of fifty seedlings eacli.

The sphagnum moss for packing the trees is gathered close at
hand in the Moshannon State Forest by the regular force of workers
in the fall. They i)ull it up by the handsful and stuff it into con-
tainers, which are taken to the moss house. This is a structure built
something like a corn crib, and about 10x10 feet in size. The
workers entirely fill this with moss. Fifty tons of sphagnum are
used every year. The moss beds renew themselves, so that the forest
provides a continuous supply.

THE KINDS OF TREES PRODUCED AT

CLEARFIELD

Among the millions of trees at the Clearfield nursery the following
sjtecies are being produced:

Hemlock — Tsuga canadensis
Douglas fir — Pseudotsuga taxifolia
Scotch pine — Pinus sylvestris
Western yellow^ pine — Pinus ponderosa
Norway spruce — Picea abies
White spruce — Picea canadensis
White pine — Pinus Strobus
Red pine — Pinus resinosa
Pitch pine — Pinus rigida
Englemann spruce — Picea Englemannii
Colorado blue spruce — Picea pungens
Balsam fir — Abies balsamea
Japanese larch — Larix leptoleptis
European larch — Larix decidua
Arbor Vitae — Thuja occidental is
Jack pine — Pinus Banksiana
Austrian pine — Pinus austriaca
Black walnut^Juglans nigra
Sliell-bark hickorj' — Carya ovata

KEEPING EXPENSES DOWN

;Most of the 37,000,000 seedlings that have already been shipped
fi'oni the Clearfield nursery were produced at a cost of less than
^^1.00 a thousand. This is particularly true of those raised prior to
1919. From that time forward, when the World War advanced
prices so enormously, the cost of producing trees was several times
as great as it was before 1918. The increasing use of labor-saving
devices, however, has steadily cut down this cost in recent years,
until at present trees are being produced at a cost of not more than
12.00 a thousand. That is the price at which they are now sold to
l>rivate planters, according to an enactment of the 1927 Legislature.
Wherever it is possible, machinery is being used to su])plant manual
l.ibor, and the price of production is steadily falling. Large produc-
tion is a help in reducing costs.

Packing boxes and other wooden necessities that can be made at
ihe nursery are secured at the bare cost of materials and labor.
I. umber is bought at the mill, hauled to the nursery, and sawed with
' ut-off saw and tractor. At seasons when the field force is not em-
I'loyed in caring for the little trees, the men are shifted to such work
«'S making boxes, shades, cement work, and the like.

30

31

THE NURSERY FORCE MAKES EVERYTHING
In fact, practically everythinfr on the place is made by the nursery
force. The irrigation plant was constructed by the nursery work
men. This consists of a fine stone pumping house, which is an ex-
cellent piece of masonry, and in which is installed a 15-horse-po\ver
engine, well mounted on a cement foundation. This is connected
with the old mill dam by a large intake pipe, and coupled to a five-
inch pipe line, which conveys the water to the nursery, half a mile
distant. The overhead pipes there are 50 feet apart, and there is
a total of i:i,.^)0() feet of piping in the system. This irrigation line
as well as the pumping house was made by the nursery force. So
was the deer-proof fence that encloses the entire nursery. This is
more than seven feet high, and is made of heavy woven wire fencing,
strung on very heav>' posts that are sunk in concrete to a depth of
four feet below the surface of the ground.

THE COST OF A YEAR'S OPERATIONS

The total cost of a year's operations at this very considerable plant
is amazingly little. In 1025 it cost the State $10,459.18 to operate
this nursery. Now that seedlings are being sold instead of being
given away for the bare price of packing, the returns from the sales
of trees are lessening the operating cost to the State very sharply.
Tn 1026 the outlay dropped to 18,030.03. In 1027, although a million
more trees were sliipi)ed tlian in 1020, the cost to the State was only
10,221.44. The cost of oi)erating the nursery from January 1, 1028,
t:o June ], was |0,0.^)4.21, but the refunds' for trees sold totalled
17,031.70, making the actual net cost to the State |1,722.51 for live
months. The costs for 1027 itemize as follows:

Supervision 1270.50

Pools and equipment 144.30

Screens and stakes '>np; V^

Bed making (m.2H

Seeds and seedlings o ^^j 44

Transplanting '.'.'/.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. n]m.:^^

Protection (j(^() ^^

Weeding and cultivation [ ,[ 050.70

Winter cover 3 §^3

Lifting and bunching 880 75

j^^^<^i^'>"\2: ;.'.".'.'.■;.'; 882.'3o

^'^^^^^^S 75.75

Transportation 3,830.00

Miscellaneous jq «^q

Buildings and grounds ' * 688.03

Total 115,350 70

Refunds for packing and transportation . . 0,130.34

Net cost of operations |6 221.44

TOTAL COST OF THE CLEARFIELD NURSERY

Since this nursery was started in 1011, the State has spent on its
development a total of |70,774.54 up to June 1, 1028. This sum
represents every penny of net outlay for every sort of juirpose. It
iiK'ludes the cost of development, equipment, buildings, replacement
jiiid maintenance, and wages paid. This sum, of course, is the
aiiionnt spent in excess of the sums paid for seedlings by private
]Mirchasers. It is only in very recent years that any charge was
made for the trees, seedlings being furnished free, and the purchaser
paying only a fraction of the cost of packing and shii)i)ing. The
nursery equipment that has been built up for this .f70,000 expended
by the State, includes a large storage and tool shed, with some
smaller structures of like kind, a big packing house, a moss house,
open implement sheds, the pumping station, a large barn, wagon
sheds, the deer-proof fence, and many implements, including tractor,
roller, harrows, ])lows, carts, wagons, screens, stakes, and a large
iimnber of small im]dements, such as shovels, ])icks, axes and scythes.

A GOVERNMENT BUSINESS THAT HAS PAID ITS OWN WAY

The 20 acres of enclosed nursery ground, which was worth prob-
ably about f2 to |3 an acre in 1011, is now worth flOO to |200 an
acre. It has been developed into one of the finest nursery soils
imaginable. The 37,000,000 seedlings in the nursery, even when
valued at an extremely low figure, are worth fully ^42,000. There
are ornamentals worth at least .f5,000. The nursery buildings are
worth, at the lowest estimate, |1 0,000. The irrigation system is
easily worth |4,000. Screens, stakes, tools, boxes, and other like
property are worth in excess of |5,000. These figures are very con-
servative. The fact is that the present value of the nursery property
is i>ractically equal to the entire sum the State has spent on its cre-
ation, upbuilding, expansion, and maintenance through all the
years of its existence.

During those years the State has, through the operation of this
nursery, provided hundreds of thousands of trees for reforesting the
State forests, supplied hundreds of private planters with a total of
millions of little trees for restoring their woodlands, and so has done
inuch to help along the movement to make the State once more self-
sustaining in the matter of a timber supply. With the nursery now
worth practically as much as the entire sum that has been expended
<»u it, the State has, in eff"ect, produced the 74,000,000 seedlings
lirown at the Clearfield nursery at no cost. Altogether the Clearfield
^tate Forest Tree Nursery is an excellent example of the successful
uovernment operation of a utility for the people.

if
€

y

^

BRUSH BURNING

IN

PENNSYLVANIA

By
George H. Wirt

BULLETIN 48

COMMONWEALTH OF PENNSYLVANIA
DEPARTMENT OF FORESTS AND WATERS

Charles E. Dorworth, Secretary
Joseph S. lUick, Deputy Secretary and State Forester

HAKRISBURG, PA.
1928

w

pr^o."^"^

v

BRUSH BURNING IN PENNSYLVANIA

FROM time immemorial tliere have been ])eople who at certain
seasons of the year, or at irrcg:ular times, have had leaves, weeds,
«>rass, brush, or other rubbish to burn. For centuries past, fields
iuul fence-rows have periodically been cleaned bj^ fire. More recently,
with the development of the telegraph, the telephone, the railroad,
(loctric power lines, and so forth, numerous kinds of riprhts of way
have to be cleaned, usually by mowing brush. This material must be
destroyed and is usually burned. Brush burning, therefore, is a com-
mon and wide-spread i)ractice. As so many forest fires come from this
practice, it appears worth while to set forth some suggestions as to
how to burn without endangering other property that should not be
burned.

WHAT WE MUST REMEMBER ABOUT FIRE

I'lu're are several fundamental ideas concerning fire which we must
keep constantly before us.

1. Fire is a destructive and dangerous force.

2. The forest is valuable property that belongs to some one.
The leaves of trees, branches, and other vegetable material usually
found on the floor of the forest are very inflammable (burnable)
under certain conditions, and will burn even when wet.

3. Fire is not natural to the forest. P^xcept for a few firc^s
set by lightning, fire is produced in the forest only by the action
of man.

4. If damage results from man-made fire, it is because of man 's
failure to restrain within intended bounds the destructive force
he turned loose.

5. An individual has a right to have fire on his own [)roperty
and to buin any i)art or all of his property, just so long as this
fire or burning does not disturb or damage the rights of his
neighbor or work harm to the welfare of the community.

WHEN TO BURN BRUSH

WlTJl these fundamental ideas before us, it is evident thai no
one should start a fire in the open without a full realiz;r on
of the danf^cr from flying sparks and unextinguislied cm!) is.

There are two ])eriods in the year when out-door fires a, re ]:,(tst
common in Pennsylvania, namely, in spring, between the disappeai-.ticc
of the snow and the start of new vegetation, and in the fall, betw: en
liarvest time and the coming of the winter snows. Both periods are
natural times for clearing away debris.

Spiking Burning. At this time of year the farmer is getting ivady
for plowing and for the planting of new crops. The dead leaves inid.
the grass of the past year sometimes interfere with easy plowin<> ;in(]
are hard to turn under. Therefore, the farmer resorts to burning.
It is well known that burning destroys weed seed, insects, and di sensed
})laiits. On the other hand, there are few fields that do not nee«l ad-
ditional vegetable matter to increase their fertility, and it is a wnstc
of good material to burn what might be plowed under. T^nless llic
farmer knows that injurious insects or serious plant diseases .iiv
|<resent, it is best for him not to burn accumulated plant growth.

However, trees and vines have to be pruned, briars have to be cut,
and other debris accumulates that cannot be plowed under. This nni-
terial stiould be placed in small piles and burned under favornhio
conditions.

Gardens, too, are cleaned in spring when they are being prepared for
planting. House and yard cleaning are also in order. All kinds '»f
rubbish are piled together for burning.

Unfortunately it happens that at the very time this human desire
for the disposal of unnecessary and unattractive material is most ac-
tive, conditions in the forest are most favorable for the starting and
spreading of fires. The leaves that fell during the previous autumn.
and that were soaked and packed together by the winter snow, are n(.\v
dried by the sun and blown about by the wind. It is surprising how
rapidly tree leaves, dead ferns, and old grass become inflammable aftci-
being soaked by melting snows or heavy rain.

In the spring, particularly in March and April, windy weather is
the rule, and no one can tell a moment in advance what the wind will
do, or from what direction it will blow. Occasionally there is a day
when the air seems to be perfectly quiet at a given location, and will
apparently remain so for some time. Beware of a quiet day in spring
if tjou wish to hum anything outdoors. The starting of even a very
small fire at such a time creates rising currents of heated air, which
seem sufficient to unbalance the entire atmosphere. In no time a gaJ '
is blowing. Sparks are carried great distances. Almost instantly you
fire is beyond control. Flaming papers and leaves, especially, are likel.

to be carried high into the air and blown far away from where they
started.

That persons who burn brush on these deceptive days are caught
1)\ these sudden changes in the air is evident from the large number
of forest fires caused by brush burners whose fires get out of control.
Tn the 15 years since 1913 the fewest forest fires caused in any one
vt'.ir by brush burning numbered 61 and the greatest number totaled
288. The average number of such fires for the 10 years 1913-22 in-
clusive, was 112. During the past five years such fires have increased
markedly in number, the average number per annum during this
ixriod being 191.

On Good Friday, April 6, 1927, there were 159 forest fires burning
in Pennsylvania. They burned over a total of 4437 acres of lan<l,
doing damage to the extent of $8,408 and costing the Commonwealth
$4,054 to extinguish. On Thursday, the day before Good Friday, there
were 129 forest fires. They burned over 3,690 acres. The damage
done amounted to $11,192 and cost the Commonwealth $2,843.50 for
extinction.

The terrible record for these two days is of course exceptional.
Nevertheless, the record of forest fires in Pennsylvania during the past
IT) years is appalling. During the decade 1913-22 there were 1,123
forest fires caused by brush-burning. The total amount of dama<.{e
done by these 1,123 fires was $329,339.50. The cost of extinguishing
th(se fires averaged .$3,226.91 each year, or more than $32,269 in all.
^ et the record for the past five years is even worse than that. Between
11)23 and 1927, inclusive, the total number of forest fires due to brusli-
hiirning was only a little short of 1,000, the yearly average being 191
such fires. This contrasts with a yearly average of 112 fires for the
decade preceding. Also, the damage done was greater on the average
during these past five years than it was in the decade i) receding. As
ngainst an average yearly money loss of $32,933.95 then, there was a
loss during the five years averaging $37,056.96. Should this average
he maintained for the other half of this second decade, the money loss
would total more than $370,560 — a third of a million dollars swept
.'I way through carelessness. The cost of putting out these fires in this
i>nst five years was of course very great. As against an average yearl\'
rost of $3,226.91 for the preceding decade, the cost for the last five
years averaged $8,062.30. When we compare the number of fires due
to brush-burning with the total number of forest fires, we find that
liiush-buming fires made up 7.1 per cent of the total during the decade
1913-1922, whereas during the last five years such fires total 7.8 per
<n'iit of all forest fires. In short, fires due to carelessness in burning
hrush are actually increasing relatively instead of decreasing.

5

In not a single case, doubtless, did the brush burner intend to .ct
fire to the forest. Laek of proper care made it possible for these (mus
to get out of control.

Considering the fickleness of the wind, the ease with which spjirks
«Tre carried, and the readiness with which materials on the forest iU)uY
will ignite at this time, it is obvious that there is need for extn nic
care in handling fire in or near woodlands in the springtime. Tho
danger period usually extends from about JMarch 15th to June Ist.

The only safe times for spring brush-burning are when snow is on
the ground, when it is raining, immediately after a rain, or at iiiuht
when there is dew or frost.

Fdll. As the cro])s ripen in autumn there is debris to be disjxjscd
oi". Those who are far-sighted, endeavor to clean their gardens, fields,
orch-irds, or rights of way before winter comes. They have v;iii(»iis
kinds of vegetable debris to burn. For the gardener and farimr it
wouki })e far better to pile this vegetable debris on a compost hvi\\)
and h't it rot foi- use as fertilizer in spring. Nevertheless, tliei'e is
always a certain amount of material which can be dis])()sed of hcsl
])}' burning.

Duriiig tliis time of year, the forest once more is becoming higlily
inllammable. Tlie leaves fall from the trees and sun and wind stioii
make them dry as tinder. On clear days m autumn, when the sun's
rays are still hot, a single spark will start a fire, and the fall winds uill
sprefid the thimes rj'i)idiy. It is true that at this season there aiv
usually (h'ws ;nid fros!t« at nigb.t. and fogs in the morninii'. B\' four
in the afternoon, (knnpness increases, and from then until nine oi
I- n Mock in the norning tliere is little danger of fires starting merely
from sparks. The real danger hours are from nine in tiie morniiiu
until four in the nftei'noon. The fall danger period is usually from
about Septem])er ir)th to December 15th.

There is never a time, however, when one can afford to l)e indif^Vrent
to tlie danger of sparks blowing from ;m outdoor fire. The sntVsl
time for such fires is when there is snow on the ground or when it is
raining, because at such times vegetable material on the ground 's
s(»})ked with water. As long as the materials on the forest lioor ::'■
dami) enough to make it difficult for s])arks to ignite them, it is ]>^^-
sible to have outdoor fires and to allovr the sparks to fall wliere th<.\
will. This condition frequently exists during the night-time. \r'
even when the forest fioor is dam]), a spark may lodge on a shelterc!
f)iece of decayed wood .Mnd, ci';\'iting a blaze, dry the surroundin-
leaves. The feeble flame grows in intensity. The wind dries ti
material ahead. Soon there develops a rapidly-moving fire. One mu i
j)revent such an occurrence. On clear, warm, dry days in both si)]'inLi
;:nd fall the brush burnei* nuist be consta.ntiv on guard.

Hurning material on swampy ground should be done only v/hen
ill,' swamp is wet and not during a dry season.

Time of Day. On a damj) day, brush burning may be done at any
time during the day; but it should be borne in mind that as the sun
rises higher in the sky, the temperature increases, clouds may dis-
appear, the moisture on the ground dry out, and the wind arise. A
d;iy that begins with dami)ness and fog may by 10 A. M. become a
clcni' dry day, and as the atmosphere becomes drier, sparks from a
fire are more likely to cause trouble. As the sun declines the tem])er-
ature ordinarily decreases, the wind falls, dampness increases, and
there is less danger of sparks starting a new fire. Occasionally in
s])ring, however, there are afternoons and nights when moisture seems
to be entirely absent from the atmosphere. Even in the middle of
the night or just before dawn, when it is ordinarily very dam]), the
least s])ark will start a blaze.

It is evident, therefore, that under ordinary conditions the time
at which it is safest to do burning is between 4 P. M. and 6 A. M.

When brush has been burned during the day, operations should sto])
early enough to permit complete combustion of the burning material so
that the embers will be practically dead before nightfall. This will pre-
vent the possibility of danger during the night, after those who have
done the burning have gone home, and before they return in the morn-
ing. Even when piles of material have burned down, the ashes, embers,
and charred pieces should be raked together and thoroughly soaked
with water or covered with a heavy laj^er of ground. Some one sliould
return to the place of burning early on the following morning to make
sure everything is safe. When burning is done before the noon meal,
some one of the crew should be on guard while the others eat their
lunch. In fact a fire in the open sliould never he left unguarded.

Dui'ing the winter time, damp conditions are most likely to prevail
and the temperature is low; yet even in the midst of winter forest
fires have started when there was no snow on the ground, and have
burned over large areas.

During the summer the leaves are on the trees. Then there is a
full canopy over the forest floor. The spring rains and the frequent
J^ummer showers are absorbed by the duff of the forest floor and by
the soil itself; and the moisture does not evaporate so rapidly. Sun
<iiid wind do not have so ready access to the dead vegetable matter.
liHler such conditions it takes a large amount of heat to start a fire.
'S])arks have difficulty in getting through green leaves to the forest
^lo(,r, and are cold before they hit the dead leaves. But when no
Slimmer rains fall for periods of two, three, or four weeks, drv con-
'litions develop and when some one becomes careless with his fire, we
ii'ive summer forest fires.

6

Time for Brush Moiving. Many rights of way, such as those f(,r
telephone lines, telegraph lines, power lines, railroads, roadways, oil
pipe lines, and so* forth, must be kept fr^e of brush and other vegetal j It-
growth. If the brush grows too large it may interfere with wires or
with traffic. If much dead material accumulates and a fire should
burn over the area, poles might be destroyed or other damage result.
The clearing of these rights of way is primarily for the safety of the
of the property which is located on them or which passes along tlicm.
and secondarily to prevent damage to the property of others.

It is customary to mow such rights of way annually. Necessarily-
this must be done at a time when the job fits in with other work and
when men are available; but whenever possible it is wise to plan far
enough ahead so that the mowing of brush may be done in late July.
August, or early September. Experience seems to bear out the idea
Xhiit this is the best time to do such work. After a mowing at this time,
new sprouts come up from the roots and use up the plant food stored
during the summer. These new sprouts do not harden sufficiently 10
resist the frosts and consequently are killed by them. The vitality' of
the roots has been diminished, and there will be fewer and weaker
sprouts the next year. After several years of such treatment, the roots
from which the mass of sprouts has been coming will be dead and the
expense of keeping the right of way clean will be lessened. The mow-
ing of annual plants is much easier than that of woody plants. Fre-
quently such mowing may be done by using a mowing machine in-
stead of the brusli hook or scythe, which was necessary at first.

Farmers, too, would do well to plan for the cleaning of fence row s
and other places containing brush and briars, during the month
of August.

HOW TO DISPOSE OF BRUSH

Brush carried aivay. As brush is cut, it may be gathered together
and hauled to an out-of-the- way place where it may be deposited f(»r
ji:itural decay or for burning at some convenient and safe time. This
nietliod is frequently followed by farmers and road su]>ervis()rs.
Where a right of way crosses a rocky area on a mountain, the small
amount of brush wliich occurs shouki be carried awav and not burned.
If it were burned, sparks might fall among the roeks and set fire to
dead vegetable matter, starting a fire that mii^^ht smolder for dn>s.

Brush carried to edge of clearing. The brush may be carried oi-
raked to the edge of the cleared area and ther^ be l"ft in vows <>.
scattered. Decay is expected to complete the disposal. If there is
much material it makes a large windrow or a considerable mat of
debris. In open or very rocky country this makes little difference.
In forest areas such conditions become a speci:il forest fire hazard.

8

pue/ Lfsnjq jo ^3qcu'j

PLi

<

<

o

»-]

I— (

<

o

0:

<

■ ^

When such material becomes dry, and somo careless individual di-.,,)s
a spark on it or near it, a fire may be started (juickly. This may m u,
an extremely hot fire right at the edj>e of the cleared area. If |,(.
right of way is narrow, the fire can very easily be carried over to iho
side of it, because of the heat produced by the burning of so inuHi
accumulated material. At the same time, the flames may be so hot
as to prevent fire fighters from using the cleaned area as a b.isc
of attack.

Brush allowed to remain on cleared area. The brush may be cut
and allowed to remain where it falls, or raked or piled in a windrow,
or j)laced in piles on the area from which it has been cut . If there
is not much of it, or if there is little woody growth, it may be perfectly
safe to permit it to decay where it is; but this condition is unusual, anil
the material is burned under one of the three conditions specified.

Burning entire area of clearing. If the entire area is burned oxer,
the material should be raked toward the midde from both edges, aixl

Clean Path on Edge of Area to be Burned

a clean ])ath made on either edge with mineral soil exi)osed for . l
least one foot in width. Plowing one or more furrows around ti ■
area to be burned may be advisable. Fire may be set along both edg
l>ut it is always preferable to hum down hill instead of allowing
fire to get started up a hill. It is also advisable to hum against //
wind instead of having the wind drive the fire. The (lisadvauta<M

oi .urning from both edges are that the sweep of flames may easily
Oil Ix'vond control and that the entire area may be covered with embers
fivm which sparks may be carried to adjoining areas. This method
i»i ;)iii'ning is satisfactory only when the material is dry enough to
l)iii li well ; and when that is the case, fires will start nearby more easily.

.Most of the mistakes of railroad section crews in burning safety
sti'ips have come from their starting fires at the edge of the road bed
and allowing them to burn up-hill, with the expectation of stopping
the fill's at the back strips or even without back strips. Fire burns
rapidly and fiercely up-hill and is not easily stoi)ped. Conseiiuentiy,
under such methods it is not surprising that instead of a safety strip
heinu- burned a whole mountain is bunied.

Forest Fire Which Resulted From Careless Brush Burning

So also with farmers and right of way men when they begin burn-
ing at the foot of the hill instead of the top, or at the edge toward the
wind instead of on the edge away from the wind.

linrning Brush in Windrows. As the mowing or cutting proceeds,
tlx' brush and debris may be piled in rows according to the convenience
of the workmen. Usually on the ordinary right of way one row piled
Jiixuit the middle is sufficient, but on wide rights of way or larger
yreas more rows are necessary. The brush row should be as compact
•' passible, and not too wide nor too high.

'n burning the row, the worker should start his fire at the up-hill
('nd, so that the fire may work down-hill, or at the end away from
t! <• wind, so that the fire mav work against the wind. If the burninir

10

11

VVlicii sin-Ii iiijitcrinl Ix'conios dry, jiiid son)*' cmi-cIcss individiuil d; ,s
a spark on it or near it, a fire may he stai'tcd (|uickly. This niav ii. ,,
iiii extremely hot fire ri<»ht at, the edo(. ,,r the ek'ared ai'ea. ' h
i'i<iht of way is narrow, the fire ean vei-y easily he earried over to .,.
side (.1* it. heeaiise of tlie lieut produced ])y tlie buriuiio' of sa ir, !,
aeeiimiihited material. At the same time, the flames may he so , ,,1
i.s to prevent fire fighters from usiiio- the ek'aned ai'ea as a h.sc
of attaek.

Brush (if/owed to remain on cleared area. The l)rnsh may he . ut
.'iiid allowed to ivmaiii whei-e it falls, oi- raked or piled in a windiuu.
or placed in piles on the area from which it lias })eeri cut . If tii<iv
is not much of it. or if there is little woody orowth, it may be ])ei'fccily
safe to jx i-njit it to decay where it is; hut this condition is unusual, .mil
the material is burned under one of th(> tlnve conditions specified.

IiunuH(/ iulirr ana of dcarinf/. If the entii'e aiva is bui-ned .,■.,:.
the m.it. rial should he rake<l toward the nddde fi-om both e<]ovs. ;,,mI

Clp:an Path on Edge of Area to be Burned

a cb'an path made on either edji'e with mineral soil expo.sed for
hast one foot in width, l^lowino^ <„u. or more furrows around t
area to be burned may be advisable. Fire may be set alon- both ed-
but it is always i)referal)le to Inini down hill instead of allowing
fire to get started up a hill. It is also advisable to hum at/ainsi I,
wind instead of havino- the wind drive the fire. The disadvanta.-

10

iiiiiu!^ from both edj^'es are that the sweej) of flames may easily

._ ,. \-ond contJ'ol and that the entire area may be covi'i'ed with embers

aIiIcIi sparks may be cari'ied to ad.joinini>' areas. This method

,1 ;inin<.i is satisfactory only when the material is dry enou.uh to

I Will : and when that is the case, fires will start near])v more easilv.

v|(.st (if the mistakes of I'ailroad section crews in burninm' safety
s!i!(.s iia\c come from their startin<>' fires at the (Hl«i'e of the road l)ed
;!ii(i all(»winy them to buiai ui)diill, with the expectation of stoi)piniL»'
!iM' litts at the back strii)s or even without back stri])s. Fire burns
i-;i!ii(ily and fifi-cely updiill and is not easily sto|)ped. Conseijuently.
iiiidrr such methods it is not surprising- that instead of a safety strij)
Ik imu hunicd a whole mountain is burned.

Forest Fire Which Resulted From Careless Brush Burning

So also with farmers and rii>'ht of wav men when tliev beiiin burn-
ni'i al the foot of the hill instead of the top, or at the edge toward the
wiiKJ instead of on the edge away from the wind.

I'lirinnij Iir\isJi i)i Windrows. As the mowing or cutting ])roceeds.
'i ' brush and tlebris may be })iled in rows according to the convenience
"• !i!< Workmen. Fsually on the oi'dinary right of wa>' one row ])iled
■■'■■•'ni the middle is sufficient, but on wide rights of wav or lai'ucr
■ 1' IS more rows are necessary. The brush I'ow should be as ccnnpact

!'»ssible, and not too wide nor too high.

'n burning tin- row, the workei* should start his fire at the ui)diill

"-<'» that the fii'e may woi'k dovsu-hill. oi- at the end away fi'om

^vind. so that the fire may work against the wind. If the burning

n

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

is done wlicii the material is damp and the surrounding area is dai .p
advantage may be taken of natural draft. Under moist eonditii^is'
fire may be started at more than one point in a long row.

Bunting hrvsh in pihs. This is the most common method of biish
disposal, and is a very simple procedure when done correctly. I- re-
quently, however, the piles of debris are made too large. As 1ii<.y
burn, the heat becomes intense, and a tremendous draft is created.
This carries into the air large sparks which can travel consideinble
distances before dying out. Likewise, the heat engendered previ^nts
workmen from properly guarding the fire, with the result that nearby
material catches fire and the flames spread.

As material is cut, raked, or gathered, it should be put in small (-..m-
pact piles, not more than about five feet in diameter and two fed in
height. If the material is thoroughly dry, the fire should be stalled
at the to]) of the pile; otherwise the fire should be started at the side

Collecting Brush and Burning on One Pile

away from the wind. One pile may be burned, and surroundino- piK-s
may be carried to the fire and fed to it gradually and careful) v. (H.
wet days several such fires may safely be kept going simultaneously.

Unless conditions are very favorable for the start and spread of fire,
the best method of disposing of brush and other debris is to burn it ;;S
tlie work of clearing progresses. The brush may be placed in small
piles, which are set on fire, and as each piece of brush is cut it is placi
upon the flames. Occasionally it may be necessary to add some thor-
oughly dry material to keep the fire going, but this will not often iu'

12

the ( ase. As the cutting proceeds, new fires are started at convenient
pl;;<{>s. Most people are surprised to see that green brush burns as
;•,'. mHv as it does. The advar.tr.gc^' of this method is that large piles
of i)rush and consequently large fires are avoided. La])or is saved,
bet'aiise everything is cleaned up as the work proceeds, and brush
need not be handled a second time. Men need not go over the area
twi«'e. If a fire starts to si)read, the whole force of men is available to
meet the situation.

SPECIAL CREW NEEDED

111 hirger operations one man or several men should have charge of
the burning, and responsibility for the handling of the fire and jzaiard-
inu jigainst its spread should be definitely placed. Of course, every
mail oil the job sliould know the danger of fire and should exercise
care at all times.

WHAT TOOLS ARE NECESSARY

There are certain tools that may be used to make the work of l-rush
burning easier and safer. Of course, one's hands and some matelies
may be sufficient, but usually thej' are not.

A four-tined fork, such as is common on the farm, is very valual^le
to pick up scattered material and place it on the piles or on a fire.

An iron I'a.ke, such as a garden rala\ a Rieli forest fire to.)!, oi*

Forest Fire Tool

13

IS (l()!ic wiicii ihf iii.-iici-inl is .hiiiip mid the st:n'()uii(liii,L»' ;,,,..., ;., ,j
.•Mlv,-ini;i«iv iiiiiv 1)1' i.-ikt'ii ol' ii;itiii-<-il di'jiJ'i. ('ndci- moist <-niidi!
Hj'c ]ii;iy he st.'ii'tcd ;it inoic IJum one point in a Ioho' row.

linni.Hf/ hnish hi pjhs. 'riiis is the iiiosl coiimion method ..i' '
dis])0snl. Mild is a wiy sinipic procedure when done eorredh.
•iiJ^'Hlly. however, the piK's of dehfis are made too lar<»(-. .\s
hum, tlic heat iH'eomcs intense, and a tremendous draft is cr.'aMi.
This rari-ies into the ail- Larj'c sparks whieli ean travel eonsidernhlc
distances hefore dyini;' out. Likewise, the lieat eno-endei-e.l prevc!,is
workmen from properly guardino' the fire, with the result that n.'.n
material catches tire and the flames spread.

As n;alei-ial is cul. I'aked. oj- o-ailH>]vd. it should he j.ul in sin,-,
p.-icl piles, iH.l uKire llian ahont five feet in diameter aiid 1w(,« I
''<'i.^'''l. li" I lie materia! is thoiouijrhly dry, the liiv shouM he s
'•it il'c t(M. ol* the pile; othirwisc the fiiv should he started a1 ii,

)V

' M ' ai-

CoLLKCTiNG Brush and BrRxixo ox Oxi: P

n.i:

\v,(y fi-oni the wind. One i>ile may he huj-ned, and

liiay be eari-ied io the i

surroiUKlniLi

wet <lays se\cral such I

ire and fed to it ji'TaduaMx- and caroruljv

ires may safely be kept !Hoiin»' simultan.oii

Sl \

( nl

ess CO

ndit !

(>

ns are very favorable for the start and sjnvad oi' fi

tlie best method of disposino- of |,,aisli and othei- del

the work of elearin<_>' progresses. The bi-usl
piles, which are set on fi

)ris js

to }

)Ulli I

ui>on the llames. ( )

1 may be placed in sii
ire, and as each piece of brush is cut it is pla

ccasionallv it mav be i

ou.iihly dry material to ke«"|. the f

leccssai'x- to a(hl sr)mc t

ire <i()in!L»', but this will n..i ot"t.-ii

1L>

tl . .»sc. As the cuttinj^' i)roceeds, new fires are .started at convenient

I , Most peoi)le are surprised to see that g-reen brush burns as

•s ii ('oes. 'i'i:e advi'iit : «.:;' nl* this method is that lai'»i'i' jules

-\\ and c(»nse(juently larjic tires are a\()ided. Labor is saved.

.•\i!'ythini>' is ek-aned up as the work pi'Dcceds. and brush

J., ;iof be handled a secoiul time. ]\len need not uo o\ei* tiie ai'ea

If a fire starts to spread, the whole force of men is available to

'iir situation.

SPECIAL CREW NEEDED

, rirt'i" operations one mail or si'veral men should liave chai-uc of
tin hnrning, and responsibility for tlu^ handlin^r of the fire am! 'juard-

; linst its sj^read should be definitely ])lac(M]. ( )f course, cxtrx
<i;e Jo!) sliould know the datiL>:'i" '>!' iiic iwmI slioiild ixci'cise
i-.iv ;ii all times.

WHAT TOOLS ARE NECESSARY

There arc certain tools that ma\" be usi'd t>) make th.e v.oi-i-; of ' r;ish

«

hiiiiiing' easier ami sa. Tii-. (>[' coiirse. one's hand's .aiel soHe- ni.'tciiis
may he sufficient, but usiia.liy tliey are not.

A four-tined fork, such as is common {^w tlie farm, is \( ry vahriii'u
to piiT: up scatlered material and ]>!ace it on the plies or on a, lii-i-.
Ail iron ialce, sue!) as a jvard- ii r.ii e. ■! Rieh foi'est lir^ to -i. > f

_*.

FoRKST FiRK Tool

13

Torch For Burning Brush

14

oti»i i' type, is useful to rake up the finer material, to keep cleaning up
around the edge of the fire, to rake together the embers when the fire
hfis l)urned down, to rake out a line of fire which may spread from the
bill J ling pile or row

] or starting fire in brush piles or rows, a torch of any kind is better
than matches. A pipe torch several feet long is very good, as the flame
can I)e held for some time at any place in the pile. A blow torch may
hv needed if the material is very damp. The fuel in a torcli will
enable the flames to burn long enough to dry out enough of the wood or
leaves to start the fire. With care the remainder may be burned all
iii>ht. With a torch, brush may be burned even when it is very wet,
v.licn it is raining, or when the brush has been under snow.

Water should always be on hand when brush is to be burned, except
when the ground is covered with snow, when it is mining, or just after
rain has fallen. A sprinkling can, a spray tank, or ordinary buckets
may be used. The essential thing is to have a quantity of water avail-
able, so that if sparks start fires, or a fire starts to spread, the flames
may be extinguished immediately. Water containers should not ])e
(Ml plied and left so. They should be refilled at once.

Other tools may be used when available, but the important thing to
remember is that when nothing is provided with which to restrain the
fire to the })lace it belongs, this lack of precaution is the best indication
of carelessness on the part of the one doing the burning.

BEFORE BURNING BRUSH NOTIFY FIRE OBSERVERS

The State has a system of forest fire observation stations, which are
manned constantly from about March 15 to June 1, and from Septem-
ber 15 to December 15. AVhen the ol)servers see smoke in or near
I'uivst areas, they notify the nearest forest fire warden, who gets a
(M'ew of men and goes immediately to (wtinguish the fir<'. The warden
'••nd his men are paid by the State for their time and expenses. If
they find that the smoke which the towerman sights is not a forest
tiiv, they may stay to see tliat everything is safe and that no forest
i'nv occurs. In order to save this expense to the Commonwealth, every
«"i'' who burns brush in or near a woodland ])etween the dates just
in-iitioned should notify the nearest tower-man who is likely to see the
smoke.

in case burning is done and the fire does escape, the nearest warden
sii'vuld be notified at once so that a force of men can sui)])ress the fire
I'l^'Uiptly. In such a case, the i)erson who is doing the burning should
P<'v the warden and his men immediately for theii- time and expense,
t;:!;ino ;. receipt fi'(mi each (me i)aid.

15

ToRCFi For Burning Brush

14

type, is useful to rake up the finer niaterial, to keep cleaniim' up
(1 tlie edge of the fire, to rake together tlie eiiil)ei's when the iiic

i, limed down, to rake out a line of fire which may spread from tlie

! nig pile or row

: r starting fire in brush i)iles or rows, a torch of .*niy kind is better
tiiatches. A i)ipe torcli several feet long is vei'y good, as the llam<'
••' held for some time at jiiiy i)lace in the pile. A ])l()w torch iimy
lir KH'ded if the material is very (himp. The fuel in a t(»i'cli will
rii.'iik' the flames to burn long enough to dry out enough of the wootl oi-
l!;,\(S to start the fii-e. AVith care the remnindei- iiuiy be buiiu'(l ;ili
ri'jiit. With a torch, brush nniy be burned even when it i> very wet,
vi I'l it is i':<ining. oi- when the bi-ush has been under snow.

W.iter should alwnys l)e on hand when biaish is to be ])U!'ned. t'xcej)1
when the ground is covered with snow, when it is iviininu. or just -it'tei-
!';.iii IiMS fnllen. A sj)rinkiing can. a spi'ay tnnk. oi* oi'din;.ry bu.-kets
ni;i\ he used. The essentini thing is to Inive a nu;intit\- of wjitei- .-ivail-
;ihi". so tlnit if sparks st;irt lires, or a hie stiirts to spi-e.-Ml. the ti.-imes
!i.;i.. !*e i-xtinguished imrnedi.iteiy. W.-iter containers should not be
<iii|.lie(| .-md left so. They should be reiilled ;it onee.

Other tools may be used when available, j)ut the important thinu to
reiiieni])er is that when nothing is i>rovided with which to resti-;iin tlie
fiiv to the i)lace it belongs, this lack ol' precaution is the best indicntioii
.'i' <-,irelessness on the ])art of the one doing the bui'uing.

IJEFORE BURNING BRUSH NOTIFY FIRE OBSERVERS

1 Ik' State hns n syst(>m of forest fire observation stations, which ;iiv

in;iiiticd constantly from nbout Mnrch IT) to dune 1, and fi'(»ni Scptcni-

I"!- lo to Decembei' b"). When the observers see smoke in nv wv.w

i<'tvst ;irens, they notify the neai'cst foivst fire w?ii'den. who i>vls .-i

'•'•»-• of men .nid goes immedi.-itely to extinguish the fii-e. The wni'den

IS men are |);iid by the Stjitc for tiieii' time and expi-nses. If

'fi<> lind that the smoki' which the towerimin siglits is not <•! foivst

'^i- -iie.x may stay to se(« that ("verything is safe and that no forest

Inv occurs. In order to save this expense to the Commonwealth, every

'ill'' who burns ])rush in or near a woodland between the <la1es just

'1' •ilioJied sliould notify the nearest tower-man who is likely to se,> tlie
sii'dke.

'ii «'ase burning is done and the fire does escape, the nearest warden
^"' ''! be notified at once so that a foi'ce of men can suj)|.ress the fii'e
i iiptly. In such a case, the person who is doino- the bui'iiinu sliould
h llie warden and his men immediately for their time and exp( ,ise.
' ". a receipt from each (nie paid.

IT)

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

\n

YOU PAY FOR EXTINGUISHING FIRES YOU CAUSE

In L'\ery ('asc,' where the Dcparimcnt of Forests and Waters eaii de-
ternijiie tlie cause of a lire and place the responsibility upon a person,
that person is asked to pay the cost of extinction. He may also be
sued for the violation of the law which prohibits the setting of fotcst
fires.

When a person permits his fire to escape from his land to the
proi)ert\' of another, the person damaged may collect through the
courts an amount sufficient to cover his loss. It is wise therefoir to
exercise the greatest precautions when any fire is used in the open.

SPECIAL INSTRUCTIONS*

A. WHEN WE SHOULD NOT BURN BRUSH

1. Between March 15th and June 15th.
Between September 15th and December 15th.

2. On a clear quiet day any time in the year when the forest

floor is dry.

D. WHI:N we 3IAY BURN BRUSH

1. It is desirable to mow^ and burn at the same time, except

dui'ing the fire seasons.

2. From December 15th to March 15th.
Prom June 15th to September 15th.

o. W lien the forest floor is damp and there is a rioticeai/a-
dampness in the air.

4. When snow is on the ground.

5. At night.

C. HOW TO BURN

6.

7.

1.
2.

3.
4.
5.

Arrange cutting in windrows or in piles.

The best and recommended manner is to bum brush in shim 11
I)iles, which are regularly placed and without confusion,
burning one })iie and feeding on it the brush from other
piles nearby, which operation will result in the 1< ist
mimber of piles or embers.

Burn down hill.

Burn against the wind.

Piles should be five feet in diameter and 18 inches high j-nd
may be taken care of by two men under the worst coii-
ditions.

8.

10.

Five or six fires may be taken care of by one man if the

ground and forest floor are quite wet.
Stop lighting fires early in the afternoon in order to be

absolutely sure that the embers are extinguished at th(^

end of the dav.

After burning, it is advisable to have a man visit the spot
early next morning.

Watch fires and piles of em])ers carefully during lunch hour.

Equipment should comprise torches for back firing and
igniting piles, Rich fire tools, rattan brooms, and not less
than four vv'ater tanks equipped with })umps. At least
two tanks must be full at all times.

1). HOW NOT TO BURN

1. Do not pile cuttings in windrows along the edge of right

of way.

2. Do not permit'a spray tank to be empty, but refill at once.

3. Do not burn on rocky areas. It is safer to let the brusli

lie unburned.

4. Do no burn up hill, i. e., do not light the fire at the down

hill side.

5. Do not burn with the wind, i. e., with the wind behind

the fire.

''Quoted in full from Orders of P. P. & L. Co. 7-25-27.

16

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THE MONT ALTO

STATE FOREST TREE NURSERY

Bulletin 49

f'lr uJ

COMMONWEALTH OF PENNSYLVANIA

DEPARTMENT OF FORESTS AND WATERS

Charles E. Dobwoeth, S&eretary

Joseph S. Illick, Deputy Secretary and State Forester

THE MONT ALTO

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

On February 28, 1929, State Forester
Joseph S. Illich appointed the following
committee to prepare a report on the
history, development, operations, and
achievements of the Mont Alto Forest
Tree Nursery:

George H. Wirt
George A. Ketan
cuigc o. i elry
Tom 0. Bradley

Grateful acknowledgments are due to
all members of the committee for their
helpful services.

STATE FOREST TREE NURSERY

-,--^^r

Bulletin 4^)

ni:pARTMi;NT or F(M<i:st^ am> w atiks

( ' i 1 \ i;! I - V. I )' ii;\\ I 'iM 1 1. >' '■/■' /'//■//
I 1,1 n-l-^lill ru. I 'I'H ll--\ l\ .-i II l;i

1 '•;;()

THE MONT ALTO

STATE FOREST TREE NURSERY

ACENOWIiUDGMBNTS

On February 28, 1929, State Forester
Joseph S. Illich appointed the following
committee to prepare a report on the
history, development, operations, and
achievements of the Mont Alto Forest
Tree Nnrsery:

George H. Wirt
George A. Betan
^eorge S. Perry
Tom 0, Bradley

Grateful acknowledgments are due to
all members of the committee for their
helpful services.

■p 3?,

^ '■

Bulletin 49

COMMONWFALTH OF PFNNSYL\\ANIA
DEPARTMENT OF FORESTS AND WATERS

CiiAHLi:s K. DuKWouTii. Scrretary
Joseph S. Illick, Deputy Secretary and State Forester

llfiri'isbiii'^', Pt'iinsx Ivciiiiji

■■*

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

STATK FOHKST COMMISSION

Cliark's E. Dorworth, Chairman

Edward Bailey

Mary J^'linn Lawrence (Mrs. John W.)

N. P. Wheeler, Jr.

A. J. Odemvelder, Jr.

OKGAXIZATION OF DKPARTMKXT OF FORESTS AND WATERS

Charles E. Dorworth, Secretary

Joseph S. Illick, Deputy Secretary and State Forester

Goorffo H. Wirt, Chief, Bureau of Forest Protection

Alfred E. Rupp, Chief, Bureau of Forest Management

Charles R. IMeek, Chief, Bureau of Forest Exten.sion

Irwin W. Gleason, Chief, Bureau of Forest Lands

R. Lynn Emerick, Chief, P>ureau of Forest Research and Information

Jacob M. Hoffman, Chief, ]^»ureau of Forest Parks

W. Erdmaiin Montgomery, Chief, Bureau of Accounts and Maintenance

Charles E. Ryder, Chief Engineer, AVater and Power Resources Board

TABLE OF CONTEXTS

Page

lilt reduction 5

Where Mont Alto Nursery Is Located 6

How the Nursery Was Started 7

Ground Plan of Nursery 8

Sources and Collection of Forest Tree Seed 8

How Seed Is Sown in Nursery Beds 10

General Seed Sowino- Schedule 15

How the Seed Is Covered J 6

How Newlv Made Beds Are Protected 16

Young Trees Are Shaded 18

Young Trees Require Plenty of Moisture 21

Weeding — An Im[)ortant Nursery Probh^m 21

Little Transplanting Is Done 22

How Trees are Lifted, Sorted, and Counted 25

Trees Require Careful Packing and Shipment 27

Lal)or-saving Machinery 29

Nursery l^uildings 81

Keej)ing Accurate Nursery Records 32

Special Nursery Studies 33

Growth of the Mont Alto Nursery 40

Principal Kinds of Trees Produced 41

How Trees Are Distributed 43

Successful Plantations from Mont Alto Trees 43

The Future of the ^Mont Alto Nursery 43

I 'ibliography 47

Ai)pendix 51

THE MONT ALTO FOREST TREE NURSERY

!

INTRODUCTION

THE Mont Alto Forest Tree Nursery is one of the pioneer forest
tree nurseries of the United States. It was established in 1902
by George H. Wirt, who was the first and, at that time, the only
technically trained forester in the State forest service of Pennsylvania.

finmediately after the nursery site was selected, enough ground was
plowed and harrowed for the laying out of 36 seeds beds, each four feet
wide by 79 feet long. The first seed (white pine) was sown on
April 28, 1902. In the Spring of 1903, the first trees— 1,600 two-
year-old transplants — were removed from the nursery for reforesta-
tion purposes. They were planted in ''The Monaghan Field" on the
Mont Alto State Forest, near the present location of the South Moun-
tain State Sanitorium. The next year (1904) a total of 7,700 trees
was taken from the nursery, and in 1905 the number shipped increased
to 15,000. During the first five years (1903-1907), the output of the
nursery totalled 97,281 trees. The total output was increased to
more than 2,000,000 seedlings and transplants during the second five-
year period (1908-1912).

The purpose in establishing the Mont Alto Nursery is recorded in
numerous printed and unpublished reports. These reports show a
twofold purpose: first, to help reforest the extensive waste lands in
the Commonwealth; and second, to furnish private forest landowners
witli planting stock, free of charge, or at a nominal cost (40, 41,
42, 44). In a large measure, this early vision of possible services and
benefits has already been realized.

A review of the records of the Mont Alto Nursery shows a rapid
and regular increase in production. From a very modest beginning
m 1903, when only 1,600 trees were lifted from the nursery beds,
the output has increased, until during the last five years (1925-1929)
from two to four million trees have been shipped each year. In the
27 years that this nursery has been in operation, more than 35,000,000
^•''(llings and transplants have been grown and distributed for re-
f'M-estation purposes in all sections of Pennsylvania.

WHERE MONT ALTO NURSERY IS LOCATED

The Mont Alto Xnrxery is located on the northwestern «h)i)e of the
Soutli Mountains, in Kranklin C'onntj', Pennsylvania. It is a])j)roxi-
mately six miles northeast of Waynesboro and 12 miles south of
Chamhershurji-, in the well-known South Mountain fruit belt. This
location is unusually well adapted to nursery work because of the
ji:eneral climate, the lon<? ^n-owin^ season, and the |)r()tection afforded
by the neighborinji; forest-covered mountains.

Location of tin' Mont Alto Forest Tree Xurxcr}/

The annual rainfall in this region averages al)out 89 inches. The
mean temperature is 52° F. The average date of the last killinu^
frost is the fii-st of May, whereas the first killincr frost in fall do<'s
not occur, on the average, until October 12. These figures, however,
do not picture the full advantages of the location of ''the Mont Altn
Nursery. In spring, it is usually possible to begin the work of liftim'-
trees from the beds as early as March. Ofttimes it is not necessar;
to mulch the trees for winter ])rotection before Thanksgiving Diiy
and sometimes not before Christmas. The rainfall is fairly '^eveni;
distributed throughout the year, and long droughts are infrequent.

6

The iNIont Alto Nursery is easily reached by following a concrete
ro.id that branches from the Lincoln Highway at Fayetteville, and
runs to the village of Mont Alto. An improved road, leading from
tliat village, i)asses the nursery, goes through the Mont Alto State
Forest, and climbs the mountain to the Mont Alto State Sanatorium.
Near the nursery is the State Forest School, which is a branch of
Pennsylvania State College. Here, too, is the Pennsylvania Forest
Kcsearch Institute of the Department of Forests and Waters.

HOW THE NURSERY WAS STARTED

III 1902, George II. Wirt, the first professional forester in the
State forest service of Pennsylvania, was sent to Mont Alto to start
forest work. His first task was the establishment of the Mont Alto
Forest Tree Nursery (1, 21, 41, 42). Immediately after the nursery
site was selected, the ground w^as plowed, harrowed, and laid out in
36 seed beds, each four feet wide by 79 feet long. Six pounds of
white pine seed were purchased at $2 a pound, and 10,000 one-year-
old white pine seedling-s at $4 a thousand. On April 28, 1902, the
first seed was sown. The sowing was done by Augustus Varnicle, a
local blacksmith, who had expressed doubt that white pine trees ever
grew from seed. In one bed a pound and a half of seed was sown
broadcast. The remainder of the seed was sown in drills across the
beds. The 10,000 white pine seedlings were dibbled in and placed in
rows across the beds.

The first summer Avas hot and dry. Billets of wood were placed
between the drills to conserve moisture. Water was carried from the
nearby creek and applied to the trees with sprinkling cans. Shades
were made of woven wire fence, cut into lengths of 10 to 12 feet,
to which were nailed one-half-inch by two-inch laths. Some of these
old screens were in use more than 25 years. Although 5,500 of the
transplants survived, losses were excessive, and the germination of
the seed was unsatisfactory.

On September 3, 1902, William Daywalt, a farmer who lived on
tlie nearby mountain, delivered a wagon load of white pine cones.
There were 56 biLshels in the load. From these cones 41 pounds of
seed were obtained. Mr. Daywalt also delivered one-half bushel of
white oak acorns for $1.50. Twenty pounds of seed were bought and
sown in the Fall of 1902, and 20 additional pounds of native seed
were sown in the Spring of 1903. These were the first sowings of
forest tree seeds in the State nurseries of Pennsylvania. In addition
t" this seed sowing in the nursery, extensive plantings of chestnuts,
to be exact, 2,436 hills, were made in the Mont Alto Forest by Forest
Hanger Ford Sylvester, in November, 1902.

In 1903 the Pennsylvania State Forest School was started at Mont

Alto. Immediately thereafter the size of the nur.sery was increase<l.
IMuch of the work in the nursery was done by students as a part ( f
their reji^ular course of studies. The nursery formed an integral pa it
of the school, and, together with the IMont Alto Forest, was a centie
for work in silvical research and practicum. Table I on page ."il
lists all the foresters who have been in direct charge of the Mont
Alto Nursery since its establishment in 1902.

GROUND PLAN OF NURSERY

For many years the layout or ground plan of the Mont Alto Forest
Tree Nursery was arranged primarily to facilitate hand labor. It
was blocked off into sections of about one half of an acre or slightly
larger in size. These sections were subdivided into beds four feet
wide by 25 feet long, and the resultant standard bed of 100 square
feet has always been used as a unit for seed sowing, bookkeeping',
and management purposes (39). With the increased use of horse
and motor-drawn implements, along with transportation by truck,
it is no longer advantageous to have the ground subdivided in this
manner. Beds are now laid out in greater lengths, thus reducing to
a considerable extent unnecessary turning w-ith trucks and implements.

When lands are irrigated, fertilized, and cultivated intensively for
the production of a valuable crop, excessive waste spaces between
production areas are a liability. At Mont Alto an effort has been
made to reduce the amount of ''path area" to a minimum. This
reduction of space given up to paths has led to a considerable re-
duction in the cost of weeding and general management expenses.

SOURCES AND COLLECTION OF FOREST TREE SEED

At the start of the Mont Alto Nursery, some seed was collect<Ml
locally and some was purchased (41, 44, 47). In later years, con-
siderable (luantities of seed were purchased from seed-collecting sta-
tions that were started in the Lakes States and in New England.
p]ven today a large portion of the seed used at Mont Alto is neces-
sarily purchased from sources outside of the State. Especially is
this true of evergreen tree seed, such as the pines and the spruces.
These trees the uncertain seed producers. With them, a year of
jilentiful seed production is usually followed by several years of scanty
seed production. Hence, only those regions where there are still
large stands of mature timber can be depended upon for regular suji-
plies of seed.

It is now generally known that the best seed to plant in any given
region is seed produced by trees within that region. Through hered
ity, such seed produces trees that are adapted to the climate of th
region. Hence, these trees usually make better timber than do tree^

8

The Site of the Mont Alto Nursery m April, 1902

General View of the Mont Alto Nursery in WOJf, Two Years

After Its fJstablishment

Alto. Tiiinicdiatcly tlici-cHt'tcr the .siz<' of the iiur.scry \\<\s increase
Ariicli ()[ the work in \\\v nunsci-y was done by stiuhwits as a ])ai't
tluMi" rc^i'ular cours-c of studies. The nursery formed an intefj^ral pa; ;
of the school, and. to^ictlier with the Mont Alto Forest, was a eenti •
foi* woi'k in silvieal i-eseareh and practicum. Tal)h' I on prj«ie 7)]
lists all th<' forcstei-s who liax'e Ix'cn in dii'cet ('har«^<» of tlie Moj;!,
Alto Xnrscrv since its establishment in ]9()2.

GROUND PLAN OF NURSERY

For iiianv vears tlie layout or t»'round |)hin of the ^Mont Alto Forest
'I'ree Nursery was ari-anjicd j)riniarily to facilitate hand labor. 1;
w;is blocked off into sections of about one half of an acre or sli<'hl!\-
l;ir«:'ei- in si/e. Thes<' sections were subdivided into beds four feet
wide by 25 feet lonjjf, aiul tlu' I'csidtant staiidai'd bed of 100 s(|u;iii'
feet hns always Ihm'u used as a unit for s<'ed sowin«>-, ])ookkeepiim.
iind manau'ement pui'poses (-'l.'O- AVith the increased use of Ikhm'
and motor-drawn iinplements, alonjj!; with transportation l)y truck,
it is no lon«i'er advanta<i"eous to have the «i"roun(l subdivided in this
mannei*. l»eds are now laid out in <»ri'ater lengths, thus re(lucin<i' 1<»
;i considei'able extent unnecessary tm-ninji" with ti'ucks and imi)lements.

When lands are ii*ri«;ated, fertilized, and cultivated intensively f<i!-
the production of a valuabU' ci'op, excessive waste sj)aces botweeii
production areas are a liability. At Mont Alto an etfort luis been
made to I'educe the anu)unt of "j)ath area.'' to a minimum. This
i-eduction of s))ace ^'iven up to ])aths has h'd to a considerable r<'
duel ion in the cost of weedin«j: and «i"eneral maiui«jrement expenses.

SOURCES AND COLLECTION OF FOREST TREE SEED

At the stai't, of the Mont Alto Nursery, some seed was coIlect<'d
|oc;dl\' and some w;is |)urchased (U, / /, 17'). in latei- years, con-
sidei'nble tpiantities of seed wer<^ pui'chased fl'om scM'd-colleetiuiLi' st.i-
tions j licit wei-e started in the Lakes States and in New Fn^land.
K\-en t(»day a lar<»'e portion of the seed used at Mont Alto is neces-
sarily pui'chased from sources outside of the State. Ivspecially i^
this true- of ever«»reen tree s<mh1, such as the i)in<'S and the spruce-
ThcM' trees the uncertain seed ])roducei's. With them, a year of
plentiful seed production is usunlly followed by si'vei'al yeai>; of scant,
seed production. Hence, ordy those i"e*»'iuns where there are sti!
Iar«jre staiuls of mature timber can be depended upon for re«i-ular su]
pli<'s of seed.

It is now tjenerally known that the })est seed to plant in any t-ive)
re«i-ion is seed produced by trcH's within tlujt rejrion. Throuji'h hered
ity. sucli seed produces trees that are ada|)ted to the climate of th
region. Hence, these trees usually make better timl)er than do tree.

8

^: r^f m^r%-'^^^-f:

Thr Site (,f tin Mont Alto Xurscrit it, .!/>/•//. /.'/r/..^

Gcunal Vim- nf thr Mont Alto Xur.svnf in UiO',, Tiro Yenrs

Ajtrr Ha /:.stahlislinu Ht

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

•jrowii from seed i)r()cured in forei<>:n countries. It is, therefore, tlii»
j)raetiee in tlie ()t)eration of the State nurseries of Pennsylvania t>>
secure as much seed as ])o.ssihle from sources within tlie Commoii-
Avealth. In the case of the hardwoods, it has been easy to secure
ample su|)j)]ies. Walnut, oak, maple, and ash trees seed frequently,
and the seed is easily collected. As early as the Winter of VM):',.
]904, seed of the black locust was jyathered about Mont Alto and
sown in the Sprinjr of 11)04. In 11)06 approximately 37 bushels of
walnuts were jjathered. Some of the oldest plantations in the Stat<".
such as those in the vicinity of ^lont Alto and the Caledonia State
Forest Park, were made by planting? seedlint^s grown in the ^Tonl
Alto Xurserv from local seed.

A.

The fine stands of natural white jiine in Mont Alto Park and on
the flats near New Baltimore were recognized, even at the time the
nursery was started, as possible sources of good seed. In 1902, in
bushels of white pine cones were gathered, and cones have been col-
lected from the trees in these stands every seed year since that time.

On the occasion of that first seed harvest in 1902, the collected cones
were laid on a tight attic floor to dry, and the seed was then shaken
out. In 1905, 50 bushels of cones were gathered, yielding 37 pounds
of cleaned seed. That year a seed-drying establishment, with a capacity
of 50 buf^hels, was equipped in an old brick building (49). The ecpiip-
ment consisted of several tiers of hardwood lath trays, with muslin
trays at the bottom to catch the seed as they were shaken out. The
handling of seed in this special manner is probably the very first in-
stance of such practice by any state.

To facilitate the practice of securing home-grown seed for the
nursery, special plots, known as seed supply stations, have been set
apart in various forest plantations in the near-by forests. These plots
are tended primarily for seed production, and the trees kept under
close observation. Thus, it will be possible to secure additional quan-
tities of native seed as soon as these plantations have reached seed-
bearing age. The first of these special seed supply stations was es-
tablished in 1927 by State Forester Joseph S. Illick in a plantation of
Scotch pine in the Mont Alto State Forest, and in a natural stand of
white pine near the Greenw^ood Forest Tree Nursery, in Huntingdon
County.

HOW SEED IS SOWN IN NURSERY BEDS

The seed of most trees, especially that of evergreens, is very tiny
This necessitates the careful preparation of the soil before the seed is
sown. At Mont Alto the practice is to plow the soil as deeply as
j)ossible, and then pidverize it by dragging and harrowing. The next
step is to throw up seed beds by asing a *' middle-buster" ])low. (Sec

10

illustration, ])age 30). This imi)lement is like those used in the South
f:;r ridge-plowing sweet potatoes. By the use of this plow a great
et onomy in labor is effected. For many years it was the practice to
do this work by hand-spading.

After the beds are thrown up in the rough, they are marked out by
stakes and twine, and then smoothed off by hand-raking. The raking
is a very important operation. It is done thoroughly, all lumps and
stones are removed, and the surface of the bed made as fine and smooth
as that of a well-cared-for vegetable garden. The beds are finished
with a slightly convex surface to facilitate drainage. They are raked
to a width of slightly more than four feet, so that, even after the
edges have been worn away, the seeded bed will still be a full four

^^1

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f

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K '. <-i* ■- ■"

* V.f^-- ._. ■•. "^.u-- -—Z^'-t- I.* ...'^•».,5-'

iC... sT . '

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,. 1

1

' #* '-t-./^vv ..J^gi^

Xiirscrff Crcir l*r<j)(irhi<j Beds for the <S'o<r/Hf/ of Seed

feet in width. These beds are raised about four inches higher than the
paths that separate them. The paths themselves are 18 inches wide.
These 18-inch strips include the unsown edges of the beds.

The practice of making seed beds in this exact and precise manner
has been adopted after much experimentation, l^eds and paths of
varying widths have been tried. For many years, beds 25 feet in
hngth were used, with wide i)aths across the ends. These wide paths
jHoved to be unnecessary and were an actual hindrance to the use of
]al)or-saving devices. When beds of other widths were used, they were
lound to be wasteful, for sometimes hardly 50 per cent of the area of
t!ie beds contained seedlings. Cnder the ])resent practice, beds may
h" as long as the sections in which they are located, but they are seeded
J.'i strips 50 feet long. Spaces one foot wide are left bare between
tiiese 50-foot seeded strips.

11

In the be^ifiiining of nursery operations at :\Iont Alto, all seed wa.
sown in drills, according to the practice followed at that time in
European nurseries. It was soon learned that this method was un-
economical, and wasteful of seed, time, and nursery space. Much of
the seed did not germinate until the second year after it was sown,
becaiLse it was covered too deeply with earth. The number of seedlings
produced in a bed was relatively small. Where large numbers were
produced, the seedlings were of extremely variable quality because of
the crowding within the drills. It was found that broadcast sowiiijr
produced better seedlings, prevented much winter heaving, as well
as excessive mud-coating during severe rainfall, and helped in over-
coming attacks of disease. Because of these factors, the final cost of
seedlings grown from seed sown broadcast is only about one half of the
cost of seedlings grown in drill-sown beds.

A Few iipecial ^ccd Bcdn arc .Spaded with movel

All seed sowing is now done by hand. No other method gives an
even distribution of seed. It Is the practice now to sow seed somewhat
more densely near the edges than in the centre of a bed, in order to
obtani in a more even grow^th of trees. Formerly, the quantity of seed
to be sown on any given area was weighed out. This took considerable
tune, as it made necessary the preparation of a small quantity of seed
at each sowing. Now it is the practice to weigh out at once the seed
needed for a large unit of ground, and prepare this for sowing. Prom
this larger amount, seed is measured out for sowing single beds. Small

12

c mtainers have been made wdiich measure accurately the amount of
.s.-i'd needed for these small planting units. This practice greatly
facilitates the work of sowing.

The seed of all conifers is treated, prior to sowing, by being moistened
and coated thinly with red lead (J3). Originally, it was believed that
this practice prevented damage by birds at the time of germination,
and also aided in warding off diseases. It is now known that this is
not true ; but the practice is continued because the red color makes the
seed visible on the ground, and enables the sower to do his seeding
evenly. It also tends to insure proper covering of the seed. Twine,
fastened to stakes, and stretched along the edges of the bed, guides the
sower in seeding the beds.

The seed of some heavy and rapid-growing hardwoods, such as black
walnut, oak, and black locust, is sown in drills, which are made with a
horse cultivator. Sowing these tree seeds in this manner is necessary
in order to facilitate the digging of the seedlings, whose long taproots
jnake the tree-lifting operation difficult at best.

Sugar maple, ash, white oak, and tulip poplar make much better
growth when sown broadcast. In the ordinary seed bed they can be
shaded during the period of germination, and they are more easily
weeded. Formerly, it was believed that wide drill sowing and horse
cnltivation would make weeding easier, but recent experiences have
l)roven this untrue (19).

The quantity of seed sown in any given area varies with the quality
of the seed and the number of trees desired per unit of area. "When
the Mont Alto Nursery was started, relatively large quantities of seed
were sown, because of heavy seedling losses. In consequence of this
heavy seedling, the seedlings shipped from the nursery were often thin
and spindling. The improvement of soil conditions has cut down these
losses very considerably. Extended nursery studies have proven that
smaller quantities of seed produce better results.

Where, originally, 20 ounces of white pine seed were used to 100
s(|nare feet of bed surface, the quantity was cut to 16 ounces by 1913.
Later, the amount was reduced to 12 ounces. At present, only eight
ounces are used to each 100 square feet of bed surface. If the seed is
of good quality, this quantity is ample.

In the same way, the quant itj^ of seed of other trees used for sowing
has been reduced, until at present the approved seeding practice calls
I'or the following quantities of seed for each 100 square feet : red pine.
Tour ounces; pitch pine and shortleaf pine, five ounces; Scotch pine
md Norway spruce, six ounces; European and Japanese larch, seven
"unces. These quantities of seed should give final stands of 2.500 to

13

Til the ])('«iiniiin<i- (,|* nm-sci-y oprnitioiis ;it Mont Alt(.. nil swd u;,
sown in (irllls. nccordinjr to ijx' pnjcticc Toihtwcd n\ that time i
P^uropcaii imrscrics. It was soon Icanicd that this method was ui.
eeoiioniicai. and wastcl'id oi" seed, linic. and nursery si)acc. .Much <>'
tlif seed did ii(,t •••ei-ininate uidil tlie second y<'ar after it was .sowj
becau.se it was covered too deeply with <'arth. The nuniher of seedliiej
produced in a hed was r<'latively small. Wiiere lar<»-e numhei's wei^
produced, the seedlijio-s w<'re of extremely variable cpiality because of
the crowding- within the drills. It was found that broadcast sowiiin
produced bett.'r see(IIin«'>>. j)revente(i mueh winter }leavin«,^ as well
as excessive mud-coatino- duriuj-: s<'vere rainfall, and help(>(l in over
c-omino- attacks of dis<'ase. Because of tliese factors, the final cost .,
.seedlino>^ or,,w„ fnuii seed sown })roa(lcast is only al)()ut one half of tli.-
cost of seedlings <ii'own in drill-sown beds.

.1 /'fir S/trria/ Strd /Irtls an S /,(!(/( (t uifh Short I

All se<.(| sowino- is now done by hami. Xo other method -ives ai
•'v.'u distribution of seed. It is the practice n(»w to sow seed somewlia-
nicre deuM'ly near the ed-es than in the centre of a IxmI, in order t.
<»l»taiu in a m<.re cv.mi -rowtli of trees. Formerly, the (piantitv of se-.l
to be sown on any oiv<.n area was wei-lied out. This took con'siderabh
tn.ie. as It made iH'cessary the preparation of a small quantitv of seed
at .'ach sowin- Xow it is the practice t<. weio-h out at (Uice' the seed
"«';'<l<''l »<•'• a bn-ov unit of -round, and prepare this for sowin- Fmin
this lar-cr amount, seed is measmv.l (,ut for sowiu- sinj-le beds. Snuill

12

iitaiiiers have been ma(h' wliicli mc^asure accurately the amount of
(1 neech'd for these small i)lant4n«»- units. This })ractic<' <i-reatly
Mcilitates the work of sowing-.

riie seed of all conifers is treated, ])rior to sowin«r, by bein^ moistened
,i,i(l coated thinly with w^d lead (l-i)- Originally, il ^V'^^ Indieved that
lliis practice ])revented damage by birds at tlu^ time of germination.
„iid also aided in warding otf diseases. It is now known that this is
11, Il true; but th<' practice is continued Ix'cause \\w red color makes the
>.'(■(! visible on the grouiul, and enables the sower to d(> his seeding
rvi'iily. It also tends to insure proper covering of the seed. Twin<',
fastened to stakes, and stretched along the edges of the bed. guides the
>()wer in seeding the Ix'ds.

The seed of some lu'avy and rapid-growing hardwoods, such as idack
walnut, oak, and black locust, is sown in drills, which are made with a
horse cultivator. Sowing these tree seeds in this manner is lU'cessai-y
ill order to facilitate^ the digging of the seedlings, whose long taproots
make tlii^ tree-lifting oju'i-ation difficult at best.

Sugar maj)le. ash, white oak, and tulip poplar make much iiettei"
growth when sown broadcast. Jn the ordiimry seed bed tlu'y can be
shaded during the period of germination, and they are moi-e easily
weeded. Formerly, it was believed that wide drill sowing and horse
•Miltivation W(udd make weeding easiei', but receid <'.\perienees havv'
|ii-oven this nidrue (JfO-

The (piantity of seed sown in any given area varies with, the (pudity
nf ih<' seed and the numlx'r of trees desired ])er unit of area. AVhen
die Mont Alto Nursery was started, relatively large (pujutities of seed
wei'e sown, because of heavy seedling loss<'s. Tn conse(pience of this
heavy siM'dling:, the seedlings shipi)ed from the nursery were often thin
and spindling. The improvement of soil conditions has cut down these
losses verv considerablv. Extended nurserv studies have i)i"oven that
-mailer <piantities of seed produce better results.

Where, originally, 20 ounces of white pine seed were nsed to 100
-<|uare feet of bed surface, the cpiantity was cut to lb ounces by 191)5.
Later, the amount was reduced to 12 ounces. At i)»-esent. only eight
"unces are used to each 100 scpiare feet of Ix'd surfac(\ If the seed is
"f good (juality. this fjuantity is ani])le.

lu the sanu' wav, the (Uiantitv (d* seed of other trees used for sowing
!uis been rediUM'd. until at |)resent th(» approved seeding practice calls
"I" the f(>llowing (puintities of seed for each 100 square feet: red pin'\
oiii- ouiu'cs; ]ntcli pine ami shortleaf piiH', five ounces; Scotch pine
lid Norway spruc<'. six ounces; European and Japanese larcli. seven
iinces. These (piantities of seed should give final stands <d' 2.">00 to

13

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

5,000 seedliiijis per 100 s(|uare feet. This rate of density insures th*'
best i)()ssible ofrowth and (luality in the seedlings.

The (|nality of the seed used is determined by careful germination
tests. These are made under conditions as nearly natural as possible.
When fall sowing is practiced, germination tests can not always be
made. In that case, only the cutting test is applied. Experience
shows that fall sowing will produce germination in practically every
sound nature seed. The mere cutting of the seed with a knife shows
what percentage of the seed Is well filled.

In the case of most seed, it is advisable to make nursery sowings at
the same i)eriods at which seed sown by nature falls from the trees.
However, there are .some exceptions to this rule. At Mont Alto, after
earlier partial failures, renewed trials of fall sowing were made in
December, 1913, when nine beds were seeded to white pine. The ex-
periment was successful. Next year 30 beds were fall-sown. So
favorable were the results, that ever since that time fall sowing has
been preferred in raising white pine seedlings.

The advantages of fall sowing are earlier and better germination,
less loss during dry summer weather, better growth because of longer
growing ])eriod, reduced loss from disease, and greater economy of
time during the basy spring nursery season. The heavier hardwood
seed is always sown in the fall.

14

GENERAL SEED SOWING SCHEDULE

The following table shows the prevailing practice in regard to the
seeds of various trees which have been planted at Mont Alto:

Species

Time' for Seed Solving, and Other Treatment-

White pine Oct. 15 to Dec. ir> or early spriiij?

Western yellow pine Oct. 15 to Dec. 15 or early spring

lUKl pine Karly spring

Pitch pine \pril to May 15 or latest antiinm

Sliortleaf pine May to June 15

Scotch pine /vV/r/// spring to June 15

Austrian pine Hnrly spring to May 10

Japanese red and black pines . . IJarh/ spring to May 10
Table mountain and scrub pines May

Jack or Banks pine April 15 to May 80

The larches April to May 15 or latest autumn

Hemlock Antumn or stratify until earliest spring

Norway spruce April to July 1

Other spruces April 15 to Mag 15

Arborvitaes April 15 to May 15

Firs Late autumn or earliest spring

White ash A utumn or stratify until early spring

Oaks Autumn or stratify until early spring

Green ash 4 utumn or early spring

Il.ickberry .1 utumn or stralify until spring

lihick locust Ma.y — after soaking or beating

Honey locust April or May — after soaking

Tulip poplar 4 utumn or stratify until sju-ing

Basswood Stratif.v in autumn and sow early second

succeeding spring

Walnuts Autumn or stratify until spring

Wild black cherry Early autumn or stratify until spring

Ash-lcaved maple A utumn or early spring

Sugar maple Autumn or stratify until earliest spring

lied and silver nuiples As soon as ripe in spring

Norway and sycamore maples .Autumn or stratify until early spring

^'Inis As soon as ripe in spring

Sycamores April 15 to May

Catalpas Vpril 15 to May :\0

Hickories \utumn or stratify until spring

Mulberries Mix with moist sand and stratify until spring

^Italics indicate most desirable time for sowing.

•Tree seeds, for which stratification is recommended, should never be permitted
to become thoroughly dry. Even if they are sown in the autumn, viability and
vitality may suffer from storage in heated rooms or long exposure to direct sunlight.

15

HOW THE SEED IS COVERED

When the seed is sown, it is pressed into the surface soil of the seed
bed by a hand roller, wide enough to cover the entire bed, includinj^
both seedf^d surface and unseeded margins. This roller is concave, so
as to fit the slightly convex surface of the bed. The use of the roller
not only firms the bed surface, so that it will not easily erode or
develop hollows, but it also makes it possible to cover the seed evenly
without disturbing it. After the seed is properly rolled in, it is
covered with a thin layer of sifted material, which is not more than
two or three times the thickness of the seed itself.

This material may be compost, or a mixture of sand and compost,
or charcoal and compost (38, 39). It must be a mixture which will
not bake, as does clay, or set, as pure sand does, and which will not

Seed Sowing is Done hy Hand. The Seed i.s Covered with a Thin Coating of

Sifted Compost

easily wash off, as too light a com])Ost does. This cover material is
distributed by being i)laced in a long-handled box sieve, which is shaken
over the bed. The use of a finely meshed sieve enables the operatoi-
to regulate the depth of the covering. Two men handle the sieve and
a third man keeps it supplied with covering material.

HOW NEWLY MADE BEDS ARE PROTECTED

It is necessary to protect the surfaces of nursery beds, which have
been fashioned with care, from the force of heavy rains, and from
birds and rodents which may discover the newly sown seed. Likewise,
it is necessary to conserve at the surface of the soil the heat and
moisture necessary for the germination of the freshly sown seed.

16

Tliis is accomplished by covering the beds with a satisfactory mulch.
The first mulch ever used at the Mont Alto Nursery, and which is
also probably the best mulch, consists of white pine needles. When
the nursery was small, it was possible to secure enough of these needles
for mulching. But when the nursery grew larger, it became necessary
to try other materials. Straw, paper, burlap, and leaves have been
used at different times. Ordinary straw is usually full of weed seed,
(.'lean rye straw, cut before maturity, makes the best straw mulch.
What is known as tobacco-bundle paper was used as early as 1909,
and works very well, especially over a thin coating of other material
as it keeps out the birds (39). However, it is difficult to handle, and
it may blow off during windstorms. Burlap gives excellent results,
saves labor and storage space, but is expensive. Any cover must be
weighted down with screens to hold it in place.

As germination time approaches, the beds must be carefully watched.
As soon as the seed is breaking evenly through the ground, the mulch
must be removed. If the mulch is allowed to remain on the beds too
long, the tiny, coniferous seed cases, which are pushed up on top of
the growing plants, will penetrate the cover, and the tender seedlings
will be pulled out in quantities when this cover is removed.

The tree seedlings in the beds must be covered during the first winter
to prevent their being heaved out of the soil by the frost. At Mont
Alto the clayey nature of the soil aggravates the damage from heaving.
Hence, various methods have been tried to overcome this evil.

Records of the first decade of the Mont Alto Nursery show that
even seedlings that had been covered were heaved out. Drill sowing
increased the possibility of damage from heaving. During the first
winter, sticks and billets of wood were laid between the drills, and
these were covered with needles or leaves. It was soon found that
leaves make a poor covering, and pine needles provide the best cover.
These needles, if worked closely in between the trees, give good aeration
and afford sufficient protection. As the Mont Alto Nursery grew
larger, and the yearly fall of needles did not supply enough winter
cover material, straw was used more and more, and has proven to be
a fairly satisfactory material for this purpose.

At Mont Alto the winter covering is applied about the middle of
November and removed in April, or even earlier, according to weather
conditions. When it grows warm early in the year, the cover must be
removed to prevent moulding. Yet it must not be taken off too early
lest the alternate thawing and freezing of early spring heave the
seedlings out of the ground. Naturally, heaving is most likely to
occur near the edges of the beds, and, accordingly, the mulching
material is applied somewhat thicker along the border.

17

HOW THE SEED IS COVERED

When the seed is sown, it is pressed into the surface soil of the seed
bed by a hand roller, wide enough to cover the entire bed, includiim-
l)oth seeded surface and unseeded margins. This roller is concave, so
as to fit the sli^^htly convex surface of the bed. The use of the rollci-
not only firms the bed surface, so that it will not easily erorle or
(levelo|) hollows, but it also makes it possible to cover the seed evenlv
without disturbing- it. After the seed is properly rolled in, it is
covered with a thin layer of sifted material, which is not more than
two or three times the thickness of the seed itself.

This material may be compost, or a mixture of sand and compost,
oi- charcoal and com|)()st (:iH, 39). It must be a mixture which will
not bak(\ as does clay, or set, as pure saiul does, and which will nol

Sivd Soiriiif/ is huui hit IhnuJ. The Sad is Corrrrd irifh a Thin Coatitif/ "f

Sifted Coiiii)o.st

easily wash off, as too li«»ht a conipost does. This cover material i-
distributed by beino- placed in a lono-handled box sieve, which is shaken
over the bed. The use of a finely meshed sieve enables the operator
to regulate the depth of the covering. Two men handle the sieve and
a third man keeps it .supplied with covering material.

HOW NEWLY MADE BEDS ARE PROTECTED

It is necessary to protect the surfaces of nursery beds, which hav<
been fashioned with care, from the force of heavy rains, and from
birds and rodents which may discover the newly sown seed. Likewise,
it is necessary to conserve at the surface of the soil the heat and
moisture necessary for the germination of the freshly sown seed.

16

T! Js is accomplished by covering the beds with a satisfactory mulch.
The first mulch ever used at the Mont Alto Nursery, and which is
aiso i)robably the best mulch, consists of white pine needles. When
tin' nursery was small, it was possible to secure enough of these needles
1'(,r mulching, liut when the nursery grew larger, it becanu' necessary
t(. try other materials. Straw, paper, burlap, and leaves have been
used at different times. Ordinary straw is usually full of weed seed,
(lean rye strawy cut before maturity, makes the best straw mulch.
AVhat is known as tobacco-bundle paper was used as early as 1909,
and works very w^U, especially over a thin coating of other material
as it keeps out the birds (39). However, it is difficult to handle, and
il may blow off during windstorms. Burlap gives excellent results,
saves labor and storage space, but is expensive. Any cover must be
weighted down with screens to hold it in place.

As germination time approaches, the beds must be carefully Avatched.
A.s soon as the seed is breaking evenly through the ground, the mulch
must be removed. If the mulch is allowed to remain on the beds too
long, the tiny, coniferous seed cases, which are pushed up on top of
the growing plants, will penetrate the cover, and the tender seedlings
will be pulled out in quantities when this cover is removed.

The tree seedlings in the beds must be covered during the first winter
to i)revent their being heaved out of the soil by the frost. At Mont
Alto the clayey nature of the soil aggravates the danmge from heaving.
Hence, various methods have been tried to overcome this evil.

Records of the first decade of the Mont Alto Nursery show^ that
even seedlings that had been covered were heaved out. Drill sowing
increased the possibility of damage from heaving. During the first
winter, sticks and billets of wood were laid between the drills, ami
these were covered with needles or leaves. It was soon found that
leaves make a poor covering, and pine needles provide the best cover.
These needles, if worked closely in between the trees, give good aeration
and afford sufficient protection. As the Mont Alto Nursery grew
larger, and the yearly fall of needles did not supply enough winter
cover material, straw w^as used more and more, and has proven to be
n fairly satisfactory material for this purpose.

At Mont Alto the winter covering is applied about the middle of
Xovember and removed in A]u-il, or even earlier, according to weather
conditions. When it grows warm early in the year, the cover must be
removed to prevent moulding. Yet it must not be taken off too early
h^st the alternate thawing and freezing of early spring heave the
seedlings out of the ground. Naturally, heaving is most likely to
occur near the edges of the beds, and, accordingly, the mulching
Miaterial is applied somewhat thicker along the border.

17

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

As soon as the mulch has been removed, and the seed is exposed,
large numbers of birds often flock to the nursery. The most practicable
way to protect the seed beds is to hire a squad of boys to patrol th'
nursery and frighten the birds away. Birds are most injurious in the
early morning. Hence, it is necessary to have the boys on hand at i\

Seed lUdx Muh'hcd irith titraw for Winter Protection
t^erccHs are Laid on the Struir to I\e< p It in Place

very early hour. At the season of the year when fall-sown coniferous
seeds germinate, white-throated sparrows are migrating northward.
They are likely to appear in flocks very suddenly, and disappear just
as quickly. But very often they leave behind them many ruined beds,
and always a considerable bill for watchers. Spring-sown seeds germin-
ate later and usually suffer less from birds. Eternal vigilance is neces-
sary if the plantings are to be protected from the feathered raiders.

YOUNG TREES ARE SHADED

The sudden removal of the mulch from the seed beds exposes the
germniating seed to the direct heat of the sun, and tends to drv oul
the surface layer of soil in which the seed is bedded. It is necJssarv
to supply some protection to both seed and soil. Protection is providell
by the use of shades, also called screens, which allow only 50 per cent
of sunlight to reach the beds. Stakes are driven along the edges of
the beds at regular intervals, and wooden strips are laid across the
beds, each strip resting on the tops of opposite stakes. These strips
are nailed fast to the stakes, and the shades are laid on the strips.

18

The shades are of a length convenient for handling. The first ones
used at Mont Alto were made of a patent fence material composed of
heavy laths fastened in woven wire. These were both heavy and ex-
liensive. Later, shades were made according to the following specifica-
lions: two strips of one by two-inch lumber were used for a frame, and
1() these strips ordinary building laths were nailed. The laths were
sj)aced one lath-width apart, so that if complete shading was desired,
loose laths could be laid between the permanent laths in the screen.
A shade of this sort gives alternate strips of sunlight and shadow on
tlie beds. As the sun moves, the strips of light and shade move with
it. Thus, no plant in the seed bed is exposed to direct sunlight nor to
sliade for a very long period. Shades made of laths have proven to
be so satisfactory that they have been the standard shades since they
were first used.

Seeded Beds are Protected hy Shades Made of Laths Nailed to Long i^trips of

Wood and Set on Low Frames

Shades are kept above the little trees throughout the first growing
season. The artificial shade so made produces in the seed bed a con-
dition of sunlight and shadow very much like that found in the forest,
and so is well suited to the growth of the little trees. In some years,
the shades have been removed long before the end of the growing
season. Experience has shown that it is not absolutely necessary to
keep the beds shaded for more than six or eight weeks. But too early
removal of the shades makes growth conditions diffieult for little forest
trees, encourages vigorous weed growth, and the seedlings produced
are not as well developed as are those grown under shades.

Only evergreen seedlings, as a rule, are thus grown under shade.
Yet it is best to shade even some of the broadleaf species for a time,

19

As soon ;js Ili<* iimlcli lia> Ixmmi rciiiovod. niid the seed is exposo(i
hii-'-c Jiiniilicrs of hird.s ol'lcn Mock to tli<' niir.scry. The most practicrd)!
wny to |)!-o1cct tlic seed hcd.s is 1o hire ;i s(ju;id of* hoy.s to patrol tli
mirNffv and t'ri<:lil<'n the birds away, liii-ds arc most injurious in tl

vy 1o liav<' llu' l)ovs on hand a1

t'arl\- moi'nnii!'

ir

<'n('('. il IS n

('(•('s>a

Sr< ,1 lirdx Miihhdl ir'tlh S/nnr fur W inhr Pntfcrf

s<-r( rn

•s- <lir l.ii'nl <,,i III, Shdir /o A'

Km

* < It II III I'hi, r

.seeds i:
Tl

arlv ]

lOUl"

At 11

It' season of the veai- when i'all-

sown couiierous

rerminate. white-throated .sparrows avo mi<ii-atin<'- northwar i

M'y are likely t ) apjtear in tloek
as (piiekly. J»ut verv (d'ten tliev 1

and always a considerable bill \

th

:s M'vy .suddenly, and disa])pear ju>1
eave behind them manv ruined beds.

ate

or watchei-s. Spi-ino-sown seeds jzcrmin

ater and usually sulTer less I'l-om bii-ds. Ktei-nal vi<'il

ance is nece-^

•sary d" the |)laidin^s are to be protected from the reathered rai<l

YOUNG TREES ARE SHADED

The .sudden removal of tli<' midch From the seed bed

ei's.

uei-muiatniii' seed to t!ie dir.'ct heat of tl

the surlace layer ol" .soil in which tl

s exposes the
If sun. and tends to (Ivv oui

le se<'(l is bedded. It is n

to supply s(.me protection to both .seed and .soil. Proteet

eeessarx

l»y the u.se (d' shades, also called schm-
<>r >uuli^ht to reach tin- be<ls. Stak

ion is provided

*eji!

the l)e(ls at I'euul

"• intervals, and

us. whi(di allow oidy .')() ])or e
es ai'e driven alony- the ed«»"es of

wooden strips are laid aeross th<

d.s. each .strip n'stino- on the tops of opp(,site .stakes. These st

ai-e nailed fast to the stal

Kes.

and the ^liades ar<' laid on the stri|)s.

vi\

)S

18

I

The shades are of a lenj?th eonvenient tor handling. The first ones
(M'd at Mont Alto were made of a i)atent t'enee material eomposed of
laths fa.sten<'d in woven wire. These were both iu'avy and ex-
Latc!', shades wci'c made accor(lin«4' to tlu' follcming speeifiea-
ions: two strips of one by two-inch hnnber were used for a frame, and
I) these strips oi'dinai'y buildiiej laths were nailed. The laths were

icavy
H-nsive

i)ace(

Miose

1 one lath-width apart, so that if e()m|)let<> sliading was desin'd.

laths could be laid between the |)ei-mam'nt laths in tlio jsereen.
A shade of this soi't j^ives alternate strips of sunliji'ht and shadow on
iii<' beds. As tlm sun moves, the strips of li«»'ht and sliade nu)ve with
il. Thus, no plant in the seed bed is exposed to direct sunliji'ht nor to
.shade for a very lon<i' |)eriod. Shades made of laths have proven t
he so satisfaetory that they have been the standard sIukN'S siiiec^ they
wei'e first used.

o

JL

Sitihil lird.s (irr /'rot(rf<<1 hii Slimhs Math of Lallis .\iiih<l to l.oiif/ Slri/ts uf

Winxl iuid Set OH Linr Ftamrs

Shad<'s are ke|)t above the little ti'ees throughout the first «i'rowimi'
reason. The artificial sliade so made prodiiees in the seed ])ed a eon-
dition of sunlight and shadow very much like that found in tlie forest,
iiid so is well >uite(l to the growth of tin' little tr<'es. In some years,
1 lie shades have been removed loii^- before the end (d* the «i'rowin«i"
reason. Experience has shown that it is not absolutely neee.ssai-y t(»
Ivecp the beds shach'd for more than six or ei«zlit weeks. IJut too early
I'emoval of the shades makes growth conditions difficult for little forest
i rees. eneoura<i'es vigorous weed <»rowtli, and the ,s<»e(llings pi'odneed
ire not as well develop<Ml as are those •••rown under shades.

O

niv everiireen s<'e(

nil

lU'S.

as a I'uh'. are tluis lirown nnder shade

Vet it is best to sliade even some of the broadleaf speeies for a time,

19

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

(icHcral ]'i('iv of hJaxtcni Section of Mont Alto Xurscrif in 1022 Before Over-
h<ii(l Irrif/otion Sifstem iras hisfalled. Semi-Portahle Water Line Siipimrted
on Stiih-e.H ahout Three Feet Ilif/h i.s Shoirn in Center

(hnerul View of Eastern Section of Mont Alio NnrHery After Overhead

I rr if/at ion Sif.st<'in icuh Installed

if it is possible to do it. The roots of all trees are unfavorably affected
I)y the drying out of the soil in which they grow. Older trees, with
roots that penetrate deep into the ground, are perhaps little affected
!)y the drying of the surface layer of soil ; but the roots of tiny seed-
lings lie entirely in this surface layer. Until these little trees develop
sufficient foliage to shade the soil in which they stand, and produce
(It'ep penetrating roots, it is advisable to keep the beds shaded.

YOUNG TREES REQUIRE PLENTY OF MOISTURE

During the critical period of growth, before the tiny roots have
penetrated into the moist layers of soil, little trees must have i)lenty of
moisture. An overhead sprinkling system is now installed throughout
the entire producing area at the ]\Iont Alto Nursery. Trees of all
Hges are watered freely throughout the growing season.

The water for this sprinkling system is supplied by a reservoir,
which is connected by a gravity line with the "Tarburner Spring."
This reservoir, built in 1909, and located on a hillside above the nurs-
ery, gives an am])le su])ply of water at all times. It is connected with
the nursery by a four-inch pijie line, so that there is ample pressure at
rill times. Before this system was installed, water for sprinkling
l)nrposes was obtained through a semi-])ortable pipe-line system. The
reservoir serves as a warming basin, where the cold spring water loses
its extreme chilliness; for water that is too cold when applied to the
germinating beds not only retards germination, but also hinders the
growth of the seedlings. The modern sprinkling efiuipment makes it
l)ossible to soak the beds thoroughly in any portion of the nursery.
Fine sprays of water fall on the beds from tiny overhead nozzles. The
general practice is to apply the water during the early morning hours
and at evening time, and avoid its apidication during the middle of the
clay.

WEEDING— AN IMPORTANT NURSERY PROBLEM

From the time that the mulch is removed from the beds, up to the
first frost in autumn, there must be constant weeding of the beds (7).
Pulling the weeds not only removes an injurious influence, but it also
serves to cultivate the soil. It keeps the ground around the seedlings
open and light. Weeding of this sort is naturally all hand work, and,
hence, is expensive. Every known method for checking the growth
of weeds has been tried, but nothing has been found to equal hand-
weeding.

It might be thought that keeping the weeds down so carefully would
result in their eventual elimination. This has not proven to be the
case. Weed seeds constantly blow into the nursery. The straw that
is used for mulching doubtless contains some weed seeds. In one way
or another, weed seeds constantly find their way to the nursery.

21

V'^t ■ ■'.

^^C¥

• s^.^fi^j'trt'

dnirrnl \ i< ir of lloslrrii Seel ion i,f Mont Mlit Xnrstrit in IHit li( forr ihrr
hrnil Irrii/iilion Siish ni iras histnlhd. S< nii-l'orfohic \\'at( r Linr SKii/iortrd
(HI Shikis ilhniif 'l'liir< I'lit lliilh is SlKnin in <'rnl( r

(,'rnrrtil \ i(ir of Eiisliin Srcti(,n of \h,nf Mto Xiir.scrif Afhr OrrrlHdil

Inifitition Sji.sfrni nas hixtdlhil

it is possible to do it. Tlic roots of all fives iwo niifavornbly afT<M't(Hl

the dryiiiji" out of tlio soil in which they «iTo\v. Older trees, with

, lols that ])enetrate deep into th(^ jiroiind, ai'<' perhai)s little arf<'eted

lh<' (lryin«i" of the sui'faee layei- of soil; bul the roots of tiny seed-

,:.>-s lie entirelv in this snrfaee la\ei-. I'nlil these little trees dcvelo])

.^iiffieient folia«i'e to shade the soil in which they stand, and pi'odnce

(i.'cp jx'netratin^' roots, it is advisable to keep the beds shaded.

YOUNG TREES REQUIRE PLENTY OF MOISTURE

l)nrin<:' th<' critical pei'iod of growth, befoi'e the tiny roots hav<'
prtieti-ated into the moist layei's of soil, little trees jiinst liaxc plenty of
moisture. An overhead spriid<lin^' system is jiow installed 1 hi'oni:hont
the entire ])i'oducinj.i' ai-ea at the Mont Alto Xni-S'Ci'y. Trees of all
.I'jes ai'c watered freely tlirou«i'hont the «irowin^' season.

The water \'(\r this spi'iidxlin^' system is supplied by a i-eservoir,
which is connected by a <»'ravity line with the "'Tarburner Spi-in^\''
This I'cservoir, built in I'.X)!). and located on a hillside at»ove the nui's-
(•ry. <iives an ample snjiply of watei' at all time>. It is connected with
the nursery by a foui'-incli ])ipe liue, so that thei-e is ample pressure at
:iil times. liefore this system was installed, watei* for spi'inUlin«z"
|iiii'poses was obtaiiUMJ thi'ou<ih a semi-portable pipedine s\>tem. The
resei'voii' serves as a wai'nun^- basin, where th<' cold sprinji' water loses
its extreme chilliness; foi* water that is too cold when a|)plied to the
"ei-ininatin<i' l)e<ls not oid\- retards ^•ernnnation. but abo hindei's the
growth of tlH' seedlings. The modei'ii spriidvlinjx e(|uipm<'nt makes it
jM^>^ibh^ i(» soak the- l)eds tlioroii-ildy ir. any poi-tion of the nu!-sei'y.
h'iiie spi-ays of watei- fall on the beds fi*om tiny overhead no/zles. The
u<'iieral pi'actice is to a|)|)ly the watei- durin<:' the early morniu'^' hours
anil at <'venin«i' time, ami avoid its aj)plicati(m durin«!" the middle of the
d;iy.

WEEDING— AN IMPORTANT NURSERY PROBLEM

From the time that the mulch is removed from the beds, u|) to the
first frost in autumn, there must be constant weedin<:' of the beds (7').
l*idlin«'' the weeds not oidy I'cmoves an injurious iidliKMice, but it also
serves to cultivate the soil, it ke<'))s the <:round around the s<'edliny-s
"pen and li<»'ht. AVeedin^' of this soi't is naturally all hainl work, and,
hence, is <'.\pensive. Every known method for checkin<i' the growth
of w<'eds has hvou tri(Ml, but nothing' has been found to e<pial hand-
weedin<r.

Ft mi«:lit be thought that kee|)inji- the weeds down so carefully would
result in theii' eventual elinnnation. This has not proven to be the
"•asp. W<'e(l s<'eds constantlv blow into the nurserv. The straw that
's used for mulchin*:' doubtless contains some weed seeds. In one way
'T another, weed seeds constantlv find their wav to the nurserv.

fl « t

21

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

Weeding must begin very early. Weeds must be pulled before they
are so large that their removal seriously loosens the roots of the tiny
trees, which break off very easily. Accordingly, great care must be
used in weeding, which makes it a slow process. To get careful
weeders is difficult, for weeding is not easy work. Neither is it work
for which a large wage can be paid. Yet, despite its cost, weeding is
believed to be cheaper and more effective than the sterilization of the
soil before sowing.

When a bed contains a good stand of seedlings, there will be littlf
need of weeding in the second summer. The dense stand of little trees
will tend to choke out
most weeds. Nevertheless,
diii-ing tlie two or three
years that a bed is oc-
cupied by the trees, the
adjacent paths will need
to be cleaned regularly.
This can be aecom])lished
easily by hand-hoeing and
horse cultivation.

The com|)ost pile is the
place for organic^ refuse
nuiterial, such as straw
that has been used two or
three times for mulch and
winter cover, leaves and
needles that blow into the
nursery, and grass and
weeds that are cut oi-
pulled in the nursery, to-
gether with stable man-
ure. This pile is turned
over at regular intervals
during a period of two
years. At the end of this

A liniidlc of Fifty
Tiro-Y car-Old White Pine Seedlings

time all the vegetable matter has thoroughly decayed, and has been
well mixed with the earth that was also deposited in the pile. This
well-rotted compost is not only an excellent fertilizer, but makes the
very best mixture to sift on the to])s of beds after they have been
seeded.

LITTLE TRANSPLANTING IS DONE

In the State forest tree nurseries of Pennsylvania, the aim is to
produce large quantities of trees that are large and strong enough
for forest planting purposes. In most commercial nurseries, on the
other hand, the aim is to produce relatively larger-sized trees to be

22

used for ornament or shade. To produce such trees, transplanting one
or more times is necessary. Trees suitable for reforestation purposes
can be grown without transplanting. Thus, it is possible to avoid the
expenditure of time and money that is required in the production of
transplants. During the early years of Pennsylvania forestry, con-
siderable transplanting was done at Mont Alto. During the first year
of the Mont Alto Nursery, 10,000 one-year-old white pine trees were
bought from a commercial nursery and transplanted in the local
nursery. In 1910 fully 500,000 trees were transplanted. But the loss
llirough winter heaving was so heavy that the added expense of trans-
planting was not justified.

At the present time,
the practice in the Mont
Alto Nursery is to trans-
plant only a few trees of
standard stock which are
to be grown for orna-
mental plantings, as well
as exotics and other
special trees that are to
be kept for several years.
This transplanting work
is usually done in the
s])ring. When such work
is done in the fall, it
should be coiiij)lrted be-
fore September 15. This
permits good root growth
before freezing weather
arrives. Exi)erience has
shown that spruce trees
may be transplanted at
any time up to the first
day of December.

When transplanting is
done at Mont Alto, the
IJietsch Transplanting Board' is used. This implement permits the
liandling of trees of varying sizes at the same time, and yet insures
their being set at a proper depth. It is a narrow board, four to six
feet in length, equipped witli coiled springs set at regular intervals.
The trees to be transplanted are held upright in the board by these
coiled springs. One board will hold W to 60 seedlings. The boards are
loaded by laborers and then carried to the trenches where the trees are

A Jiundlc of Fifty
Two-Ycar-Old White Ash Seedlings

1 Developed by Forester Tom O. Bietsch when in charge of the Green-
p'ennsyCnL. ''"''"''' '"' ^'^'^'^^"^^'^^^ ^^^"^•"ace, in Hnntin.^don County,

23

to be planted. The trenches are always dug with square-pointed shovels,
and are made with perpendicular sides. A guide board or trenching
hoard is laid along one edge of the trench, to keep the tree row straight.
The transplant board is held upright in the trench, while earth is
drawn into the trench and ju'essed down against the roots of the seed
lings, thus holding them in position. The transplant board is then
removed, and the trench completely filled with earth. Thus, the trees
are mechanically spaced and lined. This perfect alignment and spacing
makes cultivation an easy matter.

J)uring the process of transplanting, the seedling trees must be pro-
tected with care, and the roots exposed to the air for the briefest
period possible. Water is applied to the beds as soon as the trans-
planting is finished. During the first summer after transplanting, the
beds are very carefully cultivated. Should the transplanting be done
in the fall, the beds must be well protected during the succeeding
winter. Protection is desirable even during the second winter follow-
ing the transplanting.

HOW TREES ARE LIFTED, SORTED, AND COUNTED

Mast nursery trees are shipped in the spring, although at Mont Alto
a few trees are shipped during the fall. Spring shipping begins about
the last of IVIarch or the first of April, and continues for two or mor-e
weeks. The Mont Alto Nursery is fortunately situated in regard to
shij)ping. Sometimes tree lifting starts as early as the middle of
March, and, therefore, shipments can be made as early as it is
possible for ])lanting to be done in any section of the State. The
largest shipment of trees took place on March 17, 1919, on which day
1,(){)( ),()()() trees were shii)i)ed from \\\e Mont Alto Nursery. Trees can
be shipped to the northern sections, and there they can be kept until
the frost is out of the ground, when they can be planted immediately.
This is a great advantage to the planter. If he is a farmer, he can
get his trees planted before farm work begins. If he is to plant great
numbers of trees, he can get help cheaply at that season. At this time
of year, too, trws are more resistant to damage done in planting, and
are especially resistant to exi)()sure. Furthermore, the spring rains
can be depeiuled \i\mu to give the little seedlings a good start.

In the earlier years of the Mont Alto Nursery, it was the practice
to loosen the roots of the little trees with spading forks, and then pull
ui) the plants and shake the earth from their roots. p]xperience has
shown that this is a slow and costly i)r()cess. All rocks are now re-
moved as the beds are prepared for new seeding, and it is hoped that
after 1980 all the digging ean be done by machine.

The digging machine now in use at the Mont Alto Nursery is one
which was designed at the Greenwood Nursery, in Huntingdon County.

24

/jooficnhif/ Three-Y car-Old Scotch Pine Seedlings Prior to Lifting Them for
Shipment. The Basement Floor of the Nursery Building in the Back-
ground is Used for PaeUing and Shipping Purposes, and the Second
Floor for Seed F.rtraeting and Seed Storage.

Lifting Forest Tree Seedlings

\() })(' piniilcd. The trcnelics arc' always duj*' witli sciiiare-pointed shovels,
and arc iiiad*^ willi jxM-pcndicnlar sides. A liiiide hoard or trenehin^
hoard is laid aloiii-' one e(l«i(' oi' the ti'eneh, to l«'ei) the tree row .straig'ht.
Tlu* Iraiisphiiit hoai-d is liehl ii]>i'i»:lit in the ti'eiieh, while earth i<
di'awii iiilo llic li-cncii and pi-essed down auainst the root.s of the s(M'd
linjis. thus hohlinu lliciii in |)osition. The lrans|)lant hoard is thei:
i-eiiio\'ed. and the Irencii eoin|)h'1ely liHed with earth. Thus, the ti*e('>
ai-f iiKM'haiNeally spaced an<l lined. This perfect aliiiinnent and s{)aein^
makes cultivation an ca>\' matter.

J)urin^- IIk' j)i'oce.s.s of transplanting-, the seedling trees must he pro-
t<'c1rd with cai'c, and the j-oots ex|)(»sed to the air for the hriet'esl
])eriotl j)o.ssil>le. Watci- is aj)plied to tlu' heds as soon as the trans-
plant iiiji' is linished. Durinj:' the fir>t summer after transplaiitin«»'. the
heds are very carel'idly cultivated. Sjiould the t I'ajisplanting be done
in the fall, the l)eds must he well protected durinji' tlu^ succeeding-
winter, l^rotection is (h'sirahle even during the second winter follow
in^- the ti-an>j»lant ing.

HOW TREES ARE LIFTED, SORTED, AND COUNTED

.Most nursej'y trees ai'e shipped in the s])rjng-, although at Mont Alto
a few tree.s ai'c shipped (hn"ing the fall. S|)ring shii)piug" hegins ahout
the last of Mai'ch or the first of A))ril, and continues for two or more
weeks. The Mont Alto Xursery is fortunately situated in regai-d to
shipping. Sometimes tree lifting stai'ts as early as the middle of
Alai'ch, and, tiiei-efore. shi|)ments can he made as early as it is
possible for planting to he done iji any section of the State. The
largest shi|)ment of ti-ees t(»ok phuM' on March 17, 1!)!!), on which day
],(»()(>.()()(> trees wei-e shijjped from tlir Mont Alto Xurseiy. Trees can
lie shipped to the northern sections, and there they can l)e kept UJitil
the fi'o.st is out of tlie gi'ouiid. when they can ho planted immediately.
This is a gi-eat advantage to the planter, if he is a farm<'i-, he can
get his trees planted before faini work begins. If he is to ])lant gr^eat
numbei-s of trees, he can get help cheaply at that s<'ason. At tliis time
(»f year, too, ti-evs are more resistant to (lamag<' done in planting, and
are esj)eeially resistant to exposure. Furtln-rmore, the spring rain-
can be depended u|)on t(» give the little seedlings a good start.

in the earlier years (.f the Mont Alto Xursery. it was the practice
to loosen the roots of the little trees with spading forks, ami then pull
up the plants and shake the eai'tli fi-om their root>. Kxperience ha^

shown that this is a sh

»w and cos

tly pr

ocess.

Al

I'ocks are now re

ew seeding, and it is hoped tliat

)v machine

moved as the beds are prepai'cd for n
nfter ^\):U) all the digging ean be done I,

The digging machine now in use at the Mont Alto X
which was designed at the Ore<'nwood Xursery, in Huntingdon County

24

ursei'v IS one

Ijnasi niiiff Tlir((-)('(ir-(}l(l Scotch Pine Sccdlinf/.s Prior to Liftitif/ Thciit for
Shi/niKnf. 'Hit lUis'imni Floor of the Xiu'scrif BniJilinij in the li'ick-

ffroufu! is I s(i1 for PncLinfi mnJ Sliip/jinf/ Pi(rpfn<CM, <in«i tlic Second
Floor for Sad F.rtr<tcHn<i nnd Seed Sfonn/c.

Liftinfi Fftrest Tree Seedlinifs

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

This machine consists of a wide-cuttinj? blade of tool steel mounted on
a frame of heavy channel iron. The blade is five feet long, and can
be adjusted so as to cut at any desired depth. It is drawn under the
hod, looseninp^ the soil of the entire area, and heaving the little trees
upward so that their roots are entirely freed. The plants are then
easily lifted by hand, and the earth shaken from them. This machine
is drawn by two horses. Which are hitched to a long spread, so that
they can walk in the paths, one on either side of the bed. The use of
this machine not only saves a great amount of labor, but also makes it
possible to lift the trees with less splitting, bruising, and stripping
of roots than is the case when they are dug with a spading fork.

As soon as trees are dug and lifted, they are tied in great bundles
and haided to the packing house where they are counted and bunched.
Here they are stored in wet moss, to keep the roots moist. In the old
days, before the packing house was built, and all sorting and counting
was done in the open, the tree counters necessarily sat on the ground
and worked with bare hands. Hence, this work could then not be
carried on in severe or stormy weather. Therefore, periods of un-
favorable weather greatly hindered the work of shipping. Now it is
])()ssibl(' to lift trees in almost any sort of weather, and the trees are
counted and bunched in the packing house, where it is warm and
comfortable. Tree lifting now goes steadily forward each spring with-
out interruption.

Formerly, when the trees were counted out-of-doors, it was difficult
to avoid exposing the roots to the drying action of sun and wind. It
is most important that the roots of little trees be protected in handling
(See ''Seedling Exposure Studies," page 39). This can easily be
(lone in the packing house. One man is detailed to see that the trees
are kept sufficiently moist during the counting operation. He also
regularly examines the l)undled trees to see that they do not mould or
heat. As a rule, it is possible to make shipments promptly after the
trees are counted and bundled.

As forest tree seedlings are sold by number, they must be counted
accurately, and tied in small bundles of convenient size. Usually
there are 50 trees to the bundle. The trees must also be sorted and
graded. When seeds are sown broadcast, there may be in the seed
bed, by the end of the second year, sections where the stand of seed-
lings is thin and sparse, whereas in other parts of the bed the stand
may be very dense. In still other parts, the trees may be rather
evenly spaced. These varying conditions affect the growth of the
trees noticeably. Where the stand is thin, the individual trees are
usually strong and healthy. If there are trees that are small and
puny, they are probably of poor heredity. Such trees are thrown
away. Where the stand is dense there may be many thin and spindling

26

seedlings, which are nevertheless of good stock. Of these, only the
very poorest are discarded. There may also be trees with injured
roots or tops. Some may have poor buds, or show other evidences of
;irospective failure should the}' be planted in the open. Most of these
;rees are thrown out, though the best of them are sometimes trans-
planted into the nursery. Only strong, vigorous stock is allowed to go
to the planter. The work of counting, grading, and sorting is very
important and is supervised carefully. This is particularly true at
Mont Alto, as this nursery ships many trees to private planters through-
out the State.

If forest tree planting is to be successful, planters must be supplied
with trees that will make good growth. Where planting is to be done
ill grass or brush lands, stronger and better stock must be used than

Sorting and Counting Seedlings

is necessary when abandoned fields are i)lanted. By careful grading,
such as is done at Mont Alto, it is possible to supply each planter with
the kind of stock he particularly needs. Before 1920, two-year-old
seedlings formed the bulk of the nursery shipments. Three-year-old
trees have been used in larger numbers in recnt years. Transplanted
trees are not usually shipped until they have been in the transplant
hed at least two years, as the growth made in the first year after
transplanting is mostly root growth. When seedlings do not grow
too densely in the bed, they attain sturdy and vigorous roots and stems
by the end of the third year.

TREES REQUIRE CAREFUL PACKING FOR SHIPMENT

The nurseryman must guard against two things when he is shipping

27

tr(M^s to planters. If the trees are not packed in wet mo)ss, and if
adecinate provision Is not made to retain the moisture about the roots,
th<>y may dry out and the trees die. If the trees are packed so tightly
that the tops do not get air, they will likely heat and mould, and thus
be severely injured or even killed.

Before the shipping season arrives, it is necessary to have on hand
a plentiful supply of moss, containers of various kinds, waterproof
wrappers, and other shipping material. When thousands of seedlings
are jiacked and shipped in a single day, the organization of the work
must be j)lanned carefully and carried out efficiently. Otherwise,
there will be mistakes and delays. The shipping season is very short,
and consequently the work must go forward as fast as it can be pushed.

Since 1913, knockdown, corrugated, cardboard boxes or cartons have
been bought in quantity. These are quickly set up. A single box,
depending upon its size, will contain from 500 to 2,000 seedlings,
packed in damp moss and wrapped in waterproof paper. The packing
must provide against dripping. To insure a plentiful supply of air,
the boxes have numerous perforations. When the packing is faulty,
the warm air in post offices and railway cars causes heating.

In order that advantage may be taken of the cheapest express ship-
ping rates, the individual crates should weigh not more than 150
pounds. The wet moss in a package makes it excessively heavy for
its size. This necessitates containers that are strong enough to pre-
vent breakage. If a box does break in transit, the trees are usually
scattered about and dry out so completely that many of them die.

The Mont Alto Nursery makes many of its own crates. Since 1914,
the Mont Alto sawmill has supplied the nursery with lumber of
specified sizes of crate material. This lumber can be assembled quickly
into crates which will hold 2,000 to 5,000 trees each. The crates are
made up during the winter, when outside nursery work is at a stand-
still. Crates are packed so that the tops of the little trees are around
the edges, or at the ends, and the roots are in the middle of the crate.
Layers of wet moss are packed between layers of roots. Wooden cross-
l)ieces are fastened inside the crates to hold the tree bundles in place,
and to prevent the roots from becoming exposed to the air.

Since 1923, most express shipments of trees have been packed in
crates of wire and veneer construction. This has aided greatly toward
lower transportation charges on trees, as this type of crate is light but
very strong because of the four or five wires that run around and
securely bind the package. The crates of this type are bought in two
sizes in carload quantities. They arrive knocked down, and are set
up as time permits, so as to be in readiness when shipping season
comes. These crates hold from 1,000 to 5,000 trees, depending on
sjiecies and age of stock.

28

A Truck Load of Seedlirujs Lcuviny the Kurnvry

Great care is taken when trees are shipped to label them in such a
way that the planter knows exactly the different kinds he has received
for planting. All shipping tags, forms, and invoices are made out in
ndvance of the shii)ping season, in order to expedite the work.

LABOR-SAVING MACHINERY

Two machines that save enormous amounts of labor have recently
been introduced at the IMont Alto Nursery. They are the '' middle
buster" plow for throwing up beds, aiul the combination root pruner
and tree digger.

The ''middle buster" plow is a standard factory i)r()duct, and is
commonly used in the southern Coastal Plain Region for throwing up
sweet potato, corn, and cotton rows, where ridge-farming is practiced.
It does the same work as the specially made plows used at the Clear-
field and the Greenwood nurseries. As it is a standard factory-made
implement, it costs less than one third of the price of these specially
made implements, and is lighter and more convenient to handle.

The tree digger is of the type developed at the Greenwood Nursery
several years ago. Although made of four-inch channel iron, it can be
carried about by two men. Its lightness is probably its only advantage
over the Clearfield digger. As this imi)lement is still rather new, it
will probably be further improved. The saving of labor, though great,
is not the main benefit obtained by the use of the tree digger. There
is a minimum loss of fine roots in trees lifted by this imjilenient.

The common plow, the harrow, the disc, and the drag have been used

29

Preparing Nursery Beds with a ''Middle Buster'' Plow. This Implement

Eliminates Much Hand i^padiny

Horsc-Drawn Seedling Lifter

;or many years at the Mont Alto Nursery in preparing the soil for
seeding.

NURSERY BUILDINGS

The nursery area at Mont Alto was originally the site of several
dilapidated houses and outbuildings. Not one of these was suitable
i'or use as a packing house, or even for the storage of tools and sup-
j)lies. These buildings were consequently torn down, and the best of
the siding and timbers sufficed to build the frame portion of the old
stone packing house, which was constructed in 1910. This building,
only 16 by 18 feet inside, served its purpose well. Its form of con-
struction made it essentially a storage cellar. It was sunk into the
hillside, and had thick stone walls and a cement floor. The windows
were double, enclosing insulated air spaces. Above this cellar is a low
attic for dry storage of supplies and certain types of seeds.

In 1921 a new building was erected on the bank of the Little
Antietam Creek, across the road from the lowest part of the nursery.
The upper part of this building was designed for seed drying and
extraction during the fall and early winter. In spring and summer it
served for storage, and supplemented the lower floor as a place for
sorting, packing, and shipping trees. This building was 20 by 40 feet
in size. Although it was well adapted to the purpose it served, and
was very useful, it was never really adequate to meet the need for
space. The location was satisfactory, permitting all downhill hauling
of stock. So long as wheelbarrows and pushcarts were the approved
means of transportation, this feature was of great advantage ; but
with the use of motor trucks, this advantage has disappeared. At
present, the shipping work is largely handled in the south end of the
large barn now used for State forest and nursery purposes. This
barn once stood on the site of the building now occupied by the Penn-
sylvania Forest Research Institute and the Pennsylvania State Forest
School. It was moved to the eastern edge of tlie nursery in 1925, and
was renovated and greatly improved in 1928. Its upper floor was
always a spacious storage space for crates, crating material, and moss.
The floor of this barn has been concreted throughout. The greater
l)art of it is used as shed space for wagons and trucks. During the
shipping season, it is used as a place to count, store, and pack trees.
A large room at one end is heated and is used for counting. The un-
lieated portion is u^ed for tree storage. This building provides more
than 2,000 square feet of floor space, which permits rapid and orderly
liandling of trees. In 1929 most of the trees handled were lifted and
sliipped in less than one week. Thus, the planters received their stock
< arly, and the nursery force could turn their attention to other spring
tasks in the nursery.

A new and commodious tool house, built in 1928, is located in the

31

I'rrimriiif/ .\iirsrrif linis irilh <i "M'uldh liiisltr" J'hju.

JJIuHinatcs Much Hand ^Sixidhi!/

This I III i)l< ni( nt

llurm-hnuin .Srcdiiiif/ l.iflir

or many years at the Mont Alto Nursery in i)reparing the soil for

NURSERY BUILDINGS

.('(ling

The nursery area at Mont Alto was originally the site of several
iilapidated houses and outbuildings. Not one of these was suitable
lor use as a paeUing house, or even for the storage of tools and suj)-
|ilies. These buildings were eonse(iuently torn down, and the best of
ihe siding and timbers suffiecd to l)uild the frame portion of the oUl
stone paeking house, which was eonstructed in 1910. This building,
only 16 by 18 feet inside, served its pur])ose well. Its form of eon-
struetion made it essentialh' a storage cellar. It was sunk into the
liillside, and had thick stone walls and a cement floor. The windows
were double, enclosing insulated air spaces. Above this cellar is a low
jittic for dry storage of supplies and certain t\'pes of seeds.

In 1921 a new building was erected on the bank oi' the Little
Aiitietam Creek, across the road from the lowest i)art of the nursi'r}'.
The upper part of this building was designed for si'vd drying and
<'xtraction during the fall and early Avinter. In spring and summer it
served for storage, and sui)i)lemented the lowei' tloor as a i)lace foi'
sorting, i)acking, and shij)ping trees. This building was 20 by 40 feet
ill size. Although it was well adapted to the purpose it scrvi'd, an<l
was very useful, it was never really acUnpiate to m<'et the need for
space. The location was satisfactory, j)ei'mitting all downhill hauling
of stock. 8o long as wheelbarrows and })ushcarts were the a})proved
means of transportation, this feature was of great advantage; but
with the use of motor trucks, this advantage has disapi)eared. At
present, the shipj)ing work is largely handled in the south end of the
large barn now used for State forest and nursery puri)oses. This
barn once stood on tln^ site of the building iu)W occupied by the Penn-
sylvania Forest Research Institute and th<' Pennsylvania State Forest
School. Jt was moved to tin' eastei'ii (h\\x(' oI' the nursery in 192"), and
was renovated and greatly imi)roved in 192.S. Its uj)per tloor was
nlways a spacious storage space tor crat<'s, crating matei-ial. and moss.
The floor of this barn has l)een concreted throughout. The greater
j)art of it is used as shed space i'ctr wagons and trucks. During the
.shi|)j)ing season, it is used as a j)Iace to count, store, and pack trees.
A large room at one end is heated and is used I'oi* counting. The un-
lieated ])()rtion is Uf^ed t'oi* tree storag<'. This building provides mor<'
than 2,000 s(iuare feet of tloor spac(\ which ])ermits rapid and orderly
liandling of trees. In li)29 most of the tr(M's handled w<'re lifti'd and
liipped in less than one week. Thus, the planters received their stock
arly, and the nurs<M'y force could turn their attention to other spring
^iisks in the nursei'v.

A new and commodious tool house, l)uilt in 1928, is located in the

31

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

middle of the nursery. It is of frame construction, with a concrete floor
16 by 20 feet. Its central location saves much time, and thus adds to
the efficiency of the laborers. In the Spring of 1929, a large frame
building was erected for storage of straw and other litter used for bed
covering.

The present l)uildings at the Mont Alto Nursery are large enough
to allow for considerable expansion of the nursery.

KEEPING ACCURATE NURSERY RECORDS

The Mont Alto Nursery was one of the first nurseries, if not the
very first nursery, in this country to develop a system of records and
accounts. The beginning was made in 1906, when a system of special
nursery forms was developed. At the annual meeting of the Pennsyl-
vania State foresters held at Harrisburg in 1910, a paper was read by
Forester Ilalph E. Brock, then in charge of the Mont Alto Nursery,
that dealt with the use of these special nui'sery forms. Experience
showed that these first forms were too complicated. In 1912, and
again in 19L'J, a new system was worked out by the five nurserymen
then in charge of State nurseries. These systems were given their first
trial at Mont Alto, and revised forms were later put into use in all
the State nurseries. Since then this system has been slightly modified,
but it has been the basis of all the records kept.

The forms used at present provide for a summary of costs per unit
of area. One slu^et is used for each age-class of each kind of tree grown
in the nursery. The original entry is posted directly in this summary
sheet. At the end of tlie year, the general costs are i)rorated on the
))asis of area. Thus, at the end of two, three, or more years, it is
possible to say just what the given area has cost, and to determine the
cost per thousand of the trees grown in it. The sheet also shows the
total expense for each type of work carried on, and for the material
used. In 1913, for the first time, there was made and i)ublished in the
Department report, a complete statement of the costs of the Mont Alto
Nursery (.^^G). This report was itemized to show the cost of raising
each kind of tree.

During the nine-year period from 1921 to 1929 inclusive, the total
net operating exi)ense of the Mont Alto Nursery was $97,628.03. This
includes depreciation and supervision, but does not cover charges for
interest on the investment, and land rental.

The output of the nursery during the above period was approximate-
ly 24,415,000 trees of the following age classes:

One-year-old seedlings 2,390,000

Two-year-old seedlings 11,250,000

Three-year-old seedlings 10,500,000

Seedlings four years old or older 125,000

Transplant stock 150,000

32

From the above data, it is seen that the average cost per thousand
for all trees has been $4, which, in most instances, includes cost of
digging, sorting, packing, and transportation of trees to the planter.
The approximate production cost of stock of different ages, follows:

One-year-old seedlings (mostly hardwoods) $5.50

Two-year-old seedlings 3.00

Seedlings three years old and older 4.50

Transplants 8.00

SPECIAL NURSERY STUDIES

One or several special study projects of a research character were
initiated every year in the Mont Alto Nursery. Many of these in-
vestigations have yielded results of great value, and have made it
possible to grow many kinds of trees of good quality at a low cost.
Unfortunately, many of these special study projects were carried on
by busy men, burdened with details of nursery administration along
with teaching or the manifold duties that a district forester must
perform. As a consequence, the progress and conclusions of many of
these experiments were not recorded as fully and accurately as is
desirable in special research studies.

Six of the special research studies conducted in the Mont Alto
Xui-sery, for which full and conclusive records are available, follow :

1. Experiments with Fertilizer.

2. Damping-Off and Shedding Disease Studies.

3. Methods of Combating White Grubs.

4. Mice Damage and its Control.

5. Experiments in Root-Pruning.

6. Seedling Exposure Studies.

1. EXPERIMENTS WITH FERTILIZERS:

From the very beginning of operations at the Mont Alto Nursery,
the poor soil structure prompted experimentation to find means of
improving this soil so as to insure better tree production. Stable
manure and lime were tried first. They did not solve the problem.
Several studies were made, covering a large nvimber of nursery beds, in
an effort to find some combination of mineral fertilizers that would
prove successful. One of these studies was undertaken in 1913 in the
Mont Alto, Greenwood, and Asaph Nurseries to determine the effect
of mineral fertilizer on the growth, quality and yield of seedlings, and
on the maintenance and improvement of soil fertility. These fer-
tilizer experiments included the application of nitrate of soda, acid
phosphate, sulphate of potash, sulphate of ammonia, bone meal,
floats, and dried blood. These, and some other fertilizer materials,
were applied alone and in different combinations. Numerous check

33

plots were maintained throughout the experimental area. A full de
scription of these experiments is given in the 1914-1915 report of the
Pennsylvania Department of Forestry (30). Another fertilizer ex-
periment, carried out in 1925-1927, covered nearly 200 nursery beds.

There are certain common conclusions which were arrived at in all
these nursery fertilizer studies. The use of fertilizers tends, on the
whole, to increase damping-off. There is little evidence of any positive
benefits received from the use of fertilizers, except possibly in the case
of bone meal and phosphates. Even where benefits were found, these
benefits were less than those discovered in check areas where soil
amendment measures had been applied to better the texture and
physical condition of the soil. The studies showed conclusively that
tlie heavy clay soil at Mont Alto was not deficient in plant*^ food.
The unsatisfactory tree growth was due to the fact that the plant
food in the soil was not available. The mineral plant food w^as not
in such form that the little trees could make use of it.

The earliest attempt to improve the structure of the Mont Alto
Xursery soil was through the use of wood ashes. This was not suc-
cessful. Then the use of green manures was tried. This method was
not successful at first, probably because it was not carefully followed
up. In 1912 experimentation with charcoal began. This was followed
up intensively a year later, with further applications of charcoal.
Many favorable results were secured, among them being: (a) better
soil texture, (b) less damping-off, (c) better germination, and (d) less
lieaving. The application of charcoal was followed by plowing under
green manures, with the addition of barnyard manure on fallow areas.
This treatment rapidly increased the productivity of the nursery. The
charcoal used in the Mont Alto Nursery was procured from a waste
l)ile left at the site of the Mont Alto Iron Furnace. As the supply
of this local charcoal became limited, sawdust and bark from the near-
by State forest sawmill were used with success, after they Avere well
rotted in compost piles. This form of compost is decidedly acid in
character and is thus favorable to the development of evergreen seed-
lings.

2. DAMPING-OFF AND SHEDDING DISEASE STUDIES:
Damping-off is a menace to many greenhouse, garden, and nursery
plants. Practically no evergreen seedlings are immune to it, though
some are less susceptible than others. The disease is caused by many
kinds of fungi, which cause the decay of the tender stem or root struc-
ture. The newly germinated plants, when attacked, droop quicklv
and fall over. The most common of these fungi attacks the seedlino^s
near the surface of the ground. Some even attack the seed, and cause
It to decay before it has germinated. These fungi are most active in
warm and humid weather. Like the common molds with which most

34

pff'ple are familiar, they do not thrive in sunlight or where the air

is dry.

Practically all nurseries suffer some losses from damping-off. When
epidemics occur, whole beds of newly germinated trees may fall prey
to this dreaded disease within one or two days. After the trees become
hardened or woody, they are less likely to be attacked. Perhaps
more research in the Mont Alto Nursery, as well as elsewhere, has
been conducted for the purpose of obtaining knowledge of these low
forms of plant life and their control, than concerning any other line
of nursery practice.

Experiments in relation to damping-off were made from the very
beginning at the Mont Alto Nursery. For years, losses from this
cause were so high that at one time the question of abandoning the
growing of evergreens at Mont Alto was considered seriously. The
use of charcoal as a soil amendment was the first uniformly successful
step taken to combat this serious trouble. It was noticed that losses
materially decreased in the beds treated with charcoal (30, 38).

Following the lead of Dr. Frederick V. Coville, of the U. S. De-
})artment of Agriculture, nurserymen began to work on the theory
that an acid soil condition would stop the trouble. Sulphuric acid
was used in many nurseries, but was thought to be too expensive to
be practicable at Mont Alto. From 1915 to 1917 an experiment was
carried out with acid leachings and raw humus (39). These experi-
ments tended to confirm the idea that a natural acid soil condition,
secured by the use of plenty of vegetable matter, was the best pre-
ventive. The nursery has consequently been conducted in accordance
with this idea, and the losses from damping-off have been reduced to
a relatively low figure for most species.

In 1924 an elaborate experiment was conducted in cooperation with
the U. S. Department of Agriculture. This experiment only confirmed
tlie previous conclusion, tliat not one of the chemicals used was as
valuable as a proper natural condition of the soil.

Experience at the Mont Alto Nursery has shown that once damping
off has started, spraying with slightly acid Bordeaux mixture, after
each rain or watering, helps materially.

After the little trees become large enough to crowd each other and
«'ompete for food and moisture, they may show spots where the needles
Jire turning brown. Sometimes this condition is due to lack of w^ater.
Usually, however, it is caused by the attack of fungus diseases.
Spraying with Bordeaux mixture about every two weeks is the most
|)ractical and effective control measure against these diseases. Ex-
perience at the Mont Alto Nursery indicates that the spraying should

35

be done in dry weatlier, though not in tlie heat of the day, when ii
might cause scalding. If the Bordeaux mixture is applied in powdered
form, the danger of scakling is averted. Some nurserymen do noj
believe that scakling is caused by midday watering or spraying.

3. METHODS OP^ COMIiATIXG WHITE GRUBS:

Tlie larvae of the May bettles, commonly called white grubs or gruh-
worms, often do serious damage to practically all evergreens in both
seedling and transplant beds (19). During certain years, the loss
of trees from this cause exceeded the losses from all other causes com-
bined. The most serious injury wrought by these grubs is done in
nursery beds of small, one-year-old stock. Sometimes the larvae will
completely strip the rootlets of large seedlings and transplants, then
eat the bark away, thus killing the trees. Three or more species of
white grubs have been found in the Mont Alto Nursery. All seem to
have the .same feeding habits, and ])robably require two growing
seasons to attain full development.

The control measures that have been tried at Mont Alto to prevent
damage by grubs follow:

(a) Destroying the adult beetles commonlv called May beetles
Experience has shown that this form of control is almost futile.

(b) The large grubs can be hunted to advantage and du- out in
first-year seed beds. As these insects eat the roots of the small trees
they pull the plants down into the earth until the needles are in con'
tact with the soil. Such trees do not turn brown at oneo Th-y may
even replace their lost roots and start to grow again, when conditions
are moist and otherwise favorable. If all these damaged trees are
pulled out of the beds, and an experienced man looks over the beds on
successive days following the grub damage, it is possible to locate and
kill ^;any of the grubs by digging at points where new attacks are
detected by the presence of trees that have been pulled down into
the ground.

(e) Small sticks, ti.e size of load pencils, or even larger, were

.•n'the soil "t '": '"1" ■^*'"'' "'*" *"" """^ """ «"" ^here, and left
.n the soil This treatment was found to be effective for onlv a short
period of time, and was tedious to apply.

(.1 ) Decoy lianhvood trees of white ash and elm were planted
the evergreens. This was only partially successful.

i:trr : :e^Le^:^^;; -!:;nt.^:or%ti:^""r"''T

b.v representatives of the P isy,;;!!,.^ .7:'; X^^^.

36

among

1l was successful insofar as eliminating the grubs was concerned, but
it had markedly injurious effect upon the growth of most trees. This
experiment was tried on sycamore, white pine, Norway spruce, red
pine, Scotch pine, and pitch pine trees. Of all these species, the
Scotch pine seemed to be injured least by the lead arsenate. Injury
was less pronounced on the finer textured soils.

(f) At the Greenwood Forest Tree Nursery, in Huntingdon Coun-
ty, and later at the Mont Alto Nursery, beds infested with white grubs
were flooded until the soil was so saturated that the grubs were driven
to the surface of the ground, where they could be gathered and de-
stroyed.

4. MICE DAMAGE AND ITS CONTROL:

During occasional years, several species of rodents have increased
so greatly in numbers at the Mont Alto Nursery as to become serious
pests. The short-tailed field or meadow mouse has done the greatest
injury to trees in Mont Alto Nursery in the past. The common house
mouse and the long-tailed or white-bellied woods mouse are mainly to
be feared in the seed house or in seed beds before germination occurs.
The short-tailed mouse is not only a seed eater, but will also eat the
bark and cambium from stems and upp^r root regions of many tree
species during their seedling stage of life. The damage may be es-
j)ecially bad in densely set beds of white pine during their second and
third winters in the nursery beds, when they offer warm shelter as well
as food for the mice.

During the severe Winter of 1917-1918, some beds of two-year-old
white pine lost 75 per cent of their inventory by mice damage. In
1926-1927 the loss was also serious, probably due to cleaning up the
wooded environs of the nui"sery, thereby driving the mice into the beds
tor protection.

Strychnine is the best means of combating the mouse plague. The
usual application of poison was made by mixing one fourth of an
ounce of strychnine sulphate with eight quarts of oatmeal and a
small pinch of saccharine. Water was added until a dough was formed
which was distributed through and around the nursery in pellets about
the size of an acorn. These were placed in the thickest beds, or under
shades, stone piles, rocks, and hedge rows where the poison could not
readily be taken by other larger animals or birds. In 1928 specially
designed glass flasks were purchased which absolutely guard against
other animals getting poison. Wheat soaked in a strychnine solution
is not used in these flasks. They can be exposed anywhere about the
nursery, and the bait they contain is readily replenished when it is
seen to have disappeared.

37

Skunks and other predatory animals or birds may also be encourao-etl
and i)roteeted so as to prevent the increase of mice. The distribution
of poison, however, nearly always results in the death of all such
creatures as may eat dead mice. It should, therefore, be resorted
to only when absolutely necessary.

Moles are a net benefit in the forest nursery. They feed largely on
insect life, and prefer above all else the larva? of the May beetle or
June bug, commonly called white grubs. These grubs are a serioas

nursery pe.st in occasional years. Tunnels and hills made by moles
result in the loss of a few trees by drying out or burial, but these may
well be sacrificed if an entire bed is thereby guaranteed against grub
damage.

5. EXPERIMENTS IX liOOT-PKUXlXG :

Root-pruning was tried early in the operation of the Mont Alto
Aursery. The first black walnut seedlings grown at Mont Alto in
1J06 were root-pruned. These trees were later planted out in land
adjacent to the nursery, and now form a promising plantation. Th<'

iQil ?cnf ''''^' '^'^^''^ ^'"'"^ '^'' ""''''''y ^'^'^ ^11 root-pruned. In
1912-1J13 an experiment was tried on one-year-old black walnuts
whose roots were very long. When the planting stock was dug, about'
100 trees were set m transplant rows, after having their taproots

educed to lengths varying from six to 12 inches in length. Results

Ls I'l r 1 l"/"u 7""' "^^i±'«r"^ly unsatisfactory. Few or no

n K s ^^H ' """.f'^''^^' i-P-f-t healing of the cut in their

a^ 100 s, with considerable evidence of rot advancing upward. Growth
was also somewhat reduced by this treatment.

Roo^pruning studies of white pine seedlings were made in 1921
i/, i^;. More than 100 perfectly sound, normal trees were du- for

Sin.at a I • '7 '""'•''' ""^^ '''' "^'^ '^''^' ^^^^ a knife,

^t i lin ir ' "f '" ""^^ '^^^" *^^ --^ --"' - that half'

n i 0 h " t ee T " /"'^' '^'"^ "^^^ ""''' '' ^^^ ^^^eral roots.

^^fs^^a^l root systems were shortened to half the length

e d tere then /"'^''^^ •""'"' ''''''''- ""'' ^^^ ^^'^^ ^^^---^'

pruned Tit? "^"'\"""t^^ ^^ '^'^^'^^^^ trees that had not been root-

^crtple? and "nt ' f ""'' "^'^ "^"^"^"^ ^^^- Nevertheless,

su;*,^^;: ;!:::":i ^7-;---^ --arkably wen, sHghti;

height gr^wlh ^^^:L^t.tV'r ^t 7t"^ ""'^-'y ^^ ^^^'

t- that had been root-p^S weit i::^e:t ::^^ ^^ '-

pruned trees had developed more lateral and more fibrous

38

roots than the unpruned trees had. This examination was made at the
end of the first year.

During this same growing season, a study was made of the effect
of pruning the roots of trees soon after germination. This study dealt
with black walnut, white walnut or butternut, red and white oak, box
elder, and w^hite ash trees. The seed of these trees had been sown either
the preceding fall or early in the Spring of 1921, so that all the seed
hnd germinated by late April or early May. On the twenty-fifth of
May several fine seedlings of each variety were selected and pruned
in situ, by passing a long-bladed sharp knife underneath the trees, at
a depth of tw^o to three inches below that at which the seed had been
planted. Whenever a tree was root-pruned, this tree and a near-by
check tree, growing under exactly similar conditions and of similar
size, were carefully marked, so that there could be no possibility of
later on mistaking the pruned for unpruned trees.

At the end of the growing season, specimens of both root-pruned
and check trees of all species were dug. For practically every species
except the Avhite walnut trees, root-pruning was apparently beneficial
in every way. The conclusion reached was that the root-pruning of
all the hardwood species studied is to be recommended, providing the
pruning is done in the first year of the tree's existence. Especially
should this be the practice where these trees are grown for ornamental
planting.

0. SEEDLING EXPOSURE STUDIES:

Soon after nursery and reforestation work was started in Pennsyl-
vania, it was found that there was urgent need for information con-
cerning the length of time that little trees could be exposed to the
action of sun and wind without their being stunted or killed by such
exposure. Previously to 1913, several studies had been made on this
subject, but they were not carefully checked. In 1913 and in 1914
careful studies were made in the Mont Alto Nursery, with proper
checks (53, 54). These studies showed very clearly that any period of
<'xposure exceeding 20 minutes was harmful to trees. Many trees were
killed by the exposure, and those that did survive were seriously stunted
111 growth during the first year. The experiments also showed that
Avhen the weather was clear and windy more trees died as a result of
exposure than when there was no wind. A summary of the results of
the first experiment are given in the following table:

39

SURVIVAL OF TREES WITH ROOT EXPOSURE OF VARIABLE LENGTHS'

LENGTH OF EXPOSURE

NUMFiER OF

TREES

NUMBER OF TREES

PLANTED

SURVIVING

(Minute

s)

(April 4 and

5)

(August 2)

None (Check)

100

89

10

100

S3

20

100

92

40

100

82

(50

100

66

00

100

30

120

100

36

ISO

100

3

240

100

•

4

3(J0

(G 1 lours)

100

4

GROWTH OF THE MONT ALTO NURSERY

The original area of the Mont Alto Nursery in 1902 was about one
fourth of an acr<^ of hed .surface. From this small area the size of the
nursery increased steadily. The early additions were made by de-
molishing dilapidated houses and fences, and improving the grounds
about the original nursery site. By 1910 all the cleared land owned
by the State south of the old Mont Alto Furnace site was occupied by
nursery beds. This made a nursery area of approximately 10 acres.
Jn 1924 the area of the nursery was temporarily expanded by adding
to it a})out two acres of old orchard land, located north of the State
Forest School campus. This soil was stony and unsuited for nursery
use, hence it was abandoned in 1926.

In the Autumn of 1029, a tract of land lying west of the original
nursery was l)()ught for nursery use. An area of two and one-half acres
was immediately broken and worked into shape for seeding in the
Fall of 1930. This site is well located for irrigation and nursery
management.

Tables II to VII in the Appendix give some records of the expansion
of the Mont Alto Nursery in terms of the increased number of trees
grown. The following table gives the number of trees shipped by
years from the Mont Alto Nursery, from its beginning in 1902 to 1929 :

TREES SlIIPPEn FROM MONT ALTO FOREST TREE NURSERY

^^^^ NUMBER OF TREES SHIPPED

'^^'' 1,600

1««^ 7700

^^^'* 15.000

1906 ^. ^..

^ •'"' 21 030

lOAO ^l,J.30

^^^ 98,286

40

YFAR NUMBER OP TREES SHIPPED

1!)()!) 362,633

IDiO 714,054

1!H1 439,393

l!i12 437,425

]!»i:i 228,705

1!)14 1,161,305

11)1', 546,857

1!>1(; 1,550,650

llilT 1,620,930

I'.ns 1,728,377

1!)10 1,002,017

1!>20 482,336

V.ril 1,244,543

1022 1,801,047

1!)23 3,167,304

1!>24 3,957,498

]!)25 2,881,930

V.)2(\ 4,171,660

1!>27 3,620,286

V.riH 2,083,870

1J>29 1,781,017

Total number of trees shipped (1903-1929) 35,184,404

PRINCIPAL KINDS OF TREES PRODUCED

Many different kinds of forest tree seedlings and transplants have
been grown in the Mont Alto Nursery. Inventories of this nursery
Mre listed in the Appendix (Tables II to VII). These inventories do
not list all the trees grown, because many different kinds were planted
in the nursery in small quantities for arboretum and experimental
|)iir])oses. Of the 76 different tree species grown in the nursery in
1922, only 25 were present in numbers above 10,000.

In the past, white pine exceeded all other trees grown in the Mont
Alto Nursery. In recent years, serious enemies of this tree, such as
tlie white i)ine weevil and the white i)ine blister rust, have decreased
its popularity with tree i)lanters. Because of its general freedom
from enemies, red i)ine is now replacing white i)ine to some extent.
A comparison of the inventory for 1928 with those of earlier years,
(Tables II to VII), gives supporting information pertaining to this
changing tendency in the use of trees for ])lanting i)ur})oses. Norway
spruce ranks second to white i)ine in the total number of trees grown.
Scotch ])ine has been grown in numbers almost equal to Norway s])ruce.
I'itch pine and Ja])anese larch are two trees that have also won favor
V. ith forest tree ])lanters. Among broadleaf trees, red, oak, white ash,
I'lack locust, and black walnut have been produced in considerable
quantities.

41

Dense licda of Two-Ycar-Old Pitch Pine Serdlinf/s

.mS^^^':*mZ.

\rar1y Two Million Two-Year-Old Red Pine Seedlings were in the

Mont Alto Sursterji in 1929

HOW TREES ARE DISTRIBUTED

The seedling's and transplants grown in the Mont Alto Nursery are
sold by the Department of Forests and Waters at $2 per thousand for
seedlings and $5 per thousand for transplants. These prices are well
within the actual cost of production. In accepting trees at these low
prices, the landowner agrees: (a) to plant the trees in Pennsylvania
for wood production or watershed protection, (b) not to sell or re-
move the trees from the land until they are large enough to be used as
wood products, (c) not to use the trees for Christmas trees, windbreaks,
lii'dges, or for shade or ornamental purposes, (d) to protect the i)lanted
area as far as possible from fire, grazing, trespassing, and other damage,
((') to furnish a report on the planted area whenever requested by the
I)ei)artment of Forests and Waters.

Applications for less than 1,000 trees will not be accepted. One
thousand trees will reforest almost an acre, if the trees are spaced
six by six feet, and will cover almost one-half of an acre if trees are
si)aced four by five feet. The ])lanting of less than one-half of an acre
Is not considered a reforestation project. An order of 1,000 trees may
be made up of 1,000 trees of one kind or 500 trees of tw^o different
kinds. Less than 500 trees of one kind are not distributed.

Persons desiring information on forest tree planting in Pennsylvania
should communicate with the local district forester or with the Depart-
ment of Forests and Waters, Ilarrisburg, Pennsylvania, asking for
Circular 81, ''Forest Trees to Plant in Pennsylvania."

SUCCESSFUL PLANTATIONS FROM MONT ALTO TREES

Trees from the Mont Alto Forest Tree Nursery have been planted in
every county in Pennsylvania. Practically all the plantations on the
State forests have been developed from Mont Alto trees. Among the
most successful plantations in Pennsylvania, grown from Mont Alto
Nursery trees, are those at the Caledonia State Forest Park along the
Lincoln Highway between Chambersburg and Gettysburg, and at Pond
l>ank and The Old Forge in Franklin County. The older forest
plantations near Cross Fork in Potter County, also at Greenwood
Furnace and the Saeger Farm in Huntingdon County, and in Allen's
Valley at the headwaters of the Aughwdck Creek in Fulton County
^rew from Mont Alto trees. These plantations, now 20 to 30 years old,
demonstrate how^ quickly and successfully small forest tree seedlings
will grow into thrifty plantations, and thus convert unproductive
v.aste land into productive forest land.

THE FUTURE OF THE MONT ALTO NURSERY

A quarter of a century of practical administration, careful experi-

43

n< ii.st lUil.s o/ Tno-Vritr-Ohl I'itrh /'inr S,(ffli„!/.s

p|ljHMil«lW

AI^*Hi)liMI:iti!ili fr »»sf

^^f'*^

MilWNtMMwiWliiMtiMll

;»^^-«^^*'f ,Tj:^>^'>^';;r' f';*?JH,«^.i^^#?p^

*^

:^-mm^:M'mMMm»-:*^

iibt*ka^^^:f*ii^>^k^' .ii^m-j,*

wm:mm^^^:m

r irfitMlTt il I

\"/'7y/ 7/ro )/////o., Tnu-Yrnr-tm Red Pinr Srnllim,, irrrr in thr

■\hnit Alio Xnrstiji in lUiU

y 1

HOW TREES ARE DISTRIBUTED

Tlio .seedliH«is and ti'imsplaiits <>rowii in tiie Mont Alto Nursery arc

li by the Department of Forests and Waters at $2 [)er thousand for

(llin^'.s and $5 per tliousand for transplants. These [)riee.s are well

hin tlie actual eost of product ion. In aeeeptin^- trees at these low

prices, the hindownei- a«ii-ees : (a) to |)lant tlie trees in Pennsylvania
I'oi- wood |)r()(!uetion oi* watershed protection, (h) not to sell or i*e-
iiiuve the trees from tiie land until they are hir^'e enou«ili to he used as
wood products, (c) not to use the trees Tor Cliristmas trees, wiudhreaks,
Ii!'(l«ies, or t'oi" sha(h' or ornamental purposes, (d) to protect the |)Ianted
ju'ca as far as ])ossil)le fi*om fii*e. ^razinu', t res pa '<siuo-, fjnd other (lamai»'e,
((') to furnish a I'cport on the |)lant(»(l area wheu<'ver re(|uested by the
l).'|);irtinent of Forests and Waters.

Applications for less than 1, ()()() ti'ces will uot be accepted. One
tliousaTid trees will reforest almost au acre, if the ti'ees are spaced
six by six feet, and will cov(M- almost onedialf of an aci'c if ti'ees are
spaced four by tive feet. The plantin<»' of less than onedialf of an acrc^
is not considered a reforestation project. An order of 1,()()() trees may
he made up of 1,()()() trtrs of one kind or ;")()() trees of two different
kinds. Less than ;")()() trees of one kind are not distributed.

Pel-sons (lesirin<i' information on forest tree p!antin<^ in J*eunsylvania
should communicate with the local district forester or with the Depart-
ment of Forests and Waters, IIarrisbur<i', IVnnsylvania, askin«z' for
Circular :{!, "Forest Trees to jMant iii I»«'nnsvlvania. "

SUCCESSFUL PLANTATIONS FROM MONT ALTO TREES

Trees from tiie :\Iont Alto Forest Tree Nursery have been phmted in
• very county in Pennsylvania. Practically all the plantations on the
State forests have been develoix'd from ]\Iout Alto trees. Amoim- the
most successful plantations in Pennsylvania, «>rown from ]\Iont Alto
Xursery trees, are those at the Caledonia State Forest Park alonj*- the
Lincoln Iliglnvay between Cliambersbur«i' and Gettysbur«i'. and at I'ond
I»ank and The Old For«i'e in Franklin County. The older forest
plantations near Cross Fork in Potter County, also at Greenwood
Kurnaee and the Saeo-^r Farm in IInntin«i-don County, and in Allen's
\ alley at the headwaters of the An<iliwick Creek in Fulton County

•ew from :\]ont Alto trees. These plantations, now 20 to :i() years old,
<ieiiionstrate how (jnickly and successfully small forest tree seedlin^is

ill jrrow into thrifty plantations, and thus convert unproductive

aste land into productive forest land.

THE FUTURE OF THE MONT ALTO NURSERY

A (piarter of a century of practical administration, careful experi-

43

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

mentation, and patient research at the Mont Alto Nursery has bnil'
up a body of knowledge that has taken the growing of forest tree
seedlings and transplants out of the realm of guess w^ork, and placed
it on a sound business basis su})ported by scientific knowledge. What
has b^en accomi)lished is little compared with w'hat will be accom-
plished in the years that are ahead if present plans are carried forward.

The primary function of this nursery continues to be the production
of first-class nursery stock for reforestation purposes in Pennsylvania.
From VMi, when tlie first trees were shipped, until January 1, 1930,
more than 3r>,()00,0()0 trees were shipped from this nursery. During
the last five years, the annual shipments ranged from 2,000,000 to
more than 4,000,000 trees. With the recent enlargement of the nur-
sery, it will be possible to maintain an annual production of two to
four million trees, and there is a i)ossibility of a considerable enlarge-
ment of this estimated future output.

Another major service of the Mont Alto Nursery is the providing
of facilities for research studies. The personnel of the recently
created Pennsylvania Forest Research Institute, with headquarters
within a few hundred yards of this nursery, is already engaged in
the study of many reforestation problems. It is hoped that in future
years much valuable forestry knowledge will be developed at Mont
Alto, and that the Mont Alto Nursery will make substantial contribu-
tions to the progress of forestry.

Just as the Mont Alto Nursery has succeeded ever since its estab-
lishment, so it will continue; (a) to produce trees in large numbers
for reforestation purposes, (b) to provide excellent facilities for re-
search studies, and (c) to serve as an outdoor laboratory for the prac-
tical instruction of forestry students. The development of the Mont
Alto Nursery on this threefold ])asis will be a big factor in the replace-
ment of denuded forest areas, now too common in all parts of Penn-
sylvania, with fine forests of quality trees. When this worthy goal
IS reached, we can look upon the creation and development of the
Mont Alto Forest Tree Nursery as a noble experiment and a valuable
contribution to forest conservation.

Thc.w Planted Scotch Pine Treen, Now 20 Years Old, Started Their Growth

in the Mont Alto Xurseri/

This Thrift}/ Piteh Pine Plantation, Now 15 Years Old, Grew from

Mont Alto Scedlitif/s

44

incntntion, and jiaticiit I'fscarcli at tlie Mont Alto Xnr.sery has bull
up a body of luiow Icd^^c that lias taken tlic <»'r()\viii«»' of forest li-i
sc(Mlliii«2>; and traii.splaiils out of tlie realm of «»'uess work, and plaeed
it on a sound husiness basis suppoi'ti'd by seientifie kno\vled<»'e. AVba!
has Ihm'ii accojiij)lisli('d i.s little ('0)n|)ared with what will be aeconi
plislied in the years that are ahead if |)resent |)lans are cai-ried forwai-d.

The j)riinary funetion of this nui-sery eontinues to be tin' prodiietioii
(jf fir.st-ela.s.s iiursei-y stock lor I'e forest at ion pnrj)ose.s in Pennsylvania.
From 1!)();). when tlx- lir.st trees were .shi])ped, until .January 1. 19:{().
jnore than .'io.OMO. ()()() trees wer<' shipped from this nursery. Duriiiii
the last five yeai-s. tlx' annual ^shipments ran«]:e(l from 2,0()(),()()() k,
more than 4,()()().()()() ti-ees. With the reeent <'nlarfrement of the nur
.sery. it will be possible to maintain an annual production of two p.
four nnllion trees, and tliei'e is a possibilitv of a considerable eidaro-e-
mcnt of this estimated future output.

Another ma.joi- .service of the Mont Alto Xursery is the providing;'
of facilities for res<'arch studies. The j)orsoniHd of the recently
creatiMl Pennsylvania F(»rest Research Institute, with lieacbpiarters
within a few hundred yards of this nursery, is already en«ian-e(l in
the stu<ly of many reforestation ])roblems. It is hoped that in "future
years much valuahle forestry knowledge will be dev<'loped at Mont
Alto, and that tlu' .Mont Alto .\ursery will make substantial contribu-
tions to the pi'oo-re.ss of forestry.

•fust as the .Mont Alto .\ursery has succ<'ede(l ever sinc<' its ostab-

llsllll|l>llf VI) \l \«-il| ....i>4;,,,,.., .,,N i ,. 1 i • • .

■ ' • '• ^•"' »>'''iiuu(-, y i\ ) lo pi-o(iuc<' trees \u lar«»e nund)ers

•■'»•• reforestation purposes, (b) to provide excellent facilities for re
search studies, and (c) to serve as an outdoor laboratory for the prac
t'cal instruction of forestry students. Tlu^ developmeiit of the Mont
Alto .Xursery on this tlireof(,ld basis will be a bi-- factor in the replace
""'"^ "»■ <l<'nuded f(,rest an'as. now too common in all parts of Penn
sylvania. with fine forests of ,pndity tre.'s. When this worthv -oal
Js reached, we can look npon the creation and developuKMit of th.
Mont Alto K(,rest Tre<. Xursery as a noble experiment and a valual)!.
contribution to forest conservation

riicsc Phnitdt Snttch /*iii( Trcr.s, \(,ir JO )<(irs OhL Stiirtcd Their (h'oirfh

in th< Mont Alio \iir.s(rii

Thin Thriftji Pitch Piiir /'hintiitioii. Xoir lo Yfars Old, d'rrir from

Mont Alto S(<(llint/s

44

The Mont Alto Nursery Produced the White Pine HieedlinyH That Now Make In
This Attravtive and Thrifty Plantation Near Austin in Potter Countii

''"'" ''^ lo^^Zf'ow^TrZ ^"'' ^''^^'*<^*ions Grown from Mont Alto Trees. Thcs,
40 1 ear-Old Trees are Rapidly Approaching Merchantable Size

BIBLIOGRAPHY

(1) Anonymous. 1902.

Doings of the State Forestry Reservation Commission. Forest Leaves,
Vol. VIII, p. 135.

(2) Anonymous, 1902.

Forestry at Mont Alto. Forest Leaves, Vol. VIII, p. l'»l.

(3) Anonymous, 1907.

Nurseries in the Pennsylvania Forest Reserves. Forest I^eaves. Vol.
XI, p. 40.

(4) Anonymous, 1920.

Note. American Forestry Magazine, Vol. XXVI, p. 02.

(;■)) Anonymous, 1921.

Note. American Forestry Magazine, Vol. XXVI I. p. 332.

(G) Anonymous, 1921.

Tree Nurseries in Full Swhig. Poorest Leaves, V<»1. XVIII. p. 23.

(7) Arnold, Paul E., 1904.

Protection and Care Against Weeds in the F<»rest Nursery. Forest
Leaves, Vol. IX, p. 99.

(5) Bitler, F. L., 1904.

A Visit to the South Mountain Forest Reserve. Forest Leaves, Vol.
IX, pp. 1S7-189.

(9) Brock, Ralph E., 1907.

Mont Alto Nursery. Pennsylvania Department of Forestry Report for
1907, pp. 02-({0.

(10) Brock, Ralph E., 1907.

Forest Nur.sery Practice and Sylvicultural Notes on the More Im.
portant Pt»nnsylvania Forest Trees. Pennsylvania Department of
Forestry ReiM)rt for 1907, pp. 155-178.

(11) Brock, Ralph E., 1908.

Mont Alto Nursery Report for 1908. Pennsylvania Department of
Forestry Rei)ort for 1908-1909, pp. 89-94.

(12) Brock, Ralph E., 1909.

Report on Mont Alto Nurseries for 11K)9. Pennsylvania Department
of Forestry Report for 1})08-1{J09, pp. 239-247.

(13) Brock, Ralph E., 1909.

The Forest Nursery. Pennsylvania Department of Forestry Report
for 1908-1909, pp. 350-3(;3.

(14) Conklin. W. Gard, 1914.

Forest IManting — I'ennsylvania Department of Forestrv. Forest
Leaves, Vol. XIV, p. 149.

(15) I Hick, J. S., 1915.

Spring Planting at Mont Alto. Forest Leaves. Vol. XV. p. 35.

<l(i) Illick. J. S.. 1921.

Ameri<'an Walnuts. American Forestry Magazine, Vol. NXl. |). 704.

n7) Lefkof, Emil A., and Shulley. Frederick J.. 1921-1922.

Thesis: Eflects of Mutihiting Roots of White Pine when Transplant-
ing in the Forest Nursery. Pennsylvania State Forest School,
Mont Alto.

nS) Nicholas, Herbert ^L, 1921.

Thesis: Results Obtained by Cutting OflT Taproots of Certain Trees
to Develop Lateral Roots. I'ennsylvania State Forest Scho()l. M(mt
Alto.

rin \l„„l MIn Xurstrn rrnihicnl 11,, Whili I'i,,, Srr<fli„,/s That Snir Mnki I n
This Mlnirhrr and Thriftii /'latitat iuii \iar Aiisfin i„ /'otter Vounfif

< I )

i .:•

C'.t

' (I

(•»)

(Ul

1 1 1

(SI

I'M

( 10

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Aiioiiynious. llMrj.
])oiii«s t)f the Sljih' Kon'slr.v Kcsei vntimi CoiimiissiiHi. Forest Lcjivi'S,
Vol. VIII, p. i:5.'».

Anoiiyinous, VM)\1.
Forestry at .Mont Alt<». Forest Leaves, Vol. VIII, p. l'»l.

Aiionyinous, 1JM>7.
Nurseries in the I'eiiusylv.iiiia Forest Keserves. Forest Leaves. Vol.
XI, p. 40.

Anoiiyinous, IJrjO.
Note. Aineriean Forestry .Ma.i;a/ine, Vol. XXVI, p. {\'2.

-Vnoiiyinous, 11>:*1.
Note. Anu'riean F«»restry Ma;;a/iiie, Vol. XXVII. p. '.V.\-.

Anoiiyinous. lJ»lil.
Tree Nurseries in Full Swiiiii. Forest Leaves. V.»l. XVI 11. |>. 'S.l

Arnold, Paul F.. 1!>04.
rr<»teetion and ('ar»' Aualnst Weeds in the Forest Nursery. Forest
Leaves, Vol. IX. p. W.

r.iller. F. L., 1004.
A Visit to the South .Mountain Forest Ueservt'. Forest Leaves, Vol.
IX. pp. IST-ISO.

I'.roek. Kalph F., IMOT.
-Mont Alto Nursery. IN'iinsylvania Department of Forestry Keport for
P.KlT. pp. (iL'-tlt;.

15io,k. lialph F., 11(07.
I'lin'vt Nurser.x I'raefi**. nnd S.\ 1\ irull ui'a! N<'tes "u th'' M<«!e hn.
portant I'eiuisylvania l<'orest Trees. Pennsylvania Depart inent <»f
Forestry Keport for IIMIT. i>p. l.V»-17s.

r.roek. lialph F.. V.H)s.
Mont Alto Nursery Ueporl f<»r lOOS. Pennsylvania Depart inent of
Forestry Keport for lOos ll»()«». p|i. s'.i-HL

P.roeU. Kalph F.. IJtOO.
Keport on .Mont Alto .Nurseries f<»r \Ui\U. Pennsxivania Department
t»f Forestry Keport for 100S-P.>oi>. pp. •j:;M-li47.

Hn»(k. Kalph F., P.M>!>.
The Forest Nui'sery. Pennsylvania Department of Forestr.v Keport

for i!»os-p.>o!>, pp. :;.'.():;(;:;.
('••nklin. W. Card, V.UA.

F((rest I'lantiny, -Pennsylvania Depart nieni of I'orestiv. Forest
Leaves. Vol. XIV. p. MO.

Illiek. .1. S.. P.M.',.
Sprinii- Plant hiy; at .Moni .\liu. Forest Leaves. Vol. XV. p. .".."».

Illiek. .1. S.. 1021.
American Walnuts. American I'oresliy .Ma.y;a/.ine, \o|. X.\l. \>. 7(tL

Lefkof. Fmil A., and Shullcy. Frcderi( k .1.. P. >1' IP. >!'•_>.
Thesis: Fffccts of .Miitilal inu K(»ois of White Pine when Transplant -
in;u in the F«u-est .Niirser.x. Pennsylvaida Stale Forest School.
Mont .\lto.

Nicholas. Ileihert .M.. P.U'l.

Thesis: Kcsidls OhiaiiKMJ hy Cnltiui; n\f Tajn ts t>\' ('erl.iiu Trees

lo DcNclop Lateral Kcpois. Pennsv !\ ;inia Stace l-'orest Schonj. .M»»nt
Alto.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

(10)
(20)

(28)
(24)

(2r»

(20)
(27)
( 2S )

(2J>)

(30)
(31)

(32»
(33)
(34)

(35)

(3ro

(37)

(38)

(39)

IVrry, George S., 1923.
Solution of Some Forest Nursery Problems. Journal of Fore<?trv Vrl
XXI, I). 177. ' •

Perry, George S., 1024.
Some Developments in Pennsylvania Forestry Nursery Practiers
Journal of Forestry, Vol. XXII, p. 54t).

Perry, George S., 1924.

Twenty Years of Silviculture at Mont Alto. Forest Leaves, Vol. XIX
p. 154. ' " ' '

Perry, George S., 1928.

Galcium— The Key to Forest Productivity. Journal of Forestrv Vol
XXVI, p. I <1.

Uvpovt of the I'ennsylvania Department of Forestry for 1905-1906.
Forest Xurseries, j>p. PJ-20.

Keport of the Pennsylvania Department of Forestry for 1907.
Forest Xurseries, p. 44.

Keport of the Pennsylvania Department of Forestry for 1908-1909
The Forest Xurseries, pp. 15-17.

Heport of the Pennsylvania Department of Forestrv for 19I0-]9n
The Mont Alto Nursery, pp. 100-107.

Report of the Pennsylvania Department of Forestry for 1912-1913
The M(»nt Alto Xursery, p. GO.

Report of tlie Pennsylvania Department of Forestrv for 191'^-1913
Seedling Trees from Mont Alto Nursery Used for State Forest Plant-
ing 111 1912 and 1913, pp. 80-87 and pp. 93-94.

Report of the Pennsylvania Department of Forestry for 1912-1913
Seedling Trees from Mont Alto Nursery Used* for Private For.st
I lanting in 1912 and 1913, pp. 100-101 and pp. 102-103.

Report of the Pennsylvania Department of Forestrv for 1914-1915
l^ertihzer Experiments in the Mont Alto Nursery,* pp. 105-108.

Keport of the Pennsylvania Department of Forestrv for 1914-1915
General^Report and Financial Statement of Moiit Alto Nursery, pp.

^^Tr'lL/'V*'*^ Pennsylvania Department of Forestry for 1914-1915.
lM,rest Tree Seed Purchased and Seed Sown in Nurseries, pp. 134-137.

"soominl 1]'/' ^^^""5i^'»«i« Department of Forestry for 1914-1915.
Seedling Shipments from Mont Alto Nursery, pp. 139, 145. 148. and 151.

Report of the Pennsylvania Department of Forestrv for 1916-1917

and 156^'''^''^'' ^'■''"' '^"""^ ^^^"^ Nursery, pp.* 90, 91, 99. 102, l(>s.
Retan, George A., 1913.

Retan, George A., 1913.

'''"Re";ort'"for^lM£Sli'; Z'%v-,T'''''""' n..pnrtn,o„t of Foros,,-,
Retan. George A.. 1914.

Effective Fertilizers in Nurseries. Forestry Quarterly, Vol. XII. p. 31
Retan, George A.. 1915

Retan. George A.. 1918
^"'7i!u7lS"'*^'' '" I**'""^>'lvania. Journal of Forestry, Vol. XVI. p,

48

(50) Rothrock, J. T., 1903.

Report of the General Secretary of the Pennsylvania Forestry As-
sociation. Forest Leaves, Vol. IX, pp. 84-86.

( i 1) Wirt, George H., 1902.

The Mont Alto Estate — Past, Present, and Future. Pennsylvania De-
partment of Forestry Report for 1901-1902, p. 57.

(12) Wirt, George H., 1902.

Forestry Work on South Mountain Reservation. Forest Leaves, Vol.
VIII, p. 135.

(43) Wirt, George H., 1903.

Forestry Work at Mont Alto. Forest Leaves, Vol. IX, p. 45.

( 44 ) Wirt, George H., 1904.

Report of the State Forester. Pennsylvania Department of Forestry
Report for 1903-1904, pp. 52 and 60.

(45) Wirt, George H., 1904.

Forestry Work at Mont Alto. Forest Leaves, Vol. IX, p. 99.

(40) Wirt, George H., 1904.

Spring Work at Mont Alto. Forest Leaves, Vol. IX, p. 135.

(47) Wirt, George 11., 1904.

Work at Mont Alto During 1904. Forest Leaves, Vol. IX, pp. 185-187.

(4S) Wirt, George H., 1905.

Winter and Spring Work at Mont Alto. Forest Leaves, Vol. X, p. 42.

(49) Wirt, George H., 1905.

Specific Forest Administration in 1905. Pennsylvania Department of
Forestry Report for 1905-1906, p. 53.

(50) Wirt, George H., 1907.

Report on Mont Alto Division of South Mountain Reserve for 1907.
Pennsylvania Department of Forestry Report for 1907, p. .56.

• 51) Wirt, George H., 1908.

Specific Forest Admiiiistrntion in 1908. Ponnsvlvania Department of
Forestry Report for 1908-1909, p. 82.

(52) Wirt, George H., 1909.

Mont Alto Division — South Mountain Reserve for 1909. Pennsylvania
Department of Forestry Report for 1908-1909, p. 224.

(53) Ziegler, E. A., 1914.

Loss Due to Exposure in the Transplanting of White Pine Seedlings.
Forestry Quarterly, Vol. XII, pp. 31-34.

(54) Ziegler, E. A., 1915.

Further Notes on the Effect of Exposure oh Wliite Pine Seedlings.
Forestry Quarterly, Vol. XIII, pp. 163-170.

(55) Ziegler, E. A., 1915.

Seed Data on Some Secondary Tree Species. Forestry Quarterly, Vol.
XIII, p. 361.

49

APPENDIX

TABLE I

FORESTERS IN DIRECT CHARGE OF MONT ALTO FOREST

TREE NURSERY*

(Icoige II. Wirt Spring of 1902 to Sept. 1, 1906

Kalph E. Brock Sept. 1, 1906 to March 1, 1911

Tom 0. Bietsch March 1, 1911 to Sept. 1, 1912

(ieorge A. Retail Sept. 1, 1912 to April 1, 1918

W. Boyd Evans April 1, 1918 to May 1, 1918

Joseph S. lilick May 1, 1918 to July 1, 1918

George S. Perry** July 1, 1918 to Nov. 1, 1927

Tom 0. Bradley Nov. 1, 1927 to present date

*Mr. George II. Wirt (1002-1010). and Dr. E. A. Zeiffler (1010-1027), as
directors of tlie State Forest School, always exercised a directive and helpful
advisory oversi^'ht in the management of the nursery.

**Ahsent on leave for two periods, during which time the nursery was super-
vised by :

Charles M. Geneaux July 1. 1024 to Sept. 1, 1024

Louis C. Loetzer Sept. 1. 1024 to Aug. 1, 102.'»

Wayne A. McXees June 1, 1027 to Sept. 1, 1027

51

TABLE II

INVENTORY OF MONT ALTO FOREST TREE NURSERY

1904

SPECIES

AGE

(Years)

AVERAGE
HEIGHT
(Inches)

12
10

6
U

9
25
12

IV2
21/2

1/.

30

30

3 to 5

3

NUMBEK
OF TREES

Red Oak l

Chestnut oak l

White oak 2

Hod asli 1

Horse chestnut 1

Locust 1

Chestnut 1

Yellow pine 1

Douglas fir 1

R-ed spruce 2

Eastern catalpa (not trans-
planted) 2

Eastern catalpa (transplanted). . (1-1) 46 420

Western catalpa (transplanted). (1-0) 10 4,720

Western catalpa (not trans-
planted I

White pine 2

White pine 2

W^hite pine 2

White pine j

20

420

5,350

390

510

745

1,500

5,575

3,000

485

17,000

2,400

1,500

5 71,400

2 75,000

TABLE III

INVENTORY OF MONT ALTO FOREST TREE NURSERY

November 1, 1907

SPECIES

AGE
( Years )

NUMBER
OF TREES

White ash 1

Common locust ... 1

Catalpa (cigar tree) 1

Persimmon 1

Chestnut oak 1

Shag-bark hickory 1

Pignut hickory 1

Jjlack walnut 1

Tulip tree 1

European larch 1

White pine .... 1

White pine 2

White pine (Transplants)

Scotch pine 1

Western yellow pine . 1

Norway spruce 2

Xorway spruce 3

I>alsam fir 1

23,198

1,300

2,450

6,000

369

635

2,950

2,567

500

53,600

688,000

180,000

9,000

50,000

500

90,000

73

80,000

Total number of trees in nursery 1,200,142

Total

number of trees in nursery 191,085

52

53

TABLE V

TABLE IV

INVENTORY OF MONT ALTO FOREST TREE NURSERY

1913

SPECIES

AGE

(Ycarx)

Hardwoods .suitH})lo for ])laiitin«»' in 1914

J^laek walnut 1

White oak 1

Black walnut (1-1)

Sycamore 2

Conifers suital)le for planting in 1914:

European larch
Scotch pine . .
Norway spruce
White pine . . . .
Dou<»:la.s fir . . .
White pine ...

2
2

(1-2)
(1-2)

2

2

XTMIiKIt
OF TREES

ir),()()o

:],{){){)

;ir)()()

2,()()0

2,0()()

2.000

10.000

1,000.000

Seedlinji-s and transplants suitable for planting; after 1914:

Norway s])ruce
Norway spruce
White i)ine . . .
White pine . . .
White ])ine ...
European larch

1

(1-1)
1
2

(1-1)
1

250.000

4,000

400,000

100,000

1,000

30,000

Total number of trees in nursery 1,850,500

INVENTORY OF MONT ALTO FOREST TREE NURSERY

September 5, 1922

•'"^~ ~av^:kage

A(iE IIEKJIIT NTMliEIl

SPECIES (Conifers) (YcarK) (Inches) OF TUEES

i<c('<IHii(fs : ^^ ^ ^ ^<... ../v/i

White Dine 1 >' M.' ^ ^\V-m !

White \mw i2 •» to 7 Jh(MH)()

V U. pine 3 7 VSA.iUm

lied pine 1 -■ 7^ w

Shortleaf pin(> 1 - -I;: •

Sh..rtleaf pino 2 <5 ^,2,000

MtH, pine 1 '-^'^ -'-^<»<""»

PiU pine 2 Oy. i»7.00n

.I.rsev pine 1 4 Sr^OOO

.FerseV pine 2 7 KMMK)

S.oteii pine 1 ''^'^ 1-1<^'<""»

Sruleh pine 2 r»i/, 27S.Oon

T.ible nuMintain pine 1 ^ 1(MMKM>

H.inks pine 1 ■* ;)8^..()(M)

.Ia,.nnese red pine 2 S 210 000

.I.-.panese I.laek pine 2 4 to S 20(M

Chinese red pine 1 - :^0.000

Austrian pine 1 ;^ ^'^IM"'^*

Western vellow pine 1 '^ l.i..iOO

N<.rwav .sprnee 1 -^ -^'^^^'^^^^

Xerwav spruce 2 '^Vj ;><.).000

Norway spruce 3 7 0 .0.000

White 'spruce 2 :^ ^C.O.OOO

European larcli 1 -^ l.SO,(M)0

Eurenean larch 2 L". S;i.(MK)

.Japanese lareh 1 ^ 1<«M»00

111 9 IS *>*^00(»

.laiianese larcli * ^'^ ;-- '""'

American arhorvitae 1 - 8!>.200

Tr(in.sjthnit.s :

While pine (3-0) r> 4.000

Norway spruce • (3-0) 8 4..i00

Norway spruce C^jl ) 3M> 4.140

Norway spruce {2-i\-l^) IS ;^,2.)0

Total nund>er of conifers 7,4SS,100

SPECIES (Hardiroods)

White ash 2 30 4.0(K»

Creeii ash 1 !•'> 240.000

Ifock oak 1 7 104000

lied oak 1 'V2 120.000

P.lav k locust 1 30 r,0.00(»

I5!ack walnut 1 IS J(M)0O

•vinerican elm 1 ^ HS.CJOO

< 'liental Sycamore 1 1 22.500

Sn^^•^r maple 1 and 2 12 27.500

P.asket wilhny ((MUtin.iiS) 10 lOO.O(M)

T(»tal number of hardwoods S.SH.IOO

.Total number * of conifers and hanhyoods s :t21 2110

*In addition to the trees listed in the above table, the miscellineous experi-nental

1'ojie.s Riven in TaV)le VI were al.so growing in the Mont Alto Nursery in 1922.

54

:)^^

TABLE VI

MISCELLANEOUS TREES GROWN FOR EXPERIMENTAL
PURPOSES IN THE MONT ALTO FOREST TREE

NURSERY IN 1922

SPECIES (YeaU)

Amorican nut pine 1

liOblolly pine 1

Ilonilock 2

Wt'storn Ifii'cli 1

European silver fir 3

Spanish fir 1

lialsani fir j

Lawson cypi'fss 1

liald cypress 1

(Jinlvjjjo 3

Korean white i»ine (2-2)

Doufjlas fir (3-2-2)

Enj?elniann spruce (2-2)

Colorado hlue spruce (3-3-1)

Cottonwood ( Cuttings)

Scarlet oak j

Pin oak j

White oak j

Floney locust \

( 'alifornia walnut j

Hardy cutalpa j

Japanese catalpa i

Red maple 2

.Japanese scarlef niaph- .... 1

Sycamore maple j

English maple 3

Ash-leaved maple 2

Tulip poplar j

Wild hlack cherry 1

Jai)anese empress tree o

Pecan hickory j

Ritternut hickory 2

White mulberry n

Basswood ..

Kentucky coffee tree 2

Ohio buckeye ^

Chinese varnish tree 1

Sycamore «

Chile beech -

Hed-bud .i^ !!!!..! 2

Spanish or southern red oak 2

I'ersinunon

AVERAGE
HEKillT

(Inches)

RESULTS

AND
PROSPECTS

2 Unsuitable
6 Not entirely hardy
4 Excellent
1 V2 Unsuitable
•^Mj Injured by heat
IV2 Slow in growth
Vn Slow in growth

2 Not winter hardy
ir» Not entirely hardy
18 TTnpromising

31/2 Unsuitable
12 Injured by spring frost

3 T'nsuitable

0 Very slow grower
— Requires good soil
7 Very good

7 Good

5 Excellent

J» Injured by game
18 Unsuitable
18 Requires good soil
15 Unpromising
18 I'npromising

4 Unsuitable
10 Promising

8 Unsuitable
36 Good

5 Excellent

7 Good

24 Unsuitable

6 Unpromising
6 Unimportant

6 Requires good soil

10 Requires good soil

24 Requires good soil

8 Unimportant
8 Unpromising

48 Requires good soil

12 Not hardy

24 T'nimportant

6 T'^npromising

12 T^n important

TABLE VII

INVENTORY OF MONT ALTO FOREST TREE NURSERY

September 13, 1928

Sl'ECIES

AGE

(Years)

AVERAGE
HEIGHT
(Inches)

NUMBER
OF TREES

Trees Large Enough for Shipment:

White pine 4

White pine 3

lied pine 3

Scotch pine 3

Scotch pine 2

Banks pine 2

Austrian pine 2

Japanese red pine 2

Corsican pine 2

Norway spruce 3

Japanese larch 3

Japanese larch 2

Red pine (2-2)

White cedar 3

White ash 2

Black walnut 1

English white oak 2

Tulip poplar 2

Red oak 1

10

8

S

10

7

t

8
8

10
7
24
14
14
18
10

30,000

170,000

575,000

300,000

170,000

30,000

15,000

27,000

6,000

250,000

90,000

60,000

4,000

3,000

100,000

2,400

400

18,000

500

Total number of trees large enough for shipment 1,851,300

Trees Too Small for Shipment:

Wliite pine 2

White pine 1

Norway spruce 2

Norway spruce 1

Red pine 2

Kcd pine 1

Scotch pine 1

Western cedar 1

Japanese larch —

Pitch pine 1

Shortleaf pine 1

31/2 590,000

11/4 1,000,000

4

1

21/2
1

11/2
1

2

o

70,000

650,000

320,000

1,900,000

325,000

15,000

30,000

500,000

100,000

Total number of trees too small for shipment 5,500,000

Total inventory 7,351,300

56

57

THE DEER PROBLEM

IN THE

FORESTS OF PENNSYLVANIA

By

Henry E. Clepper

Bulletin 50

CX>MMONWEALTH OF PENNSYLVANIA
DEPARTMENT OF FORESTS AND WATERS

LEWIS E. STALEY, SzcretaY'^

Harrisburg

1931

STATE FOREST COMMISSION

Lewis E. Staley, Chairman

Edward Bailey

Mary Flinn Lawrence (Mrs. John W.)

N. P. Wheeler, Jr.

A. J. Odenwelder, Jr.

ORGANIZATION OF DEPARTMENT OF FORESTS AND WATERS

Lewis E. Staley, Secretary

John W. Keller, Deputy Secretary

George H. Wirt, Chief, Bureau of Forest Protection

Alfred E. Rupp, Chief, Bureau of Forest Management

Charles R. Meek, Chief, Bureau of Forest Extension

R. Lynn Emerick, Chief, Bureau of Forest Research and Informal

Jacob M. Hoffman, Chief, Bureau of Forest Parks

W.Erdmann Montqomeily, Chief, Bureau of Accounts and Madntenaut

Willis M. Baker, Director, Forest Research Institute

Charles E. Ryder, Chief Engineer, Water and Power Resources Board

/

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VIMO«IA

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ae

5Q

i-"*

THE DEER PROBLEM

IN THE

FORESTS OF PENNSYLVANIA

By

Henry E. Clepper

b 3

Bulletin 50

COMMONWEALTH OF PENNSYLVANIA
DEPARTMENT OF FORESTS AND WATERS

LcNvis E. Staley, Secretary

Harrisburg

1931

TABLE OF CONTEXTS

History of The Deer Problem in Pennsylvania 5

The Deer Situation in The Forests of Central Pennsylvania 0

The Deer Situation in Other Sections of Pennsylvania 11

Special Studies of Deer Damage to Natural Reproduction 13

Centre County 13

Clinton Countv 13

Sullivan Countv 14

Permanent Deer Damage Study Plots in Plantations and Natural

Reproduction 16

Cumberland County 16

Clearfield County 19

Pike County 19

Huntingdon County 20

Potter County 20

Clarion County 20

Comments on The Feeding Habits of Deer 21

Food of Deer 22

Special Studies of Food Supplies on Burned Areas 25

Deer Carrying Capacity of Forested Areas 28

The Deer Population in Pennsylvania 32

Forest Management and Game Management 33

Reforestation Avith Deer Proof Fences 34

Cameron Countv . 36

Elk County 36

Clinton County 37

Clearfield Countv 37

Construction and Cost of Deer Proof Fences 3S

Reforestation Without the Use of Deer Proof Fences 40

Suggestions for Improving the Deer Situation in Pennsvlvania

Forestf> ' 41

The Deer Range 41

The Deer Herd 42

Si)ecial Open Seasons 42

Better Distribution of Deer 43

Bibliography 45

THE DEER PROBLEM
IN THE FORESTS OF PENNSYLVANIA

By HENRY E. CLEPPER

Dr. Joseph T. Rothrock, commonly known as the Father of Penn-
sylvania Forestry, recommended more than thirty yeai-s ago that the
Commonwealth purchase forest land not only for the production of
wood, but also to control floods, to make available to the public
health-giving environment, and to assure outdoor recreation to all
citizens of the Commonwealth. The State Forests of Pennsylvania
on January 1, 1931, contained 1,558,167 acres. The State Game lands
total 211,586 acres.

Pennsylvania has always been known as a heavily forested state
abounding in wild life. Before the coming of the white man its
woods were the natural habitat of game animals, such as deer, elk,
bison, bear, and moose, and predatory animals, such as the wolf,
panther, wild cat, and Canada lynx. Although food supplies were
plentiful, the game animals mentioned never became overabundant be-
cause the predatory species kept them killed off. The moose began to
disappear about the time the earliest travellers visited northern Penn-
sylvania. Extensive and rapid settling contributed greatly to the
further reduction of game animals until, about the middle of the past
century, the big game species were definitely headed toward extinction.
Elk and bison had disappeared.

During the period between the time of the Civil War and the be-
ginning of the present century deer also began to decrease in numbers.
Forty years ago deer had become so scarce in Pennsylvania that it
was an extremely rare occurrence for one to be seen in its native en-
vironment (13). Several causes contributed to the partial extermina-
tion of the deer; probably the greatest contributing factors were lack
of hunting restrictions, excessive forest exploitation, and destructive
forest fires.

HISTORY OF THE DKER PROBLEM IN PENNSYLVANIA

The Pennsylvania Board of Game Commissioners was appointed in
1896. The following year the use of hounds in deer hunting was for-
bidden and later market hunting was prohibited. The first game
lefuge law of Pennsylvania, passed in 1905, provided sanctuaries where
deer could propogate and thrive without molestation, which practically
insured that the deer would never again approach extermination, at
least from the causes previously mentioned. The so-called ''buck law"

was enacted in 1907, and subsequent acts contril)uted enormously to
insure an increase of the deer herd.

For more than twenty years a primary interest of those agencies
engaged in game conservation in Pennsylvania was directed toward an
increase in the buck population. The female deer, which naturally in-
creased in population as the bucks increased, began at least fiftecji
years ago to multiply in great numbers. Thus, it followed that the
next problem in the management of the deer in Pennsylvania became
one of how to control the deer herd rather than how to increase it.

It was not until about fifteen years ago that the State Forests became
widely popular for hunting. The rapidly mounting mileage of hard
surfaced highways in Pennsylvania and the increasing use of the auto-
mobile made the forests of Pennsylvania accessible for hunting to thou-
sands who ordinarily had not previously enjoyed them. This groMJng
army of hunters, many of w^hom were desirous of shooting big game,
naturally led a justifiable demand for an adequate supply of deer.

About 1915 a few complaints were made by orchardists and farmers
that their crops, and therefore their livelihood, were suffering as a
result of an overabundance of deer. Injury to agricultural crops in-
creased though sul)sequent legislation and administrative regulations
attempted to reduce the damage. Then beginning about 1922, various
foresters in Pennsylvania began to observe in many places, especially
in State Forests where the deer i)()pulation was large, that the forest
vegetation, both of native and artificial establishment, was suffering
also. Forest tree plantations in Franklin, Union, Centre, Huntingdon,
Clinton, Elk, Clearfield, and Pike Counties were not only being
damaged, but were being destroyed, by deer. Many plantations tluit
had failed owing to deer damage and destruction were replanted. Tlie
browsing of the deer, however, continued and after several a-lditicnuil
unsuccessful attempts to establish forest tree plantations where large
deer herds were present, it w^as found that the danuige had attained sucli
])roportions that it was no longer practicable to plant trees in these
locations. Tu fortunately, deer damage within the State Forests was
extensive on some of the large, severely burned areas that could not be
depended upon to re|)r()duce naturally with satisfactory growths of
timber.

Investigations made in the winter of 1925-26 for the Board of Game
Commissi(mers by Forester James N. Morton in Franklin, Cumberland,
and Huntingdcm Counties disclosed the fact that there the forests were
overstocked with deer. Damage to natural and artificial fore.^t regenera-
tion was noted as well as the fact that the laurel and rhododendron,
which are not considered good food species for deer, were ])ractically
destroyed in many places. Thus at least five years ago the Peinisylvania
Department of Forests and Waters and the Board of dame Connnis-

6

FiGUKE 1. Waste Lands Kept Unproductive hy Deer liroirKimj. Larffe Areas
That Cannot lie Depended Upon to Reproduce Xaturalhf With Satisfactorp
Growths of Timher Are Kept Unproductive Because the Deer Prohibit Re-
forestation.

I'lGURE 2. Excessire Croppiiu; of Planted Larch Trees. This Species Fre-
<liientftf Is Dainaij(d hit Deer liroirsinfi to the Extent of 77% of the S umltcr

of Trees Planted.

WHS oiifjctcd ill 1907. iiiid sub.s(M(U('Mt acts c-oiitriluited ciKinnously to
jiisui'c ill! iiu-rcasc of the door herd.

For iiioiM' tluiii twenty years a ])riiiiary interest of those ajieiieics
eniiaii'ed in yaine conservation in l*ennsvlvania was directed toward an
increase in tlic buck |)opidati()ii. Tlie female deer, wliicii naturally in
ciM'ased in j)0|)uUiti()n a^s the bucks increased, be«iaii at h'ast fifteen
years aj^o to iniiltij)ly in ^reat iiumbers. Tlius. it followed that the
next problem in tlie mana<'i'ment of the deer in Pennsylvania became
one of how to control the deer herd rather than how to increase it.

It was not until about fifteen years a^'o that the State For<'sts became
widely popiilai' foj' huntinji'. The rai)idly inountin«i- milea<»'e of jiaid
sui'faced hi«iliways in J*ennsylvaiiia and tlie iiicreasin<»' use of the au1o-
mobile made the forests of Pennsylvania accessible for huiitin«i- to thou-
sands wli(> ordinarilv liad not ])revioiislv eiiioved them. This «:ro\\iiiL'
army of hunters, many o[' whom were desirous of shooting' bi^ <2ame,
naturally led a justifiable demand for an adequate sui)ply of de<'r.

Aliout ]9ir) a few complaints w<M'e made by orchardists and farmeis
that, their crops, and therefore tlu'ir livelihood, were sutiferin«i as a
result, of an ovei'abundance of deer. Injury to a«»ricultural crops in-
creased thoujih sul).se(pient le<iislation and administrative re«iulatioiis
att<'mpted to reduce the damajic Then bejiinuin«i* about 1!)2'J. various
foresters in i*ennsylvauia bejian to observe in many places, es|)ecially
ill State Forests where the deer population was lar^-e. that the foi-esi
ve«!('tation, both of native and artificial establi.shment, was suffi'iiiiLr
jilso. Foi'cst tree plantations in Franklin, Union, Centre, IIuntin<»'d(»it,
Clinton. Klk. (Mearfield, and Pike Counties wer<' not oiilv beiiej
dama«i('(l. but. were bein^' destroyed, by dorv. Many jilantatioiis that
had failed owin^- to deer damanc and destruclion were replanted. Tlie
l)ro\vsini»- of the deer, however, continued and after sex'ei'al a-lditional
unsuccessful attempts to establish forest tree ])laiitatioiis wher<' larjic
dvcv herds wei-e pn'sent, it was found that the damajic had attained such
proportions that it was no lon<i(M* practicable to plant trees in the>e
l(»cations. rnfortunately. deei- dama^^c within the State Koi-ests was
extensive on some of the larji'e, s<'verely burned areas that could not b-
depended up(Hi to reproduce uaturallv with salisfactor\- urowths of
timber,

Tn vest i«>at ions made in the winter of ID'i.l-'if) for the P>oard of (Jame
Commissioners by Korester .lames X. Moit(»n in Franklin. CumixM-laiul.
and Tluntin^'don Counti<'s disclosed tin' fact that there the f(»i'ests wer-
overstocked with deer. Damage to natural and artificial fore.^t re«i-eiiei-a
tion was noted as well as the fact that the laurel and rhododendron
which are not considered jiood food species for dovv. were practicall.\
destroyed in many ])laces. Thus at least five years a<:() the l*enn,sylvania
Department of Forests and AVaters and tin' lioard of (lame Commis

6

I'KiriJK 1. \\asf( hdiuls l\( (ft I ii/tr<t(1t(rHr<' hii /K(r Itruirsinii. Loifft .'Irfv/.v

That (a II not lit ]t(}nii(l(<i I /nm to lO nnnliKw Xatinallji W'itli Sali.sf<i<t(nu

ilnmtlis o/ TiiiilKr Arc Kfiit t iifinKlin-tiir lUcausi thr Ihrr I'ruliiltit lO-

jon s:tatl(ni.

'niiHF L*. Hmssiirr Croitftiii;/ o/ I'taittvil Lairh Tras. This S/Kcha Frc-
U'l'iitlii /.v Ihiiiiinfrtl hii lliir liidirsiiin to thr I'.itiitt of 77% of tin Xuiiitt^r

of Tr<<s riuutnl.

- T

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

Figure 3. Scotch Pines, Less Than Eight Inches in Height (from Root Collar

to Tips), Planted Six Years and Cropped Back Annuallii hg Deer. Deer

Browsing Prohibits the Reforestation of Thouxands of Acres of Idle Land.

si./ners, the two njjoiicios most jiTojitly eoiicornod with the problem, had
()l)tained information, independently ae(inired, that deer damage to
forests was becoming serious.

THK DKKH SITl ATIOX IN THK FOHFLSTS OF ( lOXTRATi

PENNSYLVANIA

What is i)erhaps the most outstanding example of deer damage to
forest tree growth in Pennsjdvania is found in Clearfield County, and

FiGURF. 4. Planted Scotch Pine Severeig Browsed hg Deer. The Remains o/
A Scotch Pine Plantation, Showing the Serere Cropping of the Planted Tree

bg Deer.

FiGTUF r>. .1 Young Scotch Pine Tree, Defoliated and
\earlg Dead as a Result of Deer lirowsing. Fre-
quentlg Entire Plantation.^ (Utrering Hundreds of
Acres Are Complet'hi Destroged.

ill southern Elk and Cameron Counties. Throughout this plateau grew
extensive forests of white ]une and hendock. Following lumbering
"pf'i'ations in this section, which were practically completed by the be-
^* inning of the present century, forest fires burned through the in-
tlainmable slashings and destroyed all valuabh' tree growth.

There are iu)w many areas which have been unlouched by fire for
t^venty, twenty-five, and thirty years, and in the conrse ol" natnre these

FujiKK .'i. Srofrh Pinr.s, Lcs.s Than Eiffht Inches in llc'ujht (front I*oot VnlUtr

tit 'I'ips). Phintrfl ,<i.r )>ars iu>i1 ('ro/t/n^I limk Annuallii hii Ihrr. Jhi-r

jirnirxinif I'roli ihif.s Ihr h'rforf.siafiitn of Thonstindx of \<'r< x (tf Itllr Land.

FiGiKK 4. rinntrd Sfutfch l*inr Sirrcnhi llroirsrd h\i Ihrr. The Remains o
A Seohh I'ine I'la ntation . Shon-intj (he .sf/r/v Cntftftin;/ of tin- I'lanteil Tver

bif Deer.

-. tici's, IIm' \\\n ;i;.!('iici('s iiiosl <:i-(';il ly (MniccnuMl willi the |)i'()l)l(Mn. Ii;i(l
(!i,';iin('(l iiironnnlioii, iiidcpciKlciil ly jKMinii'cd. Ilwil dcci" (liiiiui^c to
I'iiiTsts was bo('Oiiiin«i' soi'ious.

THK i)i:i:i: sirr \tio\ in Tiih: foiiksts of ( fntiial

im:nnsvi.\ \M A

W'liJit. is pcrlirips file most oiitstMiidiii^' ('x;iiiipl<' of dcci' d;mi;i,ir(' to
!'i.icst Ircc <:i'o\vtli ill l*('misvlv;nii;i is round in Clcarlicld Coiinlw and

I'KHl.K Ti. .1 ) <ntn<i Scftlrh I'inr Ttui. Ih foliah <l (in<!
\<iirhi /hiid //.s a I'fsiill oj Ihrr llrtnrsinf/. J'n -
'/ii' iitlu h'lifii-f /'lantat ions Corrrinff llnndiuds of
AcK.s .t/T ('onii)lrf III Deslronrd .

i" soiitlicni l^lk and ('aiiicron (Ntunli

»'s. Tlii-on^lioiil this plateau urc

w

' Al^'iisivc I'orcst.s ol' wliitc pine and licinlock. Follow inu' hiinlx'rini:
"(•''nitions in this scclion. which wci-c practically completed hy the l)e-
; mniiio" ol* flic |)reseiit century, forest tires huriK'd through the in-
f'-Hiiiiuiblc slashings and (h'.stroyed all valuahle tree j^rowth.

'riicre are now many ai"<'as which lia\c Iiecn untouched Ik lire for
''\<'iity, Iweiity-live. and thiitv \-ears. and in the coui-se oj' nature these

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

areas slionld contain at least partially stocked second <2:rowth forest.
Much of this land, however, can be described as a barren, for no timber
crop has become established with the excei)tion of the so-called weed
species, fire cherry and as{)en. Areas in the State Forest, Avhich ev<'ii
as late as fifteen years apfo contained a «»round cover of jjfrass, weeds
briars, and scrnb «»rowth, are now devoid of this tyi)e of ve<>etati()ii.

District Forester AVilliam F. Dajine, Clearfield, Pa., has observed
areas which even ten years ajio had an almost impenetrable brnsh cover.
Dnrinp: the past decade this o:r()wth has been so heavily browsed by
deer that it may be said there is practically no nnder«>Towth whatever.
Althonj^h the soil is deep and moist, of a sand}' loam texture and hi^ddy

FiGiKF (i. Oak Spr(nits Si rcrrhf Iftntiif/rd Inf Ihrr Hnnrxinf/. A Stud if Plot

Laid Out iu this Clrar-ctit Area IfrrraicfJ tlir Fart that »/% of the Sprout

(iroirth Has lirrn Scrrrrlu liruasnt hif fhcr and '//'/r Has lirrn Sliyhtln

Katrn. liriish Vattri/, Miles Toirnship. f'rufrc Countij.

satisfactory for jrrowinj? trees, it is District P'orester Dajjue's opinion
that the natural reforestation of this rejjion will recjuire one hundred
years if present conditions persist.

It has been estimated that there are 1 .■),(){)() acres in the State Forest
in Clearfield County that under present conditions would have to bo
planted to restore an adequate j?rowth of timber (8). At least ten
and probably twelve million trees would be recpiired. Under the con-
ditions obtaininp: in Clearfield County at the present time, and in view
of the fact that the present size of the deer herd prohibits a successful
establishment of these plantations, it is apparent that this reforestati(tn

10

project must be abandoned unless satisfactory solutions can be found
either to reduce the deer population or to protect the planted trees.
Plantations established during the last seven years in this locality have
been entirely destroyed by deer.

For example, in 1924, 1925, and 1926, a total of 197,000 forest trees
uas planted in Lawrence Township, Clearfield County, in the State
Forest. The species were red pine, shortleaf pine. Banks pine, pitch
pine, Scotch pine, Japanese larch, and European larch. Careful in-
spection of many of the smallest trees indicated that their terminal
branches had been nipped by deer even before the new growth had
started. Practically all trees growing in open spaces were severely
browsed or killed. Those planted among briars and other debris were
browsed least, but these constituted such a small proportion of the
total as to be negligible. The trees have suffered so .severely from year
to year and their numbers have so decreased that the entire plantation
is a failure.

THE DEER SITUATION I\ OTHER SE( TIOXS OF PEXXSYLVAXIA

Lest it be supposed that deer damage is excessive only in a few limited
regions of central Pennsylvania, the scope of the problem may be better
understood if a few additional specific instances of large scale damage
to forest trees are briefly cited.

In the ^lont Alto State Forest in Qnincy Township, Franklin
County, a total of 29,700 trees was i)lanted in Brandon Hollow in 1925.
The species used were shortleaf pine, tulip* poi)!ar, Norway spruce,
white pine, and larch. Deer browsing on these trees averaged from
()0 per cent on the white pines to 75 per cent on the larches and 80 per
cent on the shortleaf pines. The entire plantation may be considered
a failure with the exception of the white i)ines, at least half of which
may come through.

Li the Bald Eagb^ State Poorest in .Miles Township, Centre County,
82,500 trees were ])lanted in 1918. The following species were used:
white pine, Scotch pine, pitch pine, and Norway spruce. Nearly 80
per cent of the trees have been browsed by deer; their average height
when examined was only three feet, whereas they should be at least
twelve feet tall at the present time. Another plantation of ten acres
established in the spring of 1927 near this site was found upon ex-
amination to have 75 per cent of tlu* trees with tops nipped off.

In the Delaware State Forest in Porter Township, Pike County, a
I'lantaticm of 00,000 white pines, established in 1919, has been totally
•exterminated by the deer. Other reforestation projects, both of seeding
and planting origin, have failed because of excessive deer cropping and
rubbing of the trees (9).

11

In East Keatiiiy Township, Clinton County, an area, which had
been lumbered and then severely bui'ned by repeated fires, was plant <(!
in 1928 with 150,000 white pines, i-ed pines, pitch pines, and Xorw.iy
spruces. The tr<'es were small and many no doubt died, but most wci-ii
eaten sevei-ely by deei-. Today practically all the trees liave Ixmmi
eaten and killed.

Similarly in the southern i)art of Cameron County and the soulli-
ea.stern part of Elk County, west of the Suscjuehanna River, tlu'ic
are approximately (),000 aci'es that must be planted to obtain full forest

FuJUKK 7. i)<ik Spnmls Lif/litlu Daiiiat/cd Inj liar lirotrsinfj. An Area W'ifli
Xiitiinil ll<nil>nnt,f SpfiHifs nnil I'hnitcf} White I'inc, F<tH(nrin(/ CUar-cnttiHij.
'ihv UnnhrtKKU lltin lia n lintir.srd Morr Scnrclji Than flic White I'imx.
hut \ Satisfoctorif droirfh Should Uesult I'mridiiit/ Deer Broirsliif/ Jircomrx
\u Ilrarirr. Adjoiiiiiif/ Statt (,'iniic Ifrfu(/c I, .\(hics Township, Clinton Countn.

cover (8). However, the deer have browsed planted trees in this section
so heavily during- the past ten years that it is reasonable to expect thnt
a reforestation project here would be a failure.

In other State Forests and in privately owned land in central and
north-central Pennsylvania there are numy thousands of acres that
should be reforested if this sub-margiiml land is to be put to its hij?hest
possible use, which is growinj,^ timber. Much of this land consists oi'
abandoned farms and areas wliere forest fires have prevented satis-
factory natural stands. In the course of time areas that have been
burned, no matter how severely, may rei)roduce naturally to some form

12

of forest cover, but under present conditions there is no assurance that
tliese burned areas will regenerate themselves, in a.s much as the natural
sprout growth is eaten back annually by the deer.

SPKCIAL STIDIKS OF DKFil DAM ACiE TO XATl UAL HKPRODK'TIOX

It is not sufificient in any study of game nmnagement in relation to
forested areas merely to say that damage is being done. Throughout
widely scattered areas in Pennsylvania careful examinations were made
of areas of natural growth in an attempt to determine the present and
po.ssible future danuige by deer.

Cejitre County. In the Bald Eagle State Forest District, in Brush
Valley, Miles Township, along State Highway Route Xo. !);"), is an
area burned by a forest fire in Sei)tember, IDlM). Following the fire
the trees were hunbered off in the winter of 192!)-ll):i(), wliieli resulted
ill practically a clear cutting. In the spring of 19:}0 sprout clumps be-
gan to appear. A study plot laid out in this area in September, VX]0
revealed the condition as shown in Table 1.

Tahik 1.

Kuinbor of Tioes I'er Acre

Condition

Whiti' Scarlet lici 1 Kt'tl

<>"lv" Oak Maple \ Oalc Oak

Hadly browsod

SiiMJitly ijroust'd ...
Not browsed

'I'otal .

48

SO

112
l(i

Hid

1-28

:'.'»

Serult

Per

Cent

(»ak

Total

of

Total

80

544

51

25G

4;i2

41

48

80

8

;{8i

1 ,tm

100

Table I shows that of a total of 1056 .sprout clumps per acre ap-
proximately half were severely eaten and about 40 per cent were slightly
eaten. JVIany of those sprouts not touched or only slightly eaten were
wholly or partially covered by windrows or brush. Th(> number not
eaten at all, when it is considered half of these are sei'ub oak, may be
•'iitirely insufficient to establish naturally a new forest on this area.
Observations over a period of several years will be necessary to de-
termine this fact.

(Tmton County. In the Sproul State Forest District on the border
of Noyes Township and Beech Creek Township, along the Snow Shoe-
Henova road, is an area adjoining State Came Refuge 1, which was
planted with white pine and later the overtoi)ping hardwood growth
was clear cut. The white pine trees have an average height of four
i^-et. A dense hardwood sprout growth has come up with the planted

18

white pine trees. A study plot laid out in this area in September, 1930,
revealed the condition as shown in Table 2.

An examination of Tabk^ 2 shows that the planted white pines have
suffered considerably less from browsinj^- than the associated hardwoods.
Ordinarily the white pines would suiter from browsing nearly as much
as the hardwood sprouts, but in this case they have suffered less because
tlie liardwoods liave provided an abundance of tender, succulent food
more to be desired than the conifers. Contrasting Table No. 1 with
Table No. 2, we find that there' are three times as many sprout clum|)s
and seedlings in the latter. On this basis it may be estimated that,
providing browsing becomes no heavier, there will be sufficient planted
and natural growth of good species to provide a satisfactory new growtii.

Tablf.

2^

Nundier

of 'i're»!S Per

Acre

Condition

White
Pine

White
Oak

Scarlet i
Oak

Ked
Maple

Chestnut

Badly browsed -

Sliirhtlv hrow«»'d

118
141

7S>!»

1 ,C58

2MI

47

142
70

47

188
2:!

6:i5
94

Not hrowsed -- ---

2;'.

Total

G59

212

258

752

Condition

—

Niuidier

of 'I'rees Per

Aero

Sassafras

Koek
Oak

Send)
Oak

Total

Per Cent
of Total

Hadiv browsed ..

47
47

47

47

lfi4

70

1.2i»r.

1.057

{i«2

:',,;!14

:;'j

Sliifhtly browsed .._

:!2

Not browsed

2!>

Total

47

2S1

100

Sullivan County. In the Wyoming Forest District, along State Higli-
way Route 115, in Shrewsbury Township, is an area, formerly contain-
ing a stand of beech, birch, and maple, which had been clear cut. Tlie
sprouts on the area are now one and two years old. A study plot was
laid out in October, 1930, and revealed the condition as shown iti
Table 3.

Table No. 3 indicates that deer browsing mav take some toll of forest
growth without doing damage serious enough to check or jeopard i/o
normal, natural restocking of cut-over lands. The table illustrates a
situation common to the localitj-, namely, that although deer are
numerous they are not sufficiently abundant to lack food, and con.se-

14

(piently damage to the natural reproduction of beech, birch, and, maple,
and associated species is apparently less than in other forest types.

These three study plots indicate how the situation varies from
I)lace to place. Tables such a.s these could be extended indefinitely,
although for the purpose of this discussion it is perhaps sufficient to
include only these three. Many such plots are being laid out from
time to time in Pennsylvania forests in an effort to learn the seasonal
feeding habits of deer in various forest types under div(u-se conditions
of forest management.

Table 3.

Condition

Kunil)or of Trees Per Acre

Sugar
Ma|)le

Yellow
liiroh

Fire
Cherry

Madly browsed .
Slightly browsed
Not browsed

Total

48

16

fi4

1!)2

.12

12R

ItiO

4S

288

400

96

480

Black
Wild
Cherry Beech

16

4.'J2

4.S2

16

Number of Trees Per Acre

Condition

Rod
Map'e

Aspen Chestnut Total

Radly browsed

Sliehtly browsed ._"

Not browsed " j

Total

•''2
80

16

64

240

48

112

.n2o

48

144

464

1,206

1.004

Per Cent
of Total

8
24
68

10O

In the foregoing tables we have confined our investigations to dam-
age to regeneration following fire or some form of cutting. Although the
damage done to the understories of forest stands may be, and often is,
serious, still in these cases there is no problem jiresenting itself for
immediate solution as there is when the damage is concerned with re-
I)roduction on burnt or cut-over lands. AVhen forest stands are present,
hut of suffi<dent size to be beyond the reach of the deer, damage done
to undergrowth is obviously of less importance than when no forest
stands are present and planted natural growth must be depended upon
to produce the forests of the future. Tn the latter instance, the amount
of deer damage present becomes of paramount importance not only to
forestry practice, but to the welfare of the deer herd, which once having
exhausted its food supply may have serious difficulties finding
sustenance to carry them throughout the j'ear.

15

PERMANENT DEKR DAMAGE SIIDY PLOTS IN PLANTATIONS AND

NATURAL REI»RODUCTION

Mention was made in Research Circular 3, ''Deer Damage to Forest
Trees in Pennsylvania," a preliminarj^ study by the Pennsylvania Do-
partment of Forests and Waters (7), that twelve study plots wore
established in six State Forests, in Clearfield, Cumberland, Huntingdon,
Pike, Potter, and Clarion Counties. These study areas, .started in tlic
Spring of 1929, were established by the Pennsylvania Department oi"
Forests and Waters and the Pennsylvania Board of Game Commis-
sioners cooperating. Each study area consisted of two one-acre plots.
One acre of each plot was enclosed with a seven and one-half foot deor-
proof fence. The adjoining acre was not fenced. The field work was
supervised by Forester James N. ^Morton of the Board of Game Com-
missioners and Forester Richard M. May of the Department of Forests
and Waters.

Eight of the ten one-acre plots were jilanted with forest tree seed-
lings. The same species and the same manner of planting were fol-
lowed on both the fenced i)lots and on the unfenced. The remaining
two one-acre plots were laid out in natural hardwood growth.

The purpose of the establishment of these plots was to provide the
two cooperating agencies with specific and exact information as to
just how much damage and what kind of damage are done to planted
trees and natural forest growth in widely scattered localities where
deer are present. The fact that each ])lot iiur])osely exposed to un-
iM'stricted deer browsing had an adjacent control or check plot pro-
vided that there would be removed any i)ossibility of other factors
infhiencing final resnlts. The ])h)ts were establislied in the spring of
1029 and when completed were examined (May, 1029) to determine
the percentage of establishment of the trees on both the unfenced
l)l()ts, where browsing would be unrestricted, and on the fenced or
check-plots, where deer could not enter. The next year (lO'^O) after
the deer had been given an opportunity to feed on the planted trees,
especially over the winter, the plots were reexamined to determine
the percentage of trees remaining on the fenced i)lots as contrasted
with the number on the unfenced plots. Thus, it was possible to
obtain a fairly accurate answer to the question: ''How much and how
severely do deer damage planted forest trees?"

Cumhcrhuid County. Two adjoining areas, one fenced, of one acre
each, were laid out in Cook Township on the north side of the Benders-
ville road, one-fourth mile east of Pine Grove Furnace. The plots
are located on an abandoned field now covered with grass and weeds.
The aspect is southerly and the ground level. The sites are classified
as Quality T. The tAvo plots were planted with white pine, Scotch
pine, and Norway spruce in alternate rows.

16

m^%

•^'^t.

,*^-

Fj{u;ue S. '/he Deer Line (Untnmni in l*<nnntilv(iniu FftrcatH. In Sonic JiCfjionM
of Pinnsjilvnnia tnc Dcrr Hart' K.rhanxfcd the Food Suijplif to Snrli an Hvtcnt
That Then- An Ihcr Lines Tluouf/h the Forest Shtnrinn Tliut Tlieif Hare
Ftiten All Ve(/ettitit)n f<tr A H(if/lit of Fire Feet Ahore the dronnd. l*roniised

Land, (ireene 'J'onn.shii), I'ihc County.

.. -v*- -i*

.. :'t

^^1

m

^

.J

A ■
'■1

■«si

• f '
■ c ■

Kri..;

%p^^..

f-ilS^**'

l:'s^i«*N

■fSW^Sir?

Figure i). Hearilji Deer lirowned Area Shoninf/ Complete F.rhaiistion of Food
^nVPUt. A Deer Lick in Foret/ronnd. The Deer Hare Fa fen All Vcyctation
us Hifjh an They Can Reach. Near Lopez, Volley Township, Sullivan County.

"I,

.1'
S-

ri-:i{MAM;M i)i:i;ii i).\m.\<;i: sri dv i'i.ots in i»la\t\ti<)\s ANi>

N Air i:\ii iii:rK<)i)r(Ti()\

IMcntion whs made in Koscarcli Circular J5, ''Dvw Daiiiajrc to Fon-st
Trees in Pennsylvania," a i)i'e1iniiiiai"y study l)y the Pennsylvania Dc-
j)artment of Forests and Waters (7), lliat twelve study ))lots were
('stablished in six State Foi'osts, in Clearfield, ('und)erland. IIuntin<i(i(
IMke, ]*otter, and (Marion Counties. These stiuly areas, .started in 1
Sprinj,' of 1929, wore established l)y the Pennsylvania Department (
Forests and Waters and the Pennsylvania H(>ard of (Jame Comiiii
sionei's cooperating^ Each study ai-ea consisted of two oue-aci"(> j)lo!s.
One acre of each plot wa.s enclosed with a seven and one-half foot deci-
proof fence. The adjoinin«i' acre was not fenced. The field work was
supervised l)y Forester James X. .Morton of the P>oard of (lame Com-
missioners and Forester Kicliai'd >M. May of the I)ei)artment of For('st>
and Waters.

Eijj^ht. of the ten one-aci'e plots were planted with foi-e.st tree* secd-
linirs. The same species and the s;inie niaiuier of jilantin^ wei'e lol-
lowed on both the fenced plots and on the unfenced. The remainiiiL*"
two one-aci-e |)lo1s wei'i; laid out in natural hardwood ui'owth.

The purpose of the estal)lis]inient of these plots was to ])rovide the
two cooperating^' a«»'encies witii .specific and exact iid'oi'inat ion as to
just how inucli (lama<i'e and what kind of damage ai"e done to planttil
trees and natural foi-est «i'rowth in widely scattered localities where
{\rvv are present. The I'act tiiat each |)lot purposely exposed to ini-
iM'stricted deer bi'owsin^' had an adjacent conti'ol or check plot pro-
vided that thei'c would be i'<'moved an\' possibilitv of other factoi's
indiieneinL:- final resnits. 'I'he plots were established in the spring' of
1!)'J!) and when comph-ted wei'e examined (May. 1!)2!h to (h'tei-minc
the |)ercenta;i(' of esta])lishm(Mit of the trees on both the ujd'<'nce(l
plots, wliei'e browsinji' would be nni'cst I'icted. ar.d on the fenced or
check-plots, whei'c deer couhl not enter. The next yeai" (l!):i()) aftei'
the (h'cr had been «iiven an oppoi't unity to \\'Vi\ on the ))laute(l tree>.
especially ovei" the wintei', the plots wei'c i-ci^xamined to determine
the pei'centa«»e of trees remainin*:- on the fenced plots as contrasteil
with the numbei' on the uid'enced plots. Thus, it was |)ossible to
obtaiu a fairly accurate answer to th<' (pie.stiou: '*IIow much and liou
sev<M-ely do (h'cr damage ])lanted foi-est trees?"

CinnhohDHl (\ninfji. Two adjoinin<:- ai-eas, one fenced, of one acre
each, wei-e laid out in Cook Township on the north side of the l»<uuler>-
ville roa<l. one-fourth mile ea.st of ]*ine (Ji-ove Furnace. Tin* plo'>
are located on an abandoned field now covered with ^i-ass and weed >.
The aspect is southerly and the <2i'ound level. The sites are classifn 1
as Quality I. The two plots wei-e planted with white pine. Scotc i
pine, and Norway spruce in altei-nate rows.

16

]

I'KilKK S. 'I lir Ihrr Line ('oniiiioii i:i l'< niisffi ran in /'o/r.s/.s. /// Sonic I'rt/ions
iif I'rnnsjihnnin tn< Ihrr l/<irr i:.ihanst(d flic Fotnl Supplif to Such <in llilcnl
'I'liiit Then l/f hccr Lhu.s 'I'hruitqh the /'o/t.s-/ Shinrinn That 'I'hrif IJorc
I'lihn All \ 1 ffcfiitiiin for A /{(ii/lil of I'irc I'crf AJnnc tin (iroiinil. /'roniiscd

Ijiml. (,'rccnc 'I'onnshiiK I'ihu Count ji.

iiii i{i; 1). Ihitrilji lh<r Itroirstil Ann Shonini/ ('onii)lctc l!.rliiin.stion of hoinl
■^ii/>ltfH. A Ihcr LicI: in I'orcifroiinfl. The hccr linn i:<il(n All Viytlnlion
"V ///.'/// u.s Thcij Can h'ciich. \car Loin z, Collcu Toinishiit, Snllirau Conntij.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

**>

'^^h^Ssk

■"v*

•

""■"^

"*^

^^

7*

f^MH^^^ftj^^k

.V-

-4^^

'***-^

^^

/!^_^M

;j=^

^W

W^F'-- .^ ^f

^

^

7^

5?

7

w >li ^
.2 5^ 5; ,^.

-^ i. v..

^ i ^ i.
> -S ^ »^

== ^ ^ > s

•:< t ~

Species

Table 4.

Per Cent of Living Trees

Fenced Area

Un fenced Area

Approximate
Per Cent
of Loss
by Deer

May :^1. ' Nov. 10.

Nov. 1«, May -21, Nov. I!), May 1«5, 1
11': !0 1021) 1J)29 H.«0 |

White Pine ---
Scotch Pine ..-
Norway Kprucc

100.
10«»
100

88
92
94

KO

ino

100
100

SI
9»

45
55
•24

Table 4, showinj? the conditions of the plantation on several exami-
nations, indicates that the deer damajre has ranjred from one-third
of the total number of trees for white x^iii<? «iid Scotch pine to one-
half for Norway spruce. In brief, any forest tree plantation estab-
lished here would probably prove a failure.

Clearfield County. Two adjoininjr areas, one fenced, of one acre
each, were laid out on the west side of the Clearfield-Penfield road,
in Pine ToAvnship, one-fourth mile north of the Clearfield State Forest
Tree Nursery. The area is in open brush land and prior to plantinjr
was cleared of all brush and debris. The species planted were red
pine transplants, Japanese larch, Scotch pine, and white spruce in
mixture. When examined on May 22, 1929, tlie establishment was 95
per cent on the fenced acre and 97 per cent on the unfenced acre.
When reexamined April 80, 1980, the trees on the fenced acre had
been damag:ed to the extent of 10 per cent by frost and wijiter-kill.
On the unfenced acre 90 per cent of the trees were dead or missinjr,
apparently as a result of deer damajre. The remaininj; 10 |)er cent,
])rincipally Japanese larch, had been nipped by deer but showed
sijrns of life. In addition to the planted trees the native sprout jrrowth
of maple, chestnut, and other hardwoods on, and adjoininjz, the area
showed considerable deer damajre. Reforestation is hopeless in this
locality under present conditions.

Pihe County. Two adjoininjjr areas, one fenced, were laid out ni
Porter Township on the Whittaker Place, on an abandoned field
covered with prrass and weeds. Red pine, Japanese larch, white pine,
Xorway spruce, Scotch pine, and white spruce were planted.

The establishment on the fenced ])lot at the time of examination.
May 23, 1929, was 77 per cent and on the unfenced plot 7G per cent.
Not all of the larch survived shipment owinpr to the lateness of their
1 if tin J? from the nursery. When examined July 10, 1980, the fenced
plot had 76 per cent of the trees livinj?. On the unfenced plot careful
examination revealed only 41 livinpf trees, or 6 per cent, and these

19

.1 _l

.-^ 2!i>

< r ^

■:i ■/.

Tahi.k 4.

IVr O'lit of
I'ciiccd Area

Living Tn'os

SpprifiS

111 fenced .Xrca

.\pliro\iinatP
IVr Out
of l,oss
Hy Deer

May L'1.

Nov. I'l. j Nov. Hi,

Ma.v il. Nov. IM. May IC,

Whitr V'mc

Scotch Pino

NorwH.v Sprncr

1()0
Uio
1(10

ss so

f»4 >>!

KKI O.'t 5r»
Hid f):! 24

; 1.")

.'U
.")T

Tnblo 4, sliowin«jr tlio conditions of the |)lHntation on several <'xanii-
nations. indicatos tliat tlic door dania'i'o lias i-aii'iod from ono-third
of tlio total nuinbor of troos for wliito ])ino and Scotch pino to ono-
lialf for Norway spnico. In brief, any forest troo plantation o>tab-
lishod hoH' would j)robably prove a faihiro.

flrarfirlfl (Un()\i]i. Two adjoinin«r ai'oas. ono foncod. of ono aero
each, wore laid out on the wost side of tlio (MoartioI(l-Ponti<'ld i-oad,
ill Pino Townsliip, ono-fonrtli niilo nortli of the (Moarfiold State Forest
Troo Nursery. The area is in open bi-nsh land and |)rior to plantin<r
was cloan'd of all brush and debris. The species |)lantod wore rod
pine transplants. .lapaneso larch. Scotch |)ino, and white spiMico in
mixture. AVhon examined on ^Nlav 22. 1!)2!). the ostablishniont was !).")
per cent on the fenced acre and 97 p<'r cent on the unfoncod acr(\
\Vh<Mi reoxainined April :)(). lli:{(). the troos on the fenced acr(» had
Ih'oii damajrod to the extent of 10 per cent by frost and winter-kill.
On the unfoncod aero 00 per cent of the troos wore (loa<l or inissin<r.
j.pparontly as a result of door dania^-o. The i"oniainin«»' 10 per cent,
principally pTapano.se larch, had boon ni|)pod by doer but showed
siyns of life. Tn addition to tlio plant(Hl troos the native sprout growth
of maple, chestnut, and other hardwoods on. and ad.ioinin^^ the area
showed considerable door damajre. l\ofor<*station is hopeless in this
locality under i)rosont conditions.

Pike Co\n\t]i. Two adjoining*" areas, one fenced, wore laid out 'u
Porter Townshij) on the AVhittaker Plac<', on an al)andono<l field
t'f)vored with «»'ras,s and woods. IJod pino. .la|>anose lai'cli. white |)ine.
Xorway spruce, Scotch |)ino, and whit<' spruce w<m'o planted.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

had all boon nipped hy deer. Fiirthor reforesation is out of the
question here.

Huntingdon County. Two adjoining areas, one fenced, of one acre
each, were laid out in Lofjan Township on the INIcGuire Farm at the
foot of Round Top Mountain, on an abandoned field covered with
grass and dewberry vines. The following species were planted, mixed
at random: white pine, red pine, Banks pine, Austrian pine, Scotcli
piiK^ Japanese larch, and Norway spruce.

When examined in the latter part of May, 1929, the fenced i)lot
had an establishment of 98 per cent, and the unfenced plot 90 per
cent. Keexamination on May 8, 1930, showed that on the fenced plot
70 per cent of the trees were still living, but on the unfenced plot
practically all the trees were dead or missing as a result of deer
damage. Only a few browsed Jajianese larch and pines were still
present. The deer herd prohibits further reforestation.

Potter County. Two adjoining areas, one fenced, of one acre each,
were laid out on the north slope of Ilockney Hollow in Summit Town-
ship, in a young stand of hardwoods composed of the following species:
sugar maple, black and yellow bii'ch, fire cherry, sumac, beech, hem-
lock, ash, and aspen, with many clumps of mountain laurel. Associated
species are blackberry, i)artridge berry, bracken fern, and lycopodiuiii.
The stand is made up as follows:

Seedlings 4;") per cent Large Saplings . 15 per cent

Small Sa])liiigs . :{() per cent Small Poles 10 per cent

AVhen the i)lot.s were established a few seedlings and blackberry
bushes showed evidence of deer browsino"

AVhen examined May 26, ]9;]0, deer damage was found centered pri-
marily on sugar maple, which showed :?8 per cent of the growth of
this species on the unfeiu'cd ])l()t browsed by deer. Evidence of deer
browsing was also noted on fire cherry, but the other species on the
unfenced acre have been practically untouched. On the cleared strips
around the two plots deer browsing was evident on all species, but
the damage had been slight. Bracken fern and sumac had their tips
nipped.

The condition of the unfenced acre contrasted with the fenced plot
nidicates that the deer here offer no particularly serious problem.

Clanon (bounty. Two adjoining areas, one fenced, of one acre each,
were laid out in a natural stand in Farmington Township, one mile
south-east of the village of (Voavu. The species present are scarlet
oak, scrub oak, large toothed aspen, pitch pine, .sweet fern, and bracken
fern. Forest fire has not burned in this site for many years, and the
scrub oak, consequently, is being crowded out bv the larger, more

20

xaluable species. Evidence of deer cropping may be seen, but no
damage is being done.

This study plot is valuable in that it will provide a record of
conditions in an area where deer are increasing in numbers, but where
deer damage is not yet perceptible. It will furthermoi-e be ])()ssible
to determine, by annual examinations, how many years elapse between
llie period when deer crop tree growth without doing damage and
the period wdien the damage becomes serious.

rOMMKNTS ON THK FEEDING HARTTS OF DEER

The life habits of the deer have been discussed in nuiny books on
natural history, but in as much as the deer in Pennsvlvania have
within recent years apparently undergone imi)ortant changes in order
to adapt themselves to changing conditions it may not be amiss to
describe briefly their feeding habits.

There is no question but that the natural growth in the forests of
Pennsylvania provides an excellent and balanced food diet for di^^v.
Furthermore, Pennsylvania forests are cai)able of supplyijig an ade-
(|uate food supply if the herd remains at an optimum population and
does not increase beyond the capacity of the natural growth to pro-
vide food.

In many sections of Pennsylvania where deer are too abundant they
exhaust their supply of summer food early and are forced to begin
eating their winter food before the normal time, consequently many
of them are unable to firid food at all during the later winter montiis
and many die of starvation, or succumb to undernourishment which
permits access of fatal diseases (li). The scarcity of food in many
places in Pennsylvania has become so acute that the deer aiv forced
to skin off the bark of the sumac, mountain ash, and other species.

AVhereas deer appear naturally to be willing to try out new kinds
of food, on the other hand they are very loath to seek out new feeding
grounds. In other words, a deer herd, which to begin with may be
entirely too large for the available growth in a region adecpiately to
sup))ort it, will remain and live in that region on a starvation diet
I'ather than seek out new^ feeding areas even within a few miles of
their home range. An example of this ccmdition may be found in
the Diamond Valley, Huntingdon County, where the deiu* have con-
gregated in certain regions of an extensive tract of State Forest. Here
Miey have practically exhausted the food supi)ly to such an extent tliat
tltere is a clearly nuirked deer line apjiroximately six feet above the
ground, showing that the deer have eaten all vegetation as high as
they can reach. Adjoining tracts whi(di provide almost identical kinds
and conditions of food have been aj)parently browsed so little that
Hie growth is barely touched.

21

Another phase of the food problem affected by an apparent chanpre
in their life habits is broujrht about when deer jrive birth to fawns
late in the summer. Ordinarily a female deer jrives birth to one or
two off-sprin«: in the early part of May. It has been observed, how-
ever, that when fawn are born late in the summer, as now frequently
happens, the.se younj? are unable to attain adequate <;rowth before the
winter months bejjin. Consequently as food becomes scarce, these
youn^ are amonji^ the first to suffer, and the mortality amon<r them
is apt to be hifjh.

Food of Deer. A ruminant and browsinj^ animal, the deer feeds
entirely upon vegetable matter. The leaves, buds, and tender twin's
of shrubs and trees provide its rejjular diet and the bulk of its food,
especially durinjr the sprinjr, summer, and fall seasons. In the oak-
chestnut forest type, where there are larjre trees, nuts provide jrood
food in the fall. Until the disappearance of the chestnut from Mir
forests of Pennsylvania, as a result of the chestnut blijjht, deer de-
pended on the nuts of this tree for food. The oaks are now the prin-
cipal species providing? deer food in the form of nuts. When other
food is scarce in winter they will eat the leaves and twi<;s of common
mountain laurel and rhododendron, and even bark, which they ordi-
narily apparently dislike. Deer apparently are able to subsist on food
which is poisonous and which has a toxic effect on other animals (4).

An observation made by practically all of the foresters of the Penn-
sylvania Department of Forests and Watei-s, as well as by many others,
is that the deer appear to be inclined to eat any and all kinds of
available vej?etable food and will try anythin": new. This fact has
been proven in hundreds of cases where foreign and exotic species of
trees have been planted in the State Forests of Pennsylvania for ex<
perimental purposes, and have been eaten wholly or in part.

During the course of this study an attempt was made to tabulate
the perennial plants, with particular reference to tree and shrub
growth, which constitute the \m\k of deer food. Food supplies A\ere
examined all over Pennsylvania. Tt will be noted from the following
list that practically all the common trees and shrubs of Pennsylvania
were observed to have been browsed by the deer. Because the }>lant
food of deer is so extremely varied, it is the belief of the author
that practically no woody plants common to Pennsylvania are rejected
as food by deer. However, observations made throughout the State
indicate that a few woody plants are used for food only when others
are not available. Norway spruce and white spruce, for example, are
frequently found only very lightly browsed, probably because the derr
dislike contact with their very stiff, short needles.

AVhile no special investigation of the agricultural crop foods of deer
was contemplated in the course of this study, data regarding this type

of food were obtained through observation and by ((ue.stioning farmers,
orchardists, and game protectors throughout the State. Deer will
eat nearly all kinds of agricultural produce, including both cereal and
garden crops. They seem i)articularly to like buckwheat, oats, and
corn, and will also eat potato and beet tops, and cabbage, bean, pea,
carrot, lettuce, and celery plants. Apples and other fruits are eaten
iis well as the fruit trees. (Jrape and berry vines and their fruits are
also taken.

There follows a tabulated list of the woody plant food of deer. An
attempt has been made to indicate from observation the portion of
the plants browsed, nipped, or cropped. Where an interrogation point
follows the name of a plant it indicates that browsing has been re-
ported but not verified. Browsing has been listed as heavy or light,
depending upon the severity of the damage. The records further show
whether the browsing had been observed on natural growth or on
j)lanted species, or on both. Tn compiling this list the author makes
no claim as to its comprehensiveness, but merely exhibits it to demon-
strate the varied food sources of deer in Pennsylvania.

TviiLE n. WOODY PLANTS BROWSE I) HY DEEU

Species

Uu.ls

i.«av«'s Hianchf'.'- J'ruit

Hark

lirows-

iiiK

Natural
(irowth

Planted

Hanks Pine

Austrian Pine x

C'liiiiese Red Pine - x
IJ...1 111,

Piteh Pine x

Serub Pine x

Short leaf Pine ... x

White Pine x

Aiiieriean l.areh

Kuropean Lareh . x

•lapanese Lareh .. x
Colorado Hlue

Spruce X

Red Spruce x

Norway Spruce ... x

White spruce x

Hemlock X

Douglas Fir ...". x

Halsani Fir x

American Arbor

Vitae X

"riental .Arbor

Vitae X

•Jiant Arbor Vitae x

Hinoki Cedar x

Sawara CVdar . x

White Cedar x

•hiniper x

Red Cedar x

Sassafras x

^l»ice Hush x

Oooseberry _ x

Wild Currant x

X J i^,,t

•^ -^ Heavy

X ijyijt

X Heavy

-^ ^ Heavy

^; -- I.iKht

^ X Heavy

"^ X Heavv

X ]ij,ht

X X Heavy

■^ I X Heavy

LiKht

]jj,ht

X X .... Light

Light

^_ , X X Heavy

X 1 Heavy

Light

-'^ '^ Heavy

^ -- LiKht

Light

LiRht

Light

Liglit

X X Light

X X Liglit

-'* ^ -- X Heavy

- Light

-^ X X Heavy

XXX Heavy

X

X

X

X

X X

X

X

X X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X X
X

X X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

09

23

I

I

Table 5. WOODY PLANTS liKOWSEI) BY DEEK— Continued

SlKTlt'S

Witch Hazel
S.ycaiii«»re --

Tiiorii

Ciiokchi'iry
(.'rah Apple .

Ai.ple

Mountain Asii

Service Herry

l{aspi>eny

Uiackiterry

Sweethrier

Ciiolce Clierrv

Wii.l I5hick Cherry

Locust

Ailantiius

Sumac

Winterberry

Hittersweet

lied Maple

Sugar Maple

Stripped ALiple ..

Willi (irape I

Virginia ('ree|ier ..!.

hasswood

Devil's (Muh !

Dogwood

Ulack (luni

Willows

Large-toothed

Aspcii

(Quaking aspen ..

Sweet Fern

lilack Walnut ..-

Hutternut

Hickories

lilack Hirch

Yellow Jiirch .
tiray llireh _..
Hiver iiirch _.
Canoe Mirch ..
Smooth Alder

American Horn-
beam

American H o p

Uoridteam

Hazlcnut

Meech

Chestnut

l''hin(|uapin

Chinese Chestnut

White Oak

Scrub Chestinit

Oak

Chestnut Oak

Murr Oak
H.«d Oak ..
I'in Oak ._.
Scarlet Oak
HIack Oak .

Scrub Oak
American Kim
Hackbcrry
Mulberry
Osage Orange

Ihids Leaves Hranches I'ruit

y
X

V

X

X
X

X
X
X

X

\

X
X
X

X
X

X
X

X
X
X

X

X

X
X
X
X
X

X

X
X
X
X

X
X

x

X

X
X
X

X
X

X
X
X
X
X

X
X

V
9

•>

Hark

X
X

X
X

\
\

X
X
X

X

X

\

X
X

X
X

X
X

X
X

X
X

X
X
X

X
X

X
X

X

V

X
X

X
X

X

X
X
X

X
X

X
X

X

X

X
X

X

X

X

X

X

x'

X

•i

X
X

X
X

X
X
X
X

24

X
X

X

X
X

Table 5. WOODY PLANTS BKOWSED BY DEElt— Concluded

Jirows-

ing

Natural

Orowth I'lanteii

Ilea vy
Light

X

X

Light

X

Lima

X

J.ight
Heavv

X _.

----- X

Heavv
Light

X

X --- -..

Light

X - . - .

Light

X

Light

X

Light

X -- ..

Heavy

X -- .

Light
Light

X X
X .,-

Heavv

X

Light

X .

Light

X ... . .

Heavv

X --.-...

Heavy
Heavv

X X

X .-

Heavv

X

Light

X

Heavv

X

Heavy

X -

Heavy

Light

Heavy

Heavy

X

X

X

X

Ht'avy

X --

Heavy
Light

X

. X

Light

X

light
Light

X ... .

X - .

I-ight

X ..

Light

X

Light

X . - -

l/ght

X

Heavv

X

Light

X

Light

X

Light
Heavv

X

X ..

Heavy
Light

X

X ...

Light

- X

Heavv

X ...

Light
H<'avv

X

X

ij'ght

X

Light
T-ight

X X

X ..

H<'avy

X ^..

Light
Heavy

X

X

Heavy

X

Light

X

Light
Light

X

X

}:?pecies

Hnds

Leaves Hranches Fruit

Hark

Hrows- Natural
m^ (irowth Planted

Tulip Tree x

Htiododendroii ._ x

Mountain Laurel x

Sheep Laurel x

Arbutus X

!

'I'eaberry ' x

IHickleberry I x

Deerberry j x

islueberry ! x

White Ash 1 x

Mlack Ash x

Red Ash X

(Jreen Ash \

Catalpa x

Honeysuckle x

Sweet Viburnum .. x

Hlack Ifaw x

Klderberry x

Greenbrier x

<i round Hemlock

HT) X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

\

X

X

X

\

X

X

X

X

X

X

X
X

Light

X

Heavy

X

Heavy

X

Light

X

Heavy

X

Heavy

X

Heavy

X

Heavy

X

Heavy

X

Heavy

X

X

X

\

X
X

X

X
X
X

X

X
X

Light
Light
Light
Light
Heavy

Heavv
Heavv
Heavv
Light

Heavy

X
X

X
X

X
X
X
X

SPE( lAL STIDIKS OF FOOD Sri»I*LIFS ON Bl KNFD AREAS

A subject which has led to mneli discussion, but wliich has had
little investigation, is "What effect does forest fire have on food sup-
|)lies of deer?" The consensus of opinion among observers is tliat
deer find the sprout growth that follows forest fire highly desiral)le
for food. Superficially, this observation holds true, for careful exami-
nation of many burned areas indicates that deer heavily browse the
tender leaves, buds, and twigs of the sprout growth that springs up
(luring the first and second year following a fire.

Whether the deer continue to find this growth suitable for food
after the third or fourth year is an open question. Likewise it is
uncertain whether the deer browse heavily in the new sprout growth,
immediately following a fire, because of its succulency or whether
they are attracted to it because of the taste of the new growth. Fol-
lowing a forest fire a relatively large amount of calcium, phosphorus,
and potash, as well as other minerals, is deposited on the surface of
the soil in the form of ashes. These chemical substances combining
with water from saline compounds which are drawn into the plants
as food. It is logical to assume that the deer find these saline com-
pounds in the plant food palatable. Witness the many examples of
complete browsing on areas for a year or two following fires.

"In succeeding years as the compounds are leached out of the soil
by rain, the plant food ceases to be palatable to the deer and the
burned areas then become less desirable than unburned areas as food
sources." This, briefly, i^ the conclusion reached by (ieorge S. Perry,

25

Research Forester, Pennsylvania Forest Research Institute, following
investigations of soil profile and vegetation data on the Mont Alto
State Forest.

A newly constructed State Forest road, up the northwestern side
of Snowy Mountain in Franklin County, pas-ses for one-half mile
through an excellent stand of hardwoods untouched by fire. Then
the road enters an area burned in the spring of 1917. Further on is

Ficii KK 12. A Yoiniff Chisfnitt S/trout S^n'rcli/ linnrned
hii Jh'cr. Chest HHt. A Farorifr Food of Dcrr. In Hatidi-
nilf/tcil in Itx Fif/ht for Jfrrorvrjf A(/ain.st the ChcHtnut
Jilif/ht in Man If Scctitms hj/ F.rccfixin' ncrr linnrsinif.

an area where fires have burned at frequent intervals. The road
eventually crosses a i)lateau over which fires have swept severely; the
latest burning occurred in May, 1926.

Deer are abundant in this locality. The sites are covered with
mixed oak growth and the species present on each are quite similar.
Examination of the different sites described indicates that the deer

26

are highly selective as to their feeding ground. Briefly, the findings
are as follows:

1. On the area where fires have never burned almost every leaf
has been eaten off the trees and shrubs as high as the deer can reach.

2. On the area burned last in 1917 the browsing has been fairly
lieav}^ though lighter than on the previous one.

FiGi^KE l.'i. A Youiifi Ifrd Mnjilr Sfnout Sercrchf lirowxrd
hif hvrr. hi Sonic Sfnfr Forests Tinifxr Cutting Opera-
tions Cannot lie Carried on F.reept in the Form of Thin-
nings, lieeaase tfie Deer Consume the Xatiiral Rrpro-
duetion That Is Depended Upon to I'rodnec A Future

Timber Crop.

3. On the area severely burned in 1926 it is difficult to find a
single leaf eaten by deer, though droppings and numerous tracks show
they take advantage of the shelter provided by the dense brush growth.

This phase of the problem of deer feeding is comparatively new.
The chemical compounds available in the soil for plant food un-

27

Hesearch Forester, l^eniisylvaiiia Foi-est I'eseareh Institute, t'ollowiii"-
invest iji'at ions of soil i)i"otiIe and vejictation data on the ^lont Alto
State Forest.

A n<'\vly eonsti'iicted State Foi'est road, up tlie nortliwestern side
of Snowy Mountain in Franklin County, passes i'oi' one-half mile
through an execllcnt stand of hardwoods untouehed l)y fire. Then
the roa<l entei's an area hui'iicd in the spring- of IfllT. Fui-tliei* on is

Ki<ii !:k 12. .1 Yoiiiiij ChcshiKt S/noitf Srrri<:hf Itnur.sui
hi/ ha ,. Chest, nit. I run, lit t I'ikhI of lh< r. Is llnndi-
ra/tpnt in Its Fifflit for li'innciii Af/oinst thr dust nut
Itlifiht III Minni Sirtioiis I,// n.rrissin hr.r l!n,irsi m/.

an area where fires liave l)urned at fre.pient intervals. The road
eventually erosses a plateau over wliieli flre.s have swept severely; the
latest burnin*'- oeeurn'd in Mav ]\)'Ht

Deer are abundant in this loeality. The sites are covered with
mixed oak growth and the s|)eeies present on eaeh are (juite similar.
Exandnation of the different sites deseribrd indieates that the deer

LMi

are hijrldy sc'h'etive as to their feeding' ^n'ound. Briefly, the findintrs
are as follows:

1. On tlu' area where fires have never burned almost every leaf
has been eaten oflf* the trees and shrubs as hi^»'h as th<' deer ean reaeh.

2. On tlu' area buriu'd last in 1!I17 the browsin^^ has been fairly
heavy, thoujrh lij^hter tlian on the pi-evious one.

FuMKK l.*l. A )t,iiiif/ I'rtl ]tapl( S/noiit S( rrnlii llruirsnl
till hi(i\ III Sonic Statr I'nrrsts Tiiiilirr Ciittiiif/ (fprrn-
tioiis ('iiii)iot Hi Cariifft on IJ.rcf fit in the i'nnn of Tliin-
niiiffs. Ilifinisi tlir 1)1 rr ('onsimif ttir Sntiinil Ifcpro-
(lurfioii Tliiit Is Ihixndrd I i,oii to I'nKlucr A lutiirr

liiiihrr Crtt/i.

3. On the area severely burned in lO'Jfi it is difficult to find a
sinfrle leaf eaten by door, thoujrh dropi>iu«j:s and numerous tracks show
they take advautajjfc of the shelter provided by the d<Mise brush jj:rowth.

This phase of th<' problem of door feedinjr is comparatively new.
The chemical com])ouuds available in the soil for plant food un-

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

tloiibtcdiy cxci't some iiifiiioiu'c on the palatibility and dosirability of
the plants an browse. A study of the relation between chemicals in
the soil and browsing by deer is being* started at the Greenwood Foi-pst
Tree Nursery in Huntingdon County under the supervision of the Penn-
sylvania Forest Research Institute.

Another observation that indicates the selectivity of deer feedin^r
in relation to burned areas is this: Where mountain laurel is found
j>rowing in association with rock oak on sites where no forest fires
liave burned for at least ten years, the deer have fretiuently browned
tlie laurel almost to the point of extinction. On sites where mountain
laurel is found p^rowing in association with rock oak and where fires
have burned within the past ten years, the laurel is barely touched.
The inference is that deer avoid as much as possible feeding on areas
after the third year following fire.

There are those who advocate the controlled periodic burning of
forests, believing that waning supply of deer food, caused by an over-
abundance of deer, would tliereby be increased. The fallacy and
selfishness of this argument are obvious. Granted that the burin"-
of forest cover at times results in a temporary increase of avaihd)!*'
deer broAvse, the attendant losses to growing timber and to small game,
such as wild turkey, grouse, rabbits, and scjuirrels, would be all out
of proportion to the meager benefit to the deer herd. Anv svstem of
management that sacrifices timber for game, or vice versa, or that
discriminates against one type of hunter for the benefit of another,
is indefensible (14).

DKKH < AUKVIX; ( VI»A( ITY OF FOKKSTKI) AREAS

The deer problem in Pennsylvania is only i)art of a much greater
and nation-wide problem of game management in relation to forested
areas (12). As baffling as Avas the original problem of conserving
and building up the big game supply in the forests of Pennsylvania,
is the present question of what to do with the deer herds, which in
many ])laces are now greatly in excess of the food supplies available
to carry them fi-om year to year. Briefly the problem has resolved
itself to this: AVhat i,s the maximum number of deer that can be main-
tained on a foi'ested area without detriment to trees or to the (]oev
herd, and without jeopardizing forestry practice or hunting con
d itions ?

Concerning th<' area of foi-est land cai)able of supporting a deer
herd there is wide variance of opinion. Tn some sections of France
forest oiificers attempt to maintain a herd not to exceed ten roe deer
on one of their smallest administrative units of about 250 acres. Tn
other parts of Europe attempts hav<' been made to limit the deer
population to one deer for each forty to fifty acres. Early German

28

FiGTTKK 14. rhmfal Scohh J'inc ('rnpiKd hif Dm: When Trees Affaiii This
»V/^c' the Ihnmifie hmic hii hrtr Dchh not OrftiiKirilif Kilt the Trrrs, hniKilc
Their (Jroirth, or Seriou-slif Injure Them.

foresters considered 8 to 16 adult red deer, not eoiintinj? j^oun^, should
be the limit for 2,500 acres. In Bohemia 15 to 35 head of red deer
could be supported by 2,500 acres, but any addition would result in
overstockinjr. European experience considered one red deer the equal
of two fallow deer or four roe deer (6).

Dr. C. A. Schenk (Jo) advocated limitinj;- the number of deer in
the Southern Appalachian forests to 150 Virjjinia deer to 10,000 acres,
or one deer to each 66 acres. Another writer states that in Northern
Michij^an 750 acres are capable of supporting" 100 deer in good con-
dition the year round (I). It is doubtful whether a ratio as low as
this, one deer to seven and one-half acres, should ever be established
under management in Pennsylvania.

The writer, who has interviewed man}' people familiar with Penn-
sylvania deer habits, has found that usually opinions as to the deer
carrying capacity of forests have been based more on guess than on
study. Various estimates received have been to the effect that a single
deer requires anywhere from four to fifty acres. AVhereas in European
practice it may riHjuire forty to fifty acres to sui)port one deer, the
writer believes that in Pennsylvania considerable less land acreage is
required.

When contrasting Pennsylvania with Euroi)ean conditions, we must
remember that forestry practices on the Continent date back three
hundred years. It is characteristic of many European forests to have
an even aged growth and a more or less clean forest floor with verv
little undergrowth. Accordingly the (piantity of browse available to deer
is considerably less than in the more brushy, younger, and uneven
aged forests of Pennsylvania, where a dense undergrowth normally
obtains. In much of our uneven aged hardwood forests, especially
in the oak-chestnut type and the beech-birch-maple type, it would
appear that adefjuate food supplies are available to support a herd
of deer averaging one deer to as low as fifteen to twenty-five acres.
This statement is made bearing in mind that deer will eat vines, her-
baceous low plants, weeds, fruit, moss, nnd roots, which are ordinarily
present in the forests of Pennsylvania. P>ut when a figure as low
as fifteen or twenty-five acres per deer is considered sufficient then
there is more than likely to occur a scarcity of food available to smaller
game animals and birds, in as much as these will also largelv feed
on a similar though perhaps more limited diet. When deer begin to
subsist largely on the seeds and twigs of Avintergreen, sumac, burdock,
forest grasses, and weeds, it is apparent that the region will have a
scarcity of such food available to other kind of small game and birds.

A major contributing factor to the suj^port of the greatly increased
deer population in Pennyslvania is the abundance of mountain laurel
throughout most of the State. It is well-known that though mountain

Ficii'RE 1.1. The liar Herd Suffers from Ovvrpopulution. A Y<mti(j Deer

Which hied I'rohahff/ as A Uvsuli of Mnhiutrition or St<irration. Sttie the

CoiHftlete Ahscna of (JncH Leans on the Siuroitndiiuf \'ef/etation.

laurel and rhododendron are eaten extensively by deer in times of food
shortage, they prefer other species of shrub growth. Nevertheless,
during the winter months, mountain laurel becomes the staple diet
and therefore this plant, scattered so widely throughout the forests
of Pennsylvania, has permitted large numbers of deer to endure the
periods of food shortage. Persistent browsing on both the laurel and
rhododendron has resulted in the complete disappearance of these
species over large areas.

Another observation of considerable interest, as it affects the man-
agement of forest stands in relation to game management, is that of
all of the major forest types of Pennsylvania, which includes the
oak-chestnut type, the aspen-fire cherry type, the white pine-hemlock

30

31

forcstci's ('()iisi(I('i'('(l S to l(i ridull red dm', not (•(>iiiitii)«r younjJT, sliould
l)f' IIh' limit I'oi- 2. .')()() hcits. In IJoliciniH 1.') to '>'> licjid of rod door
fould \)r supported hy 'J. .")()() jicrcs. I)nt ;iuy fidditioii would result in
overstockin*!'. KuropcHU cxpci-icuce cojisidcrcd one red doer the <mju;iI
of two r;illo\\ d('<'i' oi- Foui- i-oc docv ((i).

Dr. ('. A. Scli('id\ (I:")) jidvocjitod liinitiii;:' tlic nuiMhcr of d<'or in
tlic Soutiici'ii App;il;icln;iu forests to ITiO \'ir<iiuiji deer to lO.OOO Hcrcs,
or one dcci" to cjicii (id jicrcs. Anotlici" writor stntcs that in Xortliorii
Miclii;:;m 7.')() acres are eap;d)le of supporting- 100 ih^i^v in jiood eon-
dition tile year i-ound (J). It is doul)tfuI whether a I'atio as low as
this, one {\vvv to sev<Mi and one-half aei'es. should ever he estahlisjied
under iiiaiia^icmenl in Pennsylvania.

The writer, who has intei-viewed inan\

l)eo|

)le

aniniar wi

til I

enn-

sylvania ^Ww lial>it>. lias I'ouiid that usually o|)inions as to the deer
carrying" capacity of forests have been based more on jiuess than on
study. \'ai"ious estimates received have been to the efVect that a sin<:le
iWi'V recpiires anywhere fi'om four to fifty acres. Whereas in Kuropean
practice it may re(piire foi-ty to fifty aci'es to support one ih^i^w the
wi'iter believes that in Pennsylvania con>ideral)le less land acreap' is
re(juire(l.

When contrast iii.i:- Peiinsylxania with Kuropean conditions, we must
remember that forestiy pi'actices on the (\)ntin<Mit date back tl

ii'e<'

hundred years. It is characteristic of

many Hui"0|)ean forests to have

an even a«:ed «irow1h and a moi-e oi- less clean foi'cst floor with verv

little underj-rowth. Accordiniih- the ouantitv of br

owse a\'ailab|e to <leer

is considerably les.s than in the moi-e bi-ushy. younjici-. and uneven
aj-'cd foi'ests of IN'iinsyl vania. wln-re a dense under«irowth normally
f)btains. In much of our uneven a^-cd hardwood forests, especially
le oak-chestnut type and the beech-birch-iuaple ty|)e, it would
app<'ar that ade«|uate food supplies are available to supi)ort a herd
of deei- avera^in^' one (Ww to as low as fifteen to twenty-five acn's.
This statement i> made bearing- in mind that deer will eat vines, her-

iii tl

)aceous low

plant

s. \\('e(

Is. f

ruit. mos>. and roots, which are ordinarilv

l"'<'^<'>it in file forests (.f Pennsvlvania. lint wl

leu a

fiizui

e as low

as fifteen oi' 1w<'nt\--fiv

e acres pei- i\^^vv is considei'cd suf^cient then

tli<'r<' Is more than likely to occur a scarcitv of food available to smalhM-

ame animals and birds, it

1 as much as these will also larj^cly Uhh\

'Ml a sMiiilai- though perlia|)s moi-e limited diet. When d

eer beji'in to

le seeds and twi«!s of wiuter^ireen, sumac, liurdock.

frasse>. ;ind weeds, it is appai-ent that the i-ej-ion will have a

subsist larji'cly on tl
forest

scarcity of such food available to other kind of small ^ame anti bird>

A major conti-ibuf inj^- factor to tli<' support of the <:-reatly incroase(
■r population in i»ennyslvania is the abundance of mountain laurel

is well-known that though mountain

1

(le

tlirou<!liout most of the State. It

30

I'k.i KK ir». '/'//( h((r lliiil Suffers frnni On rintjnddti

<tn

I ) oinnj Ihrr

W'hirfi li'nil I'ruhiihli/ as .! Hisiilt of MnlHiitrition or Storrntion. A o/r thr
Cuiii itlrfr .{hsrnti ';/ ( i r< ( n l^c'irts on tlir Sin roii iitl iin/ \ ( (/< tat ion.

laurel and rhododendron are eaten extensively by ilvvv in tiuu's of food
sliortajic, tlu'y prefei* other s|)ecies of shrub growth. Xevertheless,
duriu«»' tile winter inontlis, mountain laurel becomes tlu' staple diet
and therefore this plant, scattei'ed so widely t lii'ou<iliout the forests
of l*ennsylvania, lias j)ei*niitted lar^c numbei's ol' deei- to endure the
|)erio(is of food sliorta<i'e. Persistent browsing- on both the laiu'cl and
rhododendron lias resulted in the complete disap|)earance of tiiese
species over lar«.»(' areas.

Anotlier obsei'vation of considei'able interest, as it affects the man-
aj^^ement of forest stands in relation to <iaine management, is that of
all of the major forest types of l*ennsylvania. which includes tlie
oak-eliestnut tyjje, the aspen-fire cherry type. th«' white j)ine-hemlock

o-

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

type, the spruce-fir type, the scrub oak type, and the beech-birch-
maple type, tlie la.st mentioned is apparently eitlier the one providing
the g:reatest bulk of food per acre or the one wiiich ordinarily shows
the least damage per acre by bi'owsing deer. This statement is made
with the full realization that perhaps the reason why less damage is
found in the heecli-bircli-iiia])h' forcsl type is because deer are not as
plentiful in the counties where tins is tin* principal forest type. It
is tlie ()])ini()n of many foresters that the beech-birch-maple type by
reason of the dense stands normally found therein and consequently
a greater (piantity of buds, leaves, and otlier food materials, is natu-
rally the best adai)ted in Pennsylvania for supporting the largest deer
population. This condition may not have been true twenty-five years
ago when the chestnut tree nuide up a large portion of the present
oak-chestnut type, for the chestnut was a species much used as a
food by deer.

IHK DKKK IH)PrLATT()\ I\ rKWSYLVANL^

Ciranted that any method of estimating the deer population must
be based on variables, and that definite statistics are lacking, it is
nevertheless of value to the scope of this report to attempt to make
some estimate of the nundjer of deer in Pennsylvania.

During the buck season of 19;U), Decend)er 1 to 15 inclusive, accord-
ing to the Board of Game Commissioners, 20,115 legal antlered deer
were shot. If one out of every five bucks was killed, there would
renuiin a buck population of approximately 80,000. Estimates made
by game officials, sportsmen, foresters, and others place the proportion
of bucks to does in Pennsylvania as one to ten (5). On this basis
the present deer herd in Pennsylvania numbers approximately 800,000.

There are in Pennsylvania, according to the latest information
gathered by the Pennsylvania Department of Forests and Waters,
approximately 1;J,000,000 acres of forest land. Of this land, more
than four million acres are in farm woodlots, or 31 per cent. Many
of the small woodlots, in strictly agricultural sections remote from
mountain lands, do not support deer. Moreover, there are many tracts
of forest lands, not classed as woodlots, on which deer are extremely
scarce or absent. As a generalization, therefore, it may be concluded
that of the thirteen million acres, constituting the total forest area
in the State, only ten million acres support deer. If this estimate be
granted, then we come to the rather startling observation that on
an average there is one deer to every 12.5 acres of deer-supporting
forest.

The deer carrying capacity of Pennsylvania forest, as pointed out
in the previous chapter, is estimated to range from as high as 50 deer
to 1,000 acres to as low as 25 deer to 1,000 aci-es, or one deer to forty

32

acres. The writer believes the deer-carrying capacity of Pennsylvania
forests in their present general condition is higher than this latter
figure, but in the absence of a more difinite one, and in order to be
conservative, it may be accepted for the purpose of this estimate.
With an average carrying capacity of 25 deer to each 1,000 acres on
the ten million acres of deer-range, we find that the forests of Penn-
sylvania should have a deer population not to exceed approximately
250,000. ^'T'

On the basis of these estimates, the deer population in Pennsyl-
vania is more than three times as high as it should be for the best
interests of the forests as w^ell as of the deer herd.

FOHKST >rA\A(JE^Ii:\T AM) UAMK >IA\A(iKMKNT

Forestry practice consists in putting timber growing land to its
highest possible use. This does not imply the exclusions of all except
those factors directly leading to maximum timber production.
Although raising timber is the ma.jor function of forestry, there are
at least three other phases of forest management, especially as they
apply to public lands, that are of prime importance: economic use
of waste lands, conservation of water supi)lies, and provision for the
recreational needs of the public.

Game management, the art of controlling land and animals so that
AW optimum game population may exist (10), is an important con-
sideration in forest recreation. One of the bases upon which the State
Forests of Pennsylvania were created was to provide outdoor recrea-
tion to all citizens of the Commonwealth, and for this reason the
foresters of Pennsylvania have always been among the most ardent
advocates of game conservation and management. When game, as for
example, deer, increases to the point where fundamental forestry jirac-
tice and the highest use of forest land is jeopardized, the problem
becomes one of balancing the two in order to permit them to be mutu-
ally beneficial and not antagonistic (11).

The foresters of the Pennsylvania Dei)artment of Forests and AVaters
are greatly interested in maintaining an optimum game ])opulatiou
.just as they are interested in growing and i)rotecting cro[)s of timber,
P>ecause they are scientifically trained and since their work takes them
into the woods, foi-esters are generally well accpiainted with ganH» con-
ditions. It is the consensus of opinion of many Pennsylvania foresters
that a certain amount of forest growth may Avell be sacrificed in order
that a large deer population may he maintained, perhaps even above
what would be considered by those experienced in scientific game man-
agement to be the optimum population. On the other hand, they
realize fully that when the deer herd inci-eases to the j)oint where
not only the forest growth becomes severely deteriorated, but becomes

33

in.siifficient to supply the deer herd with food, then in the best inter-
ests of the deer population as well as of the forests a more natural
balance must be attained.

Three adverse .situations, caused by over-population of deer, are now
common in many sections of Pennsylvania. First, the forest growth
and consequently forestry i)ractice, suffers. Second, the deer herd by
consuming": practically all the available food supply and ruining the
forest cover causes a sharp decrease in the number of wild turkey,
grouse, pheasant, quail, rabbits, squirrels and other small game. Third,
the deer, because they cannot find an adequate supply of food, are
undernourished, a condition permitting easier infection by diseases
such as pneumonia and rickets, and the breeding of parasites, with a
resultant deterioration in bodily vigor and size. This type of deer
is not what game conservation and scientific game management are
designed to produce.

''Variety in game is quite as valuable as quantity." It is not fair or
wise to adopt any practice of game management which provides sport
for one class of hunter and denies it to another. But this in effect is
what follows an abnormally high deer poj)ulation. Game, all kinds of
woodland game, should become a major Pennsylvania forest product.

Today in Pennsylvania we are faced with the problem of the dis-
pasal of suri)lus animals in forested areas no longer able to supply
adequate food. The State P^rests of Pennsylvania are administered
on a permanent basis just as the control and management of game by
the Commonwealth is on a permanent basis. Tt would be decidedly un-
fair to the recreational rights of Pennsylvania citizens for any system
of forest management to be followed that would permit anythinj?
short of the optimum production of game. At the same time it would
be a short sighted policy to encourage the production of game beyond
the carrying capacity of the forest. It is believed that some natural
balance may be struck and maintained.

RKFORKSTATIOX WITH DKKK PROOF FKXCES

The destruction by deer of numerous forest tree plantations, ranging
m size from 1,000 trees to nearly 200,000 trees each, indicated that'the
situation was so serious as to warrant the discontinuance of reforesta-
tion on large areas jiending the discovery and application of practical
control measures.

Certain experimental planting activities, however, were carried out
during 1929 and lO.'JO, though it was necessary to enclose these within
deer proof fences. For example, under a cooperative project between
the Pennsylvania Department of Forests and Waters and the U- S.
Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry, (Miinese chestnut
seedlings Avere furnished by the latter department for planting in

34

v< ~

s>

^ c

C^^'

1> "^

i* ~

i.
;► a:

"^5

iiiMifficii'iit to supply the deer iKM'd with food, then in the host intor-
osts of tlic (leer popiilMtion ;is well as of the forests a more natural
balance must be attained.

TliH'e adverse .situatif)ns. caused by ovei'-popuhdion of deer, are now
common in many sections of l*ennsylvania. First, the forest «rr()wtli,
and con.M'(piently forestry practice. sulT'ers. Second, the (U^ov lierd bv
consumin<:' practically all the availal)le fo(Kl sup|)ly and ruininj; the
fr)rest covei- causes a shai'p deci-ease in the numl)er of wild turkev,
•fronse, |)li('asaut. (piail. rabbits. s«piirrels and other small «rame. Third
the (liH'w because they cannot find an aderpiate supply of food, are
underuourished, a condition |)erinittin<i- easi<'r infection by diseases
such as pneumonia and i-ickets. and the bi-eedin«i' of parasites, with a
resultant deterioration in bodily vioo,. ;,nd si/e. This type of (b'cr
is not what <iame consei-vation and scientific <:ame manajrcment are
desi^nied to produce.

"Variety in ;iame is (piite a.s valuable as (piantity." It is not fair or
wise to a(lo|)t any practice of -iame maimjivment which i)rovides sport
f(M- one class of hunter and denies it to another. I^ut this in effect is
what follows an abnoi-mally hi<ih deer population. (Janie, all kinds of
woodland ^^huw, should bec()m(> a major Pennsylvania forest product.

Today in Pennsylvania we nvo faced with the problem of the dis-
posal of surplus aninuds in forested areas no lonj-er able to supply
iidequate food. The State Forests of l'(«nnsylvaina are administered
on a permanent basis just as the control and mana<:(Mnent of «»aim' by
the Connnonwealth is on a permanent basis. It would be decidedly un-
fair lo tlie recreational ri-hts of Pennsylvania citiz(>ns for any system
of forest management to be followed that would permit anythinj?
short of th<- optimum production of fzame. At the same time it would
l)e a short siohf.^l policy to encoura«iV the |)ro(luction of iin^w beyond
the carryino- ,.;,paeity of the forest. It is believed that some natural
balance may be struck and maintained.

i:i:i ()i{i:si.\Ti()\ with i)i:kk i»|{()()f fk\( f:s

The destruetion by deer of nmnc-rons fon'st tree plantations, ran'nn*^
in size from l.OOO inM-s to nearly 2()(U)()() trees (vich. indicated that^hc
situation was so serious as to warrant the discontinuance of reforesta-
tion on lai-e areas pendin- fi,,. discovery and application of practical
control measures.

(^'rtain experimental plantino- iiHivities. how<'ver weiv carried out
^ "nno V.m and l!i:!(). thou^-h it was neeessary to enclose these within
doer prool h.nc..s. For example, und<M- a cooperative proicvt between
the Pennsylvania Department of Forests and Waters and the U S.
Dnjartment of Agriculture. PureHu of Plant industrv. Chinese chestnut
seedlin-s weiv furnished by the latter department for planting in

:J4

•/. -

>< >:

^ >:

state Forests to determine the suitability of the Chinese chestnut as
a possible substitute for our native chestnuts, wliieli hart succumbed to
the cliestnut blight.

Three lar«,^e reforestation projects, partially within deer proof fences,
were made in li)2}) and 19;J() in Elk, Cameron, and Clinton Counties, in
State Forests.

Cameron County. The Red llun plantation, along the Lincoln Road,
in Gibson Townshi]) was established in 1});^(). h'ourteen acres were'
inclosed within deer proof fence and phinted with trees. In addition,
.seven acres outside the fence wei-e planted. The principal species wei'c
Scotch pine, red ])ine, Norway spruce, and Japanese larch, with some
white ash and red oak. Ojic thousand Chinese cliestnut seedlings
were also planted inside the fenced area, lioth inside and outside the
fence, the small aspens, fire cherry, and berry bushes were mowed to
facilitate the planting.

When examined in September, 19:30, tin' Norway .spruce, red pine,
and Scotch pine had an establishment of approximately 88 per cent,
despite the severe drought of the summer of 1!):U). The larch, how-
ever, had only approximately 15 per cent living. These percentages
applied to the trees both inside and outside the fenced area. Very
little deer damage was noted on the trees outside the fence, thougii
some were nipped. This was to be expected since the greatest damage
to planted trees is ordinarly done over the winter months; these trees
had been growing in the plantation only siiu-e spring. There was
evidence in abundance of considei-able damage to the natural growth
outside the fence, indicating that deer are present in sufficient quan-
tities to cau.se great losses.

^ Elk County. The Snook's camp plantation was established in the
Spring of lOlU) ahmg the McDonald branch of Dent's Run in Benezette
Township. Forty acres were enclosed within deer proof fence of
which ;]2 acres were planted in the Spring of 19:50, w^itli red pine,
Scotch pine, Norway spruce, Japanese larch, and a .small number of
hardwood seedlings.

When examined in September, 1930, the trees in the fenced area
were growing well despite the severe drought of the past summer. The
i-ed pine and Scotch pine had an establishment of approximat<'ly 90
per cent, and the Norway spruce, which apparently resisted' the
drought poorly, had an establishment of approximately 61} per cent.

A plantation was established outside, and adjoining, this fenced area
in 1929. Notwithstanding the fact that these planted trees were very
small, averaging 5-7 inches in height, and were therefore easily covered
with snow and difficult for the deer to find, the deer damage during
the fir.st overwintering .sea.son was high. Damage attributable to deer

36

Figure 17. A Deer Killed an A Rcault of Running into A Deer Proof Fence.

to the various species, w^hen examined in September, 1930, was as fol-
lows: Scotch pine, 22 per cent; Norway spruce, 20 per cent; and red
])ine, 38 per cent. European larch had apparently been severely dam-
aged by deer and only a few living trees of this species could be found.

Clinton County. A plantation w^as established near the Homewood
Club along Cooks Run in East Keating Township in the spring of
1928, on an area which had been burned .severely following lumbering
operations. Of a total of 150,000 pitch pine, white pine, red pine,
and Norway spruce trees, scarcelv one survives todav. The planting
stock was small and many died from natural causes, but most were
eaten by deer.

A deer proof fence, enclosing five acres, was erected and the site
was planted in the spring of 1930 with red pine, Japanese larch,
Scotch pine, Norway spruce, and a small number of hardwood seed-
lings. In addition Norway spruce and Scotch pine were planted outside
the fenced area, but these species showed little deer damage, when
examined in September, 1930, inasmuch as they had not been exposed
to the deer during an overwintering season.

The young natural forest reproduction on this site had been almost
destroyed by deer, which in this section are numerous and consecpiently
very destructive.

Clearfield County. Plans have been made to fence and plant another
tract of about 40 acres within the region of extensive deer damage in

37

Stiilc Kon'sts 1<» (Icl.'niiiiK' the siiit.-ihilil v of ilic (M

a |)(»s.sil)l(' ,siil)>lif iilc Tor (tiii' ii.-ilixc clit'sl mils, wiiich li.-id

lillCSC clK'stMnt {|>

It' clH'slmil hill

•111,

siiccimihcd t

i\

T\

n'lM'

l.-iriic rdorcsl.-itioii pi-oj.'ct.s. p.-irl i;illy williin (Un^y proof f

cnces.

\\

'•n- Miad.' ill l!)2!) and IIHIO in l-llk, ('ai,i..-i',.i

Slate KoiM'sts.

I, and Cljnlon Coiiiiti

<'S, III

(inn
dill

roH (\Hiiil!/. Til.' \lvi\ linn plantation, alon^- the Lincoln IJoad

III (iihson I (»\\iislii|) was cstalilisiicd in 1!):|(). b'onrt
inclosed within d<M'i- pi-o(»f fence and planted with \y

ceil acres wer

ces.

I

Mveii acres outside the fence were planted, 'jlie principal s|
Seotch pine, vri\ pine, Xorwa.v sprnce, and .Ja|)ane.se larch, witi
white ash and H'i\ oak. One llioiisaiKi
\\<'re also planted inside the fenced area.

II additioi
x'cies wer

(Miii
lioll

lese (

hest

I SOIlii

iillt se«'dlinL!s

feiiee, tile small as|)eiis, lire eheriv, aihl
facilitate the ])lantin<''.

I inside and outside Ih

^irn-y hushes were i

IKtUed 1,1

W

'icM examined in Se|)teml)er, l!):|(). the X

and Scotch j)ine had an estahlisliiiieiit of

orway >s|)nice

\'ri\

\)i\\i

<lcs|)ite the sev<'re droiiLihl of tl

ap|)ro.\iiiiately S<S pep ceiil

le summer of l!):!(). The larch, h

*'\i'i\ had only appro.xiinat.'ly If) per cent livino. Tlies<' percent

ou-

applied to the trees boll

aj^cs

little deer da)ii,

1 inside and outside the fenced ai'

ca.

\'

(M'V

i^c was noted on the trees outside the fence, tliou«'li

some were nipped. This was to he expected since ll
to planted tn'c.s is ordinarlv d

ic <ii'eatest damaiic

one over the winter months; these tr

ees

na<l been j-rowino' in i|,,. pi;inla1ioii onlv si

evidence In almndaiice of considerahle d,

nee spi'in.u'.

Tl

lere was

outside the fence, indicat in.Li' thai d
lilies to cause "real losses.

• nia^v to the natui'al lirowth

(M

r are present in suftici<'nt «pian

a;/// (%Hfnh/. The Snook

's camp plantation was csta})lisliod in the

Sprin-of l!i:;() aloii- the :\I(d)oiiald branch of Di-nt's 1

T

own.sliip.

Fori

Jun in lienezette
acre.s were enclosed within i\t'(^v proof fence of

Which .,1' acres were planted in the Spriii- (»f l!);|(), with red
Scotch pine, Norway .s])ruce, .Iapanes<' larch, and

plUi

hardwood scedliuii's

W

icii examined in Se

plemb

r. Ifl.'IO, the tr

were -rowiii- well despite I he s<'vere droii-ht ,,f Mi
'■*'•' P''"' «"id Scotch pine had an establishment ol

a small iiiimher o

ees in the h'liced area

!»«''• cent, and the Xorway spru

e past summer. The
approximatelv !l(>

•Irouoht, po(,rly, J^d an establishment ol

ce. which apparentiv resisted tl

le

A |)lantation was estal)lislied outside, and ad.,
in IJ'IM). Xotwithstandino- n,,. \-,^,.^ ,|,.,^ these "nl

smal
will

avei'a«iin«i' f)-? inches in hei.uiit, and

a|)proximately (j:) per cent.

joiniii"--, this fenced area

planted ti'ees were very

«'!•<' therefoi-e easilv covered

w

' .^now and difficult for the ,|,>er t(, (ind, the ilvrv d

the first overw iiitei

imau'c (

liirin

mji- s<'asoii was hi-h. Damaov alt ril)utable to d
36

eer

FiciKK 17. A h(i r h'ill'd as A h'c.snlt of liiitmiiKj info A Ihtr Proof Fi nee.

I(» the various .s])ecies, when examined in September, !!):)(), was as fol-
lows: Scotch pine, l>*i per cent; Xorway spruce, iM) per cent; and n^^
pine. :iS per cent. European lai'ch had ajipareiitly been severely dam
a^<'d by deei* and only a few Jiving' trees of this species could be found.

Clinfon (U)HH(ji. A j)lautati(ui was <'stal)lislied near the Homewood
Club alon«;' Cooks Kun in Kast Keatin<i- Township in the spriiiu' of
1!I2(S, ou an area which had been burned severely following' lumbering'
(operations. Of a total of l.")!), ()()() piicji pine, white pine, red pine.

a IK

I Xorway spruce trees, scared v one sur\ives tod,

i\'

stock was small and many died from natural causes. Imt
eaten l)v (leer.

he planlinn-
MHtst w<'re

w

A (leer })roor fence, eiudosinjif five acres, was erected and the site
as planted in the s|)rin«'' of VXM) with n^d pine, .lapaiuvse larch,
Scotch pine, Xoi'way Npruc<', and a small nunibc!' of hardwood seed-
rm<is. In addition Xorway spruce and Scotch pine were planted outside
the fenced ai'ca, but these species showed little {\iH^v damage, when
examined in Sej)tem])ei", liKIO, inasmuch as lliey had not been exposed
t(> tli<' iU^vv (lurin«>' an ovei-winterin^- season.

The youn«»* natural forest reproduction on Ibis site had been almost
destroyed by deer, which in this section ai*e numerous and conse(pienlly
\*^'vy destructive.

Clcdrjichl ('outih/. Plans have been made to fence and plant anothei-
tract (»f about 40 acres within the reuion of extensive ili't'v <lama,ue in

']7

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

Clearfield County in the Spring of 1931. Reforestation activities are
costly at best, but when to the costs of seedlings and planting must
be added the costs for expensive deer proof fences, reforestation be-
comes a forestry activity the extreme need for which is its only justi-
fication.

CONSTRK TIO\ AM) ( OST OF DEER PROOF FENCES

Deer proof fence, usually seven and one-half feet high, is erected
by stretching commercially manufactured fence, made of number 9
galvanized iron wire, on posts having a top diameter of six to twelve
inches. The construction must be sufficiently strong to with.stand
fire, deer running into it, hunters climbing over it, and frost heaving
of the ground. The posts may be set about one rod (IGI/2 feet) apart'j
and should be of a species of wood which is fairly strong and durable,
such as chestnut.

The cost of erection varies according to the labor rate, the distance
the men and material must be transported, and the condition of the
site, whether brushy, rocky, steep, or swampy. In Pennsylvania the
expense of construction varies considerably; in favorable locations it
may be as low as $2.50 per rod. In adverse sites the cost may be as
high as $5.60 per rod. The average is approximately $4.00 per rod.
These figures include fence, posts, guy wire, staples, and labor.

Since the circumference of a circle having the same area as a
square is less than the perimeter of the s(|uare, the cost of fencing
circular areas is always less than the cost of fencing squares. By
taking advantage of this mathematical law, foresters engaged in con-
structing deer i)roof fences may save considerable money both for
materials and labor.

For exami)le, to fence a tract of ten acres in the form of a square
requires approximately 100 rods of fence, but to enclose the .same area
in the form of a circle recpiires only 141 rods of fence. If the cost of
construction averages $4.00 per rod, the saving effected amounts to
$7G.00.

Examination of the foregoing table indicates how the average cost
per acre of constructing fence decreases as the area to be enclosed
increases. For example, at $4.00 per rod the average cost per aci-e
to fence one acre in the form of a scpuire is $204.00; to fence two
acres costs $144.00; five acres, $90.40; ten acres, $(J4.00; and for 50
acres the average cost per acre is only $28.64.

To determine the number of rods of fence recpiired to enclose an
area in the form of a scpmre, the following formula may be used
havuig first reduced the acreage to scpmre feet :

V area x 4
16.5~~

= perimeter in rods
38

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39

To detorHiiiic the inunbpr of rods of fence required to enclose an
area in the form of a circle, the followin«r formula may be used, hav-
ing first reduced the acreajre to s(|uare feet:

V area x 1.128) x :\A4U

16.;')

— circumference in rods

The forejTfoinjr formula is ba^ed on the fact that the side of a
square times 1.128 equals the diameter of an equal circle. The diameter
of a circle times .*M416 ecjuals its circumference. Dividinjy the result
by 16.5 gives the circumference in rods.

RKFOKKSTATIOX WITHOl T THK' I SK OF DEKU PROOF FFXC KS

Pennsylvania foresters confronted with reforestation problems in
regions of high deer poi)ulation have the choice of three systenus of
protection, all of which are costly.

(1) The erection of deer proof fences within which to conduct
reforestation projects is justified principally for ex{)erim('ntal purposes
or for regions where, without tree planting, the land will suffer extreme
deterioration.

(2) Deer repellents may be ap])lied to young trees. Developed
in European forestry i)ractice, this foi-m of treatment consists of
sprinkling, daubing, or smearing the branches with mixtures of various
obnoxious substances, including tar, blood, dung, grease, tallow, alum,
limo, sulphur, and refuse hemp. The usual procedure is to make the
applications after the trees have b<'en planted. Depeiuling upon the
size of the plants and the condition of the ground, whether sloping,
iv)cky, or brushy, a worker can treat from r){)() to :},()0() trees i)er day.
Some species, such as spruce, withstand the treatment less well than
others, such as Scotch pine. Broad-leaved sjiecii's suffer from the use
of tar, and care must be taken to avoid smearing the buds of conifers
with coal-tar (18).

This practice has had but little application in America, except ex-
perimentally. Information as to the efficiency of deer repellents in
American forestry practice is meager, and the number of applications
necessary to protect seedlings until they attain a height beyond the
reach of deer is not known. Likewise the costs of such operations,
obviously higher than in Kuro])e where a low labor wage ])revails, are
not available. This practice in the i)rotecti()n of forests from deer
deserves som(> research effort, if oidy to determine whether or not it
is i)racticable and economically justified.

(•0 Anolhcr deer damage i)reventive measure consists in shielding
the trees with loppings. This system has been successful in certain

40

reforestation projects in Pennsylvania where the planting sites sup-
ported a growth of hardwoods of poor quality. It is especially appli-
cable in the conversion of scrub oak.

The procedure is simple enough; the planted trees are set out, either
in rows or by the spot planting method, and then covered with lopped
brush. Deer are apparently disinclined to force their heads into these
brash piles to eat the planted trees. It is understood that this method
of planting is not advocated for open areas, but only where some
form of inter-planting is contemplated. It is further restricted to
})lanting where the native hardwood species are to be converted or
reinforced. When cleanings are necessary, the lopped brush can be
used to protect the planted trees further.

The lopped species, when piled high, dry out and become stiff and
resist penetration by deer. The wood rots slowly, protecting the
planted trees for several years, during which time their growth is
])ractically unimpeded by the comparatively light shade of the loppings.
This method is now in use in a scrub oak conversion project on Kettle
Spring Mountain in the Mont Alto State Forest in Franklin County,
and on the Lackawanna State Forest in Lackawanna County, where
plantings have been made under gray birch, fire cherry, and other
so-called weed species.

If in Pennsylvania there were any forest trees repellent to deer
or any that deer rejected as food, the solution of the reforestation
problem would be comparatively simple. The author knows of no
forest trees in Pennsylvania that are immune or resistant to deer dam-
age, although Norway spruce and white spruce have occasionally been
observed to suffer less cropping than other species.

SIGGKSTIOXS FOR II^IPROVIXG THE BEER SITIATIOX IX

PEXXSYLVAXIA FORESTS

The Deer Range. Careful and unbiased studies conducted by the
Pennsylvania Department of Forests and Waters, the Pennsylvania
Board of Game Commissioners, the United States Biological Survey,
and other agencies have shown that extensive forested tracts are
greatly overstocked with deer. Food supplies in these areas are dwin-
dling and the forest cover is deteriorating rapidly. Fundamental
forestry practice is handicapped, and reforestation activities especially
have been abandoned, following the almost complete destruction of
hundreds of thousands of planted trees. Under present conditions in
many State Forests timber cutting operations cannot be carried on
except in the form of thinnings, because the deer consume the natural
reproduction that is depended upon to produce a future timber crop.

A calculated reduction of the deer herd is suggested in tho.se forested
sections of Pennsylvania where the greatest damage is being done to

41

Iree <z:rowth (See frcmtispiece map). This reduction should be based oi:
the carryinjr capacity of the forest, and it would be beneficial if the re-
duction were slijihtlj^ under the carrying? capacity. These woodlands ar.'
at present practically denuded of food supplies necessary to carry tin
deer on a year-round basis, therefore their carryinp: capacity fshouhi
be le.ss until the forest grows back to normal conditions, Avhicli nun
require five or ten years (3),

The Deer Herd. The plan, in vogue in Pennsylvania until the ])ast
few years, of legalizing the killing of bucks only has resulted in a
disi)roportionately large doe population. Because thej^ have been un-
molested the does have apparently lost much of their natural timidity.
The huge excess of does over bucks has resulted in a poorer (piality
of offspring, and biologically the herd is deteriorating. In the cours'.'
of nature only the largest and strongest males serve the does (16), but
under present conditions, however, sexually immature males become
])arents of fawns that are physically inferior. In addition, promis-
cuous breeding has resulted in young being born late in the summer,
and these are often not sufficiently developed to compete successfully
for food with stronger deer. Consequently they lose out in the
struggle for existence during the food shortage periods in the severe
winter months.

Nature is wasteful and all animals in a state of nature tend toward
overproduction. The Pennsylvania deer herd, protected by law and
almost wholly safe from predatory animals, is the victim of an un-
natural situation in which it is being literally reproduced to the point
■of biological inferiority. Biologists, vetenarians, and laymen who have
studied this phase of the situation are agreed that the proper course
of action to build up the deer herd physically would be to effect a
marked decrease in the number of doe deer compatible with the male
deer population.

A more healthy balance between the sexes would appear to be \\\
the proportion of one buck to five does. Some biologists have suggested
lowering the proportion to one male to three females. It has been
estimated that with one half the present female population and twice
the present male population the fawns produced would be twice the
present number (2).

Special Open Seasons. It is not within the scope of this study to
suggest the manner in w^hich the reduction in the deer herd is to be
brought about for that is an administrative function of the Board of
(iame Commissioners. A plan of game management may be deter-
mined that will permit the balancing of the deer lierd in regions wherf^
damage to the forest and other crops is excessive. This plan may be
based on the present site of the herd in relation to the carrying

capacity of the forest, and the reduction, which is almost without
exception required in the female herd only, may be brought about by
special open doe seasons.

Better Distribution of Deer. Deer apparently have a tendency to
concentrate in large herds in limited areas where starvation frequently
follows the exhaustion of food supplies. This phase of the problem
invites research ; a practical method of scattering the deer or of
driving them to new feeding grounds would be of great assistance in the
management of the game as well as the forest. Trapping deer in
overstocked regions and transporting them to thinly populated sec-
tions cannot be offered as a solution owing to the difficulty and huge
costs involved. Notwithstanding the fact that most of the deer range
in Pennsylvania is now either greatly overstocked or approaching that
point, there remain thousands of acres, especially in the northern tier
counties, where, if the surplus from other sections could be distributed
an abundance of food would be available.

42

4;i

BIBLIOGRAPHY

(1) Adams, Dr. Charles C, 1926.

The Economic and Social Importance of Animals in Forestry With
Special Eeference to Wild Life. Vol. 3, No. 4, Roosevelt Wild Life
Bulletin, N. Y. State College of Forestry, Syracuse University.

(2) Bailey, Vernon, 1928.

Deer Investigations in Pennsylvania. U. S. Department of Agriculture,
Bureau of Biological Survey, Washington, D. C, May.

(3) Board of Game Commissioners, Pennsylvania, 1929.

Special Deer Conference.

(4) Board of Game Commissioners, Pennsylvania, 1930.

The Pennsylvania Deer Problem, Bulletin 12.

(5) Conklin, W. Gard, 1930.

A New Game Problem — What to Do With the Surplus. Outdoor
America, December.

(6) Fisher, W. R., 1895.

Schlich's Manual of Forestry, Vol. IV, Forest Protection.

(7) Frontz, LeRoy, 1930.

Deer Damage to Forest Trees in Pennsylvania. Pennsylvania Depart-
ment of Forests and Waters, Harrisburg. Research Circular 3,
Pennsylvania Forest Research Institute.

(8) Keller, John W., 1927.

Unpublished Article by Deputy Secretary, Pennsylvania Department of
Forests and Waters.

(9) Kuppe, A. J. W., 1928.

Deer and Our Future Forests. Unpublished Article by Former Assistant
District Forester, Delaware State Forest District, Pennsylvania.

(10) Leopold, Aldo, 1931.

The Forester's Role in Game Management. Journal of Forestry, Vol. 29.

(11) Perry, E. L., 1930.

What is the Aim of Game Management? Journal of Forestry, Vol. 28.

(12) Redington, Paul G., 1929.

The Beneficial Effect of Wild Life on Forest and Other Lands, Journal
of Forestry, Vol. 27.

(13) Rhoads, Samuel N., 1903.

The Mammals of Pennsylvania and New Jersey.

(14) Riley, Smith, 1930.

A National Game Policy, Journal of Forestry, Vol. 18.

(15) Schenck, C. A., 1909.

Forest Protection.

(16) Schierbeck, Otto, 1929.

Is It Right to Protect the Female of the Species at the Cost of the
Male? The Canadian Field — Naturalist, January.

(17) Schierbeck, Otto, 1931.

Forestry Versus Game Cover, The Canadian Field — Naturalist, February.

(18) Schwappach, Adam, 1904.

Forest rv.

45