To

Cornell University
My Alma Mater

This Bcok
Is Dedicated

COPYRIGHT, 192O
O. F. HUNZIKER

Fred Klein Co.
Printers
Chicago

THE BUTTER INDUSTRY

PREPARED FOR THE USE OF

Creameries, Dairy Students and
Pure Food Departments

By

OTTO F. HUNZIKER, B. S. A., M. S. A.
tt

Author of "Condensed Milk and Milk Powder"

Formerly Professor of Dairy Husbandry, Purdue University

Now Manager Manufacturing Department and Director Research Laboratory

Blue Valley Creamery Co.

Chicago

Published by the Author

LaGrange, Illinois

1920

Preface

THE PURPOSE of this book is to acquaint the
buttermaker with facts and methods that will
assist him in the economical manufacture of
butter of attractive flavor, good body, uniform
color and superior keeping quality; to place before the
teacher and student of buttermaking the newer knowl-
edge of the science and art of butter manufacture; to
bring the investigator and research worker in close
touch with the real problems of the butter industry;
and to point out to those in charge of food control the
possibilities and limitations of composition and prop-
erties of commercial butter.

This book deals with the several phases of the but-
ter industry, from the care and handling of the milk
and cream on the farm to the table of the consumer,
with special emphasis of the causes and practical pre-
vention of the multitude of butter defects.

It represents the author's best knowledge on the
subject, derived from practical experience in com-
mercial buttermaking, from scientific investigation and
research of the problems of economy of manufacture
and of production of quality, from the most authentic
experimental data of other investigators throughout
the dairy world, and from a profound study of the
several sciences intimately related to buttermaking.

O. F. HUNZIKER.

Chicago, Feb. i, 1920.

574322

Acknowledgment

In presenting the information contained in this volume to
^he Dairy World^ the author desires to express his sincere
appreciation of the facilities provided and opportunities accorded
him by the Blue Valley Creamery Company ', which made possible
the revelation of new scientific truths of acknowledged value to the
butter industry y and which greatly added to the comprehensiveness
of this work.

THE BUTTER INDUSTRY 9

CONTENTS

Chapter I
HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF BUTTER INDUSTRY

Early history — Later development — Influence of centrifugal cream sepa-
rator— Influence of Babcock test — Influence of other inventions — In-
fluence of dairy research, instruction and control — Influence of cream-
ery promoter — Annual butter production in U. S. and in foreign
countries — Number of creameries in U. S Pages 15-30

Chapter II

CREAMERY ORGANIZATION, CONSTRUCTION AND EQUIP-
MENT

Creamery organizations — Mutual co-operative creamery asso. — Joint stock
company with co-operative features — Proprietary creamery — Creamery
corporation — Location of factory — Water supply — Sewage disposal —
Type of building — Drainage and drains — Light — Ventilation — Store
room — Cold room — Heating — Insulation of ammonia, brine, steam and
water lines Pages 31-46

Chapter III
BUYING MILK AND CREAM

Systems of securing milk and cream — Direct deliveries — Cream routes —
Skimming stations — Cream stations — Route and station shortages —
Independent cream buyer — Farmers' co-operative marketing associa-
tions— Direct shipper system — Concentration points — Management of
patron Pages 31-60

Chapter IV
CARE OF MILK AND CREAM ON THE FARM

Healthy cows and attendants — Proper feed and water — Cleanliness — Clean-
liness of separator bowl — How to wash the separator — Care of cream
after separation — How to cool cream — Age of cream — Protection of
cream in transit Pages 60-67

Chapter V
SEPARATION OF MILK

Purpose — Principle of separation — Methods of separation — Gravity separa-
tion— Centrifugal separation — Theory of centrifugal separation — Con-
struction of separator — Separator frame — Bowl and spindle — Skim-
milk outlet— Cream outlet — Proportion of skim milk and cream —
Supply tankj float and discharge pans — Driving mechanism — Power
separators — Hand separators — Systems of oiling — Power require-
ments— Capacity of separator — Conditions affecting skimming effi-
ciency— Conditions affecting richness of cream — Advantages of cen-
trifugal separation over gravity creaming Pages 68-118

10 THE BUTTER INDUSTRY

Chapter VI
RECEIVING MILK AND CREAM

Grading of cream — Development — Methods of grading — Grading by taste
and smell — Apparatus needed — Operation of grading — Classification of
grades — Sampling milk and cream — Single samples — Composite sam-
ples— Care of samples — Sampling frozen cream — Amount of cream
sample — Weighing milk and cream — "Dumping" milk and cream —
Can washing — Can washing equipment — Size and construction of
cans — Rusty and damaged cans Pages 118-148

Chapter VII
NEUTRALIZATION OF SOUR CREAM

Definition — Object — Importance of correct neutralization — How to neutral-
ize— Adoption of standard of acidity — Testing correctly for acidity —
Choice of neutralizer — Preparation, strength and amount of neutral-
izer — Affinity of lime for curd — Summary of action of lime in sour
cream — Adding lime mix in proper manner — Effect of per cent acid
in cream on accuracy of neutralization — Effect of per cent casein —
Effect of amount of carbon dioxide in cream — Effect of time and
temperature on acid reduction — Effect of neutralization on composi-
tion of butter — Specific directions for neutralizing cream with lime —
Neutralizing tables Pages 148-180

Chapter VIII
PASTEURIZATION '

Definition— Objects — Improvement of flavor — Uniformity of quality — Dis-
truction of disease germs — Improvement of keeping quality — Economic
advantages— Essentials for successful pasteurization — Methods — Flash
or continuous pasteurization — Flash pasteurizers — Regenerative heat-
ers and coolers — Operation of flash pasteurizers — Temperature con-
• trol — Cooling cream from flash pasteurizer — Vat or holding pasteuri-
zation— Construction and operation of vat pasteurizers — Temperature
and time of exposure — Cooling cream in vat pasteurizer — Flash and
holding process combined — Cleaning and care of pasteurizers — Ad-
vantages and disadvantages of flash and vat processes. Effect of
pasteurization on flavor and texture of butter — Effect of pasteuriza-
tion on exhaustiveness of churning — Blowing cream — Effect of blowing
on flavor and keeping quality of butter Pages 180-224

Chapter IX
CREAM RIPENING AND STARTERS

Definition of cream ripening — Purpose — Effect on flavor and aroma —
Effect on uniformity of quality — Effect on exhaustiveness of churn-
ing— Effect on keeping quality — Natural ripening — Artificial ripening —
Temperature — Ripening vats — Advantages of glass enameled vats —
Time required for ripening — Proper acidity of ripened cream — Over-
ripened cream — Methods to determine desired degree of acidity —
Starter ripening vs. cream ripening — Starters — Natural and commer-
cial starters — Directions for preparation of startoline — Directions for
making commercial starter from whole milk, skim milk, condensed
milk — Milk powder — Equipment for starter making — Acidity in
starter — Amount of starter — Scoring starters Pages 224-265

THE BUTTER INDUSTRY 11

Chapter X

CHURNING

Object — Philosophy of churning — Milk and cream an emulsion — Surface
tension — Absorption — Viscosity — Why cream thickens in churn —
Why butter "breaks" suddenly — Solidification and coalescence of fat
globules — Conditions affecting churnability of cream — Size of fat
globules — Chemical properties of butterfat — Viscosity of cream —
Churning temperature — Time of holding at churning temperature —
Richness of cream — Acidity of cream — Nature and amount of agita-
tion— Speed of churn — Amount of cream in churn — Preparation of
chum — Sticky churns — Straining the cream — Addition of butter color
— Gas in churn — When to stop the churn — Clnirning difficulties.

Pages 265-310

Chapter XI

WASHING, SALTING AND WORKING

Purpose — Drawing-off buttermilk — Addition of water — Temperature of
wash water — Effect on moisture content of butter — Overchurning in
washwater — Regulating temperature of washwater — Purity of wash-
water — Salting — Purpose — Amount of salt — Methods of salting — Dry
salting — Wet salting — Brine salting — Types of salt — Quality and bac-
teriological and chemical purity of salt — Solubility of butter salts —
Condition of salt as affected by storage — Effect of salt on keeping
quality, disease germs and moisture content of butter — Working —
Purpose — Butterworkers — Overloading the churn — Manner and
amount of working — Effect of working on body, color and moisture
content of butter — Effect of working on flavor and keeping quality of
butter Pages 310-363

Chapter XII

PACKING BUTTER

Variety of packages — Preparation of tubs, boxes, cubes and firkins — Prepa-
ration of liners, circles and wrappers — Tin cans — Packing tubs, boxes,
cubes and tins — Butter prints— Packing farm butter — Packing for par-
cel post shipments — Packing for exhibits and scoring contests — Loss
of moisture in packing — Cost of packing — Packing butter for U. S.
Navy Pages 363-394

Chapter XIII

THE OVERRUN

Definition — Importance — Theoretical overrun— Actual overrun — Condi-
tions affecting actual overrun — Composition of butter — Accuracy of
weights and tests of cream — Mechanical losses — Examples of overruns
in whole milk creamery and in farm separator creamery — Unavoidable
discrepancies in weights and tests that affect overrun Pages 394-412

12 THE BUTTER INDUSTRY

Chapter XIV
MARKETS AND MARKETING

Importance — Essentials in successful marketing — Marketing dairy butter —
Selling creamery butter localfy — Selling to wholesale produce trade —
Track sales — Delivered sales — Commission sales — Contract sales —
Speculating in futures — Butter exchanges — The call — Butter quota-
tions— Inspection and grading — Butter rules of N. Y. Mercantile Ex-
change— Butter rules of Chicago Butter and Egg Board — Distribu-
tion— Per capita consumption of butter in U. S. and abroad — Exports
and Imports Pages 412-447

Chapter XV
BUTTER STORAGE

Time and duration — Distribution of commercial stocks of butter — Short
held and long "held — Storage conditions — Air, light and heat — Humid-
ity— Temperature — Shrinkage in storage — Deterioration in quality —
Summary of effect of cold storage on quality of butter. .Pages 447-459

Chapter XVI
BUTTER SCORING

Definition — The score card — Valuation of defects — Ethics of butter scor-
ing—Method and accuracy of scoring — Value of educational butter
scoring contests Pages 459-466

Chapter XVII
BUTTER DEFECTS

Classification — Description — Causes and prevention of the following de-
fects in flavor and aroma, body and texture, color — Defects in flavor
and aroma: Flat, stale, sour, curdy, cheesy, unclean, cowy and barny,
feedy and weedy, musty and smothered, garlic, moldy, yeasty, bitter,
• oily, metallic, fishy, tallowy, storage, rancid, woody, scorched, coarse —
Defects in body and texture: weak, greasy, salvy, crumbly, mealy,
leaky, gritty — Defects in color: too high, too light, bleached, dull,
mottled and wavy, white specks, yellow specks, green specks.

Pages 459-530

Chapter XVIII

COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES OF BUTTER, MILK, CREAM,
SKIMMILK AND BUTTERMILK

Butter — Butterfat — Soluble, volatile, insoluble and non-volatile fats —
Melting point — Physical structure — Water — Moisture control — Factory
directions — Relation of moisture to quality — Curd — Salt — Lactose —
Acid — Ash — Milk — Cream — Skimmilk — Buttermilk — Whey — Composi-
tion of Ash and Separator Slime Pages 530-558

THE; BUTTER INDUSTRY 13

Chapter XIX

HEALTHFULNESS, FOOD VALUE AND BIOLOGICAL
PROPERTIES

Sanitary purity and healthfulness — Freedom from germs of disease — Di-
gestibility—Caloric value— Biological properties— Fat-Soluble A—
Food value of diverse foods Pages 558-573

Chapter XX
DEFINITIONS AND STANDARDS

Butter — Moisture ruling — Fat standard — Butter standards in various coun-
tries— Milk — Skimmilk — Cream — Buttermilk — Legal standards by
states Pages 573-579

Chapter XXI
WHEY BUTTER, RENOVATED BUTTER AND LADLES

Whey butter — Manufacture — Wisconsin law — Renovated butter — Defini-
tion— History — Output in U. S. — Manufacture — Packing — Markets —
Definitions and laws — Ladles Pages 579-588

Chapter XXII

STANDARDIZATION, TESTS AND CHEMICAL ANALYSES OF
MILK, CREAM, SKIMMILK, BUTTERMILK AND BUTTER

Standardization of milk and cream for butter fat — Eight examples- -Test-
ing milk and cream for acid — Factory tests — Determination of specific
gravity in milk, cream, skim milk and buttermilk — Weight per gallon
of cream of varying richness — Determination of total solids in milk,
cream, skim milk and buttermilk — Total solids tables — Testing milk
and cream for butterfat — The Babcock test — The Gerber test — Stand-
ard glassware, scales and weights — Testing skim milk, buttermilk and
whey — Butter moisture tests — Butter salt tests — Butter fat tests —
Determination of curd, lactose, acid and ash in butter — The Mojonnier
test — Detection of renovated butter and oleomargarine — Bacteriolog-
ical analyses of butter, milk and cream — Table of Atomic weights —
Table of weights and measures Pages 588-665

ERRATA. — Page 301, Footnote, "coal-tar dies" should read "coal-tar
dyes." For other typographical errors that may have escaped the proof-
reader, the reader's kind indulgence is respectfully solicited.

THE BUTTER INDUSTRY

CHAPTER I.

HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF BUTTER
-INDUSTRY.

Early History. — The art of buttermaking dates back to
times immemorial and reference to the use of butter as an
article of food and for medical and cosmetic purposes may be
found chronicled long before the Christian Era. Benno Martiny,1
in his treatise "Die Milch" and later in his interesting volume
concerning the history of the churn, entitled, "Kirne und Girbe,"
offers a multitude of quotations on buttermaking by the An-
cients as far back as 2000 B. C. He makes reference to the
Indians of Asia, the Hebrews, the Arabs, the Egyptians, the
Greeks, the Romans, the Teutons, etc., as well as to the his-
tory of later centuries.

While the word butter appears in the Scriptures on many
occasions and as far back as the book of Genesis 18:8 "And
he (Abraham) took butter, and milk and the calf which he
had dressed and set it before them" etc., one of the first refer-
ences to the making of butter is perhaps that by Solomon in
Proverbs 30:33, "Surely the churning of milk bringeth forth
butter." In the history of Ancient Greece we find that the
Greeks knew how to make butter from milk. Herodot and
Hippocrates state that the Thracians made butter from cows'
milk. Among the Romans who made great strides in agricul-
tural development, cheese appears more popular than butter;
however, Plinius refers in several instances to butyrum (butter)
as an addition to bread.

The oldest equipment for buttermaking was constructed
of earthenware. Originally the milk was placed in earthen ves-
sels and beaten with the hands until the butter granules formed.
Later a wooden stirring stick terminating at its lower end in

1 Benno Martiny, Die Milch, ihr Wesen und ihre Verwertungr. Vo. I, 1871.

16 HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT

a butt was used. This arrangement was subsequently changed
to a stick carrying a querl consisting of several radial spokes.
These were the prototypes of our dash churns in which the
dasher terminates in a cross or in a perforated round board
or perforated tin cone, fitting closely into the vertical churn.
It is evident, therefore, that the two systems of butter-making
by stirring or swinging the milk and by beating or dashing it
with a dasher, are of very ancient origin.

Concerning the early history of the uses of butter Hay-
ward1 reports the following:

"In early times butter was employed in many ways. The
Hindoos used it for the greatest and holiest sacrifices in their
worship. The Greeks and Romans did not use butter as a
food, but as the standard remedy for injuries to the skin. The
soot of burned butter was regarded as a specific remedy for sore
eyes. The Romans also used it as an ointment to enrich the
skin and as a dressing for the hair. In the time of Alexan-
der I. certain of the Macedonians annointed themselves with
milk oil; and Galen records that in many cold regions people
used butter in the bath. Historians speak of butter used as
a remedy for wounded elephants, .and within a century butter
was used in large quantities in Scotland and North England
for smearing sheep, also as oil for lamps. Besides being applied
externally, it was used internally for various troubles. In
Spain, as late as the seventeenth century, butter was to be found
in the medicine shops fcr external use only. In the middle of
the previous century "A medicinal and economic treatment of
butter" sets forth in derail the value and use of butter as a
remedy. In rural districts in Germany at the present time
fresh, unsalted butter is much used as a cooling salve for burns.

"Aside from its use ;is a food, a cosmetic, and a medicine,
the use or possession of butter was long regarded as indicating
wealth, and so served to distinguish the rich from the common
people. Evidences of this still exist. In both Chilas and Darel
a practice exists of storing- up butter in the ground. Butter so
stored is left a number of years, and, to insure its not being

1 Hayward, Facts Concerning the History, Etc. of Butter, U. S. Dept. Agr.,
B. A. I. Circular No. 56, 1904.

HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT 17

disturbed, a tree may be planted over it. Under these condi-
tions it turns deep red and is highly prized. The owner's wealth
is computed by the quantity of butter he has stored up in
this manner.

"Butter was enjoyed as a food by comparatively few people
in. its early history; tho<se who did so use it seldom ate it
fresh. The general practice was to melt it before storing
away, and instead of being a spread it was employed to enrich
cooked foods. Others, even in comparatively recent times,
used the rancid stored butter as an appetizer. In Dardistan
peasants are said to highly value salted butter grease that has
been kept a long time, and that which is over one hundred
years of age is greatly prized.

"Little is known of the part which butter played as an
article of commerce in ancient times. However, an early his-
torian states that in the first centuries butter was shipped from
India to ports of the Red Sea. In the twelfth century Scandi-
navian butter was an article of over-sea commerce. The Ger-
mans sent ships to Bergen, in Norway, and exchanged their
cargoes of wine for butter and dried fish. It is interesting to
note that the Scandinavian king considered this practice in-
jurious to his people, and in 1186 compelled the Germans to
withdraw their trade. Toward the end of the thirteenth cen-
tury, among the enumerated wares of commerce imported, from
thirty-four countries into Belgium, Norway was the only one
which included butter. In the fourteenth century butter formed
an article of export from Sweden. It may be fairly inferred
that butter-making in north and middle Europe, if not in-
deed in all Europe, was introduced from Scandinavia.

"John Houghton, an Englishman, writing on dairying in
1695, speaks of the Irish as rotting their butter by burying it
in bogs. His report was confirmed by the discovery, in 1817
and later, of butter thus buried, packed in firkins. This burying
of butter in the peat bogs of Ireland may have been for the
purpose of storing against a time of need, or to hide it from
invaders, or to ripen it for the purpose of developing flavor
in a manner similar to cheese ripening."

18 HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT

Later Development of the Butter Industry.1 — During the
Middle Ages the making and use of butter in the old world
gradually increased, but the primitive equipment and methods
available and the absence of the helping hand of science pre-
cluded rapid strides in the development of this now great
industry. At the close of the 18th and beginning of the 19th
century, the construction of creaming and buttermaking equip-
ment, other than that made of wood, was beginning to be con-
sidered and the barrel churn had made its entrance into the
field of buttermaking. And, after the middle of the 19th cen-
tury, the creaming in ice water or other cold water was strongly
advocated.

Up to the middle of the 19th century the factory system of
buttermaking was practically unknown and both, in this country
and abroad, buttermaking was confined to the farm dairy.
From that time on, however, the manner of making butter
underwent marked changes, gradually at first, and more rapidly
as the advantages of co-operative and community methods of
operation became more and more appreciated and the inven-
tion of new devices and improved processes were introduced.

In many sections of this country, especially in the Middle
West, the "pooling" system of buttermaking became popular.
In this system numerous farmers took their milk to a small
creamery where it was set in shipping cans, or other deep-
setting cans, in cold water and on the following day wras
skimmed by the operator and made into butter. The returns
from the butter, after deducting the cost of making, shipping
and selling, were divided among the farmers on the basis of
the pounds of milk delivered.

Simultaneous with the advent of this system the gathered
cream system also developed and became very popular. The

1 It is not the purpose of this volume to discuss the history and development
of the butter industry in the several butter-producing countries of the world.
For detailed historic information the reader is referred to treatise especially
devoted to this subject. A very interesting and extensive publication dealing
with the world history of Dairying is the publication entitled "Allgemeine
Geschichte der Milchwirtschaft, by F. Anderegg, Bern, Switzerland, 1894. The
brief references to development of the butter industry given here have for their
purpose more especially to point out the leading factors which were instru-
mental in the direction and extent of development which this important
product has attained in the United States, and its possibilities for growth in
the future.

HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT 19

farmers skimmed their cream on the farm, usually by the use
of shallow pans, but later by setting the milk in deep-setting
cans, set in water, and this cream was taken to the creamery.

The Influence of the Centrifugal Cream Separator. — With
the advent of the centrifugal separator in the early nineties,
originally invented by the German Engineer, Wilhelm Le Feldt,
in 1872 and improved and made continuous by the Swedish
Engineer, Dr. Gustav De Laval, and others after the year 1878,
and first introduced in this country during the years 1885 to
1890, the creameries installed power separators and the cream-
ing on the farm temporarily fell in disfavor. The farmers again
hauled their milk to the creamery where it was skimmed by
the centrifugal separator and they took back the skimmilk.
Many creameries, in order to draw their supply from a larger
radius of territory, established skimming stations in various
places to which the farmers within hauling distance brought
their milk. The milk was skimmed, the crea'm hauled or ship-
ped to the central creamery and the skimmilk was taken back
to the farm. Inasmuch as these skimming stations served ex-
clusively to separate the milk and were not intended for ripen-
ing and churning of cream and packing of butter, they required
but a small initial investment. Only a small building and only
part of the machinery essential for a creamery were needed. The
cost of the skimming station was therefore much less than that
of a complete creamery. An investment of $250 to $500 for the
building and of $600 to $900 for equipment was all that was
necessary. Thus the perfection of the centrifugal separator gave
birth to the whole milk, creamery system. Under this system
the buttermaking industry made rapid progress and the quality
of the product showed marked improvement.

In the early nineties of the 19th century the development
of the centrifugal separator, first, successfully manufactured by
Dr. De Laval in 1886, had reached the stage where it could be
adapted to practical use on the farm. Dr. De Laval was the
first to successfully devise and manufacture hand separators
applicable to farm use. Its introduction on the farms was
slow at first, but, in the course of a decade, it made rapid prog-
ress, especially in the Middle Western States. The advent of

20 HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT

the farm separator gradually revolutionized the buttermaking .
industry.

The farm separator has made it possible for the farmer
to skim his milk on the farm efficiently and economically and to
ship or haul his cream, instead of his milk, to the creamery.

The dairy farmer readily sees the many advantages and
great value of producing and selling cream, over selling milk.
The farm separator reduces the volume of his produce, that
must be taken care of on the farm and that must be shipped
or hauled to the market, to about one-sixth of the volume of
the original milk. It means fewer trips to town and less ton-
nage to the trip, a fact which, especially during the busy season
and in the face of the alarming shortage of farm labor consti-
tutes in itself a compelling argument for the farm separator.
It means better keeping quality and therefore less difficulty in
the care and handling of the product, because for the same
reason for which butter keeps better than cream, so does cream
keep better than milk. It leaves the farmer in possession of
fresh, warm and sweet skimmilk, which he needs for his
greatest success in raising his calves, as well as for hog and
chicken feeding.

The farm separator is thus rapidly changing the system of
selling the product of the dairy cow from a whole-milk busi-
ness to a cream business and it is transforming the system of
creamery operation from the whole-milk creamery of the past
to the farm separator creamery of the present and future.
This change is taking place throughout the entire dairy
belt of the country. Even in the most highly developed dairy
sections, the natural home of the whole-milk creamery, the farm
separator creamery system is fast replacing the whole-milk
creamery system.

But the country's growing demand for butter cannot all
be supplied from the limited area of the strict dairy sections
where the husbandry of the dairy cow is the principal farming
business. Much of the total butter supply of the country must
come from the great states and territories where grain-raising
is the dominant agricultural pursuit and where the need of the
dairy cow for the maintenance of the fertility of the soil is

HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT 21

becoming increasingly felt as a dominating factor in the con-
tinuance of successful and profitable crop production. Here
again the farm separator has come to the rescue. It has enabled
the farmer who keeps but a few cows, and who is located in
territory with too sparse a cow population, to justify the estab-
lishment and operation of local creameries, to find a ready
market for his cream by shipping to a distant creamery. And
it has thereby produced a vast development of the dairy
industry, and a large increase in the annual butter production
in the great grain-raising states of the Middle West.

It is the hand separator also that made possible the estab-
lishment and operation of the large centralized creameries, which
now secure their cream almost entirely from milk separated on
the farms and which gather this cream either by means of
route wagons, or by the establishment of cream stations to
which the farmer himself hauls the cream, or by having it
shipped to the creamery by the farmer direct. The rapid
development of the creamery business in this country during
the last twenty-five years may well be attributed in a large
measure to the introduction of the farm separator.

Influence of the Babcock Test. — Aside from the invention
of the centrifugal separator the invention and perfection of
methods for the rapid and accurate determination of butterfat
in milk and cream played a most important role in the develop-
ment of the butter industry within the last quarter of a
century.

With the beginning of the factory system of buttermaking
the urgent need of a method to determine the per cent of fat
in milk and cream became more and more apparent, in order
to enable the factory to pay the farmer on the basis of the
butterfat value of his milk or cream. While the chemist was
able to accurately estimate the butterfat by the ether fat
extraction method, this means was too difficult of operation
and too slow of results for use in the creamery. The creamo-
meter or cream gauge, in which the layer of cream rising on
top of the milk was measured, the churn test, in which samples
of cream from the individual farmers were churned in order to

22 HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT

determine the amount of butter that the respective cream would
make, and the oil test, in which the butterfat in samples of
cream was melted out and measured, were successive steps in
the earlier attempts to determine the correct value of the far-
mers' milk and cream. While they were distinct improvements
over the mere weighing and measuring of the cream received,
they were slow of operation and often misleading in results
and therefore failed to serve as satisfactory methods. Several
more or less practical methods devised in Europe did not prove
applicable under the American creamery system.

Between the years of 1885 and 1890 chemists at the several
American Agricultural Experiment Stations, located within the
dairy belt, bent their efforts to devise a method that could be
readily used for the rapid and accurate determination of fat in
milk and cream. These efforts brought forth several fat tests
applicable for the purpose, but the test invented by Dr. S. M.
Babcock, Chemist at the Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment
Station in 1890, now known as the Babcock test, combining
simplicity of apparatus and reagents, practicability of operation
by the layman and accuracy of results, is the only method
which in this country was adopted for general use. In Europe
Dr. N. Gerber, of Switzerland, devised a similar test, the Ger-
ber test, shortly after the introduction of the Babcock test.
The Gerber test has never come into general use in this country,
but has found wide application in European countries.

The introduction of the Babcock test in American creamer-
ies proved of incalculable value to our butter industry, as well
as to the dairy industry in general, making it possible for the
creamery to pay the farmer on the basis of the butterfat value
of his milk and cream, enabling the producer to test the milk of
his own cows and thus giving him a practical means to determine
the butterfat production of the individual cows in his herd, and
assisting the food authorities in protecting the consumer against
adulterated milk. Dr. Babcock, with his most valuable inven-
tion, has, therefore, been instrumental in placing the dairy indus-
try of this country on a vastly more substantial and permanent
basis than it occupied prior to the advent of the Babcock test,
lending its development renewed momentum for the inesti-

HTSTORY AND DEVELOPMENT 23

mable benefit of all branches of the dairy industry and of man-
kind in general.

Other Inventions Assisting in the Development of the But-
ter Industry. — The closing years of the nineteenth century and
the beginning of this century have witnessed numerous addi-
tional inventions and improvements of creamery equipment and
methods, which have been of great service to the butter manu-
facturer.

Some of the more important of these are the introduction
of pasteurization and of the use of pure cultures of lactic acid
bacteria, first advocated by Storch of Copenhagen, Denmark, and
by Weigmann of Kiel, Germany, in 1887, the American invencion
of combined churns and workers, such as the Disbrow and Sim-
plex in the early nineties, and later the Victor and Perfection
and modifications thereof; the invention of artificial refrigera-
tion, improvement of efficient refrigerator service on transpor-
tation lines and the rapid development of steam roads arid elec-
tric interurban lines furnished further important facilities that
helped to make possible the rapid growth of the creamery
industry.

Cream ripening by the use of pure culture starters of
lactic acid bacteria was accepted and taken up rapidly by the
American creamerymen, while pasteurization of cream for but-
termaking was accepted with considerable reluctance and has
become fairly general only within the last decade. Today the
great bulk of creamery butter is made from pasteurized cream
and in some states legislation has been enacted requiring the
pasteurization of all cream for buttermaking.

Influence of Dairy Research, Dairy Instruction and Dairy
Control. — In the progress of the butter industry and other
lines of dairying the Federal and State Agricultural Experi-
ment Stations, the dairy schools and other educational forces
and the law-making and enforcing agencies must be considered
as large factors. Much valuable experimental data has been
produced in this country and abroad which has greatly assisted
the creamerymen in improving their methods, in abandoning
faulty processes, in reducing the cost of manufacture, in guarding

24 HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT

against costly butter defects and in raising the standard of ex-
cellence of the product.

The dairy schools have placed in the field, during -the last

25 years, hundreds of trained men annually, whose influence has
worked for substantial and permanent improvement of the
manufacturing processes and the extension work done by state,
government and commercial concerns has been of special service
in assisting the producer of cream to produce more economically,
to stimulate larger production, and to improve the quality of the
raw material.

The organization and activities of local, state, government
and international dairy and creamerymen's associations, unions
and federations have been important agencies in promoting dairy
interest, enthusiasm and progress. They have been instrumen-
tal in the formulation and passage of dairy laws fostering the
dairy industry, combating disease among dairy stock, prohibit-
ing unsound practices, such as fraudulent testing of milk and
cream, damaging schemes of unscrupulous creamery promoters,
and adulterations of dairy products, establishing the regulation of
transportation rates on milk and cream and controlling creamery
competition and the sale of butter substitutes. They have
assisted, with competent council, state and government officials
in the establishment and enforcement of dairy standards and laws.
They have stimulated the consumption of butter and other dairy
products by organized campaigns, to acquaint the consuming
public with the great food value, unexcelled wholesomeness and
true economy of these products as articles of the human diet.

All of these varied agencies of investigation, education and
control, which, through liberal state and government subsidies,
and through active and generous support of commercial insti-
tutions and public-spirited individuals have multiplied speedily,
both in numbers and activity, during the last score of years,
have served as an additional and mighty impetus in the sub-
stantial and rapid development and the permanent prosperity
of the butter industry.

Influence of the Creamery Promoter. — Soon after the intro-
duction of the centrifugal separator and up to recent years the

HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT 25

creamery industry and with it the entire dairy industry, has suf-
fered great losses and has been delayed in its progress by the
activities of the creamery promoter.

Grim monuments to the activities of the creamery promoter,
this scavenger of the dairy business, may be found in many
parts of the Middle West in the form of defunct creameries.
Their history, regardless of location, is much the same, and
their careers have had a depressing and retarding influence upon
the rational development of the dairy industry. They failed
because they lacked the fundamental essentials of the success-
ful creamery.

While organized under the promising name of co-operative
creameries, the incentive leading to their creation was not the
'co-operative spirit of the respective communities, but the greed
of unscrupulous promoters, whose alluring promises of exag-
gerated profits induced dairy communities to buy their ware.
In most cases the cow population was entirely inadequate to
furnish the necessary raw material to make possible profitable
operation, the necessary operating capital was lacking, incompe-
tent buttermakers made an inferior product, inexperienced man-
agers mismanaged the business, the frail tie of co-operation
between the stockholders was easily rent by unsatisfactory re-
turns from the market, and the inevitable result was disorganiz-
ation, dissolution and failure. In a few isolated cases only
have these creameries survived these discouraging handicaps,
largely on account of exceptionally favorable local conditions,
or of the individual and unselfish effort and ability of some one
person strong enough to safely guide the ship through the tur-
bulent waters into which the creamery was launched. In some
cases these creameries passed into private hands at a great
sacrifice to the stockholders. In the great majority of cases,
however, the promoters' creameries succumbed, after incurring
additional debts, to the natural consequences of the law of the
survival of the fittest.

These defunct creameries may be counted by hundreds.
They have impoverished the communities in which they are
located, they have caused their stockholders the loss of thou-

26 ANNUAI, BUTTER PRODUCTION

sands of dollars, they have cast distrust and suspicion on the
creamery business and discouraged the business of milking cows
and selling cream for buttermaking. They should serve as a
warning to all communities contemplating the organization of co-
operative creameries and entertaining negotiations with cream-
ery promoters. Fortunately, through the efforts of the United
States Dairy Division, the dairy departments and dairy com-
missioners of many states, the country has been largely cleared
of the creamery promoter. Only in isolated cases, do we now
hear of his activities and in such cases every effort is made by
dairy officials to inform prospective communities of the risk
of their contemplated enterprise.

Annual Butter Production in the United States.

Government statistics show that since 1850 there has been
a steady and continuous increase in the annual butter output
in the United States. From 313,345,506 pounds in 1850 the
butter produced in this country increased to 1,619,415,263 pounds
in 1910. Up to 1870, when the total butter output amounted to
514,092,683 pounds, practically all the butter was produced on
the farm. From that time on the factory system of buttermaking
started its development and in 1910 only about 60 per cent of
the total butter output was made on the farm. Since 1910 the
production of butter has shifted still more rapidly from the
farm to the factory. This change has been especially pro-
nounced where the cow population is dense and where- the dairy
industry is most intensive, but of late years, even in states with
a comparatively sparse cow population and where dairying is
still in its infancy, owing to the ready markets for cream offered
by the large centralized creameries and because of the vastly
improved transportation facilities, factory buttermaking has
been greatly stimulated, vast quantities of cream are daily
shipped from the widely scattered farms to these creameries,
causing a gradual abandonment of buttermaking on the farm for
commercial purposes and confining farm buttermaking largely
to the butter needed for private and neighborhood consumption.

ANNUAL BUTTER PRODUCTION

27

Table I.1 — Population, Improved Land, Dairy Cows, and Produc-
tion of Butter and Cheese, by Geographic Divisions for 1870,
1880, 1890, 1900, and 1910.

Year and geographic division.*

Population.

Number of
dairy cows.

Improved
land.

Production for calendar
year preceding date of
census.

Butter.

Cheese.

1910.
New England

6,552,681
19,315,892
18,250,621
11.637,921
12,194,895
8,409,901
8,784,534
2,633,517
4,192,304

841,698
2,597,652
4,829,527
5,327,606
1,810,754
1,628,061
2,249,553
514,466
826, 115

Acres.
7,254,904
29,320,894
88,947,228
164,284,862
48,479,733
43,946,846
58,264,273
15,915,002
22,038,008

Pounds.
68,699,379
165,392,518
424,137,997
444,724,204
125,256,293
136,791,873
134,876,201
34,756,687
84,780,111

Pounds.
3,676,609
118,339,484
180,423 449
5,286,968
514, 137
93,971
441,697
2,546,935
9,208,931

Middle Atlantic

East North Central

West North Central

South Atlantic

East South Central

West South Central

Mountain

Pacific

Total, United States

91,972,266

20,625,432

478,451,750

1,619,415,263

320,532,181

1900.
New England

5,592,017
15,454,678
15,985,581
10,347,423
10,443,480
7,547,757
6,532,290
1,674,657
2,416,692

893,478
2,602,788
3,962,481
4.527,803
1,383,319
1,264,282
1,634,954
329,604
536,924

8,134,403
30,786,211
86,670,271
135,643,828
46,100,226
40,237,337
39, 770, 530
8,402,576
18,753,105

92,032,196
233,986,350
403,208,930
407,632,767
92,883,312
97,999,645
88,856,542
20,499,029
54,653,831

6,958,700
141,259,571
120,279,089
13,667,004
593,308
181..528
473,381
4,709,314
10,222,744

Middle Atlantic

East North Central

West North Central

South Atlantic".

East South Central

West South Central

Mountain -

Pacific

Total, United States

75,994,575

17,135,633

414,498,487

1,491,752,602

298,344,639

1890.
New England

4 700 749

822,001
2,529,060
3,752,237
4,488,762
1,369,466
1,312,074
' 1,517,583
218,689
502,078

10,738,930
31,599,094
78,774,647
105,517,479
41,677,371
35, 729, 170
30,559,654
5, 460, 739
17,559,671

77,240,024
217,793,692
327,051,265
323,491,323
80,40.1,070
84,955,855
50,347,087
8,709,349
35,456,941

9,107,032
130,131,662
93,779,808
16,446,053
415,291
177,070
172,597
739,976
5,779,894

Middle Atlantic

12,706,220
13,478,305
8,932,112
8,857,922
6,429,154
4,740,983
1,213,935
1,888,334

East North Central

West North Central

South Atlantic

East South Central ....

West South Central

Mountain

Pacific

Total, United States .

62,947,714

16,511,950

357,616,755

1,205,446,606

256,749,383

1880.
New England

4,010,529
10,496,878
11,206,668
6, 157, 443
7,597,197
5,585,151
3,334,220
653,119
1,114,578

746,656
2.444,089
2,990,852
2,411,229
1,280,761
1,145,403
1,002,037
124,844
297,249

13,148,466
33,237,166
75,589,373
61,252,946
36,170,331
30,820,882
18,985,889
2,213,300
13,352,689

65.934,782
211,073,290
240,351,236
143,103,863
48,703,330
51,603,349
25,605,422
3,205,759
20,091,040

12,202,042
138,700/187
78,950,611
7,581,959
640,065
184,538
92,385
606,392
4,199,671

Middle Atlantic

East North Central . .

West North Central

South Atlantic

East South Central

West South Central.

Mountain

Pacific

Total, United States

1870.
New England

50,155,783

12,443,120

284,771,042

806,672,071

243,157,850

' 3,487,924
8, 810, 806
9. 124, 517
3,856,594
5,853,610
4,404,445
2,029,965
315,385
675, 125

642,593
2,190,429
2,247,683
1,046,324
1,001,094
835,351
659,083
83,419
229,356

11,997,540
29,119,645
54,899,646
23,509,863
30,202,991
24,218,478
6,870,297
576,200
7,526,439

49,662,325
176, 248, 193
156.138,383
58,262,042
28,575,306
27 273,321
6,789,083
1,348,607
9,795,423

16,316,016
104,047-, 024
35,889,749
2,151,998
252, 190
509,290
48,208
181,035
3,531,872

Middle Atlantic

East North Central. . . : .

West North Central

South Atlantic

East South Central

West South Central

Mountain

Pacific

Total, United States..

38,558,371

8,935,332

188,921,099

514,092,683

162,927,382

1 U. S. Dept of Agriculture, Bureau of Crop Estimates, Bulletin 177, 1915.

28 NUMBER OF CREAMERIES

Table 1 shows the annual production of butter and cheese,
by decades from 1870 to 1910, in the several divisions of the
country, as compared with the population, dairy cows and im-
proved acres of land. It emphasizes the fact that the butter
industry is by far the most important branch of the manufacture
of dairy products in America. Its annual output is about 5
times greater than the output of cheese and its value nearly 10
times the value of the annual cheese output as based on the rela-
tive butter and cheese prices in normal times.

It is further interesting to note that while the increase in
annual butter production in the United States from 1870 to
1910, amounted to over 300 per cent, the increase in the annual
cheese production for the same period was less than 200 per
cent, and the increase in population, number of dairy cows and
acres of improved land was approximately 238, 231 and 253 per
cent, respectively.

During the last decade or more, the center of the butter
industry has shown a distinct and continuous movement west-
ward. In the New England and Middle Atlantic States it has
gradually declined, while in the central, northern, western and
southern states it has increased rapidly. This decline in the
East has been due largely to the wide-spread tendency of the
energetic eastern farmer to migrate westward in pursuit of
greater opportunities, with the resulting decline of the acres of
improved land in the East; the rapid increase in the demand
for market milk by the growth of the population in the Eastern
industrial and trade centers, thus absorbing a large proportion
of the raw material, milk and cream, that formerly was made
into butter; and the difference in cost of production and manu-
facture in favor of the western farmer and creamery who can
lay down in New England his more staple dairy products, such
as butter and cheese, at lower prices than the New England
dairyman can produce them.

Number of Creameries in the United States.
According to statistics furnished by the United States
Dairy Division there were in operation in the year 1914 5,463
creameries in the United States. These creameries are dis-
tributed over the several states as shown in Table 2.

NUMBER OF CREAMERIES

29

Table 2. — Distribution of Creameries by States in 1914.1

Alabama
Arkansas
Arizona . .
California

3

4
2

152

Colorado 41

Connecticut 29

Delaware 8

District of Columbia 1

Georgia 1

Idaho 18

Illinois 216

Indiana Ill

Iowa 562

Kansas 43

Kentucky 5

Louisiana 3

Maine 26

Maryland 43

Massachusetts 19

Michigan 273

Minnesota 848

Mississippi 2

Missouri 39

Montana 25

Total. .

Nebraska 52

Nevada 6

New Hampshire 27

New Jersey 13

New Mexico 7

New York 576

North Carolina 5

North Dakota 67

Ohio 307

Oklahoma 25

Oregon 99

Pennsylvania 445

Rhode Island 1

South Carolina 1

South Dakota 99

Tennessee 9

Texas 95

Utah 38

Vermont .. 181

Virginia 12

Washington 96

West Virginia 6

Wisconsin 812

Wyoming 10

5463

The great majority of the creameries in New York, Penn-
sylvania, Michigan, Ohio, Wisconsin, Minnesota and Iowa are
co-operative creameries, while in the Central West and in some
of the far western states proprietary creameries and centralized
creameries predominate.

1 By Courtesy of U. S. Dairy Division, U. S. Department of Agriculture.

30

NUMBER OF CREAMERIES

Table 3. — Production of Butter in Various Countries for the

Years Indicated. (From Official Reports, Year Books,

Statistical Reports and Consular Reports.) f

Country

Annual butter production

1910

1912

1913

1914

Argentina ....
Australia

Lbs.
16,617,131
193,211,909
201,275,2972
2,564,993
209,1 52,606**

26,226,200**
291,057,156
142,430,388
8,174,657
55,107,360**
275,286,240
72,616,750
359,631,000!

1,621,796,475 2

Lbs.
20,849,689
187,194,161

Lbs.
22,482,506

Lbs.

Canada

Chile

2,767,655

1,924,102
257,484,052**

Denmark
(1905)
Finland . . .

France (1892).
Netherlands . .
Norway
New Zealand..
Russia*

148,166,757

222,002,266

58,629,760**
306,414,650

70,504,000**

326,253,150

Sweden

United King-
dom (1905).
United States.
Union of So.
Africa

786,003,489***

10,682,000
112,000,000

10,741,000

Italy

.Country 1916

1918

Lbs.
Australia 1824707

78
30**

Lbs.

Canada 82 564 1

(1917) 87,404,366**
114,400,000**
(1917-18) 47,494,720 (Consul report)
775000,000**

Denmark

New Zealand
United States

760,030,573**

* Russia including Siberia. ** Butter made only in factories.
*** Bureau of Market reports for factories only.

1 Estimate of Royal Committee on "Report in Case of War."

2 Latent census figures which include the "farm" production,
t Courtesy of U. S. Dairy Division. Feb. 18, 1919.

CRKAMERY ORGANIZATIONS 31

CHAPTER II.

CREAMERY ORGANIZATIONS, CONSTRUCTION
AND EQUIPMENT.

Creamery Organizations. — Buttermaking started at the
"hub" of the dairy business, the dairy farm, in the days when
industrial development was in its infancy and when the farm
was not only the source of raw materials, but converted many
of its raw materials into finished products of commerce.

The invention and adoption for industrial uses, of power
machinery, in the 19th century, made possible economic handling
of larger volumes of milk and cream and the manufacture of
larger quantities of butter than the product on a single farm
represented. The rapidly growing population in our towns and
cities demanded larger amounts of butter to be transported to
greater distances, than the neighborhood farm supply was cap-
able of adequately taking care of. The butter began to be
exposed to more unfavorable conditions, and more time elapsed
in its movement from the churn to the table of the consumer, so
that the matter of keeping quality required more specialized skill
and more elaborate equipment than was available on the general
dairy farm. The trend of industrial development and profit-
able manufacture demanded greater division of labor and occu-
pation, specialization, and centralization of effort. Business
enterprise and ingenuity and able financing saw inviting oppor-
tunities and unlimited possibilities. in butter manufacture on a
larger scale.

These and many other results of the economic and indus-
trial evolution of the country were responsible for the gradual
development of the factory system of buttermaking, which
started after the middle of the last century, and which gave
birth to diverse forms of creamery organizations, until today
over one half of the butter manufactured in this country is made
in creameries, and practically all of the butter that enters inter-
state commerce and that supplies our large markets is creamery
butter. The butter that is still made on the farm is largely

32 CREAMERY ORGANIZATIONS

confined to that which is consumed on the farm, and by the
country store trade.

There are. principally four different types of creamery or-
ganizations, namely, the mutual co-operative creamery, the joint
stock company with co-operative features, the proprietary factory
and the creamery corporation.

The Mutual Co-operative Creamery Association. — This is
strictly a farmers' co-operative association. Its purpose is to
pool the milk or cream of the individual members, the farmers,
to manufacture it into butter and to sell the product, by the
employment of a butter maker and manager, and in this man-
ner to save equipment and labor needed for manufacture and sale
of the product, to secure greater skill for manufacture, to make
a better product and to sell it to better advantage.

In the truly mutual co-operative creamery association, every
stock holder must be a milk or cream producer, he must be a
patron of the creamery, but not every patron need be a stock
holder.

In some cases the buttermaker is employed at a stipul-
ated salary, in others the association agrees to pay him a stipul-
ated commission for every pound of butter manufactured, such
as, for instance, three cents per pound.

The mutual co-operative creamery association has for its
object, not so much the payment of large dividends on the shares
of stock, but to profitably manufacture the milk and cream
into butter, i. e. to secure the highest possible net returns for
the butterfat manufactured into butter.

The amount of money needed and decided upon for build-
ing and equipment usually governs the amount of the capital
stock to be issued. The shares of stock usually range from $10.00
to $100-00 per share. As it is desirable to have as many patrons
as possible that are also stock holders and who are, therefore,
interested financially in the creamery, shares of small denomin-
ations have their advantage.

The net returns from the business, which represents what
is left after deducting from the gross receipts accruing from
the sale of butter and other products, all expenses of manufac-
ture, such as labor, supplies, coal, ice, taxes, and insurance, and

CREAMERY ORGANIZATIONS 33

sales expenses, and after deducting a fixed amount placed in
the sinking fund, which is needed to take care of current re-
pairs, etc., and paying a nominal dividend on the shares of
stock, as stipulated in the articles 'of incorporation, may be pro-
rated among all patrons on the basis of the pounds of butterfat
each patron delivered at the factory.

Or, the board of directors may pay for the milk and cream
on the basis of some market quotation, and after deducting the
milk and cream checks and other expenses above enumerated
from the gross returns, it may then prorate dividends to all
patrons on the basis of the amount of butterfat sold to the
factory.

The mutual co-operative creamery association has been a
very successful institution, in localities where the cow popula-
tion is dense and where the farmers are imbued with the co-
operative spirit. It has stimulated milk production by making
it more profitable, the co-operative service of the association has
often extended its useful offices beyond the making and selling
of butter, to the co-operative buying of feed, farm supplies
and machinery, and it has stimulated community interest and
general rural uplift.

This form of creamery is not so well suited, however, in
localities where the co-operative spirit is lacking and where the
dairy herds are small, few and far between. ••* :

The Joint Stock Company with Co-operative Features. —

Many, if not most of the so-called co-operative creameries are
not purely mutual co-operative creamery associations, but they
are joint stock companies with some co-operative features. To
this type of creamery companies also belong the promoters'
creameries. The joint stock company with co-operative features
differs from the mutual co-operative association, largely on the
following points:

1. A stock holder need not be a patron of the creamery.

2. The capital stock is divided into equal shares.

3. The members of the association usually cast one vote

for each share of stock held.
While it is usually intended to have the patrons own the

34 CREAMERY ORGANIZATIONS

major portion of the stock, so as to have a large number of active
patrons financially interested in the creamery, and to thereby
make more sure of a constant supply of milk and cream, such
is, in fact, very often not the case. Much of the stock is often
held by townspeople and others who do not keep cows. This
fact has in many cases proven to be a contributing factor,
responsible for the failure of the creamery. It has constituted
one of the weak links in the fabric of the promoters' creamery,
the establishment of which not infrequently was made pos-
sible in localities which lacked the fundamentals of successful
operation — sufficient cows and farmers imbued with the spirit
of co-operation — because a sufficient amount of stock could be
sold to persons other than milk producers.

The fitness of a locality for the successful operation of a
joint stock company with co-operative features depends on
similar conditions as that of the mutual co-operative creamery
association.

The Proprietary Creamery. — .This form of creamery organi-
zation refers to an enterprise owned or operated, or both, by
an individual or by several individuals who have formed a
partnership. In this case the owner, or owners, usually buy
the milk and cream outright at prices generally based on some
market quotation, as New York, Chicago, Elgin, San Francisco
quotations, and the prices offered are influenced also by com-
petition with other creameries.

The patrons' responsibility and interest in the enterprise
are confined to the sale of their milk and cream to the creamery
and ceases with the delivery or shipment of the milk or cream
and receipt of the creamery's payment for the same on the basis
of its own quotation.

The profits and losses on the manufacture and sale of the
butter are borne by the creamery, and, in the case of partner-
ship, are shared according to the amount of money invested by
each partner.

The proprietary creamery obviously does not depend on
the co-operative spirit of the farming community. Its volume
is largely a matter of price offered, intensity of competition,
cow population, salesmanship, and financial backing. It is in

CREAMERY ORGANIZATIONS 35

the business to make profit from the investment of capital and
its legitimate transactions are unhampered by association
articles and by-laws.

Partnership creameries have the disadvantage of all partner-
ship enterprises. Each partner of a firm is individually liable
for all debts of the firm, contracted either with, or without

his consent.

•

Creamery Corporations. — The creamery corporation is a
joint stock company without co-operative features. It differs
from the proprietary creamery in that it is an incorporated
organization, hence each stock holder is liable only to the extent
of the amount of the money he invested. This limited liability
feature of the joint stock company is attractive to investors
and renders this type of creamery organization popular. Its
relation to the milk and cream producer is similar to that of
the proprietary creamery.

Its unlimited possibilities have attracted and invited men
of business enterprise and of capital into the creamery busi-
ness in all parts of the country, and especially into the great
stock-raising and grain-growing sections of the Middle West and
Far West, where the cow population is not dense enough to
make possible the successful operation of co-operative
creameries.

This type of creamery organization has lent itself admirably
to the establishment and operation of large centralized cream-
eries, who draw their supply of raw material from a vast area.
It is furnishing a ready and profitable market for the product
of the general farmer who has but a few cows and with whom
dairying is a side line rather than the main, business. It has
opened up, and is developing the husbandry of the dairy cow,
in sections where dairying was formerly thought unprofitable,
and it thereby has become a mighty factor, not only in increased
milk and butter production, but in the re-stocking of the land,
improving the fertility of the soil, making farming more profit-
able, furnishing the means for better education of the farmer's
sons and daughters, and dignifying the profession of agricul-
tural pursuits.

36 CONSTRUCTION OF CREAMERIES

CONSTRUCTION OF CREAMERIES

It is not the purpose of this volume to enter into detailed
discussion and to give specifications for the construction of
creameries. In the case of creameries of limited capacity, such
as co-operative creameries, and small proprietary factories,
such specifications and plans may be secured gratis upon re-
quest from the respective State Dairy Departments, many of
whom have published bulletins containing this information in
readily available and applicable form. 1, 2, 3. In the case of
creameries intended to do a very large volume of business, the
factor of personal ideas and preference on the part of the in-
vestor, combined with specialized talent usually employed by
him, renders directions in a treatise of this type of little value.
This discussion on creamery construction will, therefore, logic-
ally be confined to a few general suggestions that may be
of value.

Location of Factory: Proximity to cream supply, trans-
portation and marketing facilities. — The small local creamery
that depends for its main supply of milk or cream on a very
limited localized territory must obviously be located as near that
supply as possible. A large centralized plant, whose supply
territory covers a wide area, and that receives the great bulk
of its raw material by rail, is compelled to give first considera-
tion to suitable railway or other natural transportation facili-
ties, and to close proximity to large consuming centers for the
ready marketing of its product.

Water Supply. — The water supply is a most important
factor which should be definitely ascertained in the considera-
tion of a suitable site. The creamery, large or small, needs a
plentiful supply of clean, pure water, free from pollution with
organic matter, and objectionable minerals such as iron and
sulphur.

Sewerage Disposal. — The satisfactory disposal of the cream-

1 Mortenson, and Davidson, Creamery Organization and Construction, Iowa
Bulletin 139, 1913.

2 Farrington and Benkendorf, Organization and Construction of Creameries
and Cheese Factories, Wisconsin Bulletin 244, 1915.

8 Durand and Robotka, Cooperative Creameries and Cheese Factories in
Minnesota, Bulletin 166, 1917.

CONSTRUCTION OF CREAM SRIES 37

ery waste is exceedingly important. Unless this is provided for
by the municipal sewerage system, or a creek or river with run-
ning water throughout the year, the creamery is compelled to
resort to artificial sewerage disposal in the form of septic tanks,
or other contrivances. This is expensive and seldom entirely
satisfactory. It is inadvisable to locate the creamery in a place
that lacks either natural or municipal facilities for the proper
disposal of its waste.

Even in case the creamery is fortunate enough to be able
to connect with the town or city sewer, it may be necessary to
install a sediment tank or separating cistern, in order to prevent
the rapid coating and clogging of the municipal sewer line, where-
by the creamery is liable to forfeit its privilege to use the town
sewer.

Type of Building. — For small local creameries a one story
building is usually the most suitable. For larger plants, the one
story building of convenient dimensions generally does not
provide for enough storage room to carry the needed stock
of supplies. A two-story structure for creameries of over a
500,000 Ibs. butter output per year, appears most suitable and
most economical. Where it is desired to establish the gravity
plan of arrangement and operation throughout the plant itrjnay
be advantageous to use a separate story or floor for each depart-
ment, starting at the top with the receiving and "dumping"
department, using the next lower floor for neutralization and
pasteurization, the next for holding the cream in the vats before
churning and the last and lowest floor for churning.

Material for Construction. — The foundation and floor can
only be satisfactory when constructed of substantial, non-rotting
material. The material for the superstructure is best chosen
according to availability and financial ability. A creamery can
be made sanitary without going to the extravagance of costly
construction. Show creameries, involving large investment, are
often not profitable creameries, nor dot they necessarily symbolize
superior quality of product. For a small creamery with limited
capital a wooden superstructure may be entirely serviceable. If
ceiled and plastered on the inside that much the better. For
more durable construction, brick, concrete, stone, steel-concrete,

38 CONSTRUCTION OF CREAMERIES

etc., according to availability, financial ability and general prefer-
ence may be used.

Floors.— All floors in the operating rooms should be of con-
crete with cement surfacing, or similar non-rottable, impervious
material. The application of a reliable concrete hardener will
greatly help to make the cement more nearly wear-, water-, dust-
and crack-proof. On the receiving floor, or platform, where the
cream cans are handled, inlaid steel plates, materially protect
the floor against excessive wear.

After finishing, the floors should not be used for at least
two weeks. This will permit them to thoroughly harden, a condi-
tion which means a great deal to the life and serviceability of any
cement floor. The short life of the majority of unsatisfactory
cement floors in creameries is due to the fact that they were
pressed into service before the cement had properly hardened.

The cement should be carried up on the walls and partitions
at least two inches or more, forming a sanitary cove. In the case
of wooden walls and partitions, it is advisable to lath and plaster
the bottom four to five feet.

The floors should slope not less than one eighth of one inch
per foot. The slope should be uniform and even throughout,
avoiding low places.

Drainage and Drains. — All floors of the manufacturing rooms
should slope downward toward the drains, so as to facilitate rapid
and complete drainage. Large, water-sealed floor drains should
be sufficiently numerous and well placed in all rooms to rapidly
carry off the water. The tops of these floor drains should be about
one-half inch below the surface of the adjoining floor, so as to
catch the water readily. This feature must be personally super-
vised by the creamery man, as the average contractor is prone
to place the drain top a trifle above the surrounding floor, ex-
pecting the water to flow "up hill". In the larger rooms and
especially immediately under, or behind the churns, one or more
open- drain ditches in the floor, six to ten inches wide, with their
outlet to the sewer trapped, by a large bell-trap or other equally
efficient water-sealed drain, is preferable. These drain ditches
may be placed along the walls, or platform, or both, in order to
least interfere with traffic. If located in places over which there

CONSTRUCTION OF CRTS AMBRIES 39

is much traffic they are best covered by heavy, perforated iron
plates. These ditches should have a slope of at least one-eighth
inch per foot, their depth must necessarily depend somewhat on
their length and the depth of the main sewer pipe into which
they discharge. It is not advisable to have these ditches more
than about 40 feet apart, for rapid drainage of the floor.

The main sewer pipe, catching the drain discharges, should
be of large capacity, not less than six inches in diameter for a
small creamery and eight to twelve inches for a creamery manu-
facturing over 500,000 pounds of butter. Where the creamery
waste is disposed of through the municipal sewer, there should
be installed between the drain and the sewer pipe, outside of the
factory, a catch basin, or sediment tank. This is a tight cistern
through which all the creamery sewerage must pass and in which
the curdy material is given an opportunity to separate out and
rise to the surface, forming a dense layer. This curdy material,
if allowed to pass off into the municipal sewer, is prone to coat
and ultimately clog the town sewer pipe. This is especially
prone to happen, where the town sewer line has relatively little
fall. This catch basin must be cleaned out, removing the ac-
cumulated curdy scum, at reasonable intervals.

In order for this cistern to operate efficiently, it should be
large enough to hold the waste of at least one day's run. Its
intake from the creamery should terminate above the surface of
the accumulating scum in the cistern, and its outlet should extend
to near the bottom of the cistern. This arrangement will prevent
the outlet from becoming plugged up with scum. The chief solid
matter in creamery sewerage floats on the surface. There is very
little sediment deposited at the bottom.

Light. — It is advisable to install a reasonable number of
properly screened windows, so as to enable the operation of the
plant without artificial light, especially in winter, late fall and
early spring.

The sanitary value of natural light in the creamery has been,
in the past, greatly exaggerated and over-estimated, especially by
the average sanitary inspector. The tendency has been toward
a hysterical eulogy of the purifying action of the direct rays of
the sun. The fact is that even in creameries with a great abun-

40 CONSTRUCTION OF CREAM SRI£S

dance of windows, direct sun rays do not gain access to the
interior very often, and when they do, the windows are usually
purposely shaded to keep them out. Excessive exposure of milk,
cream and butter to sunlight invites rapid oxidation, and deter-
ioration of the product.

From the sanitary standpoint excessive light is objectionable,
because of the difficulty and practical impossibility by any now
known and really practicable means of effectively controlling
the fly pest in summer. The flies gather where there is light, they
shun the dark.

In creameries, the operating rooms of which are not located
at a sufficient elevation above ground to place them above the
fly-line, which is the case with most creameries, the sani-
tary condition will average far superior in the absence of natural
light. The light attracts the flies, and the pollution of the
product in a fly-infested creamery is far more objectionable, more
detrimental to quality and more dangerous to health, than the
absence of sunlight.

Creameries that have made a real study of fly control, have
found and have conclusively demonstrated by practical perform-
ance, that the most successful way of keeping their plants free
from flies in summer, is to darken the factory, shutting out all
direct natural light and operating under diffused or artificial light.

In one story buildings, a well-built skylight, with windows
so hung and equipped as to enable the use of the skylight also
lor ventilating purposes, generally proves a satisfactory arrange-
ment of windows. The skylight has the additional advantage of
attracting the flies to the ceiling and keeping them away from
equipment and product.

V- vUnder any circumstances it is advisable to. provide for a
satisfactory system of artificial lights for operation when natural
light is either not available or not desired.

Ventilation. — A proper and efficient system of ventilation
is a very important phase of creamery construction, and sani-
tary and economical operation. This applies to all parts of the
factory where work is being done, and it is especially essential
in rooms where much free steam escapes.

The ventilating system should be adequate to afford ready

CONSTRUCTION OF CREAMERIES 41

and quick removal of free steam, to efficiently expel foul air,
and to facilitate the regulation of temperature. Unless the
masses of free steam which befog the atmosphere daily in every
creamery, find a ready exit, and are expelled from the factory
quickly, they will condense, and cause the walls and ceiling to
sweat and drip and rot or corrode, the motors, belts and other
equipment to deteriorate, and mold growth to develop on walls
and ceilings and supplies. This is especially the case during the
winter months. The removal of foul air and the control of the
temperature of the air are essential for the comfort, health and
maximum efficiency of the employees and for the protection
of the product against deteriorating contamination.

The system of ventilation best suited to accomplish this
must of necessity vary with the location, type and size of the
building and the arrangement of the machinery. In the small,
one-story building, with a high roof, a well-made sky-light with
a steep slope of the side roofs, toward the sky-light, may prove
fairly efficient, especially where an effort is made to place the
equipment that gives off the free steam as directly under the
sky-light ventilator as possible.

In large creameries with more than one story the sky-light
system is seldom feasible. Nor is gravity ventilation, under
average conditions, adequate to produce satisfactory results, in
creameries where there is bound to be much escape of free steam.
In gravity ventilation, the circulation and exchange of air de-
pends exclusively on the difference in temperature between the
atmosphere on the inside and outside of the creamery. This
fails to produce a sufficiently rapid exchange of air to remove
the free steam before it condenses, especially in cold weather.

It is necessary, therefore, to provide for some form of forced
ventilation. Under certain conditions the use of the chimney
may furnish the needed draft. In this case an outer chimney
is built around the smoke stack proper, with an air space be^
tween the two stacks, and one or more ventilating flues in-
stalled in the creamery and terminating in the jacket between
the two chimney shafts, provides the exit for the air in the
creamery.

Under many other conditions, however, it becomes neces-

42 CONSTRUCTION OF CR£ AMBRIES

sary to hood that equipment, from which free steam escapes in
large volume, such as can washer and steamer, forewarmer,
pasteurizer, etc. and to have these hoods connected with flues
that are equipped with mechanical fans, preferably of the
squirrel-cage type, which expel the air and steam mechanically
through the wall or roof of the building.

Hoods without forced draft connections are usually not ef-
ficient and prove unsanitary. The steam escaping from the
heated cream is always more or less charged with free acids
which condense on the sides of the hood and soon render it
foul and unsanitary. The forced draft produced by a mechan-
ical fan expels the steam so rapidly that the volatile acids escape
to the outside before they have a chance to condense. For
satisfactory operation the hood should have as steep a slope
as possible, at least 45 degrees, otherwise the friction on the
hood retards the escape of the steam too much. The bottom of
the hood should terminate in a channel and drip, to collect any
condensation that may return from the flue.

Ventilating shafts terminating at their upper extremity in
a pent house which is equipped with a fan are very serviceable,
provided that the motor which drives the fan is properly pro-
tected against the hot steam and free acids that escape, or that
the motor is located outside of. the penthouse.

In rooms not infested with free steam, but where many
people are at work, such as may be the case in the print room,
gravity ventilation, usually proves adequate. In the absence of
a satisfactory gravity system with air shafts for the automatic
intake of fresh air and exit for foul air, the installation of a
mechanical fan in the wall or ceiling is recommended.

The Store Room. — A spacious store room should be pro-
vided, so as to enable the creamery to carry a plentiful stock
of supplies, package, and cans. The size of the store room should
offer no obstacle to the creamery's ability to take advantage of
rebates and bargains, by purchasing in quantities.

In the case of the one story factory there is seldom enough
room provided for a spacious store room and it may be advant-

CONSTRUCTION OF CREAMERIES 43

ageous in such cases to erect or rent the use of a suitable shed,
with rain-proof roof, in convenient proximity to the factory. In
the case of the two or more story creamery, the second, or
upper floor, generally serves as the store or stock room.

The store room should be so located and constructed that,
it can readily be kept clean and dry. A damp storage room
harbors dangers that may prove most disastrous to the
creamery. It invites mold growth on tubs, liners, wrappers and
other packing material and contributes to the rusting of the
cans in stock.

If located on the first floor, as a part of the factory, it should
be protected against free steam, and leaky pipes. If a shed is
used, the floor should be sufficiently elevated above ground to
avoid dampness from below, and the sides and roof should be
rain-proof. If located on the second floor above the factory,
every effort should be made to keep it closed against the moisture-
saturated air in the factory. The elevator shaft should be housed
in and the housing should be equipped with self-closing doors
in the factory and in the store room. If a portion of the store
room is located over the boiler room, care should be taken that
the blow-off and pop-off valves discharge, not over the boiler,
but through the walls to outside of the room. The store room
located over the factory is bound to be penetrated by the factory
air to some extent, even in spite of all these precautions. If
this store room represents the top floor and the roof is not in-
sulated, this air will condense on the underside of the cold roof
in winter, resulting in dampness and dripping, to the serious
detriment of the stock stored on this floor. The only permanent-
ly satisfactory means of avoiding this dampness is to seal the
roof on the under side, either with matched lumber or with some
prepared insulation material.

Cold Room. — One or more cold rooms of suitable size, ac-
cording to the capacity of the creamery, is a necessary feature.
Where butter is printed with the Friday printer, or other similar
printing equipment, the butter must have a chance to harden,
so it can be cut. into square-cornered, sharp-edged bricks. This
requires storing in a room at a reasonably low temperature.
Most churnings of butter, especially during the busy season of

44 CONSTRUCTION OF CREAMERIES

the year, must be held for several days before shipment can be
made. This holding must be done in a cool or cold atmosphere
in order to retard deterioration.

The cold room must be properly insulated, preferably with
cork board or similar efficient insulating material, at the bottom
under the concrete floor, at the sides and in the ceiling. The floors,
walls and ceilings, doors and windows, besides being insulated,
must be tight. A poorly insulated cold room, of loose con-
struction and ill-fitting doors, Avastes cold and fails to adequately
protect the butter.

The cold room must be dry. A damp or wet cold room
is a prolific breeding place for molds. In order to insure free-
dom from dampness, the drips from the melting ice or from the
sweating brine pipes, or ammonia coils, must be carried off with-
out leakage, and such circulation of air must be provided as
will cause the moisture in the air to condense over the ice or
cooling coils.

_, . For this purpose, the ice rack or the cooling coil rack must
be located over a water-tight pan which discharges the drips
into a suitable receptacle or to the outside of the cold room.

Proper circulation of the air is provided by equipping one
side of the ice rack or cooling coil rack with a baffle board that
extends from the drip pan to within a short distance from the
ceiling. The warm air, which is charged with moisture is lighter
than the cold air. The warm air rises to the top of the baffle
board and passes over the ice or cooling coils where it con-
denses its moisture, and the cooled dry air drops down into
the cold room from the other side of the drip pan where there
is no baffle board. This produces a constant and efficient circula-
tion of the air in the cold room, removing the moist air and
replacing it by dry air.

Bath Room. — Every up-to-date creamery should have
suitable and adequate toilet and bath room facilities. The neces-
sity of this essential is self-evident.

Heating. — Suitable arrangements should be provided to con-
trol the temperature in the factory. In localities with cold
winters the heating is usually best done by the use of exhaust
steam. Where the machinery is driven by electric power and

CONSTRUCTION OF CRKAMSRIES 45

no steam driven pumps are in operation, and there is therefore
no exhaust steam available, a low pressure steam line may be
run direct from the boiler to the radiators. It is not advisable
to place steam pipes or any other pipe lines in the concrete
floor for obvious reasons.

Insulation of Ammonia, Brine Steam and Water Lines. —

The matter of insulation of ammonia, brine, steam and water
pipes is an important item as related to the economy of fuel. For
proper and economical insulation the following types of pipe
covering are recommended :

Ammonia and Brine Lines. —
1st layer of tarred felt.
2nd layer of 1" thick hair felt.
3rd layer of tarred felt.
4th layer of 1" thick hair felt.
5th layer of tarred felt.
6th layer of wove-felt paper.
7th layer of 8-oz. canvas jacket, sewed on.
8th layer of sizing and one coat of lead and oil paint.
Each layer of hair felt must be securely wound with twine.
Each layer of all material should be coated with hot asphalt, ap-
plied while hot, excepting layers, 6, 7 and 8.

Special seals must be made at all flanges and fittings, and
such flanges and fittings must be insulated independently. This
arrangement will prevent damage to adjoining coverings, should
fittings spring leaks.

Before applying pitch or asphalt, the necessary precautions
must be taken to have the pipes thoroughly dry and the asphalt
or pitch must be hot.

Steam Lines. — Air cell asbestos covering, or covering of
equal insulating and lasting quality, one inch thick on pipes, and
fittings to be built up of asbestos cement to a corresponding
thickness; smoothly finished and neatly canvassed, with metal
bands at 18" intervals. Before putting on the metal bands the
covering should receive two coats of asbestos cold water paint.
Cold Water Lines. — Covering of wool felt, tar paper lined,

46 BUYING MII,K AND CRKAM

sectional, one inch thick on pipes; fittings to be built up to a
corresponding thickness with one inch hair felt, the entire line
should be neatly finished with a graded mixture of Portland
cement and asbestos cement, and canvas-jacketed and equipped
with metal bands at 18" intervals. Before putting on the metal
bands, the covering should receive two coats of asbestos cold
water paint.

CHAPTER III.
BUYING MILK AND CREAM.

Systems of Securing Milk and Cream. — The economy of the
manufacture and sale of butter is greatly dependent on the vol-
ume of business done and this in turn is controlled by the
amount of butterfat the creamery receives. The creamery must
have butterfat to manufacture butter, and the larger the supply
of butterfat, other conditions being equal, the more profitable
will be its business. Local conditions, the increasing demand
for butterfat by manufacturers and dealers of diverse dairy
products, and the growing keenness of competition among the
creameries for milk and cream, have gradually developed four
distinct systems of securing the butterfat from the farmer. These
are direct deliveries of milk and cream, milk and cream routes,
skimming stations and cream stations, and the direct shipper
system.

Direct Deliveries of Milk and Cream. — In this system the
milk or cream is hauled by the farmer direct to the creamery.
This is the oldest system of getting the butterfat to the creamery.
This is the system that first marked the inovation of making
butter in the factory instead of on the farm. It started by hav-
ing the farmers haul their milk to the creamery where it was
pooled and separated by gravity. Simultaneously, also, the
practise of skimming the milk on the farm by gravity and the
hauling of the cream developed. When the centrifugal cream
separator for factory use appeared, the skimming on the farm
was largely abandoned and the farmer hauled his milk to the
creamery where it was separated by the centrifugal separator.
But the glory of the whole-milk creamery was comparatively
short and the subsequent advent of the farm separator changed

BUYING MII,K AND CREAM 47

the place of skimming back to the farm and again the farmer
hauled his cream to the creamery.

This system, whereby the farmer hauls his own cream to
the creamery has the advantage that the creamery comes in
constant and individual contact with its patrons. Any disputes
arising over quality and weights and tests can be readily, quickly
and usually satisfactorily settled, misunderstandings are in-
frequent because the two contracting parties know each other
and in case of dissatisfaction, the weighing and testing can be
done in the presence of the patron, giving him an opportunity
to convince himself of the correctness of the work.

Again, the farmer who hauls his own cream, usually de-
livers it at reasonably frequent intervals. This enables the
creamery to secure a fairly fresh cream of good quality and if
the quality is not as it should be, the trouble can be explained
and instructions for improvement given at the platform direct
to the patron himself.

The greatest drawback to this system lies in the fact that
it limits the cream supply territory to a very narrow radius,
which does not permit of material extension. The individual
patron refuses to haul his cream a long distance. This system
is adapted only to sections of the country where the dairy in-
dustry has reached a high state of development, where dairying
is the principle business, where the herds are of good size and
in close proximity, where the cow population is dense. In ter-
ritories where the dairy industry is as yet in its infancy, where
dairying is merely a side issue of beef-, grain-, or fruit-farming,
where the herds are small and far apart, and where the cow
population is sparse, the creamery could not secure enough raw
material to operate on a profitable basis by this system of secur-
ing cream.

The Cream Route System. — In this system the creamery
establishes routes and the hauling of cream is done by cream
haulers engaged by the creamery. The hauler collects the
cream at the farmer's door, where he weighs and samples it.
The cream route system is the natural outcome of centralization
of cream delivery. By it, one man, the cream hauler, with one
team or truck, and traveling over the route but once is capable

48 BUYING Miuc AND CREAM

of bringing to the creamery the cream which by the direct de-
livery system requires the time of a score or more of patrons
and the use of as many conveyances and the traveling of hun-
dreds of miles to deliver it. The route can cover a much wider
area and it brings the market so close to the door of the patron,
that even the farmer who has but a very few cows and can
offer only a small amount of cream, can afford to patronize the
creamery. The cream route, therefore, is a stimulant to the dairy
business, it encourages the milking of cows, it saves the farmer
the time and equipment necessary to haul his own cream, it
reduces the cost of delivery and increases the cream supply of
the creamery.

Its disadvantage lies in the fact that by the route system
the creamery operator is no longer in direct touch with the
patron. It deals with the patron through the hauler. It must
depend on the hauler to take correct weights, and samples of
the farmers' cream and to induce the farmer to furnish cream of
good quality. The success of this system much depends on the
efficiency, conscientiousness and loyalty of the cream hauler.
Unfortunately the work of cream hauling, and the compensation
for this work, do not always attract men qualified as cream
route men. The cream hauler who fails to understand the
principle and to appreciate the importance of securing represen-
tative samples of cream, or who is so little interested in his
business that he permits the patron to become careless in the
handling of the cream, resulting in poor quality, or who, for
private gain, undermines the faith of the patron in the integrity
of the creamery, is obviously a costly liability, rather than a
valuable asset to the creamery.

Experience with the route system has demonstrated that
the quality of the cream received from the routes is a fairly
reliable index to the character and efficiency of the cream hauler.
The routes furnishing the best cream are usually found to be
manned by the most efficient and reliable haulers. In a similar
way the degree to which the route fat checks with the creamery
fat reflects fairly accurately the performance of the hauler.
Routes operated by efficient and conscientious haulers seldom
show serious shortages in fat, the fluctuations are slight and

BUYING MII<K AND CREAM 49

at the end of the month the differences practically balance each
other. But not so with the routes covered by an inferior hauler.
Here the fat actually received by the creamery is almost in-
variably less than the fat indicated by the tests of the individual
patron's samples and the shortages are often very great. On
these routes the creamery is therefore compelled to pay for
more butterfat than it receives, the overrun is diminished and
profits may turn into losses. It is obvious that, in order to
control these losses and to have an accurate check on the work
of the route men, the creamery must systematically check up
the butterfat of each delivery of each route and impress upon
its haulers that repeated serious discrepancies of this nature
will not be tolerated.

The haulers either receive a commission of so many cents
per pound of butterfat delivered, or they are hired by the day or
by the month, or they receive both wages and a commission.

When hauling for a commission, the hauler usually receives
from two to four cents per pound of butterfat and he furnishes
his own conveyance. The commission basis has the advantage
that it furnishes a strong incentive to secure the largest possible
volume of cream and to increase the number of patrons. It has
the further advantage that the hauler owns the conveyance and
the creamery is relieved of the expense of its upkeep. On the
other hand, the principle of the commission basis and the type
of men who usually insist on hauling for a commission, are not
particularly favorable to the stability of the business. On the
commission basis the income of the hauler varies very greatly
with the seasons of the year. In summer, during the flush o
the milk-producing season, he prospers, while in winter milk
production is at ebbtide and many patrons drop out entirely,
often causing his income to drop below a living wage. This
situation causes some of these haulers to quit hauling in winter
or to haul elsewhere, where the temporary compensation offered
is more attractive. Generally speaking, the hauler who works
on a straight commission basis is the most independent and the
least controllable hauler. He takes the attitude that he owns
the route and is at liberty to do with it what he pleases and.

50 BUYING MILK AND

since his income depends on volume, he generally pays little or
no attention to quality.

When the cream hauler is paid a daily wage he usually re-
ceives from two to four dollars per day and the creamery fur-
nishes all or part of the conveyance, or he receives from three to
five dollars per day and he furnishes all the conveyance and
takes care of its upkeep. As a rule men who are available for
employment by the day or month are of somewhat more stable
type. They prefer a regular, known income to speculating on
the fluctuating fortunes of a commission. They are employees
of the creamery in the true sense of the word and as such expect
to follow its instructions. Their work, therefore, is more easily
controlled by the creamery and is more dependable. The ab-
sence of the financial stimulus for results may deprive them
of some of the enthusiasm of the commissioned hauler, to secure
volume, yet if they are the right type of men this is usually no
serious handicap.

Finally, some creameries guarantee a definite wage and then
pay, in addition, a small commission of say one-half cent
per pound of butterfat for every pound of butterfat received
over and above a certain fixed minimum. This double-pay
system often works out very satisfactorily, it combines the
stability of the daily wage system with the incentive for volume
of the commission system, and makes the hauler feel that he is
sharing in the profits of the creamery.

The expense of the cream route system varies very con-
siderably with different creameries. It averages from about two
to five cents per pound of butterfat. Experience has shown
that when the creamery owns the conveyance the expense of
hauling is usually greater and frequently very much greater
than when the hauler furnishes it. Careless management and
neglect of teams and trucks may make the cost of the upkeep
very high. It is therefore to the creamery's interest to have
the hauler furnish his own conveyance and take care of its up-
keep.

The automobile truck has vastly increased the possibilities
of the route system, permitting the covering of a much wider
area than is possible with a team. For the best team of horses

BUYING MILK AND CREAM 51

a route with a circuit of twenty-four mlies is the very maximum
that can be covered in a day and there is need of frequent days
of rest for the horses when the routes cover such wide circuits
A good automobile truck can easily make a circuit of fifty miles
per day, thereby covering a vastly greater territory and hauling
to the creamery a much larger volume of cream. The cost of
hauling by truck, when the truck is manned by a competent man.
the country is reasonably level and the roads good, is no greater
than the cost of hauling by team. In the case of an incompetent
driver, however, the repairs may vastly increase the expense of
hauling by automobile truck. In a hilly country and in^a country
with poor roads there usually are times of the year when the
truck cannot be used and it is necessary to do the hauling by
team.

Not all cream secured by the route system is hauled direct
to the creamery. Many routes do not terminate at the creamery
but have their circuit at a considerable distance from the cream-
ery and the hauler ships the cream at the conclusion of the
day's work to the creamery by rail.

The Skimming Station and Cream Station System. — In the
days of the whole-milk creamery and the use of the centrifugal
factory separator, the creameries, in an effort to expand their
milk supply territory, established skimming stations located at
a convenient hauling distance or at a reasonable shipping dis-
tance. The farmers brought their milk to these skimming sta-
tions, where it was skimmed and tested, and from where the
cream was hauled or shipped to the central creamery.

With the advent and use of the farm separator the skim-
ming station gradually disappeared and the cream station took
its place. In this case the farmers skim their cream on the
farm and haul it to the cream station and the cream station
ships it to the creamery. Within recent years the cream sta-
tion system has developed very rapidly and today tens of thou-
sands of these cream stations are in operation, especially in the
central and far west of this continent.

The cream station has been a tremendous factor in develop-
ing the business of milking cows, especially in sections of the
country with a relatively thin cow population, where herds are

52 BUYING MILK AND CREAM

too small, the farms too far apart, and the amount of milk
produced within the available radius of local creameries is too
limited to make possible the profitable operation of such
creameries. The cream station brought the market in these
undeveloped dairy sections close enough to the farmer to enable
him to readily dispose of the product of his cows and to insure
him with a permanent market. This naturally encouraged him
to keep cows and while milk producing on these general-pur-
pose farms was a side line only, it became a profitable side line
that invited attention and development.

Cream stations which are operated by intelligent and com-
petent men who are interested in the development and welfare
of the dairy business, have proven successful and beneficial to
both the creamery and the farming community. In many locali-
ties, however, competition has had a demoralizing effect on the
cream station system, as many as half a dozen creamery com-
panies opening up stations at the same shipping point. This
has divided and reduced the cream available to each concern,
multiplying the expense of handling the cream and increasing
the cost of securing the butterfat.

In a great many cases the cream station is merely a corner
in the grocery store or country store, largely equipped only with
a cream scale and a Babcock tester and lacking proper facilities
for the keeping of the cream before shipment and for the proper
cleansing and scalding of cans and other utensils. And the sta-
tion operator in these cases is the storekeeper, or his helper,
neither of whom may have any interest in or knowledge of the
dairy business. Nor does the storekeeper usually run the cream
station for the profit he may make out of it. His chief aim is to
attract the farmers, so as to secure and hold their trade on his
merchandise. In towns where there are several stores, each
store may represent a cream station and the cream received by
each station goes to a different central creamery.

It may be readily observed that this type of cream stations
is not only of no benefit, but may become a distinct detriment to
the dairy industry, causing shortages of butterfat between sta-
tion and creamery, and encouraging the farmer in the production
of cream of poor quality. In the establishment and proper opera-

BUYING Miuc AND CRKAM

53

tion of cream stations the following factors are of permanent
importance :

Location. — The cream station should be accessible to the
farmers who come into town from the various directions. At
the same time, a location should be selected which would offer
good drainage, freedom from dust, isolation from stables, junk
shops and other contaminating surroundings. Open privy vaults
and manure piles should be especially guarded against, as they
are prolific breeding places of flies which may infect the cream
with germs harmful to the quality of the product, and danger-
ous to the health of the consumer. Bad odors are easily absorbed
by cream and in turn are transferred to the butter, thus jeopardiz-
ing its market value. The location of the station should, there-
fore, be selected with due consideration of sanitary surroundings.

Testing Table

|
o Cooling T<

s»
ink 0

Can "Rack

Fig*. 1. Arrangement of a properly equipped cream station

Construction. — The materials used for ordinary building
purposes are entirely suitable for the cream station. For a per-
manent cream station, however, the selection of materials of per-
manent character and not susceptible to decay is a matter of
economy. The great majority of the buildings that house cream
stations are built and used fundamentally for other purposes,
and are selected for the handling of cream after they are built.
It is important that at least a separate room be reserved for

54 BUYING MiiyK AND CREAM

the purpose of handling the cream. This room should embody
the most fundamental sanitary features necessary in the proper
handling of perishable food products, such as an impervious floor
of sufficient slope to permit good drainage, adequate ventilation
and light and proper screening of doors and windows.

Equipment. — The equipment of the cream station should
adequately provide for the receiving, weighing, sampling and
testing of the cream ; for keeping the cream cool and for the
washing, scalding and drying of the cans. The chief features
of such an equipment are platform scales, sample bottles,
samplers, Babcock testing outfits, consisting of standard test-bot-
tles, acid measures, acid, pipettes, cream test scales, centrifugal
machine, hot water bath, glymol, facilities for water and steam
or hot water, a wash tank, can rack, and a cream cooling tank.
There should also be provisions for keeping the first and second
grades of cream separately and the places used for the different
grades should be so placarded.

The Operator. — The operator is the soul of the station. He
is the local representative of his company and should realize his
responsibility. He should recognize the fact that he serves as
a mirror in which the patrons see the policy and attitude of the
creamery. He should give correct and honest weights and tests,
and be fair and right in all his dealings with the farmers, so as
to gain and maintain their respect and confidence. He should
know the problems of the farmer as well as those of the creamery.
He should so direct his efforts as to be of service to them with
competent advice on better cows, better feeding and the proper
care of the cream. He should be familiar with the conditions
which cause cream tests to vary so as to satisfy the patrons
in the case of controversies arising from such variations; and
above all he should appreciate that the most effective means of
securing the patrons' co-operation for better cream, lies in his
example in grading and caring for the cream properly after it
arrives at the station and in returning clean, dry and sweet-
smelling cans.

Station Shortages. — One of the biggest problems of the
station operator is the shortages which occur between the
amount of butterfat paid for by him and the amount received by

BUYING MILK AND CREAM 55

the creamery. This is usually caused by his failure to remove
all of the cream from the patron's can, improper sampling, errors
in reading or the reading of unsatisfactory tests, or possibly the
loss of cream in transit. The latter can easily be checked by
comparing the pounds of cream shipped from the station with
the amount received by the creamery. With the exception of the
last point, the operator of the station has practically the whole
matter in his hands. The very fact that many stations are check-
ing within less than one per cent of the amount of butter fat
handled is an encouragement for others to work for a similar
standard. Accurate, painstaking work at the creamery and at
the station will eliminate excessive losses.

In the majority of the cream stations, the cream is weighed
and tested and the station operator pays the farmers direct. In
fact one of the advantages of the station system lies in the fact
that the farmer can see his cream tested and can get his money
upon delivery of the cream. This feature has its disadvantages
too, in the fact that it often brings about hasty and inaccurate
testing and unreliable tests. In some states (Kansas for
instance) the law forbids the testing of the cream on the day it
is received, so as to guard against abuses of the station testing.

Some cream stations merely weigh and sample the cream
and send the mixed cream and the samples to the central
creamery, and the creamery sends the checks to the patrons
either direct or through the station operator. Here, as in the
route system, the creamery often experiences serious difficulties
in making the station fat check with the creamery fat and the
shortages are usually against the creamery.

The station operator generally receives a commision of from
two to four cents per pound of butterfat handled. This, to-
gether with operating expense and railway charges for shipping
the cream to the creamery, causes the expense of buying by
the station system to amount to about from three to six cents
or over per pound of butterfat, not including the usual short-
ages in the butterfat due to differences between station and
creamery tests.

Independent Cream Buyers. — Another phase of the cream
station system is that known as the independent cream buyer.

56 BUYING MII<K AND CREAM

In this case the creamery does not operate a station as such.
The independent cream buyer operates a cream station of his
own. Here he receives the farmer's cream, weighs and tests
it and ships it to the creamery. He sells it to the creamery
at a stipulated price based on market quotations. The creamery
simply buys the cream from the independent cream buyer and
pays him for it, regardless of how he secures it, or what he pays
for it. These independent buyers are under no specific obliga-
tion to the creamery, they are not employed by the creamery
and they sell to the creamery that will pay them the best price.

The independent buyer cannot be considered a stable factor
in the creamery business. His investment in the business is
negative and his responsibility to the business causes him no
worry. His tendencies are nomadic, he exists because he sees,
or thinks he sees, an opportunity to make easy money. His
plans do not contemplate permanency of business, he goes into
it prepared to retire from it the moment conditions are not
favorable for immediate profit. In exceptional cases the creamery
may advantageously deal with the independent buyer, but more
often these business relations are of short duration only, and
often cease when the creamery needs cream most. With a few
isolated exceptions, the independent buyer cares nothing for
quality and furnishes an inferior grade of cream.

Farmers' Co-operative Marketing Association. — Still another
type of cream station system is represented by Farmers' Co-
operative Marketing Associations, in which the farmers pool
their cream and sell it through the medium of the secretary or
other representative officer of their association. Such an associa-
tion has been in operation in the state of Nebraska for several
years. While the principle of mutual co-operative organizations
of this type is commendable and should be advantageous to the
cream producer, the actual results of their operation have not
proved very satisfactory from the standpoint of the stability of
the creamery industry. This association cream, similar to the
independent buyers cream, represents a floating supply. The as-
sociation sells to the highest bidder and the keen competition
among creameries for cream not infrequently causes the prices
paid for this cream to be far beyond its market value. This, to-

BUYING Miut AND CRKAM 57

gather with the uncertainty of securing this cream, caused by
the fact that the co-operative association may sell to one cream-
ery today and to another creamery tomorrow, tends to have a
demoralizing, rather than a stabilizing effect on the creameries
concerned.

The Direct-Shipper System. — In this system the patrons ship
to the creamery direct. Similar as in the case of the station
system the great advantage of the individual-shipper system
lies in its practically unlimited supply territory, enabling the
creamery to draw on a larger area for its raw material.

This system has the further pronounced advantage of
eliminating the middleman and his commission and of doing
away with the possibility of discrepancies in pounds of butter-
fat between middleman and creamery. The cream reaches the
creamery direct from the farmer, where it is weighed, sampled
and tested under conditions that facilitate accuracy and minimize
errors. It also saves the creamery the expense of shipping cans
since the cream is shipped to the creamery in the farmer's own
cans and no transfer into creamery cans is required, as is the
case with the cream route and with the station systems.

The individual-shipper system combines the simplicity and
economy of the direct delivery of the cream by the individual
patron at the creamery, with the advantages of securing volume,
of the cream-route and cream-station systems.

Its disadvantages are few. In the routine of business per-
sonal contact with the farmer is difficult. Except for the hold-
ing of occasional dairymen's meetings in which the creamery
representative will meet the farmer, the patrons are reached
largely by mail only. With a well organized correspondence
department, however, it has been found that this manner of
contact can be made exceedingly efficient and effective.

Experience has amply demonstrated that the direct-shipper
system furnishes a better quality of cream than the usual cream
station or the average cream route. The cream is shipped on a*n
average as often as the station or route gets it so that there is
not much preference, if any, from the point of view of the age
of the cream. The cream coming to the creamery direct and
without being held up and transferred in the cream station, where

58 BUYING MILK AND

it is often exposed to very unfavorable temperature conditions,
and where good cream is frequently mixed with cream of inferior
quality, is a strong factor in favor of direct-shipper cream.

Again, the central creamery is better equipped with ade-
quate can washing, rinsing, sterilizing and drying facilities than
most of the cream stations. This insures clean cans for the
direct-shipper patron while the station patron often gets cans
that are in very unsanitary condition. The bad effect on the
quality of the cream of an unclean can in itself is serious, but
the moral effect such cans have on the patron is of even greater
significance. The patron who finds that his can which he takes
back from the station is unclean and has a foul odor, loses
interest in his own care of the cream. He realizes the hopeless-
ness of his efforts to furnish the station with good cream when
he has to store and haul that cream in contaminated cans. And
the station operator's gospel of sanitation under such conditions
falls on deaf ears.

Concentration Points. — Some creameries receiving their
cream by the direct-shipper system establish and operate so-called
concentration points, to which the farmers ship their cream and
from which it is shipped by the creamery company to the cen-
tral factory. ^

These concentration points usually are fully equipped and
efficiently manned plants for the grading, weighing, sampling,
testing and cooling of the cream, for the washing and sterilizing
of the shipping cans and for the soliciting of cream from the
farmers. They differ principally from the cream stations, in
that the concentration point pays direct-shipper prices for but-
terfat, and that most of its cream supply arrives by rail.

The concentration point, similar to the cream station, has
for its purpose the extension of the cream supply territory, the
increase of volume. Its inevitable draw-back is that it tends to
jeopardize the quality of the cream. The cream arriving at the
Concentration point has already been exposed to the trials of
rail shipping once, and its delay at this point together with that
of reshipping prolongs its journey from farm to factory. The
effect of these delays is especially noticeable during hot weather,
often resulting in many yeasty and foamy cans. Unless suitable

BUYING MII,K AND CREAM 59

and adequate provision is made for the prompt cooling and keep-
ing cool of the cream at the concentration point, such cream is
difficult to handle when it arrives at the creamery and is liable
to depreciate the quality of the butter.

The concentration point also has to deal with losses of but-
terfat due to shortages between its tests and the creamery tests
and due to spilling. This, together with the high prices paid
for this cream, often renders the cost of the butterfat unduly
high and the manufacture of butter from it unprofitable. In
short the concentration point, similar to the cream station, tends
to increase the cost of the finished butter and to lower its quality.

Management of the Patron. — The patron is the foundation
of the creamery, business in a similar sense as the cow is the
foundation of the dairy business. Without patrons there is no
raw material, no milk and cream, and without raw material
there can be no butter. The management of the patron in its
fullest sense involves the successful solution of the following
important problems:

%

1. The creamery must satisfy the patron with the price he
is offered for his butterfat in order to successfully solicit his
business.

It is reasonable to predict that the policy which, in the
long run will attract and satisfy the largest number of patrons,
and that will stand the test of time, is for the creamery to pay
the highest price for butterfat possible, consistent with a well
managed and legitimately operated business, and allowing for
a reasonable creamery profit, together with skill in salesmanship,
perseverance and efficiency of service.

2. The creamery must secure the patron's confidence in
its honesty and integrity in order to maintain his patronage.
This can only be accomplished by honest and accurate weights
and tests, and it is greatly facilitated by giving the patron the
benefit of the doubt in cases of controversies where there is no
indication of intentional dishonesty on the part of the patron.

3. The creamery must interest him in, and enthuse him over,
his business in order to induce him to produce more and to
improve quality.

60 CARE c# MILK AND CREAM ON FARM

4. The creamery must educate the patron in larger and more
economical production and in the proper 'care of his product.
The fundamental lesson in better care of cream lies in cream
grading and paying on the basis of quality.

CHAPTER IV.

CARE OF MILK AND CREAM ON THE FARM

The cardinal requisites in the production of wholesome and
good-flavored milk and cream are :

Healthy cows and attendants.

Wholesome feed and pure water.

Absence of feeds and weeds that produce objectionable
flavors and odors.

Reasonable attention to cleanliness.

Prompt cooling.

Frequent deliveries.

Protection in transportation.

Milk from Healthy Cows and Attendants. — Milk from cows
suffering from specific bovine diseases, such as tuberculosis, foot
and mouth disease, infectious abortion, udder diseases, etc., is un-
safe for consumption and manufacture because of its danger of
containing the germs of these diseases. Milk or cream from such
cows jeopardizes the health and life of the consumer, unless
rendered harmless by proper pasteurization.

Cows that suffer from specific disease, and cows that are
in poor physical condition such as often is the case with cows,
poorly fed, fed unwholesome feed, that receive polluted
water, or cows suffering from inclement weather or that are
pestered with flies or other insects, or cows that are in feverish
condition, may and often do produce milk with abnormal
chemical and physiological properties, which in themselves may
be harmful to the consumer or which may impair the flavor and
marketable properties of the product.

Milk secretion is a physiological function. If this function
is abnormal the properties of the resulting product — milk — may
also be and often are abnormal. Any condition which materially
disturbs the physiological functions of the animal, therefore, is

CARK OF MII,K AND CREAM ON FARM 61

prone also to disturb the healthfulness and the chemical and
physiological character of the milk and the products manu-
factured from it.

It is obvious that, if milk and its products are to be free
from germs of infectious, or contagious human disease, the at-
tendants of the cows must be in healthy condition and must not
associate with persons suffering from such diseases. The use of
water for washing and rinsing milk utensils, that comes from a
polluted well, or similar source of infection, further jeopardizes
the safety of milk.

Proper Feed and Water. — Outside of the unfavorable effect
of moldy and decayed feed on the health of the cows, such feeds
are prone to impart to milk and its products undesirable flavors
characteristic of these defects. Thus moldy straw and hay,
moldy or sour silage and grain, decayed roots, etc., lend milk and
its products objectionable flavors which injure their market value.

Certain feeds, when fed in excessive quantities, such as
silage, rye pasture, beets, turnips, cabbage, etc., give milk, cream
and butter, flavors which are not desired. The danger from
these feed flavors may be greatly minimized by feeding such
feeds, four to six hours before milking.

Certain weeds, especially wild onions, garlic and leeks, im-
part to milk, cream and butter a most intense and obnoxious
onion flavor, which is very difficult to remove from these prod-
ucts. These flavors usually appear in milk and cream in Spring
and Fall, due to the cows having access to pastures which are
infested with these weeds, at a time when the pastures are not
sufficiently advanced, or have dried up too much, to satisfy the
cows, causing them to feed on anything green they can find.
The surest way to prevent this flavor in milk, cream and
butter is to completely eradicate these weeds from the pastures
by burning, plowing up and rotation of crops as recommended by
the U. S. Department of Agriculture Farmers' Bulletin 610.
When this is not possible the removal of the cows from such
pastures either to garlic-free pastures or to the barn-yard, from
4 to 6 hours before milking them, will greatly minimize this
objectionable flavor in milk, cream and butter.

62 CARE OF MILK AND CREAM ON FARM

Cleanliness. — Filth and manure, when they gain access to
milk and cream, pollute these products with their re-
spective odors and flavors. They further contaminate them with
diverse species of bacteria, which ferment the product, decompos-
ing one or more of its ingredients, producing objectionable odors
and flavors and yielding ferments, such as enzymes, which in turn
have the power of decomposing the product and deteriorating it
in storage.

In order to avoid unnecessary contamination of milk, cream
and butter, these products should be produced and handled under
cleanly conditions. The barnyard should be kept dry and free
from manure so that the cows are not compelled to wade knee-
deep in mud before they enter the stable. The stable must be
kept free from abnormal accumulation of dirt, and manure ; the
manure must be removed at least once daily; the bedding must
be clean and the stable must be sufficiently ventilated to eliminate
strong animal and manure odors; the floors should be sprinkled
with Avater before sweeping and the sweeping must be done
several hours before milking, so as to give the dust in the air
a chance to settle before the milk is exposed to the stable air.

The cows must be kept clean, by preventing them from
lying down on a filthy floor and their udder and flanks should be
wiped off with a clean, damp cloth before milking commences ;
the currying of the cows should be done after and not before
milking.

The milker must be embued with a sufficient sense of clean-
liness and decency, to milk with clean, dry hands and to protect
the milk from undue contamination with dust, dirt and other
impurities.

If machine milking is practised the teat cups and rubber
tubes should be thoroughly washed and soaked between milk-
ings in a solution of a suitable disinfectant, and the pulsators,
pails and acceessories must be regularly washed and scalded.

The utensils must be clean and as nearly sterile as possible.
For this all pails, dippers, strainers, coolers, etc.^should be rinsed
with cold or luke warm water, washed thoroughly with hot
water, containing some washing powder and then scalded with
boiling hot water, or steamed if steam is available,

CARE OF MILK AND -CREAM ON FARM

63

Cleanliness of Separator. — The cream separator is a collector
of many of the impurities contained in milk. These impurities
are found in the separator slime which deposits on the wall and
between the internal contrivances of the bowl. The separator
slime consists largely of viscous nitrogenous matter contained in
the milk, and a large portion of the dust, dirt and bacteria
which may have reached the milk during its process of produc-
tion. In addition to the separator slime, the bowl, at the end
of the separation, contains remnants of milk, skim milk and
cream, all of which are prone to decompose and ferment unless
removed promptly. If not washed and freed from all these im-
purities and remnants of milk of the previous separation, the

separator bowl becomes a
seat of contamination and
the source of unclean, un-
wholesome and filthy
cream, the disastrous con-
sequences of which no
subsequent care or treat-
ment of • the cream can
overcome. Not only
should the separator bowl
be washed after each sep-
aration, but the washing
must be thorough. The
most aggravated cases of
unsanitary and unclean
cream, result from the use
of separators, the bowls of
which are never washed en-
Tig. 2. TMS bowl was flushed after use. if tirely clean and, while no
not taken apart and washed it will toe j amount of filth is left

foul-smelling- at the next separation

on them, they contain just

enough of old and decomposing matter to expose the cream of
each separation to bad odors and to infection with germs capable
of producing very undesirable fermentions and flavors, which are
responsible for butter of inferior quality.

How to Wash the Separator. — After each separation flush
out the bowl, while still running, thoroughly with water until

64 CARE OF MIIJC A-ND CREAM ON FARM

the discharge from the skim milk spout is clear. This removes
most of the remnants of milk and cream and loosens the separa-
tor slime in the bowl, making subsequent washing easy. Take
the bowl apart and wash with brush and hot water containing
some good washing powder or other alkali, all parts of the bowl,
bowl cover, discharge spouts, float, supply tank and buckets.
Rinse them with scalding hot water and steam them if steam
is available. Allow them to drain in a clean place, protected from

rig-. 3. Bowl immediately after separation

dust and flies. All other milk utensils should receive similar
treatment. Do this after each separation.

A clean separator will also skim more* closely, as ex-
plained in the chapter on the separation of milk, and the sep-
arator will last longer, because the acids formed by the decompos-
ing impurities in the bowl tend to corrode the bowl and internal
contrivances and to shorten the life of the separator.

Care of Cream After Separation. — The cream should always
be cooled immediately as it comes from the separator. The com-
mon practise of placing the cream in the cellar for this purpose
is undesirable. Cream so stored is prone to contain a so-called
cellar odor, which is antagonistic to the flavor of good butter.

CARE OF MILK AND CREAM ON FARM 65

Again, by setting the cream can or crock in the cellar, the cooling
will be slow and not rapid enough to insure good flavor. The
animal heat in it, unless removed by prompt cooling, gives it a
peculiar smothered flavor which often follows the cream into the
butter.

The warm cream is in ideal condition for bacterial decompo-
sition and spoiling. If promptly and properly cooled the activity
of the bacteria and other ferments is retarded, if not entirely
checked, and the cream will keep sweet and in good condition
for a reasonable length of time. The lower the temperature to
which it is cooled, the longer will it keep in normal condition.
Cooling to the temperature of the water available on the average
farm alone greatly retards bacterial action. The cream should
be cooled at once after it leaves the separator. The beneficial
effect then is greatest. If the cooling is delayed until fermenta-
tions have commenced, the life of the cream is greatly shortened ;
for once started, fermentations are checked with difficulty.

When promptly cooled and frequently stirred, the cream re-
mains in proper mechanical condition so that it can be readily
transferred without excessive loss due to sticking to the can.
This also makes possible the taking of representative samples
therefrom, which in turn is the foundation for accurate tests. One
of the fundamental causes of irregular and incorrect cream tests
lies in the poor mechanical condition of the cream when sampled.
It is difficult to take a correct sample from cream that has not
been cooled promptly and properly, nor stirred frequently, or
that is otherwise in poor condition.

How to Cool Cream. — The only practical way to cool cream
promptly and to successfully control the temperature under aver-
age farm conditions is to set the cream cans in a properly in-
sulated tank filled with cold water. The heat conductivity of
water is twenty one times as great as that of air. This means
that by setting the cans in water the cream will be cooled twenty
one times as fast as by letting them stand in the air at the
same temperature. The tank used for cooling the cream should
be deep enough to allow the water to cover the cans at least
as far up as the cream will reach when the can is full. It should

66

CARE: OF MIT^K AND CREAM ON FARM

Fig*. 4. A practical cream cooling* tank

Courtesy of Independent Silo Co.

be large enough to hold
a sufficient body of water
to avoid too rapid warm-
ing up of the water when
the tank is opened in hot
weather. It should be
sufficiently insulated to
hold the temperature
within a few degrees for
eight to twelve hours. It
should provide for one
can for the warm cream
and one can for the cooled
cream ;warm cream should
never be poured into cold
cream. The warm cream
should be cooled first before mixing with the cold cream, other-
wise the mixture will spoil rapidly. Aside from cooling the
cream and keeping it cool, the cream cooling tank furnishes a
desirable place for the storage of cream, protecting it against
contaminating odors, dust, dirt, flies, gnats and rodents. The
cream should be covered so as to prevent these contamina-
tions. Cream stored in the cellar, the dry pit, or other similar
places may become infected with insects and other life, that
render it unfit for any purpose. The same precautions should
be taken in the storage of milk.

There are now available on the market numerous suitable
and practical cream cooling' tanks for this purpose. The use of
these tanks, not only helps to preserve the quality of the cream,
but it also simplifies and economizes the labor of handling the
cream.

Age of Cream. — Generally speaking, the closer the churn is
placed to the cow, the better the prospects of a high quality of
butter.

Cream is a highly perishable product. Like other similar
food products it is best when fresh and should, therefore, be
marketed, or used for manufacture, as early as possible after

CARE: OF Miuc AND CREAM ON FARM 67

it escapes from the separator. Age will gradually deteriorate
cream under any condition. While proper care retards such
deterioration it cannot entirely prevent it, hence, if intended
for the sweet-cream trade it should be delivered daily; if
butter is made on the farm the churning should be sufficiently
frequent to avoid the necessity of using stale cream. If sent
to the creamery, deliveries should be made two to three times
per week or oftener. Excessive age of cream is one of the arch
enemies of the butter industry, because it paralizes largely all
other efforts to improve the quality of the butter.

Protection of Cream in Transit. — The cream cans should be
kept in the cooling tank until they leave the farm. While on
the road they should be properly protected against excessive
heat in summer and cold in winter. While hauled to the
creamery or station this may be effectively done by covering the
cans with a wet blanket in summer and a dry blanket in winter.
For shipping long distances the use of insulated cans, or cans over
which a jacket has been slipped, is desirable. In the absence
of this practise a tank with cool water should be provided at the
station in the summer and the cream should be shipped in iced
cars during the hot summer months. These precautions are as
yet very largely ignored, both by the shipper and by the railway
and express companies and it is to be hoped that, with the future
development and more intensive practises of cream transporta-
tion, this important phase may receive its due share of attention.

Another feature of transportation which has had an un-
iavorable influence on quality, is the difficulty of insuring a
prompt return of the empty cans to the farmer. For reasons
which have not as yet been satisfactorily explained, the return
of the empties has been consistently neglected by some trans-
portation companies, causing these cans to reach the farmer
frequently after weeks of delays and misshipment. The empty
can should receive the same attention as the full can. It should
be considered perishable merchandise, for if it is not returned
to the farmer promptly, he has no means to ship the cream which
has been accumulating- on the farm, causing this cream to spoil.

68 THE: SEPARATION OF MH,K

CHAPTER V.
THE SEPARATION OF MILK.

Purpose. — The purpose of separating milk is to obtain
cream. Cream is that portion of milk which contains a relatively
large proportion of its butterfat. In order to comply with the
legal Federal standard, cream must contain not less than 18
per cent of butter fat.

The chief objects of using cream for butter making, instead
of churning milk, are first to reduce the volume of the fluid to be
churned and therefore to increase the capacity of the churn and
to reduce the labor and expense of churning; second to facilitate
the speed of churning; the richer the fluid is in butter fat, the
more readily do the fat globules unite into granules and the
shorter the time required for churning; third to increase the ex-
haustiveness of churning; milk or thin cream do not churn out
exhaustively, because the large volume of intervening liquid pre-
vents many of the fat globules, especially the small ones, from
uniting, thereby causing a relatively large number of these
globules to remain unchurned, to pass into the buttermilk and
to result in excessive loss of fat and a correspondingly small
churn yield. The churning of milk and thin cream further aug-
ments the loss of fat because it yields large volumes of butter
milk, thereby increasing the pounds of fat lost.

Aside from the advantages of churning cream instead of
milk, large volumes of cream are separated for purposes other
than buttermaking, such as for table use, ice cream making, the
manufacture of whipped cream, etc.

Principle of Separation. — The separation of cream from milk
is based on the principle that the butter fat is lighter than the
other constituents of milk. At 60 degrees F. the specific gravity
of average milk is about 1.032, that of butterfat about .93 and
that of skim milk about 1.037. The fat globules, containing the
butterfat, therefore, yield to the gravity force and rise to the
surface.

The principal agent retarding or preventing their upward
passage is the viscosity of the milk, which is largely due to its

THE SEPARATION OF Miuc 69

albuminoids, the casein, albumin, fibrin, globulin and other
similar constituents of a colloid nature inherent in milk and
cream, and to the milk sugar. If the viscosity of milk were no
greater than that of water, the fat globules would rise to the
surface instantaneously in a similar manner as oil poured
into water rises to the surface.

In the separation of cream considerable portions of the
water and of the non-fatty solids of the milk are carried into
the cream. Generally speaking, the relation of solids not fat
to water in the cream is approximately the same as it is in milk.
The per cent of solids not fat in cream, however, is lower than
the per cent of solids not fat in milk, it varies inversely with the
per cent of fat. The higher the per cent of fat, the lower the
per cent of solids not fat. For further details on the composi-
tion of cream see "Composition of Cream," Chapter XVIII.

Methods of Separation. — The separation of milk, as practiced
on the farm and in the factory, is accomplished either by gravity
or by centrifugal force. In the application of these two funda-
mental systems of separation the following methods are used :

shallow pan method

Gravity separation

deep-setting method

~ , farm cream separator

Centrifugal separation '

water-dilution (or hydraulic) method

| power cream separator
Separation by Gravity. — The milk is set at rest in a cool
place until most of the fat has risen to the surface forming a
layer of cream. The fat globules rise to the surface because of
the fact that they are lighter than the other liquid and solid con-
stituents'of the milk.

The Shallow Pan Method.— The milk, preferably fresh from
the cow, is poured into a shallow pan usually, though not neces-
sarily, 15 to 25 inches in diameter and about 4 inches deep. The
pan is placed into a cool place, such as the cellar or it -may be
set in water. After 36 hours practically all of the fat capable of
rising to the surface by this method will have come to the sur-
face and the layer of cream thus formed is then skimmed off with
a spoon, ladle or specially constructed skimmer. The skim milk
usually contains about .5 to .6 per cent fat.

70 CENTRIFUGAL SEPARATION

The Deep-setting Method. — The milk, preferably fresh from
the cow, is poured into a can of the "shot-gun" type, about 8
to 10 inches in diameter and 18 to 25 inches deep. This can is
placed in cold water and held at as low a temperature as possible.
Temperatures between 45 degrees F. and the freezing point of
water are preferable. At the end of 24 hours the separation is
usually as complete as it is possible to secure by this method of
separation. The removal of the cream thus separated is most
conveniently accomplished by drawing the skim milk from a
faucet at the bottom of the can, leaving about one inch of skim
milk in the can. The skim milk should be drawn off slowly in
order to avoid currents which cause a portion of the cream to be
drawn into the skimmilk. In the case of cans without faucets the
cream is removed with a dipper from the top. The skim milk,
under proper conditions of creaming, averages about .2 to .3 per
cent fat.

The Water-Dilution Method.— The milk is diluted with equal
parts of clean water, usually at about 100 degrees F. and set in
a cool place for 12 hours, when it is ready to be skimmed.
The skim milk is drawn from the bottom of the can. The
great rapidity of the separation by this method is due to the
lesser viscosity of the diluted milk which permits the fat globules
to rise more readily to the surface. The skim milk generally
contains from .3 to .4 per cent fat, but since it is diluted to twice
its volume with water, the actual loss of fat in the original skim
milk is .6 to .8 per cent.

CENTRIFUGAL SEPARATION

Definition. — In centrifugal separation the centrifugal force
generated in a rapidly revolving bowl takes the place of the
gravity force acting on milk in a vessel at rest. By centrifugal
force, in the sense used here, is understood the force which
causes a body, revolving around a center point, to fly from the
center. As a simple illustration of this may be mentioned the
pull which is felt when a weight attached to a string is whirled
about the hand. The pull is caused by the tendency of the con-
centrally moving weight to fly outward and the pull increases in
force, the longer the string and the faster the weight is whirled.

CENTRIFUGAL SEPARATION 71

The discus throw of the athlete is a concrete example of the cause
and effect of the centrifugal force. The centrifugal force acts on
liquids as well as on solid bodies.

The Theory of Centrifugal Separation. — The separation of
the cream from milk in the centrifugal separator is based on the
well known physical law that when liquids of different specific
gravities revolve around the same center, at the same distance,
and with the same speed, the greater force is generated by the
heavier liquid than by the lighter. Milk, as already stated, con-
sists of two liquids of different specific gravities, the fat particles
and the milk serum. The milk enters the rapidly revolving bowl
either at the top, middle or at, the bottom of the bowl. In most
separators it runs first through a central tube which carries it
to the middle or bottom before it is discharged into the bowl. In
the case of a bowl not in motion the milk fills the bowl from,
the bottom up due to the force of gravity. When the bowl is
rapidly revolving the force of gravity is overcome by the cen-
trifugal force which is over a thousand times greater than the
gravity force. The milk is therefore thrown immediately to the
periphery or side of the bowl, filling the bowl from the side to
the center.

While both liquids, the fat particles and the milk serum, are
forced to the bowl wall, the heavier liquid, which is the skim
milk, is driven from the center with greater force than the
lighter liquid which is the fat particles. The skim milk thus
forms a vertical wall enveloping the side of the bowl. As the
result of this separation the fat globules, which are uniformly
distributed in the milk before it is subjected to the centrifugal
force, separate .from the skim milk and, through a recurrent
motion, are crowded toward the center of the bowl, where they
accumulate in a vertical layer of cream, in a similar way as
they gather on the surface of the milk by gravity creaming. It
is obvious, therefore, that the least fat is found near the periphery
of the bowl and the most fat is found near the center of the bowl.

As more milk flows into the bowl, the vertical wall of skim
milk and cream expands in thickness, filling up the larger por-
tion of the bowl. In most types of bowls, operated under normal
conditions, the milk never fills the entire bowl, a vacant space

72

CENTRIFUGAL SEPARATION

being left in the center. The vertical wall of milk in the bowl
increases until the discharge from the skim milk outlet and that
from the cream outlet equal the rate of inflow of milk to the bowl.

The intensity of the centrifugal force is controlled by three
fundamental factors ; namely the speed and diameter of the bowl
and the weight of the contents. It increases in proportion as the
weight of the contents of the bowl and the diameter of the bowl
increases, and also with the square of the number of revolutions
per minute. Lamson1 calculated the centrifugal force factor for
numerous farm separators as shown in the succeeding table.
His calculations are based on the following formula:

Fc=WD (R. P. M.)2.000014208 in which

Fc= Centrifugal force

W= Weight expressed in pounds

D=Inside diameter of bowl expressed in inches

R. P. M.=Revolutions per minute.

In all of the computations, the weight was figured as one
pound, since a comparison only of the centrifugal force factors
was desired.

Table 4. — Centrifugal Force Factor when Revolutions per Minute
and Diameter of Separator Bowl in Inches are known.

Name of Separator

Revolutions
per
Minute

Diameter
in
Inches

Centrifugal
Force Factor,
Calculated

Galloway

7500.0

4.6780

3738.7

Economy King

8378.0

3.9630

3952.2

Dairy Queen

8160.0

4,2500

4020.7

John M Smythe

8220.0

4.2500

4080.0

United States
New Butterfly

9336.8
9145.0

3.4500
3.7187

4273.2
4418.7

De Laval

82243

46325

4451.9

Primrose

89930

41670

4788.1

Anker-Holth

92007

40050

4817.0

Renfrew

8980.2

45550

5219.1

Empire

101484

3*7150

5436.1

Iowa

104490

41970

6510.6

Sharpies .

16533.9

2.0000

7768.1

1 Lamson. — A Study of Farm Separators. M. S. A. Thesis, Purdue Uni-
versity, 1918.

CENTRIFUGAL SEPARATION 73

Construction of the Separator. — The centrifugal cream sep-
arator consists of three main parts, namely the separator frame,
the bowl with internal devices, supply tank and discharge pans,
the gear and power attachment.

SANITARY FAUCE

BALANCED FLOAT

PATENTED FOAM

REDUCING DISCHARGE-

SELF CENTERING BOWL

DETACHED BOWL

COUPLING RING

SIGHT FEED
OIL SUPPLY

IMPROVED"DE LAVAL'

SEPARATING DISCS

EXTRA HEAVY TINWARE
SIMPLE CREAM REGULATOR
COVER CLAMP

PATENTED MILK
DISTRIBUTOR

BOWL HOLDING SCREW

AMPLE DIRT HOLDING SPACE
BOWL CASING DRAIN

DETACHED BOWL SPINDLE

(REMAINING IN FRAME)

AUTOMATIC SPRAY
OILING OF GEARING
AND BEARINGS

OIL DRAIN

HEAVY PART OF BOWL
BELOW CENTER OF GRAVITY

SECTIONAL SPRING

SPINDLE BEARING

SPEED INDICATOR

UPWARD THRUST

WORM DRIVE GEARING

SPRING CUSHIONED STEEL POINT
AND TREAD WHEEL BEARING

OPEN SANITARY BASE

Pig-. 5. De Laval cream separator

Courtesy De Laval Separator Co.

The Separator Frame. — The frame of the separator furnishes
the foundation and support of all important parts of the machine,
it also serves to guide and protect the bowl and its spindle. It
is of heavy construction, usually of cast iron and, in order to
give the machine greater stability, it often extends at its bottom
into a solid platform. The base of the frame carries in the case
of most separators the bottom bearing of the spindle which drives
the bowl. This bearing is generally equipped with an adjustable

74 CENTRIFUGAL SEPARATION

screw whereby the bowl may be lowered or raised in its position
in the frame. It also carries brass bushings at the bottom and
top of the spindle which serve to guide the position of the spindle
and to keep the bowl from wobbling. The upper portion of the
frame protects the bowl and serves as support for the pans into
which the skim milk and cream are discharged. In the case
of hand separators the frame is also equipped with supports for
the milk supply tank, and for the skim milk and cream cans.

The Separator Bowl and Spindle. — The bowl is the heart of
the separator, in it the separation of the milk takes place. In
most separators now in use the bowl extends at its lower ex-
tremity into the spindle to which is transmitted, either direct or
indirect, the motive power which revolves the bowl. In some
separators the bowl and the spindle are one piece while in others
the spindle is divided into an upper and lower spindle, connected
by an offset in the contact end of each, or by a slot in one and
a slot and pin in the other. Occasionally the bowl is entirely
separated from the spindle, connecting with the top of the spindle.
Then, again, there are separators in which the bowl is attached
to the spindle by a permanent hinge joint. In still other ma-
chines the bowl is suspended, its spindle which in these machines
is at the top of the bowl, is coupled to an overhanging spindle
head connecting with the seat of power.

The bearing on which the spindle revolves may consist of a
stationery but adjustable steel point on which a similar steel
point at the termination of the spindle rests; or the spindle may
terminate in a tapering disc which, rests on a bearing of steel
balls or steel rollers. The spindle is guided by an upper and a
lower brass bushing. The ease of running and elasticity of the
bowl may be enhanced by the use of bushings equipped with
springs.

The bowl proper consists in the main of a cylindrical, or
cone-shaped vessel. It opens either at the top or at the bot-
tom. It is closed by a coneshaped cover. At the point of con-
tact with the cover the bowl carries a groove or rim which admits
a rubber ring. This serves to make an absolutely tight seal be-
tween bowl and cover, without which the pressure generated in
the revolving bowl causes the milk to leak out. The cover must

CENTRIFUGAL SEPARATION 75

be firmly screwed to the bowl to prevent leaking. In the case
of machines with suspended bowls the cover forms the bottom of
the bowl or in some cases, the bowl may consist of two nearly
equal halves which screw together, a rubber ring furnishing a
tight seal. Most bowls also carry a central tube through which
the milk enters, flows to near the bottom and then is released
for distribution and separation.

Experience has shown, that the efficiency of separation suf-
fers when the milk is allowed to enter the separating space of
the bowl by continuously passing through the innermost layer
of milk, which represents the cream layer. This causes a con-
stant mixing of the fresh milk with the cream layer. To avoid
this the intake of the milk is so arranged that the inflowing milk
passes into the neutral zone of the milk layer outside of the cream
layer without passing through the latter. This is accomplished
by compelling the milk to flow through an umbella-shaped disc
at the bottom of the bowl or through properly located slots in
the central tube or other similar devices in the center of the bowl.

The bowls of the earlier separators were hollow in their in-
terior. In order to cause the milk to circulate with the bowl im-
mediately upon its entrance, these bowls were equipped at their
periphery with one or more wings extending radially to near the
cream layer. In the newer separators most of the bowls carry
a series of internal contrivances which not only assist in subject-
ing the milk promptly to the circular motion, but increase the
skimming efficiency of the machine further by exposing the milk
over a longer distance to the centrifugal force and by facilitating
the return of the fat globules to the cream layer.

Of these internal contrivances the cone-shaped discs of the
Alpha separator are the oldest and best known. These tin discs
are slipped over the central tube of the bowl and rest on top of
one another. They leave a small space open around the central
tube for the gathering of the cream. The upper surface of each
of these discs is spotted with small projections, for the purpose
of keeping the discs at a slight distance from each other. These
intervening spaces divide the milk, in its passage from the center

76 CENTRIFUGAL SEPARATION

to the periphery of the bowl, into very thin layers, augmenting
the separating efficiency.

In order to avoid infringement on the Alpha De Laval patent
of discs, other manufacturers have constructed a large assort-
ment of different types of somewhat similar internal contrivances,
all of which are intended for the same purpose. One distinct
deviation from the horizontal or coneshaped disc is the vertical
blade arrangement of the Simplex separator in which numerous

Fig. 7. Simplex blades

Courtesy D. H. Burrell & Co.

Fig-. 6. Simplex separator
Courtesy D. H. Burrell & Co.

curved tin blades, attached to a ring around the central tube
extend from the central tube to the periphery of the bowl. These
wings or blades, similar to the discs, are kept at a slight distance
from each other by carrying small projections on their surfaces
and in this way divide the milk into a multitude of very thin
layers.

The Skim Milk Outlet. — As previously stated, the layer of
milk nearest the wall, or periphery of the bowl, contains the least
fat and represents the skim milk. The skim milk is discharged
either from the top or from the bottom of the bowl. The skim
milk flows through small tubes from the extreme periphery to
near the center of the bowl where it is discharged. The purpose

CENTRIFUGAL SEPARATION 77

of carrying the skim milk to near the center before it is per-
mitted to escape is to reduce the force with which it is discharged.
By passing toward the center the skim milk has to overcome the
centrifugal force.

These skim milk outlet tubes are very small, curved and
difficult to thoroughly cleanse, which is an objectionable feature
from the sanitary point of view. In the latest improved models
of bowls these tubes have therefore been done away with. This
has been accomplished by covering the top-most of the internal
discs with a special closing disc, the lower edge of which extends
to near the wall of the bowl and the upper end of which forms
a sleeve extending up into the neck of the bowl cover. This
closing disc carries sufficient projections on its upper surface
to form a narrow space between it and the cover of the bowl.
The skim milk passes through this space in the form of a thin
layer and leaves the bowl through a small opening, the skim milk
outlet, located at the bottom of the neck of the bowl cover. In
some makes of separators the skim milk is discharged through
the bottom of the bowl.

The Cream Outlet. — The cream finds its exit from the bowl
at, or near the top of the bowl cover. Its entrance to the outlet
is located slightly nearer the center than the centermost part
of the skim milk outlet. In most separators the cream outlet, or
cream screw is adjustable. If the cream screw is located in the
top of the bowl cover, it usually carries an eccentric orifice
which is the cream outlet. This screw may be turned so as
to place the opening or cream outlet nearer to or farther from
the center. If the cream screw is located in the side of the bowl
neck, the distance from the center at which the cream escapes
from the bowl is regulated by turning this screw farther in or
out. In the case of 'some bowls the cream outlet is stationary
and the skim milk outlet is adjustable.

Adjustment of Cream Screw to Regulate Proportion of
Skim Milk and Cream and to Control Richness of Cream. — As

previously stated, the milk in the revolving bowl is forced to
the side of the bowl, forming a vertical wall. The inner line
of the milk in the bowl and of the skim milk in the skim milk
tube, or skim milk space forms a straight vertical line.

78

CENTRIFUGAL SEPARATION

As more milk flows into the bowl, the wall of milk extends
farther toward the center until the skim milk begins to discharge
from the skim milk outlet. As the inflow of milk continues the
wall of milk in the bowl increases in thickness until the cream
begins to escape through the cream outlet. Simultaneously the

Tig. 8. Sharpies cream separator
Courtesy Sharpies Separator Co.

discharge of the skim milk increases. When the discharge of
the skim milk and cream outlets equal the inflow of the milk, the
thickness of the wall of the milk in the bowl becomes constant.
The proportion of cream to skim milk in any given separator
is controlled directly and exclusively by the relative distances of
the two outlets from the center of the bowl, assuming that the
separator is operated under otherwise normal and uniform con-
ditions.

CENTRIFUGAL SEPARATION 79

The assertion of some authors that the relative amount of
skim milk and cream depends in part on the size of the outlets
is erroneous, inasmuch as experimental results by Ecles1 and
Wayman conclusively show that, when the separator is run nor-
mally, the volume of the skim milk discharge is not more than
half of the capacity of the skim milk outlet.

In order to secure any cream discharge, the cream outlet
must be located slightly nearer the axis of the bowl than the
outer wall of the skim milk tube. The more nearly alike the
distance of the two from the center, the more cream and the
less skim milk will there be. The greater the difference between
their distance from the center, the less cream and the more skim
milk will be discharged. Therefore, the turning of the cream
screw toward the center decreases the cream discharge and in-
creases the skim milk discharge and the turning of the cream
screw from the center increases the cream discharge and de-
creases the skim milk discharge.

Simultaneously, with the turning of the cream screw to-
ward the center and thereby decreasing the amount of cream,
a richer cream is discharged, because the richest cream is nearest
the center of the bowl. The turning out of the cream screw,
while increasing the proportionate amount of cream, decreases
its richness, because the cream layer farther from the center is
thinner.

Supply Tank, Float and Discharge Pans. — As accessories to
the bowl may be considered also the milk supply tank, the re-
ceiving cup with float and the milk and cream discharge pans.

The milk supply tank rests on an extension of the separator
frame. It is used only in the case of hand separators. In factory
machines the milk runs into the separator direct from the vat or
heater. The receiving cup is a part of the cover of the discharge
pans. It accommodates the float, which device consists usually of
a sealed, hollow tin bob acting as a regulator of the milk inflow.
When the separator is fed too fast it rises on the surface of the
milk in the receiving cup and closes a part of milk outlet of the
supply tank.

1 Eckles and Wayman. — Factors Affecting the Per Cent Fat in Cream from
Farm Separators. Missouri Bulletin No. 94, 1911.

80 CENTRIFUGAL SEPARATION

Separators with bowls which discharge both, their milk and
cream at the top of the bowl, are equipped with a cream and a
skim milk catch pan with discharge spouts. These pans lie on
the separator bowl frame. The top pan discharges the cream,
the bottom pan the skim milk. In the case of separators which
discharge their skim milk from the bottom of the bowl, no skim
milk discharge pan is needed, the skim milk escaping through a
tube in the frame at the bottom of the bowl.

The Driving Mechanism. — The parts of the separator which
control the transmission of the motive power, differ with the
type of motive power used. The earlier machines were all
factory separators which were driven either by belt, or steam
turbine and later by electricity.

The mechanism for the transmission of the power which
revolves the bowl differs fundamentally between power or
factory separators and hand separators and to some extent as to
the type of power used. Differences in the details of the arrange-
ment of the transmission further occur between separators of
the same type but of different makes.

Power or Factory Separators. — The first centrifugal separa-
tors were those used in the factories and which are operated by
power. The factory machines, as far as the type and mechanism
for the transmission of the motive power is concerned, may be
divided into belt machines, turbine machines and electric-driven
machines.

In the belt-driven machines the power is generated by a
separate engine or motor which is entirely independent of "the
separator and, as far as the operation of the separator is con-
cerned, is connected with the separator only when the latter is
to be operated. In this case the motive power may be generated
by a steam engine, a gasoline engine, electric or water motor.
In the creamery where the steam engine, or possibly the elec-
tric motor, is a necessary part of the equipment for the operation
of various lines of power machines, such as churns, pasteurizer,
etc., the separator is usually connected by belt with the main
shaft or line shaft. In the case of separators of small capacity,

CENTRIFUGAL SEPARATION 81

not over about 2,000 pounds of milk per hour, the belt from the
shaft usually connects direct with the separator. The lower
end of the spindle of the separator is geared to a short horizontal
shaft which carries a tight and a loose pulley. In order to start
the separator slowly and to avoid sudden jars when changing the
speed of the engine, the belt is shifted from the loose to the
tight pulley very gradually. This type of power transmission
is suitable also for large dairy farms where a gasoline engine or
similar power is available. It has the advantage of facilitating
the maintenance of uniform speed, provided that the belt does
not slip, and of utilizing steam or other power and space
economically.

For machines of larger capacity, such as are used in the
average commercial creamery and which may range as high as
10,000 pounds of milk per hour or higher, indirect transmission
of the belt power is used. For this purpose a double trans-
mission in the form of an intermediate, or jack, is installed. The
intermediate consists of a tight and loose pulley to which the
pulley on the main shaft is belted and a large wheel which trans-
mits the power from the intermediate to the separator by means
of an endless separator cord or strap. In order to take up the
slack in the cord the intermediate is equipped with a weighted
lever which presses against the cord while in operation, tighten-
ing the latter and preventing excessive slipping. The inter-
mediate rests on an independent standard, permanently erected
and usually at a distance of about 12 feet from the separator.
The chief disadvantage of the use of the intermediate is that it
takes up considerable space which might be utilized for other
purposes. In the latest of models of power separators the inter-
mediate has been dispensed with, removing the above objection.

In the steam turbine-driven separators, in most cases, the
lower end of the spindle carries a turbine wheel, which revolves
in an inclosed turbine chamber of the separator frame and which
contains a reduced steam inlet and a steam exhaust. In separa-
tors with pending bowls the turbine is located above the separa-
tor bowl. The steam supply pipe is equipped with a valve to
regulate the steam inlet and for safety's sake it should carry,

82 CENTRIFUGAL SEPARATION

between the steam valve and the separator, a steam gauge and
a blow-off valve, or safety, properly set to guard against ex-
cessive steam pressure. The steam turbine separator has be-
come very popular for both factory and farm machines. Its
chief advantages are that the separator can be operated in-
dependently of the steam engine or the main shaft. It is compact
and does away with the space- wasting objection of the inter-
mediate of the belt-driven machine. On the other hand it en-
volves somewhat less economic use of steam and requires closer
attention in order to insure uniform speed. The latter objection
has been largely removed, however, in the latest types of steam
turbine separators by equipping them with efficient automatic
speed governors. The close proximity of the steam chamber to
the lower bearing also is prone to augment the tendency of heat-
ing the spindle in the absence of adequate lubrication.

The electric-driven separator is a later inovation. It is
equipped with an electric motor which is a part of the separator
and which requires no power transmission arrangement addi-
tional to that which forms a part of the separator. It can be
operated independent of all other operations, no steam nor gaso-
line engine is required, the turning on of the current is all that
is necessary. So far these electric-driven separators have not
found very extensive use, especially in the case of the larger
machines. Their greatest disadvantage so far has been the short
life of the motor. Experience has shown that these separator
motors are of relatively short usefulness. It seems that the
dampness to which they are bound to be exposed in the creamery
is injurious to the insulation, necessitating frequent repairs and
renewal. This objection is now, however, being rapidly over-
come by efforts on the part of the manufacturer to furnish ma-
chines with more efficiently protected motors.

Hand Separators. — In the case of the hand separator the
power mechanism is a part of the separator proper. It, too,
differs in details of arrangement with different makes of ma-
chines. The fundamental principle of the mechanism is to pro-
duce the relatively high number of revolutions which are re-
quired of the bowl, — 6,000 to 17,000 revolutions per minute, —

CENTRIFUGAL SEPARATION £3

from the limited and relatively small number of turns of the
crank shaft — 45 to 60 turns per minute — iwhich can be con-
venietly applied by hand. This is accomplished by transmis-
sion of the power by a series of gear wheels located between the
crank shaft and the spindle of the bowl. The type of gears varies
somewhat with different makes of machines, they may consist of

Fig. 9. De Laval hand separator Fig. 10. Sharpies hand separator

Courtesy De Laval Separator Co. Courtesy Sharpies Separator Co.

cog wheels of various angles, worm wheels, friction wheels, or
chain, or belt wheels, or a combination of two or more of these
principles.

The transmission by friction wheels has been almost com-
pletely abandoned, because they have been found unsatisfactory
for this purpose on account of uneven wear of friction surfaces
and therefore irregular speed of the bowl.

The chain transmission also is of rare occurrence and the
belt transmission is generally installed only on those hand ma-
chines which are to be used for power as well as hand operation.

84 CENTRIFUGAL SEPARATION

Its chief advantage is that it protects the separator against sud-
den shock of the spindle and bowl which is practically unavoid-
able when operated by certain forms of power. This is especial-
ly true in the case of gasoline engine explosions. In these belt
driven farm separators, the power is transmitted by belt to the
tight and loose pulley which is provided with a belt shifter,
thence from the short center shaft which is a part of the set
drive, by an endless belt to the lower worm wheel shaft of the
separator. In the latest type of hand separator the power trans-
mission is further equipped with a coil spring belt tightener over
which the belt runs and which automatically absorbs shocks and
irregularities in speed.

In the great majority of hand separators which are used for
hand power only, the power is transmitted exclusively by cog
wheels or by worm wheels or by a combination of both. The
transmission mechanism usually consists of one, two or three
pairs of wheels. The large cog wheel resting on the crank shaft
transmits its power to a small cog wheel, this constitutes the first
transmission of power with increased speed. The small cog
wheel rests on a second large cog wheel which transmits its
power either direct to the worm gear of the lower spindle, or to
a third small wheel, to the axis of which is attached a third large
wheel which connects direct with the lower spindle.

The successive multiplication in speed resulting from these
transmissions depends on the difference in the number of cogs
between the large and the small wheels. Assuming for example,
that there are three pairs of cog wheels and in each pair the
large wheel has 50 cogs and the small wheel has 10 cogs, the
speed is increased by each of the three sets of transmissions five
times, or 5x5x5=125. In the above case each turn of the crank
shaft yields 125 revolutions of the bowl. If the required number
of revolutions of the bowl is 6,500 per minute, then the crank

shaft must be given ^ = 52 turns per minute.

It is obvious that the smoothness of running, as far as the
transmission is concerned, is dependent on the regularity and
state of preservation of these cogs. If the cogs are abnormally
worn, or if one or more cogs are broken, the machine slips and

CENTRIFUGAL SEPARATION

85

Pig*. 11. Steam turbine and speed governor
Courtesy De Laval Separator Co.

jolts, making the
proper operation of
the separator impos-
sible. Damaged cog
wheels or worn
wheels therefore
should be replaced
by new ones at once.
These facts further
emphasize the im-
portance of care in
starting, running
and stopping the
separator. The ma-
chine should be started up slowly and run with a uniform
pressure of the hand and should be stopped gradually.

The crank shaft of most hand separators now on the market
is provided with a ratchet, which allows the unhindered con-
tinuation of the revolution of the bowl when the crank shaft
stops, .and therefore guards against shocks due to sudden stop-
ping of the crank. However, some machines are equipped with
bowl brakes which, if used at all, should be applied gradually,
so as to prevent injury and excessive wear on the gearing
mechanism.

Another important part of the mechanism efficiency and
durability of the separator is the lubricating arrangement and
its management.

Systems of Oiling. — The cream separator is a highly special-
ized piece of farm machinery. Its mechanical parts are com-
paratively delicate, its bowl revolves at a high speed, and the
operation of the machine is usually continuous for at least an
hour and often for a much longer period. These facts obviously
render the system of oiling a very important part of the ma-
chine and its operation. Absence of a proper and adequate
system of oiling may cause undue friction on the wearing parts,
resulting in misalignment and damage to the separator and un-
satisfactory results of its operation.

86 CENTRIFUGAL, SEPARATION

There are in use principally three systems of oiling, they
are the "splash-oiling system," the "sight-feed cup oiling
system" and the "open-hole oiling system." They vary in their
application with the different makes of separators. Obviously
that system is the best which is most nearly automatic, removes
the sediment without permitting it to recirculate, and econo-
mizes oil.

In "the flash-oiling system" the gears and wearing parts are
partly submerged in the oil, the oil usually being splashed by the
lowest gear over the others and over the other wearing parts o{
the separator. In some separators provisions are made in the
gear chamber for the draining of the grit and dirt, so that clean
oil, only, circulates over the wearing parts. Lamson1 who made
an extensive study of the construction of separators recommends
that when this system is used, the gear chamber be frequently
drained, using the waste oil for coarser farm machinery and that
this chamber be flushed out with kerosene to remove sediment.
The "splash-oiling system" is completely automatic in its
operation.

The "sight-feed cup oiling system" depends for its efficiency
in continuously oiling the friction parts, on being so adjusted as
to feed the oil slowly and on being kept filled. In its operation
care is required to keep the feed tubes open and free from clog-
ging, which is prone to occur in cold weather when the oil be-
comes abnormally viscous or congeals entirely. This oiling
system may be considered semi-automatic.

The "open-oil-hole system'1 is obviously the crudest form of
oiling the cream separator. It requires constant attention while
the separator is used. Its lubrication is not uniform, it wastes
oil, is mussy and the holes are prone to become clogged with
dirt, waste and other obstructions.

Power Requirements of Cream Separators. — The amount of
power required to drive a separator at the requisite speed obvi-
ously varies with the capacity of the machine. It also varies
with machines of the same capacity but of different makes, and
there is a considerable difference between the power required

1 Lamson. — A Study of Farm Separators. M. S. A. Thesis, Purdue Uni-
versity, 1918.

CENTRIFUGAL SEPARATION

87

when empty and when loaded. The state of repair and kind of
oil used and efficiency of oiling are further factors which bear
on the ease of running.

Factory separators of a capacity about 5000 pounds per hour,
when loaded require about 2 H. P. at the start and until full speed
is attained. After that, from seven-eighths to one H. P. is suffi-
cient to maintain full speed. Farm separators of the usual capa-
city of about 350 to 500 pounds per hour require approximately
from .063 to .16 H. P. when loaded. Lamson1 determined the
relative Horse power required of twelve different farm separa-
tors, when empty and when loaded. He used for his determina-
tions a Torsion dynamometer, designed, built and perfected at
Purdue University, but instead of running milk through the
separator in his trials with the loaded machine, he used salt brine,
having a specific gravity of 1.032 at 60° F. His results are shown
in table 5.

Table 5. — Horse Power Required to Drive Empty and Loaded

Farm Cream Separators and Ratio of Power Required to

Drive Empty to that of Loaded Separators.

Crank
R P M

Horse

Power

Ratio of Power

Name of
Separators

No.

Speed
of

Empty

Loaded

to Drive Empty
to Loaded

De Laval

12

60

.0362

.0636

1 1.757

Economy King ..
New Butterfly ..
John M. Smythe.
Dairy Queen
Primrose

4

4^
4
5
2

60
50
60
60
60

.0335
.0365
.0353
.0366
.0496

.0656
0.715
.0726
.0757
.0760

1 1.958
1 1.959
1 2.057
1 2.068
1 1.532

Sharpies

4

45

.0682

.0880

1 1.276

Galloway

7

50

.0373

.0881

1 2.362

Renfrew

6

60

.0487

.1015

1 2.084

United States . . .
Anker-Holth
Iowa

16
5
30

60
60
•60

.0538
.0371
.1215

.1035
.1060
.1624

1 1.924
1 2.857
1 1.337

Average

57

.0495

.0895

1 1.808

1 Lamson.— A Study of Farm Separators. M. S. A. Thesis, Purdue Uni-
versity, 1918.

88 CENTRIFUGAL SEPARATION

The Capacity of the Cream Separator. — By the capacity of
the cream separator is understood the amount of milk the ma-
chine will skim per hour. Every cream separator is rated at a
definite capacity; that is, it is built to separate a certain spe-
cified amount of milk in a given length of time. The farm separa-
tors range in capacity from about 150 to 1,200 pounds of milk per
hour. For dairies with five to six cows a 350 to 400 pound capacity
machine is recommended. The capacity of factory machines
ranges from about 1,200 to 10,000 pounds of milk per hour.

The capacity of the separator must have a definite relation
to the centrifugal force, ff the machine is to do efficient skim-
ming. An increase in the capacity, of any given separator,
hastens the passage of the milk through the bowl and shortens
the time during which it is subjected to the centrifugal force.
The maximum capacity of a separator should, therefore, not ex-
ceed the amount of milk which can be efficiently skimmed in an
hour. Greater capacity, without also increasing the centrifugal
force, overtaxes the separating ability of the machine and causes
excessive loss of fat.

Theoretically, the size of the skim milk and cream outlets
of the bowl obviously influence the capacity of the separator, for
the larger these outlets, the more milk the separator is capable
of taking in. If the bowl were not in motion and the discharge
of skim milk and cream were depending only on the mechanical
overflowing of these parts, this hypothesis would be correct. In
this case these parts would be completely filled.

But when the bowl is in motion such is not the case, the
increased rapidity of the discharge due to the centrifugal force
generated in the revolving bowl, greatly augments the capacity
of the discharge parts, so that the skim milk and cream outlets are
not completely filled and do at no time discharge skim milk and
cream in accordance with their full capacity. This fact has been
conclusively demonstrated by Eckles & Wayman,1 who found
that, under normal conditions, the skim milk tube does not run
much over one half of its actual capacity.

For this reason it is obvious, also, that a change in the pro-

1 Eckles & Wayman. — Factors Affecting the Per Cent of Fat in Cream
from Farm Separators. Missouri Bull. No. 94, 1911.

CENTRIFUGAI, SEPARATION 89

portionate amount of skim milk and cream delivered, as caused
by a change in the position of the skim milk or cream screw,
does not affect the capacity of the separator. The richness of
the cream delivered, therefore, has no material effect on the
capacity of the separator.

The capacity of the separator is naturally directly affected
by the rate of inflow. When the rate of inflow drops below
the designated capacity, less milk flows through the separator
and more time is required to separate a given amount of milk.
When the rate of inflow is increased beyond the designated
capacity, more milk flows through the separator than its capa-
city calls for and less time is required to separate a given am-
ount of milk. This latter fact is possible only because the
skim milk and cream outlets are not filled to full capacity when
the separator is operated under normal conditions. Hunziker1
shows that the same volume of milk that under normal inflow
required 7 minutes for separation, required 11 minutes in the
case of a reduced inflow and 6 minutes in the case of an; in-
creased inflow. The reduced inflow did not affect the skim-
ming efficiency, while the excessive inflow caused a greater loss
of fat in the skim milk.

The speed of the separator exerts a powerful influence on
the capacity of the machine. The speed generates the centrifugal
force which expels the skim milk and cream through their
respective outlets with great force. The greater the speed and,
therefore, the greater the centrifugal force, the more rapid the
exit of skim milk and cream and the greater the capacity of
the separator. Hunziker1 shows that, when at normal speed, it
required 5 minutes to separate a given volume of milk, the same
volume required 9.6 minutes at a speed reduced 25 turns of the
crank below normal and it required only 3.3 minutes at a speed
increased 15 turns of the crank above normal. The decreased
speed lowered the skimming efficiency while the excessive
speed very slightly increased it.

The state of cleanliness of the separator may affect the
capacity of the machine to a considerable extent and, in the
case of extremely bad condition, may clog the machine entirely.

1 Hunziker. — Why Cream Tests Vary. Purdue Bulletin No. 150. 1911.

90 SKIMMING EFFICIENCY OF THE: SEPARATOR .

The formation of a wall of separator slime on the bowl wall
reduces the diameter and thereby diminishes the centrifugal
force, which, in turn, decreases the rapidity with which the milk
passes through and out of the machine. The accumulation of
foreign matter and clots also tend to diminish the size of the
outlets and partly block the passage of skim milk and cream. *

CONDITIONS AFFECTING THE SKIMMING EFFI-
CIENCY OF THE SEPARATOR.

The exclusive purpose for which the cream separator has
been devised is to skim milk. In its construction, efficiency to
skim close was the dominant aim. This skimming efficiency
has been accomplished to a very marked degree, removing from
96 to 98 per cent of the fat of the milk and leaving in the skim
milk less than .1 per cent fat under normal conditions. Experi-
ments with the farm separator have "shown even greater skim-
ming efficiency when operated under proper conditions.

In order to accomplish high skimming efficiency and to
leave the minimum amount of fat in the skim milk, the machine
must be operated properly and in accordance with the directions
furnished by the manufacturer. The chief factors which con-
trol the skimming efficiency of the cream separator are : Speed
of machine, rate of milk inflow and temperature of milk. In
addition to these fundamental factors, other conditions such as
adjustment of cream screw, smoothness of running, cleanliness
of separator bowl and condition of milk, may influence to some
extent the per cent fat lost in the skim milk.

Effect of Speed of Separator on Skimming Efficiency. — The

speed of the revolving bowl generates the centrifugal force
which causes the separation of the liquids of different specific
gravities, it separates the fat from the skim milk, causing the
separator to discharge cream and skim milk.

The higher the speed, the greater is the centrifugal force
and, other conditions remaining the same, the more corpplete
is the separation. Every cream separator has a given, rated
speed at which it will do its most efficient work. If the speed
is reduced below that required, the skimming efficiency will

SKIMMING EFFICIENCY OF THE SEPARATOR 91

be lessened and more fat is lost in the skim milk. Nothing is
gained by running the machine faster than the required speed ;
excessive speed does not materially increase the skimming effi-
ciency; on the other hand it augments the pressure on the
bowl and on other parts of the separator, and beyond certain
limits the bowl may collapse, or it may jump the castings, or
it may increase the friction sufficiently to cause the spindle
and the bearings and bushings to heat and wedge, in which
case the bowl may come to a sudden stop warping the spindle.
For these reasons each machine is accompanied by directions
in which the proper speed of the separator is specifically stated.

The speed of the bowl varies considerably Avith different
makes of separators. Since, at a given speed, the centrifugal
force increases with the increase of the diameter of the bowl,
separators with wide bowls do not require as high a speed to
develop the desired separating efficiency as separators with a
narrow bowl. Thus the relatively large-diameter bowls of the
De Laval type require only from five to six thousand revolu-
tions per minute, while separators with bowls of the tubular
type, long and narrow, must be run at about 17,000 revolutions
per minute.

In the case of the hand separator the proper speed is given
in terms of number of turns of the crank. This varies with dif-
ferent machines from 45 to 60 turns per minute. The exact
number of turns required is usually indicated on the crank of
the separator.

When the proper speed has been attained it should be
maintained uniformly throughout the separation. Running the
separator at uneven speed causes incomplete separation.

Control of Speed of the Separator. — In the case of the hand
separator, as used on the farm, the operator can make sure of
giving the separator the proper speed by timing himself. All
he has to do is to count the turns of the crank per minute, by
the watch in his hand. By doing this occasionally he soon
learns the necessary rapidity of motion to run the machine at
full speed. Unfortunately this is not usually done and expe-
rience has amply shown that the general tendency of the oper-
ator is to overestimate the amount of work he puts into the

92 SKIMMING EFFICIENCY OF THE: SEPARATOR

machine, causing the separator to be run at too low a speed,
thereby not getting out of the milk all the available fat. This
is particularly true where different persons operate the same
machine, but even the same operator, unless he times himself,
may soon get in the habit of running the machine too slowly.

The metronome, which can be set to tick the exact number
of turns required per minute is a very useful instrument to keep
up the speed of the separator.

Some separators have a bell attachment striking the re-
quired number of revolutions per minute when the separator
runs full speed.

The gyrometer is another separator speed indicator which
is extensively used in European machines. It consists of a
graduated glass tube, partly filled with glycerin and closed at
both ends. It is either directly or indirectly connected with
the spindle of the bowl, so that it revolves with the spindle.
When revolving, the glycerin, acted upon by the centrifugal force,
recedes from the center, rises along the walls of the tube and
forms a funnel of air in the center, the length of which bears
a definite relation to the speed of the machine. A graduation
on the tube extending from top to bottom, shows the number
of revolutions of the bowl at different lenghts of the air funnel.

In more recent years in this country numerous types of
speed indicators, attached to the machine and operating on a
principle similar to that of the speedometers used on automo-
biles, have been devised and are in more or less general use.
One of the more recent ideas of speed indicator is a combina-
tion of speed governor and controller of the rate of inflow of
the milk. Its fundamental idea is to reduce the milk inlet as the
speed of the machine drops below normal, and thereby automatic-
ally maintain the skimming efficiency at a speed below normal,
the decreased skimming efficiency of the lower speed being offset
by the increased skimming efficiency of the reduced milk inflow.

The principle of regulating the rate of inflow by the speed
and thus maintaining the skimming efficiency at a reduced
speed has been applied in the case of the Sharpies Tubular
separator. In the latest models of this machine the rate of
inflow is dependent on the suction generated by the revolving

SKIMMING EFFICIENCY OF THE SEPARATOR

93

bowl. The higher the speed the greater the suction and the
larger the milk inflow and vice versa. This principle applies
within reasonable limits of speed. When the speed drops below
the normal limit the skimming efficiency is jeopardized.

Some of the latest models of steam turbine-driven machines
provide for a steam governor, similar to that used on high-class
steam engines, insuring an even speed for turbine-driven machines.
This principle has been applied in the case of the De Laval Turbine
separator.

The automatic speed indicators are particularly valuable
in the operation of the ,hand separator on the farm. Experi-
ments conducted at the Purdue University Agricultural Expe-
riment Station1 show that the loss of fat in the skim milk,
through the failure of the man behind the crank to run the
separator at full speed, is often very great.

Table 6. — Effect of Speed on the Skimming Efficiency of the

Separator.

Revolutions of Separator Crank

10-15 too High

Normal

10-15 too Low

20-30 too Low

Trial

Per cent of Fat

Per cent of Fai

Per cent of Fat

Per cent of Fat

No.

Skim

I Skim

Skim

Skim

Creaml Milk

Cream] Milk

Cream

Milk

Cream

Milk

1

1

32.

.02

28.

.02

23.

.095

20.

.135

2

28.

.02

24.5

.02

21.

.14

18.5

.38

3

24.

.03

21.

.04

19.

.115

17.

.15

4

32.

.03

29.

.035

26.

.14

22.

.20

5

28.

.03

26.

.03

24.

.15

20.

.34

6

30. I .04

27.5

.035

24.5

.16

22.

.37

7

48.

.03

42.

.03

36.

.10

34.

.14

8

32.

.03

28.

.025

25.

.11

23.

.14

9

33.

.02

28.

.02

25.

.105

24.

.18

10

33.

.035

28.

.035

27.

.11

23.

.16

11

32.'

.03

28.

.03

27.

.11

25.

.155

12

34.

.03

32.

.03

36.

.13

30. | .19

Average. .

32. | .029

28.5

.029

26.

.12

23. | .21

1 Hunziker.— The Hand Separator and the Gravity Systems of Creaming.
Purdue Bulletin No. 116, 1906.

Hunziker.— Why Cream Tests Vary. Purdue Bulletin No. 150, 1911.

94 SKIMMING EFFICIENCY OF THE SEPARATOR

The accompanying figures show that in the case of a cow
producing 6,000 pounds of milk per year and yielding 5,100
pounds of skim milk the loss of butter per cow per year would
be 12.85 pounds which at 45 cents per pound would amount to
$5.78. This illustration amply demonstrates that the dairy farm-
er cannot afford to ignore the speed of the separator and
should, for his own protection, use some reliable means to
insure the proper speed of his machine.

It is obvious that proper attention to the speed of the
separator is equally necessary in the factory, particularly when
steam turbine separators are used. Especially in small plants
with small boiler capacity, the steam pressure is prone to vary
and this in turn causes the turbine separator to run irregularly.
Excessive speed due to high steam pressure is usually guarded
against by the installation of a blow-off valve. In the case
of belt-driven machines, the speed is usually more uniform,
provided that the engine is equipped with an efficient gov-
ernor, is running at a uniform stroke and the slipping of belts
is avoided.

Effect of Rate of Inflow on Skimming Efficiency of the
Separator. — The rate of inflow has a very marked influence on
the completeness of the separation. The capacity rated by the
manufacturer of the machine is supposed to represent the
maximum amount of milk which will insure complete separa-
tion. If the rate of inflow is forced beyond the specified capa-
city of the separator, the skin^ming efficiency decreases. This
is due to the fact that the milk passes through the separator
so rapidly that it is not exposed to the centrifugal force long
enough to undergo complete separation.

A reduction below capacity of the amount of milk passing
through the separator is of no special advantage; it fails to
appreciably increase the skimming efficiency and it prolongs
the process of separation. These facts were experimentally
demonstrated by the Purdue Agricultural Experiment Station,1
as shown in the following table.

1 Hunziker. — The Hand Separator and the Gravity Systems of Creaming.
Purdue Bulletin No? 116, 1906.r

SKIMMING EFFICIENCY OF THE; SEPARATOR

95

Table 7.— Effect of the Rate of Inflow on the Per Cent of Fat

in Skim Milk.

Large Inflow

Normal Inflow

Small Inflow

Per cent of Fat

Per cent of Fat

Per cent of Fat

Cream

Skim Milk

Cream

Skim 'Milk

Cream |Skim Milk

22.

.155

30.5

.025

23.

.165

28.

.025

31.

.02

22.5

.13

28.

.02

28.

.02

22.

.14

28.

.035

28.

.03

24.

.15

28.

-.03

31.5

.03

26.

.13

32.

.03

32.

.035

Average .

23. | .145

29.

.028

30. | .027

These facts emphasize the importance of properly control-
ling the rate of inflow of the cream separator, in order to reduce
the amount of fat in the skim milk to the minimum.

Control of Rate of Inflow. — The inflow of milk to the sepa-
rator may be regulated by various contrivances used with hand
and power machines. The most common regulator in use con-
sists of the so-called float which operates in the receiving cup,
or milk reservoir, located directly over the bowl. The float is
a hollow tin body usually carrying on its upper side a vertical
projection. When too much milk flows into the bowl the re-
ceiving cup fills up, the float rises and its vertical projection
runs into the faucet of the milk supply tank shutting off some
of the milk. In the meantime the milk in the reservoir cup
recedes, and the float drops back permitting more milk to flow
into the bowl. In the Sharpies Tubular separator the rate of
inflow is regulated, within certain limits, by the speed of the
bowl as previously explained.

The rate of inflow is affected to an appreciable extent by
the depth of the milk in the supply tank. The fuller the milk
supply tank the greater the pressure of the milk on the float
and the more milk will flow into the bowl. In the case of
the farm separator, properly operated, variations in the rate
of inflow caused by variations in the fullness of the supply
tank are not sufficient to seriously influence the skimming effi-
ciency, but they may cause an appreciable effect on the rich

96

SKIMMING EFFICIENCY OF THE SEPARATOR

ness of the cream. Undue crowding of the machine and of
sacrificing skimming efficiency due to the pressure of the milk
above the bowl frequently occurs however, when the separator
is fed direct from a vat or tank, through a faucet, as is often
the case in the factory, when the supply vat may be located
at a considerable elevation above the separator, or possibly on
the second floor.

Effect of Temperature of Milk on Skimming Efficiency. —
Exhaustive skimming requires the temperature of the milk to
be near that of the animal body. There is not much difference
in the skimming efficiency between 80 and 100 degrees F. but
when the temperature drops to 70 degrees F. or lower, there
is a decided, excessive loss of butter fat in the skim milk.

This phenomenon is probably largely due to the increase
in the viscosity of the milk as the temperature drops. The
warmer the milk the more fluid it is and the greater the free-
dom with which the fat globules can move about. The more
fluid the milk the more complete is the separation. With a
lowering of the temperature the milk becomes less fluid, its
viscosity becomjes greater, the fat globules find more resistance
and do not respond to the centrifugal force as readily.

Table 8.— Effect of Different Temperatures on the Per Cent
of Fat in Skim Milk.

90 Degrees F.

75 Degrees F.

60 Degrees F.

Milk

x

Milk

.«

Milk

*

4
2

3

I
&

u

^

SkimM
%Fat

w

3

1

^

p« 4_)

c>fo
5^

Skim Mi
%Fat

03

3

i

&

u

Z&

*~

1*
fe

1

51

4.1

30.

.02

51

4.1

31.

.04

48

4.1

50.5

.11

2

48

4.4

25.

.02

46

4.4

26.

.05

45

4.4

28.

.10

3

51

3.4

34.

.02

51

3.4

34.

.05

46

3.4

38.

.09

4

50

3.4

24.

.01

50

3.4

25.

.04

50

3.4

38.

.12

5

50

4.2

27.

.03

50

4.2

30.

.05

50

4.2

40.

.20

6

50

4.4

23.5

.04

50

4.4

24.

.07

50

4.4

25.

.12

7

50

4.0

30.

.02

50

4.0

31.

.05

48

4.0

34.

.09

8

50

4.2

25.

.02

51

4.2

27.

.06

48

4.2

40.

.14

Average .

.022

1 1 -051

|.12

SKIMMING EFFICIENCY OF THE SEPARATOR 97

The relative effect of different temperatures of the milk
at the time of separation on the per cent of fat left in the skim
milk from various makes of hand separators is shown in
table 8.

Similar results were obtained by Eckles and Wayman1 and
by Guthrie.2

At a temperature below 70 degrees F. most separators
began to clog, due to the excessive viscosity and the tendency
of the milk and cream to churn.

Control of Temperature of milk. — On the farm the simplest
way to have the milk at the right temperature for separation,
is to separate immediately after each milking. This practice
does away with the bother of artificially heating of the milk
before separating, for which the average farm is not properly
equipped and which would be necessary, especially in winter,
if the milk were held over for separation from the previous
milking or previous day.

In the factory, however, where the milk arrives already
cooled, special provision is required to heat the milk to the
proper temperature (95 to 100 degrees F.) before it passes into
the separator. This is most easily accomplished by the use
of a continuous milk heater similar to a flash pasteurizer. In
some creameries which receive whole milk, the milk is heated
to pasteurizing temperature preparatory to separation. This
has the advantage of pasteurizing not only the cream but also
the skim milk. From the stand point of skimming efficiency,
however, nothing is gained by this practice. The fat lost in
the skim milk by separating the milk at temperatures of 145
to 185 degrees F. is practically equal to that lost when sepa-
rating at 95 to 100 degrees F. Experience has further shown
that the separator is more prone to clog with milk at pasteuriz-
ing temperature and has to be taken apart oftener for cleans-
ing. This hot milk deposits more separator slime. Additional
disadvantages of pasteurizing the milk before separation, in-
stead of pasteurizing the cream are, the greater cost of the
pasteurizing equipment and the greater expense of heating.

1 Eckles & Wayman. — Factors Affecting the Per Cent of Fat in Cream
from Farm Separators. Missouri Bulletin No. 94, 1911.

2 Guthrie.— Variations in the Tests for Fat in Cream and in Skimmed
Milk. Cornell Bulletin No. 360, 1915.

98 SKIMMING EFFICIENCY OF THE SEPARATOR

The skim milk can be pasteurized more economically sepa-
rately by the use of exhaust steam. In order to accomplish ex-
haustive skimming of cold milk heated to the desired temper-
ature for separation, the milk must be held at that temperature
for a reasonable length of time so as to give the fat globules a
chance to warm and expand and thereby to regain their buoyancy.

In some factories the milk is heated without the use of a
special heater, but by turning steam direct into the milk.
Experience has shown this to be a very undesirable practice.
At best, much of the steam used condenses in the milk, dilut-
ing the milk and the skim milk. Then, again, the steam is
often associated with impurities, such as cylinder oil from the
engine, boiler compounds used in the boiler, scales from the
inside of the steam pipes, etc. The turning of steam direct
into the milk has also been found to be injurious to the quality
of the finished product causing both the cream and the butter
to take on an oily flavor.

Effect of Position of Cream or Skim Milk Screw on the
Skimming Efficiency of the Separator. — As already explained,
the purpose of the cream screw, or skim milk screw, is to reg-
ulate the ratio of cream to skim milk and to control the rich-
ness of the cream. Most makes of separators permit of a rather
wide range of fat content in cream, without sacrificing their
skimming efficiency. Some machines, however, when they are
so adjusted as to produce cream testing below 18 per cent fat
or above 50 per cent fat, skim less completely. In the case of
some machines, especially those with relatively narrow bowls,
there is a tendency for the bowl to clog, when attempts are
made to produce cream testing 50 per cent fat or more.

Generally speaking, it is safe to state that the machines
now on the market have reached such a degree of perfection
that they can be depended on to do close skimming when set
to produce cream containing not less than 18 per cent fat, nor
more than 50 per cent fat. This range of richness is sufficient
to embrace cream of any richness commercially advantageous.

Effect of Smoothness of Running on the Skimming Effi-
ciency of the Separator. — The separator cannot be expected to
do efficient work unless it runs smoothly. When the bowl re-
volves smoothly and without jarring, the skim milk and cream

SKIMMING EFFICIENCY OF THE SEPARATOR

99

separated by the centrifugal force thus generated, escape from
the machine separately. If the machine trembles and jars, a
portion of the cream and skim milk may again become mixed
by the vibration of the bowl, causing a relatively large amount
of fat to escape with the skim milk and thus reducing the
skimming efficiency of the separator. This fact is shown in
the following 'table which summarizes the results of experi-
ments conducted by Hunziker, with smoothly running and
trembling machines.

Table 9. — Relative Skimming Efficiency of a Balanced and
Unbalanced Separator.

Balanced

Unbalanced

Cream
Per cent Fat

Skim Milk
Per cent Fat

Cream
Per cent Fat

Skim Milk
Per cent Fat

42.

.03

25.

.15

28.

.025

30.

.17

28.

.02

31.

.18

28.

.035

28.

.16

28.

.03

28.

.155

32.

.03

30.

.19

Average

.03

.17

The trembling of the bowl may be due to any one or more
of the following conditions : Shaky foundation, machine not
setting level, spindle sprung, internal Contrivances of bowl
damaged or not properly placed or incomplete, worn-out bear-
ings, loose bushings, excessive speed.

The separator should rest on a solid foundation. For farm
separators a solid plank floor is adequate, for factory machines
a concrete, brick or stone base is preferable. The foundation
must be level, though the newer machines with self-balancing
bowls minimize the undesirable effect of machines not setting
quite level. The separator, while it should be fastened securely
to its foundation, should not be screwed down too rigidly for
smooth running. A certain amount of "give", or "resonance"
is necessary in order to insure smooth running. For this pur-
pose it is advisable to place rubber cushions between the sep-

100

SKIMMING EFFICIENCY OF THE SEPARATOR

arator base and its foundation. The spindle must be true, the
bearings and bushings intact and the internal contrivances of
the bowl must be undamaged and in their respective places.
The bearings must be fed with oil continuously, must be pro-
tected against dust and other material increasing friction, and
the bowl and internal contrivances must be handled with care,
to prevent damage which would cause to throw the machine
out of balance.

Effect of Cleanliness of Separator on Skimming Efficiency.
— Milk, even in its best condition, contains a certain amount
of impurities such as dirt, dust and other foreign matter gain-
ing access to it during its production. This, together with par-
ticles of viscous nitrogenous matter naturally present in milk,
Table 10.— Showing the Effect of Clean and Unclean Separa-
tors on the Per Cent of Fat in the Skim Milk.

Machines Cleaned After Each
Separation
Per cent Fat in Skim Milk

Machines Cleaned Once
per Day
Per cent Fat in S'kim Milk

.03

.02

.03

.03

.03

.03

.02

.02

.04

.02

.03

.02

.02

.31

.03

.15

.11

.72

.03.

.06

.06

.03

.04

.02

.02

.04

.05

.03

.02

.03

.05

.26

.02

.23

.02

.12

.02

.03

.02

.02

.05

.02

.02

.02

.03

.07

Average .... 034

.10

SKIMMING EFFICIENCY OF THE: SEPARATOR 101

collects in the separator bowl, forming the so-called separator
slime. It is deposited largely on the walls of the bowl and
between the internal contrivances.

This slime also impedes the free passage of the milk and
cream within the bowl, thereby reducing the diameter, centrifugal
force and capacity of the bowl, lowering its skimming efficiency
and causing excessive loss of fat. This loss is greatest with milk
in poor physical condition. The results of experiments1 with
clean and unclean separators are shown in Table 10.

Guthrie2 found that, within reasonable limits, deposits of
separator slime in the bowl do not materially interfere with the
skimming efficiency of the machine. He concludes that only
when the bowl fills up with separator slime to the extent of
clogging the passages, does the efficiency of separation suffer.

In his tests, Guthrie used from 240 to 320 pounds of milk
only per test. He does not state the rated capacity of the sepa-
rator. It is probable, therefore, that in these experiments the
amount of milk used was too small and the amount of sepa-
rator slime centrifuged out too limited to materially affect the
diameter of the bowl and the centrifugal force.

In commercial separation of the milk, where the separator
often is in continuous operation for several hours, the accumu-
lation of separator slime is frequently very great and this in
turn is bound to seriously diminish the skimming efficiency
of the machine.

Effect of Condition of Milk on Skimming Efficiency of the
Separator. — Milk in poor mechanical and physical condition,
such as milk containing a relatively large amount of impurities,
or milk, which is old and partly sour or curdy, tends to lower
the skimming efficiency, largely because it augments the am-
ount of separator slime which collects in the bowl; this in turn
impedes the free passage of milk and cream and causes exces-
sive loss of fat.

If the milk is curdy the danger of incomplete separation
is augmented by the fact that each particle of curd locks up a
small amount of fat, and the curd passing into the skim milk

1 Hunziker.— The Hand Separator and the Gravity Systems of Creaming.
Purdue Bulletin No. 116, 1906.

2 Guthrie.— Variations in the Tests for Fat in Cream and Skimmed Milk.
Cornell Bulletin No. 360, 1915.

102 CONDITIONS AFFECTING RICHNESS OF CREAM

-

on account of its greater specific gravity, carries this fat with
it. If it is necessary to run curdy milk through the separator,
the milk should be poured from one can to another, or stirred,
sufficiently to break up the curd as finely as possible.

Milk in poor condition is very prone to cause the bowl to
clog. If such milk must be separated it is advisable to slightly
underfeed the separator.

CONDITIONS AFFECTING THE RICHNESS OF

CREAM.

It is desirable and important, for more reasons than one,
that means and methods be used whereby the per cent of fat
in cream can be properly controlled. The creamery, in order to
utilize its cream satisfactorily and economically, for sale or for
manufacture, requires cream of suitable richness for each
specific commercial purpose. For buttermaking, cream testing
30 to 35 per cent fat is most desirable. Such cream makes pos-
sible easy handling, it minimizes injury to the fat during pas-
teurization, and permits of the use of a liberal amount of
starter without excessive dilution. Excessively low testing
cream sours and spoils more readily than richer cream, so that
by the time it reaches the creamery, thin cream is often in a con-
dition unfit to be made into good butter. In this sour and
curdy condition accurate sampling and testing is rendered diffi-
cult, if it is at all possible. Thin cream is undesirable further,
because it diminishes the amount of skim milk available for the
feeding of calves and pigs on the farm ; it increases the cost
of transportation of every pound of butter fat so shipped or
hauled ; it makes impractical the use of a reasonable amount
of starter in the creamery, and starter is essential for the de-
velopment of a pleasing high flavor of butter ; it does not
churn out exhaustively and yields an excessive amount of but-
termilk, augmenting the loss of fat and thereby reducing the
churn yield.

Excessively rich cream, such as cream testing above 45 per
cent fat is also undesirable from the farmer's and the cream-
ery's standpoint. Such cream tends to clog the separator; it

CONDITIONS AFFECTING RICHNESS OF CREAM . 103

renders the emptying of the cans exceedingly difficult, espe-
cially during cold weather ; it makes difficult accurate sampling
and thereby tends to yield incorrect tests; and it contains too
small an amount of milk solids to properly protect the fat
globules against mutilation and injury during pasteurization
and churning. It is desirable to produce somewhat richer cream
in summer than in winter to prevent excessive fermentation in
summer and difficult handling in winter.

When a more exact per cent of fat is desired, as is the
case of cream sold as sweet cream direct to the consumer, or
used in the manufacture of ice cream, the definite richness is
usually most conveniently secured by standardization of the
cream after separation.

The knowledge and control of conditions which regulate
the richness of the cream produced on the farm, is of unques-
tionable importance. The cream test reported by the creamery
to its patrons is one of the guiding factors which sways the
cream producer for or against the reporting creamery. There
is no one factor, except possibly open dishonesty, that is so
potent of disorganizing and demoralizing the cream supply
territory of a creamery, as a repetition of changes in the re-
ported cream tests of successive deliveries of cream from the
same patron. This fact is largely due to the usual ignorance
on the part of the average cream patron of the numerous con-
ditions under his own control and not under the control of
the creamery, which may cause the richness of the cream and,
therefore, the test to vary and yet, when the tests do vary the
producer is tempted to accuse the creamery of reporting incor-
rect tests and being unfair in its dealings.

In some cases these accusations are justified, but in the
great majority of instances the variations in the tests are due
to variations in the richness of the cream caused by irregular-
ities incident to the operation of the farm separator. The fol-
lowing are the chief factors controlling the richness of the
cream :

1. Position of cream screw or skim milk screw

2. Richness of milk

104 CONDITIONS AFFECTING RICHNESS OF CREAM

3. Speed of separator

4. Rate of inflow

5. Temperature of milk

6. Amount of water or skim milk used to flush the bowl

7. Cleanliness of separator bowl.

Effect of Cream Screw or Skim Milk Screw on Richness
of Cream. — The relation of the position of the cream screw and
skim milk screw to the proportion of cream to skim milk and to
the richness of the cream has been previously discussed.

Fundamentally, any change in the separator which will alter
the relative amounts of skim milk and cream will influence the
per cent of fat in the cream.

These (Jevices, the skim milk screw and the cream screw are
very sensitive adjustments. Only a slight turn (J turn) of
the screw is sufficient to bring about a very appreciable change
in the per cent of fat of the cream.

Effect of Richness of Milk on Richness of Cream. — The
richness of the milk separated, directly influences the richness
of the cream,; in fact the per cent of fat in the cream stands
in direct proportion to the per cent of fat in the milk separated.

With the cream screw set to deliver a certain definite rich-
ness of cream and all other conditions normal, the separator
will deliver a definite ratio of skim milk to cream. This ratio
varies with the adjustment of the cream screw or skim milk
screw. For illustration, it is assumed that this ratio of skim
milk to cream be 85 to 15, that is, that of each 100 pounds of
milk separated, the separator discharges 85 pounds of skim
milk and 15 pounds of cream. If all conditions are the same
this ratio of skim milk to cream remains constant. Changes
in the richness of the milk cannot alter it, no matter how rich
or how poor the milk, each 100 pounds of milk will yield 85
pounds of skim milk and 15 pounds of cream. But since prac-
tically all of the fat goes into the cream, the cream from the
separation of rich milk contains more fat than that from poor
milk. This fact is graphically illustrated in Fig. 12.

CONDITIONS AmcTiNG RICHNESS OF CREAM 105

3*/M/(

CWrA/m .3 LB& OF FAT

/OOifa OF6X/1JIIC
OWTZm 6LK.QFF7ST

Tig. 12

Table 11. -^Showing Effect of Richness of Milk on Richness

of Cream.1

Experi-
ment
No.

Milk

Time of
Separa-
tion
Min.

Cream

Skim Milk

Lbs.

Fat

%

Fat
Lbs.

| Fat
Lbs. %

Fat
Lbs.

Lbs.

Fat

%

Fat
Lbs.

Milk Testing 3% Fat

I. .

50

3

1 5

7

625

19

1 18

45

12

054

II
III. ...

50
50

3
3

1.5
1.5

7
7

6.5
6.5

20.5
20.5

1.33
1.33

46
46

.03

.04

.013
.018

Aver. .

50

3

1.5

7

6.42

20

1.28

46

.06

.028

Milk Testing 4.5% Fat

I

50

4.5

2.25

7

6.25

34

2.12

45.5

.02

.01

II

50

4.5

2.25

7

6.5

32

2.08

44.8

.1

.05

III. ...

50

4.5

2.25

7

6.25

31.5

1.96

44.7

.05

.02

Aver. .

50

4.5

2.25

7

6.3

32.5

2.05

45

.06 | .03

Milk Testing 6% Fat

I

50

6

3

7

6.5

40.7

2.65

44

.12

.052

II

50

6

3

7

6.5

40

2.6

44

.10

.044

III. ...

50

6

3

7

6.5

36

2.34

44

.2

.088

Aver. .

50

6

3

7

6.5

39 | 2.53

44

.14

.061

The above illustration shows that with a ratio of skim milk
to cream, of 85 to 15 and all other conditions remaining con-

1 Hunziker.— -Why Cream Tests Vary. Purdue Bulletin No. 150, 1911 and
1915.

106

CONDITIONS AFFECTING RICHNESS OF CREAM

slant, three per cent milk produces 20 per cent cream, four
and one-half per . cent milk produces 30 per cent cream and
six per cent milk produces 40 per cent cream. The correct-
ness of this rule is further demonstrated by results of sepa-
rator experiments conducted by the Purdue University Agri-
cultural Experiment Station, as summarized in table 11.

Similar results were also obtained by Eckles and Wayman1
and by Guthrie.2

It is further interesting to note that the difference in the rich-
ness of cream from milk of different per cents of fat increases
as the ratio of skim milk to cream becomes wider. This rule is
shown in the following figures.

Table 12. — Relation of Richness of Cream to Ratio of Skim
Milk to Cream.

Ratio of Skim
Milk to Cream

Per Cent Fat in Cream from

Difference in Per
Cent Fat in Cream

3 Per Cent Milk

6 Per Cent Milk

80 to 20
85 to 15

90 to 10 -

15
20
30

30
40
60

15
20
30

The per cent of fat in the milk separated does not appreciably
affect the skimming efficiency, the per cent of fat found in the
skim milk from rich and poor milk being practically the same.

Effect of Speed of Separator on Richness of Cream.— The
higher the speed of the separator the higher the per cent of fat
in the cream. This rule applies in the case of most separators
and under most conditions. The influence of the speed on the
richness of the cream is largely due to the direct effect of the
speed on the ratio of skim milk to cream.

The higher the speed the greater the centrifugal force and
the more rapidly will the skim milk leave the bowl. An increase
in speed therefore increases the capacity of the skim milk dis-
charge. This, means less milk for the cream .outlet and con-
sequently richer cream. A decrease in the speed lessens the

1 Eckles and Wayman. — Factors Affecting the Per Cent of Fat in Cream
from Farm Separators. Missouri Bulletin 94, 1911.

2 Guthrie. — Variations in the Tests for Fat in Cream and in Skimmed
Milk. Cornell Bulletin 360, 1915.

CONDITIONS AFFECTING RICHNESS OF

107

centrifugal force, retards the escape of the skim milk, reduces
the capacity of the skim milk outlet and more milk has to be
discharged through the cream outlet. The cream, therefore, is
thinner. In the following table are summarized results of ex-
periments1 showing the effect of the speed of the separator on
the richness of the cream.

Table 13. — Effect of Speed of Separator on Richness of Cream.

Experi-
ment
No.

Time of
Separation
Mift

Cream

Skim Milk

Lbs.

Fat

%

Fat
Lbs.

Lbs.

Fat

%

Fat
Lbs.

Low Speed

1

9

9.5

11

1.05

40.3

2.8

1.1

II

9

95

10

95

396

29

1 15

Ill

9

9.7

11 5

1 12

398

25

1

Average

9

96

108

1 04

399

273

1 08

Normal Speed

I

55

5.2

41 5

2.17

44.8

04

.02

11

7

47

45

2 12

448

07

.03

III

7

5.1

40

2.04

44.5

.07

.03

Average .

6.5

5

42.2

2.11

44.7

.06

.03

High Speed

I

6

33

655

21

46.5

.01

II

65

35

595

208

45.9

.03

.01

Ill

65

3.1

65

202

46.6

.06

.03

Average

633

33

627

207

46.3

.03

.01

These facts apply with all separators and under all con-
ditions where the skim milk and cream exits are so adjusted
that the skim milk outlet is farther from; the center of the bowl
than the cream outlet. This is the case with most separators
and under most conditions.

Additional factors which may enter into the causes of richer
cream, as the result of higher speed, are the reduced relative
friction in the skim milk outlet, due to the larger volume of skim
milk discharged and the increased relative friction in the cream
outlet due to the greater viscosity of the richer cream. Further-
more, the more complete separation in the case of high speed
may in part at least be conducive of richer cream.

1 Hunziker.— Why Cream Tests Vary. Purdue Bulletin No. 150, 1911.

108

CONDITIONS AFFECTING RICHNESS OF CREAM

SPEED

L0W SPEED

£.o$5 in SKinmtK

H/6H3PEED

Pl8T- 13

However, the effect of the speed of the separator varies to
some extent with the richness of the cream for which the sep-
arator is set. When set for rich cream there is a greater difference
in the per cent of fat of the resulting cream between high speed
and low speed than when set for thin cream. This is due to the
fact that when the machine is adjusted to produce rich cream,
the relative difference between the distance of the skim milk and
cream outlets from the center of the bowl is proportionately
greater, the proportion of skim milk discharged is larger, less
milk is left to pass out with the cream, the cream is richer and
the influence of the speed is greater than when the separator is
set for thin cream. When set for thin cream the relative dif-
ference between the distance of the skim milk and cream outlets
from the center is smaller, the effect of the speed on the capacity
of the skim milk and cream discharge is more nearly equalized,
causing less variation in the richness of the cream due to changes
in speed.

In separators, or under conditions, causing the cream outlet
to be located farther from the center than the skim milk outlet,
a high speed will even yield less skim milk, more cream and
thinner cream than a low speed. This is the case with the
Simplex separator, for instance, when adjusted to produce thin

CONDITIONS AFFECTING RICHNESS OF CRSAM

109

cream, as shown in Table 14, representing results obtained by
Eckles and Wayman.1

Table 14. — Effect of Speed. Simplex Separator No. 2 (1540).

Full speed 50 revolutions of cran'k per minute.

Three-fourths speed 37 revolutions of crank per minute.

Half speed 25 revolutions of crank per minute.

Temperature uniformly 90°.

o""1

b

^g

4*

L

I*

2

03

|gd

03 *•"*

3

CCQ

5*4

= 1

*i

0

3

£

Speed

5

L.

5^

If

s«

S*M
3

i!

Sg

£

I"

1"

h

Full Speed

3.126

16.684

19.810

1—5.33

31.3

.02

5.0

31.3

.03

17

Three-fourths Speed.

3.200

16.522

19.722

1—5.16

30.2

.06

5.0

30.1

.06

Half Speed

3.128

16.532

19.660

1—5.29

29.0

.31

5.0

28.9

.32

Full Speed

2.448

17.490

19.938

1—7.14

39.6

.03

5.1

39.8

.03

18

Three-fourths Speed.

2.708

16.896

19.604

il-<5.23

35.4

.06

5.1

35.6

.05

Half Speed . ...

3.052

16.576

19.628

1—5.43

30.0

.20

5.1

29.8

.23

Full Speed

4.238

15.645

19.883

1—3.69

21.4

.03

4.9

21.4

.03

19

Three-fourths Speed.

3.863

15.975

19.838

1—4.13

23.2

.07

4.9

23.1

.07

Half Speed

3.206

16.433

19.639

1—5.11

26.8

.25

4.9

26.8

.25

Full Speed

4.365

15.723

20.088

1—3.59

20.6

.03

4.8

20.6

.03

20

Three-fourths Speed.

3.975

15.969

19.944

1—4.03

22.2

.05

4.8

22.2

.06

Half Speed

2.868

16.826

19.694

1—5.85

28.0

.36

4.8

28.2

.36

The above table shows that, while with rich cream the ratio
of skim milk to cream and the per cent of fat in the cream de-
creased as the speed was reduced, with cream low in fat the

1 Eckles and Wayman. — Factors Affecting the Per Cent of Fat In Cream
from Farm Separators. Missouri Bulletin No. 94, 1911.

110

CONDITIONS AFFECTING RICHNESS OF CREAM

reverse was the case. As the speed was reduced the ratio of skim
milk to cream and the per cent of fat in cream increased. These
differences are due to the relative position of the skim milk and
cream outlets.

Effect of Rate of Inflow on the Richness of the Cream.— The
rate of inflow exerts a marked influence on the richness of the
cream as shown in the table below.

Table 15. — Effect of Rate of Inflow on Richness of Cream.

Experi-
ment
No.

Milk

Time of
Separa-
tion
Min.

Cream

Skim Milk

Lbs.

Fat

%

Fat
Lbs.

Lbs.

Fat

%

Fat

Lbs.

Lbs.

Fat

%

Fat
Lbs.

Small Inflow

I

50

43

215

11

286

70

202

46.7

.05

.02

II . ..

50

44

22

11

3 12

68

212

46.4

.12

.06

III. ...

50

4.8

2.4

12

3.42

71.5

2.44

46.3

.08

.04

Aver. . .

50

4.5

2.25

11JS

3.13

70

2.19

46.5

.08

.04

Normal Inflow

1

50

43

215

7

5 5 | 37.5

206

44.2

1

.04

II

50

4.4

2.2

7

5.37 | 40

2.15

44.1

.05

.02

III. ...

50

3.8

2.4

7

4.37 | 58.5

2.55

45.5

.03

.01

Aver. . .

50

4.5

2.25

7

5.08 | 44.3

2.25

44.6

.06

.02

Large Inflow

I

50

43

2 15

6

45

23 5

106

451

25

.11

II

50

4.4

2.2

Q

775

26.5

205

42.1

77

.11

Ill

50

4.8

2.4

6

4.86

51.7

2.51

44.7

.05

.02

Aver. . .

50

4.5

2.25

6

5.70

32.8

1.87

44

.19

.08

The results in table 15 show that the richness of the cream
increases as the rate of inflow decreases and vice versa. This
is due to the fact that when the rate of 'inflow increases the
capacity of the cream outlet increases proportionately greater
than the capacity of the skim milk outlet, while a decrease in
the inflow causes a greater decrease in the capacity of the cream
outlet than in that of the skim milk outlet. The average re-
sults of experiments with a small, normal and large inflow as
tabulated above show the following proportion of cream to skim
milk, Table 16.

CONDITIONS AFFECTING RICHNESS OF CREAM 111

IHfLOW.

30OIBS

SMALL 1/1FLOW

*,**.&*

Pig-. 14

Table 16.— Effect of Rate of Inflow on Ratio of Skim Milk

to Cream.

Rate of Inflow

Cream

Skim Milk

Ratio of
Cream to
Skim Milk

Lbs.

%

Lbs.

%

50 Ibs. in 11 Minutes

3.13

6.26

46.5 | 93

1 : 14.86

50 Ibs. in 7 Minutes.

5.08

10.16

44.6

89.2

1: 8.78

50 Ibs. in 6 Minutes.

5.70

11.40

44.0

88.0

1; 7.72

It was formerly assumed that the skim miilk discharge was
constant and was not influenced by the rate of inflow and that
all the additional milk of an increased inflow would escape
through the cream discharge. The above experimental results
show this to be erroneous. The skim milk discharge increased
very materially with the increase in the rate of inflow as shown
in Table 16 and in the following summary:1

1 Hunziker.— Why Cream Tests Vary. Purdue Agr. Expt. Station. Bull,
No. 150, 1911.

112

CONDITIONS AFFECTING RICHNESS OF CREAM

Skim milk discharged
per minute

Ollldll IIJIIUW

Normal inflow

11
44.6

t.£o puunus
6 37 pounds

L/arge inflow . . .

7
44.0

7 33 pounds

6

Effect of Temperature of Milk on Richness of Cream. — The
temperature of the milk influences the richness of the cream
yielded by the separator to a marked degree.

Table 17.— -Showing Effect of Temperature of Milk on Richness

of Cream.1

Experi-
ment
No.

Time of
Separa-
tion
Min.

Milk

Cream

Skim Milk

Lbs.

Fat
%

Fat
Lbs.

Lbs.

Fat

%

Fat
Lbs.

Lbs.

Fat

%

Fat
Lbs.

Normal Temperature— 90 to 95° F.

I

7

50

3.8

1.9

9

17.5

1.58

41

.03

.01

11 . .

5

31.5

41

1 29

4.5

28

1 26

27

.03

.01

Ill

8

50

4

2

9.7

20.5

2

40.9

.02

.01

IV

8.5

50

4

2

10.1

20

2.02

39.8

.01

V

7.5

50

4

2

10.1

20

2.02

40.3

.01

Aver. . .

7.2

46.3

3.98

1.84

8.68

21.2

1.78

37.8

.02

.01

Low Temperature — 50 to 60° F.

I . ..

9

50

38

1 9

2

325

65

48

1.50

.72

II .

7

32

41

1.31

1.5

43

.65

28.5

2.10

.63

III. ....

7.5

50

4

2

7.2

27

1.94

43.6

.05

.02

IV

7.5

50

4

2

7.3

28

2.04

44.3

.03

.01

V. .....

7.5

50

4

2

7.2

28

2.02

44.1

.05

.02

Aver. . .

7.6

46.4

3.98

1.84

5.04

31.7

1.46

41.7

.75

.28

The experimental results summarized in the above table
show that cold milk yields richer cream than warm milk. The
cream from the cold milk averaged 31.7 per cent fat, while the
cream from milk separated at 90 to 95 degrees F. averaged 21.2
per cent fat. The difference would probably have been con-
siderably greater, had it not been for the excessive loss of fat in
the skim milk from the cold milk, which reduced the amount
of fat supplying the cream discharge.

The cream from the cold milk is thicker and more viscous
than that from the warm milk. This greater viscosity renders

HHunziker, Why Cream Tests Vary, Purdue Bulletin 150, 1911.

CONDITIONS AFFECTING RICHNESS OF CREAM

113

it more sluggish in its escape from the bowl, it passes off more
slowly, thereby decreasing the capacity of the cream outlet, and
more of the milk is forced through the skim milk outlet.

EFFtlCTSFTlEMIPSl

OTM/LKS0T

/00/t

effFA/i COMTA/flS
JL0JS M SMflfllLK .3 -

33.?*

Pig1. 15

The fact that the cold milk has a higher specific gravity
than the warm milk may cause the skim milk to escape with
slightly more force, thus further increasing the capacity of the
skim milk outlet. It is not improbable, also, that the warm milk
is sufficiently more fluid than the cold milk to increase the rate
of inflow and thereby increase the relative volume of the cream
discharge in greater proportion than the skim milk discharge.
The results above recorded, however, fail to show a uniform in-
crease in the rate of inflow of the warm milk; in fact in two
out of five experiments the opposite was the case.

In the case of some separators the bowl commences to clog
when cold milk is passed through the machine. When this
happens the cream from the cold milk is usually thinner than
that from the warm milk. A part of the butterfat in the bowl,
churns into a roll of butter and only a small amount of cream
is discharged and this cream is very low in butterfat. This phe-
nomenon is shown in table 18.

114

CONDITIONS AFFECTING RICHNESS OF CREAM

Table 18. — Effect of Low Temperature of Milk on Richness of
Cream when Bowl Clogs.1

Temper-
ature

Time of

Milk

Cream

Skim Milk

Separa
tion
Min.

Lbs.

Fat

%

Fat
Lbs.

Lbs.

Fat
%

Fat
Lbs.

Lbs.

Fat

%

Fat
Lbs.

95° R...
50° F....

.4

7

32
30

4.1
4.1

1.31
1.23

4.5
1.5

26
12

1.17
.18

26

25

.03
3.6

.01
.90

As already stated in chapter on "Effect of Temperature of
Milk on the Skimming Efficiency of the Separator," as far as the
farm separator is concerned, the milk is in the best condition
for separation in every respect, immediately after each milking. In
the factory, facilities for heating the milk to and holding it at
90 degrees F. or over should be provided.

Effect of Amount of Water or Skim Milk used to Flush the
Bowl on Richness of Cream. — While this is strictly a minor fac-
tor in the control of the richness of the cream, it should be
understood that the indiscriminate flushing of the bowl may
dilute the cream unnecessarily.

It is very desirable that the bowl be properly flushed after
each separation. This removes most of the remnants of milk
and cream, and loosens the separator slime in the bowl, making
subsequent washing more easy. In order to accomplish this, all
that is necessary is to run water into the bowl until the dis-
charge spout appears watery.

Table 19.— Effect of Amount of Water Used to Flush the Bowl
on the Richness of the Cream.1

Amount Water Used to Flush Bowl

Twice the

Experi-

Same as

Till Cream

Arnt. Needed

ment

None

Capacity

Discharge

for Watery

No.

of Bowl

was Watery

Cream Dis-

charge

Fat %

Fat %

Fat %

Fat %

I

32

32

31

29

II

30

30

29

28

III.

58

56

51

48

IV

31

31

30

29

Average. . .

37.8

37.3

35

33.5

1 Hunziker, Why Cream Tests Vary, Purdue Bulletin 150, 1911.

ADVANTAGES OF CENTRIFUGAL SEPARATOR

115

Effect of Slime in Bowl of Separator on Richness of Cream.
— Experiments conducted by Guthrie and Supplee1 show that
deposits of slime in the bowl do not have any appreciable effect
on the richness of the cream so long as the slime does not clog
the passages.
Advantages of Centrifugal Separator over Gravity Creaming.

The operation of the centrifugal separator has undisputed
advantages over the gravity systems of creaming. The chief of
these are:

1. Greater skimming efficiency.

2. Richer cream.

3. Better quality of cream and skim milk

4. More uniform richness of cream

Greater Skimming Efficiency. — The centrifugal separator is
the most efficient apparatus available for the separation of milk.
Below table shows the relative skimming efficiency as secured
experimentally.2

Table 20. — Per cent of Fat in Cream and Skim Milk of the Four
Different Systems of Creaming under Most Favorable Conditions.

Hand Separator

Deep-Setting

Shallow Pan

Water-Dilution

S'kim

| Skim

Skim

Skim

Milk

Cream

Milk

Milk

Cream

Milk

Milk

Cream

Milk

Milk

Cream

Milk

Lbs.

%

%

Lbs.

%

%

Lbs.

%

%

Lbs.

%

%

Fat

Fat

Fat

Fat

Fat

Fat

Fat

Fat

31

33.

.01

20

32.

.2

50

30.

.55

64

22.

.70

31

29.

.03

30

29.

.15

50

26.

.40

64

21.5

.68

40

34.

.01

27

27.

.16

52

31.

.38

60

25.

.70

34

30.

.02

30

30.

.18

48

32.

.42

60

26.

.60

35

32.

.02

28

32.

.18

50

26.

.46

56

25.5

.74

34

33.

.03

26

26.

.15

50

27.

.44

56

24.

.68

46

33.

.01

28

24.5

.17

52

25.

.48

60

31.

.72

38

30.

.02

25

28.

.15

50

32.

.02

30

25.5

.18

38

30.

.02

30

28.

.18

38

28.

.02

38

33.

.02

Average .02

.17

.44

.68

A glance at the above table reveals the superiority of the

and Supplee, Variations in the Tests for Fat in Cream and Skim
Milk, Cornell Bulletin 360, 1915.

2 Hunziker, The Hand Separator and the Gravity Systems of Creaming, Pur-
due Bulletin 116, 1906.

116

ADVANTAGES OF CENTRIFUGAL SEPARATOR

centrifugal separator over the gravity systems of creaming Even
in the deep-setting system,, which causes the least loss of fat
in the skim milk of any of the gravity systems, the loss of fat
is 8.5 times as great as that incurred with the centrifugal separa-
tor; the shallow pan and water dilution system lost 22 and 34
times, respectively, as much fat in the skim milk as the cen-
trifugal separator.

The loss of butter fat with the gravity system of creaming
would probably have been even greater, had an attempt been
made to secure a richer cream. For buttermaking, cream con-
taining from 30 to 35 per cent fat is most suitable. It is difficult,
even under the best conditions, with the gravity systems, to
produce cream testing 30 per cent fat, it is practically impos-
sible to do so without a material increase in the per cent of fat
lost in the skim milk.

Expressed in pounds of butter lost in the skim milk of one
cow in one year, the loss assumes an importance which no pro-
gressive dairyman can afford to ignore. It is obvious that even
at very moderate butter prices, the centrifugal separator in the
skimming of the milk of a herd of 5 to 10 cows would save
enough butterfat in less than two years to pay for itself, as
shown in table 21. These figures are based on the assumption
that each 100 pounds of milk yields 87 pounds of skim milk, that
a 20 per cent overrun is secured and that butter sells at 50 cents
per pound.

Table 21. — Loss Incurred by the Four Systems of Creaming at
50 Cents per Pound of Butter in One Year.

Cows

Milk

Value of Butter Lost by the Use of Different
Methods of Creaming

No.

Pounds

Hand
Separator
$

Deep
Setting
Method

$

Shallow
Pan
Method
$

Water
Dilution
Method
$

1
5
10

5,000
25,000
50,000

.52
2.60
5.20

4.44
22.19
44.37

11.48
57.40
114.80

17.75
88.74
177.48

Better Quality and Richer Cream. — The centrifugal separa-
tor makes it possible for the creamery and for the dairy farmer

ADVANTAGES OF CENTRIFUGAL SEPARATOR 117

to secure a pure, sweet and wholesome cream which can be
made into a first class butter. In the whole milk creamery,
where the btittermaker has exclusive control over the cream as
soon as it leaves the separator, conditions are most ideal and
the verdict of the butter markets of this country is proof of the
fact that our best butter comes from the whole-milk creameries.

The cream that arrives at our gathered cream plants, as a
general rule does not grade high enough to make "Extras."
This fact is one of the main drawbacks of the gathered cream
plant. While much of this cream is hand separator cream, the
fault cannot be attributed to the separator. It is obvious that
just as good cream can be produced by the use of the hand
separator as with the factory machine. The fault lies not with
the use, but with the abuse of the separator. When proper at-
tention is given to cleanliness in the operation of the separator
and the handling of the cream, to prompt cooling and to frequent
delivery, the resulting cream is bound to be in proper condition
to make good butter.

Not so, however, where the cream is separated by gravity.
The gravity cream, is to-day considered the scum of the raw
material which the creameries receive. Creameries which
practice systematic grading are generally forced to place gravity
cream in their lowest grade and many creameries pay several
cents less for such cream than for separator cream.

There are many reasons for the inferiority of gravity cream :
It is usually old because time is required for setting. It is
always relatively low in butter fat and this, together with its
age, causes it under average conditions to be of very poor quality
by the time it reaches the creamery. Its dilution deprives the
buttermaker of the opportunity to improve it by the addition of
starter. This thin cream yields a relatively large amount of
buttermilk which in turn means heavy loss of fat. This loss is
increased also by the fact that this thin cream, especially when
pasteurized, does not churn out exhaustively and finally the
cream, owing to its thinness and its usual contamination with
undesirable ferments, deteriorates rapidly, yielding a low grade
of butter.

118 RECEIVING MILK AND CREAM

CHAPTER VI.
RECEIVING MILK AND CREAM.

When the milk or cream is received by the creamery, or
cream station and before it enters the manufacturing process, it
is graded, weighed, sampled and "dumped" and the cans are
washed, rinsed, steamed and dried and retagged preparatory to
returning.

Grading of Cream, Importance. — iFrom the standpoint of
improving the quality of cream received by the creamery the use
of an efficient system of cream grading is all important. Until
recent years the cream grading has received very little attention
by our creameries. Little, if any grading was done and the same
price was paid for good and poor cream. This has resulted in
a general depreciation of the quality of the cream furnished by
the farmer, there was no material inducement to the farmer to
make a special effort in the care of the cream on the farm.
Unless his personal pride and decency prompted him to produce
a clean, sanitary and properly cooled cream, he was all too ready
to follow the line of the least resistance and pay no attention
to the quality of the cream he furnished. In fact, the failure of
the creamery to grade cream put a premium on shiftless and
careless handling of cream on the farm and on the receipt of
poor cream in the factory.

In consequence of this disregard for quality of raw material,
much of the butter annually reaching the market was of un-
satisfactory quality, the keeping property of much of this but-
ter was inferior, causing it to come out of storage in deteriorated
condition, large quantities of butter had to be sold under market
quotations, inviting keen competition by foreign butter and but-
ter substitutes and rendering the establishment of a reputation
for American butter in foreign countries exceedingly slow and
difficult.

Development of Cream Grading. — Within the last five to
ten years, the pure food wave that has swept the country awaken-
ing the public to a keener appreciation of the value of whole-
some food products of good quality, the realization on the

RECEIVING MILK AND CREAM 119

part of the creamerymen of the necessity of supplying the market
with bettter butter in order to dispose of it at a satisfactory mar-
gin, and the efforts of the dairy educational forces to introduce
practical methods for the systematic grading of cream, have been
mighty factors in focusing the attention of the creamerymen on
improving their cream supply by cream grading and quality-
paying.

The earlier efforts at cream grading were largely abortive.
In isolated cases some concerns had the courage and determina-
tion to grade and pay on the basis of grade only. But the great
majority of creameries, while acknowledging the fundamental
correctness of cream grading, lacked the courage to undertake
it. Their intentions foundered on the rock of competition in
the cream supply territory. They lacked confidence in each other
to stand by mutual agreements to start grading and quality-pay-
ing. They were fearful of losing patrons and of working into
the hands of their competitors. Gentlemen's agreements, drafted
in sectional and national conferences of creamerymen to grade
cream- proved futile. Attempts to place legislative measures on
the statute books, requiring the grading of cream proved uncon-
stitutional, and Government inspection of the creameries for the
purpose of compelling nation-wide cream grading did not ma-
terialize because of the enormity of the proposed undertaking.

While most of these proposed and apparently ideal plans
failed to materialize and were automatically abandoned, one after
another, the constant agitation of the subject did not fail to
have its good effect. While it became clear to all practical
creamerymen that the industry was not ripe as yet for an
organized state- or nation-wide plan of cream grading by mutual
agreement between creameries, farsighted creamerymen realized
that this complex and difficult matter was a problem to be solved
independently by each individual creamery and that it was to
the unquestioned advantage of each individual concern to in-
troduce cream grading in their own plants.

Today most of the really progressive creameries, large and
small, are grading their cream and many of these creameries pay
the farmer on the basis of quality. Those who have taken this

120 RECEIVING MII<K AND CREAM

important step are already convinced of its permanent advan-
tages and it is only a question of time when all creameries, for
their own protection, will adopt a rational system of cream grad-
ing and paying on the basis of quality. They are bound
to come to the inevitable conclusion that, in order to secure
satisfactory returns from the market, they must furnish the
market with good butter, that they cannot hold the patronage
of the cream producer to furnish good cream unless they pay
him a differential on the basis of quality, and that the paying of
top prices for butterfat of poor quality must ultimately spell
financial loss and ruin.

Methods of Grading. — One of the serious obstacles that has
been responsible for much delay in the general adoption of grad-
ing cream has been the difficulty of doing this work correctly,
and the absence of a method practical, rapid and applicable under
average creamery conditions. Efforts to use chemical, physical
or bacteriological tests that would yield results of specific de-
scription and that would make possible the expression of different
grades in mathematical figures, have so far failed to solve this
difficult problem of cream grading. Such tests as the acid test,
the boiling test, the sediment test, the curd test, the fermenta-
tion test, the microscopic test, which have been in successful use
in market milk plants and milk condenseries for years, were
found either mechanically impractical with cream, or their results
were unsuited for the proper classification of different grades of
cream. The acid test is practically the only test that could be
applied under average conditions of cream and creamery manage-
ment. But its results too, lack conclusiveness, because they fail
to furnish a correct index to the relative fitness of cream for
buttermaking. While, generally speaking, sweet cream is pref-
erable to sour cream, the acidity in cream is by no means the
chief defect of cream of inferior quality. This test has there-
fore never been adopted for general use in creameries.

The really important characteristics of cream which deter-
mine its quality, are its odor and flavor and these can be deter-
mined successfully only by the senses of smell and taste. Ef-
ficient cream grading, therefore, of necessity resolves itself into

RECEIVING MitK AND CREAM 121

the tasting and smelling of the cream and the success of this
method is controlled largely by the grader's keenness of these
senses and his knowledge and ability to quickly decide on the
proper placing of cream so, graded.

Grading by the Senses of Taste and Smell. — The earlier at-
tempts to grade cream by this method were crude, unsightly and
unsanitary at best. The operator sampled the cream by stick-
ing his fingers into the cream and "licking" them off. Aside from
the ethical and sanitary aspect, this practice was objectionable
because the results were very crude, did not permit of close
grading and often were misleading. By this practice there is
always danger of carrying the flavor of one can to the next, con-
siderable cream adhering to the fingers after tasting it. In this
way the bad flavor of the first can may also be detected in the
tasting of the next can, although the cream in the second can
may be entirely free from that flavor. Thus the second can
would naturally be erroneously put in the same grade as the first.

The objectionable features of this method have been cor-
rected in many of the more progressive creameries by tasting the
cream with a wooden stick, glass rod or spoon, placed in hot
water between dippings.

A very satisfactory practice of grading cream is the fol-
lowing :

Apparatus needed:

Two wooden sticks, about the size of an ordinary lead pencil
and preferably of maple.

One tin cup about 8 inches deep with handle.

One cream stirring rod with perforated disc at lower end.

One dental spittoon resting on a pipe standard about 3 feet
high and with a pipe base sufficiently large to prevent tipping
over. This spittoon should be attached to the water line by means
of small rubber tubing about 15 feet long.

Operating the Grading Test:

Stir the cream in the can vigorously with the cream stir-
rer, take its odor by bending over the freshly stirred cream.

122 RECEIVING MILK AND CREAM

From the tin cup filled with hot water take a clean maple wood
stick, dip up with it a small amount of cream, taste it, return
the stick to the hot water in the tin cup and use the second
stick for the next can. By this method the hot water melts the
cream off one stick while the other one is used, and thus insures
its freedom from cream of the previous can when it is again used.
Enough cream adheres to the end of a stick of the size of the
average lead pencil for proper tasting. A larger amount of cream
is unnecessary as well as objectionable for convenient grading.

The dental spittoon serves to catch the expectorations of
the cream by the grader. This is preferable to spitting on the
floor, which is unsightly and often unsanitary. The spittoon,
being connected with the water line by a long, flexible rubber
tubing, can be shifted around at will and it stands high enough
to furnish an easy target avoiding splashing over the cans. The
expectorations are automatically rinsed out of the spittoon and
disappear on the floor through the hollow pipe standard sup-
porting it.

It is advisable to grade closely and to allow to pass as first-
grade cream only, cans which are free from specific defects and
which are above suspicion and to pull out and place in second
grade all cans that do not meet the standard of first grade cream,
or cans about which the grader is uncertain. All cans segregated
out in this manner should be graded over and this should prefer-
ably be done by another man, or the superintendent. Enough time
should be given and pains taken to regrade this second grade
cream so as to insure accurate work. This will often enable the
creamery to return to first grade, cans of cream which at first
sight proved uncertain, thus increasing the per cent of grade 1
and decreasing the per cent of grade II. If any cans are found
with decayed cream or cream otherwise unfit to be made into
butter, their contents should be poured into the sewer and the
patron should be so notified. The sanitary laws of some states
require such procedure. In case of dispute the co-operation of
the local or state pure food or health official should be solicited.
If for any reason it is deemed advisable to return to the farm
decayed cream, it is advisable to mix into it enough butter color
to preclude all temptation on the part of the producer to send

RECEIVING MILK AND CREAM 123

it back to the factory with the next shipment, without ready
detection by the creamery. When cream is hauled or shipped
to the creamery in the farmer's individual can the creamery us-
ually has' little difficulty in keeping the several grades separate.

In the station system of cream receiving, the farmers haul
their cream to the station, where it can be graded in a similar
manner as in the creamery. After grading, it is shipped to the
central creamery in completely filled shipping cans. In this case
the operator should exercise great care not to pour cream of dif-
ferent grades together in the same can, but to use different cans
for different grades and mark the grade on the respective cans.
At the creamery the station cream is-regraded and if the results
of the creamery's grading materially differ from those of the
station operator's grading, the operator should be so notified.

In the case of the route system of receiving cream the route
man should have on his wagon properly marked cans for each
grade. He should grade the cream received from each farmer
and pour it into the cans reserved for that grade. When the
route cream arrives at the creamery it is regraded and if the
results of the grading at the creamery differ from those of the
route man or hauler, his attention should be called to the same
promptly.

The grader should record all second grade cream with nota-
tions of the specific defect, on the shipping tag or other blank
which goes to the office, and the office should promptly notify
the patron why his cream did not pass grade 1, with sugges-
tions of how to best guard against the recurrence of the defect.

Classification of Grades. — Much has been said and written
about specific grades and numerous are the classifications of
cream grades on record. After all is said and done, each cream-
ery has to ultimately establish its own individual standard of
grades, according to its local conditions of supply and of market
requirements. It is a comparatively simple matter to devise an
ideal classification of grades, but it is exceedingly difficult to suc-
cessfully follow such classifications under often very perplexing
and frequently unideal commercial conditions of operation.
While every effort should be made to work toward a high stan-

124 RECEIVING MILK AND

dard of classification, the commercial practicability of the classi-
fication is of the greatest ultimate importance. One of the ob-
stacles in the way of the general adoption of cream grading has
been that the classifications of grades have often been far too
exacting and complex to make their operation successful. In
such cases, after a few abortive attempts at grading the whole
principle of grading was declared impracticable and was aban-
doned. The adoption of a classification that corresponds more
nearly with actual commercial conditions, though it may be far
from ideal, usually is conducive of better net results, than at-
tempts at the use of a classification that borders perfection, but
that is commercially impossible under prevailing conditions. For
the great majority of creameries, a classification of two grades is
all that may reasonably be expected. Creameries that supply a
limited, very critical trade, demanding a superior product may
find it advantageous to make three grades. In such cases the
following classification may be desirable :

Grade I. Cream that is sweet or practically so and free from
all objectionable odors and flavors.

Grade II. Cream that is sour but otherwise free from objec-
tionable odors and flavors.

Grade III. Cream that does not comply with the require-
ments of Grades I and II but which is free from putrefaction.
In this class would fall cream that may have objectionable odors
and flavors, such as weedy, garlic, curdy, gassy, yeasty and other
off-flavors. All cream containing decaying matter or other sub-
stances of putrefaction should be rejected.

For creameries whose trade requirements do not discriminate
between extra fine and fair quality and who are not in a position
to secure a materially higher price for the superior quality, the
following classification of grades is recommended :

Grade I. Cream that is sweet or moderately sour, but free
from objectionable flavors and odors.

Grade II. Cream that is free from decaying and putrefactive
matter but which may be sour and contain objectionable odors
and flavors, such as weedy, garlic, cheesy, gassy, yeasty and

SAMPLING MILK AND CRKAM 125

other off-flavors. All cream containing decaying matter or sub-
stances of putrefaction should be rejected.

Under certain conditions it may be desirable to subdivide
grade II, or to make three grades instead of two. Some of the
cream may be impregnated with a very intensive flavor, such as
intense garlic, yeasty or other similar flavor. In this case it is
recommended to place in grade II cream with slight off-flavors
only and into grade III the cream with the highly developed
off-flavors, always providing, however, that none of this cream
shows signs of unfitness for food.

SAMPLING MILK AND CREAM.

Purpose. — In the case of buying milk or cream for butter-
making, the only just and business-like basis of payment is pay-
ment on the basis of the pounds of butter fat received and this
basis has been adopted by the creameries throughout this country
This method of payment necessitates the testing of the milk or
cream for butter fat and the correctness of the test depends in
the first place on the representativeness of the sample. It is
of the greatest importance, if accurate tests are to be made, to
secure a sample from the milk or cream of each patron's delivery,
or shipment, that is representative of the milk or cream from
which it is taken, and this in turn is controlled very largely
by the thoroughness of the preparation of the milk or cream be-
fore sampling and by the method used for sampling.

Sampling Milk. — The milk arrives at the creamery or skim-
ming station almost without exception in the farmer's individual
cans. If one can only is received from one and the same farmer
the sample may be taken direct from this can and before the
milk is "dumped" into the weigh can. In this case the thorough
agitation of the milk with a stout stirring rod is usually suf-
ficient to mix it so that a representative sample can be taken.
In the case more than one can is received from one and the same
farmer, it is usually most convenient to pour all the milk into
the weigh can, and take the sample from the mixed milk.

There are three principal methods of taking milk samples,
namely, individual samples of all patrons, that are tested daily,

126 SAMPLING MILK AND CREAM

composite samples that are tested at weekly, bi-weekly or
monthly intervals, and individual samples of part of the patronSj
that are tested daily.

Single Milk Samples for Daily Tests. — In this method the
milk of each patron's delivery is sampled and tested. This is
the most accurate and reliable method of sampling. The sample
is taken either into a glass jar from which later the correct
amount is transferred to the test bottle, or the sample may be
pipetted from the properly mixed milk in the weigh can direct
into the milk test bottle. In this way the extra work of handling
sample jars and of preparing the milk in the jar for the test is
made unnecessary, and all danger of fat separation before the
sample reaches the test bottle is avoided. This is obviously a
very accurate method of securing tests, but it involves a very
large, and under commercial conditions of operation an almost
prohibitive amount of work. On account of this objection this
method is not in general use and has been very largely
abandoned.

Another practice of taking single samples is to take and test
samples from every other or every third delivery of milk. At
the end of the month or other period of payment, these individual
tests are averaged and the pounds of butter-fat are calculated
by multiplying the average test by the total pounds of milk re-
ceived for that period. This practice is obviously less reliable
than where single samples are taken and tested daily. However,
experimental results indicate that samples taken as often as every
third day give results which compare very closely with those
obtained from daily samples, as shown in the next table, illustrat-
ing relative accuracy of different methods of sampling milk,

Composite Samples of Milk. — The purpose of taking com-
posite samples is to reduce the labor and expense of testing. The
true composite sample consists of aliquot portions of milk of
several deliveries from the same patron.

Jars for Composite Sampling. — Composite sample jars must
have a tight seal in order to prevent evaporation of moisture.

SAMPLING MILK AND CREAM

127

Pig-. 16. Composite

sample jar

Courtesy Mojon-

nier Bros. Co.

Pint jars sealed with glass stoppers, rubber
stoppers, cork stoppers, metal caps, or screw
tops may be used for this purpose. Bottles
with paper caps and jelly glasses with tin lids
do not furnish tight seals ; they should not be
used for this purpose.

A separate jar is used for each patron, and
each jar must bear the respective patron's
number. The jars should be thoroughly clean
and, in order to guard against errors, they
should be arranged on convenient shelves near
the weigh can in numerical order, grouping the
jars of patrons of the same route together.
Taking Composite Samples of Milk. — Cor-
rect composite samples may be obtained by
the use of a milk thief or a graduated pipette.
If the milk thief is used, it is inserted into the
weigh can of the entire delivery of one patron.
The milk in the tube rises to the level of the
milk in the weigh can. The milk thief is then emptied into the
sample jar. In case the graduated pipette is used, a certain
quantity of milk is taken for every pound of milk delivered by
the patron (usually about .1 c.c. for every pound of milk de-
livered). The milk thief is the handier instrument of the two,
but where the amount of milk delivered by different patrons
varies considerably, the samples of milk from the larger milk
producers are often too large to be practical.

Other so-called composite samples are taken by using the
same measure for all milk receipts. In this case a small dipper
holding about one ounce is generally used. With this dipper
a sample of milk is taken daily from the weigh can of each
patron's milk and transferred into the sample jar. This method
of composite sampling is not mathematically correct and the
results tend to be less reliable, although experimental data by
Hunziker show that the results average practically the same as
when aliquot portions are taken.

The chief objection to composite samples of milk is that
they are usually held too long before testing. This causes more
or less complete separation of the butterfat, in the form of a

128 SAMPLING MILK AND CREAM

thick and tough layer of cream on the surface of the milk. This
cream mixes with difficulty back into the remainder of the sample
so that the portion transferred to the bottle is often not rep-
resentative of the true richness of the milk. This defect is
especially pronounced when the samples are not protected
against high temperature (summer heat).

Composite samples, if they must be taken, should be kept
not over one week and tested at the end of this period. They
should be kept in tightly sealed jars and in the cold.

In order to prevent composite samples from souring,
fermenting and curdling before they are tested, it is necessary
to add a small amount of preservative to the sample jar with
the first portion of milk. This is most conveniently done in the
form of tablets of corrosive sublimate or bichromate of potassium.
One tablet during the winter months will preserve a pint sample
for at least two weeks. During the hot weather it is advisable
to add two tablets. Liquid preservatives, such as formaldehyde,
may also be used in the place of the tablets, but they cause slight
dilution of the sample and are not considered quite as con-
venient as the tablets. After each daily addition of milk to the
composite sample jar, its contents should be gently agitated by
giving the jar a rotary motion in order to insure a complete
mixture of the preservative with the entire contents of the jar.
When agitating, care should be taken that the milk does not
unnecessarily slobber up along the side of the jar, so as to prevent
the coating of the side with cream which subsequently dries and
is difficult to mix back into the remainder of the sample at the
time of testing. Composite samples should be tightly sealed
and should not be held longer than one week. In old composite
samples the cream is prone to be so completely separated from
the skim milk that it refuses to mix back readily and to form
a homogeneous emulsion preparatory to testing.

Individual Samples of Part of the Deliveries only. — In this
method, each patron's milk is not sampled daily but only every
third, fourth or fifth day. The patrons are divided into groups.
Group one is sampled the first day, group two the second day,
etc., so that each patron's milk may be sampled say eight to
ten times per month. The tests of these samples are averaged

SAMPLING MILK AND CRSAM

129

at the end of the month and the patron is paid on the basis of
this average test. When this is done the time saved in sampling
permits the pipetting of the sample direct into the test bottle.

At first glance and from the theoretical point of view this
method appears crude and lacking in accuracy. However, an
extensive series of comparative tests conducted by the writer
in co-operation with the Indiana Condensed Milk Company at
Sheridan, Indiana, in which over 5,000 samples were tested,
demonstrated very conclusively that the results of this inter-
mittent sampling approached the average of tests of daily
samples closer than did the results of composite samples, as
shown in the following table:

Table 22.— Comparative Accuracy of Different Methods of
Sampling Milk.1

Method of Sampling

Aver-
age
Test

Percent
Fat

Average of Act-
ual Pounds
Fat, as Deter-
mined by Act-
ual Pounds
Milk Delivered
by Each Pa-
tron and by
Average Fat
Test of Each
Patron.

Pounds Fat

Aver-
age
Varia-
tion
from
Check
Figures

Pounds
Fat

Single samples, daily (check figures)...
Single samples, every second day

4.95
4.99

31.94

3204

4-. 10

Single samples, every third day

4.98

31.98

+.04

Single samples, every fourth day

4.98

3197

+.03

Single samples every fifth day

498

31 90

— 04

Composite samples, aliquot portions....
Composite samples, eaual oortions..

4.85
4.90

31.72
31.75

—.22
—.19

1 Hunziker. Experiments conducted at factory of Indiana Condensed
Milk Co., Sheridan, Ind., November, 1913. Single samples, composite samples
(aliquot portions) and composite samples (equal portions) were taken from
each of 300 patrons daily for a period of 14 days. The single samples were
tested daily and the composite samples at the end of the 14 day period.
The figures in column "Average Test," first column, represent the average
of all tests of the samples of each patron for each method of sampling.
There were 4,800 (300x14) single sample tests, 300 composite sample (aliquot
portion) tests and 300 composite sample (equal portion) tests. The average
pounds of fat (second column) were determined by multiplying each single
and composite sample test by the respective pounds of milk these samples
represented, dividing the product by the number of samples tested. The
"Average Variation from Check Figures" (third column) was determined by
deducting the average pounds of fat of each method of sampling from the
average pounds of fat of all single samples, the average of the single daily
tests being accepted as standard and used as check figures.

130 SAMPLING MILK AND CREAM

The reason why sampling every second, third, fourth or fifth
day, gave more accurate results than composite sampling" must
be attributed to the fact that in the intermittent sampling the
sample was transferred from the weigh can direct into the test
bottle. The portion used for testing, therefore, was bound to be
representative of the milk from which it was taken, there could
be no question of inaccuracy due to separation of fat. In the
composite samples, on the other hand, the cream was separated
out and in spite of the most painstaking efforts to thoroughly mix
the cream back into the remainder of the composite sample, the
portion transferred to the test bottle was of more or less un-
certain composition. This was the case with and without heating
the sample before the transfer was made. This investigation
was made in the month of November under most favorable con-
ditions for preserving composite samples. Had it been made
in the month of June, at a time when most of the cows are fresh
in milk and the milk contains predominatingly large fat globules
and when the temperature on the receiving platform where the
samples usually are kept is very high, the separation of cream
in the sample jar would have been even more complete, the
layer of cream would have been drier and tougher and less
miscible and the results of the tests of the composite samples
would probably have been still more unfavorable.

Sampling of Cream. — Correct sampling of cream is vastly
more difficult than correct sampling of milk. This is largely
due to the fact that the cream usually is older and often lumpy
and mixes into a homogeneous consistency with difficulty only.
It is also due to its richness in butterfat. Average cream con-
tains approximately 10 times as much fat as milk. The possible
error caused by lack of uniformity in consistency, therefore, is
greatly augmented.

Composite samples of cream representing portions of succes-
sive shipments or deliveries from the same patrons are practically
out of the question and cannot be too strongly condemned. It is
difficult to take small aliquot portions of cream and the tendency
of cream samples to lose part of their moisture by evaporation,
upon remaining for several days on the shelves of the warm re-
ceiving room, causes such samples to yield excessively high and

SAMPLING MILK AND CREAM 131

misleading tests.1 Then again, the established practice among
the majority of creameries to pay the farmer for each individual
shipment of cream precludes the practicability of holding the
samples and makes necessary prompt testing of the daily
samples.

In the case of direct deliveries or shipments of cream by
the farmer to the creamery or cream station, it is customary
to stir the cream with a stout stirring rod previous to sampling.
Pouring the cream from one can to another will also insure thor-
ough mixing and should be resorted to especially when the can
is too full to be stirred without danger of spilling. Under all
ordinary conditions, however, stirring is more practical and con-
sumes less time than pouring. After the cream is properly
mixed, a small sample is taken by transferring the cream with
a small cone-shaped or cup-shaped dipper into a small sample
tube or jar, which is immediately tightly sealed. It is customary
to place the dipper into a can containing hot water after each
dip, so as to rinse it and facilitate the sliding of the thick cream
of the next can into the sample jar. The use of a cold dipper
would cause the cream to stick to it and thus delay the work
of sampling. These cream sample dippers should have a small
hole in their bottom in order to facilitate rapid and complete
escape of water when the dipper is removed from the hot water
and before it is dipped into the cream. The sampling is best
done while the cans are still on the floor and before they are
placed on the scales, as the stirring jars the scales and shortens
their life.

In the case of the route system, as usually practiced,
the sampling has to be done on the route wagon by
the hauler. At best the sampling of the farmer's cream on
the route, under diverse and often very unfavorable weather
conditions is an exacting problem that requires adequate, prac-
tical equipment for reliable work. This equipment should con-
sist of a well-made spring scale, capacity 60 pounds, for weigh-
ing the cream; a weigh pail in which each farmer's cream is
weighed separately, a properly constructed combined stirrer and
sampler, consisting of a heavy iron rod which terminates at its

i Hunziker, Mills and Spitzer. Testing Cream for Butterfat. Purdue Bui-
letin No. 145, 1910,

132 SAMPLING MILK AND CREAM

bottom in a securely attached sample disc; a rubber scraper for
scraping the remnants of cream from the sides and bottom of
the farmer's pail or can and from the weigh pail after each
weighing; a set of properly numbered sample bottles with tight
stoppers or screw-top lids and arranged in a rack or box in
numerical order; two sets of cans, preferably 10 gallon cans, for
first-grade and second-grade cream, respectively, into which to
empty the weigh pail — each set of these cans should be plainly
marked with the grade of cream for which it is intended ; — and a
cream report book or pad. The cream should be thoroughly stirred,
then poured into the weigh pail, weighed and sampled. The scales
should not be held up by hand, but should be suspended from a
stationary hook, preferably attached to the rear of the wagon.
Each sample bottle, after filling, should be sealed tightly and
returned to its proper place in the sample box. In case the
weigh pail does not hold all the cream of one and the same patron,
a separate sample should be taken from each weighing and the
corresponding weights recorded. The use of a covered wagon or
truck protects the cream against excessive heat in summer and
cold in winter.

Creameries that operate routes or cream stations should see
to it that their haulers and station agents who do the sampling
are honest and conscientious, have the necessary knowledge to
do their work right and are supplied with an adequate equipment
for sampling and weighing. Men of questionable character and
men of careless habits never make reliable agents for securing
cream samples.

In all cases of sampling, whether this work be done at the
creamery, at the cream station, or on the route, the greatest
care should be taken that the cream is mixed very thoroughly
before sampling. This requires a stirrer with a good sized disc
and a stout rod not less than three feet long and with a hand
hold of adequate size. The stirring must be done thoroughly,
simply giving the cream a few dips with the sample dipper is
not sufficient. The stirrer must be worked to the bottom of the
can several times and the entire contents of the can must be
thoroughly agitated. Thick, lumpy or icy cream should be
warmed until it pours readily and can be mixed properly.

SAMPUNG MII.K AND CREAM 133

Churned cream cannot be sampled. Its fat content may be
calculated by testing the buttermilk and estimating the amount
of butter.

In order to guard against serious shortages of butterfat
and to protect the creamery against paying for butterfat
which it never received, all cream route cream and all cream
station cream must be sampled and tested again at the cream-
ery. A composite sample must therefore be taken at the
creamery from the cream of the delivery of each route and of
each station. This may be done by taking, with a cream thief
or dipper, a small portion of cream of each can of the same
route or the same station into a pint glass jar, bearing the
number of the respective route or station. Or all the cans
from the sam,e route or station may first be emptied into the
weigh can or vat and a sample taken from the mixed cream
after it is thoroughly stirred. The former method has been
found by experience to yield more accurate samples because
of the difficulty of thorough mixing of different lots of cream
of varying richness.

These composite samples should be tested as promptly as
possible and the pounds of butterfat calculated. If the amount
of butterfat determined from the composite samples does not
agree with the amount of butterfat of the route or station
men's individual samples of the farmers' cream, the hauler or
station man should be promptly notified of the delinquency,
in an effort to avoid recurrence of similar shortages in future
shipments.

Sampling Frozen Cream. — The sampling of cream that ar-
rives at the creamery in partly or wholly frozen condition as
is the case with a good deal of the cream during severe winter
weather, is a problem which frequently causes much difficulty.
When freezing, the watery portions of the cream usually freeze
first. In the case of partly frozen cream, therefore, the frozen
portion is poorer in butterfat than the remaining liquid. When
this cream is sampled without thawing up the icy portions,
the sample is prone to largely contain the liquid part of the
cream. This inavoidably causes the tests of such samples to
show a higher per cent of butterfat than the mixed cream

134 SAMPLING MILK AND CREAM

from which it is taken. This in turn results in a low overrun
and loss to the creamery. Cans in which the cream is com-
pletely frozen cannot be sampled at all without first thawing
the cream.

In order to reduce the frozen cream to a liquid condition
most creameries use a wooden, concrete or iron' tank partly
filled with warm water, into which they set the cans of frozen
cream until the cream is melted. The operators are usually
instructed to hold the temperature of the water at 110 to 130
degrees F. In order to hasten the work and to avoid delay
there is always a strong temptation on the part of the operator
to use too hot water or to pull the cans out of the thawing tank
before all the cream is melted. Both of these practices are
objectionable, because they are prone to yield incorrect sam-
ples and they tend to injure the body of the resulting butter.

If too hot water is used, at least a part of the cream is
bound to be heated much above the melting point of the but-
terfat. This causes the fat to "oil off" and run together. When
this cream is subsequently cooled, preparatory to churning, this
"oiled-off" fat granulates and gives the butter a disagreeable,
mealy texture. In this "oiled-off" condition the cream is also
very difficult to sample because, in spite of most thorough stir-
ring, the butter oil will rise to the top before the operation
of sampling is finished and the sample is very apt to contain
a higher per cent of fat than the mixed cream from which it is
taken.

If the cans are pulled out of the hot water tank before all
the cream is properly melted, much vigorous stirring is neces-
sary in order to reduce it to a homogeneous condition. In the
case of sour cream this stirring of the partly melted cream is
often sufficient to cause the butter to break, when proper sam-
pling becomes impossible and the remelting of this churned
cream in the forewarmer or pasteurizer again gives rise to but-
ter with a mealy texture.

The only reliable way of avoiding these difficulties is to
not heat the water to high enough a temperature to cause the
butterfat to melt and "oil-off" and to leave the cans in the water
long enough to insure complete solution of the cream. This
is best done by heating the water in the tank to 95 degrees F.

SAMPUNG MILK AND CREAM 135

only and, in order to hasten the melting of the cream, to keep
a stream of water at 95 degrees F. flowing through the tank
constantly. In this way the cream melts in a natural manner
and without "oiling-off" and the continuous removal of the
cooled water surrounding the cans by the circulation of the
water greatly speeds the work. Cream so treated is in ideal
condition for sampling and there is no danger of its producing
a mealy-bodied butter.

Amount of Cream for the Sample. — It is the general prac-
tice among the creameries to make one test only of each
sample. It is often desirable, however, to retest a sample in
order to prove the accuracy of the first test, especially when
there is an abnormal variation in the tests of successive deliv-
eries or shipments of cream from the same patron. Frequently
test bottles break in the tester and a second test is necessary
to determine the per cent of fat of the cream which the broken
bottle represents. For these reasons it is advisable to take a
sample large enough for two tests. Since about 15 to 20 c. c.
of cream, are sufficient to make one test, the cream sample
should contain about 30 to 40 c. c. of cream, or about one and
one-half ounces.

Larger samples than this are not only unnecessary, but may
cause considerable waste of cream. This latter objection holds
true only where preservatives are used as is especially the case
w'ith composite samples. When single samples only are taken
and these samples are tested on the day received or shortly
afterward, the use of preservatives is unnecessary and the un-
used portion of the sample may be returned to the cream vat
or forewarmer to avoid loss.

Care of Cream Samples.— In the larger creameries, espe-
cially those operating the cream station system or the indi-
' vidual-shipper system, the farmer's checks are made out daily
for each individual delivery or shipment. In these creameries,
or their stations, the samples are tested as soon as they are
available and their care requires, therefore, no special attention.
In a good many of the smaller creameries, however, the sam-
ples are not tested on the day they are taken or received, and
they are often several days old before they are tested. Few

136

SAMPLING MILK AND CREAM

operators realize that, while these samples are waiting for the
tester, they are subject to rapid deterioration and to changes
in composition due to evaporation of moisture, which has a
disturbing influence upon the accuracy of the test. In many
creameries the samples are allowed to remain on the shelves
of the receiving platform without protection from heat and
exposure to air. Careful observations have shown that there
is a strong tendency on the part of the cream samples, kept un-
der these conditions, to increase in per cent of fat with age.
This is due to the escape of moisture from the cream by evap-
oration. The rapidity with which this evaporation takes place
depends on the tightness or looseness of the seal of the sample
bottles and on the temperature of the place where they are
stored. This fact was demonstrated in a brief experiment con-
ducted by the writer, in which the daily shipments of cream
from six patrons were sampled for single tests and for com-
posite tests. Each patron's sample was divided among nine
bottles, three of which were tightly sealed, three loosely sealed
and three were left open.' One set of these bottles from each
patron was placed in the ice box at a temperature of 50 de-
grees F., one set was left on the receiving platform and one set
was placed near the boiler at a temperature of 90 to 110 de-
grees F. The results are shown in the following table :

Table 23.— Per Cent Fat of Cream Samples Kept in Bottles Sealed
Tightly, Loosely and Left Open, at Different Temperatures.

Pa-
trons

1
2
3
4
5
6

Fat Tests of Single Samples,
July 13 to 27

Fat Tests of Composite Samples Held
Two Weeks

July

Aver-
age

In
Ice Box

On Receiving
Platform

Near
Boiler

13

55.
41.
28.
40.
35.
48.

15

51.

38.

37.
33.

48.

17

53.
39.

27.
38.
35.
48.

20

52.
39.
29.
40.
33.
48.

22

51.
35.

38.
33.
47.

24

51.
35.
25.
39.
32.
47.

27

52.
39.
30.
37.
33.
49.

41

1

1

4*

JA

P

i

o

2

I
0

i

bC

H

1

1
O

70.
69.
68.
65.
70.
71.

52.1
38.
27.8
38.3
33.4
47.8

51.
39.5
27.5
37.5
33.
48.'

54.
40.

28.5
38.5
34.

48.

56.
42.
30.
41.
37.
51.

57.5
44.
34.
38.5
34.
40.

59.
45.
35.
39.
37.5
48.

65.
50.
37.
48.
42.
59.

58.
51.
31.
41.
36.
49.

58.
59.5
34.
41.
37.
48.

Average - - -

39.5

39.5

40.5

43.

43.

44.

50.

44.5

46.5

69.

WEIGHING MII,K AND CREAM 137

The figures in table 23 demonstrate the importance of keep-
ing cream samples that are not promptly tested, in tightly sealed
jars and at a low temperature. They further emphasize that
creameries keeping their cream samples in loosely sealed bottles
on the receiving platform may pay their patrons during the
hot summer months for thousands of pounds of butterfat they
never received because of the increase in the per cent of fat in
such samples with age, due to evaporation of moisture.

Weighing Milk and Cream. — In the case of milk the cans
belonging to one and the same patron are usually emptied
into the weigh can and the weights are recorded on the milk
sheet located in a convenient place on the receiving platform.
Where milk is received exclusively or nearly so, the patrons
are generally paid weekly, bi-weekly or monthly and it is con-
venient to have the milk sheet provide for a sufficient number
of days to enable the operator to enter all the daily receipts
that constitute the period for which the pay check is made
out. The days of the months are usually placed on the horizon-
tal line on top and the patrons' names or nifmbers in the first
vertical column at the left of the sheet.

Where cream is received the same method may be used for
the individual deliveries and shipments, and the route and sta-
tion totals are entered in the columns reserved for those
routes and stations.

In large creameries and where the individual cream receipts
are paid for daily, the milk and cream sheet obviously does not
serve the purpose. In these cases the cream is usually weighed
in the cans and before it is emptied. The tare weight indicated
on the shoulder of the can and the gross weight are recorded
on the tag of the can or on a cream record blank, which later
goes to the office.

Station and route cream may be poured into the weigh can
thus weighing all the cream coming from one and the same
route or station together, or each can is set on the scales and
weighed separately. This cream has already been weighed in
the weigh pail on the route or in the farmer's individual can
at the cream station. The creamery weights of the total of
each route delivery or cream station shipment should corre-

138

WEIGHING MILK AND CREAM

spend with the total of the weights of the individual farmer's
deliveries as recorded on the cream sheet of the respective
route man or cream station operator.

In order to insure correct weights the platform scales at the
creamery and cream station and the spring scales on the route

wagon must be in good operat-
ing condition. They should
be regularly examined at the
beginning of each day. They
should be set level, properly
balanced, swing freely and in-
dicate the weight correctly.
Scales that "stick" or that are
otherwise not in satisfactory
operating condition should not
be used. They should be re-
paired or replaced with new
scales at once. Platform scales
should be protected against un-
due jars and they should be
thoroughly cleaned and freed
from all remnants of milk and
cream at the conclusion of each
day's work. On the care of the
scales will largely depend their
accuracy and their duration of
usefulness.

Tig. 17. Platform scales for milk
and cream

Courtesy Fairbanks, Morse & Co.

"Dumping" Milk and Cream. — As previously stated the
milk cans are most conveniently emptied into the weigh can and
after weighing the milk passes into the receiving vat and is
heated preparatory to separation in accordance with directions
given in Chapter V on the Separation of Milk. All mjilk
should be strained through a wire mesh strainer, 80 to 100 meshes
to the inch. This is best done by installing the strainer over the
top of the weigh can. The strainer should be rinsed out fre-
quently during the day's work and should receive a special
scrubbing with a brush and hot water, and should be steamed,

"DUMPING" MILK AND CREAM 139

at the end of the day. The use of a drip rack for reclaiming
remnants of milk in the cans will assist in avoiding unneces-
sary losses on the platform.

The cream, after it is weighed, is usually emptied into the
forewarmer, which consists of a low vat equipped with a
revolving coil for warming the cream. It is desirable
to forewarm all cream so as to reduce it to a homogeneous
condition and make pasteurization more even and more effect-
ive. In the forewarmer the cream is heated to about 90 de-
grees F. If higher temperatures are used care should be taken
that the cream is constantly agitated by keeping the coil revolv-
ing, in order to guard against "oiling-off" of the butterfat and
consequently a mealy-bodied butter.

The forewarmer should be equipped with a coarse but
substantial strainer, about four meshes to the inch, through
which all the cream is strained into the forewarmer.

Inasmuch as much of the cream arrives at the creamery in
very thick condition, special attention must be given the rinsing
of the cans in order to prevent heavy loss of butter fat. After
the can is emptied it is best inverted over a steam jet with an
opening about f inches in diameter where steam is blown into
the can until all the cream has run out. A series of two to
three such steam jets will allow one can to be steamed while the
previous one is taken off and the succeeding one is put on, thus
avoiding delay, and increasing the speed of the work of "dump-
ing". If this steam jet arrangement is installed on top of the
forewarmer, the remnants of cream run automatically into the
forewarmer and no special receptacle is needed to catch and re-
claim this cream. Where a mechanical can washer is used it
may be convenient to make this cream-reclaiming arrangement
a part of the can washer.

Instead of blowing the remnants of cream out of the cans
with steam, some factories rinse the cans with hot water, pour-
ing about one half can full of hot water from one can to the
next one and finally dumping this milky rinse water into the
forewarmer. This method appears somewhat more crude,
more sloppy and has the additional disadvantage of diluting the

140

CAN WASHING

cream with considerable water, which is undesirable, often
contributing to the development of costly butter defects.

In the case of very thick and cold cream, it may be neces-
sary to dip the cans into a hot water bath and then invert them
over the forewarmer again to facilitate the removal of the rem-
nants of cream. This water bath is best provided in the form
of a rectangular tank, 24 inches long, 18 inches wide and
18 inches deep. This dipping of the cans
in water is somewhat objectionable because
the water adhering to the outside of the
cans runs into the cream in the fore-
warmer upon subsequent "dumping" and.
since the cans are often unclean on the out-
side, this water also is far from being free
from impurities and tends to pollute the
cream. Where the remnants of cream are
blown out of the cans with steam, the dipping
of the cans in hot water is largely unneces-
sary and may, under most conditions, be
omitted.

Washing of Milk and Cream Cans. — One
of the essential factors in the creamery's suc-
cessful efforts to improve and uphold the
quality of its supply of milk and cream con-
stitutes the returning to the farmer of cans
that are clean, dry and smell sweet. It is
inconsistent to urge the producer to observe

Pig-. 18. Can steamer
f<

'or reclaiming rem-
nants of cream .

Courtesy J. G. Cherry scrupulous precautions of cleanliness and
sanitation in the production and handling of
his milk and cream, and then furnish him with cans that are
not clean and that contain foul odors. Even milk or cream that
is sweet and free from objectionable flavors and odors, when
poured, stored and shipped in unclean cans, will be of inferior
quality by the time it reaches the creamery or cream station.
And the psychological effect on the producer who, upon open-
ing the can, detects bad odors and lack of cleanliness, is dis-
advantageous to the cause of good milk or cream. A clean
and sweet-smelling can furnishes an incentive to the production
of cream; of good quality. An unclean can with objectionable

CAN WASHING 141

odors discourages the farmer from making the necessary effort
to produce good cream because he realizes that if it is exposed
to the contaminating influences of such a can, the cream will soon
deteriorate anyway, regardless of the care he has exercised in
its production. The proper cleaning of the cans at the factory
should, therefore, receive most careful attention.

Can Washing Equipment. — Great efforts have been made
within recent years by creameries and manufacturers of cream-
ery machinery to devise and construct machines that could be
depended upon to cleanse, sterilize and dry the cans. While
there is still room for much progress on this point, much im-
provement in the available can washing equipment has resulted
from these efforts.

Washing cans by hand is a laborious and time-consuming
work, distasteful to the great majority of creamery employees.
On account of its disagreeable features it is difficult to secure
men who are dependable to do this work properly and who do
not yield to the temptation of slighting it when rushed and in
the absence of close supervision.

The earlier attempts at machine washing consisted of the
use of mechanical brushes revolving in a can wash trough. The
cans were slipped over these brushes, the brushes by the opera-
tion of a lever, were then expanded to touch the inside and out-
side of the cans, cleaning it while revolving. Later steam and
hot air jets were attached to the end of these washers for the
purpose of sterilizing and drying the washed cans.

The latest designs of can-washing machines consist of so-
called hydraulic can washers, in which the cans automatically
pass in an inclosed chamber over a series of jets which rinse,
wash, steam and dry the cans. These washing machines are
made in varying sizes taking care of 100 to 300 cans per hour.
Some are of circular type while others are straight-away. The
circular washers have the advantage of economizing space and
of making it possible for the same person who places the un-
washed cans into the machine to also remove the washed cans
from the machine. In plants where it is desirable to discharge
the clean cans as far away as possible from the intake of the
unwashed cans, in order to clear the floor, the straight-away
machines are more serviceable.

142

CAN WASHING

These hydraulic can wash-
ers promise to play an impor-
tant and useful part in the
efficiency of can washing and
the improvement of the qual-
ity of the cream in the future.
Already a great number of
these machines are in opera-
tion in milk plants and cream-
eries throughout the country.
While their high initial cost,
their large size, their noise
and heat radiation are obsta-
cles which limit their use to
the larger factories and make them as yet unsuitable for small
creameries, these disadvantages may gradually be overcome and
are even now offset in part at least by their greater speed and
relative efficiency, their greater economy in the use of alkali

Pig1. 19. Can steamer and drier
Courtesy Jensen-Cry Mach. Co.

Pig-. 19A. Progress circular can washer
Courtesy Davis-Watkins Dairymen's Mfg. Co.

solution, and the fact that the cans require less frequent paint-
ing than when washed by hand. While their work of cleans-
ing, sterilizing and drying the cans may fall short of the work
of the most expert washing by hand, the machines yield uni-

CAN WASHING

143

formly good results, they can be adjusted to any speed and to
any length of exposure of the cans to washing, steaming and
drying and their work is far superior to that of the average
washing by hand.

Essentials of Efficient Can Washing.— Jn the proper cleans-
ing of cans there are four essential operations, namely, the
washing, rinsing, steaming and drying.

Tig. 20. Mechanical can washer
Courtesy Lathrop- Paulson Co.

The washing of the cans should remove all remnants of
milk or cream. In, the case of hand washing this is best done
by immersing the can in a wash tank of suitable size and con-
taining a solution of washing powder or other alkali in hot
water. The cans are washed both inside and out with a stiff
bristle brush. In the hydraulic machines the hot alkali water
is forced into the cans under pressure and the force of the
water is intended to take the place of the brush. In some of
these machines clear hot water is used for this purpose without
any addition of alkali. Experience has shown that milk cans
and cream cans which are not coated with dried cream can be
quite successfully cleansed in this way. Old cream cans, how-
ever, in which the cream has dried onto the inside of the can
need a special hand scrubbing to insure thorough cleansing.

144 CAN WASHING

After the cans are freed from the remnants of milk or
cream they should be thoroughly rinsed. This is usually done
by inverting them over a water jet attached to one end of the
wash tank. Or in the case of hydraulic can washers the cans
pass from the washing jets to the rinsing jets. In hand
washing the rinsing process is too often neglected and
remnants of the unclean wash water remain in the cans serving
as an active starter to pollute the next batch of cream. The
cans should be thoroughly rinsed after they are washed. The
rinsing is preferably done with hot water, so as to make more
effective the subsequent steaming and drying.

Fig*. 21. Mechanical can washer

Courtesy Rice & Adams Corp.

The properly rinsed cans are then ready for the steam-
ing process. This is accomplished by inverting them over a
steam jet and blowing steam into them until they are "piping"
hot. In the case of hand wash tanks the steam jet is usually
installed in close proximity to the water jet so that the cans
can be rinsed and steamed in one operation. In the hydraulic
can washers the cans pass on automatically from the rinsing
jets to the steaming jets. The purpose of steaming is to destroy
the germs still contained in the cans and to render the cans as
nearly sterile as possible. The length of time required for thor-
ough steaming depends much on the steam pressure, the size of
the steam pipe and the distance between the steam jet and the
boiler. Under ordinary creamery conditions the steaming should
last at least 30 seconds. A shorter time is insufficient to insure
effective germ-killing action. Steaming for 5 to 10 seconds, as is

CAN WASHING 145

all too often the case, does not accomplish the desired purpose.
Its sterilizing action is incomplete.

The last but not least important step in the cleansing of
the cans is the drying. If the cans are to arrive at the farm
in sweet condition and free from objectionable odors, they must
be dry when they are sealed with the lid. Water left in the
cans is certain to start bacterial action. The drying is best done
by inverting the steam cans over a hot air blast. This blast is
generated by means of a centrifugal fan blowing atmospheric
air through a chamber filled with steam pipes. In the absence of
the hydraulic can washer the hot air outlet is located near the
steam jet at the end of the wash tank. In the hydraulic can
washers the cans automatically pass from the steam jets to
the hot air jets. The drying of the cans is indispensable, not
only to improve the sanitary condition of the cans but also to
prevent rapid rusting and to preserve the life of the cans.

Cleansing the Can Covers. — The can covers should receive
the same treatment of washing, rinsing, steaming and drying
as the cans themselves. Too often no provision is made to
properly treat the covers. They are just washed and possibly
rinsed and slightly steamed. When these wet covers, dripping
with rinse water, are placed on the clean, dry cans, some water is
bound to enter the cans and the good effects of. the can drying
are largely forfeited. Most of the hydraulic can washers pro-
vide for the washing, rinsing, steaming and drying of the covers,
too.

Can Washing at the Cream Station.— It is obvious that the
limited business and facilities of the cream station preclude the
use of mechanical can washing machines and that the cans, if
they are washed at all must be washed by hand. But even this
process requires the availability of hot water and preferably of
steam. The larger and properly-managed cream stations are
equipped with a small boiler, a wash tank with steam jet and a
rack for drying the cans. Where a steam boiler is not available,
the station should use some other simple and inexpensive means
for sterilizing the cans and other equipment that comes in
direct contact with the cream. For this purpose the steam steril-

146 CAN WASHING

izer devised by Ayres and Taylor1 of the United States Dairy
Division is recommended.

Size, Quality and Construction of Cans, Rusty and Dam-
aged Cans. — For shipping or hauling milk the 10 gallon can
is the most popular can. Most farmers who ship milk have
enough of it most of the time to fill a 10 gallon can. This refers
largely to creamery patrons. In the case of milk that is in-
tended for city milk consumption, the 8 gallon can pre-
dominates in many localities. For shipping cream a smaller
can is preferable and the 5 gallon can is recommended. The
smaller can is filled in a shorter time and encourages more
frequent shipments, thus helping the creamery to secure a fresher
cream. The shipping rate on the 5 gallon can also is less than
that on the 10 gallon can, so that it is cheaper to ship a 5 gal-
lon can full than a ten gallon can only part full. Again, the pur-
chasing price of the small can is less than that of the large can.

Generally speaking, a well constructed can made of heavy
tin plate lasts longer and gives better service than a can of
light construction. However, in the case of sour cream, the
acid corrodes and rusts even the best cans in time, and it is
a debatable question whether it is preferable to buy a cheap
can that can be replaced with little expense as soon as it shows
signs of corrosion, or to buy a more expensive can that will
last somewhat longer. Especially when the can is paid for
by the producer he often objects to the paying of the price
of a high grade can.

All cans, if not made of pressed tin, should have their seams
well flushed with solder so as to avoid the lodging of remnants
of decaying cream in the seams at the bottom, side or shoulder.

All cans should receive a special inspection at regular inter-
vals and cans which contain more than about 1 square inch of
rust spots should be scoured with some good friction material,
such as cement or emery powder. Cans that do not respond to
this treatment and that show excessive rustiness should be
discarded. Also, cans with loose shoulders, if they cannot be
mended satisfactorily, should be removed from service.

The fact that the can is rusty indicates that the tin coat-

1 Ayres and Taylor, A Simple Steam Sterilizer for Farm Dairy Utensils,
U. S. Dept. Agr. B. A. I. Farmers' Bulletin No. 748, 1916.

CAN WASHING 147

ing has become defective in spots and that iron is exposed. The
exposed iron is chemically acted upon by the acid and some
of the other constituents of the cream, causing the formation
of metallic salts, which hasten the decomposition of some of the
constituents of the cream, either through chemical action, or
by accelerating the action bf bacteria, or enzymes, or both, and
leading to diverse flavor defects in butter, such as metallic
flavor, tallowy flavor, fishy flavor, etc.

Rusty cans are objectionable also for sanitary reasons. Rust
spots present a rough surface, on which remnants of milk and
cream lodge readily and from which they are difficult to re-
move, and the rust spots harbor and hold moisture to such an
extent, that it is very difficult to thoroughly dry the cans by the
use of equipment and methods entirely adequate, for the drying
of cans free from rust. The tendency of rusty cans to not be
perfectly clean and completely dry, causes these cans almost
invariably to become foul-smelling, and to pollute the cream
and injure the butter made from it.

Replacing Old Cans by New Ones. — An effective means to
maintain a satisfactory standard of quality and condition of the
cans in use is to adopt a system whereby, at definite intervals,,
each month or so, a certain per cent, say one per cent, of the
cans, those that are in the poorest condition, is discarded. In
this manner there is a constant renewal of cans and at a com-
paratively small cost at any one time.

Retinning Rusty Cans. — Some creameries maintain a tin-
shop of their own, where defective cans may be repaired and
rusty cans retinned. When this can be done at a moderate ex-
pense, it is certainly a commendable practice. In many in-
stances, however, experience has shown that the cost of re-
tinning was out of proportion to the value of the can, and was
too great to justify it.

There are now in operation several outside concerns, who
are specializing in repair work of this type and who dismantle
old cans, retin the pieces and reassemble them in a manner
that the repaired can is practically as good as new, and at a
cost somewhat lower than the price of a new can.

148 NEUTRALIZATION OF SOUR CREAM

The relation between the condition of the cream can and
the quality of the butter is so intimate, and the effect of the
use of cans that are in poor condition is so injurious to the
quality of the butter, that the matter of proper care and re-
pair of cream cans is a problem that demands most serious at-
tention.

CHAPTER VII.

THE NEUTRALIZATION OF SOUR CREAM.

Definition. — By neutralization of cream for butter making,
is understood the reduction of the acid in sour cream. Chemical-
ly, neutralization would mean the process of making the cream
neutral, removing all the acid. This would be obviously undesir-
able in the case of cream intended for buttermaking, its injury to
the quality of the resulting butter would be far greater than its
expected benefits. It would make butter of very inferior flavor
and poor keeping quality. In fact it would forfeit the benefits
for which cream is neutralized.

In the sense used in the creamery, neutralization refers to
the removal of excess acid, reducing the acidky to say .2 to .3
per cent. The term neutralization, therefore, is a misnomer,
it is misleading, inasmuch as it misrepresents the intent and
practice of the process. A more correct name for this process
would be the "Standardization of Cream for Acid." However,
neutralization has become an established trade name, it has
become an inherent part in the creameryman's vocabulary, so
that, in order to avoid confusion and for the sake of clearness,
it seems advisable to retain the trade name, "neutralization"
in this discussion.

Object of Neutralization. — With the help of proper neutrali-
zation, the creamery hopes to and does accomplish the following
three principle objects:

1. To avoid excessive loss of fat that results from churn-
ing cream that is pasteurized while excessively sour.

. 2. To guard against the production of undesirable flavors
in cream which are prone to result when cream that is high in
acid is pasteurized at a high temperature.

3. To improve the keeping quality of butter made from high

v NEUTRALIZATION OF SOUR CREAM 149

acid cream. Butter made from cream which is very sour, does
not keep well.

These are the only objects that can be accomplished with
neutralization. They all hinge on the reduction of the acid of
sour cream before pasteurization.

Improvement of the flavor of butter made from tainted
cream, or the removal of rancidity by neutralization, is not pos-
sible, notwithstanding many claims to the contrary. These facts
have been conclusively established, as may be noted in succeed-
ing paragraphs of this chapter.

Importance of Correct Neutralization. — That neutralization
of cream has been a wonderful help to the manufacturer of but-
ter who receives sour cream, is an undisputed fact. Experience
has demonstrated beyond all question, that proper neutralization
of sour cream improves the keeping quality of butter.

But great as the benefits are that can be derived from
proper neutralization, so are also disastrous the results of im-
proper neutralization. Over-neutralization is absolutely ruin-
ous to butter. It is, therefore, of the greatest importance that
we practice correct neutralization. That is, a process must be
used that will give the full benefits of proper neutralization and
that will at the samle time protect the butter against the dis-
astrous effect of over-neutralization.

How to Neutralize. — The important requisites of accurate
and reliable neutralization may be conveniently grouped as
follows :

1. Adoption of a definite standard of acidity.

2. Correct and accurate test for acidity.

3. Choice and use of the right kind of neutralizer.

4. Use of the right strength and amount of neutralizer.

5. Adding the neutralizer to the cream in the right
manner.

6. Checking of results by retesting.

Adoption of a Definite Standard of Acidity.— The operator
must first of all decide to what point the acidity shall be re-
duced. If neutralization really means "standardization" of the
acid in the cream, it is obvious that there must be a standard

150 NEUTRALIZATION OF SOUR CREAM

of acidity. It is essential then that such a standard be estab-
lished. Only then is there something definite, something worth
while, to work to; and, having1 established such a standard,
it must be abided by.

There are differences of opinion as to the most desirable
point, or per cent acid, to neutralize to. However, extensive
scientific experiments conducted by the writer and others, as
well as practical experience in the manufacture of butter, have
conclusively demonstrated that, in order to realize the full ben-
efits of neutralization, the acid content of the cream must be
reduced to somewhere near .3 per cent acid, and that we are
approaching too near the neutral point and the dangers that
accompany it, when the acidity is dropped much below .2 per cent.

Making reasonable allowance for fluctuations and inaccu-
racies in the results of neutralization, caused by the complexity
of the reactions of the neutralizer in cream of varying condi-
tions, and by the naturally crude technique of the process as
manipulated by the usually busy and often untrained operator,
a standard of acidity should be adopted that will permit of
considerable latitude up and down, without, on the one hand
forfeiting the benefits of neutralization, and on the other hand
jeopardizing the quality of the product.

Neutralization to .25 per cent acid, as indicated by the
usual acid test with decinormal sodium hydroxide and phe-
nolphthalein as indicator, has been found to best take care of
these fluctuating conditions and errors of operation. A stand-
ard of .25 per cent acid, therefore, has been adopted for the
purpose of these discussions and is recommended to be adhered
to. It is not claimed that this arbitrary standard is neces-
sarily the best under all conditions, but it may well be accepted
as the perfect standard for average creamery conditions.

Testing Correctly for Acidity. — It is obvious that the accu-
racy of neutralization centers fundamentally on the accuracy
of the acid test. Reduction of the acidity to a definite standard
point need not be expected, unless the operator is able to de-
termine the correct per cent acid contained in the cream before
neutralization.

Numerous simple and accurate acid tests are available for

NEUTRALIZATION OF SOUR CREAM 151

the purpose. They all refer to the use of a dilute solution
(usually a decinormal solution) of sodium hydroxide. Detailed
directions for these tests are recorded in the chapter on "Tests
and Analyses/' etc., Chapter XXII. If a decinormal solution of
sodium hydroxide, and an 18 c.c. pipette are used for measuring
the cream, each two-tenths cubic centimeter of alkali solution, as
shown on the graduation of the burette, represents .01 per cent
acid. Hence the number of c.c. alkali solution divided by 20
gives the correct per cent acid in the cream. Thus, if say
7.4 c.c. alkali solution is required to turn the cream pink the

7 4
per cent acid is ' = .37%.

Choice of Neutralizes — There is a variety of neutralizers
that have been and are being used for the purpose of reducing
the acidity in cream intended for buttermaking.

Neutralizers used for the purpose of reducing acidity, must
have alkaline properties, they must be alkalies, or alkaline
earths, or their carbonates. An alkali is a substance that neu-
tralizes acids, forming salts, and that saponifies fats. The
most common neutralizers that have found application in the
creamery are the carbonates of sodium (soda ash), and of calci-
um (chalk), the bicarbonate of soda (baking soda), the hydrate
of soda (soda lye), and of calcium (lime water and milk of
lime), and the oxide of calcium and of magnesium (quick lime
and magnesia lime).

The chief advantages of carbonate and bicarbonate of soda
are that they are readily soluble and, therefore, can be easily
made up into solutions of desired strength. This is a distinct
advantage. Calcium carbonate, on the other hand, is very in-
soluble and slow of action, which renders its use unsuitable
for this purpose. All carbonates above mentioned liberate car-
bondioxide gas when they are added to the sour cream. This
fact is claimed by some to be greatly in favor of their use,
as neutralizers. The claim is that the carbondioxide gas per-
culating upward in and escaping from the cream, mechanically
carries with it volatile gases having undesirable odors and
thereby removes from the cream, objectionable odors and
flavors.

152 NEUTRALIZATION OF SOUR CREAM

The extent and value of this expulsion of gases and the con-
sequent improvement of the flavor of the butter, made from
cream neutralized with carbonates, are however much over-
estimated. The expulsion of carbondioxide and other gases
that miay be present in the cream will occur to a large extent
in all cream, whether neutralized or not, during the process
of pasteurization. In fact, the flavor-improving effect of car-
bonate neutralizers is largely imaginary. If these claims were
well-founded, it should be possible to make No. 1 butter from
Grade 2 cream. This cannot be done. Distinct off-flavors in the
cream do not disappear by the use of these neutralizers.

On the other hand, the use of carbonate and bicarbonate
neutralizers has the serious disadvantage of robbing the
operator of the ability to check the accuracy of his work, be-
cause the carbondioxide formed in the cream when these neu-
tralizers are used, reacts acid, causing the test to show a higher
acidity than the lactic acid content of the cream represents. These
tests could be made to show the correct acidity by boiling the
sample of cream to be tested, or by blowing air through it,
both of which practices would expel the carbondioxide, but
these practices are objectionable in practical creamery opera-
tion, because of the d.elay their application would inevitably
cause in the work and also because of the danger of incom-
plete execution. Methyl orange indicator, which is not affected
by the carbondioxide, might be used instead of phenolphthalein,
but it is not suitable, because it fails to show a definite, sharp
end reaction in weak organic acid such as lactic acid.

Because of their generation of carbonic acid gas in sour
cream, the use of carbonates and bicarbonates often presents
mechanical difficulties, causing the cream to foam up and over
the vat, unless such neutralizers are used with care. This
is especially true in the case of high-acid cream and when the
temperature of the cream is relatively high at the time the
carbonate is added.

Sodium carbonate and sodium bicarbonate are more
troublesome in this respect than calcium carbonate, the for-
mer being readily soluble and acting quickly, while the cal-
cium carbonate is practically insoluble in water and therefore

NEUTRALIZATION OP SOUR CREAM 153

acts more slowly on the acid, distributing the evolution of car-
bondioxide gas over a longer period of time and lessening the
tendency of the cream to violently foam.

Of the hydrates, lime appears to be the only really suitable
alkali to use. It is mild in its action, does not injure the flavor
of the butter when used intelligently, does not appreciably at-
tack the metal of the vats and other equipment, tends to form
with that portion of the casein with which it reacts, a precipi-
tate of relatively great stability and resistance against bacterial
action, and it combines with the curd first, rendering that por-
tion of the curd which enters into the composition of the butter
less acid — thereby minimizing the acidity of the butter and
its deteriorating power.

Sodium hydrate, the cheapest form of which, for neutral-
izing purposes, is soda lye, has strong caustic properties. It
and the sodium lactate w^hich it forms in the sour cream, readily
attack and dissolve metals such as copper and even tin* causing
the vat linings and coils and the pasteurizers to turn black and
the cream and butter to contain undue quantities of metallic
salts which are detrimental to its flavor and keeping quality.
Sodium, unlike lime, reacts with the lactic acid of the
cream first, and, inasmuch as in the neutralization of cream,
acid reduction is not carried to the neutral point, there
is but slight action on the casein, leaving the curd in butter
made from sodium-neutralized cream, in more acid condition
than is the case with butter from lime-neutralized cream. Again,
while in lime-neutralized cream the undissolved casein appears
in relatively large aggregates of marked firmness and apparent
insolubility, in sodium-neutralized cream the insoluble portion
of the casein is soft, it suggests greater solubility and less re-
sistence to bacterial action.

The flavor of the butter made from cream neutralized with
soda lye, sodium carbonate, or sodium bicarbonate is prone to
have a soapy character. This is especially true of cream of
high original acidity and cream in which the acid is reduced
very close to the neutral point. With lime hydrate, properly
prepared and intelligently used and using a sufficient quantity
only to reduce the acidity to .25 per cent or thereabout, no ob-
jectionable flavor effects occur.

154 NEUTRALIZATION OP SOUR CREAM

The popular claim that the use of lime conveys to butter
a limy flavor does not apply to the proper neutralization with
lime hydrate, it is the result of the abuse of lime resulting from
inaccurate and faulty methods. Butter made from cream prop-
erly neutralized with milk of lime shows no such flavor defect.
On the contrary, its flavor is pleasant and its keeping quality,
other conditions being the same, is superior. Butter may, how-
ever, show a limy flavor when the lime neutralizer is not used
properly; if the lime mix is too concentrated and is not ade-
quately diluted before it is added to the cream, or if too much
neutralizer is added, as is very often the case with high acid
cream when no mathematically correct system of neutralization
is used, and when the senses of taste and smell constitute the
only means to determine whether the acidity in the cream has
been sufficiently reduced.

Another very common cause of limy flavor in butter made
from high acid cream due to over-neutralization lies in the fact
that where the liming is done by guess only, the cream is
usually tested immediately after neutralization and if the acidity
at that time is higher than desired, more neutralizer is added.
Since the action of the lime is slow and is not completed until
after the neutralized cream has been pasteurized, it is obvious
that the acid test made immediately after neutralization does
not indicate the true acidity of the cream. If more lime is
added on the basis of this acid test, there is danger of over-
neutralization, resulting in limy-flavored butter and other flavor
defects.

In an effort to avoid limy flavor some creameries use both,
lime hydrate and sodium carbonate. They reduce the acidity
of the cream with lime to say about .35 to .4 per cent acid and
then complete the neutralization to the desired point with so-
dium carbonate. By this method they claim to secure the
beneficial action of the escaping carbondioxide, thus combin-
ing the advantages of lime hydrate and sodium carbonate with-
out suffering from the disadvantages of either. The lesser am-
ount of lime used minimizes the danger of a limy flavor and
the small amount of sodium carbonate required and added to

NEUTRALIZATION OF SOUR CREAM 155

the low-acid cream, prevents excessive foaming and does away
with the tendency to produce a soapy flavor.

There is no reason why the double neutralization, when prop-
erly done, should not produce very satisfactory results. How-
ever, it too largely forfeits the ability of the buttermaker to
check his work by determining the per cent acid in the neu-
tralized cream, since the presence of sodium carbonate makes
difficult the accurate determination of the end reaction in the
acid tests. Moreover, when milk of lime is used correctly and
intelligently, double neutralization is unnecessary.

Finally, lime is a natural constituent of milk and butter,
it is not only harmless, but represents one of the essential
minerals required by the human body for maintenance and
especially for growth. If any portion of the neutralizer, no matter
how small, does enter into the composition of the butter, it is
essential that it add to, rather than detract from the healthfulness
and dietetic value of the butter. From, the standpoint of the
welfare of the consumer, therefore, lime is not only the least
harmful but, in fact, the most beneficial and hence the most
suitable alkali available for reduction of the acidity in cream.

For the numerous and obvious reasons above discussed,
lime hydrate constitutes overwhelmingly the most suitable form
of neutralizer available for the reduction of acid in sour cream.
All further discussion of, and directions for neutralization in
this chapter will, therefore, be confined to the use of lime hydrate.

Strength and Amount of Neutralizers. — Having established
a standard acidity to which to neutralize, and knowing the
acidity of the cream before neutralization, it is a simple matter
to calculate how much lime to use to secure the desired results,
but here again accuracy is necessary; for guess work is bound
to prove unsatisfactory, misleading and disappointing in the
long run.

The most common form of lime used for neutralization o£
cream is calcium hydrate, or lime hydrate. Lime hydrate may
be used in two forms, namely as lime water and as milk
of lime.

L,ime water consists of the clear water which separates

156 NEUTRALIZATION OF SOUR CREAM

on the surface after the slaked, but undissolved lime has drop-
ped to the bottom. The lime water contains lime hydrate in
solution only. From the standpoint of ease of handling, rap-
idity of action and accuracy of neutralization, this clear lime
water would be most suitable. But lime is only very slightly
soluble in water. It is soluble to the extent of about .137 per
cent in cold water and to the extent of .075 per cent in boiling
hot water. The clear lime water is so weak and its neutral-
izing power so slight that, in order to reduce the acidity in
cream from say .85 per cent to .25 per cent, it would require
lime water equal in volume to approximately twice the volume
of the cream to be neutralized. Clear lime water, therefore, is
obviously not a practical neutralizer to use.

A stronger lime hydrate must be used and this consists of
milk of lime. Milk of lime is a watery emulsion of lime hydrate
which contains, in addition to lime in solution, particles of un-
dissolved lime. The milk of lime is somewhat more difficult
to handle and the control of its strength is less easy, because
the undissolved particles of lime settle out very readily and
quickly. It is difficult to maintain a homogeneous emulsion of
it and its neutralizing action is somewhat slow. By proper
preparation and intelligent handling, however, the above ob-
jections are largely overcome.

In order to consistently reduce the acidity in cream to
the standard of .25 per cent acid, and to determine the correct
amount of lime emulsion to use, it is necessary to prepare and
use a neutralizing emulsion of definite, known strength, and
that can be manipulated accurately and conveniently and that
lends itself to ready and even distribution and uniform action
in the cream.

The mix can be made up direct from: the quick lime or
calcium oxide, in which case time must be taken to properly
slake it. Or it can be made up from hydrated lime which re-
quires no additional slaking. A good quality of hydrated lime
gives fully as satisfactory action as unslaked lime, and it re-
quires much less work and trouble to prepare the mix. Slak-
ing lime is a mason's job which is rarely looked upon kindly
or done properly by the creamery operator. Improperly and

NEUTRALIZATION OF SOUR CREAM 157

incompletely slaked lime makes an unsatisfactory neutralize!",
generally containing much lime carbonate which is coarse, does
not strain readily, is insoluble and slow of action in the cream.

A convenient strength and consistency of milk of lime is
secured by two pounds of dry hydrated lime in one gallon of
lime mix. In other words, add enough water to two pounds
of dry hydrated lime to make up one gallon milk of lime. This
formula has the further advantage that it is easily remembered
by the operator. Since the preparation of the milk of lime is
a somewhat unpleasant operation, it is advisable to. make it
up in sufficiently large quantities to avoid having to repeat
the operation at too frequent intervals.

Having adopted this ratio of lime to mix, it is necessary
to ascertain how much of this mix it takes to neutralize .01 per
cent or .01 pound of lactic acid in 100 pounds of cream. It
is necessary here, to remember that the molecular weight of pure
lime hydrate is 74, while that of lactic acid is 90, and also that,
lime hydrate, being bivalent, its strength is double that of

lactic acid. In other words, it takes — - or 37 pound's of dry

lime hydrate to neutralize 90 pounds of lactic acid. Hence,
the amount of lime hydrate required to neutralize .01 pounds
or .01 per cent lactic in 100 pounds of cream is:

90:37 — .01 :X; X — .00411 pounds lime hydrate.

But the lime hydrate is not added to the cream in dry form,
but in the form of milk of lime consisting of two pounds of dry
hydrated lime in one gallon of mix. Hence it is necessary
to know how many pints of this mix are required to neutralize
.01 pounds or .01 per cent of lactic acid in 100 pounds of
cream. Since the lime mix contains 2 pounds of lime hydrate
in one gallon, or in 8 pints of mix, this factor is determined as
follows :

2:8= .00411 : X ; X = .01644 pints lime mix.

This then means that for every .01 per cent acid in 100
pounds of cream that is to be reduced, we must add to the
cream .01644 pints of lime mix.

158

NEUTRALIZATION OF SOUR CREAM

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NEUTRALIZATION OF SOUR CREAM

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160 NEUTRALIZATION OF SOUR CREAM

The following concrete example of neutralization may serve
to illustrate this more clearly: The vat contains 2000 pounds of
cream, the cream tests .6 per cent acid, which is to be re-
duced to .25 per cent acid. How many pints of lime mix must
be added?

Answer : .

Original acid in cream 6 %

Acid desired 25%

Acid to be neutralized 35%

Hence the amount of lime mix

required is .35 X 2000 X .01644 = 11.5 pints.

On the basis of this formula, then, the amount of lime mix
required to reduce any per cent of acid in any amount of cream
to the desired per cent acid, can readily be calculated, and
tables can be assembled whereby the exact amount of lime mix
needed can be read off at a glance. For the convenience of the
operator tables on pp. 158 and 159 are shown.

If the creamery prefers to make up its milk of lime direct
from lime oxide or quick lime, which is unslaked lime, the
same formula and the same tables may serve without interfer-
ing with their accuracy, provided that the formula used for
making up the milk of lime is modified. The unslaked lime
or lime oxide is stronger than the hydrated lime, hence the milk
of lime used must contain somewhat less lime. The molecular
weight of lime oxide is 56, while that of lime hydrate is 74.
Hence instead of using enough lime to make each gallon of
milk of lime contain two pounds of lime, the amount of lime oxide
per gallon of milk of lime must be 74 : 56 = 2 : X; X = 1.5135
pounds lime oxide.

Accuracy of Results of Neutralization Depends on Kind of
Lime Used. — The foregoing calculations were made on the
assumption that the hydrated lime used contains 100 per cent
calcium hydrate or nearly so, and examinations of the hydrated
calcium limes of commerce have shown, that many of these limes
approach this standard of purity quite closely, so that the above
calculations should yield the acid reduction herein indicated.

NEUTRALIZATION Of SOUR

161

Furthermore, tests of milk of lime so made, with aqueous
solutions of both lactic acid and hydrochloric acid, demon-
strated that these limes actually have the power to reduce the
acid in the aqueous solutions to the theoretically calculated
per cent.

However, neutralization of sour cream and neutralization
of aqueous solutions of acid are two vastly different problems,
and it has been conclusively demonstrated, by Hunziker and
Hosman1, both by laboratory experiments and by factory tests
that, while in aqueous acid solutions the neutralizing action of
the lime is complete, in cream, not all of the lime added goes
to neutralize the lactic acid present. These facts are shown in
Table 25.

Table 25. — Fourteen Factory Tests in Which the Cream in the

Vats Was Tested for Acidity Before Neutralization, and

Three Hours After Neutralization, Showing Per Cent

Neutralizer not Reacting.

(Enough lime hydrate was added to theoretically reduce the acid
in the cream to .25%.)

Acidity i

n Cream

Vat No.

Before
Neutralization

After Neutral.,
Past, and Cooling
3 Hrs. After
Neutral.

Per Cent
Neutralizer
Not Reacting

1

.67

33

19.0

2.

.63

.32

18.4

3

.59

.30

14.7

4

.75

.30

10.0

5. .

.77

.33

15.4

6

.65

.33

20.0

7 . .

69

.32

15.9

8

.59

.32

20.6

9 .

100

.35

13.3

10

.85

.37

20.0

11

.85

.33

13.3

12. ..

.75

.35

20.0

13

.71

.32

15.2

14

.99

.34

12.0

Average

.75

.33

16.3

1 Hunziker and Hosman, Investigation of Neutralizing Action of Lime in
Different Acid Media, Blue Valley Research Laboratory, 1917. Results not
published.

162

NEUTRALIZATION OF SOUR CREAM

Table 26. — Reduction of Per Cent Acid in Cream and in Aqueous
Solution of Lactic Acid and Per cent of Lime not Reacting.

Enough lime was added in each case to theoretically reduce the

acidity to .25%.

labora-
tory
Tests,
No.

Original
Acid in
Cream

%

Acid After
Neutralization

Difference
Between Acid in

Lime Not Re-
acting

In
Cream

%

In Lactic
Acid^ol.

%

Cream &
Lactic
Acid
Sol. %

Cream &
.25% Acid
%

In

Cream

%

In Lactic
Acid Sol.

%

1

..900

.385
.367
.346
.390
.372

.250
.238
,255
.261
.251

.135
.117
.091
.129
.118

.135
.129
.096
.140
.125

21.9
20.0
16.5
200
19.6

—1.0
0.0
+0.6
—1.1
—0.38

2. . ..

.900
.891
.900
.898

3

,4

Average

From the above tables, it is evident that from about 16 to
20 per cent of the theoretically correct amount of lime added,
fails to react with the lactic acid of the cream. In the factory
tests the lime not so reacting averaged 16.3 per cent of the
total lime added, while in the laboratory tests the deficiency
in acid reduction averaged the equivalent of 19.6 per cent of
the lime added. In the laboratory tests the amount of cream
used was relatively very small and the preparation of the cor-
respondingly very small amount of lime mix needed was diffi-
cult, obviously inviting relatively large experimental errors. It
may be assumed, therefore, with reasonable certainty that for
all practical purposes about 16 per cent of the theoretically cal-
culated amount of lime that is required to neutralize the acidity
in cream to .25 per cent fails to react on the lactic acid.

In order, therefore, to secure the full neutralizing action
desired, that is to -reduce the acidity of the cream to
.25 per cent by the use of the neutralizing formula and tables
given, it is necessary to increase the neutralizing strength of
the milk of lime at least 16 per cent. This can readily be done
in one or the other of the following ways :

a) By using a correspondingly larger proportion of dry
hydrated lime in making up the lime mix. Since the acid-
reducing power of the lime mix is approximately 16 per cent
less than the theoretical calculations specify, each 100 parts
of lime mix has an actual neutralizing strength of only 84 parts.

NEUTRALIZATION OF SOUR CREAM 163

Hence, in order to secure 100 per cent neutralizing1 action, as
called for in the tables, it is necessary to add enough more dry
hydrated lime to the lime mix to make it 119 per cent (84 : 100
— 100 : X) strong. In other words, the amount of dry
hydrated lime used to make up 1 gallon of lime mix must be
increased by 19, or in round figures by 20 per cent. Instead
of using 2 pounds of lime with enough water to make up 1

2 X 19

gallon of mix, use 2 -f- "" inn — 2.4 pound, of dry hydrated

1UU

lime ; or

b) By selecting a type of lime, the alkalinity of which is
approximately 19 to 20 per cent stronger than the alkalinity
of 100 per cent calcium hydrated lime. An extended experi-
mental study of the neutralizing action of different types of
hydrated limes by the author showed that these stronger limes
are readily available in the form of so-called magnesium limes.
The hydrated limes, commercially known as magnesium limes,
contain in addition to calcium, hydrate, from 35 to 50 per cent
of magnesium oxide and their actual neutralizing strength
averages from about 16 to 20 per cent greater than hydrated
lime containing 100 per cent calcium hydrate. When using
a magnesium lime, then, the original formula for making up
the lime mix, i. e., two pounds dry lime with enough water to
make up one gallon of mix, will reduce the acidity in the
cream to the desired .25 per cent when the amounts of lime
mix to be added, as indicated in the neutralizing table herein
referred to, are used.

That either of the above corrections, as given under (a)
and (b), will produce correct results, and will neutralize the
cream to .25 per cent acid under practical creamery conditions,
may be readily observed in table 27 which shows the averages
of 1,545 churnings of cream, each churning representing 250
gallons of cream.

164

NEUTRALIZATION OF SOUR CREAM

Table 27. — Maximum, Minimum and Average Per Cent Acid in
333 Churnings of Cream Neutralized with Calcium Lime When
20% More Lime was Used Than is Necessary to Theoretically
Reduce the Acidity to .25%, and Maximum, Minimum and Aver-
age Per Cent Acid in 1212 Churnings of Cream Neutralized with
Magnesium (Lime) Which is 16 to 20% Stronger Than Necessary
to Theoretically Neutralize to .25% Acid.

Calcium Lime

Magnesium

Lime

Time of
Testing for
Acid

No. of
Churn-
ings

Using 120% of
Lime to Theoret-
ically Neutral,
to .25%. Acid

No. of
Churn-
ings

Using 100% of
Lime Which
Tested 16 to 20%
Stronger Than
Calcium Lime

Max.

Min.

Aver.

'Max.

Min.

Aver.

Acid

Acid

Acid

Acid

Acid

Acid

Before neutraliz.

333

.85

.49

.608

1212

.97

.31

.495

After neutraliz.

333

.28

.22

.250

1212

.30

.22

.251

The above table convincingly shows that it is possible to
neutralize to exactly .25 per cent acid with lime, provided that
the lime not reacting is compensated for by using 20 per cent
more lime than is theoretically required in the case of calcium
lime, or by using the amount of lime theoretically necessary for
calcium lime in the form of magnesium lime which is from 16
to 20 per cent stronger in alkalinity than the calcium lime.
In either case the acidity in the neutralized cream averages
.25 per cent.

The use of the magnesium lime at the ratio of two pounds
of dry lime in one gallon of mix, is preferable to the use of the
calcium lime at the ratio of 2.4 pounds of dry lime in one gallon
of mix. A lime mix containing 2.4 pounds of dry hydrated lime
in one gallon of mix is rather thick and does not yield to agitation
as readily as might be desired. Again the 100 per cent calcium
lime is seldom as finely pulverized as it ought to be for neutraliz-
ing. Its relative coarseness renders it somewhat sluggish in its
neutralizing action and unless intelligently and carefully pre-
pared and handled, it tends to excessively combine mechanically
with the curd of the cream, causing lumps,

NEUTRALIZATION OF SOUR CREAM 165

Magnesium limes, which contain 35 to 50 per cent MgO

have an alkalinity equal to 115 to 120 per cent of pure cal-
cium hydrate. Their use requires only 2 pounds of the lime
in one gallon of mix, to reduce the acidity to .25 per cent by
the use of the neutralizing tables, appended. This lime mix is
lighter and thinner, more easily agitated and made uniform in
strength when used. The magnesium lime is perfectly whitte
and very finely pulverized, it distributes more readily in the
cream and acts very satisfactorily. It does not convey to the
cream any objectionable flavor. Lime stone, as a rule, con-
tains either a large percentage of magnesium (35 to 50 per cent)
or a very small percentage of magnesium, less than 5 per
cent, though there are exceptions. If magnesium lime is pur-
chased, therefore, with the intention of securing a, lime with
relatively high neutralizing power, it should be ascertained
that the lime contains 35 or more per cent of magnesium.

Analyses1 show that the hydrated limes containing mag-
nesium contain only enough water to satisfy the calcium. These
limes, therefore, are a mixture of calcium t hydrate and mag-
nesium oxide.

Incomplete Reaction of Lime in Cream Due to Affinity of
Lime for Curd. — In previous paragraphs it was shown that
while the lime is capable of, and does exert its full neutralizing
strength in aqueous solutions of lactic acid, a portion of the
lime, about 16 to 20 per cent, when added to sour cream,
fails to so act. It remains now to explain why all of the lime
does not react in the cream and what becomes of that portion
which fails to react with the acid in the cream.

It is well known that the casein has a marked affinity
for calcium. In raw, sweet milk and cream the casein is
present as a calcium salt. When cream becomes sour, the lac-
tic acid thus formed removes calcium from the casein. This
leaves a part of the casein as free casein which is a solid, and
a part occurs as casein lactate which is in a colloidal state.
The casein lactate, however, is readily hydrolized; upon neu-
tralization it is precipitated, becoming solid, so that from the

1 Brigham, S. T. Engineering news, Vol. 50.

166

NEUTRALIZATION OF SOUR CREAM

standpoint of neutralization of cream, it may be considered
equivalent to free casein.

When lime is added to the sour cream the concentration
of the acid is very greatly reduced and the concentration of
the calcium is increased to excess. In the presence of free
casein, these conditions are most favorable to the formation
of calcium caseinate.

Since both the lime, in the form of milk of lime, and the casein
are in a similar physical state and have a specific chemical at-
traction for each other, it appears unnecessary for the calcium
to go into solution in order to react on the casein.

That such action takes place is indicated by the fact that
when cream is poured over dry hydrated lime, the lime gradually
becomes coated with a layer of casein-like material that adheres
to the particles of lime with which it comes in immediate contact.
This is especially noticeable on heating. A similar action seems
to take place when the lime is added to the cream in the vat,
in concentrated form, either due to inadequate dilution of the
lime mix or lack of proper distribution. Large lumps and masses
form, the solid constituents of which consist largely of curd, with
a very high lime content, and in which is locked up a good deal
of fat, as shown in Table 28.

Table 28. — Composition of Lumps in Cream Caused by the Use

of Too Coarse or Too Concentrated Lime, or By Incomplete

Distribution of the Lime Mix.

Sample
No.

Water

%

Fat

%

Curd

%

Ash Expressed
as CaO

%

Ash Expressed
in Ca(OH)2
%

I

5906

2207

6 13

399

5.27

2..
3

57.96
58.56 .

19.29
19.44

8.73
7.84

3.82
5.59

5.05
7.38

The greater affinity of the lime for the casein than for the
lactic acid in the cream is proven by analysis of the serum and
the curd, respectively, of cream that was neutralized to .26%
acid with milk of lime of the standard strength of two pounds
of dry hydrated lime made up with water to one gallon of mix,
as shown in Table 29.

NEUTRALIZATION otf SOUR CREAM

167

Table 29. — Relative Action of Lime on Serum and on Curd in
Cream When Neutralized.

Components
of
Cream

Per Cent Calcium in Cream

Before
Neutrali-
zation

After Neutr.
to .26%
Acidity

Increase
of
Calcium

Per Cent
Increase
of Calcium

Serum

.049
.105

.074
.405

.025
.300

51.0
285.7

Curd ,

The above figures show that while the serum of the neu-
tralized cream contained 51% more calcium, the curd contained
285.7% more calcium than was contained in the serum and curd
before neutralization of the cream. This evidence can leave no
doubt regarding the fact that the lime reacts with the casein and
that this action exceeds the action of the lime on the lactic acid
in the cream.

Since casein is an acid body, it must follow that the readiness,
with which it enters into combination with the lime also causes
it to surrender its acidity in excess of the action of the lime on
the lactic acid. Table 30 shows that such is, in fact, the case.

Table 30. — Relative Action of Lime on the Acid of the Curd
and on the Lactic Acid in the Cream, Serum and Fat.

Per Cent Acid in

No.

Cream

Serum

Curd

Fat

of

LJn-

Re-

Un-

Re-

Un-

! Re-

Un-

Re-

Sam-

Neu-

Neu-

duc-

Neu-

Neu -| duc-

Neu-

Neu-

duc-

Neu-

Neu-lduc-

ples

tral.

tral.

tion

tral.

tral.

tion

tral.

tral.

tion

tral.

tral.

tion

%

%

%

%

%

%

%

%

%

%

% \ %

1

553

261

528

369

161

564

124

043

653

046

044

43

2

.531

.265

50.1

.373

.174

53.3

.120

.045

62.5

.036

.036 1 0.0

3...

.560

.193

655

375

117

688

1?3

034

72.4

.0521 .041

?10

Aver. Reduction

i

1

of Acid 56.1

59.5

.66.7

8.4

Table 30, unmistakably shows that the acid in the curd is
reduced to a greater extent than the lactic acid in the serum.

It should be understood that the lower the point to which
neutralization of the cream is carried, the greater is naturally,
the relative reduction of the lactic acid in the serum. But even
in sample No 3, where the acidity in the cream was reduced to

168 NEUTRALIZATION OF SOUR CREAM

.193 per cent, the per cent reduction of acid in the curd still
exceeded that in the serum, though to a lesser extent than when
neutralization was carried only to .26% acid in the cream. The
same tendency would obviously occur in the case of cream of
very high acidity. It can readily be seen that while the lactic
acid in the cream can be increased very greatly, the per cent curd
and therefore, the amount of acid it contains is quite constant
and remains practically the same. Hence in the neutralization
of high-acid cream, the per cent reduction of the lactic acid in
the serum might be greater than that in the curd. In very high
acid cream, it might be possible for the acid in the curd to be
reduced to the neutral point. This is improbable, however,
because in such cream the stronger acid (the lactic acid of the
serum) would claim more of the alkalinity of the lime.

It should be noted also in Table 30, that the per cent reduc-
tion of the acid in the fat is very slight. This may be explained
by the probability that the fat becomes saturated with lactic
acid from the acid serum and the acid so held is not redistributed
in the serum, unless the serum is reduced to a low percentage
of acid. This assumption' is borne out in the case of Sample
No. 3, representing cream neutralized to .193 per cent acid and
in which the acid reduction in the fat was abnormally great.

Ability of Acid Test with Sodium Hydroxide to Show Total
Acidity in Cream. — It has been shown that the lime has a great
affinity for the casein, that the curd of neutralized cream absorbs
over five times as much calcium as the serum and that the action
of the lime on the acid in the curd is in excess of that on the
lactic acid in the serum. The question then arises, does Sodium
which is used in testing the cream for acid, and in the use of
which the titration is carried to the neutral point, show a similar
preference for the acid in the curd as the lime? In other words,
does the acid test "show the total acid in the cream, including
both the lactic acid and the casein acid, or does it indicate the
lactic acid only?

This question is important, because if the acid test rep-
resented the determination of the lactic acid only, then it would
not be a true index of the acidity of the cream and it would also
furnish a very logical explanation of why a portion of the lime

NEUTRALIZATION OF SOUR CREAM

169

added to the cream shows no reduction in the acidity as deter-
mined by Mann's acid test.

Table 31 demonstrates that sodium hydroxide, such as is
used in the acid tests, does indicate the total acid in the cream,
including the lactic acid, curd acid and fat acid. Its action is
very nearly equal to that of lime. The figures in this table were
analyzed, for percentage of acidity, separately. The table shows
that the sum of the acid in the components — the serum, curd and
fat — of the cream is practically equal to the acid in the original
cream.

Table 31. — Per Cent Acid in Unneutralized Cream and Its

Components.

Per Cent Acid in Cream and
Components of Cream Its Components

Lot l.|Lot2.|Lot3.

Lot 4.

Aver.

Cream

.560

.531

.553

.461 |

Serum

.375

.373

.369 j.335 |

Curd

.123

.120

.124

.108 |

Fat

.052

.036

.046

.039

Total components .

.550 |.529

.539

.482

Difference between cream and total
comoonents .

.01—

.002—

.014—

1.021 +

.001—

"-" acidity in total components less than acidity in cream.
" + " acidity in total components more than acidity in cream.

Further evidence of the fact that sodium shows similar
preference for curd as lime does may be found in Table 32. In
this experiment the neutralizing action of the lime water (lime
hydrate in solution) and sodium hydrate is shown. Here neutrali-
zation was carried to the neutral point. The action of the two
alkalies was very similar.

170

NEUTRALIZATION OF SOUR CREAM

Table 32. — Showing Neutralizing Action of Lime Water and
Sodium Hydroxide.

Neutralized
with

Original
Acid

%

Acidity
Reduced

%

Acidity Remain-
ing After Heating
to 145° F.

%

Total Acidity
Reduced to Reach
Neutral Point
%

Sodium hydrate,
N/10

.639

393

246

624

Calcium hydrate,
N/20 in solution

.659

.448

.221

.625

The neutralizers were added in two installments. After the
first addition the cream was heated to 145° F. for one hour, then
enough more neutralizer was added to reduce the cream to the
neutral point.

The lesser total acidity which was required for complete
neutralization, was undoubtedly due to the expulsion of carbon
dioxide, during the heating process. The slight decrease in the
acidity due to pasteurization is a matter of common experience.
These figures show a slight difference in the total neutralizing
effect between the sodium hydroxide and the lime water. This
is probably caused by the difference in dilution of the neutralized
cream, the greater dilution due to the lime water facilitating the
recognition of the end point in the titration.

When neutralization is not carried to the end point, or neutral
point, the distribution of the Sodium hydroxide and the calcium
hydrate in solution differs somewhat; a slightly smaller propor-
tion of the remaining acid is lactic acid, when sodium hydroxide
is used, than in the case of lime water.

This difference in the action of the two alkalies is materially
augmented when milk of lime (lime hydrate not in solution) is
used in the place of lime water. This is shown in Table 33.

NEUTRALIZATION OP SOUR CREAM

171

Table 33. — Showing Relative Action of Sodium Hydrate, Lime
Water and Milk of Lime on Acidity in Serum of Cream.

Character
of
Neutralizer

Original
Acidity
%

Acidity of
Cream After
Neutralization

Acidity of
Serum After
Neutralization

Reduction
of Acidity
in Serum

Sodium hy-
droxide

.637

.250

.028x50%

.323

.637

.250

.028

.323

Lime water. . .

.637

.250

.034

.317

.637

.?50

.037

.314

Milk of lime..

.637

.250

.044

.307

.637

.250

.044

.307

The figures in Table 33 show that when neutralization is
not carried to the neutral point, adding neutralizer sufficient only
to reduce the acidity to .25% acid, the lime water (lime in so-
lution) shows somewhat greater preference for the casein' than
for the serum and that this preference for the casein is greatly
augmented in the case of milk of lime. Both the lime water and
the milk of lime showed greater preference for the casein than did
the sodium hydroxide, hence the lime neutralizers had less alka-
linity left to act on the lactic acid in the serum, and reduced the
acidity in the serum to a lesser extent than did the sodium neu-
tralizer. It should be clearly understood here that this difference
of distribution of the neutralizing action between sodium hydrate
and calcium hydrate occurs only when the neutralization is not
carried to the neutral point. Tables 31 and 32 show that when
neutralization is carried to the neutral point, the sodium hydrate
fully neutralizes both the lactic acid in the serum and the acid
in the casein. This fact furnishes reliable proof that the acid test
with sodium hydroxide shows the total acidity in cream,. Its
results are, therefore, correct, and they demonstrate that the
incomplete acid reduction of the lime is not due to any short-
comings of the acid test of the cream, but must be due to the
great affinity of the lime for the casein which causes the me-
chanical combination of particles of undissolved lime with
particles of solid casein, thereby mechanically tying up a portion

172 NEUTRALIZATION OF SOUR CREAM

of the lime and making the alkalinity of the portion of the lime,
so fixed, unavailable for acid reduction.

Summary of Action of Lime in Sour Cream. — Summing up
the foregoing discussion concerning the action of lime hydrate
when used as a neutralizer in sour cream, the following points
are of importance:

(1) When a sufficient amount of lime is added to sour cream
to theoretically reduce the acidity in the cream to .25% acid,
the lime fails to accomplish the full extent of this acid reduction.
About 16 to 20% of the lime does not react.

(2) This delinquency may be corrected by using approxi-
mately 20%i more lime hydrate, thus making the lime mix about
16% stronger than required theoretically, or by using instead
of calcium lime, magnesium lime. Magnesium lime containing
from 35 to 50%> magnesium oxide has an alkalinity equivalent in
strength to approximately 116 to 120% of pure calcium lime.

(3) Lime has a marked affinity for casein. The absorption
of lime By the casein and the reduction of the casein acid are
greater than the absorption of lime by the serum and the reduc-
tion of the lactic acid.

(4) When neutralization is carried to the neutral point, the
distribution of the neutralizing action in the components of cream
— the serum, curd and fat — is similar with sodium hydrate as it
is with lime water.

(5) The acid test of the cream determines the total acidity
of the cream, including both the casein acid and the lactic acid,
It yields, therefore, the correct per cent of acid.

(6) The deficiency of the neutralizing action of the lime is
due to physical and mechanical combination between portions
of insoluble lime and the curd. The fact that from 16 to 20%
of the lime does not react in the cream must be attributed to the,
great affinity of the lime for casein, particles of lime adhering
and becoming permanently attached to particles of free casein.
In this condition the lime so held is unable to exert its full neu-
tralizing action.

Adding Lime Mix in Proper Manner. — It is not enough to
use the right strength and amount of lime. The lime mix must

NEUTRALIZATION OF SOUR CREAM 173

be handled in the proper manner, after it is made up and before
it is added, otherwise it cannot accomplish that for which it is
used. Lime settles to the bottom quickly, hence it must be stirred
thoroughly before use. It must be strained and diluted with
an equal volume of water before it is poured into the cream and
it must be sprinkled over the entire surface of the cream while
the cream is in agitation. Sediment of limy curd in the bottom
of the forewarmer or vat is a fairly conclusive proof that the lime
mix was not added as it should have been.

In order to secure maximum reaction between the alkalinity
of the lime and the acid in the cream, the neutralizer must be
distributed thinly and uniformly throughout the entire batch of
cream. This is possible only when the lime mix is reasonably
diluted before it is poured into the vat, and when it is added, not
in one place, but over the entire vat, in the form of a small
stream, or a spray, and while the cream in the vat is vigorously
agitated.

If the full strength of undiluted lime mix is "dumped" into the
vat all in one place, there is very intense action on the curd, a
portion of the lime mechanically combines with the curd and fat,
and will drop to the bottom of the vat in the form of lumps. In
this case the lime so fixed, fails to yield its full alkalinity to the
serum of the cream and the acid reduction falls short of that
calculated even when an excess of 16 to 20% of lime is used, and
accurate results from such procedure need not be expected.
This lack of proper distribution of the neutralizer in the cream
has the further disadvantage of causing excessive loss of fat,
the lumps of limy curd in the bottom of the vat being high in
fat content.

To avoid this, the lime mix should be diluted with an equal
volume of water and its uniform distribution is facilitated by
spraying it over the vigorously agitated cream, from a flower
sprinkling can.

Checking Results by Retesting. — Finally, if the operator is
to do continuously accurate and reliable work, he must check
his work by retesting the cream for acid, after he has given
the neutralizer the proper time and condition for full action.

174 NEUTRALIZATION OF SOUR CREAM

Other Factors That Cause Irregularities of Results of Neu-
tralization.— The complexity of the physical and chemical
make-up of cream, its susceptibility to a variety of changes in
composition, which are largely beyond the control of the cream-
ery, together with irregularities in the preparation and use of
the neutralizer which are largely due to the personal factor of
the operator, naturally invite frequent fluctuations in the results
of neutralization, and interfere more or less with the desired
uniformity and accuracy of the results. Notwithstanding
these facts, the use of a systematic process of neutralization
makes possible the removal of excess acid and the reduction of
the acidity to the desired point, within the limits of not to
exceed .05 per cent acid above or below that desired. It en-
ables the creamery to secure the full benefit of neutralization
without danger of overneutralization and its detrimental effect
on the quality of the finished product.

The dominating factors which cause fluctuations in the re-
duction of the acidity of the cream by neutralization are the
original per cent acid in the cream before neutralization, the
per cent casein in the cream, the amount of carbondioxide in the
cream, the strength, dilution and distribution of the lime mix
when added, the temperature of the cream and the time allowed
for neutralization.

Effect of Original Per Cent Acid in Cream Before Neutral-
ization on Accuracy of Acid Reduction. — It has been shown
that in the neutralization of cream of average acidity (testing
about .60 to .80 per cent acid), a portion of the lime (from about
16 to 20 per cent) does not react and that, therefore, lime suffi-
cient in amount, or in strength to be equivalent in alkalinity to 16
to 20 per cent in excess of that required to theoretically reduce
the acidity to the desired point must be added. It was further
shown that this loss of reaction of a portion of the lime is due
to the fact that a part of the solid particles of lime mechanically
combines with the solid particles of casein, rendering the alka-
linity of the lime so held inaccessible to the acid in the cream.

The amount of lime not reacting is, therefore, fairly con-
stant and does not vary greatly with the acidity of the cream.
It is not proportional with the original per cent acid present
in the cream. Hence in very high-acid cream, the 16 to 20 per

NEUTRALIZATION OF SOUR CREAM 175

cent excess lime added will tend to reduce the acidity of the
cream slightly below the calculated point, while in cream of
relatively low original acidity, the point to which the acidity
drops will tend to be slightly above the calculated point.

Effect of Per Cent Casein in Cream on Accuracy of Acid
Reduction. — Since the fact, that a portion of the lime does not
react, is due to the mechanical tying-up of a portion of the lime
with the casein, the amount of lime not reacting must of
necessity vary with the per cent casein in the cream, and this
in turn is largely controlled by the fat content of the cream.
Generally speaking, the ratio of solids not fat to water in cream
is the same as that in milk, hence the more fat, and therefore,
the less water cream contains, the lower is the per cent of solids
not fat in cream, and the per cent curd, being a non-fatty con-
stituent is also reduced correspondingly. The following Anal-
ysis of Cream, by Richmond,1 illustrates this point clearly.

Table 34. — Composition of Cream,

Thick Cream
%

Thm Cream

%

Water

3937

63.94

Fat .

5609

29.29

Sugar

229

347

Protein

1 57

276

Ash

.38

54

99.70

100.00

The above analysis shows that cream testing 56. per cent
fat contained only 1.57 per cent protein, while cream testing 3(7.
per cent fat contained 2.76 per cent protein.

The smaller curd content of rich cream, therefore, ties up
less lime than the larger curd content of thin cream. In the
case of rich cream, the proportion of lime not reacting with the
lactic acid is less than in thin cream. Hence the acidity in rich
cream is reduced to a slightly lower point than that in thin
cream, when the calculated amount of lime used is the same
for both, rich and thin cream.

1 Richmond Dairy Chemistry, Second Edition, 1914, p. 266.

176 NEUTRALIZATION OF SOUR CREAM

Effect of Amount of Carbondioxide in Cream, on Accuracy
of Acid Reduction. — When determining the acidity present in
cream before neutralization by titration with sodium hydrox-
ide, the results show not only the lactic acid and the casein
acid present, but also the carbondioxide that cream may contain.
But the carbondioxide escapes during pasteurization, being ex-
pelled by heat; it, therefore, does not claim the alkalinity of
the lime added, and allows this alkalinity to further reduce the
lactic acid and casein acid of the cream.

The carbondioxide content of cream is very variable. It
is largely the result of fermentation. In fresh and only moder-
ately sour cream it is very slight, while in highly acid cream
and especially in yeasty cream, it may be relatively great.
Hence, the addition of the amount of lime calculated to reduce
the acidity to a given point when based on the original acid
test of the cream before neutralization will, in the case of high
acid and fermented cream, drop the acidity to a sligthly lower
point than that calculated. This irregularity is somewhat mini-
mized by the heating of the cream in the forewarmer, which
expels a portion of the carbondioxide present before the cream
is tested for its original acidity, and the higher the temperature
to which the cream is heated in the forewarmer, the more of
the carbondioxide is liberated. This fact, however, should not
be interpreted to mean that it is desirable to heat the sour
cream excessively before neutralization. Such a practice would
in part forfeit the benefits of neutralization, causing, especially
in the case of thin, sour cream,, the formation of an abnormal
curd, with excessive loss of fat and the danger of white specks
in the butter. The temperature of the cream before neutral-
ization, either in the forewarmer or in the pasteurizing vat,
should not be raised above 90 degrees F., if these defects are
to be avoided in a dependable manner by neutralization.

Effect of Time and Temperature on Accuracy of Acid
Reduction. — The neutralizing action of the lime is Comparatively
slow, it is not instantaneous. The acid test of the cream, made
immediately after neutralization, does not show the full neu-
tralizing power of the lime. The per cent acid found in the
cream at that time is higher than the calculated per cent acid

NEUTRALIZATION OF SOUR CREAM

177

to which the cream is to be reduced. Time is required for com-
plete action. Creameries that add their neutralizer by guess
and then calculate from the per cent acid found in the cream
immediately after neutralization the additional amount of lime
needed to reduce the acidity to the desired point, will fail to
secure uniform results and may, under certain conditions, un-
knowingly overneutralize the cream.

Proper dilution and distribution of the lime greatly hasten
the action of the lime and the heat of pasteurization assists in
completing it. The following table may serve to show the rate
at which neutralization progresses from the time the lime mixt
properly diluted, is added to the cream, when the temperature
of the cream at the time of neutralization averages about 90
degrees F.

Table 35. — Showing Progressive Reduction of Acidity in Cream
After the Addition of the Neutralizer.

Per Cent Acid in Cream

After Pasteur-

Number of Batches

Immediately

ization and

of Cream

Before

After

Cooling; 2 to 3

Neutralization

Neutralization

Hrs. After

Neutralization

Averages of 139 batches..

.658

.295

.251

Averages of 114 batches..

.755

.291

.243

Averages of 175 batches..

.729

.369

.270

Averages of 181 batches..

.740

.362

.275

Averages of 97 batches..

.553

.303

.256

Averages of 133 batches..

.653

.363

.256

Averages of 96 batches. .

.485

.300

.244

Averages of 228 batches..

.517

.281

.247

Averages of 76 batches..

.524

.298

.268

Averages of 93 batches . .

.594

.335

.271

Averages of 140 batches..

.611

.343

.249

Averages of 1472 batches.

.620

.322

.257

Effect of Neutralization on the Composition of Butter. —

The composition of butter made from neutralized cream does
not appreciably differ from that made of unneutralized cream.
The curd content of butter tends to be slightly reduced as the

178 NEUTRALIZATION OF SOUR CREAM

result of neutralization. Ramsay1 found the following differ-
ences in curd content.

Butter Made From Per cent Curd

Unneutralized Cream 1.28

Cream treated with Sodium Bicarbonates 87

Cream treated with Calcium Carbonate 72

The above analyses show a rather unusually high per cent
of curd in butter made from both, neutralized and unneutral-
ized cream. When butter is washed properly the curd content
generally averages several tenths per cent lower. However, they
are valuable because they show the relative reduction of curd
content due to neutralization.

The decrease in the curd content may be explained by the
fact that the neutralizer causes the precipitated curd to be
firmer, more grainy and to separate more completely from the
serum. This is especially the case with lime-neutralized cream,
but even sodium-neutralized cream has a firmer curd than un-
neutralized cream. In this firmer condition more of the curd
passes into the buttermilk and less is taken up by the butter.
AJ similar difference is noted between butter made from sour
and sweet cream. In sweet cream, the curd is present in a
more colloid condition which sticks to the butter particles and
causes such butter to have a higher curd content than sour
cream butter.

The butter made from lime-neutralized cream contains
slightly more calcium than butter made from untreated cream.
Wichmann1 found a slight increase in the calcium oxide of the
salt-free ash of neutralized cream butter, as well as in the butter
itself, and he claims that when the calcium oxide content of
butter exceeds .025 per cent, there is strong indication that such
butter was made from limed cream, provided that the salt added
to the butter did not contain calcium salts. The slight increase
in the calcium oxide of lime-neutralized butter is in all prob-
ability due to the calcium attached to the curd. As shown in
previous paragraphs, the calcium content of the curd increased

1 Ramsay. Note on Neutralization of Cream in Butter Manufacture and the
Effect on the Butter Produced. New South Wales Dept. Agr., Science Bulletin
No. 16, 1915.

DIRECTIONS FOR NEUTRALIZING CREAM 179

about fivefold when lime was added to the cream. Wich-
mann's results, however, are marred by the fact that his experi-
ments seem to have lacked a systematic and accurate method of
neutralizing. The lime was apparently added by guess and the
acid test was taken immediately after neutralization, so that the
full neutralizing action was not determined. It is doubtful that
butter made from lime-neutralized cream contains enough more
calcium oxide to reliably detect neutralization by chemical anal-
ysis. In fact such butter might, under certain conditions, con-
tain no more or even less lime oxide than butter made from un-
treated cream, depending on the completeness of the removal
of the buttermilk, which in turn largely depends on the size of
the butter granules when the churn is stopped and on the
thoroughness of washing the butter.

SPECIFIC DIRECTIONS FOR NEUTRALIZING CREAM
WITH LIME HYDRATE.

1. Secure hydrated lime that is relatively free from
carbonates.

If the hydrated lime is a calcium lime (containing but little,
not over five per cent magnesium oxide), make up a lime mix
or milk of lime by using 2.4 pounds of the dry hydrated lime for
every gallon of mix.

2. If the hydrated lime is a magnesium lime, containing
not less than 30 to 35 per cent magnesium oxide, make up a lime
mix or milk of lime by using 2 pounds of the dry hydrated lime
for every gallon of mix.

3. Magnesium lime is more satisfactory than calcium lime.

4. For making up lime mix in small quantities use a ten-
gallon can, add 24 pounds of calcium lime or preferably 20
pounds of magnesium lime, fill half full of water, stir until the
emulsion is complete, then fill the can full with water and stir
again. This now represents the milk of lime, or lime mix, or
lime neutralizer. Use the neutralizing tables for determining
the correct quantity of this neutralizer required to reduce the
acidity in the cream to .25 per cent.

180 DIRECTIONS FOR NEUTRALIZING CREAM

5. For making up larger quantities of lime neutralizer, use
a circular tank with agitator, similar to a starter can. A tank
with an operating capacity of say 100 gallons may be found
most convenient. Mark the level at which the tank contains
100 gallons. This is readily done by pouring ten 10-gallon cans
full of water into it and punching a small hole into the side of
the tank at a point level with the surface of the water.

6. Withdraw half of the water and weigh into the tank 200
pounds of dry hydrated magnesium lime or 240 pounds of dry
hydrated calcium lime, revolve the agitator until all lumps have
disappeared and a homogeneous emulsion is secured. Fill up the
tank with water to the 100 gallon mark and stir again.

A lime mix tank equipped with mechanical agitator which
is operated by belt or motor power is much preferable to one
with a hand agitator, as .it obviates the laborious work of hand
stirring and insures more complete homogenousness of the mix.

7. Now mix the milk of lime in the lime tank thoroughly,
giving the agitator at least 15 vigorous turns in the case a hand
agitator is used. Then measure out with a gallon measure
graduated to half pints the required amount of neutralizer, as
indicated in the neutralizing table.

8. Strain it through a cheese cloth into a garden sprinkling
pot, add an equal amount of water and sprinkle the neutralizer
over the cream in all parts of the vat.

9. Keep the cream agitated while the neutralizer is being
added.

10. Always make sure that the quantity of cream and the
test of the original acid present are correct, that the milk of
lime has been properly mixed before removing the required
amount from the lime mix tank and that the neutralizer is prop-
erly diluted before it is added to the cream. " ';"'

11. It is advisable to not heat the cream much above 90
degrees F. before the neutralizer is added.

PASTEURIZATION 181

CHAPTER VIII.
PASTEURIZATION.

Definition. — As applied to buttermaking, pasteurization may
be denned as the process of heating1 milk or cream to a tem-
perature capable of destroying the great majority of bacteria
and other ferments contained therein and of cooling quickly to
the ripening or churning temperature.

In proper pasteurization the milk or cream is heated to
145 degrees F. and held at that temperature for at least twenty
minutes or it is heated to from 176 to 185 degrees F. and cooled
without holding. Proper pasteurization may also embrace any
modification of the above relations of temperature to time of ex-
posure that is equivalent in germ-killing efficiency to the above
processes and has otherwise no injurious effect on the flavor
and texture of butter. If the cream is to be ripened subse-
quently, it is cooled after pasteurization to about 65 degrees F.
If the ripening process is dispensed with the cream is cooled
after pasteurization to the churning temperature which will gen-
erally vary from 45 degrees F. to 60 degrees F., according to
locality and season of year.

Objects of Pasteurization. — Pasteurization does not make
possible the manufacture of fancy butter from a poor grade of
cream, but it does help the creamery to minimize the injurious
effect of contamination of milk and cream with diverse types
of germ life and ferments injurious to the quality of the butter
and possibly dangerous to the health and life of the consumer.
Proper pasteurization, therefore, improves the quality, and keep-
ing properties of butter and makes the product safe for consump-
tion. Briefly, the chief objects of pasteurization of cream for but-
termaking are: Improvement of flavor of butter, better keeping
quality, more uniform flavor and quality, destruction of germs
of human and animal diseases, increase of economic efficiency
of dairy industry.

Improvement of Flavor. — Proper pasteurization improves
the flavor of butter, partly, because it destroys the great major-
ity of ferments present in the cream, some of which are prone
to decompose one or more of the ingredients of butter, produc-

182 PASTEURIZATION

ing objectionable flavors and odors and partly, because the pas-
teurizing heat removes from the cream gases and volatile and
soluble substances which possess undesirable odors.

Experimental results conducted at various experiment sta-
tions in this country and abroad have conclusively demonstrated
that efficient pasteurization destroys over 99 per cent of the
micro-organisms present in the cream. The type of micro-organ-
ism most damaging to the quality of butter is the liquefying
bacteria — those which attack the proteins and fat, — and certain
species of yeast and molds. Bacteriological analyses of cream
before and after pasteurization show that the per cent decrease
of these undesirable germs is practically the same as that of the
lactic acid bacteria.

Pasteurization expels from the cream, vapors and gases, espe-
cially carbondioxide gas, which carry with them objectionable
volatile substances which may have been absorbed mechanically
or which have developed in the cream due to bacterial action.
This expulsion is further facilitated by the reduced viscosity of
the hot pasteurized cream. Gases are less soluble and more
volatile at high temperatures, therefore they escape more read-
ily from pasteurized cream. In raw cream they tend to go in
solution, they remain in the cream and may be carried into the
butter.

Soluble decomposition products, such as may be present in
cream that has yielded to fermentation, are more easily expel-
led from the cream and butter made from pasteurized cream
than from raw cream. The clusters of fat globules break up,
and offer a greater surface for the liberation of these biprod-
ucts. Some of these products as well as the curd, that harbor
faulty odors, are precipitated more completely by pasteurization
and in this condition pass off in the buttermilk. The curd con-
tracts and squeezes out soluble substances, so that part of
the curd which subsequently does become a part of the butter
is freer from these undesirable, soluble bi-products.

Improves Keeping Quality. — Since certain species of bac-
teria, yeast and molds that may be present in the cream, cause
deterioration of the butter in storage, the elimination of these

PASTEURIZATION 183

micro-organisms retards such deterioration and improves the
keeping quality of the butter. High temperature pasteurization
also destroys the activity of enzymes, some of which are capable
of decomposing one or more of the constituents of butter, shorten-
ing its life. The destruction of their activity, therefore, furnishes
additional protection against deterioration of butter with age.

At best the great bulk of butter is several weeks old before
it reaches the pantry of the consumer, and during this time it
is often exposed to unfavorable temperature conditions which
stimulate bacterial and enzyme action. Large quantities of but-
ter are also stored for a considerable length of time for the pur-
pose of holding it over from summer, the time of surplus, till
winter, the period of usual shortage. It is, therefore, of great
economic importance that the butter have sufficient keeping
properties to successfully withstand the deteriorating influences
of age.

Produces Greater Uniformity of Quality. — Uniformity of
flavor and quality are essential requisites for the successful
marketing of butter. The consumer demands that the butter on
his table be of uniform quality. With intelligent pasteurization
the fermentations in the cream and butter can be more readily
controlled, thus insuring greater uniformity of the resulting
flavor of the butter of different churnings. Instead of being
constantly and entirely at the mercy of the conditions to which
the cream is exposed on the farm and in transportation, the
buttermaker, by means of efficient pasteurization, is able to
modify the variable bacterial flora in cream, eliminating un-
desirable ferments and thereby producing a butter of greater
uniformity in flavor and quality.

Where it is desired to ripen the cream, pasteurization assists
in confining the ripening process to the fermentations which are
desired and to the exclusion of fermentations of known inju-
rious effect.

Destroys Disease Germs. — Pasteurization, when* properly
executed, also frees the cream, buttermilk and butter from germs
of human and animal diseases, thus making the butter safer for
human consumption, raising the standard of safety and whole-
someness of the product in the eyes of the public and protect-

184 PASTEURIZATION

ing the livestock interests of the country against the spread of
infectious diseases among young stock and hogs fed on skim
milk and buttermilk returned to the farm.

Increases Economic Efficiency of Dairy Industry. — For the

reasons above indicated, pasteurization has distinct economic
value. Through improving the flavor and keeping quality of
butter, pasteurization stimulates the appetite and demand for
butter; it assists the creamery in securing a satisfactory price
for its product and protects it against heavy losses caused by
the development of costly defects of butter made from contam-
inated raw cream. The increased demand for the improved
product, accompanied by better prices, and the elimination of
serious loss due to specific butter defects, in turn, enable the
creamery to offer to the farmer maximum prices for his butter
fat, to increase his profits and thereby to stimulate the produc-
tion of milk and cream, and indirectly to improve the fertility
of the soil.

Through destruction of disease germs pasteurization safe-
guards the physical welfare of the consumer and minimizes the
danger of heavy losses of livestock due to epizootics resulting
from the feeding of infected cream-cry bi-products to farm
animals.

The improved quality of butter made from pasteurized cream
and the guarantee which such butter offers the consumer, as a
product wholesome and free from germs of disease, are the most
forceful weapons the dairy industry possesses in its never-end-
ing struggle against competition with foreign butter and butter
substitutes at home, and in its efforts to establish permanent and
satisfactory markets abroad.

Essential Conditions for Successful Pasteurization, — Many
butter buyers are looking upon butter made from pasteurized
cream with disfavor, claiming that such butter lacks the desired
flavor, open grain and "live" body of raw cream butter. And it is
a fact that some butter made from pasteurized cream has marked
defects in flavor and in body. In the great majority of these

PASTEURIZATION 1&5

cases the cause, however, lies in the improper and faulty appli-
cation of pasteurization. These criticisms should not be inter-
pretated as a condemnation of the principle of pasteurization,
they refer only to the faulty use of a beneficial process. Butter
made from properly pasteurized cream does not harbor these
defects and is not subject to these criticisms.

In order to apply the process of pasteurization so as to ac-
complish its helpful objects and to guard against undesirable
results, the creamery must use efficient equipment of adequate
capacity and kept in sanitary condition, it must have a sufficient
and constant supply of heating and cooling media for rapid heat-
ing and cooling and for effective temperature control and, above
all, the process must be supervised by a competent operator
whose experience, knowledge and judgment enable him to prop-
erly prepare the cream for, and to conduct, the process in an
intelligent and efficient manner.

Methods of Pasteurization. — There are in use at the present
time fundamentally three methods of pasteurizing cream for
buttermaking. These are the flash or continuous method, the vat
or holding method and the combined flash and holding method.

In the flash or continuous process of pasteurization the
cream flows through the pasteurizer in a continuous stream, is
heated from 176 to 185 degrees F. and then immediately cooled to
the ripening temperature, or the churning temperature.

In the vat or holding method of pasteurization the cream
is heated in a vat with agitator to a temperature of about 145
degrees F., then held at that temperature for twenty to thirty

minutes and cooled to the ripening or churning temperature.
* »

In the combined flash and holding method of pasteurization
the cream flows through a continuous pasteurizer, is heated to
a temperature ranging from about 150 to 170 degrees F. and
is held in a vat at the above or at 'lower temperatures for from
ten to thirty minutes, after which it is cooled to the ripening or
churning temperature.

186

PASTEURIZATION

FLASH OR CONTINUOUS METHOD OF PASTEUR-
IZATION.

Flash Pasteurizers. — The following is a list of some of the
more popular flash or continuous pasteurizers and coolers now
in use in American creameries:

f Jensen old style

r ~, . . . , \ Jensen sanitary

Stationary jacketed -L

^ Peerless

Simplex centrifugal
(^Eclipse

Continuous
pasteurizers

drum with revolv-:
ing agitator

Regenerative with
revolving drum

Revolving discs

Jensen sanitary pas-
teurizer, regenera-
tor and cooler

Progress regenera-
tive

Simplex regenerative

f Farrington
•s Farrington Jr.
^Miller Tyson

Fig*. 22. Jensen flash pasteurizer
Courtesy J. G. Cherry Co.

Tig. 23. Peerless flash pasteurizer

Courtesy J. G. Cherry Co.

PASTEURIZATION 187

Principal Features of Diferent Types of Flash Pasteur-
izers.— The flash, or continuous pasteurizers are principally of
three types. 1. Those consisting of a hollow drum, equipped
with a revolving agitator and surrounded by a heating jacket.
2. Those consisting of two hollow drums, the smaller rotating
inside the larger one and with the heating or cooling medium
circulating in the inner drum and in the jacket surrounding the
outer drum, while the cream passes in a thin film between the
heating surfaces of the two drums. The latter are frequently
of the regenerative type. 3. Those consisting of compartments
equipped with revolving discs which heat the cream while it
flows through the compartment. This type of pasteurizers
usually, though not always, contains also compartments for cool-
ing the heated cream.

Some creameries use two flash pasteurizers, connected tan-
dem fashion, in the place of one. The machines are frequently
installed at different elevations. In the lower machine the cream
is heated to about 135 degrees F. and in the upper machine to
about 180 degrees F. The cream flows from the lower to the
upper machine and these pasteurizers may be so connected
that the first or lower machine is heated by the exhaust steam of
the upper or second machine, or each machine may be heated
with direct steam in which case they are generally installed side
by side on the same level. This double system of flash pasteur-
ization, when properly operated, helps to insure thoroughness
of heating.

All of the flash pasteurizers with closed drums have the
power of elevating the cream, making unnecessary the use of
pumps to convey the pasteurized cream over the coolers or into
the vats.

Some of the flash pasteurizers do part cooling of the heated
cream, while the remainder are heaters only and require sepa-
rate coolers. For this purpose surface coil coolers are most
generally installed. Frequently the surface cooler is done
away with and internal tube coolers or other coolers are used,
or the heated cream may flow direct from the flash pasteurizer
into the ripening vat where it is cooled by the revolving coil.

188

PASTEURIZATION

Regenerative Heaters and Coolers. — Some of the heaters
and coolers are arranged on what is known as the regenerative
principle. The inflowing cold cream is heated by the hot cream
passing from the pasteurizer, and the outflowing hot cream is
cooled by the cold cream flowing to the pasteurizer. The hot

and cold cream tend
to equalize their re-
spective temperatures
by passing in counter-
current directions,
M a n u f a c turers of
these coolers claim
that the regenerative
principle effects a sav-
ing of heat and cold
amounting to 25 to 35
per cent of the fuel
needed.

Construction of
Flash Pasteurizers. —

Most of the contin-
uous pasteurizers are
constructed of copper
with heavily tinned
heating surface. Some of these pasteurizers are lined with Ger-
man silver. From the standpoint of heat conductivity there is
little choice between the two metals. Their efficiency is prac-
tically equally high. The German silver has the advantage of
preserving the brightness of its surface. In the copper-lined
machine the tin coating soon wears off. This, however, is no
serious objection as long as the copper surface is kept bright and
no verdigris is permitted to form.

The details of construction and of power transmission vary
somewhat with the different types and makes of flash pasteur-
izers. Their descriptions are usually furnished by the respective
manufacturers of the machines.

In the installation of flash pasteurizers the directions for
the same, which accompany the machines, should be carefully

Tig. 24. Simplex regeneration pasteurizer
Courtesy D. H. Burrell & Co.

PASTEURIZATION

189

followed. The cream connections, especially those for the heat-
ed cream, should be of such type as to reduce the friction of
the cream and consequently the mutilation of the fat globules,
to the minimum. Sharp bends should be eliminated as much
as possible, and where they are unavoidable, they should be
equipped with rounded sanitary couplings in preference to T's

Fig-. 25 Fig1. 26

Jensen universal pasteurizer

Courtesy Jensen Creamery Machinery Co.

and crosses. The entire system should be composed of stand-
ard sanitary pipes, valves and fittings. The straight pipes
should be equipped with sanitary unions at intervals of 6 to 8
feet, so as to facilitate their dissembling, cleaning and reas-
sembling.

Operation of Flash Pasteurizers. — In the case of sweet
cream, such as is available in wholemilk creameries, the cream
needs no special preparation for pasteurization. It is run through
the pasteurizer direct from the receiving vat.

When cream arrives at the creamery in thick, lumpy or
sour condition or is otherwise in unsatisfactory physical con-
dition, as is the case in many of the gathered cream creameries,
it is not only desirable but very necessary to warm it to about
90 degrees F. and agitate it until it is uniform in consistency
and reasonably smooth. This is best done by the use of a
forewarmer. The usual type of forewarmer is a plain, tinned gal-

190

PASTEURIZATION

vanized iron or tinned copper vat equipped with a revolving
copper coil or disc, through which hot water is circulated to
raise the temperature of the cream. The forewarmer should be
preferably of "low-down" construction so as to facilitate the
"dumping" of the cans.

If the cream consists of part sweet and part sour cream or
if the acidity of different lots of cream in the forewarmer differs
materially, it is advisable to hold it in the forewarmer for about
thirty minutes or longer, to make the entire batch uniform in
acidity. If this is not done a tough, rubbery curd is prone to
form in the pasteurizer, which clogs the machine and the strain-
ers and causes excessive loss of fat in the buttermilk.

The formation of this curd is due to the fact that the acid
in the sour cream acts intensely on the curd in the less sour
or sweet cream in the presence of pasteurizing heat. This can
be avoided by holding the mixed cream in the forewarmer long
enough to allow the acid in the sour cream to act on the curd,
in the sweet cream at about 90 degrees F. At this temperature
this action is less intense and the curd precipitates in the usual
and normal way.

Tig. 27. Parringrton Junior pasteurizer
Courtesy Creamery Package Mfg. Co,

PASTEURIZATION 191

If the mixed cream is neutralized in the forewarmer, as is
done in most creameries receiving sour cream, the danger of
abnormal curd formation is removed, and it is not necessary to
hold the cream in the forewarmer after neutralization. In case
the cream is neutralized it is desirable to use two or more fore-
warmers of suitable capacity, usually holding 250 to 300 gal-
lons, so that, while one forewarmer is being filled, the cream
in the other may be neutralized and passed through the pasteur-
izer. The use of numerous forewarmers has the advantage of
speeding up the work, increasing the capacity of the plant and
assisting the continuity of operation of the pasteurizer.

Thin, sour cream is prone to suffer more intense curdling
action, to cause more difficulty in the pasteurizer and to produce
greater loss of fat in the buttermilk, than cream of reason-
able richness, testing 30 to 35 per cent fat, and averaging about
33 per cent fat. Excessively rich cream, while desirable from
the standpoint of economizing vat and churn space, is objection-
able, because it is deficient in milk solids not fat, which are
necessary to protect the fat globules against mutilation in the
pasteurizer. Such cream, when pasteurized is apt to yield but-
ter with a greasy or salvy body and an oily flavor, which may
later develop into other and more damaging off-flavors, such as
metallic and fishy flavor.

It is advisable to standardize all cream in the forewarmer
for fat to about 33 per cent fat, and for acid to about .25 per
cent acid. Dilution of the cream with water, such as occurs
when the cream cans and the vats are rinsed with water, or
when the standardizing of rich cream is done with water,
should be avoided, because such dilution lowers the per cent
of non-fatty constituents in the cream. The cans should be
freed from the remnants of cream by inverting them over a
steam jet, (see paragraph on Can Washing, Chapter IV,) and the
standardizing of rich cream for fat should be done with sweet
milk or skim milk or redissolved skim milk powder. For stand-
ardizing the acidity, see Chapter VII on Neutralization of Sour
Cream.

The flash pasteurizer should be set high enough to make
unnecessary excessive elevation of the cream by the pasteur-
izer. The greater the elevation to which the pasteurizer must

192 PASTEURIZATION

raise the cream, the faster must be the speed of the pasteur-
izer. This high speed tends to cause the liquid fat globules
at the high pasteurizing temperature to become distorted, dis-
turbing the thin surface layer of adsorbed concentrated serum,
which protects them, and exposing a larger surface of the fat
to objectionable influences, such as the oxidizing action of
light, air, heat and metals. Excessive speed therefore may,
under certain conditions, result in serious butter defects.

For tfre same reason it is undesirable also to try to force
more cream through the pasteurizer than its rated capacity.
The amount of cream the pasteurizer is capable of taking care
of depends on the speed of the agitator. The higher the speed
of the agitator the more cream can be made to pass through
the machine in a given length of time. The flash pasteurizers
are usually furnished with specific directions as to capacity per
hour and speed of agitator or revolving drum, needed to yield
the rated capacity. It is unwise to force more cream through
the machine than the rated capacity and speed call for, by
speeding up the agitator. If faster work is desired, the instal-
lation of a larger machine, or an additional machine, will
accomplish the purpose without injury to the butter fat. Forc-
ing the machine, aside from its unfavorable effect on the fat
globules, also usually diminishes the pasteurizing efficiency.

Temperature Control. — In all flash or continuous pasteur-
izers the regulation of the temperature needs constant atten-
tion in order to make possible uniform heating of all the
cream that flows through the pasteurizer. Unless the operator
supervises the operation of the pasteurizer from start to
finish, reliable results need not and should not be expected.
The ease of temperature control varies widely with different
makes of machines, as well as with such ever-varying factors
as temperature of the cream in the forewarmer, mechanical con-
dition of the cream,, uniformity of cream inflow, uniformity of
steam supply and uniformity of speed of cream pump and
pasteurizer.

In order to make possible and to facilitate temperature con-
trol, the cream in the forewarmer must have a constant tenv
perature, preferably about 90 degrees F., the cream pump feed-

PASTEURIZATION

193

ing the pasteurizer must run at a uniform speed, the cream
supply pipe must be equipped with a suitable valve regulat-
ing the inflow, preferably an automatic regulator such as a float-
ing ball device, the steam pressure must be uniform and the
pasteurizer must run at a uniform speed. In order to make
possible a uniform supply of cream, the cream must also be in
satisfactory mechanical condition, it must have a smooth body.

An Au"fom<rfiG System of
Temperature Control

Fig1. 28. Automatic temperature control

Courtesy C. J. Tagliabue Mfg. Co.

Lumpy cream makes the flow irregular, tending to clog the
valve at times.

The installation and use of a properly operating thermo-
stat or heat controller is a great help in, and is practically in-
dispensable for regulating the steam pressure and thereby con-
trolling the temperature of the cream. All pasteurizers should
be equipped with a high-grade steam gauge, installed between
the steam valve and the pasteurizer, and in the absence of a
thermostat, a pop-off valve, set for the steam pressure de-
sired, should be fitted in the steam pipe, between the valve and

194 PASTEURIZATION

the pasteurizer. This will guard against excessive heating
and excessive steam pressure, which might jeopardize the
machine.

At the beginning of the pasteurizing process some cream is
almost sure to pass through the pasteurizer at a temperature
lower than that required. If the system of pasteurization prac-
ticed, involves the running of the hot cream direct into the vat
where it is held for some time, before it is cooled, all the cream
has a chance to become heated to the proper temperature and no
material decline in the germ-killing efficiency of such pasteur-
ization is likely to occur, even if a small portion of the cream did
pass through the pasteurizer at too low a temperature.

But if, as is usually the case, the cream passes from the
pasteurizer over an instantaneous cooler and reaches the vat
cool, then the escape from the pasteurizer of incompletely
heated cream becomes a serious menace to the quality of the
resulting butter. This danger can readily be avoided by instal-
ling, between the pasteurizer and the cooler, a by-pass, through
which the first cream pasteurized and any other portion of the
cream that fails to be heated to the desired temperature, can
be automatically returned to the pasteurizer and run through
again. When the pasteurizer is first started up, therefore,
all cream should be by-passed until the desired temperature
is reached and is permanently maintained.

Automatic Temperature Recorders. — The installation and
use of an automatic temperature recorder is of additional,
valuable help to insure reliable temperature control. By its
use a permanent record is produced which shows the exact
temperature of pasteurization during the entire process. The
superintendent in charge should examine these records daily,
and caution the operator when the records disclose irregular-
ities. The knowledge on the part of the operator that his
work is thus permanently recorded and the records checked
daily, exerts a good moral effect on the operator. He realizes,
that unless he performs his duty properly, the record is unsatis-
factory and that carelessness is thus immediately detected.

Cooling Cream from Flash Pasteurizer. — The hot cream
flowing from the pasteurizer is either passed over a surface
coil cooler, regenerative or otherwise, or through an internal

PASTEURIZATION

195

tube cooler, a disc continuous cooler, an inclosed drum
cooler, or a combination of two or more of these devices,
or it flows direct into a ripening vat where the cooling is
done with a revolving coil or disc. It is advisable to cool

Fig*. 29. Surface coil cooler
Courtesy J. G. Cherry Co.

PigT. 30. Jensen regenerative cooler
Courtesy Jensen Cry. Mach. Co.

the cream as quickly as possible to about 70 degrees F. or below.
In most creameries this can be accomplished by the use of the
available water and further cooling to the churning temperature
is done with brine.

Surface coolers have the advantage of speed in reducing the
temperature and of freely permitting the gases in the cream to
escape. This is especially desirable in the case of cream tainted

196 PASTEURIZATION

with objectionable flavors and odors, such as may be derived
from weeds, wild onions, etc., or from undesirable fermentations
of the cream prior to pasteurization.

On the other hand, there are some serious objections to the
use of surface coolers. There is a tendency to recontaminate the
cream,. This is especially the case in an ill-ventilated factory
where the air is teeming with undesirable germ life and odors.
Again the exposure of the hot cream to air and light, while run-
ning over the copper surface cooler, invites oxidation of some of
the components of the cream which may lead to serious butter
defects, such as tallowy, metallic or fishy flavor, etc. For this
reason this type of cooler cannot be recommended ; coolers which
do not expose the hot cream excessively to air and light are
preferable.

VAT PASTEURIZATION

Vat Pasteurizers. — The vat pasteurizers on the market are
of two general types, namely jacketed vats with plain agitators
and non-jacketed vats with hollow disc or coil agitators. In
the jacketed vats and tanks, with plain agitators the inside
wall of the jacket surrounding the vat furnishes the heating
surface. The jacket is charged with a continuous flow of the
heating or cooling medium, or the heating or cooling medium
is sprayed against the outside of the heating surface. The cream

Fig*. 31. Progress vat pasteurizer

Courtesy Davis- Watkins Dairymen's Mfg. Co.

PASTEURIZATION 197

is agitated by means of a series of blades moving lengthwise
back and forth, or in the case of round tanks by a vertical,
rotating agitator.

The other type of vat pasteurizers consists of the most
modern types of cream ripeners equipped with horizontal or verti-
cal revolving discs or coils which carry both the heating and the
cooling medium. This is the most widely used type of vat pas-
teurizer. The revolving discs have now been largely replaced
by the revolving coils, as the strain of steam, water and brine
pressure and the wide range of temperature proved too great
a tax on the discs.

Fig*. 32. Jensen vat pasteurizer
. . . Courtesy J. G. Cherry Co.

The coils in the vat pasteurizers vary somewhat in con-
struction, principle of feed and size, with different makes of
manufacture.

In some vats of large size there are two coils side by side.
This makes possible the placing of the coils low down without
curtailing heating surface. This principle has the advantage
of keeping the coils submerged in the cream, which is desirable,
because it minimizes the beating of air into the cream, thereby
avoiding foaming and the tendency of oxidation of some of the
constituents of the cream, while the cream is hot.

Most of the coils have a tube diameter of from two to two
and one-half inches and the diameter of the spiral ranges from
twenty-four to twenty-nine inches.

The amount of heating and cooling surface per gallon of
cream varies with different makes and sizes of vats. In many

198 PASTEURIZATION

cases the heating and cooling surface of a 300-gallon vat is
practically the same as that of a 600-gallon vat, because the same
size coil is used in different size vats. Generally speaking, large
vats have less heating surface per gallon of cream than small
vats. For efficient and reasonably rapid heating and cooling a
vat should have not less than about twenty square inches of
heating surface per gallon of cream.

The great majority of the coils and outer shafts are con-
structed of copper, tinned over and the lining of the vats is of
the same construction. In some rare cases vat pasteurizers have
been equipped with German silver coils.

The inner shafts in the older vats were made of iron. This
caused them to corrode rapidly and give much annoyance due to
electrolytic action of two metals in brine. This objection has
now been largely removed by either doing away with the inner
shaft entirely or lining it with copper.

The exposure of the coils and vat linings to heat, cold, acid,
and neutralizers is exceedingly hard on the tin coating. The
tin coating soon yields to these corrosive agents and wears off.
This is especially true where the vats are not thoroughly cleaned
and freed from lime, cream and alkali washing powder, or when
wire dish cloths or other similar scouring equipment is used
for cleaning. Caustic alkalies should not be used for washing
the vats and the vats should be thoroughly rinsed out with
water after cleaning, and drained and steamed so that they dry
quickly. If alkaline washing powder is used, it should not be
sprinkled over coil, vat lining and cover lining and allowed to
remain there dry. Even the smallest specks of dry and moist
washing powders quickly attack the tinned copper surface, caus-
ing the surface to become covered with black spots and blotches.
And any alkali deposited in the bottom of the vats will inevit-
ably tarnish the lining, and expose the copper. The washing
powder should be placed into the water in the vat where it dis-
solves quickly and completely and in which form it can be re-
moved completely at the conclusion of the cleansing operation.

The copper lining of the pasteurizing vats and covers is ob-
jectionable at best, for the reasons discussed under construction
of cream ripening vats? and here, too, the use of glass-

PASTEURIZATION

199

enameled equipment, instead of copper-lined vats, would greatly
reduce the effect of agencies that make for butter deterioration.
As long as copper-lined pasteurizing vats are and must be used,
the danger of the injurious effect of the copper and its salts, on
the quality of cream and butter, may be materially minimized by
holding the cream in these vats for the shortest possible time
only, consistent with adequate chilling of the fat preparatory

Pig". 33 Tig. 34

Jensen circular vat pasteurizer with suspended coil

Courtesy Jensen Cry. Mach. Co.

to churning. The holding of cream in these vats over night can-
not be recommended. At certain seasons of the year it is al-
most sure to cause metallic and other off-flavors in butter. If
the cream cannot be churned the same day it is "dumped" and
pasteurized, it would be preferable, from the standpoint of
quality, to hold it over night in the cans set in the cooler.

Construction of Covers. — The construction of the covers of
these vats is also of great importance. The covers should be
lined with tinned copper on the under side and the lining should
lap over and up on the upper side of the cover so as to avoid

200 PASTEURIZATION

cream from seeping in between the liner and the wood of the
cover, causing the latter to become a serious source of con-
tamination of the cream. Some of the most modern vat covers
are enveloped entirely in tinned copper and are proving highly
satisfactory from the sanitary standpoint.

Connections for and the Circulation of the Heating and Cool-
ing Medium. — 'There are two principle systems which serve to
circulate the heating and cooling medium, the hot and cold water
and the brine, through the revolving coils in the pasteurizing
vats, namely the self-circulating system and the positive circulat-
ing system.

The self-circulating system operates on the principle 'that
air is lighter than water. It consists of admitting to the coil,
a small amount of air through an automatic air vent, installed
at the head of the coil shaft. As the air and water, or brine,
enter the coil, the air rises to the surface in the coil. If enough
air enters so that the surface of the water in the coil is below
the under side of the coil wall at its highest point, the air in
the top portion of the coil forms a solid plug, or partition, be-
tween the water columns in the left and right side of the coil.
When the coil revolves, this partition of air prevents the water
in the coil from staying or flowing back. The coil being a
spiral, causes the air plug to push the water column forward
with each revolution of the coil. This inevitably produces a
vacuum and suction behind the air plug and this suction draws
in more water and air, the operation thus repeating itself with
every turn of the coil.

In the positive system of circulation the heating and cool-
ing medium are forced through the revolving coil by a pump.
In this system there is no air in the coil, the water fills the
entire coil.

For heating, the coils should be fed with hot water only.
They should not be charged with steam, as the agitation of the
cream in the vat, is not sufficient to prevent excessive burn-
ing of the. cream on the surface of the steam heating coil, and
direct steam is also exceedingly destructive to the packing in

PASTEURIZATION 201

the glands, if not to the bearings themselves. In the case of
the self-circulating system the water is heated in one of the
following three ways :

Steam is blown into the water entering the shaft, through a
steam jet located at the front end of the vat. This is the most
objectionable manner df heating, usually causing the coil to be-
come excessively coated with burnt cream and making it exceed-
ingly hard to clean. In this method free steam is bound to
occasionally blow into and through the coil.

Again, the water in some of the vats is heated by means of a
water heater of the McDaniels or Penberthy type, installed at
the back end of the pipe which returns the exhaust of the coil
to the head of the coil. This method gives the steam a some-
what better opportunity to be completely absorbed by the water,
but even in this case there is a spasmodic blowing of the steam
through the coil at times.

In the third method of heating, a water heater is installed
in the ice-box at the rear end of the vat, all the water is heated
in the ice-box and from here, the hot water returns to the head
of the coil through the return pipe located under the vat. This
method precludes the blowing of steam through the coil and is,
from this point of view, the most satisfactory manner of heating
the water with the self-circulating system. By this method, how-
ever, the cream is not heated quite as rapidly as when the steam
is injected into the water in the return pipe or at the head of
the coil.

In the positive circulating system, a separate tank is pro-
vided in which the water is heated with direct steam to the
desired temperature, from which it is pumped with a centrifugal
pump, attached to the tank, through the coil, and to which the
exhaust water of the coil returns. In this method the coil is
completely rilled with the hot water. It is obviously a very
reliable and rapid method of heating, but necessitates extra
equipment and additional space.

The cooling is done in a similar manner as the heating, the
same system serving both. It is customary to use water for
the first cooling, lowering the temperature to about 70° F. and
then finish the cooling with brine or ice water. If ice water is

202 PASTEURIZATION

used, the ice box in the rear of the vat, or the separate tank of
the positive system, serves to dissolve the ice and the ice water
is circulated in a similar manner as the hot water. Water and
brine usually enter the coil under pressure, in which case they
circulate on the principle of the positive circulating system. The
water exhausts into the sewer and the brine is pumped back into
brine tank above or returns to the brine tank by gravity if the
latter is located in the basement. In order to avoid excessive
weakening of the brine by the water remaining in the coil, it is
advisable to not only give the coil as many turns as there are
rungs in the spiral after the water is shut off, and before the
brine is turned on, but to allow the exhaust of the coil to run
off, after the brine has been turned on until the exhaust begins
to taste briny.

Steam, water und brine connections should be at least of
equal size as the inlet to the vat. If they have to be brought
from a considerable distance it is recommended that they be
at least one pipe-size larger than the vat inlet. The pressure
on the disc machines should not exceed 5 to 10 Ibs. and that
on the coil machines about 35 pounds per square inch.

Operation of Vat Pasteurizer. — The use of a forewarmer be-
fore the cream reaches the vat pasteurizer is not so essential in
the holding process of pasteurization as in the flash process.
The standardization of cream for acid and for fat may be. and is
often done in the pasteurizing vat. However, the forewarmer
is a convenient dumping vat and is used in most. creameries in
connection with either vat or flash pasteurization.

If the cream is sour, or part sweet and part sour, it is
advisable to raise the temperature in the vat pasteurizer slowly
to about 115 degrees F. and then rapidly to 145 degrees F. in
order to avoid abnormal curdling. In extreme cases of curdling
difficulties it may even be necessary to hold the cream at about
115 degrees F. for a while. This slow heating below 125 de-
grees F. gives the curd an opportunity to contract and harden
in the usual way, so that when the higher temperature is reached,
the formation of a rubbery and sticky curd and loss of fat as the
result of intense action of heat and acid on the soft casein, is

PASTEURIZATION 203

avoided. The tendency of abnormal curdling is especially pro-
nounced in the case of cream very low in butterfat.

In the case of sweet cream, or sour cream neutralized to
about .25 per cent acid, there is no danger of the formation of
an abnormal curd. The neutralizer should be added after all
the cream of one batch is in the vat pasteurizer and before the
heat is turned on. The neutralizer should be distributed uni-
formly throughout the cream in the vat while the coil is revolv-
ing. If sweet milk is added to the cream it should be added im-
mediately after neutralization and before pasteurization.

Speed of Revolving Coil. — The coil in the vat pasteurizer
should be run at the speed indicated in the directions furnished
by the manufacturer of the vat. The exact speed desired varies
with the size of the vat and the size of the coil, ranging from
about 25 to 40 revolutions per minute. The higher speed ap-
plies to the smaller coils and the lower speed to the larger
coils. A coil with a 24 inch diameter should revolve about 35
to 40 revolutions per minute, while a coil with a 29 inch diam-
eter should make about 28 to 30 revolutions per minute.

Insufficient speed of the coil fails to produce adequate agita-
tion which in turn makes the control of the temperature difficult,
retards the heating and cooling and may augment the coating
of the coil with cooked cream.

Too high a speed of the coil causes excessive foaming of
the cream and the beating of air into it. The foaming is
objectionable because it renders difficult the emptying of
the vat without the use of excessive volumes of water and usual-
ly incurs excessive loss of fat. The beating of air into the cream
is undesirable because the incorporated air invites oxidation
which later may lead to butter defects.

Fullness of Vat Pasteurizer. — The best results are obtained
when the vat is full enough to completely submerge the revolv-
ing coil in the cream. The heating and cooling proceeds faster
when the coil is submerged than when part of it projects above
the cream, because with a submerged coil the entire coil is active
at all times while, in the case of an exposed coil only part of
the coil does duty. The portion of the coil that is exposed to

204 PASTEURIZATION

the air is more apt to become coated with cooked cream than
the submerged coil. A submerged coil precludes all danger of
excessive foaming and of whipping air into the cream, while
an exposed coil is bound to incorporate air in the cream and
the more the coil projects above the cream the more pronounced
is this objection. An exposed coil also invariably causes much
splashing of the cream, which is objectionable.

Because of the objection of operating the vat with the coil
projecting above the cream, vat pasteurizers in which the coils
are set low are preferable to those in which the coils extend to
the top of the vat.

For this same reason vat pasteurizers of cylindrical shape
and with a vertical, suspended coil are superior to vats with
horizontal coils. In the cylindrical vat the motion of the coil
spiral is upward, and out of the cream, making impossible the
mixing of air with the cream, while in the vat with the horizontal
coil the spiral of the coil moves downward into the cream.

Temperature and Time of Exposure. — The heating should
be done as rapidly as the supply of steam, the available heating
surface and the circulating system permit. The cream should
be heated to 145 degrees F., and held at that temperature at
least twenty and preferably thirty minutes.

Slow heating and prolonged holding at 145 degrees F. are
prone to produce cream and butter with a mealy body. Under
proper conditions the heating of the cream to 145 degrees F.
should not occupy more than about fifteen to twenty minutes.

Experimental1 results have shown that when holding the
cream at 145 degrees F. for a shorter time than twenty minutes,
the germ-killing efficiency suffers. This is clearly demonstrated
in Table 36.

As soon as the temperature has reached 145 degrees F. a
pail full of the hot cream should be drawn from the gate of the
vat and poured back into the vat. The nipple at the gate con-

1 Hunziker, Mills and Spltzer, Pasteurization of Cream for Butter-making,
Purdue Bulletin, No. 203, 1917.

PASTEURIZATION

205'

Table 36. — Per Cent Micro-Organisms destroyed when Heated to
145° F. for 10, 15, 20, 30 and 40 Minutes, Respectively.

(Averages of 21 churnings.)

Time Held
at
145° F.

Per Cent Decrease of Germs Due to Pasteurization

Total
Bacteria

Acid-
ifiers

Lique-
fiers

Yeast and
Molds

10 minutes .

99.39

99.29

98.79

87.50

15 minutes

99.89

99.94

99.72

99.18

20 minutes

99.98

99.98

99.95

99.93

30 minutes

99.99

99.999

99.98

99.94

40 minutes..

99.999

99.999

99.99

99.98

tains a plug of raw cream which fails to be heated properly and
which tends to recontaminate the cream in the churn.

Blowing air into the cream, during the process of heating
is not recommended, except in the case of very poor cream
tainted with objectionable strong odors and flavors. This kind
of cream is often considerably improved by blowing, eliminat-
ing some of the objectionable odors, but butter from such cream
will at best be of low grade.

Blowing air into cream of fair or good quality is objection-
able because the air, in the presence of heat invites oxidation and
jeopardizes the keeping quality of the resulting butter. The
blowing of the cream during pasteurization is undesirable also
because butter made from such cream is prone to have a mealy
body. This is largely due to the fact that the blowing retards
and prolongs the heating process, hardening the curd particles
to such an extent as to render them mealy. The prolongation
of the heating process as the result of blowing air into the
cream is due to the cooling effect of air on the cream and the
increased evaporation of moisture which absorbs additional heat
units.

It is advisable to revolve the coil while the cream is being
held at 145 degrees F. in order to guard against the tendency of

206 PASTEURIZATION

the hot cream to "oil off," causing the fat to become granular
during subsequent cooling and giving the butter a mealy body
similar to that of renovated butter.

In order to avoid appreciable lowering of the temperature
of the cream, with the coil revolving during the holding process,
the covers should be down. It is customary to empty the coil
as soon as the temperature has risen to 145 degrees F. in order
to avoid overheating and mealiness. When conditions are prone
to produce mealiness, a rise of a very few degrees above 145
degrees F. may cause this defect. Under such conditions it may
even be advisable to turn the steam off when a temperature of
140 degrees F. has been reached, then pull the cover down and
hold for 32 minutes, leaving the hot water in the revolving
coil. Experience has shown that with the hot water in *the coil at
the usual temperature at this stage of the process, there is suffi-
cient heat present to raise the temperature of the cream to 145
degrees F. in one or two minutes, but not enough heat to cause
the temperature to rise above 145 degrees F. during the holding
process.

Cooling the Cream in the Vat Pasteurizer. — After the cream
has been held at 145 degrees F. for 20 to 30 minutes, it should
be cooled as promptly as facilities permit. In order to economize
cold, the cream is best cooled with water to about 70 degrees F.
and then with brine or ice water to the churning temperature.
If starter is used it may be added when the temperature has
reached about 70 degrees F. For butter that is not consumed
promptly it is recommended to not add the starter until about
five minutes before churning. If it is not intended to ripen the
cream, it should at once be cooled to the churning temperature
and held there for not less than two to three hours. During
the cooling process the cover of the vat should be down. When
emptying the vat it should be rinsed down to reclaim the butter-
fat contained in the cream that does not automatically run out.
This rinsing should be done with the minimum amount of water
that will do the work, or preferably with skim milk. The ex-
cessive dilution of the cream with water is very objectionable
because it diminishes the power of the milk solids to protect the

PASTEURIZATION

207

fat globules against mutilation during the churning process and
tends to give the butter a poor body, susceptible to the develop-
ment of serious butter defects.

Temperature Control in Vat Pasteurization. — Vat pasteuri-
zation offers greater facilities for temperature control, because
of the larger volume of cream simultaneously heated than is
the case with flash pasteurization. Nevertheless the process, if
it is to be dependable and successful, requires the constant -at-
tention of the operator. The installation and use of a tem-
perature recorder in this process, too, is a great help in order
to insure accurate work.

Flash and Holding Pasteurization Combined. — In some in-
stances the two systems of pasteurization are combined, the
cream being heated in the flash pasteurizer and held in the vat.
For this purpose anyone of the flash pasteurizers above referred
to may be used. The cream is run through the flash pasteurizer
at 150 degrees to 170 degrees F. From the flash machine it is
allowed to flow into the vat or retainer where it is held for from
10 to 30 minutes at the desired temperature and then cooled.
This method is more generally used in milk plants. Very few
creameries have adopted it.

rig. 35. Progress internal tube pasteurizer, holder and cooler
Courtesy Davis- Watkins Dairymen's Mfg. Co.

208 PASTEURIZATION

With equipment of average capacity, there is no very
great saving in time by this combination pasteurizing process.
It requires about as much time to run the cream through the
flash machine as it does to heat the cream to the desired tem-
perature in the vat. The extra time needed to fill the vat, how-
ever, is eliminated, inasmuch as with this system the heating of
the cream and the filling of the vat are done in one operation.

The chief advantage of this system lies in the preservation
of the vat. The cream being neutralized before it reaches the
vat avoids the corrosive action of the acid on the vat, and the
heating in the vat being eliminated minimizes further corrosion
and wear of the tin coating on coil and vat liner ; thereby render-
ing the cleaning of the vat easier. The bearings and stuffing boxes
in the vat are also saved from heavy wear caused by expansion
incident to heating in the vat.

In some cases where the combined flash and holding pasteuri-
zation is in operation, the holding of the hot cream is done in
a compartment retarder in which it is held for the desired length
of time and from which it finally reaches the vat where it is
cooled. One objection to this system lies in the obvious danger
of recontamination of the cream by flowing into two containers
after pasteurization. When this system of pasteurizing is used,
special attention should be given to the proper cleaning and
steaming of all containers used after pasteurization.

Cleaning and General Care of Pasteurizers. — On the proper
cleaning and care of the pasteurizer depend very largely its
efficiency and its period of usefulness. Remnants of cream, neut-
;ralizer or wash-water containing alkali, have a corrosive action
,on the tin coating and cause this coating to wear off rapidly.
The use of tools that scratch the metal, such as wire dish cloths,
;sand and emery paper, metal bristle brushes, etc., cannot be
too strongly condemned. Washing powders containing free
caustic substances, such as soda or potash lye, attack the metal
and should not be used. Dry or concentrated alkali of any
kind should not be allowed to remain on the tinned surface of
coils and vat. It is best to use only dilute solutions and rinse
off all traces of alkali after washing.

PASTEURIZATION 209

If the pasteurizer is in poor condition, rusty, or with the tin
worn off and the exposed copper unclean and coated with ver-
digris, etc., the damage done to the cream and butter may be
far greater than the possible benefits of pasteurization. The
direct exposure of the cream to iron and copper and their salts
tends to give the finished product a disagreeable metallic flavor.
The acid in the cream enters into chemical combination with
such metals as iron and copper, forming metallic salts, such
as iron lactate and copper lactate. These salts have the power
to accelerate bacterial action in butter and also to stimulate
oxidation and decomposition of its ingredients. In the presence
of pasteurizing heat this chemical action is intensified. The
action of these metallic salts is made more damaging by the
fact that they possess catalytic properties, that is they continue
to act, changing the substances (fats, curd, etc.) with which
they come in contact, without they, themselves, (the salts) being
changed or weakened. Metallic salts have been found to con-
stitute important members of the combination of conditions
that produce butter with metallic, tallowy, fishy, and other
flavor defects.

Immediately after use the pasteurizer should be rinsed out
with water. In the case of the flash machine the water can be
pumped through the pasteurizer immediately following the
cream. The machine is then opened, the agitator or drum care-
fully removed and all parts are scrubbed with brush and hot
water containing non-caustic washing powder. Some operators
prefer to fill the flash pasteurizer with alkali solution, allow it
to soak over night and then complete the cleansing the follow-
ing morning. It has also been found that the coating on the
heating surface of flash machines can be readily removed by
charging the jacket with steam, after the pasteurizer has first
been rinsed with water. This heating causes the coating to
dry, contract and peal off, facilitating its removal.

The vats are best filled one-third to one-half full with
hot water containing non-caustic washing powder and the sides,
bottom, coil, shaft and gate are scrubbed with a good brush until
all remnants of cream are removed. If the vat pasteurizer has
been operated in the proper manner, avoiding the blowing of
steam direct into the coil, there is little danger of a coating of

210 PASTEURIZATION

burnt cream on the coil. If the coil has become so coated it is
very difficult to thoroughly cleanse it at best. The secret of
easy and proper cleaning- therefore lies in the proper operation
of the pasteurizing process.

After the remnants of cream are removed, the pasteurizer
should be rinsed out thoroughly with hot water, freeing it from
all traces of alkali. Then it should be thoroughly steamed until
"piping" hot, leaving the gate open to allow the condensed
steam to pass off. After steaming, the vat cover should be raised
so as to insure prompt drying of all parts of the machine. If the
vat is so installed as to cause its bottom to slope about If inches
to 2 inches for every ten feet, the water will drain out readily
and there is no danger of water remaining in the trough of the
vat. Immediately before use the next day the pasteurizer
should again be flushed and steamed out before the cream
enters it.

Stuffing boxes should not be allowed to leak cream, water,
brine, or steam. Glands should be carefully tightened until
leaks are stopped. Packing should be renewed as often as
is necessary to keep the glands from leaking. Avoid the use of
impure calcium brine. Calcium brine containing magnesium
chloride causes rapid corrosion of the iron parts of the circulat-
ing system, which intensifies the danger of generating elec-
trolysis. This is damaging to the machine and injurious to
the cream.

All pumps, cream conduits and strainers should receive
daily cleaning and steaming so as to prevent them from be-
coming dangerous sources of contamination.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Continuous and Vat
Pasteurization.

General Practicability. — Taking into consideration all con-
ditions, such as irregularities of delivery of cream, condition of
cream, average intelligence of operator and simplicity of opera-
tion, the vat method of pasteurization appears the most practical.
This applies especially to conditions as they prevail in the
average small creamery. When the daily cream receipts are
limited and the shipments or deliveries happen to arrive at ir-
regular times of the day, it is difficult to use the continuous pas-
teurizer to advantage. When this machine is once started it is

PASTEURIZATION 211

desirable ta continue its operation. In the case of vat pasteuri-
zation this objection is largely eliminated. The usually limited
knowledge of the preparation of cream for pasteurization on the
part of the average operator in the small, local creamery renders
the successful operation of the continuous machine often dif-
ficult. The high temperatures employed in flash pasteurization
intensify the usual difficulties, such as abnormal curdling, etc.,
which are encountered with cream of varying quality, acidity and
richness. The vat pasteurizer with its lower temperature facili-
tates the handling of cream in this respect. The simplicity of the
vat pasteurizer and the ease of operation are in its favor under
the conditions of the small creamery.

Capacity. — For heavy duty and maximum capacity the flash
or continuous process excels. In the flash process the heating
and cooling is practically instantaneous and requires little time
additional to that needed for filling the vat with the cream,
while in the vat process, after the vat is filled, the heating, hold-
ing and cooling require from one and one-half to two hours for
each vat full of cream. When a small amount of cream is
handled this delay may not be so great a factor. But in a
creamery manufacturing large quantities of butter daily, the
speed of operation is an essential factor. In fact, the limited
capacity of the plant may demand this extra speed in order to
increase the working capacity of the plant and make possible
the handling of all the cream received during the flush of the
season.

Durability of Equipment. — Originally the vat with agitating
coil was intended only for control of the temperature of the
cream during ripening and cooling. It was not intended for
pasteurization of the cream. The wide range of temperature
between the heating and cooling medium and the operation of
the heating and cooling itself places an extremely heavy tax
on the vat pasteurizer, and the exposure of the coil and liner
to high acid in the cream and to the neutralizer, augment the
wear and corrosion of the machine.

Especially where used for heavy duty, as is the case in
many creameries during the flush of the season, when the vats
are refilled with batch after batch of cream, practically day and

212 PASTEURIZATION

night, the wear and tear on the vats, is very great and their
life is comparatively short. In order to keep them in acceptable
condition, frequent retinning and other repairs are necessary and
even then the vats have to be replaced by new ones every five
to six years.

The flash pasteurizer, on the other hand, is built to with-
stand the heat of pasteurization, it is made, intended and
used for heating only, and one flash machine performs the heat-
ing of all the cream received, as against an entire row of vats
in the case of vat pasteurization in a large creamery. Being
constructed and operated for but one purpose, that of heating
the cream, the flash pasteurizer is capable of serving that purpose
without undue wear and damage. Its chief wear is on the tin
coating of the heating surface. This heating surface can readily
be retinned when desired, or it can be used with the copper
exposed without serious danger of damage to the cream, as
the exposure of the cream to it is of very short duration only,
provided that the copper surface is kept clean and bright and
free from verdigris. Since the heating surface in the flash ma-
chine is a simple plain surface, easily accessible, it can be kept
in proper condition without difficulty.

In the case of the vat pasteurizer, both the coil and the vat
liner are difficult to clean, some portions are almost inaccessible.
Hence, when the tin coating is, worn off it is very difficult to
keep the vat in proper sanitary condition and the objectionable
effect of this condition is greatly intensified by the fact that
the cream often remains in the vat for several hours. If the
agitator of the flash machine becomes worn, the defective parts
can be replaced readily and at small cost, while the expense of
removing and retinning the coil and liner in the vat is relatively
great.

The labor required for cleaning the flash machine is com-
paratively small. The proper cleaning of vats in which the cream
was pasteurized requires much time and hard labor.

Expense of Equipment and Operation. — The initial expense
of the equipment is decidedly in favor of the vat pasteurizer.
Since the vat is doing both the heating and the cooling, the
equipment for vat pasteurization is confined exclusively to the

OF PASTEURIZATION 213

vat with revolving coil. In the case of the flash process the
same type of vat is needed to hold, ripen and cool the cream,
but in addition to this there must be installed the flash
pasteurizer and the cooler (unless all the cooling is done in the
vat) and there is further need of at least two forewarmers.
This extra equipment is partly offset by the fact that the flash
pasteurizer increases the vat capacity, hence fewer vats are
needed by this system of pasteurization. The upkeep of the
vats used for pasteurizing is much greater than the upkeep of
the flash machine as already explained under "Durability." The
labor needed for operation is very similar with both systems
except that of cleaning which is greater in the case of vat
pasteurizers.

The cost of fuel for heating and cooling is somewhat higher
in the case of flash pasteurization than in the case of vat pasteuri-
zation. More heat is required to raise the temperature of the
cream to 180 degrees F. of flash pasteurization than to 145 de-
grees F. of vat pasteurization, and the cooling of the hotter,
flash-heated cream involves the use of correspondingly more
cooling medium than the cooling of the less hot cream of the
holding process.

EFFECT OF PASTEURIZATION ON QUALITY OF

BUTTER

Germ-Killing Efficiency. — The germ-killing efficiency of vat
pasteurization at 145 degrees F. and holding for thirty minutes,
and flash pasteurization at 180 degrees F. is practically the same.
When properly operated the two processes destroy over 99 per
cent of the bacteria, yeast and molds, present in the cream. From
the standpoint of prevention of bacterial action in butter it
would seem, therefore, that both processes are equally efficient.

Effect on Enzymes. — The effect of the two processes of
pasteurization on enzymes present in the cream, both, those
which are inherent in milk and those which may have developed
as the result of bacterial action before pasteurization, must of
necessity be quite dissimilar. Exposure to a temperature of 176
degrees F. or over is destructive to the activity of most of the
enzymes naturally present, while at 145 degrees F. enzyme ac-
tion is not destroyed.

214 EFFECT OP PASTEURIZATION

The presence of enzymes in butter capable of splitting
butter fat and of attacking the curd is most probable, especially
in the case of butter made from an inferior quality of cream that
is contaminated with diverse species of bacteria and that is
several days old. It is reasonable to assume, therefore, that the
presence of these enzymes in butter, plays an important role in
the deterioration of butter with age.

Since vat pasteurization is incapable of destroying the
activity of these enzymes, this process fails to preserve the
butter from the point of view of enzyme action. The flash
process at 180 degrees F., on the other hand, is destructive to
the activity of these enzymes and therefore assists in preserv-
ing the butter. This assumption is supported by experimental
results conducted at the Purdue Experiment Station,1 which
show that there is a greater increase in the acid value, soluble
proteids and amino acids in storage butter made from cream
pasteurized by vat pasteurization at 145 degrees F. than by flash
pasteurization at 180 degrees F.

Effect on Score of Butter. — The same experiments also
demonstrated that, while the fresh butter made from cream
pasteurized by the flash process at 180 degrees F. scored no
higher than, and in the case of sour, unneutralized cream not as
high as, butter made from cream pasteurized with the vat process,
the scores of the same butter when 30, 60 and 90 days old
showed less deterioration in the case of the flash process than
the vat process of pasteurization. In the case of sour cream
that was not neutralized, however, the fresh butter of the
flash process had a very disagreeable, oily flavor, while that of
the vat process was free from oiliness. For further details
on the causes of oily flavor, see Chapter XVII on Butter Defects.

The condition and quality of the cream at the time of
pasteurization are important factors in the determination of the
benefits of pasteurization, to the quality of the resulting butter.
The better the flavor and the lower the acidity of the cream
before pasteurization, the better will be the flavor of the but-
ter when fresh and after storage. However, experimental results
have amply demonstrated, that the butter from both, good and

1 Hunziker, Mills and Spitzer, Pasteurization of Cream for Butter-making,
Purdue Bulletin No. 203, 1917.

OF PASTEURIZATION 215

poor quality cream, is of better quality and keeps better when
made from properly pasteurized cream, than when made from
raw cream.

Effect on Texture and Body of Butter — Butter properly made
from raw cream has a more crisp, live body and open texture
than butter made from' pasteurized cream. The latter is usually
more compact and tends more towards a salvy consistency.
Much of the pasteurized-cream butter also has a duller appearance
and is more or less mealy in texture. This difference in the body
and texture was somewhat objected to by the trade in the earlier
days of pasteurization, but the market has gradually become
accustomed to the characteristic body of butter made from
properly pasteurized cream. The extent to which pasteurization
modifies the body and texture of the butter depends materially
on the method of pasteurization and of cooling and on the con-
dition, per cent of fat and acidity in the cream.

Flash pasteurization has less effect on the life, clearness
and smoothness of the body than the holding process. This
is especially noticeable in the case of butter made from farm-
skimmed cream that arrives at the creamery in sour condition,
even if the cream is neutralized before pasteurization.

The prolonged exposure to heat in the holding process ap-
pears to precipitate the casein into very fine and firm particles
of curd, which seem to rob the butter of its bright lustre and
which tend to give it a more or less mealy texture. These
changes are not so pronounced in the case of the flash process
because the cream is exposed to the heat for a very short time
only and then is cooled rapidly. Slow heating, prolonged hold-
ing at 145 degrees F. and slow cooling almost invariably pro-
duce mealiness in butter. Mealiness is also often caused when
the cream is allowed to "oil off", either before pasteurization,
due to improper thawing up of frozen cream, or during the
pasteurizing process due to allowing the heated cream to lay
in the vats undisturbed for any considerable length of time.
Mealiness of this type is caused by the running together of
the globules while in melted condition and their granulation
during subsequent cooling. See also Chapter XVII on Mealy
Butter.

216 EFFECT OF PASTEURIZATION

The difference in the method of cooling between flash and
holding pasteurization is a further reason for the greater tendency
toward mealiness in the case of vat pasteurization. Slow cooling,
especially below the melting point of butterfat, invites crystalli-
zation or granulation o£ the butterfat. And crystallized butter-
fat means mealy butter. Slow cooling is often characteristic of
vat pasteurization. Rapid cooling, such as is usually accomplished
in flash pasteurization, is antagonistic to crystallization. There
is solidification but not crystallization of the fat. Hence flash-
pasteurized cream butter is seldom mealy and usually has a
more waxy body than much of the vat-pasteurized- cream butter.

In the case of rich cream, cream testing over 35 per cent
fat, pasteurization tends to produce a salvy butter. This is
especially prone to happen with flash pasteurizers in which the
cream is violently agitated at a high speed, as is the case with
machines that are equipped with a rapidly revolving dasher.
In rich cream the milk solids which protect the fat globules
against mutilation are diminished, and in this very fluid and
expanded condition due to the high heat, the fat globules are
more. sensitive to the excessive friction that results from violent
agitation. Flash machines in which the cream flows gently
and in a thin layer between two heated surfaces, and vat pas-
teurizers, are less prone to mutilate the fat globules and there-
fore are less objectionable on this point. However, all pasteur-
izers tend to produce a salvy butter when operated with ex-
cessively rich cream. The salviness of butter made from rich
cream is further intensified during the churning process. With
cream testing from 28 to 33 per cent fat the danger of salviness
in butter is greatly minimized.

Effect of Season of Year on Germ-Killing Efficiency of
Pasteurization. — The resistence of micro- organisms to heat
varies with the species and types of germs present. The bac-
terial flora in milk and cream varies considerably with the sea-
son of the year. As a rule the predominating species in fall
and winter cream are more resistant to heat than those in
summer cream. This fact is brought out in the following
table1 which shows the per cent reduction of germs due to pas-
teurization of summer cream and of winter cream :

x Hunziker, Spitzer and Mills. — The Pasteurization of Cream for Butter-
making, Purdue Bulletin, No. 203, 1917.

CT OF PASTEURIZATION

217

Table 37. — Average Per Cent Decrease of Micro-Organisms in

Summer and in Winter Cream Due to Pasteurization at 145° F.

Holding Process, and at 165° F. and 185° F. Flash Process.

Method of
Pasteur-
ization

Total Count
Per Cent
Decrease

Acidifiers
Per Cent
Decrease

Liquefiers
Per Cent
Decrease

Yeast and
Molds Per
Cent Decrease

Sum-
mer
Months

Win-
ter
Months

Sum-
mer
Months

Win-
ter
Months

Sum-
mer
Months

Win-
ter
Months

Sum-
mer
Months

Win-
ter
Months

145° F.
holding . .

99.72

99.91

99.97

99.96

99.98

99.97

99.78

99.96
76.63

165° F.
flash

93.73

88.25

94.32

86.42

94.61

86.29

92.02

185° F.
flash .

99.82

98.15

99.76

97.97

99.94

99.29

99.16

97.17

The figures in table 37 show that when cream is pasteur-
ized at 145 degrees F. and held at that temperature for at
least twenty minutes, over 99 per cent of the germs contained
therein are destroyed regardless of season of year. The flash
process at 185 degrees F. was slightly less efficient in winter
than in summer. The flash process at 165 degrees F. was effi-
cient neither in summer nor in winter, but its germ-killing
efficiency was pronouncedly lower in winter than in summer,
especially as regards the germs known to be most harmful to
the quality of butter, the liquefying bacteria and the yeast
and molds.

These findings demonstrate anew the inadequacy of the
flash process at 165 degrees F., as a means to free the cream
and butter from undesirable germs. It further emphasizes the
need of using either the holding process, or the flash process
at 180 degrees to 185 degreees F., especially during the winter
moiiths, in order to insure maximum germ-killing efficiency.

The phenomenon that fall and winter cream is freed from
its germ content less readily than summer cream must be
attributed to the fact that in fall the crops are harvested and
are brought into the barn. These crops, especially corn silage
and grain crops, are teeming with various types of resistant
micro-organisms and when handled in the barn, the dust incident
to unloading and feeding is charged with these germs, causing

218

OF PASTEURIZATION

the milk and cream to become profusely contaminated with
them through diverse channels, such as the air, the coating of
the cows, the bedding, the utensils, the milker.

Additional contamination and possible spore formation re-
sults, from storing the cream in places where these undesirable
germs are prone to abide, such as poorly ventilated cellars,
etc., and where the cream is held long before it goes to the
creamery, as is often the case during the winter season.

Effect of Pasteurization on Per Cent Fat Lost in Buttermilk.

— It is the general opinion that sour pasteurized cream does
not churn out as exhaustively as raw cream, and that butter-
milk from sour pasteurized cream churnings tends to show a
relatively high butterfat test. The average per cent fat in the
buttermilk of 104 churnings made from raw and pasteurized,
sour cream is shown below.1

Table 38. — Per Cent Fat in Buttermilk from Raw Cream and
from Pasteurized Cream Churnings.

Number
of
Churnings

Range
of Acidity
in Cream

%

Per Cent Fat in Buttermilk

From
Raw
Cream

From Pasteurized Cream

145° F.
20 M.

165° F.
Flash

185° F.
Flash

104

.37 to .62

.101

.137

.120

.120

The above figures do not show an appreciable difference
in the exhaustiveness of churning between raw and pasteurized
cream. While the raw cream buttermilk contained the least
amount of fat, the pasteurized cream buttermilk contained but
very little more fat. The difference in the fat content of the butter-
milk between the three different processes of pasteurization
used, also is very slight.

In order to detect the effect of acidity of the cream on
the per cent fat in the buttermilk the 104 churnings were
grouped into churnings which at the time of pasteurization
contained .5 per cent acid and above, and churnings which at
the time of pasteurization contained less than .5 per cent acid.
These results are averaged in the following table.

1 Hunziker, Spitzer and Mills. — The Pasteurization of Sour, Farm -Skimmed
Cream for Buttermakingr, Purdue Bulletin, No. 203, 1917.

OF PASTEURIZATION

219

Table 39. — Showing Effect of Acid in Cream before Pasteuriza-
tion on Per Cent Fat in Buttermilk.

Number
of
Churn-
ings

Per Cent Acid
in Cream Be-
fore Pasteur-
ization

Per Cent Fat in Buttermilk

From
Raw
Cream

From Pasteurized Cream

' 145° F.
20 M.

165° F.
Flash

185° F.
Flash

44
60

less than .5%
.5% or above

.100
.093

.123
.160

.116
.127

.104
.136

The figures in Table 39 show that the high-acid cream pro-
duced a somewhat larger loss of fat in the buttermilk from
the pasteurized cream, than the low-acid cream. The difference
might have been considerably greater had the range of acidity
in the different lots of cream been wider. As it was, the cream
with the least acid, tested .376 per cent acid and the sourest
cream tested .621 per cent acid.

The pasteurization of sour cream has a tendency to pro-
duce a firm, contracted and dry curd. The particles of curd
lock up a small amount of fat. In this contracted condition
they fail to surrender the imprisoned fat and carry it into the
butter milk. This automatically results in a slightly increased
fat content of the buttermilk. Under normal conditions of
properly mixed cream of uniform acidity the extra loss of fat
due to pasteurization is small.

However, if sweet and sour cream are pasteurized together
and without proper mixing and holding before pasteurization,
the loss of fat may be very great. In this case the acid in the
sour cream acts intensely on the curd in the sweet cream, in
the presence of the pasteurizing heat. This often causes the
formation of large lumps of a tough, rubbery and sticky curd.
This curd locks up relatively large amounts of fat, and, since
the curd passes into the buttermilk, the loss of fat in the but-
termilk is excessive.

This loss can best be avoided by pasteurizing sweet and
sour cream separately. If sweet cream and sour cream must
be pasteurized together they should be thoroughly mixed and
the mixed cream should be given some time before heating
to pasteurizing temperature. The heating should be done
slowly below 125 degrees F. and from thereon rapidly. This

220

EFFECT OF PASTEURIZATION

gives the curd in the sweet cream an opportunity to be acted
upon in a normal way by the acid of the sour cream, so that
the effect of the subsequent high heat is minimized.

The pasteurization of very thin sour cream usually causes
excessive loss of fat, unless such cream is churned at an exces-
sively low temperature.

Not infrequently, excessive losses of fat in buttermilk
from pasteurized cream, while attributed to pasteurization, are
due largely to churning factors, such as churning the pasteur-
ized cream at too high a temperature, or to not holding the
cream at the churning temperature long enough. For most
exhaustive churning the cream should be held at the churning
temperature not less than two hours and preferably three hours.
Attempts to crowd the churns with too large churnings, which
are prone to occur during the flush of the season in summer,
are a further common cause of excessive loss of fat in the
buttermilk.

Chemical Composition of Butter made from Raw and from
Pasteurized Cream. — The following table1 contains averages of
the per cent moisture, salt, curd and acid in 76 churnings of fresh
butter.

Table 40. — Averages of Composition of 76 Churnings of Butter
Made from Raw and Pasteurized Cream.

Composition
Per Cent

Raw
Cream
Butter

Butter Made From Pasteurized Cream

145° F.
20 Min.

165° F.
Flash

185° F.
Flash

Moisture . . .

14.57
2.05
.51
.11

14.14
2.42
.50
.09

14.19
2.40
.48
.08

13.76
2.24
.45
.08

Salt . . .

Curd

Acid .

As indicated in the above figures, there is very little dif-
ference in composition between butter made from raw and
from pasteurized cream. The slight differences agree, in direc-
tion, with the great bulk of data available on this subject and
with the general conception of the effect of pasteurization on
the composition of the butter. Thus the moisture, curd and
acid are somewhat lower in the pasteurized cream butter than
in the raw cream butter and the highest temperature used for
pasteurization shows the greatest difference,

OF PASTEURIZATION 221

The decrease in moisture is in all probability due to the
more contracted and dry condition of constituents, which in this
condition tend to diminish their power to hold water.

The difference in curd content between the raw cream and
the pasteurized cream butter is very slight. The curd content
of butter made from sour pasteurized cream is usually from
.1 to .5 per cent lower than in raw cream butter. The very
slight difference shown in the table is in all probability due to
the fact that all the butter was washed thoroughly with two
washings of water and that the removal of the buttermilk was
facilitated by the relatively small churnings.

The acid content of the butter in above table is unusually
low and this again suggests that the butter was washed thor-
oughly. Generally butter contains from about .1 to .3 per cent
acid, as shown in the averages of 44 churnings of sour cream
tabulated below.

Table 41. — Acidity of Butter Made from Raw and Pasteurized
Cream. Averages of 44 Churnings.

Per Cent

Raw and Pasteurized Cream

Acid

in Butter

Raw cream

.3073

Cream pasteurized at 145° F. (20 minutes)

.2565

Cream pasteurized at 165° F. flash.. . ....

.2295

Cream pasteurized at 185° F. flash

.2093

Pasteurization tends to lower the acidity of the cream and
butter. The decrease usually averages about .05 per cent, but may
be greater. It is greater in the flash process than in the holding
process of pasteurization. The lowering of the acidity due to
pasteurization may be explained to be caused by the expulsion
by heat of carbon dioxide and other volatile acids which may
be present in the cream, and the higher the temperature of
pasteurization, the more complete is this expulsion and there-
fore the greater the decrease of the per cent acid in pasteur-
ized cream butter.

The influence of pasteurization to reduce the acidity in
cream and butter must of necessity largely depend on the con-
dition of the cream. The carbon dioxide and other volatile
acids present are, in the main, products of fermentation. They

222 AERATING OR BLOWING CREAM

are, therefore, present to a greater extent in intensely fer-
mented and sour cream than in cream of good quality and with
low acidity. Hence the reduction of the acidity due to pasteur-
ization must be greater in cream of poor quality, and especially
in yeasty cream, than in cream of good quality and cream that
comes fresh and sweet from the separator.

AERATING OR BLOWING CREAM.

Purpose. — By aeration of cream is understood the inten-
tional and systematic exposure of the cream to air. The pur-
pose of such aeration is to facilitate the escape from the cream
of objectionable volatile substances, gases, that harbor unde-
sirable odors and flavors. In short, the object of aeration is
to improve the flavor of cream and butter.

Methods. — The aeration may be accomplished in three
different manners, i. e. 1. By exposing the cream in a thin
layer to the atmospheric air. 2. By blowing air through the
cream. 3. By drawing the air and gases out of the cream by
suction.

The first method usually consists of running the hot cream
from the pasteurizer over a surface-coil cooler. The cream
flowing over the cooler in a very thin film, conies in contact
with a relatively large amount of air, facilitating the escape
^of gases and objectionable odors. The heat of the pasteurized
cream further enhances the expulsion of these gases. The re-
moval of the escaping gases may be further hastened by the
installation of a ventilator over the aerator-cooler and the effi-
ciency of the ventilator may be augmented by equipping it
with a mechanical fan. In this form of aeration, it is important
that the atmosphere in which the cream is aerated and to which
it is exposed, be free from foul odors and bacterial pollution,
otherwise the cream will absorb these odors and become re-
contaminated with germ life.

The second method of aeration, the blowing of air through
the cream, is an intensified form of aeration. Its purpose is
to not only bring the cream in contact with the maximum
amount of air, but to cause this air to blow through the cream
and thereby mechanically force the gases out of the cream.
The blowing is accomplished by the use of a centrifugal fan.

AERATING OR BLOWING CREAM 223

This fan draws the air from the outside of the factory and
pumps it through the cream. In order to insure pure air
for this purpose, the air is drawn through absorbent cotton,
canvas or other filtering material, usually placed in a funnel
at the suction end of the air pipe on top of the roof. This
filter removes the dust, soot, flies and other impurities in the
air. From this funnel the air is generally drawn through a
water bath, preferably lime water, for additional cleansing. The
lime water not only removes dirt, etc., but also absorbs car-
bon dioxide and other gases, some of which may contain objec-
tionable odors.

From the lime water bath the air is blown through the
cream in the vat, or fore warmer, or both, through perforated
pipes installed in the bottom of the vat. In some of these
blowing systems, the vat is closed during the blowing opera-
tion and a second pump or fan draws the air escaping from
the cream to the outside. The blowing generally occupies
from 20 to 30 minutes. In some creameries the cold cream is
blown, in others the air is blown through the hot cream.

In the third method of aeration the cream is enclosed in
a nearly air-tight chamber, to which suction is applied, sucking
the air and gases present in the cream out of it. This method
represents a partial evacuation of the air in the cream.

Effect of Aeration on Flavor of Cream and Butter. — There
can be no question that any form of aeration, assists in removing
objectionable gases, odors and flavors, that may be present, and
therefore, improves the flavor of the cream and butter to that
extent. The more intimate the contact of the cream with the
air, the more complete is the removal of odors. In this
respect, therefore, the blowing of cream is a more effective
method of aeration than the mere surface exposure of the
cream to the air.

Effect of Aeration on the Keeping Quality of Butter. —
From, the standpoint of the keeping quality of the butter, any
method of aeration, that mixes air into the cream, is positively
objectionable. The newer knowledge of butter deterioration is
demonstrating conclusively, that the fundamental agencies that
shorten the life of butter, that cause it to deteriorate and to
develop flavor defects with age, are intimately associated with

224 AERATING OR BLOWING CREAM

the oxidation of one or more of the constituents of cream and
butter. Atmospheric air is an active oxidizing agent. Its
presence in cream and in butter, hastens deterioration, and the
greater the amount of air present, the more rapid and the
more intense the destructive action.

To run the hot cream over a surface coil cooler, where it
is freely exposed to the air, is detrimental to the keeping qual-
ity of the resulting butter. The damaging action of the air in
this case is greatly intensified by the heat of the cream, and
the copper of the aerator over which the cream flows. Heat
alone enhances all forms of oxidation. The heat and acid of
the cream act on the copper and copper is a most active oxi-
dizer and catalizer. Even very minute quantities of copper
salts in butter, resulting from the action of hot, slightly sour
cream in the presence of air, have a very intense deteriorating
effect on the butter.

To blow air into and through the cream obviously in-
fluences the keeping quality in a similar unfavorable manner,
and if the cream is blown while hot, the action is correspond-
ingly greater. The blowing of cream, therefore, is -a very
questionable expedient, as a means to improve the permanent
flavor of the butter.

These facts can leave but little doubt that, while surface
aeration and blowing do temporarily improve the flavor of
cream and of butter, they are positively dangerous to the keep-
ing quality of butter, and since keeping quality is the crucial
and final criterion of butter acceptable to the trade, these forms
of aeration cannot be recommended as beneficial processes in
the manufacture of butter.

The drawing of air out of the cream, on the other hand,
has distinct merits, as far as it is practicable. It not only
improves its flavor, but it assists in removing from cream one
of the destructive agents — air — and thereby tends to enhance
the stability of the finished product.

If it were mechanically and economically feasible to handle
the cream and to manufacture the butter under reduced pres-
sure, in a partial vacuum, the keeping quality of butter would
be greatly benefitted and such a process of so-called aeration
might logically be looked upon as the last word on ideal butter
manufacture.

CREAM RIPENING 225

CHAPTER IX.

CREAM RIPENING AND STARTER MAKING.
THE RIPENING OF CREAM.

Definition. — By cream ripening is generally understood the
treatment the cream receives and the changes which it under-
goes in flavor, aroma and texture from the time it leaves the
separator until it reaches the churn. These changes largely
control the quality of the resulting butter, with reference to
flavor, aroma and texture. Under present conditions and tak-
ing into consideration the several processes to which cream is
subjected in the modern creamery, this broad definition is
somewhat misleading and should be modified. Cream ripening,
strictly speaking, refers to the souring and chilling of the
cream preparatory to churning.

Contrary to popular impression the practice of ripening
cream is the result of economic expediency, rather than of a
specific discovery or invention, or of careful and systematic
planning and experimenting for the attainment of an important
purpose. Cream ripening began in the early days of butter
manufacture on the farm. In order to save time and labor the
dairy farmer dispensed with the task of churning his cream
daily and adopted the practice of churning the cream of sev-
eral days' production together. In those days the creaming
was done exclusively by the gravity system, using in most
cases the shallow-pan method. When the cream was skimmed
off it was already slightly sour and its additional holding at
temperatures not low enough to check bacterial action till
churning day, caused it usually to be quite sour and ripe by
the time it reached the churn. A further reason for allowing
the cream to sour was that this sour cream churned more
readily and more exhaustively than sweet cream. It churned
quicker and produced more butter.

Some of the butter made by this natural ripening process
was of the very best quality. This was true especially where
proper attention was given in the production and handling of the
milk and cream, to cleanliness, and when the butter was thor-
oughly washed and properly worked. Much of the butter,
however, was made on farms where these precautions were not

226 CREAM RIPENING

regularly observed, resulting in butter of poor flavor and of
inferior keeping quality. But this butter made from sour cream
showed a high aroma and flavor which sweet cream butter did
not possess. The consumer became accustomed to this high
flavor, learned to like it and gradually demanded it.

In order to satisfy this demand the souring or ripening of
cream was gradually adopted even in dairies and later in cream-
eries where the cream was available in sweet condition and
where it was churned daily. As the fundamental principles of
cream ripening became better understood, and with the help-
ing hand of science, the process of cream ripening was gradu-
ally perfected, eliminating as far as possible some of the agen-
cies detrimental to good butter, and intensifying those agencies
which became known to produce the best results. In this evo-
lution the most prominent factors that assisted in the improve-
ment of the process of cream ripening and of the quality of
the resulting butter were, the advent of the centrifugal sepa-
rator, which gradually replaced the gravity can; the introduc-
tion of pasteurization of milk or cream, which removed the
great majority of undesirable bacteria and other forms of germ
life, and the adoption of pure culture starters which made pos-
sible the almost exclusive development of ferments produc-
ing the desired flavor and aroma.

Purpose. — The principal objects of cream ripening as now
practiced are: 1. To give the butter the desired flavor, aroma
and texture; 2. to produce uniformity of quality and 3. to
increase the exhaustiveness of churning.

1. To Produce Flavor and Aroma. — The exact and specific
agents which are responsible for the characteristic and desired
butter flavor and aroma during the ripening process, have not
as yet been conclusively determined. The fact that milk and
cream, when souring in the natural way, contain very greatly
predominating numbers of lactic acid bacteria, especially Strep-
tococcus lacticus and Bacterium lactis acidi, has led to the
assumption that these species of lactic acid bacteria play an
essential part in the production of the characteristic flavor and
aroma in butter. This has been further borne out by the fact
that when inoculated into sweet cream these micro-organisms

CREAM RIPENING 227

do, under proper conditions of ripening, produce a butter of a
cleaner flavor and aroma and of better keeping quality, than
when cream is permitted to sour in the ordinary way and with-
out the addition of a pure culture of these organisms.

On the other hand, it is generally conceded that butter
from cream in which the promiscuous assortment of organisms
of its natural bacterial flora has been largely destroyed by pas-
teurization, and which has been ripened with a pure culture
starter of these lactic acid bacteria, has a milder and less pro-
nounced flavor than butter made from cream ripened in the
natural way. Conn, Weigmann, Freudenreich, Ademetz, Mar-
shall, Bosworth and other investigators have succeeded in
isolating species of bacteria, yeast and molds, capable of pro-
ducing the characteristic and desired butter flavors to a very
marked degree. Among these flavor- and aroma-microbes were
bacteria of the coli and aerogenes group, also peptonizing
yeast and molds. Some of these specific butterflavor-produc-
ing organisms were recommended to be used jointly with the
real lactic acid milk bacteria in the ripening of cream. These
findings suggest that possibly the associative action of one or
more of these specific aroma-producing organisms with one or
both of the lactic acid bacteria, streptococcus lacticus and Bac-
terium lactis acidi, is needed to produce a high butter flavor.

Furthermore, it is by no means established that the but-
ter flavors are exclusively of bacterial origin. Experience has
amply demonstrated that the feed which the cows consume
may directly or indirectly affect the flavor of the butter. Some
of the aromatic substances coming from the feed may pass
into the milk direct, through the udder, the excreta, or the
air, as completely developed substances from the feed. But it
is equally probable that they are separated from the feed and
reach the udder as complex and but slightly aromatic products
from which volatile and aromatic products are formed in the
ripening process by bacterial decomposition. In this latter case
the micro-organisms which bring about these decompositions are
therefore aroma-producing only in the milk and cream which
contain these specific materials, but not in all milk and cream.

The period of lactation of the cows also has a very pro-
nounced effect on the presence and intensity of the desirably

228 CREAM RIPKNING

aroma and flavor of butter. Thus butter from cows during the
first two to three months of lactation invariably shows the
desirable flavor and aroma, characteristic of good butter, very
decidedly, while butter from cows which approach the latter
stage of the period of lactation lacks this characteristic butter
flavor and is prone to have a somewhat stale and lifeless taste.
This fact is explained to be due to the relatively high per cent
of volatile and soluble fats in milk from fresh cows and the
relatively low per cent of these same fats toward the end of
the period of lactation.

Inasmuch as the lactic acid bacteria which have been
found to produce a clean acid, and which are being used in the
manufacture of pure starter cultures for cream ripening, pro-
duce only a mild butter flavor and aroma, it might be of much
importance to the butter industry to find a butter-aroma organ-
ism capable through joint action with the lactic acid bacteria,
to produce a butter with a high characteristic butter flavor
and aroma.

So far, all known attempts in the manufacture of butter
on a commercial scale, of developing starters and ripening
cream through aosociative bacterial action have failed to pro-
duce the desired object. The differences in temperature and
other requirements between different groups of micro-organ-
isms have made difficult the joint development of these organ-
isms in their proper proportion arid have made unsuitable this
method of cream ripening on a commercial scale. Experience
has also demonstrated that butter with a high aroma and flavor
is generally of relatively low keeping quality. Such butter
tends to "go off" in flavor comparatively rapidly and is particu-
larly unsuited for storage purposes.

These reasons largely explain why we recognize today only
certain lactic acid bacteria which may be used to advantage in
cream ripening. The most prominent of these are Streptococcus
lacticus and Bacterium lactis acidi.

2. To Produce Uniform Quality. — It is obvious from the dis-
cussion of the effect of cream ripening on the flavor of the butter
that in the absence of a systematic method of ripening the cream,
the production of a uniform flavor from day to day and season to

CREAM RIPENING 229

season is difficult. If the fermentation of the cream during the
ripening process is at all responsible for the flavor of the result-
ing butter, the systematic use of specific bacteria in the cream
ripening process is bound to greatly assist in securing a uniform
flavor in the butter. If, on the other hand, no attempt is made to
control the bacterial flora of the cream and its development, either
by pasteurization which destroys most of the organisms present,
or by ripening with pure cultures of lactic acid bacteria, or by
both, the butter maker is powerless to regulate the flavor in
the finished product and the flavor of the butter will largely
vary with the character of the cream that he receives.

3. To Increase the Exhaustiveness of Churning. — Other
conditions being the same, the churn yield from a given quantity
of butter fat depends on the exhaustiveness of the churning. The
more exhaustive the churning, the less of the butter fat will be
lost in the buttermilk and the larger will be the amount of butter
made.

Experience has amply demonstrated that sour or ripened
cream will churn out more readily and more exhaustively than
sweet cream. This means less labor and time required to com-
plete the churning and more butter made from sour cream than
from the same amount of butter fat in sweet cream. This fact
is due to the difference in the viscosity between sweet and sour
cream. Sweet cream is of relatively viscous consistency due
to the colloid condition of the casein. The viscosity minimizes
the concussion to which the fat globules are exposed during
the churning process, and therefore delays the formation of
butter granules. For the same reason, also, a relatively large
proportion of the small fat globules is not churned out at the
time the churn is stopped and there is excessive loss of fat
in the buttermilk.

In the ripened cream the viscosity is very materially re-
duced. The acid alters the physical condition of the casein,
and other nitrogenous bodies precipitating them into finely
divided particles. This changes the mechanical condition of
the cream from a viscous body to a granular, friable body. In
this sour cream the fat globules encounter less resistance and
have greater freedom to respond to the agitation caused by the

230 CREAM RIPENING

revolving churn. They strike each other and the sides of the
churn oftener and with greater force. Their equilibrium is dis-
turbed more readily and the formation of butter granules is
facilitated, shortening the time required for churning, churn-
ing out more completely, and avoiding excessive loss of fat in
the buttermilk.

The excessive loss of fat incurred by churning sweet
cream may be avoided by lowering the churning temperature.
The lower temperature retards the churning and gives the
smaller fat globules which are slow in uniting, a better oppor-
tunity to churn out before the churn is stopped.

Effect of Cream Ripening on the Keeping Quality of
Butter. — The relation of ripening of cream to the keeping quality
of butter has not been clearly understood for many years and
even to this day the general impression prevails that cream
ripening improves the keeping quality of the butter. Thus
McKay and Larsen,1 Meyer,2 and Michels3 emphasize the im-
provement of the keeping quality of butter^as one of the objects
of cream ripening.

There are no experimental data on record that:show that the
ripening of cream ever improved the keeping quality of butter,
but there is plenty of evidence, both experimental and commer-
cial, that the ripening of cream is a distinct detriment to the
keeping quality of butter.

The "theory" that cream ripening improves the keeping
quality of butter originated with the advent of the use of pure
culture starters. Lactic acid bacteria which produced the de-
sired flavor and did not noticeably decompose the protein of
cream, were thought to be favorable to keeping quality. Their
predominance in ripened cream, retarding or inhibiting the de-
velopment of micro-organisms of the liquefying and putrefac-
tive species, was considered a partial protection against undesir-
able changes and fermentations which give rise to objection-
able flavors, and the lactic acid thus produced in itself was
thought to have a sufficient antiseptic effect to control, if not
inhibit, the growth of the bacteria known to produce objec-
tionable flavors and odors.

1 McKay and Larsen, Principles and Practices of Buttermaking, 1915, p. 192.

2 Martin H. Meyer, Modern Buttermaking, 1910, p. 74.
* John Michels, Creamery Buttermaking, 1914, p. 46,

CREAM RIPENING 231

This was the bacteriologists' theory. Within its own limi-
tations it was perfectly natural and reasonable, but as far as
its relation to the keeping quality of butter is concerned, it was
utterly erroneous. He considered good flavor of fresh butter
and keeping quality synonymous.

High flavor and keeping quality are not synonymous, but
they are positively antagonistic to one another. One and the
same churning of butter may have either, high flavor or keep-
ing quality, but it cannot have both. Cream ripening means
fermentation. High flavor, which is produced by cream ripen-
ing, then, is the result of a partial decomposition of one or more
of the constituents of cream and which subsequently, become
constituents of the butter. The deterioration of butter with age
also is the result of decomposition of one or more of its con-
stituents.

Cream ripening, therefore, represents the first stages of
the decomposition of one -or more of the constituents which sub-
sequently make up the composition of butter. It so happens
that the changes resulting from this early and partial decomposi-
tion, caused by the ripening of cream, yield flavors that are
desired. But when this decomposition goes beyond a certain
stage, flavors are produced that are objectionable and which are
recognized as a deterioration of the butter.

Cream that is ripened sufficiently to give butter a very
pronounced, high flavor, produces butter that, when taken from
the churn, represents a product in which the flavor-producing
decomposition has been carried to the very limit of changes that
are capable of producing good flavor. But this decomposition
does not stop at the churn, it continues, only instead of going
on producing desired flavors, these further changes yield now
objectionable flavors, the butter deteriorates. Hence butter so
made, has reached the peak of quality at the churn, it has at-
tained the very top of desired flavor and any further changes
which even a few weeks of age are bound to bring about, place
it on the tobbogan, it cannot change further without deteriorat-
ing, it will not stay inert, because the changes once started must
go on. Cream ripening, therefore, not only does not improve
the keeping quality of butter, it actually tends to destroy it.

232 CREAM RIPENING

On the other hand, if butter is made from sweet or only
slightly ripened cream, its flavor is mild, the decomposition has
been only slight. When this butter is taken from the churn,
the changes which are capable of developing good flavor have
not reached the limit. Further changes do not produce im-
mediate deterioration, the top has not been reached, and the
development of good flavor can continue through a consider-
able distance of changes and for a considerable length of time,
before the desired flavor yields to objectionable flavor and
deterioration. Therefore, butter made from sweet or only
slightly ripened cream, has relatively good keeping quality, other
details of the process of manufacture and quality of the original
cream being the same.

Again, the theory that the lactic acid produced during the
process of cream ripening exerts a favorable influence on the
keeping quality of butter is not well founded. It has gained
considerable credence because of the fact that high acid, such
as is found in ripened cream, produces an unfavorable medium
for many of the objectionable bacteria present in the cream,
and therefore retards or inhibits their destructive action. This
argument permits of consideration only when confined to the
cream. In the finished butter, made from ripened cream, the
percent acid is too low, ranging usually between .15 and .35
percent, to exert any appreciable retarding action on germ life.
From the standpoint of the biological effect of the lactic acid
resulting from cream ripening, therefore, it is highly improb-
able that the ripening of cream is capable of benefitting the
keeping quality of butter.

On the other hand, even the slight increase in the acidity
of butter made from ripened cream, through chemical action, has
a very marked detrimental effect on the keeping quality of the but-
ter. It appears that acid is one of the essential agents, in the com-
bination of conditions that reduce the resistance of butter against
the deteriorating influence of age, and that causes the develop-
ment of such off-flavors as storage flavor, oily flavor, metallic
flavor, fishy flavor, etc., as discussed in Chapter XVII on "Butter
Defects."

The fact that the changes brought about in sour cream,
whether souring be due to natural causes or to artificial ripen-

CREAM RIPENING 233

ing, for the development of flavor, are detrimental to the keep-
ing quality of the butter has been conclusively established, both
experimentally and in practical buttermaking, although the
teaching and practice of churning cream at a low acidity are
far from being generally accepted as yet in the creamery world.

H. J. Credicott1, proprietor of the Freeport Creamery, Free-
port, 111., and formerly buttermaker in Minnesota, and later
butter expert for the U. S. Department of Agriculture, was the
first exponent of sweet-cream churning, who successfully manu-
factured butter from sweet cream without ripening, after the
practice of ripening cream had been generally adopted in this
country. McKay2 and Hunziker3 first demonstrated methods
and the advantages of reducing the acidity in sour cream for
buttermaking.

Rogers4 as the result of an extensive investigation of the
causes of fishy flavor in butter, states that "in all cases in which
the records were complete, it was found that those experimental
butters which became fishy were made from high-acid cream,
though cream with high acidity did not uniformly develop fishi-
ness. Rogers and Gray5 found more rapid deterioration of but-
ter made from high-acid cream than from sweet cream, and they
conclude that the acid developed normally in the cream by the
action of lactic acid bacteria, or added directly to the cream
in the form of pure acid, brings about, or assists in bringing
about, a slow decomposition of one or more of the labile com-
pounds of which butter is largely composed; and Dyer6 dem-
onstrated that "the production of off-flavors, so commonly met
with in cold storage butter, is attributed to a chemical change
expressed through a slow oxidation, progressing in some one
or more of the non-fatty substances occurring in buttermilk,

1 Credicott, Address at First National Dairy Show, Chicago, 1906.

2 McKay, Experiments in Neutralizing Sour Cream for Buttermaking, at
Iowa Dairy School, 1906, Results not published.

« Hunziker, Experiments and Commercial Practice, at Purdue University
Creamery, 1906—1916, Results not published.

Hunziker, Address at National Conference of Allied Dairy Interests,
Washington, D. C. 1916.

Hunziker, Spitzer & Mills, Pasteurization of Sour, Farm^Skimmed Cream
for Buttermaking, Purdue Bulletin 203, 1917.

Hunziker, The Neutralization of Cream, Address American Association of
Creamery Butter Manufacturers, Chicago, 1918.

* Rogers, Fishy Flavor in Butter, U. S. Dept. of Agr. B.A.I. Circular 146,
1909.

6 Rogers and Gray, The Influence of Acid of Cream on the Flavor of Butter,
U. S. Dept. of Agr. B.A.I. Bulletin 114, 1909.

6 Dyer, Progressive Oxidation of Cold Storage Butter, Journal Agr. Re-
search, Vol. VI. No. 24. 1916.

234 CREAM RIPENING

and that the extent of this chemical change is directly propoi-
tional to the quantity of acid present in the cream from which
the butter was made."

In the presence of the above facts it appears safe to con-
clude that the ripening of cream does not enhance the keeping
quality of butter, that the churning of sour cream is distinctly
injurious to keeping quality, that butter that is not consumed
soon after it is manufactured, or butter intended for storage
purposes, should be made from unripened cream or from cream
in which the acidity is low, and that cream ripening is justifi-
able only in the case of butter that is intended for immediate
consumption.

Natural Ripening of Cream. — The natural ripening of cream
consists of allowing the cream to sour without the addition of a
starter. This is the oldest method of cream ripening, the cream
is held at a temperature favorable for bacterial action until it
is sour. The character of fermentation which occurs and the
quality of the resulting butter depend largely on the bacterial
flora of the cream after it leaves the separator, or after it ar-
rives at the creamery and this in turn will depend on the sani-
tary care which the milk and cream receive on the farm, on the
age of the cream and on the particular types of bacteria which
may predominate in any given locality and at any given season
of the year. With cream that is clean and that has been produced
under highly sanitary conditions, natural ripening may produce
very good butter. Where little or no attention is given to clean-
liness, contamination of the cream with relatively large num-
bers of undesirable species of micro-organisms is unavoidable.
When such cream is allowed to 'ripen in the natural way, un-
desirable fermentations are prone to gain the ascendency, re-
sulting in butter of inferior flavor and low keeping properties.

Inasmuch as the natural ripening process affords no facilities
for controlling fermentations, the product usually also lacks in
uniformity of quality. The bacterial flora of the cream varies
not only with the individual care which each lot of cream re-
ceives on the farm, but also with the season of the year. Thus
in early summer when the cows are on pasture, conditions are
favorable to a preponderance of lactic acid bacteria to the partial
exclusion of peptonizing and putrefactive germs, while in late

CREAM RIPENING 235

fall, winter and early spring, when the cows in the central and
northern dairy belt are confined to the stable and receive dry
feed, there is a marked increase in the group of putrefactive
microbes which tend to impair the flavor and shorten the life
of the butter, unless their action is retarded by pasteurization
or possibly by the addition of lactic acid bacteria to the cream.

At best, the results from the natural ripening process are
uncertain. Where butter of uniformly high quality is desired
the natural ripening cannot be recommended and it is justifi-
able only, if at all, when butter is made on too small a scale
to warrant the extra labor and expense of handling pure culture
starters, as is the case on the majority of farms making farm
dairy butter and where the milk and cream are produced under
highly sanitary conditions.

While, under favorable conditions, natural ripening may
give butter a flavor more attractive to the palate of the consumer
than butter made from sweet cream, the keeping quality of
such butter is prone to be low and would be materially improved
by not ripening such cream at all.

Artificial Ripening of Cream. — By artificial cream ripen-
ing is understood the souring of the cream with the aid of a
starter. The term starter includes a variety of materials, such
as buttermilk, sour cream from the previous churning, sour
milk and skim milk ripened by spontaneous souring and sour
milk, cream, diluted condensed milk, or redissolved skim milk
powder, ripened by the addition of a pure culture of lactic acid
bacteria.

The desirability of the use of buttermilk and sour cream
for starter, depends very largely on the degree of purity of the
previous batch of cream. If the cream shows a pure, mild acid,
the resulting buttermilk may be reasonably safe to use as starter,
provided that the cream was not overripe and the churn at the
time of churning was in good sanitary condition. Buttermilk
from overripe cream and from cream lacking in clean acid flavor
is unsafe. Its use is likely to propagate, in the next lot of
cream, the very fermentations which are to be avoided.

Sour cream, if of a clean acid may prove beneficial in the
absence of a better starter. In most cases, however, its use is

236 CREAM RIPENING

not to be recommended, it has the same objections as the use
of buttermilk. Then, again, the butterfat as well as the non-fatty
constituents in this sour cream are thus exposed to a double
ripening period; this is considered undesirable because of the
possible action of the acid on these cream constituents, lower-
ing their resistance to oxidation, if not actually starting oxida-
tion, or cleavage by hydrolysis, thereby jeopardizing the quality
of the butter. .

Spontaneously soured milk or skim milk starter is pref-
erable to either buttermilk or sour cream, provided that in its
preparation a high sanitary quality of raw material, milk or
skim milk, has been selected. Otherwise, the ripening of cream
by the use of such starters may be no better than the natural
ripening of cream.

Milk or skim milk starters and possibly starters made from
condensed and powdered milk, soured with pure cultures of
lactic acid bacteria, are the only really dependable starters and
it is the use of this group of starters which will be exclusively
considered in the discussion of artificial cream ripening.

The ripening of cream by means of pure culture starters is
a practice which has come into more general use in this country
only within the last score of years. Its application is largely
the result of investigations of Storch.1

Artificial cream ripening may be divided into two classes,
namely, ripening by the addition of a sufficient amount of
starter to raw cream to control fermentations, and 2. ripening
of cream in which the majority of bacteria and other ferments
have been destroyed by pasteurization and which, after cooling
has been inoculated with a lactic acid starter.

Either of these methods is preferable to the natural ripen-
ing process, inasmuch as they both assist in regulating fermenta-
tion by accelerating the development of desirable lactic bacteria
to the partial* exclusion of other organisms. In the case of
artificial ripening of raw cream, the control of the fermentations
may, however, be less complete and the final results less cer-
tain than when the cream is first pasteurized. The raw cream
has a mixed flora which may consist of both desirable and un-

1 Storch, Eighteenth Annual Report of Danish Experiment Station, 1890.

CREAM RIPENING 237

desirable bacteria. Unless the starter added is an active one,
and the cream is of relatively good quality the benefits of arti-
ficial ripening are prone to be very diminutive. In the case of
sour gathered cream, nothing is gained by further ripening un-
less possibly here neutralization is resorted to. In this kind
of cream the fats and the curd have already been exposed to
acid for an excessive length of time and further ripening will
tend to weaken their resistance just that much more, invit-
ing with greater certainty their partial decomposition.

If the cream is properly pasteurized before the starter is
added the fermentations that occur during the cream ripening
period can be controlled most readily, provided, of course, that
the operator understands the fundamental requirements for re-
lative optimum development of the lactic acid organisms and
has proper facilities in the way of temperature control. The
artificial ripening of pasteurized cream is, from the bacteriolog-
ical point of view, the most nearly ideal method of cream ripen-
ing. In pasteurized cream the bacterial count of all bacteria has
been reduced to a relatively low figure, approximately to one-
tenth of one per cent of their original number. The cream
furnishes therefore an ideal seed bed for the lactic acid starter,
and the desirable bacteria, added in the form of a pure culture
starter, have a free and unhindered field for rapid development.

Here again it should be understood that the better the
quality of the cream, the better and the more uniform will be
the results of the ripening process. The ordinary run of gathered
cream, such as is received at the centralized creamery, averages
possibly about from 50,000,000 to 500,000,000 bacteria per cubic
centimeter. Assuming that the pasteurization efficiency, or germ-
killing efficiency be 99.9 per cent, which is very good under
average commercial conditions, there would still be left in the
cream 50,000 to 500,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter. Since
a considerable proportion of the micro-organisms which survive
belong to the group of undesirable or harmful types, it is
obvious that the development of undesirable fermentations dur-
ing the ripening process is by no means entirely eliminated, in
spite of pasteurization, and that the otherwise beneficial results
of artificial ripening are prone to be partly paralyzed.

238 CREAM RIPENING

Temperature of the Cream for Ripening. — Bacteriologically,
the best temperature for ripening cream is that at which the
desirable lactic acid bacteria develop more readily than any other
type or species of micro-organisms. The optimum temperature
for lactic acid bacteria lies within the range of 90 to 100° F.
This temperature, however, is most favorable also to the growth
of many species of organisms harmful to the quality of butter,
such as those belonging to the Bacillus coli group, the aerogenes
group, and certain species of yeast and molds, etc. For this
reason these high temperatures, 90 to 100° F., are unsuitable
for the ripening of cream.

On the other hand, experience has shown that a tem-
perature of from 60 to 70° F. permits of reasonably rapid develop-
ment of the lactic acid bacteria while such temperatures are too
low to give most of the harmful species an opportunity to gain
the ascendency. Hence this lower range of temperatures, 60 to
70° F., has been generally adopted as the proper ripening tem-
perature. In summer when the atmospheric temperature is rela-
tively high and other conditions are comparatively favorable for
rapid acid development, the cream is preferably ripened at 60
to 65° F. In winter when the atmospheric temperature is rela-
tively low and other conditions present tend to retard lactic acid
fermentation, the cream is preferably ripened at 65 to 70° F.

Aside from the fact that relatively high ripening tempera-
tures invite the development and domination of undesirable bac-
teria, such as the species of the Bacillus coli and the aerogenes
group, etc., at the expense of the pure lactic acid ferments, they
may also prove harmful to the texture and body of the butter,
causing the butter to be soft and weak in body and of a salvy
texture. All of these phenomena indicate unmistakably the
danger of ripening the cream at high temperatures. The un-
favorable effect of high ripening temperature is more pronounced
in the case of cream of a poor quality than with cream of a high
degree of purity.

In more recent years many of the most observant butter
makers are leaning towards low-temperature ripening and many
creameries have adopted the practice of ripening their cream at
temperatures ranging from 48 to 55° F. This practice is rec-
ommended especially where a rather sour cream is received,

CRSAM RIPENING 239

such as is the case in gathered cream creameries all over the
country, if such cream must be ripened. Its advantages are, that
most of the undesirable fermentations are held in check and
that the resulting body of the butter is firm and free from weak-
ness. The retardation of the acid development at these low tem-
peratures may be materially overcome by the use of a larger
amount of starter (See Amount of Starter to Add to Cream,
page 242.)

Control of Ripening temperature. — If the process of cream
ripening is to be successful it is essential that the operator have
as complete control over the temperature of the cream as pos-
sible. This is necessary, not only in order to maintain a uniform
temperature during the ripening process proper, but especially
also in order to cool the cream promptly and properly as soon
as the desired degree of acidity has been reached. The absence
of such facilities may cause exposure of the cream to too high
ripening temperature and the over-ripening of the cream,, both
of which jeopardize the flavor and body of the butter.

Ripening Vats. — The essentials for adequate facilities for
regulating the temperature of the cream are equipment to permit
exposure of the cream over a relatively large area of heating
and cooling surface and an adequate supply of an efficient cool-
ing medium, such as cold water, ice water or brine.

In order to increase the tempering capacity of the cream
ripening vat, the vat must be equipped with an agitator that
brings large volumes of the cream in direct contact with the heat-
ing or cooling surface. For this purpose there are now in use
cream ripening vats with coil or disc agitators, the heating or
cooling medium passing through the revolving agitator. These
agitator vats are a great improvement over the old jacketed
ripening vat without agitator, from the standpoint of heat control.
One seriously objectionable feature of most of these ripening
vats with disc or coil agitators is that the bearings and stuffing
boxes of their axis are submerged in the cream and some cream
is bound to enter these glands, where it is ground to grease. The
mechanical effect of this alone is undesirable and the lodging of
the cream in these friction places is highly unsanitary and con-
ducive to contaminating the cream with undesirable ferments. In

240 CREAM RIPENING

this respect, vats equipped with agitators of horizontal or vertical
motion are preferable to the rotary agitators, such as the discs
and horizontal coil, but the former are slower in their tempering
action than the latter. There are some coil vats on the market
now in which the coil is vertically suspended, removing the glands
and bearings entirely from contact with the cream.

Effect of Copperlined Vats on Quality of Butter. — From
the standpoint of material of construction it should be thor-
oughly understood, that the cream ripening vats, now in gen-
eral use in this country, are unsuitable and highly objection-
able, because the metal, copper, with which they are lined, con-
stitutes one of the most active agencies that invites chemical
decomposition of one or more of the constituents of cream and
butter and thereby impairs the flavor and deteriorates the keep-
ing quality of butter, as has been conclusively shown by Hun-
ziker and Hosman1 who demonstrated that copper, alloys of
copper such as brass and german silver, and copper salts, acting
as powerful-oxygen-carriers and catalizers, are capable of intro-
ducing oxidation in butter that is most disastrous to its flavor
and keeping quality. Iron also has a specific catalytic action
which aids the oxidation process, but in the case of iron bases
and salts this action is relatively slight. Tin and nickel are
practically inert, exerting no appreciable oxidizing influence.

In the earlier days of butter manufacture, the lining of
the cream ripening vats consisted of tinned sheet iron. The
tin coating on the iron lining is relatively permanent. It stays
bright as long as the vat lasts. These vats, however, were
jacketed vats and the lining was prone to rust. The rusting
did not usually occur on the inside of the vat lining that was
exposed to the cream. The lining rusted on the jacket side,
because of the continued exposure of the lining to the damp-
ness in the jacket.

From the standpoint of their effect on the quality of the
cream these old-fashion, iron-lined, tinned, jacketed ripening
vats were not objectionable. So long as the lining did not rust
through from the outside, the tin coating remained on the sheet
iron and was bright. But these vats were of comparatively short

1 Hunziker and Hosman, Tallowy Butter— Its Causes and Prevention, Journal
of Dairy Science, Vol. L, No. 4, 1917.

CRKAM RIPENING 241

life, because they rapidly rusted through from the outside and
sprung leaks. Manufacturers of cream vats, therefore, endeav-
ored to construct and place on the market, vats of a more dur-
able metal and they naturally chose copper for the lining. This
step seemed necessary also as the result of the introduction
of brine as the cooling medium and its well-known corrosive
action on iron.

Fig*. 36. Enameled cream ripening- tank
Courtesy The Pfaudler Co.

But all efforts, so far, to cover the copper surface with a
satisfactory and permanent coating of tin, have been abortive.
The exposure of the tinned copper surface of the ripening vat
to the sour cream, causes the surface, to soon turn black and
the copper to be exposed, jeopardizing the quality of both cream
and butter and giving rise to the most disastrous flavor dete-
riorations in butter. Hence the copper-lined, tin-coated ripen-
ing vats are highly unsatisfactory and their annual retinning
involves a very considerable expense.

Advantages of Glass-Enameled Vats. — Because of the gen-
eral use in the creamery of brine for cooling the cream it is
not feasible to return to the iron-lined, tinned cream ripening
vats. But the perfection attained within recent years in the
manufacture of glass-enameled vats, now makes possible their

242 CREAM RIPENING

use for cream ripening equipment, These vats, from the stand-
point of their protection of the cream and butter against the
oxidizing influence of exposed metals such as iron and copper,
and the damaging effect of such chemical action to the quality
of the butter, are as nearly ideal as can be desired and this de-
sirability, and the absence of the necessity of frequent recoating
are additional factors in their favor.

In the presence of these facts it appears reasonable to be-
lieve that as soon as the commercial butter manufacturers fully
realize this disastrous influence of copper and copper .salts on
cream and butter, and learn to appreciate the feasibility of
using glass-enameled vats in the creamery, glass-enameled vats
will commence to take the place of copper-lined vats in a similar
way as has been the case for years in the brewery and the con-
densed milk factory, and is now the case in oleomargarine fac-
tories, market milk and ice cream plants. This change will result
in a marked improvement of the quality of butter, and especially
of butter for storage purposes.

Amount of Starter to Add to Cream. — The amount of
starter to add to the cream depends on such factors as the tem-
perature at which the cream is to be ripened, season of the
year, the length of time during which the cream is to be
ripened, the richness of the cream and the availability of the
starter. The amount of starter that is used under normal con-
ditions ranges from 5 per cent to 20 per cent, though larger
amounts may be used to good advantage under certain con-
ditions.

At low ripening temperatures more starter is needed to
ripen the cream than at high temperatures. When ripening
around 50° F., 20 per cent starter is desirable, while at 65° F.
10 to 15 per cent starter should be quite sufficient.

If the time during which cream must be ripened is short,
a relatively larger amount of starter is needed. Where condi-
tions necessitate the prolonging of the ripening process, a less
amount of starter should be used in order to guard against
the danger of over-ripening.

More starter is usually needed to ripen the cream in winter
than in summer, because both, atmospheric conditions and the

CRKAM RIPENING 243

bacterial flora of winter cream, tend to delay the souring, while
in summer they are favorable to rapid souring.

Cream rich in fat will take care of a relatively large amount
of starter to good advantage, while the addition of large quan-
tities of starter to thin cream would be a distinct disadvantage,
the resulting dilution reducing the readiness and exhaustive-
ness of the churning and decreasing the churn yield.

Finally, the amount of starter used is controlled in a great
many creameries by the availability and expense of milk and
skim milk and other materials for starter making. Especially
in the smaller gathered cream creameries the scarcity of a goo4
quality of skim milk and the high price of other starter media,
such as condensed milk and milk powder are a serious obstacle
in the way of the use of a large amount of starter.

Time Required for Ripening. — The time required for the
ripening of cream depends on a variety of factors, some of
which are ever changing. Generally speaking, quick ripening,
if not done at too high temperatures, insures a purer lactic acid
fermentation, greater freedom from the development of injurious
fermentations and undesirable flavors than slow ripening. Unusu-
ally quick ripening is the result of the use of a large percent of
active starter while slow ripening, other conditions being the
same, is caused by the use of a small amount of starter, or
starter that has lost some of its vitality and has become slug-
gish. The longer the ripening period, the greater is the danger
of the development of undesirable fermentations and flavors
at the expense of the pure lactic acid fermentations. Slow
ripening further jeopardizes the quality and especially the keep-
ing quality of butter due to excessive exposure of the fat and
curd to the acid, inviting partial decomposition of one or both
of these ingredients.

Sweet cream will generally require a longer ripening period
than sour cream, in order to secure the desired degree of acidity
and it will stand the longer ripening without danger of injury
to the keeping quality of the butter better than sour cream.
In the case of cream that is sweet and of good quality and
relatively rich in butter fat, such as cream testing 35 per cent
fat or over, the addition of a heavy starter, cooling immediately

244

to the churning temperature and holding it at that tempera-
ture about twelve hours (over night) has been found to produce
a butter of exceptionally fine quality. This practice is locked
upon with favor by many creameries. Sour, gathered cream is
rarely, if ever, benefitted by further ripening. It usually has
a high degree of acidity when it reaches the factory and it is
contaminated with a variety of detrimental organisms. If
warmed to and held at the ripening temperature for any length
of time, undesirable fermentations are prone to gain the upper
hand, hastening objectionable decompositions and injuring
the flavor and keeping quality of the butter, in spite of the
addition of a pure culture lactic acid starter. For this reason
sour gathered cream is best cooled to the churning temperature
at once, or if pasteurized, immediately after pasteurization, and
churned after holding it at that temperature for about three
hours. The addition of starter to this type of cream either
immediately after cooling or just before churning usually
freshens up its flavor to some extent and improves the flavor
of the resulting butter, though it may not benefit its keeping
quality appreciably.

The Proper Degree of Acidity in Cream at the Churn, —
The per cent acid in cream at the churn that produce* the
most desirable result depends on such factors as disposition
of butter, whether it is intended for immediate consumption
or for storage, quality of cream and richness of cream.

That the addition of starter to cream and the proper ripen-
ing of cream assist in developing flavor in butter is an estab-
lished fact. Good starter improves the flavor of butter and
the ripening of the cream produces the high flavor desired by
the American consumer. If butter is intended for immediate
consumption, therefore, the use of starter in all cream, and the
ripening of cream that arrives at the creamery in sweet con-
dition, are desirable and assist in best meeting the demands of
the market. Under these conditions cream may be ripened
with starter to an acidity of .50 to .60 per cent, the exact acidity
varying with the fat of the cream.

On the other hand, it should be clearly understood that
acidity in cream is harmful to the keeping quality of the but-
ter, assisting in the decomposition of the non-fatty constituents

CREAM RIPENING 245

in cream and butter. Hence, if butter remains on the market
for several weeks before it reaches the consumer, or if it is in-
tended for storage purposes, the ripening of the cream is not
beneficial and may prove exceedingly harmful to the quality
of the butter at the time it reaches the consumer. If starter
is used at all in the manufacture of this butter, it should be
added to the cream after the cream has been cooled to the
churning temperature, or preferably immediately before the
cream is drawn into the churn. This will lend the cream and
butter the beneficial and freshening flavor effect of the starter
and at the same time, it will prevent the acidity from rising
to a point harmful to the keeping quality of butter.

The desirability and extent of the use of starter and of
cream ripening further depends on the quality of the cream.
In the case of cream of good quality and that arrives at the
creamery in sweet condition, the addition of starter and the
ripening of the cream, do not jeopardize the keeping quality
of the resulting butter nearly as much as in the case of cream
of inferior quality, or cream that is already highly acid when
it reaches the creamery. In this type of cream the fermenta-
tions and the acidity produced may and usually have already
started the formation of cleavage products and the further
ripening hastens decomposition and shortens the life of the butter.
This holds true of all sour cream, whether neutralized or not.
If starter is used at all in cream that arrives at the creamery
sour, it should be added only just before churning time. In
most cases it would be preferable to use sweet milk or sweet
skim milk, in the place of sour starter when butter made from
this sour cream is held for any length of time before it is con-
sumed. Or if the consumption of the butter is fairly rapid the
milk originally intended for starter, may be divided into two
equal portions, one half to be added as sweet milk, immediately
after neutralization and before pasteurization, and the remainder
as ripened starter, just before churning. Such cream should
have an acidity of less than .3 per cent at the time of churning.

In the case of sweet cream, it is obvious that butter made
without the use of starter and without cream ripening, has a
milder flavor than the public desires. Butter made in this man-
ner is therefore, less suitable for immediate consumption, but

246 CREAM RIPENING

for storage purposes, such butter will show a better flavor
when it comes out of storage, than butter made from ripened
cream.

The per cent acid to which cream may be ripened in case
cream ripening is practiced, should be governed also by the
richness of the cream. The development of lactic acid is the
result of the action of the lactic acid bacteria on the milk
sugar. The milk sugar is present only in the serum of the
cream. The acid, therefore,, also is confined to the serum, the
fat being practically neutral. The relative amount of serum
varies with the per cent of fat in the cream. The higher the
per cent of fat, the smaller the proportion of the serum and
the lower the per cent af acid required in the cream. The proper
per cent of acid in the ripened cream therefore varies with, and
should be adjusted in accordance with the fat content of the
cream. It is obvious that, if uniformity of results is to be
secured, there must be uniformity of the per cent of acid in
the serum.

Authorities are at variance as to the exact per cent of acid
which cream of a given richness should contain. A few years
past the general tendency was to favor a rather high acidity
while more recently the danger of the detrimental effect of
high acidity on the keeping quality of the butter has become
more thoroughly appreciated, and those who have given this
subject most careful study practically agree that an acidity of
about .6 per cent for cream of good quality and testing 25 per
cent fat is sufficiently high to meet the demand of the public
for flavor and is less apt to jeopardize the keeping quality of
the butter than a higher degree of ripeness. It should be under-
stood that these figures refer only to cream of good quality
and that reaches the creamery in sweet or nearly sweet, con-
dition. Ripening to this acidity is justifiable only when but-
ter is intended for immediate consumption and the trade de-
mands a high flavored butter. Accepting .6 per cent acid as
the proper acidity for 25 per cent cream, it is a simple matter
to calculate the per cent acid of the serum, which may be
adopted as the standard.

The per cent serum in cream is determined by deducting
the per cent fat from 100. Cream testing 25 per cent fat there-

CREAM RIPENING 247

fore contains 100 — 25 = 75 per cent serum. When the per
cent acid in the cream is known, the per cent acid in the serum
is calculated by dividing it by the per cent serum and multiply-
ing the quotient by 100. The per cent acid in the serum, of
cream testing 25 per cent fat and .6 per cent acid is as follows :

-y~-X 100 •= .8 per cent acid. The above calculation shows that

the standard amount of acid in the serum should be .8 per
cent. On the above basis the standard per cent acid for cream
of any richness may readily be calculated, by deducting the
per cent fat in the cream from 100, multiplying the difference by
.8 and dividing the product by 100.

Example : Cream tests 33% fat. To what per cent acid should
it be ripened?

100— 33 = 67; 67* '8 = .536 per cent acid.

1UU

For the convenience of the operator Table 42 has been
devised which shows the desired degree of ripeness in per
cent acidity, number of cubic centimeters of one-tenth normal
alkali solution required as per Mann's test and degree acidity as
per Soxhlet-Henkel method.

In using this table the butter maker and student should
bear in mind that it was devised only as a guide applicable
and convenient under fairly normal conditions. Its value is
limited by the fact that its figures need modification and read-
justment under a great variety of conditions, and at best should
be applied only to cream that is of good quality and sweet
when it reaches the creamery and to butter intended for imme-
diate consumption.

Overripened Cream. — The overripening of cream is det-
rimental to the flavor, texture and keeping quality of butter.
In overripened cream the most favorable acid bacteria have
gone beyond their maximum stage of activity, the excessive
degree of acidity, their own product, is detrimental to their
further development, they become weakened, degenerate and
give way to other fermentations, less desirable and usually
harmful to the flavor of the butter.

248

CREAM RIPENING

Table 42.— Standard Per Cent Acid in Cream of Varying Rich-
ness, Number Cubic Centimeters of N/10 Normal Alkali Solution
Needed When 50 c.c. and 18 c.c. of Cream Are Used, and Acidity
in Terms of Degrees.

Mann's Test. C. C.

Decinormal Sodium

Degrees of Acid

Per Cent

Standard

Hydroxide Required

Soxhlet Henkel

Fat

Per Cent

to Neutralize

Method

in Cream

Acid

Acid in

in Cream

50 c. c.

18 c. c.

50 c. c.

100 c. c.

Cream

Cream

Cream

Cream

20

.640

35.6

11.26

14.2

28.4

21

.632

35.1

11.12

14.0

28.1

22

.624

34.7

10.98

13.9

27.7

23

.616

34.2

10.84

13.7

27.4

24

.608

33.8

10.70

13.5

27.0

25

.600

33.3

10.56

13.3

26.7

26

.592

32.9

10.42

13.2

26.3

27

.584

32.4

10.28

13.0

26.0

28

.576

32.0

10.14

12.8

25.6

29

.568

31.6

10.00

12.6

25.2

30

.560

31.1

9.86

12.4

24.9

31

.552

30.7

9.72

12.3

24.5

32

.544

30.2

9.57

12.1

24.2

33

.536

29.8

9.43

11.9

23.8

34

528

29.3

9.29

11.7

23.5

35

.520

28.8

9.15

11.6

23.1

36

.512

28.4

9.01

11.4

22.8

37

.504

28.0

8.87

11.2

22.4

38

.496

27.6

8.73

11.0

22.0

39

.488

27.1

8.59

10.8

21.7

40

.480

26.7

8.45

10.7

21.3

The true lactic acid bacteria of cream ripening require the
presence of oxygen for their development, they are aerobes.
During the process of ripening, or of changing a portion of the
milk sugar to lactic acid, they use up most of the free oxygen
in cream. Overripened cream is a medium .practically devoid
of free oxygen and favorable particularly to anaerobes, those
species of bacteria, which thrive best in the absence of oxygen,
and also to yeast and molds. Some of the most common of these
anaerobic species of bacteria belong to the putrefactive type, de-
composing the proteids and possibly splitting the fats, and gen-

CREAM RIPENING 249

erally producing odors and flavors detrimental to the quality of
good butter and shortening its life. The high acid in overripened
cream in itself accelerates the development of certain other
classes of micro-organisms, such as the molds which demand
an acid medium for maximum growth, and whose presence in
butter is exceedingly objectionable. From the bacteriological
point of view, therefore, the overripening of cream is highly
undesirable, it deteriorates the flavor and keeping quality of
the butter.

Overripening does prove harmful to butter also from the
chemical standpoint. The proteids of cream and butter are prone
to undergo chemical changes which invite further decomposition,
giving the butter off-flavors tending towards metallic and fishy
flavor defects and hastening its deterioration in storage.

For these reasons great care should be exercised in stopping
the ripening process before it has developed too far, by promptly
cooling the cream to 50 degrees F. or below. When facilities
for prompt cooling are lacking, the cooling of the cream should
be started before the desired degree of acidity is reached, mak-
ing due allowance for additional acid development during the
cooling process and until the cream has reached a low enough
temperature to completely check further fermentation.

Where cream is churned only once or twice per week, as
is often the case in small creameries and during the months of
small supply, it is advisable to keep all cream at a low tempera-
ture until twenty-four hours before churning time and then raise
the temperature for the ripening process sufficiently to com-
plete the ripening, if the cream "must" be ripened, until about
three hours before churning when it should be cooled to the
churning temperature and held there.

Methods to Determine the Desired Degree of Acidity. —

When the cream has reached the proper degree of acidity it
usually has a clean, mild acid flavor, pleasant to the palate.
The viscosity of sweet cream has disappeared and the cream
has a granular body and glistening luster. The creamy yel-
lowish color has changed to a whitish tinge. These changes
in body and color are due to the precipitation of the casein into
a granular form.

250 CREAM

The experienced operator can usually detect the proper
degree of ripeness by the taste and appearance of the cream.
In order to assist him in detecting the proper degree of ripe-
ness he should use a convenient and accurate test to determine
the per cent of acid, such as the Farrington Alkaline tablet
test, the Mann's acid test or the Marshall acid test. These tests
are based on the principle that normal solutions of alkalies neu-
tralize equal portions of normal solutions of acids. The alkali
usually used is sodium hydroxide with phenolphthalein as an
indicator, which turns pink in an alkaline solution and remains
colorless in an acid solution. For detailed directions of testing
cream for acid see Chapter XXII on Chemical Tests and Analy-
ses.

Starter Ripening Instead of Cream Ripening. — As previ-
ously stated, the species of lactic acid bacteria, which have been
found the most suitable ferments and which can be used to
advantage in cream ripening, attack exclusively the non-fatty
constituents of cream and particularly the lactose, breaking it
down into lactic acid. The most prominent of these species
are Streptococcus lacticus and Bacterium lactis acidi. Since
the non-fatty serum of the cream is very largely all washed
out of the butter it would seem that the flavor and aroma
developed in the serum and exclusively outside of the fat glob-
ules would also be washed out of the butter. This, however,
is not the case. The highly aromatic Isigny1 butter for instance
is washed exceptionally thoroughly. The reason for this lies
in the fact that butterfat possesses thej property of absorbing
flavors and aromas from volatile oils and other substances. This
property has long been recognized and is extensively made use
of in the manufacture of perfumes. This shows that the flavor
and aroma developed in the serum are taken up by the fat
globules.

From the above facts it may reasonably be assumed that
the desired butter flavor and aroma can be acquired by their
addition to the cream or butter, in the form of a properly ripened
starter, in the place of the process of cream ripening. Instead
of developing these flavors in the cream by means of the cream

1 Isigny butter is made on the dairy farms, in the vicinity of Isigny, Nor-
mandy, France. This butter has established an enviable reputation for fine
flavor, and keeping quality, on the continent of Europe.

STARTERS 251

ripening process, they may be developed in the starter and
added to the cream shortly before churning or to the butter
before working.

This assumption has been amply borne out in creamery
practice. This practice has the further advantage that it shortens
the time between receiving the cream and churning, and it mini-
mizes the danger of chemical action of the acid on the less staple
constituents of the cream, which action may jeopardize the flavor
and is known to injure the keeping quality of the butter. This
is especially true in the case of cream that is old, relatively sour
and of poor quality. This type of cream needs no further ripen-
ing, it is usually overripe at best but it is materially improved
by the addition of a good starter shortly before churning and
without further ripening. The starter serves to bring back
and freshen up its flavor. If added to the cream, both the
cream and starter should be cooled to near the churning tem-
perature before mixing. Otherwise bacterial action will con-
tinue and there is danger of overripening. If added to the
butter the starter should be poured on the butter after washing,
after which the butter is salted and worked. The addition and
working into the butter of the starter after churning, is not
recommended however, because it tends to increase the curd con-
tent of the butter, and curd is an undesirable constituent from the
standpoint of keeping quality. Its decomposition- or cleavage
products are injurious to the flavor of the butter.

STARTERS

Definition. — As applied to biittermaking, starter is a clean-
flavored batch of medium, usually milk or skim milk, teeming
with lactic acid bacteria favorable for the development of a
clean acid and an agreeable flavor.

Purpose. — The purpose of using starter is to insure the
flavor and aroma in butter which the market demands. As pre-
viously stated the American consumer has become accustomed
to, and desires a rather high flavored butter. Sweet cream butter
is considered flat and lacking in flavor and is not highly relished.
In order to overcome this absence of flavor, the flavor may be
developed in the cream by ripening or souring it, which is best

252

STARTERS

done with the help of a pure culture starter, or the flavor may
be added to the cream by adding a considerable amount of prop-
erly ripened lactic acid starter to the cream, shortly before
churning and without further ripening of the cream, or the
flavor may be added by pouring over and working into the but-
ter a considerable amount of lactic acid starter in the churn.

Kinds of Starters. — The starters in use in butter making
may be conveniently classified into two groups, namely:

Natural starter

Spontaneously soured whole milk
Spontaneously soured skim milk
Sour cream from previous churning
Sour buttermilk from previous churning
Sour whey

Commercial or
artificial starter

Whole milk
Skim milk
Condensed skim milk

redituted
Skim milk powder

redissolved

Soured by use of
commercial culture
of lactic acid bac-
teria

Natural Starters. — Under favorable conditions, starters be-
longing to this group may be used to good advantage, but as
a whole they cannot be consistently recommended, as their source
usually is uncertain and their purity questionable. They cannot
be depended on for uniformly satisfactory results. This is espe-
cially true of sour cream, buttermilk and sour whey. If the
cream of the previous churning was at all contaminated with
undesirable micro-organisms, the use of such cream or of the
buttermilk thereof, might easily become the very cause of the
propagation of harmful germ life and the development of flavors
injurious to the quality and market value of butter, and this
defect would be propagated from one churning to another.

In a similar manner the 'use of spontaneously soured whole
milk or skim milk might also prove detrimental, rather than
beneficial, in most cases where the source of the raw material
is unknown.

Commercial or Artificial Starters. — Commercial starters are
those, in the preparation of which a commercial, so-called pure

STARTERS 253

culture of lactic acid bacteria is used. The application of pure
cultures of lactic acid bacteria for the ripening of cream is the
result of extensive research by the eminent Danish investigator,
Dr. Storch who demonstrated its value as early as 1890,1 and
later by Dr. Weigrnann of Kiel, Germany.

While these commercial lactic acid cultures are frequently
spoken of as pure cultures, they are generally not pure cultures ;
they consist more often of mixed cultures of several different
species of desirable lactic acid bacteria and particularly of
Streptococcus lacticus and Bacterium lactis acidi, occasionally
they also contain species of yeast.

Some of the commercial lactic acid cultures are put on
the market in liquid form, usually in a medium of nutrient
bouillon (beef broth), whey bouillon, or sterilized milk. Others
are prepared in the form of a dry powder which consists of
liquid cultures to which has been added some powder, such
as ground milk sugar, starch, chalk, etc., in sufficient quan-
tities to absorb the excess moisture.

The liquid cultures have the advantage of greater purity,
but must be used within a few days of their preparation. Old
liquid cultures have usually lost their virulence and are
worthless.

The dry or powdered cultures are commercially more prac-
tical, inasmuch as the bacteria they contain, retain their viru-
lence for a reasonable period of time. They are therefore
adapted to transportation to distant destinations. Their keep-
ing quality is by no means unlimited, however, they cannot
be held over from one season to another, but should be used
within a few weeks of their preparation. They are somewhat
slower in regaining their activity, than the liquid cultures and
require several propagations before they can be depended on
to produce a usable starter. One of the most serious disadvan-
tages of the dry starter cultures lies in the fact that they are
seldom really pure, and quite often they are seriously con-
taminated with other and frequently undesirable micro-organ-
isms. The contamination is due, in part, to the bacterial im-
purities in their absorptive medium and partly to the often

1 Eighteenth Annual Report, Danish Experiment Station, 1890.

254

STARTERS

very careless handling in their preparation and packing at the
hands of employees who fail to realize the full significance
of aseptic conditions. Owing to the prevalence of these sources
of contamination the use of these dry cultures occasionally
becomes the cause of serious butter defects.

Classification of Commercial Starter Cultures.

i

O. Douglass,
Boston, Mass.

.Boston butter
culture
Duplex culture
Lactic acid

culture

Liquid
cultures >

Keith, <
Boston, Mass. i

[Boston butter
culture

Elov Ericsson, ( Ericsson's but-

Commercial

St. Paul, Minn. \

ter culture

starter
cultures

'"Chris. Hansen,
Little Falls, <
N. Y.

Lactic ferment

Elov Ericsson, J Ericsson's but-
St. Paul, Minn. ( ter culture

Dry
cultures ^

Park Davis & ,
Co., < Flavorone
Detroit, Mich.

Eli Lilly,
Indianapolis,
Ind.

Lactic acid
culture

Mother Starter or Startoline. — In order to revive the desir-
able germs in the commercial starter culture and to avoid the.
addition of the often malodorous and stale medium of the com-
mercial culture direct to the milk which becomes the starter,
it has been found necessary to inoculate the commercial culture
into a small amount of milk and make several propagations

STARTERS 255

(usually two to three) before the culture is transferred to the
regular starter milk. This is called the startoline or mother
starter.

In order to keep the starter in uniformly active and pure
condition it is necessary to propagate several jars (4 to 6) of
mother starter continuously from day to day, as the conditions
which are essential to preserve the starter can be more readily
controlled in the case of the mother starter in small jars than
in the ''big" starter in the vat or starter can.

In the successful propagation of startoline. cleanliness in
all operations, good quality of properly pasteurized milk or
skim milk, protection from contamination after inoculation, and
proper control of temperature are of the greatest importance.

Use the best milk or skim milk available; be sure that it
has been thoroughly heated to at least 180 degrees F. or higher
and held at that temperature at least thirty minutes. Use only
jars and other apparatus such as thermometers, spoons, dip-
pers, etc. that are perfectly clean and as nearly sterile as is
possible to make and keep them under reasonably sanitary
factory conditions. Do not touch with the fingers the commer-
cial culture nor the startoline but transfer it direct from the
original bottle into the jar containing the pasteurized and cooled
milk. Keep the startoline jars closed, so as to guard against
contamination from the dust in the air. Maintain a uniform
temperature of about 65 to 75 degrees F. according to season
of year. During the hot season use the lower and during the
cold season the higher temperature.

Good mother starter demands systematic work and scrupu-
lous attention to details and in order to make this possible and
to economize time, some suitable equipment should be pro-
vided which is available and used for this purpose only. The
following simple and inexpensive equipment has been found
most serviceable for the preparation of mother starter:

Equipment for Preparation of Mother Starter.

1. One galvanized iron box for sterilizing quart jars, dip-
pers, thermometers, spoons, etc., size preferably 13 inches long,
8J inches wide, 8J inches deep.

256

STARTERS

2. Twelve, one quart fruit jars with lids.

3. One insulated box, metal lined, with drain hole and in-
sulated cover, size preferably 15 inches long, 10 in. wide, 10 in.
deep.

4. One dairy thermometer with holder.

5. One dessert spoon.

6. One long handled one pint dipper with lip.

Fig-. 36. Electric incubator for the preparation of startoline

Courtesy Mojonnier Bros. Co.

For creameries operating on a large scale, special incubators
and other equipment, manufactured and placed on the market,
with detailed directions for installation and use by reliable milk
products equipment manufacturing firms greatly facilitate the
work and enhance uniformity of results.

First Propagation. — Fill a clean and properly scalded quart
jar two-thirds full of milk or skim milk. Pasteurize at 180° F.
or above and hold for not less than 30 minutes. Time may be
saved by heating the milk before the jar is rilled, then fill the jar
with the hot milk and set it in hot water at 180° F. for 30 minutes.

STARTERS 257

Or the startoline milk may be taken from the milk pasteurizer,
held and cooled in the starter vat or starter can. Cool to 70° F.
and pour the contents of the bottle containing the commercial
starter culture into it, stir thoroughly and let stand at a tem-
perature of 80° F., or according to special directions furnished
by the manufacturer of the starter culture, until sour and curdled.
This usually requires about 24 hours. The seal of the bottle
containing the starter culture should not be broken until just
before the culture is used.

Second Propagation. — Wash six one-quart fruit jars and lids
thoroughly clean, rinse them and submerge them in boiling hot
water, temperature 200° F. or above, in the galvanized iron box.

Pull the six quart jars out of the hot water box, scald the
clean dipper by dipping it into the hot water in the galvanized
iron box and fill the still hot fruit jars two-thirds full with
pasteurized milk from the starter vat, and cool to 75° F. or
lower according to season. Take the lids out of the hot water
box and place them on the jars.

Now open the jar containing the first propagation. With
the dessert spoon skim off the top inch, having first dipped the
spoon into the boiling-hot water. Place the lid on this jar again
and shake thoroughly to break up the curd and until the con-
tents are smooth. Again scald the spoon in the hot water and
transfer one spoonful of the startoline of the first propagation
into each of the six quart jars containing the pasteurized and
cooled milk for the second propagation. Seal these jars, and
hold them in the insulated box at about 75° F. until sour and
curdled.

Third Propagation. — The next day again prepare and scald
six one-quart jars as directed under the "second propagation."
Fill them with freshly pasteurized milk from the starter vat;
cool to about 75° F. or below, according to season. Take
their lids out of the hot water box and place them on the filled
jars.

Now line up the six mother starter jars of the second
propagation. Open one at a time, dip the spoon in scalding-hot
water and remove the top inch of milk from each jar, dipping
the spoon into hot water after skimming each jar. Seal these

258 STARTERS

jars again with their respective covers and shake each jar until
contents are smooth. Then taste the mother starter of each jar,
using1 the spoon and always dipping the spoon in hot water for
each jar.

Select the jar the contents of which have the cleanest and
best flavor and transfer with the scalded spoon, one spoonful of
its contents into each of the six jars containing the freshly pas-
teurized startoline milk. Seal the jars of the third propagation
and place them in the insulated box. In hot weather it may
be advisable to pour enough tap water (temperature 50 to 60°
F.) into the insulated box to- have the jars stand in about two
inches, of water. This will help to control the temperature.
Close the insulated box.

The next morning, examine the jars without removing their
lids. If the milk in them is coagulated, place the jars im-
mediately into the cold room, or preferably into ice water until
ready to use. If the milk shows no signs of coagulation, raise
the temperature to at least 75° F. and hold until coagulated;
then set in cold water until ready to use. If after a few hours
at 75° a satisfactory coagulum does not form, reject the contents
of the jar.

Succeeding Propagations. — The succeeding propagations are
made in exactly the same manner as directed for the third
propagation. All the mother starter that is of good quality and
that is not used for inoculation into jars is then utilized for
the inoculation of the "big" starter in the starter vat or starter
can.

The amount of mother starter used to inoculate fresh mother
starter milk in the jars, and the temperature at which the mother
starter is held, should be such that in 12 to 18 hours a nice,
smooth and soft coagulum forms on the jars, without the ap-
pearance of wheyed-off water. The better, purer and more
active the startoline, the less startoline need be used. One dessert
spoonful per jar is ample in the case of good startoline. If the
holding of the jars at 75° F. causes the curd the next morning
to be too firm and possibly to whey-off and to be too high in acid,

STARTERS 259

the temperature should be lowered until a temperature is found
that will control the fermentation sufficiently to prevent over-
ripening and yet to produce the desired coagulum. The acid in
good active startoline usually is .8 to .9 per cent. It is not prac-
tical, nor feasible, to prescribe an exact temperature that would
apply everywhere, and at all times of the year. The operator
must use his own judgment and be guided by his results from
day to day.

The directions above given for the preparation and propaga-
tion of mother starter, accompanied by proper modifications of
temperature at which the jars are incubated, according to weather
and factory conditions, will yield a uniformly good quality of
startoline and the results can be depended on from day to day.
By the above method, propagations from one and the same
culture can be carried on almost indefinitely and the startoline
often improves in quality and activity as the number of transfers
increases. If the directions on sterilizing all apparatus are con-
scientiously followed, the. startoline will have no gas holes. If
the temperature is adjusted and controlled properly, there will
always be active acid production and good body. Without these
precautions, neither the startoline nor the starter can be depended
on to be of good quality from day to day, and the startoline has
to be renewed often by a new commercial culture.

Directions for Making Commercial Starter.

Good quality of milk, sterility of all utensils and proper
temperature control are all important The absence of any one
of these essentials ultimately means poor starter.

Good Quality of Milk. — Good quality of milk is all essential
for good starter of a sharp, clean acid, such as is desired for
the best results, although efficient pasteurization will assist in
minimizing defects of the raw material. However, a really good
starter cannot be made unless the milk which is used is clean
and fresh. Fresh, sweet whole milk purchased direct from dairy
farms on which a high standard of sanitary production prevails,
generally yields the most satisfactory starter, both as to quality
and economy of manufacture. Skim milk, if of good quality,
is also suitable for this purpose, but often proves somewhat

260 STARTERS

more expensive. Condensed milk and milk powder, though
serviceable in the absence of whole milk and skim milk, are
not as satisfactory media for starter making. Under favorable
conditions they may yield reasonably satisfactory results, but
quite often their use conveys to butter a distinct off-flavor. Skim
milk powder deteriorates with age, it should therefore, be reason-
ably fresh when used.

Whole Milk from Fanners. — 'The best quality of starter milk
is usually secured where the milk is delivered or shipped direct
by the farmer to the factory. Every effort should be made to
arrange for such milk supply direct from the farmer.

Upon arrival the milk should be graded for quality and
tested for fat and with the lactometer. Milk that has an un-
clean flavor, or that tests more than 2% acid, or that shows
a lactometer reading of less than 29 points at 60° F. should not
be accepted for starter milk.

Special attention should be given the cans returned to the
farmers. These cans must be free from rust. They must be
washed, rinsed, steamed and dried properly, so that they are
perfectly clean, dry and sweet-smelling. The farmer should not
be allowed to take back buttermilk in the cans in which he
furnishes the milk for starter making. If he wants buttermilk,
he should use a separate set of cans for it. The cans for the
sweet milk must be returned to him empty, clean and dry.

Skim Milk or Whole Milk from Milk Products Factories.—

Milk or skim milk purchased from ice cream plants or other
milk products factories is usually of poor quality, it is often
high in acid and frequently contains undesirable off-flavors. If
secured from these sources, each can should be carefully in-
spected and it should be clearly understood by the party sel-
ling, that milk that is stale, high in acid, off in flavor, or con-
tains preservatives, or extraneous water, will be rejected.

The milk must be delivered in cans that are free from rust
and clean. If the factory from which this milk is purchased
furnishes the cans, the plant should be visited to make sure that
the cans are in satisfactory condition when they are filled with
the milk or skim milk,

STARTERS 261

Milk, and skim milk purchased in this manner, should be
tested with the lactometer. At 60° F. normal whole milk varies
between 29 and 35 lactometer degrees, and normal skim milk
varies between 36 and 38 lactometer degrees. If whole milk
drops below 29 and skim milk drops below 36 lactometer degrees
it may reasonably be suspected that they have been watered. If
whole milk rises above 35 lactometer degrees it has been skim-
med. If skim milk rises above 38 lactometer degrees it has been
adulterated with some foreign substance, other than water.

Condensed Milk. — If condensed milk is to be used, purchase
plain condensed bulk milk, skimmed. Ask for a concentration
of four to one. Dilute with three gallons of water for each
gallon of condensed milk. Pour the water into the starter vat
first, start the coils without heat and add the condensed milk.
Mix well, and pasteurize as usual. If the condensery is not in
position to furnish condensed milk with a concentration of 4:1,
secure what they can furnish, and ask them for the ratio of
concentration and dilute as follows for milk with different con-
centrations :

Gallons

Concentration Gallons Water Condensed Milk
4 :1 3 1

3|:1 2f 1

3i:l 2\ 1

3J:1 2i 1

3 :1 2 1

Skim Milk Powder. — Dissolve at the rate of one pound of
powder to nine pounds of water.

Attach two small wooden slats, similar to lath, to the coil
on its periphery on opposite sides. The slats should be long
enough to reach from one end of the coil to the other. They will
help to beat up the lumps and to mix and dissolve the powder.
These slats are best fastened to the coil by means of "U" bolts.
There are some vats on the market, originally intended for use
in preparing the mix in ice cream factories, the coil of which
is equipped with metal slats, running lengthwise. These vats
are ideal for this purpose. Then pour the water, cold or luke
warm, into the vat, and add the skim milk powder. Avoid pour-

262 STARTERS

ing the powder over the sides of the vat and on the coil as it
tends to stick and cake upon heating. Start revolving the coil
and turn the heat on. Pasteurize as usual.

Preparation of Starter Milk. — Heat the milk, skim milk, or
the diluted condensed milk, or the dissolved skim milk powder
to 180° F. or higher, hold for one hour and cool to 75° F. or
lower, according to season. Keep covers down while cooling.
Now add the startoline. Two quarts of good startoline is suf-
ficient for 200 gallons of milk. If the startoline is not in good
active condition, larger quantities are necessary. Agitate with
coil, cover down, for ten minutes. In hot weather, it may be
advisable to allow a small stream of water to run through the
coil in the vat or through the jacket in the starter can, over
night, in order to prevent the temperature from rising too high.
In this case the valve in the water pipe should be open just a
"crack."

The next morning, examine the starter. With a properly
scalded dipper, dip out some and test for acidity. If a nice
smooth coagulum has formed and the acidity is about .8% or
slightly over, cool at once to 50° F. or below and draw the
starter off, adding it to the cream as needed. If the starter is
not needed for several hours, but the starter vat or can must be
vacated for the preparation of the next batch, draw the starter
off into clean, steamed and dried shipping cans and set them in
the cooler, so as to avoid further fermentation.

When the vat is empty, rinse it, wash it clean with wash-
ing powder and hot water, rinse, and steam thoroughly with
cover down. Fill with new batch of starter milk, pasteurize at
180° F. or above, hold for one hour, cool to about 75° F. or lower,
according to season and add startoline as directed for previ-
ous day. A good starter has an acidity of about .8 to .9%, it
is clean, fairly sharp and has a smooth, soft curd that shakes
down readily and that is free from gas holes.

Equipment for Making Commercial Starter:

Where only a small amount of starter is needed, the milk
may be heated in ten gallon milk cans by setting the cans in
a vat containing boiling hot water. For larger quantities of
starter milk special equipment is desirable. The circular starter

STARTERS

263

can, with the insulated water jacket on the outside and the re-
volving agitator on the inside, has been found very convenient
for this purpose and is in general use in many creameries. The
chief objection to these starter cans is that the agitation of the
relatively great volume of milk is not sufficient at the periphery
to keep the milk from baking onto the heating surface. This
makes thorough cleaning exceedingly difficult and laborious and
it invites the application of agents which remove the tin as well
as the remnants of milk from the copper lining.

For creameries with a
large make the circular
starter can is too small.
They generally use standard
cream ripening vats with
disc or coil agitator and with
cover, as their receptacle for
starter making. Easy con-
trol of temperature is es-
sential.

As a whole, copper-
lined starter cans or starter-
vats are objectionable. The
tin coating on the copper
soon wears off, exposing the
copper surface This invites
action of the acid in the
starter on the copper, yield-
ing metallic salts which are distinctly injurious to the quality
of the cream and butter, enhancing decomposition which
jeeopardizes the flavor and keeping quality of the butter, and
leading to the development of such butter defects as metallic
flavor, tallowy flavor, fishy flavor, etc. If tinned, copper-lined
starter cans and vats are used, they should be retinned as soon
as they show any considerable area of exposed copper. The
use of glass-enameled starter vats cannot be too highly recom-
mended as the most suitable equipment for starter making.

Fig*. 37. Trunion starter can

Courtesy Creamery Package Mfg. Co.

264

STARTERS

Pigf. 38. Glass-enameled starter tank
Courtesy Elyria Enameled Products Co.

The Proper Degree of Ripeness. — At the time when the
starter milk begins to be sour to the taste, but has not reached
the coagulating point, it usually has a peculiarly disagreeable
odor and flavor. This is explained to be due to the activity of
other micro-organisms aside from the lactic acid species in-
oculated. Later, when the acid is more pronounced and the
milk is at the point of curdling, this disagreeable flavor and
aroma generally disappear, the lactic acid species of bacteria
having gained the ascendancy, holding the other species in check.

If the starter were therefore used in the early stage of
acid development and before the battle of species for the survival
of the fittest had been decided in favor of the lactic acid
organisms, the starter would fail to lend to the cream and the
resulting butter the flavor for which it is used. It is important,
therefore, to permit the starter to develop until the maximum
number and activity of lactic acid bacteria are secured, which is
the case usually at the point when the milk commences to curdle.

STARTERS

265

On the other hand, it is equally undesirable to carry the
souring process too far. After the casein is coagulated the lactic
acid bacteria seem to lose their maximum efficiency as acid
producers, they weaken, become inactive or degenerate and
permit other species to gain the ascendancy. The starter loses
its fine flavor and its snap, yeasty fermentations and casein-
digesting changes set in, which make the starter unfit and un-
safe for use. It is generally conceded that .80 to .90 per cent
acid represents the maximum acidity to which it is safe to allow
starter to ripen when ordinary commercial cultures of lactic
acid bacteria are used. This does not necessarily hold good
with cultures of Bacillus bulgaricus. This organism is capable
of developing a much higher acid without degenerating and
without depreciating the aroma and flavor of the cream. Bacil-
lus bulgaricus has not as yet been thoroughly tried out in con-
nection with cream ripening and its desirability as a starter
organism is as yet undetermined.

Amount of Starter to Use. — For directions concerning the
proper amount of starter to add to cream the reader is referred
to the chapter on Cream Ripening.

Scoring the Starter. — In order to express the quality of the
starter, aside from the per cent of acid it contains, in more con-
crete terms, it is desirable to use a figure scale, or score card.
This is especially desirable for the use of the student and for
experimental data. The following score card is recommended
for this purpose :

STARTER SCORE CARD

Name,

Date,

Score

Description

Perfect] Actual

Aroma . .
Flavor ....

Body

20
40

20
20

Clean, pronounced, pleasant, no taints
Clean, pronounced, snappy, free from .yeasty,
cheesy, curdy and other off-flavors
Smooth, soft, creamy, no gas holes, no whey
.8 to .9% acid

Acid

Total

100

266 CHURNING

CHAPTER X.
CHURNING.

Object of Churning. — The object of churning is to separate
the butterfat from the caseous and serous parts of the milk or
cream, to make butter. This is accomplished by the formation
of butter granules.

Philosophy of Churning. — The formation of butter granules
is brought about by the crystallization or solidification of the
fat in the fat globules and by coalescence of the wholly or
partly solidified fat globules into butter granules.

Milk and Cream an Emulsion. — In freshly drawn milk the
fat is present in the form of minute globules of liquid fat. These
fat globules are emulsified in a watery mixture of hydrated col-
loid— the skim milk. An emulsion, in this case, is a mixture
of two liquids which are insoluble in each other, where one is
suspended in the other in the form of minute globules. Milk
then represents an emulsion of fat-in-skim milk, the fat rep-
resenting the divided or dispersed phase, and the skim milk
the continuous or dispersing phase of the emulsion. As long
as this emulsion remains intact, there can be no formation of
butter granules. Butter does not form.

The establishment of this emulsion of fat-in-skim milk is
the direct result of the process of milk secretion. When milk
is secreted, nature places the fat, \vhich is liberated by the
metabolic activity of the cells which line the alveoli, into the
skim milk in the form of very finely divided particles.

Fischer and Hooker1 who made an extensive study of fatty
secretions and fatty emulsions, considering the phenomena of
milk secretion from the standpoint of the pathologist, speak
of the secretion of butterfat as a fatty degeneration of the cells
in the alveoli. "The originally cubical cells wrhich make up
the alveoli of an active mammary gland become richer in water
and filled with granules (cloudy swelling), while the fat in
the cells runs together into more readily visible droplets (fatty
degeneration). When this process of cloudy swelling with fat

1 Martin H. Fischer and Marion O. Hooker, Fats and Fatty Degeneration,
1917.

CHURNING 267

Fat Globules in Milk, Cream, Skimmilk and Buttermilk
Magnification 740.

Pig-. 39. Milk

fig. 40. Cream

Fig*. 41. Skim milk FIff. 42. Buttermilk

coalescence becomes sufficiently great, the cell bursts and a
fluid mixture of hydrated colloid (meaning the skim milk), con-
taining the fat globules, results. This is milk."

It is obvious from the above discussion that the fine divi-
sion and uniform distribution of the fat in the milk, or the fat-
in-skim milk emulsion, is the handiwork of nature. In this
finely divided state the fat is most accessible to the digestive
juices, facilitating digestion by the young, who depend on
milk as their exclusive food and whose delicate digestive or-
gans are not prepared to deal with solid masses of fat.

268 CHURNING

Permanency of Fat-in-Skimmilk Emulsion. — This emul-
sion, established by the secretion of the milk, is fairly per-
manent. The question here consistently arises: What causes
these fat globules to remain divided, what hinders them from
running together like oil?

Earlier investigators claimed that each fat globule was
surrounded by a definite membrane. This was a mere assump-
tion which proved erroneous. The presence of such a membrane
has never been satisfactorily established. Later study failed to
demonstrate .its existence and yielded substantial evidence that
such a membrane does not exist. The only envelope that sur-
rounds the fat globules in milk is the skim milk in which they
are suspended.

The forces that make it possible for the minute fat globules
to retain their identity as single units and that prevent them from
running together, are the difference in the surface tension be-
tween the fat globules and the skim milk, adsorption and the
viscosity of the milk.

Surface Tension. — The fat globules stay apart, they retain
'their individuality, they do not run together, primarily because
of the law of surface tension. By surface tension is under-
stood the attraction which the molecules of one and the same
substance have for each other. The molecules which are located
in the surface of a liquid, are attracted toward the interior of
the liquid by the molecules situated there, but there is no
similar attraction towards the exterior, because the molecules in
the interior of a liquid* are subject to .attraction from all sides.
The tension thus produced on the surface by this molecular at-
traction towards the interior is called the surface tension. It
obviously conveys to the surface the tendency to become re-
duced to the smallest possible dimensions. Hence, if a liquid
is placed in a position, where it is not affected by gravity, the
form of the liquid changes until it assumes the smallest possible
surface for a given volume. And this is the sphere.

In the case of milk, in the secretion of which nature has
placed the fat in finely divided particles, the fat possesses a greater
surface tension than the surrounding skim milk. The minute,

CHURNING 269

units of fat, therefore, retain their identity and individuality and,
because of the surface tension, they are present in the form of
round globules.

Adsorption and Viscosity. — The ability of the fat globules
in milk and cream, to retain their individuality is further assisted
by the law of adsorption and by the viscosity of the milk.

By adsorption, in the sense here used, is meant the some-
what greater concentration in the surface layer of the fat
globules of the skim milk; than the concentration of the 're-
mainder of the surrounding skim milk. This concentration of
the skim milk on the surface layer of the fat globules assists
in maintaining their internal cohesion and in diminishing the
power of adhesion between fat globules. It tends to convey
to the individual fat globules greater stability.

Finally, the permanency of the emulsion of the fat globules
in milk is enhanced by the natural viscosity of the skim milk,
caused by the presence of such colloids as albumen and casein,
and of milk sugar.

Effect of Cream Separation. — When cream is separated
these phenomena do not materially change, they remain funda-
mentally the same. Cream still represents an emulsion of fat-
in-skim milk. The composition of the non-fatty serum in cream
is similar to that of milk and the difference in the surface ten-
sion between the fat globules and the cream serum remains
the same. There is merely a larger aggregation of fat globules
in a smaller volume of skim milk.

Effect of Cooling of Cream. — When cream is cooled, pre-
paratory to churning, the fat in the fat globules wholly or partly
solidifies. This enhances the internal power of cohesion in the
fat globules and increases the power of adhesion between fat,
globules, offsetting and completely overcoming the effect of
the surface tension of the fat globules. If cream were not cooled
sufficiently to partly or wholly solidify the fat, the churning
would result in a finer division of the fat globules.

Effect of Agitation in Churn. — When this cooled cream,
with the partly, or wholly solidified fat globules is subsequently
subjected to the agitation and concussion generated in the re-

270 CHURNING

volving churn, the increased power of adhesion enables the
partly or wholly solidified fat globules to unite, forming butter
granules.

Increase in Size of Butter Granules. — This union of fat
globules and formation of butter granules proceeds in geometric
progression. While it commences as soon as the churn starts
revolving, the process of uniting at first is slow and the change
is imperceptible. The minute size of the fat globules retards
their opportunity for collision with and adhesion to one-another
and the butter granules resulting from these early adhesions
are microscopic in size. The average fat globule measures about
3/1000 of one millimeter or about 1/10,000 of one inch in diam-
eter. The sum of two fat globules forming one butter granule,
therefore, also is extremely small. But, as the churning process
progresses, the butter granules form more rapidly and grow
in size more rapidly. The larger they grow the more rapidly
they increase in size with each successive adhesion.

Why Cream Thickens in the Churn. — As the churning
process proceeds, the cream begins to thicken and continues to
thicken, until it assumes marked rigidity, practically assuming
maintenance of form. This thickening is due in part to the
increased size of the still microscopic or semi-microscopic but-
ter granules. These larger granules offer more internal friction
and hold the serum in a mash-like emulsion. Up to a certain
point, the larger these microscopic granules the thicker and
more rigid the cream.

The thickening of the cream during the early part of the
churning process is also due, in a large measure, to the profuse
incorporation of air in this viscous, cold cream. The cream
whips. The air so incorporated and the rigid character of the
cream which the minutely divided air helps to bring about,
have a very marked retarding effect on the churning process,
greatly minimizing the concussion to which the fat globules are
subjected, and making it difficult for them to find each other
and to strike each other with sufficient force to coalesce to one

CHURNING 271

another. If it were not for the obstructing presence in the cream
of this air, cream would churn more rapidly. It is obvious that
in a vacuum, or under reduced pressure, the churning- process
would occupy much less time.

Since it is during the churning process and not during the
working process, that the bulk of the air found in the finished
butter, is incorporated, and since the presence of air in butter
represents an active agent of butter-deterioration, churning in
vacuo, aside from grealy reducing the churning period and in-
creasing the capacity of the creamery, would tend to exert a
markedly favorable effect on the keeping quality of the butter.

Under certain conditions, which render cream excessively
viscous, such as is the case in cream from stripper cows, or
very cold /cream, or cream that has undergone ropy-milk fermen-
tation, the churning process is very much prolonged and fre-
quently it does not reach the breaking point at all, because
of the air-holding and whipping properties of the abnormal
viscosity of such cream. For this same reason, any agency, or
condition that reduces the viscosity, hastens the churning pro-
cess. Thus, sour cream churns more quickly than sweet cream,
the acid destroying the viscosity and the whipping power of the
cream. Cream from cows which have been in milk for a short
time only churns more rapidly than cream from stripper cows,
because the former is more fluid and less viscous. At a high
churning temperature, provided that the temperature remains
below the melting point of fat, cream churns quicker than at
a low temperature, because a rise in the temperature increases
the fluidity of the cream.

In this stiff and rigid cream the emulsion of fat-in-skim
milk is still intact.

Why Butter "Breaks" Suddenly. — As the butter granules
become larger in size in the thickened cream, a point is reached,
where the surface of the butter granules becomes so small in
proportion to their cubic contents, that the fat-in-skim milk
emulsion can no longer be sustained, the emulsion is broken.

272 CHURNING

The skim milk (now called buttermilk), in excess of that por-
tion that is incorporated in, or adheres to, the surface of the
butter granules, recedes and "wheys off," the butter granules
separate out, and the butter "breaks." This point is reached
after the majority of the butter granules have outgrown their
original microscopic size and have become large enough to be
readily visible to the naked eye.

Pig. 43. Water droplets in butter, magnification 740

With the "breaking" of the butter, the emulsion changes
from a fat-in-skim milk emulsion as represented by the cream,
to a buttermilk-in-fat emulsion, as is represented by the butter.
The fat globules cease to exist as units. Butter is a mass of
butterfat into which have been emulsified small divided units,
or droplets, of buttermilk. Butter represents an emulsion in
which the fat is the continuous phase and the hydrated colloid
or buttermilk the divided or dispersed phase.

While, under normal conditions of churning, the churning
process occupies from about 40 to 60 minutes, the actual "break-
ing"of butter happens with almost instantaneous suddenness.

CHURNING 273

The reason for this is obvious. As previously explained, the
increase in the size of the butter granules during- the early
stages of the churning process is slow, due to the small initial size
of the fat globules and to the obstructing foam. Numerous pro-
gressive steps of adhesion between fat globules and later be-
tween butter granules are necessary before the breaking point
is reached. This requires time, and yet, during all this time
there is no visible sign of butter formation.

Just before the breaking point the contents of the churn
are still cream. But the butter granules, though still invisible
to the naked eye, have reached the maximum size at which
their reduced surfaces are still capable of sustaining their
emulsion with the skim milk in the form of cream. One more
union between each two of these relatively large butter granules,
causing the granules to be twice of this already relatively large
size, may break the emulsion, the resulting granules being too
large and their surfaces too small to still sustain their emulsion
in the skim milk of the cream. The result is that the skim
milk immediately breaks away from the butter granules and the
butter "breaks," and we have masses of butter granules on the
one hand and buttermilk on the other.

The suddenness of the "breaking of the butter is further
intensified by the fact, that the relatively large size of the still
emulsified butter granules in the cream just before the breaking
point, facilitates the coalescence, or adhesion, of these granules
in the cream. The larger the granules before the breaking point,
the more easily they find each other, the more readily they col-
lide, and the accelerated force of impact between these larger
granules increases their power of adhesion. When they collide
they stick together. Simultaneous with the break of the tension
of the fat-in-skim milk emulsion, much of the incorporated air
also is liberated, further quickening the breaking of the emulsion.
Hence, when this critical point is reached, one or a few more
revolutions of the churn suddenly transforms the emulsion of
cream into solid butter and fluid buttermilk. The butter "breaks"
abruptly.

The foregoing discussion makes it clear that the churning
process resolves itself into a change from a fat-in-skim milk

274 CHURNING

emulsion, such as exists in milk and cream, into a buttermilk-in-
fat emulsion, such as exists in butter. This transformation of
emulsions, or of cream into butter, is brought about funda-
mentally by solidification of the fat globules and by subsequent
coalescence of the solidified fat globules, forming butter granules,
and by progresive adhesion or uniting of the butter granules.

Solidification. — The solidification of the fat globules is caused
by low temperature and concussion.

The solidifying point of butterfat, like the melting point, is
not constant. It varies particularly with the chemical compost
tion of the butterfat. Thus the fats of the harder glycerides, such
as the myristin, stearin and palmitin, have a higher solidifying
point than the fats of the softer glycerides, such as the fats
of the volatile fatty acids and the olein. Hence the solidifying
point fluctuates according to the relative proportion of these
several fats in the mixed fat.

At the temperature of the animal body, 98° to 100° F., but-
terfat is liquid. At ordinary temperatures (room temperature)
butterfat contains both solid and liquid elements. By lowering
the temperature, fractional crystallization of the butterfat is ef-
fected, the harder glycerides crystallizing first. As the tem-
perature drops, more of the softer glycerides begin to crystallize.
The extreme range of the solidifying point of the mixed butter-
fat lies between about 15.5 degrees C. to 30 degrees C. (60 to
80 degrees F.) Under normal conditions the range of tem-
perature is confined to much narrower limits, not falling below
about 18 degrees C. nor exceeding 24 degrees C. (65 to 75 degrees
F.) and averaging about 21 degrees C. (70 degrees F.).

In order for the fat globules to form butter granules, it is
necessary therefore, to lower the temperature of the cream suf-
ficiently to insure solidification of the fat in the fat globules.
The reason why the churning temperature of the cream must be
dropped below the minimum temperature at which the mixed
fat solidifies, must be attributed in part at least to the fact, that
mere solidification, while it causes the cream to churn, does not
necessarily give the butter granules the desired firmness. Lower
temperatures are needed to render the butter granules sufficiently

CHURNING 275

firm to insure exhaustive churning and to produce butter with
good body, and free from leakiness and excessive moisture.

Recent experiments by Hunziker and Hosman have revealed
the fact that mixed butterfat has more than one solidifying point.
It appears that even in the cooling of the cream the mixed but-
terfat does not solidify all at one temperature, but that fractional
solidification takes place, the high melting-point fats solidifying
first. These findings further explain why it is necessary to cool the
cream to a temperature materially below that of the solidifying
point of the mixed butterfat, if a firm bodied butter is to be
secured. The temperature must be low enough to also cause the
solidification of the lower-melting point fats, particularly the
olein. In fact it is at this point, it is in the cream vat, that the
body of the butter is determined. If the cream has never been
exposed to a temperature low enough to solidify all the butterfat,
the butter tends to have a weak and slushy body that does not
stand up well under unfavorable temperature conditions. In a
warm room it is prone to soften quickly, because some of its fat
constituents have not been properly solidified, they still are in
fluid, or semi-fluid, condition and cause the butter to become soft
and lose its shape even at temperatures below the melting-point of
butter. On the other hand, if the cream, at least once between the
processes of pasteurization and of churning, has been cooled
sufficiently to completely solidify all the butterfat, the butter
made from such cream will have a good body that will hold
up well, even under unfavorable temperature conditions. In
this case the butter has to be warmed to near the melting point,
before it will show signs of appreciable softening. And even
a considerable rise in the churning temperature of such cream
above that desired will not materially reduce the firmness and
standing-up properties of the butter made therefrom.

Aside from the churning temperature the solidification of
the fat globules is enhanced by subjecting them to vigorous con-
cussion. The agitation which the cream receives in the churn,
furnishes this concussion and therefore further hastens the solidi-
fication of the fat globules.

276 CHURNING

Coalescence. — Coalescence is the second necessary factor for
the formation of butter granules By coalescence is meant the
uniting and adhering together of the fat globules and butter
granules. The power of the fat globules to coalesce is largely
determined by the extent of solidification and the amount of con-
cussion. It is also affected by the size of the fat globules, by
adsorption and by the viscosity of the cream.

In liquid form the fat globules cannot coalesce to the extent
of forming butter granules. In warm cream set at rest they may
run together, "oiling off" and forming a continuous layer of oil.
In cream at any temperature not low enough to cause solidifica-
tion or partial solidification of the fat, when subjected to agita-
tion such as is produced in the revolving churn, the fat globules,
instead of coalescing tend to diminish in size, due to the effect
of their surface tension, adsorption and the viscosity of the
cream. For this reason cream does not churn out, and but-
ter granules do not form when the temperature is too high to
effect at least partial solidification.

On the other hand, coalescence and the formation of butter
granules is greatly delayed, if not made impossible, when the
degree of solidification has been carried so far, as to cause the
fat globules and the small butter granules to be very hard. In
this case the adhesive property, or stickiness, of the fat globules
and of the initial butter granules is greatly reduced, the impres-
sion which they suffer when they collide is very slight, the surface
of contact is therefore too small and the individual globules and
granules are too firm to readily adhere to each other when
they collide. For this reason, cream that is churned at an ex-
tremely low temperature, or that has been held at a very low
temperature for a long time before churning, or the fat of which
has a relatively high melting point, churns with great difficulty.

In order to give the fat globules an opportunity to coalesce
they must be subjected to concussion. This is obviously
produced by the operation of the churn. The more vigorous the
concussion, other things being equal, the greater their power
to coalesce and the more rapidly is the churning completed.

Other conditions being the same, the time required for the
butter granules to form is determined by the size of the fat

CHURNING 277

globules and by the viscosity of the cream. The larger the fat
globules the more rapid the formation of the butter granules1.
The effect of the concussion and the ease of coalescence are
intensified in the case of the large globules, because they strike
each other and the sides of the churn oftener and with greater
force than do the small globules.

The viscosity of the cream diminishes the force of the con-
cussion. It obstructs the frequency of the collisions between
globules and detracts from the force of the impact when they
do collide, lessening their power of adhesion.

Conditions which Affect the Churnability of Cream and the
Mechanical Firmness of Butter. — The ease with which cream
churns is dependent on many and varying factors, some of these
factors have to do with the initial character of the cream as it
arrives at the factory, while others refer to conditions of the proc-
ess of manufacture. To the former group may be classed the size
of the fat globules, the chemical composition of the butterfat
and the viscosity of the cream. The second group includes such
factors as temperature of cream, degree of ripeness, richness of
cream, nature of agitation, fullness of churn, speed of churn.

The following schematic classification may serve to illustrate
the numerous factors which enter into the churnability of cream,
and to clarify their logical relation to each other :

1 Hunziker, Mills and Spitzer, Purdue Bulletin No. 159, 1912, p. 325.

278

CHURNING

Classification of Essential Conditions Influencing the
Churnability of Cream

I Chemical [Breed

composi- J Period of

tion of 1 lactation

butterfat [Feed

Temperature f Churning temperature
of butter- <! Time held at churning
fat [ temperature

Breed fLocality

Period of -{Season of
lactation year

Solidification
of fat
This is in-
fluenced by

Size of fat [
globules 1

The churning
process, or the
formation of -
butter granules,
depends on

Concussion
of cream

Mechanical
firmness
of fat

Coalescence
of fat
globules
This is in-
fluenced by

Size of fat f
globules •<

Concussion
of cream

Agitation

[Fullness of
J churn
] Speed of
churn

Viscosity of [Period of
cream < lactation

[Acidity
Richness of cream

Chemical
composi-
tion of
butterfat

Melting point

Size of fat [Breed
globules -{ Period of
[ lactation

[Breed [Locality

«! Period of -/Season of
lactation [ year

Agitation

[Fullness of

churn
1 Speed of

churn

Viscosity of [Period of
cream -| lactation

I Acidity
Richness of cream

CHURNING 279

Size of Fat Globules. — Cream in which the small fat globules
greatly predominate churns with difficulty while cream with
large average globules churns quickly. As previously stated the
formation of butter granules is dependent in part on the co-
alescence of the fat globules. In order for the fat globules to
coalesce, the fat must be partly or wholly solidified. For the
solidification of the fat it is necessary that the physical equilibri-
um of the fat globules be disturbed and partly destroyed. Other
things being the same, the chief factor keeping the fat globules
intact is the surface tension. The forces which overcome and
partly destroy the effect of the surface tension are greater in
their effect on the large globules than on the small globules,
the equilibrium of the large globules is more easily disturbed,
Therefore they solidify more readily and coalesce more quickly.
Again, the effect of the concussion in the churn, and the ease
of coalescence are intensified in the case of the large globules,
because they strike each other and the sides of the churn oftener
and with greater force than do the small globules.

This is one of the reasons why milk from stripper cows in
which the fat globules are usually relatively small, often churns
with great difficulty. And since, in winter, the great majority of
the cows supplying the creamery are well advanced in their
period of lactation, it is in winter that the majority of the churn-
ing difficulties occur. The diameter of the fat globules in strip-
per milk averages about one-third of that of the fat globules of
milk from cows during the first two to three months of lactation.

The size of the fat globules is also very materially affected
by breed, the fat globules in milk of the Channel Island cows
averaging much larger than those of the Holsteins and Ayrshires.
This explains in part, why cream churned on the farm and
produced exclusively from Holsteins and Ayrshires, at a time
when the cows approach the end of their period of lactation,
often churns with great difficulty. In the creamery the factor
of breed of cows is of much less importance. As the cream
supply territory of most creameries embraces a varied mixture
of the several breeds and grades of dairy cattle, the danger of
churning difficulties due to effect of breed on the size of the fat
globules, is a negative quantity.

280 CHURNING

Chemical Properties of the Butterfat. — The chemical make-
up of the butterfat influences its churnability largely through its
effect on the melting point and mechanical firmness of the fat.
While the desired degree of solidification of the fat globules is
chiefly a matter of temperature adjustment of the cream before
churning, it is very materially influenced by the chemical com-
position of the fat. Butterfat is a mixture of fats with different
melting points, different solidifying points and of varying me-
chanical firmness.

Experimental results by the author1 and others show that,
while there appears to be no definite relation between the per
cent of volatile acids, as arbitrarily expressed by the Reichert-
Meissl number, and the per cent of oleic acid, as expressed by
the Iodine number, and the melting point, and while the relative
proportion of soluble acids exclusive of butyric and that of in-
soluble acids exclusive of oleic acid is evidently an important
factor related to the melting point, it appears reasonable to con-
clude, that the volatile acids and the oleic acid do influence the
melting point to a very marked degree and that there is a strong
tendency for the melting point to follow, inversely, changes in
the per cent oleic acid and volatile fatty acids.

Since the volatile fatty acids have a much lower melting
point than the oleic acid, it is obvious that variations in the
amount of the former, present in the butterfat, exert the greater
influence on the melting-point of the fat. However, the volatile
fatty acids are present in relatively small amounts and their
changes, expressed in percentage of the total fat, are usually
slight. Oleic acid, on the other hand, constitutes a large por-
tion of the total butterfat and it often varies between wide limits
(35 to 50%). Hence the fluctuations in the amount of oleic acid
present are looked upon as, and have been found to be, respons-
ible for, in a large measure, variations in the melting point.

Butterfat in which the fats with high melting points and
great firmness are present in excess and at the expense of the
fats with low melting points and soft texture, churns relatively
slowly. The fat globules solidify at a relatively high tempera-
ture, and unless the churning temperature has been correspond-
ingly raised, they are prone to become excessively firm, their

1 Hunziker, Spitzer and Mills, Purdue Bulletin No. 159, 1912.

CHURNING 281

power of coalescence is greatly reduced and the formation of
butter granules is retarded. When cream containing butterfat
of this character is held at a low temperature for a considerable
length of time and is churned at that low temperature, the dif-
ficulty of churning becomes very marked and the churning pro-
cess may require several hours. On the other hand, in the case
of cream containing butterfat which is made up of a relatively
large portion of fats with a low melting point and has a soft
texture, the cream will churn quickly because the coalescence
of the soft fat globules is facilitated.

Individuality, breed, age and length of milking period exert
some influence on the melting point and mechanical texture of
the fat. Thus the Channel Island cows produce butterfat with
a higher melting point and of firmer texture than the Holsteins
and Ayrshires, Quite often cows which have been in milk for
an abnormal length of time produce a very firm butterfat that
churns with great difficulty. But these factors must be con-
sidered rather incidental and of material influence only in the
case of butter that is made on the farm and from a small num-
ber of cows.

The most important and decisive factor affecting the chem-
ical composition, melting point and mechanical texture of the
fat and the churnability of the cream is the feed. Experimental
investigations1 have conclusively brought out the following facts
with reference to the influence of different feeds on the melting
point and mechanical firmness of the butterfat:

Feeds which increase the per cent of olein usually tend to
make a soft butter. To these belong feeds rich in vegetable oils,
such as germ oil, corn oil, linseed oil, linseed meal rich in fat,
cottonseed oil, soya bean oil, soya bean meal, gluten feeds rich
in fat when fed in large quantities and blue grass pasture.

Feeds which decrease the per cent of olein, such as feeds
low in vegetable oils, and rich in carbohydrates and sugars, tend
to make a firm butter. To these belong potatoes, corn meal,
corn silage, sweet corn fodder, wheat bran, sugar beets, etc.
Cottonseed meal also tends to make a firm and crumbly butter.

It is obvious from the above results, that in winter, when
the cows are on dry feed and especially if the grain ration con-

iHunziker, Spitzer and Mills. Purdue Bulletin No. 159, 1912.

282 CHURNING

tains bran and cottonseed meal, the butterfat is prone to be
relatively firm and the fat globules are slow in uniting into but-
ter granules. This condition is further intensified by the fact
that the fat globules in winter cream are relatively small and the
cream is often of viscous nature due to the advanced state of the
period of lactation of the majority of the cows. Where butter
is made on the farm and the buttermaker therefore has the feed-
ing under his control, the addition to the ration of some con-
centrate rich in vegetable oil, such as linseed meal, or gluten
feed, will help to overcome churning difficulties. In summer
when the cows are on succulent pasture, which tends to lower
the melting point of the fat and frequently causes the butter to
come too quickly and in soft and slushy condition, the difficulty
may be avoided by feeding a small amount of dry hay if avail-
able, or cottonseed meal, or other feed producing hard fat. In
the creamery, where the buttermaker has no control of the feed-
ing, the difficulty can best be overcome by adjusting the churn-
ing temperature so as to make the butter come moderately firm.
In summer the chief remedy against too rapid formation of the
butter granules and the production of an excessively soft and
slushy butter lies in the proper lowering of the churning tem-
perature.

Viscosity of Cream. — The more viscous the cream the more
time is required to complete the churning. The viscosity of the
cream counteracts to a considerable extent the concussion to
which the fat globules must be subjected, in order to make pos-
sible their coalescence. In very viscous cream the fat globules
strike each other less readily and with less force than in cream
free from abnormal viscosity. The churning difficulty is further
greatly intensified by the obstructing effect of the great volume
of air which is beaten into and held by this viscous cream.

Abnormal viscosity of cream is often due to its peculiar
chemical properties. Cream from stripper cows and cows which
have been in milk for a prolonged period is prone to show
pronounced viscosity and often churns with great difficulty. This
is especially true with certain individual cows. Such cream
usually contains a relatively high per cent of solids not fat, and
these solids, especially the proteids, may be of abnormally
viscous character.

CHURNING 283

The viscosity is frequently also brought about, or intensified,
by abnormal fermentations which break down a portion of the
proteids. Excessively low temperature and churning the cream
sweet, are additional conditions which tend toward churning
difficulties by intensifying the viscosity and the resulting froth-
ing in the churn.

The viscosity may be materially reduced by properly ripen-
ing the cream and by raising the churning temperature, also
by adding a small amount of salt to the cream.

Churning Temperature. — The churning temperature is one
of the most important factors governing the churnability of the
cream. Other conditions being the same, and within reason-
able limits, the higher the churning temperature, the more rapidly,
do the butter granules form' and the shorter is the churning pro-
cess; the lower the temperature the more time is required to com-
plete the churning.

Excessively high churning temperatures are very undesirable,
because they are injurious to the texture and quality of the but-
ter. Butter made under such conditions is prone to have a
greasy texture and a poor, weak, slushy and leaky body. Such,
butter does not stand up well on the market and readily develops
off-flavors. This is especially true with cream with a relatively
high per cent of fat. Cream with a low fat content can be
churned at relatively higher temperatures without danger of
serious injury to the body of the butter. High churning tem-
peratures are also prone to cause overchurning. The fat globules
unite so rapidly that the churn usually is not stopped soon
enough, so that the coalescence has gone far beyond the granular
stage, large lumps of butter having been formed. Churning at
too high temperatures further causes excessive loss of fat in the
buttermilk. This is due to the great rapidity with which the
large globules coalesce and the shortness of the churning period,
giving the small globules insufficient opportunity to become
properly incorporated in the butter granules.

High churning temperatures in early summer, when the
butterfat naturally has a low melting point, and is relatively soft
because of access of the cows to green pasture, tends to produce
butter high in moisture and there is danger of violating the 16

284 CHURNING

per cent moisture limit. When butter contains too much
moisture as the result of churning at too high a temperature, it
is often difficult to correct the error. The fat in this condition
is so soft that it is exceedingly miscible with water and the
water is very finely distributed throughout the butter and thor-
oughly incorporated. For correction of this defect see chapter
on Moisture Control.

High churning temperatures under certain conditions are
also prone to produce a slushy and very leaky butter. This is
especially the case in fall, winter and early spring, when the
melting point of the butterfat is relatively high and the higher
churning temperature does not very greatly increase the mis-
cibility of the butterfat, but reduces the emulsifying power of
the protein substances in butter.

Too low a churning temperature is undesirable because it
greatly prolongs the churning process. This is due partly to
excessive solidification of the fat in the fat globules. The fat
globules become so firm that their power to coalesce and to form
butter granules is greatly reduced. The difficulty of churning
is further augmented by the increase of the viscosity of this
cold cream, which lessens the concussion, and by the churning
of cream with a very low butterfat content which hinders the
fat globules from uniting into granules, because of the large
amount of intervening serum. When churned at abnormally low
temperatures the butter appears in the form of very firm, small,
round granules which make the proper and uniform incorporai
tion of the salt difficult and which hinder the control of moist-
ure and overrun. Such butter is prone to be low in moisture
and to cause a correspondingly low overrun. In order to get
the salt properly incorporated there is danger of overworking it
and of giving the butter a salvy body. Of the two extremes, too
high and too low temperatures, the former, too high a tem-
perature, however, is the most harmful to the quality of the
butter.

As previously shown, the churning temperature must be
governed by and adjusted according to the degree of firmness
of the fat in the cream and this in turn will vary with locality
and season of year,

CHURNING

285

The locality largely determines the breed of dairy cows and
the feed; while the season has to do with the period, of lactation
and feed.

Table 43. — Showing Effect of Breed on Mechanical Firmness of
Butter and Relation of Mechanical Firmness to Butter Fat

Constants.1

Breed

No. of
Cows

Reichert-
Meissl No.

Iodine
Number

Melting
Point

Depression
mm.

Ayrshire ..
Holstein . .
Jersey

3
3
18

27.84
27.56
31.12

35.64
37.10
29.10

34.1
34.3
34.5

16.83
4.88
1.83

The above table shows that the fat from Holsteins and
Ayrshires contains a greater proportion of the softer fats (olein)
as expressed by the Iodine number and makes a much softer
butter than the fat from the Jerseys. In localities, therefore,
where the Holsteins and Ayrshires predominate, lower churning
temperatures should be used than in exclusive Jersey territory

In the southern states where, because of the great availabili-
ty and cheapness, cottonseed meal is fed in relatively large
quantities, higher churning temperatures must be used than in
the northern sections where gluten feed and linseed meal are
a prominent part of the grain ration. In fact, in certain sections
of the South it is necessary to raise the churning temperature to
as high as 72° F. in order to complete the churning process in
a reasonable length of time and to secure butter with a body
sufficiently soft for proper handling.

With reference to the season of the year the fact is well
known that in winter higher churning temperatures must be
used than in summer, in order to complete the churning pro-
cess without undue delay and to produce a butter that is not
too firm. The fat in winter milk is usually of a firmer character
than that of summer milk.

That this condition is largely due to the change of the
chemical properties of the butterfat with the change of the
season, is shown in the following table which represents analyses

1 Hunziker, Mills and Spitzer, Purdue Bulletin No. 159, 1912.

286

CHURNING

Table 44. — Effect of the Season of the Year on the Composition
of Butter Fat of Creamery Butter.1

Reichert-
Meissl
Number

Iodine
Number

Melting
Point
0 C.

January

30.03

31.20

33.4 C.

February

3058

31 97

33.5 C.

March

31.30

31.94

33.5 C.

April

29.35

35.83

33.3 C.

May .

29.55

36.48

32.5 C.

June

29.56

38.23

32.45 C.

July

2890

37.10

31.9 C.

August

27.13

38.99

32.1 C.

September

27.19

35.36

33.0 C.

October

26.54

34.27

33.2 C.

November

28.36

30.65

33.4 C.

December .

29.62

30.30

33.6 C.

of butterfat of butter made in the Purdue University Creamery
during the twelve months of the year.

The above table shows that during the winter months
the melting point of the butterfat is highest, causing a relatively
firm butter while in summer it is lowest causing a soft butter.
The reason for the higher melting point in winter and the lower
melting point in summer is obviously largely due to the decrease
in winter and increase in summer, of the per cent of olein as
expressed by the Iodine number and of the volatile fatty acids
expressed by the Reichert Meissl number. The greater firmness
of the winter butter has been attributed by some writers to the
effect of the period of lactation. Since the majority of the cows
approach the end of their lactation period in winter it was as-
sumed that stripper cows produce fat with less olein, a higher
melting point and a higher degree of hardness than fresh cows.
This is erroneous and not substantiated by facts as shown in
below experimental results. In the experiment referred to in
table on next page the cows received the same feed ration
throughout the year.

1 Hunziker, Mills and Spitzer, Moisture Control, Factors not under Control
of the Buttermaker, Purdue Bulletin 159, 1912.

CHURNING

Table 45. — Effect of Period of Lactation on Butter Fat

Constants.1

Period

Reichert:
Meissl
No.

Soluble
Acids
Per Cent

Insoluble
Acids
Per Cent

Iodine
Number

Melting
Point

1st month.

34.55

7.80

87.01

32.08

35.2

2nd month.

32.62

7.50

87.37

32.15

35.2

3rd month.

31.57

7.34

87.45

31.67

35.4

4th month.

31.89

7.34

87.34

32.00

35.2

5th month.

31.59

7.24

87.41

32.30

34.7

6th month.

31.39

7.19

87.57

32.78

34.1

7th month.

30.39

6.97

87.70

34.74

34.5

8th month.

28.48

6.55

88.00

35.90

34.7

9th month.

28.72

6.56

88.00

35.23

34.7

10th month

29.72

6.69

87.78

33.72

34.0

The above figures clearly indicate that, while the volatile
fats as expressed by the Reichert-Meissl number, decrease, the
olein as expressed by the Iodine number increases and the melt-
ing point drops, reducing the degree of firmness of the fat as
the period of lactation advances. This condition may, however,
in part, be offset by the reduction of the size of the fat globules
with the advancement of the period of lactation as shown in the
following table:

Effect of Breed and Period of Lactation on the Size of the

Globules.1

Breeds of Dairy Cows

Period of
Lactation

Jersey
25 Cows

Guern-
sey
20 Cows

Hoi-
stein
9 Cows

Ayr-
shire
33 Cows

Holder-
ness
20 Cows

Devon
16 Cows

1st month

1104

928

687

546

2nd month
3rd month

1098
1228

1063
954

640
576

580
624

661

607

585
450

4th month
5th month

1097
1149

659
839

256
396

426
384

501
397

547
319

6th month

846

737

595

399

324

355

7th month . . .

1017

584

340

322

329

270

8th month

733

568

!

310

298

379

200

9th month . .

715

408

384

241

315

250

10th month
Ave. for year. .

571
955.8

426
716.6

284
420.1

248
420.9

336
427.6

228

375

1 Hunziker, Mills and Spitzer, Moisture Control, Factors not under Control
of the Buttermaker, Purdue Bulletin 159, 1912.

CHURNING

The chief cause of the change trom the relatively soft but-
ter in summer to firm butter in winter is unmistakeably the
change from green pasture to dry feed. This is most con-
clusively brought out in the following table :

Table 47. — Effect of Dry Feed versus Blue Grass Pasture on

Mechanical Firmness of Butter and Its Relation to the

Butter Fat Constants.1

May

Reichert-
Meissl
Number

Iodine
Number

Melting
Point

Average
Volume
Fat
Globules

Depression
mm.

30.24

29.97

34.5

39.48

.655

30.47

29.51

34.5

40.00

.500

30.56

29.34

34.3

45.11

.540

8-14

30.40

29.11

34.5

48.44

.580

Dry feed

30.14

28.67

34.3

61.49

.580

30.15

29.50

34.4

49.31

1.040

30.00

29.00

34.3

51.01

1.000

Average

30.28

29.30

34.4

47.83

.701

30.85

29.11

34.3

52.02

1.000

30.77

29.33

34.4

51.92

1.080

15-21

31.03

29.55

34.2

50.59

.955

Dry feed plus '

30.86

30.05

34.4

54.93

1.580

one to two hours

31.20

30.36

34.3

75.62

1.665

pasture daily

30.62

31.84

34.2

70.64

1.415

30.93

33.12

33.8

76.01

3.080

Average

30.89

30.48

34.2

61.68

1.539

29.96

33.51

33.5

76.04

4.165

28.83

36.43

. 33.5

82.87

8.580

22-28

28.66

38.06

33.4

93.83

3.915

Pasture

28.87

38.86

33.6

67.32

5.915

exclusively

. 27.57

38.97

33.2

60.60

6.832

29.65

38.92

32.9

55.55

7.705

28.59

39.36

33.1

62.12

5.830

Average .

28.87

37.73

33.3

71.19

6.135

In Table 47 is shown the relation of the mechanical firmness
to the moisture content of butter, average volume of fat globules
and butter fat constants, as affected by the change from dry
feed to blue grass pasture.

1 Hunziker, Mills and Spitzer, Moisture Control of Butter, Factors not
under Control of the Buttermaker, Purdue Bulletin 159, 1912.

CHURNING 289

•

The increase of the depression was accompanied by an in-
crease of the moisture content of the butter, of the average vol-
ume of the fat globules and of the per cent, olein and by a de-
crease of the volatile acids and a drop of the melting point. The
effect of the decrease of the volatile acids was again off-set and
overcome by the marked increase of the per cent, olein. This in
turn lowered the melting point 1.1 degrees and yielded the
softer butter. The increase in the depression of butter may also
have been accelerated by the decided increase of the average size
of the fat globules.

The depression in millimeters indicates the mechanical firm-
ness of the butter. The mechanical firmness of butter was deter-
mined by measuring the degree of depression under a given
weight for a given time. The mechanical firmness is expressed
in millimeter depression.

On the basis of these facts the churning temperature may
vary within wide limits, possibly from 42 to 75 degrees F. In
the northern and central tier of the dairy belt and under fairly
normal conditions the variations of the proper churning tem-
perature are confined to within much narrower limits, ranging in
summer between about 48 and 53 degrees F. and in winter be-
tween about 55 and 60 degrees F.

In order to use the proper churning temperature it is neces-
sary for the buttermaker to familiarize himself with the condi-
tions which influence and alter the mechanical firmness of the
butterfat he receives, to study the changes of these conditions
and the character of the cream as it comes to the factory, and
then adjust the churning temperature of his cream accordingly.
This is especially important in the spring of the year when the
pasture season opens up and in the fall of the year when the
cows are stabled.

The appearance of any conditions which tend to produce
firmer fat should be followed by a corresponding rise in the churn-
ing temperature and any conditions tending to render the but-
terfat softer should be followed by a corresponding drop in the
churning temperature.

Since the firmness of the butterfat directly governs trie
time necessary to complete the churning, the buttermaker may
use as a convenient guide for the desired temperature of the cream

290 CHURNING

of the next churning, the time required to churn the previous
batch of cream. Under otherwise normally controlled condi-
tions, when the churning process occupies from 40 to 50 minutes,
the butter usually has a body and texture of good firm-
ness. The churning temperature should therefore be so adjusted
as to complete the churning process in about 40 to 50 minutes.
For the production of butter of superior body and texture,
it is necessary to use a churning temperature low enough to yield
a firm butter. This will also facilitate moisture control and the
production of uniformity in color, as such butter will stand a
sufficient amount of working to regulate the per cent moisture
as desired and to effect a most complete fusion between the
brine and water, without danger of injuring its body. Of the
two evils, too low and too high a churning temperature the
former is by far preferable, while the latter may cause real dam-
age to the market value of the butter.

Aside from the physical and chemical properties of the but-
terfat and the viscosity of the cream, the factors of length of
time held at churning temperature, richness of cream, age of
cream, acidity of cream and fullness and speed of churn, should
be carefully considered by the buttermaker in his adjustment
and choice of the churning temperature. The relation of these
factors to the churning is discussed in detail in the following
paragraphs.

Time of Holding Cream at Churning Temperature. — The
cream should be held at the churning temperature for not less
than two hours prior to churning. As previously explained the
chief purpose of churning the cream at a temperature lower than
that at which it is ripened is to secure butter of satisfactory
firmness of body and to avoid excessive loss of fat in the but-
termilk. Cream would churn much more rapidly at a some-
what higher temperature, but under most conditions the in-
jury to the body of the butter and the abnormal loss of fat
make such practice prohibitive.

In order to secure the full benefit of cooling the cream to
the churning temperature, the cream must be held at the churn-
ing temperature for at least two hours. Butter fat is an exceed-
ingly poor conductor of heat. It gives off its heat slowly and

CHURNING 291

only upon prolonged exposure to cold. If cooled to the churn-
ing" temperature immediately before churning, the thermometer,
while registering the correct temperature, indicates the tem-
perature of the serum only. If such cream is churned at once
the temperature during the churning will rise rapidly and the
resulting butter will have a weak, slushy and leaky body. This
danger is avoided by cooling the cream to the churning tem-
perature several hours before churning and holding it at that
temperature. This gives the fat globules an opportunity to
give up their heat and to become thoroughly chilled and
hardened. If the buttermaker is so situated that he has to churn
without holding the cream at the churning temperature for the
necessary length of time before churning, he should cool the
cream to a much lower temperature than would otherwise be
required, or he may have to add crushed ice to the churn in order
to avoid injury to the body of the butter and heavy loss of fat.

Richness of Cream. — Cream low in butterfat requires more
time to complete the churning than cream rich in fat. In the
thin cream the fat globules do not coalesce as readily as in the
rich cream. They find each other with more difficulty on ac-
count of the intervening serum, and the butter granules are
slow in gathering enough fat globules to assume sufficient size
to complete the churning. This greatly prolongs the churning
process. In winter when there is no opportunity for the cream
to warm up during the prolonged churning process, the butter
granules formed in the thin cream are subjected to excessive
concussion, becoming round and very compact. This condi-
tion is prone to produce butter with a low moisture content. Thin
cream, owing to the large amount of intervening and interfer-
ing serum, generally does not churn out exhaustively, exces-
live fat is lost in the buttermilk, and the loss of fat is further
augmented by the relatively large amount of buttermilk.

In the rich cream there is less intervening serum,
the fat globules are closer together, they find each other readily
and they churn out more rapidly. Since the richer cream churns
more rapidly, the butter granules are subjected to less grind-
ing against each other. They retain their original shape more
completely, are irregular in shape, flaky and less compact.
In this condition they do not drain as readily and lose less

292 CHURNING

ture during the process of working. There being less buttermilk
from rich cream, there is less loss of fat than from thin cream.
The above advantages hold good only with cream of reasonable
richness. Cream excessively high in butterfat, such as cream test-
ing 35 per cent and over, may stick to the sides of the churn and
fail to be agitated when the churn revolves. Such cream, espe-

Fig-. 44. Dairy size Victor combined ng, 45. Minnetonna Home butter
churn and worker maker

Courtesy Creamery Package Mfg. Co. Courtesy Davis-Watkins Dairymen's

Mfg. Co.

daily when churned at a relatively high temperature, is prone to
produce butter with a greasy body and containing excessive
buttermilk, which it is difficult to remove. Cream with a low
fat content can be churned at a higher temperature without
injury to the quality of the butter than cream rich in fat. The
most suitable richness of cream for churning lies within the
range of 30 to 33 per cent fat.

Acidity of Cream. — Sour cream churns more rapidly and
more exhaustively than sweet cream. This is chiefly due to
the reduced viscosity in the sour cream. Sweet cream is natu-
rally viscous and this viscosity lessens the concussion to which
the fat globules are subjected and hinders the globules from
striking each other with sufficient force to coalesce. Sour cream
has lost much of its viscosity and is granular in body, the acid
having changed the physical make-up of the proteids and the
mechanical properties of the cream. Excessive loss of fat by
sweet-cream churning may be avoided by lowering the churn-
ing temperature.

CHURNING 293

Nature and Amount of Agitation. — In order to facilitate
the bringing together and adhering to each other of the fat
globules, they must be subjected to agitation and concussion.
This is accomplished in the churn. While there is a great
variety of churns on the market, the entire assortment of churns
may be grouped into two principal classes, namely churns in

Fig*. 46. Perfection Dreadnatig-ht
Courtesy of J. G. Cherry Co.

which the cream is agitated by means of an internal agitator,
and churns in which the agitation is brought about by the
motion of the churn itself.

The first class, the churns with agitators, represents the
older styles of churns. The old dash churn is a typical repre-
sentative of this principle. The agitator may have an up-and-
down motion or it may revolve in the churn like a paddle
wheel. Churning by the use of the dash churn is a laborious
task, the amount of concussion produced for the energy ex-
pended is comparatively low. Another objection to this type,
of churn is that all the butterfat does not churn out simultane-
ously, considerable time elapses between the first appearance
of the butter granules and the completion of the churning, and
the stirring motion of the agitator or paddles has a tendency
to partly destroy the grain of the first granules formed, mak-
ing butter of a poor texture. Furthermore, the dash churns are
not conducive to maximum exhaustiveness of churning and
usually cause a relatively great loss of fat in the buttermilk.

The second group of churns, the churns in which the agi-
tation is brought about by the motion of the churn itself, repre-

294 CHURNING

sents the type of churns now almost exclusively in use in this
country. Some of these churns have a swinging motion, but
the majority are revolving or rotating barrels or boxes. From
the point of view of efficiency of agitation the hollow barrel
or box churn is the most desirable. The rotating motion of
the churn causes the fat globules to strike the sides of the churn
and the concussion thus produced hastens the formation of the
butter granules. The churns of small capacity such as are used
on the farm are usually, though not necessarily, entirely hollow,

rig1. 47. Giant Dibrow churn
Courtesy Davis-Watkins Dairymen's Mfg. Co.

turning end over end, while the great majority of the factory
churns are equipped in their interior with rollers and workers,
and with shelves attached to the sides of the churn, raising the
butter and dropping it on the rollers at least once with every
revolution of the churn.

Speed of Churn. — Aside from the style or construction of
churn, the amount of agitation and concussion materially de-
pends on the speed of the churn. The speed which produces
the maximum agitation and at which the churning is completed
in 'the shortest time is that which will subject the particles
of cream to the most rapid fnotion upon one another. Up to a
certain point an increase in the speed of the churn increases
the concussion of the particles of the cream. But when the
speed is carried to the point where the centrifugal force causes
the cream to partake of the motion of the churn, the motion of
the particles of cream upon one-another is diminished, the con-

CHURNING 295

cussion of the fat globules is lessened, and the churning process
is retarded. For maximum concussion, therefore, the churn
should revolve at the highest speed consistent with the absence
of centrifugal motion of the cream and that permits the cream
to fall from side to side of the churn. The exact speed which
accomplishes this condition varies somewhat with make of
churn, the fullness of the churn and the richness of the cream.
Under average normal conditions it has been found that the
churn should revolve at a maximum speed of about thirty
revolutions per minute.

Amount of Cream in the Churn. — Other conditions being
the same, when the churn is about one-third to one-half full
the cream is subjected to the maximum concussion. The am-
ount of cream in the churn bears a direct relation to the agita-
tion of the cream. The fuller the churn the more difficult it
is to produce thorough agitation and the more time is required
for the formation of the butter granules. When the churn is
too full the cream is also more prone to foam and swell, which
makes the completion of the churning next to impossible, with-
out first removing some of the cream. Under such conditions
there usually is also excessive loss of fat in the buttermilk.

With too little cream in the churn, the cream, if it is rich
in butterfat and thick, is prone to adhere toi the sides of the'
churn, it will then either revolve with the churn or slide back
along the side of the churn. In either case the process of
churning is delayed. If the cream is thin, the granules are dif-
ficult to gather. Too little cream in the churn has the additional
disadvantage that the control of the temperature is difficult, and
in case of a warm churn room, the cream may warm up con-
siderably and the butter is apt to be excessively soft. In the
case of thin or^ medium rich cream and at a low temperature
the butter granules of small churnings in a large churn are
subjected to excessive agitation, striking against the sides of the
churn with much force. This makes them very compact, inten-
sifying the expulsion of water, thus tending to reduce the
overrun.

From the above discussion it should be clear that, for
quickest and best results, the size of the churning should be

296 CHURNING

adjusted to the size of the churn and that a churn about one-
third to one-half full will do most satisfactory work. The
crowding of the churn, in order to make one churning out of
two, is usually poor economy of time. More time is required
to churn out the butter from an overfilled churn than by divid-
ing the cream into two batches and churning each separately.

Preparation of the Churn. — Before the cream is transferred
to the churn, the churn should be properly prepared as to

rig-. 48. Heavy Duty Dual churn
Courtesy Creamery Package Mfg. Co.

cleanliness and temperature. New churns generally have a pro-
nounced woody odor which is prone to be absorbed by the but-
ter unless the churn is previously treated to remove this odor.
If the churn is a new one that has never been used, or an old
one that has been laying idle for some time, it should be soaked
with a solution of milk of lime or other alkali -solution for sev-
eral days before it is used. Milk of lime is preferable because
it helps in hardening and closing the pores of the wood, thus
assisting in excluding grease, curd and other impurities which
are prone to lodge and which sooner or later become the cause
of a foul smelling churn. Other alkali solutions, such as wash-
ing powders, sal soda, etc., while effective as purifiers, tend to
soften the wood and to leave its pores open. Lime has the
further advantage of absorbing and removing from the churn
woody and other undesirable odors. Brine or buttermilk are
frequently used for removing the woody odor. While these

CHURNING 297

remedies may help to remove the woody odor, they are less
satisfactory for other reasons. Brine, though it has limited anti-
septic properties, with age becomes stale and sometimes foul
unless it is more concentrated than is generally the case, and
buttermilk has elements of decomposition, such as curd and
a variety of germ life with which it is undesirable to fill the open
pores of the new churn.

The churn containing the milk of lime should be revolved
frequently so as to expose all parts of the churn to the lime

Pig-. 49. Simplex churn
Courtesy D. H. Burrell & Co.

emulsion. When the soaking has been completed — after not less
than three days — the milk of lime is drawn off and the churn
is washed out thoroughly and with several washings of water,
the last of which should be boiling hot. Care should be taken
that all particles of undissolved lime are completely removed,
otherwise the butter will pick up this insoluble grit and incor-
porate it.

Churns that are not in constant use should be kept filled
with milk of lime while riot in use. This will prevent them
from becoming leaky, due to drying out and shrinking of the
staves. It also prevents the churn from becoming foul-smell-
ing which is so often the case with idle churns, due to the pres-
ence in the cracks and pores of the wood of decomposing rem-
nants of cream, butter and buttermilk. These fermenting im-
purities and germs tend to imbed themselves in the wood in

298 CHURNING

an inactive churn until it is almost impossible to dislodge them.
The milk of lime soaking into the wood inhibits their growth,
both because of the purifying action of the lime and because
of the exclusion of air. Even churns which are in daily use are
benefitted by a weekly treatment with milk of lime.

Immediately after the butter is removed from the churn,
the churn should be rinsed out with two rinsings of boiling-hot
water. The first rinsing should contain some good washing
powder, the second rinsing should be done with clear, pure hot
water. It is advisable to revolve the churn for several minutes
on high gear while rinsing. The churn should not be rinsed with
cold water for the .last rinsing, because cold water will not

Fig*. 5O. Heavy Duty Victor churn

Courtesy Creamery Package Mfg. Co.

evaporate, causing the churn to become watersoaked and musty.
On the next day, immediately before filling the churn with the
cream, it should be thoroughly steamed, and then rinsed with
clean, cold water so as to thoroughly chill it.

Most churns in use are constructed of wood, usually of
cypress. Cypress is most resistent to the swelling action of water
and to fungus attacks. The temperature control is easier in
wooden churns than in metal churns. Some farm churns are
made of iron, tinned on the inside. These churns are easily
kept sweet and clean, but they are objectionable when used in
a warm room because the cream is prone to warm up during
the churning process, causing the butter to become soft.

CHURNING 299

The churn should be kept clean on the outside as well
as on the inside. This is best accomplished by washing it often
with hot water and soap or washing powder. It should be
painted at least once per year. Two coats of white lead
followed by a coat of enamel paint give the churn a sanitary
appearance and a smooth surface that is easy to keep clean.
Before the paint is applied all loose paint, rust, remnants of
cream and alkali should be removed.

The churn door openings should be equipped, when the
churn is not in use, with frames covered with cheese cloth or
fine wire mesh netting to keep out flies, dust and other impu-
rities. The churn door frames and the doors themselves should
be kept in good repair to avoid loss of cream by leaking. Old
and worn-out cork packing can easily be replaced by new, and
broken door catches should be promptly replaced by new ones.

If the churn does not drain properly a one-inch hole may
be bored in the side of the churn at its lowest place. The churn
should be so located that the operator has easy access to the
gear end for repairs and for frequent oiling. The churn should
be oiled daily. The condition of clutches and rollers should
receive constant attention and the starting of the churn should
be done with care and not too suddenly, in order to save clutches
and cogs. At best the life of the churn is short, but its period
of usefulness is much shortened by careless handling' and neg-
lect. It is a good plan to take the churn apart in winter when
the buttermaker has time and to make such repairs and order
such new parts as may be necessary in order to forestall serious
trouble and delay during the heavy season.

Sticky Churns. — Occasionally great difficulty is experienced
to keep the butter from sticking to sides, ends and rollers of the
churns. In many cases this trouble is caused solely by not hav-
ing the churn properly chilled, before it is filled with cream,
the butter sticking to the warm wood surface. In such cases
the recurrence of the difficulty may readily be avoided by thor-
oughly chilling the churn with cold water or with ice water
before filling it with cream.

In many other instances, however, the churn does not fe-
spond to this treatment and the butter continues to stick, due

300 CHURNING

to the fact that, owing to improper care, the wood of the churn
has become loaded with grease and alkali. The most effective
remedy against stickiness then, is to treat the churn with a chem-
ical that will free the pores of the wood from the grease and
alkali, and that is to rinse out the churn with a dilute solution
of sulphuric acid, using one quart of commercial sulphuric acid
in 100 gallons of water and running the churn with this acid
solution for about an hour. The churn must then be rinsed
thoroughly with several washings of hot water.

Straining the Cream. — The cream should be strained into
the churn. This is best done by inserting a strainer with fine
perforations into the churn door opening. These strainers can
be obtained from any one of the reliable creamery supply
houses. The straining is necessary in order to break up and
keep out of the churn, lumps of curd which might otherwise be
incorporated in the butter and give rise to white specks and
other irregularities in color. The proper straining of the cream
will also avoid insoluble foreign matter, impurities flies,
etc., from being churned into the butter. In farm buttermak-
ing on a small scale the use of a strainer dipper is a very con-
venient way whereby the cream may be strained as it enters
the churn.

Addition of Butter Color. — The market demands that butter
be uniform in color, and the successful manufacturer must
supply that which the consumer wants. The natural color of
butter is that which is naturally yielded by cows feeding upon
green pasture. This color is of a bright golden yellow. Ac-
cording to Palmer1 this yellow color is due to the yellow pigment
carotin and xanthophyll, found in fresh green feeds and which
accompany, and are hidden by, the chlorophyll. During the
flush, of the milk producing season the great majority of the
cows are on green pasture, therefore the great bulk of butter
has this golden yellow color as a natural ingredient. Towards
fall when the pastures begin to dry up, the natural color of the
butter becomes lighter and in winter, when the cows are on
dry feed, butter is only faintly yellow, the exact shade of color

1 Palmer, "The Yellow Color in Cream and Butter," Missouri Circular 74,
1915.

CHURNING 301

varying considerably with the kind of feed, the breed of cows
and the period of lactation. The Channel Island breeds produce
a more highly yellow butter than the Holsteins and Ayrshires,
and at the beginning of the period of lactation the cream and
butter have a deeper shade of yellow than after the cows have
been in milk for some months. All green feeds and yellow roots
intensify the yellow color of butter while most dry roughage,
grains and mill by-products tend to diminish the yellow color
of milk and dairy products. (See also "Color Defects of Butter,"
Chapter XVII.)

In order to maintain uniformity of color, or the color of
summer butter, throughout the year, in fall, winter, early spring
and in times of drought during the summer, butter is artificially
colored. For this purpose a variety of butter colors is used.

A suitable butter color must be free from ingredients injuri-
ous to the health of the consumer, it should have such strength
of coloring that only a very small quantity need be added to
cream in order to give the butter the desired shade of yellow,
and it must be free from undesirable odors and flavors so as
to not impair the quality and market value of the butter.

Aniline colors which formerly were used extensively for
this purpose possess very intensive coloring properties, but
their use is prohibited by the Federal Pure Food Act which
went in force in 1907.1 While extracts from various plants
may serve as butter colors, the bulk of butter color of com-
merce today is the coloring substance extracted from the seed
of the Annatto plant, Bixa oreltana, by means of some neutral
oil, such as cottonseed oil, or corn oil.

The extract of butter color is made by boiling the annatto
seed in the oil for several hours. During the latter period of
the process the heat is raised to a very high temperature, about
240 degrees F., for the purpose of effecting a permanent solu-
tion of the annatto coloring principle in the oil. The mixture
is then filtered through heavy canvas, either by gravity or un-

1 On January 9, 1920, the IT. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of
Chemistry, S.R.A.-Chem. 24, announced the certification, subject to the pro-
visions of Food Inspection Decisions 76, 117 and 129, the following oil-soluble
coal-tar dies: Yellow A.B. (Benzeneazo — B — naphthylamine), and Yellow
O.B. (Ortho-Tolueneazo — B — naphthylamine). These two coal-tar dies can
now be legitimately used as butter colors.

302 CHURNING

der pressure. The filtered oil constitutes the butter color of
commerce. It is perfectly clear to the eye, but under magnifi-
cation shows to contain a very fine precipitation of suspended
matter.

Good grades of annatto butter color, purchased from reliable
manufacturers, are made from high grade annatto seed and oil.
Such butter color is free from objectionable flavor and odor
and from sediment, and it does not deteriorate readily in flavor.
It is not advisable, however, to purchase more than can be used
in one season, nor to buy it from supply houses or stores
where it may have been on hand for years. It should be pur-
chased fresh, from a reliable firm and it should not be carried
over summer. Old, stale butter color may deteriorate and lend
butter objectionable flavors.

It is not necessary, nor desirable, to keep butter color in
the cold. If made from pure, neutral oil and sound seed, butter
color does not deteriorate when kept at warm temperature, if
not more than one season old. Annatto, similar to other vege-
table colors, is a fugitive color. While the butter color pre-
pared from it, is not known to bleach under conditions to which
it is exposed in the creamery, it may precipitate and settle
out some of its coloring principle, so that different portions of
color, drawn from the same package, may not produce the same
shade of yellow in butter, causing dissatisfaction when the but-
ter reaches the market. Low temperature, abrupt changes of
temperature, exposure to air and agitation accelerate the preci-
pitation of butter color.

The drums, cans or other containers of butter color should,
therefore, be stored in a place where the temperature is fairly
uniform, and preferably at room temperature, and their con-
tents should be protected against excessive agitation and expo-
sure to air. The practice of pumping the butter color out of
the drum when it is needed, tends to incorporate considerable
air in it and to produce excessive and repeated agitation, both
of which conditions invite precipitation. It is preferable to lay
the drum on a sleeper and attach a spigot to one end of the
drum from which the butter color can readily be drawn when
needed.

CHURNING 303

The amount of butter color to be used varies greatly with
locality, season of year and markets. In localities where the
Channel Island breeds greatly predominate, less artificial color-
ing is needed than where the cream comes largely from Holstein
and Ayrshire cows, the latter naturally producing a butter with
a much lighter shade of yellow.

During the summer months and as long as the cows are
on succulent pasture the natural shade of yellow is quite sut-
ficient for the bulk of the trade and no artificial butter color is
needed. Towards fall the natural color of butter becomes light-
er, necessitating the addition of small amounts of artificial
color in order to suit the trade. As the intensity of the natural
color diminishes, in late fall and winter, more artificial color is
needed to maintain a uniform shade of yellow. This is due to the
cows being on dry feed and to the advanced stage of the period of
lactation of the majority of cows.

The demand of the market is an important factor deter-
mining the amount of color to be added. American markets
demand a higher shade 'of yellow than European markets. The
southern markets require a deep yellow butter, the eastern and
northern markets a straw color. The Jewish trade demands
uncolored butter.

The amount of artificial butter color that must be added,
then, varies greatly under these diverse conditions and it ranges
from none to about 4 ounces for every 100 pounds of fat in
the churn.

One ounce of butter color for every hundred pounds of
butter fat in the churn is a fair average amount. For the con-
venience of the farm buttermaker the following equivalents
of one ounce per 100 pounds of fat are given :
For 100 pounds fat use 1 ounce color
For 1 pound fat use 5 drops color
For 1 gallon 30% cream use 12 drops color
For 5 gallons 30% cream use 1 teaspoonful color.

The above figures should be considered only as very ap-
proximate averages, which it may be necessary to modify in

304 CHURNING

order to make them suitable to prevailing conditions of breed
season of year, feed and market demands. These figures may
prove serviceable, however, to the beginner.

Analine butter colors are much more intensive in their color-
ing properties than annatto butter color. Hence when using
the now certified and permissible analine colors, the amount re-
quired is very much less than above indicated in the case of
annatto color.

As a matter of principle the use of artificial butter color,
though sanctioned by tradition and by law, should be limited
to the minimum needed to satisfy the trade. The demand of
the trade for a highly colored butter is overestimated by the
average buttermaker and much butter is colored to a deeper
shade than necessary or desirable. The present tendency of
the butter trade is for a lighter colored butter.

The best time to add the butter color is after the cream
has been transferred to the churn and before the churn is
closed. If this has not been done, as is frequently the case due
to an oversight, it may be added to and mixed with the salt just
before working. It is then worked into the butter and dis-
tributed when the salt is worked in. This practice cannot be
recommended for general use, owing to the difficulty of work-
ing the butter sufficiently to effect a complete and uniform dis-
tribution of the color without overworking the butter. It
should be resorted to only in emergencies. The butter color
when added in this way should be mixed with the dry salt;
being an oily emulsion it does not mix well with water or
wet salt.

Gas in the Churn. — During the first five minutes of churn-
ing considerable pressure develops in the churn. This is caused
by the expulsion of gases from the cream and the consequent
expansion of the air. This pressure has a slight tendency to
minimize the agitation of the cream and to cause excessive
leakage of cream. It is advisable, therefore, to open the vent
of the churn once or twice during the first five minutes of
churning to release this pressure.

Stopping the Churn. — Under normal conditions the churn-
ing* is completed and the churn is stopped, when the butter has

CHURNING 305

gathered in granules of the size of wheat or corn kernels.
While the size of the granules is only one of the many indica-
tions of the completion of the churning process, and while it is
not necessarily an infallibly sure sign, it furnishes the most
practical index for the buttermaker to tell when to stop the
churning process.

When the butter first breaks, the butter granules formed
are very small and the buttermilk still has a rich, creamy,
opaque appearance. From this point on, under normal con-
ditions, the formation of additional butter granules, the coales-
cence of the small granules into larger ones and the completion
of the churning take place rapidly. When the churning is com-
pleted the buttermilk should have lost its creamy consistency and
opaqueness and should have a thin, bluish, watery appearance
and should be free from butter. If the churning comes from
different lots of cream of different degrees of ripeness, or of
different ages, the completion of the churning requires more
time and it is necessary to churn to larger granules. The but-
ter from the sour and older cream breaks first. If the churn
is stopped when the butter granules are no larger than small
corn kernels, the chances are that the fat of the sweeter or
fresher cream is not completely churned out yet and there is
much loss of fat in the buttermilk.

The underchurning or stopping of the churn when the but-
ter granules are very small, always tends to cause excessive
loss of fat. The smaller fat globules churn out more slowly
than the larger ones, and at this stage a large number of the
smaller globules need further agitation to coalesce into butter
granules of sufficient size to stay in the churn or strainer when
the buttermilk is drawn off. If these small granules are very
hard, either on account of the natural firmness of the fat or
churning at a low temperature, the formation of larger granules
and the completion of the churning will occupy considerable
time. If the butter granules are soft, the granules increase in
size very rapidly. These phenomena are further intensified by
the richness of the cream. Thin cream delays, while rich cream
hastens, the coalescence of the granules. If the churning process

306 CHURNING

must be stopped when the butter-granules are still very small,
excessive loss of fat may be avoided by allowing the churning
to rest undisturbed for about ten minutes. This gives the smaller
granules an opportunity to rise to the surface and adhere to
the butter.

Overchurning, that is, the formation of large granules or
lumps, is objectionable, because of the excessive incorporation
of buttermilk which may prove injurious to the keeping quality
of the butter. In the case of churning cream of a poor quality,
this incorporation of buttermilk is especially objectionable, be-
cause of its tendency to give the butter an unclean, coarse and
rank flavor and to hasten fermentations in the butter detri-
mental to its quality. In the case of poor cream, therefore, it
is important to stop the churn when the granules are still
small, consistent with reasonable exhaustiveness of churning.
In this case the buttermilk will drain off readily and can be
washed out thoroughly. Butter from poor cream should ba
drained well and washed in several lots of water. Overchurn-^
ing may also cause injury to the body of the butter. If the
butter granules are very soft, overchtirning is difficult to avoid,
because of the very rapid coalescence and lumping together of
the granules after the breaking point has been reached.

Some buttermakers practice overchurning for the purpose
of incorporating moisture in the butter. The popular concep-
tion, that overchurning causes the finished butter to be high
in moisture, is not well founded and would hold good only iu
the case of very soft butter. When the churning temperature
is at all normal and the butter granules are reasonably firm,
as they should be, there is no tangible reason why large gran-
ules should make butter containing more moisture than small
granules. The supposition is that the large granules lock up
a great deal of moisture. Experimental data do not bear this
out. On the contrary, they suggest that overchurning, if it
has. any effect at all on the moisture content of the finished
product, tends to pound the moisture out of the butter.

CHURNING 307

The frequent occurrence of overchurned butter with an
abnormally high moisture content is not the result of over-
churning, but is usually due to the weak body of the butter
for which other conditions, such as soft butter fat, high churn-
ing temperature, or cream that was not held at the churning
temperature long enough, are responsible and which conditions
are also responsible for the overchurning. It is difficult to
stop the churn before the butter is overchurned in the case
of cream that is not cooled sufficiently to make the butter
come reasonably firm.

Overchurning has a tendency to injure the grain of the
butter. Danger of this type is especially great when the but-
ter granules are small and firm, like shot, and when an effort
is made to secure larger granules by a prolonged continuation
of the churning process. This condition occurs generally when
the cream is very thin and cold. Additional churning causes
excessive friction between these granules and often results in
a salvy butter. This may be avoided to some extent by draw-
ing off a part of the buttermilk, The greater density of the
butterfat in the churn thus produced, hastens the completion
of the churning and avoids unnecessary injury to the grain of
the butter.

In order to secure butter of a good body the individuality
of the butter granules should be preserved. Injury to the gran-
ules, as the result of overchurning, causes injury to the body
of the butter, usually making it salvy or greasy.

Churning Difficulties. — Churning difficulties are occasion-
ally experienced. In the majority of cases when the butter
granules are exceptionally slow in gathering, and when the
churning process is greatly prolonged, the cause lies in the
peculiar character of the butterfat and the great viscosity of
the cream. These abnormal conditions are chiefly due to cer-
tain individual cows. They therefore are encountered largely
only where butter is made on the farm and from the cream of
one or a few cows only. In the creamery the cream supply is
derived from a comparatively large number of cows, which
differ in breed, lactation and feed, so that abnormal cream

308

CHURNING

Table 48. — Showing Effect of Size of Butter Granules on
Moisture Content of Butter.1

o »

Buttermilk

Revolutions

Moisture, %

(D £

.

8»-J=

2 •

Il»

3

c

Date

||

c~3 §

58|g

j

all

1

1

11

1

11

&

P|

I1!

fe fc,

II

1||

1

1

|l

i

1908

1 .

August 18 ...

1

49

i

.75

56

54

10

12

14.69

49

1

.75

56

55

10

12

13.90

August 22 ...

2

48

i

.42

56

55

10

12

14.62

48

1

.09

56

56

10

12

14.47

August 25 ...

3

48

\

.60

55

55

10

12

14.57

48

1

.40

54

54

10

12

14.46

August 29 ...

4

50

i

.42

56

56

10

12

13.71

50

I

.39

56

56

10

12

13.30

1912

March 26 ...

5

56

1

58

58

10

20

23.64

19.87

15.48

56

2*

57

57

10

20

15.57

14.04

15.00

April 13 ....

6

57

i

.70

59

55

10

20

30.66

26.66

13.12

57

14

.55

59

55

10

20

17.47

15.63

14.44

April 16 ....

7

56

i

.30

57

55

10

20

25.53

14.68

56

li

.27

57

55

10

20

14.70

13.42

13.54

April 17 ....

8

49

I

.20

55

56

10

20

23.70

14.13

49

I

.25

55

56

10

20

15.84

13.47

13.38

April 18 ....

9

51

i

.20

55

56

10

20

21.77

19.20

14.45

51

1

.15

55

56

10

20

14.35

12.77

12.70

April 20 ....

10

49i

ft

.10

53

56

10

20

25.00

19.66

14.59

49

i

.10

53

56

10

20

14.07

13.46

13.92

April 23 ....

11

50

I

.20

53

54

10

16

19.83

19.07

13.84

50

8

.17

53

54

10

16

15.64

13.61

13.84

April 24 ....

12

50

I

.15

54

55

10

20

21.28

19.57

13.86

50

1

.25

54

55

10

20

15.61

14.00

14.27

April 25 ....

13

50

I

.10

54

55

10

20

24.04

18.58

14.15

50

I

.10

54

55

10

20

13.37

13.32

13.21

April 27 ....

14

50

&

.25

54

56

10

20

22.55

18.63

14.78

50

8

.30

54

54

10

20

15.50

14.63

15.00

April 30 ....

15

49

I

.17

54

56

10

20

22.33

17.65

15.00

49

1

.15

54

56

10

20

16.24

. 12.88

13.01

Average for small granules ~ 23.66

19.87

14.38

Average for large granules and liirn

OS

15.30

13.74

13.89

1 The churnings of the different experiments ranged from 319 to 1420
pounds and the per cent of fat varied from 21 to 35. In all churnings of the
same experiment the amount and richness of the cream were the same.

1 Hunziker, Mills and Spitzer, Moisture Control of Butter, Purdue Bulletin
No. 160, 1912, page 387.

CHURNING 309

of this type becomes greatly diluted with cream that is normal
in its churnability and causes no material disturbance in the
churnability of the whole churning.

Certain cows when they have been in milk five to six,
months persist in yielding cream which churns with great dif-
ficulty, and the butter granules of which are exceedingly slow
in gathering. The difficulty is usually accompanied by very
great loss of fat in the buttermilk.

The same difficulty is experienced frequently with cream
from old cows and from cows which have not been with calf
for a long time. This condition is usually intensified by the
feeding of dry roughage and certain kinds of grain. Examina-
tion of such cream invariably shows that it either is abnormally
viscous, or contains unusually small fat globules, or that its
butterfat is unusually hard, containing a low per cent of oleiri,
or a combination of two or all of these conditions. As ex-
plained under "Conditions Affecting the Churnability of Cream,"
all of these conditions make the formation of butter granules
difficult and therefore retard the churning process.

These conditions occur usually in the fall and early winter
when the cows are on dry feed and are well advanced in their
lactation. In some cases the abnormal condition of the milk
can be minimized by the addition to the feed ration of some
succulent feed, such as corn silage or roots, or some grain rich
in vegetable oil, such as linseed meal. The succulence increas-
es the milk flow and tends to reduce the viscosity. The grain
rich in vegetable oil increases the per cent of olein causing
the butterfat to be of softer character. In the majority of
cases, however, the cow refuses to respond to a change of feed
at the end of her period of lactation. After parturition the,
milk usually is normal again and the cream churns readily.

In numerous cases the churning difficulties reported are
not due to any abnormal condition of the cream as produced
by the cow, but to faulty methods of manufacture. • The cream
has undergone peculiar fermentations which cause it to become
abnormally viscous, a cream very low in butterfat is produced,
the churn is filled too full, or the churn revolves too fast or too
slow.

310 CHURNING

In the majority of cases the churning difficulties will yield
wholly or to some extent at least, to proper treatment of the
cream. A reasonably rich cream containing about 30 per cent
fat, ripened to about .6 per cent acid, churned at the proper
temperature and in a churn not more than one-third to one-
half full, seldom refuses to churn out. If it foams and swells
in the churn, further agitation is useless until the foam has
sub^si'ded. If the frothing is due to too much cream in the
churn, the quickest way to churn the cream is to remove a
portion of the cream from the churn and make two churnings.
If the swelling is due to churning at too low a temperature, the
difficulty may be overcome by adding a small amount of warm
water. The same treatment will often also increase the churn-
ability of cream which is abnormally viscous as above described.
If warm water is added to the cream the amount of water used
should be small, otherwise churning difficulties may arise as
the result of too great dilution of the cream.

Churning difficulties, not due to overloading the churn
may also be remedied by the addition to the churn of some dry
salt. The salt has a greater affinity for water than the casein
has. The salt helps to precipitate or to "salt out" the curd
due to dehydration or withdrawal of water from the casein.
This causes the casein to contract and the cream to become
less viscous.

In most cases of churning difficulties not due to an over-
loaded churn, the turning of the hot water hose over the outside
of the revolving churn will hasten the "breaking" of the
butter. The resulting slight warming of the churnbarrel breaks
the adhesion of the cream to the sides of the churn, the cream
drops and concussion is resumed.

WASHING THE: BUTTER 311

CHAPTER XI.

WASHING, SALTING AND WORKING THE BUTTER.
Washing the Butter.

Purpose. — The chief purpose of washing the butter is to
free the butter granules, after the buttermilk has been drawn
from the churn, from such remnants of buttermilk as may adhere
to them. Other objects may be to harden the butter, in case
the butter shows a weak body, and to remove undesirable flavors
in case the original cream was of poor quality.

Drawing off Buttermilk. — When the churning process is
complete, the buttermilk is drawn from the bottom of the churn
and the butter should be allowed to drain thoroughly. If the
butter granules are very small their separation from the butter-
milk and their rising to the surface, may be facilitated by the
addition to the churn of a little cold water. When the butter-
milk has considerable commercial value and a steady trade has
been established for it, the practice of pouring water into the
churn before the buttermilk is removed is obviously objection-
able. In this case excessive loss of fat may be avoided by leav-
ing the churning at rest for about 10 minutes before drawing
off the buttermilk. This gives the smaller granules an op-
portunity to rise to the surface and to attach themselves to the
mass of butter.

In order to avoid the escape of butter granules the butter-
milk should be strained. In farm buttermaking the use of a
fine hair sieve or of a dipper strainer is convenient for this
purpose. For creamery buttermaking a cone-shape or cylindrical
tin or wire mesh strainer is inserted in the buttermilk outlet of
the churn. These strainers can be purchased from creamery
supply houses.

Addition of Water.— After the buttermilk is removed, the
butter should be allowed to drain thoroughly. Then the wash
water is added, using about as much water as there was but-
termilk. The churn is then given a few revolutions to agitate
the contents gently and to facilitate the washing of the granules.
The wash water is then withdrawn, the butter again allowed
to drain and the washing is repeated by the addition of a second

312 WASHING THE: BUTTER

batch of water. Under normal conditions this second washing
should be practically clear. If it shows milkiness the butter
should be washed a third time. The butter should be washed
until the wash water runs off clear. Usually two washings are
sufficient.

If the butter comes from cream of good quality the least
amount of washing consistent, with the complete removal of
the free buttermilk, is preferable. Excessive exposure of the
butter to the cold wash water tends to rob the butter of its
fine, delicate flavor and to cause such butter to assume a more
or less flat taste. The loss of the fine flavor is due to the power
of the cold water to absorb some of the aromatic, volatile and
soluble substances characteristic of good butter. Sweet cream
and cream only slightly soured requires comparatively little wash-
ing for the removal of the buttermilk, because the solids in such
buttermilk are largely in solution or in very fine suspension
similar as the solids in milk. In this fluid condition the solids
of the buttermilk are removed readily.

In the case of cream of poor quality, and of highly acid
cream, it is advisable to wash the butter very thoroughly, to
increase the number of washings and, if the butter shows very
pronounced off-flavors, to hold the wash water in the churn for
a while (10 to 20 minutes). This gives the volatile substances
and free acids of old and overripe cream an opportunity to pass
off into the wash water, liberating the butter made from such
cream from some of its undesirable flavors and odors. An ad-
ditional washing with sweet skim milk may greatly help to
improve the flavor of such butter.

Butter in the form of very small granules, washes more
readily and more quickly than butter in the form of large granules
and lumps, less water and less manipulation of the butter is
required. The finer the granules the more surface is exposed
to the wash water and the more facile the removal of the but-
termilk. The removal of the buttermilk requires more washing
in the case of large granules of butter. Other things being the
same, excessive washing of very fine granules of butter is objec-
tionable because of excessive loss of the delicate flavoring prin-
ciples which are partly soluble in the cold water, making the

WASHING THE BUTTER 313

butter flat in flavor. When butter is churned into large lumps
there is not so much danger from this source. Small granules
are also more sensitive to variations in. temperature. All of
these conditions point to the desirability of washing small gran-
ules of butter more rapidly and less extensively than butter
in the form of lumps.

In the case of churns which tend to unduly mass the but-
ter during the washing process, thorough removal of the but-
termilk is difficult. In such cases it is advisable to spray the
first washing over the butter granules from the hose or by other
means, with the buttermilk gate open, until the drain loses its
milky appearance and then add the second washing in the usual
way.

Where the subsequent working of the butter is done in the
churn, as is now the case in most American creameries, the
washing is best done in the churn also, by giving the churn
a few revolutions after each addition of wash water. Where
the butter is taken out of the churn for subsequent working,
as is usually the case in farm buttermaking on a small scale,
the butter may be washed in the churn before it is placed on
the worker, or the water may be poured over the butter on the
worker.

As a whole, defects in the body of the butter cannot be
overcome by any particular method of washing or temperature
of wash water, though they may be somewhat minimized. The
character of the body of the butter is determined prior to, and
during the churning process, incident to the formation of the
butter granules. If a good, solid, compact body, free from
slushiness, leakiness and weakness is desired, the cream must
have been cooled to the proper churning temperature and held
there long enough to yield firm granules of butter. It is at
this point that the stability of the emulsion of water-in-fat is
determined. If it is not accomplished then, the butter is prone
to have a defective body regardless of the process of washing
and working.

Temperature of the Wash Water. — The temperature of the
wash water should be regulated according to the firmness or
softness of the butter. Inasmuch as the mechanical firmness

314 WASHING THE BUTTER

of the butter is a somewhat fluctuating factor and is difficult
of definite description, it is not feasible to lay down all-embrac-
ing directions. . .

Under all normal conditions, however, and with butter of
reasonable firmness, wash water with a temperature of a few
degrees (2 to 4 degrees) below the temperature of the butter-
milk is usually advisable. Wash water much warmer, or much
colder than this tends to have an unsatisfactory effect on the
body and texture of the butter and may indirectly disturb the
uniformity of the color. To a limited extent it also interferes
with the control of moisture.

Such wash water, coming in direct contact with the exterior
of the butter granules only, causes uneven temperature and firm-
ness of different parts of the butter. The outside of the granules
changes in firmness according to the temperature of the wash
water, while their interior retains the original temperature of
the butter. In this condition the distribution of the salt and
brine and the fusion of brine and water is made difficult and
lacks uniformity throughout the body of the butter. This un-
even distribution of the salt and incomplete fusion of brine and
water invites excessive migration of brine and water after the
butter is placed at rest (in the cold room) resulting in mottles
or streaks in color, and particularly in the case of excessively
warm washwater the butter is prone to show a leaky body.

If the butter is very soft and of weak body, however, it
may be necessary to use wash water of a temperature 5 to
10 degrees or more lower than that of the buttermilk, ajid to allow
the butter to rest in the cold water for some time to give it a
chance to harden. In extreme cases it may be desirable to put ice
into the churn in order to temporarily improve the body of the
butter so it can be handled. It should be understood that when
the cream has been properly handled before churning, especial-
ly as to churning temperature and holding at that temperature
before churning, there is little danger of a weak-bodied and
leaky butter and these special precautions are unnecessary.
These precautions refer only to churnings where the cream
was either churned at too high a temperature or was not held
long enough at the churning temperature, conditions which
produce a soft, weak, slushy and leaky body. In such cases

WASHING THE BUTTER 315

they will help to minimize the .defect, but an ideal body of
butter under these conditions should not be expected,, and exces-
sively soft butter so exposed to very cold water will be prone
to be flat and possibly tallowy in flavor. It also will not stand

up well on the market.

•

Effect of Wash Water Temperature on Moisture Content
of "Butter. — High temperatures of wash water tend toward a
slight increase in moisture content of the butter. However,
this effect on the per cent water in butter is not as marked as
is generally believed. The butter fat is a poor conductor of heat
and the short time during which the butter is ordinarily exposed
to the wash water is not sufficient to materially affect its mech-
anical firmness, provided, of course, that the butter is in fairly
normal condition. It should be borne in mind, however, that
the washing of the butter in warm wash water does tend to-
wards a softening of the butter. Though this influence seerns
to be very slight, it may be sufficient to modify the effect of
the subsequent working. If this butter is worked "with the
churn doors closed and consequently in the presence of water
it may take up slighly more water. When worked with the
churn doors ajar this butter cannot take up appreciably more
moisture. Butter washed with cold water tends to be some-
what firmer and in this condition it may lose somewhat more
moisture when worked with the churn doors ajar. If the tem-
perature of the wash water does influence the moisture content
of butter at all, the effect is indirect rather than direct and de-
pends largely on the extent to which the butter is drained and
worked subsequently. These facts are clearly demonstrated in
Table 49.

Overchurning Butter in Wash Water. — Buttermakers fre-
quently churn their butter in the wash water for the purpose of
moisture incorporation.

When butter is churned in the wash water at normal tem-
perature the butter granules gather into larger granules and
finally into masses. If the original granules are round, smooth
and firm, they do not readily lose their identity but remain
largely intact. Under these conditions the churning in the wash
water has no marked effect on the moisture content of the

316

WASHING THE BUTTER

Table 49. — Effect of Temperature of Wash Water on Moisture
Content of Butter.

(Experiments conducted in Purdue University Creamery,

Lafayette, Ind.)1

a

0

gg .

Revolutions

•

Date

If

i*

||i

Appro*. Size of
Granules.

Hi

!ti

|

i

jf

P

sfa

p|

Diam. Inches

ill

IP

1

M
1

r

1911

April 4..

1

32.0

56

T/B to 54 angular

58

54

10

18

13.64

32.0

56

5^ to 54 angular

60

64

10

18

14.24

April 5..

2

33.5

56

H to 54 angular

60

54

15

16

15.45

35.0

56

5^ to 54 angular

60

64

15

16

15.95

April 7..

3

29.5

56

Y% to 54 angular

60

54

15

16

16.31

31.0

56

H to 54 angular

60

64

15

16

14.75

April 11.

4

32.0

56

^s to 54 angular

60

54

15

20

15.38

32.0

56

H to 54 angular

60

64

15

12

14.99

April 12.

5

31.0

56

5^5 to 54 angular

60

54

15

12

15.07

31.0

56

H to 54 angular

60

64

15

12

15.79

April 12,

6

30.5

56

5^ to 54 angular

58

54

10

18

13.22

31.0

56

^ to 54 angular

58

64

10

18

13.52

April 18.-

7

29.5

53

54 to %i angular

55

54

15

18

13.30

29.5

52

54 to IHi angular

53

65

15

18

13.91

April 18.

8

29.5

55

5^ to 54; angular

57

54

15

14

14.64

29.5

54

5^} to 54 angular

54

65

15

14

14.54

Average at 54 degrees F

14.62

Average at 64 deerrees to 65 degrees F. .

14.71

1 Experiments 1, 6 and 1 were made with the Disbrow churn. Experiments
2, 3, 4, 5 and 8 were made with the Simplex churn. All cream was pasteurized
at 170 degrees to 180 degrees F. The cream for each churning of the same
experiment was taken from the same vat. The amount of cream used in the
churnings of the different experiments varied from 250 to 2000 pounds. The
same amount of cream was used for each churning of the same experiment.
In each churning the butter was salted dry and worked with the churn gates
open.

Hunziker, Mills and Spitzer, Moisture Control of Butter, Purdue Bulletin

WASHING THE BUTTER

317

finished butter. If the original butter granules are irregular in
shape, flaky and soft, they mass together very readily and largely
lose their identity, forming solid lumps and masses. The pound-
ing of the butter into compact masses tends to expel moisture
rather than incorporate it, causing a decrease in the moisture
content of the finished butter, unless this butter is later worked
in the presence of water for the purpose of incorporating more
moisture.

The above facts are conclusively borne out by experimental
results as shown in the following tables:

Table 50.-^Showing Effect of Over-Churning Butter in Wash
Water on the Moisture Content of Butter.1

DATE

ll
II

H

t

Churning
Temperature
Degrees F.

Approx. Size of
Granules,
Diam. Inches

Buttermilk
Temperature
Degrees F.

Wash Water
Temperature
Degrees F.

ll

Approx. Size of
Granules.
Diam. Inches

Revolutions
Worked

jl

sS

1910

November 10...

1

24

52'

|

56

56

15

I

18

15.01

24

52

I

56

56

50

3i

18.

15.74

24

52

I

56

56

225

8

18

16.48

November 14...

2

23

54

I

58

54

10

i

13

15.52

23

54

£

58

54

150

1

13

15.78

23

54

i

59

54

225

3£

13

14.89

November 15...

3

26

47

i

57

52

10

\

13

15.35

26

47

i

56

52

150

3i

13

15.35

26

47

i

56

52

225

8

13

14.31

Average for 10 to 15 revolutions ....

15.29

Average for 50 to 150 revolutions

15.62

Average for 225 revolutions-.

15.22

1 Hunziker. Mills & Spitzer Moisture Control of Butter, Purdue Bulletin
160, pp. 394 and 395.

Twenty-four hundred pounds of cream were used for each individual
churning. All cream was pasteurized at 175 degrees F. The butter in
Experiment 1 was salted wet and worked with the churn gate open; the
butter in experiments 2 and 3 was dry-salted, worked one revolution with
the churn gate closed, then finished with the churn gate open. The Victor
churn, size 1, was used in these experiments.

Twenty-four hundred and seventy-seven pounds of cream were used
for each individual churning. The cream was pasteurized at 150 degrees

318

WASHING THS BUTTER

F. In Experiments 1 and 3 the butter was salted dry and worked with
the churn gates open; in Experiment 2 the butter was salted dry and
worked seven revolutions with the gates closed, then finished with the
churn gates open. The Simplex churn No. 9 was used in these experi-
ments.

DATE

P

•1,

ill

o 8

If!

Mi

H!

CO

** <a

Jsjj

. B

ll

11

$?

*f

*n

|5l

HI

in

ll

gig

|o|

32

1910

November 29...

1

28.5

54

i

57

57

6

1

18

15.64

28.5

54

i

59

57

50

8

18

14.51

November 30. ..

2

31.0

52

1

58

58

6

-1

19

15.51

31.0

52

I

59

58

50

31

19

13.28

December 1....

3

28.0

58

i

60

58

6

1

19

14.80

28.0

59

\

60

58

50

8

19

13.65

Average of 6 revolutions washed

15.31

Average of 50 revolutions wa'she

d

13.81

How to Regulate the Wash Water Temperature. — In locali-
ties where the available water is naturally cool (50° F. or below),
such as is the case in the northern states and in the moun-
tainous regions with running springs, as well as in most locali-
ties within the dairy belt in winter, the matter of regulating
the temperature of the wash water resolves itself merely into
a proper arrangement for heating. In such cases the installa-
tion of a noiseless water heater or similar home-made device
and with an outlet directly over the churn, furnishes the usual
equipment to temper the wash water to the desired temperature.
In the summer season, however, the water supply of a great many
creameries is too warm. This is true especially in the central and
southern tier of the dairy belt. Under such conditions it is neces-
sary to provide for some simple and practical system of cooling
the water. In small creameries which have no artificial refriger-
ating plant this is conveniently accomplished by placing a vat
on a platform high enough for the water to run into the churn
by gravity. The temperature of the water in this vat is lowered

WASHING THE BUTTER 319

by the addition to it of ice. In the absence of a stationary plat-
form the vat may be placed on a truck which can be moved up
to the churn when the wash water is needed. In creameries
operating an artificial refrigerating machine, a large stationary
vat may be installed at some elevation or on the second floor.
This vat should be properly insulated on the sides, bottom and
top and equipped with a brine coil or ammonia coil whereby the
water may be cooled to any temperature. The water is piped
from this vat to the churn where it is connected with the steam
line. This arrangement furnishes a practical and reasonably
efficient means to regulate the temperature of the wash water
as desired for the one-churn creamery.

For larger creameries which operate numerous churns,
greater uniformity of temperature is assured and less time is
consumed for temperature control, where the wash water equip-
ment is so arranged as to have the cold water from the brine-
cooled sweet water tank on the second floor, discharge into a
tempering tank elevated in the creamery and equipped with
large thermometer gauge and steam supply. Then have from
the bottom of this tempering tank a two-inch water line extend
over the entire row of churns with a lateral and valve over
each churn.

In this manner the wash water for numerous churnings
can be tempered to the desired temperature simultaneously and
when the churnman is ready for the wash water, all he has to
do is to open the valve over any one of the churns where it
is needed.

The same equipment can also serve for the hotwater supply
for rinsing and washing the churns after use.

In other factories, portable tempering tanks are used. In
this case, the tap water, cold water and steam line outlets are
generally located at some distance from the churns, in a con-
venient and readily accessible place and at a sufficient height
so that a portable wash water tank on a truck can be backed
under these outlets and filled. The use of a suitably constructed
tank on wheels, holding about 100 to 150 gallons and standing
high enough so that the gate of the tank clears the bottom of
the door frame of the churn, when the churn is in position to

320 WASHING THE BUTTER

receive the wash water, has been found serviceable and con-
venient for this purpose.

The same arrangement is useful also for transferring the
hot water to the empty churn, for washing and rinsing at the
close of the day's work and for rinsing the churn with cold
water preparatory to filling it with cream.

Purity of Wash Water. — It is obvious that the water used
for washing the butter should be pure. It should be free from
excessive organic and mineral matter, from undesirable bacteria,
yeast and mold and from grit or sand. Water from shallow
wells, ponds, creeks, lakes and similar sources is unsafe on ac-
count of the danger of contamination with organic and biolog-
ical impurities which may prove detrimental to the quality of
butter. Such water should be pasteurized or filtered, or both,
in order to render it harmless. In rare cases spring and deep
well water may contain an excess of mineral constituents,
such as compounds of iron, sulphur, etc., which, if used for
washing the butter may greatly impair its flavor; such water is
unsuitable for use in the creamery. Frequently the water con-
tains sand and grit which, when used for washing butter, is
incorporated in it and offends the good humor of the consumer.
Sand may get into the water where a new well is used, or
where the water supply line is being repaired, or in the case of
leaky underground conduits during heavy rains, or from roily
river water during times of freshets. In most of these cases
the presence of sand is temporary only and, while it lasts, it
may be kept away from the butter by either permitting it to
settle out in a storage tank, or by attaching a fine mesh strainer,
or tying several thicknesses of cheesecloth over the end of the
pipe, that discharges into the churn, or by filtration.

Wherever the purity of the wash water is uncertain, it is
advisable to permanently install some form of water purifier.
For the removal of organic matter and grit, water filters should
be used. When used properly, a cotton filter may serve the
purpose well. Filters of the type of the "International Filter,"
in which the water is forced under pressure through a thick
layer of Cotton batten, with a heavy sheet of muslin at top and
bottom, have been found very useful. The renewal of these

WASHING THE BUTTER 321

filters is simple and inexpensive. The muslin is laundried and
used over again while the soiled cotton, charged with impurities,
is replaced by a new layer. These filters have the additional
advantage of taking up very little space.

If the creamery is troubled with roily water, these cotton
filters are not practical, because they clog rapidly. In such cases
sand, gravel and coke filters are preferable. Home-made filters
of this type have been found somewhat cumbersome, owing to
the attention and extra work which their care involves. There
are on the market, however, very compact and practical specimens
of these sand, gravel and coke filters which require but little at-
tention and which are capable of freeing the water from its
grit and probably from much of its organic matter. They con-
sist of a closed iron drum which contains the filtering material
and through which the water is forced, and are equipped with a
rotary agitator. For cleaning, the current of water through
the filter is reversed and the agitator is rotated. The opera-
tion of cleaning the filtering material requires but very little
time (about 10 minutes) and if this is done daily, and in ac-
cordance with directions furnished by the manufacturer, these
filters can be depended upon to do the work expected of them
very efficiently.

For the effective removal of micro-organisms from the water,
the efficiency of any of these filters is somewhat questionable.
Bacteriological analyses of the filtered water show variable re-
sults, probably depending on the condition and care of the
filter. Under ordinary creamery conditions they can hardly be
considered a reliable means to free the water from objectionable
germ life.

In order to render water sterile or nearly so, high tem-
perature pasteurization of the water may be practiced, but it
requires considerable equipment, time and fuel, for heating and
cooling. Of late years, for the sterilization of drinking water,
water for swimming pools, etc, the ultra violet ray process has
been found very suitable and its use is rapidly gaining. Its
efficiency has been established by Government tests.1 At the
present writing there are no creameries as yet which are using

1 Public Health Report, Vol. 31, No. 41, Oct., 1916. U. S. Public Health
Service.

322 SALTING THE BUTTER

this method of water purification, but the increasing adaptation
of electric power to creamery purposes, together with the effi-
ciency of the process, suggests the possibilities of this method
of purifying the water used for washing butter. The initial ex-
pense of an equipment of suitable capacity is somewhat high
and therefore probably beyond the reach of the small creamery.
The operating expense on the basis of 5 cents per K. W. is about
one quarter of one cent per gallon of water. Inasmuch as this
process is effective only with perfectly clear water and does not
sterilize water that is roily, its use would necessitate preparatory
filtration of the water in the case of water that is not naturally
clear.

Wherever the water intended for washing the butter is
stored in a tank reserved for this purpose, great care should
be taken, that this sweet water tank is kept clean, and free
from accumulations of organic matter. It should be completely
emptied and cleaned out, if necessary, with the use of odorless
disinfectants, at regular intervals. The brine or ammonia coils
in these tanks should be painted with suitable paint, so as to
avoid rusting and the consequent pollution of the water with
rust.

Creameries located in large towns or cities usually have
access to the water supply of municipal corporations. This
often solves for them the problem of pure water, but the use
of a good filter is recommended even in these cases.

SALTING THE BUTTER.

Purpose. — The fundamental object for which salt is added
to butter is to lend it the flavor desired by the consumer — to
season it. Formerly it was believed that salted butter kept
better in storage, but experimental data, as well as experience,
have demonstrated that while salt has undisputed antiseptic
properties, it has no material effect on the keeping quality of
butter. The addition of salt to butter is of importance to the
creamery also, because with salted butter a larger overrun is
secured than with unsalted butter. This is due to the fact
that the salt replaces a portion of the butterfat.

SAI/FING THE BUTTER 323

Amount of Salt. — The amount of salt that should be added
to butter should depend primarily on the market for which the
butter is intended. The salt requirements of different markets
vary somewhat. American markets demand a relatively highly
salted butter, with the exception of the Jewish trade which re-
quires unsalted butter. The English markets call for a butter
that is lightly salted, while continental Europe, especially
France, Southern Germany, Switzerland, etc., demand unsalted
butter. Thus the salt content of butter, as regulated by different
markets, may vary from no salt to about four per cent of salt.

In reality, however, the salt requirements of different
markets where salted butter is wanted, are salt tolerances rather
than requirements; i. e. there is not really a very marked dif-
ference in the amount of salt which the salted butter trade
demands, but it is rather a question of how much salt the trade
will stand for or tolerate. The manufacturer of butter natural-
ly aims to salt his butter heavily, because salt is cheaper than
butterfat. He will furnish the trade just as highly salted but-
ter, within the limitations regulated by effect on quality, as the
trade will accept and tolerate. Some markets are more critical
and quicker to resent the imposition than others, but none really
demand a very highly salted butter.

The salt content of butter intended for one and the same
market should be uniform. Variations in the salt content of
butter are detected by the consumer more easily than similar
variations of any other ingredient of butter. Uniformity of
salt content is, therefore, important in order to satisfy the trade.
In order to accomplish this, the amount of salt to be added
to any given churning should be based on the most constant
factor. On farm dairies and in whole milk creameries the
amount of salt is frequently calculated per hundred weight of
milk. In this case from three to four ounces of salt per 100
pounds of milk would produce a moderately salted butter. This
method gives fairly uniform results. Others are determining
the amount of salt needed on the basis of the amount of cream
in the churn. With the greater variability of the richness of the
cream, this method obviously may frequently lack in uniformity
of results. In the case of cream testing about 30 per cent fat,
for instance, from one and three-quarter to two and one-half

324 SAI/TING THE BUTTER

ounces of salt per gallon of cream would yield a butter with
a moderate salt content. On farm dairies and in creameries
where the butter is taken out of the churn and placed on a
separate worker, the required amount of salt is usually deter-
mined by the weight of the butter, using from one-half to three-
quarters of one ounce of salt for every pound of butter for
medium salted butter. Where the butter is worked and salted
in the churn this method is not practical. Today the great
majority of creameries are basing the amount of salt to be used,
on the pounds of butterfat in the churn, as calculated by the
weight and test of the cream. This is by far the most accurate
and most satisfactory method. Experience has shown that the
proper amount of salt for the average American market is about
three-quarter to one and one-half ounces of salt per pound of
butterfat. These figures are based on a desired salt content of
from 2.5 to 3.5 per cent under average conditions and methods
of salt incorporation, the latter being relatively crude from the
point of view of economy of salt. For salt tests see "Deter-
mination of Salt in Butter," Chapter XXII.

Where the method of manufacture and other conditions are
fairly constant from day to day, this ratio makes it possible
to produce butter with a reasonably uniform salt content. How-
ever, the portion of salt that remains in the butter depends,
aside from the amount added, on such factors as size and con-
dition of butter granules, amount of working which the butter
receives before and after salting, the condition and amount of
moisture in butter at the time the salt is added, the method
of salting, whether the salt is added in dry form, in wet form,
or in the form of brine, and the type of salt crystals.

Size and Condition of Butter Granules. — If the butter con-
sists of small, round and very firm granules the salt is dissolved,
distributed and held by the butter with difficulty, and much
of the salt is lost in the expelled brine. If the butter is reason-
ably firm and the granules large and irregular, or if the but-
ter granules have united into large lumps, the salt can be
worked into the butter more readily, there is less expulsion
of brine and therefore a relatively large proportion of the salt
added is absorbed by the butter. For this reason the trench
system of salting assists in the economic use of the salt.

SAI/TING THE BUTTER 325

If part of the working is done before salting, or if the but-
ter has been allowed to drain thoroughly before salting and the
churn gates are closed after the salt is added there is relatively
little loss of salt. In this case the loss of salt may not exceed
.5 per cent under favorable conditions.

Amount and Condition of Moisture. — Butterfat is no solvent
of salt. ' In order for the salt to dissolve in the butter there
must be moisture present. The more moisture butter contains
the more salt it is capable of holding in solution. Butter with
a low moisture content cannot hold much salt in solution. Ef-
forts to incorporate a high per cent of salt in dry butter usually
result in overworking and in gritty butter.

If the moisture is properly incorporated in the butter, the
slat will also remain there, and butter containing a large amount
of properly incorporated moisture is therefore capable of re-
taining a relatively high per cent of salt. If the moisture is
incorporated loosely, resulting in leaky butter, the escape of
moisture in the working and packing is great, and there is a
relatively large loss of salt, which causes the salt content of
the finished butter to be low, although, owing to the presence
of free brine such butter usually tastes very briny. (See also
Chapter XVIII on Composition of Butter.)

Method of Salting.— The salt is added to the butter either
in dry form, as a wet mash, or in the form of brine.

Dry Salting Method. — This is the most common method
used. The . salt is sprinkled over the butter in the churn, in
the trench, or on the workers and then worked into the but-
ter until it is dissolved and evenly distributed. When the but-
ter is of medium firmness this method works satisfactorily and
there is little danger from grittiness and mottles. In the case
of very firm and hard butter the distribution and solution of
the dry salt, is more difficult and requires often excessive work-
ing, which in turn tends to make an inferior texture of butter.
More often, however, the working is stopped before the salt
is thoroughly dissolved and the butter remains gritty and may
become mottled. In the case of very soft and slushy butter the
dry salt kernels become coated with a film of fat before they

326 SAI/TING THE BUTTER

have an opportunity to take up enough moisture to insure com-
plete solution. Such butter renders the complete solution of
the salt difficult, and is almost invariably gritty.

Wet Salting Method. — In this method the salt is moistened
either by pouring water over the dry salt already sprinkled over
the butter, or placed into the trench and before working, or
enough water is added to the salt in a tub or pail" before
the salt is put into the churn, to make a salt mash. In order
to secure a satisfactory mash slightly less than one half as much
water as there is salt, by weight, should be mixed with the salt.
This mash is then distributed over the butter, or placed into
the trench, then the trench is closed and the butter is worked.
This method of wet salting is very satisfactory and preferable
under many conditions to the dry salting method. There is less
danger of a coarse, briny flavor, gritty butter and mottles, be-
cause the salt is given more favorable conditions for complete
solution and the brine formed has a chance to completely fuse
with the finely divided water in the butter. This largely removes
the difficulties above cited when salting very firm and very
soft and slushy butter.

In churns in which the reduction of moisture is not ac-
complished readily, as is frequently the case with certain makes
of churns, wet salting slightly increases the tendency toward ex-
cessive moisture. This can be readily avoided, however, by drain-
ing the butter more competely before salting. If the bottom of
the buttermilk gate happens to be located considerably above
the bottom of the churn, so that it is impossible to drain all
the free water from the churn, the butter should be drained
through the churn doors.

It is frequently claimed that salting lowers the per cent
salt retained in the finished butter. This is not borne out in
practice. In fact the salt crystals in the mash, because of their
ability to go into complete solution quickly do not draw the
water droplets of the butter out as much as the dry crystals
and therefore are more readily permanently incorporated in the
form of brine.

Brine Salting. — In this method the salt is previously dis-
solved in water, making a saturated salt solution. In order

SALTING THE BUTTER 327

to secure a brine of maximum saturation and to hasten the
solution of the salt, the salt may be dissolved in hot water and
the brine is then cooled to the proper temperature suitable for
addition to the butter. This is the ideal way of salting from
the point of view of completeness of solution, uniform distribu-
tion of salt, and absence of a coarse, briny flavor and grittiness.
However this method is practical only where a very light salt in
butter is desired. It is impossible to incorporate a high salt
content with this method. Brine-salted butter contains only from
one to two per cent salt. And even in order to incorporate
the maximum of two per cent salt by this method it is neces-
sary to use two separate batches of brine. One batch may be
used in the place of the second washing and the butter has to
be churned considerably in this. The brine left in the butter
after this brine washing is naturally very dilute. After the
first batch of brine has been drawn off the second batch is added.
This is left with the butter for five to fifteen minutes. Care
should be taken not to work the butter in the brine excessively
in the case of soft butter, in order not to incorporate excessive
moisture. After the second batch of brine is drawn off the
working is completed. The butter should be worked only en-
ough to properly distribute the brine and to bring the butter
together in a compact mass for easy handling.

Butter with so low a salt content does not meet the require-
ments of the majority of American markets for salted butter,
hence this method is not commonly used in our creameries. The
brine-salting method has the further disadvantages of being ex-
cessively laborious and wasteful of salt and the low salt content
of the finished product obviously results in a relatively low
overrun. In the spring of the year there is always more or
less danger of excessive moisture where the brine-salting method
is practiced.

Type of Salt Crystals. — The ease with which salt dissolves
and is incorporated in butter is also influenced by the type of
crystals of the salt. Cube crystals which have the smallest
relative surface in proportion to their cubic content absorb water
and dissolve, more slowly than flake crystals, unless the size of
the cube crystals is reduced to the point where their relation of

328

SALTING THK

Type of Salt Crystals of Buttersalts

Magnified 20 times

Pig-. 51. Colonial Salt

rig1. 52. Diamond Crystal Salt

Pig-. 53. Worcester Salt

SALTING THE BUTTER 329

surface to cubic content is similar to that of the coarser flake
crystals.

Quality of Salt. — It is important that the salt used for but-
termaking be of the very best quality. It should have a high
degree of purity both bacteriologically and chemically, it should
be of the proper physical consistency and should be protected
from influences that jeopardize its bacteriological, chemical and
physical fitness for use in the creamery.

Bacteriological Purity of Butter Salt. — It is obvious that
the salt should be as free as possible from germ life, lest it
become a source of contamination of the butter. The better
brands of butter salt on the market come from the salines in
practically sterile condition. The latest improved processes
through which the brine passes from the time it is pumped from
a depth of several thousand feet in the ground, till it is sealed
in the paper-lined barrels are such, as largely to eleminate any
micro-organisms originally present in the brine, and the hand-
ling of the finished salt occurs under conditions highly sanitary
and reduces the danger of contamination of the finished product
to the minimum. The increasing concentration of the brine
during the process and the practically complete absence of mois-
ture in the salt when packed, in themselves, are conditions antag-
onistic to the life of germs. The heat to which the brine and
salt are subjected before and incident to the evaporation and
again in the final dryers, is destructive to all germ life and the
packing of the salt is done exclusively by machinery and while
still hot, thus removing the possibility of recontamination prac-
tically entirely.

Bacteriological analyses of the salt in the sealed barrels have
shewn such salt to be either entirely sterile or to contain less
than 10 germs per gram. When barrels are opened in the
creamery, however, and are left uncovered and exposed to damp-
ness and impure air, for a prolonged period of time, as is the
case in a great many creameries, the salt becomes damp and
often contains large numbers of bacteria, particularly the types
of micro-organisms which render the butter rancid and cheesy
and possibly moldy. Weigmann1 reports cases where the up-

1 Weigmann, Versuche zur Bereitung von Dauerbutter, Milchwlrtschaf t-
liches Zentralblatt, Vol. 44, No. 23, p. 364, 1915.

330 S AI/TING THE; BUTTER

per layers of salt in an open receptacle contained as high as
32,000 germs per gram, consisting largely of liquefying and non-
liquefying micrococci, alkali bacilli, lactic acid bacteria, yeast,
Bacterium mycoides, Mucor, Penicillium Actinomyces and other
spore forms. These facts obviously show that butter salt ex-
posed to the atmosphere may become contaminated with many
species of micro-organisms, some of which are of the type
dangerous to the flavor and keeping quality of butter. They
emphasize the importance of keeping the salt well covered after
the barrel is once opened. In a properly managed creamery
there should be provided proper covers for the barrels that
have been opened and not completely emptied, in order to avoid
this unnecessary source of contamination of the butter.

Some creameries are equipped with a salt chest, or bin, or
box, into which they empty and in which they store the salt.
These boxes are more conveniently accessible than the barrels.
They should be equipped with a well fitting cover and located
away from excessive dampness. It is advisable to not fill them
with more than one barrel of salt at a time, as the original seal
of the unopened barrel furnishes better protection than the
creamery salt chest.

Chemical Purity of Butter Salt.— The best buttersalts con-
tain from 98 to over 99 per cent pure sodium chloride. The
salts of commerce contain besides sodium chloride, small but
varying amounts of gypsum, calcium chloride and magnesium
chloride. All of these impurities, when present in considerable
quantities, are undesirable from the standpoint of the quality of
butter. The gypsum reduces the solubility of the salt and the
magnesium chloride tends to give butter a distinct bitter flavor.
The salts of magnesium also are very strongly hydroscopic,
augmenting the tendency of the butter salt in storage when ex-
posed to the air, to absorb moisture and to become damp and
lumpy. The butter salt should also be free from mechanical
impurities such as dust, dirt and other organic matter.

The chemical purity of the salt is determined largely by
the purity of the brine and the process of manufacture used for
the elimination of the natural impurities contained in the brine.
The purity of the brine varies very considerably with the locali-

SAI/TING THE BUTTER 331

ty, in some localities the wells yield a brine of a relatively high
degree of chemical purity, while in other localities the admixture
of undesirable minerals and mineral salts, such as gypsum and
magnesium chloride, iron, etc. is very marked. For this reason
there is a wide difference in the need of purifying processes
used in the different salines, in order to attain purity.

The brine from which the butter salt is manufactured in
this country is secured from wells which reach salt deposits
which lie anywhere from 1500 to 3000 feet below the surface.
When the salt stratum is to be penetrated a double pipe is put
down. The outer one, which represents the diameter of the well,
about 6| inches, reaches the top of the salt bed, while the inner
tube which measures from 3J to 4| inches in diameter, goes clear
through to the bottom of the salt deposit. Fresh water is
pumped down the outer tube. This dissolves the rock salt, and
the brine thus formed under continued pressure, rises to the
surface through the inner tube and is conveyed to large tanks,
the settling tanks, where it is allowed to settle and clarify.
From this point on the brine is passed through one of three
processes, the grainer process, the vacuum process, or the Ahls-
berg process. These processes largely determine the degree of
purity of the salt and the shape of the salt crystals.

The Grainer Process is the oldest process. It simply con-
sists of pumping the brine from the storage or settling tanks
into large evaporating vats equipped with steam coils which are
charged with exhaust steam. In these vats the brine is heated
to the boiling point under atmospheric pressure. As the water
evaporates, crystals form on the surface where evaporation is
most rapid. These crystals unite into larger aggregates, which
gradually drop to the bottom and are drawn out of these vats
by mechanical, slowly-moving rakes. These salt crystals are
piled on a platform where they are allowed to drain or they
are centrifuged to remove the bulk of the water and are then
subsequently dried and run through sieves. No attempt is made
in this process to purify the brine from mineral impurities,
except possibly to bleach it by addition of small quantities of
lime. The chemical purity of the salt made from this brine
will therefore almost wholly depend on the natural purity of

332 SAI/TING THE BUTTER

the brine. The slow evaporation at a relatively high heat
causes the salt crystals to be relatively large and flaky, the
individual crystals appear to have rhomboid shape, they gather
into 'clusters forming large crystals, of the shape of hollow
pyramids.

In the Vacuum Process the brine is conveyed from the
storage tanks to large heating tanks, where its temperature is
raised so that as soon as it enters the vacuum pan evaporation
commences. In the vacuum pans, which are huge iron retorts,
the brine is evaporated at relatively low temperatures under
reduced pressure. The evaporation is very rapid. From the
vacuum pan the crystals are conveyed to centrifuges, where
they are freed from about 95 per cent of their water. From
here on the process of drying and sifting is similar to that of
the Grainer process. In the vacuum process in some factories
mineral impurities are removed, in part at least, through a dis-
charge chamber in the bottom of the pan in which the "bitter
water," being heavier than brine and remaining in solution
longer, collects. The crystals produced by this process, as the
result of rapid evaporation at low temperature, are cube shape,
they are very small and remarkably uniform in size.

In the Ahlsberg Process the brine is pumped through heat-
ers where it is subjected to very high temperature (about 280° F.)
under pressure. These heaters resemble water-tube boilers, the
brine flowing through the tubes and the spaces between the
tubes being charged with steam. In these heaters the brine
deposites its gypsum and other impurities forming a coating
on the tubes, which is daily removed by steel drills. From
these heaters the brine passes through gravel filters which
furnish an additional means to deposit the gypsum. From
here the brine enters large circular evaporating vats. As soon
as its pressure is released and the brine passes into these vats,
crystallization sets in. From these crystallizing vats the wet
salt passes through centrifuges for the removal of the bulk of
the water, and the dryers and sieves as described in the Grainer
and Vacuum process. The Ahlsberg process is particularly
adapted for salines whose brine supply contains considerable
mineral impurities, such as gypsum and which it is capable

SALTING THE BUTTER

333

of very efficiently removing. Crystallization takes place very
rapidly and at high temperature and the crystals are flaky and
of rhomboid shape.

Table 51. — Chemical Analyses of Butter Salts.
These analyses refer to butter salts only.

Brand of

Butter Salt

Analyses
Made By

Sodium Chloride
Per Cent

Calcium Sulphate
Per Cent

Calcium Chloride
Per Cent

Magnesium
Chloriae
Per Cent

Insoluble Matter
Per Cent

II

is

Anchor

Wisconsin1

97.79

1.48

.28

.08

.06

.31

Ashton

Wisconsin1

98.01

1.47

.20

.16

.03

.18

Australian Dairy

Canada2

97.90

1.03

.39

.02

.38

.28

Canfield and

Wheeler

Wisconsin1

98.18

1.21

.22

.12

.04

.23

Chippewa

Connecticut3

98.79

1.01

.00

.03

.05

.12

Colonial

Cornell4

99.53

.29

.09

.02

.03

.06

DiamondCrystal

Wisconsin1

99.18

.54

.19

.05

.03

.01

DiamondCrystal

Connecticut3

99.50

.45

.00

.04

.01

.00

DiamondCrystal

Connecticut3

99.54

.30

.00

.07

.01

.08

DiamondCrystal

Maine5

99.71

.23

.00

.06

.00

.00

Dominion Dairy

Canada2

96.04

1.44

.92

.00

.00

1.60

Eagle

Canada2

98.98

.47

.41

.00

.00

.14

English Dairy

Canada2

97.90

1.57

.18

, .00

.00

.35

Extra Dairy

Canada2

96.15

.91

.84

.00

1.90

.20

Genesee

Wisconsin1

98.27

1.11

.24

.07

.04

.16

Le Roy

Canada2

96.88

1.40

.10

.07

1.05

.50

Le Roy

Wisconsin1

98.15

1.31

.39

.08

.01

.06

Imperial

Maine5

98.02

1.23

.29

.04

.15

.27

Peerless

Maine5

98.12

1.14

.21

.13

.00

.40

Port Huron

Canada2

97.31

1.66

.23

.00

.00

.80

Purity

Connecticut3

98.53

1.01

.00

.11

.02

.33

Warsaw

Wisconsin1

98.57

.92

.25

.07

.02

.17

Windsor

Canada12

98.08

1.16

.00

.36

.00

.40

Worcester

Wisconsin1

98.57

.92

.25

.07

.02

.17

Worcester

Connecticut3

98.94

.59

.19

.07

.01

.20

Worcester

Maine5

98.53

.82

.07

.13

.10

.35

1 Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 74, 1889.
8 Canada Internal Revenue Department, Bulletin 128, 1906.

• Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station Report, 1907-1908.

* Cornell University, Analysis by Prof. H. C. Troy, Chemist, 1919.
6 Maine Agricultural Experiment Station Annual Report, 1910.

334 SALTING THE: BUTTER

The final drying process of all butter salt is the same. The
driers are huge, cylindrical, revolving drums, 32 to 35 feet in
length, and six feet in diameter and set at an incline so that
the salt may travel slowly from one end of the drier to the
other. Heat is supplied by means of steam pipes which pass
through the driers. The temperature in these driers is about
280° F. The hot salt coming from the driers is then sifted.
For butter salt, wire sieves with 25 to 30 meshes to the inch
are used. After sifting, the salt is ready to be packed.

Most of the better butter salts contain these chemical
impurities in exceedingly small amounts only, are practically
entirely free from insoluble matter and contain less than .5
per cent of moisture. The foregoing table shows analyses of
diverse salts and indicates their relative freedom from chemical
impurities.

In the consideration of the chemical analyses of butter salts.
as shown in table 51, it should be understood that the composi-
tion of different lots of one and the same brand not infrequently
varies quite considerably, so that an unbiased and fair con-
clusion concerning the relative merits of the several salts,
based on their standard of chemical purity is possible only,
when the respective analyses represent averages of a large
number of samples of each brand in question.

Many of the analyses shown in table 51 represent but one
sample of the respective brands and even in the case of figures
which do represent averages, only a comparatively few sam-
ples of the respective brands served to make up these aver-
ages. For these reasons it is obvious that the figures in table
51 should be accepted only as a general guide and should not
be looked upon as a guarantee of the standard of chemical
purity of the brands involved.

Physical Condition of the Salt. — It is very important that
the salt be present in the form of crystals of the proper form
and size. This factor controls its readiness to dissolve and
its ease of being retained in the butter. The crystals must be
of medium coarseness. When the crystals are excessively large
they dissolve with comparative difficulty, tending toward gritty

SAI/TING THE BUTTER 335

butter, or necessitating the overworking of the butter. Their
distribution also tends to be less uniform, the individual crys-
tals are farther apart so that their action on the casein and the
expulsion of buttermilk are uneven, and the fusion of brine and
water in the butter is slow and relatively incomplete. This in
turn tends to cause an uneven color in butter.

When the salt crystals are too fine, the salt is prone to be
pasty, which renders its uniform distribution difficult. Exces-
sively small crystals hinder the expulsion of buttermilk because
the drops of buttermilk which each crystal is capable of tak-
ing up are so small, that their complete and ready expulsion
is hampered.

Salt crystals of medium size, and which will pass through
a screen having 25 to 30 meshes to the inch, are best suited
for butter salt.

With reference to the shape or form of the salt crystals,
the butter salts are divided into two classes, the flake crystal
salt and the cube crystal salt. The flake grain represents a
thin and flat crystal usually of rhomboid or pyramid form, while
the cube crystal grain appears in the form of regular-shaped
solid cubes. Since the flake grain, with the flat thin crystal,
exposes more surface in proportion to its cubic contents, than
the cube crystal with its cube shape, it is obvious that the flake
grain salt dissolves somewhat more readily and is therefore bet-
ter suited for butter salt than the cube crystal grain, unless the
cube salt is of sufficiently smaller grain to reduce the cubic con-
tents of the cube crystals in proportion to their surfaces to
that of the coarser, crystals of the flake salt. The difference in
the shape of the crystals is due to the temperature at which
the brine is evaporated. The flake grains are the product of
evaporation at a high temperature (under atmospheric pres-
sure) while the cube crystal grains result from evaporation at
a relatively low temperature (in partial vacuum).

Solubility of Buttersalts. — The solubility and rapidity of
solution of Colonial, Diamond Crystal and Worcester butter
salts, representing the Grainer, the Ahlsberg and the Vacuum

336 SAI/TING THE BUTTER

process, respectively, were tested by Hunziker and Hosman.1
In the case of butter containing 16% water, and assuming that
all the water in the butter were accessible to the salt, these
results would indicate the following:

With a 2 per cent salt content in the butter the brine would
contain 11.11 per cent salt. This concentration was reached in
5 seconds with the Colonial and the Diamond Crystal salts, and
in 5J seconds in the case of the Worcester salt.

With a 3 per cent salt content in the butter the brine would
contain 15.78 per cent salt. This concentration was reached in
6J seconds with the Colonial and Diamond Crystal salts, and in
7 seconds with the Worcester salt.

With a 4 per cent salt content in the butter the brine would
contain 20 per cent salt. This concentration was reached in 8
seconds with the Colonial and Diamond Crystal salts, and in

9 seconds with the Worcester salt.

With a 5 per cent salt content in the butter the brine would
contain 23.8 per cent salt. This concentration was reached in

10 seconds with the Colonial salt, in 13 seconds with the Dia-
mond Crystal salt, and in 21 seconds with the Worcester salt.

With a 5.5 per cent salt content in the butter the brine would
contain 25.58 per cent salt. This concentration was reached in
25 seconds with the Colonial salt, in 35 seconds with the Dia-
mond Crystal salt, and in 41 seconds with the Worcester salt.

Inasmuch as the point of saturation of pure salt is reached
with brine containing 26.41 per cent salt, salts showing a brine

1 Hunziker and Hosman. Determination of Solubility of Buttersalts.
Blue Valley Research Laboratory, 1919.

In this experiment the samples of the three buttersalts were taken from
the interior of the barrel, after removing about 30 pounds from the top.
Three hundred and seventy grams of salt were added to 1,000 c.c. of water
which was being violently agitated by means of a mechanical stirrer. It
required from two to three seconds to add the salt. At definite intervals,
after adding the salt, a sample was removed by means of a pipette, the
suction end of which was covered with silk cloth. The mesh in this silk was
from .05 mm. to .10 mm. in cross section and there were from 140 to 160
meshes per linear inch. All samples of brine were filtered through a double
layer of this finely woven silk. Samples were removed after 10, 30, 45, 60, 57,
90, 105, 120, 180, 210 and 300 seconds, respectively. About 20 c.c. of brine was
taken for each sample. The samples were kept in glass stoppered bottles until
weighed. The determination of salt was made by weighing into a watch
crystal about 6 grams of the brine and evaporating at 135° to 140° C. to
constant weight. The apparatus and speed of agitation used were such as
to preclude the possibility of any settling of the salt while the samples were
taken. The amount, nature and speed of the agitation were uniform in each
test.

SALTING THS BUTTER 337

concentration beyond this point suggest the presence of im-
purities.

These conclusions are purely arbitrary and relative. As
stated elsewhere in this volume, the fine division and emulsion
of the water in butter greatly diminishes the availability of a
portion of it to the salt. It is not mechanically possible to com-
pletely dissolve a sufficient amount of salt in butter to reach
the saturation point of all the water present. If salt is added to
butter at the ratio of 26.41 parts of salt for every 100 parts
of water present, and which ratio represents the maximum con-
centration possible of salt brine, all of this salt will not dissolve
and the butter is bound to be gritty.

These figures, however, do show the relative solubility and
the speed of solution of different buttersalts, and they may serve
to suggest in a general way the limitations of satisfactory salt
in corporation.

The Condition of the Salt as Affected by Storage.— It has

already been stated under the paragraph on "Bacteriological
Purity" that the salt should be kept tightly covered in order
to avoid bacterial contamination which may prove disastrous
to the quality of the butter.

The buttermaker should also exercise due care to protect
the salt against a damp atmosphere, because of the great affinity
of the salt for moisture from the air, causing it to become
lumpy and musty.

It is frequently claimed that, when the salt is stored in
barrels for an excessively long period of time; the salt is cap-
able of absorbing a woody odor and flavor from the barrel,
which may be imparted to the butter. It is doubtful that salt
packed in sound barrels, kept dry, ever absorbs woody flavor.
Experts on butter salt testify that this is impossible. How-
ever, instances are on record where salt stored in barrels made
of poorly seasoned wood, or wood derived from trees which
were felled while the sap was still running, or from lumber
which was allowed to soak in stagnant ponds, gave butter a
pronounced woody and moldy odor. The storing of the salt
barrels in damp places where the barrel becomes wet may also
be responsible for this defect.

338 SAI/TING THE BUTTER

If stored in a very cold place and not given a chance to
warm up by being taken into the creamery long enough before
use, the salt chills the butter with which it comes in immediate
contact and thereby hinders ready solution and uniform dis-
tribution of the brine. Where the storage place of the salt
is very cold, as is often the case in creameries in winter where
the salt is stored in a shed, the salt needed for the next day
should be brought into the creamery the previous day, or long
enough before use, to allow it to temper, in order to avoid
the undesirable consequences of the use of very cold salt.

Effect of Salt on the Keeping Quality of Butter.— The anti-
septic properties of salt are generally recognized. Salt has
the power of inhibiting bacteriological growth. It would seem,
therefore, that salted butter should possess greater keeping
quality than unsalted butter and that the more salt butter con-
tains the better it should keep.

Jensen1 reports that all micro-organisms grow better and
faster in unsalted butter than in salted butter. The growth
of the water bacteria is retarted most by the salt. Klein2 says
that although butter is primarily salted to improve its flavor,
its keeping quality is also materially improved. Weigman3
found that salt has a conserving action, that unsalted butter
generally contains more microorganisms than salted butter and
that in unsalted butter the multiplication of bacteria lasts longer
than in salted butter. His experimental results show that in
unsalted butter the multiplication lasted 106 days as against 62
days in salted butter. McKay and Larsen's4 experiments show
that salt improves the keeping quality of butter. Rahn, Brown
and Smith5 who stored salted and unsalted butter at — 6° C.
and -(-6° C. state that there is no hope of keeping unsalted
butter longer than salted butter. Fettig,6 in experiments in
which butter was stored at similar temperatures as above, con-
cluded, that salted butter keeps better, both above and below
the freezing point, than unsalted butter.

1 Jensen, Die Bakteriologie der Milchwirtschaft, 1913, p. 124.

2 Klein, Milchwirtschaft, 1914, p. 218.
»Weigmann, Mykologie der Milch, 1911, p. 210.

* McKay and Larsen, The Keeping Quality of Butter, Iowa Bulletin 71, 1903.
6 Rahn, Brown and Smith, Keeping Quality of Butter, Michigan Technical

Bulletin 2, 1909.

• Fettig, Centralblatt fur Bakt. II. Band 22, No. 32, 1909.

SAI/TING THE BUTTER 339

While the results above quoted all point toward improved
keeping quality of salted butter, both experimental results and
the experience of the butter manufacturer have demonstrated
that the beneficial influence of salt on the keeping quality of
butter, depends to a very considerable extent on a variety of
factors incident to the making and storing of butter and the
amount of salt, butter contains.

Again, all micro-organisms present in butter do -not take
part in the decomposition of the ingredients of the buttermilk
and therefore do not affect its keeping quality and some spe-
cies are considered capable to actually prolong the life of but-
ter. On the other hand, the inhibiting action of salt varies
greatly with different micro-organisms and with the concen-
tration of the brine present. In slightly . salted butter, i. e.,
butter containing not to exceed about two per cent salt, the
liquid parts of the butter contain only about thirteen per cent
salt, which is insufficient to retard the growth of most micro-
organisms. Weigmann found that 2.5 per cent salt in butter,
or about sixteen per cent in the brine of butter, inhibits the
growth of some species of germs and that the molds are, affected
by this salt more than the bacteria and yeast. When, however,
the salt is increased to 4 and 5 per cent, or approximately 21
to 25 per cent in the brine, the keeping quality is not only not
improved, but it suffers. In this case the lactic acid bacteria
which improve the keeping quality are affected unfavorably,
their growth is inhibited, while other bacteria which give the
butter undesirable flavors, such as those of the coli and aero-
genes groups, Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus putrificus and several
molds, are more resistant to salt. These results are corroborated
by experiments by Gray and McKay1 who show that in the case
of butter stored at temperatures varying from — 10° F. to
-j-32° F., lightly salted butter averaged 2.16 points higher in
score than heavily salted butter. These investigators therefore
concluded that butter containing low percentages of salt, keeps
better than butter containing a high per cent of salt. Fettig
also found that if the salt concentration is so high as to stop
the activity of lactic acid bacteria, some of the more resistant

1 Gray and McKay, Investigations in the Manufacture and Storage of But-
ter. U. S. B. A. I. Bulletin 84, 1906, p. 17.

340

SALTING THE BUTTER

organisms have a chance to grow and to decompose butter. He
adds that the coli group of bacteria thrives in butter con-
taining 6 per cent salt and B. prodigiosus thrives in butter con-
taining four per cent salt. Hunziker, Mills and Spitzer found
that unsalted and lightly salted butter had a better flavor and
kept better in storage at — 6° F. than heavily salted butter, as
shown in the following table.

Table 52. — Showing Scores of Butter with Varying Amounts
of Salt Before and After Storage.1

•

d

-1

Is

Scores Before
Storage

•
bo

•

Scores After Storage

s

**

AH

P

E

0>

4

Credi-
cott

Mittle-
sted

Credi-
cott

Keist

Mittle-
sted

1

none

12

93

93

93

93^

93^

9$y2

93^

2

2.20

12

93

93

93

93

93

94

93^

3

4.44

12

92

92

92

91

91

91

91

4,

6.66

12

88^

88^

88^

88 l/s

88

87

87*4

5

7.17

12

87^

87^

87^

89'

89

88^

8814

6

none

30

94^'

94^

94^

94

94

94

94

7

2.92

30

91

90^

9034

91

90^

90J4

9oy3

8

6.13

30

89

91

90

90

90

90^

90^4

9

7.81

30

89

90^

8934

88

88

87

87%

10

8.57

30

89^

89^

85

85

84

84%

The above ten lots of butter were made from the same
churning. Lots 1 to 5 were worked 12 revolutions, lots 6 to
10, inclusive, were worked 30 revolutions.

These findings, then, give evidence of the fact that while
a small amount of salt may and does retard the action of some un-
desirable microbes, such as certain molds and yeast, and at the
same time permit the activity of desirable bacteria, such as the
lactic acid speries and, therefore, has a tendency to improve the
keeping quality of butter, the opposite effect may be expected
with heavily salted butter.

But the effect of salt on the keeping quality of butter, is
also governed and modified to a very appreciable extent, by the
temperature at which butter is stored. Bacteria, in order to
thrive on the food they find in butter, must have that food in
liquid form. When the serum of butter, containing the curd

1 Hunziker, Mills and Spitzer, Moisture Control of Butter. Purdue Bulletin
160, 1912.

SAI/TING THE BUTTER 341

and sugar, is frozen, bacteria cease to be able to utilize it and
their activity stops. When butter is stored at or above the
freezing point of water the liquid portion in both salted and
unsalted butter is in solution. In salted butter liquid brine
has a retarding influence on some of them, while in unsalted
butter ' their development is unhindered. It is obvious there-
fore that at ordinary temperatures the unsalted butter will
spoil more readily than the salted butter, a fact which is amply
borne out in the commercial manufacture and handling of
butter.

But not so when butter is stored at the cold storage tem-
perature generally used in this country, i. e. — 6 to — 10° F.
At such low temperatures the moisture in unsalted butter is
frozen solid, a fact which makes further bacterial development
impossible. In heavily salted butter on the other hand, the
freezing point of the brine is very near the storage tempera-
ture. The brine therefore remains in solution for a relatively
long period of time and the micro-organisms which are capable
to resist the concentrated brine are able to continue their work.
That the brine in heavily salted butter remains in solution
for some time, if it freezes at all after the butter has been placed
in cold storage, is clearly shown in the paragraph relating to
"The Effect of Salt on the Moisture Content of Butter.'1
Unsalted and lightly salted butter lost practically no moisture
in cold storage, while heavily salted butter lost from one to
three and one-half per cent moisture. Similar results are re-
ported by Washburn.1 These findings are in no way contradic-
tory to those obtained by the investigators previously quoted
who reported that salted butter kept better than unsalted but-
ter, because of the differences in the temperature at which
their butter was stored.

The earlier impression among buttermakers and also
quoted in some of the text books was that salt covers up the
bad flavors in butter, and it used to be recommended that but-
ter of inferior quality should be salted heavily in order to hide
the undesirable flavors. Our latest findings on this point do
not bear out this assumption. On the contrary, experience has

1 Washburn. Influence of Salt on Storage Butter, Journal of Dairy Science,
Vol 1, No. 2, 1917.

342 SALTING THE BUTTER

shown, that heavy salting rather intensifies than minimizes the
effect of poor quality. Such butter usually takes on a disagree-
able, coarse flavor particularly objectionable to the consumer.
In fact the bulk of evidence goes to show that butter made from
second grade cream is of better flavor and sells to better advan-
tage when it is not salted at all. For this reason many of the
most progressive creameries, whose daily make is sufficiently
large to justify them to churn the different grades of cream
separately, put their second grade cream into unsalted butter,
for which they can realize a better price than if they salted it,
and frequently their second grade unsalted butter brings as
good a price as their first grade salted butter.

Leaving out of consideration the preference of the con-
suming public, one of the most important disadvantages of un-
salted butter, as related to quality, lies in the fact that unsalted
butter molds very much more readily than salted butter. Mold
development usually makes its appearance within less than two
weeks of manufacture. Since this is the period before the but-
ter reaches cold storage, and during which the temperature to
which the butter is exposed, is generally considerably above
32° F., mold growth makes rapid progress. In the absence of
salt there is nothing to inhibit it, and if the unsalted butter
happens to be made from cream that is high in acid when
churned, the moldiness is further intensified. Molds flourish
in an acid medium. Salt brine, on the other hand, retards mold
growth. Salted butter, therefore, is not so prone to arrive on
the market in moldy condition.

Effect of Salt on Possible Germs of Disease That May be
Found in Butter. — This applies only to butter made from raw
cream, as it is generally conceded that proper pasteurization
of the cream eliminates the germs of infectious diseases from
butter. Data on the effect of salt on the virulence of patho-
genic bacteria, are not numerous and such data as are available
are confined to the bacillus of tuberculosis. Schroeder and
Cotton,1 as the result of experiments with infected butter,
conclude that living bacilli of tuberculosis will retain their
infectious properties for at least 160 days in salted butter when

1 Schroeder and Cotton, The Relation of the Tubercle Bacillus to Public
Health, U. S. Dept. Agr., B. A. I. Circular 153, p. 38.

SALTING THE: BUTTKR 343

kept without ice in cellar. Mohler, Washburn and Doane1 re-
port as follows: "No dependence should be placed upon the
action of the salt that is added to butter as an agent in the
destruction of Bacillus tuberculosis. It has been shown that
the effect of salt as commonly used in the manufacture of but-
ter, is very slight at best. Most of the samples used were salted
with the usual amount. Yet the butter contained its virulence
for 6 months."

These facts emphasize that the heavy salting of butter, as
usually practiced on the dairy farm where butter is made, is
not an adequate substitute for pasteurization and that pasteur-
ization is indispensible as a guarantee of freedom from disease
germs.

Effect of Salt on Moisture Content of Butter. — Before the
salt is added to butter, butter represents an emulsion of water-
in-fat, in which the water is present in very small drop-
lets, of relatively uniform size and even distribution.

The addition of salt causes this emulsion to be disturbed.
The salt, owing to its great affinity for water, draws many
of the water droplets together into larger droplets and drops
and even larger aggregates. There is a marked decrease in
the number of small droplets and an increase in the number
'of large droplets. And there is an unmistakable tendency for
water to run out of the butter, causing a decrease in the per-
centage of moisture.

In butter made from cream that was not sufficiently cooled,
nor held at the low temperature long enough to thoroughly
chill and harden the fat before churning, the salting invariably
produces a leaky body. In this case the mechanical-condition
of the fat is such that the formation of the water-in-fat emul-
sion, resulting during the churning process, is incomplete. While
it is sufficiently complete to prevent unsalted butter from being
leaky (unsalted butter never is really leaky) it is not suffi-
ciently complete to withstand the emulsion-disturbing influ-
ence of the salt. It yields to the salting-out process and be-
comes leaky.

At best the salt tends to decrease the moisture content of

1 Mohler, Washburn and Doane. Virility of Bacillus Tuberculosis, U. S.
A. I. 26, Annual Report, 1909.

344

SALTING THE BUTTER

butter to some extent, and in the case of butter made from
insufficiently chilled cream this decrease may be very great.
This does not necessarily mean, however, that the finished prod-
uct is lower in moisture in the case of salted butter than in
the case of unsalted butter. The expulsion of moisture by the
salt occurs during the first few revolutions of the workers. As
the working continues, especially with the churn doors closed,
brine is reincorporated and the moisture content again in-
creases. Salted butter, at the conclusion of the working process
may, therefore, contain as much water as unsalted butter, the
salt replacing a corresponding portion of the fat and not of the
water, causing salted butter to be lower in butterfat than un-
salted butter. This fact is demonstrated in the following
table:1

Table 53. — Showing Effect of Amount of Salt on Moisture and

Fat Content of Butter When the Butter is Worked With the

Churn Gates Closed.

Lot
No.

Ounces
of Salt
per Lb.
Fat

Revolu-
tions
Worked

Chemical Composition of Butter in Per Cent

Salt

Fat

Moisture

Curd

Ash

April, 1907 (before storage) worked 12 revolutions

1

none

12

.02

84.58

14.05

.63

.20 '

2

2A

12

2.20

83.00

14.07

.60

.19

3

WA

12

4.44

81.22

14.00

.t50

.19

4

2K

12

6.66

77.70

14.78

.61

.18

5

W

12

7.17

77.31

14.75

.60

.20

Average

4.10

80.76

14.33

.61

.19

When butter is placed i ncold storage the loss of moisture
in salted butter is very much greater than that in unsalted but-
ter, as shown in experimental data1 in Table 54.

As shown in Table 54, the loss of moisture of but-
ter in cold storage is greatest in heavily salted butter, while
it is very slight in lightly salted butter. While unsalted but-
ter lost no moisture in eight months storage at — 6° F., lightly
salted butter lost .42 per cent and heavily salted butter as
high as 3.08 per cent. Similar results were obtained in exper-

1 Hunziker, Mills and Spitzer. Moisture Control of Butter, Purdue Bulletin
160, 1912, p. 399.

SAI/UNG THE BUTTER

345

iments conducted by Rahn, Brown and Smith.1 This loss of
moisture in storage was formerly attributed to evaporation,
and such is in fact the case to a limited extent with butter,
stored at ordinary temperature. In commercial cold storage,
however, moisture does not evaporate to any noticeable extent.

Table 54. — Showing Loss of Moisture in Butter in Cold Storage.

Per Cent Salt

Per Cent Moisture

Fresh

Stored 8 Months
at -6° F.

Decrease

of Per Cent Salt

none
2.20
4.48
6.66
7.17

14.05
14.07
14.00
14.78
14.75

14.20
13.65
13.01
11.70
11.83

'.42
.99
3.08
2.92

If here the loss of moisture were due to evaporation, this de-
crease of moisture would necessarily have to be accompanied
by a material increase in the per cent of salt. This is not the
case, as shown in the results of Hunziker, Mills and Spitzer in
table 55.

The loss of moisture in butter in storage is apparently
due to leakage, caused partly by the precipitation and contrac-
tion of the casein, rendering the buttermilk less viscous and
giving the butter a more open texture, and partly to the fact
that in heavily salted butter the brine is so concentrated that its
freezing point is near that of the cold storage temperature.
This leaves the moisture in butter in liquid form during a con-
siderable part of its storage period and gives it an opportunity
to leak out. In the case of unsalted and lightly salted butter
the moisture freezes at the usual cold storage temperature, pre-
venting further leakage. In butter stored at ordinary temperatures
and not far below the freezing point of water, the leakage of
moisture in both salted and unsalted butter would be more nearly
the same.

1Rahn, Brown and Smith, Keeping Qualities of Butter, Michigan Technical
Bulletin 2, 1909.

346

WORKING THE BUTTER

Table 55.— Salt Content in Fresh and Stored Butter,1

Lot
No.

Ounces of
Salt Added
per Pound
of Fat

Fresh Butter

After 8 Months
Cold Storage

Per Cent
Moisture

Per Cent
Salt

Per Cent
Moisture

Per Cent
Salt

1
2
3

4
5

none

2/3

iy2

V/4

3K

14.05
14.07
14.00
14.78
14.75

.02

2.20
4.44
6.66
7.17

14.20
13.65
13.01
11.70
11.83

.02
2.01
4.48

5.57
7:07

Average per cent salt..

4.10

3.83

WORKING THE BUTTER

Purpose. — The fundamental purpose of working- the butter
is to completely dissolve, uniformly distribute and properly in-
corporate the salt, to accomplish as complete as possible a
fusion between brine and water in butter, and to bring the
granules of butter together into a compact mass for convenient
handling and packing. Incidentally the working process fur-
ther serves to expel buttermilk and to control the moisture
content of butter. The working is an important -part of butter
manufacture, it is a science which requires knowledge, and it
is above all an art that demands experience and judgment on
the part of the operator, if uniformly satisfactory results are
to be obtained.

Butter Workers. — There is a great variety of butter
workers on the market, in principle they are conveniently di-
vided into two classes, namely those which are independent
of the churn, and in the use of which the butter is taken out of
the churn, and those which are a part of the churn, known as
the combined churns and workers.

To the first group belong all the handworkers such as are
generally used in farm buttermaking and the mechanical table
workers which were formerly used in American creameries and
are still used to a considerable extent in European creameries.
These independent butter workers consist of a bowl, tray or
table on which the butter is placed and where it is worked
with ladles, or with a lever, or by one or more revolving cor-

1 Hunziker. Mills and Spitzer, Moisture Control of Butter. Purdue Bulletin
160, 1912.

WORKING THE BUTTER 347

rugated rollers. In the case of the large table workers, both
the table and rollers revolve. When only small quantities of
butter are handled, these workers may serve the purpose fairly
well, but at best they are a very crude apparatus, their opera-
tion requires much labor, is time consuming, lacks uniformity
of results as to distribution of salt and moisture, makes the
control of temperature of the butter impossible, renders the
protection of the butter from flies in summer and diverse im-
purities difficult, and exposes the butter excessively to light.
Even for the farm dairy the combined churn and worker is
greatly preferable and such workers are now available, adapted
for use in dairies with a small make.

Pig*. 55. Hand butter worker
Courtesy Creamery Package Mfg. Co.

For creamery use, the independent worker is practically
out of the question and the combined churn and worker is the
only really satisfactory equipment. The combined churn and
workers are of two types. In one type the butterworkers, con-
sisting of one, two or four rollers, according to the make of
the churn, are permanently installed in the churn, running
lengthwise, either near the periphery of the churn barrel or
through the center of the churn. The workers revolve on steel
shafts with bearings in each end of the churn, and with the
gear attachment at one end on the outside of the churn. To
this type of combined churns and workers belong the Disbrow,
Dual, Perfection, Victor, Wizard, etc. In the other type of com-
bined churns and workers one end of the churn is open and
the butter workers are on a separate truck outside of the churn.
When ready for working, the truck is moved up to the open
end of the churn, the workers are pushed into the churn, and
the driving gear located outside of the churn is slipped in place.
The Simplex churn is a representative of this type of churn,

348 WORKING THS BUTTER

On the interior of the combined churns and workers one
or more shelves are fastened to the sides of the churn; as the
churn revolves these shelves carry the butter and some of the
water up and drop them over the workers.

In churns containing one worker only, as is the case with
the Perfection churn, the roller works against a shelf, the
butter being worked while passing between the roller and shelf.

Pig-. 56. One-roll workers perfection fig. 57. Two-roll workers' Disbrow

chum churn

Courtesy J. G. Cherry Co. Courtesy Davis- Watkins Dairymen's

Mfg. Co.

In churns containing one or more sets of two rollers each,
roller works against roller, the butter being worked while pass-
ing between the rollers. To churns of this arrangement belong
the Disbrow, Dual, Simplex, Victor (4 rollers) and Wizard.
The Dual churn is equipped with an idler, a small, loose roller
on each side of the main workers. These idler rollers assist
in guiding the butter towards the workers and prevent it from
dropping down outside of the workers. In some churns (Dis-
brow and Victor) the workers travel with the drum of the churn,
while in other churns (Dual, Perfection, Simplex and Wizard)
the worker or workers are stationary and revolve only on their
own axis. In all churns excepting the Wizard, the churn revolves
while the workers are rotating. In the Wizard the churn makes
one turn, dropping the butter on the workers, then it auto-
matically stops and the workers start rotating. When the but-
ter has gone through the workers, the churn again revolves and
the operation is repeated.

WORKING THE BUTTER 349

In order for the churn workers and shelves to perform
their work properly, to work all the butter alike, to distribute
the moisture and salt evenly and produce uniformity of color
in the butter, they must be correctly set, must be taut and free
from excessive slack. The distance between workers and be-
tween worker and shelf must be the same over their entire

Fig1. 58. Two-roll workers with Fig*. 59. Four-roll workers Victor

idlers, Dual churn churn

Courtesy Creamery Package Mfg. Co. Courtesy Creamery Package Mfg. Co.

length, the workers must be so set that, when in operation,
the ridges of one worker meet the grooves of the opposite
worker, and there must be sufficient freedom from slack or
looseness to insure permanency of this correct position of the
workers while in operation. Improperly set, maladjusted, loose
and slipping workers cause uneven working and this in turn
almost invariably causes mottles.

Looseness or slipping of the workers is always due to a
faulty mechanical condition of the churn. It is caused either
by the rollershaft having worked loose in the end of the
worker, or by the rollershaft slipping in the gear wheel due
to a worn key, or to an excessively worn condition of the cogs
in the gear wheels. It is a part of the buttermaker's duty to
see to it that the churn and workers are constantly kept in
proper mechanical repair.

Overloading the Churn. — The author's observation among
creameries has been that it is one of the common tendencies
of the buttermaker to overload the churn. Similar experience
is related by Professor F. W. Bouska,1 butter expert for the
American Association of Creamery Butter Manufacturers. The

1 Eouska, Elgin Dairy Report, 1914,

350 WORKING THE BUTTER

amount of butter which any given churn will properly work,
is dependent on a variety of factors:

Churns in which the butter is brought up on the workers
in several installments (Simplex) with each revolution of the
churn, can take care of more butter, without overloading the
workers, than churns in which the butter is deposited on the
workers in one mass. Workers that are deeply corrugated and
are placed a considerable distance apart, will work more butter
than workers with shallow corrugations and which are set
close together. In the case of too great a space between
workers, however, it is difficult to work small churnings satis-
factorily. High-speed workers will handle more butter than
low-speed workers. Too low a speed of the workers makes
moisture control difficult and tends toward leaky butter. In the
case of hard butter, a slow speed causes excessive expulsion of
water. Excessive speed of the workers causes rapid incorpora-
tion of moisture and makes expulsion of water more difficult.
Wide workers can take care of more butter than narrow workers,
in the latter case the butter is prone to fall over the workers and
to miss being worked. Soft butter increases, while hard butter
decreases, the capacity of the workers.

Overloading the churn often causes the butter to be
crowded toward the ends of the churn. More butter being
loaded on the workers than they are able to work through,
causes the butter to pile up ; it presses against the ends of the
churn. The uneven surface of the ends, magnified by the
projecting bolt heads and the sunk-in spy glasses, makes part
of the butter stick to the ends and to be carried around by
the revolving drum without going through the workers, all
the butter does not get the same amount of working, there is
uneveness of moisture, salt and brine distribution, and the
butter usually becomes mottled.

In order to avoid the objectionable consequences of this con-
dition, the buttermaker may stop the churn and turn the but-
ter which piled up at the ends toward the center. This prac-
tice minimizes the resulting defects, but it is laborious, time-
consuming and fails to remove the cause of the trouble.

The tendency of the butter to crowd toward the ends of

WORKING THE BUTTER 351

the churn is not always due to there being more butter in the
churn than its rated capacity under normal conditions can
properly take care of. Frequently it is caused by the fact that,
when renewing the workers, a larger diameter worker is fur-
nished and installed. Since the distance between the centers
of the worker shafts remains the same, regardless of size of
worker, the installation of the larger diameter workers leaves
less space between workers, so that the butter of a churning
of normal size cannot all go through the workers and the effect
is obviously the same as if the churn with workers of proper
size had been overloaded. When replacing old churn rollers
by new ones, great care should, therefore, be taken that the
new workers are of the proper size.

Of late years manufacturers of churns that contain more
than one worker, have endeavored to overcome the tendency
of the butter to crowd toward the ends, by installing at the
top and bottom in the center of the churn, a so-called "center-
board." The centerboard is a heavy cypress board, about 24
to 36 inches long, running lengthwise, with one edge lying
against the churn drum and the other edge pointing radially
toward the center. This board is braced on its sides by heavy
wooden braces.

The evident purpose of these centerboards is to give the
butter more contact and therefore more stability to stay in the
center (between churn ends) and thereby offset the adhesion
at the ends which otherwise pulls the butter away from the
center. The center board also helps to hold the butter over
the workers and to prevent it from dropping over the outside
of the workers without, being worked. Practical experience
shows that the centerboards do effectively help to prevent the
crowding of the butter toward the ends. But, if the churn is
really overloaded, so that the butter cannot all pass through
the workers, a portion of it is bound to escape the workers and
if it cannot crowd toward the ends it must inevitably fall off
the workers over their whole length.

One of the most fundamental causes of the tendency in
American creameries to overload the workers, lies in the fact
that the listed working capacity of the majority of combined
churns and workers on the market and in use is greatly over-

352 WORKING THE BUTTER

rated. The working capacity of these churns is far 'below their
churning capacity. The reason for this absence of proper pro-
portion between churning and working capacity is obvious.
Most of these churns were designed some twenty to thirty years
ago and the design, from the standpoint of working capacity, is
the same now as it was then. But in those early and formative
days of the creamery industry the creameries received and
churned a much thinner cream than they do now. Twenty or
more years ago the cream separated on the farm averaged around
20 to 25 per cent fat. During the last score of years the cream-
eries, the dairy schools and the dairy press, all have pointed out
to the farmer the advantages of separating a richer cream and
urged him relentlessly to produce and ship cream with a high
per cent of fat. This campaign for richer cream, together with
the abandonment of gravity creaming and the universal adop-
tion of the farm cream separator, had their desired effect. Today
many creameries receive cream testing as high as 50 per cent
fat and the average cream when churned probably contains not
less than 33 per cent fat.

It is obvious that combined churns and workers, designed
for a working capacity of 20 to 25 per cent cream, have their
workers overloaded when operated to the limit of their rated
churning capacity, with cream that tests 33 per cent fat.

The overloading of the workers, whatever its cause may
be, is bound to result in incomplete and uneven working, lack
of uniformity of salt and moisture, inadequate fusion of brine
and water and consequent streakiness and mottles.

Manner and Amount of Working. — After the wash water is
drained from the churn, the churn is given one revolution to
bring the butter on top, in front of the churn doors. A deep
trench is then dug in the butter, running the entire length of
the churn. The salt is placed into this trench, care being taken
that the salt is distributed uniformly in all parts of the trench,
otherwise there is prone to be a variation in color in butter
from different parts of the churn. After salting, the trench is
closed and the worker started. Some butter makers prefer to
work the butter a few revolutions (3 to 6) before salting, either
in the presence or absence of extraneous water, claiming that

WORKING THTC BUTTER 353

they can more readily control the moisture. Each individual
butter maker has his own method which he believes to operate
most satisfactorily. The amount of draining which the butter
receives before salting, the method of salting and the draining
incident to the working process, largely regulate the per cent
of moisture which the finished product of one and the same
churning will contain. The extent of draining and working that
will yield the desired result as to per cent of moisture and body
of butter, must be governed by type of churn and by the me-
chanical character of the butter in the churn.

Inasmuch as the mechanical character of the butter must
determine how much working any given churning in any given
churn requires and can stand, and since the mechanical character
of the butter varies with many conditions, (such as locality,
season of year, richness, acidity and temperature of cream, size
of butter granules, fullness of churn, etc.) it is impossible to
prescribe any set method that would prove satisfactory under
all conditions.

The working should be continued until the butter has a com-
pact, tough and waxy body, consistent with the desired moisture
content. Butter has been worked enough when it breaks with a
ragged edge upon passing a laddie through it quickly. Butter
not worked sufficiently usually has a loose body, with the grain
not packed together properly. Such butter is often leaky and
lacks compactness. Butter overworked shows a tallowy or salvy
texture in the case of very firm butter and a greasy texture in
the case of very soft butter. See also "Moisture Control."

Effect of Working on Body and Color of Butter.-^Properly
worked butter* has a tough, waxy body, is free from leakiness,
greasiness and tallowiness and has a live, bright color, which is
uniform throughout the package. When a plug of such butter
is pulled out of the tub and is broken, the break presents an
uneven surface similar to that of a piece of iron, showing that
the grain is still intact.

Working has the effect of whitening the color of the salted
butter. This is due to the reduction of the size of the water
droplets in butter during progressive working. In unsalted but-
ter the water droplets are present in the form of innumerable

354

WORKING THE BUTTER

Size of Water Droplets in Unsalted Butter During Working

Process

Magnified 740 times

Fig1. 60. Worked six revolutions,
no mottles

Fig1. 61.

Worked 12 revolutions,

no mottles

Fig-. 63. Worked 26 revolutions

Worked 66 revolutions,
no mottles

WORKING THE BUTTER

355

Size of Water Droplets in Salted Butter During Working Process

Magnified 740 times

Tig. 66.

Worked six revolutions,

mottled

Pig". 67.

Worked 12 revolutions,
mottled

worked 18 revolutions,

mottled

Tig. 69. Worked 26 revolutions,
slightly mottled

Pig-

Worked 34 revolutions,
no mottles

PifiT. 71.

Worked 66 revolutions,
no mottles

356 WORKING THS BUTTER

and exceedingly small units which give the butter an opaque
whitish color. These droplets remain in this condition during
the process of working. Working therefore has no noticeable
effect on the color of unsalted butter.

But not so in the case of salted butter. . When butter is
salted many of these small water droplets run together, forming
fewer but larger units or drops. This causes the opaque whitish
appearance to vanish and to be replaced by a clear, more trans-
lucent and more deeply yellow color, approaching more nearly
the natural color of pure butterfat. As the working process
proceeds these large droplets are gradually divided again into
smaller droplets and as this division and increase of number of
small water droplets progresses, the color of the butter begins to
lose some of its clear, translucent, bright yellowness. By continu-
ing the working process to the point where the water droplets are
reduced to their original very small size which they presented
before salting, the color of the butter can be returned to the
opaque whiteness of the unsalted butter. This can only be
done, however, by greatly overworking the butter.

The above phenomenon also explains why different portions
of butter from one and the same churning show different shades
of yellow, when all the butter in the churn does not receive an
equal amount of working, as may be the case when the workers
slip or are overloaded.

Insufficiently worked butter has a loose, open and often a
leaky body. A plug of such butter drawn from the tub or cube
usually shows lack of compactness and sometimes marked
crumbliness. In the case of salted butter, such butter is often
gritty, due to the presence of undissolved salt and it usually is
streaked or mottled in color, due to the incomplete fusion of
brine and water and the consequent uneven size and distribution
of the water and brine droplets. While still in the churn, such
butter generally has a loose body, being profusely perforated with
water pockets which are plainly visible when the butter is cut
with the ladle. Unsalted butter, while it may be crumbly and
may lack the plasticity of properly worked butter, is compact
and free from excessive leakiness, even when very insufficiently
worked, and such butter does not become streaky nor mottled

WORKING THE BUTTER 357

in color, because the water droplets which it contains are very
minute and there is a permanent absence of large droplets.

Overworked butter usually has a poor body and defective
grain, severely criticized on the market. Overworking injures
the grain of the butter. If butter is overworked while soft, the
body is prone to be greasy ; if overworked when hard it tends
to be salvy in texture. A plug of such butter pulled from the
tub breaks with a smooth surface, similar as if it were cut with
a knife and showing that the grain has lost its identity. Over-
worked butter also has a dull, lifeless color, similar to oleomar-
garine and which is not attractive to the buyer. Such butter
seldom stands up \vell on the market under unfavorable tem-
perature conditions and its flavor and keeping quality may be
impaired. Frequently butter of this description contains exces-
sive moisture. Butter with a firm body will stand much more
working without injury to its body than butter that is soft.

Effect of Working on Moisture Control of Butter under
diverse Conditions. — The working is an important part of the
process of buttermaking as a means to regulate the moisture
content of butter. In fact, the expulsion or retainance of mois-
ture largely depends on the method employed for working.

The smaller the granules when the churn is stopped, the
larger the amount of moisture they hold. Churning butter to
large granules or lumps tends to expel moisture, unless such
overchurning is due to very soft butter, in which case the butter
may hold abnormally much moisture. If the churning process
is stopped at the proper time, that is when the butter has gath-
ered in the form of granules of the size of small corn kernels,
butter contains more than sixteen per cent moisture immedi-
ately after the buttermilk has been drawn off, and immediately
after washing it still contains an excess of moisture. The sub-
sequent salting and working removes this excess moisture. If
the butter granules are round, smooth and firm as is usually the
case in fall, winter and early spring, and especially in the case
of thin cream, the excess of moisture escapes very rapidly and
there is a strong tendency toward too great escape of moisture, a
low moisture in the finished butter and a correspondingly low
overrun. The excessive expulsion of moisture can be minimized by

358

WORKING THE; BUTTER

draining less thoroughly and working with the churn gates
closed, and it can be entirely prevented by working the butter
in the presence of a small amount of water. The water so used
should be of practically the same temperature as the butter.

Table 56. — Showing Amount of Moisture in Butter After Draw-

ing-off Buttermilk, After Washing and in Finished Butter

When Butter Granules Are of the Size of Whe-at Kernels.1

No.

Size of

Per Cent Moisture

of
Churning

Granules
Inches

After Drawing
Buttermilk

After Drawing
Washwater

Finished
Butter

1

A

23.64

19.87

15.48

2

A

30.66

26.66

13.12

3

A

21.77

19.20

14.45

4

A

25.00

19.66

14.59

5

A

19.83

19.07

13.84

6

A

21.28

19.57

13.86

7

A

24.04

18.58

14.15

8

A

22.55

18.63

14.78

9

A

22.33

17.65

15.00

10

A

21.70

16.94

15.80

Averages . . .

|

23.28

19.58

14.51

When the butter granules are very hard, so that consider-
able working may be necessary in order to bring the moisture
content up to the maximum allowed by law (less than sixteen
per cent), there is always more or less danger of injury to the
grain of butter.

If the butter granules are soft, flaky, irregular and have a
ragged surface, as is usually the case in late spring and early
summer, when most of the cows have freshened and have access
to abundance of succulent pasture, which conditions yield fat
globules of large average size, and butterfat with a relatively
low melting point, the excess moisture does not escape so rea-
dily, and there is danger of excessive moisture in the finished
butter. This is due to the fact that cream with predominatingly
large fat globules and butterfat with a low melting point, pro-
duce a soft butter. This soft butter is more miscible with water

1 Hunziker, Mills and Spitzer, Moisture Control of Butter. Purdue Bulletin
160, 1912.

WORKING TH£ BUTTER 359

than hard butter and when the churn is stopped, the moisture
is incorporated in the butter granules in the form of very fine
drops which are expelled with difficulty. Whenever the butter
maker has difficulty to keep the moisture down, the butter should
be drained very thoroughly before working and should be worked
with the churn doors ajar. It is then advisable to work the but-
ter four to five revolutions before the salt is added and to drain
again. During the working the churn should be stopped after
every two to three revolutions, allowing it to swing freely, with
the churn doors ajar and down, permitting the free moisture
to escape readily. In cases of extreme difficulty of keeping the
moisture within the limits of the law, it may be necessary to
delay the working after the salt has been added, for a consider-
able time. This gives the salt an opportunity to assist in the
expulsion of moisture. Owing to its great affinity for water
it draws the minute drops of water out of the butter and gathers
them in larger drops which, upon subsequent working, are more
easily expelled.

It occasionally happens that, owing to the extreme natural
softness of the butterfat, or to faulty handling of the cream
before churning, or to too high a churning temperature, no
amount of working will reduce the moisture content to or below
the maximum legal limit. In such butter the moisture has
formed so intimate a mixture with the fat, and moisture incor-
poration is so complete, that additional working, even to the
extent of injuring the grain of the butter, fails to expel water.
The only practical way to bring the moisture content of such
butter within the limits of the law, is to set the butter in the cold
room and allow it to harden over night. The next day it is
then cut up into small pieces and worked again with the churn
doors ajar and in a similar manner as above described. Unless
its moisture content is very greatly in excess and the incor-
porated moisture is present in the form of abnormally fine drops,
this second working will remove sufficient moisture to meet the
requirements of the law. If it still contains over sixteen per cent
moisture, more moisture may be expelled by putting the butter
back into the cold room and working it again the next day. The
hardening of the butter in the cold changes its mechanical make-
up and makes it more granular. Some of the minute water par-

360 WORKING THE; BUTTER

tides gather into large drops which can be expelled when the
butter is worked again. It is obvious that this repeated work-
ing does not improve the body of the butter and should be
avoided as much as possible.

The buttermaker should bear in mind that when the but-
ter has been washed, it contains excessive moisture, part of
which must be expelled, and that moisture control is not so
much a matter of incorporating additional moisture into but-
ter, as it is a matter of properly regulating the expulsion of
moisture. The control of the expulsion of moisture can be
greatly facilitated by proper handling of the cream as to churn-
ing temperature, according to the character of the butterfat and
this in turn is a problem which requires constant observation
and intelligent adjustment of the process in accordance with pre-
vailing conditions. See also "Moisture Control."

Effect of Working on the Flavor and Keeping Quality of
Butter. — Generally speaking, the less the butter is worked and
the more nearly the grain of the butter is preserved,' the better
will be the flavor and keeping quality of the finished product.
There is an unmistakable tendency in American creameries to
work their butter too much and thereby to impair its body, and
possibly its flavor and keeping quality. This tendency is chiefly
the result of one or both of the following two practices :

In order to hasten the process of manufacture the butter is
worked immediately after the salt has been added. The salt is
given no time to dissolve before working. This requires con-
siderable working, especially when the usually large amount of
salt is incorporated, in order to insure complete solution of the
salt and to avoid grittiness and in order to distribute the salt
evenly and to fuse the water and brine completely so as to avoid
waviness and mottles. For this reason some of the very badly
mottled butter has an exceptionally good flavor. This is not due
to the presence of the mottles, but it is the result of the same
condition which tends to bring about the mottles, usually under-
working, or the absence of overworking. In some European
creameries where a special effort is made to produce quality, the
butter is not worked for several hours after the salt has been
added. The salt thus has an opportunity to largely go in solution

WORKING THE: BUTTER 361

before working and but little working is needed to complete the
solution and distribution of the salt. The same reason, why under-
worked butter is of better quality than much-worked butter,
also accounts in part for the fact that unsalted butter is often
of better quality and keeps better than salted butter. Such
butter does not require working in order to insure solution of
the salt and to avoid mottles. It therefore is often not worked
as much as salted butter and has a better body and better grain.
The second reason for the tendency of overworking butter
is the common practice of trying to incorporate the maximum
amount of moisture which the law permits. In late spring and
early summer, when the butter is relatively soft and naturally
takes up water readily, there usually is no need of excessive
working in order to incorporate moisture, and if the buttermaker
understands his business, he need not overwork the butter to
the extent of injuring its body or flavor. But not so when the
butter comes firm and tends to be low in moisture as is the case
in fall, winter and early spring. Under these conditions the
butter often requires a comparatively large amount of working
in order to contain the maximum amount of moisture allowed
by law. This is true especially in the states where much cot-
tonseed meal and similar fodder producing hard and crumbly but-
ter, are fed. Butter made from such cream, when worked in
the usual way, and just enough to insure proper compactness;
usually does not contain much over 13.5 per cent moisture and
the additional moisture can only be incorporated by additional
working and this is often done at the expense of body, flavor
and keeping quality. From the point of view of the quality
of American butter this additional working or overworking is
objectionable and it is a debatable question if, in the long run,
the loss in price and prestige due to sacrifice in quality, is not
greater than the increased returns due to larger overrun. If
in winter, when butter naturally conies in the form of smooth,
round and firm granules, the creamery insists on incorporating
the maximum amount of moisture permitted by law, it would
seem preferable to churn at a sufficiently higher temperature
to make the butter come somewhat less firm, thereby increasing
its ability to naturally hold moisture and making unnecessary
excessive working. In this case great care should be exercised

362 WORKING THE BUTTER

to chill the cream sufficiently long so as to guard against a
slushy and leaky body of the butter.

The exact channels through which overworking of butter
deteriorates its flavor and tends to cause such off-flavors as
oily, metallic and fishy flavors, are not as yet well understood.
Rogers1 shows experimentally that overworking increases the
amount of air present in butter and that the presence of air, in
combination with other influences, enhances oxidation of the
non-fatty constituents of butter. He further states that the
development of a fishy flavor is hastened and made more cer-
tain by overworking, which increases the air and the oxidizing
surface and that fishy flavor may be produced with reasonable
certainty by overworking the butter made from sour cream.

Rogers' conclusions on this point have not been fully borne
out by the work of Hunziker. While overworking certainly
does not improve the quality of butter, it fails to produce the
distinct defects indicated by Rogers with any degree of regu-
larity. Nor does it necessarily increase the air content of but-
ter. The incorporation of air in butter begins as soon as the
cream is subjected to agitation in the churn and up to a certain
'point it increases, greatly retarding the completion of the
churning process. In fact the amount of air incorporated in
the interior and on the surface of the still microscopic butter
granules is so great, that it is difficult to make satisfactory micro-
scopic examinations of these granules. After the granules have
reached a sufficient size to "break" the fat-in-skimmilk emulsion
and to establish a buttermilk-in-fat emulsion which is butter,
much of this air is released and the completion of the churn-
ing process is facilitated. And from this point on, any further
churning and subsequent working appears to effect an expulsion
of a portion of the air locked up in the butter, rather than an
incorporation of additional air.

There is a vast difference between' the overworking of but-
ter that results from manipulating it with a spatula in small
amounts as described by Rogers, and by working it in the com-
bined churn and worker. While it is quite conceivable how, by
special effort, air may be beaten into soft butter with a spatula,
it is much less obvious that the squeezing which the butter

1 Rogers, Fishy Flavor in Butter, U. S. Dept Agr., B.A.I. Circular 146, 1909.

WORKING THE BUTTER 363

receives in the commercial combined churn and worker incor-
porates air and the probability of actual air expulsion in this
case is by no means remote.

However, it is unquestionably a fact, that any air perma-
nently present in the butter, becomes very finely divided and
emulsified by overworking and in this form a much larger area
of the butter becomes exposed to this air, so that, even without
the actual incorporation of additional air, the injurious effect
of the air present is greatly magnified.

The fact that overworking gives the butter a whiter color
is not necessarily due to the incorporation of additional air as
Rogers concluded, but it is invariably caused by the reduction
of the size of the water droplets as shown by Hunziker and
Hosman. Unsalted butter is always whitef than salted butter,
both, before working and during any part of the working proc-
ess. Microscopic examinations of butter during all stages of
the working process, by Hunziker and Hosman, conclusively
show, that in unsalted butter the water droplets are exceedingly
minute while in salted butter they are relatively large, espe-
cially during the early stages of the working process. And,
again, the whitening effect due to working takes place even when
the butter is submerged in water during the working process,
eliminating any possibility of incorporation of additional air.

It is also not improbable, though not experimentally proven,
that the destruction of the grain of the butter, as is the case in
overworking, tends to lessen the resistance of the fat to such
oxidizing agencies as air, metallic salts, etc. and therefore hastens
its deterioration.

When the butter has been worked enough, the workers are
stopped and the churn is given another revolution or two in
order to deposit the butter on top of the workers from where
it can be easily removed and transferred to the tubs or cubes,
or other receptacles.

Before removing the butter from the churn it should be
accurately tested for moisture content, so that if the moisture is
excessive, or deficient, it may be corrected by further working.
For directions on controlling moisture see also chapter on Com-
position of Butter — Moisture Control — Chapter XVIII. , and for
directions on moisture tests see Chapter XXII.

364 PACKING BUTTER

CHAPTER XII.
PACKING BUTTER.

Variety of Packages. — Butter is packed and placed upon the
market in a great variety of receptacles and forms, varying wide-
ly in shape, style and material, such as tubs, boxes, cubes, fir-
kins, tin cans, crocks, pails, prints, rolls and individual molds,
and varying in weight from one-fourth pound bars up to 110
pound firkins. The standard Danish firkin weighs 50 kilograms,
or 110.23 pounds net. The great bulk of the American butter
that is put up for the wholesale produce trade in the large mar-
kets is packed in tubs, boxes and cubes, while the local trade and
retail stores prefer much of their butter in the finished package,
the print. Export butter is put up in tubs and cubes, and butter
intended for the tropics and much of the butter furnished the
United States Navy, is packed in hermetically sealed tin cans.
Farm butter is packed in crocks, small fibre boxes, small tubs
and pails, rolls, special molds and prints. In many foreign
countries the firkin is the predominating package, though much
foreign butter is also packed in boxes and prints.

Tubs. — Butter tubs are usually constructed of spruce or
white ash. They range in size from ten pounds to 63 pounds
net. While no particular size has been adopted officially as
the standard size tub, the 60 to 63 pound tub is by far the most
popular and is used for the great bulk of American tub butter.

The war situation threatened a shortage of white ash and
especially of spruce. For a time the creameries had difficulty
in locating and contracting for a sufficient supply of tubs and
prices soared to an unprecedented level. A campaign was start-
ed to invite and urge the creamerymen to break away from the
butter tub and use boxes or cubes instead. The effort failed and
the tub prevailed in spite of all handicaps. The reason for this
persistence and tenacity with which creameries stick to the tub
is not limited by mere custom and usage. There is no question
that, all things considered, the 60 to 63 pound tub is the most
satisfactory form of package in which to handle butter in bulk.
The mechanical handling at the creamery, in transit, at the
market end and in cold storage is by far easier and more prac-

PACKING BUTTER 365

tical than any other package of butter of equal capacity. With
the possible exception of the firkin, which is not used in this
country, and of the tin can which is too expensive a package for
domestic use, the butter tub withstands better the abuse and
rough handling it is necessarily subjected to in its journey from
the creamery to the market, and arrives at its destination in
better condition than other butter receptacles. Unlike cubes
and boxes it has no nailed sides, ends, bottoms and tops to tear
loose, the butter in it does not become soiled, because the tub
is tight and dust-proof, which is often not the case with the
boxes used for bulk butter.

The tub strips easily and quickly, the package does not have
to be destroyed in order to get the butter out. Its disadvan-
tages are that it does not pack quite as closely as square boxes,
requiring somewhat more space in transit and in storage, and
that tubbed butter does not cut as satisfactorily for putting up
prints as does cube butter.

"Smaller size tubs are used upon special request, to fill spe-
cial orders and for special occasions, such as for scoring contest
butter, etc. Butter tubs are lined with parchment liners and
circles which protect the butter from woody odor, impurities,
and contamination with mold and prevent it from sticking to
the wood, so that the butter slips out of the inverted tub readily
when "stripped."

Butter tubs should be constructed of the best quality of
sound wood, and they should be stored in a dry, clean place in
the creamery. They should be well put together, tight, and
free from cracked staves. Tubs made from lumber that was
felled while the sap was still running, or that has been lying-
in stagnant ponds, tend to give rise to woody odor and molds
in butter. Their wood is prone to give butter an objectionable
woody flavor. Often it is partly decayed and porous, in which
condition it may harbor mold spores which contaminate the
butter. Exposure of the tubs to dampness and to unclean sur-
roundings in the creamery is an additional source of moldy but-
ter. When stored in a damp room the tubs frequently become
spotted inside and out with mold growth. The liners also may
become the source of moldy butter, unless made of a good

366 PACKING BUTTER

quality of parchment, kept in a clean, dry place and properly
treated before use.

Preparation of Tubs and Liners. — All butter tubs should
be properly treated before being packed, in order to remove
the woody odor which is prone to be absorbed by the butter,
to free them from mold spores with which they are always
more or less contaminated, to make them airtight to hinder the
growth of molds after packing, and to prevent excessive loss
of weight due to leakage of brine. Moldy butter in the great
majority of cases is the direct result of lack of attention to
the proper treatment of tubs and liners.

Since salt has properties antagonistic to the growth of
molds, the soaking of the tubs in a saturated solution of hot
salt brine is a very common and fairly effective method of
treatment. This is best done by immersing the tubs in a long
vat containing the hot brine. The tubs should be nested so as to
retain their shape, otherwise they are prone to warp out of
shape. The tubs should be set to soak on the day before they
are needed. If they are not clean or show signs of mold spots,
they should be thoroughly scrubbed with a brush and hot water
containing some alkali, before soaking. Steaming for 5 to 10
minutes is an additional safeguard against mold. The addition
to the water or brine in which the tubs are soaked, of formalde-
hyde, sodium hypochlorite, boric acid and other disinfectants
has also been recommended to guard against mold.

Formaldehyde lends the butter an objectionable flavor and
odor, if used in other than exceedingly dilute solutions. A safe
proportion that still is antagonistic to mold growth is a dilu-
tion of 1 part of formaldehyde in 400 parts of water, or about
J ounce formaldehyde in one gallon of water.

Hypochlorite of soda also should be used with caution, be-
cause of its tendency to bleach butter. It may be used at the
rate of two tablespoons hypochlorite in four gallons of water.

Boric acid has no known injurious effect on butter. It is
best used in the form of a .5 per cent solution or about 2/3
ounce in one gallon of water.

It should be clearly understood that all these disinfectants
and antiseptics are injurious to health when consumed with

PACKING BUTTER 367

food, and their presence in butter is in violation of the Federal
Pure Food Act of 1906. Their use for treatment of tubs and liners
may be justifiable as a means to stamp out an epidemic of mold
in butter, but their continued use cannot be recommended and
in any event the tubs after treatment should be rinsed with
clean water or distilled water before packing.

Within the past decade the practice of brine-soaking the
tubs has been superseded in a great many creameries by the
more efficient treatment of paraffining them. The tubs should
be paraffined whenever facilities permit. Proper paraffining obvi-
ates the temptation of using antiseptics as far as the tub as
a source of mold in butter is concerned.

When butter is packed in paraffined tubs, it is unnecessary
to soak the tubs in water or brine, in fact it is preferable not to,
because the unsoaked tubs present a much more attractive ap-
pearance. The old practice of soaking butter tubs in water
prior to packing had for its purpose to load the wood with suf-
ficient wajter to minimize the absorption by the tub of moisture
contained in the butter, which caused a considerable shrink-
age in net weight. A properly paraffined tub is impervious to
water and therefore is incapable of taking up moisture from the
butter. If the tubs are not soaked in water the creamery should
always put the tare on the tub. The unsoaked tub weighs from
1 to 2 pounds less than the soaked tub. Without determination
of the tare weight, this difference will be lost to the creamery.

Soaking in water or brine before paraffining is desirable,
however, in the case of tubs the staves and bottoms of which
have shrunk to the point where a tight tub can not be secured
and in order to hold the tub together.

Before paraffining, the tubs should be steamed out thorough-
ly until they are hot and dry. This opens the pores and permits
the hot paraffine to penetrate. If they are paraffined while wet
the paraffine will not penetrate, it merely sticks to the surface
and is prone to peel off. If they are cold the paraffine cools
before it has an opportunity to fill the pores, it fails to spread,
in a thin, smooth and uniform layer and tends to crack.

The paraffine should be applied in such a way that it will
coat the inside of the tub in the form of a thin film, filling the

368 PACKING BUTTER

pores and cracks. The paraffine may be applied with a brush or
by pouring a small amount into the tub and rotating the tub
until the entire surface is covered, or it may be sprayed into the
tub under pressure. The brush method is somewhat crude and
tends to produce an uneven coating owing to rapid cooling of
the paraffine.

In order to secure satisfactory results and avoid a rough
and uneven coating of paraffine, the paraffine must be heated
to the proper temperature. Rogers1 found that at a temperature
of 250 to 260 degrees F. the paraffine can be applied most satis-
factorily. The paraffine may be heated over an oil stove or
gas burner, but a more convenient arrangement, devised by
Rogers, consists of a large pail or small tank equipped with a
steam coil connected with the steam line of the creamery, and a
drip is provided extending through the bottom of the tank and
permitting the condensed steam in the coil to escape. A small
amount of the hot paraffine is dipped from the tank into the tub,
the tub is rotated so that the paraffine covers its entire inside
surface. Then the tub is inverted on a galvanized iron drip tray in
order to pour out, and reclaim any excess paraffine in the tub.
Such an outfit can be constructed at small cost and is very
serviceable, especially in small creameries.

There are now on the market also patented paraffiners
which both steam and paraffine the tub. The paraffine is heated
by a steam heated jacket. The tub is inverted over the paraffin-
er and steamed and sprayed with paraffine under pressure. These
machines operate very fast, coating the tub with a smooth
layer of uniform thickness and economizing the paraffine. These
paraffiners are rapidly replacing the dipper and brush method.

Aside from protecting butter against mold contamination
and mold growth the paraffining of tubs is advisable in order
to minimize loss in weight due to leakage of moisture and to
give the tub a neater appearance. Rogers1 found the following
loss of moisture in 12 paraffined and 12 unparaffined tubs of
butter on the eighth day after packing:

1 Rogers, Prevention of Molds in Butter Tubs, U. S. Dept. Agr. B. A. I.
Bull. 89. 1906.

PACKING BUTTER

369

Paraffined tubs
Pounds of butter
757y4
756

Unparaffined tubs
Pounds of butter

759

When packed
8 days later
Shrinkage

When paraffine of the proper temperature is used, from two
to three ounces are required per tub. The labor cost of paraffin-
ing is no greater than that of preparing a saturated brine solution.

Tig. 72. Tub Parafflner

Courtesy Creamery Package Mfg. Co.

It is advisable to paraffine tubs and to clean covers as
shortly before they are needed as the routine of the factory
permits, and to stack them, inverted, in a clean place, so as to
prevent unnecessary soiling and recontamination.

Paraffined tubs should always be lined with parchment liners
and circles, the same as the tubs prepared in the ordinary way.
Unlined paraffined tubs strip with difficulty, the butter sticks to
the comparatively rough surface of the paraffine. This is a
serious objection at the market end.

Preparation of Parchment Liners and Circles. — The best
quality of parchment liners only should be purchased. Inferior
parchment invites excessive leakage of moisture and may injure
the flavor of the butter. In the summer season, when the
butter is often exposed to temperature conditions that cause it
to-be soft and therefore to yield readily to the knocks to which
the tub is subjected in transit, there is always a tendency for

370 PACKING BUTTER

moisture to be pounded out. Evaporation at the higher tem-
perature is also most rapid. It is advisable, therefore, to use
extra heavy liners in summer.

The liners should be of ample size so they will abundantly
lap on the side, fold under at the bottom and lap over at the
top. The circles should be large enough to cover the entire
bottom of the tub. There is a tendency on the part of supply
houses to furnish liners and circles that are of inadequate dimen-
sions, unless the desired dimensions are specifically demanded.

The stock of parchment liners and circles should be kept
in a clean, dry room, protected against dust, dirt and dampness.
They should not be stored in the creamery cold room which is
almost always damp.

Immediately before use they should be thoroughly soaked in
hot saturated brine. The brine should be of such strength that
a deposit of undissolved salt forms in the receptacle, it should
be supersaturated, and its temperature should be raised to the
boiling point. The circles and liners should be soaked in this
hot brine for at least 5 minutes. Such treatment is a three-fold
protection against mold development. The heat destroys mold
spores that may adhere to the parchment, the soaking frees
the parchment from much of .its glucose content and glucose
is an ideal food for bacteria, and the brine adhering to the parch-
ment helps to inhibit the growth of mold germs that may be
in or on the butter.

This treatment should be given parchment liners and cir-
cles used for packing unsalted butter as well as salted butter.
The unsalted butter, because of the readiness with which it be-
comes moldy, needs these precautions more urgently than the
salted butter. The fact that the brine-treated liner conveys
some salt to the surface of the butter needs no serious consider-
ation. The very small amount of salt thus imparted to butter
is not noticeable and does not remove such butter from the
class of unsalted butter.

The lining of the tubs should be done with care. The bot-
tom circle should be so placed as to cover the entire bottom of
the tub, and the line should be strung around the periphery of
the tub uniformly and neatly, and iri such a manner as to cause
one inch of the liner to project above the top of the tub.

PACKING BUTTER 371

The tub covers should also receive some attention. They
often contain cinders, soot and dust, which they usually gather
in transit to the creamery and in the creamery stock room.
These impurities, when the cover is fastened to the packed
tub, drop on the salt which is generally sprinkled on the top
circle and they soil both the salt and the circle, give the pack-
age, when opened by the prospective buyer, an unsightly ap-
pearance and convey an unfavorable impression. If the tub
happens to be subjected to very rough handling, they even may
work into the butter. It is important, therefore, that the tub
covers be thoroughly cleaned before they are fastened to the
tub. This can readily be done by turning them bottomside up
and turning the water hose on them until they are freed from
all foreign matter.

Boxes and Cubes. — Some of the Eastern markets require
the butter to be packed in square wooden boxes, holding about
50 pounds of butter. These boxes should be constructed of
good sound wood, with bottoms, sides and tops at least one-half
inch, and ends at least % inch thick, properly assembled and
nailed with 4 penny cement-coated wire nails. They should be
paraffined and otherwise treated in the same manner as the tubs
and carefully lined with parchment paper.

In the Pacific Coast markets, both for domestic and for
export trade, the cube is the standard butter package. The
San Francisco Wholesale Dairy Produce Exchange issued offi-
cial regulations concerning the size, shape and preparation of
the cube, which went in force Feb. 1, 1916, as follows :

"In order to grade as 'extras' butter must be packed in cubes
as follows : The materials of the sides, tops and bottoms shall
be one-half inch in thickness and the ends % inch in thickness.
Lumber to be surfaced on both sides, and corners of cubes
nosed and rounded. Inside dimensions shall be 12%xl2j4xl3^2
inches and the cubes shall be packed to a uniform weight of 69
pounds net at churn and marked 68 pounds on each end of each
cube, as the shrinkage from creamery to market is about one
pound. The cubes shall be paraffined on the inside and lined
with parchment paper."

372 PACKING BUTTER

Firkins. — Firkins are not used in this country for packing
butter except on very rare occasions. They are a popular but-
ter package in European countries especially for export and
storage butter (Datierbutter). Firkins (Drittel) hold 50 kilo-
grams or 110.23 pounds of butter. These barrels are 55 cm.
(22 inches) in height and their diameter in the center and at
the ends is 34 and 41 cm. (13.6 and 16.4 inches) respectively.
Before packing they are steamed, soaked in cold water, brine
or sal soda solution, for one day, then rinsed out with hot water
and again with cold water after which salt is rubbed
into the staves on the inside. The bottom is then covered with
a thin layer of salt, and the firkin is lined with parchment.
After packing, the top of the butter is beveled off toward the
sides and covered with a layer of salt. The object of having
the surface of the butter highest in the center and tapering
toward the sides is to permit the brine to run into the space
between the butter and the side of the barrel when the butter,
upon standing, has receded from the sides of the barrel ; this
shuts out the air and assists in protecting the butter against
mold, etc.

Tin Cans. — Butter intended for the tropics and South Amer-
ica and some butter supplied the U. S. Government is packed
in hermetically sealed tin cans. Exporting houses buying their
butter from American creameries and supplying the tropics buy
the butter in tubs and repack it into tin cans, which are subse-
quently hermetically sealed. These cans hold from J4 to 5
kilograms, the metric system being used as the basis of weights.
They are packed into cases and in order to prevent shaking and
damage to the cans, the interstices between the cans and the
sides of the case are filled in with some cheap, light packing ma-
terial such as rice hulls, shavings, excelsior, corrugated paper, etc.

The object of the use of a non-absorptive and hermetically
sealed package is to prevent leakage of water and oil and to
improve the keeping quality of the butter, exposed to unfavor-
able temperature conditions, by excluding the air. Experiments
conducted by Rogers1 show that sterile butter so packed and

1 Rogers, "Canned Butter." U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, B. A. I. Bulletin
57, 1904.

PACKING BUTTER 373

held for one hundred days at 23° C. showed no increase in acid-
ity. From these results Rogers concludes that the causal rela-
tion of physical agents such as heat and moisture to changes
of the butter is excluded. In the case of non-sterile canned
butter examination showed a marked change in the texture and
flavor. The changes were gradual; when about 25 days old, a
distinct off-flavor was noticed which increased in intensity, un-
til, at two hundred and ninety-seven days in one case and at
two hundred and fifty-one days in another, there was a disagree-
able, fishy flavor and a strong penetrating odor. There was also
a correspondingly slow increase in the acidity. Micro-organ-
isms which consisted almost entirely of lactic acid bacteria, a
comparatively small number of Torula yeasts and a few lique-
fying bacteria decreased rapidly until there were present only
a few spore-forming liquefying, bacteria. Owing to this marked
decrease in germ life, Rogers attributes the increase in acidity
and the off-flavor to the probable action of fat-splitting enzymes.

Weigmann1 in a very extensive investigation studied the
keeping quality of butter made by different processes and sealed
in tin cans, samples of which were placed on board of German
men-of-war and which were returned and examined at intervals
of six, twelve and eighteen months. These results demonstrated
that there is a great variation in the keeping quality of different
lots of butter and that while prolonged storage under unfavor-
able temperature conditions tended to intensify the deterioration
of the butter, a few of the samples packed in tin cans returned in
excellent condition even after eighteen months' travel. While
Weigmann's results were not conclusive and while his funda-
mental aim was to determine that process of manufacture which
would produce the best keeping butter, the data secured demon-
strated that under certain ideal conditions of manufacture, butter
packed in tin cans has remarkable keeping quality.

In the canning of butter the tin plate used should be coated
with shellac or enamel to protect the can against the action of
the acids and the brine of the butter and to guard the butter
against rapid deterioration as the result of such action. While
tin itself is an inert metal that does not yield to the action of

1 Weigmann, "Versuche zur Bereitung von Dauerbutter" Milchwirtschaft-
liches Zentralblatt, Vol. 44. Nos. 23 and 24, 1915.

374 PACKING BUTTER

acids and brine, iron is quickly corroded by these agents. The
tin plate of the butter cans is sheet iron with a thin coating of
tin. This tin coating is not always entirely impervious and
sooner or later the acids and the brine will attack the iron un-
derneath, unless the tin plate is heavily shellaced. Iron salts
thus formed are disastrous to the quality of the butter. Of late
years, and particularly as the result of the shortage of tin plate,
cans constructed of aluminum are also being used for pack-
ing butter.

Packing tubs, boxes, cubes and tins. — After the packages

have been properly treated and lined, they are ready for the
butter. They are now conveniently arranged in a row in front
of the churn and the butter is transferred into them from the
churn. Since the distribution of salt and moisture in the butter
is seldom entirely uniform in all parts of the churn, butter
from the same part of the churn should be distributed into
the different tubs, boxes or cubes, so that all packages receive1
butter from all parts of the churn. The butter should not be
transferred with the naked hand. The skin of the perspiring
operator should not touch the butter, he should either wear
cotton gloves or rubber gloves, or use ladles, or both. Before
using the ladles and packers they should be thoroughly washed
and steamed in order to prevent unnecessary contamination of
the butter with germ life, then they should be soaked in cold
water to prevent the butter from sticking to them. The gloves
should be clean and sweet-smelling, and when taken off they
should be placed in brine.

It is important that the butter in the tub be packed very
solidly, avoiding air pockets, especially between the butter and
the sides of the -package, which admit air and favor mold
growth. Pockets in the body of the butter are undesirable also
because these pockets collect the brine, cause uneven distribu-
tion of the moisture, uneven color, and give the butter a leaky
appearance. The package should be filled completely full and
finished neatly on the surface. This is best done by filling the
tub or box above the edge of the wood, tamping thoroughly
with the packer and cutting off the surplus with a taut wire or
a sharp piece of wood — wood is preferable. The border of the

PACKING BUTTSR 375

liner, which should project ajbout one inch, is then neatly folded
over toward the center and the butter is covered with the top
circle, preferably of cloth, on which is strewn a handful of clean,
dry salt. The tub cover is then fastened down with 3 to 5 tin
fasteners, or in case of the box the lid is nailed down firmly.
The package is weighed and marked with the net, tare and gross
weight and the churning number, and is placed in the refrigera-
tor until ready for shipment. The cold room should be clean,
dry, and cold enough to chill and harden the butter before ship-
ping. When ready to ship, the address of the consignee is sten-
cilled or plainly written on the tub cover.

The numbering of each churning and the placing of the
churning number on the tub, is an important precautionary meas-
ure. It tells the receiver which tubs belong to the same churn-
ing and therefore contain the same kind of butter. The receiver
is able thereby to supply his customers with butter of uniform
quality, salt and color. In case the butter develops defects the
receiver, when reporting to the creamery, is in a position to re-
fer to the respective churning number as marked on the tub and
the creamery then is able to investigate the conditions under
which that particular churning was made. If the buttermaker
keeps a full and systematic churn record, as he should, the num-
bering of the churnings gives him an opportunity to prevent
recurrence of the reported defect.

Butter Prints. — Formerly butter was retailed direct in bulk
packages, such as tubs, boxes and cubes. At the present time
the trend is toward individual or consumer's packages in the
form of one, two and five pound rolls, and one-quarter, one-half,
one, two and five pound prints. Much of the butter that goes to
the wholesale trade in bulk packages, is printed by the wholesale
receiver, commission man, jobber, or butter cutter before it
reaches the retail store. In most of these cases the wholesale
dealer packs the butter under his own brand, for which he estab-
lishes a special trade. In other cases the retailer uses his own
special brand and furnishes the wrappers and cartons to the
creamery. Some wholesalers handle prints put up by the cream-
ery under the creamery's brand, in which case they pay about
one cent more per pound than in bulk. Most of the butter which

376

PACKING BUTTER

the creamery sells direct to the retail store is sold in prints.
During the fall and winter, when the output is at ebbtide, many
creameries print all their butter.

The individual or consumer's packages are two pound prints
or rolls, one pound prints, one-half pound prints and bars and
one-quarter pound prints. The predominating consumer's pack-

Fig-. 74. Friday Box

Fig-. 73. Friday Printer

Courtesy J. G. Cherry Co.

age is the one pound print of the following standard dimensions :
2y2 x 2^ x 4^i inches, wrapped in parchment, or wax paper, or
both and slipped into a carton. Some creameries wrap an
additional paper around the carton and seal it at both ends.
Considerable quantities of butter are sold in one-half pound
and one-quarter pound prints wrapped in the same manner as
the one pound prints and varying in shape from a flat slab
to a so-called hotel bar. In New England, efforts are made
to establish a one pound print having twice the width, half
the depth and the same length as the standard one pound
print. Within the last few years the practice of putting the one
pound prints up in the form of four one-quarter pound bars,

PACKING BUTTER 377

each wrapped separately in parchment paper, has found much
favor as a means to accommodate the consumer and increase
sales.

In accordance with the Federal Pure Food laws all individual
or consumer's packages must be marked in plain and legible
letters with the net weight of the contents. Packages weighing
one pound or over must have the net weight indicated in terms
of pounds, packages weighing less than one pound must have
their net weight indicated in terms of ounces.

A law passed by the New York State Legislature in 1912
provides for the following tolerances in the weight of print
butter :

"The maximum variation allowed on a pound print to be
three-eighths of an ounce on an individual print, provided that
the average error of twelve prints, taken at random, shall not
be over one-fourth of an ounce per pound. The maximum varia-
tion allowed on two-pound prints to be one-half ounce, provided
that the shortage on twelve prints, taken at random, be not
more than three-eighths of an ounce for two pounds.

"Prints that are not of one pound or two pounds must be
marked in letters at least three-eighths of an inch in height,
giving the correct weight in terms of ounces, or pounds and
ounces."

Methods of Printing. — The printing of butter is done in
various ways. Some creameries transfer their butter from the
churn to a table from which it is printed while soft, by the use
of one-pound hand molds, or by the use of a mold sunk into the
table and worked with a hand lever. In some European* cream-
eries the soft butter, coming from the churn or worker, is placed
on an automatic, revolving printing table. This table is equip-
ped with several molds. The butter is piled into these molds,
which pass under a mechanical plunger that tamps it into the
mold, then under a stationary knife that removes the surplus
butter, after which the finished print is released. Most of the
American creameries pack the butter from the churn into spe-
cially made crates, boxes or1 cubes, set it in the cooler over night
to permit the butter to harden and then cut it into prints by
means of wire cutters. To this type of printers belong the

3/8 BACKING

Friday, the Low, the Simpson, the Miller printers, and others.
For cutting tub butter a machine that utilizes all the culls is most
practical. For this purpose the American Butter Cutter is used
very generally.

When printers of the type of the Friday printers are used,
it is advisable to line the boxes with parchment before packing.
This keeps the surface of the butter cleaner, it protects it against
the injurious effect of contact with the iron parts of the cubes,
it minimizes the amount of scraps that have to be disposed vof at
a loss. It is desirable also to cover each Friday cube, after
packing, with a properly fitting cover.

Pigf. 75. C. P. Miller Hydraulic Cutter for Frozen or Otherwise

Very Firm Butter
Courtesy L. C. Sharp Mfg. Co.

The cutting of the butter should be done with clean taut
wires, free from rust. Piano steel wire is used for this purpose.
For the good of the flavor of the prints, tinned wire only should
be used. Any butter adhering to the bare steel wire soon causes
it to rust and the action on the metal gives the butter a very
disagreeable, puckery, metallic flavor.

The mechanical operation of the butter printer should be
performed in such a manner as to insure prints with square
corners and straight, sharp edges. The handling of the prints
should not be done with bare hands. It can readily be done
with ladles or sticks. The operator who cuts the butter and
places it on the wrapping table, and the person who puts the
first wrapper around the print, should wear clean gloves, prefer-
ably freshly laundered, white cotton gloves. The printing should
be done in a clean, cool room, screened from flies, and properly
ventilated.

PACKING BUTTER 379

In order to insure correct weights, each print should be
passed over an accurate scale. No matter how accurately the
wires of the cutter are set, they yield to the resistance of the
butter and are apt to stretch. The weighing of each print is the
only reliable guarantee against short weights and overweights.
Unsalted butter is slightly lighter than salted butter, so that
prints of unsalted butter must be very slightly larger than those
of salted butter in order to weigh the same.

The wrapping is done either by cheap help, boys or girls,
or by wrapping machines, which wrap the butter, place it in
cartons, and wrap and seal the cartons with great rapidity and
precision. The first wrapper should be a parchment wrapper.
This should be treated in a similar manner as the tub liners.
For maximum convenience a wooden box about 20 inches long
and with an inside width slightly greater than the width of the
one pound parchment wrapper may be used. This box may be
installed in a convenient place in the print room, it should'
have an overflow and be connected with the steam and water
line. While the print room is in operation this box is kept full
of boiling hot brine, containing enough salt, so that there is
always a visible deposit of undissolved salt in the bottom. A
little steam should run into this brine continually, so as to keep
the brine at boiling heat.

For suspending the parchment wrappers in the brine,
wooden clamps of sufficient length may be used. A bunch
of wrappers is fastened into the clamps, the clamps are placed
across the box and the wrappers swing and soak in the
brine. In this manner all but the top inch of the wrappers is
soaked. It is not desirable to wet the entire wrapper because the
sheets then stick to one another and delay the work of wrapping.
The wrappers should be soaked in the boiling hot brine for at
least 5 minutes and the brine should be renewed at least once each
day. The same treatment may be given wrappers" used for
unsalted butter.

High grade parchment wrappers, properly parchmented and
free from all kinds of specks, are the most economical. Parch-
ment wrappers frequently contain very minute specks of metallic
lustre. Microchemical examination of these specks shows that

380 PACKING BUTTER

they consist of copper or of some alloy containing copper such
as brass or german silver. These metal specks are acted upon
by the salt and acid in the butter. Gradually a green spot or
circle forms on the wrapper and on the butter at the point of
contact, showing verdigris, giving the butter an unsightly and
suspicions appearance, and actually rendering it unwholesome.

Fig*. 76. Unit of Peters Package Machinery

This machine forms and lines the carton, folds the wrapper and closes
the carton, and wraps and labels the carton. Courtesy Peters Machinery Co.

Such butter is usually rejected by the consumer. With pro-
longed age the action of these metallic specks bleaches the entire
print and gives it a rank tallowy flavor and odor. Parchment
wrappers used for butter should be free from these metallic
impurities.

The second wrapper is a wax paper. It consists of paper
coated on both sides with a thin film of paraffine, the paper
having been passed through a paraffine bath. The wax paper
wrapper furnishes additional protection against evaporation and
against the deteriorating action of air. Experimental trials and
commercial experience have demonstrated that butter actually
does keep better, especially is the flavor on the outside of the
print preserved, by the double wrapper.

PACKING BUTTER 381

The wrapped print is slipped into a carton. If the carton
is the final enclosure, it is usually of high quality stock, paraf-
fined, and bears the name and trade mark of the creamery.
Creameries placing a special wrapper on the outside of the
carton, generally use a cheaper grade, plain carton, and have
their name and trade mark placed on this outside wrapper.
Occasionally also printed matter with information for the con-
sumer concerning the quality of the butter, also premium labels,
etc., are slipped into the carton.

Packing in Boxes. — The prints, wrapped and placed in
cartons, are packed into wooden or fibre boxes, usually holding
from 10 to 50 one pound prints. Some of the larger creameries
have their name and trade mark stencilled or burnt onto the
ends of the box. This adds to the attractiveness of the package
and advertises the brand. Of recent years, carton or fibre boxes
have come into extensive use for packing and shipping prints.

The chief virtue of the fibre boxes lies in their relative
cheapness, averaging at least five cents less per box. They are
used to good advantage for local shipments of print butter and
especially during the cold season. For long distance shipments
of print butter and particularly during the hot summer season,
corrugated fibre boxes and similar paper boxes are less suitable.
Under these conditions the boxes often become soaked with the
brine of the butter and thus suffer seriously in transit. The
reason for this is that corrugated fibre boxes are not as rigid
as wooden boxes; in summer, due to the heat, the butter is soft
and the rough handling to which these boxes are subjected,
causes this soft butter to become mutilated ; this in turn results
in the expulsion of a portion of the brine of the butter, which
soaks through the carton of these boxes. Grocery stores often
also object to the fibre boxes, because these boxes are not as
serviceable and convenient to use in the store and on the delivery
wagon as wooden boxes.

Most of the wooden boxes for print butter are made of
poplar, hemlock or spruce. The majority of these are bought
in the knock-down shape and . are made up in the creamery.
Four-penny cement-coated wire nails are best suited for assem-
bling the sides, ends, bottom and top. The most perfect boxes

382 PACKING BUTTER

are tongued and grooved, but their greater expense causes their
use to be limited. The usual weight -of the lumber used for
wooden boxes is one-half inch for the sides, top and bottom
and three-fourths inch for the ends. For large creameries the
assembling of the boxes by the use of nailing machines is
most economical. Of late, wire-bound boxes have come into
use for packing and shipping prints. These boxes, while
they are light, are stronger than the nailed boxes, their initial
cost is slightly lower and the expense of assembling them is
smaller, requiring less labor and fewer and smaller nails.
Wire-bound boxes have the further advantage that they are
practically burglar proof, avoiding loss of prints due to removal
in transit. The correct size of boxes for standard size one pound
prints is 13 x 13 x 10 inches for 50 pound boxes.

Too little attention has been paid by many creameries to
the quality and neatness of these shipping boxes and to the
manner of packing itself. Poor material, shiftless nailing and
the use of second hand boxes should be avoided. The boxes
should be of the proper size, so that they can be filled full with
prints. The packing of 10 prints into a thirty pound box and
filling in with diverse refuse material, such as paper, straw, etc.,
is a poor policy which often results in mutilation of the prints
and unsightly appearance. Too large boxes also involve exces-
sive expense of transportation. Most boxes see rough handling
in transit and unless they are strongly constructed and properly
packed they are apt to reach their destination in damaged con-
dition. This is especially the case with long-distance shipments
and with export shipments. '

Advantage of Selling in Consumer's Packages. — It is obvious
that the expense of the package and of packing is greater in the
case of prints than in the case of tubs, boxes or cubes. The
difference in cost, including package and labor, averages from
one-half to one and one-half cent. This extra expense is borne
by the consumer; print butter averages usually about one cent
more than tub butter, at the sales end. The consumer's package
has several distinct advantages. The butter when sealed in
the consumer's package at the creamery or in the wholesale deal-
er's establishment, is effectively protected against further agencies

PACKING BUTTER 383

of contamination and deterioration. The package is opened only
by the consumer; and usually reaches him therefore in more
satisfactory condition. The individual package is the most con-
venient form for distribution through the retailer's stores and
for use by the consumer. The butter is protected against agen-
cies of deterioration such as light, air and rapid changes in
temperature, after it reaches the consumer. Butter bearing the
trade mark of the manufacturer or dealer, as is the case with
butter sold in the individual package, serves as an effective
advertising means. If the butter is of uniformly acceptable
quality, the consumer soon becomes familiar with that particular
brand and will assume the habit of calling for that brand. In
the case of occasional batches of low grade butter it is advisable
to use either a plain wrapper or a special brand reserved for
second grade butter only, in order not to jeopardize the reputa-
tion of the established brand.

Packing Farm Butter. — Butter made on the farm is put on
the market in diverse packages. Butter that goes to the country
store is usually packed in crocks, but considerable butter reaches
the store also in the form of rolls. Crocks have the advantage
that they protect the butter against abrupt temperature changes.
If the crock is well glazed on the inside, it is fairly sanitary.
Poorly glazed crocks are porous. The pores fill with grease and
curd which are not removed by ordinary methods of washing and
which cause the crock to become foul-smelling and to serve as
a constant source of contamination with agencies detrimental
to the quality of the butter. The crock is objectionable also
because of its weight and its frailty.

Some farm butter is put up in rolls weighing 1, 2 or 5
pounds and usually wrapped in parchment. Fancy or individual
molds are also quite popular. The tendency, however, is to print
the butter into standard size one pound prints and put them on
the market wrapped in parchment and packed in cartons. The
standard size print is, all things considered, probably the most
desirable type of package for farm butter, especially when sold
direct to residences, etc. The farmer who sells butter, in prints,
wrapped in parchments and cartons bearing his name and trade
mark is in a position to create a permanent call for it, provided

384 PACKING BUTTER

that the butter is of good quality and uniform flavor, salt, and
color, while butter sold in crocks, carton boxes, pails, etc., loses
its identity when it leaves the farm and before it reaches the
consumer. In the choice of cartons for the prints, paper cartons
should be given preference over wooden cartons. Wooden car-
tons such as are frequently used, lend the butter a woody flavor
which is objectionable.

Packing for Parcel Post Shipments. — Farm butter or cream-
ery butter, to be shipped by parcel post, is best put up in pound
prints, wrapped in water-proof parchment and sealed in paraf-
fined cartons. The cartons are best inserted into corrugated
pasteboard containers suitable for accommodating the different
amounts to be shipped, and wrapped with good wrapping paper.
Brand1 of the U. S.. Department of Agriculture, Office of Markets,
conducted an extensive study of the possibilities and limitations
of shipping butter by parcel post. This investigation showed
that under ordinary weather conditions practically no difficulty
was experienced. The chief problem in shipping butter by parcel
post is to prevent the butter from melting, mere softening did
not prove injurious. While the difficulty is somewhat greater
in summer than in winter, the fact that mail cars must be heated
in winter, does not entirely remove the danger of overheating
the butter during cold weather. Brand points out, however, that
the regulations of the Post Office Department on this subject
are of such a nature that it is possible to obviate this trouble to
a considerable extent in cold weather by marking butter parcels
as follows : "Perishable — Keep away from heating apparatus/'

He further offers the suggestions that over ordinary dis-
tances and under average conditions butter wrapped as above
directed, can be shipped without deterioration ; that it should
always be chilled before shipment and chilled again immediately
upon receipt by the consumer ; that it should be dispatched with,
attention to the mail schedule so that it will be on the road as
short a time as possible, and that shipments preferably should
be timed to make the greater part of their journey at night, when
temperatures are materially lower than during the day.

One of the obstacles that has retarded the development of

1 Brand, "Marketing by Parcel Post." U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Farmers'
Bulletin 611, 1914, pp. 16 to 21.

PACKING BUTTER 385

parcel post shipment of farm butter and similar farm produce
has been the unfortunate tendency of some farmers to ask prices
far above those current in their own rural localities and higher
than those charged by fancy retail stores of the cities for butter
of the same grade. It is obvious that the consumer will refuse
to look to the parcel post service as a practical and desirable
means to secure his butter, as long as he is unable to buy it
through this channel at prices that are no higher than those
which he is charged at the store.

Packing Butter for Exhibits and Scoring Contests. — When
preparing butter for exhibits and scoring contests neatness,
attractiveness and protection against high temperature are of
chief importance. For exhibits proper, butter may be used for
diverse designs, representing certain objects, or it may be put up
in neat commercial packages, attractively grouped and arranged.
For scoring contests, where the chief object is score on the quality
basis, the twenty pound white ash tub is the most suitable pack-
age. It is large enough for all practical purposes of scoring and
sampling for analysis, and it is small enough to avoid unneces-
sary sacrifice of butter and excessive transportation charges.
Scoring contest butter is usually not returned to the maker after
the contest. In most cases it is sold and the returns are used
towards defraying the expense of the scoring, in which case the
entire package is lost to the creamery. In other instances the
returns sre pro-rated among the contestants according to the
pounds of butter entered, in many cases the creamery gets
something back for its butter, though the price received for the
butter after scoring, is usually very low, due to the damaged
condition of the goods. The twenty pound tub is desirable also
because it can be conveniently packed into a sixty pound tub
for shipment.

In putting up the scoring contest butter a perfect tub should
be selected. This should be treated in the usual way, steamed,
paraffined and neatly lined with brine-soaked parchment circles
and liners. The butter should be packed into it very firmly with
sterile and cooled ladles and packers and in a clean, cool room.
The packing should be finished in the neatest possible way.
After cutting the surplus butter off the top so as to leave a

386 PACKING BUTTER

perfectly level and smooth surface, the liner extending one inch
above the edge of the tub is carefully folded over the butter with
clean hands, a clean cloth circle is placed on top and on this is
sprinkled a little clean dry salt, evenly distributed. After the
lid is put on the tub, the outside of the tub should be sand-
papered until it is perfectly smooth and clean. Then the Hd is
neatly fastened down to the tub with three to five standard
fasteners.

The twenty pound tub is then dropped into a sixty pound
tub and clean paper, clean shavings, excelsior, sawdust or other
insulating material, is solidly packed between the inside and
outside tub, bottom, sides and top. It is advisable to place the
60 pound tub and the packing material into the creamery cold
room several days before use, so as to thoroughly chill them.
The lid is then fastened to the sixty pound tub, it is tagged with
the name and address of the maker and the addressee. Then it
is best set into the cold room for twenty-four hours before ship-
ping, in order to harden the butter.

Butter put up as above directed will reach its destination at
any reasonable distance in good and attractive condition. The
cold packing around the inside tub furnishes a splendid insula-
tion, guarding against rapid warming up, which would prove
detrimental to the delicate flavor of the butter and disadvan-
tageous to the buttermaker's chances of success in the contest.
Some buttermakers fill the space between the two tubs with
crushed ice. This is unsatisfactory because it detracts from the
neatness of the exhibition tub. Also the ice generally melts in
transit and if the tub is put in cold storage before scoring, as
is usually the case, the water between the two tubs will freeze
into a solid mass, converting the entire package into one insep-
arable unit. The only means to get the inside tub out in such
a case is to chop off the staves of the outside tub with an ax.
If the butter judge has to attend to the unpacking himself these
difficulties may have an unfavorable, though entirely uncon-
scious, effect on the score of the troublesome tub. Aside from
these objections melted ice is a good conductor of heat and
therefore makes very poor insulation, while sawdust, paper,
wood shavings, etc., hold cold very efficiently.

PACKING BUTTER

387

Loss of Moisture in Packing. — When butter is packed into
tubs and boxes some moisture is lost, as a certain amount of
water is thereby pounded out of the butter. A small additional
loss of moisture further occurs in the cutting and printing of the
butter. The average loss of moisture due to packing of 619
different churnings of butter at the Purdue University Creamery
is shown in the following table :

1 Table 58. — Showing Difference of Moisture Content Between
Churn and Box Samples — Averages Grouped According to
Season of Year.

Year

Loss of Moisture Due to Packing from Churn to Friday Box

April, May
and June
% Moisture

July, August
and September
% Moisture

October,
November and
December
% Moisture

January,
February and
March
% Moisture

1907-8
1908-9
1909-10
1910-11

.27
.50
.52
.49

.57
.89
.61
.44

.40
1.04
.61
1.04

1.45
.82
.90
1.58

Averages

.44

.63

.77

1.18

The least difference between the churn and box samples was
shown in April, May and June. The difference increased grad-
ually and was highest in January, February and March, when it
averaged over 1 per cent.

This gradual increase of the loss of moisture, due to pack-
ing, from early summer to spring is interesting. It suggests
that it is the result of the increasing firmness of the butter
during the same time. The winter butter is firmer than the
summer butter, more pounding is required in packing firm butter
than in the case of soft butter.

The loss of moisture by packing varies considerably with
individual churnings. It depends on how well the moisture is
incorporated. Leaky butter may lose several per cent, of mois-

1 These figures represent the differences between the churn samples and
the tub or box samples. In every case the churn samples contained more
moisture than the tub or box samples.

1 Hunziker, Mills & Spitzer, Moisture Control of Butter, Purdue Bulletin,
160, 1912.

388

PACKING BUTTER

ture during packing. Under all normal conditions the butter- :
maker may expect a loss of at least 4 per cent moisture due to
packing from the churn into the tub or box.

Table 59. — Moisture Content of Butter Before and After Print-
ing with Friday Printer. The Samples Were Taken from
Friday Cubes in the Cooler and Again from Prints of the
Same Cubes after Wrapping. The Weight of All Prints
Was One Pound, Each. Each Lot of Butter Represents a
Different Churning.

Percent Moisture

Lots

of

Before Printing

After Printing

Butter

Average

A

B

Average

A

B

Average

Loss

1

15.8

15.9

15.85

15.4

15.9

15.65

.20

2

15.3

15.3

15.30

14.8

14.8

14.80

.50

3

15.8

15.9

15.85

15.9

15.9

15.90

+ .05

4

15.4

15.1

15.25

15.4

15.4

15.40

+ .15

5

15.6

15.7

15.65

15.7

15.5

15.60

.05

6

15.1

15.1

15.10

15.4

15.2

15.30

+ .20

7

15.9

15.9

15.90

15.8

15.9

15.85

.05

8

15.7

15.8

15.75

15.7

15.7

15.70

.05

9

15.7

15.9

15.80

15.6

15.7

15.65

.15

10

15.3

15.3

15.30

15.3

15.1

15.20

.10

Average

15.58

15.51

.07

The loss of moisture that occurs during the process of
printing obviously depends, aside from the completeness of
moisture incorporation, on the method of printing employed and
the firmness of the butter. Butter that is printed direct from the
churn with the hand mold, while it is still soft, is not prone to
lose much moisture. Butter that is packed in cubes or crates,
which are subsequently placed in the cold room over night and
then printed by simply cutting it with wires, as is the case with
the Friday printer, also suffers but very little loss of moisture.
This is readily shown by the following analyses of butter before
and after printing:

In the case of tub butter that has been allowed to harden
and is subsequently stripped and printed by the use of the Amer-

PACKING BUTTER

389

ican Butter Cutter, the loss is obviously considerably greater,
amounting to several tenths per cent. In this case the butter is
not only cut, but considerably mutilated while it passes through
the cutter, as shown in the following table which represents
eighteen different lots of tub butter bought on the open market :

Table 60. — Moisture Content of Butter Before and After Run-
ning it Through the American Printer. The Samples Were
Taken from the Stripped Tubs Before Cutting and Again
from the Prints Made from the Butter

Percent Moisture

Tub Numbers

From Tubs

From Prints

Loss

1

15.3

15.2

.10

2

14.3

14.0

.30

3

14.9

14.8

.10

4

16.1

15.9

.20

5

16.0

15.6

.40

6

16.0

15.6

.40

7

14.9

14.6

.30

8

15.2

14.7

.50

9

14.6

14.5

.10

10

16.2

15.9

.30

11

15.9

15.9

.00

12

15.8

15.4

.40

13

15.4

15.3

.10

14

15.4

15.2

.20

15

15.3

15.0

.30

16

15.4

15.1

.30

17

15.9

15.6

.30

18

15.1

14.9

.20

Average

15.43

15.18

.25

Cost of Packing. — The cost of packing butter varies largely
with the cost of the package and the expense of labor. Prints
are a more expensive package than tubs, boxes and cubes. The
quality of wrappers, cartons and shipping boxes used and the
elaborateness of the design on them further influence the expense
of the package. The quantity in which the package is bought
also affects its cost. In car load lots larger rebates, both in the
price of the package and in the freight rates, may be secured.

390 PACKING BUTTER

This difference naturally operates in favor of the large creamery
and against the small creamery with limited operating capital.
The use of machines for printing, wrapping and sealing the
butter and for mailing the boxes reduces the help needed for
labor. In the large creamery this work can be done by the
cheapest kind of help, by young boys and girls, for there is
enough work to be done to furnish steady employment for this
kind of help. In the small creamery where the printing and
wrapping occupies only a part of one person's time, the creamery
usually cannot secure special cheap help for this work and it is
done by the more High-priced help, the buttermaker or his
helper.

The cost of putting up one-half pound prints in separate
cartons is about one-third higher per pound and the cost of
putting up one-quarter pound prints in separate cartons is about
twice as high per pound of butter as the cost of putting up one
pound prints. The cost of putting up one-half pound prints and
one-quarter pound prints in one pound cartons is about one-fifth
and one-fourth, respectively, higher than the cost of putting up
one pound prints.

Cost of Packing Butter in Tins. — Two sizes of tins for
packing butter are accepted as standard tins by the United
States Navy, the net 5 pound tin and the net 6 pound 6 ounce
tin. The 5 pound tins are packed in boxes holding 16 tins, the
6 pound 6 ounce tins are packed in boxes holding 12 tins. In
May, 1918, the cost of the package (5 pound tins), including
tins, boxes, corrugated paper liners and strap iron, was about
$2.44 per 1000 tins or about 3 cents per pound of butter. To this
should be added the cost of nails and labels which amounts to
less than .05 of one cent. The labor, when large quantities of
butter are tinned, is but very slightly more than that of printing
and wrapping butter, but for average conditions it should be
placed at one-half to three-quarters of one cent per pound. This
then, would make the total cost of packing butter in tins about
3 1 cents per pound.

It is customary for the manufacturers of tin cans to loan
to the creamery a sealing machine, for closing the cans after
they are packed. The rental basis is usually about $25 per year

PACKING BUTTER FOR U. S. NAVY 391

plus the freight on the machine both ways and plus an insur-
ance premium of about $3.50 per year on the value of the
machine.

These prices and terms are naturally subject to changes.
They prevailed in the spring of 1918.

GENERAL DIRECTIONS FOR PACKING BUTTER
FOR THE UNITED STATES NAVY.

Tinned and Tub or Cube Butter— Quality.

"Shall be fresh butter, made from fresh pasteurized cream
(held at a temperature of 145° F. for 25 minutes, or at 176° F.
for an instant), none of which shall at any time contain more
than 0.27 per cent of acid, calculated as lactic acid, for butter
scoring 94, or 0.234 per cent for butter scoring 95 (or more acid
in 50 c. c. of cream than will be neutralized by 15 c. c. of N/10
alkali solution for butter scoring 94, or 13 c. c. for butter scoring
95) ; nor shall the cream contain more than 35 per cent butter fat.

"Shall be strictly of the highest grade of creamery butter, at
least two-thirds of which must score not less than 95 and the
rest not less than 94 when made.

"Moisture in the finished product at time of packing must not
exceed 13*/2 per cent for tinned butter and 14 per cent for tub
or cube butter. There must be no preservative used other than
common salt, and that shall be at a rate giving not less than
2y2 per cent or more than 3^4 per cent salt in the finished
product at time of packing.

Inspection and Tests.

"The ingredients, manufacture, sanitation, packing, boxing,
marking, and shipping of the butter shall be subject to inspec-
tion by Government inspectors, who shall have full authority
to reject any package or lot of milk, cream, or finished butter,
and to enforce compliance with the requirements of these speci-
fications as well as to demand first-class work in every particular.

"The Government inspector shall make all the necessary tests
to determine that the acid in the milk or cream and the salt and
moisture contents in the butter are within the limits specified.

392 PACKING BUTTER FOR U. S. NAVY

"At the option of the Bureau of Supplies and Accounts, the
contractor or his agents may, however, be required to make all
the tests necessary to determine that the acid in the milk or
cream and the salt and water contents of the butter are within
the limits specified, and all such tests made by the contractor
or his agents shall be subject to supervision, verification, and
approval by Government inspectors.

Containers — Tinned Butter.

"Tins. — Tins to be made of prime coke plate weighing not less
than 90 pounds per box of 112 sheets, size 14 inches by 20 inches.
Side seams to be of either lock or lap type and soldered on out-
side only. Top and bottom ends to be lined with sanitary lining
compound of suitable gasket before being double-seamed on.

"Tops and bottoms to be completely covered on the inside
and outside with processed lacquer so that there will be no un-
tinned edges exposed on the inside of the can. Inside and outside
of cans, tops, bottoms and sides, except necessary margin for
soldering side seams, to be lacquered before plate is manufac-
tured into the finished container, with processed lacquer, which
is to be baked on at a temperature of approximately 380° F.
The unlacquered margin of side seam to be covered with air-
drying lacquer after can is finished.

"Two sizes of tins will be acceptable, viz., tins containing 5
pounds net weight, as used heretofore, and standard No. 10
sanitary type tins containing approximately 6 pounds 6 ounces.

"The tins must be packed completely full, leaving no air
space. Net weight only to be paid for.

"Packing. — The butter must be packed in thoroughly clean
tins, and the tins fully sealed and marked immediately as di-
rected, the creamery where the butter is made, the butter to be
packed within two hours after the time of churning.

"Sealing. — Each tin must be hermetically sealed by mechan-
ical process, without the use of solder.

"Cases. — The cases shall be made of well-seasoned lumber,
planed on outside; tops, bottoms, and sides to be not less than
full y2 inch and ends not less than full ^f inch thick when
finished. To be securely nailed and strapped with J^-inch flat

PACKING BUTTER FOR U. S. NAVY 393

iron. On each case shall be plainly stenciled or stamped the
actual net weight of butter contained therein, the score, name
of contractor, brand (optional with contractor), number of con-
tract, and date of packing; cases shall be free from all other
marks, except such as may be placed thereon by the Government
inspector. Five-pound tins are to be packed 16 to the case, and
No. 10 tins 12 to the case. Each tin must be plainly marked

" pounds net .... butter," name of contractor, and date

of packing, and shall be carefully wrapped in paper and packed
in sawdust; the cases shall be completely filled with sawdust.
Suitable corrugated paper liners and paper fillers may be used
in lieu of sawdust, in which case it will not be necessary to wrap
each tin in paper, but all motion of tins must be prevented if this
style of packing is used.

Containers — Tub Butter.

"Tubs. — The butter must be put up in regular, sound, first
quality white-ash tubs, provided with sound covers and five sound
hoops, two at the bottom, one at the center, and two near the
top ; tubs to hold from 60 to 65 pounds net weight each. The
tubs must be soaked in the usual manner, properly steamed, and
immediately coated on the inside with paraffine having a tem-
perature of not less than 240° F. when applied. They must then
be lined with parchment paper (side lining, bottom and top cir-
cles), which must first have been sterilized and then soaked in
a clean brine solution for at least 30 minutes immediately pre-
ceding the time at which they are used.

"Packing. — The parchment lining must overlap the bottom
and the top edges of the butter at least half an inch. The butter
must be packed immediately after it is made, and each tub must
be packed solid throughout and completely filled. A cloth circle
must be placed on top of the parchment circle of each tub and
covered with a thin layer of salt. The tub covers must be se-
curely* fastened by two strips of substantial flat iron not less
than y2 inch in width securely fastened to the sides of the tub
and brought over the cover at right angles.

"By means of a suitable rubber stamp and stamp ink each
tub must be plainly marked on the cover and side with the net
weight of the butter it contains, the name of the contractor, with

394 THE OVERRUN

or without brand, number of contract, and the date of packing,
and shall be free from all other marks, except such as may be
placed thereon by the Government inspector. Net weight only
to be paid for.

"The letters in the rubber stamp must not be less than %
inch square. Marking by means of stencil and blacking will not
be permitted.

Containers — Cube Butter.

"Cases. — Cases to be cubical or rectangular in shape and
to have a capacity of from 56 to 66 pounds; to be made of first
quality white spruce or Pacific coast spruce or clear poplar lum-
ber, cut true to gauge and planed on both sides; tops, bot-
toms, and sides to be not less than J/£ inch thick, and ends not
less than % inch thick when finished; to be well nailed with
cement-coated nails, and strapped with J^-inch flat iron or
strong wire; otherwise to conform to all applicable require-
ments of the specifications for containers for tub butter above,
which include paraffin coating and parchment paper lining."

CHAPTER. XIII.
THE OVERRUN.

Definition. — By the overrun is understood the difference
between the pounds of butterfat churned and the pounds of
butter made. The overrun is made possible by the fact that, in
addition to butterfat, butter contains non-fatty constituents, such
as moisture, salt, curd and small amounts of lactose, acid and
ash.

Importance. — The overrun is the financial "vitamine" of the
creamery business. Under the present system of creamery oper-
ation there is no margin left between the purchase price of the
butterfat and the sales price of the butter, on which the creamery
can do business. In fact, in a great many instances the cost per
pound of butterfat is greater than the price received per pound
of butter. The creamery must, therefore, depend on the overrun
to pay for the cost of manufacture and sale of the butter and to
make a reasonable profit. If it were not for the overrun
the creamery could not do business on the present method of

THE: OVERRUN 395

paying the patrons for butterfat. The overrun, therefore, log-
ically and rightfully belongs to the creamery.

If the dairy farmer makes butter on the farm, the overrun
he makes compensates him for his trouble, time, labor and
expense involved in making and selling the butter.

The Theoretical Overrun. — The theoretical overrun is a
''pencil" overrun. It aims to indicate the maximum amount of
butter that could be legitimately made from a given amount of
butterfat, if all conditions of butter manufacture could be con-
trolled with mathematical accuracy.

The theoretical overrun shows, for example that, if there
were no mechanical losses and if butter contained exactly 80 per
cent of fat, the maximum amount of butter that could be made

100
from 100 pounds of fat would be -57— X 100 = 125 pounds and

• . oU

that, therefore, the maximum legitimate overrun is limited to
125 — 100 — 25 per cent.

In the commercial operation of the cream, however, it is a
mechanical impossibility to establish the degree of accuracy that
is assumed in the calculation of the theoretical overrun. No such
standard of accuracy can be attained. For this reason the figures
resulting from calculation of the theoretical overrun cannot serve
as an acceptable standard for overrun. They fail to take into
consideration the true possibilities and limitations of the overrun
and they are prone to prove confusing and misleading. At best
they can serve only as an approximate and arbitrary illustration
for the elementary information of the layman.

The Actual Overrun. — The actual overrun shows the differ-
ence between the actual amount of butter churned out and the
amount of butterfat bought and paid for. It is affected by a
multitude of factors, which control, directly or indirectly, the
determination of the amount of butterfat bought and churned
and the amount of butter made.

Conditions Influencing the Overrun. — As previously stated,
the overrun is made possible by the fact that butter contains,
in addition to the butterfat, water, curd, salt and ash. The
larger the sum total of these non-fatty constituents, the smaller

396 THS OVERRUN

the amount of fat that is required to make one pound of butter,
the more butter can be made from a given amount of fat, and
the larger, therefore, will be the overrun., Consequently, the
composition of the butter is the fundamental factor that con-
trols the overrun. Other factors which influence the overrun
are the accuracy of weights and tests of cream, butterfat
shortages of cream routes and cream stations, the number and
amount of mechanical losses of butterfat, such as loss of
fat in the skim milk, in the buttermilk and through factory leaks,
and accuracy of weights and tests of butter.

Effect of Composition of Butter on Overrun. — Of the non-
fatty constituents of butter, that control the overrun, the moist-
ure, salt and curd are the only ingredients that need be consid-
ered and the relative amount of which is large enough and is
sufficiently variable to materially affect the overrun. The other
non-fatty constituents, the ash, milk sugar and acid, all
together total less than .5 of one per cent, they are practically
constant and are not materially affected by the process of manu-
facture under all normal conditions.

Moisture. — The moisture exerts the greatest influence of
the non-fatty constituents, on the overrun. It is present in
larger amounts than all the other non-fatty constituents com-
bined and it is the most variable. Its maximum limit in the
United States is fixed by a ruling of the Internal Revenue De-
partment below 16 per cent. According to this ruling butter con-
taining 16 per cent moisture or over is no longer legal butter,
but is classed as adulterated butter.

Under all reasonable conditions of manufacture and of
raw material, the moisture content of butter will not exceed 16
per cent. There are times and conditions, however, when but-
ter has an inherent tendency to naturally hold more moisture.
This is especially the case in early summer when the cows are
turned from dry feed to succulent pasture, and on account of
their ravenous appetite for green feed they consume a great
abundance of it. This causes the butterfat to have a low melt-
ing point and to be abnormally soft. In this soft condition it
mixes readily with water and has the power to retain relatively
large quantities of it. With intelligent control of the churn-
ing temperature and careful adjustment of the process of work-

THE OVERRUN 397

ing, the buttermaker can, without much difficulty, hold the
moisture content of his butter below the maximum limit of
16 per cent, even under these abnormal conditions of raw mate-
rial.

There are other times and conditions when the butter has
properties that cause it to take up and hold much less moisture
than 16 per cent. This is usually the case in winter, when the
cows are well advanced in their period of lactation and receive
largely only dry feed. These conditions are conducive of rel-
atively small size fat globules and fat of a relatively high melt-
ing point, causing the fat to be very firm, in which condition it
refuses to readily mix with and hold water. The tendency then
is for butter to be low in moisture and the overrun to be corre-
spondingly low. But here again, with the proper adjustment
of the churning temperature and with the intelligent manipula-
tion of the butter in the churn, the buttermaker can, without
great difficulty, hold the moisture content of his butter close
to the 16 per cent limit and thereby maintain a satisfactory
overrun.

These facts also explain why the buttermaker on the farm
and the buttermakers in many small local creameries, who lack
the knowledge, skill and equipment necessary to regulate the
per cent moisture in butter, and who often pay no attention at
all to moisture content, are unable to secure a satisfactory over-
run in winter, and frequently exceed the 16 per cent moisture
limit in summer.

Since the overrun represents one of the all-essential factors
in successful butter manufacture, and since, in the face of the
keen competition and of the narrow margin of profit, the very
life of the creamery depends on the overrun, it is the butter-
maker's undisputed duty to hold the moisture content of his
butter as close to the maximum limit permitted by law as possi-
ble, consistent with maintenance of quality and making due
allowance always for unavoidable variations. If the buttermaker
adjusts his process in such a manner as to work to a moisture
content of 15.5 per cent, he should experience no serious difficulty
to stay within the requirements of the law, and at the same time
to secure the maximum overrun that may be expected of him.
other factors being under control.

398 THE OVERRUN

Salt. — The salt represents the next largest non-fatty con-
stituent of butter. The salt content of butter ranges from no
salt to about 4.5 per cent salt, averaging about 3 per cent.

It is obvious that the more salt butter contains, other
factors being equal, the larger will be the overrun. Unsalted
butter, therefore, yields a much lower overrun than salted but-
ter, unless the legal moisture limit is exceeded or an abnormal
amount of curd is incorporated in the unsalted butter, both of
which practices are unlawful and would unfavorably affect the
keeping quality of the resulting butter.

The difference in overrun between unsalted butter and
butter containing about 3 per cent salt is approximately 4.5
per cent. With the price of butter at 40 cents, the sale of un-
salted butter at the same price would cause the creamery to
sacrifice 1.8 cents on every pound of butter manufactured. In
other words, unsalted butter would have to be sold at a price
approximately 1.8 cents higher than salted butter in order to
secure the same returns for butterfat sold in the form of unsalted
butter as that sold in the form of salted butter.

Curd. — The curd content of butter is not generally consid-
ered a factor of consequence from the standpoint of overrun.
In properly made butter the curd content is small, averaging
about .7 of one per cent, and it is fairly constant. If butter were
not washed at all it would not exceed 1.5 per cent curd and
would average around 1 to 1.25 per cent. In properly washed
butter it is practically always below 1 per cent. In calculating
the overrun, the curd is usually figured to be 1 per cent, allow-
ing it to also represent the remaining traces of other non-fatty
constituents, the ash, milk sugar and acid.

Efforts are made occasionally, however, to increase the over-
run by incorporating in butter, extraneous additional curd, in
the form of wet or dry casein, or skim milk powder. In such
cases the extraneous curd is added to the butter in the churn
with the salt and it is worked in during the regular process of
working.

If the curd is so added, in form of starter, the increase of the
curd content in the butter is very slight and barely perceptible
by analysis, and there is no appreciable increase in the overrun.

THE: OVERRUN 399

If the curd is added to the butter in the form of dry casein,
or skim milk powder, then the increase of the per cent curd found
in such butter is very marked and is limited only by the amount
of these products added. The curd content of the butter thus
may be from 5 to 10 per cent or more and the increase in the over-
run may amount as high as 15 per cent or more. In the case of
skim milk powder a considerable amount of milk sugar is also
retained in butter with the added curd, making the overrun still
higher. Furthermore, the increased curd content of such butter
augments the moisture-holding properties of the butter and un-
less efforts are made to hold the per cent moisture in such butter
to or below 16 per cent, the moisture content may far exceed this
limit, causing a still greater overrun.

The practice of working extraneous curd into butter in
any manner is a pernicious practice. It is in violation of the
law which forbids the incorporation in butter of any substance
other than the fat of milk or cream and small portions of such
other milk constituents as naturally enter into butter in the
process of manufacture, with or without salt and with or with-
out harmless coloring matter. Extraneous curd incorporation
further is a positive detriment to the butter industry, because
it causes rapid deterioration, injures the keeping quality and
thereby displeases the consumer, reduces sales, depresses the
price and invites the consumption of butter substitutes.

Accuracy of Weights and Tests of Cream. — Since the over-
run is calculated on the basis of butterfat actually bought and
paid for, it is necessarily immediately influenced by the accu-
racy of the weights and tests of milk and cream, upon the
basis of which the amount of the butterfat is calculated. The
overrun cannot be correct, be it high or low, if the weights and
tests are not correct. Weights of milk or cream that are in ex-
cess of the correct weights received and tests higher than the
correct tests, are bound to lower the overrun and if the error
is considerable and continuous, it spells ruin to the creamery.

Where the milk or cream is sampled, weighed and tested
at the creamery, as is the case with most cooperative cream-
eries and with creameries operating on the direct shipper sys-
tem, inaccuracies of this sort are not very frequent and their

400 THE OVERRUN

recurrence can be readily avoided. But when the cream is
weighed and sampled on the route wagon, as is the case with
the cream route system, or where the cream is weighed, sampled
and tested at the cream station, or where the creamery accepts
the weights and tests of the independent cream buyer, control
is far more difficult and the creamery often surfers great losses
of butterfat, which compel it to pay for more butterfat
than it actually received and this in turn is bound to greatly
depress the overrun.

If the error in weights and tests is in the other direction,
if the weights are short of the actual amount of milk or cream
received and if the recorded tests are lower than correct tests
would be, then the creamery is receiving more butterfat than
it is paying for and the overrun is correspondingly high. Ab-
normally high overruns, therefore, are not infrequently due
to low weights or low tests, or both.

Occasional accidental errors in weights and tests may rea-
sonably be expected. They generally work no great hardship,
neither on the creamery nor on the farmer, and in the long
run usually balance each other.

Persistent and continued inaccuracies, all in one direction,
on the other hand, suggest either systematic carelessness and
inefficiency, or intentional wrongdoing. If due to inefficiency,
then the equipment or the method is at fault, and the overrun
can only be made to return to what it should be by a systematic
effort to locate the trouble.

The route, station or platform scales should be examined
to make sure that they swing freely, operate correctly, and
weigh accurately. Scales that "stick" or do not "break" sharply
are very often the cause of a low overrun, registering more
milk or cream than the creamery actually received. The milk
or cream, and especially the cream on the route wagon and at
the cream station, must be thoroughly mixed before the sample
is taken. Sudden drops in the overrun in winter are not infre-
quently due to an unsatisfactory mechanical condition of the
cream at the time the sample is taken. Frozen cream should
be treated in accordance with directions given in chapter IV,
and the cream, after the treatment, should be stirred very
thoroughly. Under any condition the cream sampler should under-

OVERRUN 401

stand that the top layer in the cans or in other cream con-
tainers, is usually richer in butterfat than any other portion of
the contents. If the sample is simply taken from the top, it
cannot help containing a higher per cent of fat than the re-
mainder of the cream, and tests made from such samples are
bound to be too high and the overrun low.

In the testing1 of the milk or cream it should be definitely
ascertained that the glassware used is correct, that the cream
test balance has the necessary sensibility and is in satisfactory
operating condition, and that the weighing, testing and reading
is done with care and according to standard methods.

Cream route and cream station shortages of butterfat are
most always due to improper and careless sampling, causing the
individual samples to be richer in butterfat than the cream
from which they are taken. Whether this be due to mere care-
lessness on the part of the operator, or willful deception, makes
little difference. Creameries who fail to systematically check
up the work of their routes and stations, and to hold their
operators to account for their delinquencies, are doomed to a
disastrously low overrun.

Buying cream on the weights and tests of the independent
buyer is a practice fundamentally wrong. The independent
buyer is largely interested in selling to the creamery the great-
est amount of butterfat possible. Therein lies his livelihood"
and his profit. He cannot afford to sell more butterfat than he
gets paid for and he is usually looking out for that. Unless he
masters a strength of character far above the average of his
profession, he may yield to temptation to the detriment of the
overrun of the creamery that accepts his weights and tests. The
creamery cannot afford to buy butterfat on any basis other than
that of its own weights and tests.

High tests and low overrun are likely to occur also in
creameries that hold their samples for several days before test-
ing. This is especially the case when the samples are kept in
loosely sealed jars, or in a warm room, or both. In this case
the incorrectly high tests are due to evaporation of part of the-
moisture in the cream sample, increasing the per cent of fat and
causing a low overrun. It is advisable to test all cream samples
on the day they are taken or received. All samples should be

402 THIS OVERRUN

taken and kept in tightly sealed jars, and if they cannot be tested
promptly, they should be placed in the cold room until needed.

Mechanical Losses of Fat. — Of the mechanical losses of fat
in the creamery which materially affect the overrun, the fat
lost in the skim milk and the fat lost in the buttermilk are the
most important.

Skim Milk. — On the basis of average milk, testing about 4
per cent fat and of butter containing 80 per cent fat, every one-
tenth per cent fat lost in the skim milk reduces the overrun by
about 2.2 per cent. It is obvious, therefore, that whole milk cream-
eries cannot hope to secure as large an overrun as gathered cream
creameries. The very marked effect of the small amount of fat
lost in the skim milk, on the overrun, emphasizes the importance
of securing the greatest possible skimming efficiency in the
operation of the factory cream separator, so as to reduce the
resulting loss to the very minimum. For detailed directions on
the factors which influence the skimming efficiency of the cream
separator the reader is referred to Chapter V on the "Separation
of Milk."

Buttermilk. — The exhaustiveness of the churning does not
have so great an effect on the overrun as does the exhaustive-
ness of skimming, yet it is a factor that must be reckoned with
in order to secure maximum overrun. With cream testing about
33 per cent fat and using 10 per cent starter, and with butter
containing 80 per cent fat, each one-tenth per cent fat lost in
the buttermilk lowers the overrun approximately .23 per cent.
It is generally considered that an average buttermilk test of not
to exceed .2 per cent fat is not excessive on this basis ; the
sacrifice in overrun that may be expected under fairly normal
conditions, due to the fat lost in the buttermilk, is about .5
per cent.

In a properly operated creamery where the conditions relat-
ing to exhaustiveness of churning are carefully watched, the but-
termilk seldom exceeds .2 per cent, and frequently drops below
.1 per cent. In plants which ignore the importance of the ex-
haustiveness of churning and which do not systematically check
it up by testing the buttermilk, it is not uncommon to find the

OVERRUN 403

buttermilk to test very high, amounting to from .5 to 1 per cent
or more, and causing a reduction of the overrun of from 1 to 3 per
cent or more.

As it is difficult to correctly determine the per cent fat in
the buttermilk by the ordinary Babcock test, the results of the
test often do not show all the fat present in the buttermilk, so
that the operator may think that he is churning exhaustively
when in reality he loses much fat. For directions of testing
buttermilk see Chapter XXII.

Some of the most important factors which control the ex-
haustiveness of churning are: Churning temperature, time held
at churning temperature, richness of cream, condition of cream,
fulness and speed of churn, size of butter granules when churn is
stopped, etc. For detailed discussion of these factors the reader
is referred to Chapter X on "Conditions Influencing the Churn-
ability of Cream," also Chapter VII on " Neutralization" and
Chapter VIII on "Pasteurization."

Other Mechanical Losses Which Tend to Reduce the Over-
run.— Frequently the low overrun is found to be due to exces-
sive foaming of the cream in the vats. The cream foam usually
contains a high per cent of fat. It is flushed out of the vats
with difficulty only, and often much of it goes into the sewer.
Efforts to thoroughly flush this foam out of the vats into the
churn require excessive amounts of water, usually warm water.
This in turn dilutes the cream and increases the amount of but-
termilk, thus augmenting the volume of buttermilk and with it
the amount of fat lost. The thinning of the cream in itself
causes a higher per cent of fat in the buttermilk. Furthermore,
the cream in the churn is thus warmed above the intended churn-
ing temperature, by the copious rinsing down of the foam with
warm water, which makes for less exhaustive churning.

In most cases the excessive foaming of the cream in the vats
is due to too high a speed of the coils, whipping air into the
cream. This is especially 'the case when the vat is not full and
the coil is only partly covered with the cream. Reducing the
speed of the coil generally diminishes and often stops the foam-
ing entirely. The larger the coil the slower should be its speed.
The proper speed for a 24-inch coil is about 35 to 40 revolutions
per minute, for a 29-inch coil 28 to 30 revolutions per minute.

404 THE OVERRUN

Filling the vat full, so as to submerge the coil, will lessen
the foaming. Running the coil with the vat cover down min-
imizes the foaming, the slight pressure thus produced in the
closed vat helps to keep the foam down. If the cream splashes
into the vat from a great height, there is more or less foaming.
A large vat gate assists in carrying off the foam with {he cream,
when the vat is being emptied.

Additional mechanical losses occur now and then by acci-
dental spilling of milk and cream, leaks in pumps, pipe lines,
cream troughs and churn doors, incomplete draining of milk and
cream cans, pipes and troughs. These losses will greatly vary
with the degree of carefulness or carelessness of the creamery
personnel. . They represent a useless waste, benefitting no one
and reducing the overrun. They are avoidable in most cases
and can be guarded against by efficient supervision. All of these
precautions play an integral part in the systematic maintenance
of a satisfactory overrun.

Accuracy of Moisture Tests. — Since the per cent of moisture
is a fundamental factor determining the overrun, it is important
that its determination be correct and reliable. This means care-
ful sampling of the butter, a sensitive balance and conscientious
operation of the test. For details of testing butter for moisture
see Chapter XXII.

The butter should be tested at the churn and again the
next morning from the cooler. The churn tests are necessary
as a guide for the buttermaker, the cooler tests serve as a check
of the churn tests. The cooler tests are final and become a mat-
ter of record.

Accuracy at this point enables the creamery to approach
the moisture limit permitted, with reasonable certainty of not
violating the 16 per cent ruling, and thereby to secure the max-
imum overrun possible.

Accuracy of Weights of Butter. — Finally the overrun may
be very materially affected by the accuracy of the weights of
butter. In the case of the factory overrun the cubes and tubs
are weighed prior to packing and again after packing, the dif-
ference between the tare and the gross weights gives the net
weight of the butter. Accuracy of weighing is necessary in
order to insure the correct calculation of the overrun.

THE OVERRUN 405

In the case of packing 63-pound tubs, it is customary to
allow from 4 to 12 ounces for shrinkage. If the net weight of
the butter is say 62 pounds 10 ounces the weight put on the
tub is 62 pounds. Instead of weighing the filled tub, the butter
may be weighed before it reaches the tub and the weighed butter
is then packed into the tub. In this case only the net weight is
placed on the tub. The San Francisco Wholesale Dairy Produce
Exchange issued regulations demanding that standard cubes be
rilled with 69 pounds of butter net and that the cubes be marked
68 pounds.

If the butter is printed at the creamery, the accuracy of
the net weight put into each print is reflected in the office over-
run. Accuracy here is best secured by passing each print over
a sensitive butter balance and correcting the weights, if short,
or over.

Example of Overrun in Whole-Milk Creamery.

10,000 Ibs. of 4% milk are received.

32% cream is separated.

Skim milk tests .1% fat.

10% starter is added.

Buttermilk tests .2% fat.

Butter contains 80% fat.

How much butter is made?

What is the overrun? What is the per cent overrun?

Answer.—

Butterfat contained in milk, 4 X^°° • : = 4°° Ibs. fat.

4x 10000 10-n ,.
Cream separated from milk, - r^ - = 12^0 Ibs. cream.

Skim milk separated from milk, 10000—1250 = 8750 Ibs.
skim milk.

Fat lost in skim milk, - — J = 8.75 Ibs. fat.

Fat remaining in cream, 400 — 8.75 — 391.25 Ibs. fat.
Starter added to cream, - ' • ^ •= 125 Ibs. starter.

Total pounds of cream churned, 1250 + 125 — 1375 Ibs.
cream.

406 THE OVERRUN

Approximate pounds of buttermilk made, 1375 — 391 =984
Ibs. buttermilk.

9 y 984
Fat lost in buttermilk, L14gg — = 1.97 Ibs. fat.

Fat left for butter, 391.25 — 1.97 = 389.28 Ibs. fat.
Butter made, — } XgQ89'28 = 486.6 Ibs. butter.
Overrun, 486.6 — 400 = 86.6 Ibs. overrun.
Per cent overrun, - - =. 21.65% overrun.

In the above example the mechanical losses on the 400 Ibs. of
fat were 8.75 + 1.97 — 10.72 Ibs. of fat, the per cent loss was

' = 2.68 per cent of the total fat received. Adding to

these losses, the probable fat lost in the form of milk and cream
spilled and retained in the pipes, etc., the total mechanical loss of fat
may be placed at from 3 to 3.5 per cent of the total fat received. In
whole milk creameries a loss of 3 to 3.5 per cent of the total fat re-
ceived is generally accepted as a fair average loss under normal con-
ditions of operation, though this loss can be considerably reduced by
better organization and greater efficiency of operation.

If there were no compensating factors, such as undeterminable
unrecognized fractions of weights and tests of milk, which, in an effi-
ciently operated creamery are bound to function in favor of the
creamery, the per cent overrun would be as follows :

V 3
Loss of 3% of total fat received = 25 -- IQQ =21.25%

overrun.

ioc v ? c

Loss of 3.5% of total fat received = 25 \^— = 20.625%
overrun. . , ;.

Example of Overrun in Farm Separator Cream Creamery.

2000 Ibs. of 33% cream are received.

10% starter are added.

Buttermilk tests .2 per cent fat.

Butter contains 80 per cent fat.

How much butter is made?

What is the overrun? What is the per cent overrun?

THK OVERRUN 407

Answer.— . . ,: ••".

?000 V^
Fat in 2000 Ibs. of cream, J^: ~ = 660 Ibs. fat.

2000 X 10
Starter added to cream, - r-r-r- — = 200 Ibs. starter.

'•!'.' /. *..' .. "- 1UU . .

Total pounds of cream churned, 2000 + 200 = 2200 Ibs. cream.
Buttermilk produced, 2200 — 660 = 1540 Ibs. buttermilk.

"7 V -
Fat in buttermilk, , nn = 3-08 lbs- fat

1UU

Fat left for butter, 660 — 3.08 = 656.92 lbs. fat.

Butter made, 10° p' = 821.1 lbs. butter.
Overrun made, 821.1 — 660= 161.1 lbs. overrun.
Per cent overrun, - ~Z7 - — 24.41% overrun.

7 OR v 1 no

Per cent loss of total fat, * — •467% f at-

ooU

Adding to this loss, the probable fat lost in the form of cream
spilled and retained in the pipes, etc., the total mechanical loss of fat
may be placed at approximately 1 per cent of the total fat received.
In farm separator cream creameries a loss of 1 per cent of the total
fat purchased is generally accepted as a fair average loss under nor-
mal conditions of operation, though this loss can be considerably re-
duced by improved organization and greater efficiency of operation.

If there were no compensating factors, such as undeterminable
and unrecognized fractions of weights and tests of cream, which,
in an efficiently operated creamery are bouricj to function in favor
of the creamery, the per cent overrun would be as follows :

Loss ©f 1 •% of total fat received yields 25 -- r^ — : ='
23.75% overrun.

Unavoidable Discrepancies in Weights and Tests that affect
the Overrun. — The foregoing examples of actual overrun differ
from the calculations of the theoretical overrun, in that they make
allowance for the mechanical losses of fat in the process of manu-
facture. But, similar as in the case of the theoretical overrun they
are based on the assumption that the pounds of fat received and
paid for, are determined with mathematical accuracy that yields
absolutely correct results. They make no allowance in the weigh-

40& THE OVERRUN

ing of milk and cream for the fractions of pounds that fall be-
tween the smallest graduations on the beam of the scales ; they
provide no tolerance in the testing of milk and cream for fractions
of the per cent of fat that fall between the smallest graduations
on the neck of the test bottle; and furthermore, they assume, in
the calculation of the money due the farmer, that all fractions of
pounds of butterfat, even those of the last decimal are included,
making no allowance for the dropping of any fractions.

But in practical operation these details do exist, and contrary to
the general impression, their occurrence very vitally affects the
actual overrun.

It is not often that either the empty or the full can weighs
exactly to whole or half pounds. In the majority of cases the exact
weight is somewhere between the whole and half pound and the
operator has to choose between dropping the undeterminable and
unrecognized fraction or calling that fraction one whole or one-
half pound.

Similar limitations of accuracy occur in the testing of milk and
cream, and particularly in the case of cream. The smallest division
marks on the neck of the standard cream test bottle record one-half
per cent and the distance between the graduation marks is very
minute, about one thirty-seventh of one inch, making it impractica-
ble, if not impossible, to determine and record fractions of less than
one-half per cent, and occasionally difficult to even distinguish one-
half per cent.

But quite often the length of the fat column fails to exactly
coincide with the whole per cent or the half per cent marks and the
tester has to choose between dropping the uncertain, undeterminable
and unrecognized fraction, reading to the next lower line, or calling
that fraction a whole or a half per cent.

Finally, the pounds of butterfat, as calculated from the pounds
of cream and the fat test, often represent an amount with three to
four decimals, rendering the computation of the money due the
farmer complicated, time-consuming, uneconomical and inviting
errors in the results. This has led to the practice on the part of the
creameries, of dropping some of these fractions, usually including
those of the second decimal.

These unreadable and unrecognized fractions in the weights and
tests of cream have, in the past, failed to be considered in the treat-

OVERRUN 409

ment of the subject of the overrun. They are a fact, however,
which the creamery has to deal with. It has no choice in the matter,
and collectively they do affect the overrun to a very marked degree
in one direction or the other, and to a degree that has not been fully
recognized by the industry in the past.

Since business cannot be conducted successfully by paying for
more than is actually received, the creamery cannot pay for butter-
fat it does not receive and no efficiently operated creamery would
tolerate such transactions. Every loyal creamery operator will
record only as much weight of cream and as much fat in the test as
the cream scales and the Babcock Test actually show. And if the
exact weight and the exact test involve fractions which cannot be
determined by the standard equipment, and which are not recog-
nized, he ignores these fractions.

A similar practice is in vogue the country over in the purchase
of butter and other farm produce. When butter is sold to the pro-
duce trade on the open market, the buyer makes remittance for
whole pounds only. The butter buyer does not recognize fractions
of pounds, nor even half pounds, and he often insists on the scale
beam touching the top when weighing. If a tub of butter weighs
63 pounds and 15 ounces, the creamery selling this butter would be
entitled to and would receive pay for 63 pounds only. This is an
established custom, recognized and accepted by the industry, not-
withstanding the objections which have been raised against it
recently.

When the creamery recognizes, records and pays for half
pounds of cream and half per cents of the test, and this should be
the practice in every creamery, it is paying the farmer more nearly
for the exact amount of the product it receives than is the estab-
lished custom of buying butter and other farm produce. It cannot,
as an efficiently conducted business, pay for more than it actually
receives, hence it must receive the benefit of the doubt in all cases
of unavoidable and unreadable fractions of pounds of cream and
of per cent fat in the test.

It may be argued that equity demands the payment for butterf at
on the basis of a "give and take" system as far as these unreadable
fractions of weights and tests is concerned, in which case fractions
of over one-fourth pound and over three-fourths pound of cream
would be recorded as half pounds and whole pounds respectively,

410 THK OVERRUN

and all fractions of over one-quarter and three-quarters per cent in
the test would be recorded as half per cents and as whole per cents
respectively, while all fractions below the quarter and below the
three-quarter pounds and per cents would be ignored. By this sys-
tem of "give and take," it is claimed by some, these unreadable frac-
tions would be taken care of equitably, both to the farmer and to
the creamery.

From the standpoint of absolute correctness, this system would
be more nearly ideal, but it is impracticable in commercial operation.
It is too complicated and confusing to be adaptable to the routine of
creamery operation; in fact, it is not done. The unreadable frac-
tions are either not recognized, or they are recorded as half or whole
pounds and per cents respectively. There can be no double method,
and since long established custom of the industry accepts, and busi-
ness competition demands, the ignoring of the unreadable fractions,
these fractions are, in fact, ignored.

The gains in overrun which these unreadable and unrecognized
fractions effect will naturally vary. Under average conditions they
may amount to about 2 to 4%. In creameries in which the general
standard of efficiency is low, these gains are more than offset by the
mechanical losses. In creameries which maintain a high standard
of efficiency, reducing the mechanical losses to the minimum, these
gains very appreciably exceed the mechanical losses and result in the
production of an overrun slightly higher than the maximum
overrun possible on the basis of the calculations of the theo-
retical overrun.

Other conditions being the same, the increase in the overrun
due to the unrecognized fractions varies largely with the amount
and richness of each individual shipment of cream ; the smaller the
amount of fat contained in each individual shipment of cream, the
greater must necessarily be the effect of the undeterminable and
unrecognized fractions on the overrun. Hence these gains actually
amount to more in the case of creameries whose individual ship-
pers, ship largely only in 5-gallon cans than in the case of cream-
eries that receive most of their shipments in 8 and 10-gallon cans.

The following arbitrary example may serve to illustrate the
influence of the unrecognized fractions of weights and tests of
cream and of the resulting fat calculations on the overrun: .>"

THE OVERRUN 4.11

Example. —

Gains, in weighing empty cans and full cans.

5-gallon empty can weighs 12.75 Ibs., marked 13 Ibs. ;
gain is .......... . ... . . ...................... ...... .. .25 Ibs.

5-gallon full can weighs 51.75 Ibs., marked 51.5 Ibs.;
gain is . . . ........ ........................ ....... ... .25 Ibs.

Gain of cream .................... . ........ . ..... 50 Ibs.

Net weight of cream recorded is, 51.5 — 13 = 38.5 Ibs.

Cream tests 33 per cent fat.

2-2 \s -jo q

Fat in 38.5 Ibs. of 33% cream, - ^ ' - 12.705 Ibs. fat.

Fat in .5 Ibs. of 33% cream, 7 = .16 Ibs. fat.

1UU

For each 100 Ibs. fat, gain in fat is, '^ X 100= 1.259 Ibs.
fat.

Gain in testing cream.

Assuming that the fat column measures between 33 and 33.5%,
say 33.25%, the test is read at 33% mark.

For each 100 Ibs. of cream the gain is .25 Ibs. fat.

OC \> -20 C

• Viv For 38.5 Ibs. of cream the gain is, ' *g = .09625 Ibs. fat.
... . * lUU

For each 100 Ibs. of fat the gain is, ' = -758 Ibs. fat.

Gain in calculation of butterfat.

Second decimal is dropped.

In case of 12.705 Ibs. of fat .005 Ibs. fat are gained.

DOS V 100
For each 100 Ibs. of fat the gain is, ^705 = '°394 lbs' fat

Summary of Gains.

Gains on weights of cream ............... ....... 1.259 lbs. fat

Gains on tests of cream ............ ........... .... .758 lbs. fat

Gains on calculations of fat ..... ................. 039 lbs. fat

Total gains per 100 lbs. fat received. . ....... .2.056 lbs. fat

Total losses (see example of actual overrun in farm
separator cream creamery) ..... . .................. .1.000 lbs. fat

- Net gains . . .................. ........... .1.056 lbs. fat

Possible overrun.

Butter contains ..... ............ . ............ 80% fat

100
100 lbs. fat make, -gjj^X 100. .. ............. 125 lbs. butter

Less fat ...................... . ............. 100 lbs.

Overrun .................................... 25%

Gain in overrun due to losses & gains,— * ' - = 1.32%
Total possible overrun ............. , ...... 26.32%

412 MARKETING OF BUTTER

The above example is suggestive of the possibilities and limi-
tations of the actual overrun. Its purpose is not, to indicate what
the overrun should be, but to invite the consideration of the overrun
from every angle that influences it. This example does not repre-
sent any specific case, nor do the gains shown represent maximum
possible gains. On the contrary, the unrecognized fractions re-
corded here are small, they might in actual operation at times be
considerably larger, in which case the increase in the overrun would
be correspondingly greater. But this example does show that, pro-
vided that the creamery operates on a high standard of efficiency, it
is quite possible for the overrun to be slightly above the maximum
of the theoretical overrun which, with butter containing 80%i fat,
is 25%.

In short, the subject of overrun can be consistently considered
only in terms of efficiency and it is through efficiency only that any
creamery can hope to regulate the overrun. The creamery that
expects to reliably regulate its overrun must aim at maximum effi-
ciency in those many details that so vitally affect the overrun ; effi-
ciency that makes for exhaustiveness of churning and minimum
mechanical losses on the one hand, and correct weighing and testing
of cream and butter on the other ; efficiency that means the record-
ing of every fraction of a pound of cream and every fraction of a
per cent of fat in the test, that the standard equipment for weighing
and testing enables the operator to determine. This, practical ex-
perience and careful experimental study have shown to result in
an overrun, in which the unavoidable mechanical losses are
largely, or wholly, or occasionally even slightly more than
wholly offset by such gains as may accumulate from the un-
determinable and unrecognized fractions in weights and tests.

CHAPTER XIV.
MARKETS AND MARKETING OF BUTTER

Importance. — At best the success of all business ultimately
depends on its ability to dispose of its products at a satisfactory
margin. Successful marketing is an open secret in all lines of
business success and the butter business is no exception to this
rule. Notwithstanding this fact, the market end of the butter
business is a department not infrequently much neglected and
often least understood by many producers and manufacturers

MARKETING OF BUTTER 413

of butter and causing annually vast sacrifices in the form of un-
satisfactory returns to the farmers and creameries of this coun-
try.

Essentials in Successful Marketing of Butter. Quality. —
Quality is the first and all fundamental requisite for successful
marketing. Butter must be of such quality that there is a de-
mand for it. The consumer is the final judge of quality. The
importance of quality is summarized most admirably in an ad-
dress on Butter Markets by Mr. N. J. Eschenbrenner1 of the
firm of Gude Bros. & Kieffer of New York City before the Dairy
students of Cornell University April, 1916, as follows: "In
summing up the whole proposition of marketing butter, it is
wholly a matter of quality. When good butter is competing
against poorer grades, when high flavored, clean butter is com-
peting against unclean flavors, when solid, waxy-bodied butter
is competing against weak-bodied, when desirable color, salt
and style is competing against undesirable color, salt and style
and general workmanship, on a basis of price and distribution,
the better grades get the preference over the poorer grades and
the poorer grades are absorbed only after satisfactory conces-
sion has been made in price."

While it is true that at times of butter shortage, when the
demand exceeds the supply and the market is very brisk, the
difference in price between different grades of butter is relatively
small, because the average consumer is willing to "put-up" tem-
porarily with lower grades in preference to going without but-
ter, in the long run quality asserts itself. Under normal market
conditions and when the supply is equal to, or greater than the
demand, it is the lower grades that suffer. On quality depends
the stability and permanency of our butter markets, quality con-
trols the consumptive demand of the public, quality determines
our ability to successfully meet competition with butter substi-
tutes from within, and with imported butter from without our
country, quality is the key to the establishment of satisfactory
export markets abroad that will take care of our surplus at
home, quality decides our ability to pay the farmer, on whose
success the prosperity of the entire dairy industry depends,
prices sufficiently attractive to induce him to keep on feeding

1 Eschenbrenner — Address on Butter-Markets, New York Produce Review
& Am. Creamery, April, 1916.

414 MARKETING OF BUTTER

and milking the dairy cow, and to interest himself in better
cows, better methods, larger production and greater returns that
make for increased prosperity of the producer and his family
and better education for his children.

Knowledge of Requirements of Different Markets. — The
average consumer wants good butter, not always fancy butter,
but butter of clean flavor, firm body, even color and medium
salt. While butter of the best quality brings the highest price
in most markets, there is a vast difference in the demands of
the consumers in different markets of the country and in dif-
ferent sections of the same market. Hence all wholesalers,
commission men and jobbers do not cater to the same class of
trade.

There is a class of consumers who demand extra fine but-
ter and are willing to pay a premium for it. The trade in many
sections of the eastern markets is particularly critical. With
this class of trade nothing but the best quality will do 'and lower
grades are not desired.

But there is also another class which considers price rather
than quality and which is satisfied with butter that is of fair
quality. While the creamery should concentrate its efforts on
securing the best possible quality of cream, and on making the
best quality of butter from it, under the now prevailing system
of receiving cream in many sections of the country and particu-
larly in the central west, it is impossible for many creameries
to economically produce butter that grades above "extras," and
extreme efforts to improve the quality in order to satisfy the
most critical trade under such conditions would tend to prove
disadvantageous to the financial success of the creamery, the
difference in price received for the butter not being sufficient to
offset the increased expense of operation and the possible falling-
off of the cream supply. The quality of the butter which the
creamery can afford to produce under these and similar circum-
stances will depend upon the class of trade it must supply.

The creamery that has developed a local trade, that is able
to sell its butter 24 to 48 hours after manufacture and that dis-
tributes it in small quantities, so that the butter is consumed
within one week or less of the time of manufacture, may secure
top prices for an 89 to 91 point butter by selecting those stores

MARKETING OF BUTTER 415

that do not supply a highly critical trade. In trade of this kind
many of the customers buy butter largely by the brand, they
believe in the brand and if the butter is fairly uniform in quality
they are satisfied. Similar markets may be located in the whole-
sale trade of the large consuming centers for the surplus butter.
There are wholesale dealers in these markets whose specialty lies
in catering to the less critical trade and who therefore are in
a position to dispose of the creamery shipments of butter of
only fair quality to good advantage. It is to the creamery's
interest to study the different channels through which the grade
of butter which it produces will net the highest price.

There are times when it is exceedingly difficult for the
creamery to secure a satisfactory price on the wholesale market.
During the early summer months when the principal demand in
the larger markets is for butter for storage purposes, butter is
bought strictly on the quality basis and sour-cream butter is
not in demand, except that from creameries which have estab-
lished a reputation of knowing how to handle such cream and
how to manufacture from it a product of dependable keeping
quality. Then again, in August and September, when the jobbers
are loaded with May and June butter of good quality, and
which they bought at low prices, the fresh midsummer butter
is usually of poorer quality than the May and June butter placed
in storage, the demand for it is very limited and its sales are
often possible only by offering it at prices below those paid for
the early summer butter. At the same time midsummer prices
of butterfat paid by the creamery are generally higher than
prices paid to the farmers for May and June butterfat. This
combination of conditions therefore is prone to yield returns un-
satisfactory to the creamery. The advantage to the creamery
of having direct connection with consumptive channels of dis-
tribution, such as local and neighborhood retail stores, is obvious,
and the creamery should aim, during unfavorable periods of the
wholesale trade in the larger markets, to move its lower grades
through these local channels.

The creamery which grades its cream and churns the grades
separately may succeed in satisfying its more critical trade with
the butter from the first grade cream. The butter from the
second grade cream may be sold to bakeries and confectioners

416 MARKETING OF BUTTER

but it is often preferable to sell the second grade butter under
a special brand reserved for that class of butter only ; frequently
it is possible to establish a satisfactory trade with acceptable
returns with this special brand. Another, often very desirable
outlet for the second grade cream is to manufacture it into un-
salted butter and sell it to the Jewish trade, ice cream factories
and bakeries.

It is obvious from the above discussion that, while quality
is supreme, the sucessful marketing of butter requires careful
investigation and study on the part of the creamery, of the vari-
ous market demands, and of the channels of trade by which these
demands may best be supplied. The creamery must find and
supply that class of trade which has the greatest demand for its
butter.

Uniformity of Quality. — Having succeeded in finding the
most advantageous channels into which to divert the butter, it
is very important that the creamery be able to hold these mar-
kets, and success at this point in turn will largely depend on the
maintenance of uniformity of quantity and quality. The prob-
lem of maintaining the quantity of the supply will be discussed
under the heading of "Selling Creamery Butter Locally."

Uniformity of quality is an inevitable demand which the
consumer exacts. In fact it is paramount in importance to qual-
ity itself. The public demands butter that is uniform in flavor,
salt, color and workmanship. Lack of uniformity makes the
consumer suspicious and dissatisfied. He feels that he cannot
depend on the product. Large creameries, who are in a position
to grade their butter closely, whose churnings do not vary in
size and whose process of manufacture is carefully standardized,
find little difficulty to supply the class of trade which they cater
to, with butter of fairly constant uniformity. Small creameries,
with their irregular churnings and often inadequate equipment
and system of manufacture, are not so fortunate in this respect.
This handicap is responsible for the frequent loss of an other-
wise satisfactory local trade and for their difficulty in securing
satisfactory returns from the wholesale and commission mar-
kets.

MARKETING OF BUTTER 417

Standardizing Quality, Transportation and Distribution. —

In an effort to overcome this handicap, creameries located in
certain sections of the country have united into county and dis-
trict associations. The purpose of these cooperative organiza-
tions is to improve and standardize the quality and uniformity
of their product. They employ a competent inspector whose
duty it is to standardize their methods of manufacture and to
inspect and grade their butter.

Some creameries have gone one step farther in their co-
operative effort, shipping cooperatively in carload lots and
standardizing their methods of selling and marketing their
product through the same distributing agency.

The output of the individual small creamery is too small'
to ship in carload lots. The average small creamery has to hold
its butter for a week or longer before it can ship to advantage
and even then it is often difficult for the small creamery to se-
cure refrigerator service. The holding of the butter at the cream-
ery with the usual inadequate facilities for keeping it cool, and
the lack of refrigeration in transit, often cause the butter to ar-
rive at the market in deteriorated condition resulting in low
returns. Through intelligent cooperation numerous small cream-
eries located in fairly close proximity and situated on the same
railway line are often able to fill a car once or twice per week
and thus are in a position to secure prompt refrigerator service
and at reasonably low cost, so that at a reduced expense they
are in a position to place their butter on the market fresher and
in better condition.

The standardization of methods of selling, is another step
in the right direction, which is entirely practical with proper co-
operation of a sufficient number of creameries and efficient lead-
ership. In some instances these cooperative efforts have re-
sulted in the establishment and adoption of an association stamp
or trade mark. In some states, viz., Michigan, Minnesota, Iowa
and Wisconsin, with the assistance of their respective State
dairy commissioners, the creameries have established State
brands. . .

Marketing Dairy Butter. — Dairy butter, or butter made on
the farm, is sold either direct to the consumer, to private resi-
dences, hotels, restaurants, boarding houses, clubs, etc., who

418 MARKETING OF BUTTER

pay for it in weekly or monthly cash payments, or it is sold to
the local country store which generally pays the farmer in trade
and not in cash. The great bulk of dairy butter goes to the
country store. This is a most primitive method of marketing
butter which results, in the great majority of cases, to the dis-
advantage of the dairyman.

Selling Creamery Butter Locally.---Generally speaking the
best markets are those nearest home. Selling butter locally, either
to the direct consumer at the door of the creamery, by going
direct to residences, through, public or municipal markets, by
parcel post, or selling to local stores, or shipping direct to retail
stores in neighboring towns and cities, has many and distinct ad-
vantages. It enables the creamery to reduce the number of middle-
men to the minimum or to do without them entirely, thereby
netting the creamery the consumer's or retailer's price. It saves
transportation charges to distant points, which may amount to
from 1 to 2 cents or more per pound of butter. It protects the
butter against conditions unfavorable to its quality in transit and
reduces the interval between manufacture and consumption,
thereby enabling the creamery to supply the consumer with butter
of better quality and demanding a better price. It gives the cream-
ery a better opportunity to put "up its butter in the final pack-
age, the print, and under its own brand, thereby establishing
a constant trade for its own butter and usually at satisfactory
prices. It protects the creamery against loss by shrinkage.

In some instances creameries have succeeded in disposing
of part of their regular output through what is known as the
club-buying system. Clubs whose members are consumers
are organized by a local individual in his community. He
buys butter regularly and usually in sufficiently large quantity
per shipment, to supply all the members of his club. This is
a very effective system of reaching the consumer in distant
markets direct, but the amount of butter that the creamery
can dispose of through this channel is naturally limited.

The chief difficulty encountered by the average small cream-
ery in establishing and holding local markets lies in the irregu-
larity of the amount of its output throughout the year and the
fluctuations in the demand and supply of local markets.

MARKETING OF BUTTER 419

If the creamery establishes a local market for all of its out-
put during the flush of the season, it invariably is confronted
with the difficulty of supplying that market during the time of
shortage, or if the local market takes care only of the output
during the time of shortage, then in summer, during the heavy
make, there is a surplus of butter which must be disposed of on
the open market. This surplus is usually increased by the
fact that during the early summer months, when butter fat
prices are relatively low, considerable cream is churned on the
farms and the creamery has to compete against country butter,
which is usually offered for sale at prices below creamery
butter. At the same time also the consumption of butter in the
local markets generally reaches ebb-tide, partly because of a
reduction of butter consumption per capita during- the hot
weather and partly because many of the consumers leave for
cooler climes.

In order to equalize these fluctuating conditions of sup-
ply and demand some creameries are buying butter on the open
market during the time of shortage to take care of their trade,
while others store some of their surplus during the time of flush.
In the buying of butter to offset the shortage of output, the
greatest care should be exercised that the quality of the
butter purchased is equal to that of the regular make. The
creamery should also make sure that it complies with the laws
of the state concerning the labeling of such butter. In many
states the law prohibits the sale of butter under the creamery's
private brand, unless the brand plainly indicates that the but-
ter was not made by that creamery. Instead of stating that
the butter is made by the respective creamery, the wrapper
should state that the butter is packed and distributed by the
respective creamery.

The storing of butter in the creamery, in order to take
care of its surplus and to hold it over for the time of shortage,
is usually not a practical proposition in the case of the small
creamery Avith limited cold storage facilities. Unless butter
can be kept at a uniform temperature of Zero degrees Fahren-
heit or below it will, under average conditions, depreciate
in value to the extent to where it can no longer be sold to the
regular trade. If the butter is made from a good quality of

420 MARKETING OF BUTTER

cream it is best stored in a commercial cold storage plant. If
it is made from a poor quality of cream, its storage is a risky
adventure under any condition. Furthermore, the storing of
butter involves the "tying-up" of operating capital which is
often beyond the financial resources of the small creamery.

Experience has shown that under average conditions of the
small creamery, it is safer to dispose of its surplus as soon as
possible after making. If the creamery exercises due caution
and foresight in making the proper arrangements for the dispo-
sition of its surplus on the open market, there is no need of seri-
ous loss and it should at least break even with its surplus, pro-
vided that the butter is of a quality acceptable to the market
where it is sold.

Furthermore, November 1, 1917, by Proclamation of the
President of the United States, Federal Rules and Regulations
went into effect providing that butter, and other food products
held in cold storage longer than 30 days shall be marked, either
on the butter itself, or on the container, with the words "Cold
Storage" and shall be sold as cold storage goods. Similar regula-
tions have also become state laws in several of the States. While
this ruling, which is a War measure, remains in effect, the
creamery may find considerable difficulty to satisfy its trade dur-
ing the period of shortage with butter placed into cold storage
during the time of flush. June butter, made from butterfat that is
produced by the cows during the prime of their lactation period
and that are feeding on nature's choicest feed, succulent pas-
ture grass, is acknowledged to be superior in flavor. If man-
ufactured in the proper manner, it generally is of fully as good
quality when it comes out of storage as fresh winter butter
which is made largely from the milk of. stripper cows, and cows
receiving dry feed. In fact, it often is of a quality distinctly
superior to the fresh winter butter. From the standpoint of
quality, therefore, cold storage butter may be fully as desirable
and appetizing as fresh winter butter, but the fact that the pack-
age bears the words cold storage, makes it less attractive to the
average consumer, it arouses his suspicion that he is getting an
inferior article. For this reason, under the cold storage ruling,
the creamery may experience serious obstacles in its efforts

MARKETING OF BUTTER 421

to take care of its regular trade during the time of shortage
of fresh butter, by offering- it cold storage goods in the place of
fresh butter.

The large centralized creameries obviously have the ad-
vantage in disposing of their output direct to the retailer. Their
output is large enough, so that they can afford to establish distri-
buting offices in the large markets. Through these distributing
offices they are able to reach the retailer in distant consuming
centers in a similar way as in the local and home markets. These
distributing offices also serve as a channel through which the
trend of the market may be accurately followed, and through
which that class of trade may be located that has the greatest
demand for the quality of butter the creamery produces.

Selling butter to the wholesale produce trade. — The dis-
tribution of vast quantities of the butter made, is taken care
of by an organization of middlemen intermediary between the
shipper and the city retail stores. This organization is known
as the wholesale trade. The wholesale produce trade occupies an
important position in supplying the shipper with a market for his
product and in regulating the quantity and quality of the
supply of the retail store, in reducing the cost of transporta-
tion by making possible shipments in large units, in maintaining
the necessary business relations with the retail stores for or
in the place of the shipper, and in making possible prompt pay-
ments so as to enable the shipper to pay the farmer for his
cream without delay. In other words, the wholesale produce trade
performs that function which the shippej — the creamery — with-
out branch offices in the distant city markets, is unable to ac-
complish. It acts as a clearing house for the shipper and re-
tailer alike. Its proximity to the distributing channels enables
it to feel the pulse of the market in its and other cities and to
regulate the influx and movement of the various grades of but-
ter and other commodities on the market.

The organization of the wholesale produce trade is established
in all cities of appreciable size. According to Weld,1 "a city is
large enough to require a separate wholesale trade organization
when it can handle goods in car lots for consumption in the city

1 Weld, The Marketing of Farm Products, p. 67, 1916,

422 MARKETING OF BUTTER

or for redistribution in nearby towns." The wholesale produce
trade is always localized in a certain district of the city. Thus
in Chicago, South Water Street represents the wholesale produce
district for that city.

The wholesale dealers may be divided into two classes, to
each of which are attributed certain, more or less definitely
defined functions, namely the middlemen who receive goods direct
from the shipper and the middlemen who buy direct from the re-
ceivers and sell to the retail stores or other outlets.

To the first class belong the wholesale receiver, the com-
mission man and the broker. The wholesale receiver buys the
butter outright and pays the shipper for it upon receipt. He
sells the butter to the retail store and also to the jobber. The
commission man does not buy the butter, he does not become
owner of it, but acts as an agent for the shipper, selling it for
him to retail stores, hotels, restaurants, and other outlets and
deducting from the gross receipts a commission for his ser-
vices, together with freight and cartage charges. The rate of
commission usually charged to the butter shipper is 5 per cent
of the gross receipts. The broker operates on a similar plan
as the commission man, but he usually handles goods in larger
quantities and charges a lower rate of commission.

To the second class, the middleman who buys from the
wholesale receiver and not direct from the shipper, belongs the
jobber. He also sells to the retail trade.

These middlemen have their organization of solicitors who
look after the retail trade and other outlets in their city as well
as in other cities.

Most of the butter shipped to the wholesale trade is de-
sired in bulk packages, usually 60 pound tubs or 50 pound
boxes for Eastern markets and 68 pound cubes for the Pacific
coast markets. In exceptional cases the shippers put their butter
up in the finished package, the print. Most of the wholesale
receivers have a brand of their own, on which they have es-
tablished some fancy trade, and for which they print fancy
butter and sell it under their own carton.

Methods of Sales. — Butter shipped to the wholesale trade
is sold according to any one of the following four methods :

MARKETING OF BUTTER 423

1. Track Sales.— By track sale is understood F. O. B. (free
on board) shipping point. By this method the responsibility of
the shipper ceases when the butter is placed on the car, or on
ship board, at the shipping point. The buyer pays the freight,
cartage, assumes the risk of transportation and the price is
definitely fixed. From the shipper's, or creamery's point of
view this is the most advantageous method of selling butter
to the wholesale trade. In order to sell butter under this agree-
ment the creamery must previously satisfy the receiver of the
uniformity of quality, workmanship, composition and color of
butter the creamery is capable of supplying. This is usually done
by trial shipments. The receiver agrees to pay a definite price,
based on market quotations of the leading markets F. O. B.
track. The creamery knows exactly what it is going to get
for its butter at the time the butter is shipped and payments
are made upon arrival of the goods at the market.

2. Delivered Sales, or F. O. B. Market. — In this method
of sale the shipper's responsibility ceases when the butter has
reached the market of the buyer. The shipper pays the freight,
cartage, and assumes the risk of transportation. The price de-
pends on market prices on the date of arrival of the goods at
the market. Agreements to buy butter on the above basis are
usually also entered into upon receipt of trial shipments rep-
resentative of the quality of the average run of butter man-
ufjactured by the contracting creamery. While not as ad-
vantageous to the creamery as method No. 1, because the
price is determined at the market end and because the shipper
has to pay the freight and assumes the risk of transportation,
this method is by far preferable to the commission sales. Both,
in method 1 and in method 2, the butter sells at prices based
on market quotations. It is important that prices should not
be based on the score of the butter. According to methods 1 and
2 the buyer agrees to pay the price stipulated on the basis of
market quotations, as long as he is willing to accept the butter.
Should the butter of some shipments not measure up in quality
to the trial samples, the buyer will still pay the price agreed
upon, but will notify the creamery of the defect, so it may be
remedied promptly. ,In case the quality continues to be inferior

424 MARKETING OF BUTTER

to that of the trial shipments, the buyer may ask the creamery
to find another outlet for its butter, or else negotiate another
agreement satisfactory to both parties.

3. Commission Sales. — The shipper pays the freight and
cartage, assumes the risk of transportation and the commission
man acts as an agent to sell the butter for which service he
charges the shipper a commission, usually of 5 per cent, of the
gross receipts. This method places the shipper at the mercy of
the commission man, it deprives him of all control over the re-
turns from his butter and it is a method which generally proves
very unsatisfactory and costly to the creamery.

While there are many reliable and trustworthy men in the
commission business, the temptations which surround the com-
mission man to abuse his power at the expense of the shipper are
very great, and are rinding many a vulnerable spot among their
members. Most commission men not only act as agents for the
shippers, but usually do also a receiver's business. On an ad-
vancing market they are encouraged to buy outright, while on
a declining market they are prone to adhere to the commission
business exclusively. Not infrequently they charge the shipper
a commission on goods they purchase outright and thus receive
a commission on their own purchase. The creamery has no
guarantee that the returns reported represent the price at which
the butter actually sold. A business that offers such unlimited
opportunities for illegitimate gain at the expense of the power-
less shipper, naturally attracts an element that is no credit to the
profession and that jeopardizes the welfare of the shipper.

4. Contract Sales. — By contract sales is meant the method
whereby the shipper enters into a contract with the dealer agree-
ing to deliver a certain number of pounds of butter per week at
a price based on market quotations. The contracts are usually
short-term agreements and are largely, though not always, con-
fined to the storage season. Contract sales are usually taken
advantage of by large creameries. Small creameries with a lim-
ited and often uncertain output are seldom in a position to ne-
gotiate such sales and, when consummating them, they are liable
to find serious difficulty in fulfilling their agreement.

MARKETING OF BUTTER 425

Speculating in Futures. — Buying or selling for future de-
livery is not as common in the butter business as on the grain
market, though ,it is participated in to a limited extent by the
speculative element in most markets. The purpose of buying for
future delivery is based on the hope of the buyer to sell at a
higher price at the time of delivery, thereby making a profit. The
object of selling for future delivery lies in the assumption of the
seller that he may be able to buy at a reduced price and thereby
reap a profit. It is obvious that buying and selling for future de-
livery is purely a speculative transaction which may yield profit-
able returns, but which involves the usually high risks char-
acteristic of all speculation.

Methods of Payment. — As previously stated, dairy butter
sold direct to customers or by parcel post, is usually paid for by
cash on delivery. In the case of hotels, restaurants, etc., the
dairy farmer usually collects weekly or monthly and sometimes
at the end of the season. Dairy butter sold to the country store
is generally paid for in trade.

Creameries selling direct to retail stores make their collec-
tions weekly or monthly. In the case of doubtful customers it is
advisable to demand remittance with the order or to deliver the
butter C. O. D.

Payments for shipments to the wholesale trade in distant
markets involve more or less delay. If butter is sold on com-
mission, usually several weeks elapse before the returns arrive
and even in the case of "track sales" and "delivered sales" several
days and often one to two weeks are required for the payments
to arrive. In the meantime the farmers have to be paid and the
supplies and package have to be purchased. This is often too
great a financial strain on the creamery whose operating capital
is generally exceedingly limited.

This difficulty is most commonly taker! care of by permis-
sion, on the part of the wholesale receiver or the commission
man, to allow the shipper to draw on him to the extent of a large
portion of the shipment of butter at the time of shipment. The
creamery attaches a draft to the bill of lading and the receiver
or commission man settles for the balance upon arrival of the
goods or upon their sale, respectively. Banks that pay interest
on the balance of the creamery account, invariably discount these

426 MARKETING OF BUTTER

drafts. Banks that pay no interest on the creamery balance, fre-
quently accept the drafts without discounting.

Butter Exchanges. — The butter exchange is a voluntary
trade organization of wholesale dealers in butter. In many cases
the exchange is not confined to butter alone, but includes other
allied commodities, such as cheese, eggs, poultry, etc. Specific
examples of produce exchanges of dealers in butter or butter and
allied commodities, whose operations are recognized as having
the greatest influence upon the marketing of butter in this coun-
try, are:

The New York Mercantile Exchange, New York City, N. Y.

The Chicago Butter and Egg Board, Chicago, Illinois.

The San Francisco Wholesale Dairy Produce Exchange, San
Francisco, California.

The Elgin Board of Trade, Elgin, Illinois.

The Boston Chamber of Commerce, Boston, Massachusetts.
These produce exchanges are generally incorporated associa-
tions. Weld1 enumerates the primary functions of the produce
exchange as follows:

"1. To provide a convenient market or trading place.

2. To regulate business dealings of members.

3. To provide a system to facilitate the settlement of trade
disputes.

4. To establish uniform grades and a system of inspection.

5. To acquire and to disseminate market information."
The specific objects and functions of the different exchanges

cover a varying range. The charter of the New York Mer-
cantile Exchange, for instance, records the following ob-
jects of the 'Association : "To provide and regulate a suitable
room or rooms for an exchange in the City of New York; to
foster trade; to protect it against unjust or unlawful exactions;
to reform abuses; to diffuse accurate and reliable information;
to settle differences between members ; to promote among them
good fellowship and a more enlarged and friendly intercourse;
and to make provision for the widows and families of deceased
members."

The realization of its objects and the safeguarding of its pol-
icies is accomplished by the careful supervision of admission of
new members.

1Weld, The Marketing of Farm Products, 1916.

MARKETING OF BUTTER 427

The "Call."— One of the important features of the butter ex-
change is the "Call." Weld defines the "Call" as "a device for
making bids and offers, partly to establish market prices or
quotations and partly to bring about actual sales."

In the larger markets, such as New York, Chicago, etc., the
traders assemble each day at a fixed hour (at 10 a. m. in New
York and Chicago) for the "Call." The "Call" is usually con-
ducted in a room with a raised platform at one end for the
chairman, and a blackboard at the back, on which are recorded
receipts of the day, general market conditions and the bids and
offers made under the call. After the offers for sale made by
the traders, including quantity, quality and price, are posted on
the blackboard, bids are called for. The bids are also posted.
The members of the Exchange appear on the floor and buyers
and sellers make public bids on the offers of butter. Often these
bids and offers result in sales and these sales show in a public
manner the prices at which receivers are willing to sell their
butter and the prices at which buyers are willing to purchase it.

The bidding under the "Call" affords competitive sellers an,
opportunity to sell butter against each other according to the
supply. Should there be more demand for butter on any one
day at a price above the quotation of the previous day, the quo-
tation will be advanced to such a point as buyers are paying for
the butter, for the buyers will not stand for any quotation that
is lower than the price they are actually paying for butter. The
same principle applies to the sellers. Should the sellers be
loaded down with butter, it is their privilege to offer it at such
prices at which and until the buyers will take hold, and often-
times with the market stocked with butter, it is necessary to
sell it at prices where the retailers will be able to reduce their
selling price to the consumer. In this way the consumer be-
comes interested in consuming more butter and the surplus stock
becomes disposed of.

The actual sales and purchases made under the "Call" are
few. According to Eschenbrenner1 they sometimes do not ex-
ceed 5 per cent of the daily receipts of butter, the primary
object of the "Call" being to feel market conditions rather than
make specific sales. The present tendency of the butter trade

1 Eschenbrenner, New York Produce Review, April, 1916.

428 MARKETING OF BUTTER

is toward conducting its transactions through the medium of
private sales. The great bulk of butter handled by members
of the Exchange is not sold under the "Call," but by private
deals between buyers and sellers. This situation is largely the
result of the increasing differentials of grades and the develop-
ment of special markets for special grades, for which butter from
special creameries is demanded. The "Call," however, serves in
many instances as a convenient means for the seller who has a
surplus, to find a buyer and for the buyer in case of shortage
of any particular grade of butter to locate a seller of that grade.
Considerable trading is also usually done privately between
members at the conclusion of the "Call" and before the meeting
adjourns.

Butter Quotations. — The problem of determining butter
quotations is a subject of the greatest importance to the entire
butter industry. Butter quotations, in order to be correct, should
coincide with the actual market value of the butter. They should
therefore be determined by the supply and demand of butter,
otherwise they may be conducive of serious disturbances in the
normal movement of butter on the market, which disturbance^
are bound to operate against the best interests of the butter
business.

Limited space does not permit here a detailed discussion
of the multitude of agencies through which price quotations are
established, but the importance of the subject justifies a brief
reference to the prevailing systems of determining butter quo-
tations in a few of the leading butter markets of the country.
These references are confined here to the New York, Chicago
and Elgin quotations.

Formerly the New York and Chicago quotations were de-
termined by a committee of the New York Mercantile Exchange
and the Chicago Butter Board, respectively. These committees,
consisting of dealers, being in most intimate touch with the
market and with the actual market value of the butter, were as-
sumed to be admirably qualified to arrive at just and correct
quotations. They met each day at the conclusion of the "Call"
behind closed doors.

"This same practice obtained abroad and even in Denmark
butter quotations decided upon by the Copenhagen merchants

MARKETING OF BUTTER 429

are still largely used as a basis of settlement with creameries.
But in this country quotations made by price committees of
merchants have not been looked upon with favor by govern-
ment officials, especially when they did not accurately repre-
sent prevailing values, and it was usually found that the tend-
ency of most price committees of merchants was to keep the
official quotations below prevailing selling values. Several of
our trade organizations were thus forced by the government to
discontinue the so-called official quotations, but some still con-
tinue the practice."1

In 1907 the Mercantile Exchange of New York was sued by
the Government on the ground of fraudulent manipulation of
quotations, with the result of prohibiting the Exchange from
issuing quotations not representing the value of butter based on
actual sales by first hand receivers. In a decision rendered by
the Supreme Court it was decided that this quotation committee
was a combination in restraint of trade and the practice was
decided to be illegal. Realizing that the actual sales under the
"Call" of the Exchange were too small to justify the basing of
quotations on these sales, the Exchange discontinued the issu-
ance of official quotations and the determination of price quo-
tations was assumed by outside market reporters.

Since then the firm of Urner-Barry Company, with the help
of a most efficient force of trained market reporters, has as-
sumed the responsibility of establishing daily price quotations
in New York. After the "Call" each day, having taken into con-
sideration the bids and offers under the "Call," the market re-
porter makes a canvass of the market, calling on the buyers and
sellers and ascertaining the prices at which they are doing busi-*
ness through private negotiations; then, at about noon each
day he announces the quotations .he will publish in his paper
for the various grades of butter. These quotations are accepted
as the settling basis for the day and these are the quotations
that are sent broadcast throughout the country.

In Chicago the quotation committee met a similar fate, the
courts prohibiting its functions, unless quotations were made on
the basis of actual sales, and the making of butter quotations
passed into the hands of outside market reporters.

1 Making Quotations — Comments, The Buttermakers' Discussion Club,
New York Produce Review, July 12, 1916.

430 MARKETING OF BUTTER

The Elgin Board also changed its method of determining
quotations to issuing them on the basis of actual sales made at
weekly meetings of the board. In some markets, however, the
committee system of issuing quotations still prevails.

The chief reason why quotation committees proved unsat-
isfactory and which led finally to their discontinuation in Chi-
cago and New York was the fact that these committees repre-
sented largely only the wholesale receivers. The receiver nat-
urally is interested in buying as cheaply as possible and this
created a tendency for the establishment of quotations lower
than the actual sales value of the butter, with its undesirable
results on the market, such as dissatisfaction among retailers
who could not understand the great difference between the
prices they had to pay and the butter quotations of the commit-
tee, it also invited the practice of paying premiums to the ship-
per, etc.

The exceedingly small sales on the floor of the Exchange
did not justify the price determinations on the basis of the actual
sales of the Exchange, hence the only logical alternative ap-
peared to be for the Exchange to turn the responsibility of mak-
ing price quotations over to independent market reporters. In
the case of the Elgin quotations the discontinuation of the Elgin
board would have meant the discontinuation of Elgin quota-
tions, because the Elgin market itself is a negligible quantity,
so the only means to save the Elgin quotation was to comply
with the order of the courts and issue quotations on actual sales
by the board, in order not to deprive the large sections of the
country doing business on the Elgin basis, of the Elgin market
to which they have become accustomed as a trading basis.

It is obvious that the market reporter, assuming the re-
sponsibility of making price quotations, is thus vested with vast
powers, the abuse of which for his own interests, or through
incompetence, would throw the market into a most chaotic con-
dition. In the first place, the market reporter must be a man of
ability, experience and judgment. He gets his information by
going around among the trade and must be able to distinguish
between gossip and facts and between fiction and the truth.
Aside from the condition of supply and demand he must cope
with the difficulties of the influence on the demand for and sup-

MARKETING OF BUTTER 431

ply of storage butter, on the market value of fresh goods, and
he must above all be a man of superior integrity, honesty and
disinterestedness.

Inspection and Grading. — Upon its arrival in the wholesale
receiver's hands the butter is inspected and graded. Butter deal-
ers have agreed to a standard score card with 100 points as the
basis for perfection, and giving certain values to flavor and
odor, body and texture, color, salt, and package.

Most butter exchanges in the larger markets have an offi-
cial inspector of butter, whose services are available to the mem-
bers of the exchange, for compensation. Butter so inspected is
branded with the official stamp of the exchange. The inspector
of the New York Mercantile Exchange has a stamp of different
shape for each main grade, so as to facilitate the recognition
of the grade by the stamp. The great bulk of the butter re-
ceived by the wholesale distributors of the larger markets is not
subjected to an official inspection by the inspector employed by
the wholesale trade organization. Sales, on the negotiation of
which official inspection is not requested, are commonly spoken
of as being "over-the-trier." The inspection service maintained
by the Exchange is largely, if not entirely, for the purpose of in-
specting those lots of butter of which inspection is requested
by the butter, when purchased under the "Call," as for instance in
the case of dispute between the seller and buyer as to grade, or
in the case of butter sold to the Government.

When, in the opinion or judgment of the buyer the butter
he receives does not conform in quality with the grade he pur-
chased under the "Call," he has the privilege to apply for the
services of the official inspector. If the decision of the inspector
is not acceptable to either or both of the contracting parties, an
appeal may be made from the decision of the inspector, to the
chairman of the Butter Committee, who then appoints three
members from that committee to inspect the butter in dispute.
They report their results to the Superintendent of the Exchange.
The decision of this subcommittee is final.

While there are minor variations in the grades and grading
of butter on the different markets, as a whole the classification of
grades is very similar in the principal markets throughout the
country.

432 MARKETING OF BUTTER

BUTTER RULES OF THE NEW YORK MERCANTILE

EXCHANGE.1

Classifications — Grades and Scores.

1. Butter shall be classified as Creamery, Renovated, La-
dles, Packing Stock and Grease Butter.

Definitions. — 2. Creamery. — Butter offered under this class-
ification shall have been made in a creamery from cream sepa-
rated at the creamery or gathered from farmers.

3. Renovated. — Butter offered under this classification shall
be such as is made by melting butter, clarifying the fat there-
from and rechurning the same with fresh milk, cream or skim-
milk, or other similar process.

4. Ladles. — Butter offered under this classification shall be
such as is collected in rolls, lumps, or in whole packages and
reworked by the dealer or shipper.

5. Packing Stock. — Butter offered under this classifica-
tion shall be original farm-made butter in rolls, lumps or other-
wise, without additional moisture or salt.

6. Grease Butter shall comprise all classes of butter grad-
ing below thirds, or of packing stock grading below No. 3, as
hereinafter specified, free from adulteration.

Grades. — 7. Creamery. Renovated and Ladles, shall be grad-
ed as Extras, Firsts, Seconds and Thirds; and Packing Stock
shall be graded as No. 1, No. 2 and No. 3.

Definition of Grades. — 8. Grades of Butter must conform to
the following requirements.

Extras. — 9. Shall be a standard grade of average fancy qual-
ity in the season when offered under the various classifications.
Ninety per cent, shall conform to the following standard; the
balance shall not grade below Firsts :

Flavor. — Must be sweet, fresh and clean for the season
when offered if Creamery, or sweet, fresh and reasonably clean
if Renovated or Ladles.

Body. — Must be firm and uniform.

Color. — Not higher than natural grass, nor lighter than light
straw, but should not be streaked or mottled.

Salt. — Medium salted.

1 Secured through courtesy of New York Produce Review and Am. Cream-
ery, April, 1919.

MARKETING OF BUTTER 433

Package. — Sound, good, uniform and clean.

Firsts. — 10. Shall be a grade next below Extras and must
be good butter for the season when made and offered, under the
various classifications. Ninety per cent, shall conform to the
following standard ; the balance shall not grade below Seconds :

Flavor. — Must be reasonably sweet, reasonably clean and
fresh if Creamery or Renovated, and reasonably sweet if La-
dles.

. Body. — Must be firm and fairly uniform.

Color. — Reasonably uniform, neither very high nor very
light.

Salt. — May be reasonably high, light or medium.

Package. — Sound, good, uniform and clean.

Seconds. — 11. Shall be a grade next below Firsts.

Flavor. — Must be reasonably good.

Body. — If Creamery, must be solid boring. If Ladles or
Renovated, must be ninety per cent, solid boring.

Color. — Fairly uniform, but may be mottled.

Salt. — May be ' high, medium or light.

Package. — Good and uniform.

Thirds. — 12. Shall be a grade below Seconds and may con-
sist of promiscuous lots.

Flavor. — May be off-flavored and strong on tops and sides

Body. — Not required to draw a full trier.

Color. — May be irregular or mottled.

Salt. — High, light or irregular.

Package. — Any kind of package mentioned at time of sale.

13. (For grades higher than Extras see paragraph No. 25.)

No. 1 Packing Stock. — 14. Shall be sweet and sound, packed
in large, new, or good uniform second-hand barrels, having a
wooden head in each end, or in new tubs, either to be parchment
paper-lined. Barrels and tubs to be packed full.

No. 2 Packing Stock. — 15. Shall be reasonably sweet and
sound, and may be packed in promiscuous or different kinds of
barrels, tubs or tierces, without being parchment paper lined,
and may be packed in either two-headed or cloth-covered bar-
rels.

No. 3 Packing Stock. — 16. Shall be a grade below No. 2, and
may be off-flavored, or strong; may be packed in any kind or
kinds of packages.

434 MARKETING OF BUTTER

17. Charges for inspection of Packing Stock shall be the
same as the rules call for on other grades.

18. Mold. — There shall be no grade for butter that shows
mold.

Known Marks. — 19. Known marks shall comprise such but-
ter as is known to the trade under some particular mark or des-
ignation and must grade as Extras or better if Creamery or Ren-
ovated, and as Firsts or better if Ladles in the season when of-
fered unless otherwise specified. Known marks to be offered tin-
der the call must previously have been registered in a book kept
by the Superintendent for that purpose. If Renovated, the fac-
tory district number and statement be registered.

Scoring. — 20. The standard official score shall be as follows
and shall apply to Creamery Butter only :

Flavor 45 points

Body 25 points

Color 15 points

Salt 10 points

Style 5 points

100 points

21. Extra Creamery may score either 91, 92 or 93 points at
the discretion of the Butter Committee, who shall determine the
required score from time to time in such manner that it shall
represent an average fancy quality in the season when offered.
But butter scoring more than required for Extras shall be de-
liverable on a contract for Extras, and may be branded as such at
the request of seller, or buyer. Any change in the Standard score
required for Extras shall, after authorization by the Butter Com-
mittee, be announced by the caller at the opening of the next
regular call and posted upon the bulletin board of the Exchange
and be effective 24 hours later.

22. The minimum score of Firsts shall, at all times, be 4
points below the score required for Extras.

23. The minimum score of Seconds shall be 5 points below
the minimum score required for Firsts.

24. The minimum score of Thirds shall be 7 points below
the minimum score required for Seconds.

MARKETING OF BUTTER 435

BUTTER RULES OF THE CHICAGO BUTTER AND EGG

BOARD.1

Packages to be Used.
Creamery, Centralized Creamery or Held Butter: —

Tubs — hardwood about sixty (60) pounds standard, White
Ash with wood — or satisfactory metal hoops, or boxes of sat-
isfactory material; thickness of material shall not be less
than 9/16" for sides and ends and 5/16" for tops and bot-
toms ; boxes shall have net capacity of not over seventy (70)
pounds or less than sixty (60) pounds. All tubs or boxes
should be paraffined and lined with parchment paper.

Ladles Tubs or boxes.

Renovated Tubs or boxes.

Packing Stock Any size or style of package.

Grease Butter Any size or style of package.

Classifications, Grades and Scores.

1. Butter shall be classified as Creamery, Centralized Cream-
ery, Held Butter, Renovated, Ladles, Packing Stock and
Grease Butter.

Definitions.

2. Creamery. Butter offered under this classification must be
made in a creamery. The cream shall either be separated
at the creamery or hauled direct to the factory from the
farms.

3. Centralized Creamery. Butter offered under this classifica-
tion must be made in a creamery. Cream used in the man-
ufacture of this butter may be gathered direct from the
farmers or shipped in from cream stations.

4. Held Butter. Butter offered under this classification shall
be butter that has become Cold Storage Butter by virtue of
the laws of the United States or of the State in which such
butter is sold.

5. Renovated. Butter offered under this classification shall
be such as is made by melting butter, clarifying the fat1
therefrom and re-churning the same with fresh milk, cream,
or skimmilk, or other similar process.

1 Secured through courtesy of Chicago Dairy Produce, April, 1919.

436 MARKETING OF BUTTER

6. Ladles. Butter offered under this classification shall be
such as is collected in rolls, lumps, or in whole packages
and re-worked by the dealer or shipper.

7. Packing Stock. Butter offered under this classification
shall be original butter without additional moisture or salt,
from creamery or dairy (but may be from miscellaneous
sources), which has been collected in any quantity and
packed in barrels, tubs or other containers. It must be of
quality fit for human consumption as food and free from
adulteration.

8. Grease Butter. Butter offered under this classification
shall consist of all grades of butter below thirds. If Pack-
ing Stock, below No. 3, free from adulteration.

Grades.

9. Creamery, Centralized Creamery and Held Creamery shall
be graded Extras, Standard, First, Seconds, and Thirds;
Renovated and Ladles as Firsts and Seconds; and Packing
Stock as Number 1, Number 2. and Number 3.

10. Grades of butter must conform to the following require-
ments :

Extras.

11. Shall be a grade of creamery of average fancy quality in
the season when offered under the classifications. Ninety
per cent shall conform to the following standard, the bal-
ance shall not grade below ninety points:

Flavor: Must be sweet, fresh and clean for the season
when offered in Creamery, and sweet a,nd clean in Held.
Body: Must be firm and uniform. Color: Must be either
light straw color, medium or high, but must be uniform
and neither streaked, or mottled. Salt: May be defined as
light, medium or high, but must not be gritty. Package:
New, sound, good, uniform and clean.

Standards.

12. Shall be a grade of centralized creamery of average fancy
quality in the season when offered. Ninety per cent shall
conform to the following standard and the balance shall
not grade below eighty-nine points:

MARKETING OF BUTTKR 437

Flavor: Must be sweet, fresh and clean, and sweet and
clean if Held.

Body: Must be firm and uniform. Color: Must be either
light straw color, medium, or high, but must be uniform,
and neither streaked nor mottled. Salt: May be denned as
light, medium or high, but must not be gritty. Package:
New, sound, good, uniform and clean.

Firsts.

13. Shall be a grade below Extras and must be good butter
for the season when made and offered under the classifica-
tions. Ninety per cent shall conform to the following stand-
ard, the balance shall not grade below eighty-seven score :
Flavor: Must be reasonably sweet, reasonably clean, and
fresh if Creamery, Centralized Creamery, Renovated, and
reasonably sweet and clean if Held. Body: Must be firm
and fairly uniform. Color: Reasonably uniform, neither
very high nor very light. Salt: May be light, medium or
high. Package: New, sound, good, uniform and clean. If
Ladles, must be ninety per cent solid boring, color rea-
sonably uniform and package sound and clean.

Seconds.

14. Shall be a grade below Firsts. Flavor: Must be reasonably
good. Body: If Creamery, Centralized Creamery, or Held
must be solid boring. If Renovated or Ladles, must be
ninety per cent solid boring. Color: Fairly uniform, but
may be mottled. Salt: May be light, medium or high.
Package: Good and uniform.

Thirds.

15. Shall be a grade below seconds and may consist of promis-
cuous lots. Flavor: May be off flavored and strong on tops
and sides but not rancid. Body: Not required to draw a
full trier. Color: May be irregular or mottled. Salt: High,
light or irregular. Package: Any kind of package men-
tioned at the time of sale.

No. 1 Packing Stock.

16. Shall be original butter without additional moisture or salt,
sweet and sound, packed in barrels, or in tubs or boxes, to
be parchment paper-lined ; packages to be packed full.

438 MARKETING OF BUTTER

No. 2 Packing Stock.

17. Shall be original butter without additional moisture or salt,
sweet and sound, may be packed in different kinds of bar-
rels, tierces, pails, tubs or boxes; may be without paper
lining.

No. 3 Packing Stock.

18. Shall be a grade or quality above Grease butter and packed
in any kind or all kinds of packages.

Scoring.

19. The standard official score for salted butter shall be as fol-
lows:

Flavor 45 points

Body 25 points

Color 15 points

Salt 10 points

Style 5 points

20. The standard official score for unsalted creamery butter
shall be as follows :

Flavor 45 points

Body 30 points

Color 15 points

Style 10 points

Extras.

21. Shall consist of a grade of butter scoring ninety-two points
or better.

Standards.

22. Standards shall consist of the highest grade of Centralized
Creamery made during the season when offered and shall
score ninety points or better.

Firsts.

23. The minimum score of Creamery Firsts shall at all times
be four points below the score required for Extras.

Seconds.

24. The minimum score of Creamery Seconds shall be four
points below the minimum score required for Firsts.

Thirds.

25. The minimum score of Creamery Thirds shall be five points
below the minimum score for Seconds.

MARKETING OF BUTTER 439

Distribution. — The distribution of butter to the retail trade
on the large markets is a class of work which is the business of
the jobber. The jobber buys from the wholesale receiver, com-
mission merchant or broker and sells to retail stores, hotels, res-
taurants, steamship companies, Pullman car companies and
other retail outlets. The jobbers are also frequently termed re-
tailers because they sell to the retail stores. Jobbers who have
no established place of business but load the goods they buy
from the wholesale receivers on their wagons and peddle them
among .the retail stores, are called "wagon men."

In reality the jobbers are not the only middlemen who dis-
tribute the butter to the retail men. Many of the wholesale re-
ceivers and of the commission men also sell to the retail trade.

While some of the butter is sold from the wagon direct to
the hotel and restaurant trade, and through other similar di-
rect outlets, the great bulk of the butter reaches the consumer
through the medium of the grocery store.

The houses selling to the retail trade have in their employ a
force of salesmen canvassing the city. They call on the grocery
trade at regular intervals, such as once per week, soliciting
their business. The houses selling to the retail stores are very
numerous in the large markets and competition is usually very
keen, so that constant soliciting is indispensable in order to hold
the trade.

As previously stated, the butter passes through the hands of
several middlemen, first the railroad, then the wholesale receiver,
or the commission man, then the jobber and finally the retail
store. When the wholesaler sells direct to the retailer the job-
ber drops out of the chain of steps through which the butter
moves in its passage from the creamery to the consumer. Occa-
sionally the broker also enters into the chain of agencies through
which butter passes. The broker handles large quantities only,
he does not take possession of the goods but acts in a similar
capacity as the commission man, and his overhead expense is
very low. He is therefore able to handle butter at a very low
rate of commission, usually not over J of 1 cent per pound.
He may represent the buyer or the seller. His services are en-
gaged most often when the buyer or seller is located at a great
distance from the place where the butter is to be bought or

440 MARKETING o£ BUTTER

sold, and the party who is trying to buy or sell is not familiar
with prospective customers in the distant market.

Frequently the wholesale receivers or the commission men
have their butter printed by the so-called ''butter cutters." These
men have the equipment for printing butter and receive a small
commission for their services. Again, there are firms with chain
stores, whose buyers may purchase their entire supply of butter
from the wholesale receiver, or the commission man.

Finally, there is the speculative buyer of butter. He may
be a part of the butter business, the creamery, the wholesale re-
ceiver, the commission man, the jobber, etc. But quite often
he belongs to a class generally not handling butter as a main
business, but largely or wholly only for speculation on the side.
Thus, especially during the storage season, when butter prices
are at ebbtide, individuals in diverse walks of life, buy butter
and put it in storage with the hope of reaping a profit when butter
prices are high. This type of speculative buyer represents an ele-
ment that does not usually add stability to the butter business. He
is interested largely only in temporary private gain, in making
a little "easy money." When the market unexpectedly weak-
ens, he generally becomes panicky and pours his holdings ou*t on
the market, causing a further weakening of prices, which in
some cases may result in a slump of the market to the tem-
porary detriment of the butter industry This in turn usually
discourages this class of butter buyers and often rids the busi-
ness of much of the speculative element for several years.

Consumption of Butter in the United States and in Other
Countries. — According to T. R. Pirtle,1 Statistician United States
Dairy Division, there was prior to the World war, a
steady increase in the consumption of butter throughout the
world, and the countries of small butter production had been
importing increasing amounts of butter year by year.

Exceptions to this general statement are the United States
which has shown a decrease in consumption since 1900, the
Netherlands since 1903 and the United Kingdom since 1906.

The following figures, secured from Mr. Pirtle's article show
the per capita butter consumption by years in the United States
and in other countries.

1 Pirtle — The Consumption of Butter in the U. S. and in Other Countries,
The Milk Magazine, Vol. IT, No. 6, 1919.

MARKETING OF BUTTER

441

Table 61. — Per Capita Annual Consumption of Butter in the
United States by Years.

All Butter

Creamery Butter

Year

Pounds per Capita

Year

Pounds per Capita

1850

12.9
14.5
13.3
15.2
18.8
19.6
17.5
16.5
14.0

1890

2.4
5.3
6.3
6.8
8.0
7.3
6.9
7.6

1860

1900

1870

1904

1880

1909

1890

1914

1900

1916

1909

1917

1914 ..

1918

1918 .

Table 62. — Per Capita Annual Consumption of Butter by

Countries.

Country

Date

Pounds per Capita

Australia

1913

256

New Zealand

1914

21 7

Denmark

1914

190

United Kingdom

1906

190

United States

1909

175

Canada .....'

1911

163

Norway

1906

140

Netherlands

1912

11 3

Switzerland
France

1906
1906

11.0
80

Italy

1913

25

Argentina %.

1913

1 7(J)

Union of South Africa
Germany

1916

2.0 (2)
(3)

Austria

(4)

Egypt

(B)

Hawaii

O

Japan

O

China ..

. : . .

(8)

1 Represents consumption of factory butter only.

2 Estimated.

8 It is generally understood that consumption of dairy products in Ger-
many is large. Imports of butter in 1911 exceeded 120,000,000 pounds, but no
records are available to establish per capita consumption.

4 No record available of total production. Imports in 1913 were 14,000,000
pounds and exports 2.000,000 pounds.

5 Consumption very small.

6 1900 record suggests less than one pound per capita. This was im-
proved to about five pounds in 1918.

7 Very little butter is consumed except by the foreign population; how-
ever, use is increasing and becoming more general.

8 Butter not used by Chinese except by a small but growing number of
wealthier classes. Normal consumption of butter estimated at 2,000,000
pounds per annum.

442

MARKETING OF BUTTER

EXPORTS AND IMPORTS.

The following table shows the pounds of butter exported from
and the pounds of butter imported into the United States from
1852 to 1918, inclusive:

Table 63. — Exports and Imports of Butter for the United States

1852-19181

Year ending June 30,

Exports
pounds.

Imports
pounds.

1852-1856

2,781,510
6,793,614
21,625,165
2,858,578
5,527,762
39,481,907
17,681,492
16,685,391
12,150,434
23,758,629
14,609,637
6,601,489
7,341,923

12,544,777
6,463,061
5,981,265
3,140,545
4,877,797
6,092,235
.. 3,58b,600
3,693,597
9,850,704
13,487,481
26,835,092
26.194.4152

1,612,671
2,484,819
2,978,951
5,257,975
D
D
246,631
202,883
91,224
47,421
321,038
847,351
2,914,234

441,755
780,608
646,320
1,360,245
1,007,826
1,025,668
1,162,253
7,842,022
3,828,227
712,998
523,573
1. 655.467s

1857-1861

1862-1866

1867-1871

1872-1876

1877-1881.

1882-1886.

1887-1891

1892-1896

1897-1901.. .

1902-1906.

1907-1911

1912-1916

By years :
1907.. ..

1908

1909

1910

1911

1912

1913

1914

1915

1916. .

1917

1918. .

Exports. — The butter export trade of the United States has
so far been very limited in amount and value of butter, con-
sidering the vast expanse of this country and the great develop-
ment of our dairy industry. The annual butter exports within
the last 60 years have varied from two million pounds to thirty-
nine million pounds, as compared with over two hundred mil-

1 Annual Report, U. S. Department of Commerce and Labor. These figures
represent twelve months, ending June 30.

D. Included in other Packing House Products.

2 These figures represent twelve months, ending December 31.

MARKETING OF BUTTER 443

lion pounds exported by the little country of Denmark with
an area of less than 16,000 square miles and a population of
only two and one-half million people.

During and since the World war there has been a marked
and growing increase in the amount of butter exported by the
United States, and the great shortage of butter and other fats in
Europe suggests that this increase may continue until the de-
pleted stocks of butter on the European continent are again
replenished. Jn considering the immediate future of the butter-
export trade the fact should not be lost sight of that the neutral
dairy countries, such as Denmark, Holland, Sweden and Norway,
whose decrease in dairy products during the war was due not
so much to decrease in cow population, but to diminished pro-
duction per cow because of shortage of dairy feed, are now
rapidly approaching normal production again, and are in a posi-
tion to export to the butter-poor countries of the European con-
tinent.

Prior to the war our butter exports to countries of the North
American continent went largely to Canada, considerable portions
were also shipped to the Central American countries, Bermuda,
British Honduras, Mexico, Newfoundland and Labrador. Of the
European countries England received the lion's share, while
minor portions went also to Scotland, Germany, Denmark, Bel-
gium, the Netherlands, Spain, the Azores and Turkey in Europe.
The chief exports to Oceania went to Australia and the Philip-
pine Islands. Of the South American countries Venezuela re-
ceived the largest portion, while British and French Guiana,
Colombia, Chile, Peru, Brazil, Bolivia, Argentine and Ecuador
were recipients of smaller amounts. In Asia our export trade
was confined largely to China, Hongkong and Japan. In Africa,
American butter went largely to the Belgian Congo and British
West and South Africa. During and since the war large ship-
ments of butter have been consigned to the countries of the
European continents,

444

MARKETING OF BUTTER

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r^

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05

Pounds

tO O CO to OO O

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£

MARKETING OF BUTTER 445

Quality of Butter Exported.1 — Prior to the European war
the great bulk of butter exported by the United States has
been of the lower grades. This is due in part to the fact that the
surplus butter available for export has consisted of the poorer
grades, partly because there is always a large demand in our
home markets for our better grades and a disposition of our high
class trade to pay higher prices for the best butter than can be
obtained in foreign markets, and partly because many foreign
markets, including the English markets, do not demand our
highest grades, as the poorer classes in many of the larger for-
eign cities cannot afford to purchase our best grades. For
this class of trade, therefore, an inferior quality of butter is
exported. The quality of butter for export, therefore, is largely
dependent upon the class of trade and the purpose for which
the butter is to be used.

The fact is that before the war the export business was al-
most wholly on Renovated and Baking butter. Since the be-
ginning of the war, however, the export business has been
largely on butter scoring 90 to 92 points.

While the difference in price for butter between foreign
and domestic markets will always remain the governing factor
in the quality and quantity of butter exported, it is to be hoped
that, with the systematic improvement in the quality of Ameri-
can butter, the development of foreign markets for our highest
quality of butter may grow more rapidly in the future than it
has in the past and that our total exports may assume pro-
portions consistent with the vastness of the butter industry at
home.

Imports. — The annual imports into the United States of
foreign butter have averaged very materially less than the ex-
ports. The extreme variations of annual imports ranged be-
tween 6,821,696 pounds of butter in 1868 and 23,700 pounds in
1899. Since the year 1884 and up to 1909 they amounted to less
than one million pounds annually. Beginning with the year
1910 the annual imports exceeded one million pounds.

The imports fluctuated largely with the domestic butter
quotations and the rate of tariff on foreign butter. During the

1 Information furnished by Prof. R. C. Potts, Specialist in Marketing
Dairy Products, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1916.

446 MARKETING OF BUTTER

years immediately following the Civil War, when domestic but-
ter production was at ebbtide and prices soared high, 40 cents
and over, butter imports reached their maximum. From 1885
to 1900 when domestic quotations for butter were relatively
low, averaging 23 cents, butter imports reached their minimum
figure. After the year 1900 butter quotations steadily rose and
the amount of imported butter increased. After the tariff re-
vision which went into effect in November, 1913, and which low-
ered the tariff on foreign butter from 6 to 2*4 cents per pound,
foreign shipments of butter arriving at the Atlantic and Pacific
seaports increased very rapidly. This increase would un-
doubtedly have continued had it not been for the advent of the
European War which diminished the surplus of foreign butter
and increased the home demand for butter in the warring and
neutral countries abroad, causing an immediate and rapid de-
cline of butter imported into the United States from foreign
countries.

Source of Butter Imports. — The amount and value of but-
ter and butter substitutes imported from foreign countries dur-
ing the years 1911 to 1915 inclusive is shown in Table 63.

Prior to the war and immediately after the tariff revision
the chief importing European nations were England and Den-
mark. Small consignments also came from Belgium, France,
Germany, Greece, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, Russia in
Europe, Spain, and Turkey in Europe.- Since the beginning of
the war the imports from the warring and neutral nations have
become insignificant, Denmark remaining the principal shipper.

Imports from countries of the North American continent
are largely confined to Canada. The South American butter
comes largely from Argentine. In Asia, Turkey is the principal
country from which butter reached our ports. From Oceania,
Australia and New Zealand were the chief shippers of imported
butter and the small amounts of butter imported from Africa
came largely from Egypt, Tripoli and Italian Africa. At the
close of the year 1916 importation of foreign butter had ceased
almost entirely.

BUTTER STORAGE 447

Quality and Effect of Imported Butter on Domestic Butter
Markets. — The quality of foreign butter imported into the
United States before the war varied naturally with the source
of the butter, the grades ranging from 85 to 93 points. Butter
from Denmark and from the Argentine Republic usually scored
92 or better. Butter from Siberia was more or less irregular in
quality, some of it was very poor. New Zealand and Australian
butter also came irregular in quality, some of it however being
very fine.1

The tariff reduction and the subsequent large influx of
foreign butter depressed price quotations in American markets
to a very marked degree. Thus in March, 1914, Elgin quotations
dropped to 24 cents, which is an abnormally low figure for
March. This price depression on domestic goods was felt most
in the Pacific Coast states in 1914, at which time large ship-
ments of butter were received from Australia and New Zealand.
Prices at that time were depressed from 3 to 5 cents, presum-
ably as the result of the influx of foreign butter. Potts2 offers
the opinion, however, that the sudden depression in prices was
largely for the purpose of curtailing further imports, as there-
by the market prices here would be lower than those abroad
and therefore discouraging exportation from foreign countries.
He further states that prior to the beginning of the European
war several New York butter firms were arranging for con-
tracts to receive butter from Europe.

CHAPTER XV.
BUTTER STORAGE.

Time and Duration of Storage. — The great bulk of butter
goes into storage in May, June and early part of July, though
butter may be, and is, stored at any time of the year when the
supply and butter prices appear favorable for storage. May,
June and the first half of July are the natural storage months of
butter in the northern hemisphere, because the freshening of the
majority of the cows and succulent condition of the pastures

1 Information furnished by S. C. Thompson, U. S. Dairy Division, Aug-
ust, 1916.

2 Potts, Specialist in Marketing Dairy Products, U. S. Dept. of Agricul-
ture, 1916.

448 BUTTER STORAGE

during these months provide a natural surplus of butter and
cause butter prices to be at ebbtide.

In times of early draught which causes a shrinkage of the
surplus output and a rise in butter prices, the storage season
is usually cut short. When the season is blessed with plenty
of rainfall, keeping pastures green until late into fall and contin-
uing a large make, the storage season is usually greatly ex-
tended beyond the months of May, June and July.

Under normal conditions the great bulk of butter in storage
is taken out of storage within nine months of the time it went
in. Only in exceptional cases is butter held in storage over one
year, and when this is done it is usually accompanied by a great
sacrifice in quality and in price. Not all butter that goes into
storage is held till late winter. Considerable- quantities of but-
ter are "short held," that is, they are put on the market
after one or but a few months of storage. As early as
August some of the May or June butter may be sold. Es-
pecially in times of early draught and consequent early falling
off of the summer make and rapid rise of butter prices,
and when the quality of the fresh butter is poor, due to the hot
weather, butter dealers often find it advantageous to supply their
trade from their May or June butter in storage, which is usually
of better quality and which was purchased at a considerably
lower price than they would have to pay for the midsummer
butter. In the case of an open summer and fall with a con-
tinuous large make and only very gradual rise in prices, the
tendency is to hold the butter in storage until such time as the
demand necessitates and prices warrant its movement. It is
obvious that aside from the output of fresh butter, the condition
of the market, butter prices and consequently the duration of
storage and the amount of the storage holdings, are influenced by
the general industrial conditions of the country, exports and
imports, and to some extent the sale of butter substitutes.

Since the advent of the Federal Storage Ruling.1 2 in Nov-
ember, 1917, and January, 1918, and rescinded March, 1919, re-
quiring all butter that is held in cold storage over thirty days to

1 Rules and Regulations, Governing the Importation, Manufacture, Stor-
age and Distribution of Food Commodities for Domestic Trade, by Act of
Congress, approved August 10, 1917, and effective November 1, 1917.

2 Amendments and Additions to the above, Series B, Supplement, effective
January 28, 1918.

BUTTER STORAGE

449

be marked on each package with the words "Cold Storage/' the
volume of butter that is "Short Held" or stored not in excess of
thirty days has increased greatly and the practice of "rotating"
the butter stored, on a 30 day rotation basis, has become quite
prevalent. This does by no means take the place of the "long
held" cold storage of butter, but in a limited way it helps the
creamery and dealer to bridge over and take care of temporary
surplus and shortages and to thus avoid sudden embarrassing
extremes of supply and demand.

Distribution of Commercial Stocks of Butter. — During the
major portion of the "long held" storage season the butter held
in cold storage represents close to 50 per cent of the commercial
stocks of butter in the country. The remaining stocks of butter
are divided between the wholesale dealers, creameries, retail
dealers and meat packers. According to statistics furnished by
the United States Bureau of Markets,1 the distribution of com-
mercial butter stocks July 1, 1918 and July 1, 1917 was as
follows :

Table 67.— Stocks of Butter on Hand July 1, 1918, with Com-
parative Figures for July 1, 1917, by Classes of Business.

Class of Business

Total
stocks
reported
as on
hand
July 1,
1918

Comparative Figures —
From Firms Reporting for
Both 1918 and 1917

Quantity
reported
as in
transit
on
July 1,
1^1918

1918 stocks

1917
stocks

Quantity

Per

cent of
1917

Total
Creameries . . .

Pounds
76,143,419

Pounds
71,645,214

102.7

Pounds
69,766,707

Pounds
11,786,536

13,526,964
38,558,001
5,895,423
16,188,809

13,630,918
2,557,891
1,974,222
605,988

370,196
295,905
802,133

12,349,457
37,623,380
5,860,935
14,236,457

12,057,916
2,178,541
1,574,985
478,959

251,732
255,679
588,615

108.7
101.7
133.5
93.0

93.3
91.5
93.2
91.2

59.1
124.2
110.4

11,363,204
37,011,569
4,389,469
15,302,442

12,921,408
2,381,034
1,690,023
525,305

425,869
205,849
533,000

8,986,444
367,537
320,550
1,843,813

1,787,546
56,267
267,192
605

Cold storages

Meat Packers

Wholesale dealers
Wholesale dealers in but-
ter, eggs, and cheese. .
Other wholesale dealers. .
Miscellaneous

Bakers
Oleomargarine manufac-
turers

Cheese factories
Other miscellaneous ....

200,180
66,407

1 Food Surveys, Bureau of Markets, U. S. Department of Agriculture,
Special Issue, Vol. II, No. 3, August 31, 1918.

450

BUTTER STORAGE

Amount of Butter Held in Cold Storage. — The amount of
butter held in cold storage varies largely with the supply and
demand jf fresh butter, length of storage season, market prices
of fresh butter, etc. It is naturally greatest during the storage
season proper, and lowest just before the storage season opens
up again. The peak of storage holdings is generally reached

Cold storage:

Meat packers

1

10 15 ZO 2

5 30 3

S «

••HEBEi

•

STOCKS

REPORTED

(Pounds)

CLASS
TOTAL

1918 1917
71,645,214 69,756,707

•

c

••• 1
' 1

918

917

Creameries
Cold storages
Meat Backers
Wholesale
dealers

12,349,467 11,363,204
37,623,380 37,011,569
5,860,935 4.389,469

14,236,457 15,302.442

Tig. 77. Stocks of Butter Reported for July 1, 1918, and July 1, 1917, by
Important Classes of Business

Millions
6 8

15,194,481
11,045,055
9.1E4.034
4,291,022
3,832,338
3,204,877
3,065,224
2,826,693

111.

Pa.

Calif

Minn.

Nebr.

N.J.

Conn.

Wls.

Ohio

Mich.

Kan.

Iowa

Colo.

2,038,497
1,961,845
1,896,340
1,495,380
1,493,472
1,374,719
1,352,727
1,208,665
1.153,202

Fig*. 78. Stocks of Butter Reported for tlie Eighteen Most Important States.

by September and the bottom early in May. During the years
from 1907 to 1916 the percentage of storage holdings of butter
reported by the Associated Warehouses averaged six and nine-
tenths on May 1, and 100 on September 1, as shown in graphic
illustration, Fig. 80.

The average holdings on the first of September, for the
entire period of 10 years amounted to 64,378,898 pounds. This
diagram further shows that more than three-quarters ot the

BUTTER STORAGE:

451

holdings in these warehouses are stored during the months of
June and July, while most of the distribution is within the
months of October and March, inclusive. The fact that, accord-
ing to these figures, an average of 6.9 per cent of the holdings
remain at the opening of the new storage season, suggests that
this proportion of holdings is carried over into the next season.

Miscellaneous, 2.6 %

STOCKS REPORTED (Pounds)

76.143.419

Creameries 13,526,964
cold storages 38,558,001
Beat peckers 5,895,423

,.

Miscellaneous 1,974,222

Tig. 79. Distribution of Stocks by Important Classes July 1, 1918

The cold storage holdings of creamery butter by months
reported to the United States Bureau of Markets by the great
majority of warehouses and including all of the more important
warehouses in this country, are issued by this bureau for the
benefit of the dealers, free, in the form of monthly reports.
The cold storage holdings covering the period of October 1,
1916 to December 1, 1919 are recorded in Table 68.

Storage Conditions. — In order to justify storage and to have
the storing of butter fulfill the purpose for which it is intended.

452

BUTTER STORAGE

COLD STORAGE HOLDINGS

0 F
CREAMERY BUTTER

Compiled from the reports of the associated warehouses.

Based on the average holdings of the years

1907 to 1916 inclusive.

Per
cent
100

90
80
70
GO
50
HO

30
20
10

ll

cent
100

90
SO
70

60
50

30

20

10

0

rig-, so

BUTTER STORAGE

453

Table 68. — Cold Storage Holdings of Creamery Butter in the
United States, Oct. 1, 1916, to Dec. 1, 1919.1

Months

Total Holdings

Comparison of Holdings

Stor-
ages

ported

Butter,
Pounds

Stor-
ages

ported

Butter,
Pounds

Butter,
Pounds

Increase
or
Decrease
Percent

1916

1916

1915

1916

1915-1916

Oct. 1....

165

91,728,394

133

99,449,607

88,909,646

-10.6

Nov. 1... .

179

82,269,098

142

92,718,649

79,294,074

-14.6

Dec. 1... .

239

60,774,859

189

71,848,767

58,627,236

-18.4

1917

1917

1916

1917

1916-1917

Jan. 1....

268

45,996,514

227

48,977,322

44,673,639

- 8.8

Feb. 1....

273

30,281,472

211

31,139,173

29,250,641

- 6.1

Mar. 1....

286

15,542,532

215

15,032,769

14,582,975

- 3.0

Apr. 1....

275

6,239,268

214

3,345,717

6,022,216

+80.0

May ....

281

2,586,593

211

1,081,913

2,433,144

+ 124.9

June ....

292

8,942,120

217

7,016,731

8,431,140

+20.2

July ....

289

47,612,460

217

53,863,278

, 44,633,595

-17.1

Aug

310

85,540,972

257

102,537,337

81,502,751

-20.5

Sept

335

99,225,394

268

105,836,003

94,644,780

-10.6

Oct

380

104,293,375

332

100,521,573

97,456,876

- 3.0

Nov. 1....

396

100,114,760

345

85,260,302

93,209,717

+ 9.3

Dec. 1....

385

77,463,551

340

67,291,844

73,133,855

+ 8.7

1918

1918

1917

1918

1917-1918

Jan. 1....

373

47,069,946

324

41,686,684

43,311,258

+ 3.9

Feb. 1....

372

24,780,358

325

30,473,709

23,542,245

-22.7

Mar

386

18,808,303

333

16,952,367

18,168,209

+ 7.2

Apr

381

14,607,017

345

6,805,476

14,177,901

+ 108.3

May ....

375

10,245,288

341

3,607,119

10,100,054

+ 180.0

June

383

13,017,143

353

9,953,184

12,752,296

+28.1

July ....

419

49,389,491

386

49,981,732

47,436,912

- 5.1

Aug

421

87,382,926

380

79,203,492

81,384,643

+ 2.8

Sept

420

101,838,897

390

107,776,392

100,503,488

- 6.7

Oct

408

87,105,801

390

104,926,813

86,253,033

-17.8

Nov

409

80,595,375

389

96,663,946

79,670,291

-17.6

Dec

397

65,577,900

372

78,733,939

65,380,993

-17.0

1919

1919

1918

1919

1918-1919

Jan. 1

377

43,210,770

50,725,766

43,140,260

-15.0

Feb. 1..

364

36,815,793

353

25,964,218

36,563,442

+40.8

Mar

349

24,436,630

338

18,658,019

24,414,104

+30.9

Apr

333

12,233,700

327

14,628,544

12,226,929

-16.4

May ....

330

9,661,244

323

10,157,399

9,634,690

- 5.1

June

344

29,285,220

333

12,749,056

29,190,222

+129.0

July ....

342

87,851,371

325

47,919,035

87,720,486

+83.1

Aug

334

122,771,843

2

89,157,820

123,545,670

'+40.6

Sept

289

129,251,064

2

99,334,448

131,710,210

+32.6

Oct

284

121,674,977

2

87,924,232

121,834,544

+38.6

Nov. 1....

270

100,285,328

2

80,816,681

100,851,405

+24.8

Dec. 1....

268

73,440,191

2

65,110,521

73,676,233

+ 13.2

1 Monthly Reports of Cold Storage Holdings of Butter, Bureau of Mar-
kets, U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1916-1919.
s Comparison of total holdings.

454 BUTTER STORAGE:

the butter must be protected against agents and conditions
which cause it to deteriorate in quality. The chief of the con-
ditions injurious to the quality of butter in storage are air.
light, heat and moisture.

Air, Light and Heat. — Excessive exposure to air causes de-
terioration of butter through oxidation, or through bacterial
action, or both. This oxidation is greatly intensified in the
presence of light, or heat, or both, and bacterial action is
enhanced in the presence of heat. Exposure to air is minimized
by the use of packages of comparatively large size and by
packing in wrappers and containers that have previously been
made as near impervious to air as possible. Butter is best
stored in packages of the largest possible size consistent with
convenient handling. The larger the cubic content of the pack-
age, the smaller, relatively, is its surface and the smaller is,
therefore, the area of butter which is exposed to the air. For
this reason the firkin used in Europe, the 63 pound tub which
predominates in the central and eastern United States and the
56 to 68 pound cube used in the Pacific Coast states, furnish
more suitable forms of packages, than smaller packages such
as one, two, or five pound prints, slabs or rolls. The firkins,
tubs and cubes should be properly paraffined and lined with
heavy, brine-soaked parchment paper, so as to furnish as nearly
herrnetical a seal as possible. These same conditions, large
size and imperviousness of package to air, also protect the
butter against light. In full containers butter keeps better
than in containers only partly filled. This was experimentally
demonstrated by Gray and McKay,1 who stored butter in cans
and in tubs completely filled and similar containers only partly
full. At — 10 degrees F. to +10 degrees F. there was practically
no difference in the keeping quality of butter packed in full cans
and full tubs, but at 32 degrees F. there was a slight difference
in favor of the cans.

Humidity of Storage Rooms. — Aside from the oxidizing
effect of air, light and heat on the constituents of butter, the
deterioration of butter in storage results from the decomposition
or cleavage of the non-fatty constituents, especially the proteins

1 Gray and McKay, Investigations in the Manufacture and Storage of
Putter, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, B. A. I. Bulletin 84, 1906.

BUTTER STORAGE

455

or curd of butter, as caused by bacterial, enzymic or chemical
action hastened in the presence of air, heat and moisture. A
damp storage is prone to cause the development of mold. The
storage room therefore should be dry.

Temperature of Storage. — Heat intensifies every type of
butter deterioration in storage. It hastens oxidation, it enhances
the action of bacteria and enzymes, it accelerates chemical ac-
tion and it favors mold development. Butter that is intended
for prolonged storage must be stored at temperatures of zero
degrees Fahrenheit or below. At higher temperatures its keeping
quality is invariably jeopardized and the poorer the quality, the
more rapid will be the deterioration with age.

Gray and McKay,1 in a series of experiments, studying the
effect of storage temperature on keeping quality of butter, found
that at — 10 degrees F. the butter kept better, both while in
cold storage and after removal from cold storage, than when
stored at higher temperatures. The butter in these experiments
was stored at these temperatures for 5 to 8 months. Similar
results were obtained by Rogers, Thompson and Keithley,2 who
show the following scores of butter stored at temperatures rang-
ing from zero degrees F. to 20 degrees F. :

Points I

^ost After

Storage

Kinds of Butter

Stored at
0°F.
Points

Stored at
10° F.
Points

Stored at
20° F.
Points

Raw cream butter Cry A

5 0

5.3

5.8

Raw cream butter Cry D

1 7

4 1

3 3

Raw cream butter, all samples
Pasteurized ripened cream Cry B

3.2
2 2

4.6
3.0

4.8
5.1

Pasteurized ripened cream, Crv. E

1.7

3.6

4.0

Pasteurized ripened cream, all samples . . .
Pasteurized unripened cream, Cry. C
Pasteurized unripened cream, Cry. D
Pasteurized unripened cream, all samples .

2.0
.6
.4
.5

3.3

1.0
1.0
1.0

4.6
1.5
1.6
1.6

From the above results Rogers and his co-workers conclude
that the difference between zero degrees F. and 10 degrees F.

1 Gray and McKay, Investigations in the Manufacture and Storage of
Butter, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, B. A. I. Bulletin 84, 1906.

2 Rogers, Thompson and Keithley, The Manufacture of Butter for Storage,
U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, B. A. I. Bulletin 148, 1912.

456 BUTTER STORAGE

is sufficient to warrant the use of the lower temperature, even
for butter of the best keeping quality. The author's own experi-
ence, both in experimental and commercial storage of butter,
is entirely in accord with the above findings and conclusions;
in order to insure the best keeping quality for storage butter of
any quality, the butter must be kept at a temperature of zero
degrees F. or below.

In isolated cases creameries have their own cold storage.
This is true of many of the larger creameries. The great ma-
jority of the creameries of the country, however, lack the neces-
sary equipment and facilities for prolonged cold storage and
their attempt to use their own facilities in a great many cases
proves disappointing in its results. By far the largest portion of
the storage butter is stored in the cold rooms of large commer-
cial cold storage houses, whose exclusive business is the storage
of perishable goods.

Shrinkage of Butter in Cold Storage. — Under normal con-
ditions the shrinkage in the weight of butter put in cold storage
in tubs or cubes is not very great. The main shrinkage usually
takes place before the butter reaches the cold storage, while the
butter is held in the creamery cool room and in transportation,
and after storage when the butter is put up in prints. The loss
in weight between the package at the churn and the arrival at
the cold storage, varies considerably with the workmanship of
the butter, the completeness of moisture incorporation, the treat-
ment of tubs and liners, the time that elapses between packing
and storing and the amount of salt .butter contains.

Butter that has a leaky body, as is usually the case with
butter that is churned at too high a churning temperature, or
that is made from cream that was not held long enough at the
churning temperature, or butter that is not worked sufficiently
to close up the water pockets, is prone to show maximum shrink-
age due to loss of water or brine. Butter packed in unparaf-
fined tubs will shrink more than butter packed in paraffined
tubs. A thin, poor liner permits of greater shrinkage of but-
ter than a heavy liner of good quality. The longer the butter
is held at ordinary cool room temperature and the greater the
distance of transportation before the butter reaches cold storage,
the more it will sacrifice in weight. Salted butter will lose more

BUTTER STORAGE 457

weight than imsalted butter and heavily salted butter will shrink
more than lightly salted butter. Even after the butter is in
cold storage this shrinkage in the case of heavily salted butter
will continue, resulting in very appreciable loss of weight by the
end of the storage period. Light salted and unsalted butter, on
the other hand, do not suffer material loss in cold storage.

Deterioration of Quality of Butter in Storage. — Butter of
good quality, intelligently manufactured and properly packed,
will generally withstand noticeable deterioration under ordinary
commercial conditions and without regular cold storage for about
a month. After that time it tends to depreciate, and unless of
exceptional keeping quality, it will gradually develop specific
defects, such as rancidity, fishy flavor, etc. In regular cold stor-
age good butter may retain the character of fresh butter foi;
several months. However, age is the arch enemy of quality,
and prolonged storage even at commercial cold storage tempera-
tures, gradually develops in the great bulk of butter so stored
the characteristic storage flavor.

The changes and the causes of these changes which take
place in butter in storage are exceedingly complex and as yet
far from being thoroughly understood. These changes affect
both the flavor and the texture of butter, varying in kind and
extent with the character and quality of the butter while fresh
and the temperature and 'period of storage.

The flavor changes often are very marked, the butter loses
the characteristic flavors and aroma of fresh butter and devel-
ops a variety of off-flavors, the specific flavor and its intensity
in each particular case depending probably on specific combina-
tions of conditions. Only in rare cases can the flavor defect be
traced direct to one specific cause. A certain combination of
factors may yield a specific flavor defect, the absence from this
combination of one factor may fail to produce the same defect
and may cause an entirely different defect, although all other
factors and conditions responsible for the original defect may be
present. Thus butter may develop a fishy flavor under certain
apparent conditions. Yet when an effort is made to produce
fishy butter by subjecting butter to these conditions, fishiness
often fails to result and in its place usually some other flavor
develops, such as oily flavor or metallic flavor, etc.

458 BUTTER STORAGE

These facts emphasize the probability that there are many
factors which are instrumental in the production of a specific
flavor defect through their joint action, while each separate fac-
tor, though necessary for the combination that produces the
defect, is by itself alone incapable of so doing. As a concrete
example of this may be quoted the case of tallowy butter the
specific causes of which have been determined with certainty.1
Oxygen carriers and catalizing agents, such as certain metals
and their salts, especially copper and copper salts, are capable of
making butter tallowy. These agents are present in average
butter to a very small extent and in butter containing a normal
per cent acid and kept in cold storage they fail to produce
the tallowy flavor. If this butter is made from over-neutralized
cream, or is wrapped in parchment which was not entirely freed
from the ammonia used for the neutralizing of the sulphuric
acid used in the parchmenting process, the butter so wrapped
may become tallowy very rapidly, especially when it is exposed
to room temperature. In this case the alkali, which alone does
not make butter tallowy, is a necessary part of the combination,
in which copper may be the fundamental cause of the tallowy
flavor.

The texture of the butter usually shows marked changes
only after prolonged cold storage. The grain of the butter
gradually breaks down giving such butter a more or less
crumbly and pasty consistency.

Summary of the Effect of Cold Storage on the Quality of Butter.

Summing up the most important phases of our present
knowledge of the effect of storage of butter on its quality the
following points are emphasized :

1. Age tends to deteriorate the flavor of butter. The
rapidity and intensity of this deterioration, other factors being
the same, is influenced largely by the temperature of storage.
At the usual temperature of commercial cold storage, — 6 to — 10°
F. the changes in flavor are usually very gradual.

2. The most predominating flavor defect which butter de-
velops in cold storage is the flavor known as cold storage flavor.
In the case of butter that was of good quality when it went

x Hunziker and Hosman, Tallowy Butter, Its Causes and Prevention,
Journal of Dairy Science, Vol. I., No. 4, 1917.

BUTTER STORAGE 459

into storage, the development of the storage flavors may be very
slight. Butter of poor quality usually shows very great de-
terioration in- storage, the flavor defects may be numerous and
often one flavor may succeed another as storage progresses. An
oily flavor may develop into a metallic flavor and this in turn
may give way to fishy flavor, etc.

3. The quality of the cream from which the butter is
made, largely governs the keeping quality of the butter in
storage. Butter made from a poor quality of cream cannot be
expected to withstand rapid and intense deterioration in
storage.

4. The analysable chemical changes which butter undergoes
in storage, are very slight, even in butter which has yielded to
most pronounced flavor changes. The exact changes, and the
constituents of the butter which are changed, that are respon-
sible for the development of specific flavor defects have not been
determined in the great majority of cases. It is assumed with
reasonable certainty however, that rancidity and tallowiness
are due to cleavage of the butterfat, rancidity through bacterial
or enzymic action or both, and tallowiness through chemical
action. The characteristic flavor of cold storage butter and its
derivations such as oily, metallic and fishy flavors, are generally
assumed to result from the decomposition of the non-fatty con-
stituents of butter.

5. The most active agents bringing about deterioration of
butter in cold storage appear to be cream with a high acid con-
tent, the presence in cream and butter of metals, such as cop-
per and iron, and their salts, the air incorporated in the butter
and bacteria and enzymes ; though the influence of microorgan-
isms is considered of indirect rather than of direct nature.

6. In order to insure, with reasonable certainty, butter of
good keeping quality, and minimum deterioration in commer-
cial cold storage, the butter should be made from cream of good
quality and low acidity, transported in cans that are free from
rust, and handled in vats, pasteurizers and conduits properly
tinned and the surfaces of which are kept bright and free from
accumulations of oxidized or dissolved metal, the pasteurization
should be thorough and preferably by the flash process at 176°
F. or over, or the holding process at 145° F. for 30 minutes, the

460 BUTTER SCORING

butter should be worked in the normal way, avoiding over-
churning and overworking and excessive incorporation of air,
all equipment and rooms in the factory in which the cream and
butter is handled and exposed should be kept clean, the butter
should be packed and stored under approved conditions and
should reach the cold storage with the least possible delay after
manufacture.

CHAPTER XVI.
BUTTER SCORING.

Definition. — The scoring or judging of butter refers to the
examination of butter for flavor and aroma, body and texture,
color, salt and package.

Purpose. — The primary object of scoring butter is to de-
termine its quality and market value. The bulk of the butter
that reaches the wholesale receivers, jobbers and commission
men is scored and most of this butter is sold "over the trier"
and paid for on the basis of the grade to which its score
entitles it.

Butter intended for storage usually is, and always should
be, most carefully scored in order to ascertain its fitness for
storage. Butter showing a weak body and tendency toward an
oily, metallic or fishy flavor is unsafe to go into storage. Such
butter is prone to become fishy or develop other storage flavors
with age. Careful scoring before permitting its entrance into
cold storage may save the owner from heavy loss at the end of
the storage period.

At butter scoring contests such as are held at County, State
and National fairs and shows, the careful scoring of the butter
judges and their criticisms and instructions, are often of great
help to the buttermaker in his efforts to eliminate butter defects
and to improve upon his methods of manufacture.

The butter should be scored not only by the buyer and the
educational judge but by the buttermaker himself. He should
have accurate knowledge of the quality of butter that leaves his
factory and he can secure this knowledge only by carefully
scoring each churning. This scoring should not be done at the
churn, however, for the quality of the fresh butter at the churn

BUTTER SCORING 461

is seldom a reliable index to the quality of the butter when it is
one or two weeks old. Most butter when perfectly fresh is
palatable. Serious defects generally develop and "show up"
with age.

The Score Card. — The national score card adopted and used
by the officials and butter men in all parts of the country is that
contained in the rulings of the New York Mercantile Exchange
and quoted in the chapter on "Markets and Marketing."

Valuation of Butter Defects. — The prices paid for butter
sold on the open market, are based fundamentally on the estab-
lished classes of market grades, the chief of which are: "Extras,"
"Firsts," "Seconds" and "Thirds," and in commercial scoring
the deductions for defects are generally so made as to place the
butter into its respective grade. The exact scores for each
grade vary somewhat with the condition of the market and the
season of the year as determined by the Butter Committee of
the Exchange. Thus the New York Mercantile Exchange rules
provide that extras may score either 91, 92 or 93 points, as
the minimum, at the discretion of the Butter Committee, who
shall determine the required score from time to time in such
manner that it shall represent an average fancy quality in the
season when offered. But butter scoring more than required
for "Extras" shall be deliverable on a contract for "Extras,"
etc. See rules of New York Mercantile Exchange.

The minimum scores, for the several grades are as follows,
with Extras at 91, 92 or 93 points:

Extras at 91 92 93

Firsts ...87 88 89

Seconds 82 83 84

Thirds 75 76 77

In discussing the figure valuation of butter defects it will be
assumed here that "Extras" require a minimum score of 92
points.

"Extras." — In order for butter to score "Extras," it must
have a clean and pleasant flavor and aroma and it must be free
from, any undesirable off-flavors. Its color, salt and body
must be perfect. Such butter would merit a flavor score of 37 and
a total score of 92. Butter with a specially delicate flavor and

462 BUTTER SCORING

creamy texture, showing excellent quality of cream, may be
given a flavor score of 38, 39, 40 or 41 points, or higher, or a total
of 93, 94, 95 or 96 or higher, according to the pronouncedness
of these desirable qualities.

"Firsts." — -Butter which is of clean flavor but lacks the char-
acteristic delicacy of aroma, and is perfect in body, color and
salt, is considered a good "Firsts," meriting a flavor score of 35
to 36 points, or a total score of about 90 to 91 points.

Butter with a slightly acid flavor and aroma, or that shows
traces of weedy flavor or other slight flavor defects might still
be classed as a "Firsts," with a flavor score of 33 to 34 points
and a total score of 88 to 89 points, provided that it is perfect in
body, color and salt.

"Seconds." — Butter that shows slight rancidity, fishiness,
oily or metallic flavor, garlic flavor, or yeasty flavor, is classed
as a "Seconds," with a flavor score of 28 to 32 inclusive, and a
total score of 83 to 87 inclusive, the exact score varying with
the intensity of the defect.

. "Thirds." — Butter with a strongly rancid, tallowy, fishy, or
other intense off-flavor is scored as "Thirds."

Butter with a leaky texture or leaky or crumbly body
would not be accepted as an "Extras." These defects would cut
its score on body such texture from 1 to 3 points. If of clean
flavor and perfect color, such butter might score a good "Firsts."

Butter that is pronouncedly mottled is cut from 3 to 5
points on color. If otherwise of good quality and clean flavor
it would be classed as a "Firsts."

Butter that is gritty and excessively salty may be cut from
^2 to 2 points on salt according to the intensity of the defect.
Such butter usually has a coarse flavor. If it shows no distinct
off-flavor, it may be classed as a "Firsts."

In rare cases only is butter scored down on package, but
it should be understood that the neatness and cleanliness of the
package makes a favorable impression on the judge, while an
untidy and soiled package tends to condemn the goods.

Method of Scoring. — The scoring of butter is most conven-
iently done by the use of a butter trier. A plug of butter is
removed from the package by boring from top to bottom of

BUTTER SCORING 463

the tub or cube, or from end to end in the case of the print.
First the aroma is observed by passing the trier under the nose.
Then the butter is tasted for flavor and salt by cutting with a
clean knife or spatula, a small piece off the plug. Then the plug
is examined for uniformity of color. The texture and body are
examined for leakiness, crumbliness, stickiness and weak body.
In the case of crumbly and sticky butter it is difficult to secure
a solid plug, the plug is ragged and irregular and butter sticks
to the back of the trier. In the case of leaky butter the brine
runs freely, and in large drops, from the butter. A weak body
refers to butter with a poor grain; when the plug is broken the
surface at the break resembles that of a tallow candle and the
butter gives the impression of salviness. The color of such
butter generally lacks brightness and life, it is dull.

The Ethics of Butter Scoring. — It must be obvious to all
who are interested in the dignity and standard of excellence of
the butter industry that the sanitary and ethical aspect of butter
scoring demands, that this work be done in a neat, cleanly and
careful manner, and yet so many so-called butter judges ignore
the most primitive dictates of decency in the scoring of butter.
They do this work in slovenly manner, they pay no attention
to the cleanliness of their hands, they fail to wipe the trier
clean before it is inserted in the butter, they try to ascertain
the aroma by rubbing their nose into and wiping it on the butter,
they determine the flavor by digging their teeth into a plug,
and then replace this mutilated and desecrated butter into the
package which is later offered for sale and consumption. Such
performances are an insult to the dignity of the butter industry
and a depredation to this most valuable and wholesome of food,
butter. Nor do such practices denote expertness on the part
of the judge. The flavor and aroma of butter are of delicate
nature, their correct impression on the senses demands subtle
and delicate handling. Pressing one's nose into the butter
destroys the delicacy of flavor and aroma and dulls the senses.
There is room for much improvement, especially in the cellars
of the wholesale produce, in the ethics of butter scoring as now
done, and this improvement will assist in convincing the laymen
of the wholesomeness and superiot virtues of butter as a food
which the dairy interests claim for their product.

464 BUTTER SCORING

The necessary equipment for performing the examination
and scoring of butter in an approved manner, consists of a
nickel-, tin- or silver-plated butter trier, a knife or spatula and
clean cheese cloth or clean soft paper, such as tissue paper.

Before commencing the work of examining the butter, the
scorer should thoroughly wash his hands with soap and water.
The trier should be wiped dry and clean. When the plug on
the trier is examined for aroma, it should be passed under the
nose without touching the nose. For tasting the butter a small
piece of butter is removed from the plug with the knife or
spatula. The uniformity or color can be seen without mutila-
tion of the plug. Examination for leakiness and body and
texture is best made by pressing the plug with clean thumb.

When the examination is completed, the plug is neatly re-
placed in the bore of the package by carefully returning the
trier in the bore and withdrawing the empty trier. The surface
of the package at the place of the returned plug is then evened
up and smoothed over, not with the fingers, but with the trier,
and the circle or wrapper is again repjaced neatly. The trier
and spatula are then wiped clean, not with the bare hands, but
with the cheese cloth or paper, before the next package is
examined.

Accuracy of Butter Scoring. — It is said that expert butter
judges are born and not made. This is true to a limited ex-
tent. Expertness requires, above all things, a keen sense of
taste and smell. Individuals deprived of an accurate sense of
taste and smell lack the fundamental attributes that make for
expertness in butter scoring. However, most persons possess
these senses to a sufficient degree to be able to distinguish
good butter from bad butter, and with a little practice
they soon acquire the power to differentiate between the more
pronounced flavors and odors. Aside from the natural and
acquired ability to detect flavor and aroma, the butter judge
needs knowledge, experience and judgment in determining and
deciding on the correct valuation in terms of figure scores, of
the flavors found in the butter, and these attributes are largely
a matter of practice. Finally the butter judge must be a man
of character, not given to superficial work and "bluff verdicts,"

BUTTER SCORING 465

he must be conscientious, careful and able to decide for himself
and, after deciding, to stand by his convictions.

When more than one judge does the scoring, as is generally
the case at educational butter scoring contests and county, state
and national fairs, also in scoring experimental butter, each judge
should work entirely independent of the other judges, there
should be no expression of opinion, no comparison of notes, while
the scoring is in progress and until each of the judges has com-
pleted his work, otherwise the personal judgment of the individ-
ual judge is jeopardized and is liable to be materially, though
unknowingly, influenced, and this occurs usually to the detri-
ment of the accuracy and fairness of the final score. After each
judge has completed his scoring, then the judges may compare
notes and rescore, for their own satisfaction, packages on which
the scores of the different judges show considerable diversion.
The average of the individually determined scores of the several
judges promises results of maximum accuracy, a'nd freedom from
disturbing influences, of the final score awarded to each package.

The Value of Educational Butter Scoring Contests.— With
due allowance to the actual service these contests are often capa-
ble of rendering, the judge through his criticisms giving the but-
termaker valuable information that makes for improvement, it
must be admitted that the lasting results of educational butter-
scoring contests and the concrete usable information they offer,
are often very meager and in a great many cases they do not
justify the expense incurred. There are many reasons for this.

The average butter judge is not a practical buttermaker.
He lacks the full knowledge of the real problems which confront
the buttermaker and he therefore falls short in his appreciation
of the significance of these problems. In fact, even assuming
that he is a capable judge of butter, which is by no means always
the case, he has very little to offer to and a great deal to learn
from the man whose butter he is scoring. Some of the informa-
tion which he endeavors to convey to the buttermaker through
his letter of criticisms is either not well founded or does not
apply, and much of the remainder of the information given
has long been a part of the buttermaker's knowledge , but
local conditions, lack of sufficient energy, or other conditions,

466 BUTTER SCORING

have hindered him from putting this knowledge "across" in his
factory.

Again, the basis upon which the butter is scored at most
of the scoring contests puts a premium on a very mistaken
standard of excellence, that not only has no real commercial val-
ue, but is a positive detriment to the success of the butter in-
dustry.

The ideal used as the basis for scoring has been that of
butter with a highly developed butter flavor, and in their efforts
to successfully compete, the buttermakers so ripened their cream
and handled their butter as to cause it to possess as high a flavor
as possible on the day of the contest.

Elsewhere in this volume it is conclusively shown that butter
so made has very poor keeping quality. It has reached the very
limit of changes it is capable of undergoing, without actually
deteriorating in flavor and any further changes, which it is bound
to suffer with age, will cause it to develop off-flavors. The
butter with high flavor which wins top scores and honors at
these contests, therefore, has the ear-marks of butter that does
not keep well and that, by the time it reaches the table of the
consumer, may be anything but "prize butter."

Since the consumer is the final judge of the value of butter,
the butter must have such keeping property that it is able to
withstand agencies of deterioration until it is consumed, and
it is essential to the success of the butter industry that the
buttermaker concentrate his knowledge and energy in this
direction, rather than to manufacture butter that is a prize win-
ner tomorrow and that "goes to pieces" thereafter.

In some of the states the management of scoring contests,
appreciating the significance of these facts, is effectively cor-
recting this weakness, by either holding all contest butter for
several weeks before the contest, or by rescoring a second time
after an interval of several weeks. The results of scoring
contests following this practice are bound to be fruitful of
much real good, from the standpoint of assisting the butter-
maker in his efforts to improve the commercial value of his
butter.

Finally, the conducting of educational butter scoring con-
tests has much educational value in an indirect way. It is an

BUTTER DEFECTS 467

effective means to bring the buttermakers together, where
they can discuss their problems and difficulties, where they
have an opportunity to hear lectures and see demonstrations
that give them new information, and where they can come in
close touch with the dairy schools and their staffs.

CHAPTER XVII.
BUTTER DEFECTS.
THEIR CAUSES AND PREVENTION.

Classification of Defects. — This discussion is confined to the
most important butter defects which are considered individually
under the following few headings : flavor and aroma, body and
texture, color and appearance.

DEFECTS IN FLAVOR AND AROMA.

Flat Flavor. — Butter termed flat in flavor lacks the delicate
flavor and aroma characteristic of "Extras" and fancy butter.
Its flavor lacks life. Such butter usually sells as "Firsts" on
the market, provided that it has no serious defect otherwise.

The flat flavor is usually due to washing excessively in cold
water. Cold wash water has the power to absorb the flavor-
producing volatile oils of the butter when in granular form.
Excessive washing and prolonged exposure of the butter to
the cold wash water, therefore, tend to leave the butter with-
out much flavor, or flat.

Occasionally butter is criticised as being flat in flavor
simply because it is low in salt. The use ctf more salt brings
out the flavor more pronouncedly.

Butter made from sweet cream which was not subjected to
the ripening process and to which no starter was added, is
generally very mild in flavor and may be termed flat by those
who desire a high-flavored butter.

Stale Flavor. — The staleness and lifelessness of butter,
termed stale, is usually due to the advanced state of the period
of lactation. It is an off-flavor which is characteristic of butter
made in winter when the cows are approaching the end of their
lactation period. The cause here, as in flat-flavored butter, lies
in the partial absence of the flavor-producing volatile and solu-
ble fats, oils and acids. As the period of lactation advances, the

46S BUTTER

per cent of the flavor-producing elements decreases and is lowest
at the time the cows are ready to go dry. Observant butter-
makers know from experience that, when all their cream comes
from stripper cows, their butter always has more or less of this
stale flavor, and that the addition of but a few cans of cream or
milk from fresh cows will make a wonderful improvement in
the flavor of their butter. At the beginning of the period of
lactation when the cows are fresh, as is generally the case in early
summer, the milk contains the maximum per cent of volatile and
soluble fats and acids and the stale flavor is entirely absent in
butter made from such milk or cream.

While the use of a good active starter generally assists in
minimizing the stale flavor, it seldom will overcome it entirely,
because the natural flavoring principles in the milk and cream
which are necessary in order to secure the full benefit of the
starter, are lacking or are present in insufficient quantities in
cream from stripper cows. Stale butter seldom grades " Extras."

The stale flavor is frequently attributed also to old cream,
or cream having been held too long before churning. In most
cases of cream that has been held for a long time, however, the
staleness is expressed by more specific off-flavors, resulting from
fermentation, or absorption of odors from environment, and it is
doubtful if the so-called stale flavor of butter can conclusively
be traced to old cream.

Sour, Curdy and Cheesy Flavor and Aroma. — This defect is
characteristic of much of the butter that is made from high-acid
cream, such as gathered cream and cream shipped long distances.
The sourness is noticeable particularly in the odor or aroma of
the butter. If otherwise perfect such butter usually scores a poor
"Firsts" or a good "Seconds." It is rejected by the critical trade
and is unfit for storage as it tends to deteriorate rapidly.

The sour flavor and aroma are usually largely due to cream
that arrives at the creamery in very sour condition. It may be
avoided by neutralizing the cream and thorough washing out
of the buttermilk. Frequently sour butter is the direct result
of overripening the cream, or starter, or both, and of leaving too
much buttermilk in the butter. Attempts to produce high-
flavored butter by only slightly washing the butter and causing

BUTTER DEFECTS 469

it to have a milky brine tend toward the development of a sour
flavor and aroma.

High buttermilk content, overripe cream and starter and
similar agencies are responsible also for curdy and cheesy flavors
which often accompany the sour flavor, or take its place. They
are due directly to the curd content of the butter. This class
of flavor defects is characteristic of hot weather butter and
especially of butter made from sour, farm separator cream dur-
ing the summer season. It will appear as long as the creamery
accepts a poor quality of cream, but may be minimized by
neutralization, pasteurization, the use of a good quality of starter
and expulsion of buttermilk by thorough washing.

Unclean Flavor. — This is a rather general term and yet it
represents, in the vocabulary of the butter judge, a definite flavor
condition of the butter. Butter with an unclean flavor lacks
the clean, delicate, pleasant, aromatic butter flavor. Its taste
suggests the use of unsanitary utensils and methods of handling
the cream, such as unclean strainers, especially cloth strainers ;
foul smelling cans, especially cans that are not washed clean, or
that contain dirty wash water due to incomplete rinsing, or that
were not thoroughly steamed and dried after washing 'and
rinsing; unclean farm separators, as the result of not removing
all remnants of milk, cream and separator slime after each
separation, or not washing the separator after each separation;
unclean and leaky vats, pipes and conveyors, churns and pack-
ers; and unclean milk and cream and polluted wash water.

The unclean flavor is imparted to butter in two ways, by
direct incorporation in milk, cream and butter, of decayed rem-
nants of milk with foul smelling odors and indirectly by the
contamination of the product, through these channels, with pu-
trefactive bacteria, yeast and molds, thriving in decaying rem-
nants of milk and developing products of putrefaction in the
cream and butter.

Unclean flavor in butter can be prevented by using clean
utensils for the production and handling of milk and cream on
the farm, returning to the farmer clean, sterile and dry cream
cans, and keeping the equipment in the creamery in sanitary
condition.

470 BUTTER

Cowy and Barny Flavor. — Butter with a cowy flavor sug-
gests contamination with manure and stable air. This flavor oc-
casionally is very pronounced, especially in some species of dairy
butter, in which case the butter usually scores a poor "Seconds,"
The cowy flavor may be due to milking cows whose udders and
flanks are plastered with manure, the handling and exposure of
milk and cream in unventilated stables, and not removing the ani-
mal heat from the milk or cream promptly.

The milk and cream which produce butter with a cowy or
barny flavor are generally contaminated with large numbers of
Bacillus coli communis and Bacillus coli aerogenes. These or-
ganisms are the natural inhabitants of the colon, or large in-
testine of the animal, and are therefore found abundantly in the
manure. The abundant presence of these bacilli in milk and
cream is rather conclusive evidence of the pollution of milk and
cream with excreta from the cow. When milk and cream so con-
taminated are not promptly cooled these germs multiply rapidly
and intensify the barny odors in the butter. For details see
Chapter IV on Care of Milk and Cream on the Farm.

Musty and Smothered Flavor. — This butter defect is gener-
ally .caused by lack of prompt cooling and aeration of the cream
on the farm. The sealing up of the warm cream in the shipping can
without giving it any opportunity to give off its animal heat is
generally believed to cause a musty, smothered flavor. The stor-
ing of the cream in damp and poorly ventilated cellars with a
stagnant atmosphere is another probable cause of musty flavored
butter. The cause of musty flavor frequently also lies in the
feeding of moldy, musty and decayed foods, such as moldy hay,
moldy silage and musty grain.

Feed and Weed Flavors. — To this group of butter flavors be-
long a variety of flavors characteristic of the feeds to which the
cows have access. Many of these flavors are not very pronounced
and therefore not seriously objectionable, but others are very
marked and in some instances greatly depreciate the market
value of butter.

Since the feed flavors are usually traceable direct to the charac-
teristic feeds producing them, or to excessive feeding of certain
types of feeds, or to microorganisms with which certain feeds are

BUTTER DEFECTS 471

associated, their prevention must of necessity lie -with the pro-
ducer of milk and cream. The flavors due to weeds such as gar-
lic, rag weed, etc., can be guarded against only by eradication of
these weeds from the pasture. See "Garlic Flavor."

Roots, such as turnips, are best fed after milking in order to
give the feed time to pass through and out of the cow several
hours before the succeeding milking.

Feed flavors caused by frozen, decayed and moldy feed are
prevented by eliminating from the ration all feed not in good,
sound condition. Sour, moldy silage, frozen and decayed roots
and tops of roots, damp, moldy and poorly cured hay, damp and
musty straw, etc., should not be fed to dairy cows.

While most of the feed flavors are inherent in the milk and
cream which contain them and therefore follow these products
into the butter and while their appearance in the butter is beyond
the control of the great majority of creameries, many of these
flavors, not including the garlic flavor, and rag weed flavor, are
greatly minimized by pasteurization and aeration of the cream.
Pasteurization assists in driving and expelling from the product
volatile flavors, odors, and gases and thus helps to lessen the in-
tensity of these flavors in the finished butter.

Garlic or Wild Onion Flavor. — When the wild onion flavor
has once impregnated the milk or cream, it is very difficult to keep
this objectionable flavor out of the butter, and butter made from
such milk or cream usually grades a poor "Seconds." It may be
improved materially, however, by blowing air through the milk
or cream while hot and by prolonged pasteurization at a high
temperature. Ayres and Johnson1 demonstrated that milk and
cream can be freed from the wild onion flavor entirely by ade-
quate blowing, while these raw materials are hot. These investi-
gators contrived a blowing equipment for blowing milk and cream
on a small scale, with which they were able to entirely remove
the onion flavor from milk heated to 145° F for five minutes. For
cream they recommend a somewhat longer period of blowing and
a temperature of 160° F. Their work was done with sweet cream
testing 30% fat. It is probable that for richer cream and for
cream that is sour, the apparatus devised would have to be modi-

1 Ayres and Johnson, Removal of Garlic Flavor from Milk and Cream,
U. S. Dept. of Agr., B. A. T. Farmers' Bulletin 608, 1914.

472 BUTTER

fied somewhat to prevent clogging and to insure more complete
aeration. The usual equipment and method employed for this
purpose in the creamery are quite inadequate for complete re-
moval of garlic flavor in sour cream. They fail to furnish the
volume of air necessary for successful results. •

Because of the difficulty of even minimizing the garlic flavor
in butter made from garlic-flavored milk or cream, and the im-
possibility, under practical commercial conditions, of removing
this flavor from the once tainted product, entirely, every effort
should be made to keep this flavor out of the milk on the farm.
There are two ways to accomplish this, namely, to prevent the
cows, so far as possible, from obtaining garlic and secondly to
manage the herd on garlic pasture in such a manner as to have
it suffer the least harmful effect.1

Garlic makes a growth much earlier in the spring than pasture
grasses, and therefore is usually most troublesome when cows are
first turned to pasture and when grass is not plentiful. In many
cases garlic is localized in the pasture and these places should be
fenced off and used for pasturing stock other than milk producing
cows. When the garlic is scattered about the fields it is impos-
sible to do so, and the dairyman who would not have the flavor
of the milk of his cows impaired must so manage his herd as to
overcome the difficulty. The unpleasant odor and flavor are
strongest in milk from cows that have just eaten the garlic. If,
three or four hours before milking, the cows are placed in a
garlic-free field, the trouble will be reduced to a minimum. If
such a field is not available, they may be brought to the stable
yard and fed on silage or hay and allowed to remain out of doors
until the regular milking time. This practice the dairyman can
usually follow without serious inconvenience.

The trouble caused by garlic is not liable to last long, as the
weed is usually cropped off by the cows within a few days after
they are turned to pasture, and as soon as the grass becomes plen-
tiful they will eat that in preference.

However in years when the season opens slowly so that the
pastures fail to satisfy the cows with an abundance of grass for a
considerable period of time, garlic-flavored cream may occur for

1 Hoard's Dairyman, November 18, 1918.

BUTTER DEFECTS 473

many weeks. In the fall also there is a tendency in some sec-
tions for this flavor again to appear.

The complete eradication of the garlic plant is the most satis-
factory method of avoiding trouble and is practicable on thejpr-
dinary dairy farm. Those interested in such eradication should
write to the Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C, for
Farmers' Bulletin 610, entitled, "Wild Onion; Methods of Eradi-
cation", and Farmers' Bulletin 608, which gives directions for re-
moving the garlic flavor of milk.

MOLDY BUTTER

The genuine moldy flavor of butter is usually due to the pres-
ence and growth in cream and butter of certain species of molds.
Frequently storage butter, that has reached an advanced stage of
deterioration, develops a very marked disagreeable moldy odor
and flavor.

Causes of Mold Spots on Butter. — The greatest objection of
moldy butter, however, does not lie in its objectionable flavor,
but rather in the appearance on and in the butter of mold specks
and spots which render it unsightly and cause much loss to the
creamery'and the butter dealer.

This butter fault is especially prevalent in summer and usually
shows up in the course of a few days after manufacture. Whole-
sale receivers practically every summer complain of moldy butter.
They find the butter to be spotted with mold specks of a greenish-
brown to black color. These specks are located largely on the
surface of the butter, especially in the lower sections of the butter
tub. In aggravated cases the mold specks penetrate the butter to
a considerable depth and frequently they permeate the entire
tub. Even if butter scored an "Extras" in all other points, moldy
butter would be classed as a "Seconds" and would be sold by the
dealers as such at a great sacrifice in price. The difficulty and
trouble of removing all traces of mold from moldy butter is
great and expensive. Much butter is wasted, new tubs and
liners have to be supplied, and much labor is required. Upon
storage at not very low temperature butter occasionally be-
comes completely coated with a matting of molds. The fila-
ments often grow so long that the surface is actually bearded.

474 BUTTER

Unsalted butter is much more prone to become moldy than
salted butter, the salt exerting a considerable retarding, if not in-
hibiting, effect on mold growth. In fact, it is frequently very
difficult to prevent unsalted butter from showing moldiness, in
spite of the' observance of otherwise successful and effective
precautions.

There are numerous classes and species of molds that are capa-
ble of developing mold spots on butter, such as Penicilium, Tri-
chosporium, Streptothrix, Cladosporium oidium. Griepenberg1
who examined storage butter, found that most of the molds in
butter belonged to the genera Penicilium and Trichosporium and
that of these, Penicilium cruslaceum and Trichosporium collae
were the most common species. Penicilium glaucum and oidium
lactis are also known to be very common molds of butter.
Most of these organisms thrive on the caseous matter of the
butter and some are also capable of splitting the butterfat.

According to Thorn and Shaw,2 mold in butter usually takes
three forms :

"1. Orange-yellow (red) areas with a submerged growth of
mycelium, which are produced by Oidium lactis. Cannot develop
in butter containing 2.5% of salt.

2. Smudged or dirty-green areas, either entirely submerged
or with some surface growth. These are produced by species
Alternaria and Cladosporium. Cannot develop in butter con-
taining 2.5% salt.

3. Green surface colonies, which are produced by Penicilium,
or more rarely, Aspergillus, either upon the butter, causing de-
composition, or upon the container or wrapping, injuring the
appearance of the sample in the market."

The natural channels through which butter becomes contam-
inated are infection of milk and cream on the farm, and con-
tamination of cream or butter in the factory, from the air in ill-
ventilated plants, from unclean vats, pipes, churns and packing
equipment, from impure starters and impure washwater, and
from mold-infected material used for packing, such as parchment
wrappers and liners, and butter tubs and boxes.

1 Griepenberg1, Fleischmann, Lehrbuch der Milchwirtschaft, p. 324, 1915.

2 Thorn and Shaw. Moldiness in Butter. Jour. Agr. Research. Vol. Ill,
No. 4, 1915.

BUTTER DEFECTS 475

Proper pasteurization materially minimizes the tendency of
butter to become moldy. It is destructive to the majority of the
species of molds usually found in the cream.1 Pasteurization
therefore limits the problem of preventing moldy butter very
largely to precautions against recontamination of cream and but-
ter after the cream leaves the pasteurizer and confines it to the
sanitary condition of the air, vats, pipes, pumps, churns, wash-
water and packing equipment and material.

Moldy butter has in some instances also been traced to con-
taminated salt.

The most probable cause of the salt as a source of moldy
butter lies in the contamination of the salt in the creamery after
the barrel is opened. In many creameries the salt is kept in a
room none too clean and in an atmosphere none too pure. If
the barrel is left open the surface of the salt is prone to become
contaminated with germ life of the air and may become the
carrier of mold. The salt barrels should be stored in a clean
place and a properly fitting cover should be provided for rem-
nant barrels. Such barrels should be covered immediately after
each removal of salt.

Prevention of Mold in Butter. — Moldiness in butter may
best be prevented by observing the following precautions :

1. Pasteurize all cream, skimmilk and starter used. In
vat pasteurization heat to at least 145° F. and hold not less than
30 minutes. In flash pasteurization heat to 180 to 185° F. When
using the holding process draw a pailful of cream from the gate
of the vat as soon as the temperature of the cream reaches 145°
F. and pour it back into the vat. This will insure proper heating
of the cream located in the gate and nipple.

2. Use pure starter only. If the starter is contaminated
reject it.

3. Thoroughly wash, flush and steam all vats, pipes, con-
duits and pumps daily.

4. Rinse the churns daily with one batch of hot water
containing some good washing- powder and then with clean hot
water. The water must have a temperature of 180° F. or over.
Use thermometer to make sure. Lime the churns at regular

1 Thorn and Ayres — Effect of Pasteurization on Mold Spores. Jour. Agr.
Research, Vol. VI, No. 4, 1916.

476 BUTTER

intervals, preferably once per week, or whenever they show
signs of staleness. Churns that have been lying idle should
always be limed and receive a special cleaning and scalding
before they are pressed into service again. The churn is the
most difficult piece of equipment to keep clean and sweet, and
it represents one of the most dangerous sources of moldy butter.

5. Do not wash packing equipment, such as packers, ladles,
cubes and tubs, in dirty water. Rinse them thoroughly with
scalding hot water after washing and store them in a clean, dry
atmosphere.

6. Wash the butter thoroughly to remove as much as pos-
sible of the curd of the buttermilk. Curd is a necessary food for
molds to grow on. Use pure wash water. Have the wash water
tested bacteriologically at reasonable intervals and if it contains
molds pasteurize or filter it. If a wash water storage tank is
used it should be kept clean and free from slimy material by
frequent scrubbing out.

7. Keep the salt in a clean, dry place. Do not break the
seal of the barrels until necessary. Keep remnant barrels
covered.

8. Do not store cubes, tubs and parchment liners and
wrappers in a damp room. Keep them in a clean, dry at-
mosphere and keep the parchment wrappers and liners in their
original package until used.

9. Properly paraffin all tubs and boxes. Heat them over
the steam jet until they are "piping" hot before paraffining and
use boiling paraffin only. Do the paraffining as short a time
as possible before the tubs are used and keep them inverted in
a clean place after paraffining and before use.

10. Soak parchment wrappers, liners and circles from 5
to 10 minutes in boiling hot saturated brine before use, both
for salted and for unsalted butter.

11. Incorporate the moisture in the butter properly. Wet,
leaky butter assists in the spread of mold colonies.

12. Pack the butter solidly, avoiding air pockets, espe-
cially between the butter and the sides of the tub. Air favors
mold growth,

BUTTER DEFECTS 477

13. Store the butter in a clean, dry room and keep the
temperature as low as possible. Molds grow best in a moist
atmosphere and at a temperature around 50 to 60° F.

14. Make the butter from cream of low acidity (.3% acid
or below). Molds prefer an acid medium for growth.

15. Keep the air in the creamery well ventilated and the
sewers and floors well scrubbed. A stagnant, impure atmo-
sphere is often pregnant with mold spores.

16. Spray the walls, ceilings and floors of butter storage
rooms with formaldehyde, at reasonable intervals. Do not per-
mit the appearance of mold specks on walls and ceilings.

For additional directions for the treatment of liners and
wrappers see Chapter XII on ''Packing Butter."

Yeasty Flavor and Foamy Cream. — This flavor is the re-
sult of a yeast fermentation of the cream. It is most preva-
lent in summer, particularly during the hottest summer weather,
when both, the days and the nights are hot and when the cream
is exposed to the summer heat for a considerable length of
time. Yeasty flavored butter seldom scores better than a "Sec-
ond." It represents a very objectionable flavor defect which
no now-known process of manufacture is capable of entirely
removing. Nor does it disappear while the butter is held in
cold storage. This flavor stays in butter until the butter is
consumed.

Yeasty cream, therefore, should be culled out at the cream-
ery by rigid grading, and churned separately, if it is accepted
at all. The adoption and practice of an efficient system of cream
grading and paying on the basis of quality is the creamery's
most effective immediate weapon to minimize receipts of yeasty
cream, accompanied by a systematic effort to acquaint the
farmer with the fact that the reason why he received a lower
price was that the cream was yeasty, and by instructions of
how to best avoid the recurrence of this defect.

The fundamental cause of yeasty and foamy cream lies in
the presence in cream of yeast cells. Most, if not all, cream
contains some yeast cells, but at moderate or low temperatures
they fail to gain the ascendency and therefore do not develop
a yeasty flavor in the cream nor cause the cream to foam.

478 BUTTER DEFECTS

Yeast cells require a relatively high temperature, approach-
ing that of the animal body, for their greatest development.
When on the farm, or in transit, or both, the cream is exposed
sufficiently long to summer heat, so that the cream itself be-
comes warm, the development of the yeast cells becomes very
pronounced and very intense. Often it is accompanied by vio-
lent gas production, frequently causing the lids of the cans to
blow off and the cream to foam over. In this condition the
cream gives off a very decided and objectionable yeasty flavor
similar to baker's yeast, that follows the product into the fin-
ished butter.

If the cream is cooled promptly and properly on the farm
when it leaves the separator and is kept cool until shipped, it
usually reaches the creamery before it has a chance to become
yeasty and foamy. On the other hand, if the cream is not
cooled on the farm, the yeast cells become active at once and
when this fermentation has once commenced, it goes on rapidly
and is stopped with difficulty only.

It is obvious also that the number of yeast cells present
in the cream to start with, has a great deal to do with the rapid-
ity and extent to which this defect develops. Contamination
of the cream through such channels as impure water, unclean
utensils, unclean separators and cans, should be avoided as
much as possible, and the cream producer should be instructed
to pay close attention to the following precautions :

Prevention of Yeasty and Foamy Cream.

1. Wash and scald all milk utensils, such as strainers,
pails, dippers, cans, etc., after each use.

2. Wash and scald all parts of the cream separator that
come in contact with milk and cream, after each use.

3. Cool the cream as soon as it leaves the separator to as
low a temperature as possible, preferably below 60° F.

4. Use a cream cooling tank and keep the cream in cold
water until it leaves the farm.

5. Protect the cream cans in transit from summer heat by
covering them with wet blankets.

6. Do not allow the cans to stand on the station platform
exposed to the sun in hot weather-

BUTTER DEFECTS 479

7. Deliver or ship the cream often.

In the case of the cream station system of receiving cream,
cream that may have arrived at the cream station in good condi-
tion, frequently is yeasty and foams over by the time it reaches
the central creamery. In this case the yeasty defect is largely
due to faulty handling of the cream at the cream station.

In order to avoid this the cream, after it has been trans-
ferred to the shipping cans, should be set in cold water or in
a cold room and held there until shipping time.

If, during hot weather, cream arrives at the creamery at
a time too late for "dumping" on the same day, the cans should
be rolled into the cooler, in order to prevent the development
of foamy cream over night.

Bitter Flavor. — The bitter flavor of butter is a defect, which
is confined largely to dairy butter. Its occurrence in creamery
butter is comparatively rare. The bitter flavor is either present
in the milk at the time it is drawn or it develops in the milk or
cream after milking. In either case it passes also into the
butter.

There are individual cows when in poor physical condition,
or when they have reached an advanced state of their period of
lactation, usually after the sixth month, that yield milk that has
a bitter taste. In many of these cases of bitter milk, the milk
is abnormal also in other respects. Often the milk is very
viscous and produces cream that refuses to churn out; the but-
ter usually has a poor texture and is greasy. In some instances
this bitter milk does not curdle in the natural way. The exact
cause of this condition has not been satisfactorily determined.
Weigmann1 suggests the probability that the peptonizing of the
milk proteids may yield bitter-tasting albumoses and peptones,
but he also mentions the possibility of the presence in such milk
of special bitter substances. Whether these lower forms of
milk proteids, the albumoses and peptones, are the result of
abnormal physiological action of the cows and are therefore
inherent in such milk, or whether they are due to bacterial ac-
tion by udder microorganisms, is also a matter not experi-
mentally determined. According to Weigmann certain species
of the coli and aerogenes groups of bacteria, also Bacterium

1 Weigmann— My kologie der Milch, 1911, p. 132.

480 BUTTER

Zopfii and Bacterium lactis innocuum, are capable of making-
milk bitter. Jensen1 reports Streptococcus casei amari as a
cause of bitter milk. Harrison2 discovered a lactose-fermenting
yeast, which he gave the name Torula amara, that produced a
bitter flavor in milk and cheese made in Canada. This organism
produced an intense bitter flavor in 14 hours. His investigation
showed that this yeast grows on the leaves of maple trees and
contaminated the milk by being blown from maple trees into
the milk cans which stood under these trees on the farms. It
was necessary to steam these cans very thoroughly in order
to destroy this germ. Conn, Burri, Duggeli, Freudenreich.
Govini and others3 report numerous peptonizing microorgan-
isms which are capable of rendering milk and butter bitter.

Bitter milk and butter frequently also are the result of cer-
tain feeds and weeds to which the cows have access, among
these we find lupines, rag weed, beet tops, rye pasture (ex-
cessive), raw potatoes, and especially many classes of decayed
and moldy feed stuffs, and moldy bedding, moldy oat and barley
straw.

Butter may also derive its bitter flavor from the use of
chemically impure salt, especially salt containing relatively
large amounts of magnesium salts or calcium chloride, or both.

Butter made from sour cream that has been overneutralized,
or improperly neutralized, especially when lime is used as a
neutralizer, is prone to show a bitter, limy, or so-called neutral-
ized flavor. For proper neutralization which will reliably pre-
vent bitterness from this source see Chapter VII on Neutral-
ization.

Oily Flavor. — Causes of Oily Flavor. — Oily flavor of but-
ter is a frequent occurrence in creameries receiving sour cream,
pasteurizing at a high temperature and cooling by turning the
cream over a surface cooler. Butter which has an oily flavor
gives the impression of having, and generally does have, in-
ferior keeping quality. Experience has shown that such but-
ter, when in storage often, though not always, develops other
and more objectionable flavor defects, such as metallic flavor

1 Orla Jensen. Die Bakteriologie der Milchwirtschaft, p. 82.

2 Harrison. Landwirtschaftliches Jahrbuch der Schweiz 14, 1900.
3Weigmann. Die Mykologie der Milch, 1911.

BUTTER DEFECTS 481

and fishy flavor. The oily flavor is more prevalent in butter
made in summer than in winter. Oily butter is not suitable for
storage. It usually scores a " Seconds."

The specific reactions which produce oily-flavored butter
are not well understood, but it is known from practical ex-
perience that high temperature pasteurization and the use of
a surface cooler for cooling the hot pasteurized cream, are
prone to produce an oily flavor in butter. This is especially the
case with cream that is excessively sour at the time of pasteuriza-
tion. The pasteurization of very rich cream and of cream that
has been much diluted with water also tends to make butter
oily. Overworking of the butter under certain conditions has
a similar effect.

The oily flavor has also been attributed by some investi-
gators to bacterial action. Jensen1 isolated an organism be-
longing to the group of sour milk bacteria, which was capable,
aside from curdling the milk into a solid clot in 24 hours, to
produce an unpleasant odor and taste resembling that of ma-
chine oil. The oily flavor was transmitted from the cream in
which it developed to the butter. Others2 claim that oily but-
ter is due to the action of microorganisms that decompose the
fat, such as Oidium lactis, yeasts and liquefying bacteria. To
what extent specific microorganisms are directly responsible for
the oily flavor in butter is uncertain, but it is quite possible
that they assist in bringing about such combinations of condi-
tions as are conducive to the development of oiliness and there-
by may become indirectly responsible for this defect.

The oily flavor of butter occassionably may be due to
causes other than those pertaining to the process of manu-
facture. It has at times been found to be caused by the print-
er's ink on the butter carton. In this case the oily flavor is
usually especially pronounced on the surface of the print while
the interior of the butter may be practically free from this
defect.

In the case of cartons with heavy, solid coloring, that are
inclined to transmit to the butter an oily flavor, the danger can
be greatly minimized, if not entirely prevented, by allowing

1 Russell— Outlines of Dairy Bacteriology, 1902, p. 158.
* Marshall — Microbiology, 1911, p. 343.

482 BUTTER DEFECTS

the cartons to dry out, either by aging them or by aerating
them in a warm room, preferably with the aid of forced air cir-
culation, or both. It is advisable to store all printed cartons in
a dry room and preferably in a moderately warm atmosphere.
This hastens the aging and drying of the ink and the expulsion
of ink odors detrimental to the flavor of the butter.

Prevention of Oily Flavor. — In consideration of the above
observations concerning the causes of oily flavor in butter, at-
tention to the following points may serve to overcome this de-
fect or to avoid its recurrence :

1. Do not flash pasteurize cream that is high in acid. If
the cream cannot be secured in sweet condition, standardize
its acidity to about .25% acid before pasteurization. If this is
not possible, use the vat or holding process of pasteurization.

2. Do not dilute cream with water. Instead of rinsing the
cream cans with water to reclaim the remnants of cream they
contain, blow these remnants of cream out of the cans with
steam, inverting the cans over steam jets.

3. Use as little water as possible when rinsing cream and
foam out of forewarmers and vats. It would be preferable to
use skimmilk instead of water for this purpose. If the cream is
too rich, containing above about 33% fat, dilute it with sweet
milk, skimmilk, condensed milk or dissolved skimmilk powder.
This adds solids not fat to the cream and assists in protecting
the fat globules against mutilation during pasteurization. Stand-
ardize all cream to about 33% fat before the cream is pas-
teurized.

4. Do not run the flash pasteurizer at excessive speed.
Use a machine of such capacity that crowding it is unnecessary.

5. Do not expose the hot cream, while cooling, excessive-
ly to air and light. In the place of a surface coil cooler, use
a cooler which protects the hot cream against these agents. If
no such cooler is available run the cream from the flash pas-
teurizer direct into the vats and do all the cooling in the vats,
preferably with the covers partly down.

6. Do not overwork the butter. Regulate its moisture con-
tent by proper adjustment of the churning temperature, rather
than by an effort to reincorporate water into too firm butter
by overworking.

BUTTER DIRECTS 483

7. Use butter cartons only that are incapable of transmit-
ting to the butter an oily flavor.

Metallic Flavor. — By metallic flavor is generally under-
stood a semblance in flavor to the astringent, puckery and
metallic flavor, characteristic of the taste of metallic salts, such
as are formed by iron, copper, zinc, etc., in acid solutions.

This flavor defect is not always sharply defined, often be-
ing accompanied by other, more or less pronounced off-flavors.
Frequently it borders on oiliness, then again it approaches fishi-
ness and occasionally it appears to be a nuance of tallowy
flavor.

Causes of Metallic Flavor. — While direct contact with
metals and high acid in cream are undeniably essential and
fundamental factors in the production of metallic flavor in but-
ter, they do by no means always produce this defect.

This fact suggests that the metallic flavor, similar to the
fishy flavor in butter, is the result of a combination of condi-
tions, of which all the necessary elements are not as yet def-
initely known.

Slight variations of the factors making up this combination,
or slight variations in the extent to which the individual ele-
ments of the combination are present, appear to make wide dif-
ferences in the exact flavor defect produced. The result may
be the characteristic metallic flavor, or it may be an oily flavor,
a fishy flavor, or a tallowy flavor, etc.

Thus experimental results of the writer show that under
the majority of conditions, the presence of traces of such metals
as iron or copper or their salts, in butter made from sour cream,
causes such butter to develop a metallic or a fishy flavor, while
the presence of the same metals, or their salts, in butter in
which the acid has been completely neutralized, will produce
a tallowy flavor.

Since it is evident that traces of metals or metallic salts
are an integral part of the combination of conditions that results
in metallic flavor in butter, it is obvious that the condition of
the utensils and equipment in which the milk and cream are
handled and in which butter is manufactured, exerts a far-
reaching influence on the production or prevention of metallic
flavor.

484 BUTTER

Thus the use of rusty utensils on the farm, the holding and
shipping of the cream in rusty cans, the use of forewarmers,
pasteurizers, coolers, vats, pipes and conduits, etc., in which
the copper has become exposed and especially where the cop-
per surface is not scoured thoroughly and regularly and is per-
mitted to accumulate verdigris, furnishes a logical basis for the
development of metallic flavor.

Both iron and copper are most active in the presence of
acid forming metallic salts. Therefore, this flavor defect occurs
most prominently in butter made from cream that reaches the
creamery in sour condition and is churned sour. Because of
this fact, metallic flavor is generally more prevalent and more
pronounced in summer than in winter butter, the cream con-
taining more acid during the hot weather than during cold
weather, although metallic flavor is by no means confined to
summer butter, and may appear at any time of the year.

Flash pasteurization, combined with the use of the sur-
face coil cooler for cooling the heated cream, further invites
metallic flavor, partly because the action of the sour cream in
the presence of heat, air and light on the metal surface of the
cooler, is intensified, and partly because this method of cool-
ing may result in oily butter, which is often a forerunner or
preliminary stage of metallic flavor.

For similar reasons, rich cream (cream testing over 33%
fat), and cream that is excessively diluted with water, tends to
cause butter to develop metallic flavor. As explained under
"Oily flavor," such cream contains a relatively low per cent of
solids not fat and its viscosity is slight. This robs the cream
of the protecting influence of the solids not fat, the fat globules
are subjected to excessive mutilation during flash pasteurization
and yield more readily to the oxidizing influence of heat, air and
light, to which they are exposed, while the hot cream runs over
the surface cooler.

The ripening and holding of the sour cream in the copper
vats and similar equipment for a prolonged period of time,
such as holding it over night in vats with profusely exposed cop-
per, may lend additional impetus to the development of metallic
and similar off-flavors in butter, accelerating the action of the
acid on the metal, and the oxidizing and catalizing action of

BUTTER DEFECTS 485

the metallic salts on the ingredients of the cream and possibly
enhancing also bacterial and enzyme action. Furthermore, in
most vats several metals are exposed to the cream, so that it is
not improbable that this bimetallic submersion in the acid of the
cream, gives rise to a slight galvanic current, producing electro-
lytic action which naturally hastens the formation of metallic
salts.

Finally, the churning of cream with a high acid content
augments the acid content of the resulting butter and this
furnishes an additional essential factor in the combination of
conditions which cause metallic flavor.

Attempts to attribute the metallic flavor to the presence
in the cream of specific bacteria or groups of microorganisms
experimentally, have proven abo'rtive. While bacteria, through
their power to decompose portions of the ingredients of cream
and butter, forming acid and other cleavage products, may
assist to a limited extent in the production of metallic flavor,
they cannot be considered as the specific cause of this defect.

Nor is the fact that the metallic flavor often does not appear
in the fresh butter, but develops after a considerable period of
storage, necessarily indicative of bacterial origin. A careful
study of the available data dealing with the causes of this but-
ter defect emphasizes the complexity of the combination of
factors and conditions responsible for the metallic flavor and
the wide variations in the rapidity with which this defect de-
velops. On the basis of the bulk of evidence it appears reason-
able to attribute metallic flavor to chemical action.

Prevention of Metallic Flavor. — According to our present
limited lights on this subject, the most consistent means to
prevent metallic flavor in butter is :

1. To use rust-free cream shipping cans and to return to
the farmer cans only that are clean and properly rinsed and
steamed and thoroughly dried.

2. To keep forewarmers, pasteurizers, coolers, vats, etc.,
well tinned, to thoroughly scour exposed copper surfaces, keep-
ing them bright and free from verdigris, and to flush the entire
system each day before use with hot water, thus removing any
water it may contain and which may have absorbed metallic
salts.

486 BUTTER

3. To protect hot pasteurized cream from air and light by
cooling under cover.

4. To avoid excessive dilution of cream with water and to
standardize all cream before pasteurization to about 33% fat or
below with skim milk or milk, and to about .25% acid by the use
of a suitable neutralizer, in the case of sour cream.

5. To not permit the cream to lie in the vats for an
abnormal period of time and to churn it at an acidity of about
.3% or below. Especially should cream not be held over night
in improperly tinned copper vats.

Fishy Flavor. — The fishy flavor is a defect especially com-
mon with storage butter, though fishiness in fresh butter and
butter only one to three weeks old, is by no means a rare occur-
rence. Fishiness is a very serious butter fault, objectionable to
most consumers and one which greatly depreciates the market
value of the product. Fishy butter is shunned on the open mar-
ket. It seldom grades above a poor "Seconds."

Causes of Fishy Flavor. — Milk, cream and butter may be-
come fishy in flavor when kept in close proximity to fish, in
which case the dairy product absorbs the odor. The possibility
of tainting butter from this source is pretty generally under-
stood and recognized. In Great Britain and Ireland the law
requires railway companies to provide separate cars for the
carriage of fish and butter.

Again, the fishy flavor of butter may be due to the cow
herself. Weigmann1 reports a case where an individual cow
which received the same feed and care as the rest of the herd,
persistently produced a fishy milk. The fishy flavor of her milk
was so marked that when mixed with the milk of the remainder
of the herd, the mixed milk also became intensely fishy in flavor.
In another case a cow produced milk with a fishy flavor only
during the hot summer weather. This investigator further
states that in Schleswig-Holstein, Germany,' the opinion prevails
that cows yield fishy milk when they pasture in the marshes
which are periodically flooded by the tide and on the grasses
of which small crabs and other sea fauna dry and decay. Lew-
kowitsch2 also reports that fishy butter is met with in Norway,

1 Weigmann— Mykologie der Milch, 1911, p. 124.

2 Lewkowitsch — Chemical Technology and Analysis of Oils, Fats and
Waxes, Vol. II, 1914, p. 798.

BUTTER DEFECTS 487

being obtained from cows fed on fishmeal. In contradiction to
the above, Weigmann writes that even in the case of intensive
feeding of herring meal or whale meal neither the milk nor the
butter show signs of fishiness.

Harding, Rogers and Smith1 investigated the cause of fishy
flavor and odor in milk brought to the New York State Experi-
ment Station by a milk dealer. This fishy taint was so pronounced
that the milk was of no commercial value, although coming from
a dairyman of more than ordinary carefulness in the handling
of his herd. They found that the defect was confined to the milk
of one cow that was fed on the same feed and received the same
care as the other animals in the herd. This cow was apparently
in normal condition. Bacteriological study of her milk revealed
no microorganisms capable of producing the fishy flavor.

Piffard2 suggests that the salt, owing to its ability to absorb
odors and flavors of material in close proximity, may occasionally
be responsible for fishy butter. This is improbable, the salt has
the power to intensify flavors but it does not readily absorb
flavors. The same author holds that frequently fishy butter
may be due to impure water with objectionable flavor, to which
the cows may have access and which he attributes to the devel-
opment of diatoms and algae, notably the Oscillaria.

These cases of mechanical absorption by milk or butter of
the fishy flavor, or of fishy flavor caused by an abnormal condi-
tion of the cow or the milk, are comparatively rare. The great
majority of causes of fishy-flavored butter on the market is due
to causes, deeper seated, more complex and more difficult to
prevent. The seriousness of the defect and the difficulty of
avoiding it are augmented further by the fact that the fishy flavor
of most of the commercial butter does not show up at the churn.
In aggravated cases it may develop within the first few weeks
after manufacture, but in the great majority of cases it develops
while the butter is in cold storage.

The earlier studies of fishy flavor in butter and its causes,
dealt largely with efforts to discover specific bacteria or other

1 Harding, Rogers and Smith. Notes on Some Dairy Troubles. New York
State (Geneva) Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 183, 1900.

2 Piffard. Fishy Flavor in Butter. New York Produce Review and Am.
Creamery, Vol. 13, No. 20, 1901.

488 BUTTER DEFECTS

micro-organisms capable of producing this flavor. O'Callaghan1
attributes fishiness in butter to the mold Oidium lactis. He
claims that this organism when grown in conjunction with Bacil-
lus acidi lactici in cream produces fishiness invariably.

Harrison2 classes the fishy flavor of butter with bitter, putrid
and lardy flavors, the causes of which he attributes to the pres-
ence and growth of undesirable microorganisms in the cream.
Jensen3 found certain species of yeast that give butter a fishy
flavor. Klein,4 speaking of oily, fishy and tallowy butter, holds
that all these butter defects may well be considered specific
forms of rancid butter, resulting from the action of bacteria.
Hammer5 isolated from a can of evaporated cream, which had de-
veloped a fishy odor, a bacillus of the Proteus group, which he
named Bac. ichthyosmius. With this organism he was able to
reproduce the fishy odor in milk, cream and evaporated milk.
When inoculated into butter, either direct, or into sweet or sour
cream, the butter failed to show fishy odor or flavor.

The later studies and observations relating to the causes of
fishy butter indicate that the direct cause of fishy flavor and odor
in commercial butter is attributable to chemical action rather
than to bacterial development. Fleischmann6 states that fishy
and oily flavor is a butter defect which appears only in butter
made from sour cream, that it shows itself as an augmen-
tation of an aroma characteristic of this class of butter, carried
to the point where it becomes offensive to taste, and that it
is caused by certain species of bacteria which develop in the
cream during souring and associatively with the lactic acid
ferments.

Rogers7 found that in all cases where butter became fishy,
the butter was made from high acid cream, both in the case of
acid produced in the cream by bacteria, and of acid in the form

1 O'Callaghan — "Cause and Remedy of Fishy Flavored Butter." The Agr.
Gazette of N. S. Wales, Vol. 12, p. 341, 1901.

O'Callaghan — "Butter Classification.' The Agr. Gazette of N. S. Wales,
Vol. 18, p. 223, 1907.

O'Callaghan' — "That Fishy Flavor." Chicago Dairy Produce, April 25,
1916, p. 8.

2 Harrison — "Defects in Butter." Twenty-seventh Annual Report On-
tario Agr. Exp. Sta., p. 79, 1901.

3 Jensen — Die Bakteriologie der Milchwirtschaft, 1913, p. 24.
* Klein — Milchwirtschaft, 1914, p. 238.

5 Hammer — Fishiness in Evaporated Milk. Iowa Research Bui., 1917.

6 Fleischmann— Lehrbuch der Milchwirtschaft, 1915, p. 322.

7 Rogers— Fishy Flavor in Butter. U. S. Dept. Agr., B. A. I. Circular
146, 1909.

BUTTER DEFECTS 489

of lactic acid and acetic acid added to sweet cream, although
cream with high acid did not uniformly develop fishiness. He
further states that overworking of butter produced fishiness
with a reasonable degree of certainty. He offers the opinion
that fishy flavor is caused by a slow, spontaneous, chemical
change to which acid is essential and which is favored by the
presence of small amounts of oxygen, and that it may be pre-
vented with certainty by making butter from sweet cream; also
that butter made from pasteurized cream with a starter but
without ripening seldom, if ever, becomes fishy.

In a subsequent publication, dealing with results on the
Manufacture of Butter for Storage, Rogers, Thompson and
Keithley1 show still more conclusively the freedom from fishiness
in butter made from unripened pasteurized cream, and the ten-
dency of butter made from ripened, raw or pasteurized cream to
become fishy in storage.

Dyer2, as the result of a chemical study of fresh and stored
butter, concludes that "the production of off-flavors" so com-
monly met with in cold storage butter (and of which the fishy
flavor is a very prominent one) is attributable to a chemical
change expressed through a slow oxidation progressing in some
one or more of the non-fatty substances occurring in buttermilk.
The extent of this chemical change is directly proportional to
the quantity of acid present in the cream from which the butter
was prepared. Dyer further emphasizes that the development
of undesirable flavor in butter held in cold storage at a tempera-
ture of 0° F. is not dependent upon an oxidation of the fat itself*

The writer's experience has been fully in accord with the
findings of Rogers and Dyer, to the effect that high acid cream
and overworking of butter are conditions favorable to the devel-
opment of fishy butter. Fishy butter is very closely related to
oily and metallic butter. It appears to be the result of a com-
bination of certain factors, one of which is high acidity and
another a weak body of butter due to overworking, which
destroys the grain and excessively exposes the butter to the
action of air. Other factors may embrace the presence in the

1 Rogers, Thompson and Keithley — The Manufacture of Butter for Stor-
age, U. S. Dept. Agr., B. A. I. Bulletin 148, 1912.

2 Dyer — Progressive Oxidation in Cold Storage Butter. Jour. Agr. Re-
search, Vol. VI, No. 24, 1916.

490 BUTTER DEFECTS

eream and butter of metallic salts, such as iron and copper lac-
tates, which act as oxidizers and catalizers, and the presence in
the cream and butter of diverse ferments and their products.
Prevention of Fishy Flavor. — In order to minimize the
danger of butter going fishy before, during and after cold storage,
attention to the following phases of manufacture is recom-
mended :

1. Secure as fresh, sweet and unfermented cream as pos-
sible. Systematically grade the cream for quality and churn
first and second grade separately.

2. Use only non-rusty cans that are thoroughly cleaned,
rinsed, steamed and dried before they are returned to the farmer.

3. Keep the copper surfaces in forewarmers, pasteurizers,
coolers and vats well tinned, do not permit exposed copper sur-
feces to become coated with verdigris, wash all forewarmers,
pumps, pasteurizers, coolers, vats and conduits thoroughly each
day and flush them out again with hot water immediately before
use the next day.

4. If the cream arrives at the creamery sour, neutralize
it to about .25% acid.

5. Do not dilute cream with water. If cream is too rich,
standardize it to about 33% fat by the addition of sweet milk or
sweet skimmilk.

6. Pasteurize all cream, but do not run the heated cream
over an open surface cooler. Protect it against excessive ex-
posure to the air and light.

7. Churn the cream with an acidity of .3% or below.

8. Do not overwork the butter.

Tallowy Flavor. — This butter defect refers to butter which
has a distinct taste and odor of spoiled tallow. Tallowy butter
is usually, but not always, bleached in color, and may be en-
tirely white. Very old tallowy butter may change to a pinkish
brown color. Tallowiness is a defect which renders butter
utterly unfit for the market.

Butter may, and frequently does develop a tallowy flavor
and odor and a bleached color within a few weeks of the date
of manufacture, though this defect usually requires from three

BUTTER DEFECTS 491

to six weeks to become pronounced under commercial condi-
tions of handling butter. Tallowiness is not a usual cold stor-
age defect of butter. In commercial cold storage, butter seldom
goes tallowy. This defect develops primarily in butter lying
in stores and exposed to rather high temperatures (room tem-
perature). Tallowiness is more prevalent in print butter than
in tub butter. The tallowy flavor and the bleaching start on the
surface of the butter and gradually work into its interior. But-
ter may have turned very tallowy and perfectly white on its
surface, while the core of the package may still have the nor-
mal yellow color, and be free from the tallowy flavor.

Causes of Tallowy Flavor. — Tallowiness, similar to ran-
cidity, is due to a decomposition of the butterfat. These two
flavor defects often occur in the same piece of butter and have
frequently been confused, or considered synonymous. This con-
fusion is unfortunate, inasmuch as it has led to misleading in-
terpretations of experimental results, rendering difficult the
establishment of their true causes and hindering efforts in-
tended toward their prevention.

A careful study of the causes of tallowy butter shows that,
unlike rancidity, which is the result of hydrolysis of the fats,
tallowiness is due to oxidation.

On the basis of our present knowledge1 relating to tallowy
butter, the causes and prevention of this defect may consist-
ently be summarized as follows:

1. Oxidation the Cause of Tallowy Butter. — The butter
defect known as tallowy odor and flavor is the result of a
process of oxidation. The oxidizing action may, or may not, be
on the fat, according to agencies and conditions favoring the
oxidation, as outlined in succeeding paragraphs.

2. Exposure to Air, Light and Heat. — Air readily brings
about oxidation of the fat in butter, and this oxidation is
greatly intensified in the presence of light and heat. Butter
so exposed is prone to rapidly develop a tallowy flavor. This
fact is well known to the layman. Tallowiness, caused through
these channels, is comparatively rare, because the great bulk of
commercial butter is guarded against these agents. The wrap-

a Hunziker and Hosman, Tallowy Butter, Its Causes and Prevention.
Journal of Dairy Science, Vol. I., No. 4. 1917.

492 BUTTER

pers and cartons of print butter and the liners and paraffined
tubs and cubes of bulk butter, protect the butter against exces-
sive exposure to air and light. While the butter remains in the
creamery, it is usually kept at a temperature considerably be-
low that at which heat alone is capable of producing tallow-
mess. Butter intended for immediate consumption (within
one to three weeks) does not become tallowy, even at ordinary
ice box temperature, such as it is exposed to in the store and
in the home, unless it contains other agents that cause tallow-
iness. The bulk of the butter going to the tropics is packed in
hermetically sealed tin cans, excluding the air and light and
thereby greatly minimizing the action of heat. Butter intended
for prolonged storage, rarely develops tallowiness, because the
low temperature of commercial cold storage sufficiently retards
the action of air and light. Although under present commercial
conditions of manufacture and handling of butter, air, light
and heat are improbable causes of tallowiness, their importance
should not be ignored and every effort should be made to pro-
tect butter against these agents.

To run the hot pasteurized cream over a surface coil cooler}
located near windows with transparent panes or with open
sash, where it is exposed to the direct sunlight, and possibly
to air currents; to keep the pasteurizing vats open during the
entire process of heating, holding and cooling; to work butter
on an open table near the window, and to expose the butter
in the print room and later in storage excessively to air, light
and heat, are dangerous practices, which jeopardize quality and
may readily lead to tallowy flavor in butter.

3. Presence in Cream and Butter of Metals and Metallic
Salts. — Oxidizing agents, such as metals and their salts, are
capable of turning butter tallowy in a very short time. These
agents act as oxygen carriers or catalizers. Iron and copper
and their salts, also the alloys of copper, such as brass and
German silver, belong to this class. The copper, copper salts,
and the alloys of copper are the most active metals, metallic salts
and alloys that enter into the problem in commercial butter-
making. Iron oxide also has specific catalytic action which
aids the oxidation process, while in the case of iron bases and

BUTTER DEFECTS 493

salts the action is relatively slight. Nickel and tin are practi-
cally negative in this respect and do not produce tallowy flavor
in butter.

Most of the equipment used in the handling of cream and
the manufacture of butter is constructed of iron or copper, usu-
ally originally coated with tin. When this tin coating wears'
off, as it always does to a greater or less extent, the iron or
copper becomes exposed, and often the exposed iron is permitted
to rust and the exposed copper allowed to become coated with
verdigris. In this condition, these metals are most active, con-
siderable portions being dissolved by the acid in the cream and
thereby not only act in the cream, but also find their way into
the butter, jeopardizing its quality and inviting the development
of tallowy flavor.

This danger can best be minimized, if not entirely avoided,
by furnishing the farmer with bright and non-rusty cans and
by preventing the cans from rusting, by systematic and thor-
ough washing, rinsing, steaming and drying; keeping weigh
cans, forewarmers, pasteurizers, coolers, pumps and pipes and
conduits well tinned, thoroughly cleaning and steaming them
after each day's use and flushing them with hot water each
morning- before circulating the cream, so as to remove any
remnants of water of the previous day which may be pregnant
with metallic salts; removing the rust from all parts of the
packing and printing equipment and using wrappers and liners
only which are free from metallic specks. Water used for
washing butter should be free, or nearly so, from iron.

4. Presence in Butter of Excess Lactose. — The presence in
butter, in excess, of specific compounds which are themselves
readily oxidized may yield tallowy flavor, as one of their oxida-
tion products. To these compounds belong lactose, glucose and
glycerol. Danger from these products need be considered only,
however, when the cream or butter is subjected to alkaline con-
dition, as shown in the succeeding paragraph. When butter
is made under proper conditions, and containing a normal
amount of acid, the presence of lactose and similar compounds
has no injurious effect on its flavor and does not, in itself, con-
stitute a cause of tallowy butter. In fact, the addition of lac-

494 BUTTER DEFECTS

tose to butter, when in normal acid condition, may have a
slight preservative effect, improving its keeping quality.

5. Neutralization. — The presence of an unnatural alkaline
condition of the butter, or of the cream from which the butter
is made, accelerates any oxidizing action by rendering the
compounds capable of oxidation, more susceptible to oxidation.

Over-neutralization with any alkali very greatly intensifies
the oxidizing action of all the foregoing agents and hastens the
development of tallowiness. This can be permanently pre-
vented only by careful standardization of the entire operation of
neutralization, including the testing of cream for acid, the prep-
aration of the neutralizer and its addition to the cream. Guess
work in neutralization is one of the most potent causes of tal-
lowy butter. The butter should further be protected against
direct contact with alkalies, by the complete removal from
churns, cubes and diverse packing equipment, of all traces of
alkaline wash water, and by the use of parchment wrappers
that are free from alkali, such as ammonia, which is used to
neutralize the sulphuric acid employed in the parchmenting
process.

Storage Flavor. — Where butter is held for any considerable
length of time in storage, it gradually surrenders some of its
delicate flavor and aroma which is characteristic of good fresh
butter, and develops a peculiar flavor known to the butterman
as the storage flavor. In butter of good quality this change
takes place very slowly and is for a long time hardly perceptible.
Rogers1 reports that, in examining some millions of pounds of
butter made and stored for the U. S. Navy Dept., sweet cream
butter, almost without exception, kept through several months'
cold storage with only slight changes in flavor. In butter of in-
ferior quality the storage flavor generally develops rapidly.

Other conditions being the same, the rapidity with which the
storage flavor develops depends largely on the temperature of
storage and on the time and temperature at which the butter
is held before it enters cold storage. The lower the tempera-

1 Rogers, Factors Influencing Changes In Storage Butter. Address at the
Third International Congress of Refrigeration, Washington-Chicago, 1913.

BUTTER DEFECTS 495

ture of cold storage and the shorter the time that elapses be-
tween manufacture and cold storage, the longer will the butter
generally retain the desired aroma and flavor of fresh butter.

The exact cause of this flavor and the nature of the decom-
position products responsible for it have not been conclusively
demonstrated. Experimental data suggest that this flavor is
principally due to spontaneous chemical changes, in which
oxidation plays an important part and that this oxidation is
accelerated by the presence of catalyzers in the form of metallic
salts. Butter made from a poor quality of cream, such as cream
that has yielded excessively to fermentation and that is of high
acidity, develops storage flavor and its derivatives most rapidly.
It is not improbable also that the storage flavor represents a
forerunner, or early stage, of other off-flavors which under favor-
able conditions may supersede it in the form of metallic flavor,
or fishy flavor, etc.

Rancid Flavor. — Rancidity is fa very common and Well
known butter defect. The rancid or strong flavor is a charac-
teristic infirmity of old butter. When present to a pronounced
extent in butter, such butter is no longer salable as "eating"
butter and generally has to be disposed of as packing stock
at a great sacrifice in price.

Cause of Rancid Flavor. — Rancidity is a flavor and odor de-
fect that is due to decomposition of the butterfat. It is char-
acteristic not only of spoiled butter or butterfat, but is a common
decomposition product of all fats and oils, animal and vegetable.
The chemistry of the reactions yielding rancid flavor and odor
is not well understood, though it has been the subject of ex-
tensive investigations for many years.

In the case of butter, rancidity, and especially the initial
phase of rancidity, appears to be due to hydrolysis of the butter
fat, which splits the glycerides of the fats into free fatty acids
and glycerol. This hydrolysis is in all probability due very
largely to bacterial and mold action, since the casein and lac-
tose contained in butter furnish the food elements necessary for
the bacteria to thrive on.

The hydrolysis of the fat leading to rancidity, however, is
not necessarily dependent on micro-organisms. It may be

496 BUTTER DEFECTS

brought about in pure butter fat and other fats which do not
contain bacterial life, by enzymic action in the presence of mois-
ture. Air, light and heat, and the presence of catalizers, such as
acids and alkalies, favor the development of rancidity.

In the case of butter, however, it is conceded by the best
authorities that bacteria and molds are the chief factors that
hydrolize the fats, making the butter rancid. Jensen1 and Kirch-
ner2 demonstrated that certain species of micro-organisms, very
commonly present in butter, are capable of hydrolizing the fat
in butter to a very marked degree and of producing butter with
an intense rancid odor and flavor. The chief of these organisms
are Oidium lactis, Cladosporium butyri, Bacillus fluorescence
liquefaciens and Bacillus prodigiosus. Lewkowitsch3 suggests
the possibility that even in the case of rancidity produced by
these micro-organisms, the hydrolysis may be due to enzymes
produced by them rather than by their direct action on the fat.

It is generally accepted that in butter the rancid flavor and
odor are due to the presence of the free fatty acids resulting from
hydrolysis, and it is well known that especially the volatile fatty
acids, such as butyric, etc., have a pungent odor that resembles
the rancid odor and flavor of butter. The free fatty acids re-
sulting from fat hydrolysis are expressed as, and determined by,
the acid value of the fat. The acid value would therefore ap-
pear to be a logical and correct measure of the degree of ran-
cidity of the butter. And in a great many cases rancid butter is
accompanied by a high acid value, as Jensen has shown.

However, there is a vast volume of experimental data on
record which shows that quite often butter may have intense
rancidity while the acid value of the fat from this butter shows
no appreciable increase over the acid value in fat from the
same butter when fresh, and instances are also recorded where
a relatively high acid value was not accompanied by a pro-
nounced rancid character of the butter. In fact the fat of per-
fectly fresh butter shows a considerable acid value.

It is therefore quite probable that even in the case of butter,

1 Jensen — Ueber das Ranzig-werden der Butter, Laridw. Jahrb. d. Schweiz.
1901.

2 Kirchner — Berichte d. deutsch. botan. Gesellschaft, 1888, p. 101.

8 Le-wkowitsch — Chemical Technology and Analysis of Oils, Fats and
Waxes, Vol. I ,p. 53 ,1914.

BUTTER DEFECTS 497

hydrolysis is only the initial phase of rancidity and that either
the free fatty acids, or the glycerol, or both, undergo further de-
composition yielding products which produce and intensify ran-
cidity in butter, and this further decomposition must of neces-
ity be an oxidation.

In the case of the saturated fatty acids, the action would be
only very slight and if at all, it would probably be of enzymic
nature. The unsaturated fatty acids, of which the oleic acid
is representative, yield more readily to oxidation. They may
be oxidized forming fatty acids of higher molecular weight,
such as acids of the hydroxy series. Or they may be broken
down to acids of lower molecular weight, forming various fatty
acids such as pelarg-omc, azelaic acid, etc., which may produce
or intensify the rancid odor and flavor. Also aldehydes formed
by the breaking down of oleic acid may play a part in the pro-
duction of rancidity ; this possibility, however, Lewkowitsch does
not consider probable. That the oxidation of the free fatty acids
plays a considerable role in the production of rancid butter, is
therefore very probable, and is emphasized by the fact that
exposure of the butter to air, especially in the absence of re-
frigeration, and in the presence of light which intensifies oxida-
tion, greatly hastens the development of rancidity. Allen2 also
holds that oxygen and light play a considerable part in the
chain of factors instrumental in the production of rancidity.

Again it is possible that the free glyverol, resulting from the
hydrolysis of the fats, and which in itself is neutral, odorless
and tasteless, may yield to oxidation, forming acids and alde-
hydes, many of which have a very pungent odor resembling ran-
cidity. Browne1 attributes the pungent, irritating odor which
all rancid fats give off, especially on being warmed, to the de-
composition (oxidation) of free glycerol, forming acrolein. He
found a decrease in the percentage of glycerol of all fats when
they become rancid, the decrease being proportional to the ran-
cidity of the samples.

Furthermore, the lactose of butter, upon oxidation, may
assist in the development of products, similar to those result-

1 Allen, Commercial Organic Analysis, Vol. II, 1912, p. 313.
8 Browne, A Contribution to the Chemistry of Butterfat, Jour. Amer.
Chem. Soc. Vol. 21. 1898.

498 BUTTER

ing from the oxidation of glycerol and thereby constitute a fac-
tor tending toward the production, modification or intensification
of -the rancid odor and taste. The small amount of lactose nat-
urally present in commercial butter, however, must of necessity
limit the power of this butter constituent as an important agent
in this respect. <

In the presence of our now available information concern-
ing the reactions responsible for rancidity in butter, as briefly
outlined in the foregoing paragraphs, the following summary
may serve to bring out the most important facts and proba-
bilities.

1. The initial stage of rancidity in butter lies in the hydro-
lysis of the butterfat. This produces free fatty acids which,
when present in considerable amounts, produce a strong rancid
taste and odor.

2. The hydrolysis of the butterfat is brought about by
bacterial and mold action, or by enzyme action, assisted by cat-
alizers such as acids and alkalies, and in the presence of water
and exposure to temperatures higher than those of commercial
refrigeration of butter.

3. The rancidity of butter may be greatly intensified by the
oxidation of the free fatty acids, or of the free glycerol, or both.
The action is greatly hastened by exposure of the butter to air.
light and heat.

4. Lactose, upon oxidation, may also assist in the forma-
tion of products yielding rancidity.

5. The curd in butter assists in the development of ran-
cid flavor insofar as it furnishes desirable nutrients for the ran-
cidity-producing organisms to thrive on. Butter with a high
curd content, other factors being the same, therefore is more
prone to become rancid than butter with a low curd content.

It should be understood that rancidity is the result of pro-
gressive changes in butter and that most butter, if kept long
enough, will ultimately become rancid with age. However, the
development of rancidity and the postponement of this common
butter defect may be controlled with a reasonable degree of suc-
cess, by so handling the cream in its production and the butter in
its manufacture and storage, as to minimize, if not eliminate

BUTTER DIRECTS 499

entirely, the agencies which are known to contribute towards
the appearance of rancid flavor and odor in butter. Attention
to the following points will assist towards the prevention of
rancidity in butter.

Prevention of Rancid Flavor. — 1. Elimination ; of bacteria
and mold from butter. The fresher and sweeter the cream and
the greater its freedom from objectionable bacteria and mold
and from their products, and the freer the butter from curd, the*
better will such butter withstand decomposition which results
in rancidity.

2. Proper pasteurization of the cream and thorough washr
ing of the butter with pure water greatly lessens the tendency
of butter to become rancid. Pasteurization destroys the germs
capable of producing rancid butter. Thorough washing removes
much of the curd and therefore reduces the necessary foq4
available for rancidity-producing microorganisms. Farm-made
butter usually develops rancid flavor and odor very rapidly,
because it is made from raw cream teeming with germlife and
usually contains excessive buttermilk. Storage butter made dur-
ing a pasteurization experiment under the direction of the author1
did not develop rancidity when made from pasteurized cream;
raw cream butter when made from ungraded gathered cream
almost invariably became rancid, while raw cream butter made
from selected gathered cream did not show much rancidity in
storage. This emphasizes both, the value of pasteurization and
the importance of careful grading of cream. The housewife in
many European countries, who purchases a year's supply of cook-
ing butter (Schmelzbutter) melts and boils it until the curd,
water and other non-fatty constituents have settled out and the
fat has become clear. This fat is stored in a cool place (the
cellar) in crocks, covered writh parchment, and keeps almost in-
definitely (until used up) without showing signs of rancidity.
These illustrations emphasize that rancidity can be greatly de-
layed by removing germ life and the food on which micro-
organisms thrive. Efficient pasteurization, and thorough wash-

1 Hunziker, Spitzer and Mills, Pasteurization of Sour, Farm-Skimmed
Cream, Produce Bulletin 208, 1918.

500 BUTTER

ing of butter accomplish this to a large extent, provided that
recontamination of cream and butter is avoided by sanitary con-
ditions of vats, churns and packing equipment and proper treat-
ment of tubs, cubes, liners and wrappers.

3. Protection of the butter against air, light and heat, and
the absence in it of catalizers, such as metallic salts, high acid, or
alkali, will minimize the action of rancidity-producing agencies
which may be present in butter. Churn the cream at a low
acidity, do not overneutralize and put the butter in the sealed
package, and refrigerate it, as promptly as possible after manu-
facture.

Woody Flavor. — This is not a very common flavor defect
of butter, though "epidemics" of woody-flavored butter have
occurred, causing serious objection on the market.

The most common cause of butter with a woody flavor is
probably the churn. New churns that have not been properly"
treated before use, may impart to butter a woody flavor. Churns
also that are in unclean condition, or the wood of which has
become decayed, may become infested with certain species of
microorganisms, especially molds, that are capable of giving the
butter a woody taste. Such conditions are especially liable to
happen with churns that are not in daily use, giving the micro-
organisms an opportunity to work into the cracks between the
staves and also into the pores of the wood, where they are diffi-
cult to be reached, dislodged or destroyed, and where they form
a continuous source of contamination of succeeding batches of
cream and butter. A case of this type, resulting in woody-flav-
ored butter, was noted and investigated at Purdue University1.
The churn that produced the woody flavor was used only once
per week. Investigation showed that the woody flavor was due
to a mold lodged in the cracks of an apparently clean churn.
This mold produced the same intense woody flavor when inocu-
lated and propagated in sterile milk. For treatment and disin-
fection of churns see "Preparation of Churn," Chapter X.

Salt, packed in barrels of decayed and infected wood, is also
known to be capable of transmitting to butter a woody flavor.

1 Hunziker and Switzer. Results not published, 1916.

BUTTER DEFECTS 501

Butter packages, such as tubs, cubes and cartons made of wood
which naturally harbors an intensive woody odor, always lend
butter a woody flavor. Hence, pine tubs, boxes and cartons are
entirely unsuited for packing butter, while spruce, white ash,
hemlock, etc., well cured and dried and when properly soaked
before use, are generally free from this objection.

However, even spruce and white ash tubs may give butter in
storage a pronounced woody flavor. In such cases the woodi-
ness is usually confined to the surface of the butter at the bot-
tom and side, the interior remaining free from it. The flavor
at or near the outside, however, is frequently intensely woody
and pound prints cut from the outer portions of such butter may
be practically ruined from the standpoint of the market.

When butter is stored in tubs made from well seasoned,
sound lumber of white ash or spruce, and when they are prop-
erly treated before packing, the danger from woodiness is very
remote. But when the tubs are made up of a poor grade of
lumber, and especially of pithy stayes, or lumber that is green
and has not been well seasoned and dried, or lumber felled while
still in sap, the woody odor is very intense and there is great
danger of woody flavor in butter.

This danger can be minimized, if not entirely overcome, by
soaking the tubs over night in brine, preferably hot brine, and
by drying and heating them thoroughly over a steam jet before
paraffining, so that the paraffine will soak well into the wood,
forming a uniform and complete coating that will permanently
stick and not peel off. For further directions see "Preparation
of Butter Tubs," Chapter XII.

Cooked or Scorched Flavor. — As the name implies, this
flavor is the result of exposure of the product to heat. It does
not often appear in raw cream butter, but is a frequent defect of
butter made from pasteurized cream. It is generally due to
heating to excessively high temperature or to prolonged exposure
to the heat, or improper application of the process of pasteur-
ization. It is probably the direct cause of the action of heat on
the caseous matter of the cream.

Most of the butter made from pasteurized cream has a slight
pasteurized, or cooked flavor when fresh. This slight cooked

502 BUTTER DEFECTS

flavor, however, disappears in a short time. Only a strong
cooked flavor is permanent in butter and is therefore objection-
able.

Crowding the pasteurizer and the consequent use of too
much steam pressure is a common cause of cooked flavor. When
pasteurizing under such conditions, the caseous matter in the
cream that comes in direct contact with the overheated heating
surface becomes scorched and bakes on to the heating surface.
The scorching of the cream on the overheated coil of the
pasteurizer is also very often the cause of the scorched flavor.

When butter made from raw cream has a cooked flavor, the
cause usually lies in overheating the coil in the forewarmer, by
forcing steam through it excessively. In this case the coil usu-
ally becomes heavily coated with a layer of burnt cream. It is
advisable to heat the coil in the forewarmer with hot water
instead of steam, in order to avoid the cooked flavor .in butter.

The cooked flavor is occasionally confused with the oily
flavor, which is also a frequent characteristic of butter made
from improperly pasteurized cream, as explained under "Oily
Flavor." The two flavor defects have nothing in com-
mon, neither in their origin, nor in their relation to the market
value of the butter. The oily flavor is a serious butter defect
which is generally indicative of poor keeping quality. The
cooked flavor is not seriously objectionable, nor does its pres-
ence unfavorably reflect on the keeping quality of the butter.

Coarse Flavor. — This is a rather indefinite and general ex-
pression of butter flavor. It refers to butter that lacks the char-
acteristic delicacy of flavor of good butter, though the butter
may have no specific "off-flavor." Butter with a coarse flavor
is usually the result of high acid cream, or overripened cream
or overripened starter and excessive salt. The combination of
high acid and high salt seems to be particularly favorable for
the production of this so-called coarse flavor, and the presence
of undissolved salt crystals further intensifies this defect.

Butter, the flavor of which is termed coarse, is generally not
looked upon with favor on the open market. If it shows no other
specific defect it usually grades as a poor "Firsts." Its keep-
ing quality is considered questionable, if not unreliable.

BUTTER DEFECTS 503

DEFECTS IN BODY AND TEXTURE.

Properly made butter has a firm body and a waxy texture.
The body and texture of the butter are controlled by the char-
acter.of the butter fat and the churning temperature primarily,
and by the conditions incident to the churning, washing, salt-
ing and working of the butter. The character of the butter
fat is largely determined by its chemical composition and the
size of the fat globules, factors which in turn are controlled by
breed, period of lactation and feed of the cows, as explained
fully in the chapter on the "Conditions which Affect the Churn-
ability of Cream," Chapter X.

Weak-Bodied Butter. — Such butter lacks a firm, solid body
that will stand up well under unfavorable temperature conditions.
It softens quickly upon exposure to temperatures of about 65° F.
and above. It also is prone to show excessive leakiness. But-
ter with a weak body is usually the result of too high a churn-
ing temperature, or not holding the cream at the churning tem-
perature long enough before churning. It may be due also to
overworking, especially when excessively soft.

The fundamental cause of a weak body generally lies in the
fact that the cream from which the weak-bodied butter is made
was never sufficiently cooled to adequately chill and harden all
the butterfat, especially those fats that have a relatively low
solidifying point. The butter from such cream then contains
a mixture of fats, all of which have not been congealed and some
of which are still in a liquid or semi-liquid state. Under these
conditions the mixed fat, representing the butter, lacks firm-
ness, it is "weak," and its mechanical stability readily collapses
when the butter is exposed to room temperature, or to higher
temperatures, though these temperatures may be considerably
below the melting point (90—99° F.) of mixed butterfat.

For the same reason a weak bodied butter results when the
cream, though it may have been cooled to the proper tempera-
ture, is not held at that temperature long enough to enable the
fat to actually partake of the low temperature.

The defect is further intensified when this weak-bodied but-
ter is excessively worked in this soft condition.

The proper temperature to which cream must be cooled, in

504 BUTTER DEFECTS

order to prevent the weak body varies considerably with such
factors as breed of cows, period of lactation and feed ; the relation
of these factors to the churning temperature and to the firmness
of the butter is fully explained in Chapter X- " Churning."

For the assistance of the buttermaker the prevention of
weak-bodied butter may best be summarized as follows:

1. Thoroughly chill the cream and hold it at the low tem-
perature not less than two to three hours before churning.

2. Do not guess at the churning temperature but determine
it accurately with a correct thermometer.

3. When deciding what the churning temperature should
be, be guided by the firmness or softness of the previous churn-
ing and by the time required to complete the churning process.

4. Other conditions being the same, have the cream at that
churning temperature at which the butter will break in about 40
to 50 minutes.

5. Butter that breaks in 20 to 25 minutes is prone to have
a weak body. The cream from which it was made either was
not cooled low enough or not held long enough at the low
temperature.

6. Cool the cream, according to conditions, to temperatures
within the range of about 45° to 53° F. in summer and about
54° to 60° F. in winter. This refers to cream churned in the
middle western states.

7. In case the butter comes exceedingly soft, let it rest,
in granular condition, in cold water or ice water until it has
hardened, so it can be handled and worked without serious
danger of becoming greasy.

8. Do not overwork soft butter.

9. Points 7 and 8 do not prevent weak body, at this stage
the weak body is already an accomplished fact. But they may
help to minimize the unfavorable consequences of the defect.

Greasy Body. — Butter becomes greasy when worked ex-
cessively while in very soft condition, due either to too high
churning temperature of the cream, too rich cream, or holding
the butter in the churn too long before working, allowing it
to warm up, or working it on a table worker in a warm room.
Greasiness can be avoided by so governing the churning tern-

BUTTER DEFECTS 505

perature, the period of holding the cream at that temperature
and the temperature of the wash water, as to make the butter
have a firm body when it is worked. The butter should be
churned to small granules and preferably washed with water a
few degrees colder than the temperature of the buttermilk.

The danger of greasiness is especially great when churning
cream rich in fat, such as cream testing 35 per cent, fat or over.
Thin cream may be churned at considerably higher temperatures
without danger of yielding a greasy butter, than rich cream.
Rich cream should be churned at a relatively low temperature
and should be held at that temperature at least three hours be-
fore the churning process commences.

Greasiness may be due also to allowing the butter to be-
come very soft before it is worked as frequently happens in
summer in a warm churn room where the butter is held unduly
long in the churn or is worked on an open worker. For the
above reasons greasiness is a very common defect of farm dairy
butter, where facilities for cooling the cream and for working
the butter in a cool room are usually lacking during the summer
season.

Salvy Body. — Salvy butter is butter in which the grain has
been destroyed to the extent to where the granules have com-
pletely lost their identity. This defect is prone to appear in
butter that is overworked when in a very firm condition, espe-
cially when the working is done in the absence of water. In
exceptional cases the salvy body is due to conditions independ-
ent of the working process, and may occur as the result of
abnormal churning conditions. In winter when, owing to the
advanced stage of the period of lactation of the great majbrity
of the cows, and also owing to the character of the feed ration,
the cream is very viscous and contains relatively small fat glob-
ules, the cream churns with difficulty. If this cream happens
to be very thin and has been exposed for a long time to a low
temperature, as is frequently the case with hand separator cream,
the solidification of the fat globules may have reached such a
stage that these globules are so firm that they coalesce with
great difficulty. This prolongs the churning process and
frequently from one to three hours are required to make the
butter "break" and to form large enough granules for conveni-

506 BUTTER DEFECTS

ent handling. This abnormally prolonged agitation causes these
firm globules and small firm granules to grind against each other
and to strike the sides of the churn until they completely lose
their identity, destroying the grain and giving the butter a salvy
body and texture. Such butter is also prone to be abnormally
high in moisture. A raise in the churning temperature of cream
of this character sufficient to make the butter come reasonably
soft, will shorten the time required for churning and avoid the
production of butter that is salvy.

Crumbly Body. — The brittle and crumbly texture of butter
is characteristic of butter made in late fall, winter and early
spring. Most creameries are troubled with this defect to some
extent during the winter season. While its consequences are
not fatal, the buyer demands a waxy body that permits of draw-
ing a smooth plug with the trier and the consumer criticises
butter that refuses to spread on account of its brittleness. The
hotel and restaurant trade particularly objects to crumbly but-
ter, because they find it very difficult to cut it into neat slabs
and cubes ready for the table. Crumbly butter refuses to
respond to knife or wire. On a weak market, crumbly butter
often sells at a sacrifice.

Causes of Crumbly Body. — There are two fundamental
causes of crumbly butter, neither of which is under the control
of the butter maker, namely, the cow and the feed. In winter
the great majority of the cows are well advanced in their period
of lactation. Cream from stripper cows contains predominat-
ingly very minute fat globules. The small fat globules do not
bind, together readily when the cream churns, they are firm and
persist in retaining their individuality. They do not yield so
readily to the forces which overcome the surface tension. They
remain intact and are prone to form small, smooth-surface,
round, firm, shot-like granules, which do not pack readily and
which lend the butter a short-grain and loose body of consid-
erable firmness. This fact was conclusively demonstrated by
the author1 in experiments to determine the effect of the size
of the fat globules on the moisture content of butter. In these
experiments milk was separated in such a manner, as to produce

1Hunziker, Mills and Spitzer, "Moisture Control of Butter." I. Factors
not under Control of the Buttermaker. Purdue Bulletin 159, 1912.

BUTTER DEFECTS 507

churnings of cream in which the small globules, and churnings
in which the large globules, respectively, predominated. The
large-globule cream churned quickly and yielded a soft, pliable
butter that packed readily. The small-globule cream, on the
other hand, churned slowly, produced small, round, smooth and
hard granules which did not pack readily and which made a
very firm, crumbly and brittle butter, from which it was impos-
sible to draw a solid plug.

The second fundamental cause of the tendency of winter
butter to be crumbly lies in the feed the cows receive during
the winter season. Dry feed and most of the common concen-
trates always increase the firmness of butter. If the winter
ration contains hay or corn fodder and liberal quantities of such
concentrates as cottonseed meal, bran, etc., the butter fat in
the cream will contain a relatively small percentage of the fats
with low melting point, such as olein, and a relatively high per-
centage of the fats with high melting point, such as stearin,
palmitin, myristin, etc., and the resulting butter will, therefore,
be firm and tend to be crumbly. Potatoes, beets and beet tops,
apples and cornsilage also produce high melting fats conducive
of firm and crumbly butter.

Prevention of 'Crumbly Body. — It is obvious from the above
discussion that the fundamental causes of crumbly butter may
be eliminated entirely by a change to winter dairying whereby
the cows are so bred that most of them freshen in the fall, yield-
ing milk in which the large globules predominate; and by the
addition to the feed ration of such feeds as have a tendency to
produce butter fat of a lower melting point, such as linseed meal,
glutenfeed, etc.

The dairy man who makes butter on the farm has the fac-
tors of period of lactation and feed largely under his control and,
therefore, is in a position to avoid crumbly butter by the intel-
ligent adjustment of these factors. The average creamery which
draws its cream supply from a large number of farms which are
often scattered over a wide area, cannot hope for relief from
crumbly butter by any efforts to remove these fundamental
causes, and must, therefore, aim to minimize their effect by
modifications in the process of manufacture.

The only means available to the creamery to prevent crum-

508 BUTTER DEFECTS

bly butter is to churn, wash and work at temperatures suffi-
ciently high to secure a reasonably soft butter that binds and
compacts readily and makes the butter pliable. Churn at a tem-
perature that will insure the formation of moderately soft, flaky
granules, instead of small, round, hard granules, then wash the
butter with wash water of the same temperature as that of the
buttermilk, or possibly a degree or two higher, especially in a
cold churn room, and work it sufficiently to secure a waxy, tough
texture.

The crumbly body of butter is frequently also attributed to
frozen cream. There is no evidence on record that the freezing
of cream has any appreciable influence on the body of the butter,
but it is quite possible, that improper methods of thawing of
frozen cream, causing it to "oil off," may intensify the tendency
of winter butter to be crumbly. See also Chapter VI on the
"Handling of Frozen Cream."

Faulty pasteurization, in which the cream is permitted to
"oil off," as may be caused by the use of excessively high tem-
peratures, or by allowing the cream, while hot, to lie in the vat
undisturbed and without agitation, will intensify the crumbly
butter defect for the same reason as is the case with faulty
handling of frozen cream.

The crumbliness of brittle butter is augmented by exposure
of such butter to very low temperatures. Butter that is inclined
toward brittleness and that is intended for the critical hotel trade,
should, therefore, be held in a room at a moderate temperature,
so that, at the time of delivery, it is not excessively firm and
will lend itself more readily to the slab cutter. Such hotels
might also advantageously be cautioned not to expose this butter
to abnormally low temperatures before cutting.1

Mealy Body. — 'Mealy butter is butter that lacks the smooth,
velvety texture of well-made butter. It is a defect that is critic-
ized by the buyer, and when the mealiness is very pronounced,
it is seriously objected to.

Causes of Mealy Body. — In the great majority of cases
mealy butter is due to a hardened condition of the particles
of casein, resulting from excessive exposure to heat in the pres-
ence of high acid, as is the case when heating sour cream to too

1 It is advisable to work butter that is inclined to be crumbly very thor-
oughly, even to the extent of slight overworking.

BUTTER DEFECTS 509

high a temperature, heating too slowly, holding at pasteurizing
temperature too long, or not cooling rapidly enough.

The acid in sour cream changes the casein to casein lactate,
and precipitates it into very fine flakes, or particles of curd. Van
Slyke and Hart1 found that the casein is changed to casein lac-
tate, when the amount of lactic acid in cream exceeds .5 per cent.
In sweet cream the casein is largely in the form of calcium casein
and some free casein.

When this sour cream is heated for a prolonged period of
time, as is often the case in the holding process of pasteurization,
these particles of curd contract, expel much of their moisture,
become firm and dry and give both the cream and the resulting
butter a mealy texture. The mealiness is noticeable in the
hot cream, and in the cream after cooling, quite as much as in
the butter. Mealy cream always makes a mealy butter.

Mealiness of this type does not occur in sweet or slightly
sour cream, because in such cream the casein is present in its
original and unchanged form. It has not been acted upon by
the acid, it has not been precipitated. However, acid alone does
not make cream and butter mealy. The particles of curd in the
raw sour cream are soft. It is only in the presence of very high
heat or upon prolonged exposure to heat, that sour cream be-
comes mealy and makes mealy butter.

Mealiness resulting from the above causes can be avoided
by shortening the time required to heat the cream to the pas-
teurizing temperature, by not exceeding 145° F. in the holding
process, by holding for 30 minutes only and by cooling rapidly.
Under proper conditions, such as adequate steam supply, ample
size of steam and water pipes leading to the vat pasteurizer and
adequate heating surface, the heating to 145° F. can usually be
done in about 15 minutes. Experience has shown that, where
the temperature can be raised to 145° F. in 15 minutes, there is
very little danger of the cream and butter becoming mealy. If
the time required to heat to 145° F. exceeds 30 minutes it is
more difficult, and under certain conditions impossible, to avoid
mealiness.

Mealy butter is also almost invariably produced from sour

* Van Slyke & Hart, "The Proteids of Butter in Relation to Mottled Butter/*
New York State (Geneva) Agr. Bxpt Station Bull. 263, 1905.

5 10 B UTTER

cream that is aerated by blowing cold air through it, while the
cream is being heated. This is largely due to the longer time
required for raising the temperature to 145° F. The blowing of
the cream with cold air, as ordinarily practiced in our creameries,
prolongs the period of heating from 10 to 15 minutes, which is
sufficient to excessively harden the particles of curd and to make
cream and butter mealy, when the condition of the cream is such
as to favor mealiness.

t When persistent trouble from mealiness is experienced and
when it is desired to blow the cream, the danger from mealiness
may best be avoided by blowing the cream while cold, or with
hot air after the temperature of 145° F. has been reached. Blow-
ing the cold cream, however, is less effective from the standpoint
of the purpose for which the blowing is done, i. e., to remove
objectionable flavors and odors. The volatile substances respon-
sible for these flavors and odors are expelled more readily from
hot cream than from cold cream.

. The reduction of the acid in the cream by neutralization
does not prevent mealiness. In fact practical experience has
demonstrated that the excessive use of lime hydrate in sour
cream tends to intensify rather than minimize mealiness.

A further cause of mealiness of this type lies in the improper
use of lime in the process of neutralization. When neutraliza-
tion is done in an approved manner and as directed in Chapter
VII, the danger of mealiness is removed.

Another type of mealiness of butter is that which is due to
a peculiar granular condition of the butterfat, similar to that
of renovated butter. In this case the mealy body of the butter
is not due to the grainy condition of the cream, but to granu-
lated fat. This type of mealiness is not confined to butter made
from sour pasteurized cream, it may occur as well in sweet cream
butter. It appears whenever the cream is subjected to condi-
tions that will cause it to "oil off." When this cream with the
"oiled-off" or "run-together" butter oil is subsequently cooled
and the fat hardens, the fat granulates and refuses to return
to its original mechanical condition, and the granulated fat gives
the butter a mealy consistency.

This species of mealiness does not appear in the cream while
hot; it becomes noticeable only after cooling and in the finished

BUTTER DEFECTS 511

butter. It is caused either by faulty pasteurization or by im-
proper handling of frozen cream.

If, during the process of pasteurization the hot cream is
allowed to repose in a vat without agitation, as may be the case
with flash pasteurized cream that is not run over a continuous
cooler, or with vat pasteurized cream with the coil at rest during
the holding period, there is a tendency for the butter fat to run
together, "oil-off" and gather in the form of butter oil on the
surface of the cream. When the cream is subsequently cooled
this butter oil crystallizes or granulates^ giving the butter a
mealy body. This can best be avoided by guarding against
excessively high temperatures of pasteurization and by keeping
the cream thoroughly agitated while hot and until it has been
cooled to a temperature at which the butterfat congeals, i. e.,
about 70° F. or below.

The experience of many creameries has been that in winter,
when some of the cream arrives at the factory in frozen condi-
tion, butter is prone to be mealy, and the mealy condition of
such butter has therefore been attributed to frozen cream. A
careful study by the author of this phenomenon has shown that
frozen cream, as such, does not produce mealiness, but that
frozen cream may and does become the cause of mealiness in-
directly by improper handling of this cream.

For further details see Chapter IV "Receiving Milk and
Cream."

Finally, experience has shown that mealiness resulting from
either of the two fundamental causes, the curd precipitation and
the "oiling-off" of the fat, is characteristic more especially of
the use of the holding process of pasteurization than the flash
process. In the flash process the cream is heated and cooled
quickly, not giving the particles of curd sufficient time to con-
tract and harden excessively, and the cream is subjected to
continuous agitation until it is cooled, thus largely preventing
the "oiling-off" of the fat. Butter resulting from the flash
process usually has a clearer and smoother body and is more
completely free from mealiness than butter made from cream
pasteurized by the holding process.

Summary of Prevention of Mealiness. — In brief, then, the
mealy body of butter can be avoided by :

512 BUTTER

1. So regulating the temperature of pasteurization and the
period of exposure to pasteurizing temperature, as to avoid the
excessive contraction of the curd in the sour cream. Heat rap-
idly, do not exceed 145° F. in the case of the holding process,
limit the time of holding to 30 minutes and cool rapidly. Do
not blow the cream.

2. Preventing the cream from "oiling-off." Keep the coil in
the vat revolving during heating, holding, and until the cream
is cooled to 70° F. or below.

Do not heat the frozen cream to a temperature higher than
95° F. and hold it at that temperature until it has become fluid.

Leaky Body. — This defect is characteristic of salted butter
only. Unsalted butter seldom, if ever, shows real leakiness. In
leaky butter much of the water present is incompletely incor-
porated in the fat and oozes out profusely when such butter is
handled, cut, packed, shipped and stored. When bored with
the trier, brine runs freely from the plug, and when the plug
is squeezed, there is further escape of moisture.

Leaky butter, owing to the ready escape of moisture, gen-
erally suffers excessive loss in weight between the churn and
the market, as well as in storage. Leaky butter usually also has
an objectionable briny flavor suggesting excessively high salt
content, although the actual percentage of salt it contains may
not be high and may even be below the average. The briny
flavor in this case is due to the direct appeal to the palate of free
brine. For these several reasons leaky butter is not looked up-
on with favor by the buyer.

Causes of Leaky Butter. — Because the leaky body is large-
ly confined to salted butter only, this defect has been attributed
to faulty methods of salting and working, and the popular im-
pression prevails that such is the case. Within relatively nar-
row limitations leakiness may be intensified or minimized by
the processes of washing, salting and working, but the funda-
mental cause of leakiness lies prior to these processes, it has to
do with the treatment the cream receives preparatory to the
churning process.

Leakiness is due to incompleteness and consequent in-
stability of the emulsion of buttermilk (or water) in fat, and this

BUTTER DEFECTS 513

emulsion occurs during the churning process. The complete-
ness and permanency of the water-in-fat emulsion is depend-
ent on the relative mechanical firmness of the fat at the time
of churning.

If the butterfat in the cream in the churn has previously
been thoroughly chilled by cooling to, or below, the proper
churning temperature and by holding it at that temperature for
the necessary length of time, leaky butter is not likely to result.
Butterfat in this condition yields an emulsion of water-in-fat
that is relatively stable. The finely divided water droplets are
firmly held in this compact fat.

When salt is added to and worked into butter made from
incompletely chilled cream, the loosely held emulsion of water-
in-fat is disturbed and partly broken. The emulsion yields to
the salting-out process. The water droplets are not firmly
enough locked up in the body of the butter to resist the attraction
of the salt. The salt draws them together into drops and larger
aggregates; which leak freely from the butter.

Even when efforts are made on the part of the buttermaker
to harden this butter in the churn, either by churning the cream
with ice or by holding the butter for a considerable length of
time in ice water, a really good body can not be recovered. The
defect may be somewhat minimized by these remedial prac-
tices but the damage has already been done, and the butter will
have a distinctly weak body that will not stand up well under
adverse temperature conditions, and that is prone to be leaky.

If cream has been cooled to a point where the fat becomes
thoroughly chilled, as it should be, churning at a temperature
slightly too high does not produce leakiness, the fat is still
of good firmness, because it does not respond to temperature changes
rapidly, being a poor conductor of heat and cold.

This leaky butter defect appears largely, though not wholly, only
in the spring and early summer. This is the time when, due to
the freshening of the cows and the change from dry feed to
succulent pasture, the melting and solidifying points of the
butterfat drop rapidly.

The average buttermaker fails to fully appreciate this rapid
change in the character of the butterfat he receives in the spring,
and he often does not respond quickly enough to this change

514 BUTTER

with an adequate lowering of the churning temperature. There-
fore the tendency of spring and early summer butter to be leaky.
The incomplete chilling of the cream in early summer is in many
cases the result of an insufficient supply of cooling medium and
inadequate vat capacity to handle the great volume of cream
that arrives during the flush.

Leaky butter may result at any other time of the year,
whenever the temperature of the cream before churning is not
low enough and the period of holding at this temperature is not
long enough to thoroughly chill the fat.

Rich cream is more apt to make a leaky body than thin
cream, unless the rich cream is churned at a lower temperature.
If the cream of different churnings varies in per cent fat con-
siderably, it is more difficult to have successive churnings
of butter of good body and free from leakiness. The standard-
ization of each churning for fat greatly assists the buttermaker
in- his efforts to produce a perfect body, with reasonable
regularity.

The tendency toward leakiness is intensified also by any agency
that is prone to mutilate or tear apart the body of the butter.
Churns that tear the butter during the working process are
more apt to yield a leaky butter than churns, the workers of
which squeeze it. The tearing and chopping of the butter during
the working disturb the texture and tend to liberate some of
the otherwise firmly held water droplets.

Summary on Prevention of Leaky Butter. — When the butter-
maker is troubled with leaky butter he should pay attention to
the following phases of manufacture:

1. Standardize each churning to a uniform percentage of
fat, preferably between 30 and 33 per cent.

2. Thoroughly chill the fat in the cream by cooling the
cream to a temperature low enough and holding it at this tem-
perature long enough to secure firm butter granules. Unless

cooling facilities permit the cooling of the cream to far below
the desired churning temperature, the cream should be held at
the temperature cooled to for not less than two hours, and
preferably three hours.

3. Work the butter until visible water pockets have disap-
peared and the butter has a compact, solid, tough, waxy body.

BUTTER DE^CTS 515

This is possible only with butter made from cream that has been
thoroughly chilled before churning.

Gritty Body. — This defect is due to the presence in butter
of undissolved salt crystals. Grittiness is highly objectionable
to the consumer, it conveys the impression of excessive salt,
and gives the butter a seemingly strong salty and coarse flavor.
In properly salted butter all the salt is present in complete solu-
tion. The more complete the solution and distribution of the
salt, the more salt butter will stand without tasting objection-
ably salty.

The usual factors which enter into the presence or absence
of grittiness of butter are, moisture content, temperature of but-
ter, amount of working, amount and temperature of salt added
and size and shape of salt crystals.

As shown in "Composition of Butter," Chapter XVIII, 100
pounds of water at ordinary temperature is capable of dissolving
and holding in solution 35.94 pounds of salt, so that, theoret-
ically, butter containing say 15 per cent moisture is capable

15 x 35 94

of holding in solution r-r^-1 — 5.39 per cent salt. Owing

1UU

to the very fine division of a part of the moisture in butter, the
salt added to butter is incapable of gaining access to and of
utilizing all the moisture present in butter during the brief time
during which butter is worked. In reality, butter containing 16
per cent moisture, makes possible the complete solution of not to
exceed about 4.5 to 5 per cent of salt, although this same amount
of water, if freed from the other butter constitutents is, in fact,
capable of dissolving salt equivalent to a salt content in butter,
of 5.75 per cent. Butter containing more than this amount of
salt, therefore, is prone to be gritty. All conditions which tend
towards a low moisture content invite the production of gritty
btitter, unless the amount of salt added is reduced correspond-
ingly.

Insufficient working of the butter is another very common
cause of gritty butter. When butter is of normal texture it
should be worked until the salt is dissolved and all signs of
grittiness have disappeared.

Finally the size and shape of the salt crystals may become
responsible for grittiness. The use of very coarse salt and espe-

516 BUTTER

cially if such crystals are of cube shape, retards solution, while
reasonably fine crystals enhance solution. Too fine salt also is
undesirable because it tends to paste and cake in the butter and
thereby hinders ready solution and even distribution. Salt of
the proper degree of fineness will pass through a sieve with 28
to 30 meshes to the inch.

DEFECTS IN COLOR.

As previously stated, the color of butter must be of the
intensity desired by the market where it is sold.

According to Palmer1 the natural yellow color of cream and
butter is derived from two classes of yellow pigment, the carotin
and xanthophyll, which accompany the green chlorophyll of
plants. These yellow pigments, particularly the carotin, are
found in the blood of the cow and it is in this way the carotin
passes from the feed to the milk gland where it associates itself
with the milkfat. Palmer classifies the following feeds with
reference to their carotin content and consequent property to
make yellow cream and butter as shown below. This classifica-
tion explains why cows fed on green pasture, as is the case in
early summer, produce a deep yellow butter, while in winter

High Color Low Color

Carotin-Rich Feeds. Carotin-Poor Feeds.

Green pasture grass, especially A11 ha>T that has lost its green

when fresh in the spring or color in curinS' such as most
- .j timothy and clover hay.

Dry corn fodder (corn stover).
Hay, cured with a large part of A1f corn silage> except when

its original green color, such very new.

as most western-cured alfalfa Straw, all kinds.

hay. Corn, both yellow and white.

All soiling crops. Wheat

~ . , t All so-called mill by-products,

Green corn fodder. , , , ,

such as wheat bran, brewers

Very new corn silage. grains> cottonseed meal, lin-

Carrots, and other yellow roots seed meal, natural gluten-

and tubers. feed, etc,

1 Palmer— The Yellow Color in Cream and Butter. Missouri Circular 74,

BUTTER DEFECTS 517

when they receive largely dry fodder and grain by-products, the
butter has a very light yellow and often an almost white color.

It is well known that the Channel Island breeds, the Jersey
and Guernsey, are capable of yielding a much more yellow butter
than the Holsteins and Ayrshires. This is explained by Palmer
to be due largely to the fact that some breeds (Jerseys and
Guernseys) make use of more feed carotin than others (Hoi-
steins and Ayrshires).

It is also a matter of common knowledge that the natural
color of butter varies with the period of lactation. Palmer
states that no breed difference in color exists immediately after
parturition, the colostrum milk of all cows being very highly
colored due to a relatively large amount of carotin in the milk-
fat. As the period of lactation advances the intensity of the
color decreases. In the case of the Jerseys and Guernseys the
color does not diminish as rapidly and not to so great a degree
as in the case of the Holsteins and Ayrshires, so that even in
winter when most of the cows approach the end of the period of
lactation and when the carotin content of the feed ration is low,
the Channel Island breeds are 'still producing a light yellow
butter, while the butter of the Holsteins and Ayrshires is almost
white. This is explained to be due to the fact that the Channel
Island breeds are storing up a reserve of carotin in their body
fat in summer when the succulent pasture supplies them with an
abundance of carotin and on which they draw in fall and winter
when the feed is largely devoid of this coloring pigment, while
the Holsteins and Ayrshires are unable to do this to the same
extent.

In order to satisfy the demand of the butter market and to
maintain uniformity of color at a time of the year when, espe-
cially in Holstein and Ayrshire localities, the natural color of
butter is practically white, artificial butter color is added.

Too High Color. — As previously stated the trend of the best
butter trade is toward a light, straw-colored butter. In these
markets, therefore, butter with a deep golden yellow color is not
desired. While, in winter, when the natural color of butter is
very light, the buttermaker is in a position to meet these demands
by modifying the amount of artificial color added, in early sum-

518 BUTTER DEFECTS

mer, when most of the cows freshen and have access to green
pasture, the butter is often so intensely yellow, without any
addition of artificial butter color, that it is criticized as being
too high in color. This is especially true with butter produced
in localities where the Jerseys and Guernseys predominate.

In the great majority of complaints by the trade, too high
color is due to carelessness or accident on the part of the butter-
maker. In this case it is caused either by incorrect calcula-
tion of the amount of butterfat in the churning on which he
bases the amount of artificial butter color to add, or careless
measuring of the butter color, or not modifying the proportion
of butter color used in accordance with a sudden change in the
natural color of the cream, especially in the spring of the year,
or a change to a new brand of stronger butter color, or butter
color from the bottom of the drum which may contain an ac-
cumulation or concentration of the coloring principle due to
settling.

The prevention of these difficulties is obvious. The butter-
maker should constantly bear in mind that the trade objects to
uneven and excessive coloring in butter and that it expresses
its objection in discounting the value of the butter to the detri-
ment of the net returns to the creamery. It does not pay to
overcolor butter.

Too Light Color. — This is a shortcoming for which butter is
seldom criticized and only in very isolated markets which insist
on a high-colored butter throughout the year. The excessively
light color is usually due to the season of the year and occurs
only during the winter months when the cows are receiving dry
feed only and no artificial butter color is added to the cream.
It can readily be remedied by the addition of the proper amount
of artificial butter color.

In some instances the lack of yellowness may be due to the
bleaching of the color of the butter after the butter is made and
packed.

This is usually due to an oxidizing action taking place in
the butter, either on the butterfat itself or on other ingredients
which butter may contain. See "Tallowy Butter."

The bleaching of butter may also be the result of holding
butter in water. In hotels and restaurants where the butter is

BUTTER DEFECTS 519

cut into small slabs for table use, these slabs are generally
dropped from the butter cutter into ice water. In the case of
salted butter, if these slabs are permitted to remain in this water
for any considerable length of time, portions of the surface
begin to bleach, giving the butter a mottled appearance. Con-
tinued exposure will bleach .the entire surface, the mottles be-
come very indistinct, but the color on the surface of the slabs is
much lighter.

This type of bleaching can be readily and entirely avoided,
as demonstrated by the work of Hunziker1, by dropping the
slabs of salted butter into a solution of 25 per cent brine instead
of water. In this case there is but one kind of liquid present
and that is brine, brine in the butter and brine surrounding it,
no interchange of liquids takes place and there is no bleaching.

If the slabs consist of unsalted butter they do not bleach
when dropped into water, because here again there is but one
liquid and that is water, water in the butter and water surround-
ing it, there is no cause for interchange of liquids and there is no
change in the color of trie slabs. See also "Mottled Butter."

Excessive working of salted butter also has a marked
whitening effect on the butter. This is due to the fact that in
normally-worked butter the average size of the water drop-
lets is relatively large and this lends the salted butter a relatively
clear, deep yellow color. Overworking causes a finer division
of these water droplets and this in turn produces a lighter and
more opaque appearance, more nearly like that of unsalted
butter, in which the water droplets always average much smaller
in size.

Dull Color. — Much of the butter made in some creameries
has a dull and lifeless color. This is usually the result of at-
tempts to incorporate a high per cent of moisture, and overwork-
ing. When, in an effort to incorporate moisture, the butter is
overworked to the extent to where the grain of the butter is
destroyed, the fat granules lose their bright lustre. The large
amount of moisture held by the fat in very minute droplets and
very complete emulsion, together with the very firxe division of
the air in the butter, also resulting from overworking, hides the

1 Hunziker — Defects in the Coloring of Butter. Address American Asso-
ciation of Creamery Butter Manufacturers, Chicago, February 18, 1919.

520 BUTTER DEFECTS

bright yellow color and gives the butter a dull and lifeless
appearance.

It is obvious that this defect can readily be avoided by in-
corporating a normal amount of moisture and not overworking
the butter. The difficulty of incorporating the desired amount
of moisture in butter that is naturally very firm and dry, and
does not readily take up and hold moisture, in order to secure a
reasonable overrun, may best be overcome by raising the churn-
ing temperature sufficiently to give the butter a somewhat less
firm body.

Mottled and Wavy Butter. General Description. — Uneven-
ness in the color of butter is shown in the butter in the form of
streaks, waves and mottles. Streakiness or waviness refers to
butter in which the unevenness in color shows in the form of
layers or waves of different shades of yellow, the color in the
layer or wave itself, however, may be perfectly uniform. In the
case of mottles the butter is dappled with spots of lighter and
deeper shades of yellow throughout its body.

Unevenness in color, and especially 'mottles, in butter, are a
serious defect from the standpoint of its market value. This
defect has nothing to do with the quality of the butter, mottled
butter is just as good and just as wholesome as butter that is not
mottled. But while the criticism of the trade is a superficial one,
the objection is no less real. Butter that is otherwise perfect
and might score a good "Extras," if it is mottled, clears as a
"Seconds" and is sold on that basis by the dealer.

Causes and Prevention of Mottles. — Extensive experiments
by Hunziker and Homan1 have shown that the causes of mottles
are due to the following factors :

1. Mottles are caused by an uneven distribution of the
water droplets in butter.

2. The white, opaque dapples in mottled butter are caused by
the presence, or localization of innumerable very small water drop-
lets. The small size, high curvature and large number of these drop-
lets bend, refract and deflect the rays of light to such an extent
that they render the butter opaque and give it a whitish appear-
ance.2

1 Hunziker & Hosman. A Study of the Causes of Mottles in Butter. Blue
Valley Research Lab., Chicago 1918 and 1919. Journal Dairy Science, Vol. Ill,
No. 2, 1920.

2 The opacity is further intensified by the difference in the refractive in-
dex between butterfat and water.

BUTTER DEFECTS 521

3. The clearer and deeper yellow blotches in mottled butter are
caused by absence, or the relatively small number of the very small
droplets or by the presence of a larger number of large droplets, or
both. Both, the absence of any water droplets and the presence of
relatively large droplets and aggregates of drops, minimize the
refraction and deflection of the rays of light, permitting the
rays to enter sufficiently to give the butter a clearer and more
translucent body and revealing more of the natural golden yellow
color characteristic of butterfat.

4. The reason why unsalted butter always has an opaque whit-
ish color, and never is mottled, lies in the fact that in unsalted but-
ter, regardless of the amount of working, the water is always pres-
ent in the form of exceedingly minute and innumerable water drop-
lets of uniform size and distribution, giving the entire body of but-
ter a uniform opaque whitish appearance. The permanency of this
uniform white appearance is due to the absence in unsalted butter
of agents capable of breaking this fine emulsion of water-in-fat.

5. The reason why salted butter always has a clearer and
deeper yellow color than unsalted butter, lies in the fact that the
salt, due to its action on the curd and to its great affinity for
water, draws the more loosely held small droplets together into
larger aggregates, it makes the emulsion of water-in-fat less
complete, it diminishes the refraction and deflection of the rays
of light and makes the butter more translucent.

6. Salted butter at the churn is never mottled, because, even in
insufficiently worked butter the distribution of the large droplets
at the conclusion of the working process is sufficiently complete to
hide the localized sections of the very minute droplets.

7. Salted butter, when insufficiently or unevenly worked, in-
variably becomes mottled upon standing, because in such butter the
fusion and the emulsification of brine and water are incomplete.
Owing to the difference in concentration, and to osmosis be-
tween brine and water, interchange and migration of brine and
water takes place in the butter at rest. This causes the more loosely
held, larger water droplets to run together into larger aggregates and
the portions of butter containing these fewer but larger droplets
show themselves as and represent the clearer, more translucent and
deeper yellow blotches of mottled butter.

522

BUTTKR

Size of Water Droplets in Light and Dark Portions of
Mottled Butter.

Magnified 740 times.

Fig. 82. Dark portions

BUTTER DEFECTS 523

The running-together of the larger droplets simultaneously also
uncovers the localized sections of innumerable very small droplets
which, at the conclusion of the working process, were hidden by
the larger droplets. And the appearance of these aggregates of
very small droplets brings to view the opaque, dense, whitish
dapples of mottled butter.

8. The reason why salted butter, when sufficiently and evenly
worked, does not show mottles upon standing lies in the fact, that
in such butter the large droplets resulting from the action of the
salt, have been redivided and remulsified in the butter and the
fusion of brine and water has become relatively complete. Hence
there is practically only one kind of liquid in this butter and that
is brine. There is no difference in concentration, there is no
cause for osmosis, and there is no interchange and migration of
liquids. And the permanency of the emulsion is further strength-
ened by the more minute division of the droplets in properly and
evenly worked butter.

9. Streaky or wavy butter is caused by uneven working of dif-
ferent portions of butter of one and the same churning, either due
to a faulty condition of the workers or an overloaded churn. Those
portions of the churning which receive the most working have the
lightest color, because the more the butter is worked, the smaller
become the water droplets and the smaller the water droplets, the
more opaque and the whiter is the butter.

10. Streaky or wavy butter may also result when the distribu-
tion of the salt over the entire length of the churn is very uneven.
In this case the butter that received the most salt will have larger
water droplets and will therefore have a clearer, more translucent
and more yellow color than that part of the butter that received the
least amount of salt.

Practical directions for the prevention of waves and mottles
in butter: 1. Keep churn and workers constantly in good me-
chanical repair. — Make sure that the workers are correctly set,
properly adjusted and that they are free from slack and do not slip.

The distance between workers, in the case of churns with two
or more workers, and between worker and shelf in the one- worker
churn, should be the same over the entire length of the churn. Uneven
distance causes uneven working. An uneven distance between work-
ers is due to the fact that either one or more of the workers are
crooked, the worker shafts are out of line, the shaft has worn a

524 BUTTER DEFECTS

large hole in the end of the worker, the bearings in which the
worker shafts run are worn, the worker shafts themselves are
worn, the distance between centers of the worker shaft bearings
in one end of the churn is not the same as that in the other end of
the churn, the periphery of the workers has become badly dam-
aged in places, or the shelves are not of the same width over their
whole length, do not lie straight, have become damaged, or are
loose and wobbly.

In churns with more than one worker, the workers must be so
set that, when in operation, the ridges of one worker meet the
grooves of the opposite worker. If they are so set that ridges meet
ridges and grooves meet grooves, the working is very uneven, invit-
ing mottles.

The workers must be taut, and free from excessive slack and
from slipping. Slack and slipping workers won't stay set right and
therefore cause uneven working and mottles. Slack and slipping is
due either to the worker shafts having worn loose in the ends of
the workers, the worker shafts slipping in the gear wheels due to
a worn key or worn shaft, or to excessive wear of or damage to
the cogs of the gear wheels.

The buttermaker who would make butter uniformly free from
mottles and waviness must keep close watch of the mechanical con-
dition of his churns and keep the churns and workers in a constant
state of good mechanical repair.

2. Do Not Overload the Workers. — An overloaded churn
needs more revolutions with the workers in gear than a churn not
overloaded. But at best such working is prone to lack of uniformity.
When the workers are overloaded all of the butter cannot go through
the workers with each churn revolution. Some of the butter will
fall off over the outside of the workers, and therefore fails to be
worked, as fully explained in Chapter XL, "Working."

3. The Butter must be worked sufficiently for complete so-
lution of the salt and distribution of the brine. — The process of
working is the only means whereby the extraneous water and the
brine can be evenly distributed throughout the mass of butter. If
this complete solution of salt and distribution of brine is not accom-
plished during the process of working, it will never be accomplished,
and such butter, upon standing, is bound to become mottled. It is
only during the process of working that the brine is capable of pene-

BUTTER DEFECTS 525

trating the fine emulsion of the native water in butter, and that the
brine itself is capable of becoming sufficiently fused with the water
and emulsified with the protein and fat particles of the butter to
preclude interchange of the brine and water after working.

If the salt crystals are not completely dissolved by the working
process, the migration of the free liquid in the butter at rest, is
intensified by the affinity of the salt for water and the dapples or
mottles appear more quickly and more conspicuously.

Fig-. 82A. Fissures in salted butter, showing migration of water
Magnified 110 times

So far as the process of working is concerned, therefore, in
order to prevent mottles,- the butter must be worked sufficiently to
dissolve the salt completely, to cause a very thorough fusion of the
brine and the water and to produce a sufficient emulsion of the brine,
fat and protein of butter to hold it.

The degree of fineness of the salt, or the size of the salt crys-
tals, influences its solubility. Too coarse salt requires more water
and more time for the complete solution of each crystal. Too fine
salt tends to cake or paste the crystals together, again hindering
ready solution. .See also Chapter XL, "Salting.''

Briefly, then, mottles and waves can be prevented by the use of
churns in which the workers and shelves are set correctly and are in

526 BUTTER

perfect mechanical condition, by avoiding the overloading of the
workers, by the proper use and even distribution in the churn of
readily soluble salt, and by adjusting the working process according
to the mechanical firmness of the butter in such a manner, as to
insure complete solution of the salt, even distribution and complete
fusion of brine and water and producing a butter in which the free
brine and water have been sufficiently emulsified, to give the butter a
close, tough, waxy texture, free from visible water pockets.

White Specks in Butter. — Butter occasionally is permeated
with a multitude of small white specks. This condition is due to
the incorporation of small pieces of coagulated casein. The defect
is easily preventable and should not occur when proper attention
is given to the handling of the starter and the cream. Its most
common cause is overripe starter, overripe cream and cream that
has been allowed to dry on the surface due to lack of stirring dur-
ing the ripening process. If the starter is added before it is over-
ripe and has formed a firm curd, or if the coagulum is thoroughly
broken up by stirring or pouring and the starter is strained into the
cream, if the cream is properly stirred during the ripening process
so as to prevent its drying on the surface, if it is not overripened,
and is strained into the churn, there is usually no danger of white
specks in butter. Cream and starter should never be allowed to
enter the churn unless they are run through a fine strainer.

The occasional appearance of white specks in butter may be due
to the cream strainer in the churn becoming clogged and flowing
over, or to emptying the accumulated material caught in the
strainer, into the churn, either through accident or through
ignorance.

Yellow Specks in Butter. — This is a very rare defect and
yet occasionally it occurs and causes trouble. When these specks
are of an orange shade, they are usually due to sediment in the but-
ter color used. If the butter color contains such sediment it should
be allowed to settle and only the clear oil on top should be used.
These yellow specks occur most generally only when the supply of
butter color in the drum or other receptacle is nearly exhausted, so
that the very bottom strata of the color in the drum are drawn on.
In this case it is advisable to discard the remnant of butter color
and draw from a new drum.

BUTTER DEFECTS 527

Frequently the yellow specks are of a different nature and are
due to other causes. There occasionally appear yellow spots in the
butter that are of an oily, translucent nature. In this case they are
generally due to accidental exposure of that particular portion of
butter to some object warm enough to cause partial melting and,
when recongealed, the butter in that spot looks deep yellow like clear
butterfat.

This defe'ct may occur when the operator uses a packer that
was soaked in hot water immediately before use and failed to cool
it. The warm butter packer melts a small portion of the butter
which it touches, resulting in yellow specks showing up in the but-
ter when examined over the trier, or when cut. The buttermaker
frequently argues that the butter packs more easily when a warm
packer is used. All tools, packers and ladles should be chilled in
cold water or cold brine, before they are used in the packing of
butter.

Occasionally prints of butter are found that are completely
jacketed in a layer of this same translucent, clear, deep yellow, oily-
looking butter. This is caused when unsalted butter is stored in
a warm room for a considerable length of time. In this case the
surface layer becomes very soft, evaporates most of its moisture
and expels a portion of its protein content. When rehardened, a
surface layer, varying in thickness according to the temperature ex-
posed to and the duration of the exposure, of very sharply defined,
almost pure butterfat, is produced and this is of very translucent
deep yellow color, while the remainder of the print retains its nat-
ural opaque white color. Chemical analysis shows that the moisture
content of this outer layer of yellow butter may be no higher than
one per cent. This defect is greatly minimized in its intensity and
the evaporation retarded when the butter, in addition to the parch-
ment wrapper, is enclosed in a wax paper and packed in a carton.

Salted butter exposed to similar conditions is not subject to this
defect. This is probably due to the fact that the loss of moisture
due to evaporation is more evenly distributed throughout the body
of the print. As the moisture on and near the surface evaporates,
salt crystals form which draw more moisture from the interior of
the butter.

It is obvious that the storing of butter in a warm room is ob-
jectionable at best, and store-keepers should be urged not to keep

528 BUTTER DEFECTS

more butter on the open shelves of their stores than they may rea-
sonably expect to dispose of each day, or preferably to reserve a
compartment in their refrigerator for all the butter they carry in
stock.

Tig. 83. Unsaltecl butter held at room temperature for
3O days, showing- d.eep yellow border at periphery
due to evaporation of moisture, while interior retained
its original color; moisture in surface layer was 1
per cent, in interior 16 per cent.

Green Spots in Butter. — Green spots occasionally appear on
the surface or in the interior of butter, other than those described
under "moldy butter." This green coloration, especially when found
on the surface, usually shows up in the form of small circles or
rings, which grow larger with age.

Microchemical examination of these green spots by Hunziker
and Hosman1 showed these spots to contain traces of copper. When
they appear on the surface of print butter they can generally be
traced to the presence in the parchment wrapper of very minute
specks with metallic lustre. These specks in the wrapper have been
found, by the authors, to consist of copper or an alloy containing
copper, such as German silver, or brass.

Further investigation has revealed that the parchment paper
manufacturers are experiencing considerable difficulties to keep

1 Hunziker ahd Hosman, Blue Valley Research Laboratory, 1917-1919. Re-
sults not published.

BUTTER DEFECTS 529

filings of these metals out of their paper pulp and that, in order to
guard against their appearance in the paper, the manufacturers are
employing diverse devices, such as magnets, etc., in the process of
manufacture.

The original source of these minute specks of metallic lustre
in the parchment paper lies in the rags which constitute a portion
of the raw material from which parchment paper is manufactured.
In spite of the manufacturers' efforts to eliminate them, metal but-
tons and buckles of discarded overalls and of similar rags occa-
sionally escape detection, pass into the process with the rags and
are thus ground into fine particles or filings which later appear in
the finished parchment paper.

Whenever particles of these metal filings become incorporated
in the parchment wrapper and the butter is wrapped in such wrap-
pers, the salt and acid in the butter attack the copper contained in
these minute specks, forming verdigris. This in turn starts the
formation of a small green circle on the butter and on the wrapper,
where the metal speck is located.

The green circle grows as the butter ages and the action con-
tinues. Around the green coloration there is often also white,
bleached butter with an intense tallowy odor. This oxidation, un-
der favorable conditions, may ultimately involve the entire print,
causing the whole package to be greenish white and tallowy.

In other cases the green coloration may occur in the interior
of the butter. In this case it is also due to particles of copper or
an alloy containing copper, but the source of the copper lies in the
manufacturing process. It is especially prone to occur when the
strainer over the forewarmer or over the pasteurizing vat sags and
scrapes the revolving coil, or when accidentally a can cover or other
obstruction drops into the bottom of the forewarmer and becomes
wedged in between the forewarmer and the revolving coil.

In such instances and other similar cases, particles of the copper
of the coil and possibly of the strainer are filed off into the cream
and are later worked into the butter. The metal particles may be
very small and hardly perceptible to the naked eye, but their corro-
sion by the salt and acid of the butter is inevitable, causing the
appearance of green verdigris in the interior of the butter.

It is obvious that this defect is highly objectionable, verdigris
is poisonous and the green coloration is offensive. It can be easily

530 COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES otf BUTTER

avoided by using wrappers that are free from metallic specks and
by avoiding- any carelessness in the creamery, that causes the in-
corporation in butter of metallic elements. The copper coils should
never be permitted to scrape against any metal, and if any material
or instrument is used to clean the coil or vat lining, that causes vio-
lent friction on the copper surfaces, the greatest care should be exer-
cised to flush such surfaces thoroughly so as to remove every ves-
tige of metallic material before cream is again permitted to enter
the vat.

Chapter XVIII.

COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES OF BUTTER, MILK,
CREAM, SKIM MILK AND BUTTERMILK.

Butter.

Butter is a mixture of butterfat, small amounts of the non-
fatty constituents of milk, cream and water, and it may contain
added salt and coloring matter. It is an emulsion of diluted
buttermilk-in-fat.

It is composed chiefly of butterfat, water, curd and salt in
the case of salted butter, and butterfat. water and curd in the
case of unsalted butter. The remaining non-fatty constituents,
are the ash, lactose and acid.

The percentage composition varies considerably with the
character of the cream and the method of manufacture. The
average composition of butter, made in different localities, dur-
ing the several seasons of the year and under diverse methods
of manufacture would approximate the following figures :

Salted Butter Unsalted Butter

Butterfat .82.5% 84.0

Water 13.8 14.5

Salt 2.5 0.0

Curd 6 .85

Ash 1 .20

Lactose 25 .3

Acid .15 .15

Total .x 100.00 100.00

Thompson, Shaw and Norton1, in a study of the normal
composition of creamery butter, analyzed 695 samples of dif-

1 Thompson, Shaw and Norton, The Normal Composition of American
Creamery Butter, U. S. Dept. Agr., B. A. I. Bulletin 149, 1912.

COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES OF BUTTER 531

ferent churnings of butter from California, Iowa, Michigan,
Minnesota, North Dakota, Pennsylvania, Texas and Wisconsin,
and found the maximum, minimum and average percentages of
butterfat, water, salt and curd to range as follows :

Table 71. — Maximum, Minimum and Average Percentages of
Butterfat, Water, Salt and Curd1 in American Creamery Butter.

Butter.

695 Samples of Butter Fat Water Salt Curd

Average 82.41 13.90 2.5°1 U8

Maximum 87.39 20.65 5.98 3.42

Minimum 73.49 10.13 .68 .12

A study of these figures shows a most unusual range be-
tween maximum and minimum percentages of the several butter
constituents, while the average percentage appears quite normal.
The wide range of percentage composition may be due in part,
at least, to the fact that over two-thirds of the samples an-
alyzed represent butter from the very heart of the co-operative
and small local creamery, the states of Minnesota, Wisconsin
and Iowa. The average buttermaker in these creameries is
more of an all around creameryman than an expert buttermaker.
His knowledge of the art and science of moisture control is
limited and the percentage composition of his butter is prone to
lack in uniformity.

Analyses of butter from the larger creameries, whose butter-
makers are strictly churnmen, and whose skill in moisture con-
trol is more highly developed, would undoubtedly show a much
more uniform percentage composition, with a slightly higher
average water and salt content and a slightly lower fat and curd
content.

The Butterfat. — The butterfat is the chief constituent of
butter. It normally varies between about 80 and 85 per cent,
averaging about 82^ per cent. Abnormal cases occasionally
show variations within much wider limits. In rare cases butter
has been found to contain as high as 90 per cent fat and as low
as 72 per cent fat.

1 The term "curd" as used here includes, in addition to the nitrogenous
constituents, the ash and lactose.

532

COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES OF BUTTER

Normal variations in the percentage of butterfat in butter
are due to its natural mechanical firmness which determines its
power to absorb and hold water and by the process of manu-
facture. The mechanical firmness of the butterfat is dependent
on such factors as season of year, which largely controls the
period of lactation and the character of the feed, and on locality
which determines the breed of cows and, in part, the character
of their feed.

Butterfat is the fat of milk, milk fat is a natural compound
of several different fats which vary in their properties. The
chief of these fats are the olein, palmitin, myristin, stearin,
laurin, butyrin, caproin, caprylin and caprin.

These fats are present in the form of a chemical combination
of glycerol (glycerin), as the base, and of one or more fatty
acids, such as oleic, palmitic, myristic, stearic,-lauric, butyric,
capronic, caprylic and capric acids.

These fats are spoken of as the glycerides. The proportion
in which these glycerides, or fats, are present in the mixed milk
fat varies according to breed, period of lactation and feed of
the cows, hence analyses of milk fat derived from different
sources are somewhat at variance. Richmond1 shows the follow-
ing composition of milk fat:

Table 72. Composition of Milk Fat.

Fats
(Glycerides)

Fats

(Glycerides)

Per Cent

Fatty Acids
of These
Glycerides
Per Cent

Glvcerol
of These
Glycerides
Per Cent

Butyrin . .

385

343

1.17

Caproin ,

360

325

.86

Caprylin

.55

.51

.10

Caprin

1.90

1.77

.31

Laurin

7.40

6.94

1.07

Stearin

1.80

1.72

.19

Myristin

20.2

19.14

2.53

Palmitin

25.7

24.48

2.91

Olein

35.0

33.60

3.93

Total

100.0

1 Richmond, Dairy Chemistry.

COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES OF BUTTER 533

Soluble or Volatile Fats and Insoluble or Non- Volatile Fats.

—The milk fats are spoken of as soluble or volatile and insoluble
or non-volatile fats. In reality none of the fats are soluble or
volatile, but the fatty acids of some of the fats or glycerides,
when, as the result of the decomposition of the respective glyc-
erides, they become separated from their base, the glycerol, be-
come soluble and volatile.

Some of the fatty acids are wholly soluble and volatile, to
these belong the butyric acid and the caproic acid ; others are
only partly soluble and volatile, to them belong the caprylic,
capric and lauric acids; still others are entirely insoluble and
non-volatile, to these belong the oleic, palmitic, myristic and
stearic acids.

Of the total milk fat about 8 to 12 per cent yield volatile
and soluble fatty acids, while the remainder of 88 to 92 per cent
are insoluble and non-volatiles

It is generally accepted, though by no means fully experi-
mentally proven, that the volatile fatty acids, of which the
butyrin is the most important, give the dairy products their
characteristic odor and flavor and that they derive from the
feed of the cows the characteristic feed flavors. Storch holds
that it is the slimy, nitrogenous film which he claims surrounds
each fat globule, that contains and is responsible for the char-
acteristic flavor and aroma of butter.

Melting Point of Milk Fats. — The melting point of the mixed
milk fat ranges between about 90 and 99 degrees F. and the solidi-
fying point ranges betwen 65 and 75 degrees F. Fleischmann1
gives the melting point at 31 to 36 degrees C. (87.8-96.8 degrees
F.) and the solidifying point at 19-24 degrees C. (65-75 de-
grees F.). The several fats or glycerides of which the milk fat
is composed, differ from one another largely in their melting
points and in their solidifying points, and since the melting point
and the solidifying point of the fat control the mechanical firm-
ness or softness of butter, this fact is of the greatest importance
in the art of buttermaking. The melting points of the several
more important fats contained in milk are as follows :

iFleischmnnn — Das Buch der Milchwirtschaft, 1901.

534 COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES OF BUTTER

Table 73.

Tri-butyrin —60 to —70° C. or —76 to —94° F.

Olein 5° C. or 41° F.

Myristin 54° C. or 129° F.

Palmitin 61° C. or 142° F.

Stearin 65.5° C. or 150° F.

Both the butyrin and the olein have melting points much
lower than the other insoluble fats. A material increase in the
proportion of butyrin or olein, or both, therefore suggests a
lowering of the melting point of the mixed fat and vice versa.
This fact has been amply demonstrated by Eckles1 and by Hun-
ziker2. Exceptions to these facts are not infrequent, however,
and they must be largely attributed to the fact that the volatile
acids in such cases were made up of unusually high proportions
of the less common constituents, such as caprylic, capric and
lauric acids, whose melting points are 16.5, 31.3 and 43.6 de-
grees C., respectively, as suggested by Eckles, or that the rela-
tive proportion of the glycerides of the individual soluble and
insoluble acids exclusive of oleic, must have exerted a dominant
influence, as suggested by Hunziker. Again, Lewkowitsch3
points out that the melting point of a mixture of fats cannot be
predicted from the melting points of the fats themselves ; and
Twitchell4 shows the interesting fact that a mixture of palmitic
and stearic acids lowers the solidifying points of each other to
a greater extent than a mixture of either of these two acids with
oleic acid.

Barring these exceptions, and for all practical purposes, the
fact remains that a high percentage of butyrin, or of olein, or
of both, causes the mixed butterfat to have a relatively low
melting point, while a low percentage of butyrin, or of olein,
or of both, causes the mixed butterfat to have a relatively high
melting point. Therefore, in early summer, when, because of
the freshening of the majority of the cows, the per cent of bu-
tyrin is relatively high, and because of the cows gorging them-

1 Eckles and Palmer — Influence of Plane of Nutrition of the Cow Upon the
Composition and Properties of Milk and Butterfat. Missouri Research Bulle-
tin 24. 1916.

2 Hunziker, Mills and Spitzer — Moisture Control of Butter, Factors not
under Control of the Buttermaker. Purdue Bulletin 159, 1912.

3 Lewkowitsch — Chemical Technology and Analysis of Oils, Fat and
Waxes, Vol. I, 1909.

* Twitchell— Journal Ind. Eng. Chem., Vol. VI, p. 564, 1914; also Analyst,
Vol. XXXIX, p. 448, 1914.

COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES OF BUTTER 535

selves with succulent pasture grass, the per cent olein is also
high, often amounting to about 50 per cent of the total fat, the
melting point of the mixed fat is relatively low and the butter
made from this butterfat is relatively soft.

Physical Structure of Butterfat. — In freshly drawn milk and
cream the butterfat consists of miscroscopic, liquid fat globules.
These fat globules are present in the form of a fairly permanent
emulsion in the skim milk which consists of water in which
are dissolved the milk sugar, albumen and part of the milk ash,
and which contains in suspension the casein. The casein is of
colloid nature and the skim milk may logically be considered
an emulsion of hydrated colloid. Milk and cream, then, are a
fat-in-hydrated colloid emulsion, or a fat-in-skimmilk emulsion.

The fact that the butterfat globules remain as independent
units, and that they form this emulsion, is due to the fact that
nature produces them in this fine state of division in the first place.
Fisher and Hooker very interestingly show that the secretion
of butterfat is the result of fatty degeneration of the cells in the
alveoli of the mammary gland or udder. In this fatty degenera-
tion the cells break down, liberating the minute fat globules in
a fat-in-hydrated colloid emulsion, in which they retain their
individuality because of the forces of surface tension, adsorption
and viscosity, as explained under "Philosophy of Churning,"
Chapter X.

Size of Fat Globules. — As previously stated the butterfat,
or milk fat, is present in milk and cream in the form of very
minute fat globules. These fat globules vary in size from
about one micromillimeter to about 17.4 micromillimeters ; they
average about from three to five micromillimeters in diameter.
One micromillimeter, or one micron represents about one twenty-
five tousandth of one inch.

The size of the fat globules is controlled by breed and
period of lactation of the cows, and it is influenced by temporary
indisposition of the cows and abrupt changes in feed.

The Channel Island breeds, the Jerseys and Guernseys,
produce milk in which the fat globules average nearly three
times as large in diameter as those in the milk from the Hoi-
steins and Ayrshires.

At the beginning of the period of lactation the fat globules
are largest. As the period of lactation advances the average

536 COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES OF BUTTER

size of the fat globules gradually decreases and is smallest
shortly before the cows go dry. See also Chapter X on Churning.
The relative size of the fat globules exerts a marked in-
fluence on the mechanical firmness of the butterfat and butter,
and, therefore, on the moisture content of the resulting butter.
Butter made from relatively large fat globules is much softer,
churns much easier and more rapidly and contains more moist-
ure than butter made from relatively small globules. This is

RELATIVE SIZE OF THE SMALLEST AND LARGEST GLOBULES OBSERVED

Pig'. 84

Volume — .5236 cubic microns Volume — 2758.32 cubic microns

Diameter — 1 micron Diameter — 17.4 microns

clearly shown by the results of Hunziker1, who, by centrifugal
separation, produced different lots of cream from the same milk,
containing average large globules (54.24 cubic microns) and
average small globules (20.72 cubic microns). Sixteen churnings
were made from each type of cream. The churning conditions,
as to temperature of cream, time held, amount of cream, richness
of cream, acidity of cream, etc., were the same for all churnings.
The results are shown in the following table : The small-globule
cream churned with difficulty, the butter required over twice
as much time to "break" as the large-globule cream, and it
formed round, hard, smooth granules, which did not pack read-
ily, and made a very firm and crumbly butter. The large-globule

1 Hunziker, Mills and Spitzer, Purdue Bulletin 159, 1912.

COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES OF BUTTER

537

Table 74. — Effect of Size of Average Fat Globules on Per Cent
Moisture in Butter

Experiment
Number

Large — Globule Cream.
Average Volume of Globules
54.249 Cubic Microns

Small — Globule Cream.
Average Volume of Globules
20.724 Cubic Microns

Churning
Number

Moisture in
Butter Percent

Churning
Number

Moisture in
Butter Percent

1

1

3

19.38
20.19

2

4

17.70
17.75

2

5
7

26.62
26.28

6
8

21.24
19.20

3

9
11

21.70
21.40

10
12

16.21
17.72

4

13

15

19.05
18.54

14
16

16.03
15.47

5

17
19

19.76
17.61

18
20

15.69
16.28

6

21
23

20.41
20.61

22

24

1-7.01
16.28

7

25
27

23.06
20.00

26
28

17.20
17.50

8

29
31

18.50
19.95

30
32

18.14
17.17

Average

20.82

17.29

cream churned rapidly, formed soft, irregular, ragged-edged
flakes, which packed readily and made a rather soft-bodied but-
ter. The milk from which the two kinds of cream were produced
came from cows of the same breed, of as nearly the same age
and the same stage of the period of lactation as possible.

These results suggested that the difference in the firmness
of the butter may have been due to a difference in chemical
composition of the fat, between the large and the small fat
globules. Lemus1 and Kluseman2 claim that such a difference
does exist. Lemus found more volatile acid and less olein in the
small fat globules than in the large ones. Kluseman states that

1 Lemus, Diss. Leipzig, 1902.
•Kluseman, Diss. Leipzig, 1893.

538

COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES OF BUTTER

the large fat globules contain more of both the volatile acids and
the olein than the small fat globules. On the other hand, Siedel
and Shaw and Eckles found no difference in the chemical com-
position of the large and small fat globules of the same milk.
Hunziker's results agree with the findings of the last four in-
vestigators as shown in the Table 75.

These findings suggest that the softer butter with the higher
moisture content, resulting from the large-globule cream is not
due to a lower melting point of the fat in these globules, but is
largely due to physical or mechanical influences. The forces
overcoming the surface tension are greater in the larger
globules, causing them to lose their equilibrium and to collapse
more readily, and yielding a butter with a softer body which is
more miscible with water and which retains water more read-
ily than the firmer butter, which results from the smaller fat
globules.

Table 75. — Chemical Composition of Butter Fat from Cream

with Large Average Globules and from Cream with

Small Average Globules.

Large and
Small-Globule
Butter

Reichert-
Meissl
Number

Iodine
Number

Saponi-
fication
Number

Melting
Point

Soluble
Acids

%

Insoluble
Acids

%

Refrac-
tive
Index

Large

3034

28.92

232 2

339

607

88.90

42.2

Large
Small

30.35
3020

28.90
2950

231.6
231 3

34.1

33 7

6.00
609

88.50
89.15

42.0
42.0

Small

30.30

29.30

231.6

34.0

5.98

89.00

41.7

Average large
globules

30.34

28.91

231.9

34.0

6.04

88.70

42.1

Average small
globules

30.25

29.40

231.4

33.9

6.04

89.08

41.9

The Water, Moisture Control. — The water in butter rep-
resents quantitatively the largest non-fatty constituent of butter.
Under normal conditions of manufacture the water content in
finished butter ranges about from 12 to 16 per cent. In very
abnormal cases butter has been found to contain less than ten

COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES OF BUTTER 539

per cent and over 20 per cent water, but butter can be made to
contain considerably less than 10 per cent and very much more
than 20 per cent water. The water content of butter averages
about 14 per cent.

The water content of butter after washing and draining,
but before working and salting, and while the butter is still in
granular form, under normal conditions of churning, firmness
of butter and size of granules, generally averages above 16 per
cent, but it varies considerably with the firmness of the butter
and size of the butter granules.

Other factors being the same, soft butter granules have a
higher water content than firm and hard granules. In the case
of normal firmness and very fine granules, similar in size
to small rice kernels, the water content of butter before work-
ing and salting averages around 20 to 24 per cent. In the form
of small corn kernels butter averages around 17 to 18 per cent
water and in still larger form, such as in lumps, the water
content may drop below 16 per cent, always provided, how-
ever, that the butter is of normal firmness at the time it "breaks."

If the large granules or lumps are excessively soft, such as
is the case when the churning temperature was too high in
proportion to the melting point of the fat, then such lumps
usually show a high water content. In such cases both the soft-
ness of the butter and the over-churning are the direct result of
the high churning temperature which causes the butter to
"break" and gather so rapidly that excessive massing takes place
before the churn is stopped.

In unsalted butter and in properly worked, salted butter,
the water is present largely in the form of microscopic droplets,
varying widely in size and ranging in diameter from less than
one micron (one twenty-five thousandth of one inch) to over 15
microns (three five thousandths of one inch). In butter prior
to working and in much of the salted butter there are present
also considerable quantities of water in the form of large drops
and water aggregates larger than drops.

As previously stated with relation to the physical structure
of butterfat and the philosophy of churning, butter represents
an emulsion of hydrated colloid-in-fat, that is, it is an emulsion
of buttermilk-in-fat. When the butter is worked, a portion of

540 COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES OF BUTTER

the buttermilk, that which adheres to the surfaces of the butter
granules, is removed and replaced by the water and when the
butter is salted and worked a portion of the "remaining butter-
milk and water is replaced by or fuses with, the brine, or both.

When the butter is worked, most of the free water is ex-
pelled, while the firmly held and finely emulsified microscopic
droplets in the interior of the butter granules remain in the
butter. For this reason, during the first stages of the working
process the water content of butter decreases, and under normal
conditions drops to about 13 per cent or slightly lower.

As the working process progresses, the butter loses its
granular state and becomes less friable and more plastic. When
this state is reached further working causes the butter to "pick
up" water from the churn and the water content increases again.
The amount of water which the butter now assimilates and
the extent to which the water content increases, depends on the
mechanical condition of the butter, as determined by the melting
point of the butterfat, the temperature of the cream and the
washwater, and on the amount of water there is in the churn.
The amount of water present in the churn obviously is largely
governed by the extent of draining, with the churn doors ajar
before and during the working process. If the churn is stopped
with the doors ajar and down after every few revolutions of the
churn, and the butter is allowed to drain completely each time,
so that all the free water escapes, further working decreases the
water content of the butter.

But even when working with the churn doors closed, so
that free water remains in the churn, a point is gradually reached
when further working no longer materially increases the water
content of the butter. A point of saturation has then been
reached that does not permit of additional incorporation of
water. The time when this point is reached depends largely on
the mechanical firmness of the butter and the temperature of
the water in the churn. The softer the butter and the warmer
the water, the greater the amount of water that can be in-
corporated before the point of saturation is reached.

Conditions that tend to disturb the emulsion of buttermilk-,
water-, or brine-in-fat, reduce the amount of water that is capable

COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES OF BUTTER 541

of remaining in butter in the form of very finely divided drop-
lets, unaided by working.

In sweet-cream, unsalted butter, the fine state of division
of the water droplets present in butter before working remains
practically intact and is not materially affected by working.
In sour-cream butter the lactic acid present has a tendency to
slightly lower the permanency of the emulsion by its action on
the nitrogenous constituents of the buttermilk and such butter
may be expected to show a slightly smaller number of very
small droplets and a slightly larger number of larger droplets.
The difference, however, is very slight.

In salted butter the effect of the salting-out influence of the
emulsion is very marked and during the early stages of the
working process salted butter shows a marked decrease in the
number of small droplets and a decided increase in the number
of the larger droplets. In this condition the water in butter is
not permanently fixed, the emulsion is incomplete and the but-
ter is leaky. This butter, therefore, has to be worked until the
body is sufficiently plastic to permit, by means of the working
process, the redivision and re-emulsification of the water droplets
until the size of these droplets is again reduced nearly to the point
that prevailed before the salting and working commenced, other-
wise this butter remains permanently leaky.

It may be logically considered, therefore, that the water in
butter is present in two forms; namely, in the form of very
finely divided droplets, as originally emulsified and locked up
in the granules during the churning process, and in the form
of larger droplets, drops and aggregates of drops of free moisture,
which is loosely held in the interstices between the butter gran-
ules and a part of which adheres to their surface.

The control of moisture in butter, then, resolves itself into
the retaining in the butter of the first form of water, the finely
divided and thoroughly emulsified droplets originally present,
and the dividing and emulsifying into the butter of a portion of
the free water; and the ease with which the moisture content is
controlled depends on the control by the buttermaker over the
mechanical firmness of the butter and the temperature of the
cream and wash water.

542 COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES OF BUTTER

.•

The natural firmness of the butter varies with locality and
season of year, but the actual firmness can- be controlled readily
by the proper adjustment of the churning temperature, and the
proper adjustment and control of the churning temperature is
the foundation of satisfactory moisture control. When, in the
spring, the butterfat becomes softer, the churning temperature
must be lowered sufficiently to maintain the desired firmness of
the butter. In the fall, when the natural change in the character
of the butterfat tends towards a firmer butter, the churning tem-
perature must be raised sufficiently to offset this change. The
extent to which the butter is drained before, or during the work-
ing process, or both, will further influence the control of its
moisture content.

In the case of unsalted butter, moisture control is largely a
matter of giving the free water an opportunity to escape, since,
under average conditions, the amount of water present in its
original, finely divided and thoroughly emulsified form, repre-
sents a very large portion of the total per cent of water that
legal butter is permitted to contain. In unsalted butter the
tendency naturally is toward a high moisture content.

In the case of salted butter the salt, owing to its great
affinity for water, causes a large number of the very small
droplets to run together into drops and to escape as free water.
Moisture control, here, therefore, has to do with the re-division,
re-emulsification and reincorporation of a sufficient amount of
the free water, in order to bring the per cent moisture back to
that desired, and this is accomplished by proper working.

Moisture Control. — Factory Directions. — Owing to the many
and ever-changing factors which influence the property of the
butter to retain or take up and hold water, such as type of churn,
character of butterfat, churning temperature, etc., it is, as yet,
not possible to reduce the art of moisture control to a mathemat-
ical, exact science, whereby a given formula may be depended
upon to produce the desired results. Moisture control is an art,
the success of which demands local experience and judgment on
the part of the buttermaker, quite as much as scientific knowl-
edge. For this reason, the specific method that should be used
for best results, must be left to the judgement of the buttermaker,
who, operating his churns daily, is familiar with his local condi-

COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES OF BUTTER 543

tions and is in the best position to know how to go about under
his particular conditions.

Attempts to reduce moisture control to a fixed method, by
reducing the moisture content of butter by means of preliminary
draining and working to a figure below the percentage desired,
then testing for per cent moisture and adding the mathematically
calculated correct amount of water to increase the moisture con-
tent to the desired per centage in the finished butter, have not
proven entirely successful.

In the absence of the availability of a more specifically exact
method, the following procedure is recommended :

1. Have the churning temperature of the cream sufficiently
low to complete the churning process in 40 to 60 minutes and to
produce butter of a good firm body. Do not overload the churn
and run the churn at about 30 revolutions per minute.

2. Hold the cream at the churning temperature not less
than two hours.

3. Wash with water at a temperature the same, or nearly
the same, as the temperature of the buttermilk, drain well and
give the churn a revolution or two to bring the butter up on
the shelves.

4. If the butter happens to be unexpectedly soft, use wash
water several degrees colder than the buttermilk. This condi-
tion, however, tends toward a leaky body.

5. If the butter happens to be excessively firm, use wash
water a few degrees warmer than the temperature of the but-
termilk.

6. Trench the butter, distribute the salt uniformly over
the entire trench, wet the salt with a small amount of water
and close the trench. In the case of a tendency toward excessive
moisture, omit wetting of the salt.

7. Give the butter from 12 to 20 revolutions in a four-roll
churn, or 25 to 35 revolutions in a two-roll or one-roll churn,
according to needs, and test for moisture.

8. If previous experience has shown that there is a tendency
for butter to take up excessive moisture, stop the workers after
every few revolutions of the churn and allow the butter to drain,
with churn doors down and ajar and the churn swinging freely.

544 COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES OF BUTTER

9. If previous experience has shown that there is a tendency
for butter to be low in moisture, work with the churn doors
closed.

10. If the moisture test taken at the churn (see paragraph
7) is high, allow the butter to set for a few minutes, then give
the churn another revolution with the workers in gear and again
let drain with the churn doors down and ajar. Repeat this until
the test shows that excessive moisture is no longer present.

11. If the excess moisture refuses to be expelled by follow-
ing directions in paragraph 10, remove the butter to the cooler
in tubs or other containers, allow it to harden overnight. The
next morning strip the tubs, cut the butter into small pieces with
wire, and rework as in paragraph 10. This will usually bring the
moisture' down to the desired point.

12. If. after following directions in paragraph 11, the mois-
ture is still excessive, put the butter in the cooler again and
repeat the reworking next day.

13. If the moisture test (see paragraph 7) is slightly too
low, give the butter a few more revolutions with the churn
gates closed and test again.

14. If the moisture test (see paragraph 7) is considerably
too low, calculate the amount of water needed to raise it to the
desired point and add the calculated amount of water at a
temperature a few degrees higher than the temperature of the
buttermilk and work again with the churn doors closed until
the desired per cent moisture has been reached. Calculate the
amount of water needed by multiplying the difference between
the test secured and the test desired by one ond one-fourth times
the pounds of fat in the churn and divide by 100.

Example : Test desired 15.9 per cent

Test secured 13.5 per cent

Difference 2.4 per cent

Fat in churn 800 Ibs.

2.4 X 1.25 X 800

— 24 Ibs. water to be added.

1UU

15. It will be found, in following the above suggestions,
that the results may fall short of those desired under many
conditions, in which case they need modification to suit condi-
tions.

COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES OP BUTTER 545

For instance, in churns in which the free water in the churn
precedes the butter in its movement toward and through the
workers, increase in moisture content may be found exceed-
ingly difficult. Under these conditions great care should be
taken not to drain and especially not to work the butter ex-
cessively before salting. Continued working and draining before
salting also renders complete solution of the salt difficult be-
cause it may cause such a reduction of the moisture in butter,
that not enough water is left to readily dissolve the salt and
these conditions make the assimilation of free water difficult,
in spite of overworking.

The author's purpose of submitting these very inexact sug-
gestions is merely to place before the buttermaker, especially if
he be a beginner, some concrete idea of the principles involved
and their practical application, which may assist him in working
out his own method of moisture control that will best suit his
local conditions and equipment.

Relation of per cent moisture to quality of butter. — Within
reasonable limits, not exceeding about 16 per cent, the moisture
content of butter has no marked effect on its quality. Butter con-
taining 16 per cent moisture, other conditions being the same,
may have as good quality and may keep as well, as butter con-
taining only 12 per cent moisture. Generally speaking, however,
excessive moisture does not improve the quality of the butter,
and it may give rise to butter of very inferior quality, develop-
ing such off-flavors as oiliness and fishiness. This is not neces-
sarily due so much to the actual amount of water present, but
rather to the process of manufacture that was responsible for
the high water content.

Whenever the high per cent of water is the result of over-
working the butter, quality is sacrificed. The breaking down
of the grain and the emulsification of air in butter, which are
inevitable incidents to such moisture incorporation, are antag-
onistic to good flavor and keeping quality. They invite oxidation
and other channels of decomposition. This is especially the case
with butter made from sour cream.

Butter made in summer readily holds 16 per cent water
without overworking. Such butter is entirely normal, its grain

546 COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES OF BUTTER

has suffered no mutilation. It may therefore be of just as good
flavor and keeping quality as butter containing much less water.
In fact, if the low-moisture butter required excessive working in
order to reduce the water content, the high-moisture butter may
be superior.

On the other hand, high-moisture butter made in winter is
often very inferior to low-moisture butter, because overworking
was necessary in order to hold up the moisture content.

In winter, when the butterfat is naturally firm and the
butter tends to be low in moisture, it may be preferable, from
the standpoint of quality, if the buttermaker insists on incor-
porating the maximum water permitted by law, to raise the
churning temperature sufficiently to make the butter "come" in
very slightly softer condition, rendering it more miscible with
water and thereby making unnecessary excessive working, rather
than to mutilate the body of very firm butter by overworking,
always providing, however, that the slightly less firm butter is
not overworked. The buttermaker should clearly understand
that the less firm the butter, the greater the danger of over-
working. Soft butter does not stand much working without
injury to its grain. It also usually tends to have a leaky body.

The Curd. — The curd represents the nitrogenous constitu-
ents of butter. It is generally thought of as the casein (casein
lactate) derived from the buttermilk. This impression may be
somewhat erroneous, as it appears that there are other nitrog-
enous substances in butter with properties differing somewhat
from those of casein and casein lactate. Storch1 separated from
butter a nitrogenous substance which formed a slimy precipitate
in acetic acid, quite different from the usual white, cheeselike,
lumpy or flocculent precipitate formed by the casein. This slimy
precipitate was insoluble in weak ammonia, and in a 2 per cent
solution of sodium hydroxide, while the casein dissolves exceed-
ingly readily in these solutions. According to Storch, this
nitrogenous substance corresponds completely with a protein
associated with the fat globules. He claims that on the basis
of its insolubility in the above alkalies, this slimy substance

1 Storch — 36 Bericht des Koenigl. Veterinar- und Landbauhochschule-
Laboratoriums, Kopenhagen, Denmark.

COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES OF BUTTER 547

constituted a little over 60 per cent of the protein, or curd, in
butter, while the remainder of about 40 per cent is casein.

Storch's findings and conclusions may assist in the explana-
tion why, even when the churning process is stopped while the
butter granules are still exceedingly minute, and when this
butter is subsequently very thoroughly washed with repeated
washings, so that the butter drains perfectly clear, it is not
possible to reduce the curd content, as determined by the Kjel-
dahl method, to any appreciable extent below about .4 per cent.
This slimy protein substance does not wash out.

The curd content of butter is determined and expressed in
one or the other of two entirely different ways and yielding
results in per cent curd, that differ from one another. One way
is to determine the nitrogen content of butter, and by multiply-
ing the results by the factor 6.38, expressing it as per cent
protein. This represents the true curd content. The other way
is to determine the per cent curd by difference, by deducting
the sum of the per cent of fat, moisture and salt from 100. In
this case the per cent curd so obtained embraces, aside from the
protein, also the traces of ash, acid and lactose contained in
butter. This is termed the physiological curd.

In the case of the true curd of butter, the percentage of
curd usually fluctuates between about .5 per cent and one per
cent, averaging about from .6 to .7 per cent, provided that the
butter is washed in a normal manner.

Butter made from sweet cream, and unsalted butter, has
a slightly higher curd content than butter made from ripened
cream and butter that was salted. Butter that is only very
slightly washed contains more curd than butter in the manu-
facture of which the churn is stopped when the granules are
still very small and which are washed thoroughly. Butter that
is not washed at all usually contains from about 1 to 1.5 per
cent curd.

In case of expressing the curd content as physiological curd,
the percentage of curd averages from .5 to .6 per cent higher than
the true curd.

The Salt. — The salt is the one constituent of butter strictly
foreign to the natural composition of butter, unsalted butter con-

548 COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES OF BUTTER

taining only very minute traces of sodium chloride as a part of
its mineral content. Being added to the butter, the amount of
salt which butter may contain is controlled exclusively by the
buttermaker.

The great bulk of all butter manufactured in the United
States is salted butter, and most of the foreign butter intended
for export trade is also salted butter.

Salted butter contains from about 1 to 5 per cent of salt.
Most of the salted butter on the market averages from about
2.5 to 4.0 per, cent salt, and the great bulk contains between 3
and 3.5 per cent salt.

For the best interests of the butter industry, excessive salt-
ing should be avoided and the per cent salt should be held
down to below 4 per cent.

The consumer's objection to excessively salted butter is
clearly expressed by the San Francisco Wholesale Dairy Produce
which issued a ruling that after February, 1, 1916, the salt con-
tent of all butter coming into San Francisco shall be three per
cent. They further state that practically all the butter that had
been coming into San Francisco recently (prior to February 1,
1916) contained a much higher per cent of salt and that one of
the chief complaints on all butter was that butter contained too
much salt. See also Chapter XI on Salting.

The Lactose, C12 H22 Olt + H2O.~ Normal butter contains
from about .20 to .45 per cent of lactose, or milk sugar. The
lactose is the sugar of milk which is present in solution in the
milk, cream and buttermilk, and a portion of which the butter-
granules, in their process of forming, pick up and lock up. The
per cent lactose in butter obviously varies somewhat according
to the extent of washing and removal of buttermilk. The more
thorough the. washing, the less lactose the butter will contain.

In instances where skimmilk powder is added to the
butter in the churn, such as is done in some creameries for the
purpose of incorporating extraneous curd in the butter, the lac-
tose content of the butter also increases. In experiments with
skimmilk powder, conducted by Hunziker and Hosman,1 butter
contained as high as 1.26 per cent lactose.

1 Hunziker and Hosman — A Study of the Composition of Butter. Blue
Valley. Research Laboratory, 1917.

COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES OF BUTTER 549

The lactose content of butter decreases slightly in storage,
partly because of the probable conversion of small portions of
the lactose, through bacterial, or through chemical action, into
lactic acid, glycolic acid and other acids, and partly due to loss
of water or brine by leakage.

The lactose is one of the unstable and readily fermentable
constituents of butter, it rapidly yields to bacterial action, split-
ting up into simpler compounds, of which lactic acid is a very
prominent one, but not necessarily the only one.

Under certain conditions lactose also readily yields to
chemical decomposition detrimental to the market value of the
butter. Being itself a powerful reducing agent, it invites and
accelerates oxidation in butter, especially in a weakly alkaline
condition. In butter made from over-neutralized cream, the
lactose may give rise to most disastrous butter defects, such as
bleached and tallowy butter, as demonstrated by Hunziker and
Hosman.1

In butter with a decided acid reaction, on the other hand,
lactose appears to have no deteriorating action, on the contrary,
it tends to exert a slight, but distinct preservative influence. It
is for this reason that some butter manufacturers purposely add
lactose to their butter.

The Acid. — Fresh butter contains from about .1 to .35 per
cent acid, presumably largely, but generally not exclusively,
lactic acid. In a similar manner, as in the case of curd and ash
of butter, the acid is derived from the cream o'f which it is a
natural constituent. Therefore, sweet cream butter contains less
acid than ripened-cream butter, and butter made from sour
cream that has been neutralized contains less acid than butter
from unneutralized sour cream. Butter made from pasteurized
cream contains less acid than butter made from raw cream.
This is especially the case with the flash process, or high tem-
perature pasteurization, as shown by Hunziker, Spitzer and
Mills2 in Table 77.

The decrease of the acidity of butter, due to pasteurization
of the cream is in all probability due to the presence, in the raw

1 Hunziker & Hosman — Tallowy Butter, Blue Valley Research Laboratory,
also Journal of Dairy Science, Vol. I, No. 4, 1917.

2 Hunziker, Spitzer and Mills — Pasteurization of Sour, Farm-Skimmed
Cream for Butter Making. Purdue Bulletin 203, 1917.

550

COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES OF BUTTER

cream, of carbon dioxide and other volatile acids which are ex-
pelled by the heat of pasteurization, and the higher the tem-
perature of pasteurization the more readily do these volatile
acids escape. It has been noticed also by the author and others
that the reduction of acid due to pasteurization is much greater
in the case of cream that had undergone considerable fermenta-
tion before pasteurization, than in cream that is comparatively
fresh and unfermented.

Table 77.— Per Cent Acid in Butter Made from Different Por-
tions of the Same Cream Before and After Pasteuriza-
at 145° F. 20 Minutes, 165° F. Flash and
185° F. Flash.

Per Cent Acid in Butter.

Raw
Cream
Butter

Pasteurized Cream Butter.

145° F.
20 Minutes

165° F.
Flash

185° F.

Flash

Fresh butter

.3260

.2448

.2250

.2034

In storage the acidity of the butter increases slightly, - due
to the breaking down of a portion of the milk sugar as shown
in the following results by Hunziker, Spitzer and Mills,1 and

Table 78.— Showing Relation of Per Cent. Lactose and Per Cent.

Acid in Fresh and Stored Butter Made from Raw and

Pasteurized Cream — Averages of 44 Churnings.

Lactose

Acidity

Age of butter

decrease

per

increase

cream

months

per

in 3

cent.

in 3

cent.

months

months

Raw

fresh

.339

.3073

Raw

1 month

.367

.3613

Raw

3 months

336

.063

4073

.1000

145 degrees F. 20 minutes

fresh

398

2565

145 degrees F. 20 minutes

1 month

360

2745

145 degrees P. 20 minutes
165 degrees P. flash

3 months
fresh

.353

.388

.045

.2835
2295

.027

165 degrees F. flash
165 degrees F. flash
185 degrees F. flash
185 degrees F. flash
185 degrees F. flash

1 month
3 months
fresh
1 month
3 months

.343
.315
.389
.360
.350

.073
.039

.2543
.2655
.2093
.2295
.2655

.036
.056

x Hunziker, Spitzer and Mills— Pasteurization of Sour, Farm-Skimmed
Cream for Butter Making. Purdue Bulletin 203, 1917.

COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES OF BUTTER 551

probably also as the result of partial cleavage of the proteins
and fats.

It was formerly believed that the acidity was favorable to
the keeping quality of butter, and that ripened cream butter
would keep better than sweet cream butter. The great bulk of
experimental data on the relation of acidity to keeping quality,
and the experience in the commercial manufacture of butter,
have amply demonstrated that such is not the case. It is now
conceded by the best authorities on the subject, that the acid
content of butter, is one of the active agents, which, in com-
bination with other factors, hastens decomposition, leading to
the development of specific flavor defects, and shortening the
life of good butter.

The Ash. — The Ash, or mineral matter, is present in butter
in very small amounts only, ranging from about .09 to .20 per
cent. It very rarely exceeds .14 per cent and it averages about
.12 per cent. It is derived from the ash of milk and cream and
therefore has a similar composition as the ash of milk, which
is as follows:

Table 79. — Composition of Ash in Butter from Sour Cream,
Butter Not Washed but Thoroughly Worked.1

Potassium Oxide 19.329 per cent

Sodium Oxide 7.714 " "

Calcium Oxide 23.092 " "

Magnesium Oxide 3.287 " "

Iron Oxide (Ferric) and Sulphuric Acid 288 " "

Phosphoric Acid (Anhydride) 44.273 " "

Chlorine . 2.604 " "

100.587
Less Oxygen Equivalent to Chlorine 587 "

100.000 '

1 Fleischmann — Lehrbuch der Milchwirtschaft, 1901.

552

COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES OF MILK
COMPOSITION OF MILK.

Table 80. — Average, Maximum and Minimum Composition of

Cow's Milk.

Average Composition by Different

Max-

Min-

Investigators

of
Milk

imum
per ct.

imum
per ct.

Far-
rington
& Woll1
per ct.

Van

Slyke2
5552 an-
alyses
per cent

Eckles3
per ct.

Bab-
cock4
per cent

Fleisch-
mann5
per cent

Water

90.0

82.0

87.4

87.1

87.1

87.17

87.75

Fat

7.8

2.3

3.7

3.9

3.9

3.69

3.40

Casein 1
Albumin ' J

4.6

2.5

3Z

2.5

.7

3.4

3.02
.53

2.80
.70

Milk sugar

6.0

3.5

5.0

5.1

4.75

4.88

4.60

Ash

* .9

.6

.7.

.7

.75

.71

.75

Total Solids

12.6

12.9

12.80

12.83

12.25

Solids, not fat

8.9

9.0

8.90

9.14

8.85

Specific gravity at 60° F. 1.02^—1.034; average 1.032.
Specific heat, at 61-62.6° F. .9406— .9523. (Chanoz and'Vaillant.)
At 57-61° F. .9457, at 81° F. .9351 (Fleischmann.5)
Freezing point —.54 to —.57° C. Average —.555° C. (31° F.) (Grim-
mer.6)

Table 81. — Average Composition of Cow's Milk, by Major
Breeds. Percentage of Fat in Total Solids.3

Breeds

Fat
Per Cent

Total
Solids
Per Cent

Solid not
Fat
Per Cent

Parts of
Fat in 100
Parts of
Total
Solids

Holstein

345

1229

884

28

Ayrshire

385

1298

913

296

Guernsey

498

1420

922

350

Tersev. .

5 14

1490

976

345

Brown Swiss. .

3.91

13.28

9.37

29.4

1 Farrington and Woll, Testing Milk and Its Products, 1908.

8 Van Slyke. Modern Methods of Testing Milk and Its Products. 1916.

« Eckles, Dairy Cattle and Milk Production, 1911.

*Babcock, Wing Milk and Its Products, 1909.

6 Fleischmann, Das Buch der Milchwirtschaft, 1901.

• Grimmer, Chemie und Physiologic der Milch, 1910.

COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES OF MII.K 553

Table 82. — Composition of Ash in Normal Cow's Milk.1

Mineral Constituents In Milk

In Ash
Per Cent

In Milk
Per Cent

Potassium oxide (potash)

25 02

175

Sodium oxide (soda).

1001

070

Calcium oxide (lime)

2001

140

Magnesium oxide (magnesia) . .

242

017

Iron oxide (ferric)

13

001

Sulphur trioxide

3 84

A?7

Phosphoric pentoxide

2429

170

Chlorine.

1428

100

Total ash

100.00

.700

Table 83.— Composition of Colostrum Milk.2

Time After Calving

Specific
Gravity

Water

%

Fat

%

Casein

%

Albumin

%

Sugar

%

Ash

%

Total
Solids

%

Immediately . .

1.068

73.07

3.54

2.65

16.56

3.00

1.18

26.93

After 10 hours.

1.046

78.77

4.66

4.28

9.32

1.42

1.55

21.23

After 24 hours.

1.043

80.63

4.75

4.50

6.25

2.85

1.02

19.37

After 48 hours.

1.042

85.81

4.21

3.25

2.31

3.46

.96

14.19

After 72 hours.

1.035

86.64

4.08

3.33

1.03

4.10

.82

13.36

Table 84. — Composition of Ash in Colostrum Milk.3

Potassium oxide ........... .................. 7.23 per

Sodium oxide ____ .............. .... ........... 5.72 "

Calcium oxide ...:.. ____ > ..................... 34.85 "

Magnesium oxide ............................ 2.06 "

Iron oxide (ferric) . . . . ................ ____ _____ .52 "

Phosphoric acid (anhydride) ................... 41.43 "

Sulphuric acid ....... . . . .............. * ........ 16 "

Chlorine . , 11.25 "

cent

Less oxygen equivalent to chlorine

103.22
3.22

100.00

1 Leach — Food Inspection and Analysis, 1914.

2 Engling-Leach — Food Inspection and Analysis, 1914.
8 Fleischmann — Lehrbuch der Milchwirtschaft, 1901.

554

COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES OF

Table 85. — Composition of Mammalian Milks.

Kind of
Milk

Analyst or
Author

No. of

Analyses

«§£
•3 >

ccO

f

£

Total Solids

%

*

1

c

3^
|

•1^
o

1 Albumin

% II

1 Lactose

% |

£

1

WOMAN—
Minimum..
Maximum .
Average . . .

cowT

Minimum . .
Maximum .
Average . . .

GOAT—
Minimum. .
Maximum .
Average . . .

EWE—
Minimum. .
Maximum .
Average . . .

BUFFALO—
Minimum. .
Maximum .
Average. . .

Koenig*

1.027
1.032

L0348
1.0285

1.0290
1.0340
1.0320

81.09
91.40
87.41
88.13
89.47

82.0
90.0

87.4
87.1

87.17

82.02
90.16
85.71
85.80
87.11

74.47
87.02
80.82
78.70
83.00

81.56
84.23
82.69
82.93
81.67

8.60

18.91
12.59
11.87
10.53

10.00
18.00
12.60
12.90
12.83

9.84
17.98
14.29
14.20
12.89

12.98
25.53
19.18
21.30
17.00

15.77
18.44
17.31
17.07
18.33

1.43
6.83
3.87
2.24
3.02

2.3

7.8
3.7
3.9
3.69

3.10
7.55
4.78
4.50
4.45

2.81
9.80
6.86
8.94
5.30

6.69
9.19
7.87
7.46
9.02

.50
4.32
2.29
2.41
1.89

2.5
4.6
3.2
3.2
3.55

3.22
5.05
4.29
5.00
3.67

4.42
7.46
6.52
6.34
6.30

3.99

7.78
5.88
4.59
3.99

.18
1.96
1.03
1.96
.95

.32
2.36
1.26
.45
.94

3.88
8.34
6.21

i37

3.5
6.0
5.0
5.1

4.88

3.26
5.77
4.66
4.00
4.09

2.76
7.95
4.91
5.02
4.60

4.16
5.18
4.52
421

.12
1.90
.31
.25
.32

.60
.90
.70
.70
.71

.39
1.06
.76
.70
.72

.13
1.72
.89
1.00
.80

.72
.85
.76
.86
.86

I
«

Grimmer2

«

Farrington &Woll3
«

Van Slyke4
Babcock5

200
1
1

5552

2.5
3.02

2.44
3.94
3.20
3.80
2.00

3.59
5.69
4.97

'70
.53

.78
2.01
1.09
1.20
1.67

.83
1.77
1.55

Koenig*

1.0280
1.0360
1.0305
1.0320
1.0313

1.0298
1.0385
1.0341
.0377
.0369

.0310
.0336
.0323
1.0339

«

Fleischmann6 ....
Scheurlen2 ....

'266
Avg.

Koenig1 .

%

«

Sartori2

"32
2500

Avg.

Fleischmann6 ....
Szentkiralyi2 . .

4.60

1.70

a
u

Fleischmann6 ....
Rimini2

"2

3.63

.73

5.06

1 Koenig — Chemie der Menschl. Nahrungs- und Genussmittel. Compiled
by Leach.

2 Grimmer — Chemie und Physiologic der Milch, 1910.

8 Farrington and Woll — Testing Milk and Its Products, 1908.

*Van Slyke— Modern Methods of Testing Milk and Its Products, 1916.

B Babcock-Wing — Milk and Its Products, 1909.

6 Fleischmann — Das Buch der Milchwirtschaft, 1901.

7 Richmond — Dairy Chemistry, 1914.

COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES OF CREAM

555

Table 85.— (Continued.)*

Kind of
Milk

Analyst or
Author

o'!

6 §
K<

0 >>
fj-^ -*-3

coO

r

Total Solids
% |

£

2

Total Protein

% II

.9$

1
o

i$
1

f$

£

1

Mare
Ass .. .

Fleischmann* . . . .

1.0310
1.0347
1.0350
1.0330
1.0360
1.0320

90.70
90.78
90.13
88.85
89.64
91.23
89 14

9.30
9.22
9.87
11.15
10.36
8.77
1086

1.20
1.21
.94
.36
1.64
1.15

1 °r8

2.00
1.99
1.65
1.31
2.22
1.50
9S1

5.70
5.67
6.98
4.94
5.99
6.00
6.04
4.80
4.25
3.13
3.11
4.91
1.95
1.33

0.00

.40
.35
.30
.31
.51
.40
.53
.38
1.07
1.05
.91
.51
2.56
.57
.46
.99
.46

Koenig1

47

1.24

.75

Vieth2

Schlossman2 ....

.98
.67
.94

.33
1.55
.53

Mule

Koenig1

5

Ellenberger2

Aubert & Colby2.
Leed»
Henry & Well2. . .
Koenig1

Sow

Avg.

91.59
80.96
84.09
77.00
81.63
69.50
41.11
48.76
69.80
48.67

8.41
19.04
15.91
23.00
18.37
30.50
58.89
51.24
30.20
51.33

1.59
7.06
4.55
9.26
3.33
10.45
45.80
43.71
19.40
43.67

1.64
6.20
7.23
9.72
9.08
15.54
11.19
7.57
9.43
7.11

....

....

Doe

Koenig1

4.15
3.12

5.57
5.96

Cat

Koenig1

Rabbit

Pizzi*

1.0493

Guinea Pig . .
Delphin. .

Purdie2

Franklain2

Whale

Scheibe2

Richmond7

* For references to above table, see previous page.

Table 86. — Composition of Cream.

Constituents
of
Cream

By Centrifugal Separation

By Gravity
Creaming

Snyder1
%

Rich-
mond*
%

Fleisch-
mann*

%

Fleisch-
mann8

%

Fleisch-
mann*

%

Koenig4
%

Water

66.41
25.72

} 3.70

3.54
.63
33.59

7.87

39.37
56.09

2.29

1.57
.38
60.63
4.24

29.6
67.5

1.3

1.5
.1
70.4
2.9

68.5
25.0

2.8

3.3
.4
31.5
6.5

72.9
20.0

3.0

3.6
.5
27.1
7.11

68.82

22.66
3.76

4.23
.53
31.18
8.42

Fat

Casein . .

Albumin

Milk Sugar
Ash.

Total Solids
Solids not Fat . .

Specific gravity. — See Standardization of Milk and Cream.
Specific heat of cream testing 19.18% fat at 14-16° C. .9833;
at 27.5° C. .8443 (Fleischmann).3

1 Snyder — Dairy Chemistry.

2 Richmond — Dairy Chemistry, 1914.

* Fleischmann — Lehrbuch der Milchwlrtschaft, 1901.

* Leach — Food Inspection and Analysis, 1914.

556

COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES OF SKIM MILK

Table 87. — Composition of Ash in Cream.4

Potassium oxide 28.381 per cent

Sodium oxide 8.679 " "

Calcium oxide 23.411

Magnesium oxide 3.340

Iron oxide (ferric) 2.915 " "

Phosphoric acid (anhydride) 21.735 " "

Chlorine . .... 14.895 " "

Less oxygen equivalent to chlorine

103.356
3.356 " 'v*

100.000 " "

Table 88. — Composition of Skimmilk.

Centrifugal

Separation

Gravity
Creaming

in
Skim Milk

VanSlykei

%

Snyder2

%

Rich-
mond3

%

Fleisch-
mann4

%

Fleisch-
mann4

%

Water
Fat

90.30
.10

90.25
.20

90.48
.12

90.35
.20

89.85
.75

Casein
Albumin .

2.75

.80

| 3.60

3.22
.42

I 4.00

4.03

Milk Sugar

5.25

5.15

4.88

4.70

4.06

Ash

.80

.80

.78

.75

.77

Total Solids

9.70

9.75

9.52

9.65

10.15

Specific gravity at 60°F. 1.035 to 1.038; average 1.036.

Specific heat at 14 to 16° C. .9388* at 27.5° C. .9455 (Fleisch-
mann)4; at 0° C. .940; at 15° C. .943; at 40° C. .952 (Hammer and
Johnson)5.

xVan Slyke — Modern Methods of Testing Milk and Its Products.
2 Snyder — Dairy Chemistry.
"Richmond — Dairy Chemistry, 1914.
* Fleischmann — Lehrbuch der Milch wirtschaft.

6 Hammer and Johnson — The Specific Heat of Milk Products. Iowa Re-
search Bulletin 14, 1913.

COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES OF BUTTERMILK

557

Table 89: — Composition of Ash in Separator Skim Milk.5

Potassium oxide 31.634 per cent

Sodium oxide 10.265 " "

Calcium oxide 21.913

Magnesium oxide 3.115

Iron oxide (ferric) 921 "

Phosphoric acid (anhydride) 19.478 "

Sulphuric acid (anhydride) 1.000 " "

Chlorine 15.071

103.397 "• "
Less oxygen equivalent to chlorine 3.397

100.000 " "
Table 90. — Composition of Buttermilk.

Constituents
in
Buttermilk

From Ripened Cream

From Sweet Cream

Van

Slykei

%

Storch2
%

Snyder3 "
%

Vieth*

%

Fleisch-
mann8

%

Storcha
%

Rich-
mond*

%

Water
Fat •

90.6
.1

2.8
.8
4.4
.6

.7

90.93
.31

^3.37

' 4.58

.81

90.5
.2

3.3
5.3

.7

90.39
.50

3.60

4.06
.75

.80

91.30
.50

3.50

| 4.00
.70

89.74
1.21

3.28

4.98
.79

90.98
.35

3.51

/4.42
1 .01
.73

Casein
Albumin

Milk Sugar. . . .
Lactic Acid ....
Ash

Specific gravity of sweet-cream buttermilk 1.033 16.
Specific gravity of sour-cream buttermilk 1.03146.

Table 91. — Composition of Ash in Buttermilk.5

Potassium oxide 24.53

Sodium oxide 1 1.54

Calcium oxide 19.73

Magnesium oxide 3.56

Iron oxide (Ferric) and Sulphuric acid 47

Phosphoric acid (anhydride) 29.89

Chlorine . . 13.27

per cent

Less oxygen equivalent to chlorine

102.99
2.99

100.00

1 Van Slyke — Modern Methods of Test Milk and Its Products.

2 Storch — Richmond's Dairy Chemistry.

3 Snyder — Dairy Chemistry.

4 Vieth — Richmond's Dairy Chemistry.

6 Flelschmann — T.ehrbuch der Milchwirtschaft, 1901.
6 Richmond — Dairy Chemistry, 1914.

558

COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES OF WHEY

Table 92.— Composition of Whey.

Constituents

of
Whey

VanSlyke

%

Fleisch-
mann

Koenig

%

Smetham

%

Vieth from
Skim Milk

Water

Fat. .

Casein

Albumin . . .
Milk Sugar.

Ash

Total Solids

93.40
.35
.10
.75

4.80

.60

6.60

93.15
.35

1.00

4.90
.60

6.85

93.38
.32

.86

4.79
.65

6.62

93.33
.24

.88

5.06
.49

6.67

93.00
.09

.92

5.45
.52

7.00

Specific gravity 1.025 to 1.028 (Fleischmann1).
Specific heat, at 0° C, .0978; at 15° C., .976; at 60° C, .972.
Hammer and Johnson.2

Table 93. — Composition of Separator Slime.

Richmond3 Fleischmann1

per cent per cent

Water 66.24 68.20

Fat . .50 1.44

Protein 22. 25.34

Milk sugar 50

Other organic matter 7.75

Ash 3.01 3.22

Total milk solids 26.01 30.00

Table 94. — Composition of Ash in Separator Slime.1

Potassium oxide 3.155 per cent

Sodium oxide 1.325

Calcium oxide 45.025

Magnesium oxide 3.361

Iron oxide (ferric) 1.846

Phosphoric acid (anhydride) 43.976

Chlorine 1.691

100.381 " "
Less oxygen equivalent to chlorine 381 " "

100.00

1 Fleischmann — Buch der Milchwirtschaft, 1901.

a Hammer and Johnson — The Specific Heat of Milk and Milk Derivatives.
Iowa Research Bulletin 14. 1913.

8 Richmond — Dairy Chemistry, 1914.

HEAi/THtfui,]smss OF BUTTER f 559

CHAPTER XIX.

HEALTHFULNESS, FOOD VALUE AND BIOLOGICAL
PROPERTIES OF BUTTER

Sanitary Purity and Healthfulness : The degree of free-
dom £>f butter from products of decomposition and from micro-
organisms harmful to man, must of necessity vary greatly with
the purity of the raw material, the milk and cream from which
the butter is made and with the process used for manufacture.
And these factors in turn are subject to wide variations.

Whole milk creameries which receive their milk in fresh
condition and have exclusive control over the cream, are in a
position to prevent undesirable fermentations that render both
cream and butter unpalatable though not necessarily unwhole-
some. All creameries receiving cream instead of milk, depend
to a large extent on the cream producer for the quality and de-
gree of freshness of their raw material.

Most gathered-cream creameries receive their cream in more
or less sour condition, the degree of acidity varying from sweet
cream with no more than .2 per cent acid, to sour cream with an
acidity of from .3 to 1.2 per cent and averaging about .5 per
cent acid. The acidity of the cream naturally varies with such
conditions as location, season of year, facilities and inclination
of the producer to cool the cream on the farm, and frequency of
delivery or shipment.

Cream coming from territory in the southern tier of the
dairy belt, where the climate is relatively warm and the temper-
ature of the available water on the farm is too high to permit
of sufficient cooling to check acid development entirely, will
naturally average higher in acidity than cream produced in the
northern sections of the dairy belt where the nights are general-
ly cool and the available water for cooling the cream is cold.

During the hot summer months the cream naturally con-
tains a higher per cent of acid than is the case with winter cream.
Farmers who have a proper understanding and appreciation of
the importance of taking adequate care of their cream, and who
are equipped with cooling tanks for the cooling and storing of
their cream, are in a position to furnish a much sweeter cream

560 HEAI/TH*UI,NESS OF BUTTER

than producers lacking this knowledge, appreciation and equip-
ment.

Creameries located in territories in which the cow popula-
tion is dense, the herds relatively large and the radius of cream
supply condensed, are able to receive cream with a lower acidity
than creameries that draw their supply from territories with a
sparse cow population, where the herds are small and far be-
tween and where dairying is merely a side line of general farm-
ing. In such territories the volume of cream is too small to
permit of shipments or deliveries sufficiently frequent to insure
its arrival in sweet condition.

Aside from the production of acid in the cream, other fer-
mentations may and frequently do set in, which tend to lower
the quality of the cream and the flavor, keeping quality and
market value of the butter. The great majority of these fer-
mentations, while objectionable from the standpoint of the mar-
ket value of the butter, are so far as is known, entirely harmless
as related to the health of the consumer. In rare cases
isolated cans of cream may contain matter of putrefaction. The
shipment and acceptance of such cream is unlawful in most
states. Such cream is rejected or discarded by the creameries,
or confiscated by the health authorities.

In the process of manufacture efforts are made to minimize
the effect of the conditions which tend to jeopardize the keeping
quality of the product. These efforts largely consist in
standardizing the acidity of the cream by the use of a neutral-
izer, in pasteurization to remove objectionable microorganisms,
in using a pure culture starter of lactic acid bacteria to intensi-
fy the desirable flavor, and in washing the butter with pure
water to eliminate much of the buttermilk.

None of these steps in the process of manufacture are ob-
jectionable from the standpoint of the health of the consumer.
The neutralizer most commonly used is milk of lime which in
itself is a necessary food element of man and if it were taken
up by the butter in appreciable quantities could do no possible
harm. However, analyses have shown that butter made from
cream in which the acidity was standardized by the use of lime,
contained no appreciable increase in lime content over butter
made from cream not so treated. Pasteurization has no noticeable

HEAI/THFUI<NE;SS OF BUTTER 561

effect on the digestibility and wholesomeness of the butter. The
use of lactic acid starter is bound to have a salutary effect on the
wholesomeness of the butter, since lactic acid and lactic acid
bacteria aid in digestion and assist in keeping the intestinal
tract in a healthy condition. And the washing of the butter
with pure water, aside from freeing the butter from much of
the elements of buttermilk that yield most readily to decompo-
sition, such as curd and lactose, assists in removing any soluble
decomposition products if such products were contained in the
cream. American butter contains no preservatives of any kind.
The addition of preservatives to butter is prohibited by the
Federal Pure Food Act which went in force January 1st, 1907.

It may therefore, be safely stated that commercial butter
is devoid of chemical ingredients, such as decomposition prod-
ucts derived from the cream, or chemicals added in the process
of manufacture, that have any known harmful effect on the
health of the consumer.

The number of bacteria, yeast and mold, that may be ex-
pected to be found in sour, farm-skimmed cream, as is received
at the average gathered cream creamery, is shown in Table 95.
These figures represent 136 separate churnings, made at $1J,
seasons of the year. This table further shows the germ-killing:
efficiency of the holding and the flash process of pasteurization..
It indicates that in either process the reduction of bacteria is
very great, averaging over 99.9 per cent in the case of the
holding process and about 99.5 per cent in the case of the flash
process.

The rate of reduction of the different types of micro-
organisms was practically the same for one and the same process
of pasteurization, showing that pasteurization, as practiced in
the commercial creamery, is quite as efficient in its destruction
of the more objectionable types of germs, such as the liquefying
or peptonizing bacteria and the yeast and mold, as it is of the
mere acid producing types.

Freedom from Germs of Disease: Milk is capable of be-
coming the carrier of germs of bovine diseases infectious to
man, such as tuberculosis, foot and mouth disease, milk sick-
ness, and of germs of human diseases such as tuberculosis, ty-
phoid fever, scarlatina, diphtheria, etc. The question is there-

562

HEAI/THFUI,NE;SS OF BUTTER

fore not only pertinent but very important, does butter made
from milk and cream infected with these diseases, contain the
disease germs or viruses and if so, is it capable of causing the
disease among the consuming public?

Table 95. — 'Average Number of Microorganisms of 136 Churn-
ings of Raw and Pasteurized Cream and Per Cent
Reduction Due to Pasteurization.1

Types of Germs

Raw Cream
Germs
per c.c.

Pasteurized Cream

145° F. 20 Min.

185° F. Flash

Germs
per
c.c.

De-
crease
%

Germs
per
c.c.

De-
crease

%

Total Count

209,714,285
123,985,714
16,182,854
4,032,000

113,574
42,928
3,035
2,201

99.95
99.97
99.98
99.95

1,416,029
837,357
81,429
16,782

99.33
99.33
99.49
99.58

Acidifiers

Liquefiers ....

Yeast and Molds.

So far as the writer is able to determine there are no cases
on record which show that any of these diseases were trans-
ferred to man through the medium of butter. On the other
hand, experimental data of considerable magnitude are recorded,
which unmistakably show that cream produced either by
gravity creaming or by centrifugal separation of milk infected
with Bacillus tuberculosis, also contains this organism and that
butter made from such cream, when inoculated into guinea pigs
produced the disease and caused the animals to die from gener-
alized tuberculosis.

Thus Moore2 showed that when milk containing tubercle
bacilli is separated by centrifugal force, both the skim milk
and the cream harbored these bacilli. Inoculation of the skim
milk and cream, respectively, into guinea pigs caused them to
die with the disease in 24 to 60 days. Burri and Griflinger3
demonstrated that the products of tubercle-infected whey, sepa-
rated by centrifugal force for the purpose of making whey butter,

lHunziker, Spitzer and Mills, The Pasteurization of Sour, Farm-
Skimmed Cream for Butter Making, Purdue Bulletin 203, 1917.

2 Moore, Inefficiency of Milk Separators in Removing Bacteria, U. S.
Dept. of Agriculture, Yearbook, 1895.

* Burri and Griflinger, Die Gefahr der Ausbreitung der Tuberkulose
unter den Schweinen infolge der Verftttterung nleht erhitzter Zentrifugen-
molke, Landw., Jahrbuch der Schweiz, 1915.

OF BUTTER 563

caused tuberculosis in guinea pigs. Schroeder1 reports that
when cream is separated from milk infected with Bacillus tuber-
culosis, either by gravity or by centrifugal force, it also con-
tains these germs, and that butter made from such cream con-
tains the tubercle bacillus as determined by testing it with guinea
pig inoculation. Broers2 found that tubercle bacilli will live three
days in milk, even when it has undergone changes that make it
unfit for use as food, and twelve days in buttermilk, and that
they remain virulent three weeks in butter. Cornet8 reports that
Laser could find no live bacilli in butter after twelve days, that
Heine records that all tubercle bacilli eventually die in butter
and that their maximum life in it is thirty days, that Gasperini
found a reduction of virulence after thirty days, though the
bacilli were still alive after 120 days, and that Dawson did not
observe a reduction of virulence until after the passage of three
months, and claims to have produced tuberculosis in a guinea
pig by inoculating it with butter eight months old. Schroeder
and Cotton4 state that living tubercle bacilli will retain their
infective properties for at least 160 days in salted butter when
kept without ice in a house cellar. They fed over 60 guinea
pigs, from time to time up to 100 days, with butter from a cow
infected with tuberculosis. With the exception of five that died
prematurely, and one that was killed, all died with generalized
tuberculosis. Swithinbank and Newman5 tested 498 samples of
market butter (in England) and found 76 samples or 15.2 per
cent to contain tubercle bacilli. Schroeder1 states that since salt
has distinct though weak germicidal properties, tubercle bacilli
in heavily salted butter may live only a short time, while in
unsalted butter they may live and remain virulent indefinitely.
No appreciable attenuation of tubercle bacilli occurs in ordinary
salted butter in 49 days, even though the butter has become
rancid and moldy. They are still alive and capable of causing
rapidly fatal tuberculosis in guinea pigs after 133 days. Mohler
showed that 153 days is not long enough to kill them in butter
held in cold storage under ordinary commercial conditions, and

1 Schroeder, Milk and Its Products as Carriers of Tuberculosis Infec-
tion, U. S. Dept. of Agr. B. A. I. Circular 143, 1909.

2 Broers, Zeitschrift fuer Tuberkulose, Vol. 10. No. 3, 1907.

» Cornet, Die Tuberkulose, Second Edition, Vol. 1, 1907, pp. 122-123.
4 Schroeder and Cotton, The Relation of the Tuberculous Cow to
Public Health, U. S. Dept. Agr. B. A. I. Circular 153.

6 Swithinbank and Newman, Bacteriology of Milk, 1903, p. 221.

564 HEAi/THtfuivNEss OF BUTTER

Mohler, Washburn and Rogers1 further state that constant
storage in an icy temperature does not destroy the virulence of
butter which contains dangerous tubercle bacilli and that no de-
pendence should be placed on the action of the salt that is added
to butter, as an agent in the destruction of tubercle bacilli, the
action being very slight at best. The bacilli retained virulence in
salted butter for six months.

The findings quoted in the preceding paragraphs show con-
siderable variations in the length of time butter infected with
Bacillus tuberculosis retains virulent bacilli. However, this
evidence shows conclusively that butter made from tubercle-in-
fected milk or cream harbors these bacilli and is capable of
spreading the disease. It further shows that neither does the
separation of the milk by centrifugal force insure freedom of
these bacilli in the cream nor does the salt in butter destroy
their virulence.

Fortunately the tubercle bacilli, as well as the germs and
viruses of other common milk-borne diseases infectious to man,
such as those of foot and mouth disease, typhoid fever, diphtheria,
scarlatina, dysentery, septic sore throat, are readily destroyed
by pasteurization of the milk or cream and all butter made from
properly pasteurized milk or cream may safely be considered
free from the germs or viruses of these diseases. Thus Rosenau2
as the result of his own extensive investigations, and summariz-
ing the work of other investigators of acknowledged authority
states that it is justifiable to assume that ordinary market milk
pasteurized by heating to 60° C. (140° F.) for 20 minutes, would
be safe for human use by mouth so far as tubercle bacilli are
concerned, that the virus of foot and mouth disease is killed
with certainty at a temperature of 60° C. for twenty minutes,
that milk heated to 60° C. for two minutes destroys the typhoid
fever germs, that the diphtheria bacillus and the cholera vibrio
"die at comparatively low temperatures (55 to 60° C.), that the
dysentery bacillus is killed at 60° C. in ten minutes, that the
infective principle of Malta fever, M. Melitensis, is destroyed at
60° C. and that a temperature of 60° C. for twenty minutes is

1 Mohler, Washburn and Rogers, The Viability of Tubercle Bacilli in
Butter. U. S. Dept. of Agr. B. A, I. Twentieth Annual Report, 1909,
pp. 179-185.

2 Rosenau, The Milk Question, 1912.

HEALTHFULNESS OF BUTTER 565

sufficient to destroy the virus of scarlet fever, streptococci and
other pathogenic organisms. He therefore concludes that milk
heated to 60° C. and maintained at that temperature for twenty
minutes may be considered safe so far as conveying disease with
the micro-organisms tested is concerned. Schroeder1 states that
the minimum effective temperature of pasteurization that will
destroy the non-spore bearing disease germs is 60° C. for twenty
minutes. Mohler, Washburn and Rogers2 recommend heating
the cream to 60° C. for twenty minutes or to 80° C. momen-
tarily, as a reliable means to effectually destroy all the tubercle
bacilli that may have found lodgement in it. Marshall3 holds
that milk should be heated to 85° C. (185° F.) momentarily in
order to insure freedom from tubercle bacilli. Ayres4 reports
that such disease producing bacteria as Bacillus tuberculosis,
Bacillus typhosus, Bacillus diphtheria and the dysentery bacillus
are destroyed when heated to 140° F. for twenty minutes and
that the same process safeguards the public against the virus of
scarlet fever. Dr. H. D. Pease,5 Director of the Lederle Labora-
tories, New York City, who conducted an extensive investigation
on the efficiency of the holding process of pasteurization to de-
stroy the germs of tuberculosis, typhoid fever and diphtheria in
milk, found that the use of temperatures from 142° to 147° F. for
a fraction of a minute and the additional holding of the heated
milk for thirty minutes, at temperatures ranging from 143° to
145° F. is sufficient to insure the total destruction of these
germs, even when present in milk in large numbers. His experi-
ments were made with commercial equipment, under strictly
commercial conditions and with milk heavily inoculated with
these disease germs.

In Denmark the pasteurization of cream for buttermaking
at 82° C. to 85° C. (180° F. to 185° F.) is compulsory.

These citations may suffifce to conclusively show that, since
the milk and cream from which butter is made, may be and
frequently are contaminated with germs of infectious disease,

1 Schroeder, The Relation of the Tuberculous Cow to Public Health,
U. S. Dept. Agr. B. A. I. Circular 153, 1910

2 Mohler, Washburn and Rog-ers, The Viability of Tubercle Bacilli In
Butter, U. S. Dept. Agr. Twenty-sixth Annual Report. B. A. I., 1909.

3 Marshall, Tuberculosis and Its Management, Mich. Bull. 184, 1900.

* Ayres, The Pasteurization of Milk, U. S. Dept. Agr. B. A. I. Circular
184, 1912.

5 Pease, Pasteurization Experiments, Lederle Laboratories, N. Y. City,
1915. Results not published.

566 FOOD VALUE OF BUTTER

both bovine and human, and since these disease germs are
able to pass from infected milk and cream to the butter, and
maintain their virulence in butter for a considerable length of
time, regardless of salt content and low storage temperature
of the butter, the public welfare demands that milk and cream
used for buttermaking should be pasteurized. They further
clearly indicate that the temperature to which the milk or cream
should be heated, and the time of exposure necessary to destroy
all non-spore bearing disease germs should be, for the holding
process, not less than 145° F. for at least twenty and preferably
thirty minutes, and for the flash process not less than 180° F.
momentarily.

In some states the pasteurization of cream for buttermak-
ing is compulsory, and the result of recent investigations indi-
cates that the great bulk, approximately 90% of all butter made
in American creameries is manufactured from pasteurized cream.
The processes of pasteurization used in the creameries are largely
those above prescribed or their equivalent, so that it is reason-
able to state that by far the majority of American factory-made
butter that enters state and interstate commerce may be con-
sidered safe from the standpoint of its freedom from virulent
disease germs and viruses.

Most of the farm dairy butter, however, is made from raw
cream. If the cream from which it is made is free from disease
germs it is obviously equally safe as the creamery butter, but
similar to farm-peddled milk, which is rarely pasteurized, so
does farm butter offer no guarantee as to its safety to the con-
suming public.

Digestibility and Caloric Value of Butter.

Digestibility. — The digestibility of butter, based on the
completeness of its utilization, or on its losses in digestion, is
very high, similar to that of products containing other fats in
about the same proportion. Thus Luhrig found the coefficient
of digestibility to be 97.86 per cent for butter and 97.55 per cent
for oleomargarine.

The coefficient of digestibility of butterfat, or the percentage
consumed that is assimilated, as determined by various investi-
gators, and assembled by Langworthy and Holmes, is as follows :

FOOD VALUE OF BUTTER 567

Table 96.

Fat Fat Assimilated

Assimilated Investigator Per Cent

Investigator Per Cent Huldgren & Landergren5 95.4

Rubner1 96.3 Luhrig6 96.0

Rubner1 97.3 Luhrig6 97.0

Malfatti2 97.7 Wibbins and Huizenga7 97.3

Mayer8 98.0 Wibbins and Huizenga7 96.5

Mayer3 97.0 Von Gerlach8 97.0

Bertarelli4 94.0 Langworthy and Holmes9.. . .97.0

Langworthy and Holmes* show the following comparative
coefficients of digestibility, with allowance for metabolic products,
for butterfats, animal fats and vegetable fats :

Table 97.

Coefficient of Digestibility

Kind of Fat Per Cent
Butterfat 97.0

Animal fats:

Lard 97.0

Chicken fat 96.7

Goose fat 95.2

Fish fat 95.2

Egg yolk fat 93.8

Beef fat 93.0

Mutton fat .. ..88.0

1 Rubner, Zeitschrift fur Biologie, Vol. 15. No. 1, 1879, and Vol. 16,
No. 1, 1880.

2Malfetti. Sitzber, K. Akad. Wiss. etc., Vol. Ill, No. 5. 1884.

3 Landwirtschaftl. Versuch. Station, Vol. 29, 1883.

* Bertarelli, Riv. Ig. e. Sanit. Pub. Vol. 9, Nos. 14 and 15, 1898.

5 Huldgren and Landergren, Skand. Arch. Physiol. Vol. 2, Nos. 4 and 5,
1890.

9 Luhrig Zeitschift fur Untersuch. Nahr. u. Genussmittel, Vol. 2, Nos. 6
and 10, 1899.

T Wibbins and Huizenga, Pfluger's Arch. Phy'siologie, Vol. 83, Nos. 10,
11, 12, 1901.

8 Von Gerlach, Zeitschrift Phys. u. Diatet. Vol. 12, No. 2, 190&.

9 Langworthy and Holmes, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bull. 507, 1917.
•Langworthy and Holmes, U. S. Dept. Agr., Bulletin 310, 1915; Bulletin

505, 1917; Bulletin 510, 1917.

568 FOOD VALUE OF BUTTER

Table 97.— (Continued).
Vegetable fats:

Peanut oil 98.3

Sesame oil 98.0

Cocoanut oil 97.9

Olive oil 97.8

Cottonseed oil 97.8

Cocoa butter 94.9

On the basis of digestibility, however, butter is probably
superior to most other fats. Sherman1 points out that the fats
generally retard the secretion of the gastric juice and tend to
make the food stay longer in the stomach, and that to the ex-
tent that the ease of digestion is inferred from the rapidity with
which a meal passes through the stomach to the intestines, the
eating of fat appears to retard the process, this being true to a
greater extent, the higher the melting point of the fat. Lang-
worthy and Holmes conclude that butterfat may be considered
more completely assimilated, than any other of the animal fats
which they considered in their investigation. This statement
refers to lard, beef fat and mutton fat.

Caloric Value. — The caloric calue of butter varies with its
composition. It largely depends on the per cent of fat contained in
butter. The curd content is fairly uniform and is usually assumed
to be about 1 per cent.

The caloric value should be calculated only on the digestible
nutrients. The coefficients of digestion in butter average about 94.1
per cent for the curd, or protein, and 97 per cent for the fat. The
digestible nutrients in butter with varying percentages of fat,
then, are approximately as follows:

1.x 94.1
Protein

100

-\ r\i-i

= 77.6%

100

'* - .941%

82.5% ,

82"i5^97 = 80.025%

I*94-1 941%

100 '°

85% -< 10°

•S5*?7 = 82.45%

1UU
'Sherman Food Products, 1916, P. 390.

BIOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF BUTTER

569

A calorie (large calorie) is the amount of heat required to
raise the temperature in 1,000 grams of water 1° C. The caloric
value of protein is 4100, and that of fat is 9300. 1,000 grams
are equal to 2.2 pounds, hence the caloric value of one pound of

protein is „ = 1863, and the caloric value of one pound of fat
9300

is

2.2

= 4227.

The caloric value of one pound of butter containing 80, 82.5 and
85 per cent fat, respectively* therefore is as follows :

Butter with
80% fat

'£** . .941x1863 =

18 Calories
3,280

C 1 % protein ^
)^f,t 77.6x4227 =

100
Total calories

3,298

Butter with
82.5% fat

.941 x 1863 =

18 Calories
3,382

/v P 100

1 8"K*fat 80.025x4227 =

100
Total calories

3,400

Butter with

85% fat

.941 x 1863 =

18 Calories
3,485
3,503

i /u protein - QQ
185% fat 82.45x4227 =

100
Total calories =

Biological Properties of Butter

Butter Contains Growth-Promoting and Curative Properties.

— The butterfat of butter contains certain biological properties,
which are not present in vegetable fats, nor in the ordinary ani-
mal fats. These properties are absolutely essential for an ade-
quate diet. A diet that is lacking in these biological properties
is inadequate to produce normal growth in the young, it pre-
vents well being of the adult and gives rise to certain deficiency
diseases.

By biological properties is meant those properties, recently
discovered by McCollum1, and subjected to extensive investiga-

* McCollum, The Newer Knowledge of Nutrition, 1918.

570

BIOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF BUTTER

tion by McCollum, Hart, Steenbock, Fink, Hopkins, Osborne,
Mendel and other nutrition experts and physiological chemists,1
which have to do with the life functions of the living organism.
These properties cannot as yet be determined by any now known

TABLE 98 '

OF NUTRIENTS IN A POUND OF MILK AS COM-
A POUND OF MEAT, BREAD AND

AMOUNTS

PARED WITH

OTHER FOOD PRODUCTS.'

Food materials

Ref-
use

Lbs.

Edible portion

Fuel
value

CaL

Nutrients

Water
Lb.

Pro-
tein
Lb.

Fat
Lb.

Car-
bohy.
drated
Lb.

Min.
mat-
ter
Lb.

Milk (1 pint or 1 pound) :
Whole milk
Skim milk (0.3 per cent
fat)
Buttermilk

0.87

0.90
0.91

0.34
0.11

0.61
0.69
0.53
0.50
0.51
0.43

0.44
0.35
0.07
0.48

0.58
0.40
0.38
0.88
0.12
0.13
0.07
0.35
0.08
0.13
0.70
0.67
0.62
0.62

0.03

0.04
0.03

0.26
0.01

0.18
0.19
0.16
0.14
0.15
0.13

0.14
0.13
0.02
0.15

0.11
0.16
0.17
0.06
0.11
0.09
0.16
0.10
0.11
0.22
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.01

0.04
6.0*1

0.34
0.85

0.12
0.11
0.17
0.16
0.17
0.24

0.25
0.34
0.87
0.01

0.05

0.05
0.05

0.02

0.01

0.01
0.01

0.04
0.03

0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01

0.01
0.04
0.04
0.01

0.01
0.19
0.10
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.02
O'.OI
0.02
0.04
0.01
0.01
0.01

325

170
165

1965
3605

870
835
1040
950
1000
1275

1340
1655
3715
325

205
315
1050
235
1645
1655
1860
1205
1895
1590
170
325
135
255

Other food materials (1 Ib.
each) :
Cheese

Butter

Beef:
Round

0.08

Shoulder clod

Sirloin

0.13
0.19
0.16
0.19

0.16
0.14

6.3*5

0.30
0.25
0.23

Fore quarters

Hind quarters
Mutton, side

Pork:
Loin .

Ham

Salt, fat

Chicken

Codfish:
Fresh

Salt

Mackerel, salt
Oysters, solids

0.17
0.02
0.01
0.02
0.07
0.01
0.10
0.02

6.03*
0.75
0.75
0.68
0.53
0.69
0.59
0.08
0.15
0.06
0.12 1

Wheat flour

Corn meal . .

...

Oatmeal

Wheat bread .

Crackers

6.20
0.15
0.30
0.25

Dried beans

Beets

Potatoes ..

Turnips .

Apples j

1 M-cCollum, The Newer Knowledge of Nutrition, 1918.
z U. S. Dept. of Agr., Farmers' Bulletin No. 74.

BIOI,OGICAI, PROPERTIES OF BUTTER 571

method of chemical analysis, their presence has only become
recognized by means of experimental feeding trials with young
animals.

These feeding trials, largely though not exclusively con-
ducted with young white rats, showed that when the animals
were put on an artificial diet, containing all the chemical ele-
ments necessary for nutrition, both for maintenance and for
growth, such as protein, carbohydrates, fats and mineral salts,
but in which the fat part of the ration consisted of a vegetable
oil or of lard, the rats would after a brief period cease to grow,
so that they rarely attained more than two-thirds of the normal
growth of fully grown rats. As this diet was continued they
would lose weight and gradually develop sore eyes which culmi-
nated in blindness and ultimate death of the rats. When, before
the death of the rats, a portion of the animal or vegetable fat in
the ration was replaced by butter or butterfat, they recovered
from their disease, gained in weight and resumed their normal
growth.

Fat-Soluble A. — Further experiments in which the pure
butterfat was separated from the butter, and the butterfat in-
stead of the butter was used to replace a part of the lard in the
feed ration, yielded identically the same results as in the case
of butter, showing therefore that this growth-promoting and
curative property of the butter is located in the butterfat.
Being soluble in the butterfat, McCollum gave this unknown
substance the name fat-soluble A.

Fat-Soluble A Present in Liquid Portion of Butterfat.—
Osborne and Mendel succeeded in concentrating the fat-solu-
ble A substance contained in butterfat by .fractional crystalliza-
tion of the fat from alcohol. They found that the fat-soluble A
substance remains in .the mother liquor, or oily portions, those
portions which have a low melting point, while the other por-
tions, those that have a high melting point, proved entirely
ineffective. This fact assists in explaining why beef fat, which
also contains small quantities of this substance, is much less
effective in its growth promoting powers than the butterfat. The
liquid portion in the beef fat is relatively small.

Fat-Soluble A Not Affected by Pasteurization, Neutraliza-
tion or Age. — Additional experiments showed that the fat-soluble

572 BIOI,OGICAI, PROPERTIES o$ BUTTER

A substance is of a stable nature, and that it is neither destroyed,
nor its growth-promoting and curative effect lessened by heat,
saponification, or age.

Butterfat boiled with live steam for several hours did not
lose its biological properties. This is important, because it
demonstrates conclusively, that the pasteurization of cream does
not rob the resulting butter of its growth-promoting and cur-
ative properties. Pasteurized cream butter is equally valuable
therefore from the dietary standpoint as raw cream butter.

Butterfat or butter when completely saponified into a soap,
by admixture of alkali in excess, fully retains its growth-pro-
moting and curative properties. Butter soap so made, when
fed to the rats had the same biological effect as normal butter
or pure butterfat. This fact is important because it removes
every vestige of doubt that the reduction of the acid in sour
cream by the use of an alkali, as practiced in so-called neutral-
ization of sour cream, in no way destroys or weakens the
growth-promoting and curative properties of butter. Butter
made from sour cream that has been neutralized, has equal
dietary value as butter made from cream that was not neutral-
ized.

Age does not change the biological value of butter. The
changes which butter undergoes in storage fail to deprive it
of its growth-promoting and curative effect. Butterfat held in
the cold and at room temperature, in the light and in the dark,
for ten months, when subsequently fed to rats which had
ceased to grow and had developed the characteristic sore eyes,
as the result of the absence in their diet of the fat-soluble A,
brought about resumption of growth to normal stature, and
recovery and healing of the eyes. The biological potency in all
samples of butterfat held in storage was retained and was equal
to that of fresh butter or fresh butterfat. This fact is impor-
tant, because it furnishes indisputable proof that storage butter,
relative to biological properties, is equally wholesome as fresh
butter.

Other Sources of Fat-Soluble A. — The only substances in
which the fat-soluble A has been found, other than butter and
butterfat, are the fat contained in the yolk of the egg, cod liver
oil, leaves of plants and the fat of the vital organs.

DEFINITIONS AND STANDARDS OF BUTTER 573

So-called Butter Substitutes Cannot Take the Place of But-
ter.— This discussion makes it clear that there is no substitute
for butter. So-called butter substitutes, all of which are largely
made up of vegetable or animal fats, or both, cannot take the
place of butter. They may have equal, or nearly equal, caloric
value as butter, but they lack this most important property, the
fat-soluble A, without which' the diet is not complete. Their
substitution for butter in the diet of the family is jeopardizing
the well being, vitality and maximum mental and physical de-
velopment and vigor of the child, and to that extent limits
the future greatness of the nation.

CHAPTER XX.

DEFINITIONS AND STANDARDS OF BUTTER, MILK,
CREAM, SKIM MILK AND BUTTERMILK

Butter. — Butter manufactured in the United States is sub-
ject to two standards and definitions ; the control of enforcement
of each is vested in two separate and distinct institutions.

One standard and definition deals with the maximum per
cent moisture which by a ruling of the Internal Revenue De-
partment was placed below 16 per cent. The other deals with
the minimum per cent of fat which by a ruling of the United
States Department of Agriculture was placed at 82.5 per cent.

The Moisture Standard. — The moisture standard is based
on the definition of butter by Act of Congress August 2, 1886,
which reads as follows:

"The food product usually known as butter, which is made
exclusively from milk or cream, or both, with or without com-
mon salt and with or without additional coloring matter,"
and by Act of Congress of May 9, 1902, which reads as follows :

"That for the purpose of this act 'butter' is hereby de-
fined to mean an article of food as defined in 'An Act defining
butter/ also imposing a tax upon and regulating the manufac-
ture, sale, importation, and exportation of oleomargarine, ap-
proved August 2, 1886; that adulterated butter is hereby de-
fined to mean a grade of butter produced, by mixing, reworking,
rechurning in milk or cream, refining or in any way producing a
uniform, purified or improved product from different lots or
parcels of melted or unmelted butter or butterfat, in which any

574 DEFINITIONS AND STANDARDS OF BuTTER

acid, alkali, chemical, or any substance whatever is introduced
or used for the purpose or with the effect of deodorizing or
removing thereform rancidity, or any butter or butterfat with
which there is mixed any substance foreign to butter as herein
defined, with intent or effect of cheapening in cost the product,
or any butter in the manufacture or manipulation of which any
process or material is used with intent or effect of causing the
absorption of abnormal quantities of water, milk or cream ; that
'process butter' or 'renovated butter' is hereby defined to mean
butter which has been subjected to any process by which it is
melted, clarified, or refined and made to resemble genuine but-
ter, always excepting 'adulterated butter* as defined by this act."

In defining adulterated butter as distinguished from butter,
the Internal Revenue Department offers the following explan-
ation and makes the following ruling:

"The definition of adulterated butter as contained in the
Act of May 9, 1902, embraces butter in the manufacture of which
any process or material is used whereby the product is made
to contain abnormal quantities of water, milk or cream, but the
normal content of moisture permissible is not fixed by the act.
This being the case it becomes necessary to adopt a standard for
moisture in butter, which shall in effect represent the normal
quantity. It is therefore held that butter having 16 per cent
or more of moisture, contains an abnormal quantity and is
classed as adulterated butter."

This law and ruling is now in force. It makes unlawful the
incorporation in butter of 16 per cent or more, of moisture, and its
interpretation also makes unlawful the incorporation of extran-
eous curd by working curd into the butter in the churn in the
form of starter, casein or skim milk powder.

The Fat Standard.— The fat standard is a part of the Federal
Standards and Definition for Dairy Products, accompanying the
passage of the Federal Food and Drugs Act June 30, 1906 and
which became effective January 1, 1907.1 It reads as follows:

"Butter is the clean, non-rancid product made by gathering,
in any manner, the fat of fresh or ripened milk or cream into a
mass, which also contains a small portion of the other milk con-
stituents, with or without salt, and contains not less than eighty-
standards of Purity for Pood Products. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture,
Circular No. 19, 1906.

DEFINITIONS AND STANDARDS OF BUTTER 575

two and five tenths (82.5) per cent, of milk fat. By act of
Congress approved August 2, 1886, and May 9, 1902, butter
may also contain added coloring matter."

This standard has never been and is not now enforced.

Within recent years the Federal Joint Committee on Defi-
nitions and Standards for Food Products has had under advise-
ment a revision of this butter standard and definition. This
joint committee consists of three members each, the United
States Bureau of Chemistry, the American Association of Offi-
cial Agricultural Chemists and the Association of American
Dairy, Food, and Drug Officials, under the chairmanship of the
chief of the Bureau of Chemistry. At the time of the comple-
tion of this manuscript, no decision had as yet been reached.1'2-8'4

Numerous states have definitions and standards for butter,
most of them similar to the standard adopted by the United
States Department of Agriculture as per circular No. 19. Few
states have standards differing slightly from the above stan-
dard. The State of Minnesota,5 by Act of the State Legisla-
ture 1915, amended its section relating to the use of preserva-
tives as follows:

"Dairy Products — Preservatives. Sec. 1756. No person
shall manufacture for sale, advertise or sell, any mixture or
compound designed, or offered for sale or use, as an adulterant,
preservative or renovator of milk, cream, butter or cheese, or as
a neutralizer of the acidity of milk, cream, butter or cheese ; nor
shall any person add, or apply to milk, cream, butter or cheese,
any borax, boric. acid, salicylic acid, formaldehyde, formalin or
other anti-ferment or preservative, nor any alcohol, viscogen,
lime, salpeter, sal-soda, soda ash, or other neutralizer, provided
however, that this section shall not apply to pure salt added to
butter or cheese."

The above section makes the practice of reducing the acid-
ity in cream unlawful in the State of Minnesota.

1Veeder. McManus, Jones and McCabe, Attys. for Swift & Co., Sugges-
tions for a Standard for Butter, presented to the Joint Committee on
Definitions and Standards, November, 1917.

3Hunziker, Butter Standards. Address before Joint Committee on Defi-
nitions and Standards. Chicago, May, 1917.

8 McKay. Pacts about Butter, Suggestions for a Standard, June, 1918.

4 Hunziker, Bouska, Borman and McKay, Statements on the Subject
of Definitions and Standards of Butter, Presented to the Joint Committee
on Definitions and Standards, September, 1918.

5 Farrell, Manual of the Dairy and Food Laws, Rules and Regulations,
1915.

576

DEFINITIONS AND STANDARDS OF BUTTER

Generally speaking the state standards for butter are not
enforced. The only butter standard that is systematically en-
forced is the 16 per cent moisture ruling of the Internal Revenue
Department.

The following list shows the butter standards in some of the
foreign countries, compiled by the United States Bureau of
Chemistry:

TABLE 99

BUTTER STANDARDS IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES.
Compiled By and Secured Through Courtesy of United States Bureau

of Chemistry, 1919.

Countries

Date
of Enact-
ment of Law

Fat
Minimum

Per Cent.

Water
Maximum

Per Cent

Non-Fatty
Milk Con-
stituents
Maximum

Per Cent.

Boron
Com-
pounds as
Boric Acid
Maximum
Per Cent.

Australia

1902

82

16

Belgium

1900

181

Brazil

1915

80

Canada

1910

82.5

16

Cuba

1914

15

Denmark

1911

Domestic

202

Export

16

Germany

1902

Salted

80

16

1 *

Unsalted

80

18

M

Great Britain

1902

Genuine

16

i ,

Milk-Bl'ded

24

J.5

Italy

1890

82

Netherlands

1909

80

New Zealand

1913

80

16

Queensland

1902

83

19063

80

16

.5

Roumania

1895

82

14

Spain

1908

16

Sweden

1911

16

Switzerland

1914

82

United States

19024

16

19065

82.5

Venzuela

1916

80-88

10-15

) Salt 2-10

| CVn 1-3

Victoria

19066

80

15

West. A'str'lia

1911-12

82

15

1 Butter which contains more than 18 per cent non-fatty constituents
such as water, milk sugar, casein, must be sold under the designation
"beurre laiteux" (milky butter).

8 Butter which contains over 16 per cent water, but less than 20 per
cent water, must bear the designation "water butter" (Vandsmeer).

3 Allen's Commercial Organic Analysis, Fourth Edition. Vol. II, 1914.

* Inforced by Internal Revenue Dept.

5 Standard of United States Department of Agriculture, not enforced.

•Allen's Commercial Organic Analysis, Fourth Edition, Vol. II, 1914.

DEFINITIONS AND STANDARDS otf MII<K 577

MILK, CREAM, SKIMMILK AND BUTTERMILK

On April 17, 1919, the Secretary of Agriculture issued, under
Food Inspection Decision 1781, the following definitions and
standards for milk, cream, skimmilk and buttermilk. These
definitions and standards were adopted by the Joint Committee
on Definitions and Standards July 30, 1917, and were approved
by the Association of American Dairy, Food and Drug Officials
August 3, 1917, and by the Association of Official Agricultural
Chemists November 21, 1917:

"1. Milk is the whole, fresh, clean, lacteal secretion ob-
tained by the complete milking of one or more healthy cows,
properly fed and kept, excluding that obtained within fifteen
days before and five days after calving, or such longer period
as may be necessary to render the milk practically colostrum-
free.

"2. Skimmed milk is milk from which substantially all of
the milk fat has been removed.

"3. Cream, sweet cream, is that portion of milk, rich in milk
fat, which rises to the surface of milk on standing, or is sep-
arated from it by centrifugal force. It is fresh and clean. It
contains not less than eighteen per cent (18%) of milk fat and
not more than two-tenths per cent (0.2%) of acid-reacting sub-
stances calculated in terms of lactic acid.

"4. Whipping cream is cream which contains not less
than thirty per cent (30%) of milk fat.

"5. Pasteurized milk is milk that has been subjected to
a temperature not lower than 145 degrees Fahrenheit for not
less than thirty minutes. Unless it is bottled hot, it is promptly
cooled to 50 degrees Fahrenheit or lower.

"6. Buttermilk is the product that remains when fat is
removed from milk or cream, sweet or sour, in the process of
churning. It contains not less than eight and five-tenths per
cent (8.5%) of milk solids, not fat.

"7. Homogenized milk or homogenized cream is milk or
cream that has been mechanically treated in such a manner as to
alter its physical properties, with particular reference to the
condition and appearance of the fat globules."

1Mllk and Cream, TJ. S. Department of Agriculture, Food Inspection
Decision 178, April 17, 1919.

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580 WHEY BUTTER

CHAPTER XXI.
WHEY BUTTER

Whey butter is the butter manufactured from whey, the by-
product of the cheese factory. Whey contains from about 0.3
per cent fat in the case of American cheddar cheese making,
to about 1 per cent in the case of Swiss cheese making.

Since the invention of centrifugal whey separators, it is
possible to skim the whey very exhaustively and there is no
consistent reason why the butterfat derived from the whey should
not produce a butter equal in quality, or nearly so, to that of
ordinary creamery butter, provided that the whey is skimmed
promptly after it leaves the cheese vat, or cheese kettle, and
that the whey cream is promptly and properly cooled until
churned or until shipped. Sammis1 recommends that the sep-
arator cream screw be so set as to secure a whey cream con-
taining from 50 to 75 per cent of fat, so as to permit the addi-
tion of a large amount of starter to this cream. He further
recommends that on the evening before the day when the whey
cream is to be churned about 75 to 100 per cent of a good, thick
cold starter be stirred into the cream, that the cream be churned
at 50 degrees F. or below, that the churn be stopped when the
granules are still very small and washed with water at a tem-
perature from 40 to 50 degrees F. These precautions are rec-
ommended in order to facilitate the completeness of washing
and because whey butter has a greater tendency than ordinary
butter to soften on warming.

Sammis states that buyers of whey cream for churning
often pasteurize it when received, by heating it rapidly nearly
to boiling, then cooling as quickly as possible, adding starter
and churning the next day.

The Federal law does not differentiate between whey butter
and creamery butter. Whey butter is subject to the adulterated
butter ruling which provides that when butter contains 16 or
more per cent moisture it is classed as adulterated butter.

The Legislature of the State of Wisconsin enacted the follow-

1 Sammis, Making- Whey Butter at Cheddar Cheese Factories. Wise.
Bulletin 246, 1915.

RENOVATED BUTTER 581

ing law which defines whey butter and provides that all butter
made from whey shall be classed, branded and sold as whey
butter :

Wisconsin Whey Butter Law

"Whey Butter Section 4707d-3.— No person shall by himself,
his agent or servant, sell, offer or expose for sale or have in
his possession with intent to sell or exchange or deliver, any
butter, manufactured in whole or in part, from whey cream,
unless such butter shall have the words 'whey butter* conspic-
uously stamped, labeled, or marked in plain Gothic letters, at
least three-eights of an inch square, so that the words cannot
be easily defaced, upon two sides of each and every tub, firkin,
box or package containing said whey butter; or if such butter
is exposed for sale uncovered, or not in a case or package, a
placard containing said words in the form described in this
section shall be attached to the mass in such a manner as to be
easily seen and read by the purchaser. Any person who violates
any of the provisions of this section shall be guilty of a mis-
demeanor and upon conviction thereof, shall be fined not less
than twenty-five dollars nor more than one hundred dollars1/'

RENOVATED BUTTER

Definition: Renovated butter, or process butter, is a prod-
uct which resembles butter and which is made from one or more
parcels of butter, which has been or have been "subjected to
any process by which it is melted, clarified or refined and made
to resemble genuine butter, always excepting 'adulterated but-
ter' as defined by this act."2

In order for butter to be subject to this definition, it must
have been melted or reduced to a fluid oil, the melted oil
must have been subjected to a process by which it is "clarified
or refined," which may be done by skimming, aerating, washing
and other processes, through the action of heat, cold, agitation
or rest ; and this melted and refined oil must then again be con-
verted into a product "to resemble genuine butter," in appear-
ance, consistency, texture and flavor. This last requisite is ac-
complished by mixing the melted, refined oil with milk, or

1 Supplement to Wisconsin Dairy and Food Laws of August, 1913,
issued by Geo. J. "Weigle, Dairy & Food Commissioner, July. 1917.

2 By Act of Congress approved May 9, 1902.

582 RENOVATED BUTTER

skimmilk, or buttermilk, or cream, sweet or sour, and by granu-
lating the mix by cooling. Renovated butter may, or may not
have added to it, common salt, or harmless coloring matter, or
both.

Renovated butter is usually made from an inferior grade of
butter, the quality of which is such that the butter is no longer
acceptable to the trade as eatable butter. It is made from pack-
ing stock.

Development of the Renovated Butter Industry. — The
renovated butter industry had its inception in the presence upon
the market, of butter of poor quality, that could neither be sold
as butter nor made over into a salable quality of "ladles." It
had to undergo processes that freed it from its obnoxious odors
and flavors of which rancidity was a dominant one, before it
could be made again to appeal to the palate. This industry,
therefore, owes its existence to faulty methods of manufacture
and of storing of butter.

The renovated butter industry, then, is the result of efforts,
on the part of the dairymen, butter merchants and others, to
convert the surplus of poor country butter, or of packing stock,
into a marketable product. The bulk of dairy butter made
during the summer months is handled by the country store.
For a considerable portion of this butter the country store
has no immediate market. The butter accumulates and owing to
its inherent poor keeping quality and the usually unfavorable
conditions to which it is exposed, it deteriorates rapidly, and by
fall it is generally of very poor quality. This butter is a
burden to the store keeper and a drag on the market.

Before the days of renovated butter, the only reasonably
profitable method of handling this surplus was to rework the
different lots together, adding salt and if necessary, color. This
gave the product uniformity of body, salt and color. The flavor
however, was not improved, except that heavy salting assisted
in hiding to a limited extent the undesirable flavors.

In the early eighties, various isolated attempts were made
to free this butter from its disagreeable flavors. Levi Wells1
states that "melting butter and separating the fat from the

1 Wells, Renovated Butter, Its Origin and History, U. S. Dept. of Agri-
culture, 1905.

RENOVATED BUTTER 583

other ingredients, then canning the fat and shipping it to tropical
countries to be used as a substitute for butter, was practiced in
some sections of Europe many years ago, but restoring the in-
gredients extracted and again converting the substance into
butter is an American invention."

"Renovated butter," began to appear on the markets of this
country in considerable quantities in the early nineties. It was
generally quoted and sold as creamery seconds. Its source and
mode of preparation were unknown to the general public. Its
keeping quality was poor.

"The name renovated butter, was first adopted by the dairy
and food commission of Pennsylvania, 1897, it being considered
appropriate for the product involved, and one that conveyed to
the consumer an idea of its nature.

"In 1899 the legislatures of several states enacted laws re-
quiring this product to be labeled and sold as renovated butter,
and on May 9, 1902, through passage of the Grout bill, a
Federal law became effective, which defined this product, and
required its manufacture and sale under the name Renovated
Butter, or Process Butter."

Output of Renovated Butter in the United States. — The
manufacture of renovated butter during the early years of this
country grew rapidly and assumed very considerable propor-
tions. In 1905 there were in operation in this country, accord-
ing to Wells, 78 renovated butter factories with an investment
of nearly $1,000,000.00. The total production during that year
was 60,000,000 pounds of renovated butter, and the annual out-
put and demand for the better grades seemed to be limited only
by the availability of the packing stock.

Within recent years, however, the output of renovated but-
ter has been on the decline, largely as the result of the intro-
duction and more general use of the farm cream separator,
which caused more butterfat to be shipped to the creamery and
less to be made into butter on the farm. The rapid development
of the creamery industry and the increased demand for milk
by the market milk plants, milk condenseries and ice cream
factories, have further -reduced the annual production of farm
butter. Less farm butter is made every year and this means less
packing stock available for the renovated butter factory. If the

584 RENOVATED BUTTER

present trend of the butter industry may be accepted as a
correct criterion of the future of the renovated butter industry,
it may be consistently assumed that the days of the renovated
butter industry are numbered, and that it will continue to de-
cline, for the best interests of the milk and cream producer,
who cannot afford to sell the product of the dairy cow on the
basis of packing stock prices.

Manufacture of Renovated Butter — Quality of packing
stock. — The better the quality of the packing stock the- better
will be the quality of the renovated butter. The packing stock,
which largely consists of a poor grade of dairy butter, is
gathered up by the renovated butter agents from country stores
in all parts of the country where farm butter is made. It is
packed in barrels and tubs and placed into cold storage until
ready to be made over into renovated butter.

Melting. — (The barrels and tubs of packing stock are emptied
into the melting tank, which is a tank or vat, equipped in its
bottom with a series of coils through which hot water is passed.
Jacketed vats, similar to cheese vats, are also used for this pur-
pose. In these vats or tanks, the butter is melted, at a relatively
low temperature. The temperature of the melted fat is generally
held at about 120 degrees F. or below.

Clarifying. — From the melting vats the butter oil flows into
the settling tank, which is usually cylindrical in shape, of con-
siderable depth and has preferably a pointed bottom. Here the
butter oil remains until the so-called slush, consisting of curd,
water and other impurities, have settled to the bottom. The
slush is then drawn off from the bottom and is passed through
a centrifugal separator for the purpose of reclaiming any fat
that may have escaped with the slush. A hollow bowl sep-
arator is preferred for this separation. The residue, which con-
sists largely of curd and is quite solid and dry, is used for the
manufacture of paste by treating it with oxalic acid.

Purifying. — The butter oil, thus freed from the slush, is now
subjected to prolonged aeration. For this purpose it is con-
veyed into large, cylindrical, jacketed tanks. A powerful cur-
rent of purified air is blown through a distributing rosette lo-
cated in or near the bottom of the tank, violently percolating

RENOVATED BUTTER 585

upward through the melted butter oil. The butter oil is kept in
melted condition by the passage of hot water through the jacket
of the purifying tank. It is aimed to maintain a temperature of
approximately 110 degrees F. This aeration is continued until
the liquid fat has became "Neutral," that is until apparently all
foreign odor and free acids have been blown out of it.

Addition of Starter. — This butter oil is now without flavor.
In order to return to it, the characteristic butter flavor, starter
made from skimmilk or whole milk is added. Lactic acid cul-
tures, the same as are used in cream ripening, are employed for
making this starter, care being taken that the starter does not
become overripe, in which case there would be danger of
impregnating the finished renovated butter with white specks.
The amount of starter used varies greatly, ranging from about
two per cent to fifty per cent. The starter is thoroughly mixed
with the butter oil, either in the blower tanks or in special tanks
equipped with mechanical agitators.

Coloring. — It is usually not necessary to add color to the
mixture. Most of the dairy butter surplus is made during the
summer season, when butterfat has naturally a high color. In
case the butter oil is deficient in natural color, a sufficient amount
of artificial coloring matter is added to suit the market.

Crystallizing. — The emulsion of butter oil and starter is
plunged, in the form of a fine stream, into ice water, or water
cooled by artificial refrigeration, to a few degrees above the
freezing point. This sudden chilling immediately crystallizes
the fat, precipitating it in the form of flakes. The crystallizing is
accomplished in long vats filled with cold water. The end of the
vat that receives the liquid butter oil 'is equipped with a revolv-
ing paddle wheel. The fat drips down into the water slowly,
as soon as it strikes the water it solidifies in the form of flakes.
The revolving paddle wheel starts these flakes toward the op-
posite end of the vat, so that the thin stream of melted fat
always strikes the cold water direct and does not pile up on the
flakes already formed.

In the case the cooling is done in ice water, instead of
in water kept cold by artificial refrigeration, cakes of ice are
usually anchored in the bottom of the vat, so as to avoid warm-
ing up of the water.

586 RENOVATED BUTTER

Ripening and Hardening. — As the flakes gather at the
further end of the crystallizing vat, they are scooped out into
large trays, placed on trucks which are subsequently stacked
into the ripening or hardening room. Here the butter is al-
lowed to remain at a temperature of about 65 to 70 degrees
F. for 12 or more hours. During this period of incubation, the
butter ripens, developing flavor. Before salting and working,
this butter is usually transferred to and held in a cold room in
order to further chill and harden it.

Salting and Working. — Next day these trays are emptied
into combined churns and workers, sufficient salt is added
and the butter is worked. Close attention is paid to the control
of moisture keeping the moisture below 16 per cent, in order
to comply with the law defining adulterated butter.

Packing. — The renovated butter thus manufactured is
placed on the market in firkins, tubs, wooden boxes, or in prints,
bricks or rolls. When packed in tubs or boxes each package
must contain not less than ten pounds, and when packed in a
solid body or mass, there must be stamped or branded into the
upper surface of the butter the words "Renovated Butter," in
one or two lines, the letters to be of Gothic style, not less than
one-half inch square and depressed not less than one-eighth inch.

The prints, bricks and rolls must weigh not less than one-
half pound. Each package must have stamped on the butter the
words "Renovated Butter," in two lines, the letters to be of
Gothic style, not less than three-eighths inch square and de-
pressed into the butter not less than one-eighth inch.

Every package must be marked on the outside on two sides
with the words "Renovated Butter" in Gothic letters, not less
than one-half inch square and so placed as to be plainly visible
and easily read. The package must also bear the necessary
revenue stamps and the manufacturer's declaration, saying that
he has complied with the requirements of the law and the
regulations authorized thereby. Renovated butter for export
must be stamped and marked the same as for the domestic
market.

Markets. — The market for good grades of renovated butter
is usually active in this country, as well as abroad. Quota-
tions fluctuated before the war at from three to about seven cents

RENOVATED BUTTER 587

below creamery "extras." Then it usually sold about on a par
with poor creamery "firsts" or good creamery "seconds." Since
the conclusion of the war, renovated butter quotations have
dropped very considerably, being as low as ten to fifteen cents
below creamery "extras."

Renovated Butter Definitions, Standards and Laws. — By
Act of Congress, approved May 9, 1902, renovated butter is de-
fined as follows:1

"Sec. 4 ... . 'Process Butter/ or 'Renovated But-
ter' is hereby defined to mean butter which has been subjected
to any process by which it is melted, clarified or refined and
made to resemble genuine butter, always excepting 'adulterated
butter/ as defined by this act."

The following explanation of the definition and law on adul-
terated butter, offered by the Department of Agriculture2, will
assist as guidance in the interpretation of the renovated butter
law, as above defined :

"(f) But if, in such process, 'or in any (other) way/ 'any
acid, alkali, chemical, or any substance whatever is introduced*
or used, or if 'there is mixed (therewith) any substance foreign
to butter/ or if in any way the substance is made to hold 'ab-
normal quantities of water, milk or cream/ the substance or
commodity is to be recognized and treated as 'adulterated but-
ter* under this act.

"(g) Renovated butter having 16 per cent or more of
moisture will be held to contain 'abnormal quantities of water,
milk or cream/ and be, therefore, classed as 'adulterated
butter/ '

As a part of the Standards of Purity for Food Products3
Supplementary to the Federal Food and Drugs Act, which went
in force January 1, 1907, renovated butter was defined as follows:

"Renovated butter, process butter, is the product made by
melting and reworking, without the addition or use of chemicals
or any substances except milk, cream or salt, and contains not
more than sixteen (16) per cent of water, and at least eighty-
two and five-tenths (82.5) per cent of milk fat."

1 Revised Regulations concerning- Oleomargine, also Adulterated butter
and process or renovated butter, U. S. Internal Revenue Dept., Regula-
tions No. 9. Revised July, 1907.

2U. S. Department Agriculture, B. A. I. Order No. 127, 1904.

a Standards of Purity for Food Products, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Circu-
lar No. 19, 1906.

588 LADI^D BUTTER

Taxes imposed on the manufacturer and dealer of renovated
butter:

Sec. 4, Act of May 2, p. 1906.

"That upon process and renovated butter, when manu-
factured or sold or removed for consumption for use, there shall
be assessed and collected a tax of one-fourth of one cent per
pound to be paid by the manufacturer thereof and any fraction
of a pound shall be taxed as a pound."

"Manufacturers of process or renovated butter shall pay $50
per year. Every person who engages in the production of process
or renovated butter as a business shall be considered to be a
manufacturer thereof.

"Every manufacturer of renovated butter, before commenc-
ing business or at least within the month in which liability to
special tax commenced, must register with the collector of the
district in which the business is to be carried on his name, or
firm or corporate name, place of residence, nature of business,
and the place where such business is to be carried on, and
procure a special tax stamp at the rate of $50 per annum, which
stamp he shall place and keep conspicuously posted in his estab-
lishment or place of business; and on the first day of July in
each year he must again so register and procure a new special
tax stamp and post it as above stated."

LADLED BUTTER.

The product commonly known as "ladled" butter is a grade
of butter made by mixing and reworking different lots or
parcels of butter so as to secure a uniform product. This is
known by various names to the trade. This product will not
be held to be renovated butter unless in addition to being re-
worked it is melted and refined. It will not be held to be
adulterated butter unless materials foreign to statutory butter
are added to it, or it is made to contain 16 per cent or more
of water. Persons who engage in the production of "ladled"
butter as a business will be held liable to special tax as manu-
facturers of renovated butter if they melt and refine their prod-
uct, and to special tax as manufacturers of adulterated butter
if they use in it substances foreign to statutory butter or pro-
duce a butter having 16 per cent or more of water. Persons
who sell "ladled" butter which is adulterated, will be liable to
special tax as dealers in adulterated butter.

STANDARDIZATION OF MII^K AND CREAM 589

CHAPTER XXII.

STANDARDIZATION, TESTS AND CHEMICAL

ANALYSES OF MILK, CREAM, SKIM MILK,

BUTTERMILK AND BUTTER

Standardization of Milk and Cream for Butterfat

In commercial creamery operation as well as in experimental
work it frequently becomes desirable, and sometimes necessary, to
standardize milk or cream of any richness to a definite per cent of
fat.

In case the milk is richer than desired, it may be reduced to the
desired per cent of fat either (a) by simply adding skim milk, or
milk of a per cent of fat lower than that desired, to the milk to be
standardized, or (b) by skimming a certain portion of it and return-
ing the skim milk to that portion which was not skimmed. If cream
is to be standardized to a lower per cent of fat, the same method as
given under (a) for standardizing milk is used, except that in addi-
tion to skim milk and milk, cream of a lower per cent fat than that
desired may also be used. It is never advisable, and under certain
conditions it is unlawful, to reduce the per cent of fat in milk or
cream by adding water.

In the case the milk is lower in fat than desired, its fat content
can be increased to the desired standard, either (c) by adding to
the milk or cream, a sufficient quantity of milk or cream that is
richer in fat than that of the standard desired, or (d) by skimming
a portion of the milk to be standardized and returning the cream so
produced to the portion of milk that was not skimmed.

For the correct determination of the amount of skim milk, milk
or cream to be added or the portion of milk to be skimmed, so as to
utilize all of the milk or cream which is to be standardized, or of the
correct amount of the milk or cream to be standardized and of the
skim milk, milk, or cream to be added for standardization in order
to obtain the desired volume of standardized mixture, it is necessary
to apply a simple and accurate method of calculation. Such a method
has been devised by Dr. A. R. Pearson.1 The following directions
for standardization of milk and cream are based on Pearson's
method :

1 A. R. Pearson, formerly Professor of Dairying, Cornell University, and
now President Iowa State College, Ames, Iowa.

590

STANDARDIZATION OF MILK AND CREAM

Draw a rectangle as shown below. In the center place the per
cent of fat desired. In the upper and lower left hand corners place
the per cents of fat contained in the milk or cream to be standard-
ized and in the skim milk, milk or cream to be added. In the upper
right hand corner place the difference between the figure in the
center and that in the lower left hand corner, and in the lower right
hand corner place the difference between the figure in the center
and the figure in the upper right hand corner. The figures in the
upper and lower right hand corners then represent the correct pro-
portion of the two liquids which are to be mixed. The figure in
the upper right hand corner refers to the liquid of which the per
cent of fat is given in the upper left hand corner, and the figure in
the lower right hand corner refers to the liquid of which the per
cent of fat is given in the lower left hand corner.

(a) Per cent fat of
Milk to be stand-
ardized

(b) Per cent of fat
of Milk to stand-
ardize with

(c) Per cent fat desired

Difference between
(b) and (c) ; this
represents propor-
tion of (a) that
must be used.

Difference between
(a) and (c) ; this
represents propor-
tion of (b) that
must be used.

Examples of How to Reduce Per Cent Fat in Milk or Cream

EXAMPLE 1.

500 Ibs. of 4 per cent, milk are to be reduced to 3.5 per cent
milk by the use of skim milk containing .1 per cent fat. How much
skim milk must be. added ?

4 3.4

3.5

.1 .5

3.4 : .5 = 500 : X ; X = 73.5.

73.5 Ibs. of skim milk must be used to reduce the 500 Ibs. of 4
per cent milk to milk testing 3.5 per cent fat.

STANDARDIZATION OF Miuc AND CREAM

591

EXAMPLE 2.

2,000 Ibs. of 45 per cent cream are to be reduced to 33 per cent
cream by the use of 3 per cent milk. How much milk must be
added?

45 30

33.

3 12

30 : 12 -2000 :X;X = 800

800 Ibs. of 3 per cent milk must be added to the 2000 Ibs. of 45
per cent cream in order to reduce the fat in the cream to 33 per cent.

EXAMPLE 3.

1000 Ibs. of milk testing 4.5 per cent fat are to be reduced to
milk testing 3.8 per cent fat. How much 40 per cent cream must
be removed by skimming?

4.5 36.2

3.8

40 .7

36.2 : .7 = 1000 : X ; X = 19.3

19.3 Ibs. of 40 per cent cream must be removed from 1000 Ibs.
of 4.5 per cent milk in order to obtain milk testing 3.8 per cent fat,
after the skim milk is returned to that portion of the 4.5 per cent
milk which was not separated.

EXAMPLE 4.

How much of the 4.5 per cent milk in Example 3 must be run
through the separator to remove the 19.3 Ibs. of 40 per cent cream?

4.5
Amount of 40 per cent cream of each 100 Ibs. of milk-^r X 100

= 11.25 Ibs. 40 per cent cream. Hence, 11.25 : 100= 19.3 : X; X
= 171.55. 171.55 Ibs. of the 1000 Ibs. of 4.5 per cent milk must be
separated in order to remove 19.3 Ibs. of 40 per cent cream and
to reduce the per cent fat in the remaining milk, after the skim milk
is returned to it, to 3.8 per cent fat.

592

STANDARDIZATION OF MILK AND CREAM

Examples of How to Increase Per Cent of Fat in Milk or Cream

5.

500 Ibs. of milk testing 3.2 per cent fat are to be standardized
to secure milk testing 4.5 per cent fat. How much 5 per cent milk
must be added?

3.2 .5

4.5

5 1.3

.5 : 1.3 — 500 :X; X = 1300

1300 Ibs. of 5 per cent milk must be added to the 500 Ibs. of 3.2
per cent milk in order to secure milk testing 4.5 per cent fat.

EXAMPLE 6.

1000 Ibs. of milk testing 3.5 per cent fat are to be standardized
to milk testing 4 per cent fat. How much skim milk, containing
no fat, must be removed ?

3.5 fc 4

4.

.0 .5

4 :. 5 = 1000 :X; X= 125

125 Ibs. of skim milk must be removed in order to standardize
1000 Ibs. of 3.5 per cent milk to 4 per cent milk.

EXAMPLE 7.

How much of the 1000 Ibs. of 3.5 per cent milk must be skimmed
in order to remove the 125 Ibs. of skim milk required in Example 6?

In order to answer Example 7, the richness of the cream sep-
arated must be known. Assuming that the separator is set so as to
skim a 30 per cent cream the answer is as follows :

Amount of cream per 100 Ibs. of 3.5 per cent milk is —^ X 100

= 11.67 Ibs. cream.

100 Ibs. 3.5 per cent milk yield 11.67 Ibs. of 30%> cream and
88.33 Ibs. skim milk (100—11.67 = 88.33).

TESTING MILK AND CREAM FOR ACID

593

The removal of 125 Ibs. of skim milk necessitates the separa-
tion of 88.33 : 100= 125 :X, or 141.5 pounds of the 1000 Ibs. of
3.5% milk.

EXAMPLE 8.

2000 Ibs. of 32 per cent cream are wanted. How many pounds
of skim milk starter and how many pounds of 38 per cent cream
must be mixed?

38 32

32

0 6

38

38 : 32 = 2000 : X; X = 1684 Ibs. 38% cream
38 : 6 = 2000 :X; X= 316 Ibs. starter.

2000 Ibs. 32% cream.

In order to secure 2000 Ibs. of 32 per cent cream, 1684 Ibs. of
38 per cent cream must be mixed with 316 Ibs. of skim milk starter.

TESTING MILK, CREAM AND STARTER FOR ACID

The acidity in milk, cream and starter is intimately related to
the flavor and keeping quality of the resulting butter. It is impor-
tant for the creamery to know the acidity of the milk when it arrives
at the factory so as to determine its fitness for manufacture. In
the ripening of cream and starter the acidity expresses the degree of
ripeness, and in the neutralization of sour cream the acidity must
be accurately determined in order to enable the operator to use the
correct amount of neutralizer that will reduce the acidity to the
desired point. It is important, therefore, that the creamery use sys-
tematically a simple, practical and accurate test of milk, cream and
starter for acid.

Principle of Acid Tests. — Numerous acid tests have been
devised for this purpose, all of which are based on the principle of
measuring the per cent acid by the amount of alkali needed to reduce
a measured volume of the sample to be tested to the neutral point.
These tests are devised on the basis that -a given volume of a normal
solution of an alkali neutralizes the same volume of a normal solu-
tion of an acid. By the term "normal solution" is meant a solution

594 TESTING MII,K AND CREAM FOR ACID

which is so prepared that one liter shall contain the hydrogen equiv-
alent of the active reagent weighed in grams (Sutton).1

In other words, a normal solution of an acid is a solution
which contains in one liter as much of the active reagent, the acid,
as is represented by the molecular weight of the acid in grams. In
the case of lactic acid (C3H6O3) the molecular weight is 90.

A normal solution of an alkali is a solution which contains in
one liter as much of the active reagent, the alkali, as is represented
by the molecular weight of the alkali in grams. In the case of
caustic soda or sodium hydroxide (NaOH) the molecular weight is
40. Since equal amounts of normal solutions of acids and alkalies
neutralize each other, 1 c.c. of N Na OH (1 c.c. of a normal solu-
tion of caustic soda or sodium hydroxide) neutralizes 1 c.c. of N C3
H6O3 (1 c.c. of a normal solution of lactic acid).

The acid contained in milk, cream and starter is largely lactic acid
and is always calculated as such. The alkali used for determining
the per cent acid is sodium hydroxide (NaOH), commonly known
as caustic soda. In order to know when a liquid is alkaline and when
it is acid, or when enough alkali has been added to reduce all the
acid and render the liquid neutral, a color indicator is used that shows
different color reaction in acids and in alkalies. Of the several indi-
cators available, that known as phenolphthalein is most commonly
and most suitably used in acid tests of milk and cream. In acids,
such as sour milk, sour cream and starter, phenolphthalein is color-
less similar as water. In alkaline solutions, such as sodium hydrox-
ide, phenolphthalein turns to a deep pink color. Hence, when
enough sodium hydroxide has been added to milk, cream or starter,
to neutralize all the acid, these products turn pink. The moment a
permanent faint pink color appears, the test is completed and the
number of cubic centimeters of sodium hydroxide needed to produce
this permanent faintly pink tint, serves as the basis upon which the
per cent acid is calculated.

In order to augment the sensitiveness and accuracy of the test,
alkaline solutions, much weaker than a normal solution, are used.
In most tests the alkaline solution is a tenth normal solution of

N
sodium hydroxide (^- NaOH).

The alkaline solution must be of standard strength, it must be
accurate, otherwise the test cannot be dependable in its results. It

1 Farrington & Woll, Testing Milk and Its Products.

TESTING MII.K AND CREAM FOR ACID 595

is not feasible for the average creamery which has no chemical
laboratory, and no skilled chemist, to weigh out the dry sodium
hydroxide and to make up the desired strength solution from it.
Attempts to do this work under ordinary creamery conditions almost
invariably result in alkaline solutions that are not of standard
strength and that yield erroneous tests.

The creamery may, however, purchase standard alkaline solu-
tion of a strength suitable to be used without further dilution, or it
may purchase a concentrated standard alkaline solution which can
be diluted in accordance with the directions furnished on the bottle,
or it can purchase the chemically pure, dry sodium hydroxide of
exact known weight and dissolve the contents of the entire package
in the necessary amount of distilled water, or the sodium hydroxide
may be purchased in the form of tablets of known strength, which,
when dissolved in a given amount of water, produce the desired
standard solution.

Any of the above enumerated forms of alkali will yield standard
alkaline solutions, when purchased from a reliable supply house,
when diluted with or dissolved in the correct amount of distilled
water, or rain water, or other water free from alkalies or acids, and
when care is taken that all of the alkali contained in one and the
same purchased container is used and that none of it is spilled. For
creameries that are not equipped with a chemical laboratory and that
do not have the services of a skilled chemist the purchase and use
of sodium hydroxide in any of the forms enumerated above will
generally place at their disposal uniformly accurate alkaline solu-
tions.

For creameries that maintain their own chemical laboratory,
the following method, devised by Hunziker and Hosman,1 may as-
sist in the further "fool-proofing" of tenth normal alkali solutions :
Use a common large stock bottle, a two gallon bottle, such as can
be readily purchased from and easily replaced by any drug store.
These bottles, when filled to just below the neck, hold 7500 cubic
centimeters. Fill them with water to the 7500 c.c. mark and mark
the 7500 c.c. level by a scratch on the shoulder of the bottle with a
file. Crush in a mortar, or otherwise, sodium sticks and weigh 30
grams of the crushed sticks each into glass tubes. The tubes should

i Hunziker and Hosman, A Practical M'ethod for the Preparation of Accu-
rate NAOH Solutions for Acid Tests. Blue Valley Research Laboratory

596 TESTING MII^K AND CREAM FOR ACID

be constructed of reasonably thin glass, the ordinary test tubes used
in the chemical laboratory are very suitable for this purpose. They
should have an outside diameter of % inch and should be about 7
inches long, so that they readily slip through the mouth of the two-
gallon bottle.

Seal these tubes by fusing the glass over the flame. In order to
make up a tenth normal solution, all the operator has to do is to
drop one of these tubes rilled with dry sodium hydroxide into the
two-gallon bottle. The tube breaks as it strikes the bottom of the
bottle, releasing the alkali. Now fill the bottle with water to the
scratch on the shoulder. Mix thoroughly by placing hand over
mouth of bottle and inverting it several times, until the alkali is all
dissolved. This is now a tenth normal solution which is ready for
use.

When the solution has been used up, empty the bottle of the
remnant of solution and the broken glass tube, drop into the bottle
a fresh tube and again fill up with distilled water and mix.

If commercial sodium sticks are used, which are not chemically
pure, from 31 to 32 grams are required, according to the extent of
impurities present. In this case the sodium hydrate should be care-
fully titrated against standard acid, so as to determine the exact
amount of sodium hydrate to be weighed into the glass tubes that
will yield, in the 7500 c.c. of distilled water, a tenth normal solution.

Calculation of Per Cent Acid When a Tenth Normal Solution
of Sodium Hydroxide is Used

1 c.c. ^ NaOH neutralizes 1 c.c. ^ C3H6O3.

N
1 c.c. of a -r:r lactic acid solution contains .009 grams lactic

• i J. \J

acid.

Hence, in order to find the per cent acid in milk, cream or
starter, multiply the cubic centimeters of alkali solution required to
neutralize the milk or cream with .009, divide the product by the
grams of milk or cream used and multiply by 100.

N
c.c. alkali solution X .009

X 100 = % lactic acid.

grams milk or cream .ME .1

For all practical purposes the measuring of the milk or cream
gives sufficiently accurate results to obviate the less practical and

TESTING MII^K AND CREAM FOR ACID 597

more time-consuming work of weighing. While the size of the
sample may vary, factory experience has shown that 18 grams
makes a very practical sample. It represents enough material to
insure reasonable accuracy and it obviates complex calculations to
determine the per cent acid. In the case of milk the 18 grams are
measured with the standard 17.6 c.c. Babcock test pipette. In the
case of cream an 18 c.c. or possibly a 9 c.c., pipette is used. The
cream pipette must be rinsed with water and the rinsings added to
the sample.

Example : 7.4 c.c. of tenth normal alkali solution are required
to neutralize 18 c.c. of cream to a faint pink color. What is the
per cent acid?

7.4

Or, for more rapid calculation, simply divide the c.c. alkaline
solution required, by 20.

7-4 ^

— = .37 per cent acid.

If instead of an 18 c.c. pipette, a 9 c.c. pipette is used, then only
one-half as much alkaline solution, or 3.7 c.c., is required and the
per cent acid is calculated as follows:

37 * -009 X 100 = .37% acid.

Or the c.c. alkaline solution required is simply divided by 10.
-j-=z .37 per cent acid.

Phenolphthalein indicator is prepared by dissolving 1 gram dry.
phenolphthalein in 100 c.c. of a mixture of one-half alcohol and one-
half water.

Standard Acid Tests and their Equipment for Factory
Use. — The following are practical and satisfactory acid tests, the
equipment and chemicals for which can be readily secured from
glassware manufacturers and from dairy and creamery supply
houses :

Mann's Acid Test. — Apparatus needed: 50 c.c. graduated
burette with burette stand for measuring the alkaline solution ; a 50
c.c. pipette for measuring the cream, a white cup and stirring rod or
teaspoon.

N
Reagents needed: j^rNaOH (a one-tenth normal solution of

598 TESTING MILK AND CREAM FOR ACID

sodium hydroxide) and an alcoholic solution of phenolphthalein.
Both of these solutions may be purchased from creamery supply
houses or chemical supply houses.

Making the Test. — With the 50 c.c. pipette transfer 50 c.c. of
the cream into the white cup, rinse pipette with water and add rins-
ings to sample in cup. Add one-half c.c. of phenolphthalein solu-
tion. Fill the 50 c.c. burette with the tenth normal solution of
sodium hydroxide. Run this solution slowly from the burette
into the white cup, stirring the cream constantly. Each drop of
sodium hydroxide will give the cream a pink color which at first
immediately disappears. As more of sodium hydrate solution is
added the pink color disappears more gradually until, when the neu-
tral point has been reached the pink color of the cream remains con-
stant for several minutes. When this point is reached, that is, when
upon stirring a faint pink color remains in the cream, enough sodium
hydroxide has been added and the test is completed. Now read off
on the graduations of the burette the number of c.c. of decinormal
alkali solution that was used and multiply this by the factor .018.

OOQ
( ' X 100 = .018). This gives the per cent acid in the cream.

N
Example. — 35 c.c.yjy NaOH are required to neutralize 50 c.c.

of cream. What is the per cent acid?
7C v OOQ

C ' X 100, or 35 X -018= .63% acid.
*)U

The detection of the pink color is facilitated by adding a pipette
full of water to the cream in the cup before titrating.

A Practical Factory Test. — For practical creamery operation
the Mann's acid test is modified to the extent of using a 17.6 c.c.
pipette for milk or an 18 c.c. pipette for cream instead of a 50 c.c.
pipette. Measure 17.6 c.c. or 18 c.c. of the milk or cream to be
tested into the white cup. Add 5 drops of phenolphthalein indi-
cator and then add tenth normal alkaline solution from the burette
until a permanent faintly pink color appears, stirring the milk or
cream in the cup with the rod while adding the alkaline solution.
Do not add alkali until the sample is deep pink. If not sure that
the neutral point has been reached and that enough alkaline solution
has been added, pour one drop of phenolphthalein indicator into cup.
If the milk or cream turn pink the test is completed, if no pink color

TESTING MILK AND CREAM FOR ACID

599

appears, add more alkaline solution from the burette: When the
test is completed divide the number of c.c. tenth normal alkaline
solution required to produce the pink shade, as indicated on the
graduation of the burette, by 20. The result represents per cent
acid. ^ N

Example. — 12 c.c. -r^ NaOH are needed to neutralize the 18 c.c.
of milk or cream.

12

20

= .6 per cent acid.

rig-. 85. Nans Alkali Bottle and Burette for Acid Test
Courtesy of Louis F. Nafls

Farrington Alkaline Tablet Test. — Apparatus Needed. One

100 c.c. graduated glass cylinder with stopper; one 17.6 c.c. Bab-
cock pipette; one white cup.

Reagents. — Farrington Alkaline tablets.

Making the Test. — Dissolve 5 tablets in 97 c.c. wrater in the
glass cylinder. As these tablets require about six hours for com-
plete solution it is advisable to place the tablets in the water in the
cylinder on the evening before the day when the solution is to be

600 TESTING MILK AND CREAM FOR ACID

used ; stopper tightly and 'lay the cylinder horizontally. This insures
complete solution by the time the tablet solution is needed. When
ready for the test, pour with the pipette 17.6 c.c. cream into the
white cup and add tablet solution from the cylinder until the cream
remains faintly pink. Then read off the number of c.c. of tablet
solution used on the graduations of the cylinder. Each c.c. tablet
solution represents .01 per cent acid.

Example. — 60 c.c. tablet solution are required to neutralize the
cream, in the cup. 60 X .01 = .6 per cent acid. The Farrington
alkaline tablets are especially convenient because they contain both
the alkali and the indicator. They may be purchased from any
creamery supply house. They should be kept perfectly dry and in
the dark. Otherwise they will weaken and the indicator will bleach
out. For maximum accuracy an 18 c.c. pipette should be used for
cream.

Marshall Acid Test. — Apparatus Needed. One alkaline solu-
tion bottle with graduated burette, one 9 c.c. pipette, one white
cup, one bottle for indicator.

Reagents Needed. — Tenth normal solution of sodium hydro-
xide (neutralizer) and phenolphthalein indicator same as in
Mann's test.

Making the Test. — With the pipette pour 9 c.c. of cream into
the white cup ; add a few drops of indicator. Fill neutralizer bottle

N

with the -Tp solution of sodium hydroxide. Fill the graduated bur-
ette by tipping the bottle until the burette is full and run neutralizer
from the burette into the cream in the cup until the cream remains
slightly pink. The number of c.c. of neutralizer solution used, as
indicated on the graduation of the burette, represents per cent acid-
ity.

Soxhlet-Henkel Acid Test— This test is very similar to the
previous tests, but instead of expressing the results in number of
cubic centimeters of decinormal alkaline solution required, as is the
case in Mann's acid test, or in per cent of acid in the cream as is the
case of the Farrington Tablet test and the Marshall Acid test, the
Soxhlet-Henkel Acid test gives its results in degrees acid. One
degree is equivalent to approximately .045 per cent acid or to 2.5 c.c.
decinormal alkaline solution of Mann's acid test using 50 c.c. of
cream. In this test a one-fourth normal solution of sodium hydrate
is used for neutralizing the acid.

DETERMINATION OF SPECIFIC GRAVITY 601

Apparatus Needed. — One Soxhlet-Henkel titration apparatus
consisting of one 50 c.c. graduated burette with pinch cock ; one solu-
tion bottle with double perforated stopper and equipped with rubber
bulb and connection with burette ; one 50 c.c. pipette for measuring
cream ; one white cup or porcelain dish ; one 2 c.c. pipette for meas-
uring the indicator.

Reagents Needed. — One-fourth normal solution of sodium
hydrate and an alcoholic solution of phenolphthalein.

Making the Test.— With 50 c.c. pipette pour 50 c.c. of the
cream to be tested into the white cup. Add 2 c.c. of the phenolphtha-
lein indicator. Fill the burette to the top graduation with the alkaline
solution from the bottle by pressing the rubber bulb. Then draw
from the burette enough of the alkaline solution into the cup until
after rotating the cup, or stirring the contents, a faint pink color
remains. The number of cubic centimeters of the alkaline solution
required, as shown on the graduation of the burette, are termed
degrees of acid. Each cubic centimeter of the one-fourth normal
alkaline solution represents one degree of acid.

This method was later modified by Soxhlet-Henkel to the extent
of using 100 c.c. of cream instead of 50 c.c. and increasing the phe-
nolphthalein from 2 c.c. to 4 c.c. Here again each cubic centimeter
of one-fourth normal alkaline solution required to neutralize the acid
in the cream represents one degree of acid. In this case one degree
of acid is equivalent to .0225 per cent acid, or 1.25 c.c. of decinormal
alkaline solution of Mann's test. In stating the degree of acid
by the Soxhlet-Henkel method it is necessary therefore to know
whether they refer to the use of 50 c.c. or of 100 c.c. of cream.

DETERMINATION OF SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF MILK
SKIM MILK, CREAM AND BUTTERMILK

Definition. — By the specific gravity of a liquid is meant the
weight of a given volume of the liquid, such as milk, skim milk,
cream, etc., as compared with the weight of the same volume of
water at the same temperature. The specific gravity of water is 1.
That is, one cubic centimeter of water weighs one gram. Milk is
heavier than water, therefore its specific gravity is greater than that
of water. Average milk has a specific gravity of 1.032. The specific
gravity is usually determined or calculated at a temperature of 60° F.

The specific gravity of liquids is readily determined by means

602

DETERMINATION OF SPECIFIC GRAVITY

of instruments called hydrometers. The hydrometer is a
floating glass spindle, so constructed that it rests in the
liquid to be tested in an upright position. The spindle bears
a graduated scale on which the specific gravity, or its equiva-
lent at a given temperature (usually 60° F.), can be read at
a glance. In order to make the divisions on the scale as far
apart as possible and to thereby make the instrument most
sensitive and accurate, different hydrometer scales have
been devised and are used for different liquids. The
hydrometers used for milk are called lactometers, of which
there are two types, namely, the Quevenne
lactometer and the New York Board of Health
lactometer.

Quevenne Lactometer. — The Quevenne
lactometer is the one most generally used for
determining the specific gravity of milk and skim
milk. It consists of a spindle with a scale gradu-
ated from 15 to 40, a weighted bulb, and usually
a thermometer. The scale is divided into 25
equal parts, ranging from 15 to 40. Each divi-
sion is called a degree and every fifth division is
numbered on the scale. Each division corre-
sponds to one point of the third decimal of the
specific gravity scale. The Quevenne degrees
are converted into specific gravity by adding
1000 and dividing by 1000.

.1

Example. — Quevenne Reading is 32. What is
the specific gravity?

1000 + 32
1000

= 1.032 specific gravity.

The Quevenne lactometer is so constructed
that the scale records the correct degree at a
temperature of 60° F. At a temperature above
60° F. the reading is corrected by adding one- M< 4-. Board
tenth point to the actual reading for each degree of Hcaltn

Pigf. 86.

Quevenne
Lactometer

Courtesy F. above 60. At a temperature below 60° F. de-
B?osnncor duct one-tenth point for each degree F. below 60.

Lactom-

DETERMINATION Otf SPECIFIC GRAVITY 603

Example. — Quevenne reading at 65° F. is 33. What is the
corrected reading?

33 + -5 = 33.5, corrected Quevenne reading.

For the use of the Quevenne lactometer provide a glass or tin
cylinder about 10 inches high and one and one-half inches wide.
Fill the cylinder with the milk to be tested. The temperature of the
milk should be within the limits of 50 to 70° F. Insert the lacto-
meter and when it has found its equilibrium, note the point on the
scale at the surface of the milk. This represents the Quevenne
degrees. The milk should be free from foam. Freshly drawn
milk, and skim milk direct from the centrifugal separator will yield
too low readings because of the incorporated air. Such milk should
be allowed to stand at rest until the air has had a chance to escape.

New York Board of Health Lactometer. — This type of lacto-
meter has an arbitrary scale, it does not show the specific gravity
direct. It was originally constructed for the use of milk inspectors
in eastern cities, but its use is now only very limited.-

It has a graduation from zero to 120. The zero point is the
point to which this lactometer sinks in water. The 100 mark is the
point to which the scale sinks in milk of a specific gravity of 1.029 at
60° F., which is assumed to be the lowest^ specific gravity of normal
milk, or milk to which no extraneous water has been added. 'The
distance between zero and 100 is divided into 100 equal points and
the scale is extended beyond the 100 divisions to 120. To convert
New York Board of Health lactometer degrees into Quevenne
degrees, multiply the B. of H. reading by .29 and to convert Que-
venne degrees into B. of H. degrees divide the Quevenne degrees
by .29.

EXAMPLES.

Milk tests 110 B. of H. lactometer degrees at 60° F. What is
the Quevenne reading at 60° F.

1 10 X. 29 = 31.9 degrees Quevenne.

Milk tests 34 degrees Quevenne lactometer at 60° F. What is
the B. of H. reading at 60° F. ?

34

-yg = 117.2 degrees B. of H. lactometer.

604

DETERMINATION OF SPECIFIC GRAVITY

Table 101. — Degrees on Quevenne Lactometer Corresponding to
Degrees on New York Board of Health Lactometer.

Board of
Health
Degrees

Quevenne
Degrees

Board of
Health
Degrees

Quevenne
Degrees

Board of
Health
Degrees

Quevenne
Degrees

60

17.4

81

23.5

101

29.3

61

17.7

82

23.8

102

29.6

62

18.0

83

24.1

103

29.9

63

18.3

84

24.4

104

30.2

64

18.6

85

24.6

105

30.5

65

18.8

86

24.9

106

30.7

66

19.1

87

25.2

107

31.0

67

19.4

88

25.5

108

31.3

68

19.7

89

25.8

109

31.6

69

20.0

90

26.1

110

31.9

70

20.3

91

26.4

111

32.2

71

20.6

92

26.7

112

32.5

72

20.9

93

27.0

113

32.8

73

21.2

94

27.3

114

33.1

74

21.5

95

27.6

115 • .

33.4

75

21.7

96

• 27.8

116

33.6

76

22.0

97

28.1

117

33.9

77

22.3

98

28.4

118

34.2

78

22.6

99

28.7

119

34.5

79

22.9

100

29.0

120

34.8

80

23.2

•

For temperatures above 60° F. add one lactometer degree for
every 3° F. above 60.

For temperatures below 60° F. deduct one lactometer degree
for every 3° F. below 60.

The New York Board of Health lactometer is used in a similar
manner as the Quevenne lactometer.

Specific Gravity of Cream and Buttermilk. — The aerometric
or hydrometer method of determining the specific gravity is not gen-
erally suitable for cream and buttermilk. The viscosity of the cream
and the usual presence of varying amounts of air in cream render
the results unreliable. In the case of buttermilk, the chief objection
lies in the fact that when this product is fluid enough to afford reason-
ably free movement of the lactometer, the curd drops to the bottom
rapidly and before a satisfactory reading can be taken; and when
the consistency of the buttermilk is such as to prevent the rapid
separation of the curd, it is too viscous to permit the hydrometer

DETERMINATION OF SPECIFIC GRAVITY 605

to find its equilibrium in a reasonable length of time. It is advisable,
therefore, to resort to the gravimetric, or picnometer method of
determining the specific gravity in cream and in buttermilk.

Gravimetric Determination. — This consists of the filling of
a perfectly dry picnometer or other graduated flask of known meas-
ure with milk at the standard temperature (60° F., or 15.5° C.) and
weighing the flask and contents. The weight of the flask is then
deducted from the weight of the flask plus contents and the differ-
ence is divided by the weight of an equal volume of water at stand-
ard temperature. The result is the specific gravity of the milk.

The Westphal balance method furnishes another accurate means
of determining the specific gravity. Both the gravimetric method
and the Westphal balance method, while accurate when operated
by the skillful chemist, require considerable time. Experimental
comparisons have demonstrated that for all practical purposes of
testing milk and skim milk the Quevenne hydrometer, when accu-
rately graduated, yields correct results, and the simplicity and rap-
idity of its operation render its use in the determination of specific
gravity of milk and skim milk highly advantageous and satisfactory.

Weight of One Gallon of Butterfat, Water, Milk, Skim Milk
and Cream in Pounds. — In the standardization of milk and cream
it is necessary to know the amount of milk and cream by weight in
pounds and not by measure in gallons. In American creameries
the weight of milk and cream is frequently not definitely known.
For the convenience of the operator, therefore, a table is here given
showing the weight per gallon of these liquids at a temperature
of approximately 60° F.

The weight of one gallon of cream obviously varies with its
butterfat content. As the cream increases in richness, its specific
gravity is lowered and its weight per gallon decreases. The weight
of one gallon of cream or any other liquid is determined by multiply-
ing the weight of one gallon of water, which is 8.3389, by the spe-
cific gravity of the liquid in question. For example, skim milk has
an average specific gravity of about 1.036. One gallon of skim
milk therefore weighs 1.036 X 8.3389 = 8.6391 Ibs.

The specific gravities of cream of different richnesses were cal-
culated by the following formula adopted by and secured through
the courtesy of Professor E. H. Farrington1 :

i Farrington, by correspondence, 1916.

606

DETERMINATION OF SPECIFIC GRAVITY

Table 102.— Specific Gravity at 60° F. and Weight in Pounds, of
One Gallon, of Butterfat, Water, Milk, Skim Milk and Cream.

Kind of Liquid

Specific

Gravity

at 60° F.

Weight of

one Gallon

Pounds

Butterfat 0.9300

Water 1.0000

Milk average 1.0320

Skim milk average 1.0360

Cream, 10 per cent fat 1.0243

15 " " " 1.0186

16 " " " 1.0174

17 " " " 1.0163

18 " " " 1.0152

19 " " " 1.0140

20 " " " 1.0129

21 " " " 1.0118

22 " " " 1.0107

23 * " " 1.0096

24 " " " 1.0085

25 " " " 1.0073

26 " " " 1.0062

27 " " " 1.0051

28 " " " 1.0040

29 " rt " 1.0029

30 " " " 1.0017

31 " " " .... 1.0006

32 u " " 0.9995

33 " " " 0.9984

34 " " " 0.9973

35 " " " 0.9963

36 " " - 0.9952

37 " " " 0.9941

38 " " " 0.9930

39 " " " 0.9919

40 " " " 0.9908

41 " " " 0.9897

42 " " " 0.9886

43 " " • " 0.9875

44 " " " 0.9864

45 " " « 0.9854

46 " " " 0.9843

47 " " " 0.9832

48 " " « 0.9821

49 " " " . 0.9811

8.3389
8.6057
8.6391
8.5417
8.4938
8.4843
8.4749
8.4654
8.4560
8.4465
8.4372
8.4278
8.4184
8.4090
8.3997
8.3905
8.3812
8.3719
8.3626
8.3534
8.3443
8.3352
8.3260
8.3168
8.3076
8.2985
8.2894
8.2804
8.2714'
8.2624
8.2534
8.2444
8.2354
8.2265
8.2176
8.2087
8.1998
8.1909
8.1821

DETERMINATION OF SPECIFIC GRAVITY
Table 102. — Continued.

607

Kind of Liquid

Specific
Gravity
at 60° F.

Weight of
one Gallon
Pounds

50 " " "

09801

81733

51 " " "

0.9790

8.1646

52 " " "

09780

8.1558

53 " " "

0.9770

8.1470

54 " " "

0.9760

81382

55 " " " ..

09749

8 1294

56 " " "

09738

81207

ry « « ,.

0.9728

8.1121

58 " " "

0.9718

8.1035

59 " " "

0.9707

8.0948

60 " " "

0.9637

8.0861

70 " " "

09595

80007

80 " " "

0.9494

79172

90 " " "...

09396

78353

100 " " " .

0.9300

7.7552

Specific gravity of fat at 15° C., .93.

Specific gravity of fat-free serum at 15° C. = 1.036.

F = per cent of fat in any cream.

100 — F = per cent of serum.

Volume of fat in 100 grams of cream = — c.c.

100-F

Volume of serum in the same cream =

1.036

c.c.

Volume of 100 grams of cream must equal the sum of the above

F , 100-F
quantities, or -^ +-T5^-cc.

Since volume in cubic centimeters multiplied by the specific
gravity equals the weight in grams

(F 100-F \
"93"+ 1036 ) X sPecific^ravity of cream =100.

By reduction the following formula is obtained :

Q •* f 96.348

Specific gravity of cream — 93 » 195 p

The values in the Table 102 are theoretical and apply only
to cream free from air, in which the specific gravities of fat and

608* DETERMINATION OF TOTAI, SOLIDS

serum conform to the above assumptions. The actual weights found
in most cases will be somewhat less than the weights given in the
table because of the varying amounts of air in the cream. They are
calculated on the bases of a temperature of approximately 60° F.
Cream at a higher temperature will weigh slightly less and cream at
a lower temperature will weigh slightly more.

DETERMINATION OF TOTAL SOLIDS IN MILK, SKIM
MILK, CREAM AND BUTTERMILK

By Means of the Babcock Formula. — For rapid and reason-
ably accurate work the total sglids of milk may be determined by
the use of the Babcock formula, which is as follows :

Total solids — -^ + 1.2 X f.
L = Quevenne lactometer reading,
f = per cent of fat.

Example : Lactometer reading is 32 ; per cent fat is 4.

32
Total solids =-j-+ 1.2 X 4= 12.8 per cent.

For the determination of the solids not fat use the formula :

-^+.2xf. = per cent solids not fat.
or deduct the per cent fat from the per cent total solids.

The Babcock formula for the determination of total solids and
solids not fat is applicable only to milk and skim milk. For cream
and buttermilk the gravimetric method is recommended. See also
Table 103, showing per cent total solids in milk and skim milk when
per cent fat and lactometer reading are known.

Gravimetric Method. — "Heat from three to five grams of milk,
skim milk or buttermilk at the temperature of boiling water until it
ceases to lose weight, using a tared flat dish of not less than 5 c.c.
diameter. If desired, from fifteen to twenty grams of pure, dry
sand may be previously placed in the dish. Cool in a desiccator
and weigh rapidly to avoid absorption of hygroscopic moisture. In
the case of cream use only two to three grams of sample."

DETERMINATION OF ToTAI, SOUDS

609

Table 103.— Per Cent Total Solids, When Per Cent Fat and
Quevenne Lactometer Reading at 60° F. are Known,

Quevenne Lactometer Reading at 60° F.

Fat

26

27

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

36

per
cent

Total

Total

Total

Total

Total

Total

Total

Total

Total

Total

Total

solids

solids

solids

solids

solids

solids

solids

solids

solids

solids

solids

per

per

per

per

per

per

per

per

per

per

per

cent

cent

cent

cent

cent

cent

cent

cent

cent

cent

cent

0.0

6.50

6.75

7.00

7.25

7.50

7.75

8.00

8.25

8.50

8.75

9.00

0.1

6.62

6.87

7.12

7.37

7.62

7.87

8.12

8.37

8.62

8.87

9.12

0.2

6.74

6.99

7.24

7.49

7.74

7.99

8.24

8.49

8.74

8.99

9.24

0.3

6.86

7.11

7.36

7.61

7.86

8.11

8.36

8.66

8.86

9.11

9.36

0.4

6.98

7.23

7.48

7.73

7.98

8.23

8.48

8.73

8.98

9.23

9.48

0.5

7.10

7.35

7.60

7.85

8.10

8.35

8.60

8.85

9.10

9.35

9.60

0.6

7.22

7.47

7.72

7.97

8.22

8.47

8.72

8.97

9.22

9.47

9.72

0.7

7.34

7.59

7.84

8.09

8.34

8.59

8.84

9.09

9.34

9.59

9.84

0.8

7.46

7.71

7.96

8.21

8.46

8.71

8.96

9.21

9.46

9.71

9.96

0.9

7.58

7.83

8.08

8.33

8.58

8.83

9.08

9.33

9.58

9.83

10.08

.0

7.70

7.95

8.20

8.45

8.70

8.95

9.20

9.45

9.70

9.95

10.20

.1

7.82

8.07

8.32

8.57

8.82

9.07

9.32

9.57

9.82

10.07

10.32

.2

7.94

8.19

8.44

8.69

8.94

9.19

9.44

9.69

9.94

10.19

10.44

.3

8.06

8.31

8.56

8.81

9.06

9.31

9.56

9.81

10.06

10.31

10.56

.4

8.18

843

8.68

8.93

9.18

9.43

9.68

9.93

10.18

10.43

10.68

.5

8.30

8.55

8.80

9.05

9.30

9.55

9.80

10.05

10.30

10.55

10.80

.6

8.42

8.67

8.92

9.17

9.42

9.67

9.92

10.17

10.42

10.67

10.92

.7

8.54

8.79

9.04

9.29

9.54

9.79

10.04

10.29

10.54

10.79

11.04

1.8

8.66

8.91

9.16

9.41

9.66

9.91

10.16

10.41

10.66

10.91

11.17

1.9

8.78

9.03

9.28

9.53

9.78

10.03

10.28

10.53

10.78

11.03

11.29

2.0

8.90

9.15

9.40

9.65

9.90

10.15

10.40

10.66

10.91

11.16

11.41

2.1

9.02

9.27

9.52

9.77

10.02

10.27

10.52

10.78

11.03

11.28

11.53

2.2

9.14

9.39

9.64

9.89

10.14

10.39

10.64

10.90

11.15

11.40

11.65

2.3

9.26

9.51

9.76

10.01

10.26

10.51

10.76

11.02

11.27

11.52

11.77

2.4

9.38

9.63

9.88

10.13

10 38

10.63

10.88

11.14

11.39

11.64

11.89

2.5

9.50

9.75

10.00

10.25

10.50

10.75

11.00

11.26

11.51

11.76

12.01

2.6

9.62

9.87

10.12

10.37

10.62

10.87

11.12

11.38

11.63

11.88

12.13

2.7

9.74

9.99

10.24

10.49

10.74

10.99

11.24

11.50

11.75

12.00

12.25

2.8

9.86

10.11

10.36

10.61

10.86

11.11

11.37

11.62

11.87

12.12

12.37

2.9

9.98

10.23

10.48

10.73

10.98

11.23

11.49

11.74

11.99

12.24

12.49

3.0

10.10

10.35

10.60

10.85

11.10

11.36

11.61

11.86

12.11

12.36

12.61

3.1

10.22

10.47

10.72

10.97

11.23

11.48

11.73

11.98

12.23

12.48

12.74

3.2

10.34

10.59

10.84

11.09

11.35

11.60

11.85

12.10

12.35

12.61

12.86

3.3

10.46

10.71

10.96

11.22

11.47

11.72

11.97

12.22

12.48

12.73

12.98

3.4

10.58

10.83

11.09

11.34

11.59

11.84

12.09

12.34

12.60

12.85

13.10

3.5

10.70

10.95

11.21

11.46

11.71

11.96

12.21

12.46

12.72

12.97

13.22

3.6

10.82

11.08

11.33

11.58

11.83

12.08

12.33

12.58

12.84

13.09

13.34

3.7

10.94

11.20

11.45

11.70

11.95

12.20

12.45

12.70

12.96

13.21

13.46

3.8

11.06

11.32

11.57

11.82

12.07

12.32

12.57

12.82

13.08

13.33

13.58

3.9

11.18

11.44

11.69

11.94

12.19

12.44

12.69

12.94

13.20

13.45

13.70

4.0

11.30

11.56

11.81

12.06

12.31

12.56

12.81

13.06

13.32

13.57

13.83

4.1

11.42

11.68

11.93

12.18

12.43

12.68

12.93

13.18

13.44

13.69

13.95

4.2

11.54

11.80

12.05

12.30

12.55

12.80

13.05

13.31

13.56

13.82

14.07

4.3

11.66

11.92

12.17

12.42

12.67

12.92

13.18

13.43

13.68

13.94

14.19

4.4

11.78

12.04

12.29

12.54

12.79

13.04

13.30

13.55

13.80

14.06

14.31

4.5

11.90

12.16

12.41

12.66

12.91

13.16

13.42

13.67

13.92

14.18

14.43

4.6

12.03

12.28

12.53

12.78

13.03

13.28

13.54

13.79

14.04

14.30

14.55

4.7

12.15

12.40

12.65

12.90

13.15

13.40

13.66

13.91

14.16

14.42

14.67

4.8

12.27

12.52

12.77

13.02

13.27

13.52

13.78

14.03

14.28

14.54

14.79

4.9

12.39

12.64

12.89

13.14

13.39

13.64

13.90

14.15

14.40

14.66

14.91

610

TESTING FOR BUTTERFAT

Table 103. — Continued.

Quevenne Lactometer Reading at 60° F.

Fat

26

27

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

36

per

Total

Total

Total

Total

Total

Total

Total

Total

Total

Total

Total'

cent

solids

solids

solids

solids

solids

solids

solids

solids

solids

solids

solids

per

per

per

per

per

per

per

per

per

per

per

cent

cent

cent

cent

cent

cent

cent

cent

cent

cent

cent

5.0

12.51

12.76

13.01

13.26

13.51

13.76

14.02

14.27

14.52

14.78

15.03

5.1

12.63

12.88

13.13

13.38

13.63

13.89

14.14

14.39

14.64

14.90

15.15

5.2

12.75

13.00

13.25

13.50

13.75

14.01

14.26

14.51

14.76

15.02

15.27

5.3

12.87

13.12

13.37

13.62

13.87

14.13

14.38

14.63

14.88

15.14

15.39

5.4

12.99

13.24

13.49

13.74

14.00

14.25

14.50

14.76

15.01

15.26

15.51

5.5

13.11

13.36

13.61

13.86

14.12

14.37

14.62

14.88

15.13

15.38

15.63

5.6

13.23

13.48

13.73

13.99

14.24

14.49

14.75

15.00

15.25

15.50

15.75

5.7

13.35

13.60

13.85

14.11

14.36

14.61

14.87

15.12

15.37

15.62

15.87

5.8

13.47

13.72

13.97

14.23

14.48

14.74

14.99

15.24

15.49

15.74

15.99

5.9

13.59

13.84

14.10

14.35

14.60

14.86

15.11

15.36

15.61

15.86

16.12

6.0

13.71

13.96

14.22

14.47

14.72

14.98

15.23

15.48

15.73

15.98

16.24

6.1

13.83

14.08

14.34

14.59

14.84

15.10

15.35

15.60

15.85

16.10

16.35

6.2

13.95

14.20

14.46

14.71

14.96

15.22

15.47

15.72

15.97

16.22

16.48

6.3

14.07

14.32

14.58

14.83

15.08

15.34

15.59

15.84

16.09

16.34

16.60

6.4

14.19

14.44

14.70

14.96

15.20

15.46

15.71

15.96

16.21

16.46

16.72

6.5

14.31

14.56

14.82

15.08

15.32

15.58

15.83

16.08

16.33

16.58

16.84

6.6

14.43

14.68

14.94

15.20

15.44

15.70

15.95

16.20

16.45

16.70

16.96

6.7

14.55

14.80

15.06

15.32

15.56

15.82

16.07

16.32

16.57

16.82

17.08

6.8

14.67

14.92

15.18

15.44

15.68

15.94

16.19

16.44

16.69

16.94

17.20

6.9

14.79

15.04

15.30

15.56

15.80

16.06

16.31

16.56

16.81

17.06

17.32

TESTING MILK, CREAM, SKIM MILK AND BUTTER-
MILK FOR BUTTERFAT
Volumetric Methods
The Babcock Test

Principle of Babcock Test. — The principle of the Babcock test
is based on the fact that when sulphuric acid in sufficient strength
and amount is added to milk, cream or other dairy product, the acid
breaks down the non-fatty constituents without materially affecting
the fat. The action of the acid, together with the heat generated,
destroys the emulsion of fat-in-milk serum, causing the fat to sep-
arate out. The completeness of this separation is facilitated by sub-
jecting the mixture of acid and milk to centrifugal force.

In order to make possible the ready measurement of this prac-
tically pure, separated fat in terms of per cent, the neck of the test
bottle, in which the fat appears in the finished test, is graduated.
Each one per cent graduation has a capacity of .2 cubic centimeter.
The specific gravity of butterfat at about 135 degrees F., which is
the temperature at which the test is read, averages .9. The .2 cubic
centimeter of butterfat therefore weighs .2 X .9 = .18 grams. In

TKSTING FOR BUTTERFAT 611

order to have .18 grams butterfat represent 1 per cent of the milk
or cream tested, .18 X 100 or 18 grams of milk or cream must be
used.

In the case of milk, the sample, for convenience's sake, is
measured, instead of weighed into the test bottle. The average
specific gravity of milk is 1.032. Hence 18 grams of milk have a

1 8
volume of y-?)T2 or ^>44 cubic centimeters. But when milk is

poured from the pipette, approximately .15 c.c. remain in the pipette
and fail to be discharged into the test bottle. For this reason a
poured from the pipette, approximately .15 c.c. remain in the pipette
delivers 18 grams of milk.

In the case of cream, the specific gravity varies very greatly
with the richness of the cream and the amount of foam it contains,
hence the measuring of the cream into the test bottle introduces
considerable error. For this reason the cream is weighed, and not
measured, into the test bottle, using 18 grams. In the course of the
development of the Babcock test for cream, it was found desirable
to reduce the charge of cream used for the test from 18 grams to 9
grams, and accordingly the percentage graduation in these cream
test bottles was modified to the effect that each 1 per cent of the
graduation has a capacity of .1 cubic centimeter which corresponds
to .09 grams of butterfat. In the use of these so-called 9 gram
cream test bottles, therefore, .09 X 100, or 9 grams of cream are
weighed into the test bottle and the graduation again represents per
cent.

SPECIFICATIONS FOR STANDARD APPARATUS AND

CHEMICALS FOR TESTING MILK AND CREAM

FOR BUTTERFAT BY THE BABCOCK TEST1

1. Apparatus and Chemicals.

Milk Test Bottle. — 8 per cent 18 gram milk test bottle, gradu-
ated to 0.1 per cent. Graduation — The total per cent graduation
shall be 8. The graduated portion of the neck shall have a length
of not less than 63.5 mm. (2y2 inches). The graduation shall repre-
sent whole per cent, five-tenths per cent and tenths per cent. The
tenths per cent graduations shall not be less than 3 mm. in length ;
the five-tenths per cent graduations shall be 1 mm. longer than the

1 Hunziker, Journal of Dairy Science, Vol. I, No. 1, May, 1917.

612 TESTING FOR BUTTERFAT

tenths per cent graduations, projecting 1 mm. to the left ; the whole
per cent graduation shall extend at least one-half way around the
neck to the right and projecting 2 mm. to the left of the tenths per
cent graduations. Each per cent graduation shall be numbered, the
number being placed on the left of the scale.

The maximum error in the total graduation or in any part there-
of shall not exceed the volume of the smallest unit of the graduation.

Neck. — The neck shall be cylindrical and of uniform internal
diameter throughout. The cylindrical part of the neck shall extend
at least 5 mm. below the lowest and above the highest graduation
mark. The top of the neck shall be flared to a diameter of not less
than 10 mm.

Bulb. — The capacity of the bulb up to the junction of the neck
shall be not less than 45 cc. The shape of the bulb may be either
cylindrical or conical with the smallest diameter at the bottom. If
cylindrical, the outside diameter shall be between 34 and 36 mm. ;
if conical, the outside diameter of the base shall be between 31 and
33 mm., and the maximum diameter between 35 and 37 mm.

The charge of the bottle shall be 18 grams.

The total height of the bottle shall be between 150 and 165 mm.
and 6j^ inches).

Cream Test Bottle 1. — 50 per cent 9 gram short-neck cream
test bottle, graduated to 0.5 per cent. Graduation — the total per
cent graduation shall be 50. The graduated portion of the neck shall
have a length of not less than 63.5 mm. (2T/2 inches). The gradu-
ation shall represent 5 per cent, 1 per cent, and 0.5 per cent. The
5 per cent graduations shall extend at least half-way around the
neck (to the right). The 0.5 per cent graduations shall be at least
3 mm. in length, and the 1 per cent graduations shall have a length
intermediate between the 5 per cent and the 0.5 per cent graduations.
Each 5 per cent graduation shall be numbered, the number being
placed on the left of the scale.

The maximum error in the total graduation or in any part
thereof shall not exceed the volume of the smallest unit of the
graduation.

Neck. — The neck shall be cylindrical and of uniform internal
diameter throughout. The cylindrical part of the neck shall extend

TESTING FOR BUTT.SRFAT 613

at least 5 mm. below the lowest and above the highest graduation
mark. The top of the neck shall be flared to a diameter of not less
than 10 mm.

Bulb. — The capacity of the bulb up to the junction of the neck
shall not be less than 45 cc. The shape of the bulb may be either
cylindrical or conical with the smallest diameter at the bottom. If
cylindrical, the outside diameter shall be between 34 and 36 mm. ; if
conical, the outside diameter of the base shall be between 31 and 33
mm. and the maximum diameter between 35 and 37 mm.

The charge of the bottle shall be 9 grams. All bottles shall
bear on top of the neck above the graduations, in plainly legible
characters, a mark defining the weight of the charge to be used (9
grams).

The total height of the bottle shall be between 150 and 165 mm.
(5% and 6l/2 inches), same as standard milk test bottles.

Cream Test Bottle 2. — 50 per cent 9 gram long-neck-cream test
bottle, graduated to 0.5 per cent. The same specifications in every
detail -as specified for the 50 per cent 9 gram short-neck bottle shall
apply for the long-neck bottle with the exception, however, that the
total height of this bottle shall be between 210 and 235 mm. (8%
and 9 inches), that the total length of the graduation shall be not
less than 120 mm., and that the maximum error in the total gradua-
tion or in any part thereof shall not exceed 50 per cent of the volume
of the smallest unit of the graduation.

Cream Test Bottle 3. — 50 per cent 18 gram long-neck cream
test bottle, graduated to 0.5 per cent. The same specifications in
every detail as specified for the 50 per cent 9 gram long-neck bottle
shall also apply for the 18 gram long-neck bottle, except that the
charge of the bottle shall be 18 grams. All bottles shall bear on top
of the neck above the graduation, in plainly legible characters, a
mark defining the weight of the charge to be used (18 grams).

Pipette, capacity 17.6 cc. Total length of pipette not more than
330 mm. (13J4 inches). Outside diameter of suction tube 6 to 8
mm. Length of suction tube, 130 mm. Outside diameter of deliv-
ery tube, 4.5 to 5.5 mm. Length of delivery tube, 100 to 120 mm.
Distance of graduation mark above bulb, 15 to 45 mm. Nozzle
straight. To deliver its contents when filled to the mark with water
at 20° C., in five to eight seconds. The maximum error shall not
exceed 0.05 cc.

Acid measure, capacity 17.5 cc.

614 TESTING FOR BUTTERFAT

Cream Testing Scales. — Sensibility reciprocal of 30 mgm., i. e.»
the addition of 30 mgm. to the scales, when loaded to capacity, shall
cause a deflection of the pointer of at least one division on the gradu-
ation.

Weights. — 9 gram weights for 9 gram cream test bottles and
18 gram weights for 18 gram cream test bottles, preferably
stamped correct by the United States or State Bureau of Stand-
ards.

Tester. — Standard Babcock test centrifuge and speed in-
dicator.

Dividers for measuring fat column.

Water bath for cream samples, with proper arrangement for
regulating and recording temperature of samples.

Water bath for test bottles, of sufficient size and with neces-
sary equipment to insure proper control of temperature. The fol-
lowing dimensions for a twenty-four bottle water bath are recom-
mended: Metal box, 14 inches long, 11 inches wide, and S1/^ inches
deep and equipped with a bottle basket 9l/2 inches long and 6l/2 inches
wide, capacity twenty-four bottles, a steam and water inlet, a drain,
a thermometer holder with thermometer.

Chemicals. — Commercial sulphuric acid, specific gravity 1.82
to 1.83 ; glymol, or white mineral oil, high grade.

OPERATION OF THE BABCOCK TEST
Milk Test

Milk Samples. — The sampling of milk is fully discussed in
Chapter VI on "Receiving Milk and Cream."

Preparation of Milk Sample for the Test. — Before testing, the
samples should be brought to the proper temperature; this may
range from 55 degrees to 70 degrees F. If the samples have been
exposed to summer heat or to temperatures near the freezing point,
the sample bottles are best set into a tank, sink, or tub and allowed
to stand in water at about 60 degrees F. until the temperature of the
milk is neither below 55 degrees F. nor above 70 degrees F.

If to be transported by mail, express, or otherwise, the sample
bottle should be completely full and tightly stoppered and the sam-
ples should be preserved as previously directed, see Chapter VI.

The contents of each bottle must be thoroughly mixed before

TESTING FOR BUTTERFAT

615

pipetting into the test bottle. If the composite sample has received
the proper care, as directed in Chapter VI, the gentle shaking of the
sample bottle and the pouring of the contents from one bottle to
another several times should be sufficient.

I--""-"-.-: "-""_-- -'

Fig-. 88 Pig-. 89 Fig-. 90 Fig-. 91

Standard Babcock Milk and Cream Test Bottles

Courtesy Louis F. Nafis

Samples containing lumps of cream or granules of butter cannot
be tested properly without extra preparation. They should be
heated to at least 110 degrees F., or until all lumps of butterfat
have melted and disappeared ; they should then be shaken vigorously
and pipetted into the test bottle at once. Even with this precaution
it is difficult to transfer to the test bottle a representative portion

616 TESTING FOR BUTTERFAT

from such a sample. Avoid incorporation of air bubbles while
mixing the sample.

Curdy and churned samples are not dependable. Sour and curdy
samples should be treated as follows: add one-half teaspoonful of
soda lye or potash lye, shake, and let stand until all lumps of curd
have disappeared. The sample is then ready for the test. When
testing samples to which soda lye or other alkali has been added, the
acid should be added slowly and carefully to avoid accidents and to
prevent the loss of a portion of the contents of the bottle by exces-
sive effervescence.

Measuring the Milk Into the Test Bottle. — Use standard milk
test bottles and a standard 17.6 cubic centimeter pipette. Measure
17.6 cubic centimeters (representing 18 grams) of the properly
prepared sample into the test bottle. In order to do this rapidly,
and without spilling, the delivery tube of the standard pipette
has been constructed of such diameter, that this tube readily
drops into the neck of the standard "8 per cent milk test
bottle. Hence drop the delivery tube of the pipette into the
neck of the test bottle until the bulb of the pipette rests on the
neck of the bottle, then release the milk. Blow the last drop of
milk out of the pipette before removing it from the bottle. Mark
each bottle with a number corresponding with the number of the
respective patron on the sample bottle. The marking is best done
with an ordinary lead pencil on the etched shoulder of the test bot-
tle^ Or equip the test bottles with metal tags which bear consecu-
tive numbers. Slip one tag over the neck of each test bottle. In
this case the test bottle number may and usually does differ from
the patron's number shown on the sample bottle. It is necessary
therefore, to record the test bottle number on the test report blank
opposite the respective patron's name or number at the time of rill-
ing each test bottle.

Adding the Acid. — Use commercial sulphuric acid, specific
gravity 1.82 to 1.83. The temperature of the acid should be the
same as that of the milk, 55 degrees F. to 70 degrees F. In order
to insure the proper temperature of the acid it is advisable to set
the acid bottle into the tank containing the milk sample bottles.

Add 17.5 cc. of acid to the milk in the test bottle and mix by
giving the bottle a rotary motion until the lumps of curd are com-
pletely dissolved and the mixture presents a brown-black color. It

TESTING FOR BUTTERFAT 617

is advisable to add the acid in about three installments, shaking the
bottle after each addition. Attention to this precaution helps to
secure clear tests.

WhirEng and Adding Water.— Set the test bottles into the
Babcock centrifuge. If the test bottles containing the mixture
of milk and acid are held over and allowed to become cool, they
should be heated by setting in hot water before whirling.

Steam turbine and electric driven testers with not less than
twenty-four pockets are best adapted for factory use. They are
constructed of two general sizes, — those having a twelve-inch diame-
ter wheel and those having an eighteen-inch diameter wheel.

Table 104. — Correct Speed of Testers of Different Diameters1
Measuring from Pocket Bottom to Opposite Pocket Bottom

Diameter of Wheel Revolutions of. Wheel

Inches per Minute

10 1,074

12 980

14 909

16 848

18 800

20 759

22 724

24 693

Fill the bottles to the bottom of the neck with hot, soft water;
whirl again for two minutes and fill the bottles with hot, soft water
to about the 7 per cent mark ; whirl for one minute. The tempera-
ture of the water added should be not lower than 140 degrees F. and
preferably near that of boiling water (212 degrees F).

Reading the Test. — Place the test bottles in a water bath and
read after a temperature of 130° F. to 140° F. has been maintained
for not less than three minutes. Measure the fat column with a
pair of dividers, including the meniscus or curve, both at the bottom
and at the top of the fat column. Each subdivision represents .1
per cent ; each main division represents 1 per cent. Record the per-
centage of fat thus found on the test sheet.

Abnormal Appearance of the Fat Column. — When the test is
made properly and in accordance with above directions, the fat

Farrington & Woll, Testing Milk and Its Products.

618 TESTING FOR BUTTDRFAT

column is clear, translucent, has a golden yellow or amber color
and the top and bottom curves are sharply denned.

The presence of whitish curd in or immediately below the fat
column is the result of excessively cold milk and acid, or the use of
too little or too weak acid. The presence of charred matter in the
fat column is the result of the use of too much or too strong acid, or
too high a temperature of milk or acid, or both, at the time of adding
the acid.

The appearance of foam on the surface of the fat column is
caused by the use of hard water. The carbonates, when acted on
by the sulphuric acid, break down, liberating carbon dioxide gas
which, rising through the fat column, gathers on its surface in the
form of air bubbles. Where soft water, distilled water, or rain
water is not available, the water may be softened by boiling it or by
the addition to it of a few drops of sulphuric acid before use.

All tests which are milky, or foggy, showing the presence of
curd or charred matter in or below the fat column, or of which the
reading is indistinct or uncertain, should be rejected. Duplicate tests
are essential in all work where special accuracy of results is required,
such as in official testing and experimental investigations.

Cream Test

Cream samples. — The taking of cream samples, at the factory,
at the cream station and on the cream route is fully discussed in
Chapter VI on "Receiving Milk and Cream."

Cream samples should be tested as soon as possible and not
later than three days after they are taken. Composite samples rep-
resenting portions of consecutive deliveries of the same patron
are prone to be unreliable. Samples should at all times be kept in
non-absorptive containers, sealed air-tight and held in the cold.

Immediately before testing, mix the sample until it pours readily
and a uniform emulsion is secured. If in good condition shake,
pour, stir or blow until properly mixed. If very thick, warm to
85 degrees F. and then mix. In case of lumps of butter, heat the
sample to from 100 degrees F. to 120 degrees F. by setting in water
bath, mix thoroughly and weigh out at once. For commercial work
on a large scale it is advisable to temper all samples to 100 degrees
to 120 degrees F. in a water bath previous to mixing. Great care
should be exercised to avoid overheating the sample, causing the

TESTING FOR BUTTERFAT

619

Fig*. 93. Acid Dipper for Cream

Pig*. 94

Cream Pipette '-

Lg*. 92
Standard
Milk Pipette

Pig1. 95

Combined

Acid Bottle -

Tig. 96
Acid Cylinder

1 Courtesy Louis F. Naf.s.

2 Courtesy Mojonnier Bros. Co.

620 TESTING #OR

.-*.*- •

creanl to "oil off." This precaution is especially necessary with thin
cream.

Cream Test Bottles. — Use standard 50 per cent 9-gram short-
neck, or standard 50 per cent 9-gram long-neck, or standard 50 per
cent 18-gram long-neck cream test bottles. The divisions on each of
the three standard cream test bottles represent .5 per cent, 1 per cent
and 5 per cent. The 5 per cent divisions bear a figure to the left of
the graduation.

Cream Test Balances. — Only high-class balances which are in
satisfactory operating condition should be used. The reliability of
the cream test balance depends in the first place on its sensitiveness
and capacity. Experiments conducted with different types of cream
testing scales by Hunziker, Spitzer and Ogle1 showed the following
results and conclusions :

1. Results of tests of 4623 cream samples made in commercial
creameries show that where the one-bottle balances were used, 96.43
per cent of the tests checked with the retests within .5 per cent, while
the best performance of the twelve-bottle balance yielded only 80.43
per cent of tests that checked with the retests.

2. Balances with a sensibility reciprocal of .01 to .03 grams
produced tests, 98.2 per cent of which checked with the retests, and
the average variation between duplicate tests was .119 per cent.

3. Balances with a sensibility reciprocal of .1 gram yielded only
36.1 per cent of tests which checked with the retests, and the average
variation between duplicate tests was .993 per cent.

4. The condition, care and manipulation of the cream test bal-
ance greatly influence its sensitiveness, reliability and length of use-
fulness.

5. The general adoption of standard cream test balances with
a sensibility reciprocal of thirty milligrams would materially augment
the reliability of cream tests.

6. Preference should be given to small capacity balances.

7. Balances, with a graduated beam which carries a traveling
poise are less reliable than those with a beam of equal arms, balanc-
ing in the center and requiring the use of separate weights.

8. Balances of simple principle and construction are generally
superior under average commercial conditions, retain their sensi-
bility reciprocal longer and are more durable than balances of more
complex principle and construction.

1 Hunziker, Spitzer and Ogle, Cream Testing Scales, Purdue Bulletin 189,
1916.

TESTING FOR BUTTERFAT 621

SPECIFICATIONS AND TOLERANCES FOR STANDARD
CREAM TEST BALANCES

UNITED STATES BUREAU OF STANDARDS1

Definition. — A cream-test or butterfat-test scale is a scale
especially designed and adapted for determining the fat content
of cream or butter.

Specifications. — 1. All scales shall be provided with a gradu-
ated scale or arc divided into at least 10 equal spaces, over which the
indicator shall play.

2. The clear interval between the graduations on the graduated
scale or arc shall not be less than 0.05 inch.

3. The indicator shall be of such length as to reach to the gradu-
ated divisions and shall terminate in a fine point to enable the read-
ings to be made with precision.

4. All scales whose weight indications are changed by an
amount greater than one-half the tolerance allowed, when set in any
position on a surface making an angle of 5 per cent or approximately
j degrees with the horizontal, shall be equipped with leveling screws
and with a device which will indicate when the scale is level. The
scale shall be rebalanced at zero each time its position is altered dur-
ing this test.

5. All scales shall be so constructed and adjusted that when
the pans are released or disturbed, the pointer will return to its orig-
inal position of equilibrium.

Sensibility Reciprocal. — The maximum sensibility reciprocal
allowable for these scales shall not exceed one-half grain, or approxi-
mately 30 milligrams, when the maximum load is placed upon the
scale.

(The term "sensibility reciprocal" means the weight required to
move the position of equilibrium of the beam, pan, pointer, or other
indicating device of the scale a definite amount. In scales provided
with a pointer and a graduated scale or arc, such as the above, the
sensibility reciprocal is the weight required to cause a change in the
position of rest of the pointer equal to one division on the graduated
scale or arc.)

Tolerances. — The tolerance to be allowed in excess or de-
ficiency on all cream-test and butterfat-test scales shall not be

1 United States Bureau of Standards, Tolerances and Specifications for
Weights and Measures, Proceedings of Tenth Annual Conference on the
Weights and Measures of the United States, May 25-28, 1915.

622 TESTING FOR BUTTER? AT

greater than one-half grain or approximately 30 milligrams, when
the scale is loaded to capacity."

Manipulation of Balance. — .1. Level the balance each time be-
fore using.

2. Adjust or balance the instrument immediately before weigh-
ing and make sure that its beam swings freely and does not "stick."

3. Protect the balance from air currents. If resting on an open
bench have the nearest doors and windows closed. The setting of
the balance in a box large enough for convenient operation and with
the near side open is recommended.

4. Use accurate weights only and be sure that they are clean.

5. Don't release the balance with a jerk so that the pans strike
the rest ; release them easily and slowly and handle them gently when
they are moved. Careless and rough handling may damage spring
bands and dull knife edges.

6. Don't try to use the balance when out of repair.

7. Use painstaking care and reasonable judgment in all opera-
tions.

SPECIFICATIONS FOR STANDARD NINE AND
EIGHTEEN GRAM WEIGHTS

1. Weights shall be made of brass or aluminum.

2. Weights shall have smooth surfaces and no sharp points or
corners.

3. Weights shall not be covered with a soft or thick coat of
paint or varnish.

4. All weights shall be clearly marked with their nominal value
i. e. 9 for nine gram weights and 18 for eighteen gram weights.

5. The tolerance shall be forty milligrams for nine gram
weights and fifty milligrams for eighteen gram weights. •

Weighing the Cream Into the Test Bottle. — The cream must
be weighed into the test bottle, not measured. This is necessary in
order to secure the correct amount by weight. Cream varies in
weight with its richness and its mechanical condition, and no one
measure will hold the correct amount of cream of varying richness.
The correct amount of cream by weight is 9 grams or 18 grams,
respectively.

Set the cream test bottles on the scales and balance the scales
accurately. The cream is most readily transferred into the test

TESTING FOR BUTTERFAT 623

bottles from the properly mixed sample by means of a 9 or 18 cc.
pipette which has a short, wide-bore delivery tube. In this manner
spilling is readily avoided and the work is most rapid. If any
cream is spilled over the outside of the bottles or on the balance, it
should be wiped off immediately and before the weighing is com-
pleted.

Making the Test. — Three methods of performing the test have
been adopted as standard methods; each of which, when properly
executed, insures accurate results, but methods II and III are pre-

Fig\ 97. Jalco Electric Centrifuge Tig. 98. Facile Steam Turbine

Courtesy Jalco Motor Co. Tester

Courtesy D. H. Burrell & Co.

ferred to method I, as they leave less to the judgment of the oper-
ator and therefore are more nearly "fool-proof :"

Method I. Add standard commercial sulphuric acid until the
mixture of acid and cream, immediately after shaking, resembles
in color, coffee with cream in it. Usually about 8 to 12 cc. of
acid is required in the case of the 9-gram bottle or 14 to 17 cc.
of acid in the case of the 18-gram bottle, the amount needed depend-
ing on the temperature of acid and cream and on the richness of
the cream.

Whirl in Standard Babcock centrifuge at proper speed, five,
two and one minutes, respectively, filling the bottles with hot, soft
water, temperature 140° F. or above, to the bottom of the neck after
the first whirling and to near the top graduation after the second
whirling.

624 TESTING FOR BUTTERFAT

Method II. Add 9 cc. of water after the cream has been
weighed into the test bottle and before the acid is added, then add
17.5 cc. acid and proceed as in previous method. This method is
applicable with the 9-gram bottle only.

Method III. Add 8 to 12 cc. of acid in the case of the 9-gram
bottle or 14 to 17 cc. of acid in the case of the 18-gram bottle, or add
acid until the mixture of cream and acid, after shaking, has a choco-
late brown color. After the cream and acid have been thoroughly
mixed and all lumps have completely disappeared, add a few cubic
centimeters (not less than 5 c.c.) of hot, soft water, whirl five min-
utes, add hot, soft water to near top of scale and whirl one minute.

The proper speed of the centrifuge is 800 revolutions per min-

Figf. 99. Babcock Tester
Courtesy Davis-Watkins Dairymen's Mfg. Co.

ute for an 18-inch diameter wheel and 1000 revolutions per minute
for a 12-inch diameter wheel.

Reading the Cream Test. — Place the test bottles into the water
bath and read after a temperature of 130 to 140 degrees F. has been
maintained for not less than three minutes. Just before reading the
test and when taking the bottles from the water bath, add a few
drops of glymol. The glymol removes the meniscus or curve on
top of the fat column, leaving a straight line which is sharply defined
and readily seen.

Measure the fat column, preferably using dividers, and record
the percentage of fat on the test sheet, opposite the test bottle num-
ber of the respective patron.

TESTING FOR BUTTSRFAT

625

Purpose and Use of Glymol. — Glymol is a high quality of
white mineral oil, similar to typewriter oil. It is slightly lighter
than butterfat and therefore floats on top of the fat column.

The object of using glymol is to remove the meniscus or curve
present at the top of the fat column. This curve, owing to refrac-
tion of the light, is indistinct and renders correct reading difficult.
When a few drops of glymol are placed on top of the fat column,
the meniscus disappears and a straight, sharply defined line is formed

Fig-. 100. Beading1 Cream Test

between the top of the fat and the bottom of the glymol. In this
condition the test can be read easily and accurately.

For the best results the glymol should be added immediately
before reading. The glymol may be conveniently transferred to
the test bottle from a pipette, burette, or by squirting from a small
oil can.

626 TESTING FOR BUTTERFAT

Experienced testers are able to secure correct readings without
glymol by reading to the bottom of the upper meniscus, but the use
of glymol is urged for maximum accuracy.

Glymol should be used in the reading of the cream test only;
the milk test should be read without glymol, otherwise the results
of the milk tests would be too low. Experimental results by Hun-
ziker1 have indicated that in the milk test the meniscus compensates
for the loss of residual fat. It therefore must be included in the
reading. In the cream test the proportion of residual fat lost is
very small and is amply compensated for by the usual impurities in
the fat column.

Coloring Glymol. — Some operators prefer the use of colored
glymol, though equally satisfactory results are obtained with the un-
colored glymol. Glymol is best colored with an aniline dye. A dye
that is sold under the trade name "oil red" proves highly satisfactory
for this purpose. Add 1 gram of oil red to 4 gallons glymol.

Abnormal Appearance of Fat Column. — When the cream test
has been properly performed the fat column in the neck of the bottle
is clear, translucent and free from milky, curdy and charred matter
in or below the fat. Any tests in which the fat column is not free
from visible impurities, or in which the fat column rests on a layer
of non-fatty material, or of which the reading is otherwise indistinct
or uncertain, should be rejected. See also abnormal appearance of
fat column of milk tests.

Testing Skim Milk, Buttermilk and Whey for Butterfat

Test Bottles. — For the Babcock test of skim milk, buttermilk
and whey use bottles with double necks, which are especially con-
structed for this purpose. The graduation of these bottles varies
somewhat with the make of bottle. In some bottles the total gradua-
tion is .25 per cent and the subdivisions represent .01 per cent. In
others the total graduation is .5 per cent and the subdivisions repre-
sent .05 per cent.

Making the Test. — Measure the properly mixed skim milk into
the test bottles with the 17.6 cc. pipette used for milk testing. Add
20 cc. of sulphuric acid. For best results add the acid in several
installments and shake until all the lumps of curd have completely
disappeared. Whirl in tester for 10 minutes.

1 Hunziker, Indiana Agricultural Experiment Station Annual Report, 1914.

TESTING FOR BUTTDRFAT 627

Special attention should be given when the bottles are placed
into the tester. Test bottles in which the lower end of the funnel-
neck extends perpendicularly along the side of the bulb to the bot-
tom of the bottle, should be so placed that the funnel-neck faces the
center of the tester, otherwise the fat rises into the funnel-neck.
Test bottles in which the lower end of the funnel-neck extends
diagonally to the bottom of the bottle should be so placed that the
graduated neck faces the center of the tester. This will prevent
excessive breakage of this type of bottles. The tester should run
perfectly smooth in order to prevent excessive breakage, as these
bottles are of very delicate construction.

Add distilled water or rain water at a temperature of 140° F.
or over to the bottom of the neck of the boftle; whirl 5 minutes!
Add hot water to near top of neck, whirl 10 minutes and read.

In the case of buttermilk and whey use the same method as
described for skim milk. In the case of buttermilk, especially that
derived from pasteurized sour cream, the buttermilk should be
stirred very thoroughly before sampling. This is necessary, because
upon standing the curd precipitates out and settles to the bottom
very rapidly, and it is the curd that holds the bulk of the fat con-
tained in the buttermilk.

The amount of fat contained in skim milk, buttermilk and whey,
particularly in the first two liquids, is, or should be, so minute, the
fat globules are so small and the construction of the test bottle is
so crude, that it is difficult to secure very accurate tests by this
method, the proportion of fat actually shown in the test often repre-
senting only a very small part of the total fat content of the orig-
inal sample.

The results of testing skim milk and buttermilk with the standard
Babcock test should not be relied upon absolutely for accuracy, but
if the tests are carefully made, the results may serve as a convenient
guide, showing the operator whether these products contain com-
paratively little or much fat. Investigations in which both Babcock
tests and chemical fat estimations of skim milk and buttermilk were
made, -indicate that the fat content of these products seldom drops
below .1 per cent as determined by the chemical estimation. It is
reasonable to assume, therefore, that when the Babcock test shows
only .05 per cent fat or less, the results are considerably lower than
they should be.

628

TESTING FOR BUTTERFAT

Bbuska1 recommends that 1 cc. of amyl alcohol be added to the
test before centrifuging in order to facilitate the separation of the
fat, improve the clearness of the fat column and augment the accur-
acy of the test. He found, however, that blank tests made by this
method also show a layer in the neck of the test bottle, resembling
butterfat, and recommends the advisability of additional experimen-
tal work with the use of amyl alcohol.

Pig-. 101

Skim Milk Test

Bottle -

Tig. 102. Wizard Steam Tester «

THE GERBER TEST

Fig1. 103

Calipers for

Beading- -

This test* was invented by Dr. N. Gerber, Zurich, Switzerland.
It became available for commercial use in Europe shortly after the
introduction of the Babcock test in this country and has found wide
application, especially in European countries.

Apparatus and Chemicals. — -1. Acido-butyrometer. This is a
glass bulb, extended at its top into a closed, graduated neck. The
graduations represent per cent and tenths per cent. The bottom of

1 Bouska, Report before American Association of Dairy Science, 1918.

2 Courtesy Louis F. Nafls.

8 Courtesy Creamery Package Mfg. Co.

* Gerber, Die praktische Milchprufung, 7th edition, 1900.

TESTING FOR BUTTERFAT 629

the bulb terminates into a threaded neck into which fits a rubber
stopper.

2. Butyrometer stand and water bath.

3. 1.1 cc. pipette for milk.

4. 3 cc. pipette for cream.

5. 10 cc. pipette graduated to .l.cc.

6. 8.2 cc. pipette for diluting cream.

7. 10 cc. bulb pipette for acid, or automatic acid measuring
apparatus.

8. 1 cc. pipette for amyl alcohol.

9. Centrifuge.

Commercial sulphuric acid, specific gravity 1.82 to 1.825 at
15° C. (59° F.).

Pure amyl alcohol, specific gravity .8165 to .818 at 15° C. (59° F.)
boiling point 124-130° C., should give a clear solution with an equal
volume of strong hydrochloric acid.

Operation of Test

Milk, Skim Milk, Buttermilk, Whey. — Place the butyrometers
in rack or stand. Add 10 c.c. sulphuric acid to each, measure 11 c.c.
of properly mixed sample of milk and then 1 cc.'of amyl alcohol
into the butyrometers.

Insert corks, place thumb over cork and shake until all the curd
is dissolved. Completely invert the stand several times to insure
thorough mixing.

Place the butyrometers into the centrifuge with corks toward the
periphery, and whirl two to three minutes, or until the fat column
is perfectly clear.

Place butyrometers into water bath at 60 to 70° C. (140-158° F.)
and read. So adjust the rubber stopper in the bottom of the bulb
while reading, that the bottom of the fat column coincides with, the
zero graduation. Read to the bottom of the meniscus. Compara-
tive tests have demonstrated that this test yields very accurate
results.

Skim milk and buttermilk should be whirled longer and at maxi-
mum attainable speed and .05 per cent must be added to the reading.1

Cream. — Wyssmann and Peter2 recommend dilution of the
cream at the rate of one part of cream to four parts of water, mak-

1 Richmond, Dairy Chemistry, 1914.
2Wyssman und Peter, Milchwirtschaft, 1907.

630 TESTING BUTTER

ing a dilution of 1 in 5, and requiring the multiplication of the
reading by five. This appears to be the most practicable method
of cream testing with the Gerber test.

Richmond1 recommends the use of a 3 cc. pipette for measuring
the cream and the subsequent addition of 8.2 cc. water, and the
reading to be interpreted into per cent by the use of a calculated
table; claiming accurate results for cream testing not over 32 per
cent fat. For richer cream he advises a dilution of equal parts, by
weight, of cream and water and then proceeding as with cream test-
ing not over 32 per cent fat.

Either of the above two methods for cream testing is obviously
rather unsuited for use in creameries that purchase their butterfat
in the form of cream. The first is undeniably inaccurate and the
second, while somewhat more accurate, is too complicated for prac-
tical purposes under American conditions.

BUTTER
Determination of Per Cent Moisture

Preparation of Sample. — Official.2 — "If large quantities of but-
ter are to be sampled, use a butter trier or sampler. Melt com-
pletely the portions thus drawn, 100-500 grams, in a closed vessel at
as low a temperature as possible. When softened, cool and, at the
same time, shake the mass violently until it is homogeneous and
solidified sufficiently to prevent the separation of the water and fat.
Then pour a portion into the vessel from which it is to be weighed.
The sample should completely or nearly fill the vessel and should
be kept in a cool place until analyzed.

Moisture. — Official. — "Weigh 1.5 to 2.5 grams of the sample
into a flat-bottomed dish, having a surface of at least 20 sq. cm., dry
at the temperature of boiling water and weigh at hourly intervals
until the weight becomes constant. The use of clean, dry sand or
asbestos is admissible."

For factory purposes the official method is obviously not well
adapted, largely because of its time-consuming element. It is nec-
essary to make moisture tests while the butter is still in the churn
and here quick work, consistent with reasonable accuracy, is indis-
pensable. Creameries whose motto is "Safety First" will also make

1 Richmond, Dairy Chemistry, 1914.

2 Journal of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists, Vol. II, No.
3, Nov. 15, 1916.

TESTING BUTTER 631

moisture tests of the butter in the cooler, so as to be doubly sure that
no butter leaves the factory that does not comply with the Federal
ruling.

Factory Moisture Tests

Preparation of Sample. — It is an open and disputable question
as to whether the butter sample should be especially prepared, or
whether a sample large enough only for immediate weighing should
be used. Both methods, if properly executed, are capable of yield-
ing practically equally reliable results.

Fig*. 104. Aluminum Evaporating1 Dish

If the sample is especially prepared, a larger sample and more
portions of butter from different parts of the churning or package
can be taken. This obviously has the advantage, theoretically at
least, of securing a more representative sample, but this advan-
tage is often offset by irregularities in the preparation of the
sample and by the extra time consumed. However, when it is neces-
sary to hold the sample for a considerable length of time before
testing, when it is to be transported, either by mail or otherwise, when
it is to be tested by more than one party, or when a composite sample
is taken from more than one churning or package, special prepara-
tion of the sample is indispensable.

In all these cases churn samples should be taken with a dry,
warm spoon or spatula from both ends and the center of the churn.
Tub or box samples should be taken by boring the butter diagonally
with a dry trier and removing from different parts of the trier seg-
ments for the sample, with a knife or steel spatula. In the case of
prints a thin cross section through the center of the entire print may
be cut out for the sample.

632 TESTING BUTTER

The sample jar should be tightly sealed. In order to prepare the
sample the butter is allowed to soften by warming until it has a
creamy consistency, in which condition it must be thoroughly shaken.
If used immediately, portions of this thickly flowing butter emulsion
may be weighed out without rehardening. If not used immediately
the sample should be cooled and constantly vigorously shaken while
cooling.

Brown1 recommends the preparation of the butter sample with-
out warming by inserting in the sample jar a rapidly revolving spiral
wire, in a similar manner as milk shakes at the soda fountain are
emulsified.

Taking Samples without Subsequent Preparation. — Where
the sample is to be immediately tested after it is taken, quite satis-
factory results may be obtained without special preparation. In this
case the following method of sampling is recommended :

From Churn: Bring butter upon workers, wipe water off door
frame, cut top off butter with ladle, so as to have surface smooth and
solid, with knife cut three small cones of butter and place in alumi-
num dish. Take second sample from the other end of the churn,
and place in another aluminum dish. The sample in each aluminum
dish should be large enough to weigh approximately ten (10) grams.

From Cooler: Run trier diagonally through Friday box or
through tub and take portions from the plug at each end and in the
center. Do not shake the trier, or the butter, at any stage of the
process of sampling, to remove loose moisture. This moisture be-
longs to the butter. Bore at least two packages of cooler butter
from each churning and make a test of each. The sample in each
evaporating dish should be large enough to weigh approximately 10
grams.

From Prints: Cut the print into two halves, and cut a slab
about one-fourth inch thick from the fresh surface. Quarter this
slab and transfer one of the quarters to the aluminum dish.

Making the Moisture Test.
Equipment: One steel spatula,
One butter trier.
Aluminum cups of medium size.
One balance, sensibility reciprocal .01 gram.

1 Brown, Chemist Beatrice Creamery Co., Lincoln. Neb.

TESTING BUTTER 633

One heating arrangement, consisting of an al-
cohol or gas burner with tripod and small
piece of fine copper wire gauze, or prefer-
ably an electric plate, '., .

One thermometer registering to 300° F.

Weighing: Have balance properly balanced. See that it
swings freely. Keep pans perfectly clean. Check balance several
times during the day. Check up weights of aluminum cups weekly
by re-weighing, in order to detect loss in weight. Before taring
aluminum cups, wash them, dry them, and heat them. Do not use
dry scouring powders for aluminum cups. If washing powder is
used dissolve it first. Weigh to the third decimal point. Handle
weights with forceps only and keep them clean. If they show signs
of wear, have them replaced by new ones.

In the case of the unprepared sample, simply weigh the butter
which was transferred direct from churn or package to the tared
aluminum dish and record the weight thus obtained. In the case of
the prepared sample transfer a small portion, about 10 grams, of
the butter in the sample jar to the tared dish, weigh and record
weights. The butter is now ready for the evaporation of the mois-
ture.

Heating: Slowly heat over flame or on hot plate, stirring con-
stantly with thermometer. When temperature has risen to
260° F. remove flame. The temperature will usually continue to
rise to about 280° F. When it has dropped back to about 240° F.
heat again as before. Evaporation of moisture then is complete.
Weigh the aluminum cup again and calculate per cent moisture. For
heating, use moderate heat. Too large a flame produces so intense
a heat that the contents are liable to sputter over and also may
become burnt. When using an alcohol flame, have a wire gauze or
light steel plate between flame and cup. When using a gas flame,
have a thin asbestos board between flame and cup. This helps to
give a more uniform heat.

When the heating has been done properly, the curd in the bottom
of the cup should be slightly brown. A whitish yellow curd indi-
cates insufficient heating, which is conducive of too low tests. A
dark brown curd suggests overheating, which usually causes too high
tests.

634 TESTING BUTTER

When done using the thermometer, scrape it off on one side of
cup, but do not wipe it off, so as to avoid removing fat from the test,
and getting the next test too high.

Second Weighing: Weigh cup again and calculate the per
cent moisture by deducting the second weighing from the first weigh-
ing, dividing the difference by the net weight of the sample (first
weighing) and multiplying the result by 100.

Example :

Butter plus cup 23.463

Cup 12.863

Net weight of butter. . 10.600

First weighing 23.463

Second weighing 21.784

Net loss in weight 1.679

"ffol X 100=rl5-8% moisture.

Determination of Per Cent Fat in Butter
Volumetric Methods

The Volumetric methods of testing butter for fat, which have
been devised, are all modifications of the Babcock test. The modi-
fications refer almost exclusively to such changes in the type and
graduation of the Babcock test bottle as to make the bottle applica-
ble for the butter test. In these methods the butter is weighed into
the butter test bottle and the per cent fat is read off the graduation
on the neck of the bottle.

The testing of butter by these methods cannot as yet be consid-
ered a complete success and the results have not as a whole been
entirely reliable. The chief obstacles with which the operator is
confronted in his efforts to determine the per cent of fat in butter
by the modified Babcock test are :

1. The reaction of the sulphuric acid used in the test with the
salt contained in the butter. The reaction generates hydrochloric
acid gas which tends to char the fat and the escape of which causes
violent foaming to the extent of forcing a portion of the contents
out of the bottle.

The danger of charring the fat has been largely overcome by
adding water before the addition of the acid and by filling the

TESTING BUTTER 635

bottle to the bottom of the neck with water, immediately after the
acid has been added and mixed.

The danger of violent foaming and expulsion of a portion of
the sample is minimized materially, if not entirely prevented, by
adding the acid very slowly, in numerous installments and mix-
ing thoroughly after each addition.

2. The experimental error in a product containing so high a
percentage of the ingredient to be determined as is the case with
fat in butter (butter contains 80 or more per cent fat) is naturally
proportionally great, and the causes which introduce the experimen-
tal error are fixed and cannot be removed. Thus, in estimating fat
by volume, it must be assumed that the butterfat has a definite spe-
cific gravity, that is, that a given weight occupies a definite volume.
This is not the case. Butterfat represents a compound of several
fats, varying widely in specific gravity and the proportion in which
these different fats are present in the mixed butterfat varies consid-
erably with breed, period of lactation and feed, as determined by
locality and season of the year. While the variations in the specific
gravity of the mixed butterfat are not large, yet, with butter con-
taining 80 per cent fat or over, they do affect the volume of the fat
column and therefore the accuracy of the reading. This one factor
is entirely beyond the control of the operator.

Again, the temperature of the fat column when read is another
factor introducing experimental error. By the intelligent use of
the water bath, the temperature can be controlled within reasonable
limits, thus minimizing the effect of this interfering factor to a con-
siderable extent.

The modified Babcock tests for butter which have been devised
are those in the operation of which the Hepburn bottle, the Wagner
bottle and the Wright bottle are used. They are briefly described in
the following paragraphs.

Hepburn1 Test Bottles.

Two types of bottles have been designed by Hepburn, namely,
the 9 inch, 9 gram, 90 per cent bottle, and the 6 inch, 6 gram, 90 per
cent bottle.

The 9 inch, 9 gram, 90 per cent bottle. — The graduated por-
tion has a capacity of 90 per cent of the sample tested. 90 per

1 Hepburn, A Modified Babcock Method for Determining Fat in Butter.
Thesis for Degree of Ph.D., Cornell, 1918.

636

TESTING BUTTER

cent of 9 grams is 8.1 grams. Since the specific gravity of butterfat,
under test conditions, averages approximately .9, the 8.1 grams of

8 1

butterfat occupy a space of -5- or 9 cc. The volume of the neck,

from 0 to 90, therefore, must occupy exactly 9 cc. This volume
calls for a test bottle of the following dimensions : Height over all,
approximately 8.8 inches. Length of graduated portion of neck,

Tig. 105

Pig-. 106

Hepburn Butter Test Bottles
Courtesy Louis F. Nans

139 mm. Diameter of graduated portion of neck, 9.07 mm. The
graduated portion of neck is divided into 90 divisions. This bottle
is applicable for a Babcock centrifuge with a wheel diameter of 18
inches or more.

TESTING BUTTER 637

The 6 inch, 6 gram, 90 per cent bottle. — The graduated portion,
of the bottle has a capacity of 90 per cent of the sample tested. 90.
per cent of 6 grams = 5.4 grams. Since the specific gravity of
butterfat, under test conditions, averages approximately .9, the 5.4

5 4
grams of butterfat occupy a space of ~ or 6 cc. The volume of

the neck of the test bottle, from 0 to 90, therefore, must be exactly
6 cc. This volume calls for a type of "bottle with the following
dimensions : Height over all, approximately 6.5 inches. Length of
graduated portion of neck, 93.5 mm. Diameter of graduated por-
tion of neck, 9.04 mm. The graduation from 0 to 90 is divided into
90 divisions. This bottle is adapted for Babcock testers with a
diameter of less than 18 inches.

Scales, sensibility reciprocal .01 grams.

Chemicals, commercial sulphuric acid, specific gravity 1.82 to
1.83. Glymol, or high grade white mineral oil.

Operation of Test with 9 inch, 9 gram, 90 per cent bottle.—-
Transfer, preferably by pouring, 9 grams of the properly prepared,
thickly fluid sample of butter into the test bottle previously balanced
on the scales. Add 9 cc. of lukewarm water and then 17.5 cc. com-
mercial sulphuric acid. Add the acid carefully, in small portions,
mixing thoroughly after each addition, until all of the 17.5 cc. has
been added. This precaution is necessary in order to avoid exces-
sive foaming and loss of sample due to action between acid and salt
in the butter.

After the contents of the bottle have been thoroughly mixed, add
a sufficient amount of water to fill the bottle to the base of the neck.
Centrifuge in Babcock tester for five minutes at the usual speed for
the same size tester as used for milk and cream. See Table 104. Add
hot water to near the top of the graduation and whirl for four min-
utes. Transfer bottles to the hot water bath and hold at a tem-
perature of 125° to 130° F. for not less than three minutes. Add a
few drops of glymol and read at once. The reading gives the per-
centage of butterfat direct.

Operation of Test with the 6 inch, 6 gram, 90 per cent bottle.
— Follow the directions given for the operation of the test with the
9 inch, 9 gram, 90 per cent bottle with the following modifications :
Instead of 9 grams, weigh 6 grams of the butter into the test bottle,

638 TESTING BUTTER

and instead of 9 cc. add 12 cc. of lukewarm water just before the
acid is added.

Accuracy of Results. — Hepburn, as the result of a comparison
of tests between the two 90 per cent butter test bottles and the
official, chemical analysis, and embracing work with 124 separate
samples of butter, finds the modified Babcock test, as described
above, applicable as a successful commercial method for estimating
the percentage of fat in butter.

Other Modifications of the Babcock Test. — Earlier attempts
to modify the Babcock test, so as to make it suitable for the rapid
determination of the fat in butter, resulted in the construction and
use of the Wright bottle and the Wagner bottle. In these bottles
the graduated portion of the neck has a very narrow diameter and
the bulk of the fat is assembled in a bulb which is a part of the
graduated neck.

Tests with these bottles have proven very uncertain and unrelia-
ble, probably largely because even slight temperature changes, during
the reading of the test, caused very great expansions or contractions
of the fat column in the graduated portion of the neck, due to the
relatively large volume of fat affected in the bulb of the neck and
to the very narrow diameter of the graduated neck. This intensity
of expansion and contraction of the thin fat column that is directly
connected with the relatively large volume of fat in the bulb of the
neck rests on the same principle as the mercury column in the ther-
mometer. For these reasons, therefore, the use of these modi-
fied Babcock bottles, equipped with bulbs in the neck of the bottle,
is prone to yield entirely erroneous results and cannot be recom-
mended for the determination of the percentage of fat in butter.

Gravimetric Determination.

Indirect Method. — Official. — Dissolve the dry butter, obtained
in the moisture determination2 in which no absorbent was used, in
absolute ether or petroleum ether, transfer to a weighed Gooch, with
the aid of a wash bottle filled with the solvent and wash until free
from fat. Dry the Gooch and contents at the temperature of boil-
ing water until the weight is constant and determine the fat.

Direct Method.— Official.1— From the dry butter, obtained in
the determination of moisture,2 either with or without the use of an

1 Journal of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists, Vol. II, No. 8,
November, 1916.

a See Determination of Moisture in Butter (Official

TESTING BUTTER 639

absorbent, extract the fat with anhydrous, alcohol-free ether, receiv-
ing the solution in a weighed flask. Evaporate the ether, dry the
extract at the temperature of boiling water and weigh at hourly
intervals until the weight is constant.

Fat Determination by Kohman Method.1

Kohman recommends the following fat determination in con-
nection with the moisture test :

"The moisture is determined as usual over a small flame in a
tall, rather narrow, lipped aluminum beaker with a capacity of about
100 cc., using a 10 gram sample. After the beaker is weighed to
determine the loss of moisture, it is filled with petroleum ether and
the contents are stirred with a glass rod to secure a thorough mix-
ture. It is then covered with a watch crystal and allowed to stand
two or three minutes for the mixture of curd and salt to settle,
when the solvent is gently decanted off without disturbing the sedi-
ment. The beaker is then filled with fresh solvent. The curd and
salt mixture settles rapidly in the fresh solvent and the liquid can
be decanted off after a very short time. By gently heating the
beaker now, either on a water bath or a hot plate, or directly over a
small flame, but not so rapidly as to cause sputtering, the sediment
can be completely freed of petroleum ether by evaporation in a very
short time. The per cent of fat is then determined by difference
upon reweighing the beaker with its contents. The salt is now in
ideal condition to be determined by titration, using a solution of such
strength that the number of cc. used represents the per cent of salt.

Before trying to evaporate the petroleum ether from the mixture
of curd and salt, it is well to loosen it from the bottom of the beaker,
gently tapping it on the desk in order to lessen the tendency to sput-
ter." According to Kohman, this test requires about 15 minutes.

Fat Determination by Shaw.2

"In this test for fat, the salt and part of the curd are first re-
moved with hot water, the remaining curd is dissolved in dilute sul-
phuric acid, the acid solution is removed from the fat, and the latter
weighed.

1 Kohman, A Rapid and Accurate Method for Butter Analysis, Suitable for

Factory Control Work. Journal of Ind. and Eng. Chemistry, Vol. 11, No. 1, 1919.

2 Shaw, A New Method for Determining Fat and Salt in Butter, Especially

Adapted for Use in Creameries. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, B. A. I. Circular

202, 1912.

640 TESTING BUTTER

Apparatus Required. — "A Babcock centrifuge. A special sep-
aratory funnel. A balance which is sensitive to 0.01 gram. (A tor-
sion balance such as is used in the moisture test will answer if it is
in good condition.) An accurate set of metric weights. A 10-
cubic centimeter graduated glass cylinder. A 100-cubic centimeter
glass beaker.

Special Separatory Funnel. — -"This is essentially a separatory
funnel with a capillary stem. The capacity of the funnel should be
about 75 cubic centimeters and its weight when empty should not
exceed 70 grams. The stopper may be dispensed with if desired.
It is a convenience in the final weighing, but not a necessity.

Special Socket. — "This is a double socket for holding the above
funnel while centrifuging, and is made of heavy sheet copper with
hangers of steel. Each socket will hold two funnels. The cut
shows the construction and dimensions. It differs in no material
way from the socket ordinarily used on the Babcock centrifuge,
except for the opening in the side. If the dimensions given fail to
fit the centrifuge at hand, they may be changed to suit so long as the
dimensions of the barrels are not altered. Care must be taken that
the capillary stem of the funnel does not project far enough through
the hole in the socket to strike against the side of the centrifuge
when being whirled. It is best to fit a disk of rubber gasketing to
the bottom of the socket.

Sampling the Butter. — <See previous directions.

Determining the Fat. — "It will be found more economical in
some cases if 4 or multiples of 4 determinations are made at once.
In this case the 2 double sockets containing the funnels will balance
when placed opposite in the centrifuge. If but 1 or 2 determina-
tions are to be made it will be necessary to balance the centrifuge
by putting weights in the opposite socket. First of all the weight of
the clean and dry separatory funnel must be ascertained, and this
as well as the other weighings involved must be done with care.
This weight once found will suffice for all determinations made
with that particular funnel unless by accident some of the glass
should be chipped off. A slight scratch made with a file can serve
to identify the funnels. A paper label can not be used.

I. Weighing the Charge. — "Counterpoise the small beaker on
the balance and carefully weigh out 20 grams of the sample mixed as
directed.

TESTING BUTTER

641

II. Transferring the Charge to the Separatory Funnel. — " Place
the beaker containing the charge on a radiator or steam pipe until
the butter is melted. (This may also be accomplished by adding a
small quantity of boiling water.) Next pour the charge into the
funnel, which must be maintained in an upright position, and no

/<**

Fig*. 107. Shaw Butter Fat Tester

Pig-. 108. Separatory Funnel with
Capillary Tube

part of the charge must be lost in transferring. With a fine stream
of hot water rinse down the sides of the beaker and pour the rinsings
into the funnel. Repeat this, using not more than a teaspoonful
of water at a time until the funnel is full to within one-quarter of
an inch of the shoulder. The rinsing can be done very conveniently
with the arrangement on many steam centrifuges for filling the

642 TESTING BUTTER

Babcock test bottles, i. e., the rubber tube ending in a glass or metal
point and connecting with a water tank heated by steam. The point
must be fine, however. Should it be larger than three-sixteenths
of an inch it can be replaced with the tip of a small oil can. Should
this arrangement not be at hand one can easily be improvised from
a tin can, a rubber tube, and an oil-can tip. In transferring the
melted butter and rinsings the last drop may be prevented from
running down the outside of the beaker, by touching the lip of the
beaker to the neck of the separatory funnel.

III. Centrifuging. — "Insert the separatory funnel in the special
socket, allowing the stem to project through the hole in the bottom
and the handle of the stopcock through the open side. (Caution:
The socket must always be placed in the centrifuge with the open
side facing the direction in which the wheel revolves. This is very
important, for if the opening faces the reverse direction the stop-
cock will be thrown out and broken. ) Whirl one minute at the same
speed used in testing milk with the Babcock test. The centrifuge
must be kept warm.

IV. Removing the Water. — "Remove the separatory funnel
from the socket and allow the water to flow through the stopcock
until the fat (or curd) is within one-eighth of an inch of the stop-
cock. In this and subsequent operations involving the stopcock one
must be sure it does not stick. It must always be under control, and
it is best to give it frequent slight movements when the water or acid
is running through it to be sure that this control is maintained;
otherwise it might stick at a critical moment and the determination
be lost. The most of the salt and part of the curd are taken out by
the water. The remainder of the curd and all of the fat stays in the
funnel.

V. Dissolving the Curd. — "Measure out 9 cubic centimeters of
cold water, preferably condensed steam, with the glass graduate and
pour into the beaker. Add to this 11 cubic centimeters of sulphuric
acid of the same strength used in testing milk and cream (specific
gravity, 1.82-1.83) and mix by gently shaking. (Caution: Always
add acid to water and not water to acid, or a serious accident may
result.) While still very hot add the mixture to the contents of the
separatory funnel. Now dissolve the curd by giving the funnel a
circular motion with the hand grasping the neck. Centrifuge one
minute, as before. Draw off the acid solution till the fat layer is

TESTING BUTTER 643

within one-fourth of an inch of the stopcock and repeat the opera-
tions in this paragraph.

VI. Freeing the Fat from the Acid Solution.— "The fat will
now be in a clear transparent layer free from curd, and the solution
below it will be practically colorless. To separate these two, draw
off the latter until the fat nearly reaches the stopcock and centrifuge
another minute. Now allow the fat to come down through the
stopcock till it just reaches the end of the capillary stem. This last
step offers no difficulties, providing the stopcock is kept in control,
but it requires care.

VII. Determining the Percentage of Fat. — "Carefully dry the
separatory funnel on the outside with a clean soft towel and weigh it.
The weight thus obtained minus the weight of the empty funnel
represents the weight of butterfat in 20 grams of the sample. The
percentage is obtained by dividing this weight by 2 and multiplying
by 10.

Sometimes it is possible to obtain a clear fat layer with but one
addition of acid, but in the majority of cases it will be found neces-
sary to add it the second time, as directed. The proportion of acid
and water selected is the outcome of a number of experiments, and
is the one that yields the best results. The test for fat alone involves
4 centrifugings of 1 minute each. The centrifuge should be kept
warm and the contents of the funnel in a melted state when the acid
is added. The time consumed should not be much longer than it
takes to test cream with the Babcock test, and the operations in-
volved are simple and easily learned. No difficulty has been experi-
enced in obtaining a clear fat. Occasionally there will appear a
slight emulsion at the bottom of the fat layer when the fat is drawn
into the stem. This is so small in amount that it does not seem to
affect the accuracy of the test to any considerable extent. The
emulsion should be weighed as fat and considered as such.

Cleaning the Separatory Funnels. — "The separatory funnels
should be washed after each determination, but it is not necessary
to dry them before use providing their weight, when clean and dry,
has been found. The cleaning is easily done with hot water and
either soap or cleansing powder. They should be well rinsed off
with clean water and drained."

Comparative tests by Shaw show that this test yields results
which compare very closely with those of the official fat estimation.
The test can be completed in 20 minutes.

644 TESTING BUTTER

Determination of Salt in Butter

Principle of Salt Tests. — All salt tests are based on the same
principle. In their operation two chemicals are used, namely silver
nitrate (Ag NO3) and potassium chromate (K2 Cr O4). The silver
nitrate has the power of chemically acting on both, the salt or sodium
chloride (NaCl) and the potassium chromate. With sodium chloride
the silver nitrate forms silver chloride which is a white precipitate.
With the potassium chromate the silver nitrate forms silver chro-
mate which is a brick-red precipitate. The silver nitrate acts first
on the sodium chloride. Hence, when silver nitrate is added to a
solution of sodium chloride (salt) which contains some potassium
chromate, the silver nitrate first combines with the sodium chloride
until all the chloride is used up and has been converted into silver
chloride. This precipitate is white. Now, if more silver nitrate is
added, the silver combines with the chromate, changing the color of
.the precipitate to a brick-red. The moment the brick-red color be-
comes permanent, therefore, all the salt has been neutralized, and
the amount of silver nitrate required to produce this brick-red color
furnishes the basis for the calculation of the per cent of salt in
butter.

Calculation of Per Cent Salt in Butter.— The calculation of
the per cent salt in butter rests on a similar principle as the calcula-
tion of the per cent acid in cream. A normal solution of silver
nitrate neutralizes an equal amount of a normal solution of sodium
chloride. A normal solution of silver nitrate contains, in 1,000 cc.
of water, 170 grams of silver nitrate. A normal solution of sodium
chloride contains, in 1,000 cc. of water, 58.5 grams of sodium chlor-
ide. Hence, 1 gram of sodium chloride is neutralized by ^Q-F or
2.906 grams of silver nitrate.

If, therefore, a silver nitrate solution is used which contains, in
1,000 cc. of water, 29.06 grams of silver nitrate, then each cc. of this

solution will contain 1f'm or .02906 grams of silver nitrate, and

1UUU

.02906 grams of silver nitrate will neutralize 2.906 : 1 = .02906 : X,
or .01 gram of sodium chloride. If a 10 gram sample of butter is
used and all of this sample is tested, each cc. of silver nitrate solution

required represents ' r or .1 per cent salt.

TESTING BUTTER 645

Example. — 10 grams of butter are tested. 32 c c. of silver
nitrate are required to produce a brick-red color. What is the per
cent salt?

32 X .1 = 3.2 per cent salt.

If, however, the sample of butter, after melting, is made up with
water to a 250 cc. solution, and only 25 cc. of this solution are tested,
then each cc. of silver nitrate represents 1 per cent salt. Supposing
in this case that 3.5 cc. of silver nitrate are required to neutralize
the 25 cc. of the 250 cc. solution to which the 10 gram sample oi
butter was made up, then the per cent salt would be 3.5 X 1=3.5
per cent. In the case of some salt tests the silver nitrate solution
is not made as strong as above. Instead of 29.06 grams of silver
nitrate per 1,000 cc. water, the solution may be made up to only one-
half or one-quarter this strength, containing 14.53 grams or 7.265
grams, respectively, of silver nitrate and each cc. would represent
only .05 or .025 per cent salt, respectively, if all of a 10 gram sam-
ple of butter is used.

The potassium chromate solution is prepared by dissolving 10
grams of dry potassium chromate in 100 cc. of distilled water.

Salt. — Official Method.1 — Weigh in a ' counterpoised beaker
5-10 grams of butter, using portions of about 1 gram from different
parts of the sample. Add about 20 cc. of hot water and, after the
butter is melted, transfer the whole to a separatory funnel. Insert
the stopper and shake for a few moments. Let stand until all the
fat has collected on the top of the water, then draw off the latter
into a flask, being careful to let none of the fat globules pass. Again
add hot water, rinsing the beaker, and repeat the extraction 10-15
times, using 10-20 cc. of water each time. The washings will con-
tain all but a mere trace of the sodium chloride originally present in
the butter. Determine the amount in the whole or an aliquot of the
liquid by titration with standard silver nitrate, using potassium chro-
mate as an indicator. .*.-

Kohman Salt Test. — See Fat Determination by Kohman.

Determination of Salt by Shaw.2
This is a continuation of the Shaw test for fat in butter.

1 Journal of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists, Vol. II, No. 3,
November 15, 1916.

2 Shaw, A New Method for Determining Fat and Salt in Butter, Especially
Adapted for Use in Creameries. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, B. A. I. Circular
202, 1912.

646 TESTING BUTTER

Additional Apparatus Required. — "A 50-cubic centimeter bur-
ette graduated in tenth cubic centimeters. A 250-cubic centimeter
volumetric flask. A 25-cubic centimeter pipette. A 250-cubic cen-
timeter beaker or white cup.

Chemicals Required. — '"An aqueous silver-nitrate solution con-
taining 14.525 grams pure silver nitrate per liter. This solution
may be obtained from a chemical supply house. A 10 per cent
aqueous solution of potassium chromate, which may be obtained at
a drug store.

Method. — "To determine the percentage of salt the wash water,
obtained as previously directed in Paragraph IV, see Shaw test for
fat, is allowed to run into the 250-cubic centimeter flask, and the
operations in Paragraph IV conducted 3 times instead of but once,
the water each time being allowed to run into the flask.

After the washings have become cool the flask is filled to the
mark with cold water and the contents mixed. Twenty-five cubic
centimeters, which represents 2 grams of the original sample, are
then measured with the pipette into the beaker or cup and titrated
with the silver-nitrate solution from the burette, using 2 or 3 drops
of the potassium-chromate solution as the indicator. The first
appearance of a permanent red is the end point. The silver-nitrate
solution is of such strength that 2 cubic centimeters represent 1 per
cent of salt if a 1-gram charge is used. In the above test where

2 grams are represented ( FTX ^ the num^er of cubic centimeters

divided by 4 gives the percentage of salt in the original sample. As
an example, if the burette reading showed that 10.6 cubic centimeters
of the silver-nitrate solution were consumed in reaching the end
point, then 10.6 divided by 4, or 2.65, would be the percentage of
salt in that particular sample of butter. .

The Perkins Salt Test.

Professor A. E. Perkins of the Ohio Agricultural Experiment
Station recommends the following method for the determination of
the per cent of salt in butter :

Weigh out either 5 or 10 grams of the butter to be tested, which
has previously been warmed to a salvy consistency and very thor-
oughly mixed, into any receptacle, such as a beaker or cup. Warm
gently until just melted, then add 20 or 30 cc. of commercial ace-
tone, and about 1 cc. of a saturated water solution of potassium chro-

TESTING BUTTER 647

mate. A solution of silver nitrate containing 29.06 grams per liter,
is then added slowly from a burette, the mixture containing the
butter being thoroughly shaken or stirred. After the first
appearance of a brick-red coloration, the silver nitrate solution is
added, a drop at a time, until a brick color develops which is perma-
nent for several minutes after thorough stirring or shaking.

If 10 grams of butter have been taken, each cc. of silver nitrate
solution used represents .1 per cent of salt in the butter ; thus, if the
burette reading showed 29 cc. of silver nitrate solution had been
used, the butter under examination contained 2.9 per cent salt. If
only a 5 gram sample is taken, each cc. of silver nitrate solution used
will represent .2 per cent of salt in the butter.

The residue from any of the moisture tests can be used by add-
ing a little water to replace that driven off by drying, and the chem-
icals as directed above. (The titration can be made in the same cup
used for the moisture determination.)

If the commercial acetone is not available a mixture of equal
parts of alcohol and ether may be substituted with equally good
results. (Denatured alcohol such as is sold for fuel purposes, and
the cheaper grades of ether are entirely satisfactory.)

SALT TEST FOR FACTORY USE

By Hunziker and Hosman.1

Equipment. — One salt tester. This is a copper container, 3|
inches deep, 2y2 inches in diameter, and holding about 250 c.c. It
is equipped at its top edge with a heavy rubber ring on which the
moisture evaporating dish is inverted, and with a lightning jar
wire clamp for pressing the evaporating dish down on the rubber
ring.

One 100 c.c. glass cylinder (low style).

One 25 c.c. pipette.

One or more 150 c.c. flasks (cone shape) for titrating.

One 50 c.c. burette with stand.

One large bottle, with glass tubing and clamps to connect with
burette, for standard silver nitrate solution.

One small bottle for potassium chromate solution.

Chemicals. — Silver nitrate solution containing- 7.265 grams
silver nitrate in 1000 c.c. water.

Potassium chromate solution.

1 Hunziker and Hosman, Blue Valley Research Laboratory, 1918.

648

TESTING BUTTER

Operation of Test. — This test is intended to be a continuation
of the moisture test in which an evaporating dish of a diameter of
2^ inches is used.

(1). At the conclusion of the moisture test fill the 100 c.c. cylin-
der to the mark with warm water, temperature about 100° F., and
pour this water into the salt tester.

(2). Invert moisture evaporating dish over rubber ring of salt
tester and make the dish fast by means of wire clamp.

Tig. 109. Hunziker Salt Tester
and Evaporating* Dish

rig-. 110. Hunziker Salt Tester
Beady for Shaking1

(3). Now shake the salt tester vigorously, giving it about 30
shakes. This causes the salt in the evaporating dish to be washed
out by the warm water.

(4). Remove evaporating dish and transfer with pipette 25
c.c. of the salt solution from the salt tester into the titrating flask.

(5). Add 1 c.c. of potassium chromate solution to the titrat-
ing flask and from burette slowly add silver nitrate solution until a
permanent brick-red precipitate is obtained. The titrating flask
must be constantly and thoroughly agitated by a rotating motion
while the silver nitrate solution is added.

(6). If a 10-gram sample of butter is used in the moisture test,
each c.c. silver nitrate solution represents .1 per cent salt. Assum-
ing that 35 c.c. silver nitrate solution was used, the butter then con-

. 35

tained — = 3.5% salt.
10

TESTING BUTTER 649

(7). If the sample of butter is not exactly 10 grams, but some-
what more or less, the per cent of salt is readily calculated by divid-
ing the c.c. silver nitrate solution required, by the exact weight of
the sample of butter. Say the sample weighed 10.5 grams and re-
quired 35 c.c. of silver nitrate solution, the butter then contained

i§ =3.3% salt, p^ltfe" i"^ :.:;;;.::

(8). This salt test occupies about five minutes. It is exceed-
ingly simple and accurate, when made in accordance with the above
directions. It eliminates the weighing of the sample for the salt
determination and it automatically washes the moisture evaporating
cup. For uniformly reliable results the following precautions must
be observed :

(a). Do not slobber the melted butterfat in the evaporating
dish, over the outside of the salt tester. The butter must stay inside
of the periphery of the evaporating dish, when the latter is inverted
over the tester.

(b). Do not use water at a temperature lower, nor much
higher than 100° F. Water must be warm enough to melt the fat.
If too warm it will generate pressure when shaking the tester, caus-
ing loss of contents.

(c). Strap the evaporating dish down to the tester so that
there is no leak around the rubber ring.

(d). Shake vigorously thirty (30) times.

(e). Give the titrating flask the proper rotating movement for
vigorous and continuous agitation, while the silver nitrate solution
runs from the burette.

(/). Stop titration when the desired color has been reached
(brick-red).

(g). It is necessary to give the fat time to rise in the tester
after shaking. This requires about one minute. For this reason,
the tester should be set down after shaking, and the aluminum cup
taken off and wiped dry and gotten ready for the next weighing of
butter. While this is done, the fat in the tester automatically rises
to the surface.

(h). If the edges of the evaporating dish become uneven, due
to wear, causing the cup to leak when inverted over the rubber ring
of the tester, invert the cup over a piece of fine emery cloth, and
wear down the edges until even.

650 TESTING BUTTER

10. The speed of the entire test will much depend on the
proper planning and organizing of the work of both the moisture
and the salt test, so as to avoid any waiting between steps, such as
waiting for the evaporating dish to cool, or for the fat to rise to
the surface in the tester. It has been found that the maximum
speed is obtained by running the moisture and the salt tests of three
samples together.

11. Use only evaporating dishes without lips.

Determination of Curd.

Casein, Ash and Chlorin. — Official. — Cover the crucible, con-
taining the residue from the fat determination by the indirect
method, see official fat determination, and heat gently at first, then
raise the temperature gradually to just below redness. The cover
may then be removed and heating continued until the contents of
the crucible are white. The loss in weight represents casein, and
the residue in the crucible, mineral water. Dissolve this mineral
matter in water slightly acidified with nitric acid and determine
chlorin, either gravimetrically or volumetrically.

The curd or casein content of butter as determined by the Offi-
cial Method includes the lactose also. Since normal butter contains
approximately .3 per cent lactose, the nitrogenous curd content of
butter is in reality about .3 per cent lower than the per cent curd as
determined by the Official Method.

For making an exact determination of curd, in contradistinction
to the curd determination, as the term is used in the Official Method,
the following method is recommended :l

Dry about 10 grams of butter in a flat-bottom porcelain evap-
orating dish in a steam drying oven at about 98 to 99 degrees C.
Remove the fat by dissolving with petroleum ether and filter, trans-
ferring the entire contents of the evaporating dish to the filter, and
rinsing with petroleum ether. Transfer filter paper and contents
to a Kjeldahl flask and determine the nitrogen by the Kjeldahl
method, using the factor 6.38 in calculating the per cent of protein
or curd.

The United States Bureau of Chemistry2 recommends the same
method but suggests the use of a 25 gram sample.

1Hunziker, Spitzer and Mills, The Pasteurization of Sour, Farm-Skimmed
Cream for Butter Making. Purdue Bulletin 203, 1917.

2 United States Bureau of Chemistry, Information by Correspondence,
March, 1919.

THE: MOJONNIDR TEST 651

•

Determination of Lactose.1

"The lactose in butter is never determined direct, but always by
difference, unless adulteration of the sample with sugar is suspected,
in which case the water extract of the curd may be examined by the
polariscope or by the copper reduction method.

Determination of Acid.2

Weigh 5 grams of butter into a 250 cc. tall beaker, and add
25 cc. of distilled water free from CO2. Warm the mixture to about
40 degrees C., or until the butter is all melted. Add .5 cc. of a 1
per cent solution of phenolphthalein and titrate to a sharp pink with

The Mojonnier Test for Fat and Solids in Milk, Skim Milk,
Buttermilk and Cream, and for Fat and Moisture in Butter

Equipment. — Install the tester on a solid foundation in a
room protected against excessive fluctuations in temperature.

1. Tester for butter fat.

2. Tester for total solids.

3. Fat extraction flasks.

4. Eight 3^ -inch aluminum dishes without covers and with
tall counterpoise which tares the eight dishes, for fat tests.

5. Eight 3-inch aluminum dishes with covers and short coun-
terpoise for solids tests.

6. Fat oven. Keep temperature at 135° C.

7. Cooling chamber.

8. Solids oven. Keep temperature at 100° C.

9. 250° C. thermometer for solids oven. Have mercury bulb
fit snugly into brass mercury well. Brass mercury well must always
form good contact with hot plate.

10. 250° C. thermometer for fat oven. Observe same pre-
cautions as in (9).

11. Vacuum gauge on main suction line, registers either or
both ovens.

12. Solids plate. Must be level and held at 180° C.

13. Fat plate. Hold at 135° C.

1 United States Bureau of Chemistry, Information by Correspondence, March,
1919.

2 Hunziker, Spitzer and Mills, Pasteurization of Sour, Farm-Skimmed
Cream for Butter Making-. Purdue Bulletin 203, 1917.

652

THE: MOJONNIER TEST

14. Rheostat for fat plate. Lever must make good contact
with one button, not with two at a time. When right button has
been found that maintains constant temperature, mark this point
on rheostat rim. When starting tester each day, turn handle on
full until temperature has risen to within right point, then turn
back to previously marked button.

8 5 3031 25 II 7 10 3 136 4

17

16 29 14 15 19 18

Tig. 111. Mojonnier Tester

Courtesy Mojonnier Bros. Co.

24

15.

16.
in (14).

17.
in (14).

18.

19.

Rheostat for oven. Observe same precautions as in (14).
Rheostat for solids oven. Observe same precautions as

Rheostat for solids plate. Observe same precautions as

Handle for centrifuge.

Snap switches for each hot plate showing temperature
and time for treating samples at various points.

20. Power unit, consisting of vacuum pump, water circulating
pump and motor for same. Keep pump filled to air cock with oil
furnished with tester.

THE MOJONNIKR TEST 653

21. Automatic burettes and cans holding the water, ammonia,
alcohol, ethyl ether and petroleum ether, placed in the order in
which they are used. Each division on burettes delivers the proper
amount of the desired reagent for a single extraction.

22. Hood, to be placed over fat dishes when evaporating off
ether.

23. Legs, to be fastened to floor with lag screws.

24. This side need not be fastened to floor. If necessary
to take out power unit disconnect connections in rear of machine
and move this part of machine forward.

25. Chemical balance. Keep level, clean and handle care-
fully. Raise knife edges gradually and with care. Clean balance
daily. Keep weights clean. When weights show signs of wear,
order new ones.

26. Cock, to exhaust vacuum from oven when cock (27) is
closed. Must be kept closed where vacuum is turned on oven.

27. Cock, that switches vacuum from main line into vacuum
oven. Set of cocks at right for solids oven, set of cocks at left is
for fat oven.

28. Hole in top of fat plate holder, communicating with suc-
tion fan, on power unit. Run exhaust pipe on suction fan out of
window and keep hood over the dishes in order to drive all ether
fumes from room.

29. Stool, to be screwed to floor.

Fresh Milk, Skim Milk, Buttermilk and Whey
Butterfat Determination

(1). Keep fat dishes in vacuum oven at least five minutes
while oven is heated, with vacuum on.

(2). Cool fat dishes in cooling oven for seven minutes, with
pump turned on and bell set at seven minutes.

(3). Weigh fat dish without cover and return it to cooling
oven.

(4). Use the ten-gram pipettes for measuring out ten grams
of milk into cleaned but not necessarily dried Mojonnier extraction
flask. Use only ten-gram pipettes furnished with tester and do not
use 10 c.c. pipettes. The pipette is graduated to deliver ten grams
of milk after allowing all milk to run out and letting it drain for

654

THE: MOJONNIER TEST

fifteen seconds longer, then blowing gently to remove last drop.
The pipette must be perfectly clean and dry before being used.
Wash frequently with sulphuric acid, water, alcohol and ether to
insure having a clean pipette.

(5). Remove flask from holder and run 4 c.c. water (one
charge on water burette) into each flask. Be careful not to add
more. Shake well until all of sample is mixed with water. This
can be done without inserting cork.

Fief. 112
Chianomatic Balance

Tig. 113
Extraction Flask

Courtesy Mojonnier Bros. Co.

(6). Before replacing flask into holder, add \y2 c.c. c.p. am-
monia. Shake well so that all of sample is well mixed with am-
monia. This can be done without inserting cork.

(7). Add 95 per cent alcohol up to base of top bulb of extrac-
tion flask. Insert cork, using best quality corks only. Replace
flask into flask holder. Shake thoroughly and see that no milk ad-
heres to any part of flask undissolved. In case particles of milk
stick to side of flask, shake thoroughly until these are washed away.
It is of the utmost importance to shake thoroughly at this point.

(8). Add 25 c.c. ethyl ether, insert corks and shake vigorously,
lengthwise of flask, with liquid in large bulb of flask, and small bulb
extended upward. Stop shaking at end of five seconds until all
liquid has run into large bulb and repeat vigorous shaking for four
five-second periods.

THE MOJONNIER TEST 655

(9). Add 25 c.c. petroleum ether and shake in same way.

(10). Place extraction flasks into centrifuge and whirl for
thirty turns at speed of about 600 R. P. M. Have centrifuge bal-
anced with small oil sample bottles furnished with tester.

(11). Place four 3^-inch dishes in line on shelf adjoining hot
plate, keeping them in order in which their weights were posted
upon record sheet. Aim to have numbers on flasks correspond with
number of dishes.

(12). Pour ether extraction above dividing line into proper
dishes, and slide dishes over onto hot plate, which should be held
at a temperature of 135 degrees C., as indicated by thermometer in-
serted in nickel plated mercury well. Cover dishes with hood.

(13) Repeat the extraction, shaking first to prevent formation
of precipitate, then adding successively 5 c.c. of 95 per cent alcohol,
then 15 c.c. ethyl ether, and then 15 c.c. petroleum ether, and shake
vigorously after the addition of each of above three reagents for
four five-second periods.

(14). Whirl in centrifuge for thirty turns.

(15). Move aluminum dishes back upon shelf adjoining hot
plate and pour the second extraction into proper dishes. Never
pour extraction into hot dish. Remove dish from hot plate as soon
as ether is all evaporated.

(16). When all of ether has evaporated place dishes into
vacuum oven, which should have a temperature of 135 degrees cen-
trigrade. Keep them there for five minutes after the vacuum gauge
shows at least twenty-two inches of vacuum.

(17). Place dishes into cooler for seven minutes, with pump
outfit running. See that water is running through cooling plates.

(18). Place counterpoise for dish and the approximate weight
for fat on right hand balance pan.

(19). Transfer dish to left hand balance pan and weigh quick-
ly to 0.10 milligram (0.0001 gr.).

(20) Weight of fat divided by weight of sample taken, mul-
tiplied by 100, represents per cent butter fat.

Total Solids Determination

( 1 ) . Keep solids dishes in vacuum oven, while oven is heated,
with vacuu,m on. •

656 THE MOJONNIER TEST

(2). Cool solids dishes in cooling oven for five minutes, with
pump turned on and bell set at five minutes.

(3). Weigh solids dish, with cover on. Return dish to cool-
ing oven. •"*' "•

(4). Fill one two-gram pipette with the milk from properly
mixed sample, place upon weighing cross, weigh and record.

(5). Transfer contents of pipette to tared solids dish, return
pipette to weighing cross, reweigh and record.

(6). Place solids dish with contents on solids hot plate, tem-
perature 180° C.

(7). When evaporation has been completed (in about two
minutes) place dish in solids oven, temperature 100° C.

(8). Turn on vacuum and set bell for ten minutes.

(9). When bell rings, transfer dish to cooling oven and set
bell for five minutes.

(10). When bell rings, weigh dish and calculate per cent total
solids by dividing net weight of dry solids by net weight of milk
taken (2 grams) and multiplying result by 100.

Cream

Preparation of Sample. — Mix sample thoroughly in the con-
tainer. Homogenized cream requires no special treatment. Very
thick, lumpy or churned cream should be warmed sufficiently to se-
cure uniform and homogeneous mixture. Heat till butterfat is all
just barely melted.

Fat Determination

(1). Prepare fat dishes as directed in paragraphs 1 to 3, in-
clusive, for Butterfat Determination of Fresh Milk.

(2). Weigh one gram of the sample into the tared butter boat,
or directly into the tared extraction flask.

(3). .Remove flask from holder and add enough water to make
a total of 10 c.c. Insert cork and mix thoroughly by shaking.

(4). Add 1.5 c.c. (one charge) of ammonia in the case of
sweet cream, or 3 c.c. of ammonia in the case of sour cream. This
is very important.

(5). From this point on to the end of the test continue as per
directions for Butterfat Determination of Fresh Milk, paragraphs
7 to 20, inclusive, with the following exceptions :

THE MOJONNIER TEST 657

(a). For the second extraction, paragraph 13, use 25 c.c. of
each ether, instead of 15 c.c.

(b). At the end of the second extraction it may be necessary
to add quite a little more alcohol, in order to bring the dividing line
up to the required height.

Total Solids Determination

(1). Prepare solids dishes as directed in paragraphs 1 to 3,
inclusive, for Total Solids Determination of Fresh Milk.

(2). Use a one gram sample. Add 1 c.c. distilled water to
the sample in the dish.

(3). Place not more than two dishes at once upon hot plate.
Allow all visible moisture to evaporate. During evaporation, turn
the dishes around with crucible tongs, slowly, so as to produce an
even boiling over the whole bottom surface of the dishes. Evapora-
tion should require not more than two minutes. The end point is
reached when bubbling and cracking ceases and sample shows first
trace of brown.

(4). Place dishes into vacuum oven at 100° C., and turn on
vacuum. Heat for 10 minutes. The gauge should register not less
than 22 inches of vacuum. If for any reason the vacuum is lower
than 22 inches, leave dishes in oven for 20 minutes.

(5). Transfer dishes to cooler. Allow them to cool for five
minutes.

(6). Weigh dishes with covers on, being careful to weigh
quickly and very exactly.

(7). Net weight of dried solids divided by net weight of
cream taken, multiplied by 100, represents per cent total solids.

Butter

Preparation of Sample. — Method I. Remove about one-half
pound butter from different parts of churn, or tub, or other pack-
age, with a butter trier, to a widemouth bottle or Erlenmeyer flask,
insert rubber stopper which carries a thermometer that reaches
down into the mass of butter. Heat bottle with contents in hot
water to 40° C. (104° F.). Do not heat to higher temperature.
Shake vigorously. Or, Method II. Transfer butter from churn,
tub or other package into mason jar, beaker or glass tumbler,

658 THE: MOJONNIER TEST

wide-mouthed bottle, or 'any other receptacle that permits of cover-
ing tightly to prevent evaporation. Allow sealed receptacle to stand
in warm room or in warm water until the butter is soft enough for
thorough stirring, with table knife, spatula or mechanical stirrer.
At 75 to 80° F. butter stirs into a waxy mass from which water or
casein will not separate. In this form it is put into boat or flask, to
be weighed.

Butter Fat Determination

(1). Transfer about one gram of butter sample to butter boat,
weigh quickly and insert boat into extraction flask.

(2). Remove extraction flask from holder and add 9 c.c. hot
water. Shake vigorously so as to mix butter and water thoroughly.

(3). Before replacing flask into holder add 1.5 c.c. C. P. am-
monia and shake thoroughly until mixture is complete.

(4). Add 10 c.c. of 95 per cent alcohol. Insert cork. Re-
place flask into holder. Shake thoroughly. Use best quality cork.

(5). Cool flask by running cold water over lower end of ex-
traction flask, if flask is very hot. Otherwise cooling is not neces-
sary.

(6). Add 25 c.c. ethyl ether. Insert cork, shake vigorously
* until all butter is dissolved out of boat. Then add 25 c.c. petroleum
ether and repeat operation.

(7). Centrifuge flask, turning handle thirty turns after a
speed of about 600 R. P. M. has been reached.

(8). Pour off extractions into proper weighed 3j^-inch alum-
inum dishes. Repeat above extraction, adding successively 5 c.c. of
95 per cent alcohol, then 25 c.c. of each of the ethers. For extreme
accuracy repeat extraction for third time. The second extraction
will remove all but .10 to .15 per cent of the fat. For factory con-
trol work, therefore, the third extraction is not necessary.

(9). Evaporate off ether at 135° C. on fat plate and when
all ether is off, dry fat in fat oven held at 135° C. for five minutes
after the vacuum has reached at least 22 inches.

(10). Cool, weigh and calculate per cent butter fat by divid-
ing net weight of extracted fat by net weight of sample taken, and
multiplying quotient by 100.

DETECTION OF RENOVATED BUTTER AND OLEO MARGARINE 659

Moisture Determination

(1). Weigh about one gram of properly prepared sample into
solids dish which has previously been treated as per directions for
Total Solids Determination of Fresh Milk, paragraphs 1 to 3, in-
clusive.

(2). Heat solids dish with contents on hot plate at 180° C.
until foaming ceases.

(3) Place in vacuum oven held at 100° C. for seven minutes.

(4). Cool, weigh and calculate per cent moisture by dividing
loss in weight by net weight of original sample, and multiply quotient
by 100.

Detection of Butter, Renovated Butter and Oleomargarine

Microscopic Examination. — Official.1 — "Place a small portion
of the fresh unmelted sample, taken from the inside of the mass, on
a slide, add a drop of pure sweet oil, cover with gentle pressure, and
examine with a one-half to one-eighth inch objective for crystals of
lard, etc. Examine the same specimen with polarized light and a
selenite plate without the use-of oil. Pure fresh butter will neither
show crystals nor a particolored field with selenite. Other fats
melted and cooled and mixed with butter will usually present crystals
and variegated colors with the selenite plate.

For further microscopic study dissolve from 3 to 4 cc. of the fat
in 15 cc. of ether in a test tube. Close the tube with a loose plug of
cotton wool and allow to stand from twelve to twenty- four hours at
20° to 25° C. When crystals form at the bottom of the tube, they
are removed with a pipette, glass rod, or tube, placed on a slide, cov-
ered, and examined. The crystals formed by later deposits may be
examined in a similar way."

Foam Test2

Heat a small piece of butter (2 to 3 grams) either in a spoon or
in an evaporating dish, over a free flame. Heat slowly until the fat
boils briskly. If it is butter it will boil quietly and noiselessly and
it will foam abundantly. If it is renovated butter or oleomargarine,
it will boil noisily, it will bump and sputter, like a mixture of hot

1 Journal Association Official Agricultural Chemists, Vol. II, No. 3, 1916.

2 Patrick, Household Tests for the Detection of Oleomargarine and Reno-
vated Butter, Farmers' Bulletin 131.

660 BACTERIOLOGICAL ANALYSES

grease and water when boiled, and it will produce little or no foam.
Leach1 finds that a very slight foam is sometimes observable with
occasional samples of renovated butter, but nothing like the abun-
dant amount of foam produced by genuine butter.

Appearance of the Melted Fat. — Provisional.2 — "Melt from
50 to 100 grams of butter or process butter at 50° C. The curd
from butter will settle, leaving a clear supernatant fat. On the other
hand, the supernatant fat in the case of process butter does not
assume that clear appearance, but remains more or less turbid."
Butter which has been overworked will also melt in a cloudy man-
ner.1

The Waterhouse Test3

Heat about 50 cc. of well-mixed sweet milk, or sweet skim milk,
in a beaker to boiling and add from 5 to 10 grams of the sample to
be tested. Stir, preferably with a small wooden stick, until all the
fat is melted. Then place the beaker in a dish of ice-cold water and
continue the stirring, until the fat hardens and solidifies. If the fat
is oleomargarine, it can be readily gathered and formed by the stir-
rer into one lump or clot. If the fat is genuine butter, or renovated
butter, it cannot be so collected, but it remains, in a granulated con-
dition, distributed throughout the milk in small particles.

CHAPTER XXIII.
BACTERIOLOGICAL ANALYSES

It is frequently desirable and advantageous for the creamery to
make bacteriological analyses of its butter, or of the products which
enter into the process of manufacture, such as milk, skim milk,
starter, cream before and after pasteurization, and to also examine
bacteriologically some of its equipment, particularly the cream cans,
vats, pipe lines, churns, etc.

Some creameries make bacteriological determinations of their
butter regularly, either of each churning, or once per week, etc.
Others in their attempt to locate the cause of certain flavor defects
or inferior keeping quality, resort to bacteriological studies of cer-
tain stages of the process of manufacture.

Many of the butter defects are not caused by bacterial action,

1 Leach, Food Inspection and Analysis, 1914.

2 Journal Association Official Agricultural Chemists, Vol. II, No. 3, 1916.

3 Parsons, Journal Am. Chem. Soc., 23, 1901.

BACTERIOLOGICAL ANALYSES 661

and therefore cannot be avoided through a study of the bacterial
flora of the product or the equipment, nor through the inauguration
of precautions which minimize bacteriological contamination, while
others are known to be of bacterial origin and in the latter type of
cases bacteriological counts may lead to channels through which
permanent solution may be made possible.

As a whole the direct benefit of bacteriological work in the
creamery is very limited, but such work may be of value indirectly
inasmuch as the results are an index, within reasonable limitations,
of the thoroughness with which some of the more important work
relating to quality is performed.

While it is obviously beyond the province of this volume to give
detailed directions in the technique of bacteriological analyses, in the
preparation of culture media and in microscopic study of bacteriolog-
ical preparations, for all of which the reader is referred to Manuals
on Bacteriology, it is deemed advisable to here offer some sugges-
tions relating to these special products, that may serve for the
guidance of those who are interested in a bacteriological study of
creamery problems.

Sampling. — Samples of milk, skim milk, cream and similar
products are best taken into small sterile glass jars with screw top
lined with cork or similar material, or in small sterile glass-stop-
pered bottles. The liquid from which the sample is taken must be
thoroughly mixed and the dipper or tube with which the sample is
taken must be perfectly sterile, otherwise the results are not depend-
able. About 10 cc. is usually sufficient.

In the case of butter the sample may be placed into a sterile
petri dish or in a sterile bottle as in the case of milk. This is most
conveniently done with a sterile trier, the surface of the plug being
removed and a segment from one to two inches in length is trans-
ferred with a sterile knife or spatula to the petri dish or bottle.

All samples should be analyzed as soon as possible. If this can-
not be done immediately the receptacles containing them should be
placed on ice or otherwise kept at a temperature as near 32° F. as
possible. Especially, milk and cream samples should be immedi-
ately cooled to 35° F. or below and kept at that temperature until
needed.

662 BACTERIOLOGICAL ANALYSES

Dilutions for Numerical Counts. — For dilutions sterile, glass
stoppered 250 cc. flasks are conveniently used. In the case of milk
or cream use 2 cc of sample and 198 cc. of sterile water. The milk
or cream is most readily measured and transferred to the dilution
flask by the use of sterile, straight stem, bulbless pipettes. This
constitutes the first dilution.

In the case of butter, weigh two grams of the sample into a
tared flask. Mix with enough sterile water at a temperature of 98
to 100° F. to make up 100 cubic centimeters. This constitutes the
first dilution. If yeast and mold counts only are made of butter,
dilutions may be dispensed with entirely. In this case the butter
sample is melted at low heat (not exceeding 100° F), and 1 cc. of
this warm melted butter is transferred direct to the petri dish to
which previously was added 1 cc. of tartaric acid and the plating is
finished by pouring over the mixture of melted butter and tartaric
acid 10 cc. of nutrient agar.

Further dilutions of milk, cream and butter are made in a similar
manner as the first dilution, using in the place of the original sample,
portions of the diluted sample. Dilutions should be sufficient to
limit the number of colonies on the plates to about 50 to 100 colonies
per plate. Whole milk as it arrives at the factory averages a total
count of from about 100,000 to 1,000,000 bacteria per cc. Cream at
gathered cream creameries contains from about 500,000 to
500,000,000 bacteria per cc. before pasteurization and from about
1,000 to 300,000 bacteria per cc. after pasteurization. Butter made
from raw gathered cream usually contains from about 1,000,000 to
2,000,000 bacteria per cc., and butter made from properly pasteur-
ized gathered cream contains from about 2,000 to 1,000,000 bacteria
per cc. In properly pasteurized cream butter the count of yeast and
molds is usually below 10 and often it is 0. When above 10 colonies
of yeast or mold or both, either the pasteurization was imperfect,
or the butter was recontaminated after the pasteurization of the
cream, or the count includes colonies which, though they may thrive
in the special medium used for yeast and molds are other than yeast
and molds.

BACTERIOLOGICAL ANALYSES 663

Plating. — 'For plating the following media are recommended :
Media for Total Counts and also for Acidifiers
4 grams beef extract
10 grams peptone
30 grams lactose
4 grams sodium chloride
12 grams thread agar
1000 cc. distilled water
Acidity 0.1 per cent.

For acidifiers add 1 cc. of sterile litmus solution to each plate,
before pouring the agar.

Media for Liquefiers

4 grams beef extract
10 grams peptone
30 grams lactose
4 grams sodium chloride
150 grams gelatin
1000 cc. distilled water.
Acidity 0.1 per cent.

Media for Yeasts and Molds
4 grams beef extract
10 grams peptone
12 grams agar
1000 grams whey

Acidity 0.2 per cent. Cv .

Add 1 cc. of sterile 1 per cent tartaric acid solution to each plate
before pouring the medium over the dilution.

Incubation. — Incubate agar, litmus agar and whey- agar plates
at 35° C. (95° F.) for at least three days before making counts.
Incubate gelatin plates at 21° C. (70° F.) for four to five days be-
fore making counts.

Making Counts. — The colonies on the plates are counted most
conveniently by placing the plates over a standard counting plate.
In the absence of such a plate, place the petri dish upside down on
a dark surface and draw, with a blue crayon, radial lines, dividing
the field into segments. For plates containing not to exceed 100
colonies; eight to sixteen segments are sufficient for easy counting.

664

ATOMIC WEIGHTS

Table 105.— International Atomic Weights

Element

Symbol

.Weight
Atomic

Element

Symbol

Weight
Atomic

Aluminum » •

• Al

2710

Neodymium

Nd

14430

Antimony

Sb

12020

Neon

Ne

2020

Argon ....

A

3988

Nickel

Ni

5868

As

7496

Niton (radium

Barium

Ba

13737

emanation)

Nt

22240

Bismuth • • •

Bi

28000

Nitrogen

N

1401

Boron

B

11 00

Oscium

Os

10000

Bromine

Br

7992

Oxygen

o

1600

Cadmium . .

Cd

11240

Palladium

Pd

10670

Cs

13281

Phosphorus

p

3104

Ccilcium

Ca

4007

Platinum

Pt

19520

Carbon

c

1200

Potassium

K

•30 If)

Ce

14025

Praseodymium

Pr

14060

Chlorine . . .

Cl

3546

Radium . .

Ra

22640

Chromium

Cr

5200

Rhodium

Rh

10290

Cobalt

Co

5897

Rubidium . . .

Rb

8545

Columbium

Cb

9350

Ru

101 70

Coooer

Cu

6357

Samarium

Sa

15040

Dysprosium ...

Dy

16250

Scandium . .

Sc

A A If)

Erbium

Er

16770

Selenium

Se

70 ?n

Europium

Eu

15200

Silicon

Si

2830

Fluorine

F

1900

Silver

ACT

107 RR

Gadolinium

Gd

15730

Sodium

•^s

Na

2300

Gallium

Ga

6990

Strontium .

Sr

8763

Ge

7250

Sulphur

s

3207

Glucinum

Gl

910

Tantalum

Ta

181 50

Gold

Au

19720

Tellurium

Te

127 50

Helium

He

399

Terbium

Tb

15920

Holmium

Ho

1635

Thallium . . .

Tl

20400

Hydrogen

H

1008

Thorium

Th

23240

In

11480

Thulium

Tm

16850

Iodine

I

12692

Tin

S'n

11000

Iridium

Ir

19310

Titanium

Ti

48 10

Iron

Fe

5584

Tungsten

W

18400

Krypton

Kr

8292

Uranum

u

238 50

Lanthanum

La

139.00

Vanadium

V

5100

Lead

Pb

20710

Xenon

Xe

13070

Lithium

Li

694

Ytterbium (Neoyl-

Lutecium

Lu

17400

lerbium)

Yb

17200

Magnesium

Mg

2432

Ytterium ....

Yt

8900

Manganese

Mn

5493

Zinc . . .

Zn

65 37

Mercury

Hg

20060

Zirconium

Zr

0060

Molybdenum ....

Mo

96.00

METRIC AND CUSTOMARY WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 665

Table 106. — Comparison of Metric and Customary
Weights and Measures

Customary
weights and
measures,

Equivalents in
metric system.

Metric
weights and
measures.

Equivalents in
customary system.

1 inch

2 54 centimeters.

1 meter . . . < .

39.37 inches.

1 foot

0 3048 meter

1 meter

1 0936 yards

1 square inch . .

6.452 square centi-

1 square centi-

0.155 square inch.

meters.

meter.

1 square foot..

9.29 square deci-

1 square met-

10.764 square feet.

meters.

er.

1 cubic inch . . .

16.387 cubic centi-

1 cubic centi-

0.061 cubic inch.

meters.

meter.

1 cubic foot. . .

0.0283 cubic meter.

1 cubic centi-

0.0338 fluid ounce.

meter.

1 fluid ounce..

29.57 cubic centi-

1 cubic deci-

61.023 cubic inches.

quart

meters.
0.9464 liter.

meter.
1 liter

1.0567 quarts

gallon

3.7854 liters.

1 dekaliter

2.6417 gallons

grain

64.8 milligrams.

1 gram .

15 43 grains

ounce (av )

28.35 grams.

1 gram

0.035274 ounce.

pound (av.) .

0.4536 kilogram.

1 kilogram . .

2.2046 pounds (av.)

666

THE BUTTER INDUSTRY

INDEX

Acid-
determination of 249, 593-600, 651

effect on keeping quality of but-
ter 231-233

in butter 169, 220, 221, 549, 550

in constituents of sour cream 169

in cream 244, 278, 292

Acid tests —

of butter 651

of cream 150, 593-601

of milk 593-601

degrees of 248, 600-601

per cents of 248, 593-600

Actual overrun 395

Adsorption 269

Advertisers 672-711

Aerating cream 222-224

Agitation in churn 293

Annatto 301-303

Annual butter production 26, 29,30

Artificial ripening 235

Ash, composition of 551, 558

Atomic weights, table 664

B

Babcock test 21-23, 610M528

Bacteria in butter

. . .183, 205, 213, 216, 217, 237, 560, 662

Bacteria in cream 237, 562

Bacteriological analyses 660-663

Barny flavor 469

Bath room in creamery 44

Bichromate of potassium 128

Biological properties of butter. . .569-573

Bitter flavor 478, 479

Bleached butter 517, 518

Blowing cream 223-224

Boxes 371, 374, 394

"Breaking" of butter 271

Brine salting 326

Brittle body 505-507

Broker 422

Butter classification 435

Butter color 300, 515

Butter consumption 441

Butter defects 466-530

barny flavor 469

bitter flavor 478, 479

brittle body .505-507

cheesy flavor 467

coarse flavor 501

cooked flavor 500, 501

Butter defects—

cowy flavor 465

crumbly body 505-507

curdy flavor 467

dull color 518, 519

feed flavors 61, 469, 47C

fishy flavor 456, 485-489

flat flavor 466

garlic flavor 61, 470, 472

greasy body 503, 504

green specks 528

gritty body 514-515

leaky body 511-514

mealy body 507-511

metallic flavor 456, 482-485

moldy butter 366, 472-476

mottled butter 519-525

musty flavor 469

oily flavor 479-482

rancid flavor 494-498

salvy body 504, 505

scorched flavor 500-501

smothered flavor 469

sour aroma 467

stale flavor 466

storage flavor 456-493

tallowy flavor 489-493

too high color 516, 517

too light color 517, 518

unclean flavor 468

wavy butter 519-525

weak body 502, 503

weed flavors 61, 470

white specks 525

wild onion flavor 61, 470-472

woody flavor 337, 499, 500

yeasty flavor 476-478

yellow specks 525-528

Butter defects, valuation of 460

Butter Exchanges 426

Butter fat constants 538

Butterf at, chemical properties

278,280, 531, 532, 538

Butter granules 270

Butter industry, History 15-30

influence of Babcock test on. . . .21-23
influence of centrifugal separator

on 19-21

Buttermilk 311, 557

loss of fat in 402

Butter quotations 428

Butter rules, New York Mercantile
Exchange 432

TH£ BUTTER INDUSTRY

667

Butter rules —

Chicago Butter and Egg Board. . .435

Butter scoring 459-466

Butter standards, various countries. .576

Butter workers 346

Buying milk and cream 31-60

Can covers 145

Can driers 145

Can steamers 145

Can washing 140

at cream stations 145

essentials of 143

Can washers 141

"Call," the 427

Caloric value, of butter 568, 569

of butterf at 568

of curd 568

Capacity of separator 88

Care of milk and cream on farm.. 60-67

Carotin 300

Centrifugal force factor 72

Centrifugal separation, theory of 71

Cheesy flavor 467

Chicago Butter and Egg Board. .426, 429

Churn, kinds of 293

preparation of 296

Churnability of cream 277-295

acidity of cream 272, 292

agitation in churn 293

chemical properties of fat 278, 280

churning temperature 278, 283

fullness of churn 295

richness of cream 278, 291

speed of churn 294

size of fat globules 279

time of holding 278, 290

viscosity of cream 278, 282

Churning 266-310

Churning difficulties 307

Churning —

philosophy of 266

temperature of 278-283

Churn test 21

Coal-tar dyes 301

Coalescence of butter granules 501

Coarse flavor 501

Coefficient of digestibility of —

animal fats 567

butterf at 567

vegetable fats 568

Cold room, in creamery 43

Commercial starters 252, 253, 259

Commission merchant 422

Commission sales .422, 424

Composite samples 126

Composition of, ash in butter ...551

ash in buttermilk 557

ash in colostrum milk 553

ash in cream 555

ash in milk ] ' '553

ash in separator slime !!.'.!! 558

ash in skimmilk 557

ash in whey 553

b«tter !.'..*.'; 530^551

putterfat 531, 532

butttermilk 557

colostrum milk 553

cream 175^ 555

dairy products .'.'.'.'.'.'.'. 530-558

separator slime 553

skimmilk 555

whey 558

Curd 546

Concentration points 58

Condensed milk, for starter making. .261

Construction of cream stations 53

Construction of creameries 36-45

Contents, table of 7-12

Contract sales 424

Cooked flavor '. . .500^501

Cooling cream 65, 194, 206

Corrosive sublimate tablets 128

Cowy flavor 469

Cream, age of 66

Cream grading 118-125

Cream cooling tanks 66

Creamometer 21

Cream outlet 77

Cream ripening 225-251

effect on flavor 226

effect on exhaustiveness of churn-
ing 229

effect on keeping quality 230

Cream routes 47

Cream scales 138

Cream samples 135

Cream screw 77, 98, 104

Cream stations 51

Cream station operator 54

Cream station shortages 54

Cream transportation 67

Creameries, distribution in U. S 29

Creamery corporations 35

Creamery organization 31

Creamery promoter 24-26

Crumbly body 505-507

Cubes 371, 374, 394

Curd 398, 546

affinity for lime 165

determination 650

Curdy flavor 467

668

THE; BUTTER INDUSTRY

D

Dairy butter, marketing of 417

Damaged cans 145

Deep-setting method 69, 70

Definitions and standards 573, 577

Delivered sales 422

Digestibility of butter 566

Direct shipper system 57

Direct deliveries 46

Disease germs, in butter 561

Distribution of butter , 439

Drainage and drains 38

Dry-salting 325

Dull color 518-519

"Dumping" milk and cream 138

Elgin Board of Trade 426, 428, 430

Enameled vats 241, 263

Enzymes 183, 213, 214

Exports 442-445

Factory separators 80

Farmers' co-operative associations ... 56
Farm separator creamery, overrun

in 406, 411

Fat globules 278, 279

size of 535-537

Fat-soluble A 569-573

Fat standard of butter 574

Fat tests, Babcock 611

gravimetric 638

Gerber 628-630

Hepburn 634-638

Kohman 639

Shaw 639-644

Feed flavors 61, 227, 469, 470

Firkins 372

Fishy flavor 209

Flat flavor 466

Flies in creameries 39, 41

Floors in creameries 38

Foamy cream .476, 478

Food value, butter 566-569

Fore warmers 139, 189

Formaldehyde 128

Freezing point, milk 552

Frozen cream . . . 133

Fuel value, butter 568, 569

Fulness of churn . . . .295

Garlic flavor 61, 470

Gas in churn 304

Grades of butter.. ..431

Grades of cream 11&-125

Grading butter 435

cream 118-125

Greasy body 503, 504

Green spots in butter 528-530

Gritty body 514-515

H

Hand separators 82

Healthfulness of butter 559

Heating creameries 45

Holding process 196-207

I

Imports .442-447

Independent cream buyer 55

Insoluble fats 533

Inspection, of butter 431

Insulation of, ammonia pipes 45

brine pipes 45

cold room 43

steam pipes 45

water pipes 45

Joint stock companies 33, 34

Jobber 422

K

Kinds of starter .' 252

Lactose .492, 548-550

determination of 651

Ladles 588

Leaky body .511-514

Legal standards by states 578-579

Light, in creameries 39

Lime, action in sour cream 172

affinity for curd 172

Lime carbonate 151

hydrate 151

oxide 151

Lime mix 156, 157, 160, 163, 172, 179

addition of to cream 172

reaction in cream 167

Location of creameries 36

M

Management, of patron 59

Mammalian milks 554, 555

Marketing and markets 412-447

Market requirements 414

Mealy butter 134, 139, 507-51 1

Melting point of fats 533

Metallic flavor 209, 456, 482-485

THE BUTTER INDUSTRY

669

Methyl orange indicator 152

Milk, composition of 552

separation of 68

Milk sugar .548-550

Minnesota law on neutralization. .. .575

Moisture 396, 538

Moisture content, affected by size of

fat globules 537

Moisture control 357, 538-545

Moisture, effect on quality of butter. .545

Moisture ruling 573

Moisture tests 630-634

accuracy of 404

Mojonnier test 651-658

Moldy butter 366, 472-476

Mother starter 254-259

Mottled butter 519-525

Musty flavor 469

Mutual co-operative creamery asso-
ciations 32

N

Natural ripening 234

Natural starters 252

Navy butter, directions for packing. .391

Neutralization 148-180, 493

object of 148

composition of butter 177

Neutralizing, directions 179, 180

experiments 161-179

formula 157

tables 158-159

New York Board of Health lacto-
meter 603

New York Mercantile Exchange

426, 428, 429

Non-volatile fats. . 533

Oiling systems 85

Oil test 22

Oily flavor 479-482

Oleomargarine, detection of 659-660

Overloading butterworkers 349

Overripening 247

Overrun 394-412

accuracy of weights and tests . 399-407

composition of butter .396

mechanical losses 402

actual' 395

theoretical 395

Package, consumers' 382

Packing butter 364-394

Packing cost 389

Packing farm butter 383

butter for exhibits 385

butter for parcel post 384

butter for scoring contests 385

Packing, loss of moisture 387

Packing in boxes. 381

Paraffining butter tubs '.367-369

Parchment liners and wrappers 369

Phenplphthalein indicator 152, 250

Physical structure of butterfat 535

Power requirements 87

Power separators 80

Preservatives for milk and cream

samples 128, 366

Printers 377-378

Printing 377

Prints 375

Proportion of skim milk to cream... 77

Proprietary creameries 34, 35

Pasteurization 181-224

effect on acidity of cream 221

effect on body of butter 213

effect on disease germs 183

effect on exhaustiveness of churn-
ing 218

effect on flavor 181

effect on keeping quality 182

effect on score of butter. 214

flash process 196

flash and holding process com-
bined 207

holding process 196

object of 181

temperature control 192, 207

temperature recorders 194

Pasteurizers, capacity 211

cleaning of 208

durability 211

expense of operation 212

flash pasteurizers 185, 186

vat pasteurizers 196

Quevenne lactometer 602

Rancid flavor 494-498

Receiving milk and cream 118

Regenerative heaters 188

Renovated butter 581-588

Renovated butter, detection of... 659-660

Retinning cans 147

Retinning vats 209, 212, 263

Rich cream 278, 291

conditions affecting it 102-117

Richness of milk 104

Ripening cream 225-251

670

THE BUTTER INDUSTRY

Ripening temperatures 238-243

Ripening vats 239-242

Rusty cans 146

Salt ...........V.... 398, 514

Ahlsberg process 332

amount of 323

composition of 547

bacteria in . . .'.' 329

chemical analyses .333

coastals 327

effect on disease germs in butter.. 342
effect on keeping quality of but-
ter 338

effect on moisture content of but-
ter 343

Grainer process 331

physical properties of 334

purity of 329

quality of 329

solubility of 335

vacuum process 332

Salted butter 530-551

Salting butter 322-346

Salt tests 644-650

Hunziker and Hosman 647-650

Kohman 645

official method 645

Perkins 646-647

Shaw 645-646

Salvy butter 504, 505

Sample jars 126

Sampling cream 130

Sampling milk 125

Scorched flavor 500-501

Scoring starter 265

Scoring butter 459-466

Scores of butter 217

Selling butter locally 418

Separation of milk 68

Separator slime 558

Sewerage disposal 36

Shallow-pan method 69

Single samples 126

Skimmilk, composition 556

loss of fat in 402

outlet . 76

powder 261

Skimming efficiency 90

Smothered flavor 469

Sodium carbonate 152

hydrate 153-170

Solidification 274-278

Solidifying point of fats 274, 533

Soluble fats 533

Sour aroma in butter 467

Specific gravity, determination. .601-608

of butterfat 606

of buttermilk 557

of cream . . .555, 606, 607

of milk 552, 554, 555, 606

of skimmilk 556, 606

of water 606

of whey 558

Specific heat of —

cream 555

milk-.. 552

skimmilk 556

whey 558

Speculating in futures 425

Speed of churn 294

Speed of coils 203

Stale flavor 466

Standard Babcock glassware 611

Standard cream scales 621

Standard of acidity 149

Standardizing cream for acid 148

Standardizing milk and cream for

fat 589-593

Standardizing quality of butter 417

Starters 251-265

Starter, amount of 242, 265

Starter ripening 250

Starter vats 262

Startoline 254

State brands 417

Sticky churns 299

Stopping churn 304

Storage 447-459

Storage conditions 451

air, light and heat 453

humidity 453

temperature 454

Storage flavor 456-493

Storage, effect on —

quality of butter 456-459

salt 337

Storage, commercial stocks in 449

Storage, shrinkage in weight 455

Store room 42

Straining cream 300

Surface coil coolers 195

Surface tension . . .268

Tallowy flavor 209, 489-493

Thickening of cream in churn 270

Tins 372, 374

cost of packing 390

Tins for U. S. navy 392

THE: BUTTER INDUSTRY

671

Total solids-
determination of 608-610

tables 609-610

Track sales .- 423

Transportation, co-operative 417

Tubs 374, 394

packing of 374

paraffining 366

preparation of 366

u

Unclean flavor 468

Unsalted butter 530

Ultra violet ray process 321

Vat pasteurization 196-207

Ventilation 41-42

Viscosity of cream 27&-2S2

Volatile fats 533

w

Water-dilution method 70

Water droplets in butter 272, 521

Water filters 320-322

Waterhouse test 660

Washing butter 311-322

Wash water —

addition of 311

effect on moisture in butter 315

overchurning in wash water 315

purity of 320

temperature of 313

Water supply : 36

Wavy butter 519-525

Weak body 502, 503

Weedy flavors 61, 470

Weighing milk and cream 137

Weights and measures, tables 665

Weights of butter, accuracy of 404

Wet-salting 326

Whey butter 580, 581

Whey butter, Wisconsin law 581

Whey, composition 558

White specks in butter 525

Whole milk creamery, overrun in... 405

Wholesale produce trade. 421

Wholesale receiver 422

Wild onion flavor 61, 470, 472

Woody flavor 337, 499, 500

Working butter 346-363

amount of 352

effect on body 353

effect on color 353

effect on flavor 360

effect on keeping quality 360

effect on moisture content 360

X

Xanthophyll 300

Yeasty flavor 476-478

Yellow A. B. and O. B 301

Yellow specks 525-528

672 THE: BUTTER INDUSTRY

INDEX TO ADVERTISERS

Page

Allwood Sales Co., Milwaukee, Wis 674

-Associated Manufacturers' Co., Waterloo, la 673

Bausch and Lomb Optical Co., Rochester, N. Y 674

Boerner-Fry Company, Iowa City, la 675

Buhl Stamping Co., Detroit, Mich 676

D. H. Burrell & Co., Little Falls, N. Y 677

J. G. Cherry Co., Cedar Rapids, la 678

Colonial Salt Co., Akron, O 689

Creamery Package Mfg. Co., Chicago, 111 679

Davis- Watkins-Dairymen's Mfg. Co., Chicago, 111 681-2-3

De Laval Separator Co., Chicago, 111 680

Elyria Enameled Products Co., Elyria, 0 684

Fairbanks, Morse & Co., Chicago, 111 685

J. B. Ford Co., Wyandotte, Mich 686

General Laboratories, Madison, Wis 687

Geuder-Paeschke & Frey Co., Milwaukee, Wis 688

Glass Coating Company, Cleveland, 0 689

Chr. Hansen's Laboratory, Little Falls, N. Y 702

Independent Silo Co., St. Paul, Minn.. 691

Jalco Motor Company, Union City, Ind 690

Jensen Creamery Machinery Co., L. I. C., New York 692-3

Kalamazoo Vegetable Parchment Co., Kalamazoo, Mich 691

Kelly Island Lime & Transport Co., Cleveland, 0 694

King Ventilating Co., Owatonna, Minn 695

Lathrop-Paulson Company, Chicago, 111 696

Mojonnier Bros. Co., Chicago, 111 697

Louis F. Nans, Chicago, 111 698

Paterson Parchment Paper Co., Passaic,,N. J 694

Peters Machinery Company, Chicago, 111 699

Pfaudler Company, Rochester, -N. Y 700-1

Preservaline Mfg. Co., Brooklyn, N. Y. 702

Rice and Adams Corporation, Buffalo, N. Y 707

Rock Island Plow Co., Rock Island, 111 703

E. H. Sargent & Co., Chicago, 111 705

L. C. Sharp Manufacturing Co., Plattsmouth, Neb 704

Sharpies Separator Co., West Chester, Pa 706

Sturges and Burn Mfg. Co., Chicago, 111 707

C. J. Tagliabue Mfg. Co., Brooklyn, N. Y 708

Toledo Scale Company, Toledo, O 709

Torsion Balance Co., New York 707

Worcester Salt Co., New York . . fc 710

THE BUTTKR INDUSTRY

673

THE"IOWA"

CURVED DISC BOWL

THE "IOWA" is different from all other centrifugal
cream separators, because it is the only separator
with a patented "Curved Disc" bowl. The con-
struction of the " Curved Disc " Bowl enables the
" IOWA" to extract all the butterfat from hot or cold
milk under all farm conditions. The Babcock test
proves that the "Curved Disc" Bowl is the world's
closest skimming device.

10W*

CPE AM SEPARATOR

OUTSKIMMED AH Competing Separators.

In the International skimming contests, made by the Jury of Dairy Experts at the
last World's Fair, the "IOWA" Cream Separator OUTSKIMMED all competing
separators.

If you are interested in these skimming
tests, send for catalogue, describing the
"IOWA" with the patented "Curved Disc"
Bowl.

The "IOWA" is not only the closest
skimming separator, but it is the easiest
running and most durable.

The gears used in the "IOWA" are a
combination of the spur and spiral type, with
the exceptionally low gear ratio of 7 to 1.
The combination of these two types of gears
produces a noiseless, perfectly smooth and
easy running separator.

Established 1 898. Our twenty-two years of con-
tinuous separator manufacturing experience enables
us to produce the " IOWA"— the highest quality
Cream Separator ever built.

In our modern separator factory we have built
complete, over a half million ( 500,000 ) cream
separators.

"World's Best by Actual Test"

Associated Manufacturers Co., Waterloo, Iowa, U.S.A.

674

THE BUTTER INDUSTRY

MODEL FFS 8

Bauscli [omb

Microscopes

STANDARDS OF OPTICAL AND
MECHANICAL EFFICIENCY

Model FFS 8 is especially suitable for
bacteriological work. Has coarse and
fine focusing adjustments, with adjust-
ment heads on side of arm; iris dia-
phragm; three objectives — including oil
immersion — in revolving nosepiece; two
eyepieces and an Abbe condenser in
quick-acting screw substage. Number of
magnifications obtainable ranges from
50 to 1260. Construction is rugged, and
black crystal finish on arm and base
unusually durable.

Write for catalog describing
this and other models

Bausch & [pmb Optical <£>.

NEW* YORK WASHINGTON SAN FRANCISCO

CHICAGO ROCHESTER, N. Y. LONDON

Leading American Makers of
High Grade Optical Products

ALLWOOD

Milk of Magnesia Lime

The Perfect Neutralizer

By the use of this material you are assured uniform, reliable
and satisfactory neutralization. Its high standard of quality
has been proven by continuous use in thousands of creameries.
For further particulars, address,

ALLWOOD SALES COMPANY

MILWAUKEE WISCONSIN

THE BUTTER INDUSTRY

OlDENGLOWBUTTERCOLOR

PURELY VEGETABLE

fT'OR the butter maker who is
JL more than ordinarily particu-
lar there is no substitute for
the GOLDEN GLOW.

A single trial of this, an old
and standard color, will
convince you of its excep-
tional merit.

Original orders of any
size will be sent transpor-
tation charges paid. The
understanding will be that if Golden
Glow does not prove exadtly
what you have always wished
for in the way of a butter color
it is to be returned at our ex-
pense.

On the primary points of
quality and economy we invite
comparison.

It will be a pleasure on request to send a
free sample for trial

Quality

and
Economy

BOERNER-FRY COMPANY

IOWA CITY, IOWA

676

THE BUTTKR INDUSTRY

THE BUTTER INDUSTRY 677

The "Simplex" Combined Churn
and Butter Worker

(Patented)

No. 6 Cast Frame Type
Showing Butter Worker in Position

The only fully Automatic Combined Churn

and Butter Worker. Churns the cream, works

and delivers the Butter on tray ready to pack.

Used in all Dairy Countries of the World.

Also "SIMPLEX" Link Blade Cream Separa-
tors and Milk Clarifiers, "SIMPLEX" Pas-
teurizers, "SIMPLEX" Sanitary Milk Pumps,
"FACILE" Babcock Testers and full line of
apparatus for Butter and Cheesemaking and
handling of milk.

D. H. Burrell & Company

Little Falls, New York, U. S. A.

Sendfor
Special Circulars

678

THE BUTTER INDUSTRY

The Cedar Rapids manufacturing plant of the J. G. Cherry Company

Everything in Equipment

And Many Items of Current Supplies for the
Modern Buttermaker

The line of creamery machinery manufactured by
the J. G. Cherry Company includes the well known

Dreadnaught Churn
Perfection Churn
Haugdahl Starter Can
Jensen Flash Pasteurizer
Peerless Flash Pasteurizer
Edwards Culture Can

Cherry Ripener
Simpson Printer
Friday Printer
Tubular Coolers
Cherry Forewarmer
Cherry Moisture Test

Our Buttermakers catalog and Hand Book is a safe guide
and ever-present help. Ask for it.

J.G. CHERRY COMPANY

^RAPIDS
IOWA

THE: BUTTER INDUSTRY

ALTHOUGH a good buttermaker can make good butter with almost
any old churn, he can^make much better butter with a modern,
efficient machine.

The Dual Combined Churn and Butterworker is constructed
on the correct mechanical principle, and as a result most prize-winning
butter is made in a Dual.

The Dual works the butter evenly between the rolls. Other two roll
machines do not have the proper spacing between the rolls. The one-roll
churn never could properly work butter — it simply mashes it over the
edge of a shelf.

Headquarters for Dairy Equipment

For thirty years we have been serving the dairy industry — have grown
with it — and now have the most complete line of dairy machinery and
supplies (consisting of over 5,000 different items,) in the world.
YOUR INQUIRIES ARE EARNESTLY SOLICITED

The Creamery Package Mfg. Company

SALES BRANCHES:

(Write to nearest one)

CHICAGO, 61-67 W. Kinzie St.
NEW YORK, 47 W. 34th St.
SAN FRANCISCO, 699 flattery St.
BUFFALO, 133-137 Swan St.
OMAHA, 113-15-17 S. Tenth St.

PORTLAND, ORE., 6-8 N. Front St.
MINNEAPOLIS, 318-320 Third St.,N.
TOLEDO, OHIO, 119 St. Glair St.
WATERLOO, IOWA, 406 Sycamore St.
KANSAS CITY, 931 W. Eighth St.

PHILADELPHIA, 1907 Market St.

680

THE BUTTER INDUSTRY

THE REASON FOR.

Lie Laval Leadership

Every one who has given sound thought or considera-
tion to the question, knows that the name DE LAVAL
stands today-r- as it has since 1878 — for leadership in quality and

There is always a good reason for every lasting success.

Years of actual use in the hands of nearly three million
users the world over have demonstrated beyond question the su-
periority of the De Laval hand and factory size separators. They
have met the requirements of every-day use in the best possible

Likewise, the other members of the De Laval family —

the Clarifiers, Emulsors and special Centrifugal machines
of various kinds, have been designed to meet the needs of their
users in the most efficient way and for that reason each one of
the line stands in the front rank in prestige and reputation.

The reason for De Laval leadership is in service ren-
dered. The De Laval machines work better, last longer,
and produce the greatest possible returns for every dollar in-
vested.

There is a great deal of satisfaction, as well as extra

profit, in owning and using the best machinery and equip-
ment and there is no good reason why any responsible farmer or
creameryman or ice cream manufacturer should be satisfied with
any other style of machine.

Make up your mind to know the facts about the history

and performance of the machines you are planning to
buy. We covet the most rigid investigation and comparison — and
will gladly leave the decision to your judgment.

The De Laval Separator Co.

165 Broadway, New York 29 E. Madison St., Chicago

61 Beale St., San Francisco! Cal.

THE: BUTTER INDUSTRY

681

Progress Can Washer

WITH this machine in your plant you are enabled to furnish
the producers with clean, sterile and dry milk cans. This
service helps to lower your bacteria count to a minimum.
Whether you wash a hundred or a thousand cans per day you will
find this machine a profitable investment. It is practical. It
occupies small floor space and uses very little power. It saves
waste, time, labor and money. Write for information.

DAVIS-\\^TKINS DAIRYMEN'S MFG.CO.

ADDRESS NEAREST OFFICE

JERSEY CITY. N. J.

NORTH CHICAGO. ILL.
ATLANTA. GA.

DENVER COLO

SAN FRANCISCO. CALIF.
LOS ANGELES CALIF.

SEATTLE, WASH.

THE BUTTE*

A Wonderful Churn

YOUR buttermaker is a success at his job if you give
him the right took to work with. He takes great
pride in properly handling efficient machinery.

He is just as proud of a pure-bred churn as you are of
your pure-bred Jerseys, Holsteins, Packards or Pierce-
Arrows, Don't you see how important it is that you give
him a modern Disbrow?

It is just as rssrnrial to him as a good cook store is to your wife,
put up with almost anything CDC, but sac must have a good
It's *Vf thing her neighbors see anj ^jmjfr. It makes her
finable. She turns out better food for your family by having
•OTU her kitchen because of it.

Write for a copy
free, and there is no obligation.

for you. CD it
of it all other tools are
The Disbrow Omni Book." It i

DAMS -\VT\TKINS DAIRYMEN'S MFG.CO.

THE BUTTER INDUSTRY

683

Minnetonna Cream Ripener

A beautiful machine for the man who wants the right appear*
well as efficiency. The two are combined in the Mint

to build this marhinr so it wfll give customer satisfaction and honest
value for the money invested.

The Miniirf <••** Cream Ripener pictured above is

with wfcit

enameled sheets and tinned copper trimmings. The cover is tinned
copper completely finished inside and outside. You can have yours for
either motor or belt drive. This machinr will add much to the at-
tractiveness of your plant.

If you prefer, you can purchase this same efficient cream ri
a plain finished steel body. Some folks like the wood
Cream Ripener; you can have one of these, which of
as much money as the steel or enamel finished machines. As to capacity .
we make many sizes from the small one holding 200 gallons up to those

Teflusthe

Write our nearest office for full n
size you are interested in. Your order wfll have our
Let us have it quickly.

DAMS-WMKINS DAIRYMEN'S MFG.CO.

ADDRESS NEAREST OFFICE

684

THE: BUTTER INDUSTRY

View of Elyria tanks in the modern plant of the
Stroh Products Company, Detroit, Mich.

ELYRIA

SEAMLESS, ONE-PIECE, GLASS- ENAMELED
EQUIPMENT

is rapidly coining to be the standard in all modernly
equipped dairies and butter-making establishments.
This is because it is 100 per cent, efficient.

It has the permanence of steel and the cleanliness
and sanitation of glass. Without the semblance of
crevice or seam for the lodgment of bacteria, with an
inside surface of hard, glossy, deep-blue enamel that
is as easy to clean as a china bowl, Elyria Equipment is
the safest with which to take care of milk and milk
products, enabling the Buttermaker to do his work
with certainty of economy and absolute sanitation.

The Elyria Company is prepared to show that the
installation of Elyria-Equipment will, in a compara-
tively short time, save more than the original cost of
the investment.

We shall be glad to send complete literature to any
one engaged in the Buttermaking Industry.

The Elyria Enameled Products Co.

ELYRIA, OHIO, U. S. A.

New York Chicago Pittsburgh Los Angeles San Francisco

THE: BUTTER INDUSTRY

685

Triple
Beam

in Agate
Bearing
above cap

Fairbanks

No. 10105
Receiving Scale

Has Full Capacity Beam
and Tare Bar

Marked:

Upper Bar 200 IBs. x 1 Ib.
Main Bar4001bs. x 100 Ibs.
Lower Bar 100 Ibs. x % Ib.

Fairbanks, Morse & Co.

900 So. Wabash Ave.

CHICAGO

686

THE BUTTER INDUSTRY

Facts Mold Opinions

IN EVERY walk of life opinions are
fashioned by facts. Horseless vehicles
were deemed unlikely until the automobile
came into existence and what was even
more recent, much improved cleaners for use
in dairies, butter and cheese factories were
considered impossible until

became a fact.

Today the rapidly increasing use of this
cleaner and the wide recognition awarded
it by leading authorities in every depart-
ment of dairying and its allied industries
plainly suggests how much it will profit

you, provided you utilize

these facts.

Wherever the facts concern-
ing Wyandotte Dairyman's
Cleaner and Cleanser are
known the opinion is the same
— it cleans clean.

IN EVERY.
PACKAGE

ORDER FROM YOUR SUPPLY HOUSE

The J. B. Ford Co., Sole Mnfrs., Wyandotte, Mich

THE: BUTTKR INDUSTRY 687

For Sterilizing

P*HE control of bacteria during every step in the
handling of dairy products — beginning at the cow
and ending with the consumer — is of such import-
ance that easy means of accomplishing it must be within
the reach of everyone engaged in handling such products.

B-K provides a sterilizer effective in the hands of any
butter-maker, cheese maker, or dairy farmer. It is easy
to use — does its work quickly — at a low operating cost —
requiring no extra labor or equipment for its application.

In addition it is economical in actual use and produces a
degree of cleanliness not to be obtained without it.

B-K provides bacteria control in all kinds of equipment.
Being liquid, it flows over and into every spot and corner
that milk or cream will touch. As the B-K rinse flows
through the equipment it dissolves bacteria and casein
sediment alike, leaving a condition of cleanliness difficult
to obtain by any other method.

Our Laboratories and Service Department have given
expert service to B-K users for years. We have had a
large experience in the field, under practical conditions,
and are prepared to give help in bacteria control to all
who need it.

Write us for information and free bulletins.

General Laboratories

110 So. Dickinson Street
Madison, Wisconsin

688

THE BUTTER INDUSTRY

SANITARY MllKCAN

WILL SERVE YOU LONG AND WELL

BUTTER INDUSTRY 689

How To Prevent Streaks and
Mottles in Butter

Prof. Hunziker asserts that streaks and mottles in butter are
caused by:

(1) — Incomplete fusion of salt and water in butter.

(2) — Faulty mechanical condition of the butter workers.

(3) — Overloading of the machine.

Not one of these causes but what may be overcome by any
buttermaker who takes pride in his product. With Colonial Salt
the buttermaker will never be troubled with incomplete fusion.
The other two causes are mechanical and can be easily remedied.
Flake salt dissolves quicker than cube salt of the same size grain.
Colonial salt is the only all flaked Butter Salt on the market. It
will produce over-run, color, flavor and body. Try it in your next
batch of butter. THE SALT THAT MELTS LIKE SNOW

FLAKES AND DISSOLVES LIKE MIST

THE COLONIAL SALT CO.

AKRON, OHIO

CHICAGO BOSTON ATLANTA BUFFALO

GLASCOTE

SEAMLESS, GLASS -COATED, STEEL EQUIPMENT
FOR THE BUTTER INDUSTRY

GLASCOTE equipment being seamless, and coated
inside with pure white glass, enforces cleanliness
and prevents metallic flavors.

CREAM RIPENING, PASTEURIZING AND
PROCESSING TANKS, STARTER CANS,
STORAGE TANKS, ETC.,

complete in every detail and most efficient. They
save floor space and labor and handle your product
in the most sanitary, efficient and attractive manner
possible.

WRITE FOR MILK PRODUCTS BULLETIN

The Glass Coating Company

New York — Chicago — San Francisco CLEVELAND, OHIO

690

THE BUTTER INDUSTRY

The JALCO

The Why of the Jalco —

Brought up in a
creamery, the Jalco
is an investment in
which you, as a
member of the same
guild as its designer,
can place the utmost
confidence.

The Jalco is built to
fit your current; designed
for cream and milk testing
exclusively and carries a
guarantee that means real
machinery devotion.

No gears, no rheostats
or starting boxes and no
hand brakes; just genuine
died - in - the - aluminum
quality.

A postal card brings the
information you need from
any of the supply houses
listed on this page or
direct from:

THE JAICO MOTOR COMPANY

IS SOLD

AND RECOMMENDED
BY:

A. H. Arnold & Bro.

J. G. Cherry Company

A. H. Barber Creamery Supply Co.

Blanke Mfg. & Supply Co.

Riley Hauk Supply Co.

Hawkeye Supply Co.

The Creamery Package Mfg.

Company

Davis-Watkins Dairymen's Mfg. Co.
Bessire & Company
N. A. Kennedy Supply Co.
John W. Ladd Company
Owatonna Creamery Supply Co.
Crary Brokerage Company
J. S. Biesecker
E. B. Adams Company
The Central Ohio Supply Co.
Cherry-Bassett Company
The Dairy Supply Co.

Dairymen's Supply & Construction
Co.

E. F. Mangold Company
Standard Milk Machinery Co.
West-Hutchison Company
Wisner Manufacturing Company
W. T. Connelley
K. J. Madden
E. A. Kaestner

UNION CITY. INDIANA.

THE BUTTER INDUSTRY

691

Better Cream — Better Prices

CREAMERY MEN EVERYWHERE WILL
WELCOME THE WONDERFULLY
EFFECTIVE NEW

Sanitary Cream Cooler

CREAM, when first separated, is at
its highest value to the butter-
maker. Help your creamery
patrons to realize the most for their
produce and at the same time make
more for yourself by being sure the
cream is cooled directly after milking.
The Sanitary Cream Cooler makes this
possible.

Creamery managers can well afford
to send out coolers, paying for them in
the increased price of sweet cream.

WRITE FOR PLAN. DESCRIPTION
AND QUANTITY PRICES

INDEPENDENT SILO CO., St. Paul, Minn.

MANUFACTURERS OF

Cream and Milk Coolers, Milking Machines, Silos and Tanks

The World's Model Paper Mill

- Special Papers

Best Brand Pure Vegetable Parch-
ment Paper.

The paper that is better moist than dry.
Toughens up like a bladder when wet. Made
under sanitary conditions for the absolute purity
a paper used in wrapping butter must have.
Used to line butter tubs, for lard bags, as carton
linings, to protect from contamination. Manu-
factured in rolls or cut in regular butter sizes,
plain or printed, as well as many special sizes to
order. Send for samples.

KALAMAZOO VEGETABLE

KALAMAZOO.

Pure KVP Waxed Paper

Used in great .quantities for carton sealers and
bread wrappers. Made in many colors, in rolls
or cut sizes, plain or printed. Send for samples.

The New KVP Bond

A multi-purpose bond that takes half-tone cuts
in great style! Low Cost. High Quality. Made
in all bond weights and a line of colors and
white. Samples ready.

PARCHMENT COMPANY

MICHIGAN

692

THE BUTTER INDUSTRY

Vertical -Universal
and Ripener

Pasteurizer

COIL of the Tertical
type and entirely sus-
pended; shaft of heavy
seamless brass; tubing
of 2 -inch 16 gauge
copper; Twin Coil.

UNIFORM tempera-
ture throughout Tat
during heating or cool-
ing.

INSULATION— VA-
inch and 2-inch Cork
Board, depending on
size of machine.

COVERS — Overlap
style with piano
hinge,.

PACKING BOXES—
entirely eliminated
from the vat and lo-
cated above and out-
side the vat.

ELIMINATES AIR
FROM PRODUCT—
It is constantly worked
out by the helical coil.
Oxidation reduced.

FLOOR SPACE—
One-half that of hori-

POWER — Motor or
Belt % to % that re-
quired for horizontals

Increase your efficiency of Pasteurization and Ripening, by using this machine. It is the Only
Real Glass-Lined Pasteurizer or Copper Vat Pasteurizer equipped with a double twin
Helical coil but Without Packing Boxes in the ends of the vat. Why suffer with mold, yeast and
bacterial recontamination when it can be entirely overcome by using this Vertical-Universal ?

Reduce oxidation in your product by clarifying it of gas and air. The vertical twin or double coil con-
stantly working from the bottom up, wrings the air and gas out. A longer-keeping product results.

JENSEN VERTICAL CONDENSED MILK COOLER

Eliminate
Crystallization

Furnish correct
amount of agi-
tation to pro-
duce a smooth
product.

Eliminate air
and gasses
through Rota-
tion of Double
Helical Coil
during cooling
process.

Prevent
Contamination

As all packing
and stuffing
boxes are out-
side and above
the machine.

Specially Built
for Cooling

Condensed and

Evaporated

Milk.

Ask for Catalogue
No. 20-A.

B JENSEN CREAMERY MACHINERY COMPANY

LONG ISLAND CITY. N. Y. «Hm«»N D.STR.BUTORS- OAKLAND. CALIFORNIA

IBLANKE MFG. & SUPPLY co., ST. LOUIS. MO.

THE BUTTER INDUSTRY

693

Pasteurizing Unit

CONTINUOUS

SANITARY

Eliminate
Seconds

. Send for Catalogue No. 24-A
WRITE AND LET US TELL YOU HOW IT IS DONE

Jensen Pumps

Sanitary
Durable
Efficient

ELECTRIC DRIVE COMBINATION

Simple
in Con-
struction

ONLY TWO
PARTS

TO
TAKE DOWN

AND
RE-ASSEMBLE

WHEN
CLEANING

STANDARD U BASE

Send for Catalogue No. 21

JENSEN CREAMERY MACHINERY COMPANY

LONG ISLAND CITY. N. Y. SOUTHERN DISTRIBUTORS: OAKLAND, CALIFORNIA

BLANKE MFG. 8c SUPPLY CO., ST. LOUIS, MO.

694 THE: BUTTER INDUSTRY

CORRECT NEUTRALIZATION

of sour cream is an important part of the
process of modern butter- making. And
the choice and use of the right kind of
neutralizer is equally essential. Our

Special Dairy Lime

The Ideal Cream Neutralizer

is a lime of the highest quality and has
been found the best available and most
suitable for this purpose.

Ask for prices — address "Industrial Dept."

The Kelley Island Lime & Transport Co.

World's Largest Producer of Lime and Limsetone Products
11 ACTIVE PLANTS NEAR PRINCIPAL CENTERS

General Offices ' Cleveland

As NECESSARY As SALT

Make good butter —
Protect its goodness-
Put your brand on it-
Get your butter to the consumer as fresh, pure
and clean as when it leaves your churn.
Protect it from dust and dirt by wrapping it in

PATERSON PIONEER
PARCHMENT PAPER

and put your name on the parchment. That
will mean a bigger demand for your butter and
higher prices.

WRITE FOR FREE BOOK "BETTER BUTTER"
EVERY DAIRYMAN SHOULD READ IT

The Paterson Parchment Paper JCo.

Passaic, New Jersey, U. S. A.

THE BUTTER INDUSTRY

695

Get Rid of Excessive
Moisture in Your Creamery

Is your creamery wet? Does steam con-
dense on the walls and water drip from the
ceiling? Poor ventilation is the cause.

The King System of Ventilation will change
the air in your creamery every few min-
utes and carry off the moisture. Your
creamery is kept sanitary, preserving your
equipment and the health of your butter
makers. Lengthens the life of your build-
ing. Makes the creamery more attractive.

Send for Our Book
on Creamery Ventilation

This book explains the King: System— what it is—
why you need it— how we put it in— what it will save
you. Kinsr Engineers study each creamery before
planning a system. When you order a King: System
we assume a responsibility which does not cease
until your creamery is properly ventilated.

King Ventilating Co.

1219 Cedar St. Owatonna, Minn.

On the Jefferson Highway
Vtnt lalinz Engineers for Creameries and Farm Buildings

KING

This shows the way the King Sya.
tern carries out excessive moisture
through Aerator on the roc f.

Unless the vent!-
lating system bears
this diamond King

trade-mark it is not
a King System

System of
Ventilation

696

THE BUTTER INDUSTRY

The Lathrop- Paulson Company has
Perfected a New Type Can Washer of
Super -Success. No Waste, Less Work,
Bigger and Better Results.

This New L-P Entirely Automatic Machine has Capacity up to 700 Cans
and Covers per hour. Practical and efficient in every way. Embodies all
the features of our former machines with double their efficiency, at less cost.

Aug. 20, 1907.
Aug. 20, 1907.
Sept. 14, 1909.
22, 1916.
4. 1917.

Feb.
Dec.

Apr.

Sept.

4, 1916.
9, 1919.

. 864,131
. 864,133
. 934.404
.1,172,808
.1,249,129

. 168,585
. 192,648

Jan.
Apr.
Aug.
Mar.
Feb.

U. S. PATENTS

L918.... 1,252,453

16, 1&18....

20, 1907

3, 1908

15, 1910....

CANADIAN PATENTS

Nov. 11, 1919....
Sept. 9, 1919....

1,262.679
864,132
880,713
949,121

193,886
192,647

Nov.
Dec.
Feb.
Dec.

Nov.
Nov.

Other U. S. and Foreign Patents Pending

27, 1917.

4, 1917.

12, 1918.

31, 1918.

11. 1919.
25. 1919.

.1,247,692
.1,249,130
.1,255,896
.1,289.824

193,885
194,208

NOTABLE IMPROVED FEATURES:

Does not require even one man to operate.
Machines are END FED, most convenient for

disposal of can by milk dumper.
Driven by motor or steam turbine of less

than one and one-half horse power.
Less than one-quarter horse-power consumed

in automatic machine drive.
Water consumption cut seventy-five per cent.
Drying capacity DOUBLED. Fan delivering 1800

cubic feet of dry, sterile, super-heated

air per minute.
WARM SODA SOLUTION WASH-under

pressure of 80 to 100 pounds.
CLEAR SCALDING WATER WASH immedi-
ately following under pressure of 80 to 100

pounds.

THE LATHROP -PAULSON COMPANY art MILK
CAN WASHING MACHINE SPECIALISTS and
SOLICIT YOUR INQUIRIES and REQUIREMENTS

THE LATHROP -PAULSON COMPANY

STEAM STERILIZATION under complete con-
trol. any amount you desire.

Operating at the rate of 700 cans and covers
per hour. EACH and EVERY CAN re-
ceives THREE to FIVE minutes of bac-
teria-destroying sterilization.

Insures Clean, Dry, Sterile receptacles for
the conveyance of product from producer to
manufacturer at lowest possible cost.

Machines have the unique feature of handling cans
as fast or as slow as desired, depending solely on
the speed they are fed to machine, and cannot be
crowded beyond capacity.

2459 WEST 48TH STREET

CHICAGO, ILLINOIS

BUTTER INDUSTRY

697

The Mojonnier Culture Controller

is used for the continual propagation and control of
pure Lactic Cultures and other bacteriological work.
Made in several sizes, — compartments of a few
quarts capacity to the larger size holding four two-
gallon cans for large dairies in two and three com-
partment models.

The Mojonnier Composite Sample Bottle

with pure Para rubber stopper fastened to bottle
by non-kinkable chain. Sold either 4-oz., 8-oz. or
16-oz. sizes.

Other specialties for butter-makers and
dairies being developed, including a new
type butter print scale.

A model for ecery requirement. Write for literature.

MILK ENGINEERS

739 W. da.ckson Bout. Chicago

Branch Offices— New York, St. Louis, and San Francisco

698

THK BUTTER INDUSTRY

Naf is Creamery Glassware

WILL HELP TOWARD
HIGHEST EFFICIENCY
IN YOUR TESTING ROOM

It is made according to scientific methods
and is guaranteed to be Accurate and to
give Excellent Service.

IMPROVED
BUTTER TEST

BOTTLE

for determining

percentage of

butter fat in

butter

Pat. Aug. 18, 1918

Nafis Standard Butter Color Rod

contains four standard shades of yellow for matching the
color of butter for various markets. Based upon the color
formula of the U. S. Bureau of Standards. Approved by butter
experts.

There is a tremendous weight
in the fact that NAFIS
GLASSWARE is used by most
of the largest creameries in the
country, but the strongest
proof for you is
the proof of your
own experience.

If your dealer
cannot supply
you with

Nafis
Glassware

write for our
illustrated
catalogue and
list of our dis-
tributors.

Nans

Automatic

Acidity

and

Salt Testing

Outfits

LOUIS F. NAFIS, Inc.

MANUFACTURERS OF CREAMERY GLASSWARE

542-548 Washington Blvd. CHICAGO

THE) BUTTER INDUSTRY

699

Peters Automatic
Package Machinery

COMPLETE line of machinery
which automatically (i) forms, (2)
lines, (3) fills, (4) folds, (5) closes,
(6) wraps, (7) labels, (8) seals pack-
ages of food products, or performs
any part of these operations independently.

This ingenious, compact machinery
effects material economies in labor, time,
and floor space.

Further, it places packages of food
products in the hands of consumers in sub-
stantially the same condition in which they
left the producer.

For years it has been used success-
fully by foremost food manufacturers.

PETERS MACHINERY COMPANY

209 South La Salle Street
CHICAGO

700

THE BUTTER INDUSTRY

Pfaudler

Glass

Enameled

Cream

Ripener

Pfaudler Cream Ripener

Prevents Metallic and other
"Off Flavors" by providing an
absolutely sterile, Glass Lined,
container. Provides a method of
heating that is well distributed,
and readily responsive to the will
of the operator. Avoids "pockets"
where filth can collect. Is so
easily "get-at-a-ble" that the
cleaning operation can be safely
intrusted to cheap labor.

The Method of Heating

The jacket is filled with water
and an extra pipe attached for
use as an expansion chamber.
Steam is injected into the water
through the Steam Spreader
shown in the sketch. The Jacket
is provided with a thermometer

and the temperature of the water
may be regulated at will.

Specifications

Capacity, 250 gallons. It may,
however, be had in any suitable
size and in different widths and
heights. Brass agitator either
tinned or silver plated, mounted
in an oil-less bearing. Copper
cover. Tight and loose pulley.

Prices on application.

Showirvj How Water h Jacket
Is Heated By Steanv

Just Printed, "Pfaudler Dairy Equipment "
Write for your copy

The PFAUDLER Co.

DETROIT

ROCHESTER, N. Y.

NEW YORK CHICAGO

ST. LOUIS SAN FRANCISCO

THE BUTTER INDUSTRY

701

Pfaudler

Glass

Enameled

Cream

Vat

Mr. Hunziker recently said:

"It has been conclusively de-
monstrated experimentally by the
United States Dairy Division and
by the writer, and it has been
proven in the manufacture of
millions upon millions of pounds
of butter by the writer, that ex-
cessive exposure of the milk,
cream or butter to iron or cop-
per causes chemical action, which
leads to most disastrous and cost-
ly butter defects The

only really satisfactory material
for the construction of fore-
warmers and cream vats, is the
glass-enameled type Cop-
per vats such as have been in
use in the past and are still in
use, have been found damaging
to the quality of butter

There is only one substitute for
a copper vat that is better than
it and that is the glass-enameled
vat. Glass-enameled equip-
ment is the coming equipment for
the creamery."

The Illustration

The Pfaudler Glass Enameled
Receiving Vat shown is six feet
long, three feet wide, two and a
half feet deep, and has a total
height of three and a half feet
Capacity 300 gallons.

It may, however, be had in
other sizes and capacities and
may be equipped with an agitator.

Prices on application.

Just Printed* "Pfoudler Dairy Equipment "
Write for your copy

The PFAUDLER Co.

ROCHESTER, N. Y.

NEW YORK

DETROIT

ST. LOOS

CHICAGO

SAN FRANCISCO

702

THE BUTTER INDUSTRY

Hansen's Lactic Ferment Culture
and Danish Butter Color

ARE USED ALL OVER THE WORLD WHERE THE FINEST BUTTER IS MADE.

Rennet Extract and liquid Cheese Color for factory use.

Rennet Tablets and Cheese Color Tablets for cheese making on the farm.

Junket Tablets for Cottage Cheese in every home.

CHR. HANSEN'S LABORATORY, Inc., Little Falls, N. Y.

' BRANCHES at Milwaukee. Wis. and Philadelphia. Pa.
FACTORIES also at Copenhagen. Denmark; Reading. England, and Toronto, Canada.

PERFECTION

BRAND

BUTTER COLOR

PURELY VEGETABLE
A TOP NOTCH BUTTER COLOR

MADE BY

The Preservaline Mfg. Co., Brooklyn, New York

Rice & Adams Hydraulic Can Washer

Produces clean, dry, sterile cans. Cleanses the inside, outside and
cover in one operation, leaving the can immaculately clean. No
more sour milk trouble when the R & A Hydraulic is used.

SEND FOR THE R 6- A CATALOG

RICE & ADAMS, INC.

166-182 Chandler Street Buffalo, New York

THE BUTTER INDUSTRY

703

Great Western
Cream Separator

Great Western equipped
with electric motor

Here is the cream separator
that has proved itself a profit
maker for 15 years. That's be-
cause it gets all the cream from
every skimming, day after day-
week after week.

With the Great Western the milk just
naturally runs down hill and out the bottom
outlet of the bowl, while the cream, being
lighter, comes to the top and goes out the
top outlet. The bottom outlet bowl sepa-
rates the cream from the milk just as
Nature does — and the Great Western is
the only disc bowl machine with
this desirable bottom outlet bowl
feature.

Correct Oiling System
Low Upkeep

The big expense on most separators is for
new bearings caused by the milk getting in
with the oil, thinning out the oil and thus
eating out the bearings. On the Great
Western the bottom outlet bowl
gives the milk a straight down-
ward course. It never runs over
and down the sides into the
spindle bearings of the pan base.

The Great Western is made in
six sizes, ranging from 300 to 900
Ibs. capacity per hour.

WRITE TODAY FOR COMPLETE DETAILS
AND LARGE ILLUSTRATED GREAT
WESTERN CATALOG.

Rock Island Plow Company

Factory and General Offices .. Rock Island, Illinois

BRANCHES:
Sioux Falls Minneapolis Indianapolis Omaha Kansas City Oklahoma City Dallas

704

THE BUTTER INDUSTRY

THERE IS A BEST IN EVERYTHING

Miller's Hydraulic Cutter

ESPECIALLY ADAPTED FOR CUTTING CONGEALED
MATERIAL SUCH AS BUTTER, OLEOMARGARINE,
SOAP. VEGETABLE OIL PRODUCTS, ETC., ETC.

SOLE MANUFACTURERS

L. C. Sharp Manufacturing Company

Plattsmouth, Nebraska, U. S. A.

THE; BUTTER INDUSTRY

705

Oar Stock of Chemicals and Chemical
Apparatus for the Butter and Milk
Laboratory is Very Complete

AMONG OTHER THINGS
WE CAN SUPPLY
PROMPTLY:-

Autoclavs
Counting Plates
Petrie Dishes
Staining Dishes
Incubators for Gas
Electric Incubators
Cover Glasses and Slides
Electric Moisture Ovens
Balance and Weights
Microscopes
Aluminum Dishes
Babcock Milk Testers
Etc.

Correspondence solicited
Catalogue on request

We will be glad to quote on your
laboratory requirements

E. H. Sargent & Co.

IMPORTERS, MAKERS AND DEALERS
IN CHEMICALS AND CHEMICAL
APPARATUS OF HIGH GRADE ONLY

1 55- 1 65 E. Superior Street Chicago, Illinois

706 THE: BUTTER INDUSTRY

Mr. P. M. Sharpies invented and perfected the first
American separator nearly forty years ago. Sharpies
machines today are manufactured in the oldest and
largest separator factories in America and are the
standard machines throughout the world.

Sharpies machines are 100% American: Owned by
Americans, manufactured by Americans, built by Ameri-
can labor of American material and preferred by
Americans.

Send for special catalogs on any of these machines in
which you may be interested: Sharpies Suction-feed
Cream Separator; Sharpies Factory Milk Separator;
Sharpies Whey Separator; Sharpies Super -Clarifier
and Sharpies Emulsifier.

The Sharpies Separator Co.

WEST CHESTER, PA.

BRANCHES: CHICAGO SAN FRANCISCO TORONTO

TH£ BUTTER INDUSTRY

707

For Sanitary Service Use

They are easy to clean and keep clean.
The most sanitary, and the most econom-
ically operated milk plants use them ex
clusively.

They are made of highest quality steel plate,
tinned and retinned. All seams are soldered
on the inside — perfectly smooth. No crev-
ices for milk particles to lodge in and sour.
You should see our extra heavy seamless
rim cover.

Send for Catalog No. 111.

Sturges & Burn Mfg. Co.

508 South Green Street

Chicago, 111.

TORSION BALANCE SCALES

THE ACCEPTED STANDARD FOR BUTTER MAKERS

Rapid- Sensitive- Accurate

No. 1700— Moisture Test Scale.

Extensively used for moisture
in butter. Percentage of
moisture (1 / 10# to 30#)
read direct from the beams
without calculation.

Thousands in daily use.

CREAM TEST SCALES

BUTTER PRINT SCALES

Christian Becker Analytical

Balances for Chemical

Laboratories.

TORSION BALANCE COMPANY

Factory— Jersey City, N. J. Main Office— 92 Reade St., New York, N. Y.

BRANCHES— 31 West Lake St., Chicago. 111.; 49 California St.. San Francisco, Cal.

THE BUTTER INDUSTRY

An AuTom^rfic System of
Temperature Corrfrol

PASTEURIZER

Typical application of a TAG Perfect
Automatic Temperature Controller and
Recording Thermometer attached to a
flash pasteurizer — both of which are es-
sential for efficient and economical
pasteurizing.

Simple-Efficient-Self-Paying

Improvement of flavor and keeping quality are the two

principal advantages of efficient pasteurization but — efficient pasteurization
can only be achieved by constantly maintaining a UNIFORM temperature
within the pasteurizers.

TAG Perfect Temperature Controllers offer a simple and
efficient solution because they automatically maintain the exact temperature
required — and are self-paying because they not only conserve considerable
labor and steam, but also improve the flavor and keeping quality of the butter.

TAG Recording Thermometers assure uniformity of results
because they accurately record every temperature operation, day or night,
thereby promoting efficiency among
the workmen in their efforts to pro-
duce praiseworthy charts.

Catalogs H-42S and H-345
will provide further informa-
tion of interest and value.

MFG.CO.

TEMPERATURE ENGINEERS
\J6-68 ThirtyThini St. Brooklyn. N.Y.

THE BUTTKR INDUSTRY

709

Precise Weights in

Packing
Butter

E Toledo
Predetermined
Weight Scale for
use in packing
butter in tubs is
especially de-
signed to prevent
both underweight
and over -allow-
ance for shrink-
age. In other
processes of weighing in the dairy, other types of Toledo
Springless Automatic Scales also render rapid, accurate
and efficient service.

WRITE FOR INFORMATION

Largest
Automatic
Scales
Manu-
facturers
in the
World

Toledo Scale Company

Toledo, Ohio

Canadian Factory: Windsor, Ontario

BRANCH OFFICES AND SERVICE STATIONS
in sixty-nine cities in the United States.

, Others in thirty-four foreign countries.

10

THE BUTTER INDUSTRY

Ask

Yourself

These

Questions

/Will not fine salt dissolve more
quickly than coarse salt?

Will not the fine salt which dis-
solves the quickest distribute
the most evenly?

Will not the fine salt which dis-
solves the quickest and dis-
tributes the most evenly be the
one best adapted to help you
control the moisture content of
your butter?

Will not this fine salt also be the
one least liable to cause mottles
or brine pockets in your butter?

Scientific tests and practical experience have proven
time and again that the Worcester Brand is the quickest
dissolving butter salt.

Its crystals are very fine in grain and remarkably
alike in shape and size. They afford the maximum of
surface on which the moisture in your butter can act.

Combined with these advantages the peculiarly sweet
and pleasant flavor of Worcester Salt makes it 100%
efficient.

That is why it is the favorite Brand of buttermakers
everywhere. They know

IT TAKES THE I
TO MAKE THE J

Worcester Salt Co.

LARGEST PRODUCERS OF HIGH GRADE SALT IN THE WORLD
New York

FACTORIES:

Silver Springs, N. Y.
Ecorse, Mich.

OFFICES:

Boston, Philadelphia
Chicago, Columbus, Detroit

THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE
STAMPED BELOW

AN INITIAL FINE OF 25 CENTS

WILL BE ASSESSED FOR FAILURE TO RETURN
THIS BOOK ON THE DATE DUE. THE PENALTY
WILL INCREASE TO SO CENTS ON THE FOURTH
DAY AND TO $1.OO ON THE SEVENTH DAY
OVERDUE.

oqr 21 t938

NOV 25 1932

u 1933

FEB 15

FEB 15 1933

JAN 251939

OCT 18 f9ft

24Nov'5W
131954 UP

LD 21-50w-8,-3

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRAK