= >• NMURE- STUDY

THE LIBRARY

OF

THE UNIVERSITY
OF CALIFORNIA

LOS ANGELES

BY MEADOW, GROVE AND
STREAM

* There was a time when meadow, grove, and ttream,
The earth, and every common tight,

To me did seem
ApparelTd in celestial light,
The glory and the freshness of a dream.

*****

And, O ye fountains, meadows, hills, and groves t

Forebode not any severing of our loves J

Yet in my heart of hearts I feel your might i

I only have relinquish' d one delight,

To live beneath your more habitual sway?

WORDSWORTH.

THE MEADOW BROOK.
From the painting by Frank Dickson.

By Meadow, Orove
and Stream

AN INTRODUCTION TO NATURE STUDY

By

HENRY HILTON BROWN, F.E.S.

WITH OVER ONE HUNDRED AND SEVENTY FIGURES IN BLACK AND
WHITE FROM DRAWINGS BY THE AUTHOR

London

THE RELIGIOUS TRACT SOCIETY
4, Bouverie Street, E.C.4

PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN BY
WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED, LONDON AND BECCLES.

1ST

PREFACE

ONE who proposes to add another
volume to the large library of works
on Nature Study, is expected to
tender an apology for his proposal. I, there-
fore, offer the following list of special features
of my little book in the hope that these will
be accepted as justifying its publication : —

1. It treats of those objects which first
attract the notice of a rambler — trees, wild
flowers, birds' eggs, beetles, grasshoppers,
dragonflies, two-winged flies, sawflies, bees,
butterflies, and moths.

2. Examples of each group have been
specially and carefully selected, which are
to be found in most parts of Britain, and may
be used as types of large numbers of similar
objects.

3. Each example is described as briefly as
possible, only those points being specified
which are likely to aid a beginner.

iv PREFACE

4. A drawing in black and white has been
made of each example, and where it is
desirable to do so, the figures are arranged
so that one plate gives a comprehensive view
of its subject.

5. A scale for measurement of the figures
has been furnished in those instances where
size is important.

6. A list of books, useful in further study,
with the prices, has been added at the end
of each chapter.

7. Practical instructions are given for col-
lecting and preserving the objects mentioned
in the book.

Throughout I have sought to impress the
oft-forgotten fact, that a naturalist is not a
mere collector of specimens, but one who
loves Nature, and observes her methods and
operations. I have placed in an Introduction
some graver thoughts on the subject, which
might not appeal to all readers, and were on
that account less suited for the body of the
work, but which are too important to be
omitted in a book of this sort.

H. H. B.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAP. PAGE

PREFACE iii

LIST OF OBJECTS DESCRIBED vii

INDEX TO PLATES xiii

INTRODUCTION .17

I. NATURE STUDY .... .28

II. TREES. .42

III. WILD FLOWERS 61

IV. BIRDS' EGGS 82

V. BEETLES, GRASSHOPPERS, ETC. ... 97

VI. DRAGONFLIES AND TWO-WINGED FLIES . . 116

VII. SAWFLIKS AND BEES 131

VIII. BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS . . . .143

IX. NOTEBOOKS AND COLLECTIONS . 167

LIST OF OBJECTS DESCRIBED

TREES. (CHAPTER II.)

PAOB

European oak — Quercus robur 47

Holm oak— Q. ilex 48

Common elm — Vlmus campestris 48

Wych elm — U. montana 48

Beech — Fagus sylvatica 49

Ash — Fraxinus excelsior 50

Alder — Alnus glutinosa 51

Hornbeam — Carpinus betulus 51

Hazel — Corylus avellana 51

Birch— Betula alia 52

Dwarf birch — B. nana 52

Sycamore or Great maple — A<w pseudo-platanus ... 52

Spanish or sweet chestnut — Castanea sativa .... 53

Horse chestnut — JEsculus hippocastanum .... 53

Mountain ash or Rowan — Pyrus aucuparia .... 54

Field maple — Acer campestre ...... 54

Lime or Linden — Tilia europxa ...... 55

Walnut — Juglans regia 55

Scots fir or pine — Pinus sylvestris 56

Larch — Larix europsea 56

White willow— Salix alba 57

Saugh or Sallow — S. caprea 57

Osier — S. viminalis 57

White poplar — Populus alba 58

Black poplar— P. nigra 58

Aspen — P. tremula 58

Lombardy poplar — P.fastigiata 58

viii LIST OF OBJECTS DESCRIBED

WILD FLOWERS. (CHAPTER III.)

PAGE

Daisy — Bellis perennis 65

Buttercup — Ranunculus bulbosus 65

Dandelion — Taraxacum officinale 65

Oxeye — Chrysanthemum leucanthemum .... 66

Corn marigold — 0. segetum 66

Corn feverfew — Matricaria inodora 67

Blue-bottle or cornflower — Centaurea cyanus. ... 67

Rose campion — Lychnis dioica 67

White campion — L. vespertina 67

Ragwort — Senecio jacob&a 68

Heartsease or Field pansy — Viola tricolor .... 68

Rest-harrow — Ononis repens 68

Scarlet pimpernel — Anagallis aruensis 69

Scarlet poppy — Papaver rhoeas 69

Common fumitory — Fumaria ojficinalis .... 69

Ribwort plantain — Plantago lanceolata .... 70

Field Scorpion-grass — Myosotis arvensis .... 70

Meadow vetchling — Lathyrus pratensis .... 70

Sorrel — Rumex acetosa 71

Sheep's sorrel — R. acetosella 71

Harebell — Campanula rotundifolia . . . , .72

Germander speedwell — Veronica chamadrys . 72

Sweetbriar rose — Rosa eglanteria 72

Dog rose — R. canina ........ 72

Herb Robert — Geranium robertianum * .... 73

Our Lady's Bedstraw — Galium verum ..... 73

Bird's-foot trefoil — Lotus corniculatus . 73

Wild strawberry — Frayaria vesca 74

Creeping cinquefoil — Potentilla reptans ... 74

Silver weed — P. anserina 74

Wood anemone — Anemone nemorosa ..... 75

Wood sorrel— Oxalis acetosella 75

Wild hyacinth — Endymion nutans 76

Foxglove — Digitalis purpurea 76

Primrose— Primula acaulis 76

Scottish primrose — P. scotica .... , 77

Sweet violet — Viola odorata .77

Dog violet — V. canina 77

LIST OF OBJECTS DESCRIBED ix

PAGE

Lesser celandine — Ranunculus ficaria 77

Wood cranesbill — Geranium sylvaticum . . . .78

Dovesfoot cranesbill — G. molle 78

Yellow tormentil— Potentilla sylvestris 78

Marsh marigold — Caltha palustris 78

Marsh forget-me-not — Myosotis scorpioidcs .... 79

Fine-leaved heath — Erica cinerea ...... 79

Rock cistufl — Helianthemum chamacistus .... 79

Sea-pink or Thrift— Statice maritima 79

Wild Thyme— Thymus serpyllum and T. chamxdrys . . 80

BIRDS' EGGS. (CHAPTER IV.)

Song thrush or Mavis — Turdus musicus . . . .86

Blackbird— T. merula 87

Robin redbreast — Erithacus rubecula ..... 87
Whinchat — Pratincola rubetra . . . . - . .87

Wren — Troglodytes parvulus 88

Blue titmouse — Parus caruleus .88

Skylark — Alauda arvensis 88

Chaffinch— Fringilla Calebs 89

House sparrow — Passer domesticus 89

Yellowhammer — Emberiza citrinella 90

Greenfinch — Ligurinus chloris 90

Starling — Sturnus vulgaris 90

Sparrow hawk — Accipiter nisus .91

Lapwing — Vanellus vulgaris ...... 93

Rook — Corvus frugilegus 93

Missel-thrush or Storm Cock — Turdus viscivorus ... 94

Hedge sparrow — Accentor modularis 94

Sedge warbler — Acrocephalus phragmatis .... 94

Meadow pipit — Anthus pratensis 95

Linnet — Linota cannabina 95

Swallow — Hirundo rustica 95

BEETLES. (CHAPTER V.)
(See also Appendix No. I. and Sheet I.)

Green Tiger-beetle — Cicindela campestris .... 100
Garden ground-beetle — Carabus nemoralis . . . .101
Plunger beetle — Dytiscus marginalis 101

x LIST OF OBJECTS DESCRIBED

PAGB

Devil'a coach-horse — Ocypus olens ... . 102

Burying beetle — Necrophorus ruspator ... .102

Dor or Watchman — Geotrupes stercorarius . . . 103

Common cockchafer — Melolontha vulgaris . . .103

Reddish skipjack — Athous hasmorrhoidalis . . . 104

Churchyard beetle — Slaps mucronata ... . 104

Silver-green weevil — Phyllobius argentatus . . . 105

Double-barred longhorn — Rhagium bifasciatum . .106

Sevenspot ladybird — Coccinella septempunctata . . 106

EARWIGS, COCKROACHES, AND GRASSHOPPERS.

(CHAPTER V.)
Common earwig — Forficula awricularia .... 108

Lesser earwig — Labia minor 109

Common Cockroach — Blatta orientalis 110

German cockroach — Phyllodromia germanica . . .111
Ship cockroach — Periplaneta americana . . . .111

Australian cockroach — P. australasix 112

Parallel grasshopper — Stenobothrus parallelus . . .112

Green grasshopper — S. viridulus 112

Two-shade grasshopper— S. tricolor 112

Spotted grasshopper — Gomphocerus maculatus . . .112

Pachytylus cinerascens 113

Migratory locust — P. migratorius 113

Two-spot grasshopper — Tettix bipunctatus . . . .113
Subulate grasshopper — T. subulatus 113

DRAGONFLIES. (CHAPTER VI.)

Lilellula quadrimaculata 120

L.depressa 120

Sympetrum scoticum 121

Cordulegaster anntdatus 121

jEschna juncea 121

^E. cyanea 121

Jschnura clegans 122

Enallagma cyathiyerum 122

Pyrrhosoma nymphula . . 122

TWO-WINGED FLIES. (CHAPTER VI.)

St. Mark's fly— Bibio mam 125

Piping gnat — Gvlex pipient 125

LIST OF OBJECTS DESCRIBED xi

PAGE

Herb cranefly — Tipula oleracea 126

Yellow gadfly— Tabanus sudeticus 126

Common cleg — Hxmatopota pluvialis 127

Leptis scolopacea 127

Gooseberry hoverer — Syrphus ribesti 127

Transparent hoverer — Volucella pellucens . . . .127

Drone fly — Eristalis pertinax 128

Bat-tailed maggot — E. tenax . . . . . .128

Blue flesh-fly or Bluebottle— CalUphora vomitoria . .128

House fly — Musca domestica 128

Bronze fly —Gymnochxta viridis 129

Dung fly — Scatophaga stercoraria 129

SAWFLIES AND SIRICES. (CHAPTER VII.)

Perineura solitaria 133

Dolerus pratensis . .134

Taxonus equiseti .134

Nematus septentrionalis 134

Nematus ribesii — (Gooseberry sawfly) . . . . .134

Cimbex femorata 135

AUafasdata 135

Sirex gigas — (Giant sirex) 136

S.juvencus— (Pine sirex) 136

BEES. (CHAPTER VII.)

Bombus terrestris 137

B.horforum 138

B.latreilldlus 138

B.lapidarius 138

B. lapponicus 139

B.pratorum 139

B. agrorum 139

B.venustus 139

B. smithianus 140

Psithyrus rupestris 140

Meyachile centuncularis . 140

Andrena aTbicans . 141

xii LIST OF OBJECTS DESCRIBED

BUTTERFLIES. (CHAPTER VIII.)

PAGJZ

Large white — Pieris brassicx 149

Small white— P. rapa 149

Green-veined white — P. napi 149

Orange-tip — Euchloe cardamines 149

Clouded yellow — Colias edusa 150

Small tortoiseshell— Vanessa urticx 151

Large tortoiseshell — V. polychloros 151

Bed admiral — Pyrameis atalanta 152

Grayling — Satyrus semele 152

Meadow brown — Epinephele janira 153

Small copper — Polyommatus pUstas 154

Dark green fritillary — Argynnis aglaia . . . .154
Pearl-bordered fritillary — Brenthis euphrosyne . . .155
Small pearl-bordered fritillary — B. selene . . . .155

Scotch Argus — Erebia xthiops 156

Large heath — Ccenonympha typhon 157

Small heath — O. pamphilus 157

Common blue — Lycana icariu 157

Green hairstreak — Callophrys rubi 157

MOTHS. (CHAPTER VIII.)

Death'B-head— Acherontia atropos 158

Tiger — Arctia caia 159

Clouded buff— Nemeophila russula 160

Wood tiger — N. plantaginis 160

Ruby tiger — Phragmatdbia fuliyinosa . . . . .160

White ermine —Spilosoma menthastri 161

Silk — Boiribyx mori 161

Buff ermine — S. lubricipeda 161

Emperor — Saturnia pavonia 161

Oak eggar— Lasiocampa quercus 162

Vapourer — Orgyia antiqua .163

PUBB — Dicranura vinula 164

Kentish glory — Endromit versicolora 164

INDEX TO PLATES

PLATE I. LEAVES OF TREES.

PAGE

PAGE

1. Oak .

. 47

8. Birch

52

2. Elm .

. 48

9. Sycamore .

52

3. Beech

. 49

10. Spanish Chestnut

53

4. Ash .

. 50

11. Horse Chestnut .

53

5. Alder

. 51

12. Rowan or Mountain

6. Hornbeam

. 51

Ash .

64

7. Hazel

. 51

PLATE II

. LEAVES OF TREES.

1. Field Maple .

. 54

7. White Willow .

57

2. Lime

. 55

8. Saugh or Sallow

57

3. Walnut .

. 55

9. Osier. . .

57

4. Dwarf Birch .

. 52

10. White Poplar .

58

5. Scots Fir .

. 56

11. Black Poplar .

58

6. Larch

. 56

12. Aspen

58

PLATE

III. WILD-FLOWERS.

1. Oxeye

. 66

7. Wood Anemone

75

2. Corn-flower

. 67

8. Wood Sorrel

75

3. Hose Campion .

. 67

9. Wild Hyacinth .

76

4. Ragwort .

. 68

10. Tormentil.

78

5. Heartsease

. 68

11. Foxglove (reduced) .

76

6. Rest-harrow

. 68

12. Harebell .

72

XIV

INDEX TO PLATES

PLATE IV. WILD-FLOWERS.

1. Primrose .

PAGE

76 7. Germander Speedwell

PAGE

72

2. Sweet Violet

77

8. Scarlet Pimpernel .

69

3. Lesser Celandine

77

9. Herb Robert

73

4. Wood Cranesbill

78

10. Fumitory .

69

5. Sweetbriar Hose

72

11. Bedstraw .

73

6. Marsh Marigold

78

12. Ribwort Plantain

70

PLATE V.

WILD-FLOWERS.

1. Bird'sfoot Trefoil

73

7. Meadow Vetchling .

70

2. Wild Strawberry

74

8. Creeping Cinquefoil .

74

3. Marsh Forget-me-not .

78

9. Rock Cistus

79

4. Corn Feverfew .

67

10. Sea Pink or Thrift .

79

5. Corn Marigold .

66

11. Wild Thyme .

80

6. Fine-leaved Heath .

79

12. Sorrel

71

PLATE VI. BIRDS' EGGS.

1. Song Thrush .

86

7. Skylark .

88

2. Blackbird .

87

8. Chaffinch .

89

3. Redbreast .

87

9. House Sparrow .

89

4. Whinchat.

87

10. Yellowhammer .

90

5. Wren

88

11. Greenfinch

90

6. Blue Titmouse .

88

12. Starling .

90

PLATE VII.

BIRDS' EGGS.

1. Sparrow Hawk .

91

6. Sedge Warbler .

94

2. Lapwing .

93

7. Meadow Pipit .

95

3. Rook

93

8. Linnet

95

4. Missel-thrush .

94

9. Swallow .

95

6. Hedge Sparrow .

94

PLATE

VIII

. BEETLES.

1. Green Tiger-beetle .

100

8. Reddish Skipjack .

104

2. Garden Ground-beetle

101

9. Churchyard Beetle .

104

3. Plunger Beetle .

101

10. Silvergreen Weevil .

105

4. Devil's Coach-horse .

102

11. Double-barred Long-

5. Burying Beetle .

102

horn .

106

6. Dor Beetle

103

12. Sevenspot Ladybird .

106

7. Cockchafer .

103

INDEX TO PLATES

XV

PLATE IX. GRASSHOPPERS, ETC.

1. Lesser Earwig .
2. Common Earwig
3. Common Cockroach
(male) . . .
4. Common Cockroach
(female)
5. German Cockroach .

109
108

110

110
111

6. Parallel Grasshopper .
7. Ditto (female) .
8. Two-spot Grasshopper
9. Spotted Grasshopper .
10. Migratory Locust
11. Pachytylus cinera-
scens . . .

112
112
113
112
113

113

PLATE X.

DRAGONFLIES.

1. Libellula quadrimacu-
lata .
2. Sympetrum scoticum
3. Cordulegaster annula-
tus
4. JEechna juncea .

120
121

121
121

5. Ischnura elegans
6. Enallagma cyathige-
rum
7. Pyrrhosoma nymph-
ula

122
122
122

PLATE XI. TWO-WINGED FLIES.

1. St. Mark's Fly .
2. Gnat (magnified)
3. Herb Cranefly (re-
duced) .
4. Yellow Gadfly .
5. Common Cleg .
6. Leptis scolopacea

125
125

126
126
126
127

7. Gooseberry Hoverer .
8. Transparent Hoverer .
9. Eristalis pertinax
10. Bluebottle.
11. Bronze Fly
12. Dung Fly .

127
127

128
128
129
129

PLATE XII. SAWFLIES AND SIRICES.

1. Perineura solitaria .
2. Dolerus pratensis
3. Taxonus equiseti
4. Nematus septentrion-
alis .

133
134
134

134

5. Nematus ribesii.
6. Cimbex femorata
7. Abiafasciata .
8. Sirex gigas
9. Sirex juvencus .

134
135
135
136
136

XVI

INDEX TO PLATES

PLATE XIII. BEES.

1. Bombus terreetris

2. Bombus hortorum

3. Bombus latreillellus

4. Bombus lapidarius

5. BombuB lapponicuB

6. Bombus pratorum

7. Bombus agrorum

137
138
138
138
139
139
139

8. Bombus venustus

9. Bombus Bmithianus .

10. Psithyrus rupestris .

11. Megachile centuncu-

laris

12. Andrena albicana

PLATE XIV. BUTTERFLIES.

1. Large White .

2. Small White .

3. Green-veined White

149
149
149

4. Orange-tip

5. Clouded yellow .

139
140
140

140
141

149
150

PLATE XV.

1. Small TortoiBesheli

2. Red Admiral .

3. Grayling .

BUTTERFLIES.

150
151
152

4. Meadow Brown . . 153

5. Small Copper . . 154

PLATE XVI. BUTTERFLIES.
1. Dark Green Fritil- 4. Pearl-bordered Fritil-

lary . . .154
2. Pearl-bordered Vritil-
lary . 155
3. Small Pearl -bordered

lary (closed) .
5. Scotch Argus .
6. Large Heath
7. Small Heath

. 155
. 156
. 157
. 157

(closed)

. 155

8. Green Hairstreak

. 157

PLATE XVII.

MOTHS.

1. Tiger
2. Ditto (larva;
3. Clouded Buff

. 159
. 159
. 160

4. Wood Tiger
5. Ruby Tiger
6. White Ermine .

. 160
. 160
. 161

PLATE XVIII.

MOTHS.

1. Emperor .
2 OakEggar
3. Vapourer .

. 161
. 162
. 163

4. Puss.
5. Kentish Glory .

. 164
. 164

BY MEADOW, GROVE AND
STREAM

INTRODUCTION

ON a bright day in the early summer of
last year, I was exploring a narrow
glen in the Southern Ochils. It was
little more than a cleft, separating two spurs
of the hills, between which it ran inwards and
upwards for nearly a mile. A mountain
stream dashed down it in headlong and
impetuous course, and a well-made footpath
wound up it into the heart of the range. It
is a circumstance connected with this path
that has led me to mention the valley in
this place.

About halfway up the glen, the stream
was joined by another from the right bank.
At this point the footpath divided. One
portion held upwards through a delightful
environment of golden-green oak, silver birch

1 8 INTRODUCTION

and fern-like rowan, all in the fresh foliage of
the season. Many wild-flowers gleamed among
the grass, and numerous birds sang sweetly in
the branches. The other portion held down-
wards, passing over a bridge, and followed the
channel of the second stream through a pass
in the damp, dark rock, only a few yards in
width. The sunshine seldom reached it, and
in consequence the place was chilly on the
hottest day. Here were no pleasant surround-
ings. Gloomy rocks replaced the graceful
foliage, and granite chips the gay flowers.
There were no bird-songs. The water, which
gleamed in the sunlight beside the one
path, ran in darkness beside the other. Both
routes attained the same goal — the free air
and light on the mountain above — but they
led through almost opposite conditions during
this part of their course.

I am now far away from the Ochils, but
the memory of these two paths has come back
to me, and has suggested an analogy which
may form an appropriate introduction to this
little book. As there were two routes to the
hills, passing through the glen, a higher and
a lower, so there are two ways of approaching

NATURE AND SCIENCE 19

the study of Nature, a superior and an inferior.
It is in our option to choose either the one
or the other, but, like the Ochil paths, our
experiences in each will be very different. It
is, therefore, proper that we should consider
well before we make a selection.

We may choose, on the one hand, to
regard Nature as being exclusively an exhibi-
tion of the operations of natural law, taking
Science for our sole guide and counsellor. If
we do so, we shall find that, although she has
stored up many curious and wonderful facts,
and has made many strange and instructive
discoveries, Science is, nevertheless, a cold
and formal instructress. She is not even
omniscient, for there is no course of investiga-
tion, which we can follow in her company,
where she does not soon reach a closed door,
of which she cannot find the key. * I do not
know,' is the constant reply of the honest
scientist. We shall certainly make progress
in knowledge, but our journey will be cold
and cheerless. It will be not without deep
interest, and not without abundant food for
thought, but it will have little to stimulate
hope, and less to rouse our drooping spirits.

20 INTRODUCTION

It will appeal to the head rather than to
the heart.

We may, on the other hand, choose to
regard Nature as being a revelation of a
personal God, and of His goodness, love, and
power. The Psalmist, in the text which I
have placed on my title-page, seems to have
had in view -the mental processes by which
men are led thus to contemplate creation.
They look upon all created things as the
works of the Lord ; they see that these works
are great ; they take pleasure in them ; they
seek to know them. Nature, in this way,
becomes to us not only a curious and enter-
taining study, but a volume in which our
Heavenly Father has written for our instruc-
tion a revelation of Himself, second only in
importance and precision to that which He
has given us in the Bible.

If, then, we take God's Word for our guide,
and Science as our companion, we shall see in
each operation of Nature an expression of the
will of the Creator, and, while we advance in
knowledge as certainly and rapidly as by the
other way, our journey is cheered and our
steps encouraged by a hopefulness and

NATURE STUDY 21

brightness, which were entirely absent from
that method of study.

To complete the analogy, I may point out
that both methods of study will, no doubt,
under God's providence, ultimately lead to a
knowledge of the truth, just as both paths in
the Ochils led to the light and air of the
mountain-side ; but the routes differ in many
respects. Nature study, enlightened by the
divine revelation, differs as greatly from
Nature study, enlightened only by the rays of
Science, as the path amidst trees, flowers, and
brightness differed from that amidst rock,
stones, and gloom. And the lower way will
only attain the truth by turning upwards to
join the higher way.

I trust that no one will be so unjust as to
twist my words into a minimizing of the
results of scientific investigation, or a denial
of the right of men to study the mysteries of
the material creation. I have been a humble
student of Science and observer of Nature for
over thirty years. I should be sorry to think,
and certainly do not think, that the time I
have devoted to these pursuits has been
wasted. Nature study . has been to me a

22 INTRODUCTION

source of pure and genuine pleasure, and a
solace in periods of trouble and vexation.
But I ask students of Nature to conduct their
studies with reverence and humility; with
reverence, by remembering the Creator
when they are studying the creation ; and
with humility, by remembering the past
history of science, when they are tempted to
make dogmatic assertions. Most of the
theories of only a century ago are either
modified or exploded to-day, and many of the
' fairy tales of science,' of that date, are now
regarded as fairy tales indeed.

I make my request with more confidence
from the fact that the best and most enduring
work has been done by naturalists, who have
conducted their researches in the spirit I
desiderate. The Creator, who made man and
his surroundings, implanted in his mind
faculties of perception, comparison, analysis,
and judgment. The scientist, who applies
these faculties to the observation and study of
Nature, is both exercising a right and fulfilling
a duty, so long as he keeps within the bounds
of humility and reverence. Scientia means
' knowledge,' but not necessarily 'fulness

DESIGN IN NATURE 23

of knowledge.' The true scientist is aware of
his limitations, preserves an open mind, and
is equally willing to learn the true or to unlearn
the false.

It is thus not only an amusement, but a
duty, in our rambles afield, to exercise our
powers of observation, and to reflect intelli-
gently upon what we see and hear. If we do
this in the right way, we cannot fail to be
struck with the fact that unmistakable traces
of design exist in all parts of Nature. Things
are perfectly adapted to the purposes which
they have to serve. This will be seen, not
only in adaptation to environment, which
might possibly be the effect of development
under some natural law, but also in adapta-
tion of structure, which could not conceivably
be self-produced. These indications have been
recognized for a long period, and furnish the
materials out of which theologians have built
that famous proof of the existence of a G-od,
which is familiarly called the ' argument from
design.' One of the most exhaustive, and
certainly the most eloquent, exposition of
this argument is that of Dr. Paley, in his
Natural Theology. He sums it up in these

24 INTRODUCTION

memorable words : ' The marks of design are
too strong to be gotten over. Design must
have had a designer. That designer must
have been a person. That person is God.'

In our days there is much talk about
Nature study. Educational authorities are
urging the propriety of children being taught
to observe and note the facts of natural
history as exhibited in the districts where
they dwell. I highly approve of both children
and adults being encouraged to devote more
attention to these facts, but I cannot shut
my eyes to two grave dangers which may
result from zeal in such work, not tempered
with discretion. The first and least of those
dangers is the risk that if we set children
in every part of Great Britain to collect
specimens of animals and plants, without
careful direction, many rare species of both
will be exterminated. This is a very real
peril, and has attracted the attention of
scientific societies. The remedy must be
sought in thorough instruction as to the
sanctity of life, and the superiority of
observing over collecting, as a means of
acquiring knowledge.

NATURE AND REVELATION 25

The second and greater risk is that we
teach materialism, and, while impressing
upon young people the beauty and interest
of their surroundings, point only to natural
causes. This danger is to be combated by
taking care that Nature study shall be
pursued under a sure conviction that Nature
is but one part of the divine revelation, and
has to be studied along with the other part,
which is contained in the Bible. We ought
to bear in mind the analogy which I founded
on the two paths in the Ochils, and follow
that way which leads upwards, in the sun-
shine, amidst verdant trees and many-hued
flowers.

In the succeeding chapters of this book
I have sought, so far as I was able, to guard
against the first of these dangers. I have
again and again impressed upon the lover
of Nature that it is better, and generally
more profitable to himself, to observe and
note natural phenomena, than to make collec-
tions of dead and dried specimens ; that the
sanctity of life, in its lower not less than
in its higher forms, has to be respected ; and
that, where a collection must be made for

26 INTRODUCTION

purposes of study, it is improper to needlessly
multiply specimens of individual species.
These lessons, if taken to heart in the way
every true naturalist should do, ought to
prevent those who read them from indulging
in a wholesale destruction of plants or animals.
I did not, however, feel at liberty, in the
pages of the volume itself, to introduce
questions of religion, as safeguards against
the second and graver danger, to which
allusion has been made. I did not deem
those pages a suitable place for such remarks ;
but I hope that the Introduction, defective
as I know it is, may be accepted as a sincere
effort to supply what is lacking in the text
under this head.

With these explanations, and this parting
aspiration, I leave my readers to pursue the
study of Nature, each in his own way, finally
commending it to them in the words of the
Reverend John Richard Vernon, Prebendary
of Wells, who was himself a most careful and
loving student of Nature, and a most accom-
plished interpreter of her parables. The
words will be found in the Introduction to
The Last Load Home, a work of his mature

NATURE REMAINS 27

experience : c Fashions in literature come and
go ; questions rise and are answered, or, it
may be, are wisely relegated for answer to the
great day of the coming of the Master ; tastes
alter, and methods of teaching change ; yet
Nature remains unaltered, and her fields will
still bear harvests for reapers, and furnish
grain for gleaners. Still there will be found
ever new interest in the " parables of Nature,"
and " earth's many voices " will still have lore
profound and sweet to the child-heart and to
the poet-mind.'

CHAPTER I
NATURE STUDY

'TVTATURE,' says Carlyle, 'is a volume
I ^ written in celestial hieroglyphs, in
the true Sacred- writing ; of which
even Prophets are happy that they can read
here a line and there a line.' A similar
thing was said, long before his time, in a
little book called, Some fruits of Solitude,
attributed to the founder of Pennsylvania :
'The world is certainly a great and stately
volume of natural history, and may be not
improperly styled the hieroglyphics of a
better. But, alas, how very few leaves of
it do we seriously turn over.'

The one writer complains of the difficulty
of reading; the other of the indifference of
the readers. Might we not turn over the
leaves of the Book of Nature more frequently,
and with greater profit to ourselves and

OBJECTS AND NAMES 29

others, if we had the key to the hieroglyphs,
and some knowledge of the Sacred- writing ?
When the subject of a volume is a mystery,
and the greater part of it is written in an
unknown tongue, what advantage do we
derive by listlessly turning over its leaves?
Why should we expect the Book of Nature
to be different? Is it reasonable to ask
men to take an interest in what they do
not understand ? While Nature is absolutely
strange to us, we take little pleasure in its
parables, its lessons, or even its beauties.

Apart from this, observations have no
value, if we are unable to attach names to
what we have seen. A child, when he is
attracted by anything of which he does not
know the name, invents one for himself.
He feels the necessity for giving names to
things. When our senses bring to our
notice an external object, and our reason
tells us that it differs from anything we have
seen before, the perception is only impressed
upon our memory if we attach some title
to the thing observed, by which we may
know it again. We perceive thousands of
objects, which pass away and leave no

o

30 NATURE STUDY

impression upon our mind because of our
failure to give them names. If we observe
that a certain tree is infested by some insect
unknown to us, and we note, ' Observed a
tree infested by a green insect,' what value
has such a note for ourselves, or any other
person? But if we can name the tree, and
still more if we can name the insect, our
observation may be extremely useful.

It is my design in this book to enable
the reader to give names to things. Infor-
mation about those things is added, but the
first object I have set before me is to assist
in identifying and naming some of the objects
which form illustrations in the Book of
Nature. I introduce the reader to a number
of plants and animals, which he ought to
know at the outset of his study of Nature.
They are but a handful compared with the
endless variety of known species, and still
more insignificant if we consider the vast
number which are probably unknown to
science, and yet they include a large part
of those which will catch his eye in his first
rambles afield.

Two facts are remarkable in Nature study

HOW TO BEGIN 31

— the comparatively small number of objects
which are observed by the untrained eye, and
the rapidity with which forms seem to multiply,
as we direct our attention to searching for
them. There are few parts of the British
Isles in which less than a score of different
butterflies are to be seen at one season or
another, and yet, when visiting a fresh locality,
I have been told by intelligent residents that
there were only two or three in their neighbour-
hood. Their eyes were unaccustomed to
distinguish, and they saw no difference in
the butterflies unless they were of distinct
hues — white, brown, or blue.

The true way to begin Nature study is to
go afield with notebook and collecting-boxes ;
to observe as many and as varied objects as
you can ; to learn to name what you see ; to
recollect facts which you observe; and to
verify and extend your observations by a
perusal of books, which have been written by
other observers who have preceded you. It
is my desire to aid you in forming the
habit of observation, in making the neces-
sary collections, and in naming your first
specimens.

32 NATURE STUDY

When you have done this, I refer you to
the books named in the list at the end of each
chapter. These lists do not pretend to he
complete, neither do I profess that the books
chosen are necessarily the best. They are
books which I have myself found useful, and
I have selected works at various prices, in
order that each reader may supply himself
according to the measure of his purse. By
this method, what the reader sees and notes
will be stored up in his memory, and he will
acquire, almost without effort, a familiarity
with the pages of the Book of Nature which
will lead him to the hidden mysteries of the
hieroglyph, if his inclination and perseverance
carry him so far.

It must not be concealed that the subject,
in its present condition, is an immense one.
A complete knowledge of it is unattainable by
a single person. There was once a time when
a man might claim that he knew all natural
history, without being set down by his hearers
as a liar. One brain could then comprehend
everything that was known about animals,
plants, and minerals.

That time has gone for ever. No one dare

ON SPECIALIZING 33

now profess a thorough knowledge of more
than part of the subject, and that often a
comparatively limited section. A humorous,
yet truthful, statement of this fact occurs in
The Poet at the Breakfast Table. The poet
was seated next a man whose profession or
occupation he was unable to guess. A chance
remark showed that he was interested in
insects, and the poet asked whether he was an
entomologist. The answer was emphatic and
unexpected, 'Not quite so ambitious as that,
sir. I should like to put my eyes on the
individual entitled to that name ! A society
may call itself an Entomological Society, but
the man who arrogates such a broad title as
that to himself, in the present state of science,
is a pretender, a dilettante, an impostor ! '
Asked what was his proper title, he replied that
he was sometimes called a ' coleopterist,' but
' scarabeeist ' was the description he claimed.
His life's work was confined to the genus
Scarabaeus, and he was content to let his
reputation rest upon his labours in that single
division of the beetles. There are many men
to-day, whose field of study is even more
limited than this.

34 NATURE STUDY

The subject has been vastly extended since
Dr. Holmes wrote TJie Poet at the Breakfast
Table. To take a single instance, there are
now known to science about a quarter of a
million of insects. As that number conveys
no distinct meaning, I shall express the idea
in another form. It is reasonable to suppose
that ten insects might be described upon one
page. An account of 250,000 would, in that
case, occupy 25,000 pages. These pages,
bound in books of 500 each, would make fifty
large volumes. This would be a huge work,
and yet it would contain nothing but descrip-
tion of the baldest character, would omit all
notice of classification, habits, instincts, and
the other matters which impart life and
interest to the study, and would deal with
only one group of animals !

The immensity of the subject compels
specialization, but there is danger in carrying
this process too far. The specialist is apt to
lose all sense of proportion, and to assign to
the subject upon which he is engaged an
importance which it does not deserve. There
is also the risk that, recognizing the impossi-
bility of one man comprehending all that is

A BROAD FOUNDATION 35

known about natural history, we may over-
look the necessity for the student acquiring a
general acquaintance with the relations of the
several portions of the subject. The scientist
can afford to devote his attention to one
branch, and to become a specialist in it, but
the ordinary student of Nature must aim
at the acquisition of at least a moderate
knowledge of the main divisions.

Strictly speaking, natural history compre-
hends all the sciences which treat of animals,
vegetables, and minerals, but the student at
the outset may confine his attention to the
first two groups. These comprehend a great
variety of forms — beasts, birds, reptiles and
fishes ; insects, spiders, shellfish, worms, and
lower organisms ; flowers, shrubs, and trees ;
mosses, ferns, fungi, and seaweeds. Those
forms have been arranged in a definite
sequence — in sub-kingdoms, classes, orders,
families and genera ; but no perfect system
has yet been devised, and there is much
diversity of opinion among experts.

When we try to define the system of
Nature, we are like men set to put together
a huge dissected puzzle, the parts of which

36 NATURE STUDY

have been thrown into a stream, and carried
by the current into a wide lake. The men
who are trying to reconstruct the puzzle,
do not recover all the pieces at once ; some
parts have been lost in their passage to the
lake ; others are chipped and altered. These
difficulties render the reconstruction of the
puzzle an almost impossible task, and so it
is in arranging plants and animals. We do
not yet know all the species in existence ;
some have died out ; others have probably
modified their specific characters in the
lapse of ages. The consequence is that we
have to work with tentative schemes of
classification, full of anomalies and ex-
ceptions, and liable to constant alteration
as our knowledge extends. Such as they
are, however, they are indispensable, if we
wish to thread our way through the maze
of forms which exist in various parts of
the globe.

Much may be learned, and, indeed, must
be learned, from books ; but personal observa-
tion is at once the most agreeable and the
surest mode of acquiring a knowledge of
plants and animals. In the course of a few

KNOWLEDGE GROWS 37

rambles afield, using one's eyes and ears,
and prepared by some general introduction
to perceive intelligently what is passing
around one, acquaintance with Nature grows
rapidly and pleasantly.

One soon learns to distinguish ordinary
objects, and each step which is gained
leads to the knowledge of other things. The
store of information increases in a sort of
arithmetical progression. Each person will
naturally adopt the manner of observation
which best suits himself, but I shall, in this
place, give one example, partly for the sake
of showing how to set about the work, but
more particularly for the sake of illustrating
the distinction between several large groups
of living creatures, which, perhaps more
frequently than any others, are likely to come
in the way of the observer.

Let us suppose that we are walking in
a country lane, and stop to raise a flat stone
in a cool, damp, moss-grown corner. Suppose
further, as is probable, that four creatures
are disturbed by our action — a woodlouse
(called a ' slater '), a spider, a centipede, and an
earwig. They are not superficially attractive

38 NATURE STUDY

creatures, but that does not affect our
purpose. We should no doubt remark that
a great variety of insects had harboured
under that stone, but this remark would be
incorrect. There would be only one insect
among them — the earwig. What makes the
combination interesting is that each of those
little creatures represents a whole class.

Proceeding to examine them in detail,
and directing our attention to the general
construction of their bodies and the character
of their organs of locomotion, we see that,
while they have much in common, they
have many points of difference. We might
tabulate our observations thus : —

(1) The woodlouse has no distinct sepa-
ration of the body into head, thorax, and
abdomen, has fourteen legs, and no wings.

(2) The spider has the head and thorax
in one piece, clearly separated from the
abdomen, has eight legs, and no wings.

(3) The centipede has a distinct head, and
the rest of the body composed of nearly equal
divisions, has thirty legs, and no wings.

(4) The earwig has a distinct separation
of the body into head, thorax, and abdomen,

THE CHARM OF NOVELTY 39

has six legs, and four wings, the upper pair
forming a cover to the lower pair.

These points are sufficient, in a broad
and general way, to assign the creatures to
their respective classes — the woodlouse to the
Crustacea, the spider to the Arachnida, the
centipede to the Myriapoda, and the earwig
to the Insecta. In such observations, and
most others which the beginner will make,
there is nothing new. Everything he notes
at first will have been already noted by some
one else ; but to himself his own observations
will have the force of novelty, and when he
reads the notes of others, he will appreciate
and remember better what they say, in respect
that he has witnessed the facts for himself.

Kambles afield! What a pleasant train
of thought is suggested by these words to a
dweller amid arid streets, who has at a former
period resided in the country ! His mind is
carried back to scenes once familiar, but now
difficult to recall. He roves in imagination
over a chess-board of fields, in which the
squares are not black and white, but green
of many shades, chequered with white, yellow,
blue, and scarlet; or by the sides of rivers,

40 NATURE STUDY

where the tall willow-herb raises its pink
spikes, and the flags and lilies sway in the
current, while the water-hens struggle to
hide themselves in the green recesses; or
through woods under the arched branches
of beeches and oaks, and the more sombre
foliage of pines and firs rising out of deep
heather; or on mountains, clothed to the
summit with heather and granite chips, or
a pastoral covering of verdant grass. If
the appreciation of these beauties is not
inborn it certainly needs little training to
acquire some measure of it ; but the beauty
and pleasantness cannot be fully compre-
hended unless one is able to name a few
at least of the plants and animals which
impart variety to the scene, and to associate
with them some facts respecting their nature
or uses.

Such knowledge adds greatly to our
interest when we visit for the first time a
region at a distance from our home. We
are then enabled not merely to admire the
change of scenery and environment, but to
compare intelligently the trees and flowers,
birds and insects, of the place at which we

THE LEARNER REPAID 41

have arrived, with those of the district we
have left. Without such knowledge we
should perceive in many cases little difference
between them, although there really was a
wide divergence, and we should miss a con-
stant source of amusement and instruction.

These are some of the fruits of Nature
study. There is a gain, deeper and more
important than any of them, which, as I
have discussed it at some length in the
Introduction to this book, I shall here merely
indicate, and leave it to the meditation of
my thoughtful readers. The student of
Nature, who approaches the study in an
attentive and observant spirit, will increase
daily in knowledge and reverence. He will
learn more and more of the minute detail
and perfection of structure which exist in
parts of the creation hitherto deemed by him
unimportant, or even repulsive, and he will
in time be able to repeat with comprehension
the words of St. Augustine, Deus magnus
in maximis, maximus in minimis : God is
great in the very big things, but greatest
in the very little.

CHAPTEE II
TREES

I HAVE chosen trees as my first subject,
because they are prominent objects in
almost every place. In rambles afield
and in rambles citywards, trees are features
of the scene which at once attract our
notice. Indeed, owing to the general desire
for public parks in towns, and the strict
preservation of game in counties, it is usually
easier for inhabitants of the former than
for dwellers in the latter, to acquire
a knowledge of the various sorts of
trees.

All our lifetime these beautiful creations
are more or less about us, and intimately
associated with us. In youth, it is our
delight to climb them and to swing upon
their branches; in after years our esteem is
as warm, if its source is less athletic. We

THE CHANGING YEAR 43

are fond of them for their beauty and
their associations. They give the earliest
indication of the waxing, as well as of the
waning, of the year. A faint and delicately
green efflorescence, spreading over the copse,
assures us of the reviving spring — the return
of Persephone from Dis ; an auburn flush,
tinging the woodlands, heralds the chilly
approach of winter — the recall of Persephone
to her dismal home.

'Come, my beloved, let us go forth into
the field; let us lodge in the villages. Let
us get up early to the vineyards ; let us see
if the vine flourish, whether the tender grape
appear, and the pomegranates bud forth.'
One cannot hear this passage without being
reminded of the regularity with which the
trees announce the changes of the seasons.
We ought, however, to remember that the
whole panorama of the reviving year, with
its beauty and gladness, is a pleasure we
owe to our temperate climate. Dwellers
in the tropics do not enjoy it to the same
extent. No winter desolation there over-
takes the forests, and therefore no spring
joy ensues ; here, the reclothing of the trees

44 TREES

forms a large part of the loveliness of the
springtime. It is pleasant to watch the
green covering spread over the bare wood-
lands, and to note how each kind of tree has
its fixed period and manner of leafing. Then,
as time passes, the leafy canopy grows
denser. At first, the fresh, tender leaves
permit the sunlight to filter through with
little diminution of its brightness. The air
beneath the trees, is, on a sunny day, full of
gold. As the green deepens, and the leaves
are rendered opaque by dust, the screen
becomes impervious. The wood is then

'. . . a pillarM shade
High overarch'd, and echoing walls between.'

So it continues throughout the summer, and
well into the autumn. Gradually the thick-
ening and withering process proceeds. More
or less of russet, brown, orange, even scarlet,
shows among the foliage. At length a keen
frost chills the last spark of vitality, and
all is ready for the closing scene. As Hood
quaintly sings —

• Boughs are daily rifled by the gusty thieves,
And the book of Nature getteth short of leaves.'

PROVERBIAL WISDOM 45

Steadily the stripping process goes on, until
the violent gales after the equinox finish the
work, and leave the wood ' pillared ' indeed,
but a ' shade ' no more.

Trees are not often mentioned in pro-
verbial wisdom. The Irish have a saying
that there is no tree but has rotten wood
enough to burn it — reminding us of the
smouldering fire of evil propensities within
us ; and the Scots have another to the effect
that 'it's a gude tree that has neither knap
nor gaw,' — the meaning of which proverb
is somewhat similar. Then we have Pope's
well-worn couplet —

1 'Tis education forms the common mind :
Just as the twig is bent the tree's inclined.'

neither of which propositions is invariably
true. Although somewhat neglected in
proverbs, trees have not been overlooked
by those who directed the beginnings of
superstition. In ancient times woods were
the temples of infant religions. In many
passages of Scripture we are told of
1 groves ' which were the scene of idolatrous
rites. Even particular trees were sacred to
special divinities. Thus, Jupiter claimed the

46 TREES

oak ; Venus the myrtle ; Apollo the laurel ;
Cybele the pine ; Hercules the poplar ;
Bacchus the ivy and vine. There is pro-
bably no lover of sylvan glades who has not
felt how natural is the association between
visible trees and invisible dryads. The imagi-
nation readily peoples a wood with unseen
beings.

Passing now to more practical matters,
I ask, what do we understand by a * tree ' ?
I answer that when we speak of a ' tree,' we
mean a plant which attains a height of not
less than twenty feet, and has a stem which
is composed of permanent wood. Trees vary
greatly in general shape, in the trend of their
branches, and in the character of their leaves,
flowers, and fruit. Many have a distinct
facieSy so that one can recognize them afar
off. Conifers may be distinguished from
hardwoods at a distance of miles. The most
convenient means of identification, however,
will be found in the stem, leaves, and fruit.
In the plates of this book, only the leaves will
be drawn, and it is right to observe that,
although most of these have been drawn as
nearly to the natural size as possible, it has

PLATE 1.

LEAVES OF TREES.

No L

1 Oak. 2. Elm. 3. Beech. 4 Ash 5. Alder 6. Hornbeam.

PLATE 1.

LEAVES OF TREES.

7.

7. Hazel. 8. Birch. 9. Sycamore. 10. Spanish Chestnut.
1 1 . Horse Chestnut. 1 2. Rowan, or Mountain Ash.

THE OAK 47

been necessary to reduce some of them, other-
wise I should have had to be content with
fewer examples.

Having now spoken of trees in general, I
shall proceed to consider the individual
species mentioned in the plates.

First of these is the European Oak
(Quercus robur) Plate I., Fig. 1— ' sole king
of forests all,' as Spenser calls it. Thick,
rough bark, egg-shaped acorns, and leaves
with an irregular outline, like a map of an
indented sea-coast, clearly distinguish this
tree from all others. There are three main
varieties of the species — one with long leaf-
stalks and short acorn-stalks ; one with short
leaf-stalks and long acorn-stalks; and one
with short stalks to both leaves and acorns.

The oak is remarkable for longevity, and
for the durability of its timber. There are
said to be oaks between a thousand and two
thousand years old, and oaken furniture in use
over a thousand years. In height this tree
attains from 60 to 120 feet, and measures
from two to six feet through the trunk ;
but it often exceeds these dimensions. Its
lasting quality renders the timber particularly

48 TREES

suitable for ship-building and the construction
of the heavier articles of furniture. The bark
has valuable astringent properties, and a
decoction of oak-galls with the addition of
a solution of sulphate of iron produces a black
ink. There are several species of ornamental
oaks, of which the longest established in this
country and the most familiar is the Holm,
Holly, or Evergreen Oak (Quercus ilex), which
has leathery leaves, with edges smooth, saw-
like, or spined. As its name indicates, the
tree has a superficial resemblance to a holly.

The 'pillared elm' comes next. There
are two distinct species. The Common Elm
(Ulmus campestris), Plate L, Fig. 2, is the more
common in the southern part of England;
the Wych Elm (Ulmus montana) in the
northern portion and Scotland. Both have
cork-like bark and leaves with a hairy surface,
nearly as rough as sand-paper. They may be
distinguished by observing that the common
elm has leaves from two to three inches in
length, finely notched, and seeds placed near
the end of their oblong envelope ; while the
wych elm has its leaves longer, wider, and
more deeply notched, and seeds set in the

THE BEECH 49

centre of their envelope. The former has a
profuse undergrowth of young shoots round
the hase of the trunk ; the latter has fewer.
The timber is very fine, and specially adapted
for any purpose which requires continual
exposure to wet. In age and size the elm
closely approaches the oak, but is much more
varied, a large number of named varieties
being grown.

The ' warlike Beech,' to quote Spenser
again (Fagus sylvatica), Plate I., Fig. 3, is to
my mind a more lovely tree than either oak
or elm.1 It is, however, much less useful. It
may be known by its polished grey stem, its
smooth, glossy leaves, having a regular and
unnotched outline, and its bristly nuts or
' mast.' Nothing can be more pleasant than
to walk on a warm day through the cool and
fragrant aisles of a beech- wood. As it has the
property of repressing all rank growth beneath
its shade, the ground is usually free from
obstructions. The mould formed by myriads
of decaying leaves is greatly esteemed by
gardeners. The tree grows to an altitude of

1 Gilbert White, of Selborne, calls it ' the most beautiful and
ornamental of all forest trees.'

50 TREES

a hundred feet, with a diameter of six or seven.
Its timber is now used chiefly for turned work
and chair-making. The purple and copper
beeches seen in ornamental grounds are simply
modifications of the common species.

The leaves we have hitherto seen, however
rough or irregular they may be, are at least
obviously single. A different form appears in
the Ash (Fraxinus excelsior), Plate I., Fig. 4.
The leaves of this tree are composed of several
pairs of leaflets, tipped by a single one. The
walnut has a similar arrangement, and also
the rowan; but the dark hue and aromatic
perfume of the one, and the extreme delicacy
of the other, prevent their being mistaken for
those of the ash. The peculiar shape of the
leaves imparts a light, feathery appearance to
the foliage, which may be recognized at some
distance. The timber is very useful. An old
superstition attaches to the oak and ash in
respect to their precedence in leafing. One
generally precedes the other. If the oak
comes into leaf first, the season ensuing will
be dry; but if the ash leads, it will be wet.
' Oak choke, ash splash,' as the old saying
has it.

ALDER, HORNBEAM, HAZEL 51

On the banks of streams and ponds we
find the Alder (Alnusglutinosa), Plate I., Fig. 5.
Its leaf is large and of a dark-green colour, and
it bears a hard, black fruit. Though usually
of no great size, it reaches thirty or forty
feet under favourable conditions. The timber
is well suited for work exposed to the action
of water, and is in some demand in Scotland
for smoking fish. If a notch is cut in a twig,
the white wound speedily becomes red. It
produces a very fine charcoal, used in the
preparation of gunpowder.

The Hornbeam ( Carpinus betulus), Plate I.,
Fig. 6, may be passed by as a beech, if
regarded carelessly. The leaves, however, are
rough on the underside, and notched at the
edges with double teeth, while the bark is
smooth grey, spotted with white. The timber
is very hard — indeed, like horn — whence
probably the name of the tree is derived.
It makes good fuel.

The last-named tree is often called the
'witch hazel.' The true Hazel (Cvrylus
avellana), Plate I., Fig. 7, is of much smaller
growth. It is frequently a mere bush, and
seldom exceeds thirty feet, but its nuts endear

52 TREES

it to the young. The bright yellow green of its
leaves makes it blend prettily with surround-
ing foliage, and the charm of many Scottish
burnsides, those 'hazelly shaws' of which
Burns speaks so lovingly, is largely due to
the presence of hazel bushes. It has a certain
resemblance to the alder, but the peculiar
green of its leaves serves to distinguish it.

Of all the trees which adorn the Highland
glens, the Birch (Betula alba), Plate I., Fig. 8,
is the queen. Silvery white bark, tender
drooping branches, and delicate foliage, give
it a grace which no other tree excels, although
the mountain ash may be said to equal it. A
' weeping ' variety is also found, in which the
twigs hang in long pendant tassels. In Eussia
the bark is used for tanning. A tiny tree, the
Dwarf Birch (Betula nana), Plate II., Fig. 4,
occurs in boggy places in the North. It
grows to a height of perhaps a couple of
feet, and is of little moment in this country,
although in Lapland the inhabitants would
miss it sadly.

One of the most majestic of our trees is
the Sycamore or Great Maple (Acer pseudo-
platanus), Plate I., Fig. 9, which is sometimes

CHESTNUTS 53

incorrectly called the plane. It is distinct
from either of the Eastern trees named
sycamore and plane. At all seasons this is a
fine tree, but in spring, when the leaves are
in their first freshness, it is one of the most
beautiful denizens of our parks. The leaves
are of great size, measuring about seven inches
across, and the seeds, when they attain
maturity, are winged, and have the wings
set angularly towards the seed. In this
respect the sycamore differs from the field
maple.

The Spanish or Sweet Chestnut ( Castanea
sativa), Plate I., Fig. 10, is readily known by
its peculiar leaf. Its edible fruit is largely
used on the Continent, but does not grow to its
full size in this country. Consequently, the
tree is here grown merely as an ornament, or
as copse-wood. The Horse-chestnut (JEsculus
hippocastanum), Plate L, Fig. 11, although
not truly a chestnut, may be mentioned here,
because the two trees are commonly associated
in ornamental grounds. The leaves of the
latter are broad, often a foot across, and
many-fingered. The flowers are tall spikes
— cream-coloured in some, red in others, and

54 TREES

occasionally a cross betwixt the two colours.
The nuts are quite uneatable, but serve
as playthings to boys. The tree grows to
eighty or a hundred feet, but the timber is
soft.

Another instance of confusion of relation-
ships, on account of some trivial similarity,
is found in the case of the Mountain Ash, or
Eowan (Pyrus aucuparia), Plate I., Fig. 12.
It is allied not to the ash, but to the apple.
No tree is more closely associated with
romantic scenery than this*, although its use
in garden decoration renders it familiar to
many who never saw a mountain or glen. It
attains a height of thirty to fifty feet. As a
defence against the attacks of witches it was
long held in esteem. When one is wandering
through a Highland glen, he will come upon
the site of deserted homesteads, still marked
by the rowans, which were planted to defeat
the machinations of witches, but were in-
effectual against the more insidious attacks
of sheep-farmers and deer-stalkers.

The Field Maple (Acer campestre), Plate II.,
Fig. 1, is purely ornamental. It has deep-
green leaves, about three inches across, rough

PLATE II.

LEAVES OF TREES.

No. 1.

1. Field Maple. 2. Lime. 3. Walnut. 4. Dwarf Birch.
5. Scots Fir. 6. Larch.

PLATE II. LEAVES OF TREES.

NO. 2.

12.

7. White Willow. 8 Saugh or Sallow. 9. Osier. 10. White Poplar.
1 1. Black Poplar. 12. Aspen.

LIME AND WALNUT 55

cork-like bark, and winged seeds having the
wings horizontal in place of at an angle, as
in the sycamore. Its wood has a repute in
the manufacture of violins. The American
maples produce a large quantity of sugar, but
our species is of no use in that respect.

The bee-keeper has cause to love the Lime
o-r Linden (Tilia europsea), Plate II., Fig. 2,
for its fragrant blossoms are the haunt of
countless bees, which fill the air with their
hum, as we stand beneath the tree. Like
the honey produced from heather, that from
the lime has a high reputation. The stem
is straight and tall, with smooth bark. The
inner bark produces the * bast ' from which
Eussian mats are made.

An ornamental tree, which also produces
agreeable nuts, is the Walnut (Juglans regia),
Plate II., Fig. 3. It is a native of Persia,
but has long dwelt with us. The timber is
beautifully veined, and makes the best gun-
stocks. Its nuts were said to be the food
of the gods in the Golden Age. The leaves
are of a deep green, and aromatic. The
scent of the tree may be perceived at some
distance.

56 TREES

The conifers are a large group, the
members of which can only be discriminated
by an inspection of their spines and cones.
I shall mention two of the most important.
The Scots Fir or Pine (Pinus sylvestris), Plate
II., Fig. 5, is one of the distinctive features
of Northern scenery. Its dark foliage gives
it a gloomy appearance, but when the setting
sun illuminates the recesses of a fir wood,
it draws forth a glow of rosy colour, such
as is not to be seen in any other forest.
In favourable situations the tree reaches an
altitude of a hundred feet. Its cone is two or
three inches long. The pollen of this tree is
very light, and yellow in colour, and when in
spring it accumulates on the edges of puddles,
we hear rumours of a ' sulphurous shower '
having fallen.

The only other conifer I shall name is the
Larch (Larix europsea), Plate II., Fig. 6. It
is a more graceful tree, and has the peculiarity
of shedding its needles in autumn. In early
spring ' when rosy plumelets tuft the larch,'
and it dresses itself in delicate green, it is
exceedingly beautiful.

The Willows are another large and intricate

THE WILLOWS 57

group of trees. They adorn the banks of
rivers and ponds. It is worthy of remark
that they thrive in damp and rheumatic
situations, and that from their bark salicin is
obtained, one of the most valuable specifics
in rheumatic affections. The bane and the
antidote, the ill and its cure, are often
associated in Nature. The White Willow
(Salix alba), Plate II., Fig. 7, has silky leaves
which give a whitish reflection.

The Saugh, or Sallow (Salix caprea), Plate
II., Fig. 8, has larger and broader leaves, dark
green above, and covered beneath with white
down. In spring the tree is hung over with
bright yellow catkins, called by country folks
' palms,' and in some places borne to church
on Palm Sunday.

The Osier (Salix viminalis), Plate II., Fig. 9,
is of smaller growth. Its long, thin shoots
are used for wicker-work, and it is thought
that it was owing to the fine quality of the
osiers, that the baskets of the ancient Britons
had so great a repute. The leaves of the true
osier are variable in length, having their edges
without teeth or notches, the upper side
veined and the under silky.

58 TREES

The last group at which I propose to look
is the Poplars. They are near relations of
the willows. The White Poplar (Populus alba),
Plate II., Fig. 10, is prized for its rapid
growth. Its wood is soft, but tough. Its
leaves are dark green ahove, and white
beneath, whence the name is taken.

The Black Poplar (Populus nigra), Plate II.,
Fig. 11, has its leaves pale green with
yellowish stalks, and no white down on the
under side. They are very late in appearing,
and before they come forth the branches
are covered with the male catkins, which
resemble large, red caterpillars. The seeds
are enveloped in white cotton.

The Aspen (Populus tremula), Plate II.,
Fig. 12, has dark, glossy green leaves, paler,
but not white beneath, and so delicately
poised that they quiver in the slightest breeze.
Hence when we wish to express the idea that
a man is in a state of extreme nervousness
we say, ' he trembles like an aspen. '

The Lombardy Poplar (Populus fastigiata)
cannot be mistaken for any other tree, on
account of its upright growth, which resembles
that of a gigantic yew. The branches, instead

KNOWLEDGE A PLEASURE 59

of spreading sideways, point almost perpen-
dicularly upwards.

It has not been my intention to furnish
an exhaustive account of these trees. I
merely desired to introduce them, and to
indicate what a wide field for study they
afford. Any one who desires to become more
intimately acquainted with our British trees,
will find the materials for attaining his
purpose in the books named in the following
list, and the authorities to which these refer.
With the information which he has gained
in this chapter, the reader will find that he
can identify the trees which he is likely
to see most frequently. When he knows the
peculiarities of bark and leaf and trunk,
which distinguish the various sorts of trees,
he will no longer be indifferent to the com-
position of the groves in which he rambles.
He will observe and note the presence of
beech and oak, sycamore and elm, birch and
hazel. He will perceive that the trees of the
wayside and woodland are more varied than
he had supposed. His attention having been
once directed to this fact, he will soon
observe the same infinite variety in the wild

60 TREES

flowers around his feet, and in the birds and
insects that attend his wanderings. In short,
he will begin to be a naturalist.

SOME BOOKS ON TREES

1. Our Woodlands, Heaths, and Hedges. W. S. Coleman. 3s. 6d.
coloured ; Is. uncoloured.

2. Wayside and Woodland Trees. Edw. Step. 6s.

3. The Forest Trees of Britain. Rev. C. A. Johns. 5s.

4. British, Trees. Hon. S. Tollemache. 14s. net

5. A Description of the Genus Pinus. (1832). A. B. Lambert.
(This is an expensive work, but is of great value in studying
the conifers. It is, I believe, out of print.)

CHAPTER III
WILD FLOWERS

WILD flowers are as universal as trees,
if less noticeable. No rambler,
afield or otherwise, can fail to
notice the trees, although he may readily fail
to pay attention to the flowers, because to do
so demands a certain amount of observation,
and every pedestrian is not an observer. On
this account I have placed the flowers after
the trees, but I do not thereby imply
that they are second in my esteem. On
the contrary, I believe that some of the purest
pleasures of life are associated with flowers —
more especially wild flowers. They entwine
themselves with many incidents of our lives,
and appealing as they do to two senses, sight
and smell, act as a powerful stimulus to the
memory, and bring back to recollection 'the

v

62 WILD FLOWERS

days of auld lang syne.' Longfellow likens
them to

' Stars, that in earth's firmament do shine.'

Dr. Wendell Holmes carries this idea
further. He feigns that after the fall of man
the stars and flowers agreed to keep a watch
on the human race, and to shame men into
well-doing :

'A million sleepless lids, they say,

Will be at least a warning;
And so the flowers would watch by day,
The stars from eve to morning.'

The wickedness of human nature defeated
this well-meant plan. The vigil of stars and
flowers deters no one from sin ; but flowers
certainly reduce the measure of human
depravity. I do not say that every person
who does not love flowers is evil; but I do
maintain that there is some element of good
in every one who possesses that love. The
love of flowers thus forms one redeeming
feature in the character of many a bad man.

Fragile as many of them are, there is a
tender grace about wild flowers, which makes
them in their own place the equals of the
richer and more highly cultivated garden

ROADSIDE BLOOMS 63

species. To realize this fully they ought to
be seen in their favourite nooks and haunts.
A bouquet of wild flowers is beautiful when
freshly gathered, but the blooms soon fade
and fall.

It is surprising how near these haunts
come to the habitations of men. I remember
once, when I was resident in a large town,
and it was often impossible to go out to the
open country, my brother and I used to try
how many different sorts of wild flowers we
could procure at the roadsides and in waste
ground on the margin of the city, and we got
a considerable variety. Great numbers of
delicate blossoms — white, blue, yellow, and
purple — grow in such unlikely spots, and bring
the country into a place which man has made
peculiarly his own.

I think it is a mistake for the ordinary
lover of Nature to begin the observation of
wild flowers by reading botanical works. If
one has to profess a knowledge of botany as
part of the qualifications for a profession or a
degree, he must, of course, master the science,
and cannot too soon begin its formal study.
But for others, the wisest course, in my

64 WILD FLOWERS

opinion, is first to learn to know as many
flowers as possible, so as to recognize and
name them readily; then to acquire some
knowledge of their uses and properties, and
of the legends and stories connected with
them ; and lastly (if the precedent part of the
course has inspired a genuine taste for the
study), to enter upon the details of structure,
growth, and classification, which constitute
the subject of botany. It is my present
intention to run lightly over a list of about
fifty flowers, selected from various groups,
the names of which ought to be familiar to
every lover of Nature.

Any reader who wishes to prosecute the
study further, will find ample guidance in the
books enumerated in the list at the end of the
chapter. In examining the flowers, I think
the best and most interesting mode will be to
take them in connection with the localities
where we most frequently see them.

Of all places in which we may look for wild
flowers, the richest are fields and meadows.
Free exposure to sun and air is peculiarly
favourable to their growth. Accordingly, a
great number of our prettiest kinds, although

THREE OLD FRIENDS 65

they are met with in other localities, are
abundant in the open fields.

A familiar trio greet us at the outset — the
Daisy (Bellis perennis), the Buttercup (Ranun-
culus bulbosus), and the Dandelion (Taraxacum
officinale). These are too well known to
require any figure to aid their recognition.
There are several species of buttercup, but I
have named the earliest and one of the
commonest, which is sometimes called the
bulbous crowfoot.

The mere mention of those three flowers
is sufficient to conjure up a vision of spring
fields, such as is most sympathetically
expressed by Mr. Vernon in The Harvest of a
Quiet Eye. The sheet of white daisies cover-
ing the grass, the masses of golden buttercups,
and the rich yellow stars of the dandelions,
rising up amidst the fresh green herbage, are
indelibly impressed on the minds of all who
have spent their childhood in the country.
Some idea of the beauty of such scenes may
be formed even by those who dwell near
the parks in a large city. Those plants do
not improve the pasture, and gardeners wage
war upon them when they show themselves in

66 WILD FLOWERS

lawns, although I must confess that, while
admitting how much they damage the velvety
turf, I regret the necessity for their destruc-
tion.

Another marked flower is the Oxeye, or
White Chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum leu-
canthemum), Plate III., Fig. 1. It is also known
as the Moon- or Horse-daisy — ' horse ' in this
instance, as in many others among plant-
names, standing for 'big'. It may be seen
towering above the long grass, and in spots
where it has clustered together, its pure white
blooms glisten like a patch of snow.

We have another chrysanthemum, the
Corn Marigold or Marguerite ( Chrysanthemum
segetum), Plate V., Fig. 5, which gilds the
cornfields somewhat later in the year. It is
a showy flower, and like its white relative is
effective in decoration, but farmers do not love
to see it. In Scotland it is called ' the guile,'
a name derived from the same root as the
heraldic term 'gules,' and alluding to its
golden hue. We have no wild flower which
more perfectly recalls the precious metal.

There is a big white bloom which we
must not confuse with the oxeye — the Corn

PLATE III.

WILD-FLOWERS.

No. 1.

c.

1. Oxeye. 2. Corn-flower. 3. Pose Campion. 4. Ragwort.
5. Heartsease. 6. Restharrow.

PLATE III.

WILD-FLCWERS.

No. 2.

7. Wood Anemone. 8. Wood Sorrel. 9. Wild Hyacinth,
10. Tormentil. 11. Foxglove (reduced). 12. Harebell.

CORNFLOWER AND CAMPION 67

Feverfew (Matricaria inodora), Plate V., Fig. 4.
Its threadlike, branching leaves and aromatic
odonr serve to distinguish it. The juice of
this plant has tonic properties, which make
it useful as a febrifuge, hence the title
' feverfew ' ; but the introduction of powerful
exotic drugs has diminished the medicinal
repute of our native herbs.

A flower so beautiful, that it has been
introduced into gardens, is the Blue-bottle,
or Cornflower (Centaurea cyanus\ Plate III.,
Fig. 2. It is especially plentiful among
wheat, where it spots the field with points
of blue of a shade so distinctive that
' cornflower blue ' is a recognized tint.
Occasionally the flower is rose or white.
The genus to which it belongs has a repu-
tation for healing properties, and from a
legend that one of them was used by the
Centaur Chiron to heal his wounded foot,
the group has been called Centaurea.

The Campions — Eose (Lychnis dioica) and
White (Lychnis vespertind) — Plate III., Fig. 3,
are showy flowers. The latter is called the
Evening Campion, because it opens towards
evening and breathes forth a perfume after

68 WILD FLOWERS

dusk. I have seen the bank of a river so
thickly covered with rose campions that it
positively glowed with flame colour.

The Ragwort (Senecio jacobaea), Plate III. ,
Fig. 4, with its great heads of yellow flowers
is a handsome plant, but unhappily has a
coarse, rank smell, which has ruined its
popularity. The Latin name suggests the
' grey-beards,' which cover the plant after
the flowers wither.

Many beautiful thoughts are associated
with the next flower, the Heartsease, or Field
Pansy (Viola tricolor), Plate III., Fig. 5. It
loves pasture land, and generally poor soil.
It is of various colours, blue, purple, or
cream, but ever modest and unassuming, a
fit emblem of a quality so beautiful as
serenity.

The Rest-harrow (Ononis repens), Plate
III., Fig. 6, is also found on poor soil,
particularly in sandy places. Its pale rose,
pea-shaped flowers are profusely scattered
over a wide expanse of surface, and its long,
tough roots spread far underground, checking
the implements of the farmer, whence the
name ' arrest harrow.' Boys rejoice in its

SCARLET PIMPERNEL 69

blooms, as ensigns pointing to where its
liquorice-flavoured roots may be dug up and
chewed. It is a thorny plant, and the more
barren the land the more spiny it is, thus
preserving for us one of the marked features
of the desert flora, to which it had at one
time undoubtedly belonged.

Much interest attaches to the Scarlet
Pimpernel (Anagallis arvensis), Plate IV.,
Fig. 8. In the first place, it is one of our
two scarlet wild flowers, the other being the
Scarlet Poppy (Papaver rhceas). Sometimes
it is found of a blue or white colour, but
scarlet is its usual hue. Then, it has the
property of foretelling the approach of wet
weather by closing its flowers. It is also
regular in its time of opening and closing,
expanding at 7 a.m. and closing at 2 p.m.
I had occasion at one period to pass a corn-
field twice daily. One side of the field was
filled with pimpernels, and in a sunny
morning was a blaze of red. In the after-
noon, however bright the sun, not a spot
of red was visible.

The Common Fumitory (Fumaria qffici-
nalis), Plate IV., Fig. 10, is a pretty,

70 WILD FLOWERS

delicate flower, rose-coloured with tiny purple
tips, which grows amongst corn and hay.
Its name is derived from the Latin fumus
terrae, earth's smoke, from a curious fancy
that it sprang from the ground without seed,
the product of vapours arising from the earth.

The Kibwort Plantain, or ribgrass (Plantago
lanceolata), Plate IV., Fig. 12, is not at all
like a flower. Its brown head with cream-
coloured filaments, at the end of a long,
tough stalk, renders it eminently suitable for
a plaything. The children call the flowers
'soldiers' and (in Scotland) 'carle doddies,'
and fight mimic battles with them, each
trying to strike the head off the other's
soldier. The leaves have a certain value
to the grazier for feeding purposes.

Amongst the long grass there is a small,
pale-blue flower, with some of the blooms
tinged with pink, closely resembling the
forget-me-not, of which, indeed, it is a
relation. This is the Field Scorpion-grass
(Myosotis arvensis).

The Meadow Vetchling (Lathy rus pratensis),
Plate V., Fig. 7, with yellow, pea-shaped
flowers, abounds in damp meadows. Its stem

SORREL 71

runs along the ground, and its blossoms are
in clusters of six or eight on each stem.

The Sorrel or ' Soorock,' as it is called
in Scotland (Rwnex acetosd), Plate V., Fig. 12,
is one of the dock tribe. It may be dis-
tinguished from the true dock by having
bunches of small reddish flowers, and leaves
with a pleasant acid taste; the docks, on
the other hand, have green flowers, and their
leaves are not sour. The leaves of the dock
are a specific in case of burning with nettles.
The juice has a soothing effect. The root
of the sorrel yields a red dye, and the leaves
make a good salad.

A smaller species called Sheep's Sorrel
(Rwnex acetosella) is abundant upon dry
pasture on poor soil. The leaves and stem
turn rich red towards the end of summer. I
have seen a whole field rendered quite red
by them. The plant is only five to ten
inches in height. It also has an acid flavour.

Leaving the fields, I shall now look at
roadsides and waste ground, premising that
some of the flowers I am about to mention
are found in fields and other places besides
those in which I am at present looking.

72 WILD FLOWERS

The Harebell (Campanula rotundifolia),
Plate III., Fig. 12, is one of the commonest
and most delightful of roadside flowers. Its
pale-lilac bells on thin, threadlike stalks cover
grassy banks, waving in the lightest breeze.
It is the well-known favourite, the bluebell
of Scotland. A white one sometimes mixes
among the blue, and it is pleasant to find a
rarity of this sort.

The Germander Speedwell (Veronica
chamsedrys), or Birdseye, Plate IV., Fig. 7, is
a bright-blue flower, sometimes erroneously
called a forget-me-not. It has four petals,
one of which is always smaller than the rest ;
while the forget-me-nots have five. There
are many species of speedwell, but they all
have this arrangement of petals, and most
of them have a bright white eye in the centre
of the blue.

The Sweet-briar Eose (Rosa eglanteria),
also called Eglantine, Plate IV., Fig. 5, and
the Dog Eose (Rosa canina) are cherished
ornaments of our waysides. The former may
be readily known by its strong aromatic
fragrance. The latter varies in hue from
deep red to white, and its leaves are either

PLATE IV.

WILD-FLOWERS.

No.

1 . Primrose. 2. Sweet Violet. 3. Lesser Celandine. 4. Wood Cranesbtll.
5. Sweetbriar Rose. 6. Marsh Marigold.

PLATE IV.

WILD-FLOWERS

No. 2.

!0

9.

12.

f. Germander Speedwell. 8 Scarlet Pimpernel. 9. Herb Robert.
10. Fumitory 11. Bedstraw. 12. Ribwort Plantain.

OUR LADY'S BEDSTRAW 73

smooth or downy. The hips which cover
the roses in autumn form a staple food of
birds, and their abundance or scarcity is
accepted by country folks as an indication of
a severe, or a mild, winter. ^ -

On rough banks the Herb Kobert ( Geranium I
Robertianum), Plate IV., Fig. 9, is not un-
common. Its flowers are pink or white. \

In masses of yellow or white, Our Lady's
Bedstraw (Galiwn verum), Plate IV., Fig. 11,
adorns the roadside in the height of summer.
It is one of the last flowers to appear before
the tall grasses, scabious and harebells take
the places of the bird's-foot trefoil and small
flowering plants. There is a pretty legend
to the effect that this plant was used to
make the bed of the Virgin Mary, and as
its numerous flowerets are cross-shaped, her
bed was thus one of crosses. The Scottish
Highlanders make a red dye with the roots
boiled in alum, and curdle milk with its
leaves mixed with those of the nettle and
a little salt.

The Bird's-foot Trefoil (Lotus corniculatus)J
Plate V., Fig. 1, which I have just mentioned/
is plentiful at the sides of roads, as well as

74 WILD FLOWERS

in fields. Its blossoms are yellow, often
tinged with red or orange, and are pea-
shaped with such a fanciful resemblance
to a tiny shoe, that it has gained for the
plant the common name of Lady's Slipper.
The leaves are smooth, not unlike those
of clover, and the seed-pods take the shape
of a bird's foot. It is one of the plants which
the Greeks named ' Lotus.'

The Wild Strawberry (Fragaria vesca),
Plate V., Fig. 2, frequently spreads along
the grassy banks at roadsides, although it
is more abundant in woods, or at the sides
of fields. It has a pretty, white flower, but
the fruit, unless in specially favourable cir-
cumstances, has little sweetness or flavour.
The name ' strawberry ' may be derived from
the old fashion of threading the fruit on a
straw for sale.

Two very beautiful yellow flowers have
a creeping habit of growth. The first of
these is the Creeping Cinquefoil (Potentilla
reptans), Plate V., Fig. 8, which has soft
velvety flowers of five petals, and leaves
arranged in groups of five. The other is
the Silver Weed (Potentilla anserina), less

WOODLAND FRIENDS 75

poetically termed Goose Grass. It has
somewhat similar flowers, but the leaves
are covered on the under sides with silver-
white, silky hairs. The roots are tough.
The flowers appear in June or July. The
plant, soaked for nine days in buttermilk,
produces a wash for the complexion, which
once enjoyed some repute. Both these
cinquefoils are closely related to the straw-
berries.

I shall next look at some of the woodland
flowers. One of the earliest and sweetest
is the Wood Anemone or Windflower (Anemone
nemorosa), Plate III., Fig. 7, which carpets
the space beneath the trees with tender,
white flowers delicately tinged with purple.
In suitable spots it grows in great sheets.
Along with it we generally find the Wood
Sorrel (Oxalis acetosella), Plate III, Fig. 8.
This plant has nothing in common with the
sorrels already spoken of, except the sourness
of the leaves, which are strongly impregnated
with oxalic acid. It has a pleasant flavour,
like that of the lemon, and the juice yields
a salt, which is very efficacious in removing
ink-stains. Its threefold leaf is thought to

76 WILD FLOWERS

be the true shamrock, and, combined with
the purple-spotted flower, has made the plant
a favourite symbol in the work of religious
painters, suggesting both the Trinity and
the Passion.

In sheets of blue, gleaming through the
stems as if it were a lake, are beds of Wild
Hyacinth (Endymionnutans), Plate III., Fig. 9.
It is sometimes called the bluebell, and is
to most people associated with the happiest
memories of Spring.

The graceful Foxglove (Digitalis purpurea),
Plate III., Fig. 11, with dignified and lofty
spikes, is, perhaps, hardly a woodland flower,
preferring open hillsides among bracken. Its
bells are poisonous, and must not be chewed.
The name has nothing to do with Eeynard
the Fox, but alludes to ' the Folk,' that is to
say, the fairies. Our ancestors did not care
to name these little people too specifically.

The Primrose (Primula acaulis), Plate IV.,
Fig. 1, is literally ' the first rose,' although it
has in fact no connection with the rose tribe.
It used to be a great pleasure to us, when
children, to go to the woods and dig primrose
roots to form borders to our garden plots.

VIOLETS 77

The plants form an excellent border, green
at all seasons, and exceedingly pretty in the
time of flower. The lilac Scottish Primrose
(Primula scotica) is a native of the far north.

The Sweet Violet (Viola odorata), Plate IV.,
Fig. 2, grows in England in early Spring, on
banks and in woods; but in Scotland it is
almost unknown. It is of two colours, white
and violet. The petals and roots have emetic
properties, and blotting-paper stained with
blue syrup of violets is reddened when
immersed in a solution containing acid.
More common in the north is the Dog Violet
(Viola canina), which resembles the other in
general appearance, but is scentless, and the
flowers are larger and set on longer stalks.
It blooms along with the anemones and wood
sorrel.

One of the very first of the Spring flowers
is the Lesser Celandine, or Pilewort (Ranun-
culus faaria), Plate IV., Fig. 3, a near
relation of the buttercups, as its Latin name
indicates. It has brilliant yellow, star-like
flowers, and soft, dark-green and spade-
shaped leaves. A bank covered with celan-
dines and creeping ivy is a charming sight,

78 WILD FLOWERS

the more so that it is to be seen when other
blossoms are scarce. The Wood Cranesbill
(Geranium sylvaticum), Plate IV., Fig. 4,
shows its purple-pink blooms on wooded
banks. Long spikes called ' cranes'-bills '
appear after the flowers. Another little
cranesbill is to be found in meadows — the
Dovesfoot Cranesbill ( Geranium molle). Except
that it is smaller, the figure of the one will
serve for the other.

I shall conclude by mentioning a few
flowers which are to be sought on moors,
marshes, sea-coast, or other rough ground.

Of these, one of the most universal is
the Yellow Tormentil (Potentilla sylvestris),
Plate III., Fig. 10. Growing on high, wild
land, it is very attractive amidst its unkindly
surroundings. Its roots have astringent
properties, and make a useful gargle in cases
of sore throat. The Marsh Marigold (Caltha
palustris), Plate IV., Fig. 6, flowers in April
and May, growing in wet places. The blooms
have a particularly fine shade of yellow, and
are often gathered for dyeing.

Near the other, but later in the year,
we find the Marsh Forget-me-not (Myosotis

PLATE V.

WILD-FLOWERS.

No. i.

3 .

I. Bird sfoot Trefoil. 2. Wild Strawberry. 3. Marsh Forget-me-not.
4. Corn Feverfew. 5. Corn Marigold. 6. Fine-leaved Heath.

PLATE V.

WILD-FLOWERS.

No 2.

Meadow Vetchling 8 Creep ng Cinquefoil. 9. Rock Cistus.
10. Sea Pink or Thrift. 1 1. Wild Thyme. 12 Sorrel.

HEATHS 79

scorpioides), Plate V., Fig. 3, a lovely blue
flower, which is one of the prettiest of its
family, and might be the very plant which
led to the unhappy tragedy which gives
these flowers their name.

The most distinguished moor plants are
the heaths. I have chosen as a specimen
the Fine-leaved Heath (Erica cinerea), some-
times called Cat Heather, Plate V., Fig. 6.
It has crimson flowers and fine leaves
arranged in threes. The white variety of
this plant brings luck to the finder.

Descending now to the coast, we find
on stony hillsides the Bock Cistus, or Rock
Rose (Helianthemum chamsecistus), Plate V.,
Fig. 9. It is not a true rose. The flowers are
yellow, very fragile, and show only in bright
sunlight. There is something about the petals
which makes this plant quite unlike any of
the many yellow flowers which we have. It is
of a satiny texture. A rose-coloured variety,
a native of Palestine, has been deemed to be
the floral emblem of the Rose of Sharon.
But most of our memories of the seaside
are bound up with the Sea-Pink, or Thrift
(Statice maritima), Plate V., Fig. 10. It is

8o WILD FLOWERS

both pink and white, and is met with among
mountains as well as by the sea. On cliffs
at the coast its pale blossoms toss in the
sea breeze in all sorts of inaccessible places.

Last of all I mention the Wild Thyme
(Thymus serpyllum and Thymus chamsedrys),
Plate V., Fig. 11. On links and sandhills
the air is filled with the fragrance of those
delightful plants. There are two sorts. The
first has its stem resting on the ground, and
leaves three or four times as long as they are
broad, with rounded ends; the other has an
upright stem, and egg-shaped leaves. Both
have purple flowers, and make the • most
delightful of cushions upon which to lie and
watch the sea and the ships.

My design prevents me from passing
beyond the flowering plants, and glancing,
however hurriedly, at the lovely group of
ferns, the mosses, or the seaweeds. These
in due time will be sought out and studied
by the lover of plants; but in themselves
they form a subject even more extensive than
that which I have here introduced.

BOOKS OF REFERENCE 81

SOME BOOKS UPON WILD FLOWERS

1. Wild Flowers. Spencer Thomson. 3s. Gd.

2. The Botanist's Pocket-book. W. R. Hayward. 4s. 6d.

3. Flowers of the Field. Rev. C. A. Johns. 7s. Qd.

4. Our Country's Flowers. W. J. Gordon. 6s.

5. How to Study Wild Flowers. Rev. Geo. Henslow. 2s. Qd.

6. Wild Flowers. Anne Pratt, In two vols. 8s. It is a very
useful work.

7. Handbook of the British, Flora. George Bentham. 9s. net.

8. British Wild Flowers. Thomas Moore. 14s. net.

9. Wayside and Woodland Blossoms. Edward Step. Two
Series. The set 12s. net.

10. Familiar Wild Flowers. F. E. Hulme. In eight vola.
3e Qd. each.

11. British Wild Flowers. J. E. Sowerby. £3 3s.

CHAPTER IV
BIRDS' EGGS

THERE has been a great deal of foolish
writing and speaking on the subject of
birds'-nesting. When the writers of a
certain class of tales for young people wish to
describe a very bad boy, they usually call him
' a robber of birds' nests.' He may be further
characterized as rude to his mother, or unkind
to his sisters, a breaker of windows, or a
truant from school ; but the head and front
of his offending is his alleged cruelty to the
birds.

Now, it is undoubtedly a cruel and
cowardly act to wantonly destroy the nests
or eggs of any bird ; but to collect the eggs
of birds in a proper and scientific manner is
not wanton destruction. Indeed, the surest
way to prevent a boy from being cruel to
birds, and to make him take an interest in

FOUR RULES 83

their protection, is to encourage him to form
a collection of their eggs. I have known
many boys who were enthusiastic egg-
collectors, and there was not one of them
who would either have been cruel to a bird,
or have permitted another to be so, if it were
in his power to prevent it.

Four rules should be scrupulously ob-
served—

1. Never take the eggs of game birds, or
of birds protected by law.

2. Never take more than one or two eggs
from a nest.

3. Never take ' hard-set ' eggs.

4. Never damage the nest itself.

With respect to the first of those rules, it
has to be observed that pheasants, partridges,
grouse, black-game, and bustards are game,
and their eggs are not to be taken without
permission. There are also a large number
of birds whose eggs are protected under the
Wild Birds' Protection Acts. The regula-
tions on this point vary in different counties.
The following list contains a number of the
names of birds which are commonly scheduled.
I would recommend that the eggs of these

84

BIRDS' EGGS

birds should not be taken in arjy district
until it has been ascertained that it is there
permissible to do so : —

Bullfinch

Buzzard

Chough

Crossbill

Dipper

Dotterel

Eider Duck

Goldfinch

Great-crested Grebe

Gull, Common

Hawfinch

Jay

Kestrel

Mallard

Merlin

Nightjar

Osprey

Owl, Barn

Owl, Long-eared

Owl, Short-eared

Owl, Tawny

Oyster Catcher

Peregrine Falcon

Plover, Golden

Plover, Ringed

Pochard

Quail

Raven

Sheld Duck

Shoveller

Siskin

Skylark

Snipe

Teal

Tern, Common

Tern, Little

Tern, Sandwich

Tufted Duck

Widgeon

Woodcock

Woodpecker, Great Spotted

The taking or destroying the eggs of
the Lapwing (Vanellus vulgaris) is generally
prohibited after April 15.

My second rule is based on the general
principle that if one or two eggs be carefully
removed from a nest, the hen bird will lay
others hi their place, and so the number
will be made up. Some collectors think it

A PLEA 85

necessary to have a ' clutch ' of each kind —
that is, the contents of a complete nest ;
but this is only excusable in the case of
naturalists, who are making a special study
of ornithology, and particularly of variation
in the colours and markings of eggs.

A similar remark applies to my fourth
rule. If a naturalist is forming a collection
of nests, each with a full complement of eggs,
he will have to remove the nests which he
needs. Otherwise, eggs are much better
shown upon pink or white cotton-wool.

But, indeed, it is not absolutely needful to
take either nest or eggs. Great pleasure is to
be derived from seeing these in the situation
where the parent birds placed them. The
skill exhibited in choosing a spot and con-
structing a nest, and the pretty contrast
between the delicately tinted eggs and the
materials of which the nest is composed, are
a pure source of gratification. One recalls
Wordsworth's account of the finding of a
nest —

'Behold, within the leafy shade
Three bright blue eggs together laid I
On me the chance discover'd sight
Gleam'd like a vision of delight'

86 BIRDS' EGGS

It is, however, a common error to suppose
that a proper knowledge of eggs can be
acquired apart from a knowledge of the birds
themselves. One ought first to learn to know
the parent birds, their habits, and their nest-
ing-places, and then to collect their eggs, if
one wishes to do so. In many instances it is
almost impossible to be sure as to the par-
ticular bird which has built a particular nest,
unless we can identify the bird. Any account
of the parent birds would extend this chapter
beyond its assigned limits, and I must, there-
fore, refer those, who wish to gain information
respecting them, to Mr. Howard Saunders'
Illustrated Manual of British Birds (2 Is.), or
another of the many excellent books on
birds.

The first, nest of the season, and the first
which any one finds for himself, is usually that
of the Song Thrush or Mavis (Turdus musicus).
It builds in a thick bush, and often before the
leaves have appeared. The nest is composed
of grass and moss, plastered with mud, and
contains from four to six light greenish-blue
eggs, marked with a few large dark spots
(Plate VI., Fig. 1).

PLATE VI.

BIRDS' EGGS

No. 1.

2.

6.

1. Song Thrush. 2. Blackbird 3. Redbreast. 4 Whinchat
5. Wren 6. Blue Titmouse

PLATE VI.

BIRDS' EGGS.

No. 2.

9.

ID.

12.

l* Inches

7. Skylark 8. Chaffinch. 9. House Sparrow. 10. Yellowhammer.
1 1. Greenfinch. 12. Starling.

BLACKBIRD AND ROBIN 87

Equally abundant, and somewhat similar
in appearance, is the nest of the Blackbird or
Merle ( Turdus merula), one of our most charm-
ing songsters, though a greedy fruit-eater.
It is placed in a thick bush, and is composed
of fibres and grass, coated with mud and lined
with grass, and the eggs, four to six in
number, are light blue, thickly freckled with
reddish-brown (Plate VI., Fig. 2). They are
exceedingly variable. It must not be forgotten
that although the cock blackbird is of a deep
black, the hen is of a sooty brown shade with
a light and freckled breast.

The darling of children and poets, the
Robin Redbreast (Erithacus rubecula), is in
truth a fierce little bird, and the cocks fight
savagely. It places its nest on the ground
under a hedge, or in a mossy bank — a neat
structure of grass and leaves, lined with hair.
It lays five or six yellowish-grey eggs, spotted
with pale reddish-brown (Plate VI. , Fig. 3).

Most wanderers in rural parts have noticed
the Whinchat (Pratincola nibetra), with its
peculiar chattering call. It places its nest on
the ground beneath a whin-bush, using dry
grass lined with moss or wool. It lays five or

88 BIRDS' EGGS

six eggs (Plate VI., Fig. 4), blue-green, finely
spotted at the large end with red-brown.

The companion of Eobin Kedbreast, the
Wren or Jenny Wren (Troglodytes parvulus),
makes a very interesting nest in a hole in
a bank or tree-trunk, or in a bush. It is
composed of moss and similar materials, lined
with feathers, and is ball-shaped with a hole
in the side. There are five to seven eggs —
white, dotted with light red at the larger end
(Plate VL, Fig. 5).

The Blue Titmouse or Tom -tit (Parus
cseruleus) nests in a hole in an old wall or a
tree, using moss, lined with hair and feathers.
The eggs are six to ten or twelve in number,
reddish-white, spotted with light red (Plate
VI., Fig. 6).

The ' blithesome and cumberless ' Skylark
or Laverock ( Alauda arvensis] places its nest
on the ground, in a field. It is composed of
grass loosely put together, and is very difficult
to find. More frequently one comes upon it
by chance, when passing through a grass field.
It contains four or five greenish-grey eggs,
freckled with light brown (Plate VL, Fig. 7).
The song of the lark is remarkable for the

CHAFFINCH AND SPARROW 89

impression of spontaneous joy and gladness,
which it conveys to the listener, and both the
bird and its eggs are protected by the law.

The song of the Chaffinch, or Shilfa (Frin-
gilla cselebs), is monotonous but merry. Its nest
is singularly neat. It is built in the fork of a
tree or branch. The materials are moss, hair,
and feathers, skilfully interwoven, and artfully
covered on the outside with lichens, so that it
is not easily seen, even when one is looking
straight at it. The eggs are five, dull bluish-
green, clouded with dusky red and blotches of
a deeper tint (Plate VI., Fig. 8).

The most impudent and best-known of
birds is the House Sparrow (Passer domesticus),
whose nest is generally disclosed by its untidi-
ness. It is set in a crevice of a wall, or
beneath the eaves of a house, and is built of
straw, lined with feathers. The bird lays five
or six dull light-grey eggs, spotted and streaked
with ash colour and dusky brown (Plate VI.,
Fig. 9). Notwithstanding its plentifulness
and obvious appearance, the situation of the
nest renders it difficult to reach, and it is
scarcely possible to get the eggs without
a ladder.

90 BIRDS' EGGS

A bird with a very evil name, totally
undeserved, is the Yellowhammer, or Yellow
Bunting (Erriberiza citrinella), called in Scot-
land the 'Deil's Bird.' No one who has
walked in the country can fail to remember
the peculiar plaintive song of this bird, as it
perched upon bushes on the roadside, flitting
before the pedestrian as he proceeded. It
nests under a bank, beneath a bush, or in a
clump of grass. The nest is constructed of
grass stems and hair, and contains four or five
grey eggs (Plate VI., Fig. 10), streaked and
speckled in a most peculiar manner with dark
reddish-brown.

The Greenfinch (Ligurinus chloris) is one of
our most common birds, and may be known
by the yellowish-green feathers on the head
and back. It nests in a low, thick bush, using
fibrous roots, moss or wool, lining it with hair
and feathers. It lays four to six eggs (Plate
VI., Fig. 11), of a bluish-green, sprinkled
with reddish-brown spots, especially at the
larger end.

In my youth, we in the North used to
consider the Starling (Sturnus vulgaris) a rare
bird ; now it is not uncommon. It chooses for

PLATE VII,

BIRDS' EGGS.

No, 1-

rVr

Inches

1. Sparrow Hawk. 2 Lapwing. 3. Rook.

PLATE VII.

BIRDS' EGGS.

No. 2.

6.

Q.

Inch

4. Missel-thrush. 5. Hedge Sparrow. 6. Sedge Warbler.
7. Meadow Pipit. 8. Linnet. 9. Swallow.

BIRDS OF PREY 91

its nest some inaccessible place — a hole in a
rotten tree, an unused dovecot, a cranny in a
ruined building, or the like. The nest is a
large structure made of straw lined with hair,
and contains four to seven delicate greenish-
blue eggs (Plate VI, , Fig. 12). The starling
sometimes drops its eggs on the ground in a
most unaccountable way. On one day I
picked up two of them, quite unbroken, which
were lying on the grass beside the path, half
a mile apart.

The birds of prey used to be placed first in
lists of species ; but most modern naturalists
begin with the thrushes. The Raptores are,
however, a very important group, and as a
representative of them I have selected the
Sparrow Hawk (Accipiter nisus). It builds
in a tree, making its nest of sticks lined with
fibres. It lays from four to six eggs, bluish-
white, with reddish-brown blotches, mostly at
the larger end (Plate VII., Fig. 1). The nests
of birds of prey are invariably in dangerous
situations, yet boys do not hesitate to risk
their lives in pursuit of the eggs or young.

I knew of one instance which well illus-
trates this fact. A certain boy was most

92 BIRDS* EGGS

desirous of possessing a young hawk. He
discovered that a sparrow hawk had built in
a tree which grew out of the face of an old
quarry. The tree was an ash, smooth of
stem, and absolutely without branches for
over twenty feet. Its roots were some
distance down the rock face, and the trunk
overhung the void beneath, at least sixty feet
from the ground.

A slip meant death. But the boy was not
to be daunted. He was unable to visit the
spot except on Saturdays, when the school
had a whole holiday. The first Saturday on
which he managed to climb to the nest, he
found four eggs. Next week he repeated his
perilous passage and found young birds.
Another week he returned and found the
birds well grown, but still too young for
hand-feeding. By another week they might
have flown. To prevent this, he tied the legs
of the young birds to the edge of the nest, in
order that they might not escape, and yet
would be fed by the parent birds. On the
fourth Saturday he went back and dis-
covered that two of the birds were dead,
but the other pair were sufficiently developed

THE LAPWING 93

for his purpose, and with extreme difficulty
he managed to descend the slippery trunk
carrying two struggling hawks.

I am not telling this tale as an account
of a feat to be imitated ; but as an example
of boyish daring. To climb the tree in safety
once would have been remarkable ; to do so
with impunity four times was wonderful.

No one who has crossed a moor or open
down can have failed to observe the Lapwing
(Vanellus vulgaris). Its long-drawn cry of
1 pewit ' has given it another name, and its
habit of enticing enemies from the neighbour-
hood of its nest by feigning inability to fly, is
so well-known, that it serves as a means of
ascertaining the vicinity of a nest. This is a
primitive affair, usually consisting of bent or
grass laid in a hollow or furrow. There are
four eggs (Plate VII., Fig. 2), dark olive-
brown with blackish blotches, and they are
often to be seen in the market exposed for
sale as those of the plover.

The Kook (Corvus frugilegus) is another
familiar bird. It places its nest in a tree.
The structure, which, with a little repair,
serves year after year, is made of sticks

G

94 BIRDS' EGGS

plastered with mud and lined softly. There
are four or five eggs, bluish or greenish grey,
speckled and splashed with brown (Plate
VII., Fig. 3). The rook is of much use in
killing grubs ; but it also destroys a consider-
able amount of grain and potatoes, so that on
the whole it is regarded as an enemy by the
farmer.

The Missel-thrush, or Storm Cock (Turdus
viscivorus) builds openly in the fork of a tree,
sometimes quite near a path. It uses grass,
moss, and wool. It lays four to six eggs,
which are greyish-white, with red and violet
spots (Plate VII., Fig. 4).

The nest mentioned by Wordsworth, in
the lines I have quoted, was probably that of
the Hedge Sparrow, or Dunnock (Accentor
modularis). It is one of the common hedge-
nests, and is built of moss and grass, lined
with wool and feathers. The eggs are four to
six in number, and of a bright bluish-green
(Plate VII., Fig. 5). They cannot be mis-
taken. This bird is very often the foster
parent of the young cuckoo.

The Sedge Warbler (Acrocephalus phrag-
matis) chooses a low bush, or a tuft of grass,

TITLARK, LINNET, SWALLOW 95

near water, and there places its nest of dry grass
stems, lined with moss and a little horse-hair.
It lays four to six greenish-grey eggs, freckled
with darker colour (Plate VII., Fig. 6).

A difficult nest to find is that of the
Meadow Pipit, or Titlark (Anthus pratensis).
Its eggs resemble those of the lark, but are
much smaller. The nest is placed on the
ground, and is composed of dry grass lined
with bents and hair, and contains five or six
eggs — pale grey, freckled with brown (Plate
VII., Fig. 7).

The Linnet (Linota cannabina) builds in a
furze or whin- bush. The materials are moss,
roots, and wool, lined with feathers. It
contains four to six eggs of a bluish-white
shade, with reddish-brown and dark purple
spots and shading (Plate VII., Fig. 8).

I shall choose as my last example that
friend of man, the Swallow (Hirundo rustica).
It places its nest under the eaves of a house,
or lintel of a window, or on the ledge of an
out-house, building it skilfully of mud and
straw lined with feathers. The eggs are four
to six in number, white, with brown, grey,
and chocolate spots, which are mostly at the

96 BIRDS' EGGS

larger end (Plate VII., Fig. 9). The bird
may be confused with the House Martin, but
the two can readily be distinguished if one
bears in mind that the swallow has a very
large tail and no white on its back, while the
martin has a small tail and a distinct white
band. Even at a distance the blacker
appearance of the swallow catches the eye.

In conclusion, I repeat that no one ought
to touch the eggs of a bird, unless he is
in good faith making a collection, or has to
destroy them for the purpose of reducing the
numbers of harmful species. If he is making
a collection for study, let him adhere to the
rules I have laid down. Birds'-ne sting would,
under these circumstances, cease to have the
bad name which it has acquired with certain
folks.

SOME BOOKS UPON BIRDS' EGGS

1. British Birds1 Eggs and Nests. Canon Atkinson, 3s. 6d.

2. Birds' Nests and Eggs. Rev. C. A. Johns. 3s.

3. Nests and Eggs of Familiar Birds. H. G. Adams. 5s.

4. British Birds' Nests. R. Kearton. £1 Is.

5. Birds' Eggs of the British Isles. A. G. Butler. £1 Is.

6. Nests and Eggs of British Birds. Rev. F. 0. Morris. £3 3s.

7. Coloured Figures of the Eggs of British Birds. Henry
Seebohm. £3 3s.

8. Coloured Illustrations of the Eggs of British Birds. W. C,
Hewitson. £4 14s. Qd.

CHAPTER V
BEETLES, GRASSHOPPERS, ETC.

IT is more than two thousand years since
Aristotle observed that beetles are not
mere creeping things, but are gifted with
powers of flight. He perceived that they had
wings under hard cases, and thence gave them
the name that the Order in which they are
placed now bears — Coleoptera, or Sheath-
winged insects.

There are three Orders of insects in which
the upper pair of wings serve as a cover to the
lower pair. Of these the Hemiptera, or Bugs,
may be at once set aside, in a comparison with
the beetles, because any possibility of con-
fusion is prevented by the substitution in their
case of a proboscis adapted to sucking their
food for jaws adapted to bite it. The Coleoptera
and Orthoptera are not so readily distinguished.
The most obvious points of distinction are to

98 BEETLES, GRASSHOPPERS, ETC.

be found in the degree of hardness possessed
by the wing-covering, and the manner in
which the two halves of it meet. Amongst
beetles the wing-covers, called elytra, are
usually hard and brittle, and the two halves
meet in a straight seam, or ' suture.' In
some of the exotic species these elytra are so
hard, that ornaments are made of them, and,
when placing specimens in a cabinet, it is
scarcely possible to thrust a pin through
them without first boring a hole for it.
Amongst the cockroaches, grasshoppers, and
their kindred, the wing-covers, called in this
group tegmina, are of a tough, leathery con-
sistence, and the halves, in place of meeting
in a straight seam, slightly overlap each
other. This latter point will be apparent on
comparing a tiger beetle with a cockroach.
For the scientific discrimination of the
Orders, many other points have to be defined,
but for my present purpose these two will
suffice.

People talk of * the beetle ' as if there
were but one living creature so called. The
nursery rhyme about Cock Robin affords an
example of this manner of speech : ' I, says

A WIDE FIELD 99

the beetle, with my thread and needle.'
Those who speak in this way are not aware,
or forget, that there are between three and
four thousand different sorts of beetles in
this country, and tens of thousands abroad,
particularly in the tropics. Indeed, we can-
not guess how many there may be, for there
are vast regions in which little or no
collecting has been done.

It will readily be supposed that it is no
light task to undertake the study even of
our British species. The Order includes
many insects, which are not popularly called
beetles, such as the glow-worms, Spanish
flies, skipjacks, weevils, turnip flies, and lady-
"birds. Per contra, we must remember that
the black beetle of the kitchen is not
a beetle, but a cockroach. Some method
has to be adopted to subdivide the mass,
and accordingly the species have been
gathered into divisions and subdivisions,
which my space will not allow me even to
name. I shall, however, mention the four
groups into which they are primarily divided.

If you look at the figures of beetles shown
on Plate VIII., you will observe that every

ioo BEETLES, GRASSHOPPERS, ETC.

leg terminates in a claw, and that immedi-
ately behind this claw there are a variable
number of small joints. These joints form
the tarsus or foot, and their varying number
in different species forms a convenient ground
of arrangement. Beetles which have five
joints in each tarsus are called Pentamera;
those with five in the tarsi of the foremost
two pairs of legs and four only in the hind-
most pair, Heteromera ; those with four visible
joints in each tarsus, Tetramera; and those
having three, Pseudotrimera. There are
exceptions to this, as to every other rule ;
but on the whole it may be accepted as a
basis for a primary separation of the species.

Of the species which have five joints to
all their feet the first section is devoted to
the Carnivorous beetles. The Green Tiger
Beetle (Cicindelacampestris), Plate VIII., Fig. 1,
belongs to a genus called by Linnaeus, on
account of the activity and ferocity of its
members, c the tigers of the insect tribes.'
They run and fly with equal facility, and are
furnished with tremendous mandibles, from
which there is no escape for their prey. The
species figured is a very handsome insect,

PLATE VIII

BEETLES.

No. 1.

1* Inches

1. Oreen 7 iger-oeetie. 2. Garaen Ground-beetle. 3. Plunger Beetle
4. Devil's Coach-horse. 5. Burying Beetle. 6. Dor Beetle.

PLATE VIII.

BEETLES.

No. 2.

12

7. Cockchafer. 8. Reddish S'<;pjack. 9. Churchyard Beetle.

10. Silvergreen Weevil. 11. Double-barred Longhorn.

12. Sevenspot Ladybird.

AN INSECT TIGER 101

bright green with whitish spots, the legs
being slender, and of a lovely rosy copper-
colour. When flying in the sun, as it loves
to do, the green wing-cases and metallic
limbs flash and glitter in a manner which
arrests the attention. The beetles emit a
powerful but not unpleasant scent when
captured. They may be found in dry, sandy
places — old quarries, sand-pits, and the like.

The Garden Ground-Beetle (Carabus
nemoralis), Plate VIII., Fig. 2, is a specimen
of a group of beetles, which is well known
to every one who possesses a garden. In
this instance the head and thorax are black,
margined with purple, and the wing-cases
brassy brown. The ground beetles have
become so debased by the chase of crawling
things, that they have lost their wings and
can themselves only crawl. Their bodies
contain a large amount of alkali, so that in
Senegal it is said that a kindred species is
used for making an efficient soap.

There are many beetles which prefer an
aquatic home. The Plunger Beetle (Dytiscus
marginalis), Plate VIII. , Fig. 3, belongs to
this class. It is of a blackish-olive colour,

102 BEETLES, GRASSHOPPERS, ETC.

margined with yellow, and inhabits ponds.
This beetle will live for a long time in a
tumbler of water, feeding on worms or small
pieces of meat. It is said to indicate changes
of weather by the height at which it stays
in the tumbler.

The Devil's Coach-horse (Ocypus olens),
Plate VIII., Fig. 4, is an ugly insect with
an ugly name. It is a type of the great
division called Brachelytra, or beetles with
short wing-cases, the members of which have
often a superficial resemblance to earwigs.
This one is dull black, with short, matted hair.
It hides beneath stones, and when disturbed
raises its abdomen in a threatening manner,
although it has no sting. Its strong jaws can
give a smart bite, which may prove dangerous,
if the beetle has recently been making a meal
of decaying matter. These beetles act as
scavengers to remove putrescent material.

The Burying Beetle (Necropkonu ntepator),
Plate VIII., Fig. 5, is another which per-
forms this sanitary service. It is black, with
orange-yellow bands, and will be discovered
under or near the dead bodies of birds or
small animals.

THE COCKCHAFER 103

The Dor, or Watchman Beetle (Geotrupes
stercorarius), Plate VIII., Fig. 6, discharges
a similar duty in removing dung. It is
commonly seen on roads, or paths, and is
black above, with grooved elytra, and purplish
beneath. A small reddish mite often infests
its lower surface, though how it pierces the
hard armour of its host is difficult to under-
stand. The Dor-beetle is a near relative of
the scarabaeus, which the ancient Egyptians
held in great reverence, and their degenerate
descendants are said to eat.

The Common Cockchafer (Melolontha
vulgaris), Plate VIII., Fig. 7 (which must not
be confused with the cockroach), has a
brownish-black head and thorax, clothed with
fine white hairs, and wing-cases brownish-
yellow. It dwells in trees, where it some-
times does great damage to the foliage.
When a chafer falls upon its back, the shape
of its body causes it to experience much
difficulty in righting itself. In Sweden they
say that he who helps one of these insects
to regain its feet, will have his sins forgiven.
By this saying the Swedes remind them-
selves that to return good for evil, and to

io4 BEETLES, GRASSHOPPERS, ETC.

show kindness to the weak and helpless, are
virtues of great merit.

The last of the five-jointed beetles which
I can mention is the Eeddish Skipjack
(Athous hsemorrhoidalis), Plate VIII., Fig. 8,
a chestnut-brown beetle frequently seen in
woods and at the edges of fields in Spring.
The name 'skipjack' is derived from the
peculiar habit of the insects, which, when
they happen to fall upon their backs, regain
their proper position by springing lightly into
the air, somewhat after the manner of a
shrimp on the seashore. The destructive
wire-worms are the grubs of a species allied
to this one. The fireflies of the tropics are
members of the same group.

The Heteromera are a much smaller
division of the beetles, although many of the
species are interesting. I have chosen the
Churchyard beetle (Blaps mucronata), Plate
VIII., Fig. 9, as a type. It is dull black, and
found in cellars and outhouses. Another
species of the genus which is very common
in Egypt is said to be cooked with butter and
eaten by the women to impart the stoutness
of person which is there the standard of

WEEVILS 105

beauty. These beetles are most tenacious of
life. I had a specimen of the Churchyard
beetle sent to me recently, which had been
accidently packed in a young lady's box when
she left Egypt three months before. When
I received the insect it was still quite lively,
in spite of its long fast. The curious Oil
beetles (Meloe), which have • one of the
strangest of life histories, and the green
blistering beetles, commonly called ' Spanish
flies,' belong to the Heteromera.

The beetles with four-jointed feet are
a numerous group. Two of their most
important divisions are the Weevils and
Long-horns. I shall take a specimen of
each. The members of the first are readily
recognized by the beak or snout, which pro-
jects in front of the head, and to which the
antennae are attached. The magnificent
Diamond Beetle of Brazil is a weevil. The
specimen which I have chosen, although
small and not so brilliant, resembles in a
minor degree that glory of tropical America.
It is the Silver-green Weevil (PhylloUus
argentatus), Plate VIII. , Fig. 10, a tiny beetle
about a quarter of an inch in length. It is

io6 BEETLES, GRASSHOPPERS, ETC.

black, coated with brilliant green scales with
a silvery sheen, and pale erect hairs. Its
legs are yellowish. It is found on oak leaves,
often in swarms. It makes a beautiful object
under the microscope.

The Long-horns are represented by the
Double-barred Longhorn(Jff hagium bifasciatum)j
Plate VIII., Fig. 11. It is brownish-black
with two yellowish-brown bars upon the
wing-cases. It feeds upon decaying trees
in the autumn. The species of this group
are exceedingly numerous in the hotter parts
of the globe, where they find immense
quantities of fallen trees on which to feed.
As travellers have scarcely done more than
penetrate some of the largest of African and
South American forests, we may expect that
our knowledge of the long-horned beetles
will be largely increased after a more minute
inspection of these great woods.

The Pseudotrimera are mostly beetles of
small size. The Sevenspot Ladybird (Cocci-
nella septempunctata), Plate VIII., Fig. 12, is
a familiar friend. It has a black head and
thorax, and red wing-cases, with seven black
spots upon them. It is an insect of much

SOME PESTS 107

assistance to man, in respect that it destroys
aphides or blight. It emits a drop of brown
fluid, when taken in the hand, and this used
to have a high repute as a cure for toothache.
The reputation of this specific probably rested
upon the general principle of old wives'
nostrums, that whatever is nasty must be
good, and the nastier the better.

Along with the beetles one naturally
considers the Orthoptera, or Straight-winged
insects. These are no favourites. With a
few exceptions they have neither beauty
of form nor colour, and many of them are
highly destructive or disagreeable. What-
ever beautiful or extraordinary forms there
are amongst them, are limited to warm
climates, where they are very common. Our
British species are almost invariably plain,
not to say ugly. They are, however, familiar
enough — some only too familiar. The locust,
for example, is such a scourge in the lands
where it abounds, that it has been deemed
the appointed agent to execute the divine
wrath upon erring mortals. The cockroaches,
which swarm in our kitchens and bakehouses
are amongst the pests of civilization!

io8 BEETLES, GRASSHOPPERS, ETC.

The earwigs are also extremely disagree-
able, although all that is said about them is
not true. It is not quite certain that we
should include them in this Order. Their
position has been changed more than once.
Linnaeus regarded them as beetles; some
naturalists would set them apart in an Order
by themselves ; others assign them a place
among the Orthoptera. The mantis and the
stick- and leaf-insects of foreign countries, the
crickets and grasshoppers of our own land,
are all well-known members of the group. If
the Order has been somewhat neglected by
amateurs, the reason for such neglect cannot
be unfamiliarity with the species compre-
hended within it. These fall conveniently
into three groups according to their mode
of progression — those which run ( Cursoria) ;
those which walk (Gressoria) \ and those
which leap (Saltatoria).

The Common Earwig (Forficula auricu-
laria), Plate IX., Fig. 2, needs no descrip-
tion. Any one may get a specimen in a few
minutes. In feeds on decaying vegetable
matter, and is most active at night. The
origin of the name has been much discussed.

PLATE IX.

GRASSHOPPERS, Etc.

No.

2

5.

6.

Inches

1 . Lesser Earwig. 2. Common Earwig. 3. Common Cockroach (male).

4. Common Coc<roach (female.) 5. German Cockroach.

6. Parallel Grasshopper.

PLATE IX. GRASSHOPPERS, Etc.

No. 2.

8.

9.

10

Inches

7. Parallei Grasshopper (female). 8. Two-spot Grasshopper.

9. Spotted Grasshopper. 10. Migratory Locust.

11. Pachytylus cinerascens.

EARWIGS 109

One theory derives it from the insect's alleged
habit of seeking an asylum in the human ear ;
another from the fact that the wings are
shaped like an ear. That the earwig does
invade the human ear cannot be doubted.
I myself was told by a medical man that he
had more than once removed from thence a
dead earwig. Of course, the stories of their
penetrating the brain are old wives' fables.
Apart from the discomfort caused by such
lodgers, there is no harm which can result
from their invasion. Another species, much
rarer, the Lesser Earwig (Labia minor), Plate
IX., Fig. 1, may be distinguished from the
other by its small size. It must be remem-
bered that amongst insects, difference of size
usually implies difference of species, because
an insect never grows after it has attained its
perfect form. Thus the lesser earwig would
never grow to be as large as a common ear-
wig. It is one point to be placed to the
credit of the much-abused earwigs, that the
mother attends to her eggs until they are
hatched, and to the young after they emerge.
This trait is rare among insects.

The cockroaches are most unpleasant

i io BEETLES, GRASSHOPPERS, ETC.

creatures. They are improperly called ' black
beetles,' as I already mentioned, seeing that
they are coloured dark brown, and are not
beetles. They swarm in our houses, and
destroy more food by their contact than they
consume. Their shape is admirably adapted
to their mode of life, fitting into cracks and
crannies, but it is not calculated to please the
eye. They were introduced into our country
when ships began to visit foreign lands.
There are several sorts already established
among us, and with the spread of commerce,
there is no reason why there should not be
many more.

The Common Cockroach (Blatta orientalis),
Plate IX., Fig. 3, is diffused over the country
as far as Shetland. The male and female
differ in respect that the former has ample
wings, while the latter is practically wingless.
Many creatures feed upon cockroaches. I
remember that on one occasion a cockroach
had been killed and thrown out. One of those
long-legged phalanger spiders, resembling a
1 daddy long-legs,' was seized with a desire to
obtain possession of the body. The cockroach
was many times larger than the spider, but

A SPIDER'S INGENUITY in

the latter was not to be beaten. It placed
itself above the body, with its eight long, thin
legs spread out like the shear-legs used for
lifting weights at ironworks. Then it lowered
its body until it was able to take hold of the
cockroach with its jaws. Having got a firm
hold, it slowly raised itself, until it lifted the
insect off the ground, and setting its legs in
motion, carefully bore away its load. It was
a remarkable example of the power of a spider
to apply its mind to the solution of a difficult
problem. It can hardly be said that these
phalangers are constantly in the way of raising
and bearing off such heavy and unwieldy
objects, or that its limbs are specially adapted
to act as a shear-legs, when the occasion
arises. I prefer to think that the spider
coveted the object, and applied some form
of reasoning to the determination of the
method most likely to attain the purpose.

The German Cockroach (Phyllodrornia
yermanica), Plate IX., Fig. 5, may be recog-
nized by its smaller size, and the presence of
two dark bands on the thorax. In palm-
houses one occasionally sees the large Ship
Cockroach (Periplaneta americana) and the

ii2 BEETLES, GRASSHOPPERS, ETC.

Australian Cockroach (Periplaneta australasise).
Certainly one would not desire to see them in
his dwelling-house.

The grasshoppers are the most pleasant
members of the Orthoptera. The mere men-
tion of the name recalls to us the sensation
of lying on thyme-scented downs on a hot
day, when the air resounds with the chirping
of these insects. There are many species.

The figures of the Parallel Grasshopper
(Stenobothrus parallelus), Plate IX., Fig. 6,
may be used to illustrate two common
species besides itself — the Green Grasshopper
(Stenobothrus viridulus) and the Two-shade
Grasshopper (Stenobothrus bicolor). In shape
and size the three are similar. Parallelus is
of varied colour, green or reddish, and is found
in fields and damp meadows. It may be known
by having mere rudimentary wings. Viridulus
is green varied with darker, and is to be sought
on inland grassy banks. It produces a loud
and prolonged note, beginning low and rising
by degrees. Bicolor is green, brownish, or
yellowish, and inhabits sea-banks and links.
It chirps with a sharp ' tzz, tzz, tzz.' The
Spotted Grasshopper (Gomj)hocerus maculatus),

LOCUSTS 113

Plate IX., Fig. 9, frequents grassy banks both
coast and inland. It may be distinguished by
its smaller size, spotted appearance, and the
clubbed tips of its antennae.

Fortunately for our farmers, locusts do not
come here as residents, but as stragglers.
I have figured two, not that I expect my
readers to find them in their first season, but
because there is no saying where they will
appear next, and it is very desirable that if a
locust should chance to be captured in Britain,
we should know which it is. The Migratory
Locust (P ouchytylus migraforius), Plate IX.,
Fig. 10, and a closely-allied species, Pachytylus
cinerascensy Plate IX., Fig. 11, are both grey or
yellow, and only differ in colour in so far as the
hind legs of migratorius are partly yellowish
and those of cinerascens partly reddish. If a
locust is captured in any part of this country,
it ought to be sent for identification to some
one who has studied the Order.

There is a genus of small grasshoppers of
very peculiar shape. As examples I shall take
the Two-spot Grasshopper (Tettix bipunctatus),
Plate IX., Fig. 8, and the Subulate Grasshopper
( Tettix subulatus). They are both found among

ii4 BEETLES, GRASSHOPPERS, ETC.

dead leaves, and also on bare spots among
heather some height above sea-level. The
former may be known by having two distinct
triangular marks upon its back, and by its
greater stoutness and smaller wings. It is
the more common.

In this chapter we have been concerned
with ' creeping things ' ; for, although most
of the insects I have mentioned possess wings
more or less developed, and many of them are
powerful fliers, that contemptuous expression
is the term by which these creatures are
commonly characterized. And yet, I think
enough has been said to show that much
instruction and profit are to be derived from
the study of this despised branch of creation.
Both groups make interesting subjects for a
collection, and afford a subject of study, in
which there is room for almost unlimited
individual effort and research.

SOME BOOKS UPON BEETLES AND ORTHOPTERA

1. British Beetles. Rev. J. G. Wood. 3s. 6d.

2. A Catalogue of the British Cokoptera. D. Sharpe. 2s.6rf.net.

3. Common Objects of the Country. Rev. J. G. Wood. 3s. 6d

4. Manual of British Coleoptera. J. F. Stephens. (Out
of print).

BOOKS OF REFERENCE 115

5. British Beetles. E. C. Rye. 9s. net.

6. British Beetles. S. L. Mosley (Naturalists' Journal,
vol. vii.).

7. The Coleojtera of the British Islands. Rev. Canon Fowler.
£4 net.

8. British Orthoptera. Malcolm Burr (Naturalists' Journal
vol. vi). (Also published in book-form.)

CHAPTER VI

DRAGONFLIES AND TWO-WINGED
FLIES

IF the Cicindelidae, according to Linnaeus,
may be called the tigers of the insect
tribes, the dragonflies may be termed
the hawks. They are types of predaceous
creatures. They have long, slender bodies,
contrived to present the least resistance to
the air ; wide-spread, tapering wings, adapted
for flight, forward, backward, or sideways at
pleasure ; and large eyes, set prominently in
the head, so as to command a wide prospect
in every direction. Their fierce rush through
the air forebodes death to all smaller insects
which come in their way. One is appalled to
think what the position of man himself would
have been, had there existed animals of large
size, with the powers of dragonflies in pro-
portion. Under these conditions the human

A FASCINATING SUBJECT 117

race must have perished in the struggle for
existence. As it is, dragonflies are perfectly
harmless, so far as human beings are concerned,
for they neither bite nor sting.

Dragonflies are termed, scientifically,
Odonata. They are regarded by some
naturalists as an Order by themselves ; but
most consider them as a section of the
Neuroptera, or Nerve- winged insects. They
certainly form a most interesting group. The
metallic hues of their bodies and brilliant
glitter of their wings; their powerful yet
graceful flight ; their wonderful life history, at
one time inhabiting the water, at another the
air — all combine to make them a fascinating
subject of study. The fact that they are by
no means easy to catch, adds an element of
sport. Of late years, especially since the
publication of treatises on the Odonata, more
attention has been devoted to the study ; but
there is still room for original research.

When I think of dragonflies, I always
associate them with a favourite haunt. It is
a small lake, black and still, covering about
a couple of acres, and lying at the foot of a
hill clothed with Scotch fir and larch. The

n8 DRAGONFLIES AND OTHERS

lake itself is in the midst of a fir wood, but
fringed with alders and light-green bushes,
which reflect themselves in the dark pool.
Around the shore runs a broad belt of rushes.
Standing here on a hot day in July, the sun
shining brightly on the surface of the water,
one witnesses a remarkable exhibition of
dragonflies.

A number of delicate Agrioninse are flitting
about the stems of the rushes, resembling
nothing so much as wisps of crimson, blue, or
grey ribbon fluttering in the wind. Through
these, with a wild rush, comes one of the
powerful Mschninse — nearly three inches long
and four across the wings — scattering the
smaller species, like a liner amongst a fleet
of yachts. The scene forms a picture, which
once seen is never forgotten. Our home
species are, however, far surpassed by those
of the tropics, which have wings, green, blue,
red, or glittering like gold filigree.

I have already said that part of a dragon-
fly's life is spent under water, and part above
it. The egg is deposited in a pond or
stream. From this egg the larva comes
forth, and spends from nine months to three

FOR HOME OBSERVATION 119

years grubbing about the bottom, devouring
every living thing of reasonable size with
which it comes in contact, and not even
sparing its own kindred. The nymph, or
pupa, unlike that of a butterfly or beetle,
is not motionless, but continues the voracious
habits of the larva. At last, some sunny
morning it crawls up the stem of a water-
plant, and splitting its skin emerges as a
dragonfly.

Thenceforth the dragonfly sweeps the air
in search of prey, as its fabulous namesake
was said to scour the earth.

All this process may be observed in one's
home. For this purpose, a vessel containing
water and aquatic plants should be provided,
and a few of the larvae placed in it. They
can then be fed with worms, or small water
insects.

The interest and amusement, which will be
derived from watching their curious habits,
will amply repay the trouble of attending to
their wants.

The species having no satisfactory English
names, I shall use the Latin ones. The first
specimen, and a type of the true dragonflies,

120 DRAGONFLIES AND OTHERS

is Libellula quadrimaculata (Plate X., Fig. 1).
It is reddish-brown with orange spots. The
tip of the abdomen is black. The wings are
tinged with yellow at the base, and each
bears two black spots. The insects are found
near ponds, and present a particularly brilliant
appearance, the dark patches and golden
tinge on the wings imparting richness to
their brightness.

Libellula depressa is similar, but larger, and
the abdomen flatter. The female is yellow,
and the male has a quantity of bluish dust
scattered over the abdomen. The wings have
not the black spots near the middle seen in
the former species, but only one near the
tip of each.

These two dragonflies are called 'horse-
stingers' by country people, although they
can no more sting than the rustics them-
selves. It is strange how those who are
in the constant habit of seeing insects are
generally inaccurate in their observations.
One learns little by mere seeing, if he does
not apply his mind to appreciate the meaning
of what he sees. For generations men, who
have daily seen this dragonfly every summer

PLATE X.

DRAGONFLIES.

No. 1.

Inches

1. Libellu'a quadrimaculata 2. Sympetrum scot cum.
3. Co rdu 'eg aster annul^tus.

PLATE X.

DRAGONFLIES,

No. 2.

Indies

4. /Eschna juncea. 5. Ischnura eiegans. 6. Enallagma cyathigerum.
7. Pyrrliosomr; nymphu'a.

CREATURES OF SPLENDOUR 121

of their lives, persist in accusing it of a
practice of which it is perfectly innocent.

Another species bearing some resemblance
to quadrimaculata is named Sympetrum, scoticum
(Plate X., Fig. 2). The male is purplish-
black, with yellow stripes and spots; the
female, reddish. It frequents ponds and
marshes, and is more abundant in the North
than in the South, although it is by no
means restricted to Scotland, as its name
would suggest.

I now come to some large and splendid
dragonflies. Cordulegaster annulatus (Plate X.,
Fig. 3) is black, spotted with yellow. It
may be found near streams, especially at
rocky places, often in large numbers, but
generally flying within a limited area.
Mschna juncea (Plate X., Fig. 4) is not unlike
the last species. The male is brown, with
blue and yellow spots ; the female brown,
with yellow and greenish-yellow spots. The
upper edges of the wings are golden, and
the blue spots at the extremity of the
abdomen divided. It flies in woods and at
ponds. Another dragonfly, Mschna cyanea,
is apt to be confused with the last one, but

122 DRAGONFLIES AND OTHERS

may be distinguished by observing that the
upper edges of its wings are black, and that
the blue spots at the extremity of the
abdomen are unbroken.

Three specimens must suffice for the more
delicate species. They are all found near
ditches or ponds, or in damp meadows,
and have a much slower flight than those
I have been describing. Ischnura elegans
(Plate X., Fig. 5) has a black thorax, with
blue lines above, yellowish below ; abdomen
black, with two blue spots, and yellow below ;
and the wings with yellow spots. Enallagma
cyathigerum (Plate X., Fig. 6) is blue in the
male, greyish green in the female, both
spotted with blackish-bronze. It is a very
pretty insect. Pyrrhosoma nymphula (Plate
X., Fig. 7) is carmine red, with black spots.
The female may be recognized from her
greater stoutness and blackness.

I once had an opportunity of watching
the business-like manner in which one
of these graceful creatures clipped the wings
off a fly, which it had captured and intended
to devour. As it sat on an alder leaf
stripping its prey, the delicate beauty of

TWO. WINGED FLIES 123

the insect seemed strangely inconsistent
with the apparent ferocity of its actions;
yet, after all, the dragonfly was only taking
its food in its own way. We are apt to feel on
such occasions that the actions of an insect
correspond with those of a human being.
Energy of movement, which in a human being
we should consider savage, is deemed equally
savage in the case of the lower organism.

The Diptera, or Two-winged flies, differ
in most respects from the group I have just
been describing. They suck their food in
place of biting it ; they fly with two wings
in place of four ; they are mostly of small
size and inconspicuous appearance ; they are
individually numerous and often gregarious ;
and they are frequently an annoyance,
sometimes a terror, to men. In Britain
the clouds of flies, which surround and buzz
about the head of the wayfarer, are trouble-
some on a hot day, and stinging gnats, clegs,
and gadflies, are worse than troublesome ;
but they are as nothing to the dipterous
hordes of Egypt, or to the mosquito and
tsetse.

The Philistines were no doubt influenced

i24 DRAGONFLIES AND OTHERS

by a sense of human impotence in a contest
with plagues of this sort, when they per-
sonified and worshipped the destroyer of
flies under the name of Beelzebub, the Lord
of the Fly. We are happy, in so far as we
need wage no real war with our Diptera.
They annoy us, but we do not fear them.
Their great number and variety, however,
make them a difficult Order to observe and
classify; but, thanks to the energy of many
workers, the difficulties are being surmounted,
and in a few years we may hope to have a
catalogue of British Flies as complete as that
of any other division of insects.

Students are most at fault in studying the
life history of the species. Flies spend their
larval stage in places and under circumstances
so different from those in which they pass
their existence in their perfect state, that it
is exceedingly difficult to connect the two
conditions. Consequently, there are many
species as to which at present we know
absolutely nothing, until they appear as fully
developed flies. There is one point in their
development in which they stand practically
alone amongst insects — they are furnished

PLATE XI.

1 — r

TWO-WINGED FLIES.

No. 1.

4-.

2.

3. 6.

I ' ' i i i i i i i i i I i i i i -r-r42 Inches

1. St Marks Fly. 2 Gnat (.magnified). 3. Herb Cranefly (reduced).
4. Yellow Gadfly. 5. Common Cleg. 6. Leptis scolopacea.

PLATE XL TWO-WINGED FLIES.

No. 2.

8.

10

12

Inches

7. Gooseberry Hoverer 8. Transparent Hoverer. 9. Eristalis pertinax.
10. Bluebottle. 11. Bronze Fly. 12. Dung Fly.

ST. MARK'S FLY 125

with only one pair of wings. They seem to
have retained the upper pair of the normal
insect, the lower pair being represented by
two small objects like drum-sticks, termed
halteres, or balancers. They will be clearly
seen on the figure of the Herb Cranefly (Plate
XI., Fig. 3) just behind the wings. Some-
times, as in the case of the Bluebottle fly
(Plate XI., Fig. 10), two ear-shaped lobes
are to be observed at the base of the wings.
These are called winglets. In other in-
stances, the flea for example, the wings have
been lost on account of the parasitical habits
of the insect, the disuse of an organ being
usually followed by its loss.

I have selected a dozen flies as fairly
typical of the Order. St. Mark's Fly (Bibio
marci), Plate XI., Fig. 1, is jet black. It is
one of the blackest insects known. The male
has transparent wings, the female blackish.
It swarms about hedges in Spring, near the
festival of the Saint from whom its name is
derived. The Piping Gnat (Culex pipiens),
Plate XI., Fig. 2, is a tiny but tormenting
insect, yellowish-brown, and having its thorax
covered with short, golden-yellow hairs. It

126 DRAGONFLIES AND OTHERS

has a very long proboscis, and the antennae
of the male are plumed. The Laplanders
suffer greatly under the attacks of these
insects, of which the mosquito is a near
relative. The Herb Cr&iiefLy(Tipulaoleracea),
Plate XI., Fig. 3, is one of those creatures
which children call ' Daddy Longlegs.' There
are a great number of different species all very
like each other; but oleracea is one of the
most common. It is grey, and its wings are
transparent, with brown veins.

In woods one is sometimes startled by the
appearance of the Yellow Gadfly (Tabanus
sudetieus), Plate XI., Fig. 4, which causes
more alarm than necessary through its out-
ward resemblance to a hornet. The first time
I saw it, I handled it with great care to avoid
giving it an opportunity to sting, until I saw
that it had only two wings, and therefore
obviously did not justify apprehension on that
score.1 It is a handsome fly, black, with
yellow bands on the abdomen, and its wings
tinged with brown.

A more disagreeable companion of a stroll
in fields or woods is the Common Cleg

1 The figure is drawn from this specimep.

HOVERERS 127

(Hsematopotapluvialis), Plate XI., Fig. 5, which,
as its Latin name indicates, is a blood-drinker.
It has a motionless flight, and the first indi-
cation of its presence is a sharp prick, as it
thrusts its proboscis into one's skin. It is
grey, the abdomen spotted with black, and its
wings variegated. A small but pretty fly,
without an English name (Leptis scolopacea),
Plate XI., Fig. 6, is found on tree trunks. Its
thorax is brown, and its abdomen yellow, with
brown spots.

The hoverers are so remarkable in their
movements, that every one must have
observed them at some time. One notices a
fly poised motionless in the air, its wings
vibrating so fast as to be almost invisible.
One draws near to view more closely this odd
sight, and it is gone. He looks around, and
there is the fly, hovering in a new place,
motionless as before ! Two examples of these
interesting flies are shown. The Gooseberry
Hoverer (Syrphiis ribesii), Plate XI., Fig. 7, is
a handsome insect, orange and black, which
is common in gardens. The Transparent
Hoverer ( Volucella pellucens), Plate XI., Fig.
8, is black, with the upper portion of the

128 DRAGONFLIES AND OTHERS

abdomen transparent, and dark-brown spots
on the wings. It is so transparent, that,
when it is resting, one can see through its
body the leaf on which it stands. It appears
in woods.

The Drone Fly (Eristalis pertinax), Plate
XL, Pig. 9, is brown and yellow, and
frequents woodlands. A fly closely allied,
Eristalis tenax, is known in its larval stage as
the 'Kat-tailed maggot.' It takes up its
abode in stagnant water, and stretches out a
telescopic tube to the surface for a supply of
air, thus anticipating some modern forms of
submarine boats. This is another of many
instances in which human ingenuity has been
forestalled.

A familiar pest is the Blue Flesh-fly, or
Bluebottle (Calliphora vomitoiia), Plate XI.,
Fig. 10, a bright-blue insect, which frequents
butchers' shops, and such places in dwelling-
houses as are likely to afford it an opportunity
of settling upon meat. The House-fly (Musca
domestica), is too familiar to need a figure. It
is grey, and the abdomen is yellowish in the
male, and darker in the female. This fly is
much exposed to the attacks of parasites aud

THE BALANCE OF NATURE 129

fungus. The Bronze Fly (Gymnochaeta viri-
dis), Plate XI., Fig. 11, is not uncommon
about walls and hedges in bright sunshine.
Its brilliant metallic green body, with bronze
reflections, shines with dazzling radiance.
The Dung Fly (Scatophaga stercoraria), Plate
XI., Fig. 12, is one of Nature's scavengers.
It is of a downy yellow colour. Annoying as
flies often are, we must never forget that they
generally serve a most useful function in
removing matter, which would otherwise
pollute the air. If it were not for these flies,
and the beetles of similar habits, the country
would soon be uninhabitable.

In this chapter there is an illustration of
the manner in which Nature preserves an
even balance in her several parts. The larva
or maggots of two-winged flies remove
putrescent matter, but, if unchecked, they
would soon increase to such a degree as to
become noxious. Amongst the checks pro-
vided are those powerful insects of prey, the
dragonflies, whose voracity tends to keep the
swarms of Diptera within due bounds. They,
in their turn, are restrained by the attacks of
birds ; and thus, so long as man does not

130 DRAGONFLIES AND OTHERS

interfere in his blundering recklessness, the
balance of Nature swings fairly even.

SOME BOOKS UPON DRAGONFLIES AND TWO-
WINGED FLIES

1. British Dragon flies. Editor of Naturalists'1 Gazette. Is.

2. Ants, Bees, Wasps, and Dragon Flies. W. H. Bath. Is.

3. Common Objects of the Country. Rev. J. G. Wood. Ss. 6d.

4. British Dragonflies. W. J. Lucas. £1 11». 6d.

5. Account of British Flies. F. V. Theobald. 12«.

6. The Harlequin Fly. Miall and Hammond. Is. 6d.

NOTE. — An important book on British flies is in course of
publication by Mr. Verrall, and when completed will fill a blank
in our scientific literature.

CHAPTEE VH
SAWFLIES AND BEES

EACH Order of insects is distinguished
by some special feature. The physical
structure of the beetles, the leaping
powers of the grasshoppers, the flight of the
dragonflies, the vast number of flies, the
varied colouring of butterflies, are all matters
which arrest attention. In the case of the
Hymenoptera the impressive character is their
social organization. Ants, bees, and wasps
in many cases live together in dwellings,
built by the joint labour of the community,
and with an orderly system of government.
The termites afford the only parallel among
insects, and outside the insects we must pass
to man himself before we discover anything
in Nature corresponding to these wonderful
assemblies. Of the social insects, the ant
is regarded by modern scientists as the most

132 SAWFLIES AND BEES

intelligent, thus confirming the accuracy of
observation of the Old Testament writers.
Until a comparatively recent period, it was
generally assumed that the bee surpassed all
insects in intelligence; now it is the ant
which takes the lead, and it was to the ant that
these old writers sent men to seek counsel.

The Hymenoptera, or Membrane - winged
insects, fall quite naturally into two divisions.
Those furnished with a saw or borer form
one group ; those bearing a sting form
another. The saw or borer is used to make
a hole in a leaf or branch for the reception
of eggs ; the sting, for many purposes in
connection with the building of nests and
combs, its aid as a defence being, no doubt, a
secondary service to the insect. The two
divisions are known scientifically as terebrant
and aculeate hymenoptera respectively. The
terebrant species vary as regards their method
of feeding, some feeding on plants and others
on insects. This circumstance enables us to
subdivide them into phytophagous and entomo-
phagous hymenoptera. The sawflies and bees
belong to the terebrant-phytophagous and
the aculeate divisions.

PLATE XJI. SAWFLIES AND SIRICES.

No.l.

5.

1. Pertneura solitarla. 2. Dolerus pratensis. 3. Taxonus equiseti.
4. Nematus septentrionaMs. 5- Nematus ribesii.

PLATE XII. SAWFL1ES AND SIRICES.

No. 2.

6.

8

b. Cimbex femorata. 7. Abia fasciata. 8. Sirex gigas.
9. Sirex juvencus.

SAWFLIES 133

Many persons, who have a fair knowledge
of the common insects, do not know the saw-
flies. In appearance they are not unlike two-
winged flies or bees. From the former they
can be distinguished by their having four
wings, and from the latter, by the lack of
a sting. The first seven species which I
propose to describe are true sawflies, and
belong to that section which is furnished
with a saw; the other two are sirices, and
belong to that which is furnished with a
borer. As already said, both saw and borer
are employed in making cavities for the
reception of eggs. I have figured female
specimens only, as those are most commonly
seen. All the figures are drawn larger than
life, with the exception of 6, 8, and 9, which
are less than life. The average length is
given in lines, or twelfth parts of an inch ;
but the sizes of individuals of the same
species are not at all uniform. Very few
sawflies have English names.

A typical sawfly is Perineum solitaria
(Plate XII., Fig. 1). It is 3£ lines in length,
shining black, with yellowish- white spots on
the thorax, and reddish bands on the abdomen.

134 SAWFLIES AND BEES

It should be sought for among herbage in
May and early June. Dolerus pratensis (Plate
XII., Fig. 2) is 3J lines in length, has the
head and thorax black, part of the head and
the abdomen red, and the wings with a
blackish tinge. It is found among the plants
called horsetails in June and July. Taxonus
equiseti (Plate XII., Fig. 3) is 3£ lines in
length, shining black, with some red on the
abdomen, the wings clear with the excep-
tion of a black spot near the tip of each
forewing. It appears in June. Nematus
septentrionalis (Plate XII., Fig. 4) is 5^ lines
in length, shining black, covered with fine
but dense pile, and the middle of the
abdomen is reddish-brown. It flies in May
and June.

One of the commonest and best known
species is the Gooseberry Sawfly (Nematus
ribesii), Plate XII., Fig. 5, which is found in
gardens. The fly is three lines in length,
yellow, with black spots on the thorax. It
is one of the worst pests in our gardens. Its
larvae are the little caterpillars, pale green
with black dots, which strip the leaves off
gooseberry bushes. Various plans for their

A GARDEN FOE 135

destruction have been devised. The young
larvae are easily found by the holes they make
in the leaves, and the surest method is to
press these with the fingers and kill them.
The application of powdered hellebore is the
next best mode. If not eradicated, they will
utterly ruin the fruit, as the berries do not
ripen properly, when the foliage has been
destroyed.

My next two examples belong to a distinct
division of the sawflies sufficiently indicated
by the knobs which terminate their antennae.
Except among butterflies and sawflies this
formation is very rare. Undoubtedly it
implies an important structural difference,
but, as we do not know the true functions
of the antennae, we are unable to state
with certainty what the difference may be.
Cimbex femorata (Plate XII., Fig. 6) is a
large insect, nine lines in length, black, with
a black or brownish pile, and wings clear save
for a blotch upon each forewing. It may
be met with in woods during June or July.
At the same season we may find Abia fasciata
(Plate XII., Fig. 7), a brassy-black fly, 5£ lines
in length, its abdomen smooth and shining,

136 SAWFLIES AND BEES

and its wings clear, with a large blotch on
each forewing.

The two sirices have, as I said before,
a borer in place of a saw.1 They are in-
habitants of pine forests, and, as they fly,
hum like bees. They are not common in
Britain. Their larvae remain concealed in
solid timber for years, and the flies have been
known to come to maturity and emerge after
a tree has been sawn into planks, and the
planks have been laid as flooring. The Giant
Sirex (Sirex gigas), Plate XII., Fig. 8, is
fourteen lines in length, yellow, with two
black spots on the abdomen. The male
may be distinguished by observing that its
abdomen is triangular and the tip black.
The Pine Sirex (Sirex juvencus), Plate XII.,
Fig. 9, is fifteen lines in length, violet black,
shot with blue — a very handsome insect.
Both may be sought for in pine woods, or
near woodyards, as they are often introduced
to this country in foreign timber.

Next to the white butterflies, the humble

1 The name wood-wasp, improperly, but not unfrequently,
given to these insects, is most misleading, as they are not rekted
to the wasps in any sense, except that both are Hymenoptera.

PLATE XIII

BEES.

No. 1.

1. Bombus terrestris. 2. Bombus hortorum. 3. Bombus latreillellus.
4. Bombus lapidarius. 5. Bombus lapponicus. 6. Bombus pratorum.

PLATE XIII.

BEES

12.

7. Bombus agrorum. 8. Bombus venustus 9. Bombus smithianus.

10. Psitnyrus rupestris. 1 1 . Megachile centuncularis.

12. Andrena albicans

HUMBLE BEES 137

or ' bumble ' bees are the insects best known
to the young. Most people, however, leave
the matter at that stage. Comparatively
few are aware that in Britain there are over
two hundred different sorts of bees, without
counting those cultivated by bee-keepers.
As boys we recognized three distinct sorts,
the black-and-white humble, the red-hipped,
and the golden-yellow. In Scotland these
are called ' garreck,' 'red-end,' and ' foggie '
bees — ' fog ' in Scotland meaning moss.

The figures on the plate represent in
every instance the female bee. The males
are generally smaller. I shall mention the
average size in each case, expressed in lines,
but bees are exceedingly variable in dimen-
sions, and may not always agree with the
measurements which are here given.

I shall first deal with the humble bees.
These nest in the ground at a greater or less
depth from the surface. Sometimes they
take possession of the nests of small birds.
The communities vary in number from two
or three score to two or three hundred. The
wax and honey which they prepare is inferior
to that of the hive bee, but boys find it

138 SAWFLIES AND BEES

sufficiently agreeable. The females survive
the winter, and their first care in early
Spring is to lay the foundation of a new nest.
B&mbus terrestris (Plate XIII., Fig. 1), sixteen
lines, is a common species. The female has
the thorax black, with a yellow band in front,
and the abdomen belted in black, yellow,
black, and white. The male has the thorax
black, with yellow bands in front and behind,
and the abdomen yellow, black, and white.
It is important to observe the order of these
coloured bands. Bombus hortorum (Plate XIII.,
Fig. 2), nineteen lines, has the thorax black,
with yellow bands before and behind, and
the abdomen yellow, black, and white. Both
sexes are similar. The female of Bombus
latreillellus (Plate XIII., Fig. 3), eighteen
lines, has the thorax black, with a yellow
band before and a white band behind,
and the abdomen black and white. The
male has the thorax black, with yellow
bands, before and behind, and the abdomen
belted with black, narrow white, black, and
yellow.

The ' red-end' humble bees come next.
Bombus lapidarius (Plate XIII., Fig. 4),

THE 'RED.END' 139

sixteen lines, derives its name from the
circumstance that it places its nest in stony
or gravelly banks. The female is entirely
black, except the red tip of the abdomen ;
the male has a yellow edging to its thorax.
In Bombus lapponicus (Plate XIII., Fig. 5),
fifteen lines, the female has the thorax black,
with a yellow band in front, and a narrow
yellow band behind, and the abdomen red,
with a thin black band above. The male
is similar, but has the thorax edged with
yellow. A favourite haunt of this bee is a
pond fringed with water trefoil (Menyanthes)
in flower. Bombus pratorum (Plate XIII.,
Fig. 6), fourteen lines, has in both sexes the
thorax black, with a yellow band in front,
and the abdomen yellow, black, and red.

The next three bees are easily known
by their yellow, woolly appearance. In
Bombus agrorum (Plate XIII., Fig. 7), four-
teen lines, the female is bright tawny yellow,
and the abdomen more or less sprinkled
with black hairs ; the male is the same, but
has the abdomen banded with grey and
black. Bombus venustus (Plate XIII., Fig. 8),
fourteen lines, resembles the last bee, but the

140 SAWFLIES AND BEES

hairs are shorter and more even, and there
is no black on the abdomen. Bombus
smithlanus (Plate XIII., Fig. 9), sixteen
lines, is met in Orkney, Shetland, and the
Hebrides. The thorax is bright fulvous,
and the abdomen lemon-yellow. The male
merely has a brighter shade of yellow in
the abdomen.

The next bee, Psithyrus rupestris (Plate
XIII., Fig. 10), eighteen lines, is a member
of a genus which makes no nest, but
shares the nests of other bees. Rupestris
is a guest of the red-end bee lapidarius.
It is not known what benefit, if any, these
lodger bees confer on their hosts, but we
may assume that they are 'paying guests.'
The bee is black, with its abdomen orange-
red. Another genus of bees, named Megachile,
is remarkable for lining its nest with sections
neatly cut from the leaves of roses and other
bushes. Having selected a hole in a decay-
ing post or tree, a bank, or an old wall,
the female bee, with marvellous skill, bites
out of the leaves portions of varying size
and shape, exactly calculated to form the
cells which she desires to construct, Her

BEE WORK 141

operations are a study in the capabilities of
instinct. I have chosen as an example of
this genus Megachile centuncularis (Plate XIII.,
Fig. 11), ten lines, a little bee having the
thorax closely punctured, and clothed with
fine, golden-brown hairs, and the abdomen
grey and black. The bees of the genus
Andrena appear very early in the year.
Andrena albicans (Plate XIII., Fig. 12), eleven
lines, has the thorax fulvous, the abdomen
shining and punctured, with golden hairs
at the tip, and the apex bright red. The
male is smaller and more slender.

Before closing this chapter it is necessary
to advert to the important functions in
relation to the reproduction of plants dis-
charged by bees and some other insects,
particularly the former. It is now well
known that many plants would not produce
seed, and, therefore, would not reproduce
themselves, without being fertilized by the
transfer of pollen effected by visits of bees.
This is a wonderful truth. If bees did not
seek honey and pollen in the way that they
do, many beautiful flowers and useful plants
would become extinct. We ought, therefore,

i42 SAWFLIES AND BEES

to reflect, when we see bees flying from
flower to flower, that they are not merely
engaged in providing for the preservation
of their own species, but are fulfilling a
duty which benefits the whole of Nature.

SOME BOOKS ON SAWFLIES AND BEES

1. British Phytophagous Hymenoptera. Peter Cameron (Ray
Society). In four vols. £1 each.

2. Ants, Bees, Wasps, and Dragon Flies. W. H. Bath. Is.

3. British Bees. W. E. Shuckard. 9s. net.

4. Common Objects of the Country. Rev. J. G. Wood. 3s. 6d.

5. Catalogue of Hymenopterous Insects in the Collection of the
British Museum. F. Smith. £1 14s. 6d.

6. The Hymenoptera Aculeata of the British Isles. Edward
Saunders. 16s. net.

CHAPTER VIII
BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS

I HAVE kept what is, in my opinion, the
best wine until the last. The plants
and animals, which have been discussed
in the preceding chapters, have each a
measure of charm for the student of Nature ;
but, as a subject of study, none of them can
equal those graceful and delicate insects,
which the present Poet Laureate calls ' the
winged flowers of the unsown air.' There is
an element of the ethereal in butterflies,
which has from the earliest times influenced
poetic minds. If we except the humming-
birds, I do not think such brilliance and
beauty of colour, elegance and refinement of
form, and lightness and grace of movement
are combined in equal degree in any other
portion of the animal kingdom.

There have been times when these

144 BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS

attributes have been despised. In the
eighteenth century the censors of public
taste held that the proper study of man-
kind was man. It need, therefore, excite no
surprise when we find even Goldsmith in his
Animated Nature writing about butterflies in
this fashion : ' It has been the amusement of
some to collect these animals from different
parts of the world, or to breed them from
caterpillars at home. These they arrange in
systematic order, or dispose so as to make
striking and agreeable pictures ; and all must
grant that this specious idleness is far prefer-
able to that unhappy state which is produced
by a total want of employment.' Specious
idleness indeed 1 How little he knew of the
true delights of collecting and studying these
lovely insects ! Hear one who, although he
did not aspire to the literary standing of
Goldsmith, was a far better naturalist. In
his Naturalist on the River Amazons, p. 353, Mr.
Bates sums up his theories in these prophetic
words : * The study of butterflies — creatures
selected as the types of airiness and frivolity —
instead of being despised, will some day be
valued as one of the most important branches

NATURE'S MYSTERIES 145

of Biological science.' This emphatic state-
ment of one, whose lightest word commands and
deserves attention, should make us pause ere
we speak in a supercilious manner regarding
the study of butterflies, or, indeed, of any group
of animals, however humble they may seem to
us. There are mysteries in Nature, as to
which no man can foretell where we may find
a clue leading to a knowledge of their secrets.
With all deference to, and admiration for, the
labours of Darwin and others, we are bound
to admit that the origin of species is still a
secret, and likely to remain so. It is, however,
generally recognized that if the riddle can be
read by human ingenuity, the key is most
likely to be found in study of the lower
organisms. Every one, therefore, who labours
in this field, does so with the possibility that
he may make a discovery, which will lead to
the elucidation of some difficult problem of
natural history.

The use of two terms, * butterfly ' and
' moth,' to designate separate sections of the
Lepidoptera, is peculiar to English-speaking
peoples. Other nations do not use different
words for this purpose, but the twofold

146 BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS

division, which such use implies, is everywhere
recognized. Its importance is not pressed in
modern systems of classification, and, indeed,
in the most recent endeavours to reduce the
species to a natural order, the distinction has
been disregarded. Still, the separation is
convenient for many purposes, and particularly
useful to the lover of Nature, who is more
apt to concern himself with the beauty and
interest of the insects, than to adhere to a
strict system of classification. As a general
rule, butterflies and moths can be distinguished
at a glance. The stouter bodies, and the
wings folded like a fan, might serve to
mark the moths as a group apart from the
slender-bodied butterflies, which fold their
wings vertically. Unfortunately many moths
(especially the geometers) resemble butterflies
in this particular, and we must seek a less
ambiguous mark of separation. This is found
in the structure of the antennae. Among
the moths these assume many forms, but
never end in a distinct knob; those of the
butterflies are always knobbed.

It is only necessary, before turning to the
consideration of individual species, to repeat

A CAUTION 147

the caution that insects in their perfect state
do not grow, and that if we find two butterflies
similar in appearance but differing considerably
in size, we may assume that they are different
species. I haye certainly seen considerable
differences in size in single specimens. I have
two puss moths, one of which is half as big
again as the other, but such instances are
exceptional. The practical principle is this
— a small butterfly will not grow into a
larger one.

The common white butterflies are old
friends. Whether we spent our childhood
in town or country, one of our earliest
recollections is the sight of those soft, white-
winged creatures in the parks and gardens
of the one, or in the fields and hedgerows of
the other. Next to the birds, they were the
largest flying objects we saw, and they became
the source of much exciting sport. As we
seldom caught them, it is possible that the
insects also regarded the pursuit in a
sporting way.

I remember, when very young, going out
to a field of hay in the early morning and
picking the small white butterflies off the

148 BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS

grass stems. I can still remember the pecu-
liar feeling of their wings, something like that
of a surface coated with French chalk.

The manner of flight of the white butter-
flies is very marked. They sail gracefully
through the air, rising and falling, but ever
going onwards, if they are not absolutely
turned by some cause of alarm. In this
matter they are unlike the more brilliant
sorts, which dart in an irregular way hither
and thither, backwards and forwards. Just
as the experienced eye, from an inspection
of the outline, curves, and general fades of
a tree, can tell at a long distance what it is,
so an observer, who is familiar with the
mode of flight of the various species, can
recognize certain butterflies long before he
is near enough to note their markings.

I propose to consider five different butter-
flies under the general title of ' Whites,'
although none of them is truly white, but
cream-coloured or orange-tinged. Neverthe-
less, British collectors have become accus-
tomed to speak of the Pierid butterflies as
' Whites/ and so long as it is understood
that the term is not meant to be descriptive,

PLATE XIV.

BUTTERFLIES.

No. 1.

1.

2.

Inch*

1. Large White. 2. Small White

PLATE XIV.

BUTTERFLIES.

No. 2.

v&Mg$

5.

i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i

Inches

3 Green-veined White. 4. Orange-tip. 5. Clouded yellow.

WHITE BUTTERFLIES 149

no harm is done by a practice which is
otherwise convenient.

The Large White (Pieris brassicse), Plate
XIV., Fig. 1, cannot be confused with any
other British butterfly. The figure shows
the female ; the male wants the two black
spots and dash on the forewings. It is
usually spoken of as a common insect, but
in many districts, especially in the North, it
is only occasionally met. A more common
species is the Small White (Pieris rapse),
Plate XIV., Fig. 2, which a beginner readily
confuses with the Green-veined White (Pieris
napi), Plate XIV, Fig. 3. The two butter-
flies are not unlike on the upper side, but
the veins on the under side of the hind-
wings of the latter are marked by a broad
blackish-green edging. The females of each
may be known from their having two black
spots on each forewing, as well as one spot
on each hindwing. The Green -veined
White has the power of secreting a scent of
considerable power, probably used as an
attraction to the opposite sex. The delicate
and lovely Orange-tip (JEuchloe cardamines),
Plate XIV., Fig. 4, is found in early Summer

i5o BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS

in damp meadows, or in the valleys of
mountain streams. It flits among the fresh
green verdure in the sunshine, the light
beautifully illuminating an orange patch at
the tip of each forewing of the male. This
patch seems to glow as the insect flits past.
The female has no orange patch, but is
readily distinguished from other small whites
by the green marbling spread over the under
sides of her hindwings.

Much rarer than these, although not at all
uncommon in some parts, is the Clouded
Yellow (Colias edusa), Plate XIV., Fig. 5. It
cannot be mistaken. The male is orange,
with broad black borders, crossed by yellow
lines and surrounded by a beautiful rosy fringe ;
the female is paler, with yellow spots in the
border instead of lines. The insect frequents
clover fields, and is swift on the wing. If
one stalks it cautiously until it settles on a
flower, and then strikes with the net rapidly
downwards, there is a fair chance of cap-
turing the specimen ; but, if the stroke
misses, there will be no second chance.

Amongst the more brilliant butterflies,
the most common is the Small Tortoise-shell

PLATE XV.

BUTTERFLIES.

No. 1.

I.

2.

Inches

1. Small Tortoiseshell. 2. Red Admiral.

PLATE XV.

BUTTERFLIES.

No. 2.

?i i i i MI i i i i I'l i i i i i n i n I* Inches

3. Grayling. 4. Meadow Brown. 5. Small Copper.

THE TORTOISE-SHELLS 151

(Vanessa urticse), Plate XV., Fig. 1, so
called because the colour and arrangement
of its pattern are not unlike the markings
of tortoise-shell. It cannot be mistaken foi
any other home species except the rarer
Large Tortoise - shell ( Vanessa polychloros),
and the former may always be distinguished
by the pure white spot next the tip of each
forewing, and the tiny blue crescents which
form an edging upon all the wings. Its
larger relative has a yellow spot, and the
crescents are confined practically to the
hindwings. One would fancy that an insect
so brightly coloured would fall a prey to the
first bird which encountered it ; but it is not
so. Brilliant as are the hues of the upper
surface — red, orange, yellow, white, brown
and blue — the lower is painted in sober
shades, so as to resemble rough, dark bark.
The instant a Small Tortoise-shell alights on
a tree or post and closes its wings, it seems
to vanish. A like arrangement is found in
the case of most bright-hued species, and
those which frequent open spaces.

Probably the most radiant of our British
butterflies is the Ked Admiral (Pyrameis

152 BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS

atalanta), Plate XV., Fig. 2. The name
is said to be a corruption of ' Admirable,'
and, if so, the attribute is justly applied.
Its prevailing hues are black and scarlet.
Sometimes one sees several of them together,
forming a lovely group, the scarlet bands
glowing like fire against the velvety-black
setting. They are not easily caught. In
the long struggle with France this insect
was named the British butterfly, in opposi-
tion to the Large White which was called
French. The comparatively sluggish flight
of the latter enabled schoolboys to show
their patriotism by killing the Whites with
less effort to themselves than if they had
to slay Red Admirals.

On hillsides and downs near the sea one
may seek the Grayling (Satyrus semele),
Plate XV., Fig. 3. It has no connection
with the fish mentioned in Tennyson's
Brook, its name being somewhat un-
happily derived from its colour. It is not
grey but brown. It is only when one looks
at the under side that he sees the grey
tinge which justifies the name. Particular
attention must be paid to the eye-spots, as

THE GRAYLING 153

they are called, the number and position of
which are shown on the plate. The females
are larger than the males, and in them the
shades of brown are more sharply contrasted.
This is one of the species I had in mind
when I spoke of the protection afforded
to butterflies which frequent open spots.
Flying in downs without shelter, the gray-
ling is especially exposed to the attacks of
enemies, but the grey mottling of the under
sides of the wings resembles lichen so
closely, that when the insect alights with the
wings folded, it is well nigh indistinguishable.
I have watched a grayling alight among
bents, and have looked for it on all sides in
vain, until it suddenly arose among my feet.

The Meadow Brown (Epinephele janira),
Plate XV., Fig. 4, is much more abundant.
In fact, it is one of our commonest butterflies.
I have figured the male. The female has
the eye-spot surrounded by a large orange-
tawny patch. The extent of brown and
tawny on these insects is variable. Several
butterflies, which resemble the Meadow
Brown, either differ from it in size, or have
a larger number of eye-spots.

154 BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS

Along the margins of cornfields, and at
footpaths through meadows, one sees the
Small Copper (Polyommcdus phlaeas), Plate
XV., Fig. 5. The metallic coppery glitter
of its wings renders it unmistakable. The
glory of the English fens was the Large
Copper, but the drainage of the country
and the insensate inroads of collectors, who,
instead of being content with a pair of
specimens, swept them up in dozens, have
exterminated this beautiful insect.

A considerable number of butterflies are
known to our countrymen as c fhtillaries,'
on account of a similarity of pattern thought
to exist between them and the flowers of
that name. I shall mention three of the
commonest of them. The Dark Green
Fritillary (Argynnis aglaia), Plate XVI.,
Fig. 1, is not very felicitously named. It
is, as indeed they all are, on the upper side
reddish-brown spotted with black. On the
under side the ground-colour is tinged with
green, hence the name. Upon this ground
there are numerous large silvery spots. It
is a singularly beautiful insect. It shows
to greatest advantage during flight, the

PLATE XVI.

BUTTERFLIES.

No. 1.

5.

4.

1°. ii ...I7-. MI 'I2 Indies

1. Dark Green Fritillary. 2. Pearl-bordered Fritillary.
3. Small Pearl-bordered (closed). 4. Pearl-bordered Fritillary (closed).

PLATE XVI.

BUTTERFLIES.

No 2

5.

1° -..I*... I* Inches

5. Scotch Argus. 6. Large Heath. 7. Small Heath.
8. Green Hairstreak.

FRITILLARIES 155

glittering spots below contrasting with the
rich warm tint above, as it flies about in the
sunshine. It is found on heaths and in woods.

I remember one little dell in Perthshire,
where a stream came tumbling over a low
rook face, and flowed on between a heather
bank on one side and a line of alders on
the other. In this secluded spot a number
of these lovely fritillaries were flying up,
down, and across, the whole forming a
charming picture. This is, in fact, one of
the great attractions of the study of butter-
flies. It leads the student into spots
naturally beautiful, and by drawing his
attention particularly to the loveliness of
one part of the scene, enhances his enjoyment
of the whole.

The other two fritillaries to which I
have alluded are the Pearl-bordered (Brenthis
euphrosyne), Plate XVI. , Figs. 2 and 4, and
the Small Pearl- bordered (Brenthis selene),
Plate XVI., Fig. 3. As is not uncommon
in relation to the names of insects, the
adjective ' small ' is not to be understood
as implying any marked difference in size.
Selene is certainly, as a rule, smaller than

156 BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS

euphrosyne, but this fact would not be a
reliable guide to identity. Neither is the
appearance of the upper side of the wings
to be depended upon, although an experienced
eye can detect points of difference. Both
are reddish-brown with black spots. They
can be best distinguished by a comparison
of the under sides, and to enable this to
be done I have drawn two figures with the
wings closed. They may be sought upon
heaths and in open glades amongst trees,
especially at damp places overgrown with
rushes.

A few butterflies belonging to Alpine
genera are established amongst our moun-
tains. Of these the best known is the Scotch
Argus (Erebia sethiops), Plate XVI., Fig. 6,
which is abundant in localities that suit it.
It is so dark a brown that it seems to be
black, and is marked with light-russet patches,
each containing several eye-spots. The under
side bears a streak, which is coloured bluish-
ash, but never white. A white streak is the
badge of a much rarer insect, the Arran
Brown (Erebia ligea).

On heaths one meets two very similar

HEATH.FREQUENTERS 157

butterflies — the Large Heath (Cwnonympha
typhon), Plate XVI., Fig. 6, and the Small
Heath (Ccenonympha pamphilus), Plate XVI.,
Fig. 7. Both are tawny, but the former is
larger, and bears one or two indistinct eye-
spots on each wing, while the latter has only
one near the tip of each forewing. Specimens
of the Large Heath vary greatly in the
number and distinctness of the spots. Both
are sluggish fliers and easily taken. In
company with the Small Heath is usually
to be seen the Common Blue (Lycsena icarus),
which I have not figured, as it is so well
known. Every one must have observed
this little lilac-blue butterfly flying across
downs, or banks by the roadside, over the
harebells, and looking as if some of the
blossoms had become instinct with life. The
strong tinge of lilac in its colour serves to
distinguish the male, at any rate, from other
blues. The female is brown rather than blue,
with a row of small red spots at the edge
of the wings. About the same size as this
Blue is the Green Hairstreak ( Callophrys rubi),
Plate XVI., Fig. 8. It is brown above and
bright green with a white streak beneath.

158 BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS

The crude green of the under side prevents
its being mistaken for any other butterfly.
It frequents the edges of woods, and, on
account of its dull colouring, may easily be
overlooked.

The group of Moths is a very numerous
one, and it is my intention to mention only
selected specimens representing important
sections. I shall pass over the hawkmoths,
so called from the shape of their wings,
although these include the largest British
member of the Lepidoptera — the Death's-
head moth (Acherontia atropos). This large
insect measures five or six inches across the
wings, and bears on its thorax what resembles
a representation of a skull. The moth is
never common, but there are few parts of
the kingdom in which a specimen does not
occur from time to time. A figure of it
would be too large for my plates, and I have
thought it better to confine my remarks to
species of a smaller size, which are more
widely distributed.

The species of a large and important
section are known to British collectors as
1 Tigers.' This is not, as in the. case of the

PLATE XVII.

MOTHS.

No. 1.

I' V I2 Inches

1. Tiger. 2. Tiger Han/at

PLATE XVII.

MOTHS.

No. 2.

4.

Inches

3. Clouded Buff 4. Wood Tiger. 5 Ruby Tiger 6 White Ermine.

TIGER MOTH 159

tiger beetles, on account of their ferocity, but
because of the colour and pattern of the
wings of one of the species — the Tiger
Moth (Arctia caia), Plate XVII., Fig. 1.
This is a singularly handsome insect. The
colours vary much, but speaking generally,
the fore wings are dark brown and cream, the
hindwings red with blue-black spots, and the
abdomen red, while a scarlet collar encircles
the neck. So beautiful are the hues, that
many persons, who fancy that all butterflies
are brightly coloured and all moths dingy,
think that it is a butterfly. I have frequently
had a tiger moth sent to me as a rare
specimen.

This is a very interesting insect to rear
from the larval stage. Its larva is the brown,
hairy caterpillar called variously 'woolly
bear,' * hairy worm,' or * hairy oubit ' (Plate
XVII., Fig. 2). In the early summer these
are common everywhere. A few should be
placed in an airy box with a supply of fresh
plants of the common dead nettle. If this
plant is not convenient, they will eat almost
any similar plant. I have reared them on
the stinging nettle. After certain days, the

160 BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS

woolly bear ceases to feed, and weaves for
itself a neat hammock, in which it passes the
quiet stage of its life called the pupal period.
After a short stay in this condition the moth
emerges in full perfection. These arrange-
ments are easily made, and the process can
be observed without difficulty.

The Clouded Buff Moth (Nemeophila
russula), Plate XVII., Fig. 3, is another
member of the Tiger group. The male has
lemon-yellow forewings and yellowish-white
hindwings ; the female rusty yellow forewings
and dusky hindwings. The Wood Tiger
(Nemeophila plantaginis), Plate XVII., Fig. 4,
is a very pretty insect. The forewings are
black with cream-coloured markings; the
hindwings ochre-yellow in the male and
yellowish-red in the female, both having
black streaks and edges. It frequents open
glades in woods and the borders of heaths.
A quaint little moth is the Euby Tiger
(Phragmatobia fuliginosd), Plate XVII., Fig. 5.
It is difficult to get a good specimen except
by breeding it, because the scales are usually
removed from the wings during flight. It
is reddish brown, with hindwin^s rosy red,

PLATE XVIII. MOTHS.

No.l.

1.

2.

\' TTT-rl* Inches

1 Emperor. 2. Oak Eggar.

PLATE XVIII

MOTHS.

No 2.

5.

5.

, ,

Inches

3. Vapourer. 4. Puss 5 Kentish Glory

ERMINES 161

slightly spotted with black, and the abdomen
carmine.

There are two moths called * Ermines'
from a faint resemblance subsisting between
their wings and the fur. The White Ermine
(Spilosoma menthastri), Plate XVII., Fig. 6,
has the forewings whitish, with a yellow
tinge, and sprinkled with small black spots;
the hindwings white, with a black spot in
the centre, and two or three at the edge.
The Buff Ermine (Spilosoma lubrwpedd) is
so like the other that I have not figured
it. The latter species is of a pale yellow
spotted with black.

The true Silk Moth (Bonibyx mori) is not
found in this country except in a domesti-
cated state. We have, however, several
moths which use silk more or less in the
construction of their cocoons. The Tiger
Moths are of this sort, and I propose to
add five others, all interesting species. No
British moth produces silk in a quantity
that is of any value from a commercial point
of view. The Emperor, or Smaller Pea-
cock Moth (Saturnia pavonid), Plate XVIIL,
Fig 1, is one of the handsomest of the

1 62 BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS

group. The wings are of a lovely grey and
purple, very delicately shaded, and bearing
large eye-spots. The male, which I have
drawn, may be distinguished from the female
by his feather-like antennae and tawny
hind wings. The caterpillar is also very
pretty. It is bright green, sharply divided
into segments, each of which is marked
with a black and pink ring, spotted with
yellow, and adorned with little tufts of hair
and bristles. It is generally found feeding,
upon heather. The first time I saw it, I
thought I had indeed discovered a prize.
It forms a pear-shaped cocoon, ingeniously
contrived, so that a number of sharp
bristles meet and present their points
outwards. They are like the bunch of
spears, which the brave Swiss gathered
against his own breast. Any small enemy
from without would find it impossible to
penetrate this close pointed mass, yet the
insect within finds it yield without difficulty
when necessary.

The Oak Eggar (Lasiocampa quercus),
Plate XVIII., Fig. 2, is prettier than one
would anticipate from the figure. It is of

THE VAPOURER 163

a rich chestnut-brown, with ochre-yellow
bands and white spots. The female is larger
and ochre-yellow throughout. The caterpillar
is of large size, clothed with light-brown
hairs, and banded with velvety black. It
feeds on various plants, including heather,
and forms an egg-shaped cocoon. I once
observed that a caterpillar of this moth,
which had been found feeding on cranberry
leaves, was most unwilling to feed on heather,
although the latter is the more natural food-
plant. An insect can apparently acquire a
taste as readily as the more noble animal,
man.

The Vapourer (Orgyia antiqua), Plate
XVIII., Fig. 3, is an odd little moth. It is not
showy. The male is chestnut-brown, with
light spots and dark markings; the female
is wingless, and resembles nothing so much
as a fat spider. The caterpillar eats the
leaves of many plants, including the
poisonous laurel. This is one of those
moths which are gifted with marvellous
powers of communication. If a female
Vapourer is placed outside, in a box covered
with gauze, and if there are any males within

1 64 BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS

miles, they will be attracted to her. How
it is done is one of the myriad points upon
which scientists are ignorant.

The Puss Moth (Dicranura vinula) Plate
XVIII., Fig. 4, takes its name from its furry
appearance. It is light bluish-grey, with
black markings. The caterpillar is an
extraordinary object — bright green, with
white stripes, and furnished with a forked
tail, from which, when alarmed, it thrusts
two scarlet threads. These are supposed
to be used as whips to drive away insect
enemies. The cocoon is constructed on the
bark of a tree, usually a willow. It is a
wonderful structure, composed of chips
and gum, and so corresponds with the
surrounding bark that it cannot be detected
except by a trained eye.

Of all British moths, that nearest of kin
to the true silk-moth is the Kentish Glory
(Endromis versicolora), Plate XVIII., Fig. 5.
It is very local in its range. The ground
colour of the wings is reddish-brown in the
forewings, and tawny yellow in the hind-
wings. The former are marked with dark
and light bands ; the latter with dusky lines

HARMLESS NEIGHBOURS 165

and white spots. The female is lighter in
hue, the hindwings being almost entirely
dull white. I have mentioned this moth,
although it is by no means common, because
I have reason to suspect that it is more
widely distributed than we are aware of,
and increased observation will extend our
knowledge of its favourite spots. It is only
by combined effort that men painfully and
slowly arrive at some degree of knowledge on
these subjects.

No Order of Insects has so good a record
as the Lepidoptera. Man suffers occasionally
from the ravages of caterpillars, particularly
those of certain moths ; but apart from this,
his associations with these insects are
altogether pleasant. If we except the
irritation caused by the hairs of some cater-
pillars when carelessly handled, no butterfly
or moth is noxious or hurtful. On the
contrary, they are all agreeable to behold,
and many of them are exceedingly beautiful.
It is scarcely possible to exaggerate the
splendour of some exotic species, which
combine the richest colouring with the highest
metallic brilliance. The Lepidoptera may,

1 66 BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS

therefore, be fitly characterized as the
aristocracy of the insect tribes.

SOME BOOKS ON BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS

1. British Butterflies. W. S. Coleman. 3s. 6d.

2. British Moths. J. W. Tutt 3s. Bd.

3. Common Objects of the Country. Rev. J. G. Wood. 3s. 6d.

4. Guide to Butterflies. Dr. Knaggs. Is.

5. The Book of British Butterflies. W. J. Lucas. 2s. 6d.

6. The Butterflies of the British Isles. Richard South. 6s. net

7. Our Country's Butterflies and Moths. W. J. Gordon. 6s.

8. Practical Hints respecting Moths and Butterflies. Richard
Shield. 5s.

9. Butterflies and Moths (British). W. Furneaux. 6s. net

10. Manual of British Butterflies and Moths. H. T.
Stainton. In two vols. 10s.

11. Handbook of British Lepidoptera. E. Meyrick. 10s. Qd.

12. The Lepidoptera of the British Islands. C. G. Barrett In
ten vols. 12s. net each.

13. Handbook to the Order Lepidoptera. W. F. Kirby. 5 vols.
30s. (Also published in cheaper form by Lloyd, London.)

14. British Butterflies and Moths. E. Newman. £1 5s.

15. Butterflies and Moths of Europe. W. F. Kirby £ lls. net.

16. Natural History of British Moths. Rev. F. 0. Morris.
4vols. £3 3s.

17. British Butterflies. Rev. F. 0. Morris. 15s. net.

NOTE. — It is quite impossible to give a complete list of works
on this subject, but there is here given a fairly representative
selection.

CHAPTER IX
NOTEBOOKS AND COLLECTIONS

CONCERNING Solomon's knowledge of
Natural History we are told that it
was wide and varied. {He spake of
trees from the cedar tree that is in Lebanon,
even unto the hyssop that springeth out of
the wall ; he spake also of beasts, and of fowl,
and of creeping things, and of fishes.' In the
seven preceding chapters I have introduced
the reader to information as varied, though
not so extensive, as that of the wise king.
We have discussed plants, from the royal
oak to the lowly scorpion-grass ; eggs of birds
from the hawk to the wren ; and a multitude
of flying and creeping things. The time has
now arrived for consideration of notebooks
to record observations, and collections to
preserve specimens.

A naturalist, as has been repeatedly

1 68 NOTEBOOKS AND COLLECTIONS

remarked, is, in the first place, one who loves
Nature, and observes. He may also be a
collector, but lie is so only in the second
place. His first aim is to understand the
life histories of the plants and animals, with
which a beneficent Creator has surrounded
him. To this end he observes and notes
the details of their structure, their instincts,
and their relations to each other. He is
slow to take life, because his object is more
likely to be attained by observation of the
living plant or animal, than by examination
of its dried remains. Thus, observation
supported by the use of the notebook is
the first means to be employed for learning
the secrets of Nature.

Next comes collecting. Observation has
to be accompanied by the study of speci-
mens, and it is not only desirable but
essential that the student should form a
collection for private examination. In
making this collection he must spare life
as far as possible, retaining no more speci-
mens than he absolutely needs for study.
Whole rows of a single species, unless
gathered by a specialist for the comparison

A NATURALIST'S CALENDAR 169

of distinct varieties of that species, are a
waste of life, of which no true naturalist
will be guilty. The student should approach
the study in a loving spirit. Then he will
derive pure pleasure and increased under-
standing. In my opinion, the use of the
notebook should rank first as a means
towards the attainment of a scientific
acquaintance with plants and animals.

One of the most useful applications of the
notebook is the construction of a Naturalist's
Calendar. A good specimen will be found at
the end of White's Natural History of Selbwne.
A calendar of this sort notes the dates of the
operations of Nature, either for one year, or
for an average of several years. In it we
record the times of the opening of flowers in
our own neighbourhood, the budding of trees,
the appearance of insects, and the other
events which vary the charms of successive
seasons. The making of such a calendar is
a work of great utility. It affords excellent
training in habits of observation, and the
completed work is of much practical use.
By means of a list of this kind it is possible
to compare the natural history of oae district,

1 70 NOTEBOOKS AND COLLECTIONS

or of one season, with that of another. The
observer will find his calendar, if kept for a
few years carefully and regularly, a source of
interest, through the comparisons which he is
able to institute by means of it. It is curious
to note the variation between the date on which
one saw the first primrose, or the first white
butterfly, in different years, and it is no less
surprising to mark the regularity which
prevails in the operations of Nature — each
plant and insect and bird arriving true to
its appointed time with reference to others.

As an illustration of the form of such a
record, I select a few entries from a calendar
which I kept for a number of years in Elgin-
shire. I have purposely chosen entries of a
varied character —

Jan. 23. Hive bees flying.

„ 30. Lilac leaf-buds appearing.
Feb. 13. Gooseberry leaves opening.

,, 26. Catkins on willow.
Mar. 9. Hawthorn leaf-buds opening.

„ 15. Lilac leaf -buds opening,

,, 16. First primrose.

23. Crocuses in full bloom.

EXAMPLE OF CALENDAR 171

Apr. 5. Sycamore leaf-buds opening.

,, 9. First small tortoise-shell butterfly

„ 17. Dandelions in flower.

„ 18. Wood anemones in flower.

,, 24. Narcissus and apple blossom.
May 5. Ladybirds flying.

,, 6. Tiger beetles flying ( C. campestris).

„ 10. Small white butterfly (P. rapse).

„ 11. Bracken tips uncurling.

„ 22. Hawthorn in bloom.

„ 25. Caterpillars of small tortoise-shell

butterfly.
June 2. Dog rose in flower.

„ 19. Foxglove in flower.
July 3. Burnet moths flying (A. filipen-
dulse).

„ 15. Painted lady butterfly (P. cardui).
Aug. 17. Harvest begun on B farm.

„ 21. Leaves turning yellow.
Sep. 8. Eipe berries on honeysuckle.
Oct. 5. Autumn tints general.
Nov. 16. Trees generally bare.
Dec. 29. Daisies in flower.

Of these entries it may be observed that
there is naturally less to note in the closing

172 NOTEBOOKS AND COLLECTIONS

months of the year, as compared with those
earlier months, when growth is rapid, and
objects seem to spring into our notice so
quickly that we scarcely know how to make
a selection amongst the many things calling
for the recording pencil. It is otherwise at
the end of the year. We find it easier to
mark the first appearance of anything than
its last, and when everything is withering
and passing away, we do not feel ourselves
so much at a loss to choose our entries.

With the approach of a New Year, the
preparation of a Naturalist's Calendar may
well hold a place among those schemes of
work and self -improvement, which we are
wont to form at such a time, and which we
too often forget immediately the festive season
has passed. If once seriously undertaken,
there is a fascination about the formation of
a calendar, which affords a reasonable hope
of the resolution being adhered to. It does
not matter how trifling the entries may seem.
The main points to be observed are prompti-
tude in making the notes, and accuracy in
recording matters of fact. Little purpose is
served by writing up entries in the calendar

THE HERBARIUM 173

some days after the occurrences were noticed.
The entry should be made at once. If care
is taken to record nothing but facts personally
observed, to avoid hearsay, and to make
immediate records, it is possible to prepare
a calendar which will not only be of
much interest locally, but will also have real
scientific value.

Turning now to collecting, it has to be
observed that a herbarium or collection of
dried plants, although it can never satisfy
the lover of wild flowers, is indispensable to
the botanist. A little attention to. detail
makes all the difference between forming a
useful and ornamental collection and a mere
congeries of withered shreds. The primary
point in collecting plants for preservation
is to choose as dry weather as possible.
Specimens should not be carried in the
hands, because the heat of the body soon
causes them to fade. Any sort of tin case
will serve to carry them, but a vasculum
designed for the purpose costs very little.
The collector will take with him a pocket
lens and a strong knife. It is desirable to
show in the herbarium all parts of the plant —

174 NOTEBOOKS AND COLLECTIONS

flower, fruit, buds, leaves, stem, root-leaves,
and root. Consequently, it will often be
necessary to procure specimens of tbe same
plant at different seasons. If it is too large
for exhibition entire, its parts may be shown
by a judicious choice of samples of the several
portions.

On returning from a botanizing ramble,
remove the spoils at once from the tin case,
and dry them under pressure. For this
purpose drying-paper is wanted. Blotting
or other bibulous paper is best, but old
newspapers form a cheap and efficient sub-
stitute. Take a specimen, clean it, free it
from earth, and cut off withered leaves, etc.
Lay it on a sheet of drying-paper, and spread
it as flat as possible. Place another sheet
of drying-paper above the plant, and lay the
whole between two smooth, flat boards.
Then put a weight on the top — a pile of
books is as good as anything. Too heavy
pressure is a mistake. Change the drying-
papers from time to time, until all the
moisture is. expelled from the specimen. If
the colours of flowers are to be preserved,
it is necessary to use heat before they are

PRESERVING AND MOUNTING 175

placed under pressure. Various methods are
recommended. The most) convenient is to
pass a warm flat-iron gently over the blooms.
Another plan is to imbed the flower in plaster
of Paris, sprinkling the powder thickly over
and into the spaces, and heat the mass at a
temperature of 90° or 100° Fahr. for twelve
hours in the case of small flowers, and longer
in the case of large ones. Free the blossoms
from the plaster with a camel's-hair brush,
and carefully clean them with petroleum.
In either case, after applying the heat, place
the flower under pressure in the usual way.

When the specimen is dry, it should be
mounted upon a sheet of stout white paper,
foolscap size. It may be easily secured by
thin strips of gummed paper laid over the
stem at various points. Write upon the sheet
the common and scientific names of the plant,
the place and date of its finding, and any
other points worthy to be noted. All the
sheets containing the species of one genus
should be enclosed in a folded sheet of brown
paper. The whole herbarium may be kept
in a set of store-boxes, as to the construction
of which I shall have something to say

1 76 NOTEBOOKS AND COLLECTIONS

afterwards. When a genus is a large one,
a store-box may be reserved for the sheets
belonging to it. The collection must be laid
aside in a dry place, for damp will speedily
ruin it, and it will be all the better for a little
camphor to keep away destructive insects.

I formerly remarked that birds' eggs can
be well studied without collecting them. If,
however, a collection is wished, its preparation
must be set about in a regular manner. April,
May, and June are the best months for
collecting eggs, although nests are to be
found both earlier and later. The requisites
are a stout stick, with a crook to draw aside
branches and foliage, several tin and chip
boxes, and some paper and cotton-wool
When you remove an egg from the nest,
handle it with delicacy, so as not to disturb
the other eggs that are left. Hold it by the
ends, not sideways. Wrap the egg first in
cotton-wool, and then in paper, and place
it in a chip box.

On returning home, the contents of the
eggs must be at once extracted. There are
two methods of doing this, but the first of
these is now considered quite out of date,

EGG.BLOWING 177

and spoils the specimens. I shall, however,
describe it, as it needs no apparatus.

First Method. — Make with a fine needle a
little hole at the smaller end, and a less hole
at the larger. Blow gently through the
smaller hole. If the yolk be stiff, place the
smaller end in a cup of clean water, apply
your lips to the larger end, suck in a little
water, shake the egg well, and then blow
again.

Second Method. — Having provided yourself
with egg-drills and blow-pipes, which are sold
for a trifle by the dealers, hold the egg by the
ends between the first finger and thumb of
your left hand over a bowl full of water. If
you grip it sideways it will probably break.
Make a hole in one side with a fine needle,
insert the point of a suitable drill, and twirl
it rapidly between your ringer and thumb,
till you have formed a neat round hole. Place
the blow-pipe to the edge of this hole, turning
the egg over above the water, and blow out
the contents. If stiff, blow a small quantity
of water into the shell. In either case, after
the egg has been emptied, wash out the shell
by sucking or blowing water into it, and place

1 78 NOTEBOOKS AND COLLECTIONS

it on a piece of blotting-paper to dry. ' Hard-
set ' eggs are to be avoided, but one sometimes
has to deal with these. If you suspect an egg
to be in this condition, glue a narrow band of
brown paper round the middle of it. When
the glue is dry, drill a hole through both
paper and shell. This process prevents the
chipping or breaking of the shell. After the
egg has been emptied, place it in warm water,
and the paper will be easily removed. To
make the paper adhere to the convex surface
of the egg, a series of small slits should be
cut in its edges before it is glued. The eggs
may be preserved in a store-box, on pink or
white cotton- wool, or on moss. The box
should be divided by partitions into compart-
ments, of which one ought to be assigned
to each species of bird. I shall speak of
this afterwards.

As regards collecting and preserving
butterflies and moths, much minute infor-
mation will be found in T/te Lepidopterist' s
Guide, by Dr. Knaggs (price Is. ; Gurney
and Jackson, London), and as regards animals
generally, in the Syllabus of Practical Taxi-
dermy attached to The Treasury of Natural

BUTTERFLY.NETS 1 79

History, by Samuel Maunders (price 105. ;
Longmans, London). I shall here aim only
at furnishing sufficient information to start
any one in the business of forming a
collection.

I shall begin with butterflies and moths.
For the capture of these and all winged
insects a light gauze net is essential. Such
nets are to be procured in great variety. It
is, however, no difficult task to construct a
bag of leno, or book muslin (preferably green),
to fit a hoop or ring ten or twelve inches in
diameter. The bag should be twenty-five to
thirty inches in depth. The hoop may be
of cane, willow, brass wire, or any other
pliable material. In an emergency I have
extemporized one by cutting a stout stick
and lashing a thin tough branch, bent in a
hoop, to its point. A portable net is fashioned
by procuring a tin socket, shaped like the
letter ' Y,' the leg fitting a walking-stick, and
the arms fitting the ends of a thin cane,
which can be thrust through the hem of
the net, and then inserted into these two
sockets. A supply of chip boxes will be
provided. A useful size is 1-J inches across

i8o NOTEBOOKS AND COLLECTIONS

and | inch deep; but a number of smaller
ones will also be required. It is advisable
to number the boxes on the lid and bottom
before starting, and to keep the empty ones
separate from those which contain specimens.
On netting a butterfly or moth, slip into
the net one of the boxes with the lid off, coax
the specimen into it, and put on the lid.
When the insect finds itself in the dark, it
will not flutter. Powerful species, which
might injure themselves by fluttering, will
have to be killed by putting a few drops of
benzine into the box. In this case, a small
piece of soft paper will have to be placed
over the insect in the box to prevent it being
rubbed and damaged as you walk. Many
collectors carry a corked collecting-box, and
kill and pin their captures at once. I have
always found that, with ordinary care, the
chip boxes are equally efficient, and far more
convenient. On arriving home, the insects
may be killed by putting a few drops of
benzine into the box, or may be transferred
into a killing box. This can be constructed
out of one of those small tin boxes fitted
with tight lids, such as are used for many

THE USE OF THE NET 181

purposes nowadays. Place a few layers of
clean blotting-paper in the bottom, and pour
half a dozen drops of benzine upon the
blotting-paper. An insect placed in the box
will be instantly killed. You may substitute
cyanide of potassium, or bruised leaves and
shoots of laurel, for the benzine, if you
prefer these. I always use the more con-
venient and safer benzine.

The right use of the net is by no means
easily acquired. All haste and excitement
are to be avoided, and the stroke should
be made if possible when the butterfly is
settled upon a flower or other object. Special
care must be taken in the vicinity of thorny
or prickly plants, particularly brambles, as
want of care will lead to the entanglement
and destruction of the net.

The most remarkable experience I have
had in the matter of netting a butterfly was
the capture of a specimen of the Painted
Lady (Pyrameis cardui). My brother and
I observed the insect near an old tower in
an open space amongst trees. It was so
restless, that we could not approach it while
settled, and when on the wing, it soared

i82 NOTEBOOKS AND COLLECTIONS

too high for us to reach. After the manner
of its kind, for the Painted Lady is one
of the boldest butterflies, it returned again
and again, repeatedly alighting on the white
wall of the tower, or on a large boundary
stone near it.

It occurred to me that, as I was wearing
a light-coloured straw hat, the butterfly
might perch on that, if I stood quite still.
My brother placed himself under the shelter
of a tree, to signal if the insect should alight,
while I stood motionless close to the tower.
I saw the Painted Lady pass behind me.
I did not move.

Suddenly my brother exclaimed, * There !
It's on your hat ! ' I brought the net down
smartly on the crown of my hat, and was
lucky enough to enclose the prize. By
taking off hat and net it was secured in
safety.

The insect when quite dead must be set.
Take its body delicately between the finger
and thumb of your left hand, and with your
right pass a long thin pin through the thorax
(the thick part behind the head). See that
the pin is inserted straight, and projects at

THE SETTING-BOARD 183

least half an inch beneath the body. Special
pins are sold for the purpose, but any thin
pin will suffice.

You must either purchase or make a
setting-board. One may be made of a
piece of soft wood of convenient length,
3 inches broad, f-inch thick, and with a
groove J-inch wide and J-inch deep ploughed
down the centre. The groove should be
made wider for stouter-bodied specimens. Its
purpose is to ensure that the point of the
pin will be at least half an inch below the
outspread wings. Were it not for this,
the insect might quite well be set on a
flat piece of cork or wood ; but then the
pin would protrude only a short distance
beyond the body, and the specimen, when
placed in the collection, would rest on the
bottom of the drawer or box, which is
undesirable. Consequently, if you cannot
get a grooved setting-board (as often happens
when one is from home), a flat board may
be used, provided you first bore a hole for
each pin at least half an inch deep. Thus the
point of the pin will be well into the board,
when the wings rest horizontally upon it.

1 84 NOTEBOOKS AND COLLECTIONS

Returning to the operation of * setting/
you take up the specimen by the head of the
pin, and thrust the point firmly into the
bottom of the groove or hole, as the case
may be. Take two pieces of narrow silk tape,
six inches long and one-eighth inch wide.
Pin one end of each piece to the board, one
on each side of, and touching, the central
grove, in a straight line with the body of the
insect. With a fine needle, inserted in a
match-stalk or small piece of wood, gently
separate the wings sufficiently to permit of
your bringing back the free ends of the tape
between them. Take care that one tape
passes on one side, and the other on the
other side of the pin. Use the needle to
lightly fold the left-hand pair of wings flat
upon the board, and tighten the left-hand tape
so as to hold them there. Pin the free end
of that tape to keep it in position. Eepeat
this operation with the right-hand pair of
wings. You will then have all the wings
under command. Adjust them with the
needle until they lie neatly and symmetrically.
The tapes are used to check their spring.
When set to your mind, secure them with

SETTING 185

small pieces of thin card or paper, pinned to
the board with their points resting on the
wings ; but do not let any pin pass through
the wings. Arrange the antennae evenly in
front. Then remove the tapes, which are
only needed as a mild restraint during the
process of setting ; indeed, if the wings are
not very stiff, the tapes may be dispensed
with entirely. In a few days the specimen
will be dry. Eemove the pieces of card
('braces,' as they are called), and lift the
specimen by the head of the pin. It may
then be placed in the store-box or cabinet.

What I have said applies to the setting of
butterflies, moths, dragon-flies, bees, saw-
flies, and two-winged flies. In the case of
those dragon-flies which are small and brittle,
the body may be strengthened by pushing a
thin bristle, or dry grass stem, through the
underside of the thorax, between the legs,
downwards through the abdomen. The spare
portion will be cut off. The legs must be
drawn neatly into position before the wings
are set, and the long abdomen will be sup-
ported by means of crossed pins. In this
case, take care that the benzine does not

1 86 NOTEBOOKS AND COLLECTIONS

touoli the bodies, as it is apt to damage the
colours. The central groove of the setting-
board will have to be half an inch wide, to
leave room for setting the legs.

As moths are mostly nocturnal in their
habits, the collector seldom nets them. A
few day-flying species may be taken on the
wing, but, as a rule, other expedients have to
be adopted. Rearing from the larvae is one
mode. Other methods are collecting pupae,
and attracting and capturing moths by means
of a light, tree trunks smeared with a mixture
of treacle and beer, ivy blossom, or (in some
species) a decoy female. These are fully
described in the books. The most interesting
is rearing either from the egg or caterpillar —
a process which only needs a little patience
and experience.

Beetles and similar insects demand a
different system, both of capturing and setting.
The net required is a stout sweeping net of
sheeting, on a strong wire ring at the end of
of a stick. This is employed for brushing
through grass and herbage to catch the beetles
that lurk there. The butterfly- net, or an
umbrella inverted, is of much use when

COLLECTING 187

placed beneath branches while you beat with
a stick, to dislodge concealed specimens.
The chip boxes will serve to hold your
captures. They also serve to catch beetles,
if you hold the box open in front of the beetle,
slip it in, and close the lid. A bottle fitted
with a cork pierced with a quill is convenient
for holding small beetles. Whether you
adopt box or bottle, beware of confining
together two species, unless you are sure
that they are vegetarians. The enclosure
of two carnivorous beetles means the destruc-
tion of one of them, and the damaging of
the other.

So soon as the sun in Spring begins to
shine with genial warmth, you may sally
forth, tapping over your net or umbrella
the branches of young trees, and searching
sandpits for specimens which have struck
the sides and fallen down. In Summer, you
may dredge with a strong net the edges of
ponds, and also under the banks of ditches
and streams ; brush the sweeping-net through
patches of grass and wild flowers, look under
stones and the bodies of dead animals, turn
over heaps of vegetable refuse, and closely

1 88 NOTEBOOKS AND COLLECTIONS

examine ants' nests, and the trunks of trees
where there is running sap.

When Summer gives place to Autumn,
toadstools and fungi must receive attention,
and you will hunt amongst dead leaves, and
under the bark of decaying trees. Even in
Winter there is work to be done. Tufts of
dry grass and moss may be cut during open
weather, and shaken over a sheet of newspaper.
Many specimens may be also procured by
turning over the bottom layer when a stack
of hay or corn is taken down. There are
beetles there as well as rats.

Beetles may be killed with benzine, as
already explained, or by plunging them into
perfectly boiling water. The latter method
sounds cruel, but is not so, because death
is absolutely instantaneous. When killed,
beetles may be either ' pinned ' or * carded.'

In the first method, a pin is passed through
the right-hand wing case, so as to project
half an inch beyond the body. The pin point
is then inserted in the groove or hole of the
setting-board, the legs and antennas are drawn
into position with a bent needle, and the whole
is secured by means of crossed pins till dry.

CARDING 189

In the second method, first prepare a paste
of gum tragacanth and clear gum arable in a
little water. The paste should be white, and
so stiff that it will not pour out. Place the
beetle on its back, and with a camel's-hair
brush draw out its legs and antennae. Put
some of the paste on a stout card, lay the
beetle on it, legs undermost, and with a bent
needle or clean brush draw the hind limbs
into position, as shown in Plate No. VIII.
When all are drawn out — and this needs a
light hand and a good temper — let the card
stand till the specimen is dry. Then float
the card in a basin of water till the beetle
comes off. Take a clean card of suitable
size, put some fresh gum on it, and place
the beetle thereon. When dry, cut away any
superfluous card, and secure the specimen
in your collection by means of a thin pin
run through the portion of the card behind
the insect. Personally, I prefer 'carding'
as a mode of preserving beetles. It avoids
damaging the wing cases — a matter of
moment in the case of beetles, which are
distinguished from each other less by colour
than by shape, sculpture, and markings.

190 NOTEBOOKS AND COLLECTIONS

Orthopterous insects — earwigs, cook-
roaches, grasshoppers, and locusts — are set
after the fashion of beetles, except that, if
pinned, the pin is inserted through the centre
of the thorax. Only a few specimens can be
* carded.' Care must be taken to properly
exhibit the legs. Grasshoppers and locusts
are best set with the long hind legs drawn
out straight. If you have more than one
specimen of the winged sorts, one should be
set with the wings expanded, another with
the wings closed.

In determining species it is necessary, in
many cases, to examine anatomical details.
For this purpose a strong lens is required. It
is advisable to learn to dissect the bodies of
spare specimens. It is quite easy to do this,
and full instructions are given in the books.
When it is desired to examine the number
and ramifications of the nervures in the wings
of butterflies, without damaging the scales,
these should be damped with benzine. A
camel's-hair brush charged with benzine is
applied gently to the root of the wing next
the body, and the spirit spreads rapidly
over the surface. No rubbing must be used.

STORExBOXES 191

The benzine does not hurt the colours of
butterflies or moths. While the wings are
wet, it is easy to examine the neuration by
means of the lens.

For the preservation of specimens it is
necessary to have either a cabinet with
drawers, or a series of store-boxes. I think
it is wise to begin with the latter, and
continue with these until you form some
idea of the probable size of your collection.
Store-boxes may be purchased, or made.

To make one, buy a sheet of strawboard
^-inch thick, costing threepence, two sheets
of white demy paper, a sheet of blue demy
paper, and some glue and paste. The sheet
of strawboard will measure about 25£ inches
by 19 inches. Mark off on the longest side
a point dividing it into two parts, one 14
inches, the other 11 j inches. Cut the sheet
into two parts at this point. The larger
portion will form the box; the smaller, the
lid. Damp some of the white demy paper,
and paste it smoothly over one side of the
strawboard, and place it under a heavy weight
until perfectly dry. Take the part intended
for the box, and rule four lines on the side

i92 NOTEBOOKS AND COLLECTIONS

opposite to the white paper, one parallel to each
side and end, and 1J inches from the edge.
These lines will cross each other so as to
leave a square of 1^ inches at each corner.
Cut out those four little squares. Then
partially cut into the strawboard, along the
lines, and fold upwards so as to form the sides
and ends of the box. Then take the portion
for the lid. Reserve the side where it was
separated from the other piece as the line of
hinge, but on the opposite side, and at both
ends, rule lines parallel to the side and ends
an inch and five-twelfths from the edge. Cut
out the corner squares, and fold as before.
It will be observed in folding, that the white
paper is the lining of the box, and must be
kept inwards. The angles will next be secured
by pieces of linen tape glued on the outside,
and the lid will be attached to the box by a
strip of broad linen tape glued in the same
manner.

The finished box will be 16 inches long
by 11 inches broad, and 1£ inches deep,
having a lid with deep sides and ends, to
overlap the box and exclude dust. It is
better not to fasten the corners of the lid

EGG-BOXES 193

before the binge is glued, in order tbat you
may bave an opportunity of fitting tbe over-
lapping parts as tigbtly as possible. Finish
tbe whole neatly by pasting a broad strip of
blue demy paper over the linen hinge and
the back of the box, and also at each corner.
The idea is to give the box the appearance
of a book. The measurements which have
been given are those of the largest box
which one sheet of strawboard will make ;
but an alteration of the figures will enable
you to construct a box of any smaller size
you desire. For a herbarium a smaller size
is more suitable.

If the purpose of the box is merely to
store a collection of sheets containing dried
wild-flowers and plants, it is unnecessary to
do anything more to it. If it is to contain
birds' eggs, it must be divided into compart-
ments, and for the larger species must be
made deeper. A sufficient number of strips
of strawboard an inch and a quarter broad,
and covered with white paper, will be cut
into portions, some as long as the inside
of the box, others corresponding to the
width of it. By making cuts into these at

194 NOTEBOOKS AND COLLECTIONS

their points of intersection, notching each
half an inch, they may be fitted together
and laid into the box, thus dividing it into
rectangular compartments of such size as
may be appropriate. The dividing bars need
not be glued down. A small quantity of
white, or pink cotton-wool, will be laid in
the bottom to form nests for the eggs in
these compartments, before the dividing bars
are inserted.

If the box is designed to hold insects
secured by means of pins, it will be requisite
to provide some material at the bottom, into
which the points of the pins may be inserted.
For this purpose nothing is better than sheet
cork, glued firmly down, and covered with
white paper. Some use sheets of German
peat, but it is rough. An excellent substitute
for cork is formed by a light frame of wooden
rods, f-inch square, made to fit round the
inside of the bottom. On the upper and under
sides of this frame stretch two sheets of stout
paper, and when dry finish with white paper
on the upper surface. The frame is then
glued to the bottom, but raised by slips of
wood about f -inch thick, the intention being

LAST WORDS 195

that the point of the pin shall pass through
the upper sheet of paper and then the
lower, and be retained by the latter. The
frame must not, therefore, rest upon the
bottom, otherwise the pin point could not
pass beyond the lower sheet. It is found
that two sheets of paper, with an intervening
space of f-inch, hold the pins nearly as
well as cork. If a hole widens and the pin
slackens, it can be steadied by pasting a
tiny patch of white adhesive paper over the
hole. A small pill-box should be glued in
one corner of every store -box, and filled with
camphor or naphthalene to keep off insects.
The three fatal enemies of a collection are
dust, mites, and light.

The reader, who has followed me thus far,
has made the acquaintance of many objects
which he is sure to meet, at one time or
other, during his rambles afield in almost any
part of the British Isles. He has also been
shown how to record the result of his
observations, and how to form and preserve
a collection of specimens. At this point I
shall stop. To expatiate upon the delights of
Nature study would be unnecessary, if the

1 96 NOTEBOOKS AND COLLECTIONS

reader has a genuine love for Nature ; if he
has not, it would be useless.

A reverend friend, from whose knowledge
and experience I used to derive much
assistance, was wont to repeat with satisfac-
tion the remark of an old Scottish farmer,
who excused his interest in such pursuits by
saying, l 'Deed, Doctor, it keeps a man frae
becomin' dottled.' He meant that the
interest aroused by watching the operations
of Nature keeps at bay the dotage of
advancing years. My old friend was himself
a striking proof of the soundness of this
principle, for he preserved the light of his
intelligence bright and beneficent, until he
was well into his ninth decade.

I shall take leave of the reader with these
parting words of advice, which are extracted
from the quaint old book called Some Fruits of
Solitude, from which I have already quoted :
* It were happy if we studied Nature more in
natural things, and acted according to Nature,
whose rules are few, plain, and most reason-
able. Let us begin where she begins, go her
pace, and close always where she ends, and
we cannot miss of being good Naturalists.'

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