OK 4 Lat eee ; Pay y + fa a d ' f a Lt dA : 7 & : 4 “TAS ' ‘ i ry fi ok 7 a . , ‘ aS cs) + ae , ry ' ay k. ’ * s hae > ‘ f j i ; : s . + \\ CALCUTTA JOURNAL OF NATURAL HISTORY: AND Miscellany OF THE ARTS AND SCIENCES Tn tndta, GEOLOGY AND ZOOLOGY, CONDUCTED BY JOHN M‘CLELLAND, F. L. 8. Member Royal Ratisbon Bot. Soc.; Corresponding Member of the Zoological and Entomological Societies of London ; Natural History and Philosophical Society of Belfast; Boston Society of Natural History, United States ; Junior Member and Secretary of a Committee for the Investigation of the Mineral Resources of India; Bengal Medical Service. BOTANY, BY W. GRIFFITH, F. L. 8. MEMB, IMP. ACAD. NAT. CURIOS.; ROYAL RATISBON SOC.; ROYAL ACAD. OF SCIENCES, TURIN ; CORRESPONDING MEMBER OF THE HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND, AND ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON; ASSIST. SURGEON, MADRAS ESTAB, Late Officiating Supdt. H. Co.’s Bot. Garden, Calcutta. VOLUME VV. CALCUTTA: W.RIDSDALE, BISHOP’S COLLEGE PRESS. M.DCCC.XLV. Ate el Pe eticepes cs \ "¢ id g } ‘ 8 SE | ef Fifth Volume of the Calcutta Journal of Natural History. 4 DEDICATED RESPECTFULLY TO THE HONORABLE THE COURT OF DIRECTORS OF THE EAST INDIA COMPANY. Contributors. J. H. BATTEN, ESQ., Bengal Civil Service. CAPTAIN J. CAMPBELL, Madras Army. W. GRIFFITH, ESQ., F. L. S.; Imp. Acad. Nat. Cur. at Bonn. ; Royal Ratisb. Bot. Soc. ; Royal Acad. of Scien- ces, Turin; Madras Medical Service. | CAPTAIN T. HUTTON, F. G. S. Bengal Army. T. LATTER, Lieutenant Bengal Army. J. M’7CLELLAND, F. L. 8. Bengal Medical Service. F. J. MOUAT, M. D., Bengal Medical Service, Prof. Mat. Medica, Medical College. sete preg ib Baath ee ae ef _ st janes er ry oy es pit The oa rag Z | es ; Pew oui We 1 ay : . ia a K fniss + SRB ARS " ; tr . <3, Laas: 6 ve, ngs se er Re? fee bs AUG 7 ~ , esis : ~< : | it. “Shoes -(ateyns cM ee ee We (ea ) hoes * . 7 | ; | : | iy Sp eelhas) stil sacl * ° - ; x | ‘ aA | 4 a * ae >. ‘ = PREFACE TO THE FIFTH VOLUME. Ir becomes our duty again to return thanks to the sup- porters of this Journal. ‘The present volume contains a larger proportion of original matter, devoted to the investi- gation of natural productions before undescribed, than any of its predecessors. If upon this criterion, the value of the work is to be esti- mated, it will be found to have greatly improved. Since the publication of the last Volume, the Honorable the Court of Directors, always the munificent Patrons of Science, have become subscribers for 50 copies. During the past year, we have lost the services in India of two of our contributors, Mr. B. H. Hodgson, of the Civil Ser- vice, and Mr. David Liston, by their return to Europe. We have also to regret the loss of another of our contri- butors by death, Dr. J. G. Malcolmson, of whom a short notice will be found, p. 282. To compensate for these losses, we have been favoured with three new contributors,—promising supporters of the rising science of India. The departure of Mr. Griffith, late Officiating Superin- tendent of the H. Co.’s Botanic Garden, to Malacca, though a severe loss, considering the extent of his contributions during the past two years, will in no way interfere with his connection with the work, as Joint Editor, now essential to its character. Whatever may be thought of the practical applications of Natural History, they ought to assume a very important character in this country at the present crisis, whether we regard them as accessory to improved education, or as a means of improving the national resources. vl In our last Number, we referred to the employment of magnesian limestone,—a common mountain rock in certain parts of the country,—as a material for the production of Epsom Salt. We have since become acquainted with the fact, that in consequence of the comparatively high price of the imported article, Glauber Salt is largely introduced to India, crystallized in imitation of Epsom Salt, for which it is sold by wholesale, a circumstance which (although there may be nothing very dissimilar in the properties of the two articles) in our opinion, ought to weigh greatly in deter- mining the adoption of such measures as may be reason- ably suggested for improving the supply of such things from our own resources, were it for no other reason than to check such practices as the one adverted to. The question presents itself to us in a different point of view from that of its mere relation to medicine. Thus in the article Epsom Salt, its production here would improve the demand for sulphur, as well as the local con- sumption of nitre; while it would afford carbonate of mag- nesia, a more costly and portable article, which might thus probably become an export; at the same time it would pro- mote the demand for the impure native carbonate of soda, another natural production that might thus become much more valuable than it is at present. Again, to take another instance, and not a theoretical one, for the object has been tried ; we allude to the distilla- tion of oil of turpentine from the resin of Pinus longifolia, which constitutes extensive forests now useless in the hill provinces of this Presidency. It is we believe the Gunda Berosa of the Bazars. We do not know that it has ever yet been exported; but 12,000 tons of a corresponding article are annually imported into England from the United States. We have ascertained, that the resin of Pinus longifolia, affords on distillation one-eighth part of its weight of pure Vil oil of turpentine, leaving a residuum of seven parts of resin. The former, in addition to its demand as an article of medi- cine, is extensively used by house painters ; the latter is indis- pensable in the manufacture of hard yellow soap, which is made by boiling 9.75 cwt. of tallow with 3.25 cwt. of resin, and 2 cwt. of soda with a due proportion of water. Thus we see how one thing depends upon another, and how the manufacture of medicine on the spot (itself a great object), would promote other results of still greater importance. The same forests, (equal we should say to any even in Russia or America,) to which we should be thus directed for turpentine, would also be found to supply tar. Four-fifths of the tar employed in Great Britain comes from Russia, the remainder is imported equally from Sweden and the United States. England is therefore dependent on foreign nations for an article not only essential to, but charac- teristic of her navy, while exhaustless supplies may be had in her own Bengal provinces, from boundless pine forests, some of which approach to within twenty miles of Sylhet. Up to within the last three years, Isinglass, the various kinds of Gum Arabic, Myrrh, &c. together with glazed ear- then pottery, were annually imported from Europe to supply the public expenditure, and would probably have continued to be so furnished for the next half century, had not the Governor General in Council, as we understood, expressed a determination, without reference to the quarters from which such requisitions were made, to strike them out of the list of imported supplies. It was then found not only to be unne- cessary to import these articles from Europe, but that India herself was the source from whence Europe and other parts of the world had been supplied with some of them for centu- ries past. Let this principle be generally acted upon, and the same course be adopted with regard to Epsom Salts, and we are equally prepared to say, coal Coke, wrought Iron, Tar, Vlil Resin, Turpentine, and a hundred other articles which we have good reason to know may be had cheaper and better in India than any where else, and the effect will soon become perceptible on the productive resources and improvement of the country. The Palms of India, to which so large a proportion of the present volume is devoted, although constituting one of the chief features of the vegetation of this country, and contribut- ing so largely as they do to the shelter and employment of the native population, are as yet imperfectly known. How greatly this important family of plants may be made to contribute to the exports of the country, and comfort and wants of the people, when the properties and uses of the various species of which it is composed become fairly and fully known, we may infer from a few instances., Amongst those described by Mr. Griffith in the present volume, the Phenix sylvestris, Roxb., or Khujjoor, aftords a wholesome drink, ‘ palm wine,’ when fresh. Fermented, this becomes vinegar; fermented and distilled, arrack, an ardent spirit, which on redistillation becomes pure alcohol. The fresh juice boiled down affords 1-12th of its quantity of trea- cle, which again yields 4 of pure white sugar. Each tree yields during the cold season ten gallons of juice, from which eight pounds of sugar, or an equivalent proportion of spirit or vinegar is obtained. Besides this, the fibres of the leaves are wrought into mats and baskets. Another species, Sagus Konigsiz, Griff. affords sago, upon which a large proportion of the inhabitants of some of the Eastern Islands subsist; a third, Calamus Draco, Willd. affords the peculiar Balsam, Dragon’s Blood, an article of considerable commercial importance ; others, the Lecula pel- tata, Roxb. and L. Jenkinsii, Griff. afford covering for boats, dhoolies, and material for chattahs and umbrella-hats, which last are indispensable to the natives of Assam and other 1X eastern parts of Bengal, where the periodical rains are heavy and incessant for seven or eight months of the year. From the fibres of Phenia farinifera, a kind of flour or meal is obtained, which on boiling becomes a kind of conjee, or sago, that might be rendered of the utmost importance in times of scarcity, while the leaflets are made into mats for sleeping upon, and the fibres of the petioles are made into baskets. Arenga saccharifera, a stately palm, the fibres of which afford material for cables and cordage, celebrated both for strength and resisting wet, while its juice is either drank as toddy or made into sugar. Its pith is used as sago, and the young albumen affords a well-known preserve. Caryota urens, another handsome species, has been known to yield above 100 pints of palm wine, or toddy, per diem. The pith or farinaceous parts of the old trees are equal to the best sago, and are either made into bread, or boiled into sruel. During a famine, adverted to by Dr. Roxburgh, the people suffered nothing as long as these trees lasted. Yet the distinguishing characters of the species composing this important and characteristic family of Indian plants, are only for the first time collected together, and made known in a connected shape. The number of new genera and species collected chiefly in the course of Mr. Griffith’s unimposing, but really useful and important services in Assam, the Mish- mee, Boutan, Khassya, and Himalaya Mountains, Affghanis- than, Burma, Tenasserim provinces, and the Straits, affords a gratifying instance of the successful exertion of one indivi- dual in the cause of science. It is not generally known that several of these palms contribute largely to the produce of sugar in Bengal; Dr. Roxburgh mentions in his time, the probable produce to be 100,000 mds. from these trees in Bengal alone; but the question has never we believe been examined either as to what the produce actually is, or how it might be improved. But while so much yet remains to be investigated relative x to the properties and uses, not merely of this particular family of plants, but the vegetable kingdom generally, it is a subject of deep regret, not on his own account so much as on that of the resources of India, that our colleague to whom so much is due, and from whom so much more is to be expected on this subject, should have occasion to return to a limited field in the Straits. We are indebted to Captain Campbell of the Madras Service, for a second valuable communication on the impor- tant manufacture of wrought Iron in India. In his first paper, Captain Campbell points out the expense of trans- mitting iron into the interior, adverting to the fact of an iron suspension bridge having cost 80 rupees a ton for carriage alone. On the other hand, it would seem from subsequent correspondence with Captain Campbell, that good wrought iron may be made in any part of India where ore and fuel are plentiful, for 38 rupees per ton, being less than half the above charge for transport alone. The practical importance of this subject requires no comment. Captain Campbell advocates the improvement of the native process of making wrought iron, rather than the introduction at once of the high blast furnace for the production of cast iron. On this point we must for the present submit to the re- commendation of Captain Campbell whether we will or not, for there are difficulties which, until the nature of the ores of the country become better known, must retard their employ- ment for the production of cast iron. These difficulties are only to be overcome by preliminary investigation on a small scale. In the mean-time it is satisfactory to know, from the papers of Captain Campbell, that good wrought iron may be produced from the native ores at the low rate above stated. J. M. Calcutta, January, 1845. THE CALCUTTA JOURNAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. The Palms of British East India. By W. GrirritH, Esq. F. L. S. Memb. Imp. Acad. Natur. Curios., Royal Ratis6. Botan. Soc., Asst. Surgeon, Madras Establishment. PALMIDAL.* DIAGNOSIS. Truncus lignosus, cylindricus, sepissime simplex. Folia vernatione plicata, coriacea, flabelliformia vel pinnata. Flores monoici, dioici, vel polygami, rarius hermaphroditi. Perianthium duplex, utrumque triphyllum. Stamina hypo- gyna, sepius 6, rarius indefinita, rarissime tria. Ovarium unicum, liberum, triloculare (raro 1-2-loculare), aut tria * Families to end in ide, and Subfamilies in ine. Report on Zool. Nomenclature—1842, p. 45. It is to be regretted that Dr. Lindley’s Nomenclaturet, which went so far as to reform the variation that marked the nomenclature of families, (even when there was no variation in the terminations of the supposed typical genera) stopped short of that general uniformity, obtainable by the adoption of the above rule, which is sufficiently prominent in most of the popular writings of Mr. Swainson. The value of that general uniformity will only be denied, I imagine, by those, who believe that there is one Natural Law for plants, another for animals. + Introd. Nat. Syst. ed. 2nd 1836, VOL. V. NO. XVII. APRIL, 1844. B 2 The Palms of British East India. unilocularia. Ovula sepissime solitaria, erecta, anatropa. Fructus solitarius vel triplex, baccatus vel drupaceus, sepius monospermus. Albumen corneum vel cartilagineum, soli- dum vel centro cavum, equabile vel plus minus ruminatum. Embryo monocotyledoneus, teres vel trochlearis, in foveola peripherica situs, plus minus vagus. DEscrIPTIo. Flores monoici vel dioici, vel polygamo-monoici dioicive, rarius hermaphroditi. Perianthium plus minus coriaceum, glumaceum, rarius co- loratum, persistens. Caly« trisepalus, sepalis distinctis vel plus minus coalitis. Corolla tripetala, petala sepalis subsi- milia, distincta vel plus minus coalita, zstivatione szepius valvata. Stamina hypogyna, vel ob cohesionem cum corolla quasi perigyna, sepissime 6, quorum tria sepalis, tria petalis op- posita, rarissime tria et tunc sepalis opposita, in paucis indefinita, floris foeminei sepius rudimentaria. Filamenta seepe basi monadelpha. 36 The Palms of British East India. ness of the under surface of the pinne been mentioned in his description. It is closely allied to the succeeding species. ** Saepius scandentes. Flagelliferae vel spadice abortivo vel fertilis apice extenso. 15. (5.) C. longisetus, (n. sp.) Subacaulis erectus, spinis peti- oli rectis (nigris) inferioribus seriatis, pinnis fasciculatis line- aribus (long. bipedalibus lat. 12 uncialibus) plurifariis supra nitentibus 1-carinatis, vena centrali subtus setas longissimas gerente, spadice decomposito longissimo nutanti-pendulo spathis primariis infimis armatis secondariis glabris abbre- viatis quasi truncatis, spicis rectiusculis compressis. Has.—Male Plant said to have been introduced from Pegu with C. arborescens. Flowers in the cold season. Drcr.*—A tufted stemless palm, with the habit of young specimens of C. arborescens. Leaves slightly arched, often with the blade turned edgeways, total length 11-12 feet. Petzoles armed throughout the lower naked part, which is about three and half to four feet in length, with seriate, unequal, flat spines, black from a white base. The vagina has them longer but less seriate, and presents also especially towards the margins lines of bristles. Towards the apex of the petiole the spines are solitary, and confined to the lower convex face. Pinne fasciculate, but from the fascicles not being distant, this is not so apparent at first sight as in some others, plurifarious, some crossing over the others, all are arched and nodding, two feet in length, one inch seven lines in breadth, co- riaceous, convex and shining above and with one carina, and oc- casionally a lateral bristle-bearing vein on each side, underneath the central vein presents very long bristles; margins setoso-dentate, apex hispid. Spadices very long, whip-shaped, nodding-pendulous, flagellus humifuse or trailing over the neighbouring shrubs, armed with the usual aculei. Branches pendulous, distant. Spathes with very long * The flowers are described from dried specimens. The Palms of British East India. 37 sheaths, and lacerated scarious limbs, primary ones armed below with stout aculei like those of the spadix, above with a few slender straight spines, those of the branches truncate and unarmed. Spikes about six inches long and about two inches distant, dis- tichous. Bractee annular, amplectent, with scarcely any limb. Cup concealed by the bractea, oblique, emarginate behind, where it ad- heres to the spike. ‘ Flowers closely bifarious, oblique and curved. Calyzr a little longer than the bractea, with three, short, half ovate teeth. Corolla nearly three times longer, tube narrow, nearly as long as the calyx ; segments linear oblong. Stamina six, apparently* attached to the fa- aux, filaments about as long as the petals. Anthers deeply sagittate, versatile. Rudiment of a pistillum cylindrical, tripartite, nearly as long as the tube of the corolla. This species is closely related to C. arborescens, from young specimens of which it is scarcely distinguishable at first sight. —he armature is much the same, otherwise its pinne, which are never white underneath, and the flagelli- ferous spadix abundantly distinguish it. In these Gardens, it appears to have been always confounded with the above- mentioned species, so much so, that although it is very orna- mental and easily propagated by its off-sets, from which (as in C. arborescens,) its densely tufted appearance arises, there does not appear ever to have been more than one plant in the Garden. From the succeeding species, with which it agrees in the great length of the spadix, it is abundantly distinct. 16. (6) C. ornatus,+ spinis (inferis) petioli pinniferi uncinatis (albis,) pinnis zquidistantibus lineari-lanceolatis (long. 2-23 pedalibus lat. 23 uncialibus) supra 3-5 carinatis carina cen- * In reality only adhering as usual to the cohering parts of the corolla. + There is another Malacca species found about Ching, which appears to ap- proach this. The following is a description from living specimens out of flower. A large climber. Sheaths green, armed on the dorsa with very broad deflexed seriate or solitary spines. Flagellus very long. Ligula distinct. Petiole near the 38 The Palms of British East India. trali versus apicem setigera, spadice longissimo 16-18-pe- dali, spathis tubulosis longissimis armatis, ramis paucis (sub- quaternis) distantibus, spicis scorpioideo-reflexis. C. ornatus. Blume in Syst. Veg. ed. Schultes. 7. pt. 2. p. 1326. Martius. Palm. p. 204. t. 116. fig. 2. Has.—In forests Malacca, ws about Durion Toongull, E. Fernandez. Malayan name, Rotang Suga Budak. Descr.*—A stout species, the diameter of the sheaths being about two inches. Sheaths swollen under the base of the petiole, armed with rather complete series of flat spines, rather short and much broader than usual. Naked lower part of the petiole about three feet long, somewhat flat, and channelled broadly towards the axil, much armed, the spines of the lower face resembling those of the vagine, but being smaller ; those of the upper face irregular subulate from a stout base ; of the pinniferous part, which is nine or ten feet long, and convex- trigonal, the under convex face is armed with stout hooked aculei. Pinne rather distant, large, linear-lanceolate, two or two and quarter feet long by two and a quarter inches broad, rather obtuse, general- ly bifid or bi-partite at the apex, underneath glaucescent: upper surface tricarinate, mid vein with stout pungent sete towards the apex, as have also the margins ; apex hispid. Spadiz of great length (sixteen to eighteen feet long) as usual ad- hering to the next sheath, of these the lowest one in the specimen is abortive, flagelliform, the one immediately above flower-bearing and produced into a long flagellus seven or eight feet long, armed with the usual aculei. It bears four branches, about two and half feet dis- tance from each other, the two lowest internodes are entirely covered by the long tubular sheaths, the two uppermost with the peduncle exposed for a few inches at the base, and there unarmed and plano- convex. base, armed with marginal, straight, distant solitary spines: otherwise armed along the dorsum, with a row of distant solitary hooked aculeie Pinnz alternate or sub-oppo- site, linear lanceolate, two feet long, two and half inches broad, acute, with five prominent bristle-bearing veins above. In dense forests, Ching. * Specimen ; an entire, flowering apex of a female plant in flower. The Palms of British East India. 39 Spathes without limbs, those of the flagellus inconspicuous, all armed, the spines on the lower face being like those of the vagine but. smaller, the rest deflexed, not very strong, and subulate from a stout oblique base. Branches of the spadix erect, bases concealed in the orifices of the sheaths, bearing alternate, scorpioid, stout spikes, two to three inches in length. Spaces between the spikes occupied by short, lax, trun- cate, smooth spathes. Spikes stout, somewhat compressed. Flowers in bud distichous, but not flatly bifarious ; under each is a laxly sheathing bracte with a short limb with shortly ciliate margins ; outer bracteole obliquely cup-shaped, emarginate behind, inner with a conspicuous disk-like oval space on one side. Calyx of stout texture, oblong, ovate, suboblique, shortly three- toothed. Corolla ovate, tripartite below the middle ; segments ovate- lanceolate. Stamina six, large, effete, united as usual to the corolla, and above this monadelphous. Ovarium oblong obconical, with nu- merous rows of very minute scales. Style stout, conical, divided nearly to the base into three stout, lanceolate, inwardly stigmatic branches. Ovules solitary. A very well marked species, especially by its stature and inflorescence; it appears to be more nearly allied to C. schizospathus than any other. 17. (7.) C. acanthospathus, (n. sp.) spinis petioli spadicis (6-pedalis) pedunculo basi compresso spinis et aculeis subulatis armato czterum inermi, spatha infima pinnis dorso carinata aculeis basi conicis sparsis valde armata reliquis parce armatis seu inermibus ecarinatis, ramis distantibus infi- mis compositis, fructubus elliptico-oblongis apice mammill- atis, (castaneis.) Has.—Khasiya Hills. Drsc.*—Spadix about six feet long, tapered at the end into a flagellus. Peduncle short, compressed, armed on the edges, and lower * Specimens (two) of entire fruit bearing spadices. 40 The Palms of British East India. face with unequal, straight, subulate spines and prickles, those of the edges being the longest, otherwise in the parts not covered by the spathes unarmed. Spathes with obsolete limbs, lowest about a span long, compress- ed, keeled along the centre of the back, excepting the short erect half lanceolate limb, armed with straight prickles with conical bases. The other spathes are shorter, more clavate, without an obvious carina, and only slightly armed, or (as the uppermost) quite unarmed. Branches just exserted from the spathes, erect, a foot or a span distant, lowest about a span long, decompound. Spathes sheath- ing, rather lax, smooth, lowest about an inch long. Lower divisions compound, with several spreading spikes, with similar but much smaller sheathing spathes, uppermost internode often abortive as in certain Grasses. Fruits apparently terminating short stout stalks, suffulted by three annular amplectent bractes, and surrounded at the base by the spreading portion of the perianth, elliptic-oblong, with the mammilliform apex seven lines long, four broad, chesnut coloured. Scales with a broad shallow central furrow, and dark edges. Seed (apparently berried,) erect, convex on one face, and conspicu- ously areolate with foveole, on the other convex with a central umbilicus, from which the areolz seem to radiate. Albumen horny, cartilaginous, on a long section reniform, with as many stout enter- ing processes as join areole, that from the umbilicus much the largest and filled with a mass of cellular substance. Hméryo basilar. This species does not appear to me allied to any others I have met with. In the division and direction of the branches of the spadix, it approaches to the Piptospathe This and — the very frequent, conical aculei on the lower spathes seem to me its chief characteristics. 18. (8) C. Royleanus, vaginarum spinis solitariis com- pressis petiolorum superioribus uncinatis, pinnis equidis- tantibus linearibus angustissimis (long. 10-11 uncialibus lati- The Palms of British East India. Al tudine uncialibus,) superne carinis 3 longe setosis, spadice nutante aculeato, spathis parce armatis, corolla calycem subzequante, fructibus pisiformibus cuspidatis (albis.) Has.—In the denser, moister parts of the jungles of Dehra Dhoon, chiefly towards the eastern extremity of the valley, as at Kurruck. Dercr.*—A small elegant species forming impenetrable patches. Sheaths bi-auriculate at their mouths, armed with solitary long subulate spines, less flat than usual. Petzole in the lower part armed with similar but smaller spines, in the pinniferous part these become aculei. Pinne numerous, approximated, often nearly opposite, linear, acute, ten or eleven inches long by half an inch broad, above tri- carinate, the carine bearing distant long bristles; margins with fre- quent short, appressed, bristle teeth. Spadix nodding or pendulous ? plano-convex where not concealed by the long, tubular, limbless, slightly armed spathes ; convex face armed with solitary aculei. Branches a span or foot distant, about a span long, expanded, owing to the very spreading spikes. Spaces between these covered with lax, truncate, submucronate smooth spathes. From above the apex of these arise the spikes, which are rather slender, two or three inches long, loaded with fruit. Fruit ((mmature) ovate-roundish, with a distinct cuspis, about the size of a large pea: scales white, rather large, with an indistinct central furrow, paler margins and brown points ; each is suffulted by a minute scale-shaped bracte and two minute bracteoles, of which the inner is the larger; by the calyx with a short cylindrical solid base, divided to the middle into three oblong segments, the corolla with three lanceolate segments equal in length to the calyx, and six stamina. | I am in considerable doubt regarding this species, which is that alluded to by Dr. Royle as agreeing with Roxburgh’s * Specimens; an entire young mutilated leaf, portions of perfect parts of leaves, and of a spadix in fruit. G 42 The Palms of British East India. C. Rotang.* But it differs from Roxburgh’s drawing of that species in the arming of the petioles and sheaths, the spines being solitary and long, not mere aculei, in the shape of the leaves, which are more linear, in the corolla, which ap- pears to be of the same length as the calyx, and the fruit which is pisiform, not ovate. It cannot be referred to C. Pseudo-Rotang of Martius,+ because that is described * I[llustr. p. 396. + C. Pseudo-Rotang, aculeis vaginarum et petiolorum albido-tomentosorum subulatis rectis, pinnis lineari-lanceolatis fasciculato-aggregatis, spathis aculeis reduncis armatis, baccis pisiformibus apice breviter rostratis.* C. Pseudo-Rotang. Mart. Palma. p. 209. t. 116. f. 6. Has.—Throughout India in wooded places. Martius, whose description I subjoin, states that this differs chiefly from C. Rotang by the broader fasciculate pinnz, the whitish tomentum of the petiole and the straight aculei, half an inch or an inch long, spreading or recurved, and the smaller, globose, shortly beaked fruits. It agrees in armature and fruit with C. Royleanus, from which it differs chiefly in the fasciculate pinne, and the tomen- tose petioles. This last character however is (perhaps) a doubtful one, and depen- dent on the degree of exposure of the part to external agencies. I am more- over in possession of a specimen I believe from Assam, which I am disposed to consider Roxburgh’s C. Rotang, in which, the younger petioles, and especially the sheaths, are covered with a brown tomentum. “‘ Calamus Pseudo-Rotang : caudice scandente ; frondium ecirrosarum pinnis lineari-lanceolatis, fasciculato—aggregatis, aculeis vaginarum rhachiumque al- bido-tomentosarum subulatis rectis, spatharum lororumque reduncis ; spadicibus composito-ramosis, abortivis loriformibus ; baccis globosis (magnitudine Pisi. ) Differt a Calamo Rotang praesertim pinnis fasciculatis latioribus, rhacheos to- mento albido-fuscidulo et aculeis rectis (unguem ad pollicem longis) patentibus vel reversis, baccis minoribus globosis, apice breviter rostratis. Squamae baccarum testaceo-lutescentes, imo margine exarido ferrugineae. Nucleus fere dimidiato- globosus, hinc convexus, leviter gyroso-tuberculatus, inde planiusculus atque in areolam profunde depressus. Embryo basilaris. Albumen cartilagineum ae- quabile. Crescit per vastam Indiae orientalis plagam, locis sylvestribus e. gr. in Coro- mandelia: ad Moalmyne in Martabania, ad fluvium Irawaddi, prope rupes Pin- gyi in Pegu.’’ Martius. I add Martius’s character, etc. of another Indian species of this intricate part of the genus. ** Calamus Guruba, Hamilton : caudice scandente ; frondium ecirosarum pin- nis aequidistantibus concinnis linearibus acutis, rhachibus ferrugineo-villosis, @ Character e Martio. The Palms of British East India. 43 as having the sheaths and petioles covered with white to- mentum, fasciculate pinnz and spathes armed with hooked spines. In fruit it appears to be similar. Under these circumstances, I have considered the species a distinct one. It is I believe the only species that extends so far north as to come within the limits of the Seharunpore and Dhoon Flora, and I have therefore dedicated it to a well-known investigator of that region. 19. (9.) C. Roxburghi, vaginarum petiolorumqte glabro- rum aculeis parvis solitariis sparsis, petioli faciei inferioris uncinatis, pinnis zquidistantibus lineari-lanceolatis, spadice basi et flagello excepto inermi nutante, spatha infima parce aculeata, corolla calycem duplo superante, stylis sub-clavatis, fructibus oblongo-ovatis apice in cuspidem attenuatis (albis.)* C. Rotang. Roxburgh. Fl. Ind. 3. p. 77%. Icones. 14. t. 28. Has.—Bengal and the Coromandel Coast: flowers during the rains ; fruit ripens during the cold season; Roxburgh. «« Sans. Vetra, vetus. Beng. Bet, or Sanchi-bet. Root fibrous. Stem jointed, climbing to a vast extent, enveloped in the thorny sheaths of the leaves; with them it is about as thick as a man’s little finger ; when they are removed, it is in thickness, and every other respect, a common ratan. Leaves pinnate, from eighteen to thirty-six inches long. Leaflets opposite or alternate, aculeis rhachium spadicumque masculorum decompositorum reduncis, calycibus campanulatis trifidis, quam petala lanceolata duplo brevioribus ; loris ?—; baccis. i Species praecedenti et C. Rotang prae aliis affinis, sed villo rhachium et floribus minoribus facile distinctu. Prope Jelpigori in Indiae provincia Rungpaor, lat. bor. 26° 30', Aprili 1809, detexit Cl. Hamilton.’? Mart. Palm. p. 211. * Char. ex. Icone. Roxb. citata Av} The Palms of British East India. sessile, linear-lanceolate, armed in the margins with minute bristles pointing forward, and a few distinct, long, erect bristles on the upper surface, from six to twelve inches long. Sheaths cylindric, armed with numerous, strong, straight, compressed thorns. Petioles sheath- ing, the leaflet-bearing portion compressed, channelled, and armed with both straight and recurved thorns on the under side. Flagelli, one from the sheath of each leaf near its mouth, they are very long, slender, drooping or waving, and well armed, resembling the slender lash of a whip; many of Rumphius’s figures of these plants have such terminating the rib or rachis of the leaves. Matz. Calyx universal ; spathe none; partial many scattered. Spadix supra-de- compound, drooping, being the above-mentioned flagellus much en- larged, with numerous, partial, truncate spathes, with alternate, de- compound, bifarious, recurved spikes therefrom, the ramifications thereof recurved, bearg in two rows on their convex sides nu- merous minute greenish flowers. Perianth 3-parted, smaller than the corol, permanent. Corol 1-petalled. Tube imperforated. Border 3-parted ; divisions oval, permanent. Filaments six, thick at the base, tapering, nearly as long as the corol and inserted on the mouth of its tube. Anthers incumbent. Germ none, but there is the rudi- ment of a 3-cleft stigma. Fremazze. Sheaths as in the male. Spadix decompound, perianth and corol as in the male. Filaments six, united at the base round the germ. Anthers arrow-shaped, abortive. Germ round. Style short, 3-cleft, divisions or stigmas re- curved. Berries round, of the size of a small gooseberry, imbricated backward with barky scales, 1-celled, 1-seeded, between the hark and the seed there is a considerable portion of whitish juicy pulp of a sharp acid taste. Seed solitary, marked with many irregular depressions and elevations, and on one side there is a large, deep, roundish pit, a little below it near the base is lodged the monocotyle- donous embryo.”” Roxburgh. . As none of the synonyms assigned usually to this species appear to have sufficient reference to it*, and as the figures * Thus Calamus petreus. Loureiro, is considered by Martius to be a distinct spe- cies: Tsjeru Tsjurel of Kheede is the C. gracilis of Roxburgh, Palmijuncus cal- apparius. Rumph, is the Calamus calapparius of Martius, and the Pheniscorpiurus, etc. of Plukenet is referred by Hamilton to his C. Heliotropium. The Palms of British East India. 45 of Rheede* and Plukenet,} which represent two distinct species, have been always referred, except by Martius, to C. Rotang, a species founded on the Palmijuncus Calap- parius of Rumph. (now Calamus calapparius, Martius) ; it is perhaps advisable to abolish the name C. Rotang, which is besides a generic not a specific name, and the whole of the synonymy given by Willdenow and succeeding authors. The synonymy given by Dr. Martius{ is perhaps only cor- rect in the citation of Lamark’s figure, (t. 770 f. 1.) referred by Lamark to Loureiro’s C. scipionum. For Plukenet’s figure is cited by Hamilton under his C. Heliotropium, and Roxburgh’s drawing represents the fruit of his C. Rotang oblong-ovate, and white, not round with chesnut colour- ed scales as Martius§ describes it. This same drawing does not agree in the spathes with Lamark’s figure sufficiently well to convince me of their representing the same species. It is to be regretted that Roxburgh quoted Willdenow as the authority for this species, his definition not being in any way applicable to it, and being evidently drawn up from Palmijuncus calapparius of Rumph. none of whose fi- gures would Dr. Roxburgh quote. Of the Hb. Amboinense, the only figures that resemble the species under consideration are t. 53 (Palmijuncus albus,) which however is not of this section, and especially t. 55. f. 2. A. B. (Palmijuncus vimi- nalis,) which is of this section. 20. (10) C. tenuis, vaginarum aculeis solitariis paucis recti- usculis, petioli (pinniferi) anguli superioris rectis faciei in- fere uncinatis, pinnis equidistantibus lineari-lanceolatis (long. pedalibus lat. 7-8 linealibus) supra nitentibus trica- rinatis (carinis setigeris) subtus secus venam centralem setu- losis, spadice nutante spathisque primariis parce aculeatis, * Hort. Malab. 12. t. 64. 65. ¢ Alm. t. 106. f. 1.2. Hb. Amb. V. p, 98. t. dl. t Palme. 209, § Op. cit. loc. cit. t. 116. f. viii. 46 The Palms of British East India. spicis bifariis recurvato-patentibus sapius simplicibus flo- ribus binatis altero superoque pedicellato masculo, altero sessili foemineo, calyce urceolato breviter tridentato, stylis sub-ternis filiformibus longis patenti-revolutis. C. tenuis. Roxb. Fl. Ind. 3. p. 780. Icones. Suppt. 5. t. 18. (bona)—Mart. Palm. p. 212. Has.—Eastern Bengal as at Sillet; Assam, where it is known as the ‘‘ Bet” proper. Major Jenkins. Bandhari- bet of Chittagong. Roxburgh. Roxburgh says, “it is a beautiful, delicate species ; when divested of the sheaths of the leaves, and cleaned, it is not thicker than a common quill, and of the colour of the common ratan. Flowering time, the rainy season. «Stems simple, perennial, climbing to a great extent ; the extremi- ties inserted in the armed sheaths of the leaves, including these, it is scarcely so thick as a common ratan. Leaves oblong, equally pin- nate, nearly two feet long. Leaflets from twenty to thirty on each side, equi-distant, alternate, linear, polished, three-nerved ; margins, apices, and nerves bristly ; six inches long, and scarcely half an inch broad at the broadest part. Petioles armed. Flagelli from the sheaths, simple, armed, as in the other species. Spathes numerous, sheathing, sub-cylindric, one for each division of the spadix, even to the pairs of flowers. Spadices occupy the place of the flagelli on a few of the spathes, decompound ; primary branches, four, five, or six, remote, flexuose, with about half a dozen alternate, recurvate branches on each side. Hermaphrodite and male flowers in alternate pairs, the latter short-pedicelled. Matz. Calyx shorter than the corol, unequally 2-3-toothed, corol supported on a fleshy gib- bous receptacle, border 2 or 3-cleft. Filaments four, five, or six. Anthers sagittate. Hrrmaruropite. Calyx and corol equal, gib- bous, with a contracted, 3-toothed mouth. Filaments six, united in a ring round the lower half of the germ; anthers sagittate, large, and seemingly fertile. Germ ovate, 1-celled, containing three seeds attached to the bottom of the cell. Style scarcely any; stigma 3-cleft ; segments rugose and recurvate.” Roxburgh. The Palms of British East India. AT I subjoin my own description of the leaves, and inflores- cence :*— Petiole in the pinniferous part with the upper angle armed with straight conical subulate prickles, the usual row of hooked ones along the centre of the under face, and similar ones about the margins often close to the pinne ; towards the apex it only presents the under central series. Pinne alternate, equidistant, linear lan- ceolate, acuminate, ten-twelve inches long, seven-eight lines broad; above with three carine bearing long bristles, underneath with shorter bristles along the mid vein; margins setoso-serrulate. Spadiz of considerable length. Branches just supra-axillary, very flexuose, about a span distant ; spaces between covered, except per- haps the lower two inches, by the tubular spathes, which are green, armed toward the upper ends with scattered curved prickles. The upper spathes appear to be the most armed. Naked parts of the spadix - also armed on one face with stout hooked aculei. The spathes (of the spikes,) rather laxly sheathing, subtruncate, sprinkled with brown scurf, margins ciliate. Spikes also supra-axillary, bi-farious, about two inches long, recurved spreading, also scurfy. Flowers distichous on the outside, on the inside tetrastichous, In pairs, the larger conical, sessile, female, the smaller ovate ob- long, shortly stalked, male, always on the upper or posterior side of the spike. Bractes like the spathes of the spikes, but less ciliate. Bracteole two, broad, the inner one on the inner side is bicarinate and emarginate, and to the centre of the bicarinate part the male flower corresponds, being adnate as it were to its base. Calyx of the female thickened at its base, whence its conical shape, of both sexes suburceolate with three short teeth, often divided to the middle. Corolla slightly longer than the calyx, divided below the middle into three erect, oblong, lanceolate seg- ments. Stamina as usual adnate to the corolla, then mona- delphous ; filaments (free) short ; anthers sagittate, of the female flower effete. Ovarium as long as the corolla, oblong, rather atte- nuate to the base where it is 3-celled, ovules erect. Style of three * From specimens communicated by Major Jenkins. 48 The Palms of British East India. broadish immediately recurved segments, which are pappillose inside, and in the bud lanceolate and erect. This species is closely allied in the pinne to C. Royleanus and Roxburghii, especially to the former. An obvious differ- ence, however, exists in the small recurved deflexed spikes of this species. In the pairs of flowers, one hermaphrodite, and one male, it appears, so far as we know at present, to stand alone. The presence of the male may, however, judging from the similarity of the inner bracteola to those of certain other species, which appear discoid, be expected to occur in other instances. The minute examination of these bracteoles in order to ascertain whether there is a scar of a fallen flower becomes therefore necessary. So far as can be judged from Roxburgh’s short notice of C. monoi- cus,* it would appear to resemble that species closely. * C.monoicus. Monoicous, scandent. Leaflets numerous, alternate, lineari-lanceolate, polished, and bristly ; sheaths flagelliferous ; stamens monadelphous. Native place uncertain. It grows in the Botanic Garden to about the size of the common ratan, and differs from it only in being monoicous, the divisions of the corol lanceolate, and in the filaments being very completely united. Flowering time, the rainy season. It is needless to give a full description of this plant, which is exactly like C. Rotang, except in the above-mentioned circumstances. The male flowers are about as numerous as the female ones, generally one of each from each of the annular scales of the branches of the spadix. The common ratan (C. Rotang) I have always found completely dioicous; this must therefore be considered a distinct species.”’ C. monoicus. Roxb. Fl. Ind. 3. p. 783. Mart. Palm. p. 209. I subjoin Roxburgh’s description of C. polygamus, and three of Martius’s spe- cies, all which appear to me to belong to this part of this section. “°C. polygamus, R. Scandent. Spines sub-verticilled. Sheaoths flagelliferous. Inferior leaflets in remote fascicles of three or four, above single and alternate, or opposite, all linear, with a few bristles on the margins and nerves underneath. Male and hermaphro- dite flowers on the same supra-decompound spadix. Hoodoom Bet of the people of Chittagong, where it is indigenous, and a most extensive rambler; the general thickness when cleaned is that of a stout walking Theakis oOBaiehias Indio. 40 21. (11) C. leptospadix, (n. sp.) spinis petioli (pinniferi) so- litarlis uncinatis ?, pinnis approximatis zequidistantibus line- aribus (long. 10 uncialibus lat. 4-5 linealibus,) supra carinis tribus setigeris subtus setulosis secus venam mediam, spadicis attenuati aculeati ramis filiformibus, spathis primariis acu- leatis secondariis lamina conspicua lanceolata, spicis sim- plicibus abbreviatis scorpioideis, bracteis apice pennicillatis, floribus oblongis, calyce corolla duplo breviore, fructibus globoso-turbinatis (albis.) cane. Its growth is exceeding slow, for in ten years it had acquired a stem of only five feet in length, and the leaves from ten to twelve more.”’ C. polygamus. Rozb. Fl. Ind. 3. p.780. Mart. Palm. p. 210. It appears to differ from C. monoicus in the lower pinne being fasciculate, and in the flowers being male and hermaphrodite, not male and female. ** C. nitidus : caudice ; frondibus ecirrosis glabris nitidis, pinnis approai- matis aequidistantibus lineari-lanceolatis marginatis, aculeis rhacheos recurvis spar sis et confluentibus ; spadicibus foemineis compositis ; julis horsum vorsum Slexis, baccis (ovato-globosis, ) squamis fuscis. Pinnae spithamam longae, unguem latae, firmulae, venis statu sicco vix conspi- cuis, setulis non solum in margine latiusculo sed etiam in nervis utriusque faciei. Calamo tenui Roxb. multis modis affinis, sed diversus videtur praesertim sexus distributione. Crescit in Tenasserim, prope Tavoy, W. Gomez.’’ Martius. Palm. p. 211. C. concinnus :—frondium rhacht ferrugineo-tomentosa, subtus aculeis rectis reversis, pinnis sub-aequidistantibus concinnis lineari-lanceolatis ; spadicis (mo- noici?) compositt spathis aculets rectiusculis reversis ; baccis magnitudine. Pisi minoris, squamis fiavidis margine inferiore latius fuscidulo. Pinnae, quas vidi, fere sesquipedales, ultra pollicem latae. Juli fructiferi bi- pollicares, non nihil recurvi. In calycum fructiferorum uno eodemque per cujusvis seriei flores latere conspicitur spathella valde contracta, cujus basis cicatricula parva notatur, quam ob causam conjicio, huc flores masculos aut eorum rudimenta in florente spadice excidisse.”’ Has.—Tavoy. Wallich. Martius. Palm. p. 208, “*C. melanacanthos : caudice scandente ; frondibus ecirrosis, pinnis aequidis- tantibus concinnis lineari-lanceolatis acuminatis, margine nervisque tribus pri- mariis setis longiusculis nigricantibus ; aculeis antice nigris, vaginarum subver- ticillatis rectis, rhachium spadicum compositorum lororumque recurvis ; baccis oblongis octolinearibus, squamis pallide fuscis spadiceo-marginatis. Crescit in insula Pinang et in ora Tenasserim prope Chappedong: Wallich.”’ Martius. Palm. p. 211. t. 116. f. 13. H 50 The Palms of British East India. Has.—Khasiya Hills, between Nunklow and Naogong, in flower and fruit, November 1835. Herb. Assam Depu- tation. In the same locality Areca gracilis, Wallichia cary- otoides, and Caryota urens were observed. Descr.*—Petiole (in the pinniferous portion) triangular, under surface rather convex, with scars of solitary spines or prickles, the two side faces somewhat channelled, and presenting especially to- wards the insertion of the leaves dark filamentous tomentum. Pinne many, crowded, regularly alternating, linear, very narrow, ten inches long, four four-and-half lines wide, subulato-acuminate, or even perhaps cirrhoso-acuminate, upper face with three bristle-bearing carinze, a few smaller ones on the midvein underneath: margins rough with very frequent ascending bristles. Male Spadizx apparently nodding, long, slender, distantly branch- ed, (in the parts not covered by the very long, narrow, tubu- lar spathes with largish lanceolar nearly unarmed limbs) fre- quently armed with short acute stout thorns, solitary, or in twos or threes. Branches filiform, a foot long, apparently secund, with frequent alternate, simple, bifarious, short, scorpioid recurved sim- ple spikes, each of which is suffulted by a spathe with a rather larger, lanceolate, acute, erect limb. The lowest branch in the specimens is inserted about an inch above the mouth of its spathe. Spikes about an inch long, nearly twice the length of the limbs of the spathes. Flowers distichous, oblong, with an amplectent bracte with a sub- lanceolate rather long limb, pennicillate at the apex. Inside this bracte is a short cup emarginate behind. Calyz oblong, divided nearly to the middle in three half-ovate segments. Corolla twice the length of the calyx, divided nearly to the base into three oblong-lanceolate rather obtuse segments. Stamina united to corolla to base of its segments ; filaments (free) long, subulate, about 3 shorter than the corolla. Anthers attached above the middle, linear sagittate, slight- ly mucronate, versatile. Pollen yellow, with one longitudinal furrow. * Specim: Portions of a leaf, of male spadix in flower, and female spadix in fruit. The Palms of British East India. ol The fruit spadix ends in a long flagellus armed as usual, the spikes appressed to the filiform branches. Fruit globoso-turbinate, apex cuspidate, looking rather downwards, scales rather lax, whitish, with conspicuous brown margins and points. Its base is surrounded by the flattened perianth, (the calyx with three oblong segments, the corolla with three segments a little longer and narrower,) and by two bracteole, of which the inner bears a disc on one side, and forms a cup; they do not appear to be pennicillate. Seed one, roundish, with a foveola on one side. Albumen solid with a pitted areolar surface, and a cavity corresponding to the foveola filled with the tegument, which is blackish-brown. Hmbryo basilar. The male spadix of this resembles in some respect that of C. palustris. In the leaves it approaches C. tenuis, Roxburgh: it is distinguished from all the others by the long filiform dis- tant branches of the spadix, the lanceolate rather large limbs of the primary, and especially of the secondary spathes, and the pennicillate bracteze, the cellular hairs or proces- ses forming the tufts of which are not altogether unlike the bodies forming the tufts at the ends of the leaves in certain mosses. Plukenet’s figure of Phenicoscorpiurus, etc. resembles this in many respects.* Hamilton} quotes the same figure for his C. Heliotropium, to which I should have referred this, had the relative lengths of the calyx and corolla agreed with Martius’s character of that species.t * Phytogr. t. 106. fig. 2. ¢ Cat. Dried Plants, p. 90.—No. 877. t ‘‘C. Heliotropium Hamilton: caudice scandente ; frondium ecirrosarum pinnis equidistantibus concinnis lineari-lanceolatis acuminatis, aculeis rhachium spatharumque recurvis ; spadicibus masculis decompositis, calycibus urceolatis breviter dentatis, petala subequantibus ; loris 2—; baccis.— —. Frondium forma et verosimiliter caudice affinis est C. Rotang, sed differt spadi- cum masculorum julis laxioribus, spathellularum apparatu minore, calycibus multo longioribus, ore contracto breviter tridentatis. In Goyalpara, Indie Orientalis, Augusto, 1808, legit Hamilton.’ Martius. Palm. p. 211, 52 The Palms of British East India. 22. (12) C. fasciculatus, spinis vaginarum et petiolorum albido-furfuraceorum longis rectis subulatis fasciculatis vel solitariis, pinnis egregie fasciculatis subquadrifariis lineari- bus (long. 9-10 uncialibus lat. vix uncialibus), marginibus et carina centrali supra spinoso-setigeris subtus venis tri- bus setulosis et seepe furfuraceis, spadice aculeato, spathis infimis primariis bicarinatis secus carinas aculeatis superi- oribus ecarinatis aculeatioribus, spicis compositis, spiculis brevissimis scorpioideis, bracteolis distinctis, corolla calycem triplo superante, stylis clavatis reflexo-patentibus, fructibus oblongo-ovatis breve cuspidatis (albis), aloumine zequabili hine umbilicato. , C. fasciculatus. Roxb. Flor. Ind. 3. p. 779. Mart. Palm. p. 209. Has.—Bengal: (common about Calcutta in Bamboo jun- gles,) Cuttack, and many other places; Roxburgh says he never saw it to the southward of Ganjam. Bura-bet of the Bengalees. Flowers during the rains. Descr.—Grows in small thick tufts. Stems rather slender, and not very long: sheaths at first covered with white meal, afterwards smoother and green, armed with spreading strong flat spines, soli- tary or in short series. Petioles (pinniferous part) convex trigonal, covered with brownish white meal, as also are the bases of the spines, under flat face armed with long flat spreading very sharp spines ge- nerally fascicled, sometimes solitary, upper angle with solitary or bi- nary similar, but smaller ones. Piénne in fascicles of threes, occa- sionally four, all slightly arched, convex on the upper face, the lowest of each fascicle ascending patent, and crossing obliquely over the others, so that they are nearly tetrastichous. They are linear, eight or nine inches long, about one inch broad, upper surface with one carina armed, as also are the margins, with whitish thorny teeth: midvein underneath with a few bristles; under surface mottled. The Palms of British Kast India. 53 Male Spadir several feet long, ending in a long flagellus, aculeate in the part not covered by the spathes. Lower spathes long, com- pressed, almost two-edged, owing to a dorsal and ventral carina, the former armed especially towards the apex with a few short subulate spines ; upper without carine armed with many aculei. Branches of the spadix adnate to the peduncle as high as the mouths of the spathes, thinly branched, slightly and distantly flexuose, upper half of the internodes covered with spathes with small acute limbs. Branch- lets bearing the spikes four or five inches long, generally slightly scorpioid. Spikes very short not exceeding half an inch in length, scorpioid, suffulted by broad short spathes, crowded with distichous flowers. Each male flower is suffulted by a scale-shaped bracte, amplectent, with comparatively very spreading oblong ovate limbs. Bracteole small, especially the inner one, not united into a cup! Calyz broad, angular, divided to the middle, segments half ovate, slightly keeled. Corolla three times the length of the calyx, broad, angular in bud, divided nearly to the base, segments oblong, spreading. Stamina six, as usual united among themselves and to the base of the corolla. ' Filaments (free) ‘subulate, moderately long, anthers rather short, sa- gittate. Rudiment of the Pistil/um of three small bodies. I have not yet seen the female flowers or fruit. Accord- ing to Roxburgh’s figure they are very like those of his C. Rotang, (C. Roxburghii,) the chief difference represented being the greater length of the corolla in this species com- pared with that of the calyx. ‘The shape and colour of the fruit is exactly the same. Roxburgh represents the albu- men almost without ruminating processes, but with a con- spicuous lateral foveola or umbilicus. This species is easily distinguished from all the others by its habit, by the direction of the pinne in which respect it approaches to most Zalaccz, and by their spinous margins and keels. The male spikes are shorter and broader than in any other species I am acquainted with, and in the dis- tinctness of the bracteole it appears to be singular. oA The Palms of British East India. 23. (13) C. gracilis, aculeis vaginarum et petiolorum soli- tariis sparsis, pinnis fasciculatis (fasciculis distantibus ternis suboppositis) lanceolatis (long. 3-5 uncialibus lat. subuncia- libus) cuspidato-acuminatissimis utrinque triveniis, venis setigeris, spadice subfiliformi spathisque aculeatis, ramis dis- tantibus, spicis paucis simplicibus obsolete scorpioideis, co- rolla calycem triplo excedente.* C. gracilis. Roxburgh. Flor. Ind. 3. p.'781. Icones Suppt. 5. t. 16. Mart. Palm. p. 210. Tsjeru-tsjurel. Rheed. Hort. Mal. 12. t. 64. Has.—Chittagong. Mapoori Bet of the Hindoos of that district. ‘“A native of the forests of Chittagong, where Mr. W. Roxburgh found it climbing over trees and bushes to a great extent, and in flower in the month of May. This species is uncommonly slender, when divested of the sheaths of the leaves and dry, scarcely as thick as acommon quill, in texture firm and elastic, covered with a smooth, straw-coloured crust as in the common ratan. Stems simple, perennial, climbing to a great extent ; all the tender or younger parts toward their extremities invested in the armed sheaths of the leaves, including these about as thick as a man’s little finger. Leaves alternate, recurved interruptedly pinnate, if I may be allowed to call a pinnated leaf so, which is destitute of smaller leaflets between the principal ones, from one to two feet long. Leaflets collected in three opposite bundles of from two to four pair each, with much more of the rachis left naked between them than the spaces they occupy, sessile, doubled backwardly at the base, linear-lanceolate, bristly, pointed, both surfaces lucid, three-nerv- ed; nerves on the upper side as well as the margins bristly, from three to five inches long, and less than one inch broad. Rib or rachis carinated along the upper side, when young covered with ferruginous dust, rounded underneath, and armed with recurved prickles. Flagelli or tendrils issue single as in the other species, * Character ex Icone Roxburghiana citata. The Palms of British East India. 55 from near the mouths of the sheaths of the leaves; they are long, jointed, slender as a pack-thread, drooping, sheathed, armed with numerous, very sharp, recurved prickles. Maus. Spadix from the mouths of the sheaths or opposite sides of the flagelli compound, jointed ; joints approximate, sheathed ; ramifications recurved, bear- ing two rows of sessile flowers on their convex side. Calyz 1-leav- ed, tridentate, sitting on the joints of the rachis in a three-toothed cup, which may be called a lower or exterior calyx. Corol 3-part- ed, with the base fleshy, and partly impervious. Filaments six, thick at the base, and inserted on the mouth of the fleshy impervious tube of the corol. Anthers linear, incumbent. Pistillum, a small, three-toothed, abortive, style-like body is all that is to be found.” Roxburgh. 24, (14) C. Mishmeensis, (n. sp.) petiolo (pinnifero) spinis solitariis longis uncinatis subtus armato et margine aculeato, pinnis fasciculatis (vel superioribus alternis) lineari-lanceo- latis (long. 15 uncialibus lat. 14 uncialibus) apice obtusis pennicillatis, supra venis 5 setigeris, subtus centrali tantum, spadice aculeato, spatha primaria infima ancipiti secus mar- gines aculeata, spicis simplicibus patentibus, fructibus clo- bosis (albis). Has.—At the foot of the Mishmee mountains near Tapan Gam’s village: in fruit, November 1837. Desc.*—Scandent. Petiole (in the pimniferous part) trigonal, lower face concave, armed along to middle with long hooked spines, with here and there, particularly about the margins, short aculei, these gradually disappear towards the apex of the leaf. Pinne fasciculate, with solitary ones interspersed, towards apex distantly alternate, li- near lanceolate, fifteen or sixteen inches long, one and a quarter broad, upper face with three keels, which bear bristles of good size; there are also two lateral veins (one on either side) with small bristles ; un- der surface with the midvein unequally bristly above the middle, mar- gins with spreading pungent bristles, apex obtuse, with the bristles so much developed and crowded as to be nearly pencilled. * Specimens: parts of aleaf, and spadix in fruit, fruits broken. 56 The Palms of British East India. Spadiz in the exposed parts plano-convex, with strong short hooked thorns on the convex face. Spathes tubular lowest com- pressed, two-edged, with short teeth along the edges, upper ones not compressed, almost unarmed. Branches altogether exserted, being attached considerably above the mouths of the spathes, five inches long. Spikes simple, stout, 2-3 inches in length, arising from a knob just above the points of narrow spathes, which cover the internodes of the branches, and which have small acuminate limbs. Fruit subsessile, globose, as usual tribracteolate, surrounded at the base by the flattened calyx with oblong-ovate segments, and the corolla with ovate-lanceolate segments and 6 sterile stamens ; scales large white, with a brown margin and point. Seed one, dry, deeply pitted, with a deep umbilicus on one side. This species in the spadix is allied to C. tenuis, Roxburgh, but the flowers seem to be dioicous, judging from the re- mains, neither have the females the same form. The spikes also are rigid, very spreading, without any tendency to be recurved or deflexed. ‘The leaves are widely different, in situation resembling those of C. fasciculatus and gracilis, to which last it appears to be allied. (25.) 15. C. floribundus,* (n. sp.) spinis petioli (pinniferi) aculeatis solitariis longis uncinato-deflexis, pinnis fasciculatis lineari-lanceolatis (long. subpedalibus, lat. 11-12 linealibus) * C. pennicillatus, pinnis equidistantibus lanceolatis 7-9 veniis margine in- tegris (esetosis) apice setoso-pennicillatis. C. pennicillatus. Korb. Fl. Ind. 3. p. 781. Mart. Palm. p. 210. Hab.—Forests, Pinang. Mr. Wm. Roxburgh. I subjoin Roxburgh’s notice of this plant, which in the shape, venation and tufted points of the pinne, and especially their entire smooth margins, appears to present sufficient peculiarities to enable it to be identified. ‘“‘Scandent. Leaflets thirty-four pair, regularly alternate except the terminal two, which are united, lanceolate, seven to nine-nerved; margins entire and smooth, a pencil of bristles from the apex of each. Sheaths flagelliferous. It is more slender than the common ratan, and less so than C. gracilis.’’ The Palms of British East India. 57 supra carinis 3-5 setigeris, subtus setis paucis secus venam mediam, apice sepius obtusis vel bifidis, spadice aculeato supra-decomposito, spathis primariis 1-carinatis secus cari- nam spinis rectis longiusculis armatis czeterum crebre acu- leatis secondariis floccoso-ciliatis, corolla calycem duplo ex- cedente, styli ramis lanceolatis. Has.—Upper Assam, at the mouth of the Nao-Dihing River, and towards Jorhauth. Both Major Jenkins and Mr. © Masters have also sent it to me, so that it appears to be common. Descr.*—Sheaths armed with brown deflexed long plano-subulate spines, solitary or in short series, otherwise thickly covered with so- litary or seriate brown bristles. The base of the petiole appears si- milarly armed, the spines being perhaps confined to the edges ; it is in the pinniferous part convex-trigonal, the under face armed with unequal curved deflexed very strong spines (the longest an inch in length or more) also with short scattered prickles. Pinne fasciculate, with or without solitary ones interspersed, linear-lan- ceolate, 13-14 inches long, 11-12 lines broad, upper face with three or even five carinz all bearing bristles, under face with a few bristles on the midvein towards the apex; margins with ascending stout ~ bristles ; apex obtuse, hispid, often bifid. Spadiz rather long, probably nutant, where exposed plano-convex, armed on convex face with hooked prickles. Spathes generally very long, with short limbs, irregularly armed with slender straight spines, and with many aculei. The lowest of the spathes sometimes a foot long, bicarinate, one carina running up the centre of the limb ; those next to it similarly 1-carinate ; carina in the uppermost obso- lete. The longer spines are confined to the carine.. Branches dis- tant, supra-decompound, lowermost deflexed, upper ascending, inter- nodes concealed by spathes with truncate margins more or less ci- * A specimen of the upper part of an axis, with the lower part of the base of the petioles, many specimens of portions of leaves, and male and female inflores- cences, the latter before the expansion of the flowers. 38 The Palms of British East India. liate, and, in the young state especially, grey from whitish filamentous hairs. Branchlets which bear the spikes recurved or spreading, with short, acute, often mucronate spathes. Spikes attached midway be- tween these, short, scarcely more than half inch long, sub-scorpioid. Male flowers distichous, ovate: suffulted by a small bracte like- wise ciliate and generally pennicillate at the apex, and by two bracteoles less combined than usual, indeed sometimes nearly dis- tinct. Calyx divided to the middle, segments half-ovate. Corolla about twice the length of the calyx, divided almost nearly to the base, segments ovate-lanceolate, spreading. Stamina as usual united to base of corolla; filaments (free) long, subulate, flexuose in bud ; anthers obtusely sagittate, attached above the middle, versa- tile. Rudiment of a pistillum of three rather small distinct bodies. Female flowers on simply spiked more elongated branches. Spikes 2-3-inches long, alternate, generally recurved, flexuose, pale fer- ruginous-tomentose. Flowers rather distant, suffulted by an am- plectent bracte with a short acuminate limb, and by two bracte- oles, of which the inner bears an incomplete disc on one side, and between this and the outer bracteole is a space as though there should be an additional flower. Calyx (in bud) ovate-coni- cal, a good deal longer than that of the male flower, divided to the middle. Corolla (in bud,) length of the calyx, otherwise as in the male, but the segments have thin margins. Stamina 6, mona- delphous ; filaments (free) short, flat ; anthers effete. Ovarium cylin- drical, 3-celled, shorter than the branches of the style, which are lanceolate and papillose. Ovules 3. This species seems to vary a good deal; among the specimens from the Nao Dihing, is a portion of a leaf, in which the spines are short, solitary, and the pinne two feet or more in length by thirteen lines broad, with only one keel on the upper face, and this is the only part besides the margins that bears bristles; the apex also is often subulate-acuminate. There were also specimens found among the dried plants of these Gardens, without name, but which are said to have The Palms of British East India. 59 been prepared from plants growing a long time ago in the Gardens ; these, had the petioles been flagelliferous, I should have referred to C. latifolius. The inflorescence varies a good deal as to smoothness ; in some of the more advanced specimens, the margins of the bractes even are nearly smooth. It approaches especially by its inflorescence to C. lati- folius, but that plant has flagelliferous petioles. 26. (16) C. énsignis, (n. sp.) aculeis vaginarum sparsis coni- co-subulatis, petiolorum infra pinnas dorsalibus uncinatis in- tra pinnas supra medium marginalibus superadditis, pinnis distanter et irregulariter alternis (senis cum terminali equila- terali profunde biloba) cuneato-lanceolatis vel obovatis sub- tus concavis glaucis apice obtusiusculo tantum setigeris. Has.—Malacca, E. Fernandez. Malayan name, Rotang Bhatioo. Descr.*—Stem slender, not thicker than a common quill, or in- cluding the sheaths about four lines in diameter. Sheaths about a span long, with a few scattered conical subulate prickles. Leaves 19-20 inches long ; petiole below the pinne about 5 inches long, roundish, above triangular, armed throughout along the centre of under surface with small hooked prickles, and above the middle of the pinniferous part with similar ones along the margins; pinne irregularly and distantly alternate, five in number, exclusive of the terminal equilateral deeply bilobed one, cuneato-lanceolate, sessile, distinctly concave underneath with inflexed margins, glaucous-ca- rimate above, with many parallel veins and transverse venules, and a short obtuse point, which is the only part bearing bristles. Fla- gellus united to the sheaths high up, very slender (the longest about a foot long) armed with the ordinary prickles. *® * Specimens: an entire upper part of a stem, not in flower. 60 The Palms of British East India. This appears to me a very distinct species, it may be taken perhaps as a passage to Ceratolobus. At first sight it is not altogether unlike C. gracilis of Roxburgh. *,* Scandentes. Petioli flagelliferi. 27. (17) C. latifolius, spinis vaginarum subverticillatis, pe- tiolis aculeatis, pinnis fasciculatis lanceolatis (long. 16-unci- alibus lat. 3-uncialibus) 5-7 veniis supra convexis utrinque esetosis, spadice supra-decomposito spathisque aculeatis, co- rolla calycem triplo excedente.* C. latifolius. Roxb. Fl. Ind. 3. p. "775. Icones. Suppt. 5. t. 17. Mart. Palme. p. 208. Katu-tsjurel. Hort. Malab. xii. t. 65. fid. Roxb. MSS. “‘ Korak Bet of the natives of Chittagong, where it is indigenous, and runs over trees to an immense length. When freed from the sheaths of the leaves it is about as thick as a slender walking cane. Plants introduced by Mr. W. Roxburgh, in 1801, into the Botanic Garden, flowered for the first time in November and December 1809, when they had attained to the height of about forty feet. Spines numerous on the stems, sub-verticilled, very large, flat and divaricate. On the flagelli fascicled and recurved. Leaves alternate, pinnate, from six to twelve feet long including the whip or flagellus, which terminates the common petiole as in many of Rumphius’s figures ; and the leaf of his Palmijuncus equestris, vol. v. t. 56. is tolerably like that of my plant, but their size is very different. Leaves in seven or eight remote fascicles, of three or four each, broad-lanceolate, very erect, many-nerved, smooth on both sides ; with the margins triflingly spinous-dentate, and the upper surface always convex, from ten to eighteen inches long, and from three to six broad. Mauer. Spadixz supra-decompound ; all the divisions bi- farious. Flowers small, of a greenish yellow, each sitting in a cup composed of two concave sheathing bractes. Calyx 3-toothed. Corol 3-parted. Filaments six, inserted on the imperforated base of * Char: ex Icone Roxburghiana citata. The Palms of British East India. 61 the corol. -Anthers incumbent. FPistillum none, a small 3-lobed gland occupies its place.” Roxburgh. I have no personal knowledge of this species: it appears to be allied to the succeeding, from which it differs by its fasciculate lanceolate pinnz. 28. (18) C. palustris,* (n. sp.) aculeis petioli(pinniferi) faciei inferze uncinatis, pinnis remote fasciculatis lineari-lanceo- latis (long. pedalibus lat. 12 uncialibus) supra carinis 5 quarum centrali parce setosa, spadice decomposito parce aculeato, ramis attenuatis filiformibus, spathis primariis aculeis rectis inequalibus secondariis fere inermibus, spicis scorpioideis distantibus, corolla calycem triplo excedente. Has.—In watery places, Pular, Province Mergui, Te- nasserim coast. Gathered in October 1834. Derscr.t—Dioicous, 6-7 feet high. Petiole trigonal, under nearly flat face armed with solitary broad claw-shaped aculei which are ternate towards the apex and in the flagellus. Pinne distantly fasciculate, with or without solitary ones interspersed, linear-lanceolate with a tendency to be spathulate, * I append to this section the two following species of Roxburgh, which may perhaps hereafter be identified by their vernacular names. C. extensus. R. Scandent. Leaves flagelliferous; Jeaflets alternate, remote, equi-distant, nar- row-lanceolar. Spines in belts, slender. Berries spherical. Deu-gullar the vernacular name in Silhet, where it is indigenous, and is of great extent, say two to three hundred yards ; when cleaned toward the base, it is not thicker than a man’s fore-finger, but as thick as the wrist towards the apex. The length of the joint is from six to twelve inches. Fl. Ind. 3. p. 777. C. quinquenervius. R. Scandent. Leaves flagelliferous ; leaflets few, remote, equi-distant, lanceolar, five-nerved. Spines distinct, few, short and strong ; spadix decompound. Hurnur-gullar the vernacular name in Silhet, where this species is found, run- ning over trees, to a great extent; the ratan when cleaned is about as thick as a man’s finger throughout, and the joints from six to eight inches long. FI. Ind. loc. cit. ¢ Specimens; apex of a leaf, and also of a male spadix. 62 The Palms of British East India. twelve inches long, one and three-quarters broad, five-keeled above, with two lateral veins also slightly prominent; a few bristles occa- sionally on mid-keel ; margins rough with appressed bristle-shaped teeth ; apex mucronate-cuspidate, smooth or somewhat hispid. Spadiz two and a half feet long, nodding or curved, slender, and thinly branched, where exposed plano-convex, convex face arm- ed with short aculei. Spathes 3-4 inches long with short half-ovate limbs, armed with scattered, irregular, straight or hooked aculei. Branches attached just opposite the ends of the spathes, about a span long, slender, slightly flexuose, their lowermost spathes empty. Spikes also inserted opposite the ends of their spathes, (which are lax, clavate, generally armed with a few minute prickles,) about an inch long, scorpioid. Flowers suffulted by an amplectent scale-shaped bracte, with a short acute spreading limb, and by a short, obscurely three-tooth- ed, rather large, oblong cup. Calyx short, stout, divided below the middle into three oblong, broad segments. Corolla three times Jn evidence of the numbers of species of this genus, I may mention that I have just received from Malacca a very distinct species of this section with the name Rotang Jarnang, which is the true name of C. Draco. This species is distinguishable at once by the very small numerous deciduous prickles of the sheaths, (the old sheaths are merely rough from their scars, ) the margins of the mouths of which are lacerate-fibrous. The petiole below the pinne is about a span long, armed with rather distant, stout, somewhat curved prickles, marginal ones being also found here and there: at its junction with the sheath very gibbous and transversely puckered; also among the pinne short hooked prickles occur along the dorsum, being continued into the slender flagel- lus. Pinne@ alternate or distantly sub-opposite, linear-lanceolate, candato-acu- minate, 10-11 inches long, 6!-7 lines broad, above |-carinate, carina and a lateral vein on both sides bristly. For this the name C. micracantha may be proposed. Another species of the same section sent from Malacca, without any name, presents green sheaths, with very few slightly curved white prickles. Total length including flagellus four feet, of the pinniferous part twenty-one inches. Petioles pin- niferous to the base, armed with a dorsal row of stout clawed prickles, which towards the apex become binate or ternate with scattered ones intermixed. Pinne@ alter- nating or fasciculate, lowermost with cartilaginous swollen insertions, and apparent- ly deflexed, linear-lanceolate, 5-7 inches long, 5-7,lines broad, without bristles on either side or with a very few on the carina above, acuminate with bristly points, apparently glaucous underneath. This appears quite distinct. The Palms of British East India. 63 longer, divided nearly to the attenuate fleshy base into three oblong, ovate, erect, ascending segments. Stamina as usual united to corolla, above this very shortly monadelphous ; filaments (free) long, subu- late, introflexed in xstivation ; anthers large, linear-oblong, attach- ed above the middle. Pollen yellow. Pistillum rudimentary. In the diffuse, slender, spadix, this species approaches somewhat to C. leptospadix, but otherwise is abundantly dis- tinct. In its leaves, excepting the flagellus, it approaches nearest to C. floribundus, Mishmeensis, and latifolius. Sect. Il.—(PIPTOSPATH AS). 29, (19) C. verticillaris, (n. sp.) aculeis vaginarum verti- cillatis, verticillis zonis vel ternatis, superioris spinis validis planis deflexis, inferiorum duarum setiformibus in annulum alte coalitis, petioli (flagelliferi) pinniferi aculeis subtus fasciculatis uncinatis, supra lineatis dentiformibus irregu- laribus, pinnis equidistantibus linearibus (long. 12-13 uncia- libus lat. uncialibus) supra carina setigera subtus venulis tribus setigeris, spadicis supra-decompositi erecti pedunculo inermi, spathis persistentioribus binis aculeis subulato-seti- formibus armatis, floribus minutis numerosissimis. Has.—The interior of Malacca, it was brought to me with the name Rotang Simote. Descr.*—Scandent. Stem with the sheaths about one inch and a half in diameter. Sheaths green, armed, generally at short inter- vals, with complete whorls of flat very sharp deflexed brown-pointed spines; the spaces between the strong spines filled with minute bristles. Under each of the above whorls are two others of very * Specimens ; an entire upper part of a male plant in flower: but with very few flowers remaining. 64 The Palms of British East India. slender bristles united to each other high up so as to form a ring, these bristles, are firm and thorny, white below where united, above black. These two whorls have an ascending direction, and cross the whorl of deflexed stout spines. The spaces between the whorls generally choked with foreign bodies or occupied by ants. Pefttoles flagelli- ferous, part below the pinne 13-2 feet long, flattened, somewhat trian- gular, armed below with bands or lines (generally complete) of stout thorns, above of small bristles. In the pinniferous part, which is about six feet long, the under flattish face presents the usual clawed thorns, the upper angular face unequal incomplete bands of short tooth-shaped bristles confluent at the base. Pinne equidistant, generally regularly alternating, linear, about twelve or thirteen inches long, an inch broad, subulate-acuminate : above with a central bris- tle-bearing carina, below with three veins bearing bristles ; margins rough with bristly teeth. Spadiz about two feet long, or more, erect, axillary, adhering as usual to the next sheath; about three inches from the axilla presenting two spathes, which are somewhat two-keeled, and not very concave, armed on the back by lines of stout bristly prickles : the uppermost spathe is rather the largest, about a span long; the sheaths are of considerable length, similarly armed. The peduncle itself is unarmed. Branches ascending, naked at the base, 4-6 inches long, much divided, divisions rather spreading suffulted by an inconspicuous short brownish spathe with a rather long lanceolate acute limb. Spikes very numerous, each scarcely more than an inch long, chesnut-red, each suffulted by a similar but smaller spathe. Flowers very numerous, about thirty-five to each spike, (of which there are about twelve to the lower divisions of the lower branches,) very minute, exactly distichous.. Bractea amplectent, with a short rather deflexed limb ; cup nearly entire, shorter than the bractea. Calyx cup-shaped of the same texture as the cup, three times longer than it, obscurely three-toothed. Corolla (in bud) twice as long as the calyx, depressed at the summit, divided to the base into three oblong segments. Stamina 6. A large oblong rudiment of a Pistillum.* * These parts in the specimen are generally destroyed by insects, and the calyx generally is also more persistent than the corolla. The Paims of British East India. 65 This very remarkable species is evidently allied to C. mi- rabilis, Reinwdt.* to which indeed I should have referred it, had not Reinwardt described his plant as having the long peduncle of the pendulous spathe armed with distich- ous thorns. The armature of the sheaths is very curious, and is well characterised by Martius.¢ It is almost equally distinct by its exceedingly numerous minute flowers, and the great de- gree of branching of the spadix. 30. (20) C. Draco, aculeis vaginarum rectis seriatis petio- lorum sparsis, pinnis zquidistantibus lineari-lanceolatis (long. 13 pedalibus lat. 7-8 linealibus), spadicis decompositi erecti pedunculo aculeis seriatis armato, spathis coriaceis infima dorso seriebus crebris aculeorum intermediis secus centrum parce aculeatis summis inermibus, fructibus ovato-rotundis materie resinosa incrustatis. C. Draco. Willd. 2. p. 203. Syst. Veget. ed. Schultes. 7. pt. 2. p. 1323. Roxb. Fl. Ind. 3. p. 774. Martius. Palm. p. 211. Palmijuncus Draco. Rumph. Hb. Amb. 5. p. 114. Sef. 1. | Has.—A native of Sumatra and the Malay Islands. Flowering time March and April. Roxburgh. Penang, Mr. Lewes. Jarnang of the Malays of Penang. Descr.§—Young spadices imbricated with large coriaceous spathes whose margins towards the apex are recurved, almost woody in texture, outside they are ferruginous red, inside chesnut-red. The lowermost much armed with seriate very strong deflexed spines ; those next to this are slightly armed along the middle of their backs, the upper ones almost unarmed. Peduncle much armed with stout seriate or fasciculate thorns. * Mart. Palm. p. 213. ¢ Loc. cit. { Char. part. e Roxburghio. } Specimens of young, and of fruit bearing mature spadices. K 66 The Palms of British East India. Fruit bearing spadix nodding? nearly two feet long, without spathes, with two or three annular scars beneath that of the lowest branch ; peduncle short, armed: branches several, spreading, upper ones simple, lowermost branched, naked at the base. Spikes short, stout, flexuose, a squamiform bracte and two annular bracteoles un- der each fruit. These are ovate-round, on short, stout, stalks, surrounded at the base by the calyx, and the spreading or revolute linear-lanceolate petals, tipped at the point by the remains of the style. Scales with a narrow deep longitudinal furrow, naturally whitish, but incrusted with a rich blackish-red secretion, the best Dragon’s Blood of commerce. Seed generally one, sometimes two, in which case they are nearly hemispherical. Albumen much ruminate. Hmbryo basilar. I subjoin Roxburgh’s description of this plant. “ Trunk while the plants are young, erect, and then resembling an elegant, slender palm tree, armed with innumerable dark coloured, flattened, elastic spines, often disposed in oblique rows, with their bases united. By age they become scandent, and overrun trees to a great extent. Leaves pinnate, their sheaths and petioles armed as above described. Leaflets single, alternate, ensiform, margins re- motely armed with stiff, slender bristles, as are also the nerves ; from twelve to eighteen inches long and about three quarters of an inch broad. Spadix of the female hermaphrodite inserted by means of a short armed petiole on the mouth of the sheath opposite to the leaf, oblong, decompound, resembling a common oblong panicle. Spathes several, one to each of the four or five primary ramifications of the spadix, lanceolate, leathery ; all smooth except the exterior or lower one which is armed on the outside. Calyx of the female or ra- ther female hermaprodite. Perianth turbinate, ribbed ; mouth three- toothed, by the swelling of the germ it splits into three portions, and in this manner may be seen adhering with the corol to the ripe berries. Corol three-cleft ; divisions ovate-lanceolate, twice as long as the calyx, permanent. Filaments six, very broad, and inserted into the base of the corol. Anthers filiform, and seemingly abortive. Germ above, oval. Styles short. Stigma three-cleft ; divisions re- The Palms of British East India. 67 volute, glandular on the inside. Berry round, pointed, of the size of a cherry.” The natural secretion of the fruit constitutes the best D’jurnang, or Dragon’s Blood ; a second and rather inferior kind is produced from the fruits, from which the natural se- cretion has been removed by heat and bruising. The third and most inferior appears to be the refuse of this last pro- cess. It is perhaps doubtful, whether this article is pro- cured from this plant by incisions. The above is taken from Rumph. who has a copious article on the subject.* Mr. Lewes informs me, that he long ago forwarded a full account of the preparation of this Dragon’s Blood to Dr. Wallich ; its true source not appear- ing to him to be generally known. 31. (21) C. geniculatus, (n. sp.) aculeis petioli (flagelliferi) pinniferi subtus uncinatis semi-verticillatis supra sparsis denti- formibus, pinnis 2quidistantibus lineari-lanceolatis (long. 14- uncialibus lat. uncialibus) supra 1-carinatis (carina parce setosa) subtus venis 3 setigeris margine integerrimis, spadicis geniculati pedunculo bipedali compresso secus margines valide aculeato, spathis omnibus demum deciduis, fructibus rotun- dis rostratis (albis). Has.—Penang, Mr. Lewes. Rotang Dodoor of the Ma- lays of that Island. Drscr.t—Petiole (of pinniferous portion) obtusely trigonal, under- neath armed with hooked claws, upper angle here and there with small tooth shaped prickles. Pinne approximate, often sub-opposite, linear-lanceolate, 15-16 inches long, one broad, subulato-acuminate, * Hb. Amb. V. p. 114. t Specimens ; the S. portions of a leaf and 3 spadices with immature fruits. 68 The Palms of British East India. with 3 veins prominent on the upper surface; of these the central bears a few bristles towards the apex, under surface with two lateral veins bristly, and also the central towards the apex ; margins except the point without bristles or teeth. | Spadix three feet long. Peduncle below the branches one foot and a half long, flattened, not two-edged, with scars of a row of stout marginal spines; above the branches unarmed, at the insertion of each branch swollen into knots. First scar of the spathes immediately under the lowest branch. Branches all naked at the base, lowermost aspan long, angular, stout. Spikes spreading, suffulted by lanceolate acute scarious bractes, stout, flexuose, 2-3 inches long : some of them present subulate abortive branches. Flowers subsessile at the flexures, suffulted by a scale-shaped annular bracte, and at the base surrounded by two annular alternat- ing bracteoles, the mner of which is almost cup-shaped. Fruit subglobose, cuspidate by base of the style, surrounded by the calyx, more or less split, and by the corolla much more split and tending to be lacerate ; its segments oblong, twice as long as those of the calyx; scales large, pale, yellowish white with a narrow cen- tral furrow and dark brown margins with whitish edges. Seed one, (immature. ) This species comes very close to the succeeding, and there is a similarity in the Malayan name which is suspicious. Ne- vertheless I have little doubt of its being quite distinct, espe- cially from the smooth margins of the leaves, a very unusual character, the flat, not two-edged peduncle armed strongly along the edges, the swollen nodes, the stout, rigid, very flexuose spikes, and the round fruit. The spikes call to mind by their flexures the spikes of some Rottbotliaceous grasses. 32. (22) C. longipes, (n. sp.) aculeis vaginarum planis seriatis vel solitariis setis presertim versus margines interspersis, pe- tioli (flagelliferi) infra pinnas paucis subulatis inequalibus, inter pinnas uncinatis solitariis, pinnis zquidistantibus lineari- = eee eee a ee Se ea Se The Palms of British East India. 69 lanceolatis (long. 14. uncialibus lat. uncialibus) supra venis tribus setigeris, spadicis decompositi elongati nutantis pe- dunculo bipedali ancipiti subinermi, spathis omnibus demum deciduis, fructibus oblongis styli basi cuspidatis basi calyce tantum circumcinctis. | Palmijuncus verus angustifolius. Rumph. Hb. Amb. 5. p. 105. t. 54. fig. 2. ? Has.—Malacca, C. Fernandez, sent with the name Ao- tang Dodow. Dzscr.*—Sheaths very much armed with stout flat spines, broader than usual, with bristles often intermixed, those along the margins, which are very bristly, slenderer but not longer. ‘The marginal ones of the base of petiole subulate-triangular, and rather longer than any of the others. Petiole at the base convex below, channelled broadly above, armed with long irregular spines, (which about a foot from the axil appear reduced to a marginal row of distant short straight teeth and another similar one along the centre of the lower face,) inclusive of flagellus about twelve feet long; pinniferous portion about seven feet; lower two feet naked, above the channelled part rather flat above, convex below. Between the pinne it is obtusely triangular, above unarmed, below armed with solitary distant short aculei. Pinne about fourteen inches long, about an inch broad, linear-lanceolate, subulato-acuminate, upper face with the central and two lateral veins sparingly bristly ; under smooth; margins and apex bristly. Spadix adhering to the next sheath as usual, throughout the lower two or two and half feet of its length naked, unarmed, or with a very few not very strong spines along the edges, compressed, dis- tinctly two-edged, marked with the annulus of the first spathe, which suffults the lowest branch of the spadix; surface irregularly sprinkled with brown chaffy matter. Fruit bearing part a little more than eighteen inches long, rather compressed, but not two-edged. Branches several, angular, themselves much divided, the lowermost 4-5 inches apart: without suffulting spathes. Spikes varying in * Specimen ; apex of a fruit bearing plant, fully expanded leaf wanting. 70 The Palms of British East India. length, lowermost of the lowest branches 4-5 inches long, spreading, angular. Fruits on shortish stalks, uppermost of each spike nearly sessile, spreading, oblong-ovate, length six lines, breadth three and a half, attenuated into a short mammilla terminated by the base of the style, surrounded at the base by one envelope! divided below the middle into three oblong segments, between this and the fruit itself is a short cup variously lacerated, and outside at the apex of the stalk, two bractes, the outer one subannuliform. Scales whitish, cartilaginous, with pale margins, the central furrows deep, and con- secutive. Seed (immature,) oblong. Adbumen ruminate. This is probably the plant of Rumphius, quoted by most authors as C. verus; it resembles it in the length of the spadices, the want of a spathe when in fruit, the distance of the annulus or cicatrix of this from the axilla, and its suffulting the lowest branch of the inflorescence. It is, as may be supposed, very closely allied to the C. platyacanthus of Martius,* from which however it differs in the very long two-edged peduncles of the spadix, the want of spathes when in fruit, in which points Martius’s plant differs from that of Rumph. It is the only one I have yet seen of this section in which all the spathes appear to be deciduous or in which the fruit is only surrounded by one envelope, the corolla being appa- rently for the most part deciduous. In this again it differs from Martius’s plant. From the preceding to which it is closely allied, it is known at once by the absence of the remarkable very long spines to the margins of the mouths of the sheaths, and by the spadix and fruits. 33. (23) C. Hystriz, (n. sp.) aculeis vaginarum seriatis vel sparsis marginum longissimis spithameis vel pedalibus, petioli * Palm. p. 206. t. 160 f. i. ii. iii. The Palms of British East India. 71 (flagelliferi) infra pinnas valde inzequalibus sparsis patentis- simis, inter pinnas subtus uncinatis supra minutis dentifor- mibus, pinnis zequidistantibus confertis linearibus (long. 16- uncialibus lat. 5-6 linealibus) supra carina et carinulis duabus setigeris, subtus venis 5 setosis, spadice decomposito erec- to, spatha crebre armata spinis marginum apicem versus longissimis, spicis florum feemineorum ascendenti-convergen- tibus fructuum patentibus, dentibus calycis villosis vel pen- nicillatis, fructibus oblongis albis. Has.—In forests. Ayer Punnus, Rhim; Province of Ma- lacca. Malayan name Rotang Sabote. Descr.*—Climbing to a great extent, flagelliferous, diameter of stem towards the flowering part 14 inch. Sheaths swollen at the insertion of the petiole, armed with strong large flat spines, distinct, or in the usual incomplete verticils, those of the margins of the mouth of the sheath exceedingly long, a span or a foot in length, and proportionally broader at the base. Petiole 1} to 13 foot long in its lower naked part; where it is rather angular, and various- ly armed. The spines of the margin one inch long, subulate, the others aculeiform, while the upper flatter face has small thorny teeth. Pinniferous part 5-6 feet long, rather angular, armed above along the centre with short straight teeth, below with solitary hooked thorns. These are as usual continued into the flagellus, which is very long. Pinne very numerous, generally approximate in pairs, linear, subu- lato-acuminate, 16 inches long, 6 lines wide, under face with 5 bristle-bearing veins, the upper has the midvein carinate, one lateral one on either side sub-carinate, bearing bristles chiefly above the middle ; margins bristly, ciliate ; apex as usual hispid. Spadix 2 feet long, (exserted 2 feet,) peduncle adhering to the next sheath, in the young state so imbricated with spathes as to be subu- late ; of these spathes the lowermost 4 are armed, the armature gra- dually diminishing from the base upwards. In flower it has one spathe near the axilla, boat-shaped, 4-5 inches long, flattish or nearly * Specimens; entire specimens of plant with female flowers and fruit. 72 The Palms of British East India. revolute at the apex, coriaceous, armed on the back with very strong broad spines, of which the uppermost along the margins are a good deal the longest, and awl-shaped from a flat base. Branches several, with the same ascending direction as the pedun- cle, naked at the base. Spikes 2-3 inches long, also ascending, slen- der, flexuose, ferrugineo-furfuraceous, suffulted at the base by an obscure squamiform bracte. Flowers solitary on short stalks, occupying the flexures, stalk furnished with one minute bracteole! Calyx short, cupshaped, ob- soletely three-toothed, teeth short, villous at the points. Corolla with a sub-globose base, twice as long as the calyx, divided to the middle ; segments half-lanceolate, spreading. Stamina adhering to corolla to the base of its segments ; anthers linear-sagittate, effete, on very short filaments. Ovarium ovate-roundish, covered with shortly ciliate scales, 3-celled at the base. Style divided to the base into three oblong-clavate segments, very lamellar, and papillose on the inner surface and sides. Fruit bearing spadix with or without the spathe. Spikes spreading, very flexuose. Stalks of the fruit spreading. Fruit surrounded at the base by the persistent envelopes, elliptic, shortly mammillate at the apex. Scales large, cartilaginous, appearing to the naked eye to have two lines down the centre, margins cartilaginous. Seed 1, oblong, erect. Tegument dark-brown, with the usual resiniferous pits, rather thick in some parts. Albumen horny, deeply ruminate. Embryo basilar. This species is closely allied to C. platyacanthos, Mart. from which, however, it is at once distinguishable by the enormously long spines of the margins of the mouths of the sheaths. The armature of the lowermost and most persis- tent spathe also differs in the analogous elongation of the spine of its apex. ‘The teeth of the calyx are moreover tufted with hairs, and the fruit of the same period of deve- lopment is oblong, not obovate as in the species alluded to. Martius also gives the spadices in his species as ‘ pedes nonnullos longi.”* * Palm. loc. cit. — The Palms of British East India. 73 It appears to vary a good deal. I have specimens sent by E. Fernandez from Malacca, under the name Rotang Pusaisur, which is of smaller size, the spadix (with young fruit) not a foot in length, and the flowers with two bracteoles. But otherwise the plants are so much alike, and there ap- pears to be so great a tendency to vary in the length of the spadices, that I have thought it better to unite the two, par- ticularly as so little is yet known of the real value of the characters employed in the distinction of the species. The female spikes in flower resemble a good deal the same parts of C. leptopus ; and it is to be remarked that the lowermost spathe, though persistent for a long time, pre- sents scarcely any sheath. In the armature of the petioles it may be considered to approach in some degree to C. castaneus, the thorns in both being often or generally solitary, and very unequal in size. Rumph’s figure of Palmijuncus verus angustifolius* gives, with the exception of the want of the long spines, a good idea of this species in fruit. Sect. III.—(PLATYSPATH-.) Huic sectioni pertinet Katu-tsjurel, Rheede. Hort. Mal. 12. t. 65.; Roxburghio ad Calamum suum latifolium refertus. 34, (24) C. leptopus, (n. sp.) spinis vaginarum seriatis, petiolorum (flagellifer :) partis inferioris nude seriatis, aculeis partis pinnifere uncinatis, pinnis equidistantibus lineari- lanceolatis (long. 15-16-uncialibus lat. 12-13-linealibus) cir- rhoso-acuminatis supra 1-carinatis sub-glabris subtus szepius * Herb. Amb. v. t. 54. f. 2. C. verus of most authors. C. platyacanthos. Mart. loc. cit. ¢t This species may be distinguished as C. (Platyspatha) Rheedei, petiolis spadicibusque aculeatis, pinnis distanter fasciculatis lineari-lanceolatis. L 74 The Palms of British East India. venis 3 setigeris, spadice nutante vel pendulo decomposito infra spathas spinis subulatis armato, spathis coriaceis in- fima spathiformi secus carinas duas armata reliquis planis inermibus, spicis ascendenti-convergentibus, floribus ob- longis. Has.—Malacca. Rotang Chinchin of the Malays. Drscr.*—Scandent ; diameter of the stem and sheaths about one inch. Sheaths about a span long, armed with fascicles of flat rather deflexed spines, shorter and stouter than usual; at the base of the petiole swollen transversely. Petiole in its lower naked part about two feet long, triangular, armed with similar and generally solitary but smaller spines, those of the margin subulate and slender : pinni- ferous part convex-trigonal, under convex-face armed with clawed prickles three or four together, upper unarmed or with smaller prickles. Pinne many, alternating, sometimes almost opposite, linear- lanceolate, 15-16 inches long, 12-13 lines broad, acuminated into a long cirrhose bristle, midvein prominent above and generally smooth, underneath with a few bristles, as have also two lateral veins : mar- gins bristly especially towards the point. Spadix (young) club-shaped, mature pendulous (?) ; peduncle about a foot long ; exserted part flattened, slender, about a span long, much armed chiefly along the edges with short stout spines in twos or threes ; alternately and distantly branched, each branch suffulted by a large leathery ascending spathe ; of these the outermost is spa- thiform, the margins revolute towards the apex, indistinctly bi-cari- nate, with stoutish solitary spines along the keels; the rest flat, un- armed, about aspanin length. Branches 2 or 3 times shorter than their spathes, nearly of the same direction with the spadix, with distichous slightly spreading ramifications. These (the spikes) are 14-3 inches long, distinctly flexuose : bearing at each flexure a scale-like amplec- tent bracte, and one flower. Flowers all pushed to the posticous side, on short stalks or nearly sessile, surrounded at the base by a short, somewhat 3-toothed cup, * Specimens: apex of a flower bearing stem of a female plant. The Palms of British East India. 15 outside which is on the posticous side a larger bracte, and on the anticous side a smaller one. Calyx oblong-ovate, rather large, with three short stout acute teeth. Corolla in the part corresponding to the calyx ovate-ventricose, 3- partite a little below the middle (or to the calyx,) segments linear, acute, rather spreading. Stamina 6 ; filaments united to the corolla as | far as the base of its segments: thence free, short, broad, subulate ending in bristles ; anthers deficient. Ovarium ovate-oblong, densely covered with shortly ciliate-scales, 3-celled. Ovules solitary. Style very short, stout, divided nearly to its base into 3 branches which are subulate, spreading or almost recurved, rather longer than the petals, with an elevated line along the centre of their backs; inner face stigmatic. This species differs from C. platyspathus* abundantly. The petioles (not the spadices) are prolonged into flagelli, * C. platyspathus : scandens, aculeis vaginarum crebris subulatis rectis petioli rectis et reduncis, pinnis sparsis lineari-lanceolatis long. sub-pedalibus lat ; pol- licaribus pluriveniis plicatis subtus ferrugineo-tomentosulis, spadicis aculeis rec- tis abortivis loriformibus, spathis subinermibus, spicis abbreviatis confertis.* C. platyspathus, Mart. Palm. p. 210. Has.—Tavoy, Tennasserim Provinces. W. Gomez. I subjoin Martius’s character and description of this species :— ** Calamus platyspathus : caudice scandente tenui ; frondibus ecirrosis ; pin- nis sparsis, terminalibus distinctis lineari-lanceolatis plurinerviis plicatis, sub- tus ferrugineo-tomentosulis, aculeis vaginarum crebris subulatis rectis, petioli rhacheosque rectis et aduncis ; spadicis masculi decompositi julis abbreviatis confertis, aculeis rectis ; spathis (primum clausis, dein expansis ?) planis, sub- inermibus ; loris aculeatis. Species distinctissima. Pinnae spithamam ad pedem longae, medio ultra polli- cemlatae. Spadix sesquipedalis, laxus, rhachi inferne ancipiti superne teretius- cula. Rami florigeri masculi quadripollicares et sursum breviores, primum, uti videtur, spathis membranaceis omnino involuti, quae tandem explanatae, dorso nervis binis nunc passim aculeatis nunc inermibus sunt percursae. Juli cujusvis rhacheos partialis secundo-convergentes, continent flores 7-11 parvulos, pariter in unum idemque latus conversos, quasi uti in racemo scorpioideo. Calyx campanu- latus, sinubus rotundatis in denticulos tres breves excisus pallidus. Corolla viridi- flava, petalis lanceolatis.’’ * Char, e Martio. 76 The Palms of British East India. the spines of the sheaths are distinctly seriate, the pinnz neither plicate, nor tomentose underneath. It comes close to the preceding section, its young spadices having a strong resemblance to those of C. Draco. The mature spadices again resemble to some extent those of C. Hystrix, and there is moreover a tendency in the spathes to be deciduous. 35. (25.) C. Mastersianus, (n. sp.) vaginarum spinis plano- subulatis sub-deflexis aculeis irregularibus interspersis, pe- tioli partis nudz dorsalibus et marginalibus aculeis intersper- sis, aculeis partis pinnifere dorsalibus cum vel absque mar- ginalibus, pinnis equidistantibus linearibus (long. 13-uncia- libus lat. 7-linealibus) cirrhoso-acuminatis, supra carina cen- trali et venula laterali utrinque setigera subtus vena centrali setulosa, spadice (flagellifero) aculeato masculo supra-decom- posito, spathis planis coriaceis extus glaucis infima bicarinata secus carinas aculeata, spicis feemineis distantibus patenti- bus, floribus conicis, corolla calyce paullo-longiore, fructi- bus pisiformibus cuspidato-rostratis (albidis), albumine sub- zequabili. Has.—Assam, No. 1201, of my Assam collections. Soon- dee-bet of the Assamese. The smallest bet of Assam; Ma- jor Jenkins. » Descr.*—Stem with the sheaths about half an inch in diameter. Sheaths armed with stout flat spines, somewhat deflexed, concave un- derneath, arising from a large sub-conical base, among these, except perhaps towards the apex of the sheaths, occur smaller prickles very irregular in size. Ligula very large, coriaceous. Pettole a good deal swollen at its insertion ; lower naked part 33-4 inches long, plano- convex, armed on the centre of the under face with a row of distant spines like those of the sheaths but smaller, along the margins with * Complete specimens of the female plant in flower and fruit, and portion of a male spadix. 3 eS ee ee Te a —_—<— — — — The Palms of British East India. res still smaller ones interspersed with small prickles. Pinniferous part (which is 3-4 feet long) armed with stout clawed prickles along the centre of the under face, a few others being added about the margins. Pinne equidistant, linear, about thirteen inches long, seven lines broad, cirhoso-acuminate, 1-carinate above ; carina and a lateral vein on either side bristly towards the apex, midvein of the under surface with a few smaller bristles : margins rough with minute bristle teeth. Male Spadir supra-decompound, more slender than the female ; Branches a span long. Spathes more membranous, especially about the limbs. Spikes scarcely more than an inch long, slender, very flexuose, spreading or recurved, sometimes scorpioid, arising from a cartilaginous base opposite the ends of their spathes. Bractea with an acute spreading limb. Cup very shallow, almost wanting anticously, posticously broadly emarginate and sub-bicarinate. Flowers oblong-ovate, exactly distichous. Calyx with a broad car- ' tilaginous base, divided to the middle’ into three broad rather acute segments. Corolla about twice as long, in bud ovate-conical, divided almost to the attenuate base into three lanceolate-ovate segments. Stamina shortly monadelphous ; filaments (free) subulate, about half the length of the petals ; anthers ovate-sagittate, yellow. Rudiment of the Pzstillum large, of three oblong bodies like abortive carpel leaves. Female spadixz 5-6 feet long, decompound, nodding. Peduncle adnate to the next sheath, plano-convex, armed on the convex face, chiefly along centre, with broad hooked prickles, along the edges with spreading subulate middling sized spines, the armature is continued above this in the shape of hooked prickles which gradually encroach on the surface of the peduncle, so that the apex has the whole surface armed. A linear, coriaceous, entire or split spathe, brown inside, whitish outside, at the base of each branch ; the lowest about a foot long, bicarinate, carina armed except towards the apex with stoutish prickles, subulate from an oblique bulbous base. Remaining spathes diminishing in size gradually, all unarmed, sometimes split and lacera- ted, subsequently the tubular parts alone remain. Branches of the spadix longer a good deal than the internodes, bearing many filiform spreading, flexuose spikes, 2-4 inches in length, surrounded at the cartilaginous base by a whitish scale-shaped annular bracte. 78 The Palms of British East India. Flowers distichous, rather distant, one at each flexure, of the shape of a sugar loaf, small, suffulted by a small annular scale-shaped bracte, and two minute bracteoles. Calyx oblong, conical, of a thick substance at the base, with three short sub-cordate mucronate teeth with whitish membranous margins. Corolla oblong-ovate, a little longer than the calyx, divided nearly to the middle ; segments erect rather obtuse. Stamina 6; filaments not adnate to the corolla, united into a cup surrounding the lower part of the ovarium, (free) very short ; anthers ovate-sagittate, effete. _Ovarium oblong-obovate, smooth at the base, where it is 3-celled, otherwise covered with scales. Style (common) scarcely any, the branches revolute from the base, subu- late, stigmatose inside. Ovula solitary. Fruits very numerous, of the size of a pea, surrounded at the base by the perianth, beaked by the hard persistent base of the style. Scales very numerous, minute, whitish with fuscous margins and points, which are incised. Seed baccate, erect, roundish-placenti- form. Tegument thin; pulp gelatinous, thick opposite the chalaza, and in a less degree on the opposite face. Raphe of two divergent whitish branches, terminating about the middle of the ventral face of the seed. Albumen cartilaginous, solid, surface slightly unequal ; op- posite the chalaza is a shallow foveola, and a smaller and shallower one on the opposite face : on a long section it appears pulley-shaped. Embyo basilar, conical. This appears to be a very distinct species, especially in its inflorescence. It has considerable affinities with Cala- mus tenuis, especially in the female spikes and flowers. I have dedicated it to my friend Mr. Masters, who is now in- vestigating the Flora of Assam with great success. 36. (26) C. ramosissimus, (n. sp.) spinis pinnis spadicis supra-decompositi inermis pedunculo infra spathas ancipiti sursum teretiusculo areolato, spathis (terminalibus) membranaceis scaphiformibus, spicis gracillimis, floribus (masculis) numerosissimis, corolla calyce oblongo breviter tridentato duplo fere longiore. Has.— Uncertain. | 1 The Palms of British East India. thy Descr.*—Spadix unarmed, about two feet in length; pedun- cle flat and two-edged ; internodes long, compressed, not two-edged, pitted from pressure of the flowers in bud. Branches the length of the internodes of the spadix, lowest about nine inches long, spread- ing, extremely divided ; largest branchlets of lowest panicle about four inches long. The uppermost spathe two inches long, membranous, acute, smooth, boat-shaped. Spikes about an inch long, very slender, very flexuose with a scale-shaped bracte at each flexure: rachis triangular. Flowers extremely numerous, suffulted by the above bracte, and surrounded by a very shallow, oblique, oblong-ovate, cup, emar- ginate behind. Calyx oblong, with three very short rounded teeth. Corolla not quite twice the length of the calyx, divided nearly to the base; segments oblong, rather obtuse. Stamina 6, united to the corolla as far as the base of its segments ; filaments (free) long, subulate, flat ; anthers (included) obtusely sagittate. Rudiments of the Pistillum very long, nearly equalling the stamina, composed of 3 subulate distinct bodies. This species approaches closely to C. Jenkinsianus from which it appears to be distinguished by the comparatively long internodes of the spadix, the lowest being distinctly 2- edged, by the very slender spikes, the obsolete cup, and ra- ther longer calyx. It is one of those which establishes some degree of affinity, at least in inflorescence, with certain Gra- minee. The male flowers, moreover, of this and many others are not altogether unlike the flowers of such grasses as Oryza and Blepharochloa. Secr. [V.—(CYMBOSPATH-.) D#&MoNOROPS AUCTORUM. * Gymnospathe ; spathis inermibus (semi-apertis et se- cundis. ) | 37. (27) C. nutantiflorus, (n. sp.) spinis —, pinnis linearibus equidistantibus supra carina centrali et venis lateralibus * Specimen: a male spadix (entire?) with very few flowers, and one terminal spathe. SO The Palms of British East India. duabus setigeris, spathis inermibus acuminatissimis secundis, pedunculo spadicis (masculi) supra-decompositi inermi, ramis nutantibus dense ferrugineo-furfuraceis, spatharum (secunda- riarum) laminis majusculis, calycis dentibus obtusis villoso- penicillatis quam corolla sub-duplo brevioribus. Has.—Assam, Major Jenkins. Descr.*—Petiole in the pinniferous part armed with ternate prickles. Pinne equidistant, linear, about a foot long, five lines broad, upper surface with one central carina bearing small bristles, and a lateral vein on each side with long bristles ; under surface smooth ; margins with many appressed bristles. Spadices about two feet long. Peduncle unarmed, apparently united to the neighbouring sheath, compressed, about three inches long to the first flower-bearing branch, below which it presents one annulate scar. Spathes all pushed as it were to one side, the lowest about eighteen inches long, one-keeled along the centre, all very much acuminated, and considerably longer than the spadix, (the tips about level-topped) coriaceous, striate, chesnut coloured internally, exter- nally glaucescent, much flatter than in almost any other species of the section. Flower-bearing branches each suffulted by one of the above spathes, very much branched, 4-6 inches long, towards the time of expansion nodding and secund. Spikes like the branches sprinkled with dark coloured tomentum, about an inch long, very flexuose with a single flower at each flexure. Flowers distichous, sprinkled with tomentum. Bracte amplectent, with a short membranous limb, the margins more or less ciliate, and the apex often tufted. Cup bidentate, membranous, about three times shorter than the calyx: margins ciliate, and teeth tufted. Calyx oblong, very coriaceous and much striate, three-toothed; teeth obtuse, with tufts of brown wool. Corolla oblong, one-third longer than the calyx, divided almost to the base into three oblong obtuse segments. Stamina 6; filaments subulate, distinct, reddish ; anthers * Specimens: three male spadices, and a portion of a young leaf. The Palms of British East India. 81 obtusely sagittate, about as long as the filament. A small 3-lobed rudiment of a pistillum. This remarkable species, for which I am indebted to Major Jenkins, appears to be an intermediate form between the true Cymbospathz and Platyspathe ; the majority of the cha- racters being those of the former section. It is closely allied to the succeeding, from which it is to be distinguished by the unarmed peduncle of the spadix, the un- armed spathes (the second one at least presents no spines,) the comparatively large limbs of the secondary spathes, and the nodding very scurfy branches. I take it to be one of the forms exhibiting a representation of Graminez, to some Andropogoneous forms of which it is at first sight not alto- gether unlike. ** Acanthospathe ; spathis externis aculeis armatis. * Scandentes. Petiols flagelliferi. 38. (28) C. Jenkinsianus, (n. sp.) vaginarum spinis longis planis deflexis setis multis interspersis, petioli partis nude dorsalibus et marginalibus crebris mediocribus, partis pinni- ferze inferioris marginalibus ventralibusque cum aculeis dor- salibus uncinatis, aculeis partis superioris ventralibus soli- tariis et dorsalibus palmatis, pinnis equidistantibus linea- ribus (long. bipedalibus lat. 6-7 linealibus) supra carina centrali et venis lateralibus 2 setigeris, vena media subtus parce setulosa, spadicis elongati decompositi pedunculo crebre armato, spathis sub-apertis extima subplana bicari- nata dorso spinas graciles deftexas interdum fere setiformes gerente, rostro sub-triplo breviore. Has.—Assam. Major Jenkins. Descr.*—Stem with the sheaths one inch and three quarters in diameter. Sheaths highly armed with long seriate flat brown * Specimens ; an entire upper part of a male plant in flower, and two or three female spadices in flower, (after fecundation. ) M 82 The Palms of British East India. spines, broader, but less hard than usual, deflexed, except those of the margins which are ascending; rather long thorny bristles occur mixed with these or in distinct series. The edges of the larger spines irregular from adhering brownish tissue. Petiole transversely puckered at the base: naked part 5-6 inches long, armed on the back with stout deflexed brownish spines, solitary, or, as in: the lowest, in short series; numerous shorter and rather stronger as- cending ones along the margins, solitary or a few together. These are continued into the pinniferous part, which is angular above, convex below, while the back of the same is armed with short strong conical claw-shaped prickles, which upwards appear reduced into a central series. Flagellus long, armed with the usual claw- shaped aculei. Pinne alternate, linear, the largest in the specimens nearly two feet long, 8-9 lines broad,* cirrhoso-acuminate, above with a central carina bearing bristles, and with a lateral one on either side with very long and often stout bristles ; under surface with a bristle here and there on the midvein; margins rough with numer- ous appressed bristles. Young petiole covered with a brownish tomentum. Male spadizx 2-feet long, adnate to the contiguous sheath. Pedun- cle between the lowest spathe and the axilla about 2 inches long, very much armed with black spines; above the lowest spathe quite unarmed. Spathes open, level-topped ? not over-lapping, probably spreading, except perhaps tlie lowest, which is attached about 2 inches below the lowest branch. It is two feet long, linear-lanceolate, acuminate into a long beak, concave, scarcely boat-shaped, bicarinate on the back and armed with deflexed irregular rather slender black- ish spines. The other spathes (one to each branch of the spadix) gradually diminish in size upwards, they are leathery or chartace- ous, chesnut brown inside, glaucescent outside, unarmed except the second, which presents a few weak thorns along two obscure carine. Flower-bearing branches several, ascending, longer than the inter- nodes, decompound, much shorter than their spathes, except perhaps the uppermost. Spikes flexuose, more or less covered with rust coloured scurf; the lowest of each branch 3-4 flowered, the upper about 2-flowered. * The average size 14-16 inches long, 6-7 lines broad. : . The Paims of British East India. 83 Flowers oblong, oblique, situated at the flexures, each suffulted by an amplectent ovate-acute generally ciliate bracte, and a cup with two pennicillate teeth next the axis. Calyx oblong, very stri- ate, shortly 3-toothed; teeth with short tufts of ferruginous hairs. Corolla rather more than twice the length of the calyx, divided nearly to the base; segments oblong, concave. Stamina 6 ; filaments subulate, fleshy, red, united by their bases to each other and to the petals. Anthers not seen, nor the rudiment of the Pistillum. Female spadiz about the same length: the lower part of the pe- duncle, however, is longer, and the armature as well as that of the outer spathe more slender, bristly and white ; the beak is also similar- ly armed. Flower-bearing branches flattened, so that the spikes are nearly bifarious. Spikes or more properly speaking racemes, 2-3 inches long, flexuose, also scurfy. Flowers solitary at the flexures, the lowest on short stout stalks, the upper ones sessile. An amplectent acuminate blackish bracte (at the base of the stalk,) and two bracteoles to each flower : between the upper and larger, sometimes cup-shaped bracteole and that next it a gibbosity as though there should be another flower. Apex of the upper bracteole pennicillate. Calyx barrel-shaped with three obsolete teeth. Corolla rather more than twice as long, divided nearly to the base into three linear-lanceolate erect segments. Stamina 6 ; filaments united to the base of the corolla and each other into a cup, (free) short, very broad, without anthers. Ovarium roundish-oblong, cover- ed with scales, 3-celled. Ovules solitary. Style stout, with three rather long stout sub-recurved branches, lamellar, and pappillose inside. The young fruit bearing spadix unaltered ; fruits (very immature) roundish, about the size of a large pea, surrounded at the base by the persistent perianth, beaked by the base of the style ; scales numerous, fuscescent with pale irregular edges. Seed one. This species is closely allied to the preceding, and to C. ramosissimus; it is also one of the forms shewing Dzemo- norops not to be generically distinct from Calamus. Indeed this and the preceding species weaken greatly the distinctions between the two last sections, herein proposed, particularly 84 The Palms of British East India. if, as I suspect, the spathes of this species are spreading. The upper part of the spadix might almost be mistaken for the same part of C. ramosissimus, and only differs from the same part of the section Platyspathz in the greater degree of contraction. 39. (29) C. grandis, (n. sp.) aculeis petiolorum dorsalibus uncinatis cum marginalibus (infra pinnas) inzequalibus inter- dum spiniformibus, pinnis glaucescentibus lineari-lanceolatis (long. 18-20 uncialibus lat. 14 uncialibus) supra 1-carinatis, vena media utrinque et margine cum vel absque setis, spathze extimz spinis planis latis deflexis, rostro zquante, calyce subintegro margine ciliato, fructibus globosis. -Has.—Malacca. Sent by E. Fernandez under the names Rotang Sumamboo, and Rotang Chry ? Descr.*—A stout Palm, diameter of the stem (including the sheaths) about two inches. Sheaths armed with broad, flat, generally very obliquely seriate, dark brown or black, spreading, unequal spines. Leaves 15-16 feet-in length. Petiole swollen at its in- sertion, stout; in the lower two feet without pinne, plano-convex, armed along the centre of the convex face towards the base with a good many scattered rather deflexed small prickles ; these upwards become hooked; along the margins they present a few broad flat short thorns pointing downwards, and within the margins a number of still shorter, generally solitary, ascending thorns; the pinniferous part, which is 6-9 feet long, armed below with strong hooked prickles generally in threes, these are continued into the flagellus. Pinne alternate, equidistant, of a whitish glaucous aspect, linear-lanceolate, 18-20 inches in length, one inch and a quarter in breadth, acuminate at the apex into a long awl-shaped point, l-carimate above, without setz on either face or along the margins, or with the midvein setigerous on both sides, as well as the margins. * Specimen: an entire upper part of a male and female plant in flower, and several spadices in fruit. The Palms of British East India. 85 Spadices axillary, erect, 14-15 inches long, including spathes ; peduncles adhering to the next sheath, free scarcely an inch long, much armed towards the summit with short prickles. Spathes several, coriaceous, more or less boat-shaped, one to each branch of the spadix. The outermost largest, bicarinate, and with the second and third entirely enclosing the others, armed on the back, especially the outermost, with flat ascending brown spines, tapered at the point (especially the outer) into a long flat beak, which is armed towards the base with a few thorns. The imner ones generally unarmed, all more or less covered with rust-coloured ~ seurf. Male spadices 15-18 inches long, of which the beak forms one- half; branchesdecompound. Spikes short, scarcely exceeding half an inch in length, flexuose. Cup with the margins nearly entire, about three times shorter than the calyx. Calyx oblong, shortly 3-toothed, margins villous-ciliate. Corolla cylindric-oblong ; petals three,* ob- long, erect. Stamina 6; filaments blood coloured, lower halves united into a fleshy mass, (free) subulate ; anthers oblong-sagittate. Pollen 1-3 plicate. Rudiment of the Pistillum deeply 3-lobed. Female spadix very stout with the internodes swollen at the cen- tre, and having a corky appearance, all sprinkled with rust-coloured scurf. Branches of the female spadix stout, ascending. Spikes short, stout, similarly scurfy, flexuose. Flowers on short stalks, the upper- most about sessile, with one bractea at the base, and two bracteoles, that close to the base of the flower almost cup-shaped, entire. Calyx barrel-shaped, almost entire, striate-veined ; margin fringed with reddish cellular processes. Corolla about 4 longer than the calyx, ventricose from the middle downwards, divided nearly to the base into 3 erect segments. Six rudimentary stamina line the lower half of the corolla. | Ovarium oblong, three-celled, covered with scales, continued into a stout short cylindrical style, with three long, revolute, horn-shaped branches, stigmatose on the inner face, which is also longitudinally furrowed. Ovuia solitary. * The internode is long ; the petals being distinct as far as the base of the rudi- mentary Pistillum. t+ A niche exists between this and the back of the second, (which is sub-bicari- nate) as though there should be another flower. 86 The Palms of British East India. Fruits more exposed than the flowers, the spathes being gaping, and at length these falling off, quite exposed, surrounded at the base by the calyx and corolla, (the latter being generally split) terminat- ed by the persistent base of style about the size and shape of a large marble; scales light tawny colour with white edges, central furrow narrow, on either side of which the scale is more than usually gib- bous. Seed (immature) erect, the covering abounding with resin of a rich blood colour. Albumen horny-cartilaginous, very much ruminate. Embryo basilar. This seems to me distinct from Dzemonorops melano- chetes, Bl.* by the large leaves, the broad glaucous pinnze the large spines of the outer spathes, and their beaks equal- ling or exceeding them in length. 40. (30) C. intermedius, (n. sp.) aculeis petiolorum dorsali- bus uncinatis, spinis et aculeis marginalibus inzequalibus infra pinnas superadditis, pinnis lineari-lanceolatis (long. 15-un- cialibus, lat. uncialibus) supra carina una cum vel absque setis et venis 2 lateralibus setigeris, subtus vena media seti- gera, spadicis pedunculo inermi, spathis externis spinis longis sracilibus deflexis armata, rostro longissimo. Has.—Malacca. Sent by E. Fernandez, with the name Rotang Chrysa. ? * C. Melanochates, spinis petioli dorsalibus lanceolato-subulatis aliis setifor- mibus marginalibus supra additis, pinnis equidistantibus linearibus (long: sub- pedalibus lat. 3-4-linealibus) secus venam mediam et margines setoso-aculeolatis, spadicis pedunculo (infra spathas) spinis armato, spathis breviter rostratis extimis spinis parvis armatis. * ‘** Palmijuncus niger. Rumph. Hb. Amb. 5. p. 101. ¢.52. Calamus niger, Willd. Sp. Pl. 2. p. 203. Lam. Enc. 6. p. 306.’ Demonorops melanochetes. Bl. in Syst. Veg. ed. Schultes. 7. pt. 2. p. 1333. Mart. Palm. p. 198. t. 117, 125. f. 1. Has.—Penang. Wallich. The spathes in plate 125, the only one I have seen, are represented as partially open, in which respect it approaches C. nutantiflorus and Jenkinsianus. The pinne are said to be 3-4 feet long. * Char. e Martio. iN i i iE oe ee ee ee The Palms of British East India. 87 Descr.*—Stature much the same as that of the preceding. Sheaths armed with black seriate flat spines. Petioles transversely puckered at the base; naked portion (below the pinne) about a foot long, plano-convex, armed on the back towards the base with scattered prickles; about a span from this, it has on the back solitary, rather long deflexed spines, and along the margins some stout deflexed spines, and more numerous, slender, ascending ones inside these. Pinniferous part three and a half to four feet in length, angu- lar with claw-shaped aculei along the lower convex surface. These are continued into the flagellus. Pinne rather distant, scat- tered, often opposite, linear-lanceolar, fifteen inches long, not ex- ceeding one in breadth, subulato-acuminate, glaucescent ?, above with a central carina with or without bristles and two lateral veins bear- ing a few long bristles; midvein underneath bristle-bearing as also are the margins. Spadix with an ovate body and a very long beak, twice as long as the body, the whole length being about eighteen inches. The pe- duncle unarmed ; about an inch long in its free exserted part. Outer spathe bicarinate, covered with very long deflexed, slender, subulate brownish thorns, as is also the very long and stout beak. The se- cond is thickly armed in a similar manner. The branches of the spadix flowers and fruit scarcely, if at all, distinguishable from the same parts of C. grandis. This species is distinguishable with difficulty from the preceding. ‘The stature appears to be smaller, and it pre- sents lateral veins with bristles. The chief distinction how- ever is in the armature of the spathes, the thorns of which are very slender, more deflexed, and much more numerous. * 4}, (31) C. Lewistanus, (n. sp.) aculeis petiolorum dorsali- bus uncinatis, marginalibus (infra pinnas) inequalibus conico- subulatis seepius binatis vel ternatis superadditis, pinnis con- * Specimens : an entire upper part of a female plant with young fruit. 88 The Palms of British East India. fertis linearibus (long. 13-15 uncialibus lat. 5-6 linealibus) supra carina una et venis 2 setigeris subtus setis nullis, spathe extime spinis planis subulatis gracilibus. Has.—Penang. Sent by Mr. Lewes, with the name Kichum. Descr.*—Less stout than the preceding, the diameter of the stem, including the sheaths, being scarcely more than an inch. Sheaths armed with solitary or seriate, long, flat, black spines ; mar- gins revolute. Petiole much swollen‘at the base, there armed with scattered, deflexed shortish thorns; below the pinne about a foot long, plano-convex, armed along the back with a few solitary hooked prickles, along the margins with short, conical-subulate, solitary, binate or ternate thorns. In the pinniferous parts obtusely triangular, armed along the convex lower face with hooked and soli- tary prickles upwards, gradually becoming palmate. Pinne equi- distant, approximated, linear, 13-15 inches long, 5-6 lines broad, bristle-pointed, upper surface with one carina and a lateral vein on either side setigerous; under, smooth; margins rough, with ap- pressed bristles. Spadices oblong, including the beak of the outer spathe 6-9 inches long; peduncle below the spathes armed with flat spines. Outer spathe bicarinate, armed with rather weak, deflexed, long black spines, often so slender as to become bristly. Second spathe with about two rows of slender thorns ; the rest unarmed. The spadix is scarcely distinguishable from that of the preced- ing, but in the specimen the branches are more slender, and less scurfy. This is extremely akin to the preceding species, the thorns however of the lower naked part of the petioles are different, those of the margins much shorter and fewer. The pinne also differ. * Specimens : an entire upper part of a female plant. The Palms of British East India. 89 42. (32) C. angustifolius,* (n. sp.) spinis vaginarum paucis aculeis plurimis interspersis, aculeis petiolorum solitariis crebris sparsis, inter pinnas inferiores dorsalibus uncinatis ventralibus dentiformibus, pinnis confertis linearibus (long. 8-10 uncialibus lat. 3-4 linealibus) carina et venis 2 la- teralibus utrinque setigeris, spathze extime aculeis istis va- ginarum similibus, rostro inermi dimidio breviore. Has.—Malacca Province. Malayan name, Rotang Ghit- tah. Descr.t—A rather more slender species than the preceding. Sheaths thickly armed with unequal, short, flat, scattered, solitary thorns. Leaves 5-5} feet in length. Pettole puckered transversely at the base; below the pinne 3-4 inches long, plano or concavo- convex, armed on both faces, especially the under, with scattered, un- equal, short, straight or curved thorns; in the pinniferous part angular-convex, lower face with hooked palmate prickles, upper with scattered small straight prickles. Pinne equidistant, very numerous, very narrow, 8-10 inches long, 3-4 lines broad, tapered into a long bristle, upper face with one central carina, and two lateral carinule * I am inclined to place near this a very distinct species of Calamus, lately re- ceived from my collector E. Fernandez, with the name Rotang Pajare, and which by it excessive armature and degree of fasciculation of the pinne, differs from all the others I have yet met with. The following is a description of it :— Stem with the sheaths about an inch in diameter. Sheaths with very oblique mouths, excessively armed with the usual seriate thorns, of which some series are very large, others much smaller, some almost bristle-shaped. The larger ones de- flexed ; general colour of the older ones blackish from a whitish base. Petiole below the pinne about 2 feet long, much channelled towards the base, much armed with stout, straight, unequal thorns, of these the lowermost are like those of the sheaths, and exist on the ventral surface; above they are stout, subulate, but much shorter, and are confined to the dorsum and margins. In the pinniferous part they are hooked, and confined to the same part, towards the flagellus they become palmate. Pinne very numerous in large sub-opposite distant fascicles, linear-lanceolate, 1 foot long, 8-9 lines broad, acuminate, with 5 bristle-bearing caring above, underneath smooth, apex generally bristle-tufted. Length of leaf exclusive of the Aagellus about 10-11 feet. t Specimens: a complete upper part of a male plant in flower. N 90 The Palms of British East India. setigerous, under face with the same, or with the central only bearing a few bristles; margins bristly. Spadix (with the spathes) narrow oblong; peduncle rather slender, somewhat armed. Outer spathe with its beak, which is about half the length, about fourteen inches long, bicarinate, armed (except the beak) with thorns like those of the sheaths, the upper ones rather the longest. Beak quite flat with a tendency to become a cirrhus. Second spathe obsoletely bicarinate, with a very few small thorns about the middle of its back. Branches of the spadix pressed into a thick oblong mass; lower divisions decompound. Spikes slender, an inch long, very flexuose, with a single flower at each flexure, sprinkled with rust-coloured scurf. A small amplectent bracte, and a cup to each flower. Flowers 8-10 to each spike, small, oblique. Calyx oblong-cylindric, three times longer than the cup, with three small teeth. Corolla 3-times as long as the calyx, divided nearly to the base into three erect segments. Stamina six ; filaments united into a cup ; anthers linear-sagittate. Pollen yellow. A rudi- ment of a Pistillum hidden in the cup of the filaments. This is a very distinct species in all respects, as well by the armature of the sheaths and petioles and outer spathe, as by the narrow short pinne. ** Erecte. Petioli foliorum superiorum tantum flagelliferi. 43. (33) C. monticola, (n. sp.) spinis vaginarum longis sub- ulatis deflexis, petiolorum (superiorum) marginalibus in- equalibus et aculeis dorsalibus uncinatis, pinnis #quidis- tantibus linearibus (long. 10-18 uncialibus lat. 6-8 linealibus) supra carina et venis 2 lateralibus setigeris subtus glabris, spatha extima secus carinas duas spinis gracilibus deflexis armata. Has.—Subgregarious in thick Forests on Gonoong Mir- ing, an off-set of Mt. Ophir, at an altitude of 1500—2000 feet. The Palms of Bittish East India. | Dzscr.*—Erect, about eight feet in height. Sheaths armed with long deflexed flat subulate black thorns, disposed in lines but in- dividually distinct ; surface dark brown from adhering scurf. Peti- oles of the upper leaves gibbous at the base, lower naked part about ten inches long, concavo-convex, armed with a dorsal row of stout hooked prickles, and along the margins with long generally deflexed spines, and within these towards the base short ascending ones ; these are extended into the flagellus; pinniferous part convex below and armed with hooked palmate prickles, which are continued into the flagellus, (which is about 14 foot long ;) above rounded-angular unarmed. Pinne alternate, equidistant, linear, 10-11 inches long, 6-lines broad, subulato-acuminate, above with the central carina and 2 lateral veins bristle bearing, underneath smooth, margins bristly. Lower leaves without flagelli. Petiole (of the pinniferous part) con- vex-trigonal, unarmed. Pinne alternate or often sub-opposite, linear, eighteen inches long, eight lines broad, otherwise like the others, except that the midvein below bears towards the apex numerous small bristles. Spadiz with its peduncle adhering to the next sheath, unarmed, co- vered with dark brown scurf. Spathes more open than in the others ; outer one 16-17 inches long, bicarinate, armed between and along the carine with weak, long, subulate, deflexed, flat, black spines ; the beak 9-10 inches long, erect, flat, sparingly armed except towards the apex, with long defiexed subulate bristles: its surface when young also covered with black scurf. Branches of the spadix 2-3 inches long, included, ascending, ferruginously scurfy. Spikes few flowered, stout, flexuose. Flowers on short stalks or sessile, bracteate, inner bracteole cup- shaped, and between it and the outer bracteole a niche. Calyx sub- cylindrical, minutely 3-toothed. Corolla scarcely twice as long as the calyx, divided nearly to the base into three erect segments. Sterile stamina 6. Ovarium oblong, covered with denticulate scales : 3-celled. Ovules erect, solitary. Style three-partite nearly to the base ; branches revolute, stigmatose internally. Spathes of the fruit-bearing spadix opened out, or none. Fruit surrounded at the base by the flattened out, more or less split, pe- * Specimens: complete upper part of a female plant in flower and fruit. 92 The Palms of British East India. rianth globose, shortly cuspidate by the style, of the size of an ordi- nary marble; scales tawny with a dark brown intro-marginal line : longitudinal furrows as it were continuous. Seed (immature,) erect ; tegument fleshy. *,* Chetospathe ; spathis externis setis barbatis. Folia suprema (floralta ?) tantum flagellifera. 44, (34) C. calicarpus, (n. sp.) scandens? petiolis infra pinnas pedalibus spinis marginalibus longis et aculeis dor- salibus armatis, intra pinnas aculeis dorsalibus palmatis, pin- nis equidistantibus linearibus (long. 12-13 uncialibus lat. 4-5 linearibus) supra carina 1 et venis 2 setigeris subtus vena centrali tantum setigera, calyce (fl: fsem :) oblongo-ovato bre- viter tridentato. Has.—Malacca, where the male appears to be known under the name Rotang Chochoor Minia, the female under that of Rotang Chochoor. Descr.*—Scandent? Diameter of the stem (with the sheaths) about one inch. Sheaths covered with rust-coloured scurf, and high- ly armed with very numerous, long, ascending, rather slender, very unequal spines, generally disposed in series. Petiole below the pinne about a foot long, channelled convex, armed towards the base, where it is not gibbous or puckered, with spines like those of the sheaths ; towards the pinne they become much fewer and are chiefly confined to the margin, those of the dorsum more or less aculeiform. In the pinniferous part which is 53-6 feet long, the prickles are confined to the lower convex surface, are hooked and generally ternate or palmate; these are continued into the flagellus. Pinne equidistant, approximate, very numerous, linear, 12-13 inches long, 4-5 lines broad, distinctly acuminated into a long bristle: up- per surface with the central carina and 2 lateral veins setigerous ; under surface with more numerous smaller bristles along the mid- * Specimens: entire upper parts of male and female plants in flower and fruit. The Palms of British East India. 93 vein, the lateral veins with or without bristles ; margins with bristles. The leaves towards the apex of the stem small, with comparatively very long flagelli. Spadices with compressed shortly exserted peduncles bearded along the edges. Male spadices much branched, varying in length, in some 15-16 inches long, in others also including the spathes scarcely 6, and then much more ovate. Outer spathe in the exposed part dense- ly covered with grey-brown, bristly hairs an inch or 13 inch long, these are continued up above the middle of the beak, the moderate apex of which is smooth. Second spathe bearded chiefly along the middle, as is also the third. Spikes flexuose, with some rust-coloured scurf, a single flower at each flexure, suffulted by a bracte and a cup. Flowers as usual oblique. Calyx nearly cylindrical, 3 times longer than the cup, with three short teeth. Corolla divided almost to the base, not quite twice as long as the calyx. Stamina 6, united among each other and to the base of the corolla; filaments subulate from a stout base ; anthers linear-sagittate. Rudiment of a Pistillum mi- nute, tripartite. Female spadices shorter, the upper ones not more than 4-6 inches long, branches generally simple. Flowers with 1 bractea and 2 brac- teole, a callous looking space on one side between the lower and ~ the uppermost almost cup-shaped bracteole. Calyx ovate, the teeth somewhat tufted at the points. Corolla 3-partite below the middle : ovate from the middle downwards, segments erect. Sterile stamens 6. Ovarium oblong-ovate, covered with scales, three-celled ; ovula soli- tary ; style stout, short with three long revolute inwardly stigmatic branches. Fruit exposed, globular, about the size of a large marble, mammillato-cuspidate, surrounded at the base by the persistent peri- anth ; scales tawny with a rather broad dark brown intromarginal line. Seed erect. Albumen deeply ruminate. Embryo basilar. 45. (35) C. petiolaris, (nu. sp.) erectus, petiolorum parte nuda sub-7-pedali teretiuscula inferne spinis oblique seriatis armata superne aculeis dorsalibus uncinatis et marginalibus (paucis) dentiformibus vel omnino inermi, inter pinnas cum vel absque aculeis dorsalibus, pinnis confertis zequidistantibus linearibus (long. 15-17 uncialibus lat. 6-7 linealibus) supra 94. The Palms of British East India. carina et venis 2 setigeris subtus vena centrali setulosa, cupula et calyce ovato-oblongo obsolete tridentato. Has.—Makicca. I have two forms of this, which may hereafter be found to be distinct, particularly as the characters of this section of Calamus would seem to depend in a considerable degree on the armature of the petioles. I subjoin descriptions of both. Var. A. Descr.*—Erect, armature of the sheaths the same as that of the preceding species. Petioles below the pinne very long, those of the apex of the stem alone produced into flagelli, of the pinniferous part about seven feet long, armed below the middle on the convex under face with rather small palmate hooked prickles. Pinne very numerous, approximate, linear, 15-17 inches long, 6-7 lines broad, acuminated into long bristles, upper surface with one carina bearing bristles towards the apex, and two lateral veins more bristly, under surface with many smaller bristles along the mid-vein; margins bristly. Upper flagelliferous leaves and inflorescence exactly like that of small specimens of the preceding. Spikes very flexuose, ferruginous- ly pubescent, one bractea and a cup to each flower. Calyx oblong with three minute teeth, sometimes ciliate. Corolla rather more than twice the length of the calyx, divided below the middle into three oblong segments. Stamina 6; filaments united to each other half way up, during flowering reflexed ; anthers linear-oblong. A three-lobed rudiment of a Pistillum. Var. B. Descr.t—Armature of the sheaths like that of C. calicar- pus. Petiole 7 feet in length to the lamina, which is about 44 feet long : * Specimens : a leaf and male inflorescence. t Specimens : an entire leaf and upper part of a male plant in flower. Under the name Rotang Kertong, I have two specimens of a male spadix of what appears an additional species of this section of Calamus. In this the spadix with the spathes is oblong, 19-20 inches long, the outer spathe obscurely bi-carinate with two rows of ascending flat spines about the carine, tapering into a long straight stout beak, armed along the margins with very slender spines. The flowers resemble those of C. petiolaris. The Palms of British East India. 95 the upper ones only extended into flagelli ; below the pinnee sub-cylin- drical, armed in the lower 2 feet here and there with oblique nearly complete series of ascending short flat subulate thorns becoming gradually fewer upwards; 4 feet from the base quite unarmed ; as it is also among the pinne, where it is convex below, angular or bifa- cial above. Pinne@ as in the preceding. Inflorescence the same as in the preceding, but the spadices and the spikes are more tomentose, much longer, and the lowest spathe reaches to the axilla. Flowers much the same, but the calyx is cylindric- oblong with three acute teeth, the cup also has three acute teeth. Corolla divided nearly to the base, twice the length of the calyx. PLECTOCOMIA. Mart. et Blume in Syst. Veg. ed. Schultes. 7. pt. 2. p. 1333. Mart. Palme. p. 199. t. 114. 116, f. 1 Endl. Gen. Pl. p. 249. No. 1738. Cuar. Gen.—Spice (vel racemi) filiformes (paniculate). Flores dioici, masculi bractea et bracteolis duabus (interdum obsoletis setiformibus) suffulti. Stamina 6. Ovarium squa- mis obtectum. Fructus exsuccus, 1-3-spermus, squamis re- trorsis loricatum. Albumen zquabile. Embryo basilaris. Hasitus—Palmae perennes, scandentes, habitu omnino Ca- lami. Petioliin flagellos extenst. Pedunculus spadicis spathis wmbricantibus omnino vestitus; rami florigeri caudiformes subfastigiati, secundi, pendult, spathis subdistichis persis- tentibus arcte imbricati, Spice in sinubus spatharum ab- scondite. Ovarium squamis (ciliatis fimbriatisve apice laci- niatis) tectum. Stylus tripartitus, ramis subulatis. Fructus globost. Genus a Calamo inflorescentia praesertim distinguendum. Discrepat etiam bracteis bracteolisque setaceis, fructus squa- mis fimbriatis apice productis, (qua nota ad Zalaccas quasdam accedit,) et albumine omnino equabili. 96 The Palms of British East India. 46. (1) P. elongata, pinnis lineari-lanceolatis (long. 2-3 pe- dalibus lat. 2-3 uncialibus), spathis (ramorum florig :) ambitu rotundatis, calycis cupuliformis dentibus brevibus mucronatis villoso-ciliatis, petalis oblongo-lanceolatis acutis, squamis (fructus) margine fimbriato-denticulatis. P. elongata, Mart. et Blume in Romer et Schultes Syst. Veget. 7. pt. 2. p. 13833, obs. 2. Martius. Palm. p. 199. t. 114. 116. Calamus maximus. Reznw. auct. Marti. Has.—In forests near the sea-shore at Koondoor, Ma- lacca, and generally perhaps in the interior. Malayan name Rotang Oonar,* Rotang Dahown. : Descr.—A gigantic climbing species, very striking when in fruit from the massive pendulous rich brown spadices. Stem in the lower part almost as thick as a man’s leg. Sheaths of the leaves much armed, (especially along the margins of the mouth,) with stout spines of the usual characters. Leaves with the flagelli about 20 feet long. Petiole armed on the under face with fascicled subulate deflexed spines varying in number from two to four, these in the flagellus become more numerous, stronger and hooked prickles. Pinne distant, arched downwards, linear-lanceolate, tapering to both ends, very acuminate, the longest three feet in length, in breadth 2-3 inches coriaceous, pale-green above, glaucous below. | Spadiz axillary. Peduncle covered with imbricate sheathing spathes, the limbs short, slightly spreading. From the axilla of each of these rises a long (23 feet) pendulous tail-like branch imbricated with similar but smaller spathes. The branches are all secund. Spathes distichous, amplexicaul, nearly round, 1} inches broad, acute, coriaceous, brown, very concave: from the middle to the apex the outline is more angular.t * Oonar, Mr. Westerhout informs me, is the Malay appellation for the flagelli of these Palms. ¢ Martius’s figures represent the spathes of the male and female alike; in the female specimens before me though the flowers are open, the spathes are so closely imbricated and so concave that the branches are strictly subulate in form. The Palms of British East India. 97 Spikes (or panicles) rather shorter than the spathes, slender, slightly furfuraceous, many flowered: Lower divisions 2-3 flowered, upper 1-flowered. Flowers of middling size, oblique, all pressed to one side if viewed anticously, if posticously distichous, suffulted by a short stout subulate bracteole. Male ; Calyx striate, angular, cup-shaped, divided to the middle into three short oblong teeth, each ending in a stout mucro. Corolla three times longer than the calyx, 3-partite to the base ; petals narrow-lanceolate, rather obtuse. Stamina six, almost entirely distinct from the corolla, the longest 3 shorter than the corolla. Filaments long, towards the base triangular and red, above filiform, white. Anthers twice the length of the filaments, linear, attached a little below the middle. A rudiment of the Pistillum. Female Spikes stouter, more ferruginous. lowers fewer, larger, distichous, lower on short stalks, the upper sessile. Calyx nearly round, with three teeth triangular in outline, mucro- nate as in the male, coriaceous, scarcely striate, margins of teeth villous. Corolla ventricose at the base, tripartite below the middle ; segments oblong-lanceolate, acute. Stamina 6, united to corolla as far as the base of its segments ; filaments subulate, flattened ; an- thers effete, much smaller than in the male flowers. Ovary round- ish-ovate, covered with exceedingly numerous reflexed scales ciliate fimbriate, with long multifid points. Ovula three, erect, anatropous, so close as to leave some doubt whether septa exist. Style short, stout, divided nearly to the base, branches rather longer than the corolla, subulate, inner faces stigmatose and canaliculate. Fruits crowded in the axille of the spathes, which are now more spread out and more indurated, generally 3-5 together, globular, about the size of a carbine bullet, surrounded at the base by the perianth ; terminated by the remains of the very short style; very hispid, or ramentaceous (each scale terminating in a fimbriate ramen- tum ;) incompletely 3-celled. Seeds (immature) 1-3, when three, convex-trigonal. Albumen solid. This species is of inferior value to most others, and is chiefly used for making baskets. 47. (2) P. Assamica, (n. sp.) pinnis ———— spathis ———— calyce (fl. fem.) ad medium tripartito laciniis cuneato-rotun- Oo 98 The Palms of British East India. datis, petalis e basi lineari acuminatissimis, fructibus glo- bosis, squamarum apicibus longis persistentibus fimbriatis- simis. Has.—Upper Assam. Descr.*—The specimens of the spadiz are larger, the branches very ferruginous, 2-335 feet long. Spathes 23-3 inches long, shape not ascertained from their being much lacerated and split, and part- ly deficient. Fruit (when dry,) of a rich ferruginous brown colour, 11-12 lines in diameter, surrounded at the base by a calyx of three ovate-oblong sepals and as many petals, which are very long and acuminate from a linear base, terminated by a style tripartite almost to the base with subulate connivent branches; one-celled, very villous from the highly ciliate, fimbriate, split, recurved points of the scales. Seed similar to that of the succeeding, but a little larger. Albumen cartilaginous, solid, its tissue radiating from the centre. Embryo basilar. I have under the succeeding species noted the differences by which this appears to be distinguishable. The fruit is a good deal like that of P. elongata, judging from Martius’ figure,+ but the scales are so fimbriate, that it has quite a woolly appearance. 48. (3) P. Khasiyana, (n. sp.) pinnis ————— spathis ob- ovatis apicem versus obcuneatis, sepalis (fl. fem.) sub-dis- tinctis planis glabris, petalis e basi lanceolata acuminatis, fructibus rostrato-cuspidatis, squamarum fimbriatarum api- cibus deciduis. } Has.—Khasiya Hills. * Specimens of a spadix in fruit marked by Dr. Wallich as ‘‘ Zalacca, speci- mens received from Major Jenkins, March 1840, from Upper Assam.” + Palme. loc. cit. The Palms of British East India. 99 Descr.*—Spathes of the peduncle with erect oblong-lanceolate limbs. Flower-bearing branches 1-2 feet long, secund, pendulous. Spathes at base half amplectent, rather distant, distichous, laxly imbricated ; outline obovate, towards the apex broadly obcuneate, margins below this part incurved, (so that they are very concave,) two or three times longer than the spaces between them. Spikes concealed by the spathes, two or three times shorter than them, as usual furfuraceous, 3-7 flowered. Flowers distichous, large. Calyx flat, small, divided almost to the base into three triangular mucronate smooth teeth. Corolla di- vided almost to the base into three ascending, lanceolate, acuminate segments, four to four and a half lines long. Stamina six, with very broad, flattened, short filaments, and small effete anthers. Ovarium broadly globose, covered with exceedingly numerous, shortish, very fimbriate scales with multifid points, 3-celled. Style very short, stout, with three stout, subulate, spreading branches as long as the petals, channelled and stigmatic on their inner faces. Spathes of the fruit-bearing spadices spreading, rarely perfect, generally much lacerated or deficient. Fruit surrounded at the base by the calyx, and corolla now flattened out, apex attenuated into the style; rostrato-apiculate, otherwise round, about one inch in diameter, dark brown; scales very numerous, rather small, either nearly smooth, or with ciliate margins and recurved split fimbriate points ; when not much rubbed it has a woolly appearance. Seed covered with a rather thick, brown, cellular spongy substance. Al- bumen solid, horny, of cells radiating from the centre. Kmbryo of the ordinary shape, basilar. This would appear nearly allied to the preceding from which it differs in the smaller spathes, the very small calyx with minute triangular teeth, the broader petals, the brown, not rust-coloured fruit, which is smaller, and not by any means so villous, the points of the scales being less fimbriate and often deciduous. * Specimens of a female spadix in flower, and part of a spadix in fruit; the Jatter found among the collections here, without any note of its locality. 100 The Palms of British East India. 49. (4) P. Himalayana, (n. sp.) pinnis lineari-lanceolatis (long. 13 pedalibus lat. 1% uncialibus) 5-veniis, spathis cuneato-oblongis apicem versus late obcuneatis, floribus masculis setis tribus suffultis, calycis ultra medium tripartiti cupuliformis laciniis glabris in setam desinentibus. Has.—Sub-Himalayan ranges about Darjeling ; Collec- tors sent from the Saharunpore Garden. Descr.*—Pinniferous part of the petiole armed below with stout hooked prickles, confluent at the base, these are continued increased in number into the flagellus. Pine alternate, linear-lanceolate, very acuminate, 18 inches long, 13 broad, with 5 veins prominent on the upper surface, margins with short sub-appressed spinescent teeth ; from the great degree of conduplication of the base the pinne may almost be said to be petioled. Branches of the spadix about two feet long, covered with rust- coloured tomentum. Spathes almost stem-clasping, conduplicate, coriaceo-scarious, apex decidedly obcuneate in outline; they exceed in length by 4 the inter-spathal spaces. Spckes solitary, about 3 as long as the spathes, angular, fleXuose, densely rusty-fomentose. Flowers suffulted by three narrow bristle-pointed scarious bractes, sub-distichous. Calyx cup-shaped with three short rounded teeth ending in bristles. Corolla oblong and oblique, 4-5 times longer than the calyx; petals hard. Stamina 6, united at the base into a short cup; filaments stoutish, subulate; anthers large, linear-ob- long, obtusely sagittate. No rudiment of a female ? This may be the male of the preceding, but the appear- ance of the spathes, which are generally much the same in both sexes, and their shape, which is cuneate-oblong with straight edges in the oblong parts, and concave edges in the obéuneate part has induced me to attempt to charae- terise it as distinct. I may also remark that the plants of * Specimens consist of a portion of a leaf and male spadix. The Palms of British East India. 101 the Khasiya Hills are generally distinct from those of the Himalayas. From P. elongata it differs essentially in the shape“of the spathes, in that of the calyx as well as in the smoothness of its margins, and perhaps in the flowers being tribrac- teolate. EUGEISSONA. Cuar. Gen.—Inflorescentia terminalis, paniculata. Flores dioici, terminales, (solitarii.) Stamina indefinita. Ovarium squamis obtectum. fructus exsuccus, |—spermus. Albu- men cartilagineo-corneum, sulcis sex exaratum. Embryo basilaris. Has.—Palma caespitosa, sub-acaulis. Folia pinnata; vaginae, et petioli infra pinnas spinis plano-subulatis ar- mate; pinne lineares, vena centralt cujusque paginae seti- gera. Panicule 4-6-pedales, erectae, aspectu triste brun- nescentes, spathis arctis undique imbricate. Spathae pri- mariae dorso spinose apice in flagellum rostrumve attenuate ; secundarie mutice secus carinam dorsalem parce spinose ; tertiarie inermes. Flores bractets pluribus arcte imbrican- tibus semi-immersi, maximi. Calyx membranaceo-chartaceus, trifidus. Corolla tripetala, petalis sub-linearibus longis spino- so-cuspidatis, floris foeminet infra medium carinam (stamina abortiva) apice pennicillatam exhibentibus. Antherae lineares, adnate. Styli tres, intus stigmatosi. Ovula solitaria, ana- tropa. Fructus ovatus, rostrato-mammillatus, ovi galline magnitudine, brunneus. Semen erectum exsuceum. 50. (1) E. triste. Has.—In forests on the Hills about Ching, Malacca, very common. Common in Penang. Mr. Lewes. Malayan name, Bertam. 102 The Palms of British East India. Derscr.—A stemless Palm growing in thick tufts, which are sur- rounded by the debris of the old leaves. eaves numerous, the outer ones spreading, fifteen-twenty feet in length. Petiole through- out the lower 7-10 feet, roundish, armed with brown, ascending, flat spines, between the pinne unarmed, triangular. Lamina in outline oblong-linear : pimne two or two and a half feet long, narrow, scarcely an inch wide, subulate acuminate, margins when dry much involute, the central vein prominent above, and furnished with dis- tant sete ; the old ones generally irregularly split at the point. Inflorescence terminal, paniculate. Panicles four-six feet long, in the lower part furnished with a few small leaves, the sheaths of which are much armed, gradually passing into the spathes, which are simi- larly armed and very acuminate, indeed often flagelliferous. Branches of the panicle flexuose, much imbricated with coriaceous, amplexicaul, brown bractes or spathes, slightly armed along the dor- sal carina, or (as the uppermost) unarmed. The lower branches two- three flowered, the upper one-flowered. Flowers dioicous, terminal, subsessile, very large, surrounded at the base by similar but smaller highly imbricate bractes. Male Calyx sub-cylindrical, altogether concealed by the bractes, membranaceo-chartaceous, trifid, teeth narrow, acute, with broad sinuses, venation the same as that of the innermost bracteze. Corolla 3-petalled, exceedingly long, (about one and a half inch in length) ; petals oblong-linear, somewhat constricted opposite the throat of the calyx, indurated, striated, obliquely ascending, point oblique end- ing in a very sharp thorny acumen. Stamina indefinite ; filaments short ; anthers long, linear, adnate, of a lilac colour. No rudi- ment of a female observed. Female flowers rather longer than the male, otherwise similar. The petals opposite the mouth or opening of the calyx bear a tuft or pennicillus of abortive stamens, which runs down the petal in the shape of a keel. Ovarium oblong, covered densely with scales, of about the same length as the calyx, sub-trigonal at the apex, 3-celled. Ovula solitary, oblong, erect, anatropous. Styles three, oblong, flattish, sub-connivent, stigmatose on their inner faces. Fruit densely scaly, generally rough from the recurved points of the scales, dark The Palms of British East India. 103 brown, ovate with a stout rostrum or point, terminated by the remains of the styles, surrounded at the base by the now divergent petals often thrown to one side, 1-celled, 1-seeded. Substance very thick at the base, consisting of rust-coloured spongy tissue inter- spersed with fibres, above thin consisting of fibres alone. Scales rough to the touch, lanceolate, with irregular margins, dark brown with paler edges. Seed large, covered with a brown membranaceo- cellular covering, surface with six furrows, of which the alternate ones are the largest and most complete, running into each other at both ends. These furrows are filled with the tissue surrounding the seed. Albumen equal, horny, cartilaginous, presenting on a trans- verse section the furrows above-mentioned. Hmbryo basilar. The leaves of this are I am told applied occasionally to the same purposes as those of Nipa fruticans. It appears to constitute a distinct genus by its inflores- cence, which is scarcely clearly explainable by the use of the terms ordinarily used in descriptions of Palms, by its in- definite stamina and the structure of the seed. No Indian genus of this sub-family, so far as I know, has more than six stamens: and the only approach to this genus in this respect takes place in Ruffia, which genus also has linear oblong cuspidate petals. (To be continued.) On the Manufacture of Bar Iron in India. By Captain J. CAMPBELL, Assistant Surveyor General, Madras Esta- blishment. No. 2. 1. In my former paper on this subject, [ recommended an investigation of the principles of the simple, and long prac- tised Native method of smelting iron, on the principle, that as excellent iron is sometimes the result of their operations, the same must always be produced if the process admitted of proper regulation. From my increased experience on 104 On the Manufacture of Bar Iron in India. this subject, I am now able to state, that the Native process is based upon the most correct seientific principles, and that the operation admits of being regulated with the most exact minuteness. 2. Scientific men in India, where fuel and labour are so cheap, will find the investigation, although difficult, la- borious and very complicated, yet both interesting and gra- tifying, from the surprising and unexpected results which will be met with. Among these, which are not I believe known in Europe, I have found that the products of com- bustion in blast furnaces is neither carbonic acid, nor cor- bonic oxide, but a compound, containing I believe, nitrogen, as may be inferred from its very noxious qualities, it being capable of rendering a man insensible for several hours, when freely inhaled; and from the fact, that cyanide of potassium was found by Dr. Clark to be an occasional result in the English blast furnaces, I find also, that cast iron contains a gas, and that oxide of iron enters into its composition. | 3. I recommend this subject more particularly to the attention of scientific men in India, because I conceive that among the better qualified scientific of Europe, few are likely to undertake the matter in a proper way, so as to produce results valuable in practice. Men of wealth will naturally prefer giving their attention to more seductive researches, and none but the wealthy could bear the requi- site expense, where charcoal sells for 40 rupees a ton. 4. I have been surprised to find how much prejudice prevails among Europeans in India, regarding the quality of the iron produced by the Natives, and how little atten- tion has been given by any one to see if it is fit for use, and if it can be used cheaper than English iron. I may ask if those who have thought upon the subject, suppose that the Natives of India are such fools as to continue to prefer the use of their own iron, while they could buy cheaper On the Manufacture of Bar Iron in India. 105 English iron; if it was fit for the purposes for which they require it. Is it not known that gram kettles, sugar boilers, and pans for Percottahs are manufactured in large quan- tities by the Natives from their own iron; while every workman knows, that the most superior iron is required for these purposes, and that to make the same quality practically termed, “ boiler plate,” in England, it is neces- sary to go to the expense of using wood charcoal in the refining process. Is it not known that 18,000 pagodas worth of Native iron are yearly carried from the district of Nuggar, in Mysore, on the Sea Coast, to Mangalore, and is it supposed that this trade could be profitable if really good English iron of equal quality was procurable at the Sea Coast? Even at Bombay the Native iron is so highly va- lued for boiler rivets, &c. that almost any price would be given for it, if a sufficient supply could be obtained, and yet I am told that the Native iron is “ bad bar iron;” that it is ‘ excessively red short;” that it is “ intractable under the hammer ;” “ that it is still to be proved that good mal- leable iron can be made from the Indian ores ;” “ that the Indian ores contain nickel, titanium, &c. the proper mode of separating which has not been discovered ;” ‘that the proper flux for the Indian ore has not yet been discovered ;” and other nonsense of the same kind. 5. It is possible that some persons may have been de- ceived by the Natives, who know perfectly by the appear- ance of the slags the soft iron from the hard and steely ; and they preserve the former for their own use, and for those who deal regularly with them, and sell the latter to those who make occasional applications to them. But the greatest difficulty which a scientific enquirer has to overcome, is to avoid deceiving himself, in taking for granted imperfect results, without guarding against the causes of error. 6. It is not easy to say, what would be the best method of introducing into India the manufacture of bar iron; for if P 106 On the Manufacture of Bar Iron in India. an iron work was set up in the interior, it must necessarily be upon a small scale; and if on a large scale near the sea shore, it would be some time before the superior quality of its products could bear down the opposition from the cheap, but bad iron made in the English manufactories. 7. In my last paper I remarked, that 1 thought it impro- bable that European capitalists would be able to make an iron work profitable in India; but I then supposed that the scale of the Native process might be much increased, and still worked with the same ease as the small furnaces; but I have now found that the problem is so complicated, and such nice regulation of all the principles is so absolutely requisite, that it is necessary to use clock-work to regulate the blast; and altogether, no idea of the mode of action could be formed, even if a furnace was examined while at work. 8. It is not probable that “high blast” furnaces can be set to work with any chance of a profitable return in India, because the quantity of iron they produce—about 50 tons a- week—is too large to meet with a ready sale. In consequence of which, the capital sunk, before any returns came in, would be enormous; also the quantity of fuel they require— at least 100 tons a-week—would be difficult to procure, and would soon exhaust the thickest forest in the vicinity of a furnace of this kind.* 9. Even an experienced practical man would find great difficulty in setting to work in India a “ high blast” furnace, from the total want of any information regarding the true theories upon which the operation of these furnaces de- * We have forests enough, and purposes enough in India for the employment of several such furnaces, provided the subject of internal improvement were once fairly taken up. We can do nothing however without cheap iron; and for this reason, we think Capt. Campbell would be profitably employed upon any terms. He should follow out his experiments, and make as much iron as he can. The result will be highly advantageous to the country.—Ebs. On the Manufacture of Bar Iron in India. 107 pends; for some think, that cast iron is the first product from the ore, and others have published all kinds of wild conjectures on the subject. 10. Mushet found no difficulty in managing the Indian ores in his experiments in the Tintern Abbey charcoal furnaces, but the blowing engine of this furnace had been already properly regulated, and it is probable that Mr. Heath failed in repeating the experiment in India from the want of a practical man to regulate the blast from the newly-erected engine; and it is probable, that a similar difficulty has been found in the experiments with coal, recommended by the Coal Committee of Calcutta.* 11. Even supposing that the coal of Bengal could be brought into use in “high blast” furnaces, yet as the coal and iron ore are as dear as the English, the iron would cost the same price, and would not be better in quality. The cheapest English iron costs at Madras about 80 rupees per ton; but it will hardly stand punching a hole in it, and cannot be worked into any shape where bending is requi- site, for it breaks like a carrot when bent hot, beyond a right angle. Even iron which sells in England at from 13£ to 15£ a ton, and at Madras costs retail 160 rupees a ton, cannot be made into horse-shoenails, because it splits open while being worked to a point. 12. Where charcoal is used for refining cast iron, as in making boiler plate and tin plate, the method becomes si- milar to the French or continental mode of operation, and the expense of the iron which could be made in ‘his manner in India, may be computed from the minute details given by Dr. Ure: 1753 pounds of charcoal and 287 pounds of ore give 135 pounds of cast iron, from which 100 of bar iron are obtained; 149 pounds more of charcoal having been used in the refining forge: thus for every 100 pounds of * These experiments have not yet been commenced. Captain Campbell could evidently do more single handed than is to be expected from any Committee. 108 On the Manufacture of Bar Iron in India. bar iron, 3244 pounds of charcoal and 287 pounds of ore are used, and taking the value of charcoal at 2 annas for 100 pounds, and the ore at 243 pounds for 1 anna, which is above the price in Southern India, we have 25 rupees a ton for bar iron; but in this the expense of labour for blowing and charging the furnace, and of the labour at the refining hearth and the forge hammer, are not included. However, the French furnaces are also too large, and their produce too great for an infant manufacture. 13. Furnaces in which the ores of iron are reduced :at one operation to the malleable state, are called in England ‘*bloomery furnaces.” Of these three kinds are known; viz. the simple furnace of the Natives of India; the Catalan forge; and the German steuch often. I have stated in my former paper, on the authority of Porter’s Chemistry of the Arts, that cast iron was generally made in these furnaces, but of this I have some doubt, and as I know from experience, that such furnaces can be advantageously used for making blooms of malleable iron, I shall consider them as belonging to this class. 14, Bloomery furnaces present the advantage of being able to make any quantity of iron which may be required, with a very trifling outlay of capital. In the little Native furnaces, a few pounds is the result, and in the steuch often nearly a ton. The quality of the iron is also much superior to what can be made from cast iron, and I have reason to believe, that all the Danemora Swedish steel iron is made with these furnaces. 15. Bloomery furnaces are without doubt the best adapted kind to an infant manufacture, and were used all over England before the wood fuel began to be scarce; and into India, the use of them on a large scale, might be successfully introduced, but the art of using them has been lost in Eng- land. Brongniart has spoken favorably of the Catalan forge, but as the persons who manage them are merely prac- On the Manufacture of Bar Iron in India. 109 tical men, who know nothing of the principles of the opera- tion, it would not be easy to establish such furnaces -in India: although Mushet states, that they are used in Ame- rica, expending 10 tons of charcoal to make a ton of bar iron. 16. Of the true principles of the action of bloomery fur- naces, nothing whatever seems to be known in Europe; Mushet appearing to think, that the primary produce is cast iron, which becomes refined afterwards by the blast. Dr. Ure seems to entertain the same opinion, but under the article ores in his Dictionary of Manufactures, he has record- ed a suggestion, pointing to the correct theory. Berthier (Traite Désessairs par le voie seche,) has also alluded to the correct theory, but has been misled by a fallacious experi- ment there stated. ‘Thenard (Traité de Chimie) remarks with the acuteness of a philosopher, ‘‘on sait que ioxide de fer se réduit au degré du rouge maissant par le gas hydro- gene ‘carboné et par le carboné; on sait également que la fonte ne se forme dans les hauts fourmeaux qua un trés haut degré de chaleur: il suit de 14 quelon doit pouvoir extraire le fer de certain minerais, sans étre obligé de le transformer on founte ;” and as he correctly remarks, this is the principle upon which the Catalan forges, and in fact all bloomery furnaces, work. Hardly half the quantity of charcoal is re- quired which is necessary for making cast iron, and a bloom- ery furnace properly managed, will even bear a charge of ore of double the weight of the charcoal; which is a larger charge than has ever been used in a high blast furnace, either with cold or hot blast. Mushet has published a paper upon the ‘‘ Manufacture of malleable iron directly from the ore, but it does not appear, that he knew the principle of his method was that upon which bloomery furnaces act, and he was therefore unable to make the blooms cheaper than cast iron. He states, that although the iron produced was of the finest quality, yet that he found from 24 cwt. to 110 On the Manufacture of Bar Iron in India. 25 cwt. were required to make a ton of bar iron, and that therefore nothing was gained, as the same could be done by refining and puddling cast iron. 17. The expense of bar iron made in the Native bloom- eries is about 90 rupees a ton, and I have made an error in my former estimate, by not making a proper allowance for the waste in forging. It is certain, however, that from the number of men required to work them, the Natives do not earn two annas a day, because they gladly accept that pay- ment for working as common labourers. 18. The Native bloomeries, from their small size, might be called portable furnaces, as they might be carried and worked with advantage in a waggon in the train of an army; and if the method of working them had been known at Jel- lalabad, they might have been the means of furnishing our beleaguered forces with the iron they required so much for tools. 19. For the expenses of the German ‘“ steuch often,” as given in Porter’s Chemistry of the Arts: supposing the rough lump to be a “ bloom weighing 15 ewt.; and sup- posing this to yield when forged into bar iron 73 ewt., and supposing that the produce is only 25 per cent. of the ore, then 30 cwt. of ore will be required, which at 243 pounds for 1 anna, will be 83 rupees. As about 400 pounds of charcoal are used to make 100 pounds of bar iron, about 30 cwt. of charcoal would be used; and at 100 pounds for 2 annas, this will cost about 4} rupees; and supposing 8 men for a whole day are required to work the furnace, the labour at 2 annas a day will cost 1 rupee; or 14 rupees for 74 cwt.; or about 36 rupees a ton for finished bar iron; and as the iron made in these furnaces is of the finest quality, there can be no doubt that they are well suited for intro- ducing the manufacture into India. Although the product of the furnace from the ore is seldom above 35 per cent., yet the produce is really not less than in high blast furnaces, On the Manufacture of Bar Iron in India. 111 because in them a portion of the product of the operation unites with the iron formed to make cast iron, which is again separated in the refining furnace in the form of ‘finery cinder.” Besides, what are called the slags of bloomery furnaces are pure silicates of iron, or else pure fused oxide, according as the ore is silicious or not, and is fit for again smelting into cast iron in the high blast fur- nace, so that no loss really has taken place. 20. The largest furnaces which J have yet tried are very much smaller than the “ steuch often,” yet from being better managed, expense is much the same—about 35 rupees a ton on the bar iron; but in larger furnaces, the expense will be very much less, and besides 3 of the whole expense is for men’s labour in blowing; also the estimate is based upon the equivalent quantity of charcoal, which in my furnaces is not used; the flame of the gases of the furnace being applied to carbonise green brush wood, and the flame from this again might be used to heat the boiler of the blowing engine. Instead of 12 hours being required as in the steuch often, to produce the result, in mine three hours is more than sufficient; and each furnace can thus be worked three times a day. I find also that these furnaces cost so little, that with all the apparatus, the capital sunk to make 500 tons of bar iron a month need be only 25,000 rupees, and with 80,000 rupees more for a rolling mill, would give only 10,000£, instead of 27,000£, as required by Dr. Ure’s esti- mate. A rough approximation to the expense of working these furnaces may be made, by estimating the cost in bar iron at sixteen times its weight in firewood. 21. I have had as yet no opportunity of trying coal in bloomery furnaces, but I have no doubt it can be used, because the principles upon which these furnaces act, are applicable to any kind of carbon, and besides Dr. Ure alludes to the use of coke in the Catalonian forges. It is probable therefore that the coal of Bengal can be turned to 112 On the Manufacture of Bar Iron in India. useful account in making bar iron, and I hope to be able to make public the result of experiments upon this subject. 22. I have not had opportunities of ascertaining the ex- pense of drawing blooms into bar iron, but I know that even when forged with hand hammers, and the work very carelessly done, that the expense is not more than 30 rupees a ton; but in the little forges which I have used, the waste of metal is enormous, amounting to fully 50 per cent. on the weight of the forged blooms. ‘This great waste would be altogether avoided by using proper air furnaces, for heating the blooms and rough bars, and then it would be no greater than in the English works, which according to Dr. Ure, is only 12 per cent. at the utmost. 23. Rolling mills and tilt hammers on the scale of the English works could hardly be used in an infant manufac- ture, but it is easy to construct a tilt hammer weighing one or two hundred weight in the head; to be worked by hand by coolies; and I have little doubt, the expense would be so small, as to bear a comparison with that of finished bar iron in the English works; for I find that when the bloom- ery furnaces are carefully regulated, that the blooms will bear drawing out into $ inch bar at one operation without cracking at all, and are fit for any purpose without the expense of three-fold re-heating and rolling out: operation requisite in the English works. 24, The price of bar iron in the various part of India is very variable, and appears to depend more upon the local information of the Natives, and the number of their furnaces which have been established, and kept in work, rather than upon the supplies of fuel and ore, which occur in so many parts of the country. In Bengal, the navigable rivers afford the means of introducing English iron into the interior, but the quality is so much inferior to the Native iron that even in Boglipoor, the Native furnaces are still working profit- ably ; although I have shewn that they cannot sell their iron | | | | On the Manufacture of Bar Iron in India. 113 for less than 9£ a ton. In the whole of the Northern Circars, | do not remember to have ever seen a piece of English bar iron, except at the sea ports; the supply used in that country being derived from the mountainous region which bounds it on the West. In Southern India, the price of iron is very variable. At Bangalore, the price is 14 rupee for the maund of 25 pounds, while in Coimbatore the price is 2 rupees or 23 rupees for the same quantity. In the vicinity of both these places, Native smelters have been established for ages, but about Vellore, where the art of smelting has probably been partially lost during the wars of the Carnatic, English iron fetches from 2 rupees to 23 rupees a maund, and good Native iron is not procurable ; probably because the whole supply which is made is fore- stalled, to make horse-shoes for the cavalry station of Arcot. In consequence, a considerable quantity of English iron is used for smith’s work, but further inland than this point, English iron only finds a sale for wheel tyres, for which purpose it can be used cheaper than Native iron. 25. It is supposed by some that the quality of malleable iron produced is dependent upon the composition of the ore which is used, whence the remarks so commonly met with about steel ore, &c. With the pure ores of the per- oxide and magnetic oxide, this supposition is altogether groundless, for the quality of the iron produced solely de- pends upon the management of the smelting process. Even in the ores which contain sulphur, I conceive that it might be purified completely by roasting, and I have little doubt that excellent iron might be made from the English iron _ stones, if the oxide of iron was separated from the impuri- _ ties by washing. 26. Magnetic iron ore abounds in the Salem district, in Mysore, and in Coimbatore, and may be either picked up in any quantity on the surface at a very trifling expense, or _can be separated from the “ friable ferruginous granite,” by | | Q. 114 On the Manufacture of Bar Iron in India. beating and sifting, for about 2 rupees a ton. The iron sand is, however, the most universally diffused ore in India, and is found in almost every nullah South of the Toom- buddra; and as a single man can collect and wash a bullock load, or 200 pounds, in one day without much trou- ble, it may be procured in any quantity for about the same expense as the magnetic iron ore; and perhaps the cost might be much decreased, either by washing the sand by machinery, or by separating the pure ore from the silicious sand by electro-magnets. 27. It is not easy to form a correct estimate of the ex- pense of firewood and charcoal, but I find that where wood is plentiful, it can be procured at | anna for 300 pounds, and charcoal at 2 annas for 100 pounds. But as a single man can cut and faggot 800 pounds of wood in a day, 14 rupee a ton would be more than the cost, including carriage for five miles; and if charcoal is required, the wood can be car- bonised at very little additional expense, if conical ovens of brick-work are employed. 28. As a locality for a manufactory to supply the demand of the interior parts of India, along the Himalayas to Simla; in the Deyra-Dhoon in Candeish; the Mahabilishwur Hills ; the whole range of the Western Ghauts in Travancore, Coim- batore, Salem, North Arcot, Cuddapah along the Western verge of the Gundwana mountains; in Singboom and Bogli- poor; there is hardly a spot which would not answer for a manufactory of very considerable size. 29. To open an export trade in iron for the supply of the English market, a manufactory would require to be orga- nised upon an extensive scale; and must be situated adja- cent to the sea shore, or near water carriage, to avoid the expense of inland carriage over the bad roads of India. As a locality for this purpose, Hoonoor on the Western Coast would perhaps answer, or Travancore, or Trincomallee,in Ceylon, where fuel is abundant; or in Cuttack where iron ore, Collections. 115 wood, and coal abound. Either Tavoy or Mergui afford great advantages also; or perhaps the water carriage from Rajemal in Bengal, would admit of a large manufactory being established there. Collections. We have to acknowledge the following obliging communi- cations of plants. From Mrs. Skipwith, the lady of J. C. Skip- with, Esq. Judge of Tiperah, two well preserved collections from Churra Punjee, containing the following genera :— Acotyledons.—Lycopodium. ; Monocotyledons.—Burmannia. Anthericum. ‘Tradescantia, Aneilema. Pothos. Celoglossum, Habenaria (2), Anthogoni- um, Goodyera, Dendrobium (2). Dicotyledons.—Begonia. Polygonum. Daphine (2). Quer- cus (2). Impatiens(7). Hypericum, Camellia. Clematis. Drosera. Potentilla. Crotalaria, Smithia, Desmodium, Dalbergia, Pa- rochetus. Berberis. Sonnerila (2), Osbeckia (2), Oxyspora. Dipsacus. Thibaudia. Erigeron, Senecio Gnaphalium, Caca- lia. Ophiorhiza. Lobelia. Ligustrum. Pladera, Crawfurdia. Strobilanthes. Utricularia. Buddlea. Plectranthus, Scutel- laria, Colquhounia, Salvia. Cynoglossum. From Dr. Oxley, Senior Surgeon in the Straits, a small collection from Penang Hill. This does not contain any very noticeable plant, but in a larger collection (of 250 sp.) communicated by him to the late Mr. Voigt, we observed some remarkable plants, particularly an undescribed species of Dorianne, for which we propose the name D. Oxleyanus.* *Durio Oxleyanus, (n. sp.) foliis oblongis obtusis submuticis subtus pubescentibus, alabastris globosis, involucri foliolis rotundatis, calyce urceolato-breviter 4-dentato, petalis dorso subsericeis calyce paullo longioribus, antheris integris, ovario pilis stellatis stipitatis vestito, stylo brevi, stigmate subsimplici. Hazs.—Malacca. Dorianne Dahown of the Malays. 116 Collections. Dr. Oxley has been long engaged in collecting the plants of the Straits, and has we believe in his possession, a collec- tion of 1000 or 1200 species. From the Rev. Mr. White, Chaplain of Singapore, an indefatigable collector, a few plants collected by him in Terra Australis, and a dried specimen (of a branch) of the tree producing that curious sort of Caoutchouc known by the name of Gutta Percha. This specimen enables us to refer the plant to Sapotez, which explains the statement of its fruit being edible. It has all the characters of a Chryso- phyllum. Mr. White has been also so obliging as to trans- mit living plants of this, and also of the true Camphor tree, the arrival of which is expected shortly. From Lieut. Munro, H. M. 39th Foot, who is already dis- tinguished by his investigations of the Flora of the Penin- sula of India, a small collection containing a Lycium from between Kurnal and Ferozepore, an Erodium from the Chumbul, and an undescribed Polanisia from Bhurtpore. The Erodium is particularly interesting from its being an Affehan form: the genus has not hitherto been met with in the plains of India. From J. P. Cathcart, Esq. of Purneah, a small collection containing an undescribed species of Utricularia. Government having ordered the formation of an Herbaria in the H. C. Botanic Gardens, which will be naturally open A large and handsome tree, the flowers are much smaller and relative- ly broader. The chief differences from Durio zibethinus regard the deep division of the ordinary scales whence stellate hairs result, the shortness of all the parts of the flower, the apparently simple anthers, which consist of a discoid horizontal connectivum with a marginal entire loculus. The fruit, I believe, is not eaten ; its spines are longer. I have a third species of the genus, the Dorianne Ootang: a fourth Dorianne, the Dorianne Dorianne of the Malays, is my Heteropyxis, a remarkable polypetalous genus of the same family.—W. G. | } i i] . | 1 | Collections. vs to the Public, we hope hereafter to be able to communicate to contributors the authentic names of any plants they may send tous. This we conceive is the least return we can offer. ZooLocy. We have been indebted in this department to the Rev. Mr. White, of Singapore, for a collection of Fish from New Holland, which will be noticed in our next number. We are also under many obligations to Capt. Phayre, Principal Assistant to the Commissioner of Arracan, for collections in the same class, from Sandoway on the Malay Coast, in which we find a new species of Murena distinguished by moveable articulated teeth in the front of the jaws, and two oblique rows of fixed teeth on the palate; it forms the type of a new genus Therodontis. Also for two new genera of the same order, having the heart situated far back behind the opening to the gills, forming the types of a newly distin- guished tribe of Apodal Fishes; we have named one Opii- cardia, the other Ophisiernon; both will appear in the next number, in our promised paper on the Apodal Fishes of Bengal. We have also to acknowledge our obligations for small collections in this class, to Dr. Campbell, of Dar- jeeling, and Capt. Guthrie, of the Engineers, which have been received some time since; all which we hope shortly to notice in detail. An inquiry into the distinctive characteristics of the Aboriginal Race of America, read at the Annual Meeting of the Boston Society of Natural History, Wedacsiay, 27th April, 1842. By Samuer GuorcEe Morton, om. p. At a meeting of the Boston Society of Natural History, held on | the 27th of April, it was unanimously Voted, That the thanks of the Society be presented to Dr. S. G. Morton, for his eloquent and instructive address, delivered before this 118 Distinctive characteristics of the Society at its Anniversary meeting ; and that a copy be requested for publication. It was also Voted, ‘That the charge of procuring and publishing the same, be assigned to the Publishing Committee. When these votes were communicated to Dr. Morton, he immedi- ately complied with the request of the Society, and placed his ad- dress at the disposal of the Committee. To the Members of the Boston Society of Natural History. GENTLEMEN,—On receiving the highly flattering invitation to deliver your Annual Address, it occurred to me that nothing would be so appropriate as a review of the present state of Natural Science in this country: but having almost simultaneously received the Ad- dress of Mr. Teschemacher for the past year, I found it so full and satisfactory on this question as to leave little or nothing for further discussion. I have therefore been induced to seek another field of inquiry, and in so doing, have very naturally turned to a subject which has long occupied my leisure hours, and which, though fre- quently examined, may yet, I trust, be recurred to with pleasure and instruction. I propose to take a rapid glance at what I conceive to be the peculiar traits of the Aboriginal race of America, as embraced in five principal considerations, viz :—their organic, moral and intellec- tual characters ; their mode of interment and their maritime enter- prise ; and from these I shall venture to draw a few definite con- clusions. I am aware that it may appear presumptuous to attempt so wide a range within the brief limits of the present occasion, especially as some points can be touched only in the most general manner; but my object has been to dwell rather upon some of these which have hitherto received less attention than they obviously deserve, and which are intimately involved in the present inquiry. With this explanation I submit to your indulgent consideration the contents of the following memoir. ‘ S. G. Morton. ADDRESS. Anthropology, the Natural History of Man, is essentially a mo- dern science. At a time when the study of Nature in her other departments, had been prosecuted with equal zeal and success, this Aboriginal Race of America. Lig alone, the most important of them all, remained comparatively neglected and unknown; and of the various authors who have at- tempted its exposition during the past and present centuries, too many have been content with closet theories, in which facts are perverted to sustain some baseless conjecture. Hence it has been aptly remarked that Asia is the country of fables, Africa of monsters, and America of systems, to those who prefer hypothesis to truth. The intellectual genius of antiquity justly excites our admiration and homage; but in vain we search its records for the physical traits of some of the most celebrated nations of past time. It is even yet gravely disputed whether the ancient Egyptians belonged to the Caucasian race or to the Negro; and was it not for the light which now dawns upon us from their monuments and their tombs, this question might remain for ever undecided. The present age, however, is marked by a noble zeal for these inquiries, which are daily making man more conversant with the organic structure, the mental character, and the national affinities of the various and widely scattered tribes of the human family. Among these the aboriginal inhabitants of America claim our especial attention. ‘This vast theatre has been thronged, from im- memorial time, by numberless tribes which lived only to destroy and be in turn destroyed, without leaving a trace of their sojourn on the face of the earth. Contrasted with these were a few civi- lized communities, whose monuments awaken our surprise without unfolding their history ; and he who would unravel their mysteries may be compared, in the language of the poets, to a man standing by the stream of time, and striving to rescue from its waters the wrecked and shattered fragments which float onward to oblivion. It is not my present intention even to enumerate the many theo- ries which have been advanced in reference to the origin of the Amerigan nations ; although I may, in the sequel, inquire whether their genealogy can be traced to the Polynesians or Mongolians, Hindoos, Jews or Egyptians. Nor shall I attempt to analyse the views of certain philosophers who imagine that they have found not only a variety of races, but several species of men among the abori- gines of this continent. It is chiefly my intention to produce a few of the more strikingly characteristic traits of these people to sustain 120 Distinctive characteristics of the the position that all the American nations, excepting the Eskimaux, are of one race, and that this race is peculiar, and distinct from all others. 1. Physical Characteristics. It is an adage among travellers, that he who has seen one tribe of Indians, has seen all, so much do the individuals of this race resemble each other, notwithstanding their immense geographical distribution, and those differences of climate which embrace the extremes of heat and cold. The half- clad Fuegian, shrinking from his dreary winter, has the same charac- teristic lineaments, though in an exaggerated degree, as the Indians of the tropical plains; and these again resemble the tribes which inhabit the region west of the Rocky Mountains, those of the great valley of the Mississippi, and those again which skirt the Eskimaux on the North. All possess alike the long, lank, black hair, the brown or cinnamon colored skin, the heavy brow, the dull and sleepy eye, the full and compressed lips, and the salient but dilated nose. These, traits, moreover are equally common to the savage and civilized nations ; whether they inhabit the margins of rivers and feed on fish, or rove the forest and subsist on the spoils of the chase. It cannot be questioned that physical diversities do occur, equally singular and inexplicable, as seen in different shades of color, vary- ing from a fair tint to a complexion almost black ; and this too un- der circumstances in which climate can have little or no influence. So also in reference to stature, the differences are remarkable in en- tire tribes which, moreover, are geographically proximate to each other. ‘These facts, however, are mere exceptions to a general rule, and do not alter the peculiar physiognomy of the Indian, which is as undeviatingly characteristic as that of the Negro; for whether we see him in the athletic Charib or the stunted Chayma, in the dark Californian or the fair Borroa, he is an Indian still, and cannot be mistaken for a being of any other race. The same conformity of organization is not less obvious in the osteological structure of these people, as seen in the squared or rounded, head, the flattened or vertical occiput, the high cheek bones, the ponderous maxille, the large quadrangular orbits, and the low, receding forehead. I have had opportunity to compare Aboriginal Race of America. 121 nearly four hundred crania, derived from tribes inhabiting almost every region of both Americas, and have been astonished to find how the preceding characters, in greater or less degree, pervade them all. This remark is equally applicable to the ancient and modern na- tions of our continent ; for the oldest skulls from the Peruvian ce- meteries, the tombs of Mexico and the mounds of our own country, are of the same type as the heads of the most savage existing tribes. Their physical organization proves the origin of one to have been equally the origin of all. The various civilized nations are to this day represented by their lineal descendants who inhabit their an- cestral seats, and differ in no exterior respect from the wild and un- cultivated Indians ; at the same time, in evidence of their lineage, Clavigero and other historians inform us, that the Mexicans and Peruvians yet possess a latent mental superiority which has not been subdued by three centuries of despotism. And again, with respect to the royal personages and other privileged classes, there is indubitable evidence that they were of the same native stock, and presented no distinctive attributes excepting those of a social or po- litical character. The observations of Molina and Humboldt are sometimes quoted in disproof of this pervading uniformity of physical characters. Mo- lina says that the difference between an inhabitant of Chili and a Peruvian is not less than between an Italian and a German; to which Humboldt adds, that the American race contains nations whose features differ as essentially from one another as those of the Circassians, Moors and Persians. But all these people are of one and the same race, and readily recognized as such, notwithstanding their differences of feature and complexion ; and the American na- tions present a precisely parallel case. I was at one time inclined to the opinion that the ancient Peru- vians, who inhabited the islands and confines of the Lake Titicaca, presented a congenital form of the head entirely different from that which characterizes the great American race; nor could I at first bring myself to believe that their wonderfully narrow and elongated crania, resulted solely from artificial compression applied to the rounded head of the Indian. That such, however, is the fact, has been indisputably proved by the recent investigations of M. R 122 Distinctive characteristics of the D’Orbigny. ‘This distinguished naturalist passed many months on the table-land of the Andes, which embraces the region of these extra- ordinary people, and examined the desiccated remains of hundreds of individuals in the tombs where they have lain for centuries. M. D’Orbigny remarked that while many of the heads were deformed in the manner to which we have adverted, others differed in nothing from the usual conformation. It was also observed that the flat- tened skulls were uniformly those of men, while those of the women remained unaltered ; and again, that the most elongated heads were preserved in the largest and finest tombs, shewing that this cranial deformity was a mark of distinction. But to do away with any re- maining doubt on this subject, M. D’Orbigny ascertained that the descendants of these ancient Peruvians yet inhabit the land of their ancestors, and bear the name of Aymaras, which may have been their primitive designation; and lastly, the modern Aymaras re- semble the common Quichua or Peruvian Indians in every thing that relates to physical conformation, not even excepting the head, which, however, they have ceased to mould artificially. Submitted to the same anatomical test, the reputed giant and dwarf races of America prove to be the mere inventions of ignorance or imposition. A careful inspection of the remains of both, has fully satisfied me that the asserted gigantic form of some nations has been a hasty inference on the part of unpractised observers : while the so-called pygmies of the valley of the Mississippi were mere children, who, for reasons not wholly understood, were buried apart from the adult people of their tribe. Thus it is that the American Indian, from the southern extremity of the continent to the northern limit of his range, is the same ex- terior man. With somewhat variable stature and complexion, his distinctive features, though variously modified, are never effaced ; and he stands isolated from the rest of mankind, identified at a glance in every locality, and under every variety of circumstance ; and even his desiccated remains which have withstood the destroy- ing hand of time, preserve the primeval type of his race, except- ing only when art has interposed to pervert it. 2. Moral Traits. These are, perhaps, as strongly marked as the physical characteristics of which we have just spoken ; but they have Aboriginal Race of America. 123 been so often the subject of analysis as to claim only a passing notice on the present occasion. Among the most prominent of this series of mental operations is a sleepless caution, an untiring vi- gilance which presides over every action and masks every motive. The Indian says nothing and does nothing without its influence : it enables him to deceive others without being himself suspected ; it causes that proverbial taciturnity among strangers which changes to garrulity among the people of his own tribe; and it is the basis of that invincible firmness which teaches him to contend unrepin- ingly with every adverse circumstance, and even with death in its most hideous forms. The love of war is so general, so characteristic, that it scarcely calls for a comment or an illustration. One nation is in almost perpetual hostility with another, tribe against tribe, man against man; and with this ruling passion are linked a merciless revenge and an unsparing destructiveness. The Chickasaws have been known to make a stealthy march of 600 miles from their own hunting grounds, for the sole purpose of destroying an encampment of their enemies. The small island of Nantucket, which contains but a few square miles of barren sand, was inhabited at the advent of the European colonies by two Indian tribes, who sometimes engaged in hot and deadly feud with each other. But what is yet more remarkable, the miserable natives of Terra del Fuego, whose common privations have linked them for a time in peace and fellowship, become suddenly excited by the same inherent ferocity, and exert their puny efforts for mutual destruction. Of the destructive propensity of the Indian, which has long become a proverb, it is almost unnecessary to speak ; but we may advert to a forcible example from the narrative of a traveller who accompanied a trading party of northern Indians on a long journey, during which he declares that they killed every living creature that came within their reach; nor could they even pass a bird’s nest without slaying the young or destroying the eggs. That philosophic traveller, Dr. Von Martius, gives a graphic view of the present state of natural and civil rights among the American aborigines. Their sub-division, he remarks, into an almost countless multitude of greater and smaller groups, and their entire exclusion and excommunication with regard to each other, strike the eye 124 Distinctive characteristics of the of the observer like the fragments of a vast ruin, to which the history of the other nations of the earth furnishes no analogy. ‘“‘ This dis- ruption of all the bands by which Society was anciently held to- gether, accompanied by a Babylonish confusion of tongues, the rude right of force, the never ending tacit warfare of all against all, springing from that very disrupture,—appear to me the most essential, and, as far as history is concerned, the most significant points in the civil condition of the aboriginal population of America.” It may be said that these features of the Indian character are common to all mankind in the savage state: this is generally true ; but in the American race they exist in a degree which will fairly challenge a comparison with similar traits in any existing people ; and if we consider also their habitual indolence and improvidence, their indifference to private property, and the vague simplicity of their religious observances,—which, for the most part, are devoid of the specious aid of idolatry—we must admit them to possess a peculiar and eccentric moral constitution. If we turn now to the demi-civilized nations, we find the dawn of refinement coupled with those barbarous usages which characterize the Indian in his savage state. We see the Mexicans, like the later Romans, encouraging the most bloody and cruel rites, and these too in the name of religion, in order to inculcate hatred of their enemies, familiarity with danger and contempt of death ; and the moral effect of this system is manifest in their valorous, though unsuccessful, resistance to their Spanish conquerors. Among the Peruvians, however, the case was different. The inhabitants had been subjugated to the Incas by a combined moral and physical influence. The Inca family were looked upon as beings of divine origin. They assumed to be the messengers of heaven, bearing rewards for the good, and punishment for the disobedient, conjoined with the arts of peace and various social institutions. History bears ample testimony that these specious pretences were employed first to captivate the fancy and then to enslave the man. The familiar adage that ‘‘ knowledge is power,’’ was as well under- stood by them as by us; learning was artfully restricted to a privi- leged class ; and the genius of the few soon controled the energies of the many. Thus the policy of the Incas inculcated in their sub- Aboriginal Race of America. 125 jects an abject obedience which knew no limit. They endeavored to eradicate the feeling of individuality ; or in other words to unite the minds of the plebeian multitude in a common will which was that of their master. Thus when Pizarro made his first attack on the defenceless Peruvians in the presence of their Inca, the latter was borne in a throne on the shoulders of four men ; and we are told by Herrera that while the Spaniards spared the Sovereign, they aimed their deadly blows at his bearers: these, however, never shrunk from their sacred trust; but when one of their number fell, another immediately took his place ; and the historian declares that if the whole day had been spent in killing them, others would still have come forward to the passive support of their master. In fact what has been called the paternal government of the Incas was strictly such ; for their subjects were children, who neither thought nor acted except at the dictation of another. Thus it was that a people whose moral impulses are known to have differed in little or nothing from those of the barbarous tribes, were reduced, partly by persuasion, partly by force, to a state of effeminate vassalage not unlike that of the modern Hindoos. Like the latter, too, they made good soldiers in their native wars, not from any principle of valour, but from the sentiment of passive obedience to their superiors ; and hence when they saw their monarch bound and imprisoned by the Spaniards, their conventional courage at once forsook them ; and we behold the singular spectacle of an entire nation prostrated at a blow, like a strong man whose energies yield to a seemingly trivial but rankling wound. After the Inca power was destroyed, however, the dormant spirit of the people was again aroused in all the moral vehemence of their race, and the gentle and unoffending Peruvian was transformed into the wily and merciless savage.. Every one is familiar with the sequel. Resistance was too late to be availing, and the fetters to which they had confidingly submitted were soon riveted for ever. As we have already observed, the Incas depressed the moral energies of their subjects in order to secure their own power. This they effected by inculcating the arts of peace, prohibiting human sacrifices, and in a great measure avoiding capital punishments ; and blood was seldom spilt excepting on the subjugation of warlike and 126 Distinctive characteristics of the refractory tribes. In these instances, however, the native ferocity of their race broke forth even in the bosom of the Incas ; for we are told by Garcilaso, the descendant and apologist of the Peruvian kings, that some of their wars were absolutely exterminating ; and among other examples he mentions that of the Inca Yupanqui against the province of Collao, in which whole districts were so completely depopulated that they had subsequently to be colonized from other parts of the empire: and in another instance the same unsparing despot destroyed twenty thousand Caranques, whose bodies he ordered to be thrown into an adjacent lake, which yet bears the name of the Sea of Blood. In like manner when Atahualpa contested the dominion with Guascar, he caused the latter, together with thirty of his brothers, to be put to death in cold blood, that nothing might impede his progress to the throne. We have thus endeavored to shew that the same moral traits characterize all the aboriginal nations of this continent, from the humanized Peruvian to the rudest savage of the Brazilian forest. 3. Intellectual Faculties. It has often been remarked that the intellectual faculties are distributed with surprising equality among individuals of the same race who have been similarly educated, and subjected to the same moral and other influences: yet even among these, as in the physical man, we see the strong and the weak, with numberless intermediate gradations. This equality is infinitely more obvious in savage than in civilized communities, simply because in the former the condition of life is more equal; whence it happens that in contrast to a single master mind, the plebeian multitude are content to live and die in their primitive ignorance. This truth is obvious at every step of the present investigation ; for of the numberless hordes which have inhabited the American continent, a fractional portion only has left any trace of refinement. I venture here to repeat my matured conviction that as a race they are decidedly inferior to the Mongolian stock. They are not only averse to the restraints of education, but seem for the most part incapable of a continued process of reasoning on abstract subjects. Their minds seize with avidity on simple truths, while they reject whatever requires investigation or analysis. Their proximity for more than two centuries to European communities, has scarcely Aboriginal Race of America. 127 effected an appreciable change in their manner of life; and as to their social condition, they are probably in most respects the same as at the primitive epoch of their existence. They have made no im- provement in the construction of their dwellings, except when direct- ed by Europeans who have become domiciliated among them ; for the Indian cabin or the Indian tent, from Terra del Fuego to the river St. Lawrence, is perhaps the humblest contrivance ever devised by man to screen himself from the elements. Nor is their mechani- cal ingenuity more conspicuous in the construction of their boats ; for these, as we shall endeavor to show in the sequel, have rarely been improved beyond the first rude conception. ‘Their imitative faculty is of a very humble grade, nor have they any predilection for the arts or sciences. The long annals of missionary labor and private benefaction, present few exceptions to this cheerless picture, which is sustained by the testimony of nearly all practical observers. Even in those instances in which the Indians have received the benefits of education, and remained for years in civilized society, they lose little or none of the innate love of their national usages, which they almost invariably resume when left to choose for them- selves. Such is the intellectual poverty of the barbarous tribes ; but contrasted with these, like an oasis in the desert, are the demi- . civilized nations of the new world; a people whose attainments in the arts and sciences are a riddle in the history of the human mind. The Peruvians in the south, the Mexicans in the north, and the Muyscas of Bogota between the two, formed these contemporary centres of civilization, each independent of the other, and each equally skirted by wild and savage hordes. The mind dwells with surprise and admiration on their cyclopean structures, which often rival those of Egypt in magnitude ;—on their temples, which embrace almost every principle in architecture except the arch alone ;—and on their statues and bas-reliefs which, notwithstanding some conven- tional imperfections, are far above the rudimentary state of the arts.* * I cannot omit the present occasion to express my admiration of the recent discoveries of Mr. Stephens among the ruined cities of Central America. The spirit, ability and success which characterize these investigations are an honor to that gentleman and to his country; and they will probably tend more than 128 Distinctive characteristics of the J] have elsewhere ventured to designate these demi-civilized nations by the collective name of the Toltecan Family ; for although the Mexican annals date their civilization from a period long antecedent to the appearance of the Toltecas, yet the latter seem to have culti- vated the arts and sciences to a degree unknown to their predeces- sors. Besides, the various nations which at different times invaded and possessed themselves of Mexico, were characterized by the same fundamental language and the same physical traits, together with a strong analogy in their social institutions : and as the appearance of the Incas in Peru was nearly simultaneous with the dispersion of the Toltecas, in the year 1050 of our era, there is reasonable ground for the conjecture that the Mexicans and Peruvians were branches of the genuine Toltecan stock. We have alluded to a civilization antecedent to the appearance of the Incas, and which had already passed away when they assumed the government of the country. There are traditional and monumental evidences of this fact which can leave no doubt on the mind, although of its date we can form no just conception. It may have even preceded the Christian era, nor do we know of any positive reasons to the contrary. Chronolo- gy may be called the crutch of history; but with all its imperfec- tions it would be invaluable here, where no clue remains to unravel those mysterious records which excite our research but constantly elude our scrutiny. We may be permitted however, to repeat what is all-important to the present inquiry, that these Ancient Peruvians were the progenitors of the existing Aymara tribes of Peru, while these last are identified in every particular with the people of the great Inca race. All the monuments which these various nations have left behind them, over a space of three thousand miles, go also to prove a common origin, because, notwithstanding some minor dif- ferences, certain leading features pervade and characterize them all. Whether the hive of the civilized nations was, as some suppose, in the fabled region of Aztlan in the north, or whether, as the learned the labors of any other person to unravel the mysteries of American Archzo- logy. Similar in design to these are the researches of my distinguished friend the Chevalier Freidrichthal, the results of whose labors, though not yet given to the world, are replete with facts of the utmost importance to the present inquiry. Aboriginal Race of America. 129 Cabrera has endeavoured to shew, their native seats were in Chiapas and Guatimala, we may not stop to inquire; but to them, and to them alone, we trace the monolithic gateways of Peru, the sculptures of Bogota, the ruined temples and pyramids of Mexico, and the mounds and fortifications of the valley of the Mississippi. Such was the Toltecan Family ; and it will now be inquired how it happens that so great a disparity should have existed in the intel- lectual character of the American nations, if they are all derived from a common stock, or in other words belong to the same race? How are we to reconcile the civilization of the one with the barbarism of the other? It is this question which has so much puzzled the philosophers of the past three centuries, and led them, in the face of facts, to insist on a plurality of races. We grant the seeming anomaly ; but however much it is opposed to general rule, it is not without ample analogies among the people of the old world. No stronger example need be adduced than that which presents itself in the great Arabian family ; for the Saracens who established their kingdom in Spain, whose history is replete with romance and refine- ment, whose colleges were the centres of genius and learning for several centuries, and whose arts and sciences have been blended with those of every subsequent age ;—these very Saracens belong not only to the same race but to the same family with the Bedouins of the desert ; those intractable barbarians who scorn all restraints which are not imposed by their own chief, and whose immemorial laws for- bid them to sow corn, to plant fruit trees or to build houses, in order that nothing may conflict with those roving and predatory habits which have continued unaltered through a period of three thousand years. | Other examples perhaps not less forcible, might be adduced in the families of the Mongolian race ; but without extending the compari- son, or attempting to investigate this singular intellectual disparity, we shall, for the present, at least, content ourselves with the facts as we find them. It is important, however, to remark, that these ci- vilized states do not stand isolated from their barbarous neighbours ; on the contrary they merge gradually into each other, so that some nations are with difficulty classed with either division, and rather form an intermediate link between the two. Such are the Araucanians, S 130 Distinctive characteristics of the whose language and customs, and even whose arts, prove their direct affiliation with the Peruvians, although they far surpass the latter in sagacity and courage, at the same time that their social institutions present many features of intractable barbarism. So also the Aztec rulers of Mexico at the period of the Spanish invasion, exhibit, with their bloody sacrifices and multiform idolatry, a strong contrast to the gentler spirit of the Toltecas, who preceded them, and whose arts and ingenuity they had usurped. Still later in this intermediate series were the Natchez tribes of the Mississippi, who retained some traces of the refinement of their Mexican progenitors, mingled with many of the rudest traits of savage life. It is thus that we can yet trace all the gradations, link by link, which connect these extremes together, showing that although the civilization of these nations is fast becoming obsolete, although their arts and sciences have pass- ed away with a former generation, still the people remain in all other respects unchanged, although a variety of causes has long been urging them onward to deep degradation and rapid extinction. Strange as these intellectual revolutions may seem, we venture to assert that, all circumstances being considered, they are not greater than those which have taken place between the ancient and modern Greeks. If we had not incontestable evidence to prove the fact, who would believe that the ancestors of the Greeks of the present day were the very people who gave glory to the Age of Pericles! It may still be insisted that the religion and the arts of the Ameri- can nations point to Asia and Egypt; but it is obvious, as Humboldt and others have remarked, that these resemblances may have arisen from similar wants and impulses, acting on nations in many respects similarly circumstanced. ‘It would indeed be not only singular, but wonderful and unaccountable,” observes Dr. Caldwell, “‘if tribes and nations of men, possessed of similar attributes of mind and body, residing in similar climates and situations, influenced by similar states of society, and obliged to support themselves by similar means in similar pursuits,—it would form a problem altogether inexplicable, if nations thus situated did not contract habits and usages, and, instinctively modes of life and action, possessing towards each other many striking resemblances.” Here also we may draw an illustration from the old world; for notwithstanding the comparative proximity Aboriginal Race of America. 131 of the Hindoos and Egyptians, and the evident analogies in their architecture, mythology and social institutions, there is now little reason to believe them cognate nations; and the resemblances to which we have adverted have probably arisen from mutual intercourse, independent of lineal affiliation. And so with the nations of America. The casual appearance of shipwrecked strangers would satisfactorily explain any sameness in the arts and usages of the one and the other, as well as those words which are often quoted in evidence of a com- mon origin of language, but which are so few in number as to be readily accounted for on the foregoing principle. The entire number of common words is said to be one hundred and four between the American languages and those of Asia and Australia; forty-three with those of Europe; and forty with those of Africa, making a total of one hundred and eighty seven words. But taking into account the mere coincidence by which some of these analogies may be reasonably explained, I would inquire, in the language of an ingenious author, whether these facts are sufficient to prove a connexion between four hundred dialects of America and the various languages of the old world? Even so late as the year 1833, a Japanese junk was wrecked on the north-west coast of America, and several of the crew escaped unhurt to the shore; and I have myself seen some porcelain vessels which were saved on that occasion. Such casualties may have occurred in the early periods of American history; and it requires no effort of the imagination to conceive the influence these persons might have exerted, in various respects, had they been introduced to the ancient courts of Peru and Mexico, They might have contribu- ted something to extend, or at least to modify, the arts and sciences of the people among whom they were thrown, and have added a few words to the national language. I am informed by my friend Mr. Townsend, who passed several months among the tribes of the Columbia river, that the Indians there have already adopted from the Canadian traders several French words, which they use with as much freedom as if they belonged to their own vocabulary. It follows of course from the preceding remarks, that we consider the American race to present the two extremes of intellectual charac- 132 Distinctive characteristics of the ter: the one capable of a certain degree of civilization and refine- ment, independent of extraneous aids ; the other exhibiting an abase- ment which puts all mental culture at defiance. The one composed, as it were, of a handful of people whose superiority and consequent acquisitions have made them the prey of covetous destroyers ; the other a vast multitude of savage tribes whose very barbarism is working their destruction from within and without. The links that connect them partake of the fate of the extremes themselves ; and extinction appears to be the unhappy, but fast approaching doom of them all. 4. Maritime Enterprise.—One of the most characteristic traits of all civilised and many barbarous communities, is the progress of maritime adventure. The Caucasian nations of every age present a striking illustration of this fact : their sails are spread on every ocean, and the fabled voyage of the Argonauts is but a type of their achieve- ments from remote antiquity to the present time. Hence their undisputed dominion of the sea, and their successful colonization of every quarter of the globe. The Mongolians and Malays, though active and predatory, and proverbially aquatic in their habits, are deficient in that mechanical invention which depends on a knowledge of mathematical principles ; while they seem also incapable of those mental combinations which are requisite to a perfect acquaintance with naval tactics. The Negro, whose observant and imitative powers enable him to acquire with ease the details of seamanship, readily becomes a mariner, but rarely a commander : and history is silent on the nautical prowess of his race. Far behind all these is the man of America. Savage or civilized, the sea for him has had few charms, and his navigation has been almost exclusively restricted to lakes and rivers. A canoe excavated from a single log, was the principal vessel in use in the new world at the period of its discovery. Even the predatory Charibs, who were originally derived from the forests of Guayana, possessed no other boat than this simple contri- vance, in which they seldom ventured out of sight of land; and never excepting in the tranquil periods of the tropical seas, when they sailed from shore to shore, the terror of the feebler natives of the surrounding islands. The canoes of the Arouacs of Cuba were not more ingeniously contrived than those of the ruder Charibs Aboriginal Race of America. 133 which is the more surprising, since their island was the centre of a great archipelago, and their local position, therefore, in all respects calculated to develope any latent nautical propensities. When Cortez approached in his ships the Mexican harbor of Tobasco, he was astonished to find even there, the sea-port, as it were, of a mighty empire, the same primitive model in the many vessels that skimmed the sea before him. Let us follow this conqueror to the imperial city itself, surrounded by lakes, and possessed of warlike defences supe- rior to those of any other American people. The Spanish commander, foreseeing that to possess the lake would be to hold the keys of the city, had fifteen brigantines built at Tlascala; and these being subsequently taken to pieces, were borne on men’s shoulders to the lake of Mexico, and there re-constructed and launched. The war thus commenced as a naval contest; and the Spanish historians, while they eulogize the valour of the Mexicans, are constrained to admit the utter futility of their aquatic defences: for although the subjects of Montezuma, knowing and anticipating the nature of the attacks, came forth from the city in several thousand boats, these were so feebly constructed, and managed with so little dexterity, that in a few hours they were all destroyed, dispersed, or taken by the enemy. Turning from the Mexicans, we naturally look to the Peruvians for some further advances in nautical skill; but although their country was comparatively a narrow strip of land with an extended frontier on the ocean, we find even here the same primitive vessels and the same timid navigators. It is indeed questionable whether they ever designedly lost sight of land, nor does it appear that they made the sea subservient to their conquests. These were uniformly prosecuted by land, excepting perhaps those of the Incas, in their efforts to subdue the fierce islanders of Titicaca ; but even the partial pen of Garcilaso limits all these inventions to log canoes and rafts of reeds ; nor does it appear that the ingenuity of these people, so abundantly displayed on many other occasions, had ever added an improvement to the primeval germ of navigation. Nor are those tribes which depend almost wholly on fish for their daily subsistence, much better provided than the others. The Chenouks and other nations on the western coast of America, have 134 Distinctive characteristics of the boats hewn with comparative ingenuity from a single plank, and compared to a butcher’s tray ; but in these frail vessels they keep cautiously within sight of land, and never venture on the water unless the weather is favourable to their enterprise. It is to be observed, however, that when the Indians are compelled to carry their boats across portages from river to river, they construct them of birch bark, and with a degree of ingenuity and adaptation much above their usual resources. ‘Thus boats that would carry nine men do not weigh over sixty pounds, and are therefore conveyed with ease to consi- derable distances. This is almost the only deviation from the log canoe, and is equally characteristic; for it is common among the interior Indians of both North and South America, and was noticed by De Solis in the Mexican provinces. Inferior in these respects to the other tribes are the Fuegians ; a people whom perpetual exposure and privation, and the influence of an inhospitable climate have reduced to a feeble intelligence,— the moral childhood of their race. Not even the stimulus of necessity has been able to excite that ingenuity which would so amply provide for all their wants ; and they starve amid the abundant stores of the ocean, because they possess no adequate means for obtaining them. The Falkland and Malouine islands in but fifty degrees of South latitude, South Georgia, New South Shetland, and some smaller islands in nearly the same parallel, were at their discovery, entirely uninhabited ; nor is there any evidence of their ever having been visited by any American tribe. Yet they possess seals and other marine animals in vast numbers, and in these and all other respects appear to be not less productive than the region inhabited by the Eskimaux. . It is generally supposed that nautical enterprise results from the necessity of the case, in nations proximate to, or surrounded by the sea. We have seen, however, that the natives of the islands of the Gulf of Mexico were exceptions to the rule; and we find another not less remarkable in the archipelago of Chiloe, on the coast of Chili. These islands are seen from the shore, and have a large Indian population which depends for subsistence on fish taken from the surrounding ocean; yet even so late as the close of the past century, after more than two hundred years of communication with Aboriginal Race of America. 135 the Spaniards, their boats appear not to have been the least im- proved from their original model. The padre Gonzalez de Agueros, who resided many years among these islanders, describes their canoes as composed of five or six boards narrowed at the ends and lashed together with cords, the seams being filled with moss. They have sails, but neither keel nor deck; and in these frail and primitive vessels the inhabitants commit themselves to a tempestuous sea in search of their daily food. ‘The same miserable vessels are found in exclusive use in the yet more southern archipelago of Guaitecas, in which a spare population is distributed over eight hundred islands, and depends solely on the sea for subsistence. The mechanical ingenuity of these people, therefore, is not greater than that of the other Indians ; but from constant practice with their wretched boats, they have acquired a dexterity in the use of them unknown to any other tribe, and in some instances, under the direction of the Spani- ards, have become comparatively good sailors. De Azara mentions a curious fact in illustration of the present in- quiry. He declares that when his countrymen discovered the Rio de la Plata, they found its shores inhabited by two distinct Indian nations, the Charruas on the north, and the Patagonians on the south ; yet strange to say, these restless people had never commu- nicated with each other for war or for peace, for good or for evil, because they had neither boats or canoes in which to cross the river. The Indian is not defective in courage even on the water; but he lacks invention to construct better vessels, and tact to manage them. When he has been compelled to defend himself in his frail canoe, he has done so with the indomitable spirit of his race; yet with all their love of war and stratagem, I cannot find any account of a naval combat in which Europeans have borne no part. | The Payaguas Indians at one period took revenge on the Spani- ards by infesting the rivers of Paraguay in canoes which they ma- naged with much adroitness ; and darting from their lurking places, they intercepted the trading vessels going to and from Buenos Ayres, robbing them of their goods, and destroying their crews without mercy. Such was their success in these river piracies that it required years of war and stratagem on the part of the Spaniards to subdue them. 156 Distinctive characteristics of the The only example of a naval contest that I have met with, is described by Dobrizhoffer to have taken place between the so-called Mamalukes of St. Paulo, in Brazil, and their enemies the Guaranies. The former were a banditti derived from the intermarriage of the dregs of Europeans of all nations with the surrounding Indians ; and assisted by two thousand of their native allies, they came forth to battle in three hundred boats. The Guaranies, on the other hand, had five ships armed with cannon. But it is obvious from this statement, that European vessels and European tactics gave the battle all its importance. It took place on the river Mborore, in Paraguay ; but after all, both parties finding themselves out of their element on the water, at length abandoned their vessels by mutual agreement, and fought to desperation on shore. It is said of the inhabitants of New Holland, that their only sub- stitute for a boat is a short and solid log, on which they place them- selves astride, and thus venture upon the water. Even this, the humblest of all human contrivances, was in use among the Indians of the Bay of Honduras, who had learned to balance themselves so dexterously standing upon a log, as to be able in this position to pursue their customary occupation of fishing in the adjacent sea. In fine, his long contact with European arts, has furnished the Indian with no additional means of contending with the watery element ; and his log canoe and boat of birch bark, are precisely the same as at the landing of Columbus. 5. Manner of Interment. Veneration for the dead is a sentiment natural to man, whether civilized or savage; but the manner of expressing it, and of performing the rites of sepulture, differ widely in different nations. No offence excites greater exasperation in the breast of the Indian than the violation of the graves of his people ; and he has even been known to disinter the bones of his ancestors, and bear them with him to a great distance, when circumstances have compelled him to make a permanent change of residence. But the manner of inhumation is so different from that practised by the rest of mankind, and at the same time so prevalent among the American natives, as to constitute another means of identifying them as parts of a single and peculiar race. This practice consists in burying the dead in the sitting posture; the legs being flexed Aboriginal Race of America. 137 against the abdomen, the arms also bent, and the chin supported on the palms of the hands. The natives of Patagonia, Brazil and Guayana ; the insular and other Charibs, the Florida tribes, the great chain of Lenape nations, the inhabitants of both sides of the Rocky mountains, and those also of Canada and the vast North-western region, all conform with occasional exceptions, to this conventional rite. So also with the demi-civilized communities from the most distant epochs; for the ancient Peruvians, to whom we have already so frequently referred, possessed this singular usage, as is verified by their numberless remains in the sepulchres of Titicaca, They did not, however, bury their dead, but placed them on the floors of their tombs, seated and sowed up in sacks. The later Peruvians of the Inca race followed the same custom, sometimes inhuming the body, at others placing it in a tower above ground. Garcilaso de la Vega informs us, that in the year 1560 he saw five embalmed bodies of the royal family, all of whom were seated in the Indian manner, with their hands crossed upon the breast, and their heads bent forward. So also the Mexicans from the most ancient time had adopted the same usage, which was equally the privilege of the king and his people. The most remarkable exception to the practice in question, is that in which the body is dissected before interment, the bones alone being deposited in the earth. This extraordinary rite has prevailed among various tribes from the southern to the northern extremity of their range, in Patagonia, Brazil, Florida and Missouri, and indeed in many intervening localities; but even in these instances the bones are often retained in their relative position by preserving the liga- ments, and then interred in the attitude of a person seated. An example among very many others is recorded by the Baron Hum- boldt, in his visit to a cavern-cemetery of the Atures Indians, at the sources of the Orinoco; wherein he found hundreds of skeletons preserved each in a separate basket, the bones being held together by their natural connexions, and the whole disposed in the conven- _ tional posture of which we are speaking. I am well aware that this practice has been noticed by some na- vigators among the Polynesian islands ; the instances, however, ap- pear so few as rather to form exceptions to the rule, like those of the Nassamones of northern Africa: but I have sought for it in vain ts 138 Distinctive characteristics of the among the continental Asiatics, who, if they ever possessed it, would have yet preserved it among some at least of their numberless tribes. After this rapid view of the principal leading characteristics of the American race, let us now briefly inquire whether they denote an exotic origin; or whether there is not internal evidence that this race is as strictly aboriginal to America as the Mongolian is to Asia, or the Negro to Africa. And first, we turn to the Mongolian race, which, by a somewhat general consent is admitted to include the Polar nations, and among them the Eskimaux of our continent. It is a very prevalent opinion . that the latter people, who obviously belong to the Polar family of Asia, pass insensibly into the American race, and thus form the con- necting link between the two. But without repeating what has al- ready been said in reference to the Indian, we may briefly advert, for the purpose of comparison, to the widely different characteristics of the Eskimaux. These people are remarkable for a large and rather elongated head, which is low in front and projecting behind; the great width and flatness of the face is noted by all travellers: their eyes are small and black, the mouth small and round, and the nose is so diminutive and depressed, that on looking at a skull in profile the nasal bones are hardly seen. ‘Their complexion, moreover, is comparatively fair, and there is a tendency throughout life to fulness and obesity. The traveller Hearne, while in company with a tribe of northern Indians, mentions a circumstance which is at least cu- rious, because it shows the light in which the Eskimaux are regard- ed by their proximate neighbours on the south. He was the unwill- ing witness of a premeditated and unprovoked massacre of an entire encampment of Eskimaux, men, women, and children ; and it is cu- rious to remark that the aggressors apologised for their cruelty not only on the plea of ancient feud, but by asserting that their unof- fending victims were a people of different nature and origin from themselves, even.in respect to sexual conformation. The moral character of the Eskimaux differs from that of the In- dian chiefly in the absence of the courage, cunning, cruelty and im- providence so habitual in the red man, who, in turn, is inferior in mechanical ingenuity, and above all in aquatic exercises. The Eskimau, notwithstanding the intense cold of his climate, has been eS ee oe i ee ee gy oh ae Aboriginal Race of America. 139 called an amphibious animal, so readily and equally does he adapt himself to the land or water. His boat is an evidence of mechanical skill, and the adroit manner in which he manages it is a proverb among mariners. The women are not less expert and enterprising than the men: each possesses a boat of peculiar and distinctive con- struction ; and Crantz informs us, that children of the tender age of seven or eight years commence the unassisted management of their little vessels. How strongly do these and other traits which might be enumerated, contrast with those of the Indian, and enforce an ethnographic dissimilarity which is confirmed at every step of the investigation ! Some writers, however, think they detect in the Fuegian a being whose similar physical condition has produced in him all the charac- teristics of the Eskimau ; but we confidently assert that the latter is vastly superior .both in his exterior organization and mental aptitude. In truth the two may be readily contrasted, but not easily compared. The Fuegian bears a coarse but striking resemblance to the race to which he belongs, and every feature of his character assists in fixing his identity. The extremes of cold, with their many attending privations, by brutifying the features and distorting the expression of the face, reduce man to a mere caricature, a repulsive perversion of his original type. Compare the Mongols of Central Asia. and China, with the Polar nations of Siberia. Compare also the Hottentot with the contiguous black tribes on the north; the Tasmanian negro with the proper New Hollanders; and lastly, the wretched Fuegian with the Indian beyond the Magellanic Strait ; and we find in every instance how much more the man of a cold and inhospitable clime is degraded, physically and intellectually, than his more fortunate but affiliated neighbor. The operation of these perverting causes through successive ages of time, has obscured but not obliterated those lineaments which, however modified, point to an aboriginal stock. Without attempting to enter the fathomless depths of philology, 1 am bound to advert to the opinion of Mr. Gallatin, that all the nations from Cape Horn to the Arctic Ocean, have languages which possess “‘a distinct character common to all, and apparently differ- ing from those of the other continent with which we are acquainted ;” 140 Distinctive characteristics of the an analogy, moreover, which is not of an indefinite kind, but consists for the most part in peculiar conjugational modes of modifying the verbs, by the insertion of syllables. ~ It has been insisted by some writers that this analogy proves the cognate relation of the Eski- maux and Indians. This, however is a mere postulate ; for from the evidence already adduced in respect to the ethnographic difference between these people, we have a right to infer that the resemblance in their respective languages has not been derived by the greater from the lesser source,—not by the Americans from the Eskimaux, but the reverse: for the Asiatics having arrived at various and distant periods, and in small parties, would naturally, if not unavoid- ably, adopt more or less of the language of the people among whom they settled, until their own dialects finally merged in those of the Chepewyan and other Indians who bound them on the south. The Eskimaux, it may be remarked, at the present time extend much further south, and are much more numerous on the western than on the eastern coast of America, being found as low down as Mount St. Elias; south of which, contrary to what is observed on the opposite side of the continent, they become more or less blended with the Indian tribes, and have imparted to the latter some portion of their mechanical ingenuity. This difference in the extent and influence of the western and eastern Eskimaux, is explained by the proximity of the former to Asia ; and a redundant population has even forced some of them back to the parent hive, whither they have carried a dialect derived from the cognate tribes of America. Such are the T’sutchchi, who thus form a link between the Polar na- tions of the two continents. It is a common opinion, also, that America has been peopled by the proper Mongols of central and eastern Asia; and volumes have been written on supposed affinities, physical, moral and intellectual, to sustain this hypothesis. We have already glanced at the Mon- golian features, as seen, though rudely and extravagantly deve- loped, in the Polar nations ; but there are some characters so preva- lent as to pervade all the ramifications of the great Mongolian stock, from the repulsive Calmuck to the polished and more delicately featured Chinese. These are the small, depressed, and seemingly Aboriginal Race of America. 141 broken nose ; the oblique position of the eye, which is drawn up at the external angle ; the great width between the cheek bones, which are not only high but expanded laterally ; the arched and linear eyebrow ; and lastly, the complexion, which is invariably some shade of yellow or olive, and almost equally distant from the fair tint of the European and the red hue of the Indian. Without attempting a detailed comparison, we may briefly observe that the Mongolian, in his various localities, is distinguished for his imitative powers and mechanical ingenuity, and above all for his nautical skill, in which, as we have suggested, he holds a place next to the nations of the Caucasian race. In fine, we are constrained to believe that there is no more resemblance between the Indian and the Mongol in res- pect to arts, architecture, mental features and social usages, than exists between any other two distinct races of mankind. Mr. Rank- ing has written an elaborate treatise to prove that the Mongols, led by a descendant of Genghis Khan, conquered Peru and Mexico in the thirteenth century ; but in the whole range of English literature there cannot be found a work more replete with distorted facts and illogical reasoning. The author begins by the singular assertion that ‘“‘when Cuzco was founded by Manco Capac, none of the civi- lization introduced by the Peruvians and Mexicans was in existence ;” thus overlooking the cultivated tribes who preceded the Inca family, and disregarding also the various demicivilized nations which suc- cessively followed each other in Mexico, before that country fell under the rule of the Aztecs. Mr. Ranking introduces the Mongols im large ships, with all the appliances of war, not even excepting elephants ; and in order that the Tartar general may correspond to Manco Capac, he is made to enter Peru by the Lake Titicaca, up- wards of an hundred miles from the sea. Such statements may seem too absurd for sober discussion ; but they are not more so than various other subterfuges which have been resorted to in explana- tion of the precise manner in which the new world has been peopled from the old. But there is not a shadow of evidence that the Mongols ever reached America in ships excepting by mere accident ; and therefore their number must have always been too small, and too badly pro- 142 Distinctive characteristics of the vided, to have dreamt of conquest in a country which has had a population of millions from immemorial time. : There is a third view of this question which remains to be noticed ; for, allowing that the Eskimaux and the cognate Polar nations are not the progenitors of the American race; and admitting also that the Mongols of central Asia could never have arrived in any requisite number by a direct voyage from one continent to the other, yet it is supposed by many learned men that these Mongols could have reached America by slow journeys from their own distant country ; and that their hieroglyphic charts delineate many of the incidents of their journey: but there is no positive evidence in regard to direc- tion and localities, although these, by a very general consent, are placed in the north and north-west. Cabrera, on the contrary, after the most patient research, aided by unusual facilities for investiga- tion, traces the primal seat of the civilized nations of America to southern Mexico, where the ruined cities of Copan, Uxmal and Palenque, point to an epoch seemingly much more remote than any antiquities contained in the present metropolis of that country. If we conventionally adopt the more prevalent opinion, and trace the Aztecs back to California or the strait, we have after all but a vague tradition of a handful of persons, who, for all we know to the contrary, may have been as indigenous to America as any people in it. The aborigines of this continent have always been of nomadic and migratory habits ; a fact which is amply illustrated in the tradi- tional history of Mexico itself. So also with the barbarous tribes ; for the Lenape, the Florida Indians, the Iroquois, the insular Charibs and many others, were intruding nations, who, driven by want, or impelled by an innate and restless activity, had deserted their own possessions to seize upon others which did not belong to them. These nations, like their more polished neighbors, were in the con- stant practice of recording the events of their battles and hunting excursions by hieroglyphic symbols, made, according to circumstances, on trees, skins or rocks; and this rude but expressive language of signs, has been justly regarded as the origin of the picture-writing of the Mexicans. ‘The difference between them,” observes Dr. Coates, ‘“« does not appear greater than must necessarily exist between igno- Aboriginal Race of America. 143 rant warriors and hunters in a simple form of society, and those of the members of a complicated state, possessed of property, and even, as described by Clavigero, of a species of science and literature.” This gradation of the ruder into the more perfect art of hierogly- phic writing, not only affords an additional argument for the unity of orgin of the American nations, but also constitutes another proof of the distinctness of their race; for this picture-writing, even in its most elaborate forms, bears no other than the most general resemblance to any exotic hieroglyphics, nor indeed has a real equivalent been detected between them. We may therefore be permitted to repeat our conviction that the annals of the Mexicans bear no indisputable evidence of immigration from Asia; but, on the other hand, that they are susceptible of as many different interpretations as there are theories to be supported. It is remarked by Dr. Coates, that the Mongolian theory, which we are now considering, is objectionable on account of its vastness. “To derive the population of the whole of the American continent from the north-western angle, requires the supposition of a continued chain of colonies during a long succession of ages, acquiring and using an immense diversity of languages, and pursuing each other along the huge ridge of the great American Andes, from Prince William’s Sound in the far north, to the extremity of Terra del Fuego, a distance of one hundred and fifteen degrees of latitude, or of eight thousand miles. This long succession of occurrences is absolutely necessary to the theory; which is thus lable to the difficulty of requiring two extensive hypotheses at once. Several hundred colonies must be imagined to have issued from the same point, all completely isolated, as their languages abundantly show, unconnected by peaceful intercourse, but urging each other by war and the destruction of the game, throughout a third part of the circumference of the globe. “The traces of such a series of human waves would be naturally looked for in a tendency to advance population in the north, from which they emanated, and where the pressure must have been great- est and the colonization of longest duration. Nothing like this is observed; the population of South America, and of Darien, Guati- mala and Mexico, being much greater in proportion than that of any 144: Distinctive characteristics of the country farther north. The marks of early civilization, too, one of the most important proofs of long residence in a fixed spot, are all, as in the older world, in favor of the tropical climates.”* We may further inquire, how it happens that during the lapse of more than three hundred years since the discovery of America, there has not been an authenticated immigration from Asia? The long and desolating wars which have driven whole nations from the central to the northern parts of that continent, have not supplied a single colony to the New World. Nay, if such colonization had occurred within a thousand or two thousand years, would we not now possess more indubitable evidences of it in language, customs and the arts ? We propose in the next place, to make a very few observations in reference to the idea that America has been peopled by the Mazay race, which, in the ordinary classification, includes the Malays proper of the Indian Archipelago, and the Polynesians in all their number- less localities. These people, however, have so much of the Mongo- lian character, that nearly the same objections arise to both. The head of the Malay proper, is more like that of the Indian, because it not unfrequently presents something of the vertical form of the occiput; and the transverse diameter, as measured between the parietal bones, is also remarkably large. But excepting in these respects, the osteological developement coincides with that of the Mongolian ; while the whole category of objections which we have just urged against the latter people, is equally valid in respect to the whole Malay race. For independently of differences of organization, how great is the disparity in their arts and social institutions! So great, indeed, that to account for it, Dr. Lang, one of the most Ingenious supporters of the theory, insists on an intellectual dege- neracy, consequent to change of climate and circumstances. ‘‘ It is an easy and natural process,” says he, “‘for man to degenerate in the scale of civilization, as the Asiatics have evidently done in travelling to the northward and eastward. He has only to move forward a few hundred miles into the wilderness, and settle himself *On the Origin of the Indian Population of America. By B. H. Coartzs, M. D. 1834. Aboriginal Race of America. 145 at a distance from all civilized men, and the process will advance with almost incredible celerity. For, whether he comes in contact with savages or not, in the dark recesses of the forest, his offspring will speedily arrive at a state of complete barbarism.” We confess our difficulty in imaging how the Polynesians, themselves a barbarous people, though possessing some of the at- tributes of civilized life, should become savages in the tropical re- gions of America, wherein the climate must be as congenial to their constitutions as their own, and the various other external circum- stances are calculated to foster rather than to depress the energies of a naturally active and intelligent people. But the general prevalence of easterly winds is adverse to the colonization of America from the islands of the Pacific ; for the nearest of these islands is one thousand eight hundred miles from the American coast ; and when we reflect on the many difficulties which the mere distance opposes to navigation in small vessels, and the absolute necessity for food and water for a long period of time, we feel compelled to believe that America has received very feeble if any accessions to its population from the Polynesian islands. Such voyages, if admitted, could only have been accidental ; for it is not to be supposed that these islanders would have attempted remote discoveries on the vast Pacific ocean in the very face of the trade winds; and a successful issue is among the least probable of human events. Even admitting that the Polynesians have accomplished all that the theory requires, how does it happen that on reaching the conti- nent of America, they should all at once have relinquished their intuitive fondness for the water, forgotten the construction of their boats, and become the most timid and helpless navigators in the world ? A comparison of languages, moreover, gives no support to the Polynesian hypothesis; for all the zeal and ingenuity which have been devoted to this inquiry, have tended only to disclose a complete philological disparity. The theories to which we have thus briefly adverted, would each derive the whole American population from a single source; but various others have been hazarded of a much more complex nature, by which the Indian nations are referred to a plurality of races, not U 146 Distinctive characteristics of the even excepting the Caucasian. For example, the Peruvians, Muyscas and Mexicans, are by some advocates of this system, supposed to be Malays or Polynesians, and all the savage tribes Mongolians ; whence the civilization of the one and the barbarism of the other. But we insist that the origin of these two great divisions must have been the same, because all their ethnographic characters, not excepting the construction of their numberless languages, go to enforce an identity of race. Another doctrine which has had many disciples, (among whom was the late Lord Kingsborough, author of Mexican Antiquities) teaches that the whole American population is descended from the Jews, through the ten lost tribes which were carried away by Salmanazer, King of Assyria. Here again the differences of physi- cal organization should set this question at rest for ever; but in- dependently of these, can we suppose that people so tenacious as the Jews, of their literature, language, and religion, should not have preserved a solitary unequivocal memorial of either among the mul- titudinous tribes of this continent, if any direct affiliation had ever existed between them? In short, we coincide in opinion with a facetious author who sums up all the evidence of, the case with the conclusion, that “the Jewish theory cannot be true for the simple reason that it is impossible.” We feel assured that the same objection bears not less strongly on every other hypothesis which deduces any portion of the Ameri- can nations from a Caucasian source. In order to solve the problem of the origin of the monumenta of America, independently of any agency of the aboriginal race, an opinion has been advanced that they are the work of a branch of the great Cyclopean family of the old world, known by the various designations of the Shepherd Kings of Egypt, the Anakim of Syria, the Oscans of Etruria, and the Pelas- gians of Greece. These wandering masons, as they are also called, are supposed to have passed from Asia into America at a very early epoch of history, and to have built those more ancient monuments which are attributed to the Toltecan nation. This view, supported as it is by some striking resemblances, and especially in architectural decoration, leaves various important difficulties entirely unexplained : it necessarily presupposes a great influx of foreigners to account for Aboriginal Race of America. 14:7 such numerous and gigantic remains of human ingenuity and effort, at the same time that no trace of this exotic family can be detected in the existing Indian population. They and their arts are equally eradicated ; and we can only conceive of the presence of these migra- tory strangers in small and isolated groups, which might have mo- dified the arts of an antecedent civilization, while they themselves were too few in number to transmit their lineaments to any abori- ginal community. Closely allied to this theory, is that of our ingenious countryman, Mr. Delafield, who derives the demi-civilized nations of America from “the Cuthites who built the monuments of Egypt and In- dostan.” He supposes them to have traversed all Asia to reach Behring’s Strait, and thus to have entered America at its northwest angle, whence they made their way by slow journeys to the central regions of the continent. Our objections to this theory will be found in what has been already stated ; and we may merely add, that the route by which the author conducts his pilgrim adventurers, appears to constitute the least plausible portion of his theory. Mr. Delafield supposes the barbarous tribes to be of a different stock, and refers them to the Mongolians of Asia; thus adopting the idea of a plurality of races. We shall lastly notice an imaginative classification which separates the aborigines of America into four species of men, exclusive of the Eskimaux. This curious but unphilosophical hypothesis has been advanced by Bory de St. Vincent, a French naturalist of distinction, who considers the civilized nations to be cognate with the Malays, and designates them by the collective name of the Neptunian species ; while to his three remaining species,—the Columbian, the American and the Patagonian, he assigns certain vague geographical limits, without establishing any distinctive characteristics of the people themselves. The system is so devoid of foundation in nature, so fanciful in all its details, as hardly to merit a serious analysis; and we have introduced it on the present occasion to illustrate the ex- travagance and the poverty of some of the hypotheses which have been resorted to in explanation of the problem before us. Once for all I repeat my conviction, that the study of physical conformation alone, excludes every branch of the Caucasian race 148 Distinctive characteristics of the from any obvious participation in the peopling of this continent. If the Egyptians,* Hindoos, Phenicians or Gauls have ever, by accident or design, planted colonies in America, these must have been, sooner or later, dispersed and lost in the waves of a vast indigenous popula- tion. Such we know to have been the fact with the Northmen, whose repeated, though very partial settlements in the present New England States, from the tenth to the thirteenth centuries, are now matter of history ; yet, in the country itself, they have not left a single indisputable trace of their sojourn. In fine, our own conclusion, long ago deduced from a patient examination of the facts thus briefly and inadequately stated, is, that the American race is essentially separate and peculiar, whether we regard it in its physical, its moral, or its intellectual relations. To us there are no direct or obvious links between the people of the old world and the new; for even admitting the seeming analogies to which we have alluded, these are so few in number and evidently so casual as not to invalidate the main position: and even should it be hereafter shown, that the arts, sciences and religion of America, can be traced to an exotic source, I maintain that the organic characters of the people themselves, through all their endless ramifications of tribes and nations, prove them to belong to one and the same race, and that this race is distinct from all others. This idea may at first view seem incompatible with the history of man, as recorded in the Sacred Writings. Such, however, is not * With respect to the Egyptians and Hindoos as involved in this question, I can speak without reservation. ‘Through the kindness of an accomplished gentle- man and scholar, George R. Gliddon, Esq., late United States Consul at Cairo, I have received ninety heads of Egyptian mummies from the tombs of Abydus, Thebes and Memphis; and I unhesitatingly declare, that, with a very few ex- ceptions, which have a mixed character, and resemble the Coptic form, the con- formation throughout is that of the Caucasian race. In every instance in which the hair has been preserved, it is long, soft and curling, and indeed as silky as that of the most polished Europeans of the present time. I am now preparing, with the title of Crania 4gyptiaca, a brief exposition of the facts connected with these interesting relics of antiquity. I possess also about thirty crania of the Hindoos, among which there is not one that could be mistaken for an Indian skull. In fact there is an obvious contrast between them in all respects excepting the internal capacity, which is nearly the same in the Hindoo and Peruvian. Aboriginal Race of America. 149 the fact. Where others can see nothing but chance, we can perceive a wise and obvious design, displayed in the original adaptation of the several races of men to those varied circumstances of climate and locality, which, while congenial to the one, are destructive to the other. The evidences of history and the Egyptian monuments go to prove that these races were as distinctly stamped three thousand five hundred years ago as they are now; and, in fact, that they are coeval with the primitive dispersion of our species. Bengal Isinglass. The following certificate relative to the quality of Bengal Isinglass, must be very gratifying to those who are interested in the introduction of new staple productions of this country. It would appear from the advices received on the subject by the last Mail, that the article from the first proved superior to what it was acknowledged to be by buyers, who seem to have been chiefly anxious to obtain it as cheap as possible. It may be unreasonable to blame them for this, although they have undoubtedly counteracted their own interests by depreciating the article below its fair value, as compared with the Isinglass of other countries. The samples sent into the market, though large, were only submitted experi- mentally in order to ascertain the quality of the article, and the unbiassed opinion of dealers and manufacturers as to its real value. Had the buyers and manufacturers received them in this light, and fairly and readily acknowledged the result in the first instance, it would have led at once to the necessary steps being taken in Bengal, where the experi- ments originated, in order to ascertain the nature and source of the supply. At present, this great practical object, like some others, seems likely to be allowed to stand over for a time until revived again by accident, and this merely for want of 150 Bengal Isinglass. that attention to the fisheries of the country which their importance demands. The first essential step in the matter would be, a proper investigation of the habits of the Suleah fish, as to the period of its approach to, and departure from, particular points of the coast, the variations as to time and place of the shoals, and the certainty and extent to which fisheries for this species might be carried on. Messrs. J. CockBurn and Co. ‘ Romford Brewery, Jan. 23, 1844. Drar Srrs,—I am much gratified in being able to report most favourably of the East India Isinglass our firm had of you, having found that it dissolves very freely in sours to a firm clear jelly, and makes capital finings, especially for brown and running Beers. I have tried it on our own, and found that the Beer was quite bright in eight hours after fining, and have no doubt but that if the quality is still kept to that already sent, it will in a great measure supersede the higher priced Isinglass. I am, Dear Sirs, Yours most sincerely, (Signed) H. Smiru, For Inp and Smiru. P.S.—I have given a portion to my brother to report upon, and his analysis was 95 @ 96 per cent. of gelatine, and 5 per cent. of animal fibre, insoluble in acids. On the above we may remark, that the quality may be still farther greatly improved, and never be inferior to that which has already been sent home from Bengal. THE CALCUTTA JOURNAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. Apodal Fishes of Bengal. By J. McCuenianp, Bengal Medical Service. ARTEDI, the author whose classification of fishes formed the basis of the system proposed by Linneus in regard to these animals, distinguishes two great classes, cartilagi- nous and bony, as relates to the material of which the skeleton is composed. The cartilaginous are, as every body knows, the Sharks, Rais, Lampreys, &c. The fishes with bony skeletons being by far the most - numerous and diversified, are divided into three orders, according as the gills are supported by bony arches, and the fins by rays or spines. Linneus introduced another element into the princi- ple of their classification, founded on their peculiarities in regard to ventral fins, which simplified their arrangement greatly. The following are the brief expressive characters by which the great Swedish naturalist distinguished the class of fishes into six orders :— 1. Apodal.Ventral fins, none. 2. Jugular.—Gills bony, ventral fins placed before the pectorals. VOL. V. NO. XVIII. JULY, 1844. x 152 Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 3. Thoracie.—Gills bony, ventral fins placed directly un- der the throat. 4. Abdominal.—Gills bony, ventral fins placed behind the throat. . Branchiostegius.—Gills without bones. 6. Chondropterigius.—The skeleton cartilaginous. ey The number prefixed to each order is not here to be sup- posed as having any reference to its relative rank in regard to organization; the arrangement of Linnzus had for its object merely the convenience of students, and not the ar- rangement of Species according to their natural affinities. In order however, to render the series more natural, the Apodal fishes should stand 5th in accordance with the scale proposed by Cuvier, in which case the 6th order should then become 1st in place of apodes, in accordance with the views of Mr. MacLeay and of Mr. Swainson. To render the series perfectly natural, the orders themselves would require revision, toge- ther with the families and genera of which they are composed. The object of the present paper is a revision merely of the Apodal order, founded on the results of an examination of Asiatic, but particularly of Bengal, species. The results will shew how highly essential such a revi- sion had become, and that it could not be any where better effected than upon the spot where such numerous undes- cribed and unknown forms of the peculiar animals in question occur. It may indeed have fallen into hands unfitted for the task, but the advantages of position, and the extensive assistance derived from friends who have supplied specimens from many distant places, more than counter-balance the author’s incapacity, as compared with the nature and object of the undertaking. The Apodal order in the Systema Nature of Linneus, consists of all bony fishes without ventral fins, as follows :— ee ee Se eee = oo pas ee Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 153 1. Mureena. 5. Anarrhichas.* 9. Xiphias.* 2. Gymnotus. 6. Ammodytes. 10. Sternoptyx.* 3. Gymnothorax. 7. Ophidium. 11. Leptocephalus. 4. Trichiurus.* 8. Stomateus.* The five genera marked with an asterisk are transferred to other orders by Cuvier, who introduces in their place, certain genera which were subsequently discovered. With regard to the original genera, as well as those which have been subsequently introduced, such only as are repre- sented by Indian species will be here noticed. In the Systema Nature as well as in the Régne Animal, the genera all stand unconnected. In the latter they are said to form but a single family, distinguished “ by their elongat- ed shape, thick soft skin, which almost renders their scales invisible. They have few bones, and no cecal appendages to the pyloris.” The following is the order in which they are placed by Cuvier. Orper. FamILy. Anguilla, Cuv. Conger, Cuv. Ophisurus, Lacep. Murena, Thunb. Sphagebranchus,* Bl. Monopterus,* Commers. Synbranchus, Bl. Alabes, Cuv. < Saccopharyux, Mitch. Gymnotus, Lacep. | Carapus, Cuv. Sternarchus, Schn. : Gymnarchus, Cuv. Leptocephalus, Penn. Ophidium, Linn. Ferasfer, Cuv. | Ammodytes, Lin. Maacorprerycil, } ANGUILLIFOR- APODES. MEs, Cuv. = =e Ves: These genera being all natives of Europe and Ame- rica have no Fast India species. —— The following is a brief notice of the genera as they stand in the Régne Animal :-— 1. Anguilla, Cuv. Of this there are several species in the East, all which are distinct from those of Europe. 2. Conger, Cuv. Of this genus there are no species in India. The one referred to it by Cuvier from Russell’s In- dian Fishes is quite distinct, and forms a separate genus. 154 Apodal Fishes of Bengal. which is here named Murenesox, of which we have several species, occupying in India an equivalent place with the Congers of Europe. These three genera have the pectoral fins distinctly de- veloped, and the dorsal and anal united, as well as other common characters. It is proposed to distinguish them as a separate family, which is here named ANGUILLIDZ. 3. Ophisurus. Of this genus there are several species in India. It possesses, in common with the genus Leptogna- thus of Mr. Swainson, the naked tail caused by the termina- tion of the dorsal and anal before they reach the end of that organ, for which reason it is proposed to form these genera into a family here named Opuisuripa, sufficiently distinguished from the first bythe interruption of the dorsal and anal, as already noticed, as well as by their small pectorals. Sphagebranchus imberbis, Laroach, Annal du Museum xiii. Mureena maculosa, Cuv. figured as Ophisurus ophis, Lacep. 11, t. 6, f. 2, and Murznophis Colubrina, Lacep. V. t. 19, f. 1, form a third genus, which is here named Ophithorax. It is distinguished by the smallness of the pectorals, and also belongs to the Ophisuride. 4, The genus Murena,* it is also proposed to raise to the rank of a family, Mura@nipa. ‘The Bengal species present the palatines so compressed, that the teeth peculiar to these bones occupy the place of those of the vomer. Species in which the teeth of both palatines form a single row along the centre of the roof of the mouth, it is proposed to distinguish as a genus here named Lycodontis. 'Those in which there are separate ranges of palatine teeth, anteriorly, though they may be united posteriorly, it is ventured toname Therodoniis. Both these genera are distinguished by the articulation of long, scattered, conical teeth in front of the jaws to a move- able pedicle, by which means they are capable of being raised or retracted, according to circumstances. * Gymnothorux Bl. and Murenophis, Lacepede. Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 155 5. The species described in Russell’s Indian Fishes, No. 37, as Manti Bukram-paum, and referred by Cuvier to the genus Spagebranchus, Bl. belongs to the genus Dalophis of Rafinesque, which, as well as the genus Gymnomurena, Lacep., and Uropterygius concolor, Rippell’s fishes of the Red Sea,* belong to Murenide. The three families above noticed have the branchial aper- tures double, the heart situated between them, and the intes- tinal aperture at, or before the middle of the body ; it is here ventured to name them as a tribe, ANGUILLIFORMES. 6. The following families are, on the contrary, distin- guished from them by the heart being placed behind the branchial apertures, and the intestinal aperture far behind the middle of the body; they are here, as a tribe, named OPHICARDIDES. For a time I felt disposed to fol- low the example of other writers in referring to Synbranchus, Monopterus, Sphagebranchus, and Apterichthes of the Régne Animal, certain Bengal species which have inconsi- derately been supposed to belong to those genera. 7. The supposed genus Sphagebranchus has been a recep- tacle for species with or without pectoral, or indeed any, fins whatever. Some of the species referred to it belong to Ophisuride and Murenide, others will be found either to belong to the various genera of one or other of the above tribes, according as the intestinal aperture is at the middle of the body or further back towards the tail. That the genus Sphagebranchus is unnatural, no further evidence is neces- sary, than the number of very opposite forms that have been referred to it. The only Indian species that has been sup- posed to belong to it, is certainly a Dalophis of Mr. Swainson. 8. The Apterichthes, are Sphagebranchi without fins. The only one I have seen described, is the Apterich. ceca, Laroach, Annal du Mus. xiii. t. 21, f. 6. It is here referred * This work contains numerous Indian species, and ought to be in every public Library. 156 Apodal Fishes of Bengal. to the Gymnomurena of Lacepede, the intestinal aperture being stated to be before the middle. 9. The genus Monopterus depends only on the MS. des- cription of a single specimen found by Commerson in the Straits of Sunda. The branchial apertures are said to be united under the throat in a transverse fissure divided in the middle by a partition, and the teeth are said to be like those of acard. In the Régne Animal it is said, there are six rays in each branchial membrane, and a species of Syn- branchus figured under another name, (Lacep. vol. V. xvii, 3,) is supposed by Cuvier to be the species described by Com- merson. In the original description, (Lacep. vol. ii. p. 140,) it is said there are but three rays in the branchial membrane. Of four different genera inhabiting India, that which comes nearest to the description of Commerson’s species, has five rays in the branchial membrane, of a size not likely to allow of their being mistaken. I have been unable therefore to refer any species to the genus Monopterus, however I felt inclined to do so, because of the uncertainty of the characters assigned to it, and the number of genera presenting a very considerable diversity of structure, which almost equally approach it in appearance. 10. Several Indian species have been referred to the genus Synbranchus, Bl. They are nevertheless, perfectly distinct from that genus. The Synbranchi properly so called, with a longitudinal fissure under the throat, are all natives of the coast of Guinea. One of them, Synbranchus immaculatus, is said to be found at Surinam and Tranquebar; on what authority the latter locality is stated by Lacepéde, does not appear. We may be pretty certain, however, that the Tranquebar species is either the Cuchia of Buchanan or the Dondoo- paum of Russell, since no species having a single longitudi- nal branchial aperture under the throat, has been found in Apodal Iishes of Bengal. 157 India by any author. Thus the error of confounding our Indian species with the Synbranchz of Bloch, and Unibran- chapertura of Lacepede, would appear to have originated in a mistake regarding the locality of one of the species. Synbranchus is an Ophicardious genus, having a single lon- gitudial aperture under the throat, several rows of small blunt | conical teeth, and a blunt round muzzle without tubulated nostrils. They are said to be furnished with a long narrow natatory air-vessel. Their branchiz are not described fur- ther than that the membrane contains six strong rays. 11. The remaining genera, with the exception of Alabes, are all composed of species which are foreign to India. Alabes, however, depends upon a small species of the Indian ocean, which differs from Synbranchus in the presence of pectoral fins. American and European genera, appear to be defi- cient in Ophicardious forms, which would seem to be chiefly confined to Africa and Asia. Whether from geographical or other causes, there seems, as far as relates to fishes, a much greater uniformity between India, the coast of Guinea, and the eastern coasts of China to the 30° N. Lat., than with any other corresponding tracts of the same extent. 12. Synbranchus, Saccopharynx and Alabes are the only genera hitherto known in which we can, a prior, suppose the heart to be situated behind the branchial apertures; as they have not been examined with a view to this point, it remains to notice briefly the general peculiarities of several Bengal genera, here for the first time brought forward in which this peculiarity is most remarkable. First. PNeumprancuus. The intervals between the bran- chial arches are nearly obliterated. The place of pectinated branchial combs is supplied by means of a sack which opens into the mouth over the end of the first arch on either side, the body is cvoered with small imbricated scales, the teeth are placed in two rows, one on the palatines and the other on the maxillaries. 158 Apodal Fishes of Bengal. Second. OpuicarpiA. The branchial arches are open and free, the gills are slightly pectinated, the teeth are dis- posed in a band on the palatines and another on the maxil- liaries, no scales. Third. Opuisternon. The gills are fully pectinated, the branchial membranes of both sides are united in one common cavity, the eyes are placed near the extremity of the muzzle, no scales. In these genera there are no teeth on the vomer, and the gills have bony arches, though not pectinated in some. In these respects, as well as in regard to the single branchial aperture under the throat, they correspond with Synbranchus, BI. with which they form one common family, SYNBRANCHID&. 13. The next family to be noticed, is distinguished by the almost total absence of bony arches to the gills; these last are somewhat fan-shaped, from which circumstance the family is named PTyoBRANCHID&. Of this family I have as yet found but one genus, PTyo- BRANCHUS ; it is possessed of pectoral fins; the fins are all supported by rays as in ordinary fishes ; there are two aper- tures to the branchiz, and the palatines are compressed so as to form a single row of teeth on the roof of the mouth, cor- responding with those of the vomer in other genera, as alrea- dy pointed out in some of the Murenide. Hence the dis- position of the Apodal order will stand as follows :— ORDER APODES. Tribe. Family. Genus. ‘fh Anguilla, Cuv. , Ancuinuipa, J. M. Conger, Cuv. Murenesox, J. M. Leptognathus Swains. Ophisurus, Lacep. Ophithorax, J. M. ( Dalophis, Rafinesque. ' Therodontis, J. M. Muranipe&, J. M. Murena, prop. (J. M.) | Lycodontis, J. M. | Gymnomurena, Lacep. ANGUILLIFOR- } OP#t8uRIDa, J. M. MES,J.M. % —e Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 159 TRIBE. FamiI.y. GENUS. Alabes, Cuv. Ophicardia, J. M. S ihe cM Pneumabranchus, J. M. soil »1-M-4 Onhisternon, J. M. Synbranchus, Bloch. PryosrancHiD£,J.M. Ptyobranchus, J. M. American and European } groups are omitted. OPHICARDIDES, J. M. 14. It will be necessary now to point out wherein the terms Anguillide, Murenide, and Synbranchide as here used, imply a different meaning from the sense in which they are employed by Mr. Swainson in his work on the classifi- cation of Fishes. The arrangement proposed by this author, differs from that of Linnzus in omitting the jugular and thoracic orders, and introducing cartilaginous and semi- cartilaginous fishes as two distinct orders in their place, thus making the spinous fishes the first, and the soft-finned the second order, placing Apodal fishes last. The Apodal fishes he disposes as follows :— Fami.y. GENUS. (Anguilla, Sw. 1 Ophisoma, Sw. Ophisurus, Lacep. Leptognathus, Sw. Pterurus, Sw. Murena, Sw. B Nettastoma, Raf. . Pachyurus, Sw. Murena, Antiq. Dalophis, Raf. Ophiognathus,, (Saccopha- rynx), Harwood. | « Lchthyophis, Less. Alabes, Cuv. ORDER V— Le ect APODES, Sw Sphagebranchus, Bl. oo Monopterus, Commers. Synbranchus, Bl. Ophichthes, Sw. | No Bengal species known ( Muranipe, Sw. SYNBRANCHIDA, Sw. STERNARCHIDA, of the first and third of PTEROMYZONIDZ, these proposed families, | Cvcnorreripa, and the second belongs to cartilaginous fishes. | | | | | Y ) | 160 Apodal Fishes of Bengal. Thus it will be seen, that the Murenide of Swainson not only embrace both the Murenide and Anguillide, but se- veral Ophicardious genera: for it must be observed that, Pterurus and Pachyurus, Swains. are genera founded upon an imperfect knowledge of two drawings of Ptyobranchus, derived by Mr. Gray from the Buchanan MSS.* and errone- ously named by him as two genera, Moringua and Rataboura. The Murenide of Swainson thus contain some species with, and some without bony arches to the gills; some spe- cies with, and some without pectoral fins; some with one, and others with two branchial apertures; some having the heart placed before, and some with that rather important organ behind the branchial apertures. It is consequently an unnatural family, composed of all varieties of form and structure, brought together without due regard to character and affinity. , Of the Synbranchide of.Swainson it is necessary ‘to ob- serve, that the genus Synbranchus of Bloch, is the only one having any reference to nature. It has already been shewn that the Sphagibranchi of Bloch, are an assemblage of species referable to several genera, and probably to more than one family. It is unnecessary to repeat what has been said above of the genus Monopterus. As to Ophichthes, Swainson, it is sufficient to say that it is intended for the Cuchia of Buchanan, although it makes the under-jaw shor- ter than the upper, the nostrils single, and the body without scales—characters any one of which it does not possess. The term Anguiline occurs in the text of Mr. Swainson as in- tending to imply a subdivision of Muraenide, not to be found in the Synopsis of his work. * Vid. Asiat. Res. Bengal, vol. xix. p. 221. 4podal Fishes of Bengal. 161 II.—On the characters of Apodal Fishes. 1. For want of a due regard to the proper characters by which to distinguish the animals of this order, together with the great uniformity in external shape which they present, great maccuracies are to be found in the notices of naturalists regarding the identity and distribution of the species. : To obviate this, as well as to introduce more exactitude into our views and observations regarding them, the follow- ing remarks are brought together, as a summary of those characters which appear to be of most utility in the prac- tical examination and discrimination of these groups. In the order of fishes now under consideration, the ab- dominal fins, corresponding with the lower extremities, are wanting ; hence the name Apodal.* The absence of ventral or abdominal fins, is therefore an essential character of the Order, although other fins are frequently deficient in like manner. The pectoral fins are also wanting in two-thirds of the known species, the caudal fin is absent probably in one-tenth of the species; and some are without any fins whatever, unless we can allow a mere fold of the skin, unsupported by fin-rays, to be such. These membranous expansions are however, scarcely to be regarded as fins strictly speaking, any more than the analo- gous organs of the Manatus and other marine Mammalia, in which instead of rays, we find all the bones proper to limbs of quadrupeds. Indeed these finless fishes have * As the anterior extremities of other vertebrated animals are represented in fishes by the pectoral fins, so the posterior extremities are represented by the ven- trals. The functions of the posterior extremities are subject to fewer modifications than the anterior which, serve as hands, feet, or wings, according to the order of nature to which the animal belongs. Throughout the whole of the vertebrata, with the exception of fishes and marine mammalia, the functions of the posterior extre- mities are thesame. Hence we have one reason for coinciding with Mr. MacLeay, in regarding fishes as the most imperfect of vertebrata, Vid. vol. II, p. 263. 162 Apodal Fishes of Bengal. been justly regarded as bearing a very near approximation to serpents. The fin-rays in this order, particularly those of the dorsal and anal fins, are generally composed of a single piece, neither jointed nor branched, but shaped like the bony spines of other fishes, from which they differ in always being soft, nevertheless the rays of the caudal fin when present, are frequently finely jointed and a little branched, as well as those of the pectorals. 2. Branchial Apertures.—These organs which are con- stant throughout the class, are subject to many peculiarities. In cartilaginous fishes, they consist of several simple trans- verse fissures on each side. In fishes possessed of a bony skeleton, there is a single aperture on either side, and this is usually furnished with a bony frame-work, consisting of a pos- terior jamb which is fixed to, or forms a part of the bones of the shoulder, and a lid, consisting generally of one or more thin bony plates called opercula, which are connected by means of a hinge-like joint to the bones of the head. This apparatus peculiar to fishes, is highly characteristic of them, since there is nothing like it in any other class of animals. In the order now under review, the branchial apertures have lost the posterior jamb, as well as the bony plates form- ing the operculum, and these parts where they do exist at all. in this order, are found to do so only in a minute rudimental form. ‘The branchial apertures in Apodal fishes are therefore soft and contracted, and in some, they are both united in a single opening, of which there is no example in any other order. 3. Branchial Rays.—The rays supporting a membran- ous valve situated beneath the operculum, called the bran- chial, or branchiostegal rays, are peculiar to fishes having a bony skeleton. They undergo a great many singular changes in the order now under review. In some they Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 163 are very strong and bony, in others long, slender, and car- tilaginous; in others soft and thread-like, and so slender as to be scarcely perceptible. They are, however, as well as the operculum always present, but occasionally in so slight a degree, as to render their utility in the economy of some species very doubtful. 4. Dentition—The teeth are generally disposed in rows and bands, except in one or two genera in which they are crowded. ‘They are disposed on either side of both jaws. The bones on which the teeth are situated are the palatines, maxillaries, intermaxillaries, lower maxilla, and vomer ; to- gether with the pharangeal bones connected with the last branchial arch. These bones undergo a great diversity of form, produc- ing corresponding changes in the distribution and situ- ation of the teeth ; the most important of which is, the con- traction of breadth in the palatines of Murenide. Generally throughout the order, wherever there is but a single row of teeth on the edge of the upper jaw, that row is planted on the maxillaries. The palatine teeth in such cases oc- cupy a position corresponding with those of the vomer in other orders. There are usually four clusters or rows of minute teeth, situated at the entrance of the cesophagus. The teeth are conical, rather short and obtuse in some; long, sharp and slender in others, and generally slightly hooked or recurved towards the points. In some, the vomer teeth are compressed; in others, conical. This last kind are sometimes fixed to a moveable pedicle, and are capable of being retracted or drawn flat down upon the jaws. This peculiarity, if it exists: in European species at all, has hitherto been overlooked by naturalists. 5. Colour.—This is generally connected with the scales of fishes. The species composing the order now under review, have been generally supposed to present their scales 164: Apodal Fishes of Bengal. buried in the cells of a thick skin; but the truth is, some are totally without any traces of scales whatever ; some have re- gular imbricated scales as in ordinary fishes ; and others have scales with approximated edges, not imbricated as in ordi- nary fishes, but disposed in groups of a tessellated form. In all cases when present, the scales are minute ; the cuticle is thick and opaque, somewhat thicker than in other fishes. The colours of Apodal fishes in general are little diversi- fied, and whatever variation there is, runs for the most part through particular genera. There are no species presenting vivid colours, and there are perhaps no more than two or three colours observable in various shades throughout the order ; viz. dark olive-green, passing into black, and reddish, or yellowish-white. The lower parts of the body as far back as the intes- tinal aperture, are generally a dirty white ; and above dark olive-green is the prevailing colour ; sometimes the sides and upper parts are more or less distinctly marked and clouded with rings of these colours, occasionally obsure; sometimes they are marked with more distinct spots of dark, or blackish green on a lighter ground; more rarely these parts are mark- ed with small marbled specks ; and more rarely still, the body is dirty-whitish, with, or without dark spots. 6. General form.—As regards their outward appearance there is little variety, and such as we do observe, seems to belong to, or run through particular genera. They are all extremely elongated, and more or less cylindric. The tail is generally more compressed than the body, and the anal and dorsal fins which have no immediate relation to any organs of the higher classes of vertebrate animals, are the most constant of all such appendages to the outward form in this order. On the other hand, the pectoral and caudal fins are frequently wanting; the ventrals are always wanting in this order, which gives them a naked uniform appearance, resembling the form of a serpent. Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 165 This is particularly the case with certain genera, in which there is no appearance of any fins whatever, beyond a mere duplicature of the skin near the end of the tail. 7. The head is very variable in its shape throughout this order; in some species it is depressed and triangular; in others conical; in others, narrow and high behind the eyes ; but in all the muzzle is narrow. The nostrils have two aper- tures on either side; one generally tubular placed near the extremity of the muzzle, the other generally placed far back, sometimes even behind the eyes. The eyes are always small, and placed laterally. The mouth is generally moderately cleft, but always extending back as far at least as the eyes. The intestinal aperture is variously placed according to the internal structure of these animals. 8. Internal structure.—Having noticed briefly those parts which are best calculated to afford the means of distin- guishing the genera and species of this order, it remains to point out one or two circumstances of primary importance that have been overlooked in their structure, and which must in future exercise a great influence with regard to their general arrangement. First, as to the situation of the heart. In some we find this organ placed as in ordinary fishes near the gills, or at least no farther back than the branchial apertures.* In these the intestinal aperture is placed about the middle, or some- times before the middle of the body. In others, we find the heart placed considerably behind the branchial apertures, leaving a long thorax which carries the abdominal cavity far- ther back as in serpents, and places the intestinal aperture considerably behind the middle of the body, reducing pro- portionally the length of the tail. The East Indian species * Le cceur des poissons est situé dans une cavité particuliére, creusée dans langle que laissent entre’elles en arriére les deux ouies, ou fentes branchiales, &c. Cuvier Lecons d Anat. Comparée t. iv. p. 226. 166 Apodal Fishes of Bengal. possessed of this peculiarity are without any air-vessel,* but they have all an extremely elongated liver, either extended to, or situated at the posterior extremity of the abdomen. The heart is enclosed within a strong serous membrane or pericardium, which is united externally to the parieties of the thorax, forming a partition between that cavity and the abdomen. The heart is fixed within the pericardium merely by the great blood vessels passing to and from it. It is of a short compact oval figure generally in Anguilliformes, but larger, more oblong and pointed at the extremities in Ophicardides. In the former the branchial vessels generally pass directly to and from the apex of the heart; in the latter they seem to pass with the great aortic and venous vessels which enter and emerge about the middle of the heart between that organ and the spine. The heart consists generally of a sin- gle ventricle and auricle. In some the ventricle appears to be double, as in Ophicardia Phayriana; in others the auricle performs the function likewise of a ventricle, transmitting a portion of the blood by the branchial arteries to the gills, as in those cases in which the branchial vessels emerge from the apex of the heart. 9. With regard to the gills; in some these are fully de- veloped as in ordinary fishes, consisting of pectinated combs supported by smooth bony arches. In others, the gills re- taining their pectinated form, have lost the bony arches which ordinarily support them. In others, the bony arches are indeed found as naked symbols, but without function or use, having no gills strictly speaking, or peetinaiad bran- chial combs attached to them. Thus oscillating as it were between fishes and amphibia, they preserve the decided characteristics of the former, pre- senting at the same time, many decided relations to the latter. The want of pectinated gills is compensated for by means of * Cuvier assigns this organ to the genus Synbranchus, Bl. We do not however find it in any of the East India Ophicardians. Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 167 a branchial sack of which there is no other example in the animal kingdom, and which seems to be a special provision by means of which, nature passes from the purely aquatic type, to animals adapted to the respiration of air. Affinities of Apodal Fishes.—The sequence of genera resulting from the Analysis of Indian species as far as it goes, corresponds nearly with that previously attained by Baron Cuvier, as may be seen on comparing the order as it stands p. 153, with our own results p. 158-59. The nine first genera of Cuvier’s list, p. 153, form the only portion of the order which we have been able to illustrate with Indian species. Two of the genera we have been unable to adopt, and to the remaining seven, we have ad- ded ten additional genera, the whole being separated into two tribes and five families, to which we have endeavoured to assign natural characters. Without referring to the general affinities of Fishes,* it will be sufficient on the present occasion to notice those of Apodal species merely. Commencing with the genus Anguilla, Cuv. we perceive a very great difference of form between the flat, triangular, depressed head, tessellated scales, and broad projecting lower jaw of Anguilla brevirostris, as compared with the naked skin, and compressed narrow head of Anguilla acutirostris which leads to the genus Conger, in which the head is narrow, and the jaws and fins more elongated, passing into the form of Murenesox. From this last the transition is easy and natural to the genus Leptognathus of Swainson, both these genera having elongated narrow pointed jaws. In the first, the dorsal fin attains its maxi- -mum development, having advanced in front of the pec- * On this subject the reader is referred to the letter of Mr. W. S. Macleay, vol. il. p. 263. It would be difficult to express the extent of our obligations to that great naturalist, for the rough outline in question. Z 168 Apodal Fishes of Bengal. torals. In the second, that organ begins to lose a portion of its importance, and its connection with the anal by means of the caudal fin, becomes interrupted and broken off. This change exercises an important influence over the habits of these animals, and introduces another family, Ophisuride, of less rapacious habits than the last. It is composed of species which, from the absence of the caudal fin, are less capable of making the violent and sud- den spring essential to the more rapacious kinds, and for which they are so well adapted. Nothing can be more simple and complete than the tran- sition by which nature passes here from one extreme to another, in the organization and functions of animals. The change from Anguallde to Ophisuride, where these families approach each other by means of Murenesox and Leptognathus, affords an interesting instance of the ease with which the most opposite characters become blended together in the works of nature. The essential character of the family to which Leptognathus belongs, consists in the want of a caudal fin, but as it is still necessary to retain some function of the preceding genus to which its structure is allied, the extremities of the anal and dorsal are rendered broad and dilated, so as to compensate in this species for the imperfections of the family to which it belongs. Passing through the Ophisuride, we find the pectoral fins begin to diminish in size until they become barely percep- tible as in Sphagebranchus imberbis, and some other species of which we make the proposed genus Ophithorax. These last form a natural transition to the Murenide, in which there are no pectoral fins whatever. The first genus of Murenide affords some species evincing an affinity to the preceding family, by the absence of the caudal fin; and one of them, Dalophis, which leads us back again to the ordinary type, presents a repeti- tion of the increased development at the end of the dorsal Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 169 and anal, thus tending once more to the restoration of the caudal fin, which we are thus led to expect as one of the characters of the remaining genera. Passing through this family we find the development of the vertical fins gradually diminish on the anterior parts of the body, until we arrive at the Gymnomarena of Lacep. in which the only fin they possess is confined to the extre- mity of the tail. We know how differently the structure of an animal may turn out to be on examination, from what we previous- ly expect to find it before hand. Not having met with any species of Alabes or of Saccopharynaz, it is with some doubt therefore, that we refer to them in this place. They are distinguished from all preceding fishes, by having but a single branchial aperture. Hence they appear to form a transition from the Anguilliform to the Ophicardian type: but which of the two tribes they really belong to, can only be determined by their further examination. The single branchial aperture indicates a form, leading either to, or from, the family Synbranchide from which it is distinguished by the presence of pectoral fins. In the order of affinities, the genus Ophisternon seems to succeed next after the American genus Saccopharyna, particularly if we may judge of the form of the body, and the situation of the eyes close to the end of the muzzle. In this genus the branchiz are fully developed, although provided with only one large external aperture. In the next genus Ophicardia, the pectinations of the branchiz become less marked ; both these genera are without scales. They are followed by Pneumabranchus, in which the gills are supplied with a peculiar sack on either side for the respiration of air. The external aperture leading to the gills in the last three genera, is transverse; in the two last, it ' diverges internally on either side by a short passage to the branchiz. These genera are followed by Synbranchus, which is composed of species distinguished from them by a longi- 170 Apodal Fishes of Bengal. tudinal opening to the branchiaz, but in which the gills appear — to be fully developed. This genus coming after, as it could not (in consequence of the longitudinal direction of the branchial aperture) come before Pneumabranchus, evinces a return of the affinities from the Amphibious character of that genus. This is still more perceptible in the succeeding genus Piyobranchus, in which the restoration of the pectoral fins evinces a return of the affinities from the Amphibious type to the ordinary cha- racter of fishes, still better marked by two branchial aper- tures, as well as two pectoral fins. Thus we observe in passing from one extremity of the order to the other, a regular succession of affinities leading from a short flat, to an elongated narrow head, and from thence to a prominent development of fins on the anterior parts of the body, with a corresponding deficiency behind; from thence we return again to the great development of fins behind, with a corresponding deficiency on the anterior parts, thus completing the circle of the first tribe. Recom- mencing again where we left off, we pass through species almost destitute of any fins whatever, and losing even the gills of fishes which become partially replaced by organs suited to amphibious respiration. Still led by the succes- sion of affinities, we are conducted back to the character- istic form of fishes, distinguished once more by fins and gills. The result is, that the affinities of Apodal fishes are circular throughout the order, as well as in each of the minor groups here proposed, and that they will be found to. afford numerous analogous, or corresponding points with the various other orders of fishes. III.—On the Classification of Apodal Fishes. The following is the manner in which we dispose of the classification of this order, founded on the characters of Indian species. Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 171 Class Pisces. Ord.—MALOCOPTERIGIIL APODES, Zinn. Fishes of an elongated cylindric shape, with soft branchi- al apertures, smooth skin; covered with a thick mucus, with- out external bony spines, or ventral fins. Their skeleton presents little more than the bones of the head and spinal column, which last is greatly developed. ‘Their teeth are generally either numerous, or very prominent. The intestines are narrow, and short, without ceca. The nasal apertures are double on either side, and the two openings are placed wide apart: one being generally near the eyes, the other, which is mostly tubular, is near the end of the muzzle. The pores from which the mucus exudes, are situated along the muzzle and lateral line. 1.—Tribe, ANGUILLIFORMES, J. M. The heart is situated between the branchial apertures, which are small, and placed one on either side. The stomach is a long blind sack, with the entrance to the intestine situated in front, near that of the cesophagus, where it is guarded by a strong valve. The vent is never behind the middle. The gills are pectinated, supported by bony arches. This tribe forms three Families, which include most of the European genera, and some which belong to India. They are distinguished by a short trunk, scarcely ex- ceeding half the length of the tail. I.—Family, Ancui.uipsé, J. M. Pectoral fins distinct. Dorsal and anal united with the caudal fin, so that the latter can only be distinguished from 172 Apodal Fishes of Bengal. them by its finer rays, which are all articulated to two little bony pedicles. The tatl is compressed. Oxss.—The species of this Family are each furnished with an elongated natatory bladder, and teeth on the vomer, as well as palatines. 1. Gen. Anguilla, Cuv. Jaws depressed. Dorsal commencing at a considerable distance behind the pectorals, teeth conical, short, and dis- posed in broad bands; anterior nasal apertures tubular. The Bengal species of this genus, are distinguished by small naked scales, disposed in a tessellated form, even on the fins. 2. Gen. Conger, Cuv. Dorsal commencing at, or a little behind the pectorals. Head compressed, rostrum conical, soft and fleshy, present- _ing short tubular nasal apertures; teeth short and conical, disposed in broad bands. 3. Gen. Murenesox J. M. Dorsal commencing before the pectorals ; jaws prolonged, narrow, and dilated at the apex. The upper-jaw longer than the lower. A row of long, prominent, distant teeth on the vomer. The palatine teeth disposed in short, oblique, single lines ; rostrum smooth and hard ; anterior nasal aperture con- sists of a fissure placed over the middle of the upper-jaw on either side. ‘IL—Family, OruisuRID&, J. M. With small pectorals, and no caudal fin; the dorsal and anal terminating before they reach the end of the tail, which is thick and naked. : The anus is situated before the middle of the body; the tail is consequently much elongated. Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 173 1. Gen. Leptognathus, Swainson. Pectoral fins conspicuous, jaws prolonged, attenuated and pointed, armed with sharp scattered teeth. Dorsal and anal expand towards the tail, where they terminate. 2. Gen. Ophisurus, Lacep. Body little compressed ; rostrum conical ; upper-jaw long- er than the lower, anterior aperture of the nostrils tubular ; teeth round, mammillary and blunt, disposed in three broad bands above, and two on the lower-jaw. 3. Gen. Ophithorax, J. M. Pectoral fins very small, so as to be scarcely perceptible ; body compressed. Il.— Family, Muraniva, J. M. Have no trace of pectoral fins ; the head is short, narrow and small; the palatines form a narrow arch behind the vomer, in which there is sometimes but a single row of teeth. The tail is long. 1. Gen. Dalophis, KRatfin. Dorsal and anal terminate before they reach the end of the tail, which is naked. Upper-jaw much longer than the lower ; the eyes are placed near the muzzle, which is narrow. 2. Gen. Murena, Prop. J. M. The dorsal commences behind the branchial apertures ; there is a single row of teeth on each jaw, together with a row on the palate. Tail compressed. Some have the palate smooth. 3. Lycodoniis, J. M. Dorsal commencing before the branchial apertures. Tail compressed. ‘They have a single row of teeth on the palate, 174 Apodal Fishes of Bengal. and two rows on either side of both jaws. The inner row, together with a few scattered prominent teeth at the apices of the jaws, sharp, hooked, moveable, and capable of being retracted. 4. Therodontis, J. M. Dorsal commencing at the head, or nape. Tail compressed. A single row of sharp teeth on the maxillaries, and a double row of scattered pointed teeth on the centre of the palate, with a few scattered, prominent, retractile teeth at the apex of the upper and lower jaw. 5. Gymnomurena, Lacep. Body and tail almost cylindric ; neither dorsal nor anal fins are perceptible, but the caudal is distinct. Il.—Tribe, OPHICARDIDES, J. M. The heart is situated behind the branchial apertures, and the intestinal outlet far back. The tail is consequently short. The trunk is long and cylindric ; the dorsal and anal fins when present, are placed far back on the latter third of the entire length. Two families of this tribe are already distinguished by their long trunk, and short tail. I.—Family, SYNBRANCHIDA, J. M. Fave but a single external opening situated under the throat, and leading to the gills, which are supported by bony arches. Two rows, or, in some, two broad bands of teeth on the edges of the upper, and one either side of the lower jaw. Their only fins consist of a duplicature of the skin un- supported by rays, forming an adipose dorsal and anal united at the end of the tail, which is compressed, and narrow, like the point of a two-edged sword. Branchial rays few in number, and short. . + = a ee ni ee ee _— Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 175 The stomach is a simple tube, having the pyloric orifice at the hinder, or opposite end from the cesophagus. The intestine is straight and continuous with the stomach, but narrower. 1. Gen. OpHicarpia, J. M. Two broad bands of teeth on the upper, and one on the lower-jaw ; a single transverse opening under the throat, di- verging on either side to the gills, which consist of three slightly pectinate fleshy combs; no scales, five rays in each side of the branchial membrane. ‘There is but one species known, and this has no air-vessel. 2. Gen. PNEUMABRANCHUS, J. M. A single transverse opening under the throat, diverging to the branchiz on either side, which have three short arches without pectinated combs, but provided with a bran- chial sack which opens over the firstarch. There are two rows of sharp hooked teeth in the upper, and one on the lower jaw ; and the body is covered with minute imbricated scales. Six strong bony rays on each side of the branchial mem- brane. There are three species known. In these no air-vessel has been observed. 3. Gen. Synbranchus, Bl., Unibranchapertura, Lacep. There is a single longitudinal or round aperture under the throat, common to both branchie ; six strong rays in the branchial membrane; air-bladder long and narrow. The teeth are said to be blunt. 4. Gen. OruisTEeRNon, J. M. : A single transverse opening under the throat, common to both branchiz, consisting of four fully developed combs on each side, without a central partition. Eyes very 2A 176 _ Apodal Fishes of Bengal. small, and placed. almost at the end of the muzzle; teeth in broad bands; five cartilaginous branchial rays; no air- vessel, nor scales. Il. Family, PTyoprancuHipéA, J. M. Have two external openings leading to the gills, which are fan-shaped and pectinated, but aimost, if not quite un- supported by bony arches. About eleven slender, long bran- chialrays. Fins supported by short cartilaginous rays. But one genus known of this family. 1. Gen. Prroprancuus, J. M. Body cylindric from the eyes almost to the caudal fin. Head small and conical; two small pectoral fins. The dorsal commences farther back than the anal, both are long, narrow, rounded, and connected to a very short square caudal, by means of a narrow raphe sunk in the tail. The liver is elongated; the stomach is a narrow blind sack, with the intestine given off in front, as in An- guilliformes. 'They have no air-vessel. Part 3.— Description of Species. ANGUILLA, Cvv. All the East Indian species of this genus I have seen, are distinguished from those of China and of Europe by a pecu- liar tessellated disposition of the scales. These are disposed in zigzag lines, traversing all parts of the body. The head is broader, but lower than the body. The lips thick and fleshy. The jaws flat, the lower jaw is the longer and broader of the two. In some, the dorsal occupies two- thirds of the back, in others it is shorter. The fin rays are slender, minutely articulated, and very finely branched. Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 177 I Those of the caudal may be distinguished from the others by their being all fixed to two bony pedicles, whereas those of the dorsal and anal, have each a distinct pedicle to itself. They have a long thin air-vessel, two short lobes to the liver, and a stomach consisting of a capacious blind sack, with the intestine joined to it in front, where there is a strong valve. ANGUILLA BREVIROSTRIS. Pl. v. fig. 1. The dorsal occupies rather more than two-thirds of the entire length. The distance of the intestinal aperture from the muzzle, is equal to about 4-10ths of the entire length. The fin rays are, | P. 18: D. 290: A. 254: to the middle of the caudal. There are three close-set rows of conical hooked teeth forming a nar- row wedge-shaped band on either side of the jaws, spreading out in front. The middle row consists of larger teeth than the others. There is a wedge-shaped band of teeth on the vomer, the same as on the edges of the jaws. : Colour dark greenish brown above, and reddish yellow below. This Eel is generally found from 20 inches to 2 feet in length, and is not uncommon in the Calcutta market. Has.—Bengal and Arracan. It is probably, the species described by Dr. Buchanan as Murena anguilla, Lacep. It is certainly very distinct both from the common European species described and figured under that name, and the Chowloo Pamoo of Russell’s Indian Fishes, which was also supposed to be Murena anguilla of Lacepede. Now the European species is said to have about 100 rays in the dorsal fin, while our Bengal species has 290. Again, it is different from Russell’s species, in which the dorsal commences a very short distance in front of the intestinal aperture, whereas it begins in the Bengal species at the anterior third of the body. Such mistakes on the part of Buchanan and Russell regarding the common species of India, are the best proof of the necessity that existed for the revision of those characters upon which the better discrimination of these animals depend. This Eel was brought to me under the Native name Bangoosh. The late Dr. Lumqua, a Chinese Physician who resided many years in Calcutta, assured me that a species 178 _ Apodal Fishes of Bengal. of Eel bearing this name afforded Isinglass. It could not however be this species, and I should doubt much whether Dr. Lumqua’s Bangoosh belong to the present order. 2. ANGUILLA BICOLOR. Pl. vi. fig. 1. The dorsal occupies rather more than half the entire length, and com- mences exactly over the anus. The jaws are depresed, the upper rather shorter and narrower than the lower jaw. The breadth of the head about equal to that of the body. The distance from the base of the pectorals to the end of the nose, equal to one-third of the interval from the nose to the commencement of the caudal. The teeth are fine, like the pile of velvet, consisting of a broad band on either side of the jaws, and another on the vomer. The fin rays are. P. 18: D. 245: A. 221. The colour above, is dark olive-green or brown, and white below. One of the specimens examined was about 2 feet in length. Has.—Sandoway on the Malay coast, from whence it has been oblig- ingly forwarded to Calcutta by Captain Phayre, to whom we are indebt- ed for its discovery. This is perhaps the species named by Russell Chowloo Pamoo. It is still more distinct from the European species than the last; and the dorsal fin is situated much farther back than in the following species. 3. ANGUILLA ARRACANA. PI. vi. fig. 2. Dorsal commences at a distance in front of the anal, equal to twice the depth of the body; the interval from the pectoral fins to the muzzle, is also equal to about two diameters of the body. The fin rays are:— P. 20: D. 275: A. 141. The head is depressed, but little wider than the body. The upper jaw is a little narrower and shorter than the lower. Colour mottled green, minutely dotted. Has.—Sandoway on the Malay Coast. We are indebted to the kindness and zeal of Capt. Phayre for this species, which is nearly allied to A. nebulosa. Length 12 inches, but it is probably found much larger. Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 179 4, ANGUILLA NEBULOSA. Pl. v. fig. 2. The dorsal commences rather before the anterior third of the body, and at a distance in front of the anus equal to the interval from the base of the pectorals to the eyes ; the head is scarcely broader than the body. The fin rays are P. 20: D. 306: A. 248: to the middle of the caudal. There are 9 or 10 long slender rays in either branchial membrane. Colour green above variegated with darker shades: below white. Young individuals are not variegated. Has.—Bengal, and Sandoway, where it is met with generally about | 20 inches to 2 feet in length. This species differs from 4. arracana chiefly in the dorsal being shorter, though it contains more numerous, and consequently finer, rays. 5. ANGUILLA VARIEGATA. Pl. 9. fig. 7. The head is triangular and broader than the body, which is variegated with black irregular marks. The colour of the lower parts is white. Each pectoral fin contains 24 rays. Has.—Behar. This species is supposed by Buchanan (Gang. Fishes, p.23,) to be Mu- rena maculata, Lacép. ( Hist. des Poissons, p. 265, ) one of the fishes of the Nile. The fin rays of the Nilotic species as given by Lacepede are however as follows :— : P. 9: or thereabouts: D. 43: A. 36: C. 110. Now Buchanan gives 24 rays to each pectoral of the Gangetic species, and although the rays of the other fins were not ascertained by him, we may conclude from this fact, as well as from the excellent drawing Bucha- nan has left of the Gangetic species, that it is quite distinct from that of the Nile; the more particularly as we have not been able to identify a single species of the Ganges, with any of those of the Nile. The drawing has been copied into Hardwicke’s Illustrations of Indian Zoology by Mr. Gray, under the every way erroneous name of Murena bengalensis. Buchanan expressly states, that he found it only in the Ganges, where that river passes through Behar ; and I have never myself been able to find it in Bengal. The drawing here given, is from Buchanan’s collection. This species is nearly allied to that which is described, (Proc. Zool. Soc. 27th Nov. 1838,) in a paper on the Fishes of the Deccan, by Colonel Sykes, as Anguilla Elphinstonei. Indeed it may probably turn out to be the same, in which ease the latter name will have the priority of that which is here proposed. 180 Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 5. There is a remarkable species described by Buchanan, (Gangetic Fishes, p. 24,) as an inhabitant of the estuaries of the Ganges, under the name of Murena vamos, which I have never met with. The upper-jaw is much longer than the lower. The head is described as oval, and nearly twice as broad as the body; the eyes small and placed near (the crown?) “high up.” The body is slender, of a dirty brownish- green above; below, dingy white. There may be several other species of this genus in India, but these are all I have met with in the lower provinces. MURAINESOX, J. M. This genus is distinguished from the Congers of Europe, by its peculiar dentition, and long slender pointed jaws, hard lips, and the absence of tubular nasal apertures. The species occupy an equivalent place in the East, with the Congers of the Western world. They usually possess two or more rows of teeth on the edges of the jaws, besides a few scattered, prominent, coni- cal hooked teeth at the apex of each jaw, which is slightly dilated and rounded for their reception. There is also a notch in the upper-jaw behind the apex, for the reception of the cluster of large teeth at the apex of the lower jaw, which is shorter than the upper. The stomach is a blind sack with a very short intestine given off from it at the anterior extremity. The liver, though large, is short, and placed in front of the stomach, envelop- ing the pyloric valve. The air-vessel is almost a third of the entire length, tapering equally at either end to a round point. The heart is placed as in ordinary fishes, near the branchial apertures. There are twenty-one long and slender branchial rays, and four branchial combs, supported by slen- der bony arches on either side. There is a row of very prominent distant teeth along the middle of the vomer, sur- rounded by a compact row of very small close-set teeth. 1. MURENESOX EXODENTATA. Pl. viii. fig. 4. This species is distinguished by a row of long, distant, conical teeth on the vomer, with a parallel row of small close-set palatine teeth Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 18] at each side, and an outer row of similar small teeth on the edge of the maxillaries. Between the maxillary and palatine row,,. there is a short narrow band of palatine teeth near the base of the upper jaw on each side. There are three rows of close conical teeth on each side of the lower jaw, the middle row more prominent than the others. There is a fourth row composed of prominent, strong, conical teeth directed obliquely outward from the external edge of the lower-jaw along its entire length, besides three or four large prominent conical teeth at the apex, which are slightly hooked. Thejaws are widely cleft and narrow ; somewhat dilated and round at the muzzle, which is without tubular nostrils. The intestinal aperture is situated at the middle of the body. The dorsal commences over the branchial apertures, which are situated a short distance in front of the pectorals. The pectorals are long and narrow, consisting of about fourteen rays. The lateral line consists of a double row of pores. There are about 269 rays in the dorsal, and 90 in the anal fin, to the middle of the caudal. The colour above is light bluish or lead grey; below white. The fins partake of the colours of the adjoining parts, with the addition of a darker tinge along the margins of the dorsal and anal. This description is derived from two fine specimens re- ceived in 1838, from my friend Capt. Richard Lloyd, then Officiating Marine Surveyor General, who obtained them in the Bay of Bengal, near the Islands on the Arracan Coast. ‘They were both of the same size, namely, four feet in length, and were called Bamboo Fish by the sailors, from their peculiar shape. 2. MUR/ENESOX LANCEOLATA. PI. vi. fig. 3. This species has the jaws slender, and greatly prolonged like the last; the aperture of the mouth being equal in length to half the distance from the muzzle to the branchial apertures. The apex of the lower jaw is armed with a cluster of long radiating conical and slightly hooked teeth, for the reception of which there is a large corresponding semi-circular notch in the upper jaw. The distance from the muzzle to the fore part of the eye, is equal to a third of the distance from the former to the branchial aperture. There is a row of eight or ten long teeth, with lanceolate points on the vo- mer. Two rows of small teeth on the upper jaw, the inner one short 182 Apodal Fishes of Bengal. and oblique, the outer terminating in front of the vomer; besides a row of small close-set teeth surrounding those of the vome; each side of lower jaw presents three rows of conical teeth. There are 305 rays in the dorsal fin, with a proportionately large num- ber in the anal; the pectorals are long and narrow, containing about 14 rays. The anterior nasal aperture is situated behind the great notch in the upper jaw, and is slightly emarginated, but not tubular. The intestinal aperture is situated before the middle. Colour blue or brownish grey above, silvery white below, without distinct dark margins to the fins. Has.—Bengal. The specimen described is 2 feet and 4 inches in length. 3. MURAINESOX HAMILTONTA. Pi. viii. fig. 3. Murena Bagio, Buch. The distance from the muzzle to the back part of the eyes, equal to one-third of the distance from the former to the branchial apertures. Pectoral fins short, six or eight tricuspid teeth on the vomer. The fin rays are P. 12: D. 260: A. 220. This species is noticed on the authority of Buchanan, whose drawing is here given. I have not met with it, although Buchanan remarks that it is found in the estuaries of the Ganges, and there can be little doubt of the species being more numerous than we imagine. 4, MURAXNESOX BENGALENSIS. The distance from the muzzle to the back part of the eyes is equal to about a third of the interval from the muzzle to the branchial apertures. There are three to six or more tricuspid teeth on the vomer; and two rows of teeth on the sides of the lower jaw; the principal row is large, compressed and hooked, the outer row small and conical. The dorsal and anal fins are emarginated with black ; the fin rays are P. 15: D, 244: A. 202—Branchial rays 21. The intestinal aperture is considerably in front of the middle. Has.—Bengal. ——e ——— ee ee Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 183 5. The Taleo paum of Dr. Russell, Indian Fishes, No. 36, vol. 1, is also no doubt a distinct species, which from its golden yellow colour, is inserted in the synopsis as Murenesox aurea. OPHISURUS, Lacép. The Indian species of this genus have a peculiar structure of the branchial rays hitherto unnoticed. Buchanan indeed remarks, (Gangetic Fishes, p. 19.) that no rays can be distinctly seen in the species of this country. ‘They are, however, very distinctly seen on dissection, and even in dried specimens, if the branchial membrane be distended, the ad- joining soft parts will shrink; in which condition the rays are brought into view, presenting a very beautiful structure of decussating curves. The teeth are round, disposed in three bands on the upper jaw ; the middle band on the vomer extends from the back part of the palate to the apex of the jaw, the others termi- nate obliquely against this, before they reach the apex. The gills consist of four double combs, supported by slen- der bony arches, the heart is situated between ‘the pec- torals ; the liver is large, and envelopes the cesophagus; the stomach is a large blind sack as in the genus Anguilla, Cuv. with the intestine given off at its anterior extremity, from whence it proceeds straight to the vent. An oval glandular organ occupies a cavity in the anterior part of the tail; but there is no prolongation of the intestine in these species beyond the intestinal aperture, as said by Cuvier to be the case with European species. The species of this country which I have met with, in addition to those noticed by Buchanan, are three. They are however most difficult to determine, and for this reason, no less than on account of their singular structure and form, they ought to be made the subject of special investiga- tion. 2B 184: Apodal Fishes of Bengal. The result would be the establishment of several spe- cies, which we cannot now distinguish with certainty. It might also cast much additional light upon the order to which they belong. 1. OPHISURUS ROSTRATUS, Buch. Distinguished by a very small perfectly conical head and round tail scarcely at all compressed. The pectorals are narrow and rather long, containing about 11 rays, the eyes are high and rather approximated together on the crown. Colour greenish-yellow above, yellowish-white below. This is a small species, an adult taken caught in the act of spawn- ing, not exceeding nine inches in length. Has.—Bengal. This species is figured in Buchanan’s drawings under the name here given. I have not met with it, but it is closely allied to Oph. minimus, from which it only differs in having a square muzzle. 2. OPHISURUS VERMIFORMIS, Pl. xii. fig. 2. The distance from the point of the muzzle to the eyes, is equal to } of the distance from the eyes to the pectorals. The distance from the muzzle to the pectorals, is equal to the distance from the pectorals to the commencement of the dorsal, and to about 5, part of the entire length. The muzzle is long and narrow. There are 9 rays in each of the pectorals, these fins are long and narrow. ‘There are 22 rays in the branchial membrane. The muzzle is long and narrow. The body long and very slender, terminating in a sharp round pointed tail. The body is dotted with dark green above. The lateral line is marked with a few distant pores, like minute spots. Hazs.—Bengal. This is the smallest species of Ophisurus I have seen. It differs from O. hyala, Buch. in the spots on the lateral line © being more distant and minute. It is also a far more slen- der species. Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 185 3. OPHISURUS MINIMUS, Pl. x. fig. 3. The distance from the point of the muzzle to the eyes, equal to 1-5 of the distance from the eyes to the pectorals. The distance from the muzzle to the branchial apertures, is equal to the distance from these to the commencement of the dorsal. The muzzle short and very narrow, the eyes are placed high, close to each other, and to the muzzle; the pectorals are rather long and nar- row, each contains about 12 rays. The branchial membrane contains about 24 rays on either side. The body is cylindric and strong, termi- nating in a tapering sharp-pointed tail. Colour above light green, minutely dotted along the back. Hazs.—Bengal. This species differs from O. vermiformis, in being of much more robust proportions; and from O. hyala, in the distance and size of the pores or spots on the lateral line, which in the former are barely perceptible. 4, OPHISURUS CAUDATUS, Pl. xii. fig. 3. The head is small, the tail is thick and heavy. The distance from the base of the pectorals to the commencement of the dorsal, is only equal to half the distance from pectorals to the extremity of the snout. The distance from the pectorals to the end of the muzzle, is equal to hey of the entire length. The pectoral fins are narrow and pointed, each contains about 13 rays. Colour above dark green, below reddish yellow. The branchial rays are covered with a thick integument, so as to conceal their exactnumber. The remaining two, are Ophisurus harancha, and Ophi- surus Boro, Buch. These are figured in Hardwicke’s Illustrations, from copies of the MSS. drawings of Dr. Buchanan. LYCODONTIS, N. Gen. This genus is composed of such species of the Linnzean genus Murena as have the palatine teeth in a single row extending along the centre of the roof of the mouth, behind the vomer. The body is slightly compressed; and the dorsal 186 Apodal Fishes of Bengal. commences in front of the branchial apertures; the front of each jaw is armed with long sharp articulated teeth, attached to a flexible pedicle ; they are capable of being retracted or raised according to circumstances. Synodontis, Cuv. among the Siluridz, is the only example known in the animal kingdom, in which the teeth are fixed to a flexible pedicle. It may be presumed therefore, that this peculiarity in the Murzenidz has never been pointed out. Buchanan, the only author who seems to _ have examined the Indian species of this family, overlooked altogether the peculiarity of their dentition. . Another peculiarity consists in the malar, nasal, and palatines being consolidated with the vomer, forming the anterior part of the upper jaw, from which the maxillaries and intermaxillaries are displaced, so as to form the sides, rather than the front, of the mouth. Here they give insertion to two rows of teeth, corresponding with those of the palatine bones in all other genera. 1. LYCODONTIS LITERATA. Pi. vii. fig. 2. The head is compressed and narrow, raised abruptly over the eyes. The body is long and compressed, of uniform depth, and slender for its length. Colour, olive-green above, and all except the head uniformly marked with fine white irregular streaks, resembling a written character. The dorsal fin commences in front of the branchial apertures, the anal com- mences at the middle of the body. The jaws are narrow, of equal length and widely cleft, having two rows of teeth on the sides, the outer row terminating on either side below the eyes, the inner row is continued round the apex of the jaw at wider intervals, and together with three prominent hooked teeth, corres- ponding with those of the vomer near the apex, are retractile. There are 121 vertebrz, 334 rays in the dorsal, and 182 in the anal fin. Has.—Bengal. Itis a common fish in the Calcutta market. This species is usually met with about 12 to 18 inches in length. Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 187 2. LYCODONTIS PUNCTATA. Pl. vii. fig. 3- The head is compressed, forehead raised abruptly over the eyes, and the lower jaw is shorter than the upper. The branchial aperture is placed on either side at a distance from the eyes, equal to twice the height of the head. The body is dark olive-green, mottled with round white spots which disappear in the adult state, first upon the body, and lastly on the fins. The outer small maxillary teeth, are continued round the apex of the jaws, one tooth occurring alternately at each interval between the large retractile teeth. There are 392 rays in the dorsal, and 190 inthe anal. The intestinal aperture is situated about the middle. Has.—Bengal. This species is common in the vicinity of Calcutta, and is generally found about a foot, or 18 inches in length. 8. LYCODONTIS LONGICAUDATA, Pi. viii. fig. 2. Murenophis sathete, Buch. The ventral aperture is considerably before the middle of the body, the tail is consequently very long and slender. The head is conical, the jaws of equal length; body greenish-brown above, without spots; the fins _ darkish; the dorsal contains 484 pointed rays imbedded in fat, the anal 394. There are 211 vertebra. Haz.—Bengal, where it attains a great size, the specimen described was upwards of 5 feet in length. The drawing here given is from Buchanan’s MSS. collection. This is one of the largest and most important fishes of the family in Bengal; the species are reckoned wholesome and good, and axe eaten by all classes of the native popu- lation. THAZRODONTIS, N. Gen. In this genus there are two distinct rows of teeth on the back part of the palate, behind the retractile teeth on the vomer near the apex of the upper jaw. The edges of both 188 Apodal Fishes of Bengal. jaws are armed with a single row of prominent teeth; the crown is high and rounded. 1. THHRODONTIS RETICULATA. Pl. vii. fig. 1. The crown is high and rounded, the body slightly compressed, the dor- sal commences at the branchial apertures, and the intestinal aperture is placed near the middle. Colour black, marked with white lines disposed in a pentangular form, dividing every part of the body and fins into large pentangular spots. Has.—Malay Coast, where it was obtained at Sandowy by Captain Phayre, Principal Assistant to the Commissioner of Arracan. The specimen obtained was 20 inches in length; it is one of the most striking and remarkable species of apodal fishes hitherto described. It is distinguished by the brilliant contrast in its colours, pure ivory black, subdivided by narrow snow-white lines, dis- posed in a pentangular manner over every part of the body, head, and fins, even on the sides and roof of the mouth. OPHICARDIDES,* N. Trib. The remaining species belong to a very distinct tribe from those just gone over, it may be necessary therefore to preface the description of them, by a few remarks on their general characters and peculiarities. The heart is situated far behind the branchial apertures, and not between, or close to these organs as in the last tribe, a peculiarity which of course must affect not only the arterial system of these animals, but every part of their struc- ture and even external form.} The effect of this altered position of the heart upon the external form of the present tribe, is to lengthen the body * For Etymology, see Gen. Ophicardia. + I have already adverted to the circumstance of Mr. Walker having undertak- en an investigation of the comparative anatomy of the Cuchia. The field of inquiry will now be considerably widened, by the undescribed forms closely allied to, though differing essentially from that remarkable animal. The object proposed by Mr. Walker will thus assume an additional degree of interest and importance. Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 189 by creating two long distinct cavities in the trunk, as in animals provided with lungs, instead of a single ca- vity as in other fishes. The abdomen being removed back to make way for a lengthened thorax, occupied only by the branchial arteries, oesophagus, and heart; the intestinal outlet is carried back to the latter third of the body. The tail is consequently short. ‘The membranous expansion representing the dorsal fin, advances a little in front of the ventral aperture. ‘There is no air-vessel in any of the species of Bengal, although Cuvier states, that in the genus Synbranchus, Bl., that organ is fully deve- loped. In some, the stomach is a cul-de-sac, with the intestine given off in front as in Angualliformes ; in others, it is continuous with the stomach, and together with that organ, forms a straight tube extending from the ceso- phagus to the vent. The liver is very long and narrow; in some, it is chiefly developed at the further extremity of the abdomen; in others it occupies the usual position behind the midrif; but notwithstanding such apparent transposition of this organ, its attachment to the lower surface of the midrif appears to be an universal condition in all animals ; and in this instance the difference is merely in the increased length of the capsular ligament. In all the species, the entrance to the cesophagus is guarded by two groups of very small, but sharp pharangeal teeth on either side. The gills undergo many singular modifications in this tribe. In some, they.are without bony arches; in others while bony arches are present, they are almost destitute of pectina- ted combs. In some, the gills on either side are contained in two distinct cavities; in others, both gills are contained in one common cavity. In some, the want of pectinated combs or gills, is supplied by a membranous sack, by which the func- tions of respiration are effected. 190 Apodal Fishes of Bengal. The manner in which this function is performed in the genus ,Pneumabranchus, is as follows: the head is raised to the surface, and the muzzle projected sufficiently to emerge the apex of the jaws, slightly open at the end. The dilata- tion of the branchial sack on either side (which is provided with proper muscular apparatus for the purpose) then takes place, and this organ distended with air, the animal descends ; and after the lapse of some moments, the air gradually allow- ed to escape by the mouth, ascends in globules to the surface of the water. The animal then ascending again to repeat the same operation at certain intervals. The only genus of this tribe hitherto known, is Synbranchus, BI. or what Lacépede named Unibranchapertura. But although that genus is well characterised in the Régne Animal, the adjoining forms peculiar to the East re- | quired to be properly known and understood, before the peculiar characters of Synbranchus could be well appre- ciated. In this way we can account for the peculiarities of that genus not being more prominently brought forward by preceding writers, particularly the illustrious Cuvier. When ever we are led upon any occasion a little farther . than that great man has gone, we should ascribe it no less to the assistance we derive from the profound observations he has left for our guidance in the study of Fishes, than to the accidental circumstance of being more favourably plac- ed with regard to some peculiar object of investigation. Even with regard to Synbranchus, the few words express- ed in the Régne Animal, regarding the stomach and intes- tines of that genus, apply not only to it, but equally so to the other genera here described, although they were un- known to the illustrious author. I have been induced to make these remarks, lest the propo- sal of any changes in the classification of these animals, emanating from so obscure a quarter, might appear as either self-sufficient on my part, or to arise from an improper dis- SS a Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 191 trust of the observations of others, who have gone before me, on the same subject. OpHIcaRD1A,* N. Gen. Of this genus but a single species has as yet been dis- covered, and for this we are indebted to Capt. A. P. Phayre, the principal civil officer at Sandoway, on the Arracan Coast. In gratitude for the kindness and liberality with which he has placed his collections at our disposal, as well as in jus- tice to the interest and importance of the discovery, we have dedicated the species to his name. 1. OPHICARDIA PHYARIANA, Pl. xii. fiig. 1. In this singular species the intestinal aperture is placed at the post- erior fifth of the length. The head is short, raised and round, larger in diameter than the body, the adjoining portion of which is, towards the head, augmented ; the jaws are depressed, the upper jaw is rather _ more prominent than the lower, the muzzle is rounded, having two short tubular nostrils at the extremity. The body is not compressed, but is slightly conical from the head to near the vent ; the tail from thence becomes much compressed and very narrow. The tail is emarginated with an adipose duplicature of the skin like the blade of an oar. The outer band of teeth on the upper jaw expands in front on either side, without meeting the opposite corresponding band, thus leaving a narrow vacant space at the apex. There are three strong branchial arches, with slight fleshy very short pectinated gills, like the teeth of asaw. There are five branchial rays on each side, the first larger and stronger than the others, and isolated from them, standing considerably in front. The branchial rays are strong and bony. There are no scales distinguishable in the skin, even with the micros- cope. The colour above is dusky-brown, minutely dotted with brownish- _ black, the lower parts are of a somewhat lighter shade. The length of the specimen is about 20 inches. pe | * Etym. ogtc, a Snake; and, kaooua, the heart. 2C 7 192 Apodal Fishes of Bengal. — The stomach is an expansion of the cesophagus into a long spindle- shaped wide tube, tapering equally at either end, and contracting gradually behind into a narrow intestine, which again gradually ex- pands almost to the size of the stomach ; the whole, including the ceso- phagus being one continuous straight tube. There seems to be no pyloric valve, the contraction of the first portion of the intestine answering the purpose of one. The liver consists of a single elongated lobe of great length, commen- cing immediately behind the pericardium. It envelopes the lower surface of the stomach, and terminates about the middle of the abdomen. Has.—Sandoway on the Arracan Coast. As already remarked, we have been indebted to the zeal and kindness of Captain Phayre, Prin- cipal Assistant to the Commissioner of Arracan, for the only specimen hitherto found. PNEUMABRANCHUS srriarus. Pl. xiii. Unibranchapertura Cuchia, Buch. This species was first noticed by Buchanan Hamilton in his work on the Fishes of the Ganges, p. 16, who referred it to the genus Unibranchapertura of Lacépéde, or what is the same thing, Synbranchus, BI. The whole form of the animal, says Buchanan, having no vestige of a fin, resembles strongly a serpent. In stating it to be without any vestige of a fin, as well as devoid of scales, Buchanan proves that he examined it very carelessly. But there was no such thing as accurate observations in this parti- cular order of Fishes, prior at least to the publication of the Régne Animal. Even since then, from the great general sameness of these animals, different species and even genera have been described under the same name. The head is somewhat depressed and triangular, being rather broad- er than the body, while it becomes considerably narrower at the muz- zle ; the jaws are both precisely of the same length. The lips are soft, so as to allow of a little tube-like aperture being formed between them at the apex of the muzzle, which seems to be in some degree essential to the peculiar manner in which the functions of respiration are per- formed. The lower jaw is narrower at the apex than the upper, and the muzzle being raised to the surface of the water, the animal by laterally . Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 193 contracting the fleshy lips of the upper jaw against the sides of the lower, is enabled to inhale, or supply the branchial sacks with air. This done, it descends, occasionally discharging a portion of the air which escapes in bubbles to the surface of the water until the sacks are collapsed, when after a time the animal again raises itself slowly to repeat the same operation. . One of the favourite positions of the animal is to remain floating perpendicularly with the muzzle at the surface. In this position it remains as if asleep, perfectly motionless for hours, like an inanimate object. From this position it sometimes sinks unconsciously to the bot- tom of the water; and, after discharging the air, as already described, again becomes lively, ascending to the surface, swimming and darting ac- tively for a time in a vertical position, and again becomes torpid as before. The colour of the upper parts is dark olive-green, with small round black spots dispersed equally over every part above the lateral line. The lower parts of the body are yellow, mottled with lighter and darker specks. The lateral line is white, and occasionally appears to be sunk, so as to form a channelin either side. There are two other short white lines, one extending from a few irregular little white streaks near the angle of the mouth, forms a slight bend over the branchial region, and extends a short way along the lower part of either side; the other commences with a slight reflex streak behind the eye, and extends a short way between the last described streak and the lateral line. The vent is placed at a distance of three-fourths of the entire length from the muzzle. The tail from thence becomes gradually compressed and narrow. For the first-third of its length, the upper margin of the tail is round, the remaining two-thirds of its length it is sharp-edged above, representing the dorsal, and for a little more than one-third below, re- presenting the anal fin; but these are little more than narrow fringes formed by the mere reflection of the skin in this situation. The body is covered on every part with fine oval imbricated naked scales, except the lateral line, which is without them. These scales are smooth, composed of radii and concentric lines parallel with the mar- gin. They are very perceptible to the naked eye in the living animal. They are I should think about half the size of the scales of the Euro- pean tench. They are oval, broader at the free end than the other ; their figure presents various degrees of obliquity, according to the part of the body on which they are placed, as in ordinary fishes. See figs. 3, 6. The teeth are conical, sharp and hooked; they consist of two rows on the upper jaw; the outer row placed on the intermaxillaries is com- 194 Apodal Fishes of Bengal. posed of about 30 very fine sharp teeth, which at the apex form a cres- cent with those of the opposite side. The palatine teeth form an inner row. They are stronger, placed at’intervals from each other, short, hooked and sharp. Their number varies a little in different indivi- duals, but they are generally twelve or thirteen on either side. The lower jaw is furnished with a single row (about 20 in number) of precisely similar, but smaller teeth than those of the palatines; the edge of the jaw becomes broader in front at the symphysis, where the teeth become somewhat crowded. See fig. 2a. b. The gills have three strong, short bony arches; but no branchial combs, except a few thick fleshy points on the outside of the middle arch. The intervals between the branchial arches are nearly obli- terated by means of a membrane, in which there is only a narrow aperture behind each arch, as well as the opening in front of the first arch. See fig. 4. Over the end of the first arch, there is a narrow aperture leading into a moderate sized sack, which as well as the membrane between the branchial arches is lined with a fine net-work, consisting of the extreme branches of the branchial arteries and veins,. which form numerous little vascular tufts dispersed over every part of the in- ner surface of these organs. See fig. 5. These perform the office of gills, for effecting the aération of the blood through the medium of water as well as air. The animal is thus enabled to live for a time in either medium, al- though both are essential. A little behind the upper end of the third arch, there is a lunate group of fine sharp pharangeal teeth, at the entrance to the cesophagus as usual throughout apodal fishes, together with a row of similar teeth extending from the posterior horn of the above group on one side, to the corresponding portion of that of the opposite side, thus forming a strong armature of sharp hooked teeth, guarding the entrance to the throat. The great length of the cesophagus in ophicardious as com- pared with other species, renders the function of pharangeal teeth very important, in order to arrest the entrance of food until it is reduced to a state in which it is likely to afford least danger to the animal by caus- ing obstruction, which from the nature of the prey, would be hable to happen The diaphragm separating the cavities of the thorax and abdomen, is placed at a distance behind the branchial apertures greater than these are from the extremity of the muzzle, or equal to about one-third of the distance from the branchial apertures to the vent. The thorax is Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 195 consequently equal to half the length of the abdominal cavity ; it con- tains the cesophagus, the heart, and aorta, together with the branchial arteries and veins. The abdomen is occupied for the first two-thirds of its length by the stomach and liver; the former in the left, the latter in the right side. The latter third of the cavity is occupied with two oval bodies placed on either side closely connected with the blood-vessels, which I sup- pose to be the kidneys, and the intestine together with the ovarium. I observe no valve or distinct separation between the stomach and intes- tine, but a gradual contraction from the former to the vent; both organs apparently forming a straight tube with the cesophagus, merely dilated for the stomach, and contracted from thence gradually to the vent. These observations must, however, be regarded as a mere cursory statement, intended to shew the general peculiarities of the species, and not be received as an exact description of its structure. I have had two live Cuchia by me now for a period of twelve months; they are still as well as when I first obtained them, though from an ignorance of their proper food, as well as a desire to know how long they are capable of existing without any, they had nothing to eat during that period to within the last few months, when some small fish and shrimps were put alive into the vessel. For some time they appeared to regard the strangers with indifference, when they became suddenly roused from their usual lethargy, and with a few sudden darts de- voured the whole of the shrimps. Some dead shrimps were afterwards introduced, but these as well as small fish both live and dead, the Cuchia evinced no appetite for; so that the prejudice of the natives against the Cuchia, as an article of food, spoken of by Buchanan, is not perhaps owing to the uncleanness of its habits. The Europeans are therefore perfectly right in eating it as an eel, whatever the natives of Bengal may think of the matter. This species seems to be very abundant throughout Bengal, as well as Assam; and generally, I should suppose in all the slow running streams and estuaries of the plains and coasts of India. I have found the number of vertebra in this genus to be about 150. f PNEUMABRANCHUS LEPROSUS. Specific character.—Body uniformly of a pale yellowish white both above and below, with irregular angular spots of various size dispersed here and there over the upper parts of the body. The narrow mem- 196 Apodal Fishes of Bengal. branous expansion representing an adipose dorsal, commences almost as far forward as the vent. This species attains about 2 feet or upwards in length, and is of gross proportions. Has.—Bengal. PNEUMABRANCHUS ALBINUS. Colour uniformly orange yellow, with the exception of a livid ap- pearance about the muzzle, and a black half moon-like zone over the eye, without any appearance of distinct lateral or other lines. Pupils black, irides narrow and bright golden-yellow, surrounded by a livid zone. Has.—Bengal. This variety attains about 18 inches in length, and is of more slender form than either of the others. While these species are remarkable for the singular trans- formation of the gills, by means of which they are capable of existing either in water or air for a considerable period, those of the following genus are no less singular for the pe- culiar transposition of the eyes, and of the liver; two or- gans which are usually more constant in their position than any other. OPHISTERNON.* WN. Gen. The head is rounded slightly at the occiput, but depress- ed and elongated in front. ‘The eyes are remarkably small, and placed almost at the extremity of the muzzle. The body is elongated and cylindric, the tail is broad, as well as the adipose expansion forming the dorsal and anal fins; the former commences before the anus, the latter close be- hind that organ, and both meet to form a round caudal. The branchie of both sides are contained in a single cavity, to which there is one large transverse aperture placed under the throat. The gills consist of four single * Which means, the trunk is formed like that of a snake. Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 197 branchial combs on either side, supported by bony arches. There are five or six short semi-cartilaginous rays in either side of the branchial membrane. The skin is soft and thin, without scales; there are two bands of teeth on either side of the upper jaw, and one on each side of the lower. The stomach and intestines form a straight tube, the former dilated, and the latter contracted into a very narrow tube, and then dilating again to form the rectum. The liver is situated on the right side at the hinder part of the abdomen, along with the rectum, and is of a long nar- row shape, connected however with the diaphragm by means of a very long capsular ligament. There is no air-vessel. The naked skin without any trace of scales, as well as the structure and peculiar form of the abdominal viscera, and of dentition, evince an intimate affinity between Ophicardia, and Ophisternon ; while the form of the branchial aperture and arches, proves them to be distinct genera. OPHISTERNON BENGALENSIS, Pi. xi. Fig. 1. The head is a little raised at the crown and depressed towards the eyes which are small, and placed on the muzzle before, and exter- nal to the posterior apertures of the nostrils. The muzzle is nar- row, long, and slightly recurved, the jaws are of equal length, the mem- branous expansions on the tail representing the dorsal and anal fins, are broad, the former advances in front of the anus, the latter commencing close behind that organ, and both united at the end of the tail. The lateral line is narrow, and situated high on the side. The body is cy- lindric, but rather larger before than behind. The middle of the tail is a little deeper than the body at the anus. There is a single large opening under the throat, communicating at once with the branchial combs on both sides, which are all contained in the same cavity without any partition; they are supported by bony arches. The anus is placed at the posterior 4th of the length. There are two bands of teeth on the upper jaw, the outer band on the maxillaries forming a crescent in front under the apex of the jaw, and becoming narrower from thence towards the corner of the mouth. The 198 Apodal Fishes of Bengal. inner band on the palatines continues round the apex, and of equal breadth to the corners of the mouth. The lower jaw also presents a broad band of teeth on either side, broader at the symphisis than any- where else. There, are five short cartilaginous branchial rays, and the branchial combs are single upon each arch. | The stomach and intestines form one continuous straight tube ex- tending to the vent. The liver is straight, and long, occupying the whole length of the abdominal cavity on the right side of the intestines and stomach. Small detached glands seem to adhere to the latter at various intervals, which are perhaps equivalent to the spleen. There is no air vessel. Haz.—Bengal where it is rather common. Length 2 feet. The whole physiognomy of this animal is very distinct from that of the Cuchia, yet I have been unable to learn whether the natives make any distinction between them, nor do I find it, alluded to by Bu- chanan or any other author. Colour bluish black, or brown on every part of tke body, except a little dirty-white beneath the jaws. OPHISTERNON HEPATICUS, Pi. xi. fig. 2. The head is short and raised, the muzzle round and little depressed, the eyes very small, placed a little before the posterior openings of the nostrils. The jaws are short, the outer band of teeth on the upper jaw narrow, consisting almost of a single row of sharp hook- ed teeth on the sides, becoming broader in front, where it is recur- ved at the apex of the jaw. The palatine or inner band is broad at the apex, and becomes rather narrower towards the sides; of the jaw the lower maxilla also presents one broad band at either side, increasing in breadth towards the apex, where there is a narrow blank space in the middle free from teeth. The dorsal and anal fins are nar- row, as well as the tail, which is not so deep as the body. The body is cylindric, but of larger diameter at the head than at any other part. The heart is situated about twice the length of the head behind the branchial apertures. The stomach and intestines form one continuous straight tube with the cesophagus, the different divisions of which are only to be distinguished by their size. The stomach is at first rather wide, then becoming gradually narrower, contracts into a very narrow intes- tine, and then expands again into a rather wider intestine correspond- ing with the colon and rectum. The liver which in the last species was greatly elongated, in this presents the singular character of being Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 199 developed entirely at the hinder part of the abdominal cavity, in close contact with the colon and rectum, supported however by means of a long capsular ligament to its usual attachment with the diaphragm on the right side. The skin is thin and smooth, without any trace of scales whatever. This new important species is a native of the Arracan Coast, where it was discovered by Captain Phayre, to whom I have been indebted for much kind and liberal assistance in the investigation of the fishes of this portion of the Bengal territories. We may still anticipate further discoveries in this quarter through the kind assistance of Captain Phayre, and several other distinguished public Officers employed on the same Coast from Chittagong to Mergui, who have al- ready evinced an enlightened regard for the investigation of the natural productions of the provinces intrusted to their care. Until these enquiries are brought to a close, it would be premature in this place to offer any further ge- neral observations on the affinities of the order. Il.—PTYOBRANCHIDAS, N.. Fam. Gills pectinated, fan-shaped, unsupported by bony arches, branchial apertures distinct, and placed in front of small pectorals. ‘Teeth on the centre of the palate; intestinal aperture situated about the latter third of the length. 1.—PTYOBRANCHUS. N. Gen. Head small, with a narrow conical round muzzle, without tubular nostrils. They have a long cylindric body like a reed, terminating abruptly at the end of the tail; dorsal and anal narrow, supported by pointed rays, and connected with the caudal by means of a narrow raphe, more or less conspi- cuous in different species. é Oxss.—There are about eleven rays in the branchial mem- - brane, no air vessel. The maxillary and intermaxillary 2D 200 Apodal Fishes of Bengal. teeth form an interrupted row with the palatines. The lateral line is placed on the middle of the side. There are many species, in all which the dorsal commences behind the anal. The two first species of this remarkable genus, are the most singular forms of the tribe to which they belong. They are of plain colours, excessively simple shape, and great length in proportion to the diameter of the body. About six years ago I received one of them in a collection of fishes from Mr. Rose, who described it as very destruc- tive to the embankments thrown up against the Sea along the low coasts about Hidgelee and Cuttack. The remaining species are small, seldom exceeding from six inches to a foot in length, are of more showy colours, and common about Calcutta. Buchanan was acquainted with more than one species, and has left drawings of two, which seem to have fallen into the hands of Mr. Gray, who makes as many genera of them. He does this merely from characters derived from Buchanan’s drawings, which in this case happen to be deficient in those points selected as generic distinctions. 1.—PTYOBRANCHUS ARUNDINACEUS. PI. x. fig. 1. The body is from twenty inches to two feet in length, and scarcely a to 4 of an inch in diameter. The intestinal aperture is placed at, or a little behind the latter third of the length, and the tail is of uni- form size and thickness with the body, to within about an inch of the end, when it becomes slightly compressed, and terminates in a thick wedge, with a very short square caudal fin. The anal fin commences at a distance behind the anus equal to its own length, the dorsal commences at the middle of the tail, and over the middle of the anal fin. Both dorsal and anal fin are low and rounded, each terminating in a narrow raphe, or line, which connects it with the caudal. The jaws.are of about equal size. The fin rays are, P: 10: D. 40: A. 40: caudal about 44. Colour dark olive-green above, greenish white below, and greyish on the sides. Has.—Bengal. ‘ — ee Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 201 2, PTYOBRANCHUS GUTHRIANUS. Pi. x. fig. 2. This species is elongated like the last, but the tail is not so clumsy, being a little more compressed, and terminating in an oval point. The pectorals are very small, but the other fins are a little more prominent than in the last species, and the rays in the narrow raphe connecting the dorsal and anal with the caudal, may be counted with care. The fin rays are, P. 11: D. 36: A. 44: C. 64 or, about 115 rays from the commencement of the dorsal to the middle of the caudal, and 143 from commencement of the anal to the middle of the dorsal, including the rays of the narrow raphe connecting those fins with thecaudal, as nearly as I can ascertain. Colour dark brownish green, of a lighter shade below, but no white. Has.—Bengal. I have taken the opportunity of naming this species in honor of Captain C. 8S. Guthrie of the Bengal Engineers, for the service rendered by him to natural history, in the dis- covery of Cervus frontalus, described vol. iii. p. 401 of this Journal. | 3. PTYOBRANCHUS ERYTHREUS. PI. ix. fig. 3. In this species the anal fin commences near the anus, and contains 50 or more distinct rays before it slopes into a narrow radiated raphe, which connects it with the caudal. The dorsal contains about 40, and the caud- al 70 or 80 distinct rays, which in the narrow prolongations connect- ing these fins together, become so short as to render them difficult to count, particularly in specimens that have been in spirits. I have, however, counted about 134 from the commencement of the anal to the middle of the caudal, and 125 from thence to the commencement of the dorsal. The tail is compressed, and lanceolate at the point. The colour above is red, minutely speckled with black dots, below reddish white. Hazs.—Bengal. 4, PTYOBRANCHUS MULTIDENTATA. Pi. ix. jig. 4. Tail thick and broad at the point, the rays of the raphe not distin- guishable. The fin rays are. D. 42: A. 36: C. 64. Colour red. Has.—Bengal. 202 Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 5. PTYOBRANCHUS PARVIDENTATA, PI. ix. fig. 5. Head small, tail slightly tapering and compressed, with a lanceolate caudal fin; only 4 teeth on the centre of the palate, forming a short row approaching close to the apex of the jaw. There are about 30 teeth on each side of the upper jaw. The fin rays are. P. 11: D. 31: A. 38: C. 60. Colour, purple above the lateral line, minutely dotted, and white below. Length 10 inches. Has.—Bengal. 6. PTYOBRANCHUS GRACILIS. Pl. ix. fig. 6. Head very small, and the muzzle very narrow and pointed. Body slender ; 22 teeth on either side of the lower jaw, and 10 on the vomer. Tail narrow, compressed, and lanceolate. Has.—Bengal. ERRATA. For Anguilliformes, pp. 155, 158, 166, 171, 176, 189, read ANGUILLIDES. For Lycodontis, pp. 154, 158, 173, 185, 186, 187, and where ever it occurs in the pre- ceding pages, read StROPHIDON. IV.—Description of Plates. . Pl. V. Fig. 1. a. b. c. Anguilla brevirostris J. M. half the natural size. A, is a portion of the skin with the scales, natural size, shewing their shape and distribution ; b. teeth of the upper, and c. those of the lower jaw, natural size. Fig. 2. Anguilla nebulosa, J. M. half the natural size ; a. a portion of the skin showing the disposi- tion of the scales natural size. Pi. VI. Fig. 1. Anguilla bicolor, J. M. half size; a. teeth full size. 2. Anguilla arracana, J. M. natural size; a. teeth full size. | Pl. VII. Fig. 1. Pl. VIII. Fig. 1. Pl. IX. Fig. 3. Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 203 Therodontis reticulata, J. M. half size, with the disposition of the teeth represented full size. . Strophidon literata, J. M. natural size, with the disposition of the teeth enlarged. . Strophidon punctata, J. M. natural size, with the teeth somewhat enlarged. Strophidon maculata, J. M. or, Mureno- phis tile, Buch. from a drawing in the Bucha- nan collection, Bot. Gard. Calcutta. . Strophidon longicaudata, J. M. from a draw- ing in the Buchanan collection, marked by that author as Murenophis sathete. Murenesox Hamiltonii, J. M. from a drawing in the Buchanan collection, marked Mure@o- phis Bazt. . Murenesox exodontata, J. M. head and jaws natural size, and a reduced figure of the whole. Ptyobranchus erythreus, J. M. natural size, three figures, one representing the external form, another the internal struture, and a third the jaws and branchial rays enlarged ; a. a. branchial rays, i.i. the lower jaw separated at the symphisis ; 1.1. the hyoid bones, m.m. small opercula, b.b. the gills natural size, c. the branchial arteries, d. the heart, n.n. pericardium forming the diaphragm, e. the liver raised from its place to show the con- tinuation of the oesophagus; h. f. the sto- mach ; g. the intestine. . Ptyobranchus multidentata, J. M. natural size, with the teeth enlarged. . Ptyobranchus parvidentata, J. M. natural size, with the teeth enlarged. 204: Pl. XI. Fig. }. Pl. XII. Fig. 1. Pl. XIL Fig. = i CO bo Apodal Fishes of Bengal. . Ptyobranchus gracilis, J. M. natural size. . Anguilla variegata, J. M. from a drawing in Buchanan’s collection, a copy of which seems to have fallen into the hands of Mr. Gray, by whom it is given in Hardwicke’s illustrations of Indian Zoology, (without acknowledgment of the original source from whence it was derived) as Anguilla Bengalensis, although it is unknown in Bengal. Ptyobranchus arundinaceus,J.M. natural size, with the teeth l.a. magnified to about thrice the size of the jaws; 1.b. section of the body. . Ptyobranchus guthrianus, J. M. natural size, 2.a. the teeth and jaws magnified to thrice the natural size ; 2.b. section of the body. Ophisurus minimus, J. M. natural size, 3. a. the teeth represented thrice the natural size, 3.b. the section of the body, and 4 the lower surface of the head, showing the disposition of the branchial rays. Ophisternon bengalensis, J. M. natural size, a. the maxillary band of teeth, and c. the palatine band ; b. the teeth of the lower jaw. . Ophisternon hepaticus, J. M. half size, fig. 4, the teeth of both jaws a little more than na- tural size. Ophicardia phayriana, J. M. natural size, with 1.a. teeth of the upper jaw; c. the band of teeth on the lower; and 1.b. the bran- chial combs and rays natural size. . Ophisurus vermiformis, J. M. natural size. . Ophisurus caudatus, J. M. natural size. . Ophisurus harancha, Buch. natural size. Pneumabranchus striatus, J. M. natural size, with a figure representing the lower surface Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 205 of the head and external branchial aperture, 2. the jaws and teeth; a. the upper, b. the lower jaw; 3. a scale magnified ; 6. a portion of the skin taken from the lateral line which together with the scales on either side are magnified about twice the natural size ; 4. the outside of the branchial apparatus ; a. b. c. the arches of the gills; f. the branchial rays; g. the operculum magnified about twice ; 5. inner view of the branchial apparatus ; a. b. c. the arches; d. entrance to the sack, e. h. pharangeal teeth ; 1.1.1. apertures between the branchial arches. Pl. XIV. Internal structure of Apodal Fishes. I. II. III. IV. V. /; The stomach, intestine, and heart in the ge- nus Anguilla, Cuv. The stomach, and air vessel in the genus Murenesox, J. M. The stomach, intestines, and heart in Ophi- surus, Lacep. The same in the genus Strophidon, J. M. The same in the genus Pneumabranchus, J. M. . The same in Ophisternon, J. M. . The same in Ptyobranchus, J. M. the stomach ; 2, the intestine ; 3, the entrance to the throat ; 4, the anus, (5, Fig. V. and VI. the liver) ; 6, the heart marking its relative situation with the entrance of the throat. the heart magnified, showing A. the auri- cle, B. (and B. B. in some) the ventricle ; g. the descending, and b c. the ascending vena cava ; e. the ascending, and f. the descending aorta, d. c. B. Fig. V. the muscular portion of the ventrical, detached from the auricle, 206 7 Apodal Fishes of Bengal. shewing 4, semilunar valves at c. communi- cating between the auricle A. and ventricle B. in the genus Pneumabranchus. V.—General Synopsis of Apodal Fishes. The following Synopsis shows the position of the Bengal species in the general classification of the fishes of this order, here rendered as complete in regard to foreign species, as the works of reference to which I have excess would admit of. It is however very imperfect, and can only be useful as bringing together all the well known and authentic spe- cies for the convenience of students. The species of Upper India, of the Mountain Provinces of Kemaon, Sekim, Nipal, Girwal, &c. have yet to be added to the list. This can now be done by any one commonly versed in such enquiries, although I may say without arrogance that no subject could be involv- ed in greater obscurity than this, when the present task was undertaken. Of 100 known species, it will be seen from the table of Geographical distribution, with which this paper is concluded, that 37 belong to Asia, 24 to Europe, 17 to Ameri- ca, and 17 to Africa. It will be seen however, that of the 3/7 Asiatic species, 26 are peculiar to Bengal alone, and if we in- clude Arrakan as a portion of the Province, Bengal in that case affords one-third more species than all Europe, and twice as many as North and South America together. From the same table we also learn, that Apodal Fishes prevail most in variety as we approach the tropics. Thus, while North America has but six species, South America possesses eleven ; and while Great Britain has only six, the Mediterranean has also eleven; and the Nile contains but five species, while the lower Ganges contains twenty-six. The same table likewise shows that there are several genera, but no species common to Europe and Asia, while there is no genus common to Asia and America. Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 207 Ord.—APODES. Linn. Tribe.—ANGUILLIDES, Nob. The anus is near the middle of the body. The heart situat- ed between the branchial apertures, which are double. Gulls pectinated, supported by bony arches. I, Fam.—ANGUILLIDA, Nob. Pectoral fins distinct; dorsal and anal fins united ; bran- chial rays slender. Two nostrils on either side, one before the eye, and the other near the end of the muzzle. I. Gen.—ANGUILLA, Cuv. Dorsal commencing far back behind the pectorals, teeth conical, sharp and disposed in bands. Anterior nostrils tubu- lar. ed, but depressed towards the jaws. Lower jaw longer than the upper, mouth slightly cleft with a narrow band of small teeth on each side of the jaws. Dorsal occupies more than two-thirds of the back, and the ; anal more than half the length. - {.Has.—Europe. ( Head convex at the crown, compress- f Yarr. Brit. Fishes, ii. 284. ANGUILLA ACUTIROSTRIS. BY Murena anguilla, Lacep. 11-284. | g Head rounded behind, but flattened before the eyes; jaws broad and blunt, lower jaw broader and longer, than the upper; mouth widely cleft, teeth forming a broad | band on either side of both jaws. Dorsal and anal fins broad. | Has.—Europe. ANGUILLA LATIROSTRIs, Yarr. British Fishes, ii. 298. Jaws widely cleft but narrow, lower ANGUILLA MEDIOROsTRIS, Yar. eee opp) Eeclorals td Fishes. i. 30). nearer to the head than in either yO 3 of the other species. Has.—Europe. ANGUILLA LONGICOLLA, Cuv. Lacep. ii, 3. f. 3. Dorsal and anal fins narrow. { ie jaw longer than the lower. -Has.—Europe. Qs 208 Apodal Fishes of Bengal. (Lower jaw narrower and consider- ably longer than the upper. Head narrow. ‘Two uniform rows of ob- tuse conical teeth on each side of both jaws, as well as on the vomer. ates Kester ane The interval from the branchial Gelasig Ge dis 2 apertures to the anus, is equal to ae i , co \ half the distance from the anus to : eee the end of the caudal, and to the whole distance from the extremity of the muzzle to the commencement of the dorsal ; 11 long slender carti- laginous branchial rays. Has.—Chusan and Ningpoo in China. ( Three rows of obtuse short conical : teeth on each side of the upper | jaw, the middle row forming a cul- ANGUILLA stnENSIS, Nob. d minating ridge. | STROPHIDON LONGICANDATA, Nob. J I | L dorsal commencing half way be- tween the branchial aperture and head, contains 484, and the anal 384 concealed rays ; colour olive green, without spots. Haz.—Bengal. QF 216 Apodal Fishes of Bengal. X. Gen.—Tuaropontis, Nob. IV. Dorsal commencing at the nape, a double row of teeth along the centre of the palate, and a single row on the maxil- laries, toyether with several long moveable hooked conical teeth near the apex of the jaws. ¢ The anus nearer to the tail than it is to THARODONTIS NIGRICANS. | the head which is flat; jaws long, Murenophis Nigricans, Lacep. muzzle round, teeth of the upper Encyc. Method. Gronov. Zooph. 1 jaw and those at apex of the lower, 163. | larger than the others. | Has.—South America. ik Head and mouth small, each jaw fur- nished with a row of pointed irre- gular long teeth, anus rather beyond THERODONTIS RETICULARIS. | the middle, reticulated brown spots Gymnothorax Reticulatus, Bl. 416.9 and bands on the back, diminishing | on the sides, obscure brown spots on the dorsal. | Has.—Tranquebar. Dorsal narrow, two _ longitudinal 1 Ree RP ee Na rows of spots on each side. The ul Ca wEcIA Fae et 4 upper Jaw is more advanced than piling ae ? ye the lower, the anus situated about Commers. the middle. Has.—New Britain. ( Crown high and rounded, every part of the body is marked with black pentangular spots, separated by narrow white lines of the same form. The teeth are sharp and hooked, consisting of a single row on the edges of both jaws, and a double row on the centre of the back part of the palate, and 3 moveable fangs in a central row near the apex of the upper jaw. Has.—Arracan. TH#RODONTIS RETICULATA, Nob. vu.1. ooo ee ( The anus is situated a little in front | of the middle; fins grey, colour ash ; grey with a blackish edging to the Murena Cineraceus, Rupp. Fauna Z fins, eight or ten dark lines over North Africa, p. 120. Museum the opercula. of Frankfort. N.B.—The peculiarities of its denti- tion requires to be pointed out. | Has.—Mohila on the Red Sea. THERODONTIS CINERACEUS. Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 217 Yellowish colour, marbled with many : fine citron yellow and dark brown | spots. The anal fin commences ra- ther behind the middle. _ N.B.—Iit is merely said of the denti- tion that the mouth is provided with | a row of remarkable strong conical TH#ZRODONTIS OPHIS. Murena Ophis. eee Faun. North Africa, t. 29. f. 2 hooked teeth, so as to render the i bite dangerous. | Has.—Red Sea. ooene yellowish brown, with ches- _ nut brown spots, with a yellow ed- ging to the fins; jaws and palate furnished with a single row of strong teeth. N.B.—Dr. Ruppell supposes this spe- cies to be Murenophis gris, Lacep. in which however there are two rows of teeth on the edge of the jaws, while in this there seems to be but one row. LHas.—Red Sea. THRODONTIS FLAVIMARGINATA. Murena flavimarginata, Rupp. Faun. North Africa, t. xix. f. 2 oe XI. Gen.—Gymnomurana, Lacep. The body and tail almost cylindrical, neither dorsal nor anal Jins, and the caudal is sometimes wanting. Without caudal or other fins. Body marked by alternate transverse GyMNOMURZENA DOLIATA. bars of brown and white. Upper Lacep. v. t. 19, f. 4. jaw a little longer than the lower. . Has.—New England. The lower jaw a little longer than the upper; aslight rudimental caudal, GyYMNOMURENA MARMORATA 2 anus nearer to the head than the Lacep. v. p. 648. tail. Has.—Europe. GYMNOMURENA CONCOLOR,* Two rows of sharp teeth on each jaw, Uropterygius Concolor, Ltuppell. with one on the palate, colour uni- Fishes of the Red Sea in Faun. formly liver brown, caudal distinct. North Africa. Hazs.—Red Sea. * The bite of this species is said by Lacepede to be poisonous. 218 Apodal Fishes of Bengal. ( Body long, and tapering from the GYMNOMURENA C&ECUS. i intestinal aperture to the point of MUREZNa cz&cus, Linn.. the tail. Head conical, terminating Apterichthus Cecus Loroach. Ann.{ in a narrow pointed muzzle—no du Mus. 13, t. 21, f. 6. | fins. Teeth small at the base, and | large and distinct from each other {_ at the apex of the jaws. Tribe.—_OPHICARDIDES. Nob. The heart situated far behind the gills, and the anus be- hind the middle of the body. L. Fam._SYNBRANCHIDA:, Nob. A single external opening leading to the gills which are supported by bony arches, no fins beyond a slight duplica- ture of the skin, forming an adipose dorsal and anal united at the end of the tail. Anterior nostrils tubular. I. Gen.—OprvnicarpiA, Nob. Jaws depressed, gills small, consisting of 3 slightly pecti- nated combs, to which there is a single transverse external opening, diverging to a small internal opening on either side. Teeth disposed in broad bands on either side as well as on the maxillaries. ( Having five strong bony branchial | rays on either side, the first isolated in front of the others and much | larger. The body is cylindric, with- out scales, andverylong. ‘The tail very short and compressed, the | anus situated at the posterior fifth | of the entire length. Head short lL OprnicarpiaA PHAyRIANA, Nob. 2 ena | — and convex at the crown. Has.—Sandoway. II. Gen.—Pneumasrancuus, Nob. Head depressed, 3 branchial arches, the intervals between them almost obliterated by: means of a vascular membrane which lines a blind sack- opening on either side over the first Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 219 arch, performing the functions at once of lungs and gills. The body is covered with small imbricated scales. The branchial apertures and fins as in Ophicardia, but the ventral aperture is not quite so far back. round black spots; two or three white streaks extending a short way along the sides from the back of the head. Below yellowish- white. The anus is at a distance 4 of 3-4th of the entire length from | the muzzle. The tail is compressed | and narrow. The reflection of | lL pColons above olive green, with small | | PNEUMABRANCHUs stRIATUS, Nob. Unibranchapertura Cuchia, Buch. Xiil. skin representing the dorsal fin, occupies the latter two-thirds of the tail. H as.—Bengal. ( Body yellowish white, with a few irre- gular dark spots of various size scat- | tered over thebody. And the mem- PNEUMABRANCHUS LEPROSUS, * branous expansion representing an Nob. { adipose dorsal commences almost | as far forward as the vent. LHas.—Bengal. Colour uniformly bright yellow, 7 pupils black, irides narrow, and PNEUMABRANCHUS ALBINUS, Nob. bright golden yellow, surrounded by a livid zone. Has.—Bengal. { Colour dark dusky grey above, blue- ish grey below. The anus situa- - ted a little before the posterior fourth part of the entire length. The membranous expansion repre- | senting the dorsal, begins to appear before the middle of the tail. | Has.—Chusan and Ningpoo in China. PNEUMABRANCHUS CINEREUS, Nob. Cale. Journ. Nat. Hist. 1. t. f. 2 III. Gen.—Synsrancuus, Bloch. A single branchial aperture forming a longitudinal fissure under the throat, a thick head and blunt narrow muzzle. 220 Apodal Fishes of Bengal. SYNBRANCHUS MARMORATA, Bl. Shaw Zool. vol. iv. t. 4 many ranges of small teeth. Muzzle round, jaws furnished with Has.—Surinam. Muzzle narrow and pointed, without spots on the body ; itis smaller than the last and ofa dusky brown colour. Has.—Surinam. SYNBRANCHUS IMMACUALTA, Bl. The dorsal commences about the middle of the body, the head small, muzzle pointed, upper jaw longer than the lower, colour grey. Has.—Coast of Guinea. SYNBRANCHUS CENDRE, Bon. Muzzle pointed, many rows of hook- SYNBRANCHUS LINEATA. Unibranchapertura Lineata, Lacep. ed teeth in both jaws; a dark line extended from the head along the whole length of the back. Has.—Cayenne. ( Eyes small and situated near the end of the muzzle; the dorsal commen- ces about the latter fourth of the entire length, the dorsal, anal and caudal adipose, and very diffi- L cult to distinguish. Hazs.—Cayenne. SYNBRANCHUS LAVIS. 2 Unibranchapertura Levis, Lacep. } IV. Gen.—OPuisTERNON, Nob. A single transverse. opening under the throat, common to both branchie. These consist of four pectinated combs on each side. Two bands of teeth on the edges of the upper jaw, 5 short cartilaginous branchial rays. Eyes small and placed on the muzzle, teeth disposed in bands on the sides of the jaws. ( The head is long, depressed and nar- row, the eyes small and placed near the extremity of the muzzle which is slightly recurved ; 2 broad bands of teeth on either side of the upper jaw, the outer band placed on the maxillaries, forms a crescent in front. | Has.—Bengal. OPHISTERNON BENGALENSIS, MDD =i; 1. : Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 221 c Head short and thick, rounded at the crown; the outer band of mse. laterally in asingle row, and forms an inverted crescent at the apex. Has.—Arracan. _ OpnistERNON HEPaTicus, Nob. teeth on the upper jaw terminates L V. Gen.—ALaABEs, Cuv. A single branchial aperture under the throat ; pectoral fins well marked, 3 branchial rays, the intestines as in Synbranchus. A single small species only is known, and this inhabits the Indian Ocean. ALABES cuvERIZ. Nob. pectoral fins, teeth pointed. A small concave disk between the Has.—Indian Ocean. if. Fam.—PTYOBRANCHID/, Nob. Two distinct branchial apertures situated in front of small pectorals, leading to gills consisting of 4 pectinated combs supported by bony arches. Fins supported by rays. VI. Gen.—Pryosrancuus, Nob. Head small, with a narrow conical round muzzle, and a long perfectly cylindrical body like a reed, terminating abruptly in a thick tail. Dorsal and anal narrow, rounded, and connected with the caudal by means of a narrow raphe. { Distance from the muzzle to the pec- torals equel to 1-12th of the entire | length, diameter of the body equal to about 1-50th of thelength. The | anus is situated at the latter 3d of the length, the tail is of equal depth | with the body to the very end, with- in two or three diameters of which PTYOPRANCHUS ARUNDINACEUS, ~ it becomes compressed, and termi- Nob. nates in a thick wedge. The anal fin commences at a distance behind the anus equal to its own length, | the dorsal commences at the middle | of thetail. The jaws are of equal size. Colour dark olive-green | above, greenish-white below. The fin rays are P. 10: D, 10: A. 40. | Has,—Bengal. > ee 222 Apodal Fishes of Bengal. PryOBRANCHUS GUTHRIANUS, Nob. Kae. PryOBRACHUS LINEARIS, Moringua linearis, Gray. Hard. Illust. Ind. Zool. i. 8. PryoBRANCHUS HARDWICKII, Rataboura Hardwichit Gray.* Pryosruncuus raitBorvaA, Nob. Murena raitaborua Buch Gang. Fishes, p. 25. Hard. Illust. Ind. Zool. 11. f. 4. ( The diameter equal to about 1-47th of | | | entire length, body perfectly cylin- dric, but the tail is a little com- pressed, and terminates in an oval point; the anal fin commences at a distance behind the vent. The raphes connecting the caudal with the dorsal and anal fins area little more developed than in the last, the fin rays are P.11: D. 36: A. 44: C. 64. Colour dark green above, of a lighter shade below. { Has.—Bengal. Cas a Coe r The caudal, anal, and dorsal fins united and straight. N.B.—I suspect this species is fabri- cated from a drawing in the Buc- hanan collection Bot. Garden, Cal- cutta, in which the dorsal and anal are both represented by mistake winding in a spiral form round the end of the tail, which had been ac- cidentally twisted. Dorsal fin contains 26 rays, the anal 32, and the caudal 36. N.B.—This supposed species was made by Mr. Gray to form a dis- tinct genus from the last under an idea that the caudal is in the one distinct, and in the other united with the dorsal and anal. It is needless to remark that such distinctions could only have originated from bad drawings. The diameter of the body equal to about 1-31st of the entire length. The distance from the muzzle to the pectorals equal to 1-9th of the en- tire length, and to 1-38rd of the length ofthe tail. The anal fin com- mences about one diameter of the body behind the vent. Teeth short, strong and hooked, 10 forming a line on the vomer, and 15 an inter- rupted line on either side of the upper jaw, pectorals round, P. 9: D. 39: A. 44: C. 60, or there abouts. Colour, purple above, below red- dish white; tail dark. { Hazs.—Bengal. * This is founded on a figure taken from Buchanan’s MSS. Bot. Garden, Calcutta, marked in the Author’s hand writing Murena raitaborua. See As. Res. Beng. vol, p. xix. 221. Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 223 The anal fin commences near the anus, and contains 50 or more distinct rays, when it slopes off into a nar- row raphe connecting it with the anal, which contains seventy or more distinct rays. Tail compress- ed and lanceolate. The fin rays are D. 40: A. 56: C. 70. Co- lour above red, minutely speckled with black dots, below reddish white. Length about 10 inches, diameter about } inch. Has.— Bengal. PryosrRANcHus ERYTHREUS, Nob. | 1X.—o. | Nob. are D. 42: A. 36: C. 64. Pryoprancnus muLtipentatus, { Tail thick and clumsy. The fin rays ix.—4. Has.—Bengal. Head small, tail slightly tapering and compressed, with the anal com- mencing near the anus; about 30 small hooked teeth forming a row on either side of the jaws, with only about 4 teeth, forming a row ~ on the vomer near the apex of the vicggaw. 2 Pdt : Desi: A. S820C. 60, | or thereabouts. Colour purple, lL ere cee, PNEUMABRANCHUS PARVIDENTA- tus, Nob. 1x.—5. and minutely dotted above the la- teral line; white below. Length about 10 inches, diameter of the body #4 inch. (The head is very small, muzzle acute | and sharp, eyes close together, about 22 sharp hooked teeth on Pryoprancuus cracitis, Nob. either side of the jaws and ten ix.— 6. < forming arow on the vomer. Length about 9 inches, diameter 1-5th inch. Colour purple above the lateral | line, and white below. About four inches in length. P. 11: D. Pryosrancuus Brevis, Nob. 40 :C. 54, probably the young of P. medius. The following are the only species here omitted, the necessary works in which their descriptions appear, not being procurable in Calcutta. The first three are referred 26 224 Apodal Fishes of Bengal. to by Cuvier as Congers ; namely, Murena strongylodon, Schn. Mur. nigra, Risso, Anguilla Marbree, Quoy and Gaym, Voy. de Frecin. t. 51, f. 2, and M. Savanna, Cuv. from Martinique. Ophisurus longmusean, Cuv. Quoy and Gaym. I. c.; Oph. guitatus, Cuv. a new species from Surinam. M. Saga, Risso, remarkable for elongated jaws and the extension of the tail into a point; it evidently belongs to the genus Da- lophis, Raf. The other three are Murenide with a single row of sharp teeth on the edges of the jaws, viz. M. Moringa, Cuv. from the Antilles, Catesb. ii. xxi.; M. punctata BI. ; and M. meleagris, Sch. Lastly, two species referred by Cuvier to the genus Sphagebranchus, Bl., viz. Leptocephalus spal- lanzani, Risso, Cecula pterygea, Vahl. Mem. d’Hist. Nat. de Copenh. iii. x. 11. v. 13. 1. 2.° Lastly, twelve species of Apodal fishes, known only by their remains in the tertiary strata of Europe, are figured in the Litiolithologia Veronese, and two in M. Agassiz’s work on Fossil Fishes. Being extinct, these species cannot be said, strictly speaking, to come within our present object, which is limited chiefly to the species of Bengal, and the position which they hold in the general distribution of the order. This I have endeavoured to exhibit in the following table, already referred to, p. 206. It may be remarked however with regard to the solid parts of animals dispersed throughout the strata of the earth, that they prove a gradual cooling to have taken place in the temperature of the globe, by which alone we are enabled to account for the remains of tropical animals found in high northern latitudes. The history of Apodal fishes only tends to confirm the general fact of such a change. The accompanying table shows as already remarked, p. 206, that the number and variety of Apodal fishes increase as we approach the tropics. In Bengal the lowest latitude in which they have been examined, we have probably ten species of the genus Anguilla, which is more than double the ee ee Pe fe Apodail Fishes of Bengal. 225 amount of species now existing throughout the whole of Europe. Yet in a single locality of that temperate conti- nent, nine fossil species of Anguilla have already been found. These are imbedded in the slaty rocks of Monte Bolca, together with a species of Ophisurus, a genus now nearly restricted to the tropics alone, and which is almost as little known in Europe in the present day, as the Crocodiles and Tapirs with whose bones its remains are mingled in Italy and France. NOTE. Should it be thought necessary to separate the Bengal species of the genus from Anguilla, Cuv. on account of their naked tessellated scales, I would propose the following name and characters for the new group. Sus-cenus.—Terpolepis.—Lower jaw broader, and longer than the upper. Dorsal and anal as in the genus Anguilla, body covered with minute naked oblong tessellated scales. Teeth conical, small, slightly hooked, and disposed in abroad band on either side of the jaws, as well as on the vomer. Anterior nostrils tubular. ERRATA. With respect to the genus Cossyphus, p. 403 vol. IV. J find that name has. been previously appropriated to another genus by M. Valenciennes, I there- fore propose Phagorus, the Greek name of an unknown kind of fish, to be substi- tuted for the genus in question, in place of the first mentioned name. Page 204, last line but one from bottom, for Pl. xii, read Pl. xiii. Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 226 “yeyIqe ET UMOUyU LE) | Bo eeee Feee e- cn sees coco re 8 eo 00 08 eolevee eceoe|/sece eeee F eeleeleoolee oo eelesevi|eens I I eooe pe ig; eolee\ve @eleeoes|+ears;setelsove COI eoleosijeeiee eelee®siegeve I Peeeolseetclasrjenoleo|e*e|lee ee eed I eevee eeove|*eee ee ee e@eo/*®2/]e0 ee ,eeeeienee@ 9 eeoeoeoelisvreaeevlieae ee @eleo;ee @eol|e®ere;/eeen G oie eerleolsee | oel;ee/;ee ee See eee eeee I I @evijee e@cl@e\ee eo|®eeejesven weerlscee|sseeliocelceliee 16 ee she t)e eeeolseres @erleesslioeliee HO | ee @ol®eerel|eoaneo|seeuleooece oxeye'e e@else oa | I eo GC @oeessoericeroleoeas |oojoeo|ecelen|oe @eieet®eieeece e@esvolveeel|se@oe es SO ETE dS Esse eeerlseeel(coeoel|seori selene sre) iy ee @eo@e@ e828 ‘ T seen SZ, Fale ee | i I 2° AGE] ee ee j I } ceee re seorleclee|eoo erie @e © @e eaeeseleosevieenee oe AN | eel /e@e\i,ee es e008 ve ®eecoleeee| see ON CH | ee eo Ceeel|tose|eoes I I Os | Oe ey Do i a @Ceotoelseeeei eet elses aeaily ee “°9 ee @oeeleeervleeove|tsee SEAT esel*eiee Bo f.29 Se Caeevsiecerel(eeve|seerlee ET: ole [Pe a @Ceoeeleer®el/ovece % mee eolteloe eo Pee iceose|seeeleones if ¢ are ¢ P OO] 4] el wil oldizialpie set e|e |e] el sleisis eye ° | Fl] &) 8 Fels late ee =e lelal iFiS a @ [PIE ° ° Oo i=*) & "COLI Y ‘eomeumy! adoing | ‘esy we a ‘say Apomuly = ee "ANG ‘lajselelg °° "ese Surry “tumntpradg * uag ‘snjeydaso0jdary (4) as “ANY ‘snqouveussa}¢ as "ANO ‘snyoreumAy ,, ee ee ang ‘sndereg ee °° surry ‘snjouutAy “you, SxuAreydoooeg (2) ve *e-u ‘sngoueiqoéig -u ee ee "ang ‘soqeTy (3) ) ne °* *u ‘uoureystydg | ** = -yaoTg ‘snyoueaqudg }-u ** *u ‘snyouviqeunoug ee ** 'u “etpreo1qdo ‘daoey ‘euszeanmouudy oe °° 9 ‘sIjJUOporKy J, as ss *u ‘uoptydoijg ¢ °° vy as ‘u ‘euxzinyy | co se year ‘stqdoreq J as ee ‘u ‘xeloqy1qdg ¢ *-daoery ‘sninstydg > °° ec "MS ‘snyyeusojdery oe me | epaeeee ee ee “ANQ ‘1aSu0g eo ‘see sang “erpmBuy § ACLICY 9) ‘snIdiHdgQ a | ‘SALONWAYD (3) J ‘W CIHONVUAOALG °* *u ‘sadIduVvolHdg ‘WAIHONVYANAG ‘u ‘HY CINAVyN ‘u ‘Walunsindg | e | ‘u ‘WAITTINONY J *sorTTUIe "saysiy qopodp fo uowngrsip qoarydvasoay ‘u ‘SUCITIINONY “Soquy ‘u ‘SHCIGUVOAHLHO]T | | | | | | | | ‘wT ‘SHadO0dv ETS EERE Se SS RR FEES Ss EY GREE RE OE pn ee — “1IpPIC, 227 On Azolla and Salvinia. By W. Grirrita, Esq. F. L. 8. Memb. Imp. Acad. Natur. Curios., Royal Ratisb. Botan. Soc., Asst. Surgeon, Madras Establishment. Having lately had an opportunity, one of the many which the H. C. Botanic Gardens afford, of examining Azolla and Salvinia, I now ‘purpose giving my observations in detail. For I believe that there is no part of structural, and con- sequently systematic Botany, more enveloped in obscurity and mystification than these two genera, the examination of which appears to have been limited to their mature state. It is necessary in the first place to observe that in Azolla and Salvinia the so-called, or supposed male and female or- gans are up to a certain and comparatively late period of their development indistinguishable, a circumstance of pri- mary importance, of which I have been long aware.* The first stage of the two organs (ovula) observed in Azolla has presented them enclosed in an involucrum of a very cucullate form, the point turned inwards so as to touch the axis. They are sessile cellular bodies of a concave or cup-shaped form, the cup (the young ¢egument) being occu- pied by a protruding cellular body (the nucleus) ; one is rather more advanced than the other. (Pl. 15. f. 1.) The second stage presented them of a more oblong form, the protruding cellular body more surrounded by the cup, (Pl. 15. f. 2.3.) by which in the third it is completely enclosed. (Pl. 15. f. 4.) * The first opportunity I had of seeing Azolla was in 1837, during a journey across the Jheels of Eastern Bengal. I then became aware of the identity of the male and female organs up to so late a period as precluded their being intended to perform such opposite functions: of the other observations then made it is only necessary to notice the delineation of the granules within the organs in that stage when they often appear to form a column reaching from the foramen to the nucleus. The similarity of the two organs was mentioned to Mr. Solly, and by him brought to the notice of the Linnean Society. 298 On Azolla and Salvinia. The fourth stage presented them as still more oblong, with a tendency to an urceolar form. The once protruding nuc- leus is now completely concealed, the cup having become ex- tended beyond its apex into a short mammilla having a narrow orifice (the foramen). Minute examination at this stage dis- closes a tendency, at least in appearance, in the aforesaid mammilla to be lobed, as though it had been produced, not by one, but by about four component parts. The same stage has generally presented moniliform filaments in apposi- tion with the apex of one or both organs. (Pl. 15. f.5.) These moniliform filaments are found within the involucrum from the earliest period examined, but were not observed to have any positive relations with the organs before this period. They now plainly pass into the organs, and have therein sooner or later appeared to be resolved into their component joints, which occupy the cavity existing between the once protruding body and the foramen. (Pl. 15. f. 7. 8. 10. 11.) And this is so constant, that even in cases where the moniliform filaments are not seen in application with the foramen, or passing through it, the space just particularised will be found filled with their component parts. (PU. 15./f. 12. 13. 14. 15.) Up to this time both the organs have presented a cellular surface of the usual colour; each cell of the surface con- taining a nucleus, likewise of the ordinary herbaceous colour. The fifth stage presents the base of the nucleus surround- ed by small cellular protuberances. (Pl. 15. f. 12. 13. 14.) The moniliform filaments are the same. The cells of the surface of each organ are more developed, and have begun to assume a rosy tint. ‘The nuclei of these cells also are not only more distinctly defined, but are in most cases of a pink tint, in some deep pink. Throughout these stages small cellular protuberances have been developing from the axis outside the base of either or- gan. These at the stage under consideration are simple, On Azolla and Salvinia. 299 jointed, more or less capitate filaments, the head represen- ting the protuberance as it existed originally. (Pd. 15. f. 10. 12. 15. 16.) The sixth stage presents both organs of a decided pink tint, except the base or often the lower half, the cells of which do not contain a coloured fluid. The apex of both appears distinctly browned, and generally exhibits short moniliform filaments adhering to it. The space between the nucleus and the foramen, is occupied by the joints of the moniliform filaments. Thus far both organs present common appearances. But at this stage remarkable dissimilarities begin to be exhibited, and what is equally remarkable these affect either both organs indifferently, or one only of each pair, in which case alone there can be said to be any thing definite in the position of the two. In this case in one organ the developments take place within the nucleus, in the other in the small cellular protuberances round its base. The former becomes the male of Botanists, the latter the female; or the former becomes the ovate organ presenting the so-cal- led calyptra containing the large yellow sac, surmounted by the curious lobed body; the latter becomes the globular organ containing the numerous, smaller, pedicellate bodies. Of the first, the first change ascertained was the appearance of a grumous condensation in the original nucleus (Pi. 15. f. 12. 15. 14.); of the latter, the development of grumous matter in each of the small protuberances round the base of the nucleus, which are developed in a centrifugal order. In the first which I now propose to follow, this condensa- tion, for so it apparently is, increases until a tolerably well defined opaque grumous disc is seen in the nucleus: this disc subsequently appears under a certain focus transparent in the centre, opaque round the edges (Pi. 15. f. 15. Pl. 16. f. 3.); an appearance due, I believe, to the development of a mem- branous sac inside. In the meantime, the pink colour of the 230 On Azolla and Salvinia. cells of the surface of the organ has increased, so has the browning of the apex, which still often presents traces of ad- hering moniliform filaments. Both organs also exhibit distinct vessels prolonged from the vessels of the axis into their bases. (Pl. 15. f. 12. 13. 14.) The next stage presents nothing particular in the appear- ance of the organ, or the enclosed moniliform filaments. The nucleus however, presents about its centre, in lieu of the grumous disc transparent in the centre, a well defined small yellow sac, and between it and the apex of the nucleus, a grumous mass is seen presenting what appear to be several small points of condensation. (Pl. 16. f. 4. 5.) Somewhat later the organ having increased a little in size, the yellow sac is found to be as it were capped by the grumous mass, (Pl. 16. f. 6. 9.) which presents shortly after indications of division (lobes) on its surface. (Pl. 16. f. 7. 8.) The space between the apex of the nucleus and the now very brown apex of the organ, still presents the dislocated joints, which now form acolumn of communication between the foramen and the nucleus (Pl. 16.f. 6.) ; parts of the moni- liform filaments may often also be found adhering to the fora- men itself. The lobes mentioned as appearing in the capping grume continuing to be developed, encroach upwards on the nucleus (Pl. 16. f. 7.); and the yellow sac, which, as the lobes increase in consistency, appears more and more distinctly pendulous from their mass, becomes gradually covered with an incrus- tation. The joints of the moniliform bodies which previously could be easily squeezed out through the foramen disappear about this period. (Pl. 16. f. 7.) When fully developed the organ presents scarcely if any change of form: most of the cells of the surface are gorged with pink fluid ; the apex is distinctly brown. The cavity of the organ is occupied by a complex body, consisting of two dissimilar parts; the upper, which forms rather more On Azolla and Salvinia. 931 than the half, consisting of nine lobes (Pl. 16. f. 15. 16.) (the three uppermost of which are the largest,) mutually united by a remarkable tissue, which on pulling them from their places separates with them in the form of fibrous radicellar prolongations (Pl. 16. f. 20.) This part (the upper loculus of Brown) is up to a certain period perfectly homogeneous, and even when the nine lobes are evidently cellular, the axis or common attaching portion is grumous - and homogeneous. It is by this tissue that the whole mass hangs from the apex of the capsule which separates with it in the shape of a conical calyptra, (Pl. 16. f. 13. 14.) presenting in the centre a brown mammilla (the original foramen.) The above mass is in apposition below with - the upper surface of the yellow sac; the part of this (i. e. the vertex) so in apposition not being covered by the incrustation (Pl. 16. f. 17. 18.) The yellow sac is filled with oleaginous particles; it presents on the centre of its upper face a trilinear mark (Pl. 16. f. 17. 18.); it is separ- able from the incrustation, which presents an areolate cel- lular-looking surface (Pl. 16. f. 13. 15. 16. etc.) ; its mem- brane is thick, of a waxy texture, and without markings or any other indications of composition. (Pl. 16. f. 22.) The changes in the other organ, appear only to affect the protuberances round the base of the nucleus, which body may be detected unchanged, as I have ascertained by measurements, in the mature organ. All the protuberances undergo the same changes, those next the base of the nucle- us, (or those first developed, or the *ppermost,) being the most precocious. .A nearly mature capsule will present a complete series of the developments. First they appear as small sessile protuberances with slight indications of cellularity and a central cavity (P/. 17. /f. 5.) In the second stage one or two cells will be found to have been developed under the original protuberance, 2H 252 On Azolla and Salvinia. which is now therefore more or less pedicellate. The cellularity of the head or terminal part is more evident, it is evidently hollow, and the cavity contains grumous matter (Pl. 17. f. 6.7.) As it goes on enlarging the head assumes a spherical form, the pedicel becomes more developed, the grumous mass larger (Pl. 17. f. 8. 9. 10.) Then in the cells of the heads, which are the young secondary capsules, amylaceous granules (for they are violetted by indigo) appear. And at this period, if the grumous mass be closely examined, very minute cells will be seen in it, each cell containing 3 or 4 nuclei (Pl. 17. f. 11. 12.) (or perhaps three or four cells each containing a nucleus) convex exteriorly, trifacial interiorly.* The enlargement continuing, the next stage presents the formerly grumous mass as cellular, the membrane of the cells (the parent cells) not well developed, with grume along their contiguous faces. (Pl. 17. f. 13.) In each of these cells are 3 or 4 yellow nuclei presenting more or less of their original connection, or quite distinct. Examined separately each of these presents a convex surface and a trifacial one, the last being the surface of their former — contiguity. The parent cells soon cease to be evident, and then the cavity of the s. capsule appears filled more or less with trifacial yellow cells (Pl. 17. fi 14.) At a later period each head (or s. capsule) presents the appearance of being subdivided into several cellular-looking compartments, each of which encloses several of the yellow sacs (Pl. 17. f. 15.) The yellow sacs, when separated, present no particular change, appearing generally quite empty (Pl. 17. f. 16.) | Still later each s. capsule presents generally three or some- times two subdivisions of increased size (Pl. 17. f. 17. 18.) And this is nearly the mature form, for the further changes * Trifacial if three are developed as is most usual, quadrifacial, if four. On Azolla and Salvinia. oa only regard the appearance of cellularity in the subdivi- sions, and the imbedding of the yellow sacs in the apparently cellular masses hence resulting. When quite formed each secondary capsule presents a long simple stalk, a spherical head, formed of one layer of sinuous cells, containing green granules adhering to the walls of each cell (P/. 17. f. 19.) Each contains two or three, some- times four, cellular bodies, convex on the outer surface or that next the wall of the cavity, irregular on the inner surface, or that of mutual apposition. This surface presents prolonga- tions having appearances of cellularity, but not of organic cel- lularity (Pl. 17. f. 20. 21.) The mass is solid and apparently cellular ; within it may be seen the once free trifacial yellow sacs. It will be hence seen that in Azolla the difformity of the mature organs is extreme, indeed but for the foramen, and the trilineal mark of the vertex of the yellow sac, the two could scarcely be considered as having anything in common. The young state of the organ of the Salvinia is too like that of Azolla to need any detailed remark. But the nucleus presents from an extremely early period a papillar appear- ance, the first developments of the future secondary capsules taking place at an exceedingly early period (Pi. 18. f. 1. 2.3. 4, 5.) The first discrepancy remarked in the organs of this plant consists in the number of the papillze (future secondary cap- sules) developed. ‘This also occurs at a very early period, when the two subsequently difform organs are recognisable, the one by the smallness and great number of the papillz, the other by their larger size and smaller number. The second discrepancy arises from the greater develop- ment of a particular cell in the secondary capsules resulting from the development of the papillz. Otherwise, at least up to the period of the enclosure of the trifacial cells (or spores) 234 On Azolla and Salvinia. of the smaller spherical secondary capsules, the developments are so much the same that they may be advantageously con- sidered together. In both, the first steps consist in the development of the cells of the superficies of the secondary capsules. (Pl. 18. f. 10. 1]. 12. 13.) Shortly after, a cavity begins to appear in the se- condary capsule, and this cavity then becomes filled with the usual formative grumous matter (Pl. 18. f. 17. 18. 20.) It is in this grume that all the subsequent changes of impor- tance take place. The first of these exhibits a variable number of irregular granular nuclei (or coagula or condensations) in the grume, which same coagula soon exhibit, (except in cases of abortion) traces of being surrounded by a membrane (Pl. 18. f. 21. 23. 24.) A little later each secondary capsule will be found to pre- sent a central mass of grume apparently connected with the | inner surface of the s. capsule by radiating grumous lines (Pl. 18. f. 22.) the interstices of which are very generally occupied at least partly by distinct cellular bodies with one surface trifacial. On slightly pressing the secondary capsules the grume escapes, and then presents, if attentively examined, a few nuclei or coagula as before said, and a con- siderable number of faintly defined cells, in most of which traces are to be seen of ternary or quaternary division, and as many nuclei; also a few small trifacial cells, as above- mentioned. The grumous mass of the secondary capsules resulting from the larger papille exhibits, however, in the centre a cell containing granules, completely surrounded by grume and apparently quite isolated (Pl. 19. f. 2.); with this ex- ception and the difference in size, its contents may, I think, be considered as identical with those of the others. But this includes the curious difference of trifacial cells being developed both in the centre and the circumference. On Azolla and Salvinia. 935 Following the development of each from this period sepa- rately, it will be found that the grumous mass of the smaller secondary capsules gradually becomes smaller, while the number of the trifacial cells becomes visibly increased ; until the whole or greater part of each secondary capsule is filled with them and with grume (PI. 18. f. 27.); and latterly by trifacial cells alone. After this however, the cavity of these secondary capsules becomes again filled with grumous matter developed from the inner paries of each from several points, each including a variable number of the ad- jacent trifacial cells (P/. 20. f. 1.2.) These at length meet in the centre and form a solid mass, imbedded in which, without any appreciable order,* will be found all the. tri- facial cells of the capsule (Pl. 20. f. 11.) In the perfect state these s. capsules are exceedingly numerous, attached by capillary simple pedicels to branches of a central receptacle (Pl. 20. f. 6.) They are of a brownish colour, the cells composing them are in one layer and are separable from each other (Pl. 20. f. 9.) Each contains a sub-globular whitish opaque body, with an unequal surface presenting prominent and depressed parts (Pl. 20. f. 10.) It can scarcely be considered as or- ganically cellular, although its surface to a greater or less extent appears cellular under the microscope, for pressure destroys this appearance, and it then appears as uniform grume in which are imbedded the trifacial cells. These are of unequal size; some of them can be seen without using pres- sure ; they are of unequal size, and of a yellowish brown tinge. Though previously empty they now contain grumous coagula cohering to the sides ; the larger present in addition granules. The trifacial cells often appear grouped. No oil escapes on pressure, or I should have attributed the superficial cellu- * But I have remarked that while the trifacial cells are being imbedded the trifacial surface is turned to the periphery. Can this have any reference to ger- mination ? 286 On Azolla and Salvinia. lar appearance (it is altogether like nascent cellular tissue, and its precursion by grume is like this too) to the same cause as the apparent cellularity of the incrustation. In some abortive trifacials may be seen. The changes that take place in the larger capsules from the same period, chiefly affect the central sac, which, when detached, will be found to present a similar, but relatively smaller trifacial surface (Pl. 19. f. 5.); at this period this sac is about equal in size to the trifacial cells, visible in the circumference of the grume. But it never has presented to me their empty appearance (Pi. 19. f. 2. 3. 5.) The next period presented this central sac a good deal enlarged, still apparently isolated; it is surrounded by a much thinner mass of grume, which from the frequent ab- sence of the radiating* lines, often appears free of attach- ments. ‘The space between this grume and the inner wall of the secondary capsule is more or less occupied by free trifacial cells (Pl. 19. f. 3. 4. 8.) The grume itself on escaping from the capsule will be found to present the trifacial cells, and larger cells, (parent cells) exhibiting indications of division (P1.A9:, £16.) The central sac continues to increase: the grume sur- rounding it to diminish, until it is reduced to a thin coating. Generally about this period the sac has appeared to be at- tached to the apex of the cavity of the secondary capsule by means of grume; occasionally traces of radiating lines have been visible. The trilineal mark has mostly appeared to correspond with the attaching mass of grume. The sac continuing to increase soon occupies the greater part of the cavity of the secondary capsule; it assumes a yel- lowish colour; generally it appears to be freely pendu- * These lines are presumably unabsorbed or unaltered portions of the original continuous grume. Oe ee ee ae ee ee ee . On Azolla and Salvinia. O34 lous, but sometimes traces of radiating lines remain to a latish period. About the same period I have pretty constantly observed a mammilliform process in the cavity of the sac, corresponding to the trifacial line (P/. 19. f. 17.); it has a mucilaginous ap- pearance and gradually passes off into a thin layer apparently applied over the whole surface of the cavity of the sac. About this period also, the outer surface of this sac will be found studded with granules, by the increasing deposit of which it becomes at length enclosed in an incrustation. This increases in thickness, presents subsequently three lobes at the apex, in the centre of which is an attaching ? process of the sac (Pl. 20. f. 13. 14.) Its next and last change is to assume a cellu- lar appearance and harder consistency. The cavity of the sac also generally presents appearances of cellularity, the cells seeming to be very irregular in size, and I believe having some connection, at least at first, with the mammilla above mentioned (Pi. 19. f. 21.) The contents of the sac, how- ever though seemingly so cellular, are scarcely appreciable; grume only of excessive tenuity escaping under pressure. Soon after this, the yellow sac which has increased in yellow- ness and thickness, presents a viscid granular matter, not in my opinion organised. The mature secondary capsule, which is attached to a free central receptacle by means of a short, stout, compound stalk (Pl. 20. f. 12.)* presents a cellular papillose surface of a brown colour, becoming hyaline in water ; the component cells are separable; it contains a large, single, whitish body of a chalky embossed aspect, without any obvious attach- ment; this is of an oblong shape, and has a rugose or irregular surface (Pi. 20. f. 12.) The upper end, which is * The assumption that the more numerous pedicelled capsules are derived from the development of every cell of the surface of the nucleus, while the fewer oblong ones are derived from the development of several cells of the same surface, will explain the difference of their stalks. 238 On Azolla and Salvinia. rather the smallest, presents three connivent valvular lobes. This white body is the incrustation, it is of a thick, appa- rently not organic, crustaceous substance. Its lower two- thirds are occupied by the yellow sac (Pl. 20. f. 12. 14. 19.) which is with difficulty separable entire; its upper surface, which on drying becomes concave, presents the trifacial line. This sac is filled with a viscid matter, innumerable granules, and irregular globules of oily fluid. A section in the dry state appears solid (Pl. 20. f. 20.) V.e: Az: C. 16. 7 Colour mottled grey, with some bright silvery spots. 282 The late Dr. Malcolmson. . Haxsit.—The rivers at the Sikkim passes on the northern frontier of Bengal. We are indebted to the kindness of Mr. Campbell Superintendent of Darjeeling, for the three last specimens. They were received two years since, and a description of them only withheld in hopes of receiving further accessions from the same quarter. The late Dr. J. G. Matcotmson, F. R. S., G. S. Since the appearance of the last number of this Journal, the death of J. G. Malcolmson, Esq. of Bombay, has been announced in the public prints. Mr. M. belonged formerly to the Madras Medical. Service, which like the Medical Service generally in India, rarely affords scope for men of enterprising character and talent. Mr. Malcolmson after having distinguished himself as a medical officer by the publication of an Essay on Berri Beri, and several geological and other papers, became Secretary to the Medical Board of Madras. He vacated this office, and availed himself of furlough to Europe, where he further distinguished himself by the discovery of fossil fishes in the old red sandstone of his native country in the north of Scotland, as well as by several communications to the Geological and other Societies of which he was elected member. He also formed upon that occasion an extensive connection with the princi- pal scientific men of London and Paris, with whom he continued afterwards to correspond till the period of his death. He resigned the Honorable Company’s Service, we believe, before he was entitled to any pension, and joined the mercantile house of Forbes and Co. of Bombay. Amidst the cares of mercantile pursuits, he still kept up his scientific correspondence, and found time to devote a portion of his energies to scientific occupations. He became Secretary to the Bombay branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, and was one of the chief supporters and original projecters of a valuable Quarterly Journal published by that Institution at Bombay. Mr. Malcolmson possessed a high degree of public.spirit and enterprize, directed by a sound judgment. He was always foremost in undertaking, works of utility, aiding them no less by his example and intelligence, than by Apparent objections to the Glacial Theory, 283 his own private resources and means. In all this, he ever appeared to hold himself in the back ground, and rather seemed to advocate and promote the objects and views of others, than his own. No man however, had a better sense of what was due to himself, as he occasionally proved on his natural generosity of character being misunderstood. He was one of the ablest and best friends of this journal, and shortly before his death we had a communication from him on the subject of Isinglass, on the introduction of which to the English market from Bombay, he was bestowing much attention. This, however, is only one of the numerous objects of public in- terest that will suffer by his loss. Mr. Malcolmson died, we believe, in the prime of life, from a fever contracted it is said, dur- ing an excursion for some scientific object, the particulars of which we have not heard. peespierent olyections to the Glacial Theory. By Capt. Tuos. Hurron. Bengal Army. The figure of the earth, and the traces which its strata present of a former elevated temperature, have long since given rise to the opinion, that our planet. has gradually and insensibly cooled down from a state of intense heat; and certainly without deeming it necessary to admit, that the material elements of the earth were once in a nebular condition; it is still abundantly evident from the facts of Geology, that the animals whose remains are found imbedded in the earlier strata, must have lived in a climate perhaps even warmer than those of tropical countries in the present day. Those very fossils, indeed, from the earliest to the most recent period may be said-to form a kind of thermometric register, which proves indubitably, that the climates of the earth have, from some cause, decreased in temperature until the present order of things commenced, since which no sensible’ diminution would appear to have taken place. There is nothing observable amidst the appear- ances and phenomena of the strata, to warrant the idea that such decrease of temperature has been fitful and uncertain ; diminish- ing at one period; increasing at another ; and then again re- 284 Apparent objections to the Glacial Theory. suming a ratio of gradual decrease ; but on the contrary, every fact with which we are acquainted, tends forcibly to prove, that such decrease, although periodical, and occurring at widely distant periods of time, has yet been constant, and dependant mainly upon the physical distribution of land and water. The strata of the earth in all parts of the world, from the earliest to the most recent periods, furnish incontestible evidence of violent disruption ; the transition; the secondary and the tertiary formations have each in turn been subject to some revolution or convulsion, which has destroyed the organised beings of those periods, and has been succeeded by a decrease of temperature, and a corresponding change in the species of the animal and vegetable tribes, a fact well proved by the gradual passage in a fossil state of the exuvice of beings adapted only for existence in the warmest climates, to those which could survive only in more modern times, . Yet doctrines have recently sprung up, apparently in direct opposition to these revealed facts of geology, which are endea- vouring to prove, that glaciers formerly existed in countries which — at the present day are totally free from them, and whose temper- ature is moreover altogether opposed to their formation. The proofs of the former occurrence of glaciers in Edinburgh and other parts of Great Britain, as well as on the continent of Europe, are said to be furnished by accummulations of transported matter across the mouths of glens and valleys, and by deep grooves and polished surfaces on rocks, to which it is asserted nothing but the weighty friction of enormous glaciers charged with debris, could have given rise. : Now it must be evident, since glaciers do not at present occur in our island, that if they ever had existence there, it must have been at a period when the temperature was far colder than it has ever been during the historical era of man; yet this would be to set at nought the evidence furnished by organic remains, for these all prove, that up to the opening or commencement of the present era, all prior conditions of temperature were invariably higher than now, and such a result too, the theory of refrigeration must absolute- ly demand. Lyell it is true, has endeavoured to explain, that by some cause during the cooling process, the temperature may Apparent objections to the Glacial Theory. 285 have become such as to give rise to glaciers, and then again re- turned to a higher state and destroyed them ; but this is like build- ing upa structure with one hand, for the sole pleasure of destroying it with the other. Lyell seems to have taught himself to believe in the truth of this hyphothesis, from the occurrence in a fossil state of certain species of shells, still living in temperate climates, but surely this fact instead of proving that the former condition was colder, merely shows that some of the present living forms were eapable of existing during the tertiary period likewise, and we know that even in the secondary series, there are some species which occur in more than one member of the system, without proving that the earlier deposit was made during a colder period. Nor if we agree with this author, that changes in physical geo- graphy have always affected the temperatur of climates, could the former temperature ever have been colder than in our days? for we are taught by him, “that since the commencement of the tertiary period, the dry land in the northern hemisphere has been continually on the increase, both because it is now greatly in excess beyond the average proportion which land generally bears to water on the globe, and because a comparison of the secondary and tertiary strata affords indications of a passage from the condition of an ocean inter- spersed with islands, to that of a large continent.”—Lyell’s Prin. Geol. p. 215. Now, that increase of land in northern latitudes must necessarily operate in reducing the temperature, and rendering climates colder, is perhaps one of the surest propositions of the author’s theory, and as he shows us from the appearances of the present northern con- tinents, that land has been continually on the increase in the northern hemisphere ever since the commencement of the tertiary period, so he proves to us also most conclusively, that the cold of our climates has been, from the commencement of the same period, continually on the increase likewise. It has been urged, that the particular degree of cold which the glacial theory requires, occurred between the conclusion of the tertiary, and the commencement of the modern eras; but even in this case we fail most signally to prove the truth of the doctrine, for if land in northern latitudes has been continually on the increase 286 Apparent objections to the Glacial Theory. till the termination of the tertiary epoch, so likewise has the cold ; and if no lands have arisen from the waters since that time, the maxi- mum decrease of temperature took place at that period. In order therefore to raise the temperature again and dissolve the glaciers, the northern lands should have decreased at the commencement of the modern era; yet this so far from being true, is actually dis- proved by the fact, that land is still rising in the north, and has con- tinued to do so, we are informed, since the commencement of the tertiary period. The climates of the earth are therefore colder now than they have been at any former period, and this the pheno- mena of the strata confirm, and the theory of refrigeration demands ; for it must be evident, that if the theory of internal heat be true, such a result as this must be inevitable, for in by-gone ages when the central heat was greater, and the crust of the external earth less thick and solid, the surface temperature must have been kept higher by the radiating heat ; whereas in our time it is proved, the the surface is scarcely affected by the internal temperature of the planet. ‘‘ All the observations collected and discussed by the most learned physiologists of our days, inform us, that the increase of temperature in the strata lying immediately beneath the surface, is about a degree in thirty metres, at a medium. In a globe of iron, a similar increase would only give a quarter of a centesimal degree, for the actual elevation of the temperature of the surface. As a conse- quence of the influence of the central fire, this elevation is very trifling, and almost imperceptible; that, however, which the earth experiences is much less still. In fact, the strata of the mineral shell are not composed of iron, but of substances which offer much less facility for the transmission of heat. Now, the heating of the ground is (for the same level of temperature in the direction of the depth) directly proportioned to this facility; whence it follows that if, as is very likely, the substances of which the upper envelope of the earth is composed, conduct eight times less heat than iron, the excess of heat communicated by the internal fire will only be the 32d part of a centesimal degree, a quantity quite insignificant. When we examine attentively and according to known principles, all the observations relative to the figure of the “arth, we cannot doubt } { Apparent objections to the Glacial Theory. 28 that this planet received at its origin, a very elevated temperature. On the other hand, thermometrical observations shew us, that the present distribution of heat in the terrestrial envelope is, that which would have occurred, if the globe had been first very hot and then progressively cooled, till it reached the state in which we now find it.”— Calcutta Journal Nat. Hist. No. 12, p. 604. Thus, if there be any truth in the doctrines of geologists, we de- rive conclusive evidence from the fossil exuviz of extinct animals, from the former distribution of land and water, and from the past and present condition of the interior of the planet, that the climates of the present day are far colder than they have ever before been, and consequently, that if glaciers cannot now form in our island, so neither could they have done so at any previous epoch ; from all which it will necessarily result, that if the Glacial Theory is to be maintained, the previous work and research of years, and the in- ferences drawn from the phenomena apparent in the strata of the earth, must be abandoned as erroneous. Again, it has been urged by high geological authority, that while the accumulations of debris at the mouths of glens and valleys are attributable to the former occurrence of glaciers in those situations, the detached erratic blocks so numerously scattered over the countries of the north, between the fortieth parallels of latitude and the pole, are due to the agency of icebergs, which carried those huge masses “ when the lands over which they lie scattered were submerged beneath the sea.” —Lyell’s Elem. Geol. p. 1386. This author goes on to state, that the fact of those blocks occur- ring in both hemispheres as far as the fortieth parallels, raises a presumption, that the greater warmth of parts of Asia, Africa and America nearer the line, has been proved unfavorable to the trans- port of such blocks. On the other hand, they abound in the colder regions of North America from Canada Northwards, as well as in - Northern Europe, and when we travel Southwards, and cross the line in South America, we fall in with them again in Chili and Patagonia, between latitude 41° S. and Cape Horn.”—Jbid, p. 137. Many serious objections appear to rise up against this hypothesis even out of the very arguments used to establish it, for although it is undoubtedly true that icebergs in the present day possess thie \ ih 288 Apparent objections to the Glacial Theory. power of diffusing large blocks over northern tracts, yet such, with reference to the period of deposition, are geologically distinct from those other blocks and detritus more properly termed erratics ; and again such modern blocks become more numerous to- wards the lower limit of icebergs than in the preceding paré of their course. Now it ought naturally to follow, that if icebergs were the agents which scattered the true erratics and detritus, the occurrence of such phenomena should be more frequent as we approach the southern limit to which icebergs are supposed to have travelled, than when we journey northwards ; for as the icefloes engendered in the north, sailed down towards the south, the higher tempera- ture towards which they were floating would have caused them to deposit the detritus with which they were charged over those tracts within the influence of tropical heat, and consequently a far greater accumulation of blocks and detritus would be found in those warm southern regions over which the icebergs had melted, than in those cold climates of the north which had given them birth. We should therefore look for such transported matter in abundance as we neared the warmer regions, and in a decreasing ratio as we tra- velled north to the countries from whence the icebergs and boulders started. But is such the fact? assuredly not,—for precisely the very reverse is well known to be the case, and Lyell himself, the propounder of the theory, tells us, that ‘* these erratics are far more numerous in northern countries, although some are met with as far south as the Swiss Jura;” (Lyell’s Elem. Geol. p. 136,) and it is precisely the gradual diminution of these blocks both in size and frequency as we proceed southwards, which has hitherto influenced all observers in declaring the course of the last diluvial currents to have been from north to south. In this respect, therefore, the or- der of deposition apparent in recent and ancient erratics is reversed, and the inferences deduced cannot be relied on, for while modern deposits of transported matter increase as we travel from the north towards the limits to which icebergs can attain, the ancient detri- tus is found on the contrary to decrease; thus in this instance it is evident, that the causes now in operation did not produce the effects under consideration. Apparent objections to the Glacial Theory. 289 But according to Lyell’s reasoning, the present northern conti- nents were submerged beneath the sea at the time when these blocks were scattered over them. Whence then did the icebergs obtain the detritus with which they were charged ? or where were the ice- bergs themselves produced? where was then situated the land which furnished the erratics? The North was then all Ocean, could equatorial lands have furnished icebergs? Had the ancient erratic blocks been deposited by icebergs at a time when the present northern lands were submerged, the arrange- ment now apparent in their distribution would indicate, that such icebergs must have come from a direction opposite to that pursued in the present day. It may therefore perhaps be said, that the time when our northern lands were beneath the sea, the then existing drylands occupied the regions near the equator, especially since many facts arising from the character and appearances of the im- “bedded fossils, would tend to show that former conditions of tem- perature were far higher than now. Since, however, the northern latitudes must always have enjoyed a colder climate than the equa- tor, it is evident that had icebergs by any possibility been engen- dered in the latter regions, they could not have been dissolved in the colder temperature of the former, and therefore they would have accumulated into a mass without depositing the erratics enclosed in them. But such a distribution of land is easily seen to be totally adverse to the formation of icebergs, and Lyell himself assures us, that if we consider a mere approximation to such a state of things, it would be sufficient to cause a general elevation of temperature, and if there were no arctic lands to chill the atmosphere and freeze the sea, and if the loftiest chains were near the line, it seems rea- sonable to imagine, that the highest mountains might be clothed with arich vegetation to their summits, and that nearly all signs of frost would disappear from the earth. If during the long night of a polar winter, the snows should whiten the summits of some arctic islands, they would be dissolved as rapidly by the returning sun, as are the snows of Etna by the blasts of the sirocco.”——Lyell’s Prin. Geol. p. 191. Now there seems every reason to believe from the phenorena which strata disclose in all parts of the world, that the temperature 290 Apparent objections to the Glacial Theory. of climates during the period immediately preceding the present dis- tribution of land and sea, was such as is here conjecturally describ- ed, for we perceive that animals analogous to those now only exist- ing within tropical countries, once lived in the immediate vicinity of the arctic regions. ‘The occurrence of these tropical forms, while it indubitably proves, that during the period alluded to, there were some lands uncovered in the northern hemisphere, likewise establishes the fact, that the climates of the regions in which those animals lived were warmer than at present, and therefore, that if they were adapted to tropical constitutions, they must have been quite unfitted for the production of icebergs. The occurrence of large boulders on the summits and slopes of lofty mountains, between which and the true site from whence the blocks have been torn, deep valleys at present intervene, have pre- sented difficulties which it is said can only be removed by supposing that icebergs were instrumental to their deposition at a time when the localities in which they rest, were beneath the waves; but in- dependent of the decisive argument above given, it may very rea- sonably be doubted, whether a huge mass of rock suddenly liberated from a floating iceberg, would ever have found a resting place either on the summit or slopes of a submerged chain of mountains, inasmuch as such a falling body, however much its velocity might have been moderated by the medium through which it was descend- ing, could never have been so gently and quietly deposited as to enable it to rest at once in a state of equilibrium, but on the con- trary, the weight of the mass and the impetus acquired in the descent, would undoubtedly have caused it to roll down into the troughs or submerged valleys, unless it happened accidentally to alight in some hollow, or under some other peculiar circumstance which prevented its farther descent. So far, however, from this ap- pearing to be the case, the boulders are often found upon the very summit of hills without the least additional support. It may per- haps be urged, that at the time when the blocks were deposited, they sunk down amidst the softer sediments with which the submerged Jand was covered, and so found an immediate support and resting place; but that subsequently when the land was upraised, those softer materials were washed away or drained off by the retiring Apparent objections to the Glacial Theory. 291 waters; this, however, can only be admitted by supposing that such upheavements have been very slow and gradual in their progress, for a sudden and violent uprise would not only have caused the finer detritus to drain off with the waters, but would likewise have set in motion the larger boulders, and caused them to roll from the uprising ridges down into the valleys below. The violent disruption apparent among the strata of uplifted rocks, and the vertical position many of these strata have attained, afford sufficient evidence of a rapid uprise from the waters, and therefore renders it highly improbable that such boulders were deposited before the upheavement took place, and these facts coupled with the proofs above cited, of former elevated temperature in which icebergs could not have existed, clearly demonstrate that these latter were not the agents by which boulders have been dispersed over the countries of the north. In many instances, as in the Alps, the ranges on which boulders rest, are not more than fifty miles distant from the sites whence they have been torn, and it seems scarcely reasonable to suppose, that at the time when the climate of the central chain of the Alps, (which was then a rocky island,) was cold enough to give origin to icebergs, the temperature at only fifty miles distant was warm enough to melt them again, for as Lyell hypothetically observes, at the time, when the northern hemisphere was an ocean studded with islands, the equatorial regions abounded in land, and the temperature caused by such a distribution was not only totally opposed to the formation of icebergs, but even to the occurrence of any severe cold. But if then it be thus shown that diluvial matter, and erratic blocks are not due to the agency of glaciers or of icebergs, what Other agent can we employ to distribute them according to their present arrangement ? What, but the mighty, and overwhelming rush of retiring waters, thrown back tumultuously in furious waves towards the south, as the mountainous regions of the northern hemisphere successively burst upwards from beneath the sea ? What other agent save diluvial currents such as these, could have borne off the masses of shattered rocks urged onwards by the double impulse afforded by uprising hills and retiring waters, and strewed the land with detritus decreasing in quantity and in size as we travel towards the southern tracts, where the mighty 292 Apparent objections to the Glacial Theory. Cebacle was at length reduced to tranquillity and equilibrium in the depths of the Southern Ocean ? The glacier theory proposed by M. Agassiz, and now supported by Buckland and Lyell, asserts, that the accumulations of debris called ‘‘ moraines,” which occur across the mouths of glens and valleys in the Highlands of Scotland, could only have been there de- posited by melting glaciers, for their position is such, that had water been the agent, which brought down the detritus from the hills, it must inevitably have swept off the fragments before it, instead of heaping them up as barriers across the glens. This reasoning, how- ever, does not appear to be absolutely correct, for the waters which must have accumulated these moraines, were not the rivers and streams of modern times, nor were they the transient out-bursts of lakes from the higher lands ; had they been such, it is no doubt true, that they would have swept away the accumulations of debris from the mouth of every glen through which they descended. But the height at which many of the moraines occur on the sides of the glens, at once proves, that if they were deposited by water, it must have been by water possessing far greater force and volume than any that occurs at present. Now if we allow that the land was once submerged, and the strata horizontal, of which no reasonable doubt can be entertained, it will follow, that when volcanic movements within broke up the strata and upheaved them, the friction of the uprising masses against each other would, in nu- merous instances, have caused precisely the very grooves, strize, and polished surfaces which rocks often exhibit, while the shattered and disrupted surface would have yielded abundantly the debris and boulders of which the supposed moraines are composed, and these hurled together in confusion by the mighty debacle formed by the suddenly uprising land, would have been accumulated in masses of great extent across the openings of the glens and valleys through which the recoiling, and ever and anon returning swell, tumultuously descended. These forming barriers to the quiet streams which at a later period occupied the glens, would have dammed up the waters until their gradually increasing force at length burst over or through the obstacle, and thus modified the form and appearance of the moraines. It may perhaps be objected, that the friction of up- Apparent objections to the Glacial Theory. 293 rising masses of rock is not of itself sufficient to account for the grooves and striz which are often visible. That such friction, however, is capable of producing some of these phenomena, we have proof in the instance of the “ ninety fathom dibe,” in the coal-field of Newcastle. This name has been given to it, because the beds are ninety fathoms lower on the northern than they are on the southern side. The fissure has been filled by a body of sand, which is now in the state of sandstone, and is called the dibe, which is sometimes very narrow, but in other places more than twenty yards wide. The walls of the fissure are scored by grooves, such as would have been produced zf the broken ends of the rock, had been rubbed along the plane of the fault.”—Lyell’s Elem. Geol. p. 120, Still it may be urged, that such friction could not have acted on horizontal surfaces, nor on external surfaces generally, which exhi- bit no signs of violent fracture; in these cases, another agent is evidently necessary, and if we admit, that at the time when our lands first emerged from the ocean, the strata were in a soft and semi-con- solidated state, we shall perceive that the strize and grooves may have been furrowed upon them by the passage over the surface, of the vast rocky masses which hurled down from the uprising hills, were borne along by the retiring waters, to the lower lands. Thus we shall derive assistance from two distinct agents, both of which may have been instrumental, under different circumstances, to the production of the phenomena now attributed to glaciers. The partial stratification which some of the supposed moraines exhibit, as in the district where the rivers Esk, Proson, and Carity unite, not only offers difficulties which the glacier theory cannot explain or surmount, but is precisely the very effect to which water alone could give rise. “The lower part of the barrier at Glenairn, thirty feet in depth, laid open in the river cliff, consists of unstratified mud full of boul- ders; and the upper part from fifty to one hundred feet thick, of gravel and sand is inferred by Mr. Lyell from analogy, to be strati- fied. If this barrier be supposed to be a large terminal moraine accumulated by a retreating glacier, Mr. Lyell states, its origin is easy to be understood, and that the water produced by the melting of the ice may have overflowed the mound and furrowed out the 294 Apparent objections to the Glacial Theory. softer materials composing the upper part into ridges and hillocks ; but, he adds, it is difficult to comprehend how a capping of such materials on the summit of a terminal moraine could have acquired a stratified structure. At Cortachie, four miles below the barrier of Glenairn, the Esk enters the lower country of old red sandstone ; and a mile and a half farther down it, is Joined by the Proson; and a mile yet lower, by the Carity. In the district where these streams unite, there is a great amount of unstratified detritus full of Gram- pian boulders, and covered for the most part with stratified gravel and sand, in some places from thirty to forty feet thick.” —Edin. New Phil. Jour. No. 59, p. 201. Now the very circumstance of boulders occurring in the lower part of these accumulations, while the upper portion is composed of strata of gravel and sand, at once points out the action of water rather than of glaciers; for had the latter been the agent, we shall at once perceive, that as the ice melted, the detritus would have been indiscriminately deposited in a shapeless heap without refer- ence to any law of specific gravity, such as the arrangement in the above described moraines betokens. Lyell here seems to overlook a fact recorded in his Principles of Geology; ‘the moraine of the glacier, observes Charpentier, zs entirely devoid of stratification, for there has been no sorting of the materials as in the case of sand, mud, and pebbles, when deposited by running waters. The ice transports indifferently into the same spots, the heaviest blocks and the finest particles, mingling all together, and leaving them in one confused and promiscuous heap wherever it melts.”—Lyell’s Prin. Geol. p. 377. If this doctrine be correct, and it is clear from the manner in which Lyell quotes it, that he believes it to be so, it is very evident that the accumulations near Glenairn cannot be the production of glaciers, and he indeed while describing them, seems to be re- minded of the impossibility, although the desire of establishing a novel and somewhat marvellous theory has urged him to persevere, even in the face of facts which militate against it. On the other hand, this arrangement is in every respect that which would have resulted from the action of retiring waters, for if a sudden upheavement of our present continents or portions of Apparent objections to the Glacial Theory. 295 those continents had taken place, the swell occasioned in the ocean by such uprise would have forced back the diluvial wave, bearing with it the fragments of various rocks which had been shattered by the movement, and these would have been dropped sooner or later according to their weight, over thuse tracts traversed by the re- tiring waters. But it is not to be supposed, as Bakewell judiciously observes, that such a swell could suddenly subside; it would return over the land repeatedly at a lower and lower level each time, until its force being expended and the equilibrium once more restored, it would have deposited those lighter materials which had become sorted by the movement of the water, above the heavier boulders and detritus. —See Bakewell’s Introd. Geol. passim. Thus the heavy blocks forming the lower portion of the Glenairn moraine, and those scattered over the lower land at Cortachie, would appear to be precisely in the position, supposing water to have been instrumental to their deposition, which their greater specific gravity would demand ; while the lighter gravels and sands which form so thick a stratum above them, are likewise the produce of the same waters as their force and powers of suspension dimi- nished. Nor is it at all necessary to suppose, that all our lands were at once uncovered by this outburst, for when once the mountains had been upheaved by the volcanic action within the earth, the subsequent movements may have been more gradual and similar to what is still taking place; the mounds or accumulations of debris would therefore have remained uninjured beneath the waters, until the uprise of more land in various quarters had caused the ocean to retire, and left the diluvium to the action of rivers and streams as the drainage of the land proceeded, while its own retire- ment would have denuded the strata to which it had previously given rise. Lyell supposes, that the detritus at Glenairn is the production of a glacier whose dissolution caused a body of water to accumulate, until it ‘‘overflowed the mound and furrowed out the softer materials composing the upper part into ridges and hillocks.” This is obviously incorrect, or he not only shows us elsewhere, that the distribution of land and sea previous to the historical era was such as to banish nearly all signs of frost from the earth, but that the rise of land in the north has continued ever since the com- 2Q 296 Apparent objections to the Glacial Theory. mencement of the tertiary period which preceded it, down to the present time, and therefore that the climates of the earth are now colder than they have ever before been ; from which it must follow, that as no glacier now exists at Glenairn, so it never could have existed there at all. Supposing, however, for the sake of argument, that such had once been the fact, we shall still perceive that no furrowing of the mound could have taken place from the melting of the ice, much less could it have given rise to stratification ; for had the melting of the gla- ciers been as sudden as M. Agassiz supposes their accumulation to have been, vast deluges would have been produced, which instead of heaping up debris at the mouths of glens, would have swept it all off before the impetuous torrents, ( See Hitchcock's Geol. passim); while on the other hand, had the thaw proceeded as gradually as it does in the present day, where glaciers occur, the waters would have escaped before the mound of detritus was completed, for it is to the escape of the ice in the form of water that the moraines are due, and until such escape is effected, no moraine is deposited. As the ice melts, the water escapes, and the detritus falls down into a confused and promiscuous heap without stratification ; the Glenairn moraine therefore must owe its origin to some other cause. There is yet another circumstance which seems to me, to militate against the opinion, that detritus and erratic blocks are due either to the agency of glaciers or of icebergs, I allude to the rounded and water-worn appearance which almost invariably characterises this group of deposits. It is well known, that in the present day, the detritus with which icebergs are occasionally loaded, is torn by the action of frost from the shores where the ice is formed, and after- wards floated away to be deposited in situations far distant from their natural sites. Such fragments are either torn from the solid rock by the expansion of water which has found a passage into fissures; or masses already detached are uplifted from the shoresand bottom of shallow waters. In the former case, the fragments would exhibit their edges or angles for the most part uninjured, while in the latter instance, the detritus uplifted will, in all probability, consist of rounded water-worn frag- ments, which have either been subject to friction in the situations Apparent objections to the Glacial Theory. 297 from whence they are lifted, or by the action of the river currents which have brought them down from the land. At the time when the present lands were submerged therefore, there could have been no rivers to furnish detritus, for allowing that some land existed in the northern hemisphere, yet such would have consisted only of rocky islands such as the summits of the present mountains might produce, and consequently would have been unable to furnish rivers of any moment; the detritus therefore which is now scattered over the continents of the north, should consist chiefly of the angular fragments which the frost had detached from rocks in situ, and not of rounded or water-worn pebbles and boulders. Lyell endea- vours to shew, that the rounding of erratics is to be attributed to the action of frost, and not to the attrition of moving waters, and he cites the granite used in the buildings of Quebec to show the correctness of his views. This, however, is founding a general rule upon one nearly solitary exception, for while the Quebec granite re- quires to be coated over with oil and paint, in order to preserve it from exfoliation, we do not hear of the same necessity existing else- where in regard to all granites ; and this is proved from what Lyell himself tells us regarding the icebergs which were seen “ in Sir George Eyre’s Sound in the latitude of Paris, which were seen in 1834 carrying angular pieces of granite, and stranding them in fiords, where the shores were composed of clay slate.”—Lyell’s Prin. Geol. p. 379. While therefore the rounding of erratics composed of the Quebec granite may be attributed to the agency of frosts, the same rule will not apply to all, nor yet to the generality of blocks; and thus the instance quoted, forms but an exception, and is of little value in determining the cause which has rounded almost all boulders and detritus, of whatever rock composed.* M. Lariviere relates, that “being at Memel on the Baltic in 1821, when the ice of the river Niemen broke up, he saw a mass of ice thirty feet long which had descended the stream, and had been thrown ashore. In the middle * It is proper to add, that my friend Lieut. R. B. Smith informs me, that in the primary districts of Southern India, the granite blocks are subject to similar ex- foliation from the effects of atmospheric agents, and have all the appearance of having been subjected to aqueous attrition. 298 Apparent objections to the Glacial Theory. of it wasa triangular piece of granite, about a yard in diameter, resembling in composition the red granite of Finland.” “In a late voyage of discovery made in the antarctic regions in 1839, a dark coloured angular mass of rock was seen imbedded in an iceberg, drifting along in mid-ocean in lat. 61° S.”—Prin. Geol. p. 370- 379. These instances are sufficient to show, that modern icebergs are instrumental to the deposition of angular boulders, and that although they also carry large quantities of rounded pebbles and blocks, yet the probability is in favour of these latter having been uplifted from districts previously strewed over with the water-worn detritus of a former epoch; while therefore the true ancient erratics are rounded, the modern iceberg deposits, if composed of fragments recently torn from rocks iz situ are angular or possessing their sharp edges ; it still remains then to account for the rounding of ancient erratics. It has often been objected, that the transient passage of a body of waters over the land could not have imparted to transported matter, the rounded and often polished surface which its pebbles and boulders exhibit; but there are conditions attending the de- position of ancient erratics, to which due weight does not appear to have been accorded. The sharp and rugged outline almost invari- ably apparent among members of the primary class, and the curious step-like structure of the trappean rocks, to all of which an igne. ous origin is now pretty generally assigned, have long since attract- ed the attention of observers; and controversies have occasionally arisen as to whether molten or fused matter could have assumed the acute and steeple-shaped form of granitic peaks; or whether it ought not rather to have arranged itself over the surface after the manner of modern lavas. The fact, that at the time when primary and plutonic rocks were upheaved, the strata of the earth were horizontal beds beneath the deep enveloping waters of the sea, seems to have been entirely lost sight of, or disregarded in these contro- versies. If, however, we admit this fact, it must be evident, that when the igneous rocks first burst through the upper strata of the earth, and came in contact with the cold waters of the superincum- bent ocean, a sudden cooling and contraction of the heated mass must naturally have ensued, which would have caused the surface to Apparent objections to the Glacial Theory. 299 exfoliate and split into fragments of various magnitude, and these fragments yielding to the force of the waters which were thus sud- denly displaced, would have been hurried off by the retreating waves to the lower levels. This reasoning seems in some measure to derive support from the facts observable, whenever in modern times an outburst of voleanic matter takes place from beneath the sea ; numerous instances are on record of islands suddenly appearing above the waters, but these have almost invariably disappeared again after a short time, from their summits having been swept off in fragments caused by the sudden refrigeration and splitting of the surface, as the heated matter came in contact with the superin- cumbent ocean. The ruggedness of primary ranges is therefore easily accounted for by the sudden cooling of the surface when in a state of intense heat, and by the immediate denudation attendant on the passage of the tumultuous body of waters displaced by the movement. The step-like appearance of trappean rocks would, in ~like manner be caused by the sudden refrigeration of surface induc- ing the rock to split into cuboidal masses, and the denudation of this fractured surface would therefore give the step-like appearance alluded to. This may perhaps be admitted as a satisfactory expla- nation of the phenomena apparent in these formations, and coupled with the subsequent tumultuous action of the waters on the newly detached fragments may enable us to arrive at some explanation of the reason, why ancient detritus is almost invariably rounded and worn. Had the action of the displaced waters been no greater than that exercised by the transient passage of a flood over the lower lands, doubtless the effects attributable to it would have been insuf- ficient to account for the polishing and rounding of erratics, but we must not be blind to the fact, that a sudden and violent outburst of large tracts of land, or of mountain ranges from beneath the sea, would have given rise to waves which would not only have acted with an intensity of force of which we can perhaps form no just con- ception, but likewise that their action on the land would have been of long continuance. ‘‘ The vibration of the sea produced by the great Lisbon earthquake of 1755, threw a wave sixty feet high on the coast of Cadiz, and one eighteen feet in height on the island of Madeira. The area agitated by this earthquake comprised a large 300 Apparent oljections to the Glacial Theory. portion of the northern hemisphere, yet no very great amount of dis- locating effects was observed, at least nothing like the production of a line of elevated land. We may hence form some idea of the ef- fects which would be produced if a line of mountains one hundred miles long, and not above two or three thousand feet high, were suddenly thrust up beneath the waters of the sea. The vibrations produced in the superincumbent fluid would be proportionally great, and the waves rushing over shallows and lowlands, comparatively enormous. We may therefore fairly infer, that greater intensities of force would produce greater waves, while the motion caused in the water over the dislocations, supposing such to be formed, would tend to remove the fragments produced.”——-De la Beche’s Theor. Geol. pp. 202-208. ‘‘ At Tabahuana, during the earthquake of February 1835, when the sea was observed to retire, so that vessels at anchor in seven fathoms water were aground, and all the rocks and shoals in the bay were visible, an enormous wave was seen forcing its way between the western passage, which separates Quiriquina Island from the main land. This immense wave passed rapidly along the western side of the Bay of Concepcion, sweeping the steep shore of every thing moveable within thirty feet, vertically from the high water mark. It broke over, dashed along, and whirled about the shipping, as if they had been light boats; it overflowed the greater part of the town, and then rushed back with such a torrent, that almost every thing moveable, which the earthquake had not buried, was carried out to sea. In a few minutes, a second wave returned more powerful than the first. After another awful suspense of a few mi- nutes, a third enormous swell was observed approaching, larger than either of the former waves. The island of Juan Fernandez suffered much. Great waves swept the shores of the island, after the sea had retired, so much that old anchors were seen at the bottom of the anchorage.” — Bakewell’s Introd. Geol. p. 43. ‘“‘ During this earthquake a permanent elevation of the ground of about nine feet took place, and the sea rose to the height of from thirty to forty feet, sweeping over a great extent of land, and tearing away the various obstacles opposed to its progress. If we suppose mountains several thousand feet high were elevated by similar causes, iA. Lee _ Apparent objections to the Glacial Theory. 301 the swell of the sea must have been inconceivably overwhelming. Sir James Hall supposes, that the upheaving of a large island, like Sumatra, might take place so suddenly, as to drive the ocean with great impetuosity over the summits of the highest mountains, and strip off the glaciers, and transport them into distant countries. Ice being specifically lighter than water, the glaciers would carry away with them the blocks of stone that had fallen from the impending rocks, and had become incased in ice. This theory of Sir James Hall’s would, I conceive, offer a better explanation than any other, for the occurrence of groups of fragments of particular rocks, un- mixed with fragments of other rocks. Each glacier, loaded with stones from the rocks above it, may be regarded as a ship freighted with specimens of its native mountains, which it deposits, by thaw- ing in the place where it ultimately rests. Nor would a wave or swell of the sea that had covered the highest mountains, suddenly subside ; it would sweep repeatedly over the whole surface of the globe at a lower and lower level each time; breaking down oppos- ing obstacles, opening new passages for the water, and scooping out valleys and cols in the softer beds and strata.”—Bakewell’s Introd. Geol. p. 588. If then the elevation of land by modern earthquakes to no greater height than nine feet, can produce such violent agitation in the waters of the sea, what might we not expect from that volcanic force which has been instrumental in times past to the upheavement of whole ranges of lofty mountains? It will be evident, that the frag- ments of rock torn by the united action of sudden cooling, and re- tiring waters from the uprising mass, would not only have been hurried to the lower lands, and scattered far and wide, but that they would have been rolled backwards and forwards over those plains by the repeated flux and reflux of the debacle, until their edges were com- pletely rounded off, when the final retreat of the waters as equili- brium was restored, would have left the detritus scattered in a de- creasing ratio from north to south, precisely as it exists on the continents of the northern heniisphere. © That mountains have been as suddenly upraised as this theory would require, there can be no reason to doubt, from the fact, that the strata are not only often lifted up to a vertical position, but are 302 Apparent oljections to the Glacial Theory. ,actually traversed by dibes and beds of igneous rocks, whose former state.of fusion is a proof,that they must, have been rapidly forced upwards ; and besides which,.it sometimes happens, that-fragments of a low-seated rock, have been,carried upwards and imbedded. in a superior stratum, and it:seems «quite impossible, that such pheno- mena. could have been. produced:by a gentle.and gradual uprise...,. Water, therefore, would appear to have been the agent by. which detritus has been accumulated, and its fragments;rounded,. and the very arrangement of these fragments in a decreasing ratio,as. to size and quantity. as we proceed. farther,from, the parent rock, affords evidence which is at variance with glacial action. .‘M. Elie. de Beaumont has shewn,,.that;in the valley ofthe Durance;,the blocks decrease in: volume and become less angular as they recede from the mountains behind Gap, until the transported, matter diminished to the pebbles. constituting the wide extent of country. known as the Craus Similar facts.are.also observable:down other valleys. Per- haps in the loess. of the Rhine, we may trace the remains of still. finer detritus, which .has accumulated to the depth of 200 or 3800. feet above the valley, and -bears evident marks of sudden transport. The supposition is rendered more probable by the abundance of Alpine pebbles discovered.resting on various rocks, where the loess ceases. in the higher. parts of the valley. of the: Rhine, and which have: apparently been accumulated by a sudden rush of water. down the valley. The other great accumulation of erratic blocks seems due to some more general cause, since.not,only are the‘blocks scat- tered in, great abundance over Northern..Kurope, in.a manner to shew. their northern origin, but those which, occur in the northern parts of America, apparently in equal abundance, also point to a similar origin. We hence infer, that some cause, .situated.in,the polar regions, has so acted_as to, produce .this dispersion of solid matter-over a certain portion of the earth’s surfaces. We know of no agent capable of causing the effect. required, but: moving waters —De la Beche's,Theor.. Geol. p. 889.04. +5 4 — Ly With regard toDr. Buckland’s statement, that a.glacier once des- cended from Shap Fells, and crossed the valley. of the Eden, it ap= pears to me that the desire to establish the theory, has in great mea- sure led him to overlook the fact, that the physical.conformation Apparent objections to the Glacial Theory. 303 of the valley altogether militates against his views, and proves them to be erroneous. ‘It is impossible,” says this eminent geologist “to explain satisfactorily the dispersion of the well-known Shap granite boulders, in the valleys which lead down from the Fell northwards, southwards, and easterly, by a great diluvial cur- rent, and still more so, their transport from the valley of the Eden over the lofty summits of Stainmore Forest into the valley of the Tees. The glacier theory, he states, offers on the contrary a solution of the difficulties. A glacier descending to the north from Shap Fell, would convey the blocks to the village of Shap, and distribute them throughout the intervening space; another glacier ranging to the south would deposit the boulders on the hills and in the valleys descending by Highborrow Bridge to Kendal; whilst a third glacier proceeding eastwards betwixt Crosby, Ravens- worth and Orton, would traverse transversely the upper part of the valley of the Eden near Brough, and accumulate piles of ice against the opposite escarpment, until they overtopped its lowest depres- sions in Stainmore Forest, and disgorged their moraines into the valleys of the Greta and the Tees.”—EHdin. New Phil. Jour. No. 59, p 205. It may not perhaps be very difficult to show, by the aid of Greenough’s beautiful geological map, that it is more probable that water was the agent which produced the above described effects, than glaciers, which latter I trust I have shewn, could not have existed in our island without a far colder climate than the facts of geology authorise us to believe has ever occurred. The difficulty which Dr. Buckland cannot remove, seems to consist al- most entirely in the various directions which the boulders have pursued from a given point, namely, Shap Fells. Now as it is not contended that the valleys leading down from the Fell have been scooped out by the action of glaciers, we are left at liberty to conclude, that they had origin before the supposed glaciers which slid through them. The elevation of the Fells, and the existence of valleys leading in various directions from them, prove, that an upheavement has taken place which not only gave rise to the heights, but likewise produced the troughs or valleys between the uprising masses. If at the period of this movement the land was 2R 304 Apparent objections to the Glacial Theory. submerged, what other agent would be required to scatter the blocks than the retiring waves as they rushed impetuously down the channels which the valleys formed, and what more natural than that the first violent down rush of the retreating waters, should have heaped up detritus ‘‘against the opposite escarpment,” until it overtopped the depression in Stainmore Forest, and discharged itself, over the then rising barrier, into the valleys of the Greta and the Tees? Taking the,.F ells as the point or chief point of up- heavement, it is avidairt that the divergence of valleys from it-as a centre, is natural and necessary, for such is the arrangement in every quarter of the globe where mountains and hills occur ; there being always some points of upheavement from which valleys descend and diverge.in various directions; so that if the elevated land happens to be detached_or isolated, it will necessarily consti- tute a focus or central point from which valleys and glens will ra- diate around it, Now such appears to be the arrangement in the locality. under consideration, the Fell being the focus from which valleys descend to the north, south and east. Leda The retiring waters would therefore naturally rush down shies valleys, and scatter the erratics and detritus precisely in the direc- tion and order in which they now occur. A wave descending to the north from Shap Fells would convey the blocks to the village of Shap, and distribute them throughout the intervening space ; another wave ranging to the south, would deposit the boul- ders on the then uprising hills and in the valleys descending by Highborrow Bridge to Kendal ; whilst a third great wave proceeding eastwards betwixt Crosby, Ravensworth and Orton would traverse transversely the upper part of the valley of the Eden, near Brough, and accumulate piles of detritus against the opposite uprising escarp- ment, and rushing over the hills of Stainmore Forest, would disgorge itself into the valleys of the Greta and the Tees, which form the drainage of the country. A glance at the accompanying map Plate xxii. will moreover point out, that water is the only agent which could so have acted, for a glacier crossing the valley and encountering the escarpment opposed to its onward passage, would only have accumulated.ice along that base wntil the lateral pres- sure caused by the streams in the higher parts of the valley would Apparent objections to the Glacial Theory. 305 have forced it down towards the embouchure of Eden, instead of over the ridge. ‘Had’ the ice melted within the boundary, the water would naturally have followed the drainage of the valley, and have escaped by the Eden, and the detritus would: have remained al- together on the outside of the escarpment in a confused heap. On the other hand, a mighty recoil of waters before an uprising mass of Jand would at once”have rushed straight over the escarpment, carrying with it, as above quoted, the’ fragments of the shattered rocks, and leaving accumulations of the same against the escarp- ment which was then rising up to intercept the passage.’ Again, when we consider that the Shap granite boulders are found lying chiefly along” the true drainage of the country, it becomes still More ‘probable that water was the agent by which they were dis- persed. The northerly course of the boulders by the village of Shap is corroborative of this opinion, for from the very base of the Fells on that side arise numerous minor streams which, lower down, after passing the villages of Shap and Rosgill, unite to form the river Lowther ; while still lower this river is joined by the Eamont, and then both turning easterly, are emptied into the river Eden. On the south in the direction of the boulders, the country is drain- ed by the rivers Mint and Ken, which after uniting, pass by Kendal; and are discharged into Morecambe Bay, as is likewise the river Lune, one of whose tributaries appears on Greenough’s map to take its rise from Shap Fells. Again on the east, the drainage of the country is effected by many small streams proceeding from a southerly direction, and forming the river’ Eden whose course is northerly till it joins the Solway Firth. A glacier therefore which descended from the Fells and crossed the valley of the Eden trans~ versely between Crosby, Ravensworth and Orton, must have inter. cepted the course of all the streams in the upper part of the valley, and caused an aecumulation of water, or more probably of ice, which would effectually have stopped the farther uphill progress of ‘gla- ciers ; or rather, at the time when the climate was cold enough to form glaciers on such an inconsiderable elevation as the Fells, it is more probable that every stream descending from the heights of Stainmore Forest must have been frozen likewise, and thus an accumulation of ice would have taken place along the upper por- 306 Apparent objections to the Glacial Theory: tion of the valley of the Eden, which would have formed an enormous. glacier, whose course, from the conformation of the country, must. necessarily, have been along the line of the _present river, and would therefore not only,have intercepted any glacier from the Fells, but would have turned it down the valley likewise. No ac- cumulation of boulders from Shap Fells could ever therefore have reached the escarpments of Stainmore Forest, much less could a glacier have carried them into the valleys of the Greta/and the Tees, and had glaciers ever existed in the neighbourhood of the Fells, the transported matter from that locality should now be lying at the embouchure of the Eden, instead of agaioik and beyond the escarpments of Stainmore Forest. The only other agent then, that we can produce possessing suffi- cient power to carry the granite blocks into the valleys of the Greta and the Tees, is evidently water, whose rapid and overwhelming rush to the lower levels as the granite of the Fells was suddenly upheaved, would have carried the disrupted fragments across the valley and the uprising hills, and left them in their: present situations as its power of transport decreased weet its equilib tum Was again established. EMH It becomes probable, therefore, that neither the agency of icebergs nor of glaciers could have produced the effects apparent upon the sur- face of the earth, but that such are precisely | the _ phenomena which would have resulted from the action of water, for the boulders and debris so plentifully scattered over the countries of the northern hemisphere shew, that while the debacles caused by the sudden rise of portions of the land were thrown back on all sides. towards the south, the blocks and fragments of the shattered surface were deposited according to their own specific gravity, and the decreasing power of the retreating waves to carry them. rt Thus erratics would naturally be more numerous in the northern lands, and occur in a decreasing ratio as we travelled southwards, until they ceased altogether, and it is precisely their occurrence in this order which has hitherto led to the inference, that the diluvial cur- rents which deposited them must have passed from north to south. I do not, however, mean to assert, that glaciers have had no share in the distribution of blocks over those countries where they still 7. — Apparent objections to the Glacial Theory. 307 exist, because it seems to be well proved, that such glaciers have formerly descended to far greater distances over the lower lands than they do now, ‘and undoubtedly the deposition of many of the blocks observed at considerable distances from the limit of the present Al-’ pine glaciers, is due to the agency of-ice. What I would insist upon is, that the numerous boulders termed’ erratic blocks which lie scattered abroad over the countries of the ‘north, ‘and even ‘in our own Island, where no glaciers exist, are not due to the agency of glaciers, but to that of the powerful rush of retreating waters, as the lands of the northern Hemisphere arose from out: the ocear, with which they were formerly covered. | Mussooree, 4th March, 1844. ~ + ’ - & Pen OS aaa Ro : 1s ig : # On a method of treating Mineral Sulphurets, ‘especially those. of Copper, for the manufacture of Sulphurie Acid, and 1 the extraction of — ‘their Metallic Base. By_ Fie, - Tuomas Latter, 67th Hegamant Bengal Native Infantry. _ Plate xxiii. e ’ Tlie following’ method of treating mineral sulphurets, es- pewaly those of copper, ‘having been for some time employ- ed with great success in France, and on account of its sim- plicity. and ‘cheapness, being peculiarly adapted for use 5 amon "the natives of India, I take an early opportunity of publishing i it through the medium of your Journal. _ Tt may be necessary to premise, that, this method employed ‘in Lyons for the treatment of sulphurets of copper, was for the primary purpose of manufacturing sulphuric acid, after which, the remaining metallic slag was treated for the cop- per that it might contain, and ores which were found to yield not more than 13 per,cent. of metal, were thus treated with profit. fag ». The ores are aca it farnacedtof a peculiar sine, ‘having a round head, with a narrow neck, fig. 1, front-view ; 308 On a method of treating Mineral Sulphurets. fig. 2, side ‘view; @,’is a little feeding door at the top of the head, just large enough for the purpose of admitting a shovel with fresh supplies of ore; 6, 6, b, are doors, three on each side, for the purpose of raking out the burnt ore and slag; ¢ is the neck about 4 or 5 inches wide—the ore is broken into’ pieces about 4 or 4 the size of the first, just-large enough not to drop through the neck until diminished by burning. For the first time of charging, the furnace is filled from top to bottom with the ore mixed: with one-third its quantity of coal or charcoal, and when once well-set a burning, it only requires being regularly fed with ore, taking care never to’allow the fire to get lower than the neck part; it may thus be kept burning without any fresh supply of fuel whatever for any number of years, the heat and flame of the burning ore being sufficient to set alight the fresh supplies; the height of these furnaces is about 43 feet high, the head part about 14 foot, the neck between’ 4 and 5 inches broad. The length of the furnace is 6 bi and the size of the three side-doors in proportion. - Eight of these furnaces are placed round a domed reser- voir or alembic, to which they are connected by as many pipes; d, at the end opposite the feeding door a, fig. a shows a bird’s eye view of the 8 furnaces, e, @, e, e, e, @, €, e, arranged round the domed reservoir, f; to which they are connected by the 8 connecting tubes d, d, d, d, d, d, d, d. Fig. 4 presents the view of 2 furnaces with the domed re- servoir, the others being removed for the purpose of showing the action more clearly; e, e, are the two furnaces ; J, the domed reservoir; d, d, the connecting tubes ; g, an aper- ture admitting a stream of vapor of water for the purpose of uniting with the sulphurous vapors arising from the com- bustion of the sulphur in the mineral which enters the dom- ed reservoir f, through the pipe d, from the head of the furnace e; on uniting with the vapor of the water it becomes liquid sulphureous acid, whence it passes through ~ ~ On a method of treating Mineral Sulphurets. 309 the pipe h, (fig. 4,) towards the leaden chamber /; but on its way it passes over'a quantity of saltpetre placed in the recess 7, absorbs oxygen therefrom, becomes sulphu- ric acid, is condensed in the leaden chamber /, and after- wards evaporated to the proper strength; & is an aper- ture for the purpose of supplying saltpetre to the receptacle z- Thus far for the manufacture of sulphuric acid. I was informed, that when the’ furnaces were supplied with fresh ore every three hours, and the well-burnt ore extracted every 24 hours, the calculation was, that every three hours you charge these furnaces with 120|bs. of metal, and every 24 hours extract 800lbs. of roasted ore. This roasted ore is then placed on a platform of mnacoueen. m, fig. 5, and is kept continually soaked with water aci- dulated with sulphuric acid. This platform should have a tilt down towards one corner, so as to permit the water to percolate, and to pass charged with the’sulphates through one angle into the reservoir 2. In proportion to the heat of the weather will be the rapidity with which the diluted sulphuric acid will take up the soluble matter in the ore—a mixture of alumina, peroxide of iron, and silica, &c. will re- main behind, and the water will pass overcharged with the sulphates as of copper, iron, arsenic, &c. according to the composition of the mineral. When arrived in the. reser- voir. My it is pumped up into another reservoir o, from whence, it is allowed to descend unto the baths p, p, p; in these baths are placed pieces of iron, and.as the water charged with acidulated sulphate of copper passes over this i iron, the coppper will be precipitated ; these baths empty into one another by the assistance .of syphons q, 9,.9, so arranged, that they may play of themselves. Fig. 6. is bird’s eye view of fig. 5, shewing the arrangement of xe baths, the same letters correspond to those in fig. 5. These baths may be as numerous as necessary, the water with the sulphate of copper being kept continually running over these 310 Ona method of treating Mineral Sulphurets. successive deposits of iron, precipitates all its copper, and passes off in a state of sulphate of iron ; of course the first bath will be the one that will first present a deposition of chemically pure metallic copper in a state of powder, when such is the case, it should be cleaned out, and fresh iron put in. When the next bath is in the same state, the same thing should be done to it, and so one with the rest. The ore in the platform need not be thoroughly cleaned away more than once in two or three months. It is neces- sary to remark, that at the bottom of the domed reservoir, there is always a small quantity of water to permit of the absorption of any arsenical or other vapor. Nore.—The simple plan here proposed of working the sulphurets of copper, would, we conceive, be applicable in a most particular manner to the Kemaon copper mines. These mines are now a very trifling source of revenue, but might be rendered, by the introduction of this method of treating the ore, of very great national importance. Sulphuric Acid, one of the products, is an article which we only require to obtain in India at a cheap rate, in order to give rise to numerous chemical manufactures of which it is the basis, as, for instance, the whole of the manufactured medicines.—J. M. THE CALCUTTA JOURNAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. The Palms of British East India. By W. Grirritu, Esq. F. L. S. Memb. Imp. Acad. Natur. Curios., Royal Ratisb. Botan. Soc., Corr. Memb. Hortic. Socy. of London, Asst. Surgeon, Madras Establishment. [Continued from page 103.] Sup-ramitra.—CORYPHINAE. Mart. Paim. p. 251. Flores hermaphroditi, rarius polygami, rarius dioici. Ova- ria 3, discreta aut partim coherentia. Fructus drupaceus vel baccatus, monospermus, ovario unico plerumque tantum maturato. Albumen corneum, xquabile vel centro-cavum, vel processu tegumentorum intrante excavatum vel exaratum. Embryo sepius dorsalis, rarissime subbasilaris. Palme perennantes vel monocarpice, frutescentes vel ar- boree. Folia sepissime flabelliformia, raro pinnata. In- florescentia axillaris, raro terminalis. Spathe plures in- completa, vaginantes, rarius una completa; secondarie ple- rumque deficientes. Sect. L—Foura FLABELLIFORMIA. CorypHa.— Monocarpice, arboreex, terminiflore. Folia palmatim partita, flabelliformia. Spathe seconda- ri@ et tertiariae tot quot rami spadicis. Flores VOL. V. NO. XIX. OCTOBER, 1844. Qs 312 The Palms of British East India. hermaphroditi, glomerulati. Corolla tripetala. Bac- ca sub-exsucca. Albumen centro-cavum vel solidum. Embryo verticalis. Livistona.—Perennes, arboree, axillifloree. Folia palma- tim partita, flabelliformia. Flores hermaphroditi, glomerulati. Corolla tripartita. Drupa. Albumen processu intrante excavatum. Embryo dorsalis. LicuaLa.—Perennes, frutescentes, axilliflore. Folia pin- natim flabelliformia. Flores hermaphroditi, soli- tarii, binati vel ternati? tribracteati. Corolla tri- partita. Eilamenta in annulum faucinum sepissime coalita. Drupa, etc. preecedentis. CuHAM&rops.—Perennes, frutescentes vel arborez, axilli- flore. Folia palmatim-partita, flabelliformia. Flores polygami. Corolla tripetala. Bacca. Semen longi- tudinaliter sulcatum. Embryo dorsalis. Sect. [].—Fotta Pinnata. PHENIX. ‘Susp-ramMity.—CORY PHIN AS. Flowers hermaphrodite, seldom polygamous, rarely dicecious. Ovaria three, dis- tinct or partly cohering. Fruit a berry or a drupe, generally solitary, one ovarium only being matured, | seeded. Albumen horny, equal, solid or hollow in the cen- tre, or excavated on the surface, or subruminate. Embryo dorsal. LEAVES FAN-SHAPED. Large trees flowering only once. In- florescence terminal; secondary and tertiary spathes many. Flowers her- maphrodite, several together. Corolla three petalled. Stamens hypogynous. Berry almost juiceless. Albumen hollow in the middle or solid. Em- bryo near the apex. - «ove eoee CORYPHA. Perennial trees. Inflorescence axillary. Flowers hermaphrodite, several toge- ther. Corolla tripartite. Stamens peri- gynous. Fruit a drupe. Albumen with a cavity communicating exteriorly and filled with the integuments. Embryo about the middle of the dorsal face. .. LivisTona. Perennial. Inflorescence axillary. Flow- ers polygamous, several together. Co- rolla tripartite. Stamens hypogynous. Fruit a berry. Seed with a longitudi- L nal furrow. eere coos eoee CHAMAROPS. ‘ | | | | Palmately divided. | | | | | | | ss ‘wha ———— The Palms of British East India. 313 ( Perennial. Inflorescence axillary. Flow- ers hermaphrodite, solitary, or two or Pinnately divided. ..4 three together. Corolla tripartite. Sta- mens perigynous: filaments at the faux | combined into an annulus. Fruit as in L Livistona. cues cece esse Licuata. Leaves PINNATE. sees sees cease ooo. PHANIX. Secr. I. Folia flabelliformia. Flores hermaphroditi, rarius poly- gami. Spathe plures incomplete. Corolla valvata. Sta- mina 6, sepius perigyna. Stylz connati. Drupa rarius bacca. Semen superficie lzeviusculum, vel (in Chameropide) verti- ealiter suleatum. Albumen centro-cavum, vel processu in- trante excavatum, vel (in Chameropide) exaratum, interdum sub-ruminatum. Palme frutescentes vel arboree, perennantes vel monocar- pice, in umbrosis humidisque vigentes. Folia palmatim vel (in Licuala) pinnatim flabelliformia, interdum maxima, pli- cata, laciniis ut plurimum bifidis : petioli inermes vel sepius secus margines aculeatt. Spadices perennantium axillares, monocarpicarum terminales, maximae. Spathee plures, in- completae, vaginantes. Flores sessiles, solitarit vel sepe glo- merulati, sepe obscure 1-bracteati. Stamina in tripetalis libera, hypogyna, in reliquis perigyna, filamentis sepe in annulum faucinum coalitis, Anthere versatiles. Ovarium sepius vertice exsculpium. Bacce drupeve olivacee, rubre vel cyanee. Incolz Americe tropice, Australie, et Asiz praesertim ultragangetice et archipelagice. Species una Mediterranea, altera Affghanensis. Limes borealis specierum indicarum 30-31 grad. alt. supra mare 1,000—1,500 pedum. Usus.—Foliorum pinnis exsiccatis inscribere solent indi- gene. CORYPHA. Linn, (Mus. Cliff. 11.) Gen. Pl. ed. 6ta. p. 572. No. 1221. ed. Schreber. p. 774. No. 1690. Syst. Pl. ed. Schult. 7. p. Ixxvill, No. 1493, Juss. Gen. p. 39. (partim.) Gertn. 314 The Palms of British East India. Fruct. et. Sem. 1. p. 18. ¢. 7. (semine inverso.) Lam. Enc. Meth. t. 899. (e Rheede et Gertner.) A. Br. Pr. Fl. Nov. Holl. ed. 2da. p. 123. Roxb. Fl. Ind. 2. p. 174. ILcones. 7. t. 37. Suppt. 3. t.80. Mart. Progr. p. 10. (partim.) Palme. 231. Endl. Gen. p. 252. No. 1753. Codda-Pana. Rheed. Hort. Mal. 3. p. 1. ¢. 1-12. Taliera. Mart. Progr. p. 10. Syst. Pl. ed. Schult. 7. p.- Ixxvili. No. 1492. Gembanga. Blume.in Bot. Zeit. (1825.) 2. p. 580. et 678. (e Martio.) Cuar. Gen.—Flores hermaphroditi. Calyx tridentatus. Corolla tripetala. Stamina 6, hypogyna, filamentis basi dis- tinctis. Ovaria 3, coherentia. Style connati. Fructus (unicus seepius maturescens) baccatus, monospermus. Albu- men corneum, centro-cavum (unius solidum.) Embryo versus apicem albuminis. Hasitus.—Palmz asiatice arboree, procere, monocar- pice. ‘Truncus annulatus vel spiraliter sulcatus. Corona maxima, ampla. Petiolorum margines aculeati. Rete O. Lamina palmatim multipartita, lacinits apice bilobis. In- florescentia terminalis, amplissima. Spathe primarie@ et se- condariea plurime. Flores glomerulati, breve pedicellati, fla- vescentes. Fructus oltvacet seu fiavescentes. Affinitas proxima cum Livistona (confer R. Br. Prod. p- 123, adnot.) Discrimina majora constant in vita mono- carpica, inflorescentia terminali et spathis secondariis. 50. (1) C. elata, trunco spiraliter sulcato, petiolis spirali- ter dispositis exauriculatis, lamina (petiolo breviore) plana, laciniis 85-90 profundis lineari-ensiformibus obtuse bilobis posticis cum petiolo angulum acutum efformantibus, glomeru- lis florum distantibus, petalis lanceolatis, fructibus sclopeti slobuli magnitudine, embryone versus apicem albuminis so- lidi. 1) ape The Palms of British East India. O15 C. elata, Roxb. Fl. Ind. 2, p. 176. Icones Suppt 3. t. 80. Mart. Palm. p. 2338. Has.—Bengal, flowering in March and April: the seeds require about 12 months to ripen. Bujoor or Bujur-batool, Beng. (Roxb.) Cultivated in the Botanic and some other Gardens about Calcutta. I have not seen it in flower or fruit. Derscr.—“ Trunk straight, but often varying in thickness, I have two trees, which were pretty well ascertained to be about thirty years old when in flower ; one was seventy feet to the base of the inflorescence, the other about sixty ; circumference near the root eight feet, and about the middle of the trees five and a half or six: their whole length strongly marked with rough, dark coloured, spiral ridges, and furrows, which plainly point out the spiral ar- rangement of the leaves. The ligneous fibres, as in the order, are on the outside, forming a tube for the soft spongy substance within, of dark chocolate colour, tough and hard, but by no means equal, in either quantity or quality, to the very serviceable wood of Borassus flabelliformis. | Leaves round the top of the trunk, immediately under the base of the inflorescence, numerous, palmate pinnatifid, plaited, from eight to ten feet each way; segments generally from forty to fifty pair, united about half their length, ensiform, apices rather obtuse and bifid, texture hard, smooth on both sides. When the tree begins to blossom, the leaves wither and soon fall off, leaving the fructiferous part naked. Petioles (stipes) from six to twelve feet long, con- cave above, with the thin, hard, black margins thereof cut into numerous, very short, curved spines. Spathes numerous, there be- ing one at each joint of the various ramifications of the spadix, all smooth and when recent, of a pale yellowish green. Inflorescence, (spadix) terminal; it may be called an immense, more than supra- decompound, round panicle ; in this species it is of a much smaller span than the leaves, and only about one-fourth or one-fifth part of the whole height of the tree; the various and innumerable ramifi- cations are always alternate, smooth and of a pale yellow colour. 316 The Palms of British East India. Flowers small, sessile, collected in little bundles over the ultimate divisions of the panicle, pale yellow, small, rather offensive. Calyx small, 3-toothed. Petals three, oblong, reflexed, shorter than the stamina. ’tdaments six, broad at the base, and there united, toward the apex slender and incurved. Anthers ovate. Germ superior, round-ovate, 3-lobed, 3-celled, with one ovulum in each, attached to the bottom of its cell. Style short, 3-grooved. Stigma 3-lobed. Berry globular, the size of a musket ball, olive-coloured, smooth when fresh, but it soon becomes dry and wrinkled, 1-celled; the two abortive lobes of the germ are always to be found at the base. Seed solitary, subglobular. Jnteguments apparently two, but they are firmly united, and of a friable texture; the exterior one pale yellowish brown, and veined ; the zz¢erzor one brown, and adhering firmly to the perisperm. Perisperm conform to the seed, of a hard, horny texture, and a pale gray colour. Hmbryo simple, short, cylin- dric, lodged near the apex of the perisperm.” (Roxb. o. ec. 1. c.) To this I have to add that the petioles are much more slender than in the other species, their sides marked with oblique furrows, corresponding with the teeth, which are very large. They separate a little above the base: this afterwards becomes longitudinally split, and long afterwards falls off. ‘The lamina describes nearly a complete circle ; length 5-6 feet, breadth 15 feet; the posterior pinne do not meet, much less overlap. Laciniz about 85, linear-ensiform, much narrower than in the others: the central are about 3 feet long, the lateral and intermediate about 33 feet; the posticous ones towards the base present denticulate margins. This Palm will be at once recognised by its black spirally marked trunk. From the other species of Corypha it is abundantly distinct by its long, obviously spirally placed, exauriculate petioles, and by the smaller, dark green, flat lamina with narrow, linear-ensiform segments. The fruit is also smaller. According to Roxburgh’s drawing, the inflorescence of this is so dense that no part of the spadix or spathes is visible, The Palms of British East India. ol7 and the outline is irregularly pyramidal, some of the bran- ches being much larger than others. 52, (2) C. Tailiera, trunco obsolete annulato, petiolis bi- auriculatis, lamina (petiolum excedente) glaucescente a medio supra conduplicata, laciniis 80-90 ensiformibus bilobis posti- cis incumbentibus, glomerulis florum approximatis, petalis oblongis estivatione imbricatis, fructibus pomi minoris magni- tudine rugosis, embryone in apice albuminis centro cavi. C. Talliera, Roxb. Cor. Pl. 3. p. 51. t. 255-256. (auct. Mart.) Icones 7. t. 87. Fl. Ind. 2. p. 174. Mart. Palme. p. 281. Taliera benghalensis. Spreng. Syst. 2. p. 18. Taliera Tali. Mart. Syst. veg. ed. Schult. 7. p. 1306. Has.—Bengal, scarce in the vicinity of Calcutta. Flowers at the beginning of the hot season, seeds ripen 9 or 10 months afterwards. Tara, Tallier, Tareet, Beng. (Roxb.) Cultivated in the Botanic Gardens. I have not seen the flowers or fruit. Drscr.—“ Trunk perfectly straight, about thirty feet high, and as near as the eye can judge equally thick throughout, of a dark brown colour, and somewhat rough with the marks left by the im- pression of the fallen leaves. Leaves palmate-pinnatifid, plaited, subrotund. Leaftets or divisions of the frond united rather more than half way, numerous, generally about eighty, (or forty pairs,) linear- lanceolate, pointed until broken by the wind, or otherwise, polished on both sides, with a strong somewhat four-sided rib running their whole length ; generally about six feet long, greatest breadth about four inches. The thread which forms part of the Linnean specific character of Corypha umbraculifera, is sometimes present, sometimes wanting, at best such perishable marks deserve no notice. Petioles from five to ten feet long, remarkably strong, upper side deeply chan- nelled, the sharp margins armed with numerous, short, strong, dark- coloured polished, compressed spines. Spathes just as numerous as the primary and secondary ramifications in the spadix, all smooth, and obtuse. Spadix supra-decompound, issuing in the O18 The Palms of British East India. month of February from the apex of the tree, and centre of the lea- ves, forming an immense, diffuse, ovate panicle, of about twenty or more feet in height, so that the height of the whole tree, from the ground to the top of the spadix is now about fifty feet. Primary branches alternate, round, spreading nearly horizontally with their apices ascending. Secondary ramifications alternate, bifarious, com- pressed, drooping, recurved, soon dividing into numerous, variously curved, smaller, subcylindric, branchlets covered with innumera- ble, small white, odorous, subsessile flowers. Calyx ; perianth inferior, minute, obscurely 3-toothed. Petals three, oblong, con- cave, fleshy, smooth, expanding, many times larger than the perianth. No nectary. laments six, nearly of the length of the petals, at the base broad, and in some measure united. Anthers ovate. Germ 3-lobed, 3-celled with the embryo of a distinct seed in each, at- tached to the bottom of its cell. Style shorter than the stamina. Stigma simple. Berries from one to three conjoined, though one is the most common, and then the rudiments of the other two are present, they are singly quite round, about the size of a crab-apple, when ripe, wrinkled, and of a dark olive, or greenish yellow co- lour. The pulp is but in small proportion, and yellow when the fruit is ripe. Seed solitary, round, attached to the base of the berry, of a white colour, and horny substance, with a small vacuum in the centre. Embryo lodged in the apex, which circumstance alone, is sufficient to distinguish it from Gerétner’s Corypha umbraculifera. The leaves of this tree are employed by the natives to write on with their pointed steel bodkins, and also to tie the rafters of their houses, for they are said to be strong and durable. I do not find that the wood is applied to any useful purpose.” (foxb. o. c. l. ce.) This species is so closely allied to C. umbraculifera, as to be difficult to distinguish when out of flower. The Garden specimens are distinguishable by the lamina of the leaf of this species being conduplicate from the middle upwards, and by the posticous segments overlapping, so that the whole becomes peltate. The leaves are very like those of Borassus flabelliformis, but much larger. The petioles are bi-auriculate and with- The Paims of British East India. 319 out an obvious spiral arrangement, they separate at the top of the dilated part, and subsequently fall off leaving a smooth trunk. The lamina is 5-6 ft. long, 15 ft. broad, glaucescent ; the segments 90-95, deeper and broader than in C. umbraculi- fera, the central being 3-33 feet long. Roxburgh’s drawing represents the inflorescence as conical pyramidal, longer than the crown of leaves, open so that the spathes and branches are seen distinctly, and these last as regularly diminishing upwards.* 53. (3) C. umbraculifera, trunco annulato, petiolis exauri- culatis, lamina (petiolum subzquante) a medio supra condu- plicata, laciniis 90-100 parum profundis ensiformibus bilobis posticis cum petiolo angulum acutum exhibentibus, glomerulis florum approximatis, fructibus pomi minoris magnitudine et forma, embryone in apice albuminis centro cavi. C. umbraculifera, Linn. Spec. Pl. ed. 2da. p. 1657. Fl. Zeyl. p. 187. (excl. syn. Rumphii.} Gaertn. Fruct. et. Sem. 1. p. 18. ¢. 7. sem. inverso (excl. syn. Rumphii.) Waelld. Sp. Pl. 2,p. 201. Spreng. Syst. Veg. 2. p.138. Lam. Enc. Meth. 899. (e Rheede et Gertner.) Syst. Veg. ed. Schultes. 7. p. * I subjoin descriptions of flowers and fruit from Garden specimens with the name C. umbraculifera, but which I believe to belong here. Flower-bearing branches often dichotomous above the mouths of their spathes, about 2 inches long. Flowers several together, on short stout subannulate stalks, among the bases of which small scales may be found. Calyx short, cup-shaped, with three very rounded teeth. Corolla 3-times longer than the calyx, petals ob- long, concave, very spreading in bud, imbricate ! Stamina 6; filaments stout subu- late, about as long as the petals, those opposite the petals being twice as broad; anthers oblong-ovate. Ovarium globose turbinate, 3-lobed, each lobe with 3 de- pressed areole on its vertex. Style about as long, stout, subulate, 3-furrowed. Stigma subsimple. Ovula solitary, erect, anatropous. Fruit globose, substance excepting the cutis rather thick, homogeneous, fleshy, cellular. Seed erect, oblong roundish ; tegument externally cellular, coriaceous, internally blackish, subosseous, adhering firmly to the very dense, hollow in the centre, horny albumen. Embryo situated rather obliquely in the apex of the al- bumen, the cavity containing it communicating with the central cavity of the al- bumen. QT 320 The Palms of British East India. 1308. Roxb. Fl. Ind. 2. p. 177. Mart. Palm. p. 232. Codda Pana. Rheede. Hort. Mal. 3 t. 1-12. Has.—Ceylon, Malabar Coast. Tala or Talagas. Cingha- lese. Condapari. Tamul. (Roxb.) Codda-Pana. Malabar. (Rheede.) Tallipot Palm. I have not seen it in flower or fruit. Descr.—Habit very much like that of C. Talliera. Leaves larger than those of C. Talliera; in native places immense. Petioles stout, 7-feet long, channelled, margins with horny, irregular, often paired teeth. Lamina describing nearly a complete circle, 6 feet long, 13 feet broad, from the middle upwards conduplicate, but not so much so as in C. Talliera; lacinie 95-100, ensiform, obtusely bifid, the central ones 14 foot long, the intermediate ones 13, the posticous not meeting or overlapping, but forming acute angles with the petiole. Inflorescence much the same as in C. Talliera. I have specimens of part of the inflorescence, from trees round some of the pagodas at Mergui, most probably belong- ing to this species. I subjoin a description. Descr.—Flower.bearing branches 18-20 inches long, lower divi- sions bi-trichotomous, the rest simple; these are about a foot long, subulate, covered with warty protuberances (the situations of the flowers. ) Flowers several together on short subannular stalks, at the base of which small scales exist. Calyx cup-shaped, small, with three very short teeth. Petals broader, spreading, 3-4 times longer than the calyx: subvalvate in exstivation, upper edges quite so. Stami- na 6; filaments rather shorter than the petals, about equal, stout, subulate ; anthers oblong, ovate in bud, much larger than those of C. Talliera. Ovariwm conical from a round base, three-lobed, at- tenuated into a stout subulate three-furrowed style, which is rather longer than the ovarium. Stigma simple. Ovuia solitary, erect. I have no means of ascertaining to what species these spe- cimens really belong, not having access to a complete copy of The Palms of British East India. 321 Martius’ Palms, where the necessarily minute examination can only be expected ; but probability is in favour of their belonging to C. umbraculifera. If this is the case, the zsti- vation of the corolla, and shape of the ovarium will assist the specific distinction. LICUALA. Rumph. Hb. Amb. 1. p. 44.t.9. Thunb. Nov. gen. p. 70. Linn. Gen. Pl. ed. Schreb. 2. p. 774, ed. Spreng. p. 149. No. 1300. Jussieu. Gen. Pl. p. 59. Gaertner. Sem. et. Fruct. 2. p. 268. ¢t. 189. Syst. Veg. ed. Sch. 7. p. 77. No. 1490, Roxb. Fil. Ind. 2. p. 179. Icones. Suppt. 3. t. 79. Mart. Progr. p. 9. No. 1V. Palme. p. 234. t. 184, 135, 162, Endl. Gen. Pl. p. 252. No. 1755. Cuar. Gen.—Flores hermaphroditi. Perianthium utrum- que tripartitum. Stamina 6, filamentis (a corolla liberifactis) in annumul sepissime coalitis. Drupa (unica maturescens) monosperma. Albumen cavitate ventrali. Hmbryo dorsalis. Hasitus.—Palme Asiae orientalis et archipelagicae inco- lae, frutescentes, enterdum subacaules. Caulis ut plurimum an- nulatus, interdum basibus petiolorum persistentihus induratis exasperatius. Folia pinnato-flabelliformia ; petioli sepissime secus margines aculets cornetis conicis saepius aduncis armati ; pinne cuneiformes, apice plus minus truncatae, lobatae, lobis bifidis. Spadix (initio siliquaeformis) spicatim vel panicula- tim ramosus. Spathz tubulosae, ore obliquo bilobo. Flores solitarit, bint vel terni, saepe extus pubescentes. Ovarium vertice exsculptum. Carpidia apicibus cohaerentia. Drupe miniatae vel rubrae. 54, (1) L. spinosa, trunco 8-12-pedali annulato vel aspero, petiolis per totam longitudinem armatis, lamina orbiculari-reni- formi, pinnis sub 18, lateralibus oblique przmorsis 3-4-lobis obtuse bipartitis, terminali 10-11-lobo, intermediis 3-5-lobis 322 The Palms of British East India. lobis obtuse bifidis, spadice foliorum circiter longitudine, ramis 3-7 spicigeris, spicis subulatis pubescentibus, floribus bi-ternatis extus pubescentibus, calyce ovato ad medium rotundate tripartito, bacca obovato-oblonga. Licuala spinosa, Willd. 2. p. 201. (excl. syn. Rumph.) Roxb. Fl. Ind. 2. p. 181,? (excl. syn. Rumph. et Lam.) Syst. Veg. ed. Sch. 2. p. 1301. Mart. Palm. p. 235. t. 135. I. II. Has.—Common in wet places, particularly in hedges, Malacca. Malayan name, Plass. Cultivated in the H. C. Botanic Garden, where it flowers in the cold and ripens its fruit in the hot season. Descr.—A stout Palm, 10-12 feet high, forming dense tufts. Trunk 2-4 inches in diameter, 8-10 feet high, marked with the scars of the fallen petioles. Leaves 6-7 feet long. Petiole about 4-41 feet. long, obtusely trigonal, margins armed throughout with stout conical somewhat curved aculei. Lamina in outline orbi- cularly reniform, about 4 feet across the broad diameter; pinne about 18, narrow cuneate; central ones about 2 feet long; termi- nal one 10-11 plicate, truncate, with as many lobes as plaits, the lateral ones the deepest, all obtusely bifid; the intermediate more or less truncate, 3-5 lobed, lobes larger and deeper, but otherwise similar to those of the terminal one, the lateral with oblique 3-lobed ends. Ligula very narrow, 1-14 inch long, scarious. Spadix a little longer than the leaves, branches 7-10, adnate to the axis as high as the points of the spathes. Spathes green, sprink- led with brownish scurf, with scarious lacerated ends, occasionally obliquely lacerated. Spikes to the lower branches several, stout, subulate, downy, spreading, generally secund. Flowers sessile, in two’s or three’s, small, nearly ovate. Calyx subovate, divided to the middle into three rounded teeth. Corolla a little longer than the calyx, divided below the middle into three broad lanceolate, acuminate segments. Annulus rather high, nearly entire. ilaments (free,) short, setaceous. Anthers oblong-ovate. Ovarium depressed, turbinate, sculptured at the apex. Style fili- form, rather longer than the ovary. The Palms of British East India. 323 Fruit as though stalked by the cylindrical tube of the calyx, surrounded at the base by the perianth, oblong, red, one-seeded. Seed ovate, intrant process curved towards the middle of the dorsum. Albumen horny, on a transverse section horse-shoe-shaped. Embryo about central. This species appears to vary a good deal; it is not impro- bable that two species lurk under this name. Some of my Malacca specimens have the trunk armed with the hardened bases of the petioles, slenderer spadices and considerably smaller fruit. It approaches in the leaves to L. peltata, especially in the division of the ends of the pinne, but it is otherwise obvi- ously distinct; it is the only species I know that forms tufts. Its nearest affinity is with L. paludosa. Rumph’s figure* (Hb. Amb. 1. t. 9.) quoted for this ap- pears to me to be a distinct species, particularly as regards the spathes and the erect simple spikes. 55. (2) L. paludosa, (n. sp.) trunco sub-levi 8-12-pedali, petiolis apice inermibus, lamina flabelliformi, pinnis 7-9, lateralibus apice obliquis profunde et acute 3-4 lobis, lobis bipartitis, reliquis truncatis lobis 4-5, (vel terminali 7-8) latis brevibus bifidis, spadice foliorum circiter longitudine, ramis spicas plures nutantes secundas gerentibus, floribus glabris solitariis turbinatis, calyce cyathiformi integriusculo corolla sub-duplo breviore, ovario depresso-turbinato. Has.—Low sandy wet places along the sea-coast, about Tanjong Cling, Koondoor, and Pulo Bissar, Malacca; asso- ciated with Pandanus, Eugenia, Diospyros, Helospora, etc. In flower February, 1842. Drscr.— Trunk 8-12 feet high, about 14 inch in diameter, un- armed and almost without marks of annuli, except towards the apex * See Mart. Palm. p. 236. adnot. where the name L. Rumphii is proposed for this species. 324 The Paims of British East India. where they are incomplete. Crown moderate. Rete of rather stout, rich brown fibres. Ligula linear, one inch long, gradually attenuate towards the apex. Petiole 14-14 foot long, subtrigonal, armed along the margins, except towards the apex, with small, black, horny, conical, curved teeth. Lamina flabelliform, rather smaller than that of L. spinosa; pinne 8-10, cuneate, lateral ones oblique at the apex, deeply and acutely 3-4 lobed, lobes bilobed (except the side ones, ) the others more or less truncate with 4, (or as in the terminal 5-8,) broad, short, bifid lobes. Spadix about the same length as the leaves, rather curved. Spathes tubular, green, with membranous or scarious lacerated mouths. Branches of the spadix bearing 5-7 spikes, which are 4-6 inches long, curved, secund, generally nodding, slightly pube- rulous, often appearing as if they arose separately from within the mouth of the spathe. Flowers solitary, sessile, of a turbinate form, smaller than usual. Calyx cup-shaped, half the length of the corolla, nearly entire, irregularly split at the expansion of the flower. Corolla (in bud) ur- ceolate, about one-third longer than the calyx, divided to the middle into three, cordate ovate segments. Annulus of the stamina white, nearly entire, projecting considerably above the faux of the corolla. Filaments(free)short,setiform. Anthers versatile, oblong, pale brown. Ovarium depressed, turbinate, with a horny sculptured vertex ; car- pels adhering by the style. Ovula solitary, erect, anatropous. Style subulate, rather shorter than the ovarium. Stigma simple. Fruit not seen. This species approaches to L. spinosa, but is abundantly distinct by its smooth stem, which does not look much like the stem of a palm, and by the short smooth turbinate flowers. The tracts of country in which it is found, form one of the peculiar marks of the Straits’ Flora, and are highly con- trasted with the muddy littoral tracts, which are covered as usual with Mangrove jungle. 56. (3) L. peltata, trunco robusto 3-4 pedali, petiolis per totam longitudinem armatis, lamina orbiculari-peltata, pinnis The Palms of British East India. 325 18-20, lateralibus apice obliquis profunde et acute 3-5 lobis, lobis bipartitis, reliquis truncatis plurilobatis, lobis obtuse bi- fidis, spadice foliorum circiter longitudine, spicis simplicibus pendulis secundis pubescentibus, floribus solitariis (maximis) extus pubescentibus, annulo staminum nullo, ovario depresso turbinato stylo triplo breviore, bacca obovata, processu intrante sursum latissima obliqua, embryone infra medium seminis. Licuala peltata. Roxb. Fl. Ind. 2. p. 179. Icones. Suppt. 3. t. 79. Hamilton Comm. Herb. Amb. in Mem. Wern. Soe. 5. p. 313. Mart. Palm. p. 234. t. 162. Has.— Woody mountainous country to the eastward of and near Chittagong, Roxburgh ; Mountains beyond the Ganges; Rungpore, Buchanan; Assam, Major Jenkins; Himalayan range, below Darjeeling, Seharunpore Collectors. Cultivated in H. C. Bot. Gardens, flowering in the cold season, fruiting in the hot season. Kurup, Kurkuti. Bengally. Chattah Pat. Assamese. Descr.*—A low Palm, with a stout stem 3-4 feet high, marked below with the scars of the fallen leaves, above rough from the per- sistent bases of the petioles. Leaves 8-10 feet long. tete copious. Petiole 6-7 feet long, triangular, armed throughout along the mar- gins, especially towards the base, with stout, horny, black, very sharp, conical, rather curved thorns. JZigula cordate, when young the margin is very elevated and tomentose. Lamina peltate; pinne about 18-20, describing nearly a circle of about 6 feet in diameter, about 3 feet 3 inches long, outermost ones cuneate-oblong, 3-5 plaited, 3-5 lobed, lobes acutely bilobed, with oblique ends ; intermediate and terminal much broader, 7-8 inches across, trun- cate, with several plaits and as many less deep, broader, rather obtuse, bifid lobes. * From plants in the Botanic Gardens. Entire specimens since received from Major Jenkins have the stem 33-4 feet high, rough from the persistent, distant bases of the petioles; the leaves 12-14 feet in length; the petioles 8-9 feet and armed throughout. The spadices equal the leaves. 326 The Palms of British East India. Spadiz erect, rather longer than the leaves, stout, simply branched, sprinkled in the upper parts with brown scurf. Spathes tubular, green, lower ones a foot or nearly two feet long, bilobed at the apex, at length variously split, similarly scurfy. Spikes 3-5, solitary, nodding-pendulous, secund, centrifugally developed, a foot (or more) long, pubescent, adnate to the axis to about the middle of the spathe. Flowers numerous, on short stalks, solitary, very large, 7 lines long, of a greenish white-colour, covered externally with the same pubescence as the spike, opening centrifugally. Calyx with a funnel-shaped or obconical tube, shortly 3-toothed. Corolla twice as long as the calyx, divided to the calyx into three broadly lanceo- late, coriaceous, reflexed segments. /2/aments united among each other and to the corolla as far as the base of its segments, thence free, long, stout, plano-subulate, keeled along the back. Nn — © LD 362 On some Plants in the H. C. Botanic Gardens. APPENDICULA. Blume. Bijdr. p. 207. Tabellen. 40. Lindl. Gen. et Sp. Orch. p. 227. Endl. Gen. Pl. p. 205. No. 1483. Cuar. Gen.—Perianthium connivens. Sepalum tertium subfornicatum, lateralia cum pede columne adnata calcar ob- tusum saccumve mentientia. Labellum cum pede columneze continuum, inclusum, indivisum, vel subtrilobum, appendicu- tum. Columna nana. Anthera dorsalis. Pollinia 8, vel abortu pauciora, in glandulam sessilia. Hasitus.—Epiphyticae. Caules simplices vel ramosi. Folia disticha ; lamina dextrorsum sinistrorsum versa. WVaginae in paucis utrinque processu stipuliformt auctae. Racemi op- positifolii, vel Glomeruli paleacei terminales. Flores minutz. A. callosa, caulibus caespitosis simplicibus, foliis oblongo- parallelogrammicis basi deltoideo-cordatis apice bidentatis (sinu mucronato), glomerulis florum terminalibus paleaceis, petalis lineari-acuminatis, labelli sub-trilobi lobis lateralibus dentformibus centrali cordato-ovato basi calloso apice rotun- dato, columna apice biauriculata. A. callosa, Blume. Bydr. p. 303. Lindl. Gen. et spec. Orch. p. 230. Has.—Penang. Mr. Lewes. Flowered here in October, succeeding well in broken potsherds. Drscr.— Stems 6-10 inches long, tufted, erect or spreading, covered with the sheaths of the leaves, which have black scarious margins, and are prolonged at the apex on either side into a linear- setaceous black process, (stipula.) Lamina of the leaves exactly bifarious, perpendicular, (looking right and left,) oblong, parallelo- grammic, deltoideo-cordate at the base, at the apex bidentate with the sinus mucronate: they are 24 lines long, 14 broad, coriaceous, one-veined, parallel striate. Head of flowers terminal, oblique or sub- erect, paleaceous, sometimes proliferous. lowers generally ex- On some Plants in the H. C. Botanic Gardens. 363 panding one at a time, almost immersed in the paleae, minute, half-resupinate, whitish. Perianth ringent. Sepals acute, the an- ticous one ovate, concave, the lateral very oblique at the base and forming with the foot of the column and base of labellum a large roundish sac. Petals the length of the sepals, linear-acuminate. Labellum included, continuous at the base with the foot of the column with which and the lateral sepals it forms the sac, 3-lobed ; the lateral lobes, (up to which it is parallel with the column,) tooth- shaped, erect, the central ovate-cordate, conduplicate, with minutely undulate margins ; its base occupied by a sulcate subtrilobed callus. Column short, roundish, obliquely ascending, almost deficient be- hind, obtusely auriculate on either side at the apex, the auricles con- cave and sanguineous inside. Fos¢ellum linear-linguiform, almost ver- tical, projecting beyond the auricles ; stigma vertical. Anthers dorsal, fleshy, almost immersed, bilocular, cells 4-locellar. Pollen masses 8, clavato-pyriform, sessile on an oblong brownish gland. Ovarium 6-costate. As it agrees tolerably with Blume’s character, I have re- ferred it to his A. callosa. But it is to be regretted that such short insufficient characters should be resorted to, when such variation in form runs through so many organs. Charac- ters should always be as prospective as possible, and with this view should express the peculiarities of each of the organs from which they can be drawn. The presence of the divisions on the margin of the sheaths near the base of the lamina is remarkable. They are pro- bably analogous to such stipulae as those of Rosa, which are nothing but the lowermost undeveloped lobes of the leaf. Such stipulae have not, so far as I know, been hitherto observ- ed in Monocotyledons, although the possibility of their exist- ence is indicated by some species of Smilax and Dioscorea. The section of Appendicula to which Blume refers this, is closely allied to Agrostophyllum, (and perhaps to Glo- mera,) from the former of which it differs only in habit, which is very peculiar, and the structure of the column. 364 On some Plants in the H. C. Botanic Gardens. EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXVI. (left hand.) Appendicula callosa. Portion of a flowering stem, (natural size.) Flower, or rather spike, laterally. End of labellum, inner surface, in front. Flowers, laterally, sepals removed. . Labellum and column, laterally. Column, anther reflexed, laterally. . Anther, under face. . Column, front view, . Ditto, back, . Pollen masses. All but the figure of the flowering stem more or less magnified. XIPHOSIUM. Cuar. Gen.—Perianthium posticum, ringens, glabrum. Sepala carinata, lateralia cum pede columnae in gibberem connata. Labellum cum pede columnae articulatum, tremu- lum, trilobum. Columna pede elongato. Anthera terminalis. Pollinia 8, ope materie pulverea viscosa copiosa coherentia. Ovarium triquetrum. \ foot removed. IODOAAR WN = Hasitus.—Rhizomata repentia. Pseudo-bulbi unifolii. Scapus bracteis imbricantibus (quarum summa maxima con- duplicato-ensiformis) obtectus. Flores variegati, Locus artificialis inter Epidendreas, Lindl., naturalis mihi 1onotus. X. acuminatum,* (n. sp.) sepalis acuminatis, petalis cune- ato-lanceolatis, labelli lobo centrali acuminato reflexo ob- solete l-cristato. * A second species, may be thus distinguished. X. roseum, * sepalis obtusis oblongis, petalis oblongis, labelli lobo centrali obtuso patente tri-cristato. Eria rosea. Lindl. Bot. Reg. 12. t. 978. Gen. sp. Orch. p. 67. It may be proper to remark, that Dr. Lindley in his Gen. and Sp. places this without any specification in the body of the genus Eria, although in the Bot. Reg. 1. c. he mentions the smooth flowers, and the carinate midrib of the sepals as pe- culiar to it. * Char. e fig. et descr, in Bot. Reg. On some Plants in the H. C. Botanic Gardens. 365 Has.—Khassya Hills, Churra Punjee, alt. 4300 feet. Flowers here in November. Descr.—Rhizomata creeping, covered with imbricated scaly sheaths. Pseudo-bulbs ovate, rather compressed, obsoletely 4-cor- nered, young ones rather scurfy. Leaf (one to each pseudo-bulb, ) oblong-lanceolate, attenuate into a longish channelled petiole, con- cave, coriaceous, acute, more or less arched. Scape arising from the base of the last pseudo-bulb, terminating the rhizoma, a,span or a foot in length; the peduncle almost entirely concealed by imbricated green bractes, the uppermost one being very long, conduplicate- ensiform. From the fissure of this, about its middle, emerges a short spike of flowers, which are of some size, prettily variegated, and of a waxy aspect. To each of the 3-5 flowers there is a long, (equalling the whole flower, ) linear, very acuminate spreading bracte. Perianth ringent, posticous. Sepals oblong-lanceolate, acumin- ate, keeled along the centre of the back ; the lateral oblique, form- ing with the foot of the column a stout gibbosity ; colour brownish red with red streaks, and green keels. Petals flesh-coloured, pale, with reddish streaks, lanceolate, attenuate to both ends, connivent, somewhat shorter than the sepals. Labellum articulated with the foot of the column, tremulous, three-lobed: lateral lobes small, roundish, erect, terminal sub-lanceolate, acute, with an obsolete crest along the centre, reflexed from the middle. An oblique incon- spicuous crest at the base of each of the lateral lobes. The general colour sanguineous, central lobe tawny yellow. Column curved (with its foot forming a hook,) white, somewhat three-toothed at the apex ; teeth rounded, anticous (dorsal) one the smallest. Rostel- lum entire, short, tongue-shaped. Anther fleshy, two-celled ; cells 4- locellar. Pollen masses 8, cohering by fours with a large viscous elastic powdery-looking flat body. Ovarium triquetrous (almost three winged,) the angles continuous with those of the sepals, red- dish brown. I met with this plant about Churra Punjee in October 1837. It was introduced into these gardens, where Buxoo tells me it has been called Eria carinata, by Mr. Gibson. 366 On some Plants in the H. C. Botanic Gardens. It appears to me impossible to force this plant into a genus so natural as that of Eria, without violating all one’s ideas of natural affinities; I have therefore ventured to con- stitute a new one, the name of which has reference to the sword-shaped bracte-imbricated peduncle, and which will in- clude Eria rosea of Dr. Lindley. Technically it is distin- guishable from Eria by the remarkable inflorescence, the smooth perianthium, carinate sepals and triquetrous ovarium. The habit is peculiar. I imagine it would come as an Eria into Dr. Lindley’s section Tonse, which appears to contain more than one genus, as exemplified by Eria convallarioides, planicaulis, clavicaulis ? although these are taken from a very partial list of species.* EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXV. (left hand. ) Plant reduced about one-half. 1. Flower and end of the spike, natural size. 2. Flower, laterally, sepals and labellum removed. 3. The same, one petal removed. . Labellum, laterally. Anther, underface. . Pollen masses, in front. . Column and anther, in front. CONS OT . Ovarium, double transverse section. All but the figure of the Plant, and No 1, more or less magnified. APORUM. Blume Byd. p. 334. t. 89. Lindl. Gen. sp. Orch. p. 70. Endl. Gen. Pl. p. 192. No. 1364. Dendrobium. Roxb. Fl. Ind. 3. p. 487. 488. No. 13, 14. 15. Icones. 15. t. 72, ‘73. Herba supplex. Rumph. Hb. Amb. 3. t. 51. * Index Bot. Reg. 1838-1841. On some Plants in the H. C. Botanic Gardens. 367 Cuar. Gen.—Pertanthium bilabiatum: labium superius sepalis et petalis, inferius labello formatum. Sepadla lateralia obliqua, cum pede columnz connata. Peta/a angustiflora. Labellum cum pede columne articulatum, indivisum vel tri- lobum, cristatum callosum vel nudum. Columna basi longe producta. Pollinia 4, per paria collateralia. Hasitus.—Herbe epiphytice. Caules simplices vel ra- most, apice in quibusdam flagellt in modo attenuati foltis denudati florigert. Folia disticha, compressissima, se@pius scalpelliformia. Pedicelli florum basz paleis cincti. In- florescentia centrifuga, vel irregularis. Flores terminales vel axillares, vel in speciebus caulibus apice attenuatis quasi racemosi, invicem expandentes, inconspicut. Genus structura floris a Dendrobiis quibusdam, (exempli gratia D. crumenato), nullo modo diversum. Folia nullo modo equitantia. A. Jenkinsii (n. sp.), caulibus spithameis, foliis anguste scalpelliformibus obtusis subteretibus, floribus solitariis ter- minalibus et axillaribus, labello spathulato-obovato apice sub-truncato undulato reflexo, columnez pede longissimo trivenio apice bifurco. Has.—Assam, Major Jenkins, by whom it was introduced into these Gardens, where it flowers in October. Descr.—Stems simple, grouped together, scarcely more than a span long. Leaves ‘narrow scalpelliform, compressed, 2} inches long, 14 line broad, very fleshy, obtuse. Flowers terminal, solitary, rather large, white. Pedicel 14 inch long. Perianth two-lipped, upper lip formed by the sepals and petals, the lower bythe label- lum. Opper sepal lanceolate-oblong: the lateral much broader, very oblique, united with the foot of the column. Petals spathulato- lanceolate, rather narrower than the third sepal, with reflexed. spreading points. Labellum entire, ascending-reflexed, revolute to- 3 R 368 On some Plants in the H. C. Botanic Gardens. wards the apex, where it is emarginate; spread out spathulato- obovate, with folded or undulate margins ; colour white, with a yel- low line down the centre. Column very short, furnished with an erect small tooth on either side of the anther, with an extremely long curved foot, which is three-veined, bifurcate at the apex. Stigma occupying almost the whole face of the column. er | > 4 -6 ew eee Death of Mr. Loudon. 407 mation of Gardens, in 1812; and three works on Hol-houses, in 1817 and 1818. In 1822 appeared the first edition of the Encyclopedia of .Garden- ing ; a work remarkable for the immense mass of useful matter which it contained, and for the then unusual circumstance of a great quantity of woodcuts being mingled with the text : this book obtained an extraor- dinary sale, and fully established his fame as an author. Soon after was published an anonymous work, written either partly or entirely by Mr. Loudon, called the Greenhouse Companion ; and shortly afterwards Observations on laying out Farms, in folio, with his name. In 1824, a se- cond edition of the Encyclopedia of Gardening was published, with very. great alterations and improvements ; and the following year appeared the first edition of the Encyclopedia of Agriculture. In 1526, the Garden- er’s Magazine was commenced, being the first periodical ever devoted exclusively to horticultural subjects. The Magazine of Natural History, also the first of its kind, was begun in 1828. Mr. Loudon was now oc- cupied in the preparation of the Encyclopedia of Plants, which was pub- lished early in 1829, and was speedily followed by the Hortus Britanni- cus. In 1830, a second and nearly re-written edition of the Encyclope- dia of Agriculture was published, and this was followed by an entirely re- written edition of the Encyclopedia of Gardening, in 1831; and the Encyclopedia of Cottage, Farm, and Villa Architecture, the first he pub- lished on his own account, in 1832. This last work was one of the most successful, because it was one of the most useful, he ever wrote, and it is likely long to continue a standard book on the subjects of which it treats. Mr. Loudon now began to prepare his great and ruinous work, the Arboretum Britannicum, the anxieties attendant on which were, undoubtedly, the primary cause of that decay of constitution which terminated in his death. This was not, however, completed till 1838, and in the mean time he began the Architectural Magazine, the first periodical devoted exclusively to architecture. The labour he un- derwent at this time was almost incredible. He had four periodicals, viz. the Gardener’s, Natural History, and Architectural Magazines, and the Arboretum Britannicum, which was published in monthly numbers, going on at the same time; and, to produce these at the proper times, he literally worked night and day. Immediately on the conclusion of the Arboretum Britannicum, he began the Suburban Gardener, which was also published in 1838, as was the Hortus Lignosus Londinensis ; and in 1839 appeared his edition of Repton’s Landscape-Gardening. In 1840, he accepted the editorship of the Gardener’s Gazette, which he retained till November, 1841 ; and in 1842 he published his Encyclopedia of Trees and Shrubs. In the same year he completed his Suburban Horticulturist ; ats 408 Death of Mr. Loudon. and finally, in 1848, he published his work on Cemeteries, the last se- parate work he ever wrote. In this list, many minor productions of Mr. Loudon’s pen have necessarily been omitted; but it may be men- tioned, that he contributed to the Encyclopedia Britannica and Brande’s Dictionary of Science ; and that he published numerous supplements, from time to time, to his various works. No man, perhaps, has ever written so much, under such adverse cir- cumstances as Mr. Loudon. Many years ago, when he came first to England (in 1803), he had a severe attack of inflammatory rheumatism, which disabled him for two years, and ended in an anchylosed knee and a contracted left arm. In the year 1820, whilst compiling the Encyclo- pedia of Gardening, he had another severe attack of rheumatism ; and the following year, being recommended to go to Brighton to get sham- pooed in Mahommed’s Baths, his right arm was there broken near the shoulder, and it never properly united. Notwithstanding this, he con- tinued to write with his right hand till 1825, when the arm was broken a second time, and he was then obliged to have it amputated ; but not before a general breaking up of the frame had commenced, and the thumb and two fingers of the left hand had been rendered useless. He afterwards suffered frequently from ill health, till his constitution was finally undermined by the anxiety attending on that most costly and laborious of all his works, the Arboretum Britannicum, which has un- fortunately not yet paid itself. He died at last of disease of the lungs, after suffering severely about three months ; and he retained all the clearness and energy of his mind to the last. His labours as a landscape-gardener are too numerous to be detailed here, but that which he always considered as the most important, was the laying out of the Arboretum so nobly presented by Joseph Strutt, Esq., to the town of Derby. Never, perhaps, did any man possess more energy and determination than Mr. Loudon; whatever he began he pursued with enthusiasm, and carried out, notwithstanding obstacles that would have discouraged any ordinary person. He was a warm friend, and most kind and affec- tionate in all his relations of son, husband, father, and brother; and he never hesitated to sacrifice pecuniary considerations to what he con- sidered his duty. That he was always most anxious to promote the welfare of gardeners, the volumes of this Magazine bear ample witness ; and he laboured not only to improve their professional knowledge, and to increase their temporal comforts, but to raise their moral and in- tellectual character. 409 Observations on Organic Chemistry and its relations to Physiology. By Justus Liesic, M.D., Pu.D. [Professor Liebig has requested us to state that his remarks upon physiologists and pathologists in this paper are intended to apply to those of Germany, and not to the physiologists and pathologists of this country. The criticisms upon his works which have appeared in Eng- land, at least such of them as have reached him, do not appear to re- quire any animadversions on his part. But since the reviews of Schulz, Henle, and others have been recently reprinted in the English journals, Professor Liebig has thought proper to republish his answer to them in Tue Lancer, in order to enable the English readers of those articles to form ajust opinion of their true value. If there be any passage in Pro- fessor Liebig’s reply not very agreeable to the taste of his adversaries, they must remember that there has been much in their attacks not very palatable to him, and, moreover, that he was not the aggressor, but he was compelled, in the interest of science, to stand upon his own de- fence. | Lancet, Jan. 1844. The appearance of my work on ‘Chemistry, in its applications to Agriculture and Physiology,” gave rise to criticisms from men from whom I should rather have expected aid in my endeavours to advance the science than opposition, characterised by intemperance and passion, rather than by candour and that liberal spirit which ought to guide us in our judgment on the labours of others. Many of these attacks were direeted against persons whose friendship I value most highly, rather than against myself personally, or my book, and I, therefore, felt it my duty to defend my views, and to refute the objections advanced, in the manner they deserved. It was a different matter with respect to the ob- jections made, and the difficulties involved in my statements, pointed out by Schleiden and Mohl; in them, under rather a repulsive husk, I could discern the true kernel of the love of science; I have, therefore, not replied to their writings, because instead of entering with them up- on a mere war of words, I hoped to reconcile these gentlemen by my ac- tions, convinced that we should at lengh agree. Those parts of my works which were opposed to their better experience, and which they particularly objected to, I have altogether left out of my 5th edition (8d English); other points, concerning the correctness of which I was too well assured to doubt, from any assertion of theirs, I retained, al- though these also might have been omitted without affecting the real value of the work. 410 Observations on Organic Chemistry The corrections which their remarks suggested were apart from the main purpose of my labours, and I have nothing to regret, save that the difference in the direction of our inquiries has deprived me of an opportunity of expressing how highly I appreciate the results of their great and comprehensive labours in vegetable physiology. In such ho- nest and energetic endeavours as theirs for the advancement of science, there is so much devotedness and self-sacrifice, that even the merited approbation of an individual, although of no great value in comparison with the appreciation of the public, may, nevertheless, not be altogether unwelcome. The publication of my ‘“‘ Animal Chemistry” placed me in the same awkward position with many physiologists. Schulz, Henle, and others appear to derive gratification in detaching sentences of my writings from their connection, and making them the object of severe criticism, by which the true relation of chemistry to physiology were made much more manifest to me than before. Such mistakes, either involuntary or intentional, | could not have supposed possible. I had really thought that the ordinary studies of the physiologist and the physician would enable them to form, at least, some judgment respecting the questions which I discussed. But from the attacks and objections which were made to my views I could immediately perceive that they emanated from per- sons who had never occupied themselves with physics or chemistry, and who were altogether unacquainted with the principles and true spirit of these sciences. This induced me to make very light of such opposition ; I could confidently leave the decision to the future. The ranks of my opponents, however, have been strengthened by,the accession of an individual upon whose approbation and applause I was accustomed to reckon for many years, and who, by his great experience and labours, has acquired a well-founded right to pronounce a judgment upon questions connected with these sciences. i Immediately after the appearance of my first work on Agricultural Chemistry, Berzelius communicated to me, by letter, many objections to my views, and declared to me openly, and without reserve, how lit- tle his own experience agreed with my observations. ‘These objections induced me to submit all the points at issue between us again to the test of a strict and minute examination, the results of which only tend- ed to strengthen my conviction of the truth of my first impressions, and determined me to persevere in the direction I had taken. I thought I had succeeded in removing all his doubts in the course of our correspondence, and I, therefore, was very much astonished to find all his objections re-appear in his “ Twenty-first Annual Report of the in its Relations to Physiology. 411 Progress of Chemistry.” This proceeding was continued in his subse- quent Annual Reports, and appeared at length so completely at va- riance with his former principles that I thought it my duty to call his at- tention to its injustice. I desired him to consider that our long stand- ing and intimate friendship forbade me to repel his attacks in the man- ner they deserved, and that I therefore stood defenceless. All this was unavailing; there was a chasm between us which no longer admitted of being filled up, and it is only after having suffered the most insulting and injurious attacks, that I perceive (to quote Ber- zelius’s own words) “ that it would be a misfortune to science to permit its interests to be set aside for friendship’s sake.” (Ann. Rep., 23, p- 576.) In the Twenty-third Annual Report, Berzelius lays aside all modera- tion, and the same hostile disposition towards me is manifested in the new edition of his Manual ; and he has been induced to express opinions upon my labours in inorganic chemistry which are totally unfounded and inexcusable. Under these circumstances nothing remains for me save to expose, in all simplicity and candour, the relation in which Berzelius stands to the present state of organic chemistry. And when, in this exposition, I speak of physiologists and pathologists, and the bearings of chemistry on physiology, I must remind my readers that I allude to individuals, or to their intellectual tendencies, whose names I dco not mention, because ere long they will cease to have any interest in connection with the matter, and, in fact, they do not at all belong to the subject in dispute. During the last four years, since Berzelius has ceased to take any part in experimental investigations of the questions now arising in the science, his whole mental powers have been.directed to theoretical spe- culations. But unsupported by his own experiments, his views have found no response in science. As long as he pursued experiments, and confined his inferences to them, the results he obtained were safe and trust-worthy guides in the field of science, but a new domain, foreign to him, has since been cultivated with success; phenomena have been ob- served, contradictory to views formerly held, and inexplicable upon principles derived from the acquisitions of science at that time. This has led to new modes of explaining the phenomena observed, irresistible to all those who have been themselves experimentally engaged in their in- vestigation ; and it is the contest of the former with the latter,—the necessary consequences of the progress of the science,—upon which Berzelius has entered in the spirit of a partisan, a contest the final 412 Observations on Organic Chemistry result of which it is not difficult to foresee. When Berzelius first enter- ed upon his career many hypotheses prevailed which he did not hesitate to combat in the interest of science ; he went further, and history shows with what success he substituted; by his indefatigable investigations, better theories in their place. It is in the very nature of science that many of his views should meet with the same fate ; more correct theo- ries, notions nearer to truth, must at length replace them, and it is thus only that the truth, which is the aim and object of our researches, will at length be attained. To combat these more modern views with reasons derived from obser- vations made long since, and without deigning to enter anew upon per- sonal investigations as to their truth, has been the way taken by Ber- zelius of late, a way which obviously cannot lead him to his object. Every author of a long and laborious investigation has an undoubt- ed right to draw his own inferences as to the nature and composition of the bodies he discovers, to assign to them a name, and to express them by formulz, what part has Berzelius taken in these investigations? Has he shown the incorrectness of these formule by new experiments? Has he proved the fallacy of the inferences and conclusions by placing them in opposition to the results of his own experience? Nothing of the kind. Why, and for what reason, then, does he alter the formule of the chloric ether compounds of Malaguti, of the napthaline compounds of Laurent, of the benzoyl compounds, and the products of uric acid, with an arbi- trariness hitherto unexampled? Why does he admit into the composition of these substances compounds which either do not at all exist, or to say the least, the existence of which is very doubtful? Has not his fixing the formule of cerebrote, cephalote, stearoconote, the formation of piotic, hypopiotic, and piotinigic acids, shown how little was gained thereby, and to what errors want of personal experience in this department led him. None of those chemists whose labours Berzelius thought were thus im- proved adopted his views, and therefore an irreparable breach could not fail to ensue between them. Never, under any circumstances, would Berzelius have endured this kind of tyranny from others ; he would have repudiated it with all his might; and that this has not yet been done to him by other chemists arises simply from the high esteem in which he is held for his immeasurable labours. Abandoning himself to this course, which would, in former times, have been so utterly repugnant to him, he constructed, from an isolated in- stance of the atomic theory, “ that equal constitution does not neces- sarily produce equal properties,” the special theory of isomerie sub- stances, and this led him to the invention of the catalytic force. in its Relations to Physiology. 413 The power of platinum to facilitate the combination of gaseous sub- - stances,—that of yeast to resolve sugar into alcohol and carbonic acid,— that of sulphuric acid to resolve alcohol into ether and water,—differ from the ordinary phenomena of affinity, as those, for instance, which accompany the combustion of charcoal in oxygen gas, or the combina- tion of sulphuric acid with potass. They were, at that time at least, or, according to the notions of Berzelius, inexplicable phenomena. Now, how did he facilitate our inquiries into these phenomena? Against all the rules of rational inquiry, against all logic, he considered these proper- ties of sulphuric acid, of platinum, and of yeast, not as the effects of different causes, which was apparent to every one else, in such vari- ous substances, but ascribed all these different effects to one and the same cause, and this a new and unknown cause. He indeed, admits it to be unknown, but he treats it, in discussing unexplained phenomena, as a force with the properties of which we are perfectly acquainted. If any one will take the trouble to place in the following passages, quoted from Berzelius, instead of the words catalytic force, the true meaning of the words, namely, the unknown cause of phenomena not fur- ther investigated, it will be seen how little has been gained by the assumption of the catalytic force. It will, also, at once be evident that with its admission all further inquiry into the true causes will be at an end. To us it appeared, from the very outset, to be nothing better than phlogiston resuscitated. “If, with this idea, we turn to the chemical processes in living na- ture, a new light breaks in upon us. When nature has placed diastate in the eyes of potatoes, this leads us to the way in which the insoluble starch becomes converted by the catalytic force into gum and sugar ; but it does not follow therefrom that this catalytic process is the only one in vegetable life; we on the contrary, are led to assume that in living plants and animals thousands of catalytic processes take place between the tissues and the fluids,”—Berzelius, 15th Annual Report, p. 244. ** Mitscherlich has shown that the catalytic force of sulphuric acid: becomes increased by concentration and elevation of temperature.” — 15th Ann. Rep., p. 352. “Since a catalytic operation by contact is admitted (and this is at present an undoubted fact), it is impossible to say where it does not take place in chemical processes.” —20th Ann. Rep., p. 455. Certainly no one could consider it a crime in me that I did not deem these views admissible, and that, following my own convictidn, I declar- ed it to be a mistake to make our symbolic language an expression for 414 Observations on Organic Chemistry changeable theoretical notions,—for the theory of volumes, for instance. And when instead of the obscure notion concerning the saturating pow- er of the acids which then prevailed, I endeavoured to give a better one, according to my own apprehensions, and when I attempted to apply an indisputable axiom of mechanics to the phenomena of combination and decomposition, in what respect did I justly incur reproach? Upon phe- nomena imperfectly studied before I commenced, and upon new obser- vations, I have based and established the theory of putrefaction and decay ; I have shown that humus cannot be the source of the carbon of vegetables ; 1 have, in the course of my investigations into the trans- formations which nitrogenous substances undergo in the presence of water and air, found ammonia to be the ultimate and only source of nitrogen in plants; and I have determined the necessity of the alkalies, the alkaline earths, and the phosphates, to vegetable life, which was so long disregarded by chemists and mistaken by physiologists. What connection is there between these views, which are opposed to those of Berzelius, and my other labours? Why does my method of purifying antimony no longer, according to his account, yield antimo- ny free from arsenic? Why is my method of preparing cyanide of po- tassium fraught with difficulties now, and no longer to be considered an improvement? Why does my separation of nickel from cobalt now exist only upon paper? Why does Berzilius incessantly warn us, in physiological investigations, not to go beyond his labours of thirty years since? Shall we then continue to consider blood corpuscules as globulin, and caseine as soluble in water ?—albumen as an acid and a base? Or to assume a dozen substances as constituents of the bile, when our in- vestigations have proved these things to be otherwise ? Shall we continue to bruise the liver and kidneys in a mortar in or- der to obtain a knowledge of their composition and vital functions? Of what avail have all these labours proved to physiology? Their results drag heavily along, in the Manuats, a cumbrous and useless burthen ; they introduced totally fallacious methods of investigation into chemical physiology, ‘and created that aversion and nausea with which physiolo- gists have regarded chemistry. What light could such investigations, made after the example of Fourcroy and Vauquelin, throw upon the mysterious processes of organic life? What advantage could possibly be derived from all these figures which were unconnected with questions of fact, from investigations made without any definite object, and con- ducted without method? Whilst, with the analysis of a silicate, the ultimate problem of the analyst was solved, the mere production of the — animal constituents, and their analysis must be considered only as the in its Relations to Physiology. 415 beginning of the task of the chemist. I felt it right to reject all such re- sults, and to urge incessantly upon chemists that figures are of no use whatever unless connected with definite questions ; that these methods could prove of no avail to physiology ; and that our labours, to be of any value, must be available as preparatory to those of physiologists. I had an undoubted right to do this, as much as a man who perceives his fellow-travellers are pursuing a wrong road has to warn them to re- trace their steps, more especially as one who has devoted his life to the improvement of this department of science. Must I remind Berzelius what has been done during the last twenty years in the chemical school at Giessen? He has been living all this time, and ought not to forget it so easily, even should it be forgotten by a younger generation. I fear not to speak of my own labours, from hippuric acid to my re- cent investigation of urine, nor to mention those which I have made in common with Wohler. I must remind Berzelius that, from the very outset of my career, all my efforts have been directed to the attainment of a definite object. I feel almost ashamed to recall to Berzelius’ mind how much has sprung from my endeavours, and to remind him of the advantages that have been derived from my methods, and from the in- troduction and adoption of my apparatus. But I may be allowed to quote a passage from a paper on some nitrogen compounds, published ten years ago (Annalen der Chemie and Pharm., Bd. x., s. 3), since this will tend to render my object and purpose more clear and intelligible to him and also to my readers. ‘‘Our insight into the mysterious processes of the animal organism will acquire a very different import if, instead of resting satisfied with decomposing the substances occurring in the various organs, into nu- merous other combinations, the properties cf which teach us nothing, we follow their alterations and transformations, step by step, through elementary analysis, without heeding (for the moment) their properties ; whilst in this manner, we arrive from one link to the other, we indubi- tably approach the point more and more from which the chain pro- ceeds; infinitely distant though this point may be, yet we approach it. ‘We know that the oxygen of the atmosphere stands in a definite relation to the blood in the respiratory process ; we can show the alter- ations which the air undergoes, and observe the phenomena taking place in the lungs; but if the science of chemistry does not succeed in following up in the animal body all the alterations which take place in the organs, and in the substances acting upon the organs, and oper- ated upon by them in return, and in obtaining an insight into these alterations, itis not worth while to occupy ourselves with them. So oH 416 Observations on Organic Chemistry much I consider as certain, that the way which has been hitherto pur- sued fritters away our energies without producing any real advantage.” If this expression of my sentiments at that time be compared with my former or subsequent labours, and be taken in connection with the mass of valuable investigations, conducted by talented and skilful young chemists, at my instigation and under my observation,—investi- gations which embrace every constituent of the animal and vegetable kindoms, and form a great part of all we know thereof—every one, whether favourable or opposed to my views, will confess that all these labours have a common centre—that they are links of one and the same chain. The labours of Demarcay, on the nature of bile; the important investigations of fatty substances by Redtenbacher, Bromeis, Varentrapp, Meyer; of the constituents of blood and milk, by Jul. Vogel, Scherer, Jones, Rochleder, and of so many others,—what purpose can reason- ably be assigned to them, except the practical confirmation of those prin- ciples upon which I proceeded at the very outset of my career, and which I developed ten years ago in the clearest manner possible, and to which I adhere now with the same conviction as formerly. If my object had not been the attainment of truth, but merely the ac- quisition of some specious aud futile arguments, I might, with regard to the investigation of the nature and constitution of bile, have rested sa- tisfied with Demarcay’s figures; but I subsequently induced Kemp to un- dertake the same investigation, and after him Theyer and Schloser. These latter gentlemen, after a laborious investigation, which lasted for years, arrived at last at a knowledge of the true nature and constitution of bile, and were enabled to prove that the composition of the bile is not perpetually changing, as was previously supposed, and therefore that the gall-bladder is not like a common sewer, into which all the waste matters of the body indiscriminately flow. In this manner every indivi- dual fact was treated, and all its points fully ascertained and determined. And now, after eighteen years of incessant labour, and after the ap- plication of the intellectual energies of so many individuals, when I ven- ture to sum up our results, and to deduce such inferences and conclusions as legitimately flow from them, there comes a man—my friend—of the highest authority in science, and dares to brand the intellectual expres- sion of all these labours as a mere play of fancy! He calls our results ‘‘ probability-theories,” and this simply, and for no better reason, than because we take the heart for a pressure and suction-pump, in the sense as the eye, for instance, is compared to a camera obscura,—because, by a mere error of the press, it is stated in my work, in one single place, that the urine is secreted from venous blood,—because we believe arte- in its Relations to Physiology. 417 rial blood passes through the kidneys and venous blood through the liver, and all this proves to him that the author has not sufficiently studied the principles of the science upon which he writes.* Even admitting that these views are grossly erroneous, was their establishment the object of the author’s labours? When he endeavoured to ascertain the composition of bile, of urea, of uric acid, of blood, and the organic tissues, and to discover their relations to the aliments and secretions, was it not perfectly indifferent, as far as his immediate object was concerned, whether the urine is secreted from venous or _ from arterial blood? and whether the heart is a force and suction-pump, or not? When the chemist maintains that the blood is not formed from starch and sugar; that the bile is not to be found in the feces, but is eliminated from the organism in a gaseous form; when he develops his theories that those remedies, which are products of organic life, take a share in the processes in the animal organism, similar to that which we positively know is taken by all the vegetable nutritive matters ; when he further asserts that uric acid and urea are products of the transmu- tation of matter, and are not directly derived from the aliments; when he points out a close connection between nutriment, loss of heat, and consumption of energy; ought all these assertions, after the labours which have preceded them, and whereon they are founded, to be styled ‘‘ probability-theories,” ‘ fantastic notions ?” must all the investigations made during the last thirty years be deemed to have produced no re- sult whatever capable of any useful application ? Must I, then, remind my opponents what notions prevailed, even so late as four years ago, on the nutrition of plants? Must I remind them of the fact, that the result of the last investigations of Boussingault, with regard to the advantages of the rotation of crops, consisted in his ascribing them to the destruction of weeds, and that the cereals receive their nitrogen from the manure, whilst the leguminous plants derive part of it from the atmosphere? How many proofs of the correctness of the principles laid down by me, could I not place in Berzelius’ hands, obtained from the most intelligent, the most clear-headed farmers of England and Germany, who have had occasion to test and verify their correctness, in a simpler and safer method of cultivation—an infinite * “ Thus we have seen it stated in chemico-physiological works that the heart is a pressure as well as asuction-pump; that the urine is secreted from venous blood; that arterial blood, before it returns to the lungs, passes through the kidneys, whilst venous blood passes through the liver, &c, This proves sufficiently that the author had not thoroughly studied the principles of the science on which he wrote.”—(Berzelius, Twenty-third Annual Report, p. 573.) 418 Observations on Organic Chemistry saving of labour and money, and in the more abundant crops of their fields. Had a physician, who began his studies forty years ago, and who has not followed during all this time the discoveries made and the experi- ence attained, started these objections, I should not have stooped to notice it. But do the analyses of feces and urine, the first contribu- tions to physiology which Berzelius made,—contributions which give us about as much information on the origin of feces and urine as we might have derived from an analysis of garnet,—do these give Ber- zelius a right to style the results of our labours ‘“ probability-theories,” because we connect other questions with them, and endeavour to derive from them certain useful applications. I fully, and with pleasure, acknowledge the value which his invari- ably exact and conscientious labours have had in their time, and which they still possess, since they prepared the way for our present know- ledge, and since without them we should have been obliged to go through the same laborious investigations. But is it impossible to over-estimate the labours of Berzelius? Is the field of scientific inquiry to be limited by the results of his investigations? Far from it. No such dominion as that exercised by Aristotle can now be conceded to any man. Nature still offers illimitable mines for us to explore, and shall he whose la- bours are rewarded with great discoveries feel no enthusiasm and ex- press no gratification at his success? For my own part, I confess that I felt my whole nervous system thril- ling, as if pervaded by an electric current, when Wohler and myself discovered that uric acid and all its products, by a simple supply of oxygen, became resolved into carbonic acid and urea, thus showing that there existed a connection between urea and uric acid, such as had ne- ver before been dreamed of, in its infinite simplicity, —when our calcula- tion proved that allantoin, the nitrogenous constituent of the urine of the feetus of the cow, contains the elements of uric acid and urea, and when we succeeded in producing allantoin, with all its properties, from uric acid. Though few words passed between us whilst engaged in these investigations, how often have I seen the eyes of my friend glis- tening with delight! I felt the same thrilling sensation when, during my investigation of Melam, and whilst following up the ultimate pro- ducts of cyanogen,—the most simple of all organic radicals,—I found that the atoms, instead of resolving themselves into more and more sim- ple atoms, and finally into elementary atoms, re-arranged themselves into far more complex groups than cyanogen ; and when, upon investi- gating the sulphureous and nitrogenous constituents of plants, I found in its Relations to Physiology. 419 with every new analysis my presentiment realised that they are all identical in constitution with the blood. All these facts spoke to me in a language which I believe I rightly understood, for I had taken the greatest pains fully to comprehend the exact meaning and signification of the words: ought I, then, to be ceusured for venturing upon the at- tempt to render their meaning as clear and intelligible to others,—to communicate to others the ideas these words seemed to convey to me? The most difficult part of my task unquestionably was, that I had to address a public unskilled and inexperienced in the language of the phenomena; the physiologists and pathologists to whose pursuits my labours appertained did not understand the method of interpretation familiar to chemists, nor did they even know the meaning of the indi- vidual words. Thus, the Englishman who is but imperfectly acquaint- ed with German, reproaches even our best translations of Shakspeare, with weakness, want of life and vigour, as compared with the original ; thus, too, the German who reads for the first time a French translation of one of Schiller’s poems, finds the version feeble and unmeaning ; now, the real reason of this is, that those who judge thus, are ignorant of the real meaning and import of the words used in the foreign version, ignorant of what constitutes exactly equivalent expressions in both lan- guages. A good French version of Schiller produes the same effect upon the mind of a Frenchman as the original does upon that of a German. To be able to judge what difference from the original may really be laid to the charge of the translator, a very correct and perfect knowledge of both languages is indispensable. * This is the relation in which many physiologists stand to the chemist, with regard to the consideration and solution of physiological questions. Everything which the chemist considers as unquestionable premises whence he may safely deduce conclusions appears weak and doubtful to the physiologist. Their own inability to understand and appreciate the value of the reasons advanced, makes them believe that these reasons constitute a defective proof. Chemistry cannot be of any use to such persons in their inquiries,—from a fear of being unscientific they sacrifice the true logic of science,—the highest scientific theories become to them the gross- est nonsense. It is far easier to come to an understanding with the strictest mathe- matician than with such physiologists. The mathematician is kind enough to permit us to infer from two known quantities a third, or from three known quantities a fourth unknown one; the physiologist can permit nothing of the sort. 420 Observations on Organic Chemisiry When the chemist places a calculation before the physiologist the latter asks him for his proofs; he is not satisfied with these, but he re- quires him to prove these proofs, and then to prove the proofs of the proofs! The chemist says, ‘‘I know the weight of a certain amount of tobacco, and the weight of the ashes remaining upon its incineration ; I know also, therefore, the amount of what has gone off in the smoke.” “Prove it!’ exclaims the physiologist. Ifthe chemist had weighed the smoke, disregarding altogether the weight of the tobacco and of the ashes, the physiologist would have considered the result far more correct, so strangely perverted are some people’s intellects. The Grand Duke of Hesse provides his soldiers with two pounds of bread per diem; the King of Prussia and the Emperor of Austria pro- vide their soldiers with the same amount. Now, soldiers do not live upon bread alone, they partake of other aliments besides, and of all these aliments there remains nothing in the economy, nothing is permanent in the organism, except the bones. With military scrupulousness the sergeant major weighs all their other aliments down to pepper, salt, and vinegar; all these aliments, bread included, are examined as to their amount of carbon; the quantity of the faeces evacuated is determined, and so is the amount of carbon they contain. Thus we know the amount of carbon supplied by the aliments as well as of that elimi- nated by the feces. Now, it has been positively ascertained that the carbon which enters the organism through the mouth has, besides the feeces, no other channel or exit except in the urine, and through the skin and the lungs; ahd, moreover, that the carbon is eliminated, in the form of carbonic acid, by the skin and the lungs; and that urea and water mean nothing else than carbonic acid and ammonia. We may, therefore, by a very simple calculation, deduce the unknown quantity from the two known quantities, and assert that an adult healthy indi- vidual, who is drilled during four hours every day, and has, at the same time, to carry a heavy burthen, burns in his organism about thir- teen ounces and a half of carbon per diem. This conclusion is as true as the assertion of the mechanician who, by the experiments made on a body of 100,000 soldiers, has ascertained that, on an average, a healthy full-grown man cannot carry above thirty pounds for eight hours consecutively without injury to his health. The statistician does not proceed upon the principle of the physiolo- gist, who considers this conclusion erroneous because, forsooth, some feeble individual is not able to carry more than ten pounds, or because some strong person, whom he knows, can carry fifty or a hundred pounds. in tts Relations to Physiology. 421 Thus it has been ascertained that the average duration of human life is thirty and some years, and yet it is precisely at the age of thirty that the smallest proportion of individuals die. All these figures come as near to truth as it is possible to arrive; they are, therefore, consi- dered as really and exactly correct, and serve as the basis of calculation for the terms of tontines and life-assurances, or for fixing the weight of the arms and baggage a soldier may bear. The strictly scientific physiologist is not satisfied with this; observa- tions taken from nature on this scale do not convince him. Regardless whether an individual or an animal has partaken previously of a repast or not, without troubling himself whether with a full or an empty sto- mach, he shuts him up in a cage and determines the amount of oxygen which he inhales, and the quantity of carbonic acid which he exhales. Instead of weighing the tobacco and its asheg, he weighs the smoke! as if the sources of error were not a thousand times more obvious and considerable in this method than in the former! But supposing even this determination were exactly correct, what information does it afford him? Neither more nor less than the amount of what an individual, shut up in such a cage, inhales and exhales under certain circumstances, not very minutely examined, and which do not, at any rate, correspond with the normal state. But it does not inform him how much carbon this individual consumes in twenty-fours hours. If the experimentalist had given a bottle of good wine to the individual in the cage, or if the latter had taken a copious draught of cod-liver oil previously to enter- ing into the cage, very different proportions would undoubtedly have resulted. One of my friends has, for 212 days, taken two ounces of cod-liver oil per diem, or a sum total of thirty-five pounds and a quarter, during that period, without increasing in weight; his feces, upon examination, have been found to contain no trace of the oil. Now, if from this we infer that these thirty-five pounds and a quarter have been eliminated by the skin and the lungs, having served for the support of the respir- atory process, what can be rationally objected to such a conclusion ? This individual, from the moment he began to take liver-oil, could no longer drink wine, precisely because both these substances mutually prevent their elimination in the normal way, that is, in the form of oxygen compounds. But still the physiologist is unsatisfied, and repeats his “Prove it!” When I show him that the amount of carbon which a full-grown individual, in a state of free motion and labour, consumes, accounts sufficiently for the evolution of heat in his organism, he replies, “ This proves nothing, for we do not even know what heat is ; 422 Observations on Organic Chemistry we can produce heat by rubbing together two pieces of wood, or of metal; there may be unknown sources of heat in the organism.” As if I had intended to prove the nature of heat! or as if it were worth while to enquire for unknown causes when the known ones give us a satisfactory and perfect explanation! What are unknown causes but the offspring of the imagination, the issue and manifestation of weak- ness, when the real causes of phenomena lie beyond the sphere of our apprehension. Is the animal body a piece of wood or of metal, and can the same cause which produces heat by friction exist in the organism? Andis it not altogether apart from the question to mix up the production of electricity in fishes with the enquiry into the production of animal heat? The natural philosopher knows, with positive certainty, that the electric currents in fishes are not the cause of their temperature; if they were so, these animals would not be able to produce electric effects. When Volta constructed his admirable pile, he thought he had succeeded in making his apparatus similar in all points to the organs upon the existence of which, in the gymnotus and torpedo, the power of these animals to produce electricity depends. Is it in accordance with the logic of science to consider electricity to be the cause of phenomena and effects in organisms where no such apparatus can be found? When we have positively, and beyond the admission of a doubt, ascertained that nature herself, in order to produce electric cur- rents, employs apparatus precisely similar to those which the philoso- pher employs for the same purpose, is it possible to deduce any other conclusion from this fact than that wherever we perceive electric effects in the organism they originate in the same manner as the electric cur- rent in the battery ? All the objections against my views which have hitherto come to my knowledge are precisely similar in their character to this reference of all the phenomena of heat to electricity. Berzelius says (23rd Annu- al Report, page 383),—‘‘ When, in consequence of a violent mental emo- tion, the feet of an individual acquires a temperature far below the nor- mal temperature, while the forehead of the person thus affected feels heated far beyond the normal temperature, must it not be obvious to any reflecting mind that the mutual action between the constituents of the aliments and oxygen cannot be said here to be the cause that the evolu- tion of heat increases in one place and diminishes in another.” What can be said to such an objection as this, except that Berzelius has not understood what I intended to prove; that he has altogether misconceived my object ? in its Relations to Physiology. 423 I can determine, with the most positive certainty, the amount of alcohol necessary to heat a given amount of water or of iron and to maintain it at this temperature for a certain definite time ; now, if in a stove or furnace altogether inaccessible to me, but provided with an aperture for the reception of the fuel, and another for the exit of the products formed by the combustion of this fuel, I find that these pro- ducts consist of carbonic acid, water, and ammonia, and that the con- version of the fuel into these compounds depends upon a constant supply of atmospheric oxygen, can I rationally and logically ascribe the higher temperature which I perceive in this stove or furnace to any other cause than that which I see producing the same effect in an accessible furnace? Are my conclusions to be deemed fallacious because they do not explain the manner in which heat propagates itself in the water, or in the iron, or in the inaccessible stove, é.¢., in the organism ? I never intended to explain from what cause, or in what manner, the head becomes heated when the feet grow cold, although it is quite in accordance with my views that heat should accumulate in one place when its diffusion in other parts is impeded. I know an individual whose head grows cold as ice when his mind is affected by any strong emotion, while his feet, at the same time, be- come glowing hot, but I do not think myself justified on that account to place the seat of the evolution of heat in the lower extremities.* Questions relating to the distribution of heat in the animal body, and innumerable others relative to the processes and actions of the constitu- ent parts of living organisms, we may properly anticipate will be an- swered hereafter—time only is required for the solution of many un- solved problems. What is chiefly needed at present is the determination of principles, the settlement of methods for the pursuit of investigations. So long as physiologists and pathologists (the latter are the more * Thus I read in a work on physiology, published some time ago, a very insulting commen- tary on the following sentence in my ‘‘ Chemistry applied to Physiolgy and Pathology :’—“ The only known and wltimate cause of the vital activity in the animal organism is a chemical pro- cess.” The words only and ultimate were in italics, as they are here, but the preceding and succeeding sentences were altogether omitted. The former sentence says,—‘‘ We recognise in the animal organism only one cause as the ultimate cause of all production of energy, and this is the mutual action which the constituents of the aliments and the oxygen of the air exercise upon each other.” The succceding sentence continues,—‘‘ If we exclude the chemical pro- cess, that is, the air and water, in the germination of seeds, or the air in the respiration of animals, the manifestations of life take place no longer, or they cease to be perceptible.” What I intended to say here must be obvious to every one; I might indeed, have underlined the word known, and might perhaps, have substituted condition for cause. But who would have thought, after reading my book through, that any one could be in doubt with regard to my views respecting the cause of the vital phenomena? 424 Observations on Organic Chemistry chargeable with the error) refuse to adopt the methods of physics and chemistry—methods which have been pursued with such signal success in these sciences—so long as they are unable to discriminate between useful and useless experiments, and rest satisfied with the weighing of smoke, it is impossible that they should make any real progress. Why do these physiologists and pathologists reject our science? By abandoning the Aristotlean method, that of the phlogiston theorists, namely, converting effects into causes, Chemistry has, during the last fifty years, progressed with gigantic strides towards comprehending all the natural phenomena within its domain. This science is at present in a rapid course of development, especially in its organic department ; it is endeavouring to advance from the simple facts already ascertained —its known data—to the investigation and apprehension of the more complex and more intricate phenomena which still remain mysteries to us. It has already made us familiar with the effects and actions of forces upon all the inorganic matters in nature, and it is now employed in seek- ing to ascertain and define the exact share which those forces take in the vital processes, the limit of their sway in the living organism, and thus to distinguish and separate the chemical actions from the operations of the ultimate cause of vital phenomena—from the effects of life itself. Chemistry, in its bearings upon, and application to medicine and physiology, may be considered as a microscope, adapted to facilitate observations and investigations into the mysteries of nature, and to render the phenomena observed more intelligible to the intellectual eye, and more susceptible of useful applications. To comprehend the living organism entirely and satisfactorily we must be acquainted with everything occurring within it. But how can we read and understand a book if we are acquainted with only half the letters of the language in which it is written, and but few of the rules by which the construction of the language is governed. The letters and the rules necessary to be known for the comprehension of this volume of nature have been the object of the most laborious resear- ches of the most sagacious and best experienced men for a thousand years. These researches have proved unavailing, the end is not yet at- tained, because a wrong road was taken, and the means employed were not adapted to the objectin view. A right direction, correct means, ju- dicious and well considered methods, were formerly altogether wanting. Medicine and physiology are, like other sciences, in a continual state of progress; enormous labours, the expenditure of incalculable ener- gies, have elevated these sciences to that high degree of development which they have attained, to the exalted ground they now occupy. in its Relations to Physiology. 425 The questions upon which everything at present hinges are these: Are the methods of inquiry and research hitherto in use for the appre- hension of the mysterious processes of life incapable of improvement? Are not these methods rather antiquated and worn out? Are they really able to put us in possession of the results we covet? Can we rationally expect that they will yet furnish us with solutions of the many problems still remaining with respect to the functions of the most important organs in the animal economy? Will they ever teach us the nature of inflammation or of fever? No one who looks attentively at the progress of medicine during the last hundred years, can fail of being convinced, that while there has always existed a most earnest desire for a clearer insight into the vital processes, and a more accurate knowledge of the causes exercising a disturbing influence upon them; that while abundant energies have been directed toward the attainment of the highest aim of the science, there has hitherto been an hiatus which it is necessary should be filled up, a connecting link to the disjointed observations, and which must of necessity be supplied ere a more extensive and profound knowledge of the mysteries of organic nature can be attainable. The information we are in quest of is, what are the other forces of nature which co-operate with the vital principle in producing and sustaining the manifestations of life, the processes continually going on in all living organisms? The inability to distinguish, and separate from each other, various effects in complex phenomena, render it impossible to refer each es- pecial effect to its true cause. Hence the brilliant discoveries of com- parative anatomy and physiology, which have enriched these sciences more in the course of a few decades of years than the labours of a thou- sand years previously, have exercised but a slight influence upon medicine. All great pathologists, all the more intelligent physiologists, have from the beginning clearly and distincly recognised chemistry as the great desideratum—the needed link—and they have attempted the solution of the several problems presented them with such scanty and insufficient means as chemistry afforded in its infancy, and in the various stages of its development. Paracelsus, Van Helmont, and Sylvius—chiefs in their age—attempted to apply the experience of chemistry to medi- cine, they referred all the physiological, pathological, and therapeutical knowledge which they possessed to chemical principles. But they re- garded the fluids of the animal body exclusively, they bestowed the suffrage, in physiological and pathological questions, to them, to the entire disregard of the solid parts of the organism, and all the changes 426 Observations on Organic Chemisiry they witnessed and effects they studied were referred to the chemical operations of the animal fluids. But the definitions of acid, alkali, and fermentation, upon which they relied, and which they had borrowed from chemistry, failed, and these terms gradually acquired a very dif- ferent signification. The first principle of medical chemistry, namely, to take experience and experiment alone as the foundation and touchstone of theory, was altogether lost sight of in the explanation of vital phenomena, just be- cause true experience—the real science of chemistry—could not keep pace with the progress of physiology and anatomy. Thomas Willis, by giving an effectual impulse to the development of anatomy, prepared the overthrow of iatro-chemistry. Henceforth the solid parts of the body were more carefully and particularly studied, and the functions of the various organs, and every step in the progress of advancement made more and more evident the insufficiency of iatro- chemistry. ‘The result was an estrangement and separation of medicine from chemistry. But never, not even during the prevalence of the theory of phlogiston, were chemical investigations and principles con- sidered as non-essential to the apprehension of pathological and the- rapeutical phenomena. With a truly scientific spirit Boerhaave assert- ed the necessity of chemistry to medicine, pointed out their true rela- tions, and exposed the folly of the iatro-chemists, and the vanity of alchemy. Galileo, Kepler, Torricelli, and Lord Bacon, deposited in its grave the Aristotlean method of considering and explaining natural phenomena, so far as regarded its employment in natural philosophy, but they were unable to exercise any influence upon the theory of medicine, because chemistry itself, the foundation-stone of medicine, being threatened at that time in its own existence and independence as a science, found protection—a point of reliance and support, in the philosophical method of Aristotle. The hypothesis of phlogiston, and the part it performed in natural phenomena, was, in fact, nothing more nor less than the union and in- corporation of certain effects observed in nature, just in the same man- ner as the designation of other elements, air, water, earth, were incor- porations of the conceptions of gaseous fluid and solid states of matter, and, at a later period, sulphur and mercury were general expressions of inflammability and metallic qualities. The existence of phlogiston once assumed, the evolution of light and heat in combustion, and the alterations which substances undergo in chemical processes, were explained in the most satisfactory manner. in its Relations to Physiology. 427 It was the phlogiston latent in bodies which was supposed to acquire motion, and to escape by the action of heat, and it was deemed perfect- ly rational to conclude that the properties of bodies must depend upon a certain proportion of phlogiston, salt, and earth, and that the metals should owe to phlogiston their hardness, their ductility, and their lustre. All was consistently enough explained. The existence of phlogiston seemed beyond a doubt, no one thought of attempting to prove it by any special argument. For were there no phlogiston there would have been no explanation of the phenomena. No phenomenon would have been explicable without phlogiston, all would have been darkness and doubt. The advantage which the hypothesis of phlogiston presented at that time was that it kept together the ascertained facts and led to discoveries, as it served as a guide and stimulus to the search for new facts. The benefits of such an hypothesis are obvious enough ; and yet, after all, it was nothing more than a mere description of phenomena—a word which embraced the effects of many causes, and which word was taken and considered as the ultimate cause itself. At length the period arrived when this word lost its use and significa- tion, when the better and more correct knowledge, the offspring of phlogiston, devoured its parent. The more minute and comprehensive study of heat, in specific and radiated caloric, the more exact determina- tion of the individual letters composing the word phlogiston, led to the pre- sent state of chemistry, and the method arising from the study has led to the more profound and correct apprehension of chemical processes, and the causes by which chemical phenomena are produced, the intro- duction of which into physiology, pathology, and therapeutics, is the great desideratum of the present time. The method of the phlogistic philosophers reached its climax in natural philosophy, and with this blossom the plant died, the leaves thereof faded, and the stem mouldered! The true fruit of it was the irresistible con- viction which was forced upon every thinking and reasoning mind that no enduring results could be obtained by its means. New and better me- thods of investigation took its place, and herewith the essential condi- tion was reached of a real and sound progress. Who does not recognise in the ‘vital principle’ of the physiologists the old phlogiston theory dressed up and disguised in medical rags? As soon as you deprive them of this convenient phantasm all their explanations vanish into thin air! The simple search fot phlogiston created a new science in chemistry ; the search after the “ vital principle” is preparing a new era in the medical sciences. 428 Observations on Organic Chemistry. All that belongs to the phenomena of motion, to the form of the organs, their formation and development, the processes of absorption and secre- tion, have been ascertained by physiologists and anatomists, with a sagacity and with an expenditure of labour which must excite the great- est admiration. But the greater is the contrast when we compare therewith their explanation of the most simple chemical processes. Chemistry inquires for the causes of fermentation, putrefaction, and decay, processes of gradual resolution of the higher order of atoms into the more and more simple, and finally into the original forms of these atoms, by the combination of which the most complex atom was form- ed. Chemistry here meets, in its way, with physiology, which attempts to solve the same problem by its own peculiar method. The physio- logist discovers in fermenting fluids formations similar to the lower species of plants ; he finds in putrefying matters a world of animalcule; without entering upon any further inquiries, he assumes the mere con- comitants of these processes to be their real causes. But is not this precisely analogous to the old phlogiston hypothesis? According to the physiologist, fermentation and putrefaction are effected by the de- velopment of fungi and infusorial animalcule. But does this assump- tion render the process itself a whit the more intelligible? If the spores of fungi had generally the property of inducing fermentation in fluids, such a view would have some foundation, but such a property has not hitherto been observed by any one, nor has any attempt been made to prove its existence. When chemistry proves that in many processes of fermentation and decay, the resolution of complex atoms into simpler ensues without the presence of vegetable or animal beings, it is certain- ly most reasonable to suppose that the presence of these creatures, in the few instances where they are found, is purely accidental. Ifthey were really the cause of the processes they ought to be found in all cases. I have elsewhere (Introductory Address, No. 10, Lancet, p. 395,) com- pared these notions with that of a child who attributes the flow of the Rhine to the water-mills at Mayence. If the fungus be the cause of the destruction of the oak tree, and the microscopic animal the cause of the putrefaction of the dead elephant, what then causes the putrefaction and decay of the fungi and the ani- malcule? They ferment and decay exactly in the same manner as the tree and the elephant; nothing remains of them but their non-volatile and earthy constituents. Is it conceivable that plants and animals should be the causes of such effects as fermentation and putrefaction; that is, the destroyers and annihilators of organic bodies, parts of plants and animals, when they an its Relations to Physiology. 429 themselves, and their own constituents, are subject to the very same processes of decomposition ? The influences of atmospheric air, of the aliments, of motion and rest, of heat and cold, and of remedial agents upon the animal body, both in health and disease, have long been recognised, and yet, never- theless, phlogiston until very recently has, either openly or covertly been assumed, in all theories constructed to explain these influences, to enact the principal part. The existence of hydropathic institutions, those dens of covetous and rapacious gamblers, where the wretched invalid resorts to throw the dice for health and life; the rise and progress of the homeopathic system, which treats truth with scorn, and bids defiance to common sense, loudly proclaim the need which exists for the adoption of settled principles, definite methods of research, and a systematic ar- rangement to guarantee their attainment and retention. What are denominated by physiologists vital processes, embrace, besides the vis vite, the effects of many unascertained causes, the know- ledge of which is essential if we are desirous to advance to a real com- prehension of the ultimate cause of life, and which we must investigate in the phenomena which characterise the totality of life. This knowledge can only be atained by means of the most persever- ing and unwearied efforts and researches; the power, the means, the in- struments necessary to arrive at these results exist, and are in our pos- session. The only method by which we can succeed, however, is by endea- vouring to fix by numbers, measure, and weight, the apparently uncer- tain and ever variable phenomena. This is the method of Galileo and Bacon, the profound acuteness of its device, the precision of its results, the universal utility of its application, have been brilliantly manifested in the progress of chemistry. Twenty-five years ago chemistry began to be applied to the more minute investigation of the constituents of the vegetable and animal kingdoms; the results which have been obtained are expressed in num- bers, weight, and measure, after this method; we must now endeavour to introduce the application of numbers, weight, and measure, into phy- siology and medicine, to substitute them for mere unmeaning and empty sounds. The chemistry of the present day, in its proposed ap- plication to physiology and pathology, has none of the characteristics of iatro-chemistry. Itis not the true chemist who has endeavoured to apply to the animal organism, his notions derived from purely chemical processes, he has 430 Observations on Organic Chemisiry not had the remotest intention of undertaking the explanation of any really vital phenomenon upon chemical principles. The only part which chemistry now and for the future can take in the explanation of the vital processes is limited to a more precise designation of the phe- nomena, and to the task of controlling the correctness of inferences, and ensuring the accuracy of all observations by number and weight. The term hydrogen, for example, designates for every body a sub- stance which is one of the constituents of water, but for the chemist the meaning of the term is far more comprehensive ; it embraces an aggre- gation of properties ; joined with other words, such as chlorine, oxygen, sulphur, nitrogen, &c., it presents to him a volume filled with thoughts and conceptions, and brings innumerable phenomena before his eye. The same may be said of a chemical formula, which is far more to the chemist than the expression of the results of an analysis; it renders intelligible to him the formation of the substance it designates, the products of its decomposition, together with the relations which it bears to other substances. Thus, by simply placing together the formule of alchol, of acetic acid, and of acetone, all the alterations and decom- positions which attended the formation of acetic acid become at once perceptible. Without this method of designating chemical compounds no just apprehension of them is possible. The physiologist, in his own way, has created for himself certain conceptions of bile, saliva, cerebral substance, albumen, uric acid, &c. in- cluding the physical properties of these substances, their colour, consis- tence, taste, &c., which he has ascertained, together with the relations he has observed them to bear to the organism and to its individual parts. But this physiological conception does not embrace all their pro- perties and relations. In the hands of the chemist these organic matters manifest innumerable peculiarities in their relation to other substances, such as the raptitude to form combinations, to undergo decompositions ; moreover, the knowledge of their elements, their invariable, composition, in short, all their chemical characters, belong to the word bile, albumen, &c., for the chemist. It must be perfectly obvious that the placing to- gether of the words in the physiological sense can give us no information of their true import, their chemical meaning must form a part of their definition, if we are to comprehend all the points connected with them. In the compound atoms of which the animal organism consists we observe the same fixed and immutable proportion as in inorganic nature. The laws of their chemical composition are as true for organic as for mineral substances. They ought not, and cannot, be disregarded by the true student of nature. in its Relations to Physiology. 431 How strange it is that chemistry should have to fight a kind of battle in order to be permitted to render that assistance it can well afford to physiology, to extend and to augment, to make more precise and definite the significations of physiological terms and to correct the conception and definition of organic substances, their origin, properties, and re- lations! It canot be disputed that a simple substitution of the formula of caseine for the word caseine, of the formula of cellular substance for the word cell, of the formule of bile, uric acid, &c., renders at once intelligible a number of relations which, without the formule, would be im- perceptible, or, at least, in the greatest degree obscure. When the formula of caseine, compared with that of blood, tells us that caseine is identical in composition with the principal constituents of the blood, does not these bring us far nearer to the apprehension of its origin from the blood and its transformation into blood than we were before? A comparison of the formule of the constituents of the blood and of cel- lular substance points out to us how much oxygen must join, and how much carbon must separate from albumen or fibrine to convert these substances into cellular tissue ; and if urea and uric acid are products of the transformation of living tissues, and ultimately of blood, does not the formula of urea and that of uric acid afford us a perfectly exact measure for the quantity of organic substance which has undergone this transformation? The formule speak for themselves, but what they tell us no longer belongs to chemistry, it now becomes a part of physiology. I admit that the accurate determination of the composition and pro- portions of these bodies, and the assigning their numbers, appertains to the domain of chemistry, and may be called chemistry, but the ap- plication of the discoveries of organic chemistry to a more comprehen- sive and correct definition of the physiological conception, and to the more extensive apprehension of the properties, relations, and formations of these organic substances, belongs to chemistry only de nomine. The production of iron from its ores is a metallurgic process, but the application of iron after it is produced to the manufacture of needles and innumerable purposes in the arts belongs not to metallurgy. It is the same with respect to the methods of the chemist; it is only by mistake they are called exclusively chemical methods; they are methods in accordance with plain common sense and sound reason, and therefore are applicable everywhere and in all sciences. The mineralogist is no longer misled by the infinitely various forms under which calcareous spar is found in nature; he is now, by the dis- 3.K 432 Observations on Organic Chemistry coveries of science, enabled to recognise it under any form, and to refer them all to a common basis. It must be the same in disease, the morbific agent,—the medicinal substance, may produce in two individuals effects very unlike in their manifestation, and yet the effects themselves must be the same; the symptom invariably indicative of this effect being observed in two, three, . or four individuals, must be repeated in hundreds and thousands of in- stances. The symptoms in the aggregate, are, perhaps, never united in any individual, but if those present be correctly observed and rightly apprehended, it is impossible to mistake the causes of the disease, or to be in doubt as to the remedies required for its cure. By simply making use of the acquisitions of chemists, of the profound knowledge now obtained respecting chemical forces, by applying the infinitely more precise knowledge we now possess of organic substances, and by introducing new methods, physiology and pathology will arrive at fixed and immutable principles. The acquisitions of anatomy can only in this way be rendered capable of useful applications, and no power on earth can stay the progress of science in this direction, which every one must acknowledge is the fruit of progress,—the offspring of the present age. Ignorance will withdraw from science from the very moment in which it is compelled to verify conclusions by a well-regulated and consis- tent method of investigation, taking into account every condition of natural phenomena—every influence and contingency affecting the symptoms of disease. Even at the present moment physicians, by false interpretations of badly observed phenomena, lead each other astray and carry on interminable discussions and contentions about the most immaterial things. It was precisely the same with chemistry during its transition state, when the phlogistic theory was disproved. Every- thing was for the time unsettled, and every suggestion and hypothesis admitted; the old basis upon which the science rested was cast down, and the new one had not yet been established. All this is now altered ; the true groundwork of the science is firmly established; the so-called practical chemist no longer looks down upon what is called theory with a smile of compassion or contempt, as is still frequently the case in medicine. No chemist relies any longer upon his own individual ex- perience, in which he may be rivalled or surpassed by a clever peasant or shepherd. Formerly the chemist went to the soap-boiler, to the tanner, to the manufacturer, and artisan, whereas, at present, the soap- boiler, the tanner, the manufacturer, and artisan frequent our univer- sities, because they know that it 1s science alone which can furnish them in its Relations to Physiology. 433 with the master-key—the magic spell—the “ open sesame” to unlock all the mysteries of their pursuits. Just as at the present day the influence which the application of chemistry will exercise upon the solution of physiological and patho- logical problems is, by many physicians, considered worthy only of ridicule, so formerly were the advantages derivable from chemistry to arts, manufactures, trades, and agriculture, when first indicated, only laughed at by those who were pleased to call themselves practical men. It has proved most injurious to science that so many individuals have made experiments without first obtaining any well-defined notion of the design or meaning of experiment. Such people have had the power and the will, but rarely have they proposed any definite object, any well-directed aim; they have employed a lever, but they have not ascertained the point upon which it turned. The reason that so many experiments have been made in vain, issimply and solely to be ascribed to the fact that comparatively few experimentalists have known how to observe natural phenomena, or understood the import of experimental research. It has been wholly overlooked by them that we do not by experiments examine nature; we do not study the phenomena them- selves through which nature is manifested to our senses, and experi- ments are only of value inasmuch as they teach us to discover the errors of our inferences and to rectify our false conclusions from observation. If we could climb up to the rainbow, and could maintain the floating yain-drops in their position until we had concluded our observations and arrived at a correct apprehension of the phenomena, we should not need experiments. But being unable to do this, the philosopher was compelled to have recourse to experiments, to turn and turn a plain. smooth, and then a triangular piece of glass for centuries, to measure and to calculate, ere he succeeded at last in apprehending the cause of the colours in the rainbow, their order and relations. How admirable is that method, which with such scanty means could lead to the attainment of conclusions so correct as to the nature of phenomena which seemed to lie far beyond our reach! How much more accessible are those phenomena which plants and animals present to usin their vital processes! How much easier is the investigation into the conditions essential to life; the research for causes of disease, states which present themselves daily and hourly to our senses. The animal body is as transparent as if made of glass to the intel- lectual eye of the physiologist. He knows definitely and positively the alterations which the air undergoes in the lungs, and yet, neverthe- less, he requires an infinite number of experiments, without the least 434 Observations on Organic Chemistry value in themselves, to enable him to form a satisfactory theory. He agitates blood with air, and as he afterwards detects a trace of carbonic acid in the air, although without perceiving the slightest absorption of oxygen, he is satisfied that this evolution of carbonic acid suffices to explain the respiratory process, and yet a handful of wet sawdust or a leaf would have produced exactly the same result. How would it be, supposing that blood would not in this way yield carbonic acid when removed from the organism ? Innumerable experiments have been made to prove the nutritive properties of carbonic acid for plants, which all gave a negative result. Although it was most positively known that carbonic acid is absorbed by the green-plant, that under the influence of light it becomes de- - composed in the organism; that its carbon is assimilated and oxygen eliminated in a gaseous form. The experiments I allude to have no value whatever, because the experimentalists disregarded altogether the conditions necessary for the absorption and assimilation of carbonic acid by the plants, excluding everything, and neglecting every precaution, indispensable to the success of their experiments. We hear every day of experiments of a similar kind. Thus, to ascer- tain whether sugar is capable of being transformed into fat in the living animal body, a dozen pigeons are stuffed daily with a quantity of sugar, which acts upon them like a medicinal substance, or a poison, and when after the lapse of from six to ten days they die of starvation, the experimentalist strangely expects to see them filled with fat, and is amazed to find himself disappointed. Thus, without knowing the condi- tions of the formation of fat in the animal organism, without stopping to inquire whether any conditions are required, the experiment is commenced by excluding every thing which would render its success possible. A state of artificial disease is produced in the animals; all nourishment is most carefully withdrawn from them, and thus they are deprived of everything necessary for the formation of blood—for the support of the vital processes, and, consequently, of that action which causes the formation of fat. By means of these cruel and wretch- ed experiments these gentlemen believe they are able to prove that sugar, a non-nitrogenous substance, is incapable of being converted into fat, another non-nitrogenous substance. Such experiments prove nothing whatever, except the ignorance and total incapacity of the experimentalist to pursue these investigations. Everywhere, and in all cases where we can succeed in ascertaining, from nature herself, the conditions of a phenomenon, our inferences possess afar higher value than they could ever acquire were they in its Relations to Physiology. 435 derived simply from experiments. No experiments can ever contradict truths derived from the observation of nature. The great difficulty un- der which we labour in our experiments is the immense sacrifice of time and exertion required to imitate the conditions under which the observ- ed phenomena manifest themselves in nature. With a knowledge of those conditions our labour is concluded. The safest and most direct way is invariably to study nature for a know- ledge of those conditions, and when we have ascertained them, further experiments serve only to guard us against mistakes, and to suggest useful applications of our knowledge. Let us not render our labours futile by creating imaginary difficul- ties ; those which exist already are quite enough for us to encounter. Does the pathologist imagine that the chemist is desirous of seizing upon his territory? Has he acquired a possession in it from whence he may be ejected? Is he anxious to leave the Augean stable uncleansed ? It has been discovered that benzoic acid becomes hippuric acid in the animal organism, that the elements of benzoic acid perform a part in the secretory process of the kidneys, that they take a definite and traceable share in a vital operation, and may be employed for a definite purpose. Benzoic acid is a non-nitrogenous compound which can only be produced in the living organism of plants. Now, if we find further that animals which, to their aliments, par- take of no benzoic acid, but of other non-nitrogenous substances, likewise secrete hippuric acid in their urine to a considerable amount, whilst the urine of carnivorous animals contains no hippuric acid, am I in error in concluding that other non-nitrogenous substances, differing from benzoic acid, may also be used for the production of hippuric acid, and that they likewise participate in the secretory processes? Now, in hippuric acid J still find the elements of benzoic acid; and I can by simply adding to benzoic acid another substance produced by the organism, form hippuric acid, whilst, with other non-nitrogenous substances, this is possible only after they have undergone a series of transformations. Does not this fact render it extremely probable, not to say certain, that vegetable medicinal substances,—themselves the products of the vital force,—may, in a manner exactly analogous, remove abnormal states of the animal body, if, by their composition, they are adapted for undertaking in the vital processes that part which the aliments can no longer perform because some part of the mechanism refuses its co-opera- tion which is requisite to render these aliments fit for this purpose! A lofty pillar may be saved from falling by a very small fragment of stone; the tooth of a wheel which has become loose in the works of a 436 Observations on Organic Chemistry clock may be soldered, and thus the clock restored to its original correctness. Now, I ask, does not the fragment of stone so employed become part of the pillar? Does not the solder enter into the composi- tion of the wheel? A watch may stop for want of oil; a platinum wire divided, may be connected with a piece of silver wire, and the electric current which had been interrupted restored. Does not the silver become part of the platina apparatus, so far as the desired effect is concerned? Does not the oil employed to lubricate the axes of the wheels form part of the watch ? When the chemist deduces inferences from his observations, surely he does not go beyond his own sphere. It is true we may not be able at present to solve the problem how morphine and quinine operate in the organism; but we are surely proceeding in the right direction for ob- taining a knowledge of even those points. My opponents object that my inferences respecting the effects of vegetable remedies are only pro- babilities, but they altogether overlook the circumstance that I myself never attempted to pass them off for anything else. If you deprive the investigator of nature of the power to make suggestions, to take pro- babilities to guide his future aims, you deprive him of all support, of all reasons to proceed in his investigations. The chemist, as well as every other philosopher, must conceive some probable object toward which to direct his researches. Would it not be exceedingly absurd to expect that plants would grow without seeds, to desire to engraft a noble tree upcen an ignoble stock, whilst you reject the scion! How can we sow with the hope of a harvest without having a fertile soil at our disposal? Our desire is to winnow well the grain until all the chaff is cleared away. If I were called upon to decide what right physiologists and patholo- gists have to form an opinion with respect to the inferences deduced from chemistry to aid physiology, and my judgment were guided by the facts and inferences cherished and fought for by these gentlemen, the amount of credit I could award to them would be represented by a very small figure. When resting upon the fact of the transformation of benzoic acid into hippuric acid, a fact established in the most exact and decisive manner, I deduce a certain inference and catch a glimpse of a little more of the horizon of truth than my opponents, is it natural for them to desire to put out my eyes? When, from the weight of the bile, which, according to the assertions of the physiologist, an ox secretes every day, and the weight of the blood-constituents which the same animal partakes of in its food in the in its Relations to Physiology. 437 course of twenty-four hours, I infer that the non-nitrogenous constitu- ents of his food (gum, starch, sugar, &c.) must likewise participate in the formation of the bile, because the amount of carbon contained in the bile is greater than is contained in all the blood-constituents par- taken of together, can this conclusion be called in question ? When, from not finding any bile in the feces, I maintain that the bile must, in some manner, return into the circulation, to serve ulti- mately for the respiratory process, which means no more than that its carbon and hydrogen are eliminated from the organism in the form of carbonic acid and water; and further, when the physician finds that in cases where, by the administration of calomel, the bile, altered but little in its properties, is evacuated in the stools (known as calomel stools), the absence of the matter needed for respiration causes all the inspired oxygen to be directed towards the cause of the disease, and owing to this circumstance the disease is removed, can my inferences be doubted? Nevertheless, I do no more than desire my opponents to consider them as probable, and to submit them to the test of examina- tion. But this has no weight with such people. If some young author relates a tissue of marvellous tales to support an opinion that there exists certain states of disease in which the blood, which contains 80 per cent. of water, the flesh and tissues 75 per cent., and the bones 30 per cent. (thus altogether three-fourths water), may burn from within, in the absence of oxygen, these same physiologists will believe his assertions.* Our author has not, indeed, himself witnessed any case of this kind, he has never been ina situation to establish even a single one of the facts upon which the whole fabric of his tale rests; but it would require too much self-denial, a superhuman effort, to destroy such splendid tales, which render his book or his lectures so interesting ! * “‘ What thing did you see? Speak boldly.” ‘‘T have seen a ship,” said I, ‘‘ going against a fierce wind with the same velocity as a horse, and that by the vapour of boiling water.” “‘ Hajji,” said the king (after a stare and athought), ‘‘say nolies here. After all, we are a King. Although you area traveller, and have been to the Franks, yet a lie is a lie, come from whence it may.” * * *# * ‘So you encountered great tempests 2” said the Shah. “‘ Say on Hajji, everything you have in your heart, say on.” ‘Yes, may it please your Majesty,” said I, ‘‘ one tempest we encountered, on our passage from England to Constantinople, was so great, that, venturing to look overboard to see how fast we were going for the good of your Majesty’s service, and happening to leave my mouth open, a fierce wind entered, and blew three of your slave’s teeth down his throat.’ Upon this I opened my mouth and showed the damage which my jaw had sustained from the kick of a Curdish horse. ‘* Are there such winds, indeed ?” asked the Shah. “ In truth they rush down with violence enough from the neighbouring heights of Albo,”—Hajji Baba in England, 438 Observations on Organic Chemistry With the same easy credulity, people of this sort firmly believe that an individual suffering from diabetes emits more water as urine than he par- takes of through the mouth. They, indeed, weigh the water which the patient drinks, but they take no account of the water in the milk par- taken of (94 per cent.), in the bread (24 per cent.), in the meat (76 per cent.) Being either without the ability or the will to establish or refute the statement advanced, they assume it at once to be an indisput- able truth. If the public would take the trouble to test these marvellous stories (a task no one seems willing to undertake), it would soon be discover- ed that the evidence for them is precisely on a par with, and equally entitled to credit, as the certificates of the efficacy of incomparable oils for the cure of baldness, of bear’s grease,t of vegetable pills, &c. On inquiry, it would be found that the bald heads, the ladies of quality who vouch for the marvellous cures, have just departed this life, or set out upon a journey,—they are never seen. It is such people as these who believe the impregnation of the ovum without contact with the seminal principle not only possible but posi- tively certain, and who bring forward, in proof of this assertion, in- stances which there cannot possibly be any opportunity of testing. In criminal law, upon a charge of manslaughter or murder, the judge pronounces judgment only after the fact is well-established,—first, the corpus delicti, than the accusation, then the sentence, but these gentle- men care nothing about the establishment of the fact. If any rare morbid state, any reputed effect of a remedy, any pathological pheno- menon, with which they are unacquainted, falls into the hands of this class of persons, all their egotism is aroused, truth is altogether disre- garded. An imaginary criminal, as the cause, is created, whom they subject to the torture and the rack. Old women, fools, and children of all countries, are dragged forth to supply evidence, and the groans and sighs of the suspected innocent are interpreted as confessions in proof of their predetermined decision. Analogy is, with these people, con- verted into the bed of Procrustes, they stretch or cut off the limbs of facts and arguments, unscrupulously, and at their own sovereign plea- sure. In instances where a medical author advances such strange and ima- ginary opinions, the public seems to show an indulgence and kind forbearance which certainly is never exhibited towards writers upon other sciences. Too many established practitioners care less for the + Original—Jlion’s grease, which our German friends employ instead of bear's grease, but with equal effect ! ! eS -----»--»-—-— in its Relations to Physiology. 439 advancement of science in their publications than for the extension of their own reputation for sagacity and penetration ; whilst many a can- didate for practice, pressed by his pecuniary necessities, writes a book as the best means of advertising himself; and to impose thus upon the public requires so very little labour or skill, that we may almost won- der that such works are not still more numerous. In chemico-physiological works, physiology is threatened with dan- ger, not from chemists, but from physiologists themselves and phy- sicians. It is not chemistry which asserts that peroxide of iron and protoxide of iron perform a part in the respiratory process; this assertion is made by physicians. Chemistry knows but one organic compound, which invariably con- tains iron as a constituent. It is not a chemist who considers proteine the basis of blood and the tissues, but it is the iatro-chemist, who has introduced into the vital process the idea of the organic radicals. The chemist has not done so, because he knows that acetic acid may be derived from wood, and in its anhydrous state has the same composi- tion as wood, and because he knows that acetic acid may be derived in the same manner from a thousand other substances, without being (on that account) the prototype of their constitution. The iatro-chemist knows a proteine tritoxide, and deutoxide, he de- termines the atomic weights of fibrine, albumen, and caseine from their combinations with hydrochloric acid and peroxide of lead. It is he who wishes to establish the absolute number of atoms composing the ele- ments of proteine, who disputes about the formula; this is the iatro- chemistry of the. present time. It is iatro-chemistry which proposes to make the addition of an atom of oxygen to lung tubercle render intelligible the formations of liver tubercle, which is just as clear as to suppose the addition of oxygen to ear-wax in an ear-spoon (cochlea), to make spzritus cochlearia. I am perfectly aware that I bear the blame of many of these deduc- tions, which I do not hesitate utterly to repudiate. Iatro-chemistry, not chemistry, pretends to prove from the composi- tions of mould which forms in a solution of the sugar, that plants derive their nitrogen from the gaseous nitrogen of the atmosphere ; for chemistry knows that pure solution of sugar does not admit the forma- tion of any mould whatever. Chemistry knows that the so fabulously powerful vital principle is incapable of employing any element as the constituent of an organism. Chemistry knows that it is not diamond which nourishes the organism, but a carbon compound ; not hydrogen, 3.4 440 Observations on Organic Chemistry but a hydrogen compound; not sulphur, but a sulphur compound, and from this infers that nitrogen, also, cannot be assimilated as an element, but only in the form of a compound, which inference is moreover sup- ported by the most direct and positive proofs. In concluding these remarks, I cannot conceal from myself the little probability there is of their accomplishing any good, because those who have understood my works needed not a single line of explanation of this kind, and as for my opponents, they would choose to consider the most lucid explanation of mine as mere shadows and darkness. We need not alarm ourselves that the trees will grow into the skies, since nature and Providence alike forbid it; our own watchfulness, or an army of preventive police would be superarogatory. I have pronounced my own opinions against the views of some indi- viduals, who by the greatest and most transcendent merits have acquir- ed my esteem, which will never diminish, but they must not forget that they have also their opinions, which do not offend me, because nothing can offend or disturb me on my way, since I shall ever maintain the courage to proceed right onward as long as my powers continue. Note.—In the second volume of Berzelius’s Manual, 5th edition, after describing my method of separating antimony from arsenic (by fusion of regulus of antimony with sulphuret of antimony and carbonate of soda), he says, ‘‘ the antimony thus obtained is not so free from arsenic as that obtained by Wohler’s method.” If I understand this phrase aright, it means that antimony is not by my method obtained free from arsenic. Now, although I am always anxious to avoid discussions when my theoretical notions are assailed, I cannot remain silent, for science and the truth’s sake, when facts are thus called in question. This method has been employed many hundred times in my laboratory, and has never failed. It has been repeated in other places also, and has invariably yielded antimony free from arsenic. Besides a few observations of Buchner’s (Rep. new series 8, p. 266), no objections against my method have reached me in chemi- cal literature, and the remarks of Buchner did not apply to the remain- ing presence of arsenic, but to loss of weight, &c., a subject discussed in the Annalen, bd. 22, p. 58. I cannot conceive what reason Berzelius has to condemn this method. In his 23rd Annual Report, p. 177, Berzelius remarks upon my method of separating cobalt from nickel by means of cyanide of potas- sium. ‘“ He (Liebig) further states that he has applied cyanide of potas- sium as a means of separating metals from each other, and, for an instance, he gives a method for the separation of cobalt from nickel, in its Relations to Chysiology. 441 &c. An experienced eye perceives, immediately, that this method has not really been tested by analysis, which, moreover, would render necessary various methods, according to the varying relative propor- tions of the metals, and that it is fraught with more difficulties and sources of error than the common method of separating with ammonia and potass.” Altogether disregarding the circumstance that Berzelius gives an incorrect report of my method, this is not the first occasion on which he has deserted his formerly so stoutly-defended principle of allowing facts to speak and not opinions. I think it would have been better to have made an experiment than to have expressed an opinion based, as it is, upon an erroneous notion. Berzelius would then, probably, have satisfied himself, and this with the aid of my method, that the separa- tion of cobalt from nickel by means of ammonia and potass is very in- complete and imperfect, since either the oxide of cobalt remains in solution, or the precipitated oxide of nickel contains oxide of cobalt. I am, as is well-known, a teacher of chemistry in a university, and annually instruct above one hundred students in the art of analy- sing minerals, and, amongst others, in the separation of nickel from cobalt. My method, which Berzelius thinks exists only on paper, is, therefore, very often tried, and hitherto it has been found, invariably, that no better method can replace it; perhaps, because it depends upon a more correct principle of separation than other methods. I can only express my regret that Berzelius should have paid so little attention to the experiments of Fresenius and of Haidlen relating to the application of cyanide of potassium in chemical analysis, for these experiments constitute the most valuable contribution which mineral analysis has of late, received. Manufacture of Epsom Salts. The note, page 310 in our last number, relative to the process suggested in the paper of Lieut. Latter on the me- thod of treating sulphurets of copper at Lyons, having attract- ed the notice of Messrs. Bathgate and Co., it was intimated to us, that sulphuric acid since the erection of their large chamber, has become so cheap as to be had for little or no- thing. Conceiving the circumstance to be favourable for resuming the experiments in the manufacture of salts, re- ferred to vol. 2, p. 244, we ascertained from Messrs. Bathgate 442 Manufacture of Epsom Salts. and Co., that we might have the acid, specific gravity 1700, in quantities of not less than 100 maunds, at 6 Rs. per maund, for purposes of experiment. We accordingly tried a maund of the acid on the mag- nesian limestone of Salem, an account of which mineral will also be found, vol. 2, p. 284 of this Journal. The result yielded 144 lbs. of Epsom salts from 38 lbs. of the calcined rock. Taking the magnesite at Rs. 20 per ton, and the acid of the above specific gravity at 6 Rs. per maund, the Epsom salts afforded, which are very pure, costs 13 shillings and 3 pence per cwt. The imported salt from England costs, including freight and charges, 24 shillings. Having reported this re- sult to the Medical Board, it was not deemed expedient to go on with the experiment to the extent proposed, with the view to supply public service. We would therefore recommend the subject to sulphuric acid manufacturers, as an useful way of employing their superfluous acid. ‘The consumption of Epsom salts is becoming every year more general in propor- tion to the spread of European medical knowledge, the native sources and means of supply of all such articles, thus be- come proportionably more and more important. There is however, another point of view in which this question becomes important; so long as we are depending in India on supplies of medicine from Apothecaries’ Hall, our stock is liable to become exhausted. When the consumption exceeds the anticipated expenditure, which it almost always does, we are then obliged to make up the deficiency from such articles as we can collect in the bazars, sometimes at exor- bitant rates. The cheap production of the common articles of medicine, such as Epsom salts, from the natural productions of the country, would prevent this, and also be the best check on the venders of adulterated drugs. Besides, it is the cheap and bulky articles of medicine which it becomes us most especially to prepare in India, since they are less worth their freight and the room they take up on board ship, than Manufacture of Epsom Salts. 443 the more costly stores, such as quinine. The government are well aware of this, and in the paper above alluded to on this subject in a former number, it is stated in a note that the Governor General in Council was surprised to find no less than 18 tons of Epsom salts and other bulky articles of a similar nature included in our annual indents for medicines on Europe, calling at the same time on the Medical Board to institute enquiries as to the means of supplying such articles in India. Now that we have succeeded so well with regard to Epsom salts, we hope the Medical Board will be induced to re-consider the subject, and authorise the necess- ary supply to be furnished here, instead of occupying ships with such unnecessary importations to the neglect of the natural productions of this country. The production of Ep- som salts from the Salem rock may be effected as above shewn at so cheap a rate, as altogether to secure the public against its adulteration in the bazars, with the numerous poisonous articles which, from its high price at present, are frequently mixed up with it. According to Lieut. Ouchterlony, of the Madras Engineers, the rock is abundant in Trichinopoly, Co- imbatore and Mysore, its principal localities being in Salem. Its sites are said by Lieut. Ouchterlony to be near enough to the banks of the Cavery, to allow of its being brought down that stream to Porto Novo on the coast, at a very low rate of not so much as 10 Rs. per ton, or probably a great deal less. In the manufacture of sulphate of magnesia, from this rock, in the Laboratory of the H. Co’s. Dispensary, which proved so satisfactory, it is first broken up into lumps of conve- nient size and thrown into the fires which are kept up for other purposes, and thus calcined. It is then pounded, mixed with water, and dissolved at once with acid, and filter- ed through cloth. The solution is then evaporated till a pellicle forms, and set aside to crystallize. On a large scale the rock should be burnt in a kiln like limestone ; but a quantity sufficient for the public expenditure 444 Coal from the Falls of the Jamuna. at present might be made without this, and two or three coolies would be sufficient to conduct the whole process. Coal from the Falls of the Jamuna, in Assam. Results of the chemical examination of two specimens of Coal from near the Falls of the Jamuna, Nowgong district, Lower Assam. Received from Major Jenkins, April 1844. Sp. Gr. 1.2. Bituminous volatile matter, ... ... 46.0 Carbon, bh. eoihep so geth le Tan 53.4 Light yellow White Ash, ... 0. ... 0.6 in 100 parts. Colour black and shining, with a resinous lustre, and tem- per-steel tarnish. Quality, of the most superior description, better even than Cherra Ponji, or any other coal hitherto found in India. J. M‘CLELLAND, Secretary Coal Committee. Laboratory H. Co’s Dispensary, 27th April, 1844. THE CALCUTTA JOURNAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. The Palms of British East India. By W. Grirritu, Esq. FF. L.S. Memb. Imp. Acad. Natur. Curios. Royal Ratisb. Botan. Soc. Corr. Memb. Hort. Soc. Royal Acad. Turin. Asst. Surgeon, Madras Establishment. [Continued from page 355. ] Sus-FaMILIAA—ARECIN/AL, Mart. Progr. p. 7. Palme. p. 157. (ex. Endl.) Flores mono-dioici vel polygami. Spathae plures incom- plete, vel una vel 2 complete, rarissime nulla. Stamina 3-00 hypogyna. Floris feminet perianthium convoluto-im- bricatum, rarius corolla valvata. Ovarium 1-3-loculare, 1-3- ovulatum. /ructus baccatus vel tenuiter drupaceus, trilocu- laris, profunde trilobus, vel szepius abortu unilocularis. Semz- na 1-3. Albumen corneum, ruminatum vel zquabile. Embryo sepius basilaris. Palme perennantes vel monocarpicae, frutescentes vel ar- boreae. Folia pinnatim fissa (aliquando bifurca) vel pinnata, rarius bipinnata. Inflorescentia axillaris et terminalis, cen- tripeta vel centrifuga. VOL. V. NO, XX. JANUARY, 1845. 3M 446 The Palms of British East India. Sect. I. Spathe 1 vel 2, sepissime complete. Perianthium femineum convo- luto-imbricatum. Fructus sepe obliquus. Folia pinnatim fissa vel pinnata. ARECA.—Spathe 1-2, completae. Flores monoict in eodem spadice. Stamina 3-00. Ovarium 1-3-loculare, 1- ovulatum. Drupa, rarius bacca obliqua. Folia pinnatim fissa vel pinnata. BENTINCKIA.—Spathe 2, entertor completa. Flores monoict in distinctis spadicibus, basi in foveolis immersi. Sta- mina 6. Ovarium triloculare, l-ovulatum. Bacca? obliquissima. Folia pinnata. SLACKIA.—Spathe 2, zncompletae, vaginantes. lores mo- noice tn eodem spadice, bast in foveolis immerst. Stamina 6, filamentis basi coalitis. Ovarium tri- loculare. Drupa obliquisstma. Albumen rumina- tum. Folia pinnatim fissa. Sect II. Foha pinnata vel bipinnata, pinnhis vel pinnulis erosis. Inflorescentia centrifuga. Spathe plures incompletze. Corolla feeminea val- vata. Stamina szpius indefinita. * Flores monoici in eodem spadice. Caryora.—Folia bipinnata. Stamina 00. Ovarium 1-2- loculare. Bacca 1, raro 2-sperma. Albumen rumi- natum. ** Flores monoici in diversis spadicibus, vel dioici. ARENGA.—Folia pinnata, pinnis linearibus, bast 1-2 auricu- latis. Stamina 00. Ovarium triloculare. Bacca vertice depresso trigona, trisperma. Albumen zqua- bile. W atxicnia.—Folia pinnata, pinnis cuneatis. Flores interdum dioict. Stamina in quibusdam 6. Ovarium bilo- culare. Bacca disperma. Albumen equabile. The Palms of British East India. 44:7 SusB-FAMILY.—ARECIN A. Flowers mono-dioicous or polygamous. Spathes several incomplete, or one or two complete, very rarely none. Stamina 3-00, hypogynous. Female perianth conyoluto-imbricate, rarely valvate. Ovary 1-3-celled. Ovula 1-3. Fruit berried or slightly drupaceous, 3-celled, deeply 3-lobed, or generally by abortion 1-celled. Seeds 3 or generally 1. Albumen horny, ruminate or equal. Embryo generally basilar. Shrubby or arboreous palms, perennial, or flowering onJy once. Leaves pin- nate, rarely bipinnate. Inflorescenée axillary and terminal, centripetal or centri- fugal. Sect. I. Leaves pinnately-split or pinnate. Spathe (1 or 2) complete, in one incom- plete. Female perianth convoluto-imbricate. Fruit often oblique. Spathes 1-2, complete. Flowers moneecious on the same spadix. Stamina 3-00. Ovarium 1-3 celled. Fruit drupaceous, in some an oblique berry. Leaves pinnately split or pinnate, .. ARECA. Spathes 2, inner one complete. Flowers moneci- ous on distinct spadices, their bases immersed in niches. Stamina6. Ovarium 3-celled. Berry ? exceedingly oblique. Albumen solid. Leaves pinnate. oe ee ee os oe -» BENTINCKIA. Spathes 2, incomplete, sheathing. Flowers mo- neecious on the same spadix, their bases im- mersed in niches. Stamina 6, filaments united at the base. Ovarium 3-celled. Fruit drupace- ous, exceedingly oblique. Albumen ruminate. Leaves pinnately split. .. ee ee se MACK IA, Sect. IT. Leaves pinnate or bipinnate, divisions jagged. Infiorescence centrifugal. Spathes several incomplete, tmbricate, sheathing. Female corolla vaivate. * Flowers monoecious on the same spadix. Leaves bipinnate. Stamina 00. Ovarium 1-2- celled. Berry 1 or 2-seeded. Albumen rumi- be nate. .. ee oe ar ee ee «» CARYOTA. ** Flower monoecious on different spadices, or dioecious. Leaves pinnate ; pinne linear, 1-2-auriculate at the base. Stamina 00. Ovarium 3-celled. Berry with a depressed triangular vertex, 3-seeded. Albumen equal. .. oe ee ee -» ARENGA. Leaves pinnate ; pinne cuneate. Flowers some- times dicecious. Stamina sometimes 6. Ovarium 2-celled. Berry 2-seeded. Albumen equal. .. WaALLicuia- 448 The Palms of British East India. Sect. I. Spathe 1-2 complete, rarius incomplete, rarissime nulle. Flores mono-dioici vel polygami. Perianthium feemineum convoluto-imbricatum. Stamina 3-00, seepius 6. Ovarium 1-3-loculare, seepius l-ovulatum. Fructus sub-drupaceus _ equilateralis, vel subbaccatus ineequilateralis. Semen 1. Al- bumen ruminatum, interdum equabile. Embryo szpius basi- laris. Palme elegantes, frutescentes vel arboree, sepius graciles, s@pe arundinacee, in umbrosis vigentes. Corona se@pius ampla. Folia pinnatim fissa (imo aliquando bifurca ) vel pin- nata, pinnis reduplicatis, saepius oblique acuminatis. In- florescentia wniversalis centripeta, partialis centrifuga. Spadix avillaris, paniculatim vel racemosim divisus, raro andivisus, saecpe refractus, interdum coloratus. Flores ; JSemineus sepiusinter duos masculos, (superiores saepe tan- tum masculi,) binati, distichi, interdum suaveolentes. Stigma plerumque trilobum. Incolz presertim Asiz archipelagice et oceanice; una cultissima prope mare, plures sylvicole, pauce maritime. Limes borealis sp. indicarum 27-28. grad. Usus.—Albumen astringens narcotica, inebrians Arecarum plurium Asiaticis cum calce et folio Piperis Betel manduca- tur. A. Catechu hanc ob causam pre palmas alias indicas (Cocos nucifera excepta) abunde colitur. Vagine foliorum (A. Catechu) consute haustrorum in usu adhibentur. Trunci A. tigillariz asseres stabiliores prebent. ARECA. Linn. Gen. p. 516. No. 1225. (partim.) ed. Schreber. p. 776. No. 1696. (partim). ed. Spreng. p. 284. No. 1473. Juss. Gen. p. 88. Gertn. 1. p.t. 7. Lam. Ill. t. 895. Roxb. Icones. 14. t. 75-77. Suppl. 5. t. 64-65. Corom. Pl. t. 75. (ex Endl.) Fl. Indica 3. p.615. Mart. Palme 169. t. 102, 149, 158. f. 4, 5, (ex Endl.) Endl. Gen. p. 247. No. 1728. The Palms of British East India. 449 Euterpe. Gaertn. op. cit. 1. p. 29. ¢. 9. Pinanga. Rumph. Hb. Amb. |. t. 4. Caunga. Rheede Hort. Mal. |. t. 5—8. Cuar. Gen.—Spathae 1 vel 2, complete. flores mo- noici in eodem spadice, foemineus inter duos masculos. Stamina 3-00. Ovarium 1-3 loculare. Ovulum 1. Fructus drupaceus vel sub-baccatus monospermus, interdum ob- liquus. Albumen ruminatum. Embryo basilaris. Hasitus.—Palme arboree vel frutescentes, sepius inermes. Truncus annulatus. Folia pinnatim fissa, rarius bipartita vel pinnaia ; vagine coriacee, striate. Spadices axillares, pani- culatim vel racemosim divise, rarius simplices, saepe refractt. Flores saepe distichi, plerumque evolutione centrifugi. An- therz lineares. Drupz ovate, saepius aurantiacee, bacce globose, coerulescentes. Sect. L.—(Pinanea.) Spathe 2-complete, rarius 1. Spa- dices erecti, paniculatim ramosi. Flores inferiores 1 feemineus inter duos masculos, superiores masculi binati. Stamina 3- 12, sepius 6. Drupa. Frutices inermes, interdum sobolifere, vel saepius arbores. Folia pinnatim fissa, rarius pinnata. Spadicis rami dorso deficientes. Fl. fem. perianthii foliola inieriora longiora. Sect. I.—(Anacuasmus.) Spatha1,completa. Spadices refracti, racemosim 2-5-divisi, interdum simplices. Flores ; 1 foemineus inter duos masculos. Stigma discoideum, szpe lobatum. Drupa. Inermes, frutescentes. Folia pinnata. FI. faeem. perian- thi folzola 3 interiora breviora. Seaforthia. Martius. (vix Brown). Pinanga. Blume. Endl. Gen. p. 1370. No. 1727/1. ? 4.50 The Palms of British East India. Sect. III].—(Evoptus.) Spathe 2, complete. Spadices racemosim divisi, ramis 00, fastigiatis, caudeeformibus, pen- dulis. Flores ; sepius 1 feemineus inter duos masculos. Fruc- tus sub-baccatus, obliquus, ccerulescens. Arboree vel arborescentes, soboliferae, armatae. Folia pin- nata. Oncosperma. Blume. Endl. Gen. p. 1371, No 1727/3. ? ~ Genus imperfecte cognitum, verisimiliter in posterum in plura dividendum.* Seaforthia, Br.{ differt habitu Caryotideo et floribus feemi- neis inter duos hermaphrodito-masculos ; horumque stylo longo. Sect. I.—PINANGA. 70. (1) A. Catechu, arborea, foliis pinnatis et pinnatim fissis, pinnis lineari-ensiformibus vel linearibus oblique acuminatis, spathis 2, fl. masculis solitariis distichis, petalis oblongis acutis, staminibus 6, fl. feemineis solitariis ad vel versus basin ramulorum, drupa ovata mammillata magnitudine ovi gal- linulee. Areca Catechu, Walld. Sp. Pl. 4. p. 524. Roxb. Cor. Pl. 1. No. 74, Fl. Indica. 3. p. 615. Icones 14. t. 75. (incompl.) * The above disposition appears to be pointed out by the Indian species, of which alone I have any knowledge. I have no means of ascertaining the opinions of Botanists on the limits of the genus. The volume of Kunth’s Synopsis, in which I understand Palme are to be found, has not yet found its way to this part of India. The Botanic Garden copy of Martius’s Palme contains only a few figures without any accompanying letter-press. The copy of Blume’s Kumphia likewise contains only two plates of Ptychostoma (Seaforthia, R. Br.). Martius (2 Zitz.) seems indisposed to adopt Blume’s divisions. As the habit however is distinct, it is probable that accurate examination of ample materials may lead to several sufficiently sound generic distinctions. Blume’s adoption of Pinanga for a section not including the genuine Pinange does not appear tome judicious. His Oncosperma is perhaps Areca tigillaria, Jack. + Pr. Fl. Nov. Holl. ed. 2da. p. 123. The Palms of British East India. 451 Ayeca Faufel. Gaert. fr. et. sem. 1. p.19.t. 7.f.2. Pinanga. Rumph. Hb. Amb. 1. t. 4. Caunga. Rheede Hort. Mal. 1. t. 5-8. Hasit.—Commonly cultivated, especially to the Eastward, where it attains a much larger size than in Bengal. Sans- crit, Goovaka. Bengallee, Gooa. Arabic, Foolful. Pers. and Hind. Soopara. Telingee, Poka Chelloo. Malayan, Pinang. Perhaps the most elegant Indian Palm. It is too well known to need a detailed description. The male flowers are delightfully fragrant. It is very extensively cultivated in most of the warmer and more humid parts of India, especially towards the sea, near which alone it comes to perfection. It thrives much more luxuriantly on the Tenasserim coast, and in the Straits of Malacca than in Bengal; it is also much more immoder- ately used by the Burmese and Malays than the Bengallees. Several varieties with particular names exist among the Malays, and merit perhaps as much attention as do those of the Cocoa-nut. 71. (2) A. triandra, fruticosa, sobolifera, foliis pinnatim fissis, pinnis longe et oblique acuminatis, superioribus apice fissis, terminali furcata plurifissa fissuris bidentatis, spatha ], fl. masculis binatis, petalis oblongis obtusis, staminibus 3, feemineis ad basin ramulorum solitariis, drupa oliveformi mamunillata. A. triandra. Roxb. Icones. Suppt. 65, (incompl.) Fl. Ind. 3. p. 617. Buch. Hamilt. Comm. Hb. Amb. in Mem. Wern. Soc. 5.p. 310. Mart. Palm. t. 149. Has.—Woods ; Chittagong, Rungpore. Bengallee Bun- gooa, Ramgua, Runi Supari. (Buchanan Hamilton.) Culti- vated in the H. C. Botanic Gardens; in flower most of the year. 452 The Palms of British East India. Descr.*—Shrubby, throwing out offsets at the base. Stem 5-7 feet high, green, distinctly annulate, 2-1 inch in diameter. Leaves 4-5 feet long, pinne alternate, linear ensiform, 13-16 inches long, 14-2 inches broad, often falcate, much and obliquely acuminated, above 1-3-keeled according to the breadth which is variable, bright green, upper ones more or less split at the apex: terminal broadly cuneate, deeply bipartite, forked, lobes truncate, divided into as many narrow, bidentate lobes as there are keels on the under surface. Spathe green, smooth, with a short blunt point, about a foot long, (Roxb.), in the Botanic Garden specimens generally 4-6 inches long, 2 broad: texture leathery. Spadix highly divided; peduncle and branches compressed ; at the base of the lowermost branch a linear bracte 3 inch long; branches spreading, ascending, much divided; secondary divisions stoutish towards the base, where they bear a female flower, close to which they branch into 2 slender flexuose spikes, (on which the male flowers are seated,) or more frequently are attenuated into one. Male flowers angular, small, cream-coloured, in pairs pressed together and secund on the outer side of the spikes. Sepals 3, minute, ovate- oblong, unequal. Petals oblong, obtuse, valvate, 3-4 times longer than the sepals. Stamens 3, opposite the sepals; filaments stout, short, united at the base; anthers sagittate. Rudiment of the Pistdlum conical subulate. Female flowers rather large, generally between a pair of rudimentary males, suffulted by 2 broad, short, pointed bractes. Sepals roundish, green. Petals similar, but smaller and less tough. Six very small rudimentary stamina. Ovarium ovate, 1-celled, white. Ovulum 1, ascending. Style 0. Stigma of 2, or generally 2, erect, unequal, acute lobes. Fruit oblong, of the form of an olive, but longer, distinctly mammil- late, smooth, when ripe of a lively orange, at length becoming red. Pulp in small quantity, and mixed with many longitudinal strong, ligneous fibres. Seed conform. Albumen much ruminated. Embryo basilar. 72. (3) A. laxa, arborea, trunco sepius iIncurvo nunquam stricto, foliis pinnatis, pinnis lanceolatis acutis integerrimis equidistantibus, spatha l-phylla, staminibus 3, rudimento pistilli nullo. * From plants in the H, C. Botanic Gardens, fruit from Roxburgh and from Martius’ figure. The Paims of British East India. 453 A. laxa, Buch. Hamilt. Comm. in Hb. Amb. in Mem. Wern. Soc. 5. p. 30. Pinanga sylvestris glandiformis secun- da, Rumph Hb. Amb. 1, p. 39? Hastr.—Andaman Islands. Buchanan Hamilton. Descr.*—Zrunk 20-30 feet high, annulated, green, tumid, generally incurved, never straight as in A. Catechu. Leaves pinnate; pinne lanceo- late acute, quite entire, equidistant, two-nerved with 4-plaits ; petiole pinniferous from the middle upwards? Spathe 1-leaved, lanceolate, acute, margined. Spadix panicled, branches angular. Male flowers very many, minute, in pairs. Sepals three-rigid, lanceolate, acute. Stamens 3; filaments scarcely any; anthers oblong. No rudiment of a Pistillum. Female flowers situated towards the bases of the spikes, solitary, few, much larger than the males. Sepals convolute, ovate, concave. Petals convolute, ovate, acuminate, longer than the calyx. Ovariwm obsolete- ly trigonal, ovate, acuminate. Style 0. Stigma acute. Fruit Buchanan Hamilton, from whose description the above is adapted, states, that it is closely allied to A. triandra, and that the nuts were used instead of the Betel-nut by the convicts confined on the island. Buchanan Hamilton makes no mention of the petals of the male flower. I have no knowledge of it. 73. (4) A. nagensis, (n. sp.) arborea, procera, foliis pinna- tim fissis, pinnis linearibus obliquis acuminatissimis, spadice spithameo, fl. feemineis ramorum pluribus, fructibus angusto- ovatis utrinque attenuatis presertim apice mammillato. Hasit.— Assam? Major Jenkins. Naga Hills, up to an ele- vation of 800 feet above the level of the sea, affecting banks of rivers. Name of the tree in Naga, 7dl-pat ; Singpho, Tong- tau; of the nut, Naga, Kave ; Assam, Tamul. (Mr. Owen.) * From that of Buchanan Hamilton, I. c. Oo N 454 The Palms of British East India. Descr.*—“ Trunk 30-40 feet high, attached to the soil by innumer- able black fibrous roots.” Naked part of the petiole about 3 feet long. Lamina 4-feet long : pinne sub-opposite or alternate, falcate, very acumi- nate, 19-20 inches long, about 13 inch broad, above with 2-3 stout keels ; terminal deeply bilobed, variously partite, (lacinize bidentate) ; the less divided, broader part obliquely truncate with irregular teeth. Spadix about a foot long; peduncle compressed, branched from near the base, branches stout flexuose. A scale-shaped bracte under each female flower, several of which occur on the lower parts of the branches. /ruit oblong ovate, 1 inch long, 5 lines wide, attenuated to both ends, base surrounded by the perianth, (sepals round oblong, obtuse, petals larger sub-cordate with a short obtuse cuspis), apex rostrate mammillate, truncate, with a small mammilla in the centre: fibres numerous, stout, whitish. Seed erect, ovate, half an inch long, marked with many veins arising from the hilum, these are generally dichotomous, anastomosing reticulately on the dorsal face. Albumen cartilaginous, horny, ruminate, opaque white. Embryo basilar. This appears distinct by its roots and fruit. Itis accord- ing to Mr. Owen, used by the Nagas and Abors instead of the Betel-nut; the leaves are much like those of A. gracilis. Mr. Owen informs me, that it is very scarce, and courts high situations generally on river sides. Both this and A. laxa require further examination. 74. (5) A. cocotdes, (n. sp.) arborea, procera, foliis pinnatis pinnis linearibus acuminatis bipartitis, spathis ———— fl. masculis binatis polyandris, feemineis paucis bases versus ramulorum undique insertis, stigmatibus 3-revolutis, drupa ovata magnitudine ovi gallini. Hasit.—Cultivated at Malacca, but not commonly. Occurs in a garden in Malacca towards the Dutch Redoubt ; also in a Sawa, half way to Malim. Malayan name, Pinang Punowur. * Specimens; imperfect leaves, and an imperfect spadix with immature fruit rom Major Jenkins; perfect fruit from Mr. Owen. ‘he leaves may be open to doubt, from their resemblance to those of agracilis. The Palms of British East India. 455 Descr.—A lofty palm. Trunk 40 feet high. Crown dark green, ample. Leaves pinnate; petiole scurfy, plano-convex : lamina 8-9 feet long, 4-43 broad, in outline lanceolate acuminate; pinne 2 feet long, 14-134 inch wide, linear, acuminate, unequally bipartite, shining, very smooth, up- permost inequilateral, sub-erose at the points: central vein and 5 others forming as many keels above, the central underneath bearing scales at- tached by the base. Spadix ascending, altogether green; branches stiff, stout, above flexuoso-torulose owing to niches in which the flowers are lodged. Spathes not seen. Lower flowers one female between two males, upper males in pairs. Males small; sepals imbricate, carinate, hard, much shorter than the co- rolla, margins sub-membranaceous, denticulate, inner rather the longest. Corolla vaivate, hard, tripartite to the base; petals oblong-lanceolate, sub-obtuse. Stamina numerous ; anthers linear-sagittate. No rudiment of a Pistillum. Female (in bud.) Sepals and petals scarcely distinguishable, imbricate, with very broad bases. No rudiments of stamina. Ovarium large, white, oblong, 1-celled, sub-compressed, divided at the apex into 3-cuneate sub-recurved lobes, each with a line of stigmatic tissue along the central line of the inner face. Ovulum one, attached nearly along its whole length ; foramen inferior. Spadia of the fruit spreading, presenting one or two annuli on its very stout base: branches angular, thickened at the base. Fruit pendulous from its weight, ovate, size of a large egg, surrounded at the base by the perianth, at the apex presenting the three styles: colour orange, smell unpleasant like spoiled sour fruit ; outer substance thick, firm, of yellow cellular tissue and longitudinal fibres, which are more numerous towards the putamen. ‘This is thin, hard, crustaceous. Seed one, erect; tegument thin, shining, light brown. dlbwmen densely horny, much ru- minate. Embryo basilar. The aspect of this Palm is very different from that of A. Catechu, the size being much greater, the crown blackish- green, the leaves stiffer and at a distance having a truncate appearance; the Malacca specimen when viewed closely has the appearance of a cocoa-nut tree. It is also to be known from A. Catechu by the round torulose branches of the spadix, the binary not solitary distichous polyandrous males, by the females not being secund, and by their greater 456 The Palms of British East India. number, by the recurved not connivent styles, and by the fruit. I am not aware of the history of the plant, the fruit of which is, I believe, considered a medicinal kind of betel-nut, or its native place. Can it be Pinanga Calapparia of Rumph. ? Secr. IIL_—ANACLASMUS. 75. (6) A. pumila, arbuscula, foliis pinnatis, pinnis alternis 24-pedalibus lineari-ensiformibus pre-acuminatis, spadicis ramis sub-4 undique florigeris, fl. masc. sepalis subulato- setaceis quam petala obliqua ovato-cuspidata paullo longiori- bus, staminibus 6, fl. fem. stigmate obtuse-conico trisulcato, fructibus undique insertis ovatis (aurantiaceis.) A pumila, Mart. Palm. t. 153. f. iv. v. (spadice inverso.) Has.—lIn a dense forest in a ravine near Ching, Malacca; one specimen only observed. Malayan name, Pinang Jirong. Descr.—Stems 10-12 feet in height, 13-12 inch in diameter, distinctly annulate. Leaves 8-9 feet long ; sheaths subventricose, about 2 feet long, inside of a shining chesnut colour; petiole bearing pinnz nearly to the base where it is channelled, elsewhere trigonal; pinne alternate, 23 feet long, 3-13 inch broad, sword-shaped, very acuminate, coriaceous, bright- green, above two-keeled with an obsolete intromarginal one on each side. Inflorescence whitish-yellow. Spadix while included in the spathes shortly sword-shaped. Spathe about a foot long, linear, two-edged, flattish posticously, anticously ventricose, coriaceous, chesnut-coloured, obtuse and sometimes 3-fid at the point, here and there presenting spots of adpressed hairs. Spadix peduncle about 13 inch long, on the middle of the outer face a semi-circular scar of the attachment of the spathe, a little above this a membranous spathelle acuminate from a very broad base: a smaller one at the base of each lateral branch; branches about four, level- topped, pendulous, about a span or a foot long. Flowers about four- ranked, sessile, whitish-ochroleucre, throughout one female between two males. Male flowers; sepals nearly an inch long, triangular-subulate, The Palms of British East India. AST canaliculate, and exceedingly acuminate. Petals oblong-ovate, oblique, valvate, long cuspidate, but shorter than the sepals. Stamina 6; anthers linear, those opposite the petals longest. Pollen ovate, 1-plicate, white. No rudiment of a Pistillum ? Female flowers ; sepals roundish, imbricate. Petals similar, a good deal smaller. No rudiments of stamina. Ovarium white, roundish, 1- celled; ovulum one, appense. Style wanting. Stigma obtusely conical, large, obscurely trisulcate, almost three-lobed. Spadiz of the fruit with about 4 simple, roundish, greenish-white branches. Drupe oblong ovate, 1 inch long, 5-6 lines broad, orange- coloured, mammillate at the apex, base surrounded by the perianth. Seed erect, oblong. Albumen horny, ruminate. LHmbryo basilar, rather oblique. This species is closely allied to A. malaiana, but is at once distinguishable by the tetrastichous not distichous inflores- cence, the sepals, number of stamina and the orange not sanguineous colour of the fruit. Figure 11,6, Plate Seaforthia Reinwardtiana, Mart. Palm. gives a tolerable idea of the fruit spadix of this species. Judging from Martius’s figure, it varies a good deal in the size of the inflorescence and fruit. 76. (7) A. malazana, arbuscula, foliis pinnatis, pinnis alter- nis 1-2-pedalibus linearibus valde acuminatis subtus glauces- centibus, spadice 3-5-ramoso, fl. masc. sepalis lanceolato- acuminatis quam petala obliqua acuta inzqualia multo mi- noribus, staminibus circiter 40, fl. foeminei nullis, stigmatibus discoideis, fructibus distichis ovatis (sanguineo-purpureis). Seaforthia malaiana. Mart. Palmae, p. 184, t. 158, f. 3. Has.—In forests, Ayer Punnus, and Rhim, Malacca; not uncommon. Malayan names, Malacca, Pinang Booreng ; Penang, Kurdoo. Descr.—An elegant Palm, 8-12 feet in height. Habit of the preced- ing. Stem distinctly annulate, in diameter 2-1 inch, internodes generally subclavate. Crown of 5-8 leaves, spreading. Leaves 5-8 feet long; sheaths 458 The Palms of British East India. 1-14 foot long, leathery, striate ; petioles (below the pinnz) 13-13 foot long, channelled, otherwise triangular ; pinne alternate, linear, 14-2 feet long, 8-10 lines broad, very much acuminate, above 2-keeled, underneath with 1-keel and a vein on either side, and whitish glaucescent: upper pinne cuneate, deeply bipartite, segments bilobed, lobes generally bifid; ter- minal portion deeply bipartite, obliquely preemorse, segments with seve- ral lobes, themselves obtusely bifid. Spathe oblong, 10 inches long, 23 broad, leathery-papery, with a broad obtuse cuspis, opening along the upper face. Spadix about 6 inches long ; undivided part of the peduncle 13 inch, compressed, with one oblong-linear bracte a little above the middle : branches 3-5, crowded with flowers, compressed, flexuose. Male-flowers large, pressed, together, quite concealing the female, flat. Sepals three, membranaceous, lanceolate, acuminate. Petals much larger, unequal, one as large as both others, cordate, the others 3 cordate, all acute or acuminate, and of a hard texture. Stamina inserted on a con- vex torus, about 40; filaments very short; anthers linear, about twice as short as the petals. Female flowers less advanced, occasionally two together, occupying the bends of the flat faces of the spikes, distichous: under each a broad, membranous, much acuminated bracte. Perianth urceolate. Sepals cordate, shortly cuspidate. Petals smaller and shorter with minutely fimbriated margins. No rudiments of stamina. Ovarium roundish. Style very thort. Stigma large, discoid, concave. Spadix of the fruit of a bright sanguineous colour; branches 4-5, about a span long, compressed, flexuose. Fruit distichous; occupying the flat faces of the branches, ovate, at first sanguineous, afterwards blackish-purple, mammillate at the apex, surrounded at the base by the perianth ; outer substance fleshy cellular, middle fibrous, inner hardened crustaceous. Seed one, erect; tegument very thin, mem- brano-cellular, veiny, brown, shining, generally adhering to the fruit. Albumen horny, deeply ruminate. Exbryo conical, basilar, obliquely situated. This species is at once distinguishable by the colour of the spadices and fruit: its nearest affinities are with A. dis- ticha and Dicksoni. It varies in the degree of compression of the spikes, and also somewhat in size. 77. (8) A. Dicksoni, arbuscula, frondibus pinnatis, pinnis linearibus 1-2-pedalibus apice preemorsis dentatis, spadicis The Palms of British East India. 459 ramis 4-8, floribus distichis, masc. sepalis canaliculato-subu- latis longitudine petalorum acuminatorum, staminibus 20-30, fem. staminibus sterilibus 6 apice penicillatis, stigmate capi- tato trilobo, fructibus distichis oblongis. A. Dicksoni, Roxb. Fl. ind. 3. p. 616. Icones. 14. t. 76. Seaforthia Dicksoni. Mart. Palm. p. 184. Hasr.—Mountains of Malabar. Dr. Dickson, Wight ; in flower and ripe fruit in August. Descr.—“ It grows to the height of about sixteen or eighteen feet, with a very straight, simple trunk, of about two inches in diameter. Leaves pinnate, about four feet long, with extremities bifurcate, like the tail of a swallow. Leaflets sessile, linear, ribbed, with numerous parallel veins, apices praemorse, dentate; from twelve to twenty-four inches long. Spathe simple. Spadix compound, retrofracted; rami- fications from four to eight, alternate, simple, equal, distichous; from six to eight inches long. Flowers numerous, approximate, alternate in two exactly opposite rows, a single female in the centre, with a single male on each side. Male flowers. Calyx three-cleft, divisions subulate, nearly as long as the corol. Corol, petals three, cordate, with slender tapering apices. laments very short. Anthers from twenty to thirty, linear. Female flowers. Calyx of three reniform leaflets. Corol like the calyx. Nectary, six clavate, hairy-headed scales. Germ superior. Style short. Stigma three-lobed. Berry oblong, dry and fibrous, about an inch long, by half an inch in diameter. Seed of the shape of the berry, ruminated. Embryo lodged in the base.” (Roxb. I. c.) “Mr. Dickson, the Surgeon at Bedanore, who first brought the plant under my observation, observes that the nut is used by the poorer people, as a substitute for the common Areca, but no other part of the tree is turned to any useful purpose.” (Roxb. ) 78. (9) A. gracilis, fruticosa, foliis pinnatim fissis, pinnis sub-pedalibus falcatis oblique acuminatissimis, spadice sim- plici vel 2-3 ramoso undique florigero, spatha 1, fl. masc, 460 The Palms of British East India. calyce minuto, petalis oblique cordatis acutis multoties majoribus, staminibus numerosis, fl. feem. rudimentariis 0, stigmate infundibuliformi, fructibus ovatis acutis undique insertis. A. gracilis, Roxb. Icones. Suppt. 5. t. 64. Fl. Ind. 3. p. 619. Buch. Hamilt. Comm. in Hb. Amb. Mem. Wern. Soc. 5. p. 8ll. Seaforthia gracilis. Mart. Palm. p. 185. Hast.— Hills; Silhet, (where it is called Gooa, Supari and Ramgoa), Chittagong and the East border of Bengal. Roxburgh. Goalparah, Assam. Buchanan Hamilton. Assam, where it is called Girgoa? Major Jenkins. About Kujoodoo, and Ningrew, Upper Assam, in fruit January 1839; Tea De- putation. Himalayahs below Darjeeling, Seharanpore Col- lectors. | Descr.*—Stem slender, arundinaceous, about 8 feet high, 6-8 lines in diameter, distinctly and distantly annulate. Crown of about 5-6 leaves, which are about 3 feet long; skeaths 4 foot long; naked part of the petiole 3-4 inches long: pinne about a foot long, 2-3 inches broad, very and obliquely, acuminate, above 2-3-keeled : terminal obcuneate, about a foot long, 6 inches broad across the sinus, truncate, bipartite to the middle, about 8-cleft, divisions bidentate, emarginate, or entire and acute. Spadices generally simple, sometimes twice or thrice branched, 6-9 inches long, compressed, bearing flowers on all sides. An annulate scar just above the base of the peduncle, and a second at the com- mencement of the pendulous part. Male flowers; calyx minute, 3-cornered. Petals three, obliquely cordate, acute, many times longer than the calyx. Stamina numerous, shorter than the corolla. Female flowers occupying large shallow niches with 3-toothed margins. Sepals broad, rounded. Petals like the sepals, but smaller. No rudi- mentary stamina. Ovarium ovate, 1-celled; ovulum 1, erect. Style very short, stout. Stigma large, infundibuliform, with ragged edges. (Roxb. ) * Chiefly from specimens communicated by Major Jenkins ; spathes not seen. i The Palms of British East India. 461 Drupe reddish, ovate, with an attenuated base and a blunt point, 8 lines long, 3-4 broad. Seed ovate. Albumen highly ruminate. Embryo basilar. I have some specimens communicated by Major Jenkins, and others collected by myself in Assam, and on the Khassya Hills,* of which I subjoin descriptions, as they either shew a tendency in this species to vary, or the existence of two other nearly allied species. 79. (10) A. disticha, fruticosa, foliis bipartitis vel pin- natis, pinnis oppositis acuminatis, spadice simplici vel 2-3- ties ramoso, fl. masc. petalis inzequalibus obliquis cuspidato- acuminatis calycem minutum multo excedentibus, staminibus circiter 15, fl. faeminei nullis, fructibus ovatis attenuatis dis- tichis. A. disticha, Roxb. Icones. 14. t. 77. Fl. Ind. 3. p. 620. Seaforthia disticha, Mart. Palm. p. 184. Hasir.—In dense forests, Ayer Punnus (Rhim), Malacca, not uncommon. Pinang. Roxburgh. Malayan name, Pinang Booreng Paday. * Descr.—Stem apparently very slender. Leaves scarcely more than a span long ; petioles 2-3 inches long, triangular, ferruginous scurfy ; sheaths of the same length ; lamina cuneate, bilobed to or beyond the middle, 7-8 inches long, 2 broad across the sinus, not coriaceous, lobes obliquely acuminate with twice as many acute teeth at the apex as there are keels. Spadix with 4 sub-digitate branches, the lowest arising about 2 inches from the base of the peduncle, they are 3-5 inches in length, spreading and not compressed. Fruits tetrastichous, ovate, attenuate at the base and surrounded by the cup- shaped perianthium, 63 lines long, 34 broad, distinctly mammillate at the apex ; substance thin, fibres tolerably copious. Seed one, erect. Albwmen horny, very much and deeply ruminate. Embryo basilar, rather obliquely situated. This is also closely allied to A. disticha, but is distinguishable by the more branched stouter spadix, the tetrastichous fruit, its larger size, and distinctly mam- millate apex. The stigma, judging from one abortive pistillum, is also 5-lobed. If the specimens of the leaves belong to the same plant as the spadix, it becomes probable that they are the mature form. It would also appear to be allied to A. Dicksoni, from which it may be distin- guished by the absence of stertile stamina, and the smaller and mamumillate fruit. » vo O 462 The Palms of British East India. Descr.*—Stem arundinaceous with distinct subclavate lengthened joints; varying in height from 14 to 3-4 feet; parts lately exposed scurfy. Zeaves rather distant, in the larger specimens, 43 feet long, of which the naked base of the petiole is about 6 inches; pinne opposite, about a foot long, exceedingly and obliquely acuminate, above 3-4 keeled; terminal lobe deeply bipartite, many keeled, trun- cate and lobed at the apex: the bilobed leaves of the smaller specimens cuneate, forked, 12-14 inches long, 23 inches across the sinus, apex obliquely przemorse, 4-5-fid, divisions obtuse, bifid. Spadiz 3-4 inches long, simple in the smaller specimens, 2-3 times branched in the larger ; branches compressed, flexuose. Spathe oblong, about 4 inches long, 1 inch broad, acute. Flowers closely packed; one female between two males: the former distichous. Male flowers rather large, angular. Calyx membranaceous, minute, three-toothed. Petals much larger, unequal, (one nearly as large as both others,) oblong, oblique, cuspidate-acuminate. Stamens about 15; fila- ments short ; anthers linear. No rudiment of a Pistillum. Female flowers with a broad short bracte at their base. Perianth of 6 — coriaceo-scarious leaves, about equal in length; the inner (petals) the smallest. No rudiments of stamina. Ovarium oblong-ovate ; style very short; stégma large, obliquely discoid. Fruit spadices 3-6 inches long, branches slender, flexuose. Fruit orange-coloured or red, exactly distichous, one at each flexure, oblong, 63 lines long, 33 broad, mammillate-attenuate at the apex, surrounded at the base by the cup-shaped perianth. Seed of the same shape, covered by a chartaceous integument, marked with longitudinal lines along which the integument is inflected. Albumen horny, ruminate. Embryo minute, conical, basilar. This plant varies much in size. Roxburgh describes the branches of the spadix as woolly: his drawing also repre- sents the petals as acute, not cuspidato-acuminate. The specimens from Malacca called Pinang Boorang Paday, from which the description of the male and female flowers is taken, are of a much larger stature in every respect, the spadices also are branched, the fruit much more elonga- ted, and with a tendency to be curved. Further examination may show them to belong to a distinct species. * Descr.—Stem and leaves much the same as in A. gracilis. Spadices slender- er, 3-4 times branched. Female flowers distichous, distant. Hasit.—Assam? Moosmai, near Churra Punjee, at an elevation of 4000 feet. The Paims of British East India. 4.63 (ANACLASMUS ABERRANS.) 80. (11) A. paradoxa, (n. sp.) fruticosa, nana, foliis pinna- tim fissis, pinnis inzequalibus oblique acuminatis, spadice simplici, fructu subulato curvato (albo) albumine zquabili. Haxsit.—Dense forests near the base of Goonoong Miring, Mount Ophir ; in fruit February, 1841. Descr.—Stem slender, 5-7 feet high, 3-4 lines in diameter, annulate, upwards roughish with ferruginous down. Crown of 6-8 leaves. Leaves 13 foot long, 8 inches broad; petiole with a long, coriaceous, striate, ferruginously downy sheath, above which it is channelled, lower naked part about 6 inches long; lamina pinnate, pinne 6-8 inches long, and very obliquely cuspidato-acuminate, very unequal, with 3 or 4 or many keels ; terminal unequal at the base, bifurcate to the middle, irregularly toothed, teeth bifid sometimes split. Spadix issuing from the stem below the crown, simple, 4-5 inches long, obtuse, pendulous, glaucescent. Fruit distichous, suffulted by a minute but broad bracte, and by a double cup, (calyx and corolla) of six round imbricate broad scales. They are of a white colour, obtusely subulate, 8 lines long, 13 diameter in the widest part or just above the base, curved in shape, and of a fibrous substance. Seed one, conform ; tegument very thin, membrano-cellular; raphe of three fascicles, the central one reflexed near the apex of the seed, becoming confluent with the longer of the lateral vessels; the shorter one reflexed about the middle of the dorsum. Albumen solid, horny, slightly furrowed along the course of the vessels. Embryo minute, basilar, conical. The specimen is scarcely distinguishable, except in the form and structure of the fruit and seeds, from A. disticha. That structure however is so different as to suggest the pro- bability of its constituting a new genus. Secr. I1.—EUOPLUS. 81. (12) A. tegillaria, arborea, pinnis bipedalibus pendu- lis, spatha exteriore pedunculoque armatis, interiore sub- inermi, floribus distantibus, seepe 1 feemineo 1 masculo, petalis ovatis in setas subito attenuatis, fructibus globuli sclopets minoris magnitudine. 464 The Palms of British East India. A. tigillaria. Jack. Mal. Misc. (Cale. Journ. Nat. Hist. 4. p. 12.) Hasir.—On the borders of Paddy swamps, Malacca, com- mon. Malayan name, Nibong. In forests, Lainear, to the South of Mergui? Descr.—A very elegant Palm. Trunk 30-40 feet high, distinctly annulate, armed, surrounded with offsets at the base. Crown thick, graceful. Leaves pinnate, 10-12 feet in length; petiole roundish, armed, upwards very scurfy ; pinne about 2 feet long, conduplicate at the base, very much acuminate, pendulous, coriaceous, many veined, principal keel above excentric, ferruginous scurfy, underneath bearing scales attached by their middle. Spadices from the axille of lately fallen leaves; peduncle slightly armed; branches many, long, undulato-flexuose, lower ones divided, upper simple. A rudimentary bractea at the base of the lower ones. Spathes (complete) two, boat-shaped, bicarinate, of a stout texture, outer green, covered here and there with whitish-ferruginous scurf, armed on the dorsum especially about the carine ; inner almost unarm- ed, more scurfy, velvety to the touch. Flowers crowded, one female between two males, or in pairs, one male and one female, the former more advanced. Male ; sepals subcordate, cuspidate, carinate, anticous one the largest. Petals 3, valvate, coriace- ous, suddenly acuminate into subulate bristles, spreading. Stamina 6 ; filaments short, stout, cohering slightly with the petals; anthers large, sagittate, obtuse. Rudiment of a Pistillum rather large, white, of three carpel leaves distinct nearly from the base. Female flowers suffulted by a broad inconspicuous bracte. Sepals imbricate, suborbicular, concave, fleshy, coriaceous. Petals larger, im- bricate. Rudimentary stamina 3 or none. Ovarium roundish, of the size of a small pea, I-celled. Style none. Stigmata 3, connivent. Ovulum appense pendulous. Spadix of the fruit: branches 1-2 feet long, pendulous, purplish-san- guineous, with an articulated appearance. Berry globose, size of a car- bine bullet, surrounded at the base by the perianth, marked towards the apex on one side with an areola, bearing in the centre the remains of the stigmata; endocarp; fibres few, thin. Seed appense just below the areola; funicle large, sub-intrant, so that the transverse section is sub-reniform. Tegument thin, scarcely separable from the endocarp. Albumen horny, deeply ruminate. Embryo oblong-conical, basilar. The Palms of British East India. 465 The trunk of this palm is in much request for making posts. Jack (I. c.) says, that there is only one spathe, and that the flowers are one male to two females. He does not notice any obliquity of the fruit. 82. (13) A. horrida,* (n. sp.) arborea, pinnis 2-3 peda- libus patentibus, spathis pedunculoque spadicis armatissimis, floribus congestis, femineo inter duos masculos, petalis lanceolato-oblongis in setas attenuatis, fructibus globuli sclopeti majoris magnitudine. A. Nibung.t Mart. Palm. ¢. 153, f. V? Hasit.—Common in densely wooded valleys and ravines, Ching. On wooded hills, Laydang Soobubi, but rare. In woods at the base of Battoo Bakar, Malacca. Malayan name, Bhyass. Descr.t{—An elegant Palm, 30-40 feet in height, sending off offsets at the base. Trunk annulate, the spaces between the rings much armed. Crown rather thin. Leaves spreading in every direction, 14-16 feet long, 5 feet broad; sheaths leathery, much armed, 2 feet long; petiole bearing pinne nearly from the base, green, stout, flattened at the base, compressed at the apex, otherwise trigonal, covered with brown irre- gular scales, armed throughout, but especially underneath, with black- brown flat not very strong spines§ ; pimne alternate or sub-opposite, nearly linear, 2-3 feet long, subulate-acuminate, coriaceous, dark-green, above keeled along the centre, with two lateral plaits on either side, spreading or oblique, never pendulous, as in A. tigillaria; a few scales attached by the middle along the central vein underneath. Threads very fine, pendulous, at length deciduous. Spadiz axillary ; peduncle stout, yellow, flattened at the base, much armed on the spaces between the insertion of the spathes, above these * A third species of the section, with the habit of this species but smaller, is com- mon on the cliffs of the sea-shore a little to the North of Koondoor, near Malacca. Its Malayan name is Nibong Paday. I have not seen it in flower or fruit. + This name is scarcely tenable, the true Nibung being Areca tigillaria, Jack. t Partly from dried specimens: perfect spadices at time of opening of the spathes not seen. ‘ § This is the general character of the armature. 466 The Palms of British East India. unarmed ; branches pendulous, flexuose, about equal, 2 or 3 times branched or simple, 1-2 feet long, each suffulted by a yellow bracte with a broad base, the upper of which degenerate into scales. Spathes two, com- plete, acutely margined, coriaceous, armed with rather weak brown-black spines, 1-12 foot long, of a greenish colour outside when mature, yellow and polished inside : the inner one with a stout, unarmed cuspis . incomplete also two, cuspidate, armed, very unequally conduplicate. Flowers about 4 ranked, inserted just above a protuberance of the branch of the spadix ; lower ones, one female between two males, upper males in pairs. Male calyx of three imbricate, carinate, sub-membranaceous sepals. Petals 3, valvate, subulate or almost setaceo-acuminate. Stamina 6, sagittate. Rudiment of a Pistillum rather large, of three, sometimes two, imperfect carpel-leaves. Female-calyx, sepals roundish-cordate, imbricated. Corolla conical in bud. No rudimentary stamina ? Ovarium of one larger complete carpel, and two incomplete ones.* Style none. Stigma (of the perfect ovule bearing carpel) linear, running nearly half way to the base of the ovari- um. Ovulum anatropous. Spadix of the fruit; branches 2-4 feet long, pendulous, without spathes, each suffulted by a coriaceous acuminate broad-based bracte. Fruit sessile, size of a musket-ball, purplish-black, surrounded at the base by the perianth, oblique, the true apex pointed out by a con- spicuous mamilla on one side near the middle; epicarp coriaceous ; fibres very few; endocarp membranous. Seed round, appense-pendulous, at- tached by a broad base, whitish-brown, reticulate with white veiny lines ; hilum large, with a tendency to have an entering process. Al- bumen horny, deeply ruminate. Embryo not observed. This species is allied to A. ¢géllaria, but is very distinct in the spathes and fruit. The flowers also are much more crowded, and generally appear to have the usual arrange- ment ; viz. one female between two males. The young spa- dices from the contrast in colour between the spathes and their spines and the waviness and adpression of these have the appearance of tortoise-shell. * These are folded together, the margins united about the middle, above free, and evidently stigmatic. The Palms of British East India. 467 BENTINCKIA. Berry MSS. Roxb. Fl. Ind. 3. p. 621. Mart. Palm. p. 929. t.139. Endl. Gen. p. 251. No. 1749. Keppleria. Mart. Endl. Gen. 1. c. No. 1750. (e Martio.) Cuar. Gen.—Spathae 2, vel plures, intima completa. Flores monoici in distinctis spadicibus, aut rarius polygami, e foveis tandem emergentes, masculi alternatim distichi, feeminei solitarii. Masc. Stamina 6. Fem. Ovarium trilocu- lare. Ovulum 1. Bacca obliquissima (stigmatibus basilari- bus.) Semen sulcatum. Albumen solidum. Embryo basilaris. Hasitus.—Truncus tenuis, arundinaceus, annulatus. Frondes pinnatae. Spadix infra folia erumpens, paniculatim ramosus, rubescens. Flores parvuli, compage subglumacea, rubentes. Bacce purpurascentes, parvulae. Bentinckia Coddapanna, Berry MSS. in Roxb. Fl. Ind. l. c. Mart. Palm. l. c. Haxsit.—In mountains, Travancore. Roxburgh. Wight. Flowers in June, seeds ripen eight or nine months afterwards. Telinga name, Codda-panna. Descr.*—An elegant, slender Palm, about 20 feet high. Zrunk about an inch in diameter. Pinne@ linear, 2 feet or more in length, nearly an inch broad, much acuminate, rigid, closely inserted, generally split at the point into two exceedingly narrow triangular portions, 2 to 4 inches long, the fissure often bearing a thread; above about 3-keeled, the mid- keel below furnished with palez. Spadices 1-13 foot long. Spathes membranaceous; outer one or two short, truncate, incomplete ; inner complete, longitudinally striate. Common peduncle 2-8 inches long, violet towards the base, branches few, each with a membranous broad semi-amplexicaul bracte, 3 or 4 times divided ; of the female simple, generally only with two divisions. Colour of the male spadices scarlet, of the female pale lilac or violaceous. Spikes 6 inches to a span in length, subfastigiate. * Chiefly from Martius, 1. c. Dr. Wight communicated to me specimens of part of the leaves, and some immature spadices. 468 The Palms of British East India. Male-flowers disposed in rather loose spires, immersed in niches, which are at first nearly closed, afterwards opening vertically. In each niche wo, three, or even four flowers, occasionally a female in those towards he base of the spikes, the upper ones opening first. An ovate-triangu- lar bracte under the lowermost flower; a small bracteole bearded on the upper margin on the outer side of the upper ones. Calyx about a line long, sepals glumaceous, oblong, concave, rather obtuse. Petals nearly twice the length of the calyx, purplish, ovate, acutish, valvate. Stamina 6, included; filaments subulate ; anthers ovate, subcordate. Rudiment of the Pistillum subtrigonal, nearly as long as the stamina. Female flowers. Perianth subglumaceous, imbricate, striato-veiny. Filaments without anthers: Ovarium ovate, three-celled. Style almost wanting. Stigmata three, triangular. Berry ovato-globose, rather compressed, 6-7 lines long, surrounded at the base by the perianth, bearing the stigmata near the base. Seed sub-globose, brown, with a rather deep complete furrow, and several other shorter ones. Zesta obscurely chesnut-coloured, with veins arising from the groove near the embryo, and converging towards the base on the opposite face. Albumen solid, horny. Embryo basilar, conical, nearly a line long. Martius describes the petals of the male flowers as equal in length to the sepals, and the perianthium of the female as similar to that of the male. This last, which attributes a val- vate corolla to the female flower, I do not find to be cor- rect, and in the plate quoted, the petals of the male are represented as I have described them. This Palm was re-introduced during my superintendence of the Honorable Company’s Botanic Garden, from Travan- core, through Dr. Wight and Mr. Thomas, Collector of Tinnevelly. It appears like most of the other numerous cases to have been lost since Dr. Roxburgh left the Gardens. SLACKIA. Cuar. Gen.—Spaihe 2, incompletae, vaginantes. Flores monoici in eodem spadice, e foveis tandem emer- gentes ; feeminei inferiores, solitarii vel masculo adjecto, masculi superiores, binati. Stamina 6, filamentis basi The Palms of Britésh East India. 469 coalitis, (fl. faem. castrata). Ovarium gibbum, 3-loculare, l-ovulatum. Stigmata 3. Drupa obliquissima (stigmatibus basilaribus.) Albumen corneum, simpliciter ruminatum. Embryo basilaris. Hasitus.—Palma malayana, areceformis, fruticosa. Fo- lia pinnatim fissa: rete O. Spadices axillares, nutantes, ramis (spicis) stmplicibus, sepius 2, aliquando pluribus. Flores - subglumacet, albidi. Drupe nigrescenti-purpureae, obovato- oblonge. Genus Bentinckiz proximum, discrepans spathis et albu- mine ruminato. Folia etiam pinnatim fissa. Habitus Geo- nome, quod genus differt filamentis in columnam connatis, antherarum loculis divaricatis, stylo (ovarii virginei) basilari et albumine zquabili. Dicatum beato Henrico Slack, botanico magne spei, ztate iniente infelici casu abrepto. S. geonomeformis. Haxsit.—Forests, Ayer Punnus (Rhim), Malacca, rather common. In flower and fruit in July, 1842. Malayan name, Pinang Rambeh. Descr.—Stem slender, 2-4 feet high, about 4 inch in diameter, dis- tinctly annulate. Leaves pinnately split, 3-34 feet long, 1-14 broad, in outline linear-oblong: sheaths about a span long, striate ; naked base of - petiole about a foot long, scurfy pubescent; pimne a foot or more in length, obliquely acuminate and nearly entire, or obliquely przemorse and eroso-dentate, varying in breadth from 4 an inch to 2 inches, with two or 2-more keels accordingly ; terminal bilobed, lobes broad, eroso- dentate ; threads very fine. Spathes about two, incomplete, leathery membranous, the lower one bicarinate ; the upper twice as long, conduplicate, open interiorly to about its middle, like the spadix covered with brown pubescence. Spadix nodding, generally dichotomous, sometimes racemosely branch- ed ; a scale-shaped, likewise scurfy pubescent, acute bracte at the base of the divisions. Spikes roundish, rather thick, of a spongy aspect 6-10 inches long. o PF 470 The Palms of British East India. Flowers partly immersed in niches with fimbriate membranaceous margins. Males in pairs, tribractreate. Sepals three, oblong-concave, striate, sub-coriaceous. Petals valvate, ovato-lanceolate, sub-acute, coriaceous. Stamens 6; filaments stoutish, united at the base, upper part inflexed in estivation; anthers large, linear-oblong, 2-celled, versatile. Pollen 1-plicate. Rudimentary Pistillum angulato-sulcate, conico-cylin- dric, stout, with a discoid three-lobed apex. female flowers in the lower part of the spikes, tribracteate. Sepals as in the male. Petals broad, with a short broad point, imbricate. Six rudimentary stamina. Ovarium roundish, gibbous on one side, attenuated into a short stout style; with one cell on the gibbous side, containing one appense-pendulous oyulum. Stigmata 3, ovate, small, spreading or recurved. Fruit spadix elongated, 1-14 foot long, presenting at the base the re- mains of the spathes, nodding; peduncle compressed or sub-trigonal. Fruit sub-drupaceous, oblong, obovate, 54-6 lines long, 4 wide, sur- rounded at the base by the perianth, very oblique, presenting on one side near the base the style. Seed erect, obovate roundish ; tegument mem- branaceous, inflexed along simple lines, visible on the surface of the seed, converging towards the foramen. Albumen horny, simply ruminate. Embryo basilar. It is scarcely distinguishable at first sight from Areca dis- ticha, and like it, varies much in size and shape of the pinne. I have placed both this and Bentinckia in Arecine, as the bulk of the affinities seems to me to indicate. I cannot perceive the necessary affinity between any of the genera arranged in Endlicher’s Genera Plantarum as pinnate-leaved Borassine, and the true genera of that sub-family. Sect. II. Spathae plures, incomplete. Flores monoici (vel interdum polygami ?) in.uno vel distinctis spadicibus, vel dioici; mas- culi binati, cum vel absque feemineo interjecto. Corolla feemi- nea valvata. Stamina sepissime indefinita. Ovarium 2-3- triloculare, 2-3-ovulatum. Bacca 1-3-sperma. Albumen eequabile vel (in Caryota) ruminatum. Embryo dorsalis. Palmze monocarpicae, interdum ope sobolum perennantes, Srutescentes vel saepius arboreae. Folia pinnata vel bipinnata : The Palms of British East India. 471 rete fibrosum: pinnae vel pinnulae varie erosae, lineares vel saepius cuneatae, saepius fasciculatae, subtus saepius albidae. Spathz imbricatae, pedunculum vestientes. Spadices axillares et terminales, (in speciebus monotces saltem) evolutione inversi, spicis saepius pendulis, fastigiatis. Sepala 3, imbricata. Petala totidem (vel corolla tripartita.) Anthere lineares, adnatae. Ovula solitaria. Succus aeris, urens. Palme monticole sylvicoleque, incolze e maxima parte orbis veteris et preesertim Archipelagi orientalis. Limes borealis specierum indicarum 27°-28° grad., altit. supra mare 4,000 pedum. Usus.—Trunci integri pro asseribus, excavati pro aque- ductubus, fissi pro telis utuntur. E tela trunci centrali laxiori, farina, Sagum edita, paratur. Retis fibre (joo) in funes in aquam diutius stabiles torquentur. Succus recens (Toddy,) coctus Saccharum (Cabong) przebet et albumen im- maturum cum saccharo conservatum condimenta. Denique tomentum vaginarum igniario est idoneum. ARENGA. (Areng.) La Billardiere Mem. V Instit. 4. p. 209. (Martius). Mart. Progr. p. 23. Palm. p. 193. t. 208. Endl. Gen. Pl. 248. No. 1734. Saguerus (vel Gomutus). Rumph. Hb. Amb. |. p. 57. t. 13. Roxb. Icones. 14. ¢. 81. Fl. Ind. 3. p. 626. Borassus. Lour. Fl. Cochin. p. 617. ex. pte. Gomutus. Spreng. Gen. Pl. p. 450. No. 2222. Cuar. Gen.—Flores monoici in diversis spadicibus (vix semper). Stamina indefinita. Ovarium triloculare. Bacca vertice depresso-trigona, sub-triloba, trisperma. Aldumen equabile. Embryo dorsalis. Hasitus.—Palmez spectabiles, arboreae, monocarpicae, raro soboliferae. 'Truncus annulatus, apicem versus petiolo- rum basibus sacpius quasi squamatus. Folia pinnata; rete 472 The Palms of British East India. copiosum fibris rigidis nigris intermixtum : petiolus interdum aculeatus ; pinne lineares, fasciculatae et plurifariae, vel solitariae bifariae, subtus albidae, basi uno vel utroque latere lobato-auriculatae, apice eroso-dentatae truncatae vel dentatae, vel bilobae. Spadices nutanti-pendulae ; spicis pendulis, saepius fastigiatis caudae equinae in modum dispositis. Flores majus- cult. Antherze mucronato-apiculatae. Bacce viridescentes, rotundatae, majusculae. Semen (endocarpio cohaerente ? ) sae- pius baccatum, saepius evenium. Succus acris. 85. (1) A. saecharifera, elata, petiolis inermibus, pinnis fasciculatis 4-5 fariis lineari-ensiformibus basi utrinque auri- culatis (auricula inferiore longe producta) apice bilobis et varie dentatis. A. saccharifera. Ladill. Mem. Inst. Lam. Enc. Suppt. 1. p. 441. Mart. Palm. p. 191. ¢. 108. Saguerus s. Gomu- tus. Rumph. Hb. Amb. 1. p. 57. t. 13. Saguerus Rum- phi. Roxb. 3. p. 626. Borassus Gomutus. Lour. fl. coch. p. 648. Gomutus saccharifer. Spreng. Syst. 2. p. 624. Hasit.—Malacca Province, generally cultivated, but less common in the littoral districts. dnowe of the Malays. Succeeds sufficiently well in the H. C. Botanic Gardens, flowering throughout the year. Descr.—A handsome palm, reaching to the height of 30-40 feet, Crown oblong, very dense, of a sombre aspect. Leaves very large, 20 feet (or more) long, 10 broad, outline oblong-ovate; petiole very stout, channelled at the base, sprinkled with blackish scurf; pinne gener- ally fasciculate, 4-5 farious, the middle ones 5 feet long, 4-44 inches broad, linear-ensiform, coriaceous, dark green above, underneath white, margins with distant spinescent teeth, towards the apex becoming more frequent; apex itself bilobed or bifid, eroso-dentate ; base with one, or generally two unequal auricles, of which the lowermost is much the longer. Male spadi« 4-5 feet long. Spikes attenuate at the apex, and there furnished with a few rudimentary or abortive flowers. Flowers very numerous, oblong club-shaped, of a rich purple black colour, and a dis- The Palms of British East India. 473 agreeable smell, of considerable size, often an inchlong. Sepals three, rounded, broad. Petals nearly three times longer, oblong obovate. Stamina 00; filaments short, slender; anthers nearly as long as the petals, aristato-mucronate. Female-flowers solitary, large, about an inch across. Sepals 3, very broad. Petals three, cordato-ovate, coriaceous. No sterile stamina. Ovarium shortly obturbinate, 3-celled, apex 3-lobed, concave in the cen- tre, whence arise 3 tooth-shaped, triangular, erect stigmata; substance thick, fleshy. Down the back of the lobes which are opposite the sepals runs a slight keel. Ovula erect. Fruit oblong-round, 2-23 inches long, surrounded at the base by the perianth ; apex flat or nearly concave marked with three lines, running from the backs of the persistent stigmata to the now nearly obsolete lobes ; substance (outer) coriaceous, thick, inner berried-cellular, gelati- nous, adhering for the most part to the seeds, abounding in raphides. Seeds dull black, convex on the outer, bifacial on the inner face, attenu- ate at the base. Albumen horny, cartilaginous. Embryo so eccentric as to point almost to the junction of the bifacial side. This is one of the handsomest and most useful Malayan Palms. It is very commonly cultivated in the interior, the lines of trees recalling to mind gothic arches. The parts chiefly used are the black fibres forming the rete, the juice, and the young albumen; the former are twisted into ropes or cordage, renowned for its power of resisting wet ; the juice is either drunk as toddy or made into sugar, which appears to be in great demand. The young albu- men preserved in syrup forms one of the well-known pre- serves of the Straits. Mr. Lewes informs me, that trees that have died after the ripening of the whole crop of fruit, which is the natural course, are almost hollow, and particu- larly adapted for making troughs, spouts or channels for water, and that they last extremely well under ground. In short it is so valuable a palm, that it early attracted Dr. Roxburgh’s attention,* who introduced it largely. The * With respect to the various and important uses of this most elegant palm, I have nothing to offer myself, but refer to what Rumphius and Marsden have written on the subject, At the same time, I cannot avoid recommending 474 The Palms of British East India. natives however have never taken to it, prefering the coir of the cocoa-nut, and the toddy and sugar of Pheenix syl- vestris. 86. (2) A. Westerhoutii, (n. sp.) petiolis inermibus, pinnis alternis bifariis. linearibus basi uni vel ex-auriculatis apice exattenuato truncatis szepius bilobis et varie dentatis. Hasit.—Naning, Malacca Peninsula, Mr. Westerhout. Penang. Mr. Lewes. Malayan names, Anowe kutaree, (Ma- lacca); Langkup (Penang.) Descr.*—A palm of about the size of the preceding. Leaves ample, linear-oblong in outline, 20 feet long, 10 feet across in the broadest part ; refe as in A. saccharifera; pinne sessile, about 5 feet in length, 3 inches broad, alternate or sub-opposite, solitary, bifarious, very spread- ing with deflexed points, attenuate towards the base, the upper ones alone auriculate at the lower side, coriaceous, bright green above, white underneath and (with the petiole) scurfy towards the base ; margins with irregular spinescent teeth ; apex preemorse, dentate and erose, sometimes bilobed. to every one who possesses lands, particularly such as are low, and near the coasts of India, to extend the cultivation thereof as much as possible. The palm wine itself and the sugar it yields, the black fibres for cables and cordage, and the pith for sago, independent of many other uses, are objects of very great importance, particularly to the first maritime power in the world, which is in a great measure dependent on foreign states for hemp, the chief material of which cordage is made in Europe. From observations made in the Botanic Garden, well grown, thriving trees produce about six leaves annually, and each leaf yields from eight to sixteen ounces of the clean fibres. In the same garden are now (1810) many thousand plants, and young trees, some of them above twenty years growth, with trunks as thick as a stout man’s body, and from twenty to thirty feet high, exclusive of the foliage. They are in blossom all the year ; one of them was lately cut down, and yielded about 150 pounds of good sago meal. (Roxb. op. cit.) * From an entire specimen of a young palm, procured from Naning by Mr. Westerhout, two male spadices, and several specimens of female flowers and fruits. The Palms of British East India. ATS Spadix curved-pendulous. Spathes fibrous, coriaceous, often split. Spikes about level topped. Male flowers in pairs, without an interposed rudimentary female, or solitary, with a rudimentary female. Calyx cup-shaped. Petals oblong, fuscous-purple. Stamima numerous ; fila- ments short, subulate ; anthers with mucronate or aristate ends. Pollen hispid, with a longitudinal fold. Female flowers solitary, sessile. Sepals broad. Petals three, cordate, concave, obtusely carinate. Ovarium roundish, trigonal, (angles opposite the sepals,) depressed at the apex, and there marked with three lines running from the angles to the stigmata, which are three, tooth-shaped, and connivent, so as to form a cone. Fruit roundish, about the size of a small apple, with a depressed three-lobed trigonal vertex, terminated by the sphacelated stigmata, sur- rounded at the base by the perianth, 2-3 celled; outer substance thick, fibrous-fleshy. Seed separating with the thick gelatinous-cellular, en- docarp, black ; when three convex-bifacial. Embryo oblique about the centre of the dorsal face of the horny albumen. Not having seen this palm growing, I am unable to say any thing regarding its habit. The chief difference from A. saccharifera is in the leaves. A obtusifolia, Bl., has the petioles furnished with marginal aculei. The Langkup of Penang may probably be distinct, the pinne being smaller and more truncate, the branches of the fruit spadix spreading, short, and the fruit larger and more oblong. I am not aware of its being applied to any use. I have Mr. Westerhout’s authority for stating it to be quite local, being only found in one place, although there abundant. 87. (3) A. Wightiz, (n. sp.) sobolifera, trunco humili 3-8 pedali, petiolis inermibus, pinnis alternis linearibus basi bi- auriculatis (auricula inferiore maxima) apice attenuato erosis inequaliter bilobis, spadicis ramis subfastigiatis, fl. feem. staminibus sterilibus pluribus, semine venoso, embryone supra medium. Haxsit.—Dense forests, Hills about Coimbatore, Dr. Wight. 476 The Palas opaBeiish Bader Ladin. Descr.*—A monoicous palm forming by means of suckers dense clumps. Zrunk stout, as thick as a man’s thigh, generally 3-5 feet, rarely 8 feet high. Leaves 18-28 feet in length; lower naked part of the petiole 6-8 feet long; pinne alternate, crowded, linear ensiform, 3-33 feet long, 13-2 inches broad, white underneath, with two large auri- cule at the base, (the lower very large indeed, 13-2 inches long, overlay- ing obliquely the petiole,) with a few distant teeth from the middle upwards; apex attenuate, unequally bi-lobed, erose; terminal lobe nar- row cuneate, 2-3-lobed, base shortly bi-auriculate, apex truncate, lobu- lose, and jagged-dentate. Spadices decurved pendulous, about 4 feet long: peduncle before branching about 2 feet long, quite concealed by the sheathing imbricate lacerate spathes. Male ; branches (spikes) about 2 feet long, sub-fastigiate, slender. A scale-shaped bracte at the base of each. Flowers in pairs rather distant, (altogether forming a rather thin mass of inflorescence, ) rather large, in pairs, with a vertical scale interposed. Calyx of three roundish imbricate sepals with thick bases. Petals 3, oblong, very thick and coriaceous. Stamina 00; filaments short; anthers linear, ad- nate, terminated by a longish subulate point. No rudiment of a pistil- lum. Branches of the female spadix attenuate towards the ends, where they bear rudimentary flowers. lowers solitary, under each a shallow en- tire or bi-lobed cup. Sepals broadly cordate, small. Petals roundish- cordate, acute or cuspidate. Reduction of the Meteorological Register, TABLE III. Shewing the quantity of Rain and Variations of Wind and Weather, during the year 1843-44. Weather. Of the Wind at Noon. ol lace (eee ee Sa ° Of -|Oqg o/G Hu n Months. | 5, |g 23/5 2"|F2 ae 2 loes#log Slag as ae |S Sel Se eiee et zie :(S 5 oC 3 smn Cs = Zio D oy ca} > foal = | CAR Bm 2 oetees a) at 6]. tos a) S56 ce A |] A [A* la |e) [oi fod lo |B ai |S Je 1843] November, 0 29 | O {16} 3] 7} 0} O} 1) 3} O} O| 29 December,* | 0.86 2 29 O 115) 4} 6| O| O} OF 3} 1] 1] 30 1844|January, ..| 0.22 1 30) -@ | 15) Dy 4) 3,0) ea? 0} 31 February, ..| 0.08 i 28 | 0 19] 3] 4) 4} 0} 2) 6 1} O} 29 March, anf O22 1 30 0 | O| 2| 1} 8} O}10/10} 0} O} 31 April, RP I 6 24 1 | O| 1] O}17| 1} 3} 6} 2! O} 380 May, oo| 7.44 i2 19 3 | 0} 3] 1/20} 1] 4} O} 2] OF 31 June, sot t2.23 14 16 4 3] 2 Le ea al 3) or 30 July,fos> oe} 13.72 23 8 1 | O} 1) 1/10; 6} 3) 4} 5] o} 30 August, .-) 26.91 23 8} 4) 1] OF 1/11] 6} 4} 1) 7] Oo] 31 September, | 5.02 12 18} 3 | 0} 2} 4} 7} 2) 6] 6} 3] oO} 80 October,t -.| 4.99 6 14} 0} 1} 3} 3) 0} 2 2! 5! 4} 0} 20 Totals »+| 74.721 101 252 | 15 (68 26'34191\19 4 031291 1! 353 Thunder, it will be observed from the above Table, occured on 15 days from April to September, while the rest of the year was exempt from it; on five of these occasions it occurred at noon; On seven it occurred at 2h. 40m.; and on three occasions at sunset. The following Table exhibits the days and hours on which it thundered during the year. * Observation interrupted at 9 o’clock on the 21st, and at the same and subsequent hours on the 25th. t 15th July one observation interrupted. T Observations interrupted from 15th to 26th of October. kept at Calcutta, 1843-44. 537 TABLE IV. Shewing the Periods at which Thunder occurred from 1st November 1843 to 31st October 1844. 1843. 1844. Ba. hc 8 ° Hours, 8-2 |.o9h) 5) . 3 g ° A q 3) s\a oa : ° ° Ss o 2 PISHEISie| El & a) aero & Se ake ZAlAtsiais| «| 2 | 5 | 4 « age Sunrise, o° A? eopoctco|oo s200 e200 ° ee ooee sarge eece 9h. 50 m. Peleel|eeteoien vo )eeee 8th ee 18th eeoe @o000 eels ci 20d a ib ie | <-|2 age bette ht Mb. 40m. «lea laefes|ee|oe|oee |$ anch | 24th] Srdj$ tee | Sage pote 4h. se Poles leohe 2) PO \aeieee0 eee Sunset, .. sles sever spberss doth aE ed rE eae The following are the proportions of the prevailing winds, to 350, the number of days on which observations were kept at six different periods each day. North wind 51.6, north-east 19.6, north-west 29.8, south 89.3, south-east 26.5, south-west 32-6, west 36, east 24.1, calm 38.5. There were 137 calm mornings at sunrise, and only one calm day at noon throughout the year, while there were 78 calm evenings at sunset. The results under this head are exhibited in the following Table :— TABLE V. Shewing the Direction of the Wind each day at 6 different hours, and the relative duration of each Wind throughout the year. 525 erste Hours. B58 ° A g™ oo S| ai | 5 gate 3 e x 3 289 SPN Za Ze | saininanl&® la |S 52 Beurise,... ...| a2 | 20 | 16 | 68 | 29 gee «| 2a. 1137.| 2 300 me OOM... ae oo) 137°) 29, 75 | 8&4 49 7 42 1 23 3} = 351 Noon, . sesh det 2o -| of4.| 90 | 194, 42.53 4 29 1} = 352 Mie 20Mccs ocn| O2 | 24 | 40 1105 | 20 | 27 |} 58 7 20 6 | = 352 4h. Ww. iene 12] 42 | 93 | She sein 45 31 61 = 352 Sunset, 0. 0 56 9 |} 18 |116 | 2a 28 1 11 17. 0 78: see —_—_———— - Total each 6. ~ ee - Sinaia 51.6 19.6 20.8 89.3 26,5)32,6 | 36. |24.] 38.51 = 350 > 29° one SS eee ee ed Ee nnn 310 1118 (179 {536 |150 \190 \216 1145 {231 | =2101 em |, | ee re | ny | i | ne | cere ee a 933 Reduction of the Meteorological Register, The relative proportions of the prevailing appearances of the sky and changes in the atmosphere are as follows, during the 350 days on which observations were recorded. Clear 114.3, generally clear, z. €. presenting only such slight appearances of vapour in some part of the horizon, as not to deserve to be ranked under any definite term, 12.8, cirro strati 21.3, cirro cumuli 16.8, cumulo strati 41.6, cumuli 35.5, rain 12.3, cloudy 73.8, foggy 3.8, nimbi 10.8, haze 5.8. The following Table exhibits these results :— TABLE VI. Representing the aspect of the Sky at different hours, and the relative pro- portion of the various prevailing appearances of the Atmosphere. h Ee on . mS 3 ea ycses Pera — Hs = 3 Hours. Ojw|s 5 ets by |e) |e Bo oo WD VS ola ae ae ova eo4 Sebvonvie Got eee fe) ee ee aes pn Bele oe eel. ean ee See €@i 3 jsus SP ies, ea ee he ee a4 Sunrise 89, 299, CTS poral ga @ Pye gon) Te ee __ 342 Gh, 50m: ee, eat. 130-1 6. S120 1.561.340 S.62 | See ipeo 349 Nootjs. se beh 195 | 6 G6 112) 60 | 53 51 | Pe pee, 349 Qh. 40m. dense) TOL +. 84 144.12 |-68 1 59 15 } 6453 122) 5 eae 4 po we 102 | 10} 15112, 55|42/13}86| 0] 5| 8 l= 348 Sigiselabiees 108 ; 28 | 42| 14| 12} 8] 13 1100| 1110! 3 [= 338 Total, number of Obs. une, 686 | 77 {12.8} 101 | 250! 213] 74 1433 20 | 65 32 | 2073 Proportionofeach’ 114.3]12.8|21.3| 16.8 41.6 35.5112.3 73.8! 3.3. 10.8| 5.3/__ 350 Under the head of cloudy, are comprehended those appearances which, form the opacity of the air could not be arranged under any of the definite forms of clouds. There is an obscurity likewise in the distinction of fogs and mists and haze, in these registers, which ought not to exist, as such terms indicate very opposite conditions of the atmosphere. It is only necessary to allude to the circumstance in order to invite the very able attention of Mr. Rees to the subject, who I be- ' lieve has the merit of superintending these important Registers. The term Haze, as it ought at least to be used in India, indicates an excessively dry condition of the atmosphere, at periods of heat and drought. See vol. 1. p. 52, of this Journal. kept at Calcutta, 1843-44. 539 The following abstracts exhibit the peculiarities of the several months :— November 1843. The mean prevalence of north wind during the month was equal to 16; of north-east to 1.66; of north-west to 5.16; of south-east to .3; of south-west to 1.; and west to 2. in 30 days, while there were 3.83 of calm in the same period. There was neither south nor east wind during the month. ‘The mornings at sunrise for 17 days were calm. The evenings at sunset were calm for 6 days, but there was no calm between these hours, nor was there any high wind during the month. TABLE VII. A. Variation of the Winds at different hours during the Month of November 1843. Result of Observations. ee ee i ee OF — _ - Hours of Observa- = oo tier tion. a ee es | a Sunrise, saat eues | FO 1 2 re ne a 1 BRGOU oc5 sense een 16 3 OE i i Saiereey a Wg 2 2 1 E BMe eae ene tO Sunset, EE Nae Wy) a | — oe + 6 {12 | 0| 23 |in 180 Obs. o Pk =) (SES Total of each 6—| 96 10° fest. | 0 —— | | ee ee | | | Proportion ofeach,| 16.! 1.6! 5.16'0! .3/1.12,1013.83|= 30 days. The sky presented cumuli in proportion only of 14 in 30 days, cirro strati in about the proportion of 04, cirro cumuli 0}, and cumulo strati in the proportion of a little more than 02 in 30, while 22.5 were clear, and 4.3 generally so, presenting merely slight vapour in particular parts of the horizon at various hours, without rain, fogs, or haze during the month. 540 Reduction of the Meteorological Register, TABLE VII. B. Aspect of the Sky at different hours, November 1843. Result of Observations. | | | | | | | | 4s =e |e! : f of O -| . /€$los/oslasis DS Hours mo gery 2 |Sa|ES 2 2 = E ale . : 2 O PR)/O % |.A Sols Vee 15 oO. 1%, O O Oo lelole |= Sunrise, Se eed ee A eae A an Oli: OUI ees seek 20 2 xe 6 ede Mage Not, aciva 3.0 2 8B dikes. oD itame 2h 40M, 4 see cen LS 5 lvoe 1 2 4 4h. Pp. M. Saat yeast tee 2 Mi ek 1 Fg, Nt Sunset, SPUR es (ad 8 aly ean | 1 5 Totah ofeach 62:}1a5eln26ulnae ie almeapol 2 Om ee Se Proportion of each, |22.5 | 43 | 33 | .5 |.83 [1.5)...!se{eo/ee ae December 1843. The mean prevalence of north wind during this month was 12.4; of north-east 32 ; of north-west 53; of south-east 03 ; of south-west 04 ; west 2° east 03 in 30 days, while there was a proportion of 44 of calm in the same period. As in the preceding month, there were 17 calm mornings at sunrise, with 7 calm evenings at sunset. There was no south wind during the month, but two observations of east wind at 9h. 40m.; and one at noon. TABLE VIIL. A. Variations of the Winds at different hours in the Month of Dec. 1848. Result of Observations. —__ Hours. : : : : a5 ej} | & & Be ete eae ree At Sunrise, ... 6 2 oneeterae scot PAR Seohaim, ...1-16.| .8,|. 1 cA ntl ee | WBN? dey », Noon, mata 1d 4 6 eer yee en ee | ote.) 9 | | 8 lee 6 lal a jo Mh. Ps Ms oof) 92 3 8 a ae 5 1 5, Sunset, 5) ae sds 1 1 rf Total ofeach6—-| 74 | 22 | 34 |...) 2] 1] 17] 3/ 27 von Proportion of 5 | in 30 ea hi 12.33] 8.66) 5.66)...).83 | 16 2.83 .5/4.5 | | garg * See note page 536, kept at Calcutta, 1843-44. 541 The sky was overcast and cloudy 2. ; attended with rain 04; with fog in the proportion of 04 of a day in 380; cirro cumuli 03; cumuli 12; and cirro strati in the proportion of 1; while there were 225 clear, and 1+ of only slight vapour in particular parts of the horizon during 30 days. TABLE VIII. B. Aspect of the Sky at different hours during the Month of December, 1843. | Result of Observations. es en 8 re Sere es © er So — — — on) * 9h. 50m.... ee ene sear bo oO THGOM, ese sis lo tee oh Vemhine Bae fatale ted lag ee eth Gea lees Wh sed Sin! O ja, 2S Pali + |o¢ S/S l[slsl & Gio! © 4¢E ais] 0 ro] agai a = |.6 on OO ere ees ties (biel tS Cert Sofro qo, Oleg |O | & | Sunrise, ... apege 20 Beir) Oh OR 2h Bris ] 0 0 Qh. 40m... ove Le ee Le WH. PB. Me acs ee ee ey Sunset, mn rs Total of each 6 —| 135 9/16! 410! 10/3 ,12| 2 |in 180 Obs. Se eee Proportion of each. |22.5 | 1.5 ( 1.) .66 | 0'1.66'.5 | 2.) .383 | in 30 days. January 1844. The prevalence of north winds diminished to 94, while north-east and west winds amount to 44 each; south winds occurred to the extent of QF; north-west, south-east, and south-west to the propor- tion of 05 each; east wind to 03 in 31 days. There were 11 calm mornings at sunrise, and 12 calm evenings at sunset. ' * One observation omitted at this hour on the 2lst, another at this and subse- quent hours on the 25th. 4a . 542 Reduction of the Meteorological Register, TABLE IX A. Variation of the Winds at different hours in the Month of January, 1844. Result of Observations. ee ee es eee Hours of Observa- ra tion. Ae ie SUURISe) \wises 50. 5 f Oh DOU jiicas nce | Le 8 INGORE OE net TE 2 3 3 Z 2hetOiase- net 8 4h. P. mM. Sea ch awe Sate Sunset. Seciioceeril tate Total of each o 56 | 25 ere Sener ee | ee | Se 3 wi | Die 10 2451 3} 0 b-}4 Sh es 4] 0 17 ! a re ee ee ef | Proportion of each, 9.33 4.18 be E al [ald o| 140112 0} 4101] 0 of 6}11| 0 St Fr Orie of 7 oa 0| 0) 1 (12 in 185 3) 25 | 2 [24 on No rain fell in January, and the relative proportions of the various aspects of the sky and conditions of the atmosphere were as follows : Clear 183, generally so 2; cirro strati 14; cirro cumuli 3; cumuli strati03; cumuli 14; cloudy 3; foggy On nimbi 03; haze 1. In 31 days there were 4 foggy mornings at sunrise, and one foggy day at noon. TABLE IX. B. Aspect of the Sky at different hours daily during the Month of January, 1844. Result of Observations. a rc es a ey, ss 5 Hours of Obser- S| od vation. ea & . epee § 5| & Oo Ol Sunrise, P|! ae || 9h. 50m. osin cee Ol” J Noon, ... ont oD OVO 2h. 40m. nest ntaaey; Lee>O 4h. Pp. M. a> 2o.. Sit 0 Sunset, naps 6+ 8 —_————-- Total of each 6—] 110 12} 7 = Proportion of | bo Boum nie | Cirrorccummtlt. a a fn oa ee eta z| Eig o|.@) i Ob: DMs 1 eal ty ee Qi 2 he. Ol aor te. ro Ww F ca eer Ree SI} bl slo o| #| Sle Olm| aly 2} 4) 110 Zt 4 OO eo Ste PO. poe 4} 0}; OO] 1 4; 0; O} 1 3/ OO; 0} O in” 185 5} 1] 6] { "Ops: =r i 18.33 2.| 1.16] 3.|.33! 1.16!...| 3.1.83/.16] 1 {ur 31 kept at Calcutta, 1843-44. 543 February 1844, High south wind observed on the 21st at 9h. 50, and on the 27th at 2h. 40m. The relative proportion of the different winds during the month was at follows :— North 7m, west wind 64, south 33, north-west 33, north-east 2, south-east 04, south 1, east 04, calm 3} in 29 days. There were 9 calm mornings at sunrise, and 12 calm evenings at sunset. TABLE X. A. Variation of the Wind at different hours in the Month of February 1844. Result of Observations. i re EE Hours of Ob- servation. os cs : s a = dF]. E gizi'alelala |e lals Sunrise Biel ole fecGmlcnerik & 4) Rie 2 2 l 9 9h. 50m iim agi be a | 3 2 3 eo l 9 oe ee etic «ss eo} 9 |.3\, 4 AAS ia 2 6 Pues Qh. 40m ° ee 6 55 DD 4 ee 2 9 eo ee 4h. Pp. M ab Slee! a0 3) 1 2 Fal itete ss |nole Sunset, Sh ear ae ee a: 4/.. 2 wt ve bee mm es fl ee ———SESE=——— Eee Total of each, 6+] 47 |12| 21 | 22 a Le 37 2} 21 |= in 174 Obs. Proportion of each,!7.83 /2. | 3.5|3.66} .16 11.83 16.16) .33| 3,5{in 29 days. There was no rain during this month, and the aspect of the sky ; f 4 mts tad clear, in the proportion 225 to 29. Generally clear, or with slight va- — | | ——> ee re ee pour only in some particular parts of the horizon O=; cirrostrati 13, cirro cumuli 14, cumuli strati 0}, cumuli 24, cloudy 3, foggy 03. Fogs only occurred for two mornings at sunrise. TABLE X. B. Aspect of the Sky at different Hours during the Month of February 1844. Result of Observations. # * ® - fed as) _|a ws Hours of Obser- re 3 = vation. ee vee |S Ab ee : 2/1 "/S);35/%3 S| m ) : : |S 2/2 ele)]e] aisles 2 5) es R=>| 3 SE lsisis Oo | oO oO oO O 1%4)0 | Sunrise, ee ee ee 16 ee 2 ] ee oe ee 7 3 i 9h. 50m. ee ee se 24 1 ] ee ee 1 es y. ee Noon, se ee ee ee 24 1 ee ] ] l ° 1 ee 2h. 40m. densea tact Li l 3 oe oe atl alate 4h. Pp. M. ee ee ee 8 ee ee 2 iv 6 ee 2 ee Sunset, ee eo ee ee 18 l 2 4 ee ee ee 4 oe Total of each, 6 + 137 4 8 8 2 | 14 |..118} 3}—in 174 Obs. Proportion of each, 22.8! .83/1.33| 1.33 | .33 |2.33}..!3. 1.5 |— in 29 days. 544 Reduction of the Meteorological Register, March 1844, High winds from south and south-west on the 14th, 2] st and 23d. The following are the relative proportions of the direction of the wind during the month. South wind 122, south-west 53, west 54 north-west 13, north-east 1; east and south-east, each 1 ; north 03 in 31 days. N.B.—The south wind prevailed chiefly in the early and latter part of the day throughout the month, becoming an arid dry wester- ly wind towards noon, frequently continuing so till sunset, or subsid- ing into a suffocating calm. TABLE, XI. A. Variation of the Wind at different Hours in the Month of March, 1844. Result of Observations. ee a a ne es SY a Se SE OE ee ee ee es Hours of Observa- : ae } | tion. 2 = ea bh = ae & ZlZ |Z) a ji | a | EF | o eS PEs | es | |e | en | mm geen a a ee ee SiWAeise, 25 vie) onl eet be U4 3 eee 9 Oh: SOM: west. bettl eae Ae pees oI ae 12 2 2 aa Noons! i .c80 Pat ey 2 ] Si. Oe SEOs. 2h. 40m. ... ae Fes ae | 4 PShsst 3 Sia | 4h. p. M. ... Fie os 2 13] 1 4 9} 1 Sunset, see eee ear [oes 1 17| 1 2 1) 1 8 Total of each, 6} 2} 6] 9 76] 6 32; 31] 6 17| 185 Obs. es | cee fe ee ee ee eed Proportion of each].33! 1.|1.5{12.66] 1.15.33! 5.16! 1.1 2.83/31 in days. The following are the different aspects of the sky, and the propor- tions in which they respectively prevailed, 113 clear, 3 cirro strati, 34 cumuli, 24 cumuli strati, 7 cumuli, 23 cloudy, 03 foggy, 1 haze, 02 nimbi in 31 days. N.B.—Short partial storms from north-west, with one or two very light partial showers (not affecting the pluviometer) took place. TABLE XI. B. Aspect of the Sky at different hours during the Month of March, 1844. Result of Observations. a 0 se ne ee Se: Sn Ee p> | : Hours of =) les soe as Srl ee A Observation. ae 2/63] = el ae . ees S$ esiBsl/Eai#e/ 812/38 | 8/8) 3 Deus OD - (DO Bierce fy | Eee Sunrise, eas |! 8 aA 7 oe 3 as Oh. 50m... ee 15 niet." 2. 3 ee 8 | ee 1 1 Noon, oe ee 14 oe 1 3 ee 8 2 3 ee 2h. 40m; ies oe - ate 2 3 a 8 Fe ais me Aly (PAMseteiels ate 5 3 4 6 4 aA Sunset, ee os 9 ea i) ] 4 5 4 l pe ae Total 6 —- 69} .. | 18 | 20 | 13 | 42 is} 4) 6]. Proportion, !11.5'..! 3./333'216' 7. |, '2.16] 66! 1.'.16 = 31 kept at Calcutta, 1843-44. 545 April 1844. There was high west wind on the 3rd, 4th, and 10th; high south and south-west wind on the 8th, 9th, 13th, 18th, 21st, 24th and 25th. The following are the relative proportions and various directions of the wind during the month. South wind 20, south-west 34, west 23, east 13, south-east 14, north-west 04, north-east Om , north 04, calm 0% in 30 days. N. B.—Light southerly winds prevailed, rising gradually towards noon; closeness and oppression very great, at night particularly ; in the early part of this, and latter part of the preceding month, Cholera prevailing. | TABLE XII. A. Variation of the Wind at different Hours in the month of April, 1844. Result of Observations. (RS GEE pee SEES Ss RS SEES er a ene pre ee EY SE GS REE FS GS CE ee Hour : : : eer =e ea ale Ce a Se ae a | E |e 5 SUNFISG, nce ssi} 00 1 184)°*3 2 ri |e a SE ORT Mesa ititeae fi habe 2 } 19 1 5 1 at ee BRE hater) cee: oF asleticone | IW 1 3 6 | 2 PES iy eS eae Ae 22 ] 3 Spoil er Ms) scatter Bi. | éca,t wos |) EO 2 5 oO ties Sunset, eS eee 1 £525 2 Se es ee ee eS es et Mie Sh. 2 er99 | 16 19 13) 9 | 11—.180 ‘ — et | TT om meee omen | meme SY pes | Proportion ofeach .16 |.83 | .33 | 20.| 1.66| 3.16 2.16 15,.16(= 30 The aspect of the sky was clear in the proportion of 12>, and cloudy 43, cumuli strati and cumuli each 4, cirro cumuli 14, foggy %, haze 14, mist 0~ and cirro strati 03 in 30 days. N. B.—After a period of 3} months drought, a fall of rain at intervals took place, commencing about the middle of the month, accompanied with thunder; this checked the excessive heat, but the nights continued sultry and close. 546 Reduction of the Meteorological Register, TABLE XII. B. Aspect of the sky at different hours during the month of April, 1844. Result of Observations. TS NT ee ps a a plas RS Hour. la) Bole = = > ar ail tees G St et Oo ja lo cad s < q glS)ele lalgle|e| || — o — Re Sis|/ es =, ° =] = O1OO | -O WWIOleteS | ee Sunrise, wih: BS | eels clk) qe S) gether | a ele Oh. 50m, «> oe 16 ee ee 3 4 5) ee ee yy e ee Noon, ee ee 13 ° ee ee 4 6 e 4 ee 2 ] PAR COMO eo 1] ee e ee 6 4 ee 3 3S 3 4h. Pe Meee ee i ee ee ee 8 5 ee 2 4 ee Sunset, a. ssi ts poor dt 24 2) 1 10 - 1 a |) —_— | — | — | | | ee ee Total 6 — 0: Yate) 22 24\24)..| 27} 4 | 9] 5 |=180 Proportion. | 12.83l..| .33 [1.33] 4./4.|..| 4.5 |.66|1.5|.83/= 30 May 1844. There was high wind from the north on the 13th and 30th at 9h. 50m., and from the south on the 14th, 15th, and 26th; from the south-west at 4 p.m. on the 17th. The relative proportion of each wind during the month was follows :— South 16, south-east 34, south-west 23, east 23, north-east 1, north-west 03, north = and calm 3.33 in 31 days. [ee] TABLE XIII. A. Variations of the Wind at different hours in the Month of May, 1844. Result of Observationss. re en ee tee Se ene Se Se Hours. Ak : : Zl Ai a lo | oo | & ba 1S DUNTISG, 7 cvseee Sach RSs 6 9) : aati 2; 16 Oy DOMs coriaee RE Se i) 20 2 aS ] se PEOOIE) Po es csovens Slee REED L222 1 cele 2 i J reer 3| 1 2; 14 2 ae | 3 2 MAO!) esa 1 14 6 a Al SHS i Sunset, 1 20 Gswiss 2 3 2 6-1 5|-6| 4] \@6) O1B)) 6) 4 | 461) oplegae: —E — ————— —_—_— |. | —____ ee oe — | —___. _ —_— |) —— .83/1.} .66)16. | 3.16| 2.66! .66 | 2.66) 3.383|}= 31 4 , : : : Cloudy 8>, cumuli strati 63, cumuli 7, cirro strati 34, rain 13, clear ], generally clear 0; , cirro cumuli 03, mist 04, nimbi 04, thun- der 04, in 31 days. kept at Calcutta, 1845-44. 547 TABLE XIII. B. Aspect of the Sky at different Hours during the Month of May, 1844. Result of Observations. nr ee FS ES ES FR SS 2 : a ot SB Hours, : omg he 4/5) ele] elel ale (Bl 2/sie fe o| § |] 8/4 Seat ape be) wake be. ta O10 |/d/0]0 |Ole@io |e! Shia la SE ant he LO, Ld ew, fete At Gopal LT [esl ow hee! ( Thunder at 9h. 50m. .. ee] ee oe 2 ll 8 1 Clos | ke tae ae A open & Noon,.. eo ee ee 2 ee 9 13 0) Za ee ] ] ] ee 20th. |g ae ae Lit. TZ al ta lecl, os tes | 1 foUth thunder. 4h. 1a Me ®eles ee ee ee 9 7 eo 13 e ee l ] ee Sunset, --| ]} 3 Brio. Dae ee) Gi oie es ohalteede ss fs sadotal of iG PE ee ie I “a (ere each 63 + Gt a 21. 41-39 )42)° 9) .53 2 feet 2 d= 186 alia) ae Ur ach, st 8313.51 .66| 6.5 | 7/1.5'883)..' .331..1.33/.5/— 31 June 1844. High wind from the south and south-west on the 9th, 10th, 12th, 16th, 17th and 18th. South wind 133, south-west 5%, west 2, east 21, north-east 01, south-west 02, south-east 12, calm 23 in 30 days. TABLE XIV. Variations of the Wind at different Hours during the Month of June, 1844, Result of Observations. — ee, ee mE es ee Hours. A |S aj | = : A| i Sunrise, aa? eames S| we 12 2) 4; 1 a 8 9h. 50m. 2e¢ ee ee 3 1 6 2 10 5 1 2 Noon, ee ae es 1 2 Q 10 1 7¢ 3 3 ° Se ae | = (Gen AG ee Ai 4 1 4h. P. Me ee eo ee 2 ee 15 1° 7 ee 4 1 Sunset, aa: vee ee ce 1 19 4 a, 1 4 Total of each 6 — Sr ett 4 80; 10} 31] 12 13| 16/— 180 es | eee | oe | — aes | oo Proportion of each.|.33 | 1.83 .66 | 13.33! 1.66] 5.16| 2 | 2.16| 2.66!—=c0 Cloudy 133, cumuli 4~, cirro cumuli 22, cumulo strati 14 nim- bi 13, haze 14, thunder 02, drizzly 02, cirro strati 2, clear 2, generally clear }, rain 01 in 30 days. 548 Reduction of the Meteorological Register, TABLE XIV. A. Aspect of the Sky at different Hours, during the Month of June, 1844. Result of Observations. | | ee eee ee % | | a = oh Re ae = Hours. a os 3 § = S ¥ | ° my Sla/o (2 Ba il el as oS o | ] | -|o Si ee fb ie) — Hi Dio!lo | qdis ap| © ro) q N Sisikif |8 18 jel |) 2] 8] 218 Benes) © 3) 410 Se) ey) See Suutse, ss). salen AMA a Iba 2 a Me ete | aT ee cee Qh. 50m. ee 1 ee 4, 2 3 ee 14. es 3 3 ee ee Noon,.. ee ee ee 1 3 1 10 ee 12 ee 1 9 ak ee 2h. 40m. ac eolee 4 3 3 8 ee 10 . eo af i eo Drizzly 4h. Pe Me ee 4 1 3 1 3 6 ee 10 ee ee Q ee oy) haze Sunset. eo Pe: 2 1 1 eo v4 Ves ay A 1 1 2 eo Total of pee Proportion e 6 e se! ° . ° ee 5 ° 033 =— Of iceeh. 16 Al INES 1.16] 4.83].5 | 13.5 1.5] 1.5) -33/66 30 July 1844. High wind from the south on the 2d at noon. The following are the relative proportions of each wind during this month: south 8, south-east 53, east 44, south-west 34, west 24, north-west 1, north-east 14, and calm 34, in 30 days. N.B.—This was the only month in which north wind has not been noted on any one of the daily observations. TABLE XV. A. Variation of the Wind at different Hours during the Month of June 1844. Result of Observations. Hours a - a |S he ‘ Ee ZAl\Z'A2\/alal[o |e |e lo Sunrise,* .. Bend ss ea 4 2 2 ] BD dD 9h. 50m. ee ee ee ee, ] 5 9 4 3 7 ee Noon, * : cof ee | 1 ] Oe: Ars A Bl vee 2h.40m. «- eof 5: | 2:| eon ees |) 82"). oe 4h. Pp. M. oe . ] 10 8 3 fe | 6 oe Sunset, a 1 9 4) 7 1 2 5 Total ofeach6+ | ..| 9) 6 | 48| 34] 20] 15 | 27 | 21} = 180 Proportion of each. ae | 8 | 5.66] 3.33! 2.5 | 4.5135 1 = 30 * An observation is interrupted for Sunrise and noon on the 15th instant. kept at Calcutta, 1843-44, 549 The following are the proportions of the different aspects of the sky during May: cloudy 123, cumuli strati 64, cirro strati 34, cirro cumuli 03, cumuli 03, rain 3, nimbi 3, foggy 02, drizzly 02 in 3, in 80 days. TABLE XV. B. Aspect of the Sky at different Hours, during the Month of July, 1844. Result of Observations. | | | | | | | | | | | | “cn ae 5 [em : : ’ |: Beles i | > -|.2) P| o Hous, |g (5/58/29 82! gi<| 2 | S12) 2 |: pa [2) _— nm ~— — ot O15 o he Sle! ome a ie Bourise,* ..|..) .. Sere sei 4), AS) | 4 Ste ane Nie Ps 9h. 50m. Di eet 0 Guhl aie LR a el) Qe “AQ Bir a Noon,* Te Ob eee ie oie oe, 4h) LO ellie: 9 Beth Hels ( Cloudy 2h. 40m. ees ee ee l se 10 ee 3 12 ] 3 se ee 4 & haze. L Drizzly. 4h. P. M. ee oe eo 2 ee rp ee 4 is ee 2 Be ee 3dthunder. ( Thunder Sunset, eelee oe 9 eo ee ry 1 15 ee 3 z es ¢ on the L 30th. ! a a et te eee healed: ee.) 8.) Soe OB) 74 | 1118) 4° |i (= 180 eel . ne anal Henne tl Tennemenmntl Conn eenmeell Teme Gatnmemmemeiaedt Hemant’ tna Teed inmeeedll Hantieeneeetanmentoemeneenee’ Proportion of 3.331 .5 | 6.5 |.83!.3! 12.33! .16]3.| .66 |../—= 30 each. 4 August 1844. High wind on the 21st at noon. As in the preceding month south-east and east winds predomi- nated slightly over the south, the following are the relative propor- tions of each: south wind Be, south-east 64, east 52, south-west 23, west 14, north-west 12, north 0=, north-east 02, 33 calm in 31 days. * An observation is interrupted for Sunrise and Noon on the 15th instant. AB 550 Reduction of the Meteorological Register, TABLE XVI. A. Variation of the Wind at different Hours, in the Month of August, 1844. Result of Observations. Te ee re ene ee Hours. ‘ = a ay = : & Zlwaliaiati@ \wale ie | oS Sunrise, ee anes 1 0 Lee 7) Oa 6; 10 9h. 50m. ae RAE 1 2 3 8; 10 v2 0 4 | Noon, aie ets ] 0 Tt dal 6 4 1 a 0 2h. 40m. ie Ae 0 0 OV ats 6 3 3 5 1 4h. Pp. M. °. bytes 1 0 ] 7 4 5 1 7 2 Sunset, ee were 1 2 1} 10 2 2 1 H) 7 “EPotal of cach 6} Sa 7) pele ae Te Feels SS Proportion of each. ...-| 83 ~66| 1.1618.83' 6.33} 2.661 1.16] 5.66! 3.5'— 31 The aspect of the sky was as follows: cloudy 122, cumuli strati 72, rainy 33, nimbi 4, cirro cumuli 1, cumuli 0, cirro strati 04, drizzling 04, generally clear 03. TABLE XVI. B. Aspect of the Sky at different Hours, during the Month of August, 1844. Result of Observations. en Se ee ee ee ic ee = S on | ted ges Om eee Hours. = 5 A fe 3 ae ean aca eS |e ao > Soe = >) Pr s l=} ° me) 5 s\ 5 \2)8/2)4| 2 [Be] 2 OL Nl) Oa my ee cL ee ey ne Sunrise, eWieteid: 4! Ble agreral” (i local Me | 0 9h. 5m. coed Loot Oe Otek” go 0 2 ES: Vh eek + pe 0 Noon, ° ee 0 ] 0 12 ] 4 7 ee +) 1 2h. 40m wets 01010 9 0 Ole Baie ee 0 4h. P.M eee ° 0 1 () 6 0 Hy) 17 ee 2 ] Sunset, Coseloes 2 Tired 0 0 3) 15 ee 9) 2 Total of each 6 —}. 3| 6| 47 1| 22 7, —*/.. 24 3 i= 189 Proportion of each. '..]..} .5 3.5'.1| 7.5) .16/3.69 ics 4 o = 31 September 1844. No high wind, The winds were variable during this month, south and south-west being the prevailing points. The following are the proportions of each wind: south-west 6, south 54, south-east 4, east 22, west 4, north-west 24, north 1.16, north-east 1, and 32 calm in 30 days. N.B.—This, which is usually an unhealthy month in Calcutta, was remarkably exempt from sickness. kept at Calcutta, 1843-44. 551 TABLE XVII. A. Variations of the Wind at different Hours, during the Month of September, 1844. Result of Observations. Oe a en cr RY es ee ee bee ET Hours. = = a |. : ‘ ae FL PA ieee licegs oly eayery ce deed Ree, CD: | Sunrise, .. ah Rod ste 1 4 4 6 1 3 10 Pee es oe) a a | Be | eet. Noon, 3 oH eee 2 4 7 2 6 6 ect eee eta) i218 1044165161) 2 | .z ABs Mis: le ye) tal a l 3 6 4 6 3 5 1 Sunset, eo eo 3 ] eo 6 4 4 1 1 10 Total of each6 +| 7] 6 | 14| 32 | 24 | 36 | 24 | 16 | 21 |= 180 Proportion of each.| 1.16] 1 !233/5.33( 4.| 6. ' 4, [2.66] 3.5 |= 30 The aspect of the sky was clear 33, generally clear OF, cirro strati 3F ,cirro cumuli 1, cumuli strati 63, cumuli 22, rainy 2, cloudy 84, nimbi 14, light hazy 04, in 30 days. TABLE XVII. B. Aspect of the Sky at different Hours, during the Month of September, 1044. Result of Observations. pets a | Hours. =| 3 5 iE | 3 38 $ 5 JES Ze as peel det a “ o = = - 52) 2 ae) Bio | 228] 2 | 3 |s) 8 | & oO 6 [O19 Oo (Meio Ia] G | Sunrise, es oe 4 4 ll 3 ee aia ] 6 ee ] ee 9h. 50m, ee ee 5 eo 2 l 10 5 ] 3 es 2 ] MOOR, «bos 5 ae Tidy 13 4 1 bee 1; 1 Qh. 40m, se ee y. ee ee ee Z 6| 4 Seis 3 ee 4h. P.M. ee oe 2 oe 2 l 8 1 3 13 ee ee es MUMSet, «oes 4 l 7ige| ll sete 2a. Lise meet eae 20} 5! 93| 6| 39} 16|12} 49]..| 8} 2/180 ee Proportion - 3.33 | .83 (3,88 11. | 6.5 | 2.66)2, 8.16 «5 (1.33 33 |= 30 mre | mn mr ee ee ee | rere | meen | ee | a RE ET LT each, 552 Reduction of the Meteorological Register, October 1844. Winds variable ; west 31, north-west 2, east on , north 24, north- east 2, south 03, south-east 12, south-west 02, and calm 83 in 20 days. TABLE XVIII. A. Variations of the Wind at different Hours, during the Month of October, 1844. Result of Observations. Hours. ae = : A e i u * 7\A4)/4 bo | O jm a | oO Sunrise, 04) +o ] 1 1 0 2 0 0 1). 4 9h. 50m. sie ] 5 4-0 2 1 A SS 0 Noon, Jeeves Wess 3 OQ} az Zi 4 0 DhedOmaig sie Fats i) Maa 3 1 1 ] 4 3 0 Abe Peis tes ete 4 l 3) ] 2 0 4 3 0 Sunset,* .. . Sl speek 1 2 1 1 2 3 5 6, +| 15) 13| 17) 4}. 10} 5|. 19] edz) ey e9 The following are the proportions of the remarks on the aspect of the sky ; clear 3, generally so 14, cirro strati 1, cirro cumuli On, cumuli strati 02, cumuli 23, rainy 14, cloudy 43, foggy 04, nimbi 03, in 20 days. TABLE XVIII. B. Variations of the Wind at different Hours, during the Month of October, 1844. Result of Observations. ES ES EL NS SS ce SS = a 2G ee QO ° — Hours. b 3 3 = ; eal i a ° = = = = s|}Stelee | ge |e l= a ie ple one Fa} =] 3 2 r=) a Sh Oi. +. ae SN ee fae i SE a oe Sunrise, «- one Y 4 J 0 0 0 2 9) Lae Qh. 50m. ee -| 4 0 l 0 5 3 1 6 ai atts Noon, ie ee. OF GC. Ole 4 ] TAP 1 PAY 40m. oe ee | Q 1 0 a 6 ] 5 ah 1 4h. P. Ms ee 33 | ] ] 2 7 2 1 5i> ore Sunset,* .. 4 Bre 2is 3 ] 0 ] Hl ona ola Total of each o——} 18).-7). 6| 5) 30h J5|.-7) +28]. 1| | Setia a, ee | , SS aes ne ee Reed Proportionofesehs| Gawmaie!..1.| .93! 5, @ara.16) 4.66! .16| .2aeumgn ae * Observation on the 2d at Sunset interrupted, 993 An uniform fall of tempera- In December the fall of temperature took he increase of heat was gradual through- , the Thermometer gradually fell, rising slight- From this period it gradually fell, presenting The months of August and October ap- pril the early part of Ma y- he 20th to the 27th of June. A similar fluctuation in January, the lowest temperature being about the kept at Calcutta, 1843-44, . In February t the mean temperature of the year. 24th of July. ted nearly to The following Table exhibits the mean temperature of the days, months proxima and year reduced from six observations daily. ture is observed in November. ddle of the month out, and the Thermometer continued to rise with sudden fluctuations till in ml the early part of April, when it exhibited the maximum temperature of the place towards the middle of the month, rising slightly towards the end. The same is observed year. From the 10th of A sudden fluctuations from t took place about the ly : "82'Z8= Ivo ay} Jo ainje 2 dua], ueayy ee EY EE Re BORE Ree Se es me —— i i et ES EE Cc A ——, — 69'E8 GP'S8 | 69'S8 |VEPS |ZL°S8 |69°L8 |1S'68 (1S°98 |8Z'SL \S'L% | 66°TL] 8h'8L) ULE ee | —_—— ———> | —— —___ ————e ee ee | | | | | ee. | EL. 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The results bear on the peculiar effects of the cold season on the constitu- tion. The difference of temperature between October and November was 3.80, and between February and March 8.23, more than double the amount of all the changes put together from April to Septem- ber. The following exhibits these results. Between the Mean Temp. of Oct. and Noy. — 3.80 difference. — November and December, — 6.49 — — December and January,.. + .24 — — January and February, .. + 6.005 — — February and March, .. + 8.23 — oe March and April, oe Tt 3. — — Apriland May, .. «2. — 192 — — May and June,.. oo — 1.87 cam — June and July, -o = 138 — — July and August, oo 6650 = August and September,.. + 1.73 — —_ September and October, — 1.80 — The wet bulb thermometer would add greatly to the value of these results, but there are discrepancies in the register of the instrument in use, which prove it to be imperfect. With this exception, the observations are highly creditable, and have now we believe been continued for a sufficient series of years to render their results of the highest importance. Without drawing any conclusion from the results of a single year, particularly when we have materials for a series of years available, we may advert to the remarkable correspondence between the ratio of Variation of temperature, and that of Mortality, as exhibited in the following Table. The third column is taken from an important paper by Colonel Sykes, read at the recent meeting of the British Association, at York. kept at Calcutta, 1843-44: 555 TABLE XX. Shewing the mean monthly gradations of Temperature and Pressure for the year 1843-44, as compared with the Ratio of Mortality. Difference of Mean Temp Difference of Average. fe ncithatiod Mean pressure|Ratio of Mor- fac of from preceding} tality month- prece : month. ly. ing month. November, Bee gre, — 3.80 + .234 11.039 December, Teme — 6.49 + .884 10.351 January, ieee + .24 + .014 O77 February, lars + 6.05 — 022 6.870 March,.. Ga eaves + 8.23 — .222 8.850 April, .. prio iii bom + 3. — .137 10.232 Pee ee! 6 1,99 — 093 8.381 June, .. of — 1.87 — .379 5.822 oulgy oe a aaa — 1.38 + .333 6.671 August, shila — .65 — O01 7.631 EMECEMOCT, 2 a ge Pees + .146 8.008 October, Be o 6 — 1.80 029 8.895 It is necessary to observe, that the temperature of September and October last was lower than usual, the thermometer consequently exhibits a less remarkable depression in November 1843 as compared with October 1844, than it would be found to do in an average season ; the result therefore of a wider survey of these registers for a series of years, would show, I think, a still greater conformity be- tween the two ratios in question. Thus the greatest average monthly Mortality takes place in November, accompanied by a rapid full of temperature and increased pressure, as indicated by the rise of the Barometer. But Mortality diminishes, notwithstanding the increased intensity of these con- ditions, in December and January. Again, we find the ratio of Mortality to increase, (not with the increased ratio of temperature, because the lowest scale throughout the year, as shown by Colonel Sykes, is in June) with the ratio of variation; whether of the falling temperature of November, or the increasing heat of March. Some such general rule in the ordinary course of seasons, would appear to be indicated by the foregoing results, and however faintly, the subject is well worth pursuing. 556 On Microscopic Life in the Ocean at the South Pole, and at con- siderable depths. By Prof. Eurenpere.* The following is the substance of a paper laid by Professor Ehren- berg, May 28rd, 1844, before the Berlin Academy, and containing some of the results derived from his recent investigations upon materials furnished from the South Polar expedition of Captain Ross, and the voyages of Messrs. Darwin and Schayer ; their object being to determine the relation of minute organic life in the ocean, and at the greatest depths hitherto accessible. . Last year the author submitted to the Academy a survey of the geographical distribution of such organisms over the entire crust of the earth ; but the field of these inquiries being one of such vast extent and importance, it became evident to him, that to arrive at any positive general results, it was necessary to examine the subject under a more special point of view, and under this conviction, two different courses of investigation suggested themselves as best adapt- ed to fulfil that purpose; viz. first, to ascertain both the constant and periodical proportion which minute organisms bear to the surface of the ocean in different latitudes ; and secondly, to examine sub- marine soil or sea-bottom raised from the greatest possible depths. It is an easy matter, generally, to collect materials of this kind; but before applying to them the test of philosophic criticism and re- search, the author feels that it is essentially requisite to retrace the contributions of other writers upon the same subject; premising, however, that their value will always be enhanced in so far as the materials collected have been obtained with due care’and reference to their several localities. Very essential progress was made in our knowledge of the minute and invisible forms of organic life during the years devoted to this expedition by Captain Ross. In the year 1840, the Royal Society of London appointed a committee to prepare a series of physical and meteorological questions to be solved by the proposed expedi- tion; and it was at the express desire of the author that Alex. v. Humboldt undertook to suggest to that body the importance of * The Annals and Magazine of Natural History, No. 90, September, 1844. Microscopic Life in the Ocean at the South Pole. 557 attention being paid to the study of the relations under which minute organisms exist, as one likely to throw considerable light upon the principal questions now agitated, involved in the recent history of the earth’s crust, and also to recommend that the directions given by the author as to the methods of collecting them should be adopted throughout the whole voyage. Through the scientific ardour of Dr. J. Hooker, son of the well-known botanist, and a voyager on board the ship Erebus, a variety of valuable materials were collected dur- ing the expedition, and a short time back about forty packages and three glasses of water were transmitted to Germany from the neighbourhood of Cape Horn and Victoria Land. About the same time also, Mr. Darwin, the profound observer upon the forma- tion of coral reefs in the South-seas, contributed objects from other localities. The author set about examining carefully without delay, as such an opportunity might not again recur, water which had been taken from the South Polar sea of from 75° to 78° 10’ south latitude, and 162° west longitude, with a view of determining its relative amount of minute organic life. Of the dry materials some packets only have as yet been examined, those namely which from their localities appear to possess the greatest interest, and among these were speci- mens of the remains of melted polar ice and sea-bottom, taken under south latitudes 63° and 78°, from depths of 190 to 270 fa- thoms (i. e. 1140—1620 feet), the greatest depths that have been hitherto sounded. The relations of minute organic life were found, as the author had anticipated, to be the same at the south as at the north pole, and generally of great extent and intensity at the greatest depths of the ocean. Previous observations upon those loftiest mountains whose pin- nacles are capped with eternal ice, had determined that a gradual progressive disappearance of organic life takes place from the base to their summit, and that too in accordance with particular laws ; to the tree succeeding the lowly shrub, next grass and lichens, till finally we arrive at the regions of perpetual snow where there is a complete absence of all life. In like manner the development of organized beings has been conceived to diminish from the equa- A 4c 558 Microscopic Life in the Ocean at the South Pole. tor to the arctic regions of the earth, the latter becoming first destitute of trees, then of grass, lastly of lichens and alge until at the poles ice and death hold solemn reign. The greatest depths in the ocean at which Mollusca had been found to exist were, according to the observations of Mr. Cuming in the year 1834, the genera Venus Cytherea and Venericardia at 50, Byssoarca at 75, and Terebratula in 90 fathom water. Ac- cording to Milne-Edwards and Elie de Beaumont, 244 metres, or 732 foot, formed the extreme range for the growth of corals and the development of organic matter in the sea off the coast of Barbary. From a 100-fathom depth, Peron drew up in the year 1800, off New Holland, Sertularie and a variety of corallines, which were all luminous, and on an average three degrees higher in temperature than the surface of the sea. In 1824 and 1825 Quoy and Gaimard, in their valuable researches upon the structure of corals, asserted that branched corallines could occur only in a depth of from 40 to 50 fathom, and that in a 100 fathom of water Refe- pora alone existed. According to Ellis and Mylius, who wrote in 1753, the greatest known depth from which a living animal had been taken was the Umébellaria Kncrinus, which was fished up by Captain Adrian in Greenland from 236 fathom of water, equal to a depth of 1416 foot. Specimens, however, of the sea-bottom have been drawn up from still greater depths; for at Gibraltar, Captain Smith found in 950 fathom, or 5700 foot of water, sand containing fragments of shells; and Captain Vidal, according to Mr. Lyell, detected in the mud of Galway Firth, from a depth of 240 fathom, only some Dentalia, the remainder of the sea-bottom fram the same depth consisting of pulverized shells and other organic remains devoid of life. According to the calculations of Parrot, a column of sea-water at a depth of 1500 foot exercises a pressure of 750 pound, or 7} hundred-weight, upon the square inch ; and since the atmospheric air enclosed in these animals of a delicate cellular structure descend- ing from the surface of the ocean would produce alternately such extremes of expansion and contraction as to appear destructive to such organisms, just doubts have been raised whether organic life could actually subsist at great depths, Microscopic Life in the Ocean at the South Pole, 559 Wollaston, moreover, in 1840 proved that at the great depth of 670 fathom, in the Mediterranean Sea off Gibraltar, the proportion of salt in the water was four times greater than at the surface. Very accurate and scientific investigations upon the amount of salts of the sea had been already published by Lenz in Petersburg during 1830; and Mr. Lyell, in his ‘ Geology’ of 1840, was induc- ed to regard the observations of Wollaston not as simply indicating a local phenomenon, but to conclude that at still greater depths the relative proportion of saline matter would be still more remarkable, and must progress in a similar advancing ratio. Lastly, Elie de Beaumont, in 1841, adopted the opinion, that the limits to which the waters of the sea had been found by Siau capable of being set in motion, must be also those at which ses- sile marine animals could exist, since these have to wait for their food, which in this way only could be conveyed to them, and that consequently the limits of stationary organic life, taken in con- junction with the depth of the waves, could not much exceed 200 metres or 600 foot. Such considerations, deeply affecting the general science of geo- logy, and to which must be added observations upon the increase of temperature towards the centre of the earth have ever suggested as an interesting matter for inquiry to the author, to examine minute organic life in relation to the depth of the element in which it could exist. Science indeed owes a great debt of gratitude to those travel- lers who have so industriously provided the materials of this in- vestigation ; in respect of which materials it may be observed generally, that they are very rich in quite new typical forms, particularly in genera, of which some contain several species ; these, occasionally with some mud and fragments of small crustaceans, form the chief part of the mass. The new genera* and species are here recorded, and of these the Asteromphali are very remarkable, from their particularly beautiful stellate forms. * Ofthe 7 new genera of Polygastrica, viz, Anaulus, Asteromphalus, Che- toceros, Halionyx, Hemiaulus, Hemizoster, and Triauéacias, short characters are given in the Proceedings of the Academy : also of the 71 new species. 560 Microscopic Life in the Ocean at the South Pole. Analysis of the various materials furnished by Dr. Hooker from the South Polar Voyage. J]. Residue from some melted Pancake Ice* at the barrier in 78° 10’ S. lat., 162° W. long. A. SILICEOUS POLYGASTRICA. 27. Dictyocha Ornamentum. 28. -. septenaria. 29. -.. Speculum. 30. Flustrella concentrica. 31. Fragilaria acuta, 32. oes Amphiceros. 33. Gallionella pileata. 34 sae sulcata ? 35. HALIONYX senarius. 36. ae duodenarius. 37. Hemravuus antarcticus. 38. Hemizoster tubulosus. 39. Lithobotrys denticulata. 40. Lithocampe australis. 41. Pysxidicula dentata. 42. She hellenica. 43. Rhizosolenia Calyptra. 44. te Ornithoglossa. 45. Symbolophora Microtrias. 46. eee Tetras. 47. ae Pentas. 48, aie Hexas. 49. Synedra Ulna? 50. Triceratium Pileolus. 51. Zygoceros australis. B, SILICEOUS PHYTOLITHARIA. 1. Actinoptychus biternarius. 2. AstERoMPHALUS Hookerii. 3. ea Rossi. 4. Buchii. 5. one Beaumontii. 6. Humboldti. qa ng Cuvierii. 8. Coscinodiscus actinochilus. 9: eee Apollinis. 10. ies cingulatus. Li; eccentricus. 12. gemmifer. 13. limbatus. 14, lineatus. 15. Lune. 16. ee Oculus IJridis, 17. oe radiolatus. 18. Bae subtilis. 19. wis velatus. 20. Dicladia antennata. 21 - bulbosa. 22. Dictyocha aculeata. 23. ve Binoculus. 24. biternaria. 25. Epiodon. 26. sists octonaria. 52. Amphidiscus Agaricus. 53. clavatus. 54. Helvella. 55. Lithasteriscus bulbosus. . Spongolithis acicularis 57. Spongolithis aspera. 58. --» brachiata. 59. -. Caput serpentis. 60. « | cenocephala, 61. eu, CLAVUS? * Thin and level fragments of ice found floating in the ocean. Microscopic Life in the Ocean at the South Pole. 561 62. Spongolithis collaris. 69. Spongolithis radiata. 63. .. _Fustis. 70. .. trachelotyla. 64. ... Heteroconus. fae ... Lrachystauron. 65. He inflexa. 72. ... Lrianchora. 66. ... Leptostauron. 73. .. vaginata. 67. awe mesogongyla. 74. «. verticillata. 68. as neptunia. 75. ... wuncinata. C. CALCAREOUS POLYTHALAMIA. 76. Grammostomum divergens, 78. Rotalia Erebi. 77. Rotalia antarctica. 79. Spiroloculina— ? In several forms of the genus Cossinodiscus their green ovaries were recognizable, consequently they must have been alive. 2. Residue from melted ice, while the ship sailed through a broad tract of brown pancake ice, in 74° to 78° south latitude. (Ma- terials from 75° S. lat., 170° W. long.) A. SILICEOUS POLYGASTRICA. 1. AstErompPHALus Buchii. 8. Dictyocha aculeata. 2 Rossii. 9. Eunotia gibberula. 3. Coscinodiscus. lineatus. 10. Fragilaria acuta. 4. as Lune. 11. .. pinnulata. 5 Oculus Iridis. 12. -.. rotundata. 6 radiolatus. 13. Hemiau.us antarcticus. ‘A oa subtilis. 14. Hemizosrer tubulosus. B. SILICEOUS PHYTOLITHARIA. 15. Spongolithis Fustis? Fragm. These and the former specimens were sent over in bottles of water. They were the same sealed bottles in which they were collected in the year 1842. In the first little bottle, in which the sediment was considerable, almost every atom being a distinct siliceous organism, Hemiaulus antarcticus predominated, The larger bottle of the se- cond mass had allowed the greater part to leak through the sealed cork, so that only about a quarter remained. The mass of sediment arrived in Berlin in May 1844, almost all in such a condition, that the author had no hesitation in considering them still alive, although they all belonged to the almost or perfectly motionless forms. The Fragilarias predominated F, (pinnulata) ; these, though rarely adher- 562 Microscopie Life in the Ocean at the South Pole. ent in chains, had their green ovaries mostly preserved in a distinct natural disposition ; Coscinodisct and Hemiaulus also often exhibited groups of green granules in their interior. No movement. The following numbers were sent over dried :— 3. Sea-bottom drawn up by the lead from 190 fathom depth, in 78° 10'S. lat., 162° W. long. A. SILICEOUS POLYGASTRICA. 1, AsteromeuaLus Hookeri. 14, Fragilaria al. sp. 2. i Buchii. 15. Gallionella Sol. 3. Humboldtii. 16. Hemiavuuus antarcticus. 4. ius Cuvieriz. 17. Lithobotrys denticulata. 5. Coscinodiscus Apollinis. 18. Mesocena Spongolithis. 6. gemmifer. 19. Pysxidicula. i = limbatus. 20. Rhizosolenia Ornithoglossa. 8. lineatus. 21. Symbolophora ? Microtrias. 2: Lune. 22. ae Tetras. 10. ses radiolatus. 23. wae Pentas. 11. Dictyocha septenaria. 24. ee Hexas. 12. Speculum. 25. Triavuxactias triquetra. 13. Fragilaria Amphiceros. 26. T'riceratium Pileolus. B. SILICEOUS PHYTOLITHARIA. 27. Amphidiscus Polydiscus. 34. Spongolithis Fustis. 28. Spongolithis acicularis. 35. «» neptunia. 29. «. | asperde 36. tee Pes Meniidis. 30. .. brachiata. 37. see Lrianchora. 3l. ... Caputserpentis. 38. oe =: Vaginata. 32. «». cenocephala. 39. es. uncinata. 336 oo Clavus. 4, From snow and ice taken from the sea in 76° 8S. lat., 165° W. long., near Victoria Land. SILICEOUS POLYGASTRICA. 1. Coscinodiscus lineatus. 4, Fragilaria pinnulata. 2. soe Lune. 5. .. rotundata 3. a subtillis. 6. spe a@li AP. Microscopic Life in the Ocean at the South Pole. 563 The chief mass was densely crowded with Fragilaria pinnulata and with Coscinodiscus, which on softening in water generally exhi- bited their green ovaries, perhaps originally brown. 5. Contents of the stomach of a Salpa, 66° S. lat., 157° W. long. 1842. SILICEOUS POLYGASTRICA. 1. Actiniscus Lancearius. 8. Dictyocha aculeata. 2. Coscinodiscus Apollinis. 9. ae Speculum. 3 cingulatus. 10. Fragilaria acuta. a. eae gemmifer. By: See granulata. 5 lineatus. 12. .. ~ rotundata. 6 Lune. 13. Hextronyx duodenarias. 7 subtilis. 14, Pyw«idicula. This materiai contained a large number of Dictyochas, which evi- dently must have been particularly sought for by the Salpa, since they do not occur in the other samples, and consequently appear to be a favourite food of the Salpa. 6. Flakes floating on the surface of the ocean in 64° S. lat., 160° W. long. They are like the Oscillatorie of our waters, matted with delicate fibres and granules interspersed through the mass. The chief sub- _ stance is formed of siliceous, very delicate, lateral tubes of the quite new and peculiar genus Chetoceros. ‘The nature of the granules remains doubtful. ‘The other forms are scattered through this mat- ted substance ; all exhibit however their dried-up ovaries, and con- sequently were collected alive. SILICEOUS POLYGASTRICA. 1. AsterompPHatus Darwinit. 10. Dictyocha aculeata. 2. Re Hookerii. 11. .. Binoculus. 3. naa Rossii. 12. oaig Ornamentum,. 4. Buchii. 13. we Speculum. 5. Humboldti. 14. Fragilaria Amphiceros. 6. Cuetoceros Dicheta. 15. S63 granulata. f. Tetracheta. 16. Hemtauxus obtusus. 8. Coscinodiscus lineatus. 17, Lithobotrys denticulata. 9. on subtilis. 564 Microscopic Life in the Ocean at the South Pole. 7. The mass brought up by the lead from the bottom of the sea in the Gulf of Erebus and Terror, at the depth of 207 fathoms, in 63° 40' N. lat., 55° W. long. The following species, occasionally with distinct green ovaries, were found in this very small sample, mixed among the apparently unorganic sand. B. SILICEOUS POLYGASTRICA. 1. Anautus scalaris. 8. Fragilaria rotundata. 2. Biddulphia ursina. 9. Gallionella Sol. 3. Coscinodiscus Apollinis. 10. Bo Tympanum. 4. a8 cingulatus. 11. Grammatophora parallela. 5. Coseinodiscus Lune. 12. Hemiauuus antarcticus. 6. ae subtilis. 13. Rhaphoneis faciolata. c fos velatus. 14. Zygoseros ? australis. B. SILICEOUS PHYTOLITHARIA. 15. Spongolithis acicularis. 16. Spongolithis Fustis. 8. Sea-bottom drawn up by the lead from 270 fathom, in 63° 40’ S. lat., 55° W. long. A. SILICEOUS POLYGASTRICA. 1. Achnanthes turgens. 18. Fragilaria pinulata. 2. Amphora libyca. 19. Gallionella Oculus. 3. Anautus scalaris. 20. cae ROL. 4, Biddulphia ursina. 21. --. sulcata. 5. Campylodiscus Clypeus. 22. Grammatophora africana. 6. Coscinodiscus Apollinis. 23. ane parallela As oes gemmifer. 24. sie serpentina. 8 se lineatus. 25. Hemiavutus antarcticus. 9. Lune. 26. Lithocampe nu. sp. 10. de Oculus Tridis. 27. Mesocena Spongolithis. 11. be radiolatus. 28. Navicula elliptica. 12. eee subtilis. 29. Podosphenia cuneata. 13. Denticella levis. 30. Pyxidicula hellenica ? 14. Discoplea Rota. 31. Rhaphoneis fasciolata. 15. ieee Rotula. 32. Rhizosolenia Calyptra. 16. Flustrella concentrica. 33) ade Ornithoglossa. 17. Fragilaria Amphiceros 34. Séauroptera aspera. Microscopic Life in the Ocean at the South Pele. 565 35. Symbolophora Microtrias. 38. Symbolophora Hexas. 36. Pe Tetras. 39, Synedra Ulna. 37. ae Pentas. B, SILICEOUS PHYTOLITHARIA. 40 Amphidiscus clavatus. 47. Spongolithis Heteroconus. 41. Spongolithis acicularis. 48. eae angens. 42. aes aspera. 49. Hs neptunia. 43. ap brachiata. 50. ay obtusa. 44, aa Caput serpentis. ol. ave vaginata, 45. a2 Clavus. 52. fale uncinata. * 46. jity, Fustis. C. CALCAREOUS POLYTHALAMIA. 53. Grammostomum divergens. 9. Samples from Cockburn’s Island, the furthest limit of vege- tation at the South Pole, 64° 12’ S. lat., 57° W. long. Off Cockburn’s Island (Cockburn’s Head) Dr. Hooker saw an Alga, as the lowest and furthest step of vegetation, with forms of Protococcus. The Alga is one of the Tetraspora allied to Ulva, which Dr. Hooker has reserved, in order to describe more accu- rately : I have not recognised the Protococcus in its dried condition. This mass, however, is chiefly and equally peopled with and made up of Siliceous Polygastrica. An apparently unorganic sand, penguins’ feathers and excrements, the Ulva, and only five as yet distinguished species of siliceous Infusoria in great numbers, form the mass sent over. The vegetable substances may indeed have disappeared by putrefaction. The excrement of the birds, like guano, might abundantly furnish solid matter; but the solid silice- ous earthy element of the little invisible polygastric animals ap- pears to form no inconsiderable part of the solid substance, which by the death of generations goes to form earth and land. The following forms were observed :— SILICEOUS POLYGASTRICA. 1. Eunotia amphioxys. 4. Rhaphoneis Scutellum. 2. Pinnularia borealis. 5. Stauropiera capitata. 3. ans peregrina? Ip 566 Microscopic Life in the Ocean at the South Pole. Two forms are new, two have been observed also at the north pole, and one is widely distributed. II. Oceanic materials from M. Schayer. M. Schayer of Berlin, who for fifteen years was superintendent of English sheep-folds at Woolnorth in Van Diemen’s Land, has, in answer to a request sent to him in the year 1842 by the author, collected materials unquestionably rich in microscopic animals ; he also collected water taken from the ocean in different regions on his return in 1843, and brought with him to Berlin four bottles holding from a quarter to half a pint. The author had wished that water had been drawn up at a distance from the coast in accurately known places, in order to become acquainted in some measure with the usual amount of microscopic life of the ocean. The four well-preserved sealed bottles which have arrived in Berlin were shown to the Academy by the author, and the water is still quite clear and transparent, having only a few flakes at the bottom, which render it turbid when shaken, but soon subside again to the bottom, and the former transparency is restored. When opened, a slight but yet evident trace of sulphuretted hydrogen was perceptible. The microscopic investigation has given the following results : 1. Water from the south of Cape Horn on the high sea under 57° S. lat., 70° W. long., contained— SILICEOUS POLYGASTRICA. 1. Fragilaria granulata. 3. Lithostylidium Serra. 2. Hemrauxus obtusus, 2. Water from the region of the Brazilian coast near Rio de Janeiro on the high sea, in 23° S. lat., 28° W. long. A. SILICEOUS POLYGASTRICA. 1. Cocconeis Scuttellum. 6. Navicula Scalprum. 2. Fragilaria Navicula. 7. Pinnularia oceanica. 3. Gallionella sulcata. 8. shu peregrina. 4. Haliomma radiatum. 9. Surirella sigmoidea. qr . Navicula dirhynchus. 10. Synedra Ulna. Microscopic Life in the Ocean at the South Pole. 567 B. SILICEOUS PHYTOLITHARIA. 11. Spongolithis aspera. 13. Spongolithis Fustis. 12. ate cenocephala. 14. wan vaginata. 3. Water from the equatorial ocean in direction of St. Louis in Brazil, in 0° lat., 28° W. long. A. SILICEOUS POLYGASTRICA. 1, Fragilaria rhabdosoma. 2. Fragilaria Navicula. B. SILICEOUS PHYTOLITHARIA. 3. Lithostylidium rude. 4. Lithostylidium Serra. 4, Water from the Antilles Ocean, 24° N. lat., 40° W. long. A. SILICEOUS POLYGASTRICA. 1. Haliomma radiatum. B. SILICEOUS PHYTOLITHARIA. 2. Lithodontium nasutum. 4. Lithostylidium rude. 3. Lithostylidium Amphiodon. C. MEMBRANOUS PORTIONS OF PLANTS. 5. Pollen pini. It follows from these four series of observations obtained through M. Schayer, that the ocean, in its usual condition, without pecu- liarity of colour, without storms and other influences, contains, in the most transparent sea-water, numerous perfect and wholly invisible organisms suspended in it, and that the siliceous-shelled species are the most predominant in all those cases, although the analysis of sea- water does not show silica as a constant ingredient, III. On a Cloud of Dust which rendered the whole air hazy for a long time on the high Atlantic Ocean in 17° 43’ N. lat., 26° W, long., and its being constituted of numerous siliceous animalcules. Mr. Darwin, the well-known and most meritorious English travel- ler and writer on coral reefs, relates in the account of his travels, that a fine dust constantly fell from the hazy atmosphere off the Cape Verd Islands, and also on the high sea of that region, while he was 568 Microscopic Life in the Ocean at the South Pole. there ; and likewise on a ship, which, according to the account in his letter, was 380 sea-miles distant from land. The wind was then blowing from the African coast. Mr. Darwin has sent to the author for examination a sample of the dust which fell on the ship on the _ high sea at that great distance from land. This dust has been uni- versally regarded hitherto as volcanic ashes. The microscopic analy- sis has clearly shown that a considerable portion, perhaps one-sixth of the mass, consists of numerous speceis of Siliceous Polygastrica and portions of silicated terrestrial plants, as follows :— A. SILICEOUS POLYGASTRICA. 1 Campylodiscus Clypeus. 10. Himantidium Arcus. 2. Eunotia Amphioxys. 11. ae Papilio. 3. eS pibberula. 12. Navicula affinis ? 4. Gallionella crenata. 13. -- _ lineolata. D. 346 distans. 14, ... +~=Semen. 6 granulata. 15. Pinnularia borealis. ? 7 te marchica. 16. = gibba. 8 procera. 17. Surirella (peruviana ?) 9, Gomphonema rotundatum ? 18. Synedra Ulna. B. SILICEOUS PHYTOLITHARIA. 19. Amphidiscus Clavus. 29. Lithostylidium Ossiculum. 20. Lithodontium Bursa. 30. se quadratum. 21. sa curvatum. 31. te rude. 22. oes furcatum. 32. bale Serra. 23. aes nasutum. 33. mee spiriferum. 24. ves truncatum. 34. Spongolithis acicularis. 25. Lithostylidium Amphiodon. 35. oo aspera. 26. as clavatum. 36. eee mesogongyla. 27. oe cornutum. 37. ae obtusa. 28. as leeve. The forms included in this catalogue, mostly known and for the most part European, prove— 1, That this meteoric shower of dust was of terrestrial origin. 2. That it is not volcanic ash. ; 3. That it was dust which had been lifted up to a great height from a dried-up marshy district by an unusually strong current of air or a whirlwind, Microscopic Life in the Ocean at the South Pole. 569 4. That the dust did not necessarily and evidently come from Africa, as being the nearest land, although the wind blew from thence when the dust fell; for this reason, that no exclusively African forms are among it. 5. That as Himantidium Papilio, a very marked form, has hitherto occurred only in Cayenne (see the Mikroskopische Leben in Sud- und Nord-Amerika, plate 2. fig. 2.), and as the Surirella is also pro- bably an American form, only two conclusions present themselves ; either that the dust was raised in South America into the upper strata of air, and brought by a change of the current in another di- rection, or Himantidium Papilio, together with Surirelia, likewise occur elsewhere, namely in Africa. Review of the Results of these Investigations. 1. Not only is there, as resulted from the former observations of the author (vide d. Mikroskopische Leben in Amerika, Spitz- bergen, &c.), an invisible minute creation in the neighbourhood of the Pole, where the larger animals can no longer subsist, but a similar creation is highly developed at the South Pole. 2. Even the ice and snow of the South Polar Sea is rich in living organisms, contending successfully with the extremity of cold. 3. The microscopic living forms of the South Polar Sea contain great riches hitherto wholly unknown, frequently of very elegant shape, since no less than seven peculiar genera have been discovered, of which some contain several, one as many as seven species. 4, The forms collected in the year 1842, near Victoria Land, were capable of being examined in an almost fresh state in Berlin in May 1844, which shows how long preservation is possible. 5. The ocean is not only populated at certain localities and in inland seas or on the coasts, with invisible living atoms, but is pro- portionately thickly crowded with life everywhere in the clearest state of the sea-water and far from the coasts. _ 6, Hitherto but one perfectly microscopic form from the high sea was known, and even that from the neighbourhood of the coast, namely the Astasia oceanica, which Von Chamisso had observed ; 570 Colouring of the Waters of the Red Sea. all other accounts were imperfect and useless. By the new materials the number of species is increased nearly 100. 7. The hitherto observed oceanic microscopic forms are chiefly siliceous-loricated animals with some calcareous-shelled. Do these numerous forms derive the material of their shells from the bottom of the sea ? This question becomes daily more interesting. 8. Siliceous and calcareous-shelled minute living forms are not only mixed up with the muddy sea-bottom, but they themselves form it. They live even to a depth of 270 fathom, and consequent- ly support a pressure of water equal to 50 atmospheres ; the whole influence of this does not indeed bear upon their organic tissues when they are locally fixed, but when they move from the bottom upwards or reversely ; yet it does not appear to have acted on the drawn up specimens. Who can doubt but that organic beings which can support a weight of 50 atmospheres may support 100 and more? 9. The supposition, that in great depths, above 100 fathom, there is no fresh nutriment for organized beings of any kind, has become untenable. 10. Life and temperature in the depths of the ocean are, in their variable relation, the points which at present deserve especial attention. 11. The showers of meteoric dust, or supposed ashes, have at present been proved to be, even in the case where they fell 380 sea-miles from land, of organic and terrestrial origin. 12, It is not perishable Protococct or Ulve or Lichens that principally constitutes the organic covering and soil of ‘the ulti- mate islands in the Polar Sea; but the living creatures that form the first layer of solid earth are invisible, minute, free animals of the genera Pinnularia, Eunotia and Stauroneis with their siliceous loricee. Several species from the North Pole and the South Pole are identical. Colouring of the Waters of the Red Sea. A memoir on the colour of the waters of the Red Sea, by M. Montagne, was read at the Académie des Sciences, July 15th. The conclusions which the author draws from all the facts contained in Colouring of the Waters of the Red Sea. 571 his memoir, whether already known or entirely new and still unpub- lished, are the following :— 1. That the name of Erythrean Sea, given first to the sea of Oman and to the Arabian Gulf by Herodotus, afterwards by the later Greek authors to all the seas which bathe the coasts of Arabia, probably owes its origin to the very remarkable phenomenon of the colouring of its waters. 2. That this phenomenon, observed for the first time in 1823 by M. Ehrenberg in the bay of Tor only, then again seen twenty years later by M. Dupont, but in truly gigantic dimensions, is owing to the presence of a microscopic Alga sui generis, floating at the surface of the sea, and even less remarkable for its beautiful red colour than for its prodigious fecundity. 3. That the reddening of the waters of the lake of Morat by an Oscillatoria which DeCandolle has described, has the nearest re- lation to that of the Arabian Gulf, although the two plants are gene- rically very distinct. 4, That as we may well suppose, according to the accounts of navigators, who mention striking instances of the red colouring of the sea, these curious phenomena, though not observed till quite recently, have nevertheless without doubt always existed. 5. That this unusual colouring of seas is not exclusively caused, as Péron and some others seem to think, perhaps as being chiefly zoologists, by the presence of mollusca and microscopic animalcules, but that it is often also due to the reproduction, perhaps periodical and always very prolific, of some inferior alge, and in particular of the species of the singular genus Trichodesmium. 6. Lastly, that the phenomenon in question, although generally confined between the tropics, is however not limited to the Red Sea, nor indeed to the Gulf of Oman; but that, being much more gene- ral, it is found in other seas, for example in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, as appears in the ‘ Journal of Researches’ by Mr. Darwin, and from the unpublished documents of Dr. Hinds, communicated by Mr. Berkeley, and from which the following extract is given :— ‘“‘Dr. Hinds, who sailed in the ship Sulphur, sent to explore the western coasts of North America, first observed on the 11th of Feb- ruary 1536, near the Abrolhos Islands, the same Alga doubtless 572 Fossil Molar Tooth of a Mastodon Australis: which Mr. Darwin saw at the same date. This Alga was again seen many days running. Some specimens of it having been brought to Dr. Hinds, he perceived that a penetrating odour escaped from it which had before been thought to come from the ship; this odour much resembled that which exhales from damp hay. In April 1837, the Sulphur being at anchor at Libertad, near St. Salvador, in the Pacific, Dr. Hinds again saw the same Alga. ‘«‘ A land breeze drove it for three days in very thick masses about the ship. The sea exhibited the same aspect as at the Abrolhos Islands, but the smell was still more penetrating and disagreeable ; it caused in a great many persons an irritation of the conjunctive, followed by an abundant secretion of tears. Dr. Hinds himself ex- perienced it. The Alga in question constitutes a distinct species of the genus Trichodesmium, and is named by M. Montagne 7. Hindsiz. It differs from that of the Red Sea both in dimensions and smell.”— Comptes Rendus, 15th July, 1844. Description of a Fossil Molar Tooth of a Mastodon discovered by Count Strzlecki in Australia. By Prof. Owsn, F.R.S. The large fossil femur, transmitted to England in 1842, by Lieut. Col. Sir T. L. Mitchell, Surveyor-General of Australia, from the alluvial or tertiary deposits of Darling Downs, and described in the ‘Annals of Natural History’ for January 1843, p. 8. fig. 1, gave the first indication of the former existence of a large Mastodontoid quadruped in Australia. The portion of tooth described and figured in the same communi- cation (p. 9. figs. 2 and 8), presenting characters very like those of the molars of both the Mastodon giganteus as well as of the Dinothe- rium, and being from the same stratum and locality as the femur with which it was transmitted, was regarded by me as having most probably belonged to the same animal; and, on the authority of drawings subsequently received from Sir T. Mitchell, was referred to the genus Dinotherium.* Having since received specimens of portions of lower jaws with teeth identical in structure with the fragment figured in my first * Annals of Natural History, May 1843, pe 329, figs 1. Fossil Molar Tooth of the Mastadon Australis. 573 communication to the ‘Annals’ (p. 9, figs. 2 and 3), I find that the reference to that portion of tooth to the genus Dinotherium was premature and erroneous. The extinct species to which it be- longed does, indeed, combine molar teeth like those of the Dinothe- rium with two large incisive tusks in the lower jaw, but these tusks incline upwards instead of bending downwards, and are identical in form and structure with the tusk from one of the bone-caves of Wel- lington Valley, described by me in Sir T. Mitchell’s ‘ Expeditions into the Interior of Australia,’ vol. ii. 1838, p. 362. pl. 31, figs. 1 and 2, as indicative of a new genus and species of gigantic marsupial ani- mal*, to which I gave the name of Diprotodon australis. It is not my present object to describe these most interesting ad- ditional fossils of the Diprotodon, or to enter into the question whe- ther the great femur before alluded to belonged, like the fragment of tooth transmitted with it, to the Diprotodon, or to a different and larger animal ; but briefly to make known the more decisive evidence of the former existence of a large Mastodontoid quadruped in Aus- tralia, which is afforded by the tooth figured, on the scale of half an inch to one inch, in the subjoined cuts. Fig. 1. \ SLY Wy F \ imi SS) \ \" \\ _Siynatao™ iit e. ese a WI Wey Casuals Mastodon australis, half nat. size. If these figures be compared with those of the molar teeth of the Mastodon angustidens, reduced to the same scale, in Cuvier’s ‘ Osse- mens Fossiles,’ 4to. vol. i., ‘ Divers Mastodontes,’ pl. 2. fig. 11, pl. 3, fig. 2, or with that of the more abraded molar, pl. 1, fig. 4, they will be seen to present a generic and almost specific identity. t See also my paper “ On the Classification of Marsupialia,” Zool. Trans, vol. ii. p. 332; in which the Diprotodon is placed with the Wombat in the family ‘ Phascolomyide.’ ARE 574 Fossil Molar Tooth of the Mastodon Australis. The close approximation of the Australian Mastodon to the Mast. angustidens will be appreciated by a comparison of fig. 1 with a simi- lar direct side-view of an equally incompletely-formed molar given by Cuvier, loc. cit. pl. 1. fig. 1; but this tooth, being from a more posterior part of the jaw, has an additional pair of pyramidal emi- nences ; and if the proportions of the figure of half an inch be ac- curate, the European tooth is rather smaller than the Australian fos- Fig. 2. ol us S Mastodon australis, half nat. size. sil, notwithstanding its additional tubercles and more backward position in the jaw. The Australian fossil tooth here described was brought by a native to Count Strzlecki, whilst that enterprising and accomplished traveller was exploring the ossiferous caves in Wellington Valley. The native stated that the fossil was taken out of a cave further in the interior than those of Wellington Valley, and which Count Strzlecki was deterred from exploring by the hostility of the tribe then in possession of the district. With this circumstantial account, communicated to me by Count Strzlecki when he obligingly placed the fossil in my hands, and with the previous indication of a large Mastodontoid quadruped in the femur transmitted by Sir T. Mitchell from Darling Downs, there seems no ground for scepticism as to the veritable Australian origin of the molar tooth in question, notwith- standing its close similarity with the Mastodon angustidens of the European tertiary strata. It is partially mineralized and coated by the reddish ferruginous earth characteristic of the Australian fossils dis- coyered in the Wellington ossiferous caves by Sir T. Mitchell. Fossil Molar Tooth of the Mastodon Australis. 575 The amount of difference between the Australian molar and those of the European Mastodon angustidens, though small, equals that by which the molars of the Mastodon Andium are distinguished from the molars of the Mastodon angustidens ; and if species so nearly al- lied have left their remains in countries so remote as France and Peru, still more if the Mastodon angustidens or longirostris formerly existed, as has been affirmed, in North America, we need feel the less surprise at the discovery of a nearly allied species in the continent of Australia. The fossil in question is the crown of an incompletely formed molar, with the summits of its mastoid or udder-shaped eminences entire, its fangs undeveloped, and its base widely excavated by the unclosed pulp-cavity. It supports six principal mastoid eminences in three transverse pairs, with a narrow ridge at the anterior part of the base of the crown, and a small quadrituberculate talon or basal prominence posteriorly : the three transverse eminences are joined together by a pair of small tubercles at the basal half of each inter- space, placed in the long axis of the crown, and rather to the outer side of the middle line of the grinding surface, fig. 2. The length or antero-posterior diameter of the crown is four inches ten lines: the breadth of the posterior pair of tubercles is two inches eleven lines: the height of the middle eminences from the base of the crown is two inches six lines: the tooth is apparently the fourth molar of the left side of the lower jaw. In comparison with a corres- ponding molar in the same state of growth of the Mastodon longiros- tris* of Kaup, a cast of which is now before me, the Australian molar differs in having the principal transverse eminences more com- pressed antero-posteriorly in proportion to their height, and tapering to sharper summits, which however are obtuse and bifid. The breadth of the tooth slightly increases to the posterior pair of emi- nences, whilst in the Mastodon longirostris and angustidens the crown maintains the same breadth, or more commonly becomes narrower from the anterior to the posterior pair of mastoid eminences. Other differences observable on a minute comparison are too tri- vial to deserve notice, especially when observed in only a single ex- * If this species be distinet from the Mast. angustidens of Cuvier, the molar teeth seem to me to offer precisely the same characters. 576 Fossil Molar Tooth of the Mastodon Australis. ample of a complex molar tooth. In the Australian specimen under consideration the mastodontal characters are unmistakeable, and the resemblance to the molar teeth of the Mastodon angustidens is very close. The specific distinction of the Australian Mastodon rests, at present, only on the slight differences pointed out in the form of the mastoid eminences and the contour of the crown of the molar tooth. The question may arise, whether identity of generic characters in the molar teeth of an extinct Australian mammal with those of the Mastodon can support the inference that the remaining organization of the Probosidian Pachyderm co-existed with such a form of tooth. The analogy of the close mutual similarity which exists in the molar teeth of the Tapir, Dinothere, Manatee and Kangaroo suggests the sur- | mise that the mastodontal type of molar teeth might also have been repeated in a gigantic Marsupial genus which has now become extinct ; and such an idea naturally arose in my mind after having received evidence of the marsupial character of the Diprotodon and Nototherium*, two extinct Australian genera, with the tapiroid type of molars, represented by species as large as a Rhinoceros. The more complex character of the molars of the Mastodon, and the restriction of that character, so far as is now known, to that genus only, makes it much more probable, however, that the molar here described belonged to a true Mastodon, and the species may be provisionally termed Mastodon australis. London, August 22, 1844. * The characters of these genera, and the evidences of their marsupipal nature, will be the subjects of a future communication. : 517 On some Fossil Remains of Anoplotherium and Giraffe, from the Se- walik Hills, in the North of India. By H. Fauconer, M.D., F.G.S., and Carr. P. T. Cautuzy, of the Bengal Artillery, F.G.S. In continuation of their former researches on the fossil remains of the Sewalik Hills, the authors, in their present communication, es- tablish, on the clear evidence of anatomical comparison, certain dis- coveries which, in previous publications, they had either merely an- nounced, or had supported by proofs professedly left incomplete. They now demonstrate that there occur in the remarkable tertiary deposits of the Sewalik range, together with the osseous remains of various other vertebrate animals, bones belonging to the two genera, Anoplotherium and Giraffe: the former genus determined by Cuvier from parts of skeletons dug out from the gypsum beds of Paris; the latter genus known only as one of man’s contemporaries, until in the year 1838, the authors gave reason for believing its occurrence in the fossil state. The specimens now figured and described form part of the collec- tion which was made by the authors on the spot, and is now depo- sited in the British Museum. They were found, together with re- mains of Sivatherium, Camel, Antelope, Crocodile, and other animals, in the Sewalik range to the west of the river Jumna. The bones are found imbedded either in clay or in sandstone. When clay is the matrix, they remain white ; and except in being deprived more or less completely of their animal matter, they have undergone little alteration. The bones in this state the authors have eleswhere designated as the ‘soft fossil.”” When sandstone is the matrix, the animal matter has completely disappeared, and the bone is thoroughly mineralized and rendered nearly crystalline by the infil- tration of siliceous or ferruginous matter, and acquires a correspond- ing hardness, or tinge of iron, with increased specific gravity. The matrix in contact with the bone is rendered compact and crystalline in texture. The remains in this state have been designated by the authors as the “ hard fossil.” 578 Fossil Remains of Anoplotherium The remains of Anoplotherium and of the larger species of Giraffe, described in the present communication, belong to the “ soft fos- sils ;” those of the smaller species of giraffe to the ‘‘ hard fossil.” Anoplotherium.—The occurrence, in the Sewalik deposits, of bones belonging to this genus, was announced by the authors in their ‘ Sy- nopsis of the fossil genera, from the upper deposits of the Sewalik hills,’ published in the 4th volume of the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, in the year 1835; and the same fact was after- wards referred to in the 6th volume, p. 358, of that Journal. In these communications the species was not described, but was named provisionally, A. posterogenium. In a communication made to the Geological Society in the year 1836, descriptive of a quadrumanous fossil remain, and published in the 5th volume of the 2d series of their Transactions, the same species was mentioned under the name of A. Sivalense, a term which the authors propose to retain, in ac- cordance with the principle they adopted in the cases of the horse, camel, hippopotamus, &c., of connecting the most remarkable new species of each fossil Sewalik genus with the formation itself. In their present communication the authors purposely abstain from entering on the anatomical characters of this new species further in detail than is barely sufficient for its determination ; and they there- fore confined their notice to two fine fragments of one head, one fragment belonging to the left upper jaw; the other fragment to the right upper jaw. By a happy chance the teeth are beautifully preserved. The age of the individual, which was just adult, was the best that could be desired to show the marks characteristic of the genus; for the teeth had attained their full development, though the two rear molars had hardly come into use. Remarks on the Genus Anoplotherium.—The true Anoplotheria ef Cuvier (of which A. commune may be regarded as the type), together with the A. Sivalense and the Chalicotherium (Anoplotherium ?) Goldfussi, are allied, by their dentition, to Rhinoceros. The Dicho- bunes, A. Leporinum, A. murinum and A. obliquum, Cuvier arranges with considerable doubt, and provisionally only, among the Anoplo- theria. He considers it not impossible that the two latter species were and Giraffe from North of India. 579 small ruminants. The A. Servinum of Professor Owen (Geol. Trans. 2nd ser. vol. vi. p. 45), obtained by Mr. Pratt from Binstead in the Isle of Wight (Idem, vol. iii. p. 451), is admitted on all hands to be exceedingly like a musk deer. Such heterogeneous materials are too much for the limits of any one genus Cuvier imagined the separa- tion of the two metacarpal bones to be a character limited to the Anoplotheria exclusively. He has also regarded the union of the metacarpal bones as holding without exception in all the ruminants; and this law with respect to ruminants, though empirical, he regards as equally certain with any conclusion in physics or morals, and as a surer mark than all those of Zadig (Disc. Prel. p. 49). The authors, having had an opportunity of examining the skeleton of an African ruminant, the Moschus aquaticus of Ogilby, described in the Proceedings of the Zoological Society by that gentleman from a living specimen, found it wanting in the above supposed essential character of the ruminants, and possessing the above supposed dis- tinctive character of Anoplotherian Pachyderms. Its metacarpals are distinct along their whole length ; its fore leg, from the carpus down- wards, is undistinguishable from that of the peccary ; and its succen- torial toes are as much developed as in the last-mentioned animal. The deviation from the ordinary ruminant type, indicated by the foot of this Moschus, is borne out by a series of modifications in the construction of the head and in the bones of the extremities and trunk, all tending in the direction of the pachyderms. The authors believe the present to be the first announcement of the existence of such an anomaly in any living ruminant: they had previously ascertained the occurrence of the same structure in a fossil ruminant from the Sewalik hills. As the Dorcatherium of Kaup breaks down the empirical distinction between the ruminants and pachyderms, as regards the number of the teeth, so does the Moschus aquaticus as regards the structure of the feet. Giraffe.—In the 7th volume of the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal (pp. 658-660) is a communication dated “‘ Northern Doab, July 15, 1838,” and intituled, ‘ Note on a Fossil Ruminant Genus allied to Giraffide, in the Sewalik hills, by Capt. P. T. Cautley.” The specimen referred to in that paper was the third cervical vertebra of a ruminant, which, for the reasons therein assigned, was supposed 580 Fossil Remains of Anoplotherium to have been a giraffe. At that time the authors of the present communication had not access either to drawings of the osteology or to a skeleton of the existing giraffe: but the grounds for referring the vertebra to that genus were, that it belonged to a ruminant with a columnar neck, the type of the ruminants being preserved, though very attenuated in its proportions: that the animal was very distinct from any of the camel tribe: that it was in the giraffe that there existed such a form most aberrant from the mean in respect of its great elongation. That the bone belonged to a giraffe was put forth at the time as only a probable inference, and chiefly to serve as an index to future inquiries. The authors, having since the former period obtained additional specimens, and had access to the fullest means of comparison, are now able to place on the record of determined Sewalik fossils, one very marked species of giraffe, and also indications of a second species, which, so far as the scanty materials go, appears to come near to that of Africa. The first specimen to which they refer is the identical vertebra noticed by Capt. Cautley in 1838. It is an almost perfect cervical vertebra. It were needless to enter on the characters which prove it to have belonged to a ruminant. Its elongated form shows that it belonged to one with a columnar neck ; that is to say, either to one of the camel and Auchenia tribe, or to a giraffe, or some distinct and unknown type. The fossil differs from the vertebra of a camel, Ist, in the position of the vertebrary foramina (a, a’); 2d, in the obsolete form of the upper transverse processes. According to the masterly analysis of the Macrauchenia by Professor Owen, the Camelide and Macrauchenia differ from all other known mammalia in the following peculiarity ; that the transverse processes of the six inferior cervical vertebrae are without perforations for the vertebrary arteries, which enter the vertebrary canal along with the spinal chord, then pene- trate the superior vertebrary laminz, and emerge on the canal again close under the anterior oblique processes. This structure appears on the cervical vertebre of the Sewalik fossil camel. In the verte- bra now under consideration, on the contrary, the foramina (a, a’) maintain their ordinary position, that is, they perforate the transverse processes, and appear on the surface of the body of the vertebra. and Giraffe from North of India. 581 Since the bone therefore does not belong to a camel, it is the bone of a giraffe ? There is preserved in the museum of the Zoologi- cal Society the skeleton of a young Nubian giraffe which died at the Society’s gardens. When its third cervical vertebra is placed in ap- position with the fossil, the two are found to agree in every general character, though they disagree in some of their proportions, and in certain minor peculiarities. In this young and immature giraffe the length of the third cervical vertebra is 74 inches ; what, then, is the length of this bone in the adult Nubian giraffe? The authors, from their not having had under their examination this vertebra of an adult animal, have been unable to ascertain this point directly ; but they are able to infer it, from the length of a detached bone preserved in the museum of the Royal College of Surgeons of London, which is the second cervical vertebra of a giraffe, nearly, but not quite full- grown*. The length of this bone is 113 inches. Now in the ske- leton of the young giraffe belonging to the Zoological Society the 2d and 3rd cervical vertebre are exactly of the same length. The ‘authors infer, therefore, that in an animal nearly full-grown, such as was that to which the detached bone at the College of Surgeons belonged, the length of the 3rd cervical vertebra is 113 inches; and consequently, that the length of the same bone in an animal which has reached full maturity, is about 12 inchest. That the fossil vertebra belonged to an adult which had long attained its full size, is shown by the complete synostosis of the upper and lower articulating surfaces, by the strong relief of the ridges and the depth of the muscular depressions. But the length of this bone is only a little more than eight inches. As the other dimensions of the fossil and recent vertebre that the authors placed in apposition, are nearly in proportion to their respective lengths, it follows that this fossil species of giraffe was one-third shorter in the neck than an adult of the existing Nubian variety. But it was not only in size that the two giraffes differed; they differed also in their proportions. In the young giraffe at the Zoo- * This appears from the detached state of the upper and lower articulating heads of the Lone. t The height of the skeleton of the young giraffe in the museum of the Zoological Society is 10} feet; that of a full-grown Nubian giraffe is 16 as Fr 582 Fossil Remains of Anoplotherium logical Society the vertebra, which is 73 inches long, has a vertical diameter of 3-8 inches ; whereas in the fossil species the vertebra, which is 8 inches long, instead of having a vertical diameter exceed- ing 4 inches (as it ought, if its breadth were proportional to its length), has a vertical diameter of only 3-6 inches. This goes to prove that in this fossil giraffe the neck was one-tenth more slender in proportion to its length than the neck is in the existing species. The inferior surface of the body of the vertebra is more curved longi- tudinally in the fossil than it is in the recent bone; the height of the arc in the former case being to the height in the latter as 3 is to 2. On the under surface ‘of the fossil vertebra a very distinct longi- tudinal ridge runs down the middle, and this ridge is wanting in the recent bone; but this difference, probably, is chiefly owing to difference of age. In the fossrl vertebra the upper articulating head is very con- vex ; for with a transverse diameter of 1°4 inch it has a vertical height of 1 inch; laterally it is a good deal compressed. The posterior articulating surface, forms a perfectly circular cup, two inches in diameter; and this diameter, in the immature Nubian giraffe, is one-tenth greater, although the vertebra is one-sixteenth shorter. This affords a further proof of the comparative slender- ness of neck in this fossil species. In regard to the apophyses, the inferior transverse processes are sent off downwards and outwards from the lower part of the anterior end, exactly as in the recent species, and they are deve- loped to nearly the same amount of projection. There is, however, this considerable difference, that whereas in the recent species they do not run half-way down the body of the vertebra, in the fossil they are decurrent along the whole of its length in well-marked laminar ridges, which are confluent with the nearly obsolete ridges of the upper transverse processes, the united mass near the posterior end being dilated into two thick aleeform expansions. In the fossil, as in the recent bone, the superior transverse pro- cesses are seen only in a rudimentary state ; in the former, however they run forwards across the body with less obliquity, and conse- quently make the canals for the vertebrary arteries twice as long as they are in the recent bone. In the fossil the orifices of these canals diyide the length of the vertebra into three nearly equal portions ; and Giraffe from North of India. 583 whereas in the recent bone the orifices are both included within its anterior half, The anterior oblique processes have the same general form and direction both in the fossil and recent species; but in the former they are considerably stouter and larger, and their interspace is less. The articular surfaces are convex, and defined exactly as in the recent species. The posterior oblique processes of the fossil differ in form very little from those of the recent bone; in the fossil, however, the articular surfaces are considerably larger ; and the ridges in which they are continued along the side of the upper vertebrary arch, are much less convergent than in the recent bone; so that in the latter this part is somewhat heart-shaped ; whereas in the fossil it is nearly oblong, and “ looks squarer,” so to speak. The spinous process in the fossil is the same thin triangular lamina that is seen in the recent species ; and it differs only in having its most prominent point lower down on the arch. The spinal canal is very much of the same form and dimensions in both the fossil and the recent vertebra. At this point some of the matrix remains attached to the fossil bone, and prevents any very precise measurement. As a minor point of agreement between the fossil and recent bones, it may be noted that, in both, the foramen for the small nutritious artery on the inferior side of the body of the vertebra is on the right. In the other cervical vertebre of the recent skele- ton, this solitary foramen is on the left. From the above comparisons it appears that the fossil vertebra while it is very distinct from that of a camel, fulfils all the conditions required for a strict identification with that of a giraffe; that its peculiarities are not of greater than specific importance ; and con- sequently do not warrant its being referred to a distinct and un- known type among the ruminants. The authors conclude that there belonged to the Sewalik fauna a true well-marked species of giraffe closely resembling the existing species in form, but one-third less in height, and with a neck pro- portionately more slender; and for this small species they propose the name Camelopardalis Sivalensis, 584: Fossil Remains of Anoplotherium Second Fossil Species of Giraffe.—The fossil specimens next to be described have been in the possession of the authors ever since 1836. They are fragments from the upper and lower jaws of an- other fossil species of giraffe, in which the teeth are so exactly of the same size and form with those of the existing species, and so perfectly resemble them in every respect, that it requires the calipers to establish any difference between them. The largest specimen is a fragment of a left upper jaw containing the two rear molars. The back part of the maxillary, beyond the teeth, is attached, and clearly proves that they belonged to a full- grown animal. These teeth were compared with the teeth, in the same stage of wearing, contained in the head of an adult female giraffe belonging to the museum of the College of Surgeons, and the fossil and recent teeth were found to agree together in the most minute particulars. The following are the corresponding dimen- sions of the fossil and recent teeth :-— Fossil. Recent. Inches. Inches. Joint length of the two back molars, upper jaw, eek MS 2°55 Greatest width of last molar, sae see oon 04 1-3 Ditto ditto of penultimate molar, ‘ce , vase 145 1:35 Five other specimens are next described in detail by the authors. They are all of them fragments of jaws and teeth more or less com- plete upper jaws, corresponding exactly in size and form with that of the left side, but if anything, rather more worn, and belonging therefore, probably, to different individuals. The agreement extends down to the small cone of enamel at the base of the hollow between the barrels on the inside. Its dimensions are :— Length... tsciie.notestaamches: Width: nhc... ed owamae The third specimen is a fragment of the left lower jaw, containing the last molar. It has precisely the form and proportions of the corresponding tooth in the left lower jaw of the female head referred to, and the same development of its third barrel or heel, which is always found in this tooth in ruminants. Its dimensions are :— Depths.) oe 17 inch, Greatest width........ 1:0 and Giraffe from North of India. 585 The fourth specimen is the last false molar of the left lower jaw, detached. It agrees closely with the corresponding tooth in the recent female head above referred to. This tooth is thicker in pro- portion to its length in the giraffe than in other ruminants, and this constitutes one of the most distinctive characters of the giraffe’s premolars. The anterior semi-barrel appears a trifle longer than the corresponding tooth of the recent animal; but this is owing toa difference of wear, and is not borne out by measurement, The dimensions are :— Fossil. Recent. Pet. oe seen 2 O meh. 1°0 inch. Breadth. ..... 2. 0°9 0°86 The authors are possessed of the same tooth of the right lower jaw, detached ; but have not thought it necessary to figure it. The fifth specimen is the penultimate false molar of the right upper jaw. It is of the same size and form with the corres- ponding tooth in the recent female head, with this difference, that it has three tubercles at the inside of the base. On a sixth specimen of the first false molar of the right upper jaw, which is not repre- sented among the figures, there are three similar tubercles similarly placed. It would require an extensive comparison of recent heads to determine what value attaches to this peculiarity ; whether the tubercles are constantly absent from the teeth of the recent species, or appear occasionally as a variation on those of individuals. The dimensions of the penultimate false molar of the upper jaw are :— Fossil. Recent. Length......-. lO inch. 0°95 inch. Dreadth....es 1°12 12 There is a peculiar, finely reticular, striated and rugose surface to the enamel of the teeth of certain quadrupeds, the appearance of which the authors compare to that of a fine net, forcibly extended, so as to bring the sides of the meshes together. This texture they formerly described as existing on the surface of the molars of the Sivatherium. It is found also on the teeth of the recent giraffe, and is more or less conspicuous on those of the hippopotamus. It 86 Fossil Remains of Anoplotherium Cre is not observed in the camel, the moose deer, or the larger bovine ruminants ; or if ever present, it is but faintly developed. This tex- ture is well marked on the enamel of the teeth of this second species of giraffe. A magnified representation of it is given. The series of teeth last described, excepting the fifth and sixth specimens, are all but undistinguishable from those of the Nubian giraffe; and the authors have sought in vain for any distinctive character by which to discriminate them. There is no good evidence to show that this fossil species and the living are even different ; but in putting the case thus, the authors are far from advancing that the species are identical. The materials are far too scanty to warrant a conjecture to that extent. Since the neck of the C. Sivalensis was one-third too short and slender to sustain the head that would have suited the teeth last described, the authors consider it a necessary consequence that these teeth belonged to a distinct species. Had the difference been less considerable, they might have hesitated regarding this conclusions ; but the difference between 8 inches and 12 inches in the length of the same cervical vertebra of two adult animals of the same genus, admits, in their opinion, of no other construction than distinctness of species. For the present, until sufficient materials shall be ob- tained to determine the relationship between the African giraffe and the second Sewalik species, in reference to their supposed resem- blance, the authors propose to mark the latter by the provisional name of Camelopardalis affinis. General Remarks.—In a former communication to the Society, (Geol. Trans. 2nd ser. vol. v. p. 503) the authors noticed the re- markable mixture of extinct and recent forms which constituted the ancient fauna of Northern India. An extinct testudinate form, Colossochelys Atlas, as enormous in reference to other known Chelo- nians as the Saurians of the lias and the oolite are to their existing analogues, is there associated with one or more of the same species of crocodile that now inhabit the rivers of India. The evidence respecting one of these species of crocodile, resting as it does on numer- ous remains of individuals of all ages,.is considered by the authors as nearly conclusive of the identity of the fossil with its recent ana- logue, These reptiles occur together with extinct species of such and Giraffe from North of India. 587 very modern types as the monkey, the camel, the antelope, and (as has now been shown the giraffe : and these are met by species of the extinct genera Sivatherium and Anoplotherium. As regards the geographical distribution of the true Anoplotheria, those hitherto discovered have been confined, as the authors believe, to Europe ; and as regards their geological distribution, to the older and middle tertiaries. In India this genus continued down to the period when existing Indian crocodiles and probably some other recent forms had become inhabitants of that region. It might be expected that in a deposit containing Anoplotherium, Palzotherian remains also would sooner or later be discovered. However, among the very large collection of fossil bones from the tertiary sub-Himalayan range, made by the authors during ten years in that part of India, they have never found a single fragment of a head or tooth which they were able to refer to Palzotherium. This is merely a negative result, and only proves the rarity of that form.* Although there occur among the Sewalik fossils abundant remains of almost every large pachydermatoes genus, such as the elephant, mastodon, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, sus, horse, &c., yet no remain has been found referrible to the Tapir, a fact the more remarkable, inasmuch as one of the only two existing species of that genus is now confined to the larger Indian islands and a part of the adjoining continent. The finding of the giraffe as a fossil, furnishes another link to the rapidly increasing chain which (as the discoveries of year after year evince) will sooner or later connect extinct with existing forms in a continuous series. The bovine, antelope, and antlered ruminants * Mr, M’Clelland in his paper on Hexaprotodon (Journ. Asiatic Society of Bengal, vol. vii. p. 1046) casually mentions a species of Palewotherium as oc- curring among the Sewalik fossils. But he does not describe or figure the speci- men. Messrs. Baker and Durand in their remarks appended to their catalogue of the Dadoopor collection (Idem, vol. v. p. 836), mention four specimens con- taining teeth of the upper and lower jaws belonging to what they provisionally > designate ‘‘ Cuvierian genera:’’ in regard to one of which, having the upper and lower jaws in contact, they state that, ‘‘ although it affords some analogies both to the Palezotherium and Anoplotherium, its essential peculiarities are suf- ficiently remarkable to cause it to be separated from either genus.’’ ‘ill these specimens are either figured or described, the point must remain undecided in regard to Palwotherium being represented in the Sewalik fauna. 588 Fossil Remains of Anoplotherium have numerous representatives, both recent and fossil. The camel tribe comprises a considerable fossil group, represented in India by the Camelus Sivaiensis, and is closely approached to in America by extinct Pachydermatous Macrauchenia. The giraffe has hitherto been confined, like the human race, to a single species, and has occupied an isolated position in the order to which it belongs. It is now as closely represented by its fossil analogues as the camel; and it may be expected that, when the ossiferous beds of Asia and Africa are better known, other intermediate forms will be found, filling up the wide interval which now separates the giraffe from the antlered ruminants, its nearest allies in the order according to Cuvier and Owen.* The giraffe throws a new light on the original physical characters of Northern India; for whatever may be urged in regard to the possible range of its vegetable food, it is very clear that, like the existing species, it must have inhabited an open country, and had broad plains to roam over. In a densely forest-clad tract, like that which now skirts the foot of the Himalayahs, it would soon have been exterminated by the large feline ferze, by the hyznas and large predaceous bears which are known to have been members of the old Sewalik fauna. Postscript.—Since the above remarks were submitted to the So- ciety, M. Duvernoy’s paper, embodying two communications read to the Academy of Sciences on the 19th May and 27th November last, has appeared in the January Number of the ‘ Annales des Sciences Naturelles.’ ‘These notices were published in the ‘ Comptes Rendus,’ but were unknown to the authors at the time. M. Duvernoy describes the lower jaw of a fossil giraffe found in the bottom of a well, lying on the surface of a yellow clay, along with fragments of pottery and domestic utensils, in the court of an ancient donjon of the 14th century in the town of Isoodun, Département de 1’Indre. Considerable doubt remains as to the bed and source whence the fossil was derived. M. Duvernoy attributes the jaw to a distinct * M. G. de St. Hilaire, in the zeal for the mutability of species imagined that he had detected in the Sivatherium the primeval type which time and neces- sity had fined down into the giraffe. Anatomical proofs were all against this in- ference: but if a shadow of doubt remained, it must yield tothe fact, that in the Sewalik fauna the Giraffe and the Sivatherium were contemporaries. and Giraffe from North of India. 589 species of giraffe, which he names Camelopardalis Biturigum. Pro- fessor Owen, from the examination of a cast, confirms the result, expressing his conviction “‘ that in the more essential characters the Isoodun fossil closely approaches the genus Giraffe, but differs strik- ingly from the (single) existing species of the south and east of Africa, and that the deviations tend towards the sub-genus Elk.” M. Duvernoy also mentions the discovery of a tooth in the mo- lasse near Neufchatel, by M. Nicolet, determined by M. Agassiz to be the outer incisor of a fossil giraffe-—(Duvernoy, Annales des Sciences Naturelles, No. for January 1844.)—Proceedings Geological Society. Botany of the Brazils, from the President’s address to the Linnean Society. Don José Pavon, a botanist of considerable merit, and the col- league of Ruiz in the memorable botanical expedition dispatched to Peru by the Spanish Government in the year 1777, from which were obtained such important results both in collections and publica- tions. On the recommendation of Ortega, then Professor of Botany at Madrid, the expedition was placed under the direction of Ruiz, who was accompanied by Pavon and by two artists, Brunete and Galvez. M. Dombey also, who had been dispatched from France on a similar mission, was allowed to accompany them ; and during a residence of ten years they visited many of the most interesting districts of Peru and Chile. In 1788 Ruiz and Pavon returned to Europe, bringing with them large collections of plants and an exten- sive series of botanical drawings, and leaving behind them two of their pupils, Tafalla (afterwards Professor of Botany in the University of Lima), and Pulgar (an artist of merit), to continue their investi- gations. The collections thus made by themselves, and those which were subsequently transmitted to them, formed the basis of a series of works on the botany of the Western Regions of South America, which, had they been carried on to completion, would have been in- deed a magnificent contribution to science, and which even in their present incomplete state are of high importance. The first of these publications appeared in 1794, under the title of ‘ Flore Peruviane 4G 590 Whether Lightning Rods attract Lightning. et Chilensis Prodromus,’ and contains descriptive characters and . illustrative figures of their new genera. This was followed in 1798, by the first volume of the ‘ Flora Peruviana et Chilensis,’ two other volumes of which, extending as far as the class Octandria of the Lin- nzean system, were published in 1799 and 1802. The plates of a fourth volume, as well as many others intended for subsequent publi- cation, were also prepared. In 1798 also was published the first volume of a smaller work without figures, entitled ‘Systema Vege- tabilium Flore Peruvianz et Chilensis,’ containing characters of all their new genera and of the species belonging to them, as well as of all the other species described in the first volume of their * Flora.’ Of the immense collections made by Ruiz and Pavon and other botanists in the Spanish possessions in America, a large portion was purchased by Mr. Lambert between the years 1817 and 1824. These were dispersed at the sale of his Herbarium in 1842; but a part of them was then obtained for the British Museum, where they are now deposited. Little is known of the latter years of Pavon; his correspondence with Mr. Lambert appears to have ceased in 1824, and even the exact date of his death has not been ascertained. —The Annals and Magazine of Natural History, Vol. 14, No. 91. Whether Lightning Rods attract Lightning. [From an interesting work by Snow Harris Esq., F.R.S. on the protection afforded by Light- ning Rods to ships of H. M. Navy.] “« Amongst the objections made to the employment of lightning rods, there appears to have been none so popular, and at the same time so plausible, as this, viz., that by setting up pointed conduc- tors we invite lightning to our buildings, which otherwise would not fall on them ; that should the quantity of electricity discharged be greater than the rod can carry off, the redundant quantity must necessarily act with destructive violence ; and that since we can never know the quantity of electricity which may be accumulated in, and be discharged from the clouds, it is not improbable but that any conductor which we can conveniently apply may be too small for the safe conveyance of such a charge. Whether Lightning Rods attract Lighining. 591 Although the advocates of these opinions have never adduced any substantial fact or any known law of electricity, in support of them ; although they have never, by any appeal to experience, shown that buildings armed with lightning rods have been struck by lightning more frequently than buildings not so armed, nor demonstrated any single instance in which an efficient lightning rod, properly applied, has failed to afford protection,—nevertheless such views have been commonly entertained : indeed so strenuously have they been insisted on, and that too by persons of education and influence, that the Governor-General and Council of the Ho- nourable the East India Company were led to order the lightning rods to be removed from their powder magazines and other public buildings, having in the year 1838 come to the conclusion, from cer- tain representations of their scientific officers, that lightning rods were attended by more danger than advantage; in the teeth of which con- clusion, a magazine at Dum-Dum, and a Corning-house at Mazagon, not having lightning rods, were struck by lightning and blown up.* In a work on Canada, published so lately as the year 1829,t we find the following passage: ‘ Science has every cause to dread the thunder rods of Franklin: they attract destruction, and houses are safer without than with them. Were they able to carry off the fluid they have the means of attracting, then there could be no danger, but this they are by no means able to do.” Assertions such as these, appealing as they do to the fears of mankind, rather than to their dispassionate and sober judgment, have not altogether failed in obtaining that sort of temporary favour which so frequently at- tends a popular prejudice, promulgated without reason, and received without proof. Not only is the idea that a lightning rod invites lightning unsupported by any fact, but it is absolutely at variance with the whole course of experience. * Correspondence with the Honorable Board of Directors ; Professor Daniell and Dr. W. B. O’Shaughnessy. Our readers may remember something of a controversy on this subject in our pages a few years ago. If not, we beg to refer them to vol. 1. pp: 431 and 489. It will there be found that the fallacies and absurdities regarding lightning rods referred to by Mr. Harris, were pointed out, and some of the miss- tatements on which they were founded fully exposed.—Ep. t Three yearsin Canada. By ¥. McTaggart, Civil Engineer in the service of the British Government. 592 Whether Lightning Rods attract Lightning. The notion that a lightning rod is a positive evil, appears to have arisen entirely out of assumptions, and a partial consideration of facts. Thus in consequence of the track of a discharge of lightning being always determined through a certain line or lines, which upon the whole least resist its progress (48), it has often been found to fall in the direction of pointed metallic bodies, such as vanes, vane spindles, iron bars, knives, &c. The instances in which these bodies seem to have determined the course of lightning have been carefully recorded, the phenomena being peculiarly striking and remarkable (54) ; but on the other hand, no attention has been given to those instances in which lightning has altogether avoided such bodies, and passed in other directions (46). Now it will be found, as we shall presently show that the action of a pointed con- ductor is purely passive. It is rather the patient than the agent ; and such conductors can no more be said to attract or inyite a dis- charge of lightning, than a water-course can be said to attract the water which flows through it at the time of heavy rain. We have shown, in a former section (71), what quantity of me- tal is really sufficient for the perfect conduction of any quantity of lightning liable to be discharged in the most severe thunderstorms : therefore, to assume that any conductor which may be applied is not sufficiently capacious, is to reason against experience, and to resort to a species of argument quite foreign to the conditions of the case. It would be, as if we were to insist upon the danger of applying water-pipes to buildings, under the assumption that we do not really know what quantity of rain may possibly fall from the clouds, and that hence the pipe may after all be too small to con- vey it. In all these reasonings we should recollect, as already explained (10), that the forces in operation are distributed over a great ex- tent of surface, and that the point or points upon which lightning strikes is dependent on some peculiar condition of the intervening air, and the amount of force in operation,—not in the mere pre- sence of a metallic body projecting for a comparatively short dis- tance into the atmosphere,“ that such bodies provoke the shaft of heaven is the suggestion of superstition, rather than of science.”* * Leshe, Edin, Phil. Magazine. Whether Lightning Rods aitract Lightning. 593 We shall now leave the theoretical discussion of this question, and direct attention to the facts themselves, and examine how far the evidence deducible from such facts is conclusive upon this im- portant point. During the thunderstorm which spread over the neighbour- hood of Plymouth, in May, 1841, the electrical discharge struck one of the high chimneys at the Victualling-Yard, as already mentioned (94); it fell also on the topmast of the sheer-hulk off the Dock-yard, about a mile and a half distant. Now the circum- stances attendant on these discharges of lightning bear directly on the question before us. The chimney at the Victualling- Yard is a round column of granite, about one hundred and twenty feet high, attached to the bakehouse ; it has not a particle of metal in its construction, nor has it any projecting point. It stands at a dis- tance of about one hundred yards from a clock-tower in the same yard ; which on the contrary, fas not only a metal vane, and cross- pieces of metal, indicating the four cardinal points, but its dome is covered with copper, and there is a large conductor continued part- ly within and partly without the tower, from the dome to the ground. In the sheer-hulk a very small metallic wire was led along the pole topmast, and connected with large metallic chains attached to the mast and sheers: the height of this pole was comparatively low, and it was completely overtopped by the neigh- bouring spars of the line-of-battle ship Cornwallis, fully rigged, and fitted with conductors on each of her masts. Now when the disruptive discharges took place, they fell on the granite tower, which had not a single metallic substance in its construction, and on the low flag-staff pole of the sheer-hulk’s mast, notwithstanding that the clock-tower near the chimney offered every possible ‘‘in- vitation” to the discharge, and the great altitude of the line of battle ship’s spars were in the most favourable position for ‘ attracting” the electrical explosion. The chimney was rent for sixty feet ; the flag-staff of the hulk’s mast was slightly injured, and the small wire broken and fused ; the lower mast and chains were uninjured. On the 25th of March, 1840, Her Majesty’s ships Powerful and Asia, each of eighty-four guns, were at anchor within a short dis- tance of each other in Vourla Bay, in the Mediterranean. The 594: Whether Lightning Rods attract Lightning. Asia had the fixed pointed conductors already described (84) at- tached to each of her masts; the Powerful was unprovided with any lightning conductor whatever. Under these conditions they were both exposed to a severe thunderstorm. A discharge of lightning fell on the Powerful, the ship without conductors, and shivered some of her spars; whilst the Asza, where every supposed ‘‘ invitation” to the discharge was most prominent, experienced no ill effect. If no other cases were on record, these alone, would be suffici- ent to dispel all apprehensions of a metallic conductor “ attracting or inviting” lightning. A great number of instances, however, equally clear and satisfactory, exist ; from these we have selected the following :— Amongst some interesting remarks on the effects of lightning, by Professor Winthrop, communicated by Dr. Franklin to Mr. Henley, it is stated, that a tree, which stood at the distance of fifty-two feet only from a pointed conductor attached to a house, was struck by lightning and shivered, while the conductor and house escaped*,— that is to say, the lightning fell on a body, which, according to the prevalent notion, had little or no attraction for it, and held out no “invitation,” in preference to one which did,—a fact totally at vari- ance with the whole assumption. We have already adverted to the case of the Southampton (46), in which a heavy electrical discharge fell upon the sea close to the ship, during a thunderstorm on the east coast of Africa. But what makes this case especially applicable to the question now under consideration, is the circumstance, that all her masts were fitted with fixed lightning conductors, which terminated in copper spikes. The storm was awful, and is stated by Mr. Martin, the master, to have lasted from ten P.M. to two a.m. “ The night was pitchy dark, from the density of the surrounding clouds; the roar of the thunder was incessant, and the flashes of lightning frequently so vivid as to affect the sight for some minutes,” yet no ill effect was experienced ; the electrical discharge was not drawn down in an explosive form exclusively upon the conductors, although it actually fell with violence upon the sea close to the vessel. * Phil, Trans, vol, lxiv., p. 152. Whether Lightning Rods attract Lightning. 595 Similar effects were observed in His Majesty’s ship Sapphire, armed with pointed conductors of the same kind. Captain Wel- lesley, who commanded this ship, states, that ‘‘ the lightning was so vivid, and the flashes so quick in succession all around the ship, that although the duty to be done was important, I hesitated to ex- pose the crew to them ;* yet the ship was not struck.” In another place he states, “ that the Sapphire, often met with very severe lightning, but it was never attracted to her.” The frequent instances in which lightning avoids the most pro- minent parts of buildings, and falls obliquely upon some point far removed from them, may be further adduced as evidence against the attractive influence of such projections. The long zig-zag track of lightning, arising from the resistance of the air to its more direct path, may cause it to fall very obliquely on the earth’s sur- face, as is well known : indeed, some of the directions of the zig-zag, may become almost horizontal. Now, in these cases, the pointed extremities of a tower, or the masts of ships, have no influence whatever on the course of the explosion ; which, on the principles already explained (45), finds its way through the least resisting in- terval. Mr, Alexander Small states, in a letter to Dr. Franklin, that he saw an explosion of lightning pass before his window in a direction nearly horizontal, and strike a clock-tower far beneath its summit. In the discharge of lightning, which fell on His Majesty’s ship Opossum in the English Channel, in March, 1825, “a peal of thunder burst on the main rigging, and split the top-mast cap{.” Her Majesty’s ship Pique was struck by lightning in the St. Law- rence, in November, 1839, by a discharge which fell on the fore- mast just beneath the head of it, and from thence passing down the mast, did considerable damage. Such cases, although compa- ratively rare, and to a certain extent exceptions to the general course of lightning, are still sufficient to show how little the direc- tion of electrical explosions is determined by the influence of points considered as mere attractors, and that it is only when they can contribute to the equalization of the opposite electrical forces, that lightning strikes on them. Franklin, in endeavouring to draw off the electricity of a charged sphere by means of a pointed wire, * They were afraid to hoist the boats out. t Report of Commission on Shipwreck by Lightning. t Ship’s log. 596 Whether Lightning Rods attract Lightning. found that the point when placed on a rod of glass or wax, had no action on it*. When this large mass of evidence is duly considered, together with the fact, that lightning strikes indiscriminately, trees, rocks, and buildings, and even the ground near them, we are compelled to admit that the thunder-rods of Franklin are perfectly precise in their operation, and that the common notion, that they ‘ invite destruction” to our buildings, is not warranted by any sound argu- ment drawn from experience. It may not be unimportant to notice here the following extract from the Memoirs of the Count de Forbin, already alluded to (15). In describing the large St. Helmo’s fires, observed in the vane of the main-mast, he says, ‘I ordered one of the sailors to take it (the vane) down ; but scarcely had he taken the vane from its place, when the fire fixed itself on the head of the main-mast, from which it was impossible to remove itt,” so that the presence of the metallic point was not at all necessary to the electrical discharge. Before quitting the subject of the absolute protection from lightning afforded by conductors, the Naval Commission inquire, whether, according to the common prejudice, conductors have the power of attracting a flash of lightning, which in their absence would not have occurred; and their report states “ that instances of accidents to ships without conductors, and the comparatively rare occurrence of lightning being observed to strike on a conduc- tor, would tend to negative such a suppositiont.” They further consider, from the instances which were submitted to them, of ships without conductors having been struck by lightning, in the presence of ships furnished with them, which were not so struck, that most complete evidence is afforded “ either of the little influence exerted by such conductors in inducing or attracting an explosive dis- charge, or of their efficacy in harmlessly and imperceptibly con- veying away electricity to the water§.” * Franklin’s Letters, p. 56. + Letters on Electricity. By the Abbé Nollet.—Vide Phil. Trans. for 1753, p. 201. t Report of Commission, p. 4. § Report of Commission p. 4. Taciniosus hat a i al A, TY) as “a Ye il a i Sea ta i | } }: ? Cal. Journ. Nat. Hist wayrury: Euceissona riste Cate. journ Not Hist VolV PUY Aap ite mie % viky actos ZR eda gp cH, Wee ey ert) oat sqea % te HS Beer Sy rod: opncau.o ff. -ert'x ohn wa c4 viento @ 4 BRS iti f VouV.RiV1 a —S TN Cale journ Nat Hist. VoLV. PLVI > Ss =< = i Ef Py SG SPOONER ——SS Zea ee cangiee s £y ea oP. ai = —S “ Se f Zz i 2 + i 7 Cale Journ. Nat Hust YolV PLVIi i at a i rye — ieee Oe Sees : : SSS SSS SE ge : - eae a SP is F Calo. Journ Nat Hist Pe en ‘eine r< Vol V PLXI SESS SS ——————__ ; Sit, 2, es ai \ . RE hee anita ad = v Dre A ¥ CLR cis MMe ia Sa f ea, »! ‘ un 4 u ; be - é sae IG . “he Ye iiss eS & > oP my parr te he 7 : r } me ee ae ie. a ‘ ‘Ar eee, are a Cale journ Bae Uist x = z > Cale joarn Nat Hist Vol¥. RL. XIV Cale. journ . Nat. Hist va. v. RXV Azolla pinnota. ik ee as ie PREP 7 - ~ Dt ee. aD Me p: . P a eed s Cale Journ. Nat. Histwaxw PLXVi Aon pinnotn. 2 A rare" a = Te ge » Cale .journ. Nat. Hist. Vol WPI XVIE Azolla pinnata. Cal. journ. Nat. Hist. P!.XVIt verticillata. Saleini a Re Salania verticill ala. fale. yourn. Nxt Hirt. Max Cal journ. Nat. Salvinia vertiallata. Vol PL. XX Cale journ Nat Hist ee an enc RY ca eat CN rt ry il tay em aye AE A ge Se VoUPl. XXL A Showing the Course of the River daw & lhe SUppscl™ direclion’ uf the Haciers. NB. the dolled’ lures une un the Coane of the boulders Sf . . Menoag Ie Langdale Fell ses Cale Journ Nat Hest Vol.V. Ft. XX Hi) + ‘ H te t H Ls urn Natl. Hist VaNXiPt Xx lo. jo Ca Aporum fenxinsii Xiphosium a cumimatam. our. Nat. Hist. PLX XY Huproboscis Ppysmca. icula callosa. Append PL. XXVI1 Calo. yourn. Nat Hist { ¢ | y 3 & eS _ Showing SA The Et and Wir Hemispheres | aS We The yeneral dircelion of aS % ~— ie © needles, = o ee BFE 7 iis & S. oie \ ji j y NRO ay 2 ZF a Ss —S= ya i aN lamination, Oz f a es SK cleavage, or un, SS Pn a Xe - in rocles: the yraite By = gneiss and Schisk ELFAE aa gies. [Keene weawenecr as Polypodirem tte recfoliiem Polypodium unitum Lindsaa odorata GENERAL INDEX, VOL. V. Page. Assam coal, vee wee 444 Aboriginal Races of America, 117 Their origin, ... -. 148 Their Moral traits, aca: BD Manner of interment, ... 136 Maritime enterprise, Pe 4 Bar Iron, on, Campbell, Capt. 103 Bengal Isinglass, aoe kao Botany of Brazils, ... ee. 089 Bura Chang, incorrectly named Borra Chung, ~ 274 Its singular habits known to the ancients, ... . 278 Uniformity of nomenclature, 1 Collections, eae DLS » From Rev. E. White, 16-117 Lieut. Munro, H. M. 39th Foot, ove UG i ye Captain Phayre, ... 117 Campbell, D. A. Collection ” ” Fishes, ace < 264 Colouring of the Waters of the Red Sea, ... 570 Correspondence, 37 3, 388 Description of a Fossil Molar Tooth from Australia, by Prof. Owen, nae Fossil Remains of ian ve rium and Giraffe, by Dr. Falconer, and Capt. Cautley, 577 ~ 572 Page. -. 492 373 Geology and Magnetism, Guibourt, M. Letters from,... Hutton, Capt. Thos. on the Glacial Theory, one! 200 ——, On the Snow Line of the Himalaya, sate Line of Perpetual Snow, &c. remarks on the, by J. H. Batten, Loudon, Mr. notice of, . 083 . 406 Maclure, William, Menor of, 388 Magnesite, . 442 Malcolmson, J. G. letters from 382 Manufacture of Epsom Salts, 441 Microscopic Life, Ehrenberg, Prof. on, we . 556 Mineral Sulphurets, Latter Thomas, on, ... . 307 Organic Chemistry, etc., Lie- big, Justus, on, -- 409 Reduction of Meteorological Register, McClelland, J. ... 533 Whether Lightning Rods at- tract Lightning, eee 090 ~ SNE cine eon S| LY : +. 7 re aray hs Ratt, Ww INDEX OF PLANTS, VOL. V. Page. ANACLAMUS, «ee oe ose 449, 456 ARECINE, 212 oe os. 445, 447 Argca, catechu Willd. ... ... 450 triandra, Roxb. wee 401 laxa, Buch, Ham. ... 453 nagensis, Griff. ws 453 cocoides, 1d, cue iiesnt £00 pumala, Mart. «5 406 malaiana, Griff. eee 457 Diksoni, Roxb. . 458 Wallichina, Mart. . 491 gracilis, Roxb. . 459 Paradoxa, Griff. «es 463 tigillaria, Jack. . 463 horida, Griff. .»» 465 Nibung, Mart. ... 465, 491 ARENGA, aa See EEA saccharifera, Labill. ... 472 Westerhouti, Griff. . 474 Obtusifolia, Blume, ... 475 Wightii, Griff. wee 475 Arorvum, Blume, ... ese 306 Jenkinsia, Griff. .. 067 Leonis, Lindl. . 368 anceps, Lindl. oe 368 sinuaqtum, Lindl. 5 eGo cuspidatum, Lindl. ... 369 micranthum, Griff. ... 369 Roxburghii, id. «. 370 acinaciforme, id. . 370 subteres, id. snc O00 Aprenpicuta, Blum. sno OOD callosa, Blum. ove O02 Azoua and Saxvina organs of fructification in, as compared with Musci and Hepatici, . 227 Diversity of opinion regarding, ... 259, 266 Azoua, Ovula of, aeeat. AzoLa, pinnata, ... ‘va BOF BENTINCKIA, Mies edu, 407 geonomeformis, Berry, 469 CaLamus, an ooo 200 Zalacca, Roxb. MPs castaneus, Griff. sen Uae CaLamus,—(continued. ) angustifolius, Griff. ... 89 monticola, Griff. Reg) calicarpus, id. bis ea petiolaris, id. dee Toe Collinus, Griff. Ate schigospathus, id. 2O8 bicolor, id. eae 209 arracana, id. ee 209 Aneuwuirormes, Nob. 171, 158 Apopss, Linn. wie, 207 Apopses, Swainson, we Le Bareus, Cuv. noe Nes spinulosus, Nob. ae 280 clavatus, id. «ss 280 chagunio, Buch. . 280 Concer, Cuv. pe. |) vulgaris, Cuv. 172, 209 myrus, Linn. eae 209 balearis, Cuv. ssaabO mystox, Cuv. ee 209 americana, Fork. ee. 209 longicollis, Cuv. ves Crenops, N. Gen. Nob. pee. nobilis, id. ey tN Datopuis, Rafinesq. 173, 212 scarpa, Raf. wae alo orientalis, Nob a nae Riipellie, id, oe ae Page. Da.opHis,—( continued. ) geometrica, id. wivale tigrina, id. sa. 21d GymnomuRzNA, Lacep. 147, 217 doliata, Lacep. read, marmorata, id. PRA | concolor, Riippell. ... 217 cecus, Linn. weZLE LEPTOGNATHUs, Sw. 173, 211 Matocorreriai Apopes Linn. 171 Murana. Nob. 173, 213 bagio, Buch. sei Oo helana, Linn. woe 214 catenula, Lacep. Pp oe pantherina, id. ae ke Muranesox, Nob. 172, 180, 210 exodentata,id. ... 180, 210 lanceolata, id. 181, 210 tricuspidata, id. oe. 210 seradentata, id. sea 20Q Hawmiltonii, id. 182, 210 Bengalensis, id. won 182 Moura€nipa, id. 158, 159,173, 212 Ornicarp1a£, Nob. woe es OpnicarpiaA, N. Gen. 155, 191, 218 Phyareana, Nob. 191, 218 OPHICEPHALUS, id. eterna amphaibeus, woe 270 burra chang, eon 200 OruisurDa, id. 172, 211 Oruisurus, Lacep. 173, 211, 183 rostratus, Buch. oo. 184 vermiformis, --. 184 minimus, Eo Its 155 caudatus, ween 85 fasciatus, id. 211 serpens, id. os ZL hijala, Buch. arigr | # Boro. Buch. erty 18 rostratus, Buch. epee harancha, Buch. cell minimus, Nob. Sec aes vermiformis, id. 2 & Xvi Index of Fishes. Page. OpuistTeRNoN, N. Gen. 175, 196, 220 bengalensis, id. ... 197, 220 hepaticus,id. ... 198, 221 OpnHITHORAX, id. ext cee ophis, Lacep. ons abe colubrina, id. wen eke imberbis, Laroach. ... 212 Pneumasrancnus, Nob. 192, 218 striatus, 1d. etalg leprosus, id. 195, 219 albinus, id. 196, 219 cinereus, id. as 1) PTYOBRANCHIDA, : es 199, 221, 176 Pryoprancuus, N. G. 199, 221, 175 arundinaceus, Nob. 221, 200 Guthrianus,id. ... 222, 201 erythreus, id. multidentatus, id. parvidentus, id. gracilus, id. linearis, Gray. Hardwickiu, Gray. raitborua, Buch. brevus, Nob. Srroruipon, Nob. 174 grisea, Lacep. 223, 223, 223, 223, 201 201 202 202 . 222 deo 222 222 . 223 , 185, 214 244 Page. STROPHIDON, —( continued. ) africana, ae echidna, ae i 5) unicolor, eee 21S literata, Nob. 186, 215 hepatica, wear 21D punctata, id. 287, 215 maculata, Buch. aoe 245 longicandata. Nob. 187, 215 SyNBRANCHIDA, Nob. 159 174, 218 SynBRANcHUs, Bloch. 175, 219 marmorata, Bl. eos 220 immaculata, Bl. one 220 cendre, Bon. aoe 220 lineata, Lacep. «o- 220 levis, id. oo. 220 Tuzropontis, Nob. 174, 187, 216 nigricans, Lacep. ooh reticularis, Bl. 188, 216 stellata, Lacep. 3. 216 reticulata, Nob. vee 216 cineraceus, «oe 216 ophis, 217 flavimarginata, Riip. 2 14, 217 UnisrancnaPertura, Cuchia, Buch. is 192 ERRATA. Page 552, line 18, from top, for ‘ remarks on the,’ read various. ,, 552, line 22, from top, for ‘ variation of the wind,’ read aspect of the sky. », 955, line 7, from bottom, omit the parenthesis. », 955, line 5, from bottom, omit the parenthesis, and insert but, Preface, pages vii, viii, for ‘resin,’ read rosin. ie i cpt Ne: Liat Sue eee 8 Tenet ene cL Li vay gO A NOT, Mewes 5 Pa MS de ty ann): eT an WT oe tee hatin he te ue iegat Ps, a 5 q ‘ sy a ; ‘es . Hh Jai ronal Le, 4) yi a ed) & Fah: : Ne he ae La a go Y yee nl ; agen oo i 4 ‘. pF : e- 2 4 Se asad e? 7 » 6 ‘ ] . > s > ‘ ~ . " , . ' Tae Zs % a i : “> 5% ‘ treble 9 tiga, Tare Bui gC par 4 aA 4 4 ——— ) 2 2 ¢ 1 de rs nag % ae Kalen Fa) en #8 Ray