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California Fish and Game
V. 20 1934
Bound volume

DATE DUE

NOV

California Fish and Game
-w— V. 20 1934

Bound volume

^--v: >o_ 1/JjO I

California Resources Agency Library

1416 9th Street, Room 117

Sacramento, California 95814

CAUFORNIA RESOURCES Miu. . .. ..

lb»S0urces BuUCt.tfft ftoom 1 T7

Sacramento, Calf forn>«9
95814

SEP 51935

California Fish

'CONSERVATION OF WILD LIFE THROUGH IEDU

Volume 20 SACRAMENTO, JANUARY, 193^"'—^'' ~^/ No. 1

:, 193)—-^

CONTENTS

Page
A PRELIMINARY SURVEY OF MISSION BAY STATE PARK

Donald H. Fry, Jr., d Richard S. Croker 1

TAGGING OF STRIPED BASS G. H. Clark 14

OCTOPI OP CALIFORNIA J. B. PMlUiis 20

PREDATORY ANIMAL STUDIES D. D. McLean 30

HISTORY OF THE YOSEMITE ELK HERD James Moffltt 37

MULE DEER STUDY PROGRAM James Moffltt 52

EDITORIALS AND NOTES 67

REPORTS —

Statement of Income 95

Statement of Expenditures 96

Violations of Fish and Game Laws 98

Fresh Fishery Products 100

A PRELIMINARY SURVEY OF MISSION BAY

STATE PARK*

By Donald H. Fey, Jr., and Richard S. Croker

INTRODUCTION

After Mission Bay was declared a State park and a wild life
sanctuary, it was desired to learn how the wild life of the bay could
be maintained and how sport fishing could be improved. At the request
of Assemblyman George B. Bowers of San Diego, two members of the
Staff of the California State Fisheries Laboratory (Division of Fish
and Game) were sent to the area to make a survey, to report upon the
existing conditions, and to suggest methods by which those in charge
could improve them. Conditions ])roved to be far better than might
have been expected in an area so close to a city the size of San Diego.

* Contribution No. 134 from the California State Fisheries Laboratory. Novem-
ber 28, 1933.

9030

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

Fig. I. Ma]) of Mission Bay, San Diogro County, California. November, 1933. Con-
tour lines are dashed; contour interval 25 feet; dotted lines mark channels;
depths in feet at mean lower low water. Only the roads nearest the bay are
shown. There are many marshy islands in the western part of the bay but
very few in the eastern section. There may be channels which are not shown,
and undoubtedly there are many deep holes. Many sm.all sloughs are not
shown on the map.

C K

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

DESCRIPTION OF MISSION BAY

Mission Bay (False Bay) is an enclosed body of water immediately
north of San Diego Bay, California. A square, 2f miles on an edge,
would include all of Mission Bay, nearly all of the marshes Avhich border
it on the south, Crown Point which projects into it from the north,
and very little else.

Country Surrounding the Bay

Little of the country surrounding the bay is under cultivation.
Wherever there are no habitations, gardens or marshes, the land
is dry and barren and supports very little vegetation. The various
sections are discussed separately below :

The southern marsh is about two miles long and in most places is
from half a mile to a mile wide. It is hard to limit it definitely because
there is a gradual change from a typical salt marsh to a dry sandy
wasteland; many sloughs and strips of marsh extend into this waste.
The moist area is a paradise for shore and marsh birds. There are
numerous small sloughs in the marsh which are not shown on the
accompanying map.

The eastern shore is bordered by a new highway which will soon
be part of the main route from Los Angeles to San Diego. Low barren
hills rise back of the highway.

The northern marsh is much smaller than the southern one and
although important it is far inferior to it as a retreat for birds.

Crown Point is a mesa which projects about three-quarters of a
mile from the northern shore. There is a sandy beach at its base.
Connecting Crown Point with the southern marsh is a mile of
highway which passes over a bridge, a fill, and then a second bridge.
This highway crosses the marsh on a causeway and joins the Ocean
Beach-San Diego road. The north shore west of Crown Point is of
sandy clay, low and barren.

The sand spit (Mission Beach) which separates the bay from the
ocean, is 2^ miles long and at no point much over one-quarter mile wide.
A combination highway and street car bridge connects the southern
end of the spit with Ocean Beach.

Houses and Other Buildings

Ocean Beach, south of the western part of Mission Bay, is a
residential district. The sand spit (Mission Beach) is built up fairly
solidly with resort type houses. Crown Point is a real estate sub-
division. To the east of Crown Point and along the eastern shore of
the bay are a few scattered houses. On the southern marsh is a group
of a half dozen houses known as Duckville. This spot can be reached
by water or by a dirt road from Old Town.

Streams Entering Mission Bay

The San Diego River flows through the southern marsh and enters
the bay at about the middle of the southern shore. The stream is dry all
summer but is a serious flood menace in the winter. There are a few
fresh-water potholes near the point where this stream enters the marsh.

4 CALIFORXIA FISH AXD OAMK

Kose Creek enters llic bay tlirou<zli IIh- mutliciii injirsli. Tliis
stream cai'iMos -watei- only (liiriii<:' Ilic wet season.

Teeolote Valley drains some water into tlie bay during rainstorms.

Pollution

There is very little ]iossibility of any i)ollution which would liurt
fishinji' in Mission IJay. Tiie sewa<i-e from the dwell in<is alon<r the bay
shore eould have no effect on a body of water of this size. The only
industrial plant tliat could possibly contaminate the bay is the Cudahy
Packing Company, a slaughterhouse near the marsh ;i1 the southeast
corner of the ba.w ^laximum contamination from this plant would be
unimi)ortant. In this area a rather odoi'ous sewer empties into Hardy's
Slough. (See map.) It will not bother fishing in the least and is three-
quarters of a mile from any place that is vxvr likely to be used for
swimming or picnicking.

Waters of Mission Bay

Crown Point and the highway south of it divide ]\Ii.ssion Bay into
two distinct sections. The western one is more built up, has many
small Avharves i)rojecting into it, and has had a good deal of dredging
done in places. The inner or eastern section is larger and is much
more nearly in the wdld state. It is infinitely more interesting from a
naturalist's point of view.

The entire bay is very shallow and most of the bottom is of sandy
mud. There are many large areas of eel grass. In the parts of the
bay farthest from the entrance there are level mud flats ; a little nearer
the mouth the tide is stronger and has cut shallow channels and filled
in shoals. These channels join, become deeper and more sharply
separated from the Hats. The curi-ent in the larger channels is sti'ong
but flows smoothly until within about half a mile of the ocean. In this
last stretch there is a violent boiling and swirling which keei)s the water
full of sand and makes steering a boat difficult.

The entrance is about 250 yards wide. The main channel, from
the entrance to a half mile east of the San Diego River mouth, is from
7 to 10 feet deep, not considering occasional deep holes. One such hole
just east of the river mouth is 19 feet deep in places, and there may
be others which are even deei)er. ^Most of the larger branch channels
are from 3 to 6 feet deep with occasional holes up to 10 feet or more.
All these depths are at mean lower low water, i.e., zero tide. There is
plenty of water in the channels to float a skiff at any stage of the tide.
On a fairly calm winter afternoon when there is a minus tide, the
channels of the eastern bay are as interesting a spot as any nature lover
can imagine. ]\Iost of the sea life is uncovered; a great deal of the
part that is not, can be seen on the bottom. Sharks, skates, rays and
true fishes dash hurriedly out of the way and on all sides there are
thousands of shore birds feeding and calling noisily. Gulls, pelicans
and duclvs also abound. The ducks are still wary and hard to
approach — the area has not been closed to linnting long enough for
them to learn the refuge it provides.

In addition to the natural channels there is a narrow dredged
stretch which follows the shore of the western section of the bay. At
present this channel is about f) feet deep. AVhen the dredging was

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 5

done, the waste material was allowed to form a low dike between the
channel and the mud flats. Boats can cross this dike at high, but not
at low tide. A fisherman on the wrong side of the dike may easily be
caught by an outgoing tide even though there is plenty of water over
the flats.

Another dredged channel parallels the fill which crosses the flats
south of Crown Point. The dredging was done to get material for
the fill. .

Grassy islands occupy a considerable part of the western section
of the bay. Most of these are awash at extreme high tides but some are
not. Since there w^as not enough time to chart them properly, most of
these islands have been left off the map accompanying this report.
The eastern section of the bay contains a very few small grassy islands.

SPECIES OF FISH NOW PRESENT IN MISSION BAY

Fishes Taken hy Anglers

A number of species of fishes are regularly sought for and often
caught by anglers. The most important of these are listed below.
Other species than those mentioned occur in the bay but in small
numbers.

1. Bock bass (Paralahrax vehnlifer) . This fish is very common
everywhere at all seasons and is taken by anglers in the channels of all
parts of the bay. Specimens up to five pounds are to be caught. A
desirable species.

2. Spotted rock bass (Paralabrax macnlaiofasciaius). Less com-
mon than the ordinary rock bass. A desirable species.

3. Spotfin croaker (Roncador stearnsi) . Runs of this species occur
throughout the year. Taken in the deep channels and holes in all parts
of the bay. Five-pound individuals are not uncommon in the bay. A
favorite fish with anglers.

4. Yellowfin croaker {Umbrina roncador). Occurs with the spotfin.
Equally esteemed by anglers although it seldom exceeds three pounds
in weight.

5. California corbina {Menticirrhus undidatus) . Said to enter the
bay in occasional runs. Attains a weight of over five pounds. A desir-
able species.

6. Diamond turbot (Hypsopsetta gutfulata). Commonly called
"flounder" by local fishermen. Very numerous in all parts of the
bay, and taken by anglers at all seasons. The usual length is 6 to
10 inches.

7. California halibut (Pandichthys calif ornic us) . Occasionally
taken near the entrance and in the deep channels. The usual weight
in Mission Bay is about four pounds. A desirable species.

8. Smelt (species of family Atherinidae). Caught in various parts
of the bay, sometimes in large numbers.

9. Salt-water perch (species of family Embiotocidae). Taken near
the entrance, especially around pilings.

10. White sea-bass (Cynoscion nohilis) are reported to enter the
bay at times. A desirable species.

11. Round sting ray (Vrolophus hcdleri). Exceedingly abundant,
especially on the mud flats. Seldom exceeds 20 inches in total length.
Not sought for but often taken, much to the annoyance of anglers.

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

Dano:erous to bathers l)y roason of its sting and its liabit of lying
partly buried on the bottom. By far the worst pest in the bay. Has
no game qualities whatever.

12. Bat sting ray (Actohatus califori^wns). Found in abuiidanco
on the mud flats and in the cliannels. Exceeds 50 pounds in weight
and is a hard fighter Avhen hooked. Known 1o destroy clams. Carries
a dangerous sting. Furnishes excellent sjjort if tlu^ fislici-nian has
enough line to stop the first rush.

13. Skates. Several species of skates inhabit the bay. Some attain
a weight of 50 pounds. Said to destroy clams. Negligible game
qualities.

14. Sharks. Several species of sliarks inhabit Ihe bay. Some of
these furnish anglers with excellent sport. Individuals of four and
five feet in length are common.

't:< "

Bait Fishes

Large numbers of several kinds of small fislies inliabit Mission
Bay. These are used as food by the larger fishes and are employed
to some extent as bait by fishermen. The ones that are probably most
common are listed below.

1. Toj) minnow {Fu7iduJiis parvipinnis) . Exceedingl}^ coiinnon.
Excellent live bait.

2. Long-jaw goby (GiJlichthj/s mirahilis) . Locally called mud
sucker. Good as live bait.

3. Smelt (species of family Atherinidae). Good as live bait.

4. Anchovies (species of family Engraulidae). Not seen by us,
but said to be common. Excellent bait, alive or dead.

5. Amphioxis or lancelet. Too snuill for use as bait but is i)reyed
upon by many species of fish.

Ofhrr Spec IPS

1. Mullet {Mugil ccplKilKs). Very eomniou. Attains a Iriigth
of two feet. Feeds on vegetable matter and is consequently not taken
by anglers.

2. Needlefish (Sfronf/jilura fxilis). Called gar by local fishermen.
Very common. Attains a length of three feet. The target of spear
wielders on the Mission Beach bridge. Seldom takes the hook.

SPECIES OF SHELLFISH NOW PRESENT TN MISSION BAY

Clams

The mud flats of Mission Bay sujiport a large ])opulation of several
kinds of clams. The clams are used by man principally as bait and
to a small extent as food. Tlie following list of the commoner species
has been compiled from AVeymouth * and from the observations of the
authors of this report.

1. Jack-knife clam (Tagelus calif ornianiis). Locally called razor
clam. By far the most numerous clam in the bay. ^lost extensively

* Weymouth, Frank 'W. The edible clam.s, mus.sel.s and scaUops of California.
Calif. Fish & Game Comniission, Fish Bull. No. 4, 1921.

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 7

used for bait. Several diggers supply the bait stands with thousands
of jack-knife clams daily during the summer.

2. Hard-shell cockles (species of Chione).

3. Rock cockle (Paphia staminea).

4. Scallop (Pecten circularis).

5. Gaper (Schizothaerus nuttalli).

6. Washington clam (Saxidomus nuttalli).

7. Purple clam (Sanguinolaria nuttalli) .

8. Wedge shell (Donax calif ornica) .

Other species probably occur in the bay. The cockles are used to
some extent as food and bait. All others, with the exception of the
jack-knife clam, appear to be too scarce to be of any importance.

Fig. 2. A view of part of Mission Bay, showing tlie moutli of one of the larger
sloughs; Old Town in the background. Photo by authors, November, 1933.

Crahs

Several species of crabs occur in Mission Bay. Probably none of
them reaches a size large enough for human consumption. The crabs
are important, however, as a source of food for game fishes. They are
noted as bait stealers and as such are a nuisance to anglers.

Other Shellfish

The burrowing shrimp (species of Callianassa) is very common in
Mission Bay. It is extensively used as bait. Locally called ''craw-
fish." Gathered in large numbers for sale by bait stands.

8 CALlFOltXlA FISH AM) GAME

Mussels (species of Mytilus) occur on the pilings of ^Mission Beach
bridge and probably on ^vharves. Used as bait.

Barnacles occur on pilings of barges and 'wharves.

FACILITIES FOR FISHING

lid it (1)1(1 Tackle Stands

There are tliree stamls at llic south eiul ol' thr britlge aeross the
bay entrance at Avhich bait and fishing tackle can be purchased.
Another bait and tackle stand is located on the causeway at the south
end of the southernmost Crown Point bridge. Boats can be rented at
these i)oints and at several places along the shore at iMission Beach.

Pier Fishing

The bridge across the entrance is a favorite place for anglers,
although the fishing is usually poor. All species listed above are taken
occasionall}', but the dianiontl turbot (flounder) is the fish most often
caught. The tidal current is very swift — ])erhaps too fast for good
fishing. Spearing is a common practice at this bridge. Needlefish are
the usual targets, but owing to their agility and slender shape, are
seldom hit. Occasional runs of large sharks cause great excitement and
result in broken spears. Large jneces of kelp, carried by the swift
current, are an annoyance to the anglers whose lines they foul.

The bridges south of Crown Point are available to anglers. Fish-
ing for flounders, rock bass, croakers and sharks is very good at times.

There are some twenty-three small wharves along the shore at
iMission P>each. Most of these are private. Fishing for rock bass and
croakers is said to be good at times.

A wharf on the mud fiats n<'ar the mouth; of Rose Creek is in tlie
midst of the best sting ray and skat6 grounds. It may be possible to
catch other species here.

Beach and Shore Fiahing

There are beaches at the entrance to the bay on both sides of the
cuds of tlie bridge. The beach on tiie north side extends along the shore
of the peninsula. There is a board walk along the most northern part
of this beach. Fishing is said to be good sometimes at certain ])laces
along the beaclies. Rock bass, croakers, flouiulei's and perch can be
cauglit here.

The beaches ardiiiul Crown Point are favorite fishing spots. Good
croaker and rock bass fishing can be had here at times.

There is fishing from the shor(> at several other ])laces, notably
along the causeway rock fill aiul at the ends of the Crown Point
bridges.

Boat Fishing

There are many good fishing grounds — channels and holes — that
are accessible only by boat. Ci"nak(M- fishing is often good in the holes
or deep spots.

Some of the channels aloiig the marsh and around the islands are
accessible at present only by boat.

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

The current under the Mission Beach bridge is so swift and tricky
as to be dangerous for row boats that venture near the breakers when
the tide is ebbing.

CONSERVATION OP WILD LIFE

The most important item in the protection of all forms of wild
life in this region is to leave the marshes and mud flats in their present
natural state.

Game Fish

The species of game fish which are at present in the bay will
probably need no additional protection for many years, provided there
is no reduction in their food supply.

Bait Animals

By far the largest part of the bait animals taken from the bay are :
jack-knife clams, burrowing shrimps (known locally as crawfish), top
minnows, and gobies (small fish known as mud suckers). These animals
form a very valuable food supply of the birds and game fishes. Since
there are noticeable signs of depletion, these forms should be given
added protection. Commercial bait men could obtain their stock from
San Diego Bay, which is close by and is reputed to have more than
ample supplies of bait.

Birds

Mission B'ay is closed to hunting — as it should be. At present,
there seems to be no need for any sort of predator control, though the
problem may arise in the future.

Seals

There is said to be a small herd of seals resident in Mission Bay.
These are probably harbor seals {Phoca vitidina) . They were not seen
by us. Fishermen comi)lain that the seals not only destroy game fish
but also drive them out of the bay. We are not prepared to say to what
extent this is true. However, the seals are an attraction of the park.
Many people who do not care to fish do enjoy watching the antics of a
herd of seals. Therefore, the seals of Mission Bay should not be
destroyed. If their numbers become too large, in the judgment of the
California Division of Fish and Game, that body can be empowered to
kill a few males. This can be done without in any way endangering the
existence of the herd.

Control of Sting Bays

A reduction in the number of sting rays in Mission Bay would be
highly desirable. These species form serious competition for game
fishes, and the round sting ray is a great menace to bathers. There is
no way to eliminate sting rays entirely, but their numbers can be
reduced by interesting anglers in taking them. Sportsmen's clubs in
the San Francisco Bay region do this by having contests and awarding
prizes for the largest rays caught. Once or twice a year great numbers

10 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

are taken by tlie elnb members, but no consistent effort is made to catch
them throughout the year. Contests sliould be held on IMission Bay,
not once a year but continually. The park board or possibly some
sportsmen's organization could publicize the contests and award prizes
for the largest bat ray and the largest round ray taken each month.
While trying to catch large ones, the anglers would destroy hundreds
of others and would learn what sport the bat ray affords Avlien taken
on rod and reel.

Introduction of Xcw Species

Any native species of plant or animal that could thrive in the bay
under present conditions Avould already be there in numbers. Non-
native species form an entirely different problem. An introduced
species may seem highly desirable in itself and yet crowd out or devour
many valuable native species and become a serious pest. For this
reason, new species should never be introduced until a thorough investi-
gation has been made to determine what harm they may do.

Striped bass have been introduced into Mission Bay. These fish
may perish, they may migrate out of the bay, or they may grow up
and stay in the bay. They will not re]:)roduce and any striped bass
fishing will have to be kept up by continued planting. Striped bass
require fresh water for spawning and there is no suitable stream enter-
ing the bay. Tt is to be ho]ied that these fish will not markedly interfere
with native game fishes.

The soft-shell clam (Mya arenaria) is an introduced species which
thrives in San Francisco and Tomales bays. It might do well in
^Mission Bay if introduced there. It is equal to the native jack-knife
clam as bait and is superior as food. However, it might prove more
attractive to sting rays (which feed upon and destroy great quantities
of soft-shells in northern California bays) and less attractive to game
fishes. It might supplant the now abundant jack-knife clam almost
entirel}- and then prove to be useless to local game fishes. (It has
supplanted other si)ecies in San Francisco Bay.) We do not recom-
mend introducing this or any other species of shellfish into IMission
Bay without a fairly extensive investigation, and certainly not without
consulting F. W. Weymouth, Paul Bonnot, or II. C. ]\lcMillin, authori-
ties on shellfish.

PHYSICAL IMPROVEMENTS IN MISSION BAY

Flood Coiifrol Channel

The largest proposed change of which we have heard is to make
a wide flood control channel to lead the San Diego River straight
out to the mouth of the bay. Several years ago the river was diverted
from the same route and forced to enter the bay east of Crown Point.
Since then, it has been showing tendencies to silt up the marshes and
fill in the bay. The new channel should be a great improvement.

Breakwaters

In connection with the flood control channel, it is proposed to run
one or two jetties into the ocean at the entrance of the bay. If this
is done, we recommend that fishing be permitted from the jetties, and

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

11

if they are of the usual broken granite construction that board walks
be placed along them. These would probably be washed away
periodically but could be replaced. They would not need to be elabo-
rate, anything is far better than climbing over broken granite.

Bulkheads

We have heard proposals to bulkhead the bay shore in various
places. In any M'ild life preserve, bulkheading should be used as
sparingly as possible, and above all things the edges of the marshes
should not be bulkheaded.

Fig. 3. Part of the eastern half of Mission Bay. One of the causeway bridges is at
the left; Pacific Beach in the background. Photo by authors, November, 1933.

The main channel hugs the western shore for a half mile or so
and is said to be cutting the sand away. Bulkheads may be necessary
here and would not be particularly objectionable, but we recommend
that groins be seriously considered before any construction is started.

Roads

A highway could be built to advantage along the edge of the pro-
posed San Diego River flood control project. Because of the effect
on the wild life of the marsh, we recommend that no other roads be
built between the flood control channel and the bay. If any are built,
all but the very smallest sloughs should be bridged and these should
be provided with large culverts. Under no circumstances should any
sloughs be blocked.

12 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

Dredging

Only a small ainoniit of dredpinp' could be done to advantafre in
Mission Bay. There should be no atteni])t to dred<i'e any extensive areas
of mud tlats. No dredped material should be de])osited on the marshes
and as little as possible on mud fiats. A channel along the eastern
shore Avould attract channcl-lovinp fish to the edp-p of the new hiph-way.
The con.struction of such a channel would fit in very well with existing
plans. It is proposed to fill in some ground between the highway and
the water to protect the road from wave action. The material for this
fill could most easily be gotten by dredging. Any such channel should
be connected with one of the larger natural channels.

As previously mentioned, the dredged channel which skirts the
western half of the bay has a low dike between it and the mud flats.
A few small cuts could be made through the dike to enable fishermen
to ffct their boats otf the mud flats and into the channel when the tide
is low.

Constriwtion of New Wharves

The construction of several wharves would have the twofold
result of providing additional places to flsh and of attracting more fish
to enter the bay.

Fishermen would natui-ally be glad to liave more places to fish.
Present wharves and bridges were not built primarily for fishing and
their location could be better from the anglers' point of view.

Pier-loving fish are not numerous in ]\Iission Bay. If a few good
wharves were built, we believe that salt-water perch, kingfish, queen-
fish, and other species would be attracted to enter the western part of
the bay. The wharves should be built Avith many piles — either concrete
or untreated redwood — so that marine growths such as mussels and
barnacles would grow in profusion. These animals harbor other
creatures, princi])ally worms, upon which fisli feed. The inducement
for "pile-feeding" fish to enter the bay would improve fishing
markedly.

One or two piers could be built not far within the entrance of the
bay on the Avest shore. These Avharves should project into the deep
channel but should be so located as to be out of the full force of the
swiftest current. (Currents and de]iths must be studied carefully before
these piers are built.

A wharf could be built from the eastern shore crossing the ])ro-
posed channel and extending i)erhaps a hundred yards across the nnid
flats. It should cross the channel at some i)lace where there is enough
current to promote the growth of eel grass. (There are more fish in
such places.) This would ])robably be near the edge of the southern
mai-sh, and there is no reason why the wharf should not cross the tongue
of nuirsh which i)ro.iects northward along the edge of the highway.
Such a wharf would be of interest not only to fishermen but to nature
lovers who like to watch the life among the eel grass and on the mud
flats, and could be used by luitui-e study classes. It should not be
more than two or three feet above high tide line, except where it crosses
the channel where it could be somewhat higher to enable boats to pass
under it.

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

13

The wharf near Rose Creek on the north shore needs repairing.
It is in a neglected condition but could be improved b}^ the expendi-
ture of very little money.

We understand that the bridge across the entrance has been con-
demned and will be replaced by a new one a short distance inside of it.
We recommend that the old bridge be left standing as a place to fish.
It is probably strong enough to support a few fishermen even if it is
unsafe for vehicular traffic.

Bridges and Board Walks

A number of good fishing spots are inaccessible now except by
boat. These holes and channels lie along the banks of the marsh and
marshy islands. The marsh is under water at extreme high tide, is cut
by many sloughs, and at best is an uncomfortable place to fish.

The construction of a few hundred yards of slightly elevated board
walks along the edges of the marsh near the south end of the causeway
bridges would enable anglers to fish in spots rarely touched before.
Foot bridges could be built across sloughs.

14 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

TAGGING OF STRIPED BASS "

By G. H. Clark

A little over a year ago, on September 20, 1932, the first striped
bass {Roccus lineatus) was tagged under an investigation which had
been instigated by the California Division of Fish and Game and
strongly urged and sponsored by the sportsmen of California, to deter-
mine the movement of the stripers. An agreement had been arranged
between the Division and the sportsmen, which provided that the Divi-
sion furnish the tags and other e(iuipment and keep records of the
tagging and of the tags recovered, and that the sportsmen cooperate by
assisting in the actual tagging.

On September 20 and 21, 1932, the Division commenced the work
by tagging 50 striped bass, after which instructions on tagging pro-
cedure were issued and given to the sportsmen's organizations and
tagging equipment was also supplied for distribution by these organiza-
tions to responsible striped bass anglers, so that these men could tag
bass while on their fishing trips. By the end of the first year, Septem-
ber, 1933, 294 fish had been tagged :' 158 by the Division and 136 by the
sportsmen. During this period of a year, 35 tagged fish had been caught
or 11.9 per cent had been recovered one year or less after being tagged
and liberated.

It is, of course, realized that no very definite results from tagging
can be gained until large numbers of fish have been tagged. Conse-
quently, in order to expedite the work, the Division tagged 179 bass on
October 17, 18 and 19, 1933, and 206 on November 7, 8 and 9, 1933.
The sportsmen tagged 11 after September 1, 1933, which made the
total number of fish tagged 689. Since September, 1933, there were 7
recoveries, bringing the number of recovered tags to 42, or a 6 per cent
return of all fish tagged.

The striped bass tags consist of two celluloid discs, one red and
one white, one-quarter inch in diameter, and a nickel pin l-pj inches
long. The white disc contains a number and the inscription, ' ' Cali-
fornia Division of Fish and Game," and the red disc contains the
inscription, "Return to Division of Fish and Game, San Francisco,
Calif." The tag is put on between the two back (dorsal) fins one-
(juarter of an inch below the ridge of the back.

Procedure for tagging is as follows: When a bass is caught on the
line, it is brought aboard the boat or on shore. The back of the fish is
grasped with the left hand, using a wet gunny sack to protect the
hand from spines and to prevent rubbing off of more slime than neces-
sary. Next, the hook is removed as carefully as possible, the gunny

• Contribution No. 136 from the California State Fisheries Laboratory, Novem-
ber 14. 1933.

This work was taken over by the writer after E. C. Scofleld resigned from
the Division of Fish and Game. Scofleld had started the work and determined
and ordered the type of tag suitable for tagging striped bass. S. H. Dado of
the Division made the awls for tagging, lias helped with the tagging done by
the Division and has kept a duplicate record of tags. I am indebted to the Bureau
of Patrol for use of the launch Quinnat, in tagging and to the members of its
crew for their assistance.

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

15

sack thrown over the snout of the fish, and the fish placed on its belly-
on a flat surface. Then with a small awl (1/16 inch in diameter) , a hole
is punched through the back of the fish at right angles to the length
of the fish one-quarter inch below the ridge of the back. The pin,
with the white disc against its head, lettering exposed, is put through
the awl hole ; the red disc is put on the pin ; and the pin is then curled
over with a small pair of pointed-nosed pliers. The length of the fish
from snout to end of tail is measured and recorded, and the fish is
returned alive to the water. The whole operation of tagging takes
about one minute and in no case has it seemed to weaken the fish to
any extent.

The following Table I is a record of the fish tagged, numbers of
tags, date and locality of tagging.

TABLE I

Number
of bass
tagged

5

9
36

5
44

8

8

34
10

3

3
1
1
3
4
1
1
2
4
1

10
10
5
5
4
6
2
6
1
8
1

16

12

1

1

1

4

1

1

2

19

4

1

47

58

54

6

14

21

1

142

42

Tag
numbers

689

1- 5

6- 14
15- 50
51- 55
*56-100
101-108
109-116
117-150
151-160
161-163

164-166

172

173

174-176

177-180

181

182

183-184

185-188

190

231-240

241-250

251-255

256-260

261-264

265-270

271-272

273-278

292

293-300

351

352-367

368-379

380

381

383

384-387

388

389

390-391

392-410

411-414

441

451-497

498-555

556-609

611-616

617-630

681-701

702

703-844

845-886

Date

Sept. 20, 1932
Sept. 20, 1932
Sept. 21, 1932
Oct. 27, 1932
Oct. 27, 1932
Oct. 28, 1932
Oct. 28, 1932
Oct. 28, 1932
Nov. 11, 1932
Nov. 12, 1932

Nov. 13, 1932
April 15, 1933
June 20, 1933
June 22, 1933
Aug. 26, 1933
Nov. 24, 1932
Feb. 5, 1933
Sept. 27, 1933
Sept. 28, 1933
Sept. 28, 1933
Dec. 3, 1932
Dec. 4, 1932
Dec. 4, 1932
May 13, 1933
May 19, 1933
June 11, 1933
Nov. 11, 1933
Nov. 11, 1933
July 29, 1933
Aug. 19, 1933
May 27, 1933
May 27, 1933
May 28, 1933
May 29, 1933
June 10, 1933
June 10, 1933
June 11, 1933
June 17, 1933
July 1, 1933
July 4, 1933
July 29, 1933
Oct. 8, 1933
Aug. 19, 1933
Oct. 17, 1933
Oct. 18, 1933
Oct. 19, 1933
Oct. 19, 1933
Oct. 19, 1933
Nov. 7, 1933
Nov. 8, 1933
Nov. 8, 1933
Nov. 9, 1933

Locality

Southampton Bay, Carquinez Strait

Middle Ground, Suisun Bay

Middle Ground, Suisun Bay

Mile above R. R. Bridge, Suisun Bay

Middle Ground, Suisun Bay

Off Snag Island, Middle Ground

Middle Ground, Suisun Bay

Mile above R. R. Bridge off Avon Wharf, Suisun Bay-
Mouth, Andy Mason Slough, Suisun Bay

West of Wheeler Island and east of Noyce Slough,

Suisun Bay

Mouth, Andy Mason Slough, Suisun Bay

San Pablo Bay ---

Point Wilson

Southampton Bay --

Antioch Bridge

Boynton Slough, Suisun Bay

Suisun Slough

Suisun Slough

Suisun Slough

Suisun Slough

Between Ryer and Roe Island, Suisun Bay

Grizzly Bay

Between Ryer and Roe Island, Suisun Bay

Beacon, Napa River

Beacon No. 2, Napa River

Steamboat Slough

Middle Ground, Suisun Bay

Broad Slough

Tower, Napa River

Tower, Napa River

Beacon No. 2, Napa River -.

Tower, Napa River

Tower, Napa River

Beacon No. 2, Napa River

Tower, Napa River

Ratto's Barn, Napa River

Ratto's Barn, Napa River

Cutting Wharf, Napa River

Mouth, South Slough, Napa River

Beacon No. 8, Napa River .-.

Tower, Napa River --

Beacon No. 2, Napa River

Tower, Napa River j

Broad Slough

Point Chipps Island, Honker Bay

Point Chipps Island, Honker Bay

Point Chipps Island, Honker Bay.

Broad Slough —

Off Browns Island, near Pittsburg - ---

Middle Slough --. ----

Grizzly Bay

Grizzly Bay -..

Tagged by

Division
Division
Division
Division
Division
Division
Division
Division
Sportsmen

Sportsmen

Sportsmen

Sportsmen

Sportsmen

Sportsmen

Sportsmen

Sportsmen

Sportsmen

Sportsmen

Sportsmen

Sportsmen

Sportsmen

Sportsmen

Sportsmen

Sportsmen

Sportsmen

Sportsmen

Division

Division

Sportsmen

Sportsmen

Sportsmen

Sportsmen

Sportsmen

Sportsmen

Sportsmen

Sportsmen

Sportsmen

Sportsmen

Sportsmen

Sportsmen

Sportsmen

Sportsmen

Sportsmen

Division

Division

Division

Division

Division

Division

Division

Division

Division

' Tag No. 70 not used.

16 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

Tt will be iioticod from Table 1 tliat most of tlie striped bass were
ta^-^cd ill one general locality, Suisun ]>ay and adjacent Avaters. This
was due to tlie fact tliat fish -were more ])lentifnl or at least easier to
catch in this refjion. However, about 80 fish Avere tafrfied in Napa
River, one fish in San Pablo liay and about 70 in liroad Slou<rh. All
fish ta{i<ied Avere caught by hook and line, the sportsmen usually
ta<rjrin<i: those that were below the size limit, whereas the Division
tagrjifed all fish cau<>ht exce])t the very small ones under seven inches.

Table TT shows the sizes tafi<;ed durinp; the first year and those
tagged in October and November of the second year of the work.

The greatest number of fish tagged between September, 1932, and
September, 1933, were 11 inches in length, the smallest fish was 5 inches,
and the largest 41 inches. There are two groups of sizes, those between
8 and 12 inches and those between 14 and 18 inches, and possibly a
third group around 19 and 20 inches. The 8 to 12 inch group is in
the main composed of 2 year old fish,* the 14 to 18 inch group 3 year
old fish, and the 19 to 20 inch group 4 year old fish. The same groups
are also apparent in the fish tagged in October and November of 1933.
but the majority tagged were of a slightly smaller size. The proportion
of each groiq) to the whole in the fish caught and tagged by the
Division in October and November, 1933, is : for the first group about
75 per cent, the second about 23 ])er cent, and the remainder about 2
per cent. Tf this proportion re]')resents the true condition of the striped
bass population in the bay, and it may, although the material is much
too scanty to hazard definite opinion, it is not welcome news for the
continuation of good striped bass fishing. Tf the anglers are drawing
heavily on fish from 12 to 18 inches in size and not allowing sufhcient
numbers to reach maturity at 4 to 5 years of age, the population in a
short time may fall alarmingly. Now' these "ifs" may or may not be
true. There is very little evidence to support them, yet there is some
basis as shown by the catch of tagged fish, which were caught with
various sizes of hooks and of bait. It is food for thought.

As yet, ver}^ little iiirnnnation about striped bass movements is
apjiarent. As said before, 42 tagged bass were recovered, which is 6
])er cent of the amount tagged, within a little more than a year's time.
A great many of the recoveries were made ver^- near the vicinity where
the fish were tagged and liberated. There is no evidence as yet that
there is a definite movement of the bass in any direction ; the bass that
moved any distance moved from theii- tagging s])ot in all directions.
No conclusions of striped bass movements can be made until more bass
are tagged and recovered. The longest movement known was that of
two bass which were tagged on the Middle Ground in Suisun Bay and
recovered in the ]\Tokelumne River. One bass tagged in Soutliamiiton
Bay, Carquinez Strait, Avas recovered at Antioch Bridge. Another
recovery was made in San Pablo Bay from the ]\Iiddle Ground, Suisun
Bay. Still another from Napa River was recovered at Toland Landing,
Sacramento I^iver.

Table III shows the recovered fish, tag numbers, date and locality
of recovery, date tagged, place tagged, size when tagged, and number
of days between tagging and capture.

• Scofleld, E. C. The striped bass of California. Calif. Div. Fish & Game, Fish
Bull., No. 29, 1931.

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

17

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CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

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CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 19

As shown in Table III, the shortest period of time a tagged bass
Avas ont was four days and the longest was 354 days, though of course
there are a great many fish still at large. There seems to be no relation-
ship between the size of fish and the length of time before recovery;
however there is some evidence that fish 14 to 18 inches in length were
recovered in greater proportion than the smaller sizes, considering the
larger numbers of small fish tagged.

The foregoing is in the nature of a progress report of striped bass
tagging. The material at hand, number of fish tagged and recovered,
do not afford sufficient data on which to base conclusions on the move-
ments of striped bass. It is therefore urged that the sportsmen increase
interest in the work and tag more bass in order that we may be able
to trace the movements of the stripers with some degree of certainty.

20 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

OCTOPI OF CALIFORNIA*

By J. B. Phillips

From time immemorial it lias been customary for the layman to
a])i)ly the term "devil" to animals that have a fearful appearance
or to animals to which the ])ower of creating evil has been attributed.
It is not surprising that the term "devil" has been applied to the
octopus in view of its long, snaky, writhing arms covered with numerous
suckers, and the soft, muscular body with sinister-looking eyes. This
a]iprehensive appearance has been heightened by various tales woven
around a very few facts. Altogether, the term "devilfish" is mislead-
ing as it is subject to local or personal interpretation, whereas the term
octopus in this particular ease is a descriptive and universally accepted
name.

POPULAR DESCRIPTION OF COMMON OCTOPUS

Briefly an octopus may be described as an invertebrate marine
animal having a large head and a small sac-like body above eight arms
that are more or less united at the base by a membrane. The arms
are usually provided with two rows of suckers by means of which they
cling to rock or prey. Ordinarily, the octopus lives on the bottom along
a rocky coast and moves on and off shore amongst the rocks in search
of food. In times of danger, it retreats into the openings and recesses
among the rocks. The octopus breathes by taking in oxygen-laden
water through a slit in the neck portion of the body. This water passes
over feather-like gills in the body cavity and is forced out through
a funnel-like siphon that is visible on the right side of the neck portion.
Locomotion is accomplished in two different w^ays. When frightened,
the octopus can rocket itself backward by a series of sudden contrac-
tions of the body, rapidly taking in and expelling jets of water.
Oi'dinarily, the octopus moves about on tlie bottom by lengthening and
contracting its eight muscular arms. Loss of an arm only incon-
veniences it temporarily as it can grow another.

The octopus is somtwhat of a scavenger as well as a fresh flesh
eater. It shows particular liking for rock crabs which it stalks and
ilrops on from above. Several crabs can be held at one time and are
eaten by tearing off the legs and getting to the soft inner parts from
the under side. A pair of chitinous beak-like jaws, situated within the
mouth of the octopus, is an aid in such cases. The octojius also feeds
on abalones and mussels. Abalone divers tell of occasionally finding
an octopus patiently exerting pressure on an abalone. The abalone
eventually tires and relaxes, even as an oyster gives in to a starfish.
The octopus can also open mussels in a similar manner. The powerful
grip of the oetoinis is due to the vacuum created by lifting up the floor
of the sucker, while the rim of the sucker is attached, and then dropping
the floor.

♦ Contribution No. 137 from the California State Fisheries Laboratory, Novem-
ber 8, 1933.

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 21

OCTOPUS AS FOOD

Strange as it may seem to some, the octopus is considered a food
delicacy by certain people in America, mainly Japanese, Chinese,
Italians and Greeks. Present day gastronomical acceptance of octopus
by these people may be traced back to the ancient Romans and Greeks,
who considered it the finest "fish" in the sea. Gourmands of Rome
ate with relish every species of octopus caught in the Mediterranean
Sea. These they baked in a sort of big pie, cutting up the arms and
filling the head with spices.

The usual method of preparing octopus for the table by present
day connoisseurs is to cook it in boiling salted water twenty to thirty
minutes. The animal is first dipped in the boiling water a few times
as an aid to loosening the skin. After boiling, the animal is skinned,
cut into pieces and served with a vinegar sauce. For particular flavor,
some Italians add tomatoes and garlic while boiling. Before cooking,
the arms of an octopus might be pounded to loosen up the muscular
fibres. An aid to cleaning an octopus is to turn the mantle inside out at
the neck portion.

COMMERCIAL IMPORTANCE

The commercial octopus fishery of California is of minor
importance. Since 1920, the annual catch has varied from 10,000 to
165,000 pounds, with about 75,000 pounds as the usual yearly landing.
Of the total annual State poundage, 85 per cent (all Polypus hong-
kongensis) is delivered at the two Monterey Bay ports : Monterey and
Santa Cruz. Monterey deliveries are the greatest in the State, com-
prising 65 to 70 per cent of the annual State catch. Next to Monterey,
the ports of largest deliveries are Santa Cruz and San Francisco.
During the past few years, San Francisco has surpassed Santa Cruz.
Monterey, however, holds its place by a wide margin. Within the past
few years, landings of Sonoma and Mendocino counties have increased
and rival those of San Francisco and Santa Cruz. Los Angeles, the
only other port of consequence, normally receives a few hundred pounds
a year.

METHODS OF CAPTURE IN CALIFORNIA

At Monterey and along the California coast in general, octopi
are captured, for the most part, in cage-like baited traps set close
to the rocks. The so-called '* devilfish" or octopus trap is constructed
as a wire screen box or a wicker basket. The most widely used trap
is the wicker basket, similar to the one pictured in Fig. 4. These
traps are 4 to 5^ feet high and about 2^ to 3 feet in diameter at the
large (mouth) end. A trap-door is located at the small end of the
trap, opposite the large end, and is for baiting the trap and extracting
the catch. There is but one mouth, which is in the form of a funnel
at the large end. This funnel is about 2 feet long and starts with
the circumference of the large end. It tapers to about a 6-inch
opening in the center of the trap. Most traps of this type are con-
structed of rattan with a few wires around the circumference for
reinforcement. The rattan is better than an entirely wire construction
because of its flexibility when in contact with rocks.

22

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

In sontheni ralifnrnia. a box-like trap covered witli chicken wire
is used more commonly. This tra}) is not set in very deep water as the
species of octopus most common there is smaller and inhabits com-
paratively shallow water.

At INFonterey, there are two and sometimes four octopus fishermen,
all Italians. Tliese fishermen have 10 to 30 traps apiece. The traps

Fig. 4. An octopu.s liap .such as is used at Mon-
terey. Tliis trap is 4J feet hig-h and is constructed
mainly of rattan. Note funnel terminating in
small opening in middle of trap. The large end
resting on ground is the mouth of the funnel.
Specimens of prawn, accidentally caught in trap,
are being exhibited. Photo by Joe Wales, No-
vember, 1930.

are baited and anchored one-half 1o one mile from shore in series of
about 10 traps. The main fishing locality is off the rocky shores of the
open coast between Point Pinos and south to Carmel, in 10 to 30
fathoms of water. The traps are looked after each day or two in con-
nection with other fishing. The yield during a normal season (spring,

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

23

summer and fall months) is probably an average of 15 octopi a week
from a set of 10 traps. The number of deliveries per week and the
amounts delivered fluctuate a great deal. On one occasion, during the
last summer, 400 pounds of octopi averaging 25 pounds apiece were
brought in by a fisherman after one trip. The octopi delivered at
Monterey average 20 to 30 pounds each. A record specimen weighed
90 pounds. During the winter months, few octopi are delivered because
of the unsettled water conditions along the coast. The price paid
fishermen may range from 5 cents a pound in the summer to 15 cents
a pound in the winter, depending upon abundance.

The reason more fishermen do not take up octopus fishing is that
a few fishermen can supply the demand. Furthermore, the return
per unit of gear is slight and a set of 10 to 12 traps, plus ropes, anchors,
etc., costs about $100. A string of traps may be easily lost when set
off an open coast, especially in times of rough water.

Fig. 5. A typical jig boat at Monterey. This boat is about 30 feet long and has a
12-horsepower gasoline engine. Octopus fishing is carried on by a very few
fishermen, in connection with other market fishing. Note octopus trap, similar
to one pictured In Fig. 4, being repaired on deck. Photo by J. B. Phillips, May,
1933.

As octopus traps are operated in conjunction with hand line and
similar market fishing, the jig type of boat is used in the operations.
The jig boats at Monterey are 25 to 35 feet long and have gas engines
of 8 to 16 horsepower. Fig. 5 shows a typical type of boat with a
trap being repaired on deck.

METHODS OF CAPTURE IN OTHER COUNTRIES

Bartsch (1931) has published some interesting accounts of methods
that other people use in capturing octopus. The simplest method of
capture, according to him, is probably that used by Filipinos. On
a dark night, a band of Filipinos wearing only "G-strings," form a
ceremonial procession to the sea. In one hand they bear lighted torches
and in the other, spears. The light of the torches penetrates the shallow
water and reveals the luckless octopus, which apparently forsakes the

24 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

secure caverns of the reef and goes hunting for food in the shallow
flats near shore, where it is easily speared.

On the island oi" Guam, Bartsch tells about an entirely different
procedure. The natives work on the inside of reefs, in the surf. They
use large repulsive-looking sea cucumbers tied to a line with a sinker
which is lowered among the crevices of the reef. The first action of
the sea cucumber is to try to hide, and if he finds a cavity containing
an octopus, the latter at once moves out and is easily speared from the
canoe. Evidently, the company of the sea cucumber is quite distaste-
ful to the octopus.

Bartsch quotes Dr. H. M. Smith on Japanese methods in the follow-
ing vein : Octopi are an abundant and important food product in Japan.
This cephalopod is caught in various ways, the most interesting of which
is by the use of earthenware pots, which are lowered to the bottom by
means of cords and left for 8 to 10 hours. The octopi enter the shiny,
smooth pots and are evidently reluctant to leave, so that the pots may
be pulled to the surface before they try to escape. These pots have
a hole in the bottom to alloAv the escape of water.

Dr. Smith goes on to tell of a reverse procedure of this method in
recovering valuable porcelains destined for the Imperial household
from a vessel that was wrecked in the Inland Sea about a century ago.
Fishermen have recently been recovering these valuable pieces of
pottery, which are in excellent condition, by tying strings to octopi
and lowering them in the vicinity of the wreck. The animals enter the
vessels and retain their hold until drawn to the surface.

ANIMAL KINGDOM RELATIONSHIP

The octopus is not related to fishes. All animals can be separated
into two groups known as invertebrates and vertebrates, that is, with
or without a backbone. True fishes belong to the latter group (verte-
bate), while octopi belong to the former group. Those animals having
certain structural characters in common are placed in smaller group-
ings called phyla. For example, octopus and squid belong to the phylum
]\Iollusca. Although this phylum also includes such external shell-
bearing marine forms as abalones, clams, scallops and mussels, all
animals of this phylum have in common a mantle, a ventral muscular
foot, as well as a shell, or a vestige of one, and a radula. In the case
of abalones, clams, etc., the shell is external, whereas in squids it is
reduced to a chitinous inner pen or cuttlebone, and in the octopus to
an insignificant coiled vestige.

However, the squids, octojii and natuli differ from other members
of the phylum Mollusca in that the foot is divided into arms provided
with suckers (as well as a strongly developed nervous system con-
centrated in the head), so that they are grouped together in the class
Cephalopoda, meaning "head-footed."

The Cephalopoda are divided into two orders, Tetrabranchia and
Dibranchia. The order Tetrabranchia is characterized by the presence
of four gills, four kidneys, four auricles, a large external shell, and
very short arms bearing no suckers. The only representative of this
order is the genus Nautilus, to which belongs the chambered or pearly
nautilus. The order Dibranchia is characterized by the presence of
only two gills, tAvo kidneys, two auricles, a shell enveloped by a mantle,
and long arms provided with suckers.

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

25

The order Dibranchia in turn is divided into two suborders called
Decapoda and Oetopoda. The Decapoda are mainly differentiated by
the presence of ten arms, eight short and two long. The arms bear
suckers and sometimes hooks. The group includes the squids and
cuttlefish. The Oetopoda are mainly distinguished by the presence of
but eight sucker-bearing arms of equal length. The suborder includes
the octopus and the paper nautilus or argonaut.

6 9

INCHES

12

Fig. 6. Octopus (Polyims Hongkong ensis ) . Drawing by Dr. Harold Heath.

SPECIES OF OCTOFI REPORTED ALONG CALIFORNIA COAST

There are some half dozen species of octopi found along the coast
of California. Most species are found in southern waters but the largest
and most abundant form is more northern in distribution. There are
but two forms that appear in any numbers along our Pacific coast.
These are the big octopus (Polypus hongkongensis) , which attains a
total expanse of about 16 feet and is found from Alaska to San Diego
on this side of the Pacific and from China northward on the Asiatic
side; and the two-spotted octopus (Polypus himactdatus) , which attains
a length of about 20 inches and is found from San Pedro, California,
south to Panama.

Following is a brief description of the octopi found along the Cali-
fornia coast, as adapted after Berry (1912) :

Polypus hongkongensis. — This is the big octopus that represents
practically the entire commercial catch in California. It has a wide

26 CALIFORXIA FISH AND GAME

distribution, being found on the coasts of China and Japan as well as
on our coast from Alaska to San Diego. It is an abundant shore form
and reaches a lengtli of 16 feet and a weight of 90 pqunds. The usual
weiglit of specimens landed at Monterey is 20 to 30 pounds.

The body is short and almost globular, and the arms are stout and
very long. The liead is rather small, being separated from the body
by a slight constriction. Fairly prominent eyes are located on the
top sides of the head. The funnel is long and conical, terminating as
usual along the right side of the head. The suckers are largest where
the arms join tlie umbrella, diminisliing rapidly in size near the tips of
the arms. The surface of the body is somewhat tuberculated, and the
color is milky whitisli or translucent grayish, the outer surface being
overlaid with blackish, brownish or purplish dots.

Polypus himaculatus. — This is the two-spotted octopus, the com-
mon shore octopus of southern California. Purplish ocular spots in
front of the eyes are a distinguishing feature. The spots are large,
round and decidedly darker than the rest of the animal. The body
and arms are similar to those of P. kongkongetisis. Numerous warty
papillae cover the surface of the body, varying from a nearly smooth
state to very rugose. A large conical, warty projection is present just
over each eye.

The distribution of this octopus might be said to start where the
big octopus leaves off. It is found from San Pedro southward to
Panama. It is taken mainly from tide pools at low tide. Large speci-
mens measure about 20 inches in length.

Polypus calif ornicus. — Only a few specimens of this species have
been reported and these were taken off San Diego. The body is of
moderate size, short, rounded and compact. The arms are stout and
moderately long, the basal portions being about one-fourth webbed.
The main distinguishing features are the numerous large star-like
papillae that cover the surface of the body, becoming nearly obsolete
ventrally. Also, above each eye is a rounded flattened tubercle, slightly
larger than the rest.

Polypus r;ilherfiavus. — This sp(H'ies is also rather uncommon and
is reported only from southern California. The body is of moderate
size and is a little broader than long. The surface is covered every-
where with numerous minute, rough papillae, giving the skin a some-
what grainy texture. A large softened, flattened, blunt tubercle is
present above and slightly behind the center of each eye. The eyes
are somewhat lai-ge and rather protruding. The funnel is broad at the
base, tapering to nearly cylindrical at the extremity. Arms are rather
long and slender, being webbed liy the strong umbrella for about one-
fourth of theii- length, the membrane continuing from the umbrella
to nearly the tips of the arms.

Elodonella hcathi. — This is anollu r uncommon octopus from south-
ern California waters. The body is of moderate size and the skin is
smooth in conlrnst to the four forms just described. The arms are
slender, the third pair being much the longer ; suckers in a single row ;
umbrella extending to about one-third of arms. The head is short,
broad and greatly compres.sed above and below, and is well separated

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 27

from the body. The eyes are very large, with protruding lenses. The
funnel is broad and thin, not extending to eyes.

Cvrroteuthis macrope. — This is a rare species previously only
reported from San Diego. In September, 1932, a specimen taken by
Santa Cruz fishermen was sent by Louis Beverino to Mr. D'Acquisto
of Monterey, who brought it to Dr. Rolf Bolin of the Hopkins Marine
Station (Stanford University). The distinctive feature of this species
is that the umbrella is attached nearly to the tips of the arms, giving a
truly umbrella-like appearance. This species is rather small and sub-
gelatinous in consistency. The body is somewhat barrel-shaped and
fairly elongate with short broad oar-like fin on either side near the
posterior extremity. The head is wide, flattened and broadly con-
tinuous with the body above. The left eye is larger and more pro-
truding than the right. The funnel is large, broad and well-imbedded.

Argonauta pacifica. — This is the pelagic form, commonly known as
the "paper nautilus" (not chambered or pearly nautilus) and is found
from Monterey, California, to the equator. It is of moderate size, the
male being much smaller than the female. In the male, the third arm
of the left side is entirely modified into the form of an oval sac for
reproductive purposes. In the female, the tips of the dorsal arms are
greatly expanded, wing-like, and their function is to secrete the large
fragile "shell" or egg case. The coloration of this octopus tends to
orange with fine purple dots, more crowded and larger on the back.

Polypus leioderma. — This form is reported only from Alaska by
Berry. It can be readily recognized by the narrow and distinct keel-
like fold of integument that bounds the body laterally. The body is of
moderate size, wider than long, and nearly smooth except for a few
simple papillae on the dorsal surface. The head is short with large
protruding eyes. The arms are not very long; the umbrella extending
between dorsal and ventral arms for over one-fourth of length but
much shorter between ventral pairs.

OCTOPUS TALES OF OLDEN TIMES

A review of some of the literature of ancient times bearing on
octopi reveals some very interesting stories that were supposed to be
scientifically correct. These stories, which were written evidently as
truthful accounts, put to shame much of our present day fiction, which
is taken for granted as being based on little or no fact.

Bartsch (1917), in his research for the Smithsonian Institution,
has published a collection of ancient facts and fancies about cephalo-
pods (squid and octopi), from which the following are taken:

One ancient writer told of an octopus that was in the habit of
coming from the sea to feed on salted fish packed in pickling tubs, some
distance from shore. Repeated forays prompted the owners of the
operations to place a high fence between the works and the sea. How-
ever, the octopus surmounted this fence with the aid of a tree, and it
was only caught by calling dogs to their aid. The dogs surrounded the
marauder but were kept at bay by the terrible stench exuded by the
animal and the eight arms which whipped out at the dogs. It was
finally killed with three-prong spears. This octopus was reported as
weighing 700 pounds, and having suckers as large as urns.

28 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

Another story is about an octopus considered dead and placed in
a kettle hung oA^er a fire. This particular octopus became sufficiently
revived to leave the kettle, climb up the chimney and onto the roof,
where after considerable hunting it was discovered hiding behind the
chimney.

Statements are also made that natives of the Sudian Isles, wlien
sailing in canoes, always provided themselves with hatchets so that
they could immediately cut off the arms of these animals if they happen
to be flung over the sides, lest the boat be pulled under water.

The captain of an African slaver on the west coast of Africa
recounted the story of a monstrous cuttlefish (a painting of this animal
and slii]), however, proved the animal to be an octopus of immense
proportions) that appeared on top of the water and slung its arms
about two of the ma.sts. The weight of this cephalopod dragged the
ship over on its side and would have capsized it except for tlie ]u-ompt-
ness of members of the crew, who cut off the arms with an axe. This
was not accomplished without renewed courage that was instilled into
the crew by a prayer to a certain patron saint.

The writings of these ancient peoples have evidently influenced
our earlier modern writers. Bartsch reproduces a drawing from an
early issue of the San Francisco Chronicle, which shows a combination
crab and octopus some 100 feet long. The artist not only drew claws on
the ends of every one of the eight arms, but enthusiastically modified
the body into huge claw-like jaws bearing some sort of large saw-like
teeth.

MODERN VERSIONS

Painstaking workers have slowly revealed that these legends and
mj^ths have been woven around greatly distorted facts. Ordinarily,
the octopus can be considered a timid and inoffensive creature. It is
probable, though, that on occasions a large octopus may entwine itself
around a person's limb, Avhen tlie rest of the body is hidden, so that
the octopod is led into believing that the limb is legitimate pre}" of
some sort. This must occur, however, in the natural habitat of the
octopus, which is usually at some depth along rocky shores or reefs.
Authentic cases of an octopus causing death by drowning or by some
other manner are hard to find.

Japanese abalone divers, working to a depth of 100 feet, along
the same strip of coast (IMonterey, California) where octopus are
trapped for market, do not complain of attacks by this eight-armed
cephalopod. Occasionally, if they are fortunate, one is cornered and
a line is tied around the body so that it can be hoisted to the surface,
whence it forms the main course of a meal some time later.

However, Mr. Oscar Lager, a diver now making his home in
Monterey, who has had 16 years of experience as an all round diver
from Alaska to Mexico, has a different opinion about this subject. Mr,
Lager has been down to a depth of 187 feet and claims to have had
several encounters Avith octopi and other sea animals, which he does
not care to repeat. He is emphatic in his assertion that large octopi
are treacherous, especially those of the South Seas.

There may be a few authentic cases of encounters between fisher-
men and divers and octopi, but in general the octopus need not be
considered a dangerous animal.

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 29

REFERENCES

Bartsch, Paul.

1917. Pirates of the deep — stories of the squid and octopus. Smithsonian

Institution, Annual Report for 1916, pp. 347-375.
1931. Mollusks. The octopuses, squids, and their kin. Smithsonian Scientific

Series, vol. 10, pt. 3, chapt. 5, pp. 321-356.

Berry, Samuel Stillman.

1912. A review of the cephalopods of western North America. U. S. Bureau of

Fisheries, Bulletin, vol. 30 for 1910, pp. 267-336, pis.

Cooke, A. H.

1913. Mollusks. In The Cambridge Natural History, ed. by S. F. Ilarmer and

A. E. Shipley, vol. 3, pp. 378-400.

Heath, Harold.

1917. Devilfish and squid-. California Fish and Game, vol. 3, no. 3, pp. 103-108.

30 CALIFORNIA FISH AND (JA.MK

PREDATORY ANIMAL STUDIES

By Donald D. McLeaj^

INTRODUCTION

This predatory auiiiial .study i)rogram in llu- .Slate yiiine rctiige.s
was started on the first of January, 1932. This report covers the
period from that date to June 30, 1933. Beginning July 1, 1933, it
was found necessary througli lack of funds to reduce the number of
trappers to four.

Because definite information regarding the food of predators was
lacking, it was arranged to examine the stomachs of all animals
and to positively identify the contents. The Stanford University
Museum kindly furnished working space, and their collection of birds
and mammals for reference in the determination of contents proved
invaluable.

Coyotes and bobcats were the primary species included in this
study, although when other species were trapped their stomachs were
preserved for study. Refuge areas on which trapping was conducted
were reported to be heavily stocked with both coyotes and bobcats.
Trappers were required to make daily reports on the number of traps
out, miles of trap line, number of animals caught, weather conditions,
and number and species of game seen. Maps showing trap lines,
location of settings, and location and elevation where each animal
was caught, were also rerpiirod. Other information which they could
give from personal observation was included in the reports.

Much data pertaining to the range, number and habits of coj^otes
and bobcats at various seasons, on these areas, was secured.

Trapper Size of areas trapped

J. N. Ray Game Refuse 3B, San Benito Co., 21 sq. mi. plus CI sq. mi., totaling

82 sq. mi. Elevation 950 feet to 3287 feet.

Shaw Game Refuge lO, El Dorado Co., 118 sq. mi. Elevation 2200 feet

to 7285 feet. Part of game refuge IJ, Amador Co. 15 sq. mi.
Elevation 5500 feet to 8000 feet. Part of Game Refuge II, Placer
Co., 21 sq. mi. Elevation 1700 feet to 8400 feet.

R. Ray Game Refuge IM, Kern Co., ll(i sq. mi. plus 26 sq. mi., totaling 142

sq. mi. Elevation 2000 feet to 7544 feet. Game Refuge IK in
Fresno Co., 59 sq. mi. plus 61 sq. mi., totaling 120 sq. mi. Ele-
vation 1000 feet to 10,044 feet. Los Banos "Waterfowl Refuge,
Merced Co., approximately 5 sq. mi. plus 2 sq. mi., totaling about
7 sq. mi. Valley conditions. Elevation 90 feet. Gray Lodge
Waterfowl Refuge, Butte Co., approximately 4 sq. mi. plus IJ sq.
mi., totaling about 5J sq. mi. Valley conditions, elevation 60 feet.

McDonald Game Refuge 2.\ in T*Tkc, Mendocino and Glenn Cos., 60 sq. mi.

plus 41 sq. mi., totaling 101 sq. mi. Elevation 3000 feet to 6954
feet.

Willburn Game Refuge 1 1 >, 'Piinity Co., in4 sq. mi. Elevation 2800 feet to

6262 feet.

Powell Game Refuge 111 in 'I'luihiniiie Co., 151 sq. mi. Elevation 1600

feet to 7500 feet. Game Refuge 3E, Santa Clara Co., 6 sq. mi.
plus 4 sq. mi., totaling 10 sq. mi. Elevation 2250 feet to 4209 feet!

Munneke Game Refuge IG in Tehama Co., 169 sq. mi. plus 24 sq. mi., totaling

193 sq. mi. Elevation 1000 feet to 5500 feet. Game Refuge IF
in Lassen Co., 75 sq. mi. plus 4 sq. mi., totaling 79 sq. mi. Eleva-
tion 5100 feet to 7000 feet. J of Game Refuge 3D, Ventura Co.
plus 72 sq. mi., totaling 133 sq. mi. Elevation 950 feet to 6300
feet.

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

31

Trapper Size of areas trapped

Wallace Half of Game Refuge 4A, San Bernardino Co., totaling 280 sq. mi.

Elevation 2000 feet to 11485 feet. Also on the quail refuges at

Los Floras and Talmadge in that district.
Williams Game Refuge 4E, San Diego Co., 81 sq. mi. Elevation 3000 feet to

5000 feet.

CATCH DATA

Coyote Bobcat Skunk Fox Coon

J. N. Ray 175 117 52 29 31

Shawr 68 19 34 7 1

R. Ray 80 70 22 14 3

McDonald 26 44 32 33 43

Willburn 10 5 4 15

Munneke 102 31 34 32 6

Powell 22 22 35 9 9

Wallace 63 20 90 15 2

Williams 17 41 17 57 4

Totals 563 369 320 211 99

Ringtail

Badger cat Bear Mink

J. N. Ray 20

R. Ray 1 __ __ 2 3

McDonald — 11 5 19

Willburn __ — 1

Munneke 4

Powell 2

Wallace 1

Williams — 2

Totals 28 13 6 21 3

932 coyotes and bobcats
16 80 total nuinber of animals

The following tables apply to coyotes and hol)cats only.

Opos-
sum House cat

5 4

1 14

18 22

Mountain
Weasel lioyi

MILES PER ANIMAL

Total No.
miles of
trap line

J. N. Ray 18,500

Shaw 6,419

R. Ray 11,419

McDonald 9,932

Willburn 1,347

Munneke 10,971

Powell 7,118

Wallace 3,395

Williams 2,592

No. of
coyotes

175
68
80
2G
10

102
22
63
17

Miles per
coyote

105.7
94.4
142.7
382.0
134.7
107.5
323.7
53.9
152.5

No. of
bobcats

117
19
70
44
5
31
22
20
41

Totals 71,693

SETS PER ANIMAL

Total No. Sets per

of sets coyote

J. N. Ray 16,872 96.4

Shaw 13,263 195.0

R. Ray 12,630 157.8

McDonald 13,673 526.0

Willburn 3,958 395.8

Munneke 10.902 106.8

Powell 12,570 571.4

Wallace 4,757 75.5

Williams 2,297 135.1

Total 90,922

77 miles per animal for the group
97.5 sets per animal for the group

Miles per
bobcat

158.1
337.8
163.0
228.8
269.4
353.9
323.7
169.7
63.2

Sets per
bobcat

145
698
180.4
310.7
791.6
351.7
571.4
237.8
56.0

Total No.
anivials

292
87

150
70
15

133
44
83
58

932

Sets per
animal

57.7
152.8

88.9
195.7
264.0

82.7
285. 7

54.7

39.7

:]2

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME
COST DATA

Daxis Salary Coyotes Bobcats Miles Sets

J. X. Ray 539 $1,800 00 175 117 18,500 16,872

Shaw 511 1,790 32 68 19 6,419 13,263

R. Ray 476 1,790 32 80 70 11,419 12,630

McDonald ___ 540 1,790 32 26 44 9,932 13,673

Willburn _— 187 650 00 10 5 1,347 3,958

Munneke 395 1,548 39 102 31 10,971 10,902

Powell 421 1,500 00 22 22 7,118 12,570

Wallace 232 1,480 00 63 20 3,395 4,757

Williams — 183 750 00 17 41 2,592 2,297

Totals 3,484 $13,099 35 563 369 71,693 90,922

Each animal cost

Number of days per animal, 3.7 3

Days

Cost

per

per

animal

animal

1.8

$6 16

5.9

20 60

3.3

11 93

7.7

25 57

12.2

43 33

2.9

11 64

9.6

34 05

2.8

17 83

3.2

13 00

$14 05

RECORD OF STOMACH EXAMINATIONS

Predators' stomachs to the number listed below contained the particular items
mentioned :

Coyote-

-537

stomachs

Skunk

—133

stomachs

297

empty

95

empty

240

with contents

28

insects

38

with contents

1 pine squirrel

.00 deer

45 ground sq

uirrel

2

lizard

1 cow

2 quail

40 cow

i

mice

1 junco egg

13 bird

24 sheep

2

deer

1 wood rat

78 rabbit

5 hog

4

bird

1 ground squirrel

11 mouse

7 chicken

6

rabbit

6 wood rat

7 gray squi

rrel

8 gopher

3 kangaroo

rat

Coon-

-b9

stomachs

2 insects

1 goat

39

empty

3 lizard

1 antelope

1

8
6

snake

insects

frogs

20

w:

ith contents
1 duck
1 grebe
1 rabbit

Bobcat—

-324

stomachs

3

mice

2 berries

168

empty

•>

bird

1 garbage

156

witli contents

Fox —

152

stomachs

13 deer
5 quail

17 ground squirrel
2 chicken

101

51

empty

with contents

34 bird

9 gray squirrel

8

bird

2 quail

24 rabbit

8 gopher

•)

insects

1 ground squirrel

31 mice

1 house cat

10

berries

1 chicken

35 wood rat

1 skunk

30

mice

1 kangaroo rat

1 insect

1 sheep or goat

0

rabbit

1 lizard

1 lizard

1

cow

1 deer

2

wood rat

DEER REMAINS IN COYOTES BY MONTHS

1932 Male

January 1

Foljruary 2

March

April 4

May 3

.lune 1

July 2

August 4

September 5

October 7

November 4

December 9

Female
2

1933 Male

January 1

February 1

March 2

April 3

.May 4

June

Totals 53

Female
5
1
1

2
2

47

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 33

RANGE OF COYOTES AND BOBCATS

In refuge 3B in San Benito County during the first three months
of the year, most of the coyotes were taken between 1200 and 1500 feet
elevation, and during' the next seven months at about the 2000-foot level.
In November and December they were back down to the 1700-foot
level.

In refuge 1-0 in El Dorado County from January to May most
of the coyotes were taken near the 4000-foot line. During June and
July they had moved up to about -1500 feet. November and December,
before the heavy storms, found most of them at the 6000-foot level.

In refuge IJ in Amador County, during the month of October,
all coyotes were taken between 5300 and 6500 feet altitude.

During the months of August and September in refuge l-I in
Placer County, coyotes were taken near the 5000-foot contour.

On refuge IG in Tehama County few coyotes were caught possibly
on account of heavy trapping in the foothills to the west by private
trappers.

On refuge 2A in Lake, Mendocino and Glenn counties there was
little shifting of the coyote population. Few were taken above the
3500-foot contour.

One interesting thing pertaining to the range of coyotes was
noted in 1-0 in El Dorado County. On Big Silver Creek and its middle
fork, 23 miles of trap line was run for a considerable period of time
when deer were plentiful in the area without a single coyote being-
caught. They did not come into the area during the entire summer.

Certain refuges appear to be in the concentration areas of coyotes.
Refuges IF in Lassen and 3B in San Benito are so situated. Both
of these refuges are in sheep grazing areas. In IF the coyotes left
when the sheep were driven out, which was about a month before the
deer went to their wintering ground. In 3B there were plenty of
coyotes throughout the year but the sheep remained also. Other
refuges, although well supplied with game and other food but harbor-
ing no sheep, did not have coyotes in such numbers.

The area over which a resident coyote will range is not as large
as might be supposed. It is a circuit covered at intervals of several
days, each day covering an area about five miles square. The female
coyote during the pupping time has a short range ; at other times it
is about the same as the male.

I have only two definite records where coyotes were seen killing
deer. In El Dorado County, in snow about 3^ feet deep, a deer was
killed by a coyote and in San Benito County three coyotes had killed a
doe. In the last instance one coyote was ham stringing the doe while
the other two were working from the sides near the head. They all
came down a steep slope together and finished her in the creek bed.

Bobcats range below 5000 feet, which is the approximate upper
limit of the heavy brush region. A few are found in the timber area.
These are mostly wandering males. They were caught at all seasons
and elevations m 3B. In 1-0, IJ and l-I they were scarce as most
of these refuges are above the average bobcat range.

In refuge IG few bobcats were found in the refuge, but just out-
side its western boundary at a lower elevation they were fairly

.3—9030

34 CALll'UKXIA I'l.Sii AND UAME

plentiful. Ill refuge 2A tlie avorap:e elevation of capture was 3100
feet.

Squirrels and rabbits are the i)riiieipal food of: the coyote while
the wood rat is the mainstay of the bobcat. Both animals eat carrion
but the bobcat does so to a much less degree. Coyotes gnaw on carcasses
fi-oni the time they are fresh until nothing but hide and bones remain.

In the San IJenito County refuge and vicinity dvu'ing the hunting
season for deer and the month following, 7 coyotes had eaten deer.
During the other 15 months the trapper was operating, only 11 had
eaten deer. Thirty-nine per cent of the coyotes tliat had eaten deer
did so in one-sixth of the time the trapper was working. This would
indicate that the liunter is of considerable help to the coyote. Wounded
deer, hides, legs, heads and other remains thrown away by the hunter
are very acceptable to the hungry coyote.

In refuges in the northern Sierras where heavy winter conditions
prevail, the findings are not the same as in the Coast Range. Only
three coyote stomachs of those trapped in the hunting season con-
tained deer remains. However, during the two winters the trapper
was operating, there was a heavy loss of deer on account of deep snows.
When the carcasses of these deer were available in the late winter and
.spring, deer remains showed up in almost all the stomachs. Heavy
winters are good for the coyote but hard on deer.

Of the 537 stomachs examined, 240 contained food and of that
luimber 100 or 41f per cent contained deer meat, bones, hair or other
l)arts; 27 per cent of the 100 were taken during and in the month
following deer season; 30 per cent of the 100 were taken in the winter
deer kill area, leaving 43 per cent for other times of the year. It is
possible that the first kill is made by some other agency (mountain
lions kill over 30,000 deer a year in California) and that the coyote,
at this time of the year, is a second feeder. Only two coyote stomachs
contained hair of young fawns during the time spots were present.
These were both taken in San Benito County.

SUMMARY

In San Benito County it required 18,500 miles of trap line and
16,872 sets to take 175 coyotes in 17 months. An average of 105.7
miles of trap line and 94.6 sets for each animal.

In Lake County coyotes were not so numerous. In 18 months time
only 26 coyotes were taken on a trap line of 9932 miles with 13,675
sets. An average of 382 miles and 526 sets per animal.

In El Dorado County in 18 months time with 6412 miles of trap
line and 13,263 sets, 68 coyotes were taken. An average of 94.4 miles
and 195 sets per animal.

In San Diego County in 7 months time, by running 2592 miles of
trap line and 2297 sets, 17 coyotes were caught. An average of 152.5
miles and 136.1 sets per animal.

In Lassen County in three months with 2585 miles of trap line
and 1272 sets, 51 coyotes were taken. An average of 50 miles and 25
sets per animal.

In Kern County during 10 months, with 8604 miles of trap line
and 7414 sets, 52 coyotes were taken. An average of 165.6 miles and
142.5 sets per animal.

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 35

In Trinity County durinf? 6^ months time on 104 square miles,
1347 miles of trap line was run to ea])tui-e 10 coyotes or an average of
one coyote to 10.4 square miles ; and one coyote to 134.7 miles of trap
line. A total of 3958 sets were exposed or an average of 395.8 sets
per coyote.

This summary shows something of the relative abundance of
coyotes in the various refuges.

Bobcats were most numerous in San Benito and Lake counties.
In the Coast Range, coyotes and bobcats are practically resident
wherever found, not migrating perceptibly. In the Sierras the seasonal
migration of coyotes is east and west. The summer resident coyotes
at high elevations drop down replacing those at a lower level, which
in turn move down replacing others until there is a greater or less
movement into the valleys. This migration begins at approximately
the time sheep are moved from their summer range. The upward
migration follows the receding winter and possibly the spring herding
of sheep to the summer range. After winters of heavy snow in which
many deer are killed, these coyotes find a bounteous food supply.

In the Pinnacles region of San Benito County where the coyotes
are mostly resident, the best catches of coyotes were made when sheep
were concentrated in a relatively small area. Trapping became poorer
when sheep ranged over greater areas in the spring. In Kern County
on IM very few coyotes were taken on the refuge when the sheep had
been moved to the valley ranges. From the information at hand, the
movement of sheep has a greater effect on the abundance of coyotes
in a given locality than any other factor.

Trapping on certain areas did not prove worth while. The Gray
Lodge Refuge in the Sacramento Valley north of Marysville Buttes
at an elevation of 60 feet, is a good example. No coyotes were secured
in 38 days of trapping, with 25 miles of trap line each day, and an
average of 30 sets per day.

Refuge IG in Tehama County was not satisfactory possibly because
of private trapping to the west on the wintering ground.

Part of 1-0 in El Dorado County in the drainage basin of Big
Silver Creek and its middle fork did not produce a coyote during a
month's trapping in July when coyotes should have been in that region.
No signs of coyotes were in evidence. A total of 393 miles of line
with 659 sets were exposed during the month.

The Mount Hamilton region is interesting because in the refuge,
which includes the mountain above the 2200-foot contour, practically
no bobcats or coyotes are found at any season, while around the base
of the mountain below the refuge they are not uncommon.

It is impossible for coyotes and bobcats to be numerous beyond
their food supply. When the population reaches the point where the
food begins to decrease, then the predators must decrease. The coyote
is dependent to a large extent on rabbits and squirrels, and w'here
coyotes are plentiful, as in San Benito County, squirrels and rabbits
are also numerous. Although quail are particularly abundant (more
than 300 were seen per day) in all parts of that area trapped, only
one coyote out of 175 had quail remains in its stomach. Only two
coyotes out of 563 trapped, in this study, had quail remains.

In this same region in San Benito County wood rats, which are
the bobcat's mainstay, are fairly plentiful and we found bobcats were

30 CALIFORNIA FTSII AND GAME

also relatively iiuiiiei'ous. In only liv(> ))()l)ent stonuielis wove we able
to find <iuail romains.

In rct'ufro 2A in Lake, ]\Ien(locino and Glenn counties, whei-e ilie
sqnirrel and rabbit poijulation is low, coyotes were not niuuerons.
However, the bobcat ])oi)ulation was fairly high as was also the wood
lat. In all the refnp:es ti'a]i])ed only two coyote stomachs contained
t'awii hail' and Ihese were both from San lienito C\)unty.

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 37

HISTORY OF THE YOSEMITE ELK HERD

By James Moffitt

All photographs courtesy of National Park Service

Some of the hundreds of thousands, more properly millions, of
visitors to Yosemite National Park during the past twelve seasons may,
upon returning- next year or later, wonder what has become of the
elk herd that ranged the meadow near Yosemite Lodge. To answer this
question and also to put on record the planting, success and final
departure of the herd from the valley is tlie purpose of this ]iaper.

This elk was first recognized as being different from other jSTorth
American elk in November, 1904, by Dr. C. Hart Merriam, then Chief
of the U. S. Bureau of Biological Survey, and was described by him
as a distinct species in February, 1905 (Proc. Biol. 8oc. Wash., vol. 18,
1905, pp. 23-26). Merriam called this animal Cervus nannodes, or the
dwarf elk. It is also variously known as the California valley elk,
valley elk, tule elk and dwarf wapiti.

The first attempt to transplant valley elk was made in November,
1904, by the Biological Survey under Dr. Merriam 's personal direc-
tion. In this year, a single calf was introduced into Sequoia National
Park, but the following season 20 elk were successfully planted there
(Merriam, C. H., The Scientific Monthly, Nov. 1921, pp. 465-475).

In 1914, a group of California naturalists and sportsmen concerned
themselves with the status of the California valley elk. At that time
but a single herd estimated at 400 individuals existed on the Button-
willow Ranch of Miller and Lux in Kern County. The danger of
"keeping all your eggs in one basket," so to speak, was apparent, for
if disease or some other factor exterminated this herd the species would
become extinct. The late Dr. Barton Warren Evermann, then Director
of the California Academy of Sciences, and M. Hall McAllister, present
Chairman of this institution 's Committee for the Conservation of AVild
Animal Life, were the fathers of a movement to rectify this ])recarious
condition. Briefly, a plan was adopted to catch and distribute to
several favorable localities scattered over the State, a portion of the
Kern County elk herd. This was accom]ilished in the years 1914 and
1915 with the cooperation of Miller and Lux, Inc., and the California
Academy of Sciences. In 1914 the academy distributed 54 animals to
seven areas as recorded in Dr. Evermann 's interesting article on the
subject in California F'ish and Game (vol. 1. pp. 85-96). The follow-
ing year 92 elk were introduced into 14 additional localities (Evermann,
California Fish and Game, vol. 2, pp. 70-77). Twelve of these
animals were sent to Del Paso Park at Sacramento.

These plantings constituted fulfillment of the academy's original
program. M. Hall McAllister, co-leader in the venture with Dr. Ever-
mann, however, always cherished the desire that a planting might also
be made in Yosemite Valley. The first concrete move in this dii-ection
seems to have occurred on December 26, 1918, when McAllister and the

38 CALIKOrtXIA FISH AM) GAME

late Stcplicii T. Mallici'. then Director (if the X;iliiiiuil Park Service,
lunched top:ethcr in San Francisco, and IMcAllister broached the sub-
ject, rorrosjiondcnce sliows that McAllister, with characteristic
enerjiy, followed uji this opcninji: and in the next spring definite steps
were taken in this rejjard.

At that time the Park Service's policy was not against exhibiting
caged or exotic sjiecies of animals in the National Parks, and the only
concern over the venture seems to have been the fear that the animals
might not survive the severe winters of Yosemite. In order to secure
information in lliis regard, the Park Service addressed leading authori-
ties on the subject. One of them, Dr. Jose])h CTi-inuell, Director of the
California INFuseum of Vertebrate Zoology, ruled that the animals siiould
not be introduced into tlie Valley for the reason that tliey were never
native to the region, a contention that Grinnell has steadfa.stly
u|)held to the preseiit day, and which finallj^ became one of the main
reasons for removing the elk from Yosemite. Grinnell 's original objec-
tion was overruled b}^ Dr. T. S. Palmer of the U. S. Bureau of Bio-
logical Survey, an ardent supporter of the elk introduction, with the
prediction that the animals would thrive in the Valley where they
would com]irise an atti-action to thousands of visitors, while few people
wonld see them in their native habitat at Buttonwillow.

Ot¥icial sanction of the elk introduction into Yosemite was provided
by the Director of the National Park Service on INIarch 10, 1020, Avhen
an agreement was entered into between this body and the California
Academy of Sciences which stipulated that the academy would bear
all expenses of materials and cost of erection of a corral for the animals
and would deliver to the Park Service at El Portal not to exceed 10
live elk. In return, the Park Service agreed to assume trans]iortation
expenses for the materials and the animals from El I'cu-tal to the
Valley, expenses incident to care and feed for the animals after their
delivery, upkeep of the corral and such other subsequent expenses in
connection Avith the herd as might arise.

July, 1920, saw com])letion of the elk paddock, an enclosure of 28
acres, fenced w'ith heavy woven ware eight feet high and costing over
$2,000. It was now ready to receive the animals and arrangements were
made by the academy to procure some elk from the herd that was
])lanted on the ]\Ionterey Peninsula in 1914 and which had increased
greatly. Efforts made by the Del Monte Properties Company in
August and September, 1920, to capture elk from this herd proved
failures and they were unable to deliver the animals. On account of
the lateness in the season, efforts to effect the introduction were
abandoned for that year in October.

The academy made new arrangements the following spring and on
May 23, 1921, four animals, three cows and a six weeks old bull calf,
were introduced into Yosemite Valley from the Del Paso Park herd
near Sacramento. Four days later one of the cows died, presumably
from injuries received while she was being roped and captured. The
remaining three elk quickly adapted themselves to their new habitat.

August 20, 1921, nine additiojial elk were introduced into the
Yosemite paddock from the Buttonwillow Ranch of Miller and Lux
where the.v were caught by cowboys with riatas. Quite evidently, some
of these animals were injui-ed by their cai)ture in this manner and two

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 39

of them, a bull calf and an old cow, died shortly after arrival. The
remaining seven Buttonwillow elk withstood the introduction well and
on September 1, 1921, the Yosemite herd numbered 10 healthy animals
consisting of 4 bulls, 5 cows and 1 bull calf.

The winter of 1921-1922 was one of unusual severity in Yosemite
with deeper snow on the ground than had been experienced in many
years. It was necessary to erect a shelter to protect the elk from the
weather and they were fed alfalfa hay. In spite of this condition, the
animals appeared to weather the first half of the winter satisfactorily
for on February 14, 1922, then Superintendent W. B. Lewis wrote
M. Hall McAllister that the elk seemed to be pulling through, though
they were not so sleek or fat as in the fall. Conditions must have been
even more severe in the following months, for the next record available,
as of May 2, 1922, notes that five of the animals died in the spring,
leaving only 4 cows and 1 yearling bull.

This proportion of sexes was thought to be unbalanced, so on
May 12, 1922, a yearling bull was introduced into the Yosemite elk
herd from Del Paso Park, and the real start of the Yosemite herd
should probably be counted from that date when it was composed of 4
adult cows and 2 yearling bulls. None of the cows calved in 1922, but
the fact that two cows bore calves respectively on May 9 and 10, 1923,
is of note as it indicates the fecundity of the yearling or 15 months old
bulls in the previous fall.

The following table demonstrates the growth of the herd and its
occasional losses from July, 3922, to the time of its departure from
the Valley in 1933, as nearly as it has been possible to ascertain this
information from available records.

Date of Total animals Bulls Cows Calves Loss and reason

record in herd therefor

Julv 1, 1022 6 2 4

.Tilly, 1923 S 2 4 2

July, 1924 11 4 4 3

July, 1925 l.l 7 3 3 1, 2-yr.-oia cow died in 1925.

July, 1926 15 8 5 2

July, 1927 16 9 5 2 1 animal escaped from corral.

Julv, 1928 19 10 6 3

Julv, 1929 22 10 9 3

July, 1930 23 10 9 4 1 calf died soon after birtli.

and apparently 2 others died
this year.

July, 1931 23 11 10 2 I..oss of 2 elk unaccounted for

in this year.

Jan., 1932 22 10 10 2 1 bull died of old age, Dec. 22,

1931.

Feb., 1932 18 6 10 2 4 bulls killed for scientific pur-

poses, Feb. 21, 1932.

July, 1932 21 7 11 . 3

July, 1933 27 7 11 G and 3 yearlings.

The elk were kept in the corral continually from the time of their
arrival until April 29, 1927, when it was decided to open the gates and
permit the animals to leave the enclosure and to roam the Valley at will.
This experiment proved to be a failure because of danger of injury to
Park visitors, particularly from the bulls that become quite pugnacious
during the rutting season. Therefore, all the elk were returned to the
corral on November 16, 1927, and were not again released. Sometime
later, however, four animals broke through the fence and gained a
liberty that three of them enjoyed for a month before they were
returned to the corral. The fourth animal escaped permanently and
sometime later was reported as having been seen by Game Warden

40 CAMl'OKMA IISII AM) (iA.MK

C. L. Brown, -west of Mariposa, when it appcai'cd to bo in ^(,0,1 ^.o^\-
dition, but lias not been lieard of since.

Kec'ords made available for preparin«i this paper fail to provide the
reasons for the loss of tAvo elk in 1930 and a similar number the follow-
in<r year; presumably the animals died from some natural causes. The
bull that died December 22. ^'^'^^. after two weeks' illness was (p;ite
evidently past his prime. He had small o-point antlers and his teeth
were worn to the grums, some of them bein<>- badly infected and
ulcerated.

From 1924 until 19;]2, the nund)er of adult bulls ecpialed or out-
numbered the old cows in the Yosemite herd. It is thought that this
condition was responsible for the small number of calves that were born
each year as an excess of fipliting on behalf of the disproportionate
number of bulls ])i'obably interfered with their breeding activities. At
any rate, the proportion of sexes was deemed unsatisfactory so the
Park Service, early in 1932, decided to remove some of the surplus males
and on February 21, four adult bulls were killed and their remains
were ))reserved for scientific study by several California institutions.
The favorable effect of this reduction of surplus males upon the herd is
indicated by the fact that six calves, two more than were bom in any
other season, w^ere dropped the following spring, although it is a fact
that the mating season Avas over before the surplus males were killed.

Early in 1928, sentiment began to develop against keeping the elk
in Yosemite Valley ])ermanently. For one thing, the tremendous
increase in the number of annual visitors to the Valley since the original
introduction in 1922 resulted, by 1928, in the need of every foot of
available space on the valley floor for the accomodation of the public.
Park officials saw^ that the space occupied by the elk corral would soon
be required for this purpose. The unsatisfactory experiment of liberat-
ing the animals in the Valley in 1927 indicated that relief could not
be found in this direction. Another reason for the change in sentiment
toward the elk was that by ]928 the National Park Service's policy
with reference to exhibiting caged or nonnative animals within the
Parks had altered, and the Service was now definitely on record against
such exhibits.

A letter from Acting Superintendent E. P. Leavitt of Yosemite
National Park to M. Hall McAllister in June, 1928, outlined the
Service's attitude regarding this problem, but stated that no immediate
action Avas ])lanned. The subject was carefully considered by the
National Park Service during the next months when opinions regarding
it were secured from interested persons both within and without the
organization. Some of the opinions may be of interest for notwith-
standing the need of the space occupied by the elk corral for the pub-
lic's use, then Assistant Field Director Horace I\I. Albright and now
Assistant Director Dr. 11. C. P>ryant were among the Service's men
who expressed the hope that if might be jxissible to keep the animals
in the Valley. Superintendent Thomson tenaciously contended for
their removal from the Park. Dr. Jose])h Grinnell was, as originally
and always, ojiposed to keeping the elk in Yosemite because they are
nonnative to its fauna. ]\I. Hall McAllister suggested if the land
occupied by the iiaddock Avas recpiired for other ])urposes, it might be
possible to erect a corral in Bridalveil jNIeadoAvs or elscAvhere Avhere

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 41

space was available and to transfer the animals there. He also sug-
gested the possibility of reducing the size of the herd and keeping its
maximum at 12 animals, the surplus to be butchered and marketed, or
turned loose. Thus the matter Avas, from time to time, brought up and
discussed for a period of nearly three years, but no definite solution
was reached.

Early in 1932, Superintendent Thomson interested Charles G. Dun-
woody, Director of Conservation of the California State Chamber of
Commerce, in the National Park Service's problem with the Yosemite
elk herd which he hoped to solve by locating a satisfactory area in
which to place the animals. Dunwoody at a subsequent meeting of the
State Chamber, announced Superintendent Thomson's problem and
asked if any of those in attendance could suggest a suitable place to
which to transfer the herd.

Fig. 7. This type of country extends along tlie Owens River for at least 60 miles.
The elk were released on the river about at the place marked by the cross. The
Sierras are seen in the background, the Wliite Mountains border the other side
of the valley.

G. W. Dow, Lone Pine, a leader among Owens Valley sportsmen,
was present at this meeting and stated that he would like to have the
elk moved to Owens Valley. Dow explained that he considered this
an ideal locality in which to permit the animals to roam at large a
strip of seemingly ideal habitat bordering Owens River for a distance
of nearly 70 miles and owned almost entirely by the City of Los
Angeles. He pointed out the natural attractions of Owens Valley for
elk habitat, stressing the fact that little agriculture now exi.sts in the
valley wdth w^hich the animals could interfere and asserted that the
sportsmen and people of the vicinity would welcome the introduction
aiid protect the animals.

Dow and Dunwoody shortly thereafter met with other interested
parties in Los Angeles to contact the Water and Power Board with

42 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

reference to the plan. Tliis ^ronp's inquiries met witli the immediate
favorable reaction of the board and soon the City of Los Angeles
issued formal perniissiou to introduce elk into its Owens Valley prop-
erties. Credit is due to ^Messrs. Dow and Dnnwoody, Hoy Booth,
Supervisor of the Inyo National Forest, Dean L. Sears and Dr. M. A.
Williamson, both of Lone Pine, and the Water and Power Board for
brinyinji' the nialter to such a speedy and successful conclusion.

In the meantime, Dunwoody and Dow corresponded in this regard
with C. G. Thomson, Superintendent of Yosemite National Park,
and kept him informed of their progress. Supt. Thomson seemed to
favor the plan from the start. On -May 10, 19132, Dunwoody advised
the Superintendent that details were completed with the City of
Los Angeles and that the jxTiiiit had been granted. A few days
later, Dow advised Supt. Thomson that he was already to send trucks
in which to move the animals. This prompt action was a bit prenuiture,
for the National Park Service had not yet decided to move the elk and
would not agree to do so until it was satisfied beyond any question that
the herd would succeed in its new location.

The National Park Service soon delegated George M. Wright, Chief
of its Wild Life Division, to conduct a thorough study into the details
of the proposed transfer both from the viewpoint of its desirability and
necessity, and of the suitability of Owens Valley for the animals'
success. Wright, on account of other Avork, was unable to undertake
this investigation until the following spring. On June 1, 1933, he
rendered a most comprehensive report on the subject to the Director
of the National Park Service. It seems advisable here, even at the
expense of some duplication in this paper, to put a goodly portion of
this report on record, for it indicates how thoroughly the Park Service
went into the matter before reaching a decision.

In regard to the necessity and desirability of removing the elk
from the Park, Wright outlined the manner in which conditions as they
obtained in 1922, when the elk were placed in Yosemite, had changed,
as follows :

1. Now contrary to policy to harbor exotics in a National Park.

2. Against National Park policy to exhibit animals in confinement.

3. Inconsistent with National Park's educational program, which is to
stimulate visitors to study nature in place, to have elk enclosed in a paddock
within sight of its Educational Museum, a living contradiction to this principle.

4. Space used by elk pasture required for caring for great crowds of
Park visitors.

5. Maintenance of elk herd costs Educational Department of Yosemite
$400 per year for feed for animals.

6. Need for preserving species from extinction that threatened in 1022.
now removed with establishment [in 19.S21 of 1000 acre State Park in San
Joa(|uin \'alley with 140 'i'ule lOlk mi it.

Wright's report then outlined tlie requirements that should be met
before acting on the pro]-)osal to transfer tlio nuinuils to Owens Valley,
as follows :

1. Obtain approval of California Academy of Sciences.

2. Obtain approval of scientific groii)) at the University of California.

3. Obtain approval of the California Division of Fish and Game.

4. Local inhabitants should be favorably disposed to the introduction.

(This requirement already met by assurance of G. W. Dow and otiier residents
of Owens Valley.)

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

43

5. That there should be no danger of conflict with economic interests.
(This requirement met, no danger of conflict with agriculture for the few
remaining farms in Owens Valley are being rapidly acquired by the City of
Los Angeles and when its program is completed, there will no longer be
any farms there. Presence of elk should be conducive to the prosperity of
inhabitants of Owens Valley because of their interest to the tourist trade

Fig. 8. Messrs. Walker, Dow and Merrill demonstrate the
height of undergrowth which covers large areas along
the Owens River. This should make an ideal home for
the elk.

which is a source of considerable income to residents. Stock grazing is no
longer heavy in Owens Valley and is now being reduced by the policy of the
Water Board. Therefore, feed is abundant and the elk should prosper.)

6. Elk should range on publicly owned lands. (Tliis requirement already
met as the City of Los Angeles owns 00 per cent of the land in Owens Valley.)

7. Obtain a means to finance the cost of moving the elk. (G. W. Dow
already offered to be responsible for this.)

44

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

8. Essential that plan of liberation be conducive to the in<lt'i)en(lent
existence of the herd. (Owens Valley seems ideal in this respect for an
abundant stretch of moist river bottom land. GO miles or more in length, with
an abundance of willows, tiiles. rushes, grasses, mud lakes and water, such
as is considered excellent Tule Elk habitat, exists there. Temperature extremes
in Owens Valley are comparalile witli those of the Upper San .Toa<iuin Valley
wliere Tub> Elk once abounded. Althoufih the elevation is greater tiiaii in the
San .Ioa(iuin Valley, snows that remain on the ground occur only wilii llie
greatest rarity in Owens Valley. Nature has fenced the valley to preclude
the animals' escape from it, for if the elk attempt to leave the river marshes,
high mountains or hostile deserts hem them in on all sides. The.se factors
.seem to meet this requirement.)

Wripht closed his report with tlie foilowing- reeommeiuhitious
regarding the elk transfer. First, that it is his opinion that the
animals would prosper in Owens Valley. Second, that the transfer be

Fig. 9. Bull elk after dehorning. After their horns were removed, they quieted
down, showing little interest in each other.

made in Ictte fall, after the rutting season wlieu the bull's horns could
be sawed aff to prevent their injuring tliemselves in transit, when tlie
calves would be large and strong enough to stand the trip and when
the cows Avould already be impregnated to.insm-e securing a calf crop
the following spring.

Director of the National Park Service H. M. All)righl on .June 20.
1933, approved AVright's recommendations and authorized the transfer
provided that each requirement was md bcfoi-c making the shipnicnt.
Accordingly, Supt. Thomson addressed the agencies whose approval
was required, requesting that same be granted.

Dr. C. E. Grunsky, President and Acting Director of the California
Academy of Sciences, provided Supt. Thomson with that institution's
approval of the transfer on September 15, 1033, but expressed some
reluctance over it for the reason of M. Hall ^ilcAllister's opinion in

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 45

its-.regard. It is only 'fair liere, in deference to McAllister's unfailing,
interest in the Yosemite elk herd, to ])ut on record his views in this
regard", which everyone, including McAllister himself, hopes will prove
to be unfounded. McAllister believes that the move is to be regretted
because the elk had a good home in Yosemite where their increase was
normal. He thinks that fewer people will see and enjoy them in
Owens Valley than in Yosemite and fears the danger of their raiding
farms there, citing the examples of the ]\Ionterey and Eden Valley
(Mendocino County) introductions, where ranchers are said to have
protected themselves against elk depredations to their crops by employ-
ing rather drastic means of control.

Dr. Grinnell had already, in March, provided Wright with his
views regarding the transfer, writing that he considers "Owens Valley
appoints the best of their own home range." He is enthusiastic over
the prospects in Owens Valley for the species, and is glad that the
herd has been removed from Yosemite.

Executive Officer J. L. Farley expressed to Supt. Thomson the
California Fish and Game Commission's atttude on the subject on
September 8. This was that the Commission approved the transfer
but can not undertake to purchase feed, if necessity for same arises,
for the elk in their new home. Further, that in so far as it is consistent
with its other duties, the Commission will endeavor to protect the herd
in Owens Valley.

All the conditions having been satisfactorily met, Supt. Thomson
on September 30, 1933, so informed the Director of the National Park
Service and advised him that the transfer date had been set for
October 10.

Meanwhile rather careful and elaborate preliminary work was
being done in Yosemite by the Park Service. Specifications for carry-
ing crates were secured from Yellowstone National Park, and the
requisite number were constructed in Owens Valley at G. W. Dow's
expense. Preshipment handling of the animals themselves can best be
described by quoting from Chief Ranger F. S. Townsley's report in this
regard (see Figs. 9 and 10) :

For several weeks before the transfer, very definite plans were made to
handle the elk with as little difficulty as possible so as not to get them
excited. The old deer trap at the upper end of the pasture was rebuilt and
a dehorning shoot was made so that it could be used to force the elk into the
shipping crates.

The dehorning was done over a period of several days, by trapping only
one or two bulls at a time ; the rest of the herd did not realize that anything
unusual was taking place.

A few days before they were to be crated, all water was shut off except
inside the trap, resulting in very little excitement when some of them had to b^
driven through the trap door.

At the same time, Dow was active on the ' ' receiving end ' ' in
Owens Valley. There, bordering Owens River, near Aberdeen, about
14 miles from Independence (see Figs. 7 and 14), he constructed a
paddock in which the herd was to be held for a week or ten days after
arrival and fed hay until they became acclimated. :\Iaterials for the
construction of this corral were supplied gratis by the Department
of Water and Power of the City of Los Angeles and by some enthusi-
astic Big Pine and Lone Pine business men. Several employees of

46

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

Fig. 10. Small paddock used in connection with trap, trapdoor up ready for use.
Two inside doors made it possible to force one elk at a time into dehorning
shoot and shipping crate.

Fig. 11. Forcing elk to front of crate so door could be bolted on. Mr. Dow at
front of crate adding some reinforcement with wire. Chief Ranger Townsley
at the right, holding prod.

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 47

the City Department of Water and Power assisted in the erection of
the fence, on their own time. He also arranged to supply a large
truck for hauling the crates to Yosemite and the elk back to Owens
Valley and arranged to come himself to. Yosemite for the loading and
then accompany the animals home. Dow personally expended several
hundred dollars in connection with this venture in which he was
assisted by a $100 appropriation from the County of Inyo. The
Division of Fish and Game donated the use of one of its large fish
planting trucks for hauling the elk, and the services of Fish Planting
Assistant E. L. Walker and Game Warden C. J. Walters. The Gov-
ernment supplied a third truck from the Civilian Conservation Corps
and a driver for same, Lee Rust.

This equipment was assembled in Yosemite the evening of October
9 and the work of loading the elk was commenced at 8 a.m. the follow-
ing morning under the supervision of Chief Ranger Townsley (see
Fig'. 11). Six of the bulls were loaded into individual crates which
were placed on the Division's truck and left the valley at 3.30 p.m.
(see Fig. 12). By 6.30 p.m., 16 more animals were individually crated
and loaded on the larg'e semitrailer type of truck furnished by Dow.
This truck left Yosemite an hour later, escorted by Dow in his private
sedan. The remaining elk, five calves, were loaded into two crates on
the C. C. C. Chevrolet truck which left the valley at 9 p.m. Ranger
W. K. Merrill and Assistant Park Naturalist A. E. Borell accom-
panied Rust in this truck.

The trip from Yosemite to Owens Valley is well described in
Ranger Merrill's report from which the following is quoted:

Ranger Naturalist Borell, Lee Rust and I left at 9 p.m. in a truck with
five young elk.

We arrived at Fresno at 1.15 a.m., inspected the elk, gassed the truck
and left at 1.30 a.m. I relieved Rust from driving from Fresno to Bakersfield.

We overhauled the second load of elk about twenty-five miles this side
of Bakersfield. We arrived at Bakersfield at 5 a.m. Borell relieved Mr.
Dow at the wheel and Rust relieved me.

Arrived at Mojave at 9 a.m., had breakfast, inspected the elk and tried
to water them, but they would not drink. We left at 9.35 a.m. I relieved
Rust to Olancha.

We arrived at Lone Pine at 1.30 p.m., unloaded some of onr things, got
some more help to unload the elk and left Lone Pine for the elk refuge, which is
some forty miles beyond Lone Pine, at 2 p.m. We arrived at the refuge, which
is some three miles off from the main highway, at 3.15 p.m.

Assistant Park Naturalist Borell's report of tlie transfer contains
some information relative to the animars new home in Owens Valley
that is of interest and is quoted, in part, as follows:

The 27 elk (7 bulls, 3 yearlings, 11 cows, and 6 calves) were crated,
under supervision of Chief Ranger Townsley and hauled from Yosemite Valley
to Owens Valley under escort of Merrill and Borell. Each adult animal and
two of the largest calves were in separate crates which were furnished by
Mr. Dow. Some of the bulls fought viciously during the crating and as a
result were rather badly bruised and skinned up by the time we got them
loaded. Once on the road the animals were quiet and I believe received no
further injury. We tried to water thorn at Mojave, but they refused to drink.
It was cloudy and cool, there was no car trouble or other delay en route.
All except one old bull was delivered in good condition.

The paddock into which we released them is on the Owens River near
Aberdeen, which is 14^ miles northeast of Independence. Inyo County. The
new home of the elk seems to be ideal, plenty of water, abundance of willow,

48

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

Pis'. 12. The first load ol" elk lift on Fish and dame Commission truck at 3.30 p.m.,
October 10. The next truck (seen at left rear) furnished by Mr. Dow (stanil-
ing third from left) started at 7.30 p.m. Government truck with five calves
left at 1» p.m.

Fig. 13. The next morning after delivery the elk seemed to be full of life.

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 49

tule, mulei'ffi'owtli aiul srass. Mnr-li of the undergrowth is from three to six
feet high (see Fig. 8). Most of the area belongs to the City of Los Angeles
and is luswl only for watershed and cattle grazing. There are a few private
ranches left in the valley, and if the elk take to these ranches, there may be
difficulties. However, the ranch neai-est to the place of liberation was 10 miles
south.

Mr. Dow, the Fish and Game officers, and county sheriff seemed to be
extremely interested in the welfare of the elk and will do everything they can
in the way of care and protection. The animals will be kept in the paddock
about a week, until they recover from the trip.

The preceding excerpts from reports of Park Service employees
indicate the successful manner in which the elk transfer was executed.
Too much praise can not be given these men for their care and fore-
sight in this regard. Dr. Grinnell, writing Superintendent Thomson
on November 8, 1933, said: "You can not overestimate my personal
satisfaction that the transfer of the elk out of Yosemite Valley was
so successfully accomplished. It is evident that a lot of administra-
tive thought and skill was necessary to bring the whole undertaking
to conclusion. * * *" It is believed that the careful preshipment
handling and loading methods used were largely responsible for the
ultimate success of the transfer, for, in the ease of the earlier elk
plantings, considerable loss seems to have resulted from rough handling
of the animals prior to shipping (see Evermann, California Fish and
Game, vol. 2, 1916, p. 77).

It may well be, too, that the modern methods of transportation
used in the present transfer (see Fig. 12) and resulting in the animals
being confined in their crates for a minimum of time, also influenced
the final success of the venture. For transportation by modern auto-
mobile trucks presents a strange contrast to the horse-drawn wagons
used in the earlier plantings (see Fig. 24, California Fish and Game,
vol.1, 1915, p. 92).

The elk apparently adapted thenxselves quickly to their new sur-
roundings in Owens Valley. All, with the exception of an old bull that
was injured prior to shipping, seemed to thrive in the holding pen in
which they were kept for nine days. The following account of their
liberation from this pen on October 20 is quoted from a letter by
G. W. Dow to Supt. Thomson.

We liberated the elk at 9.30 this morning with 100 per cent of the herd in
fine condition or in as fine condition as they were when loaded at Yosemite.
The old bull that had been hurt previous to the transfer seems to be getting
along fairly well and while we have been doctoring him some every day since
his arrival here we decided that he would be about as well off turned out of
the corral.

We opened the gate this moniing and aft-^r some time we persuaded them
to come out and after they were out in the open they realized there was no
fence and they galloped off through the willows and disappeared, with the old
bull following along behind calling them. We tried to follow them a short
distance but decided they had left and had gone to see if they could find the
end of the pasture. After circling around with our cars we made a trip down
the river and found that they had not passed so presumed they had not gone
very far so we all returned home. About an hour later one of my former
employees went down to the corral thinking he would have a chance to see the
elk and found that the herd had all returned to the corral.

While the elk were in the corral we fed them about a ton of hay and I
believe they were beginning to put on some flesh.

4—9030

50 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

I\Ir. Call Walters and Mr. Gene Walker of the Fish and Game Depart-
ment have taken a very keen interest and have made a trip to the corral every
day since the elk arrived.

A later report upon the successful adaptation of the herd to its new
habitat was provided by Assistant Executive Officer A. E. Burghduff
on November 10, when he wrote as follows: "I saw this band of elk
this week and the entire shipment is looking tine except for one crippled
bull elk tliat died because of its injury." Evidently, the old bull that
was injured prior to shipping and probably should not have been trans-
ferred, died of his wounds. The j-emaining elk, consisting of the fol-
lowing animals, then comprise the nucleus of the Owens Valley herd :
6 bulls, 11 cows, 3 yearlings and 6 calves; a total of 26 animals made
11 11 of what is thought to be an excellent proportion of sexes.

Fig. 14. Tule elk in temporary holding corral on Owens River near Aberdeen, Cal.

October 12, 1933.

Beside the individuals and agencies previously mentioned in tliis
paper as being concerned directly or indirectly with the elk transfer,
especial mention should be made of G. W. Dow's unfailing interest
and work in its consummation. It would be impossible to give Dow
too much praise and credit for his trouble and labor in this regard.

The antlior ]irepared this paper at the request of Executive Officer
Parley and with Superintendent of Yosemite National Park Thomson's
approval. Supt. Thomson kindly furnished correspondence that was
helpful in preparing the article and the photographs which are here
used for illustrations. A visit to Yosemite Park was necessary to secure
further data and it is a pleasure for the writer to acknowledge the help
and cooperation afforded him at that time by Chief Ranger Townsley,
Park Naturalist C. A. Harwell and Assistant Park Naturalists Beatty
and Borell. Harwell informed us that he had in the course of prepara-
tion a paper on the habits of the Yosemite elk herd. On account of the

CALIFORNIA FISU AND GAME 51

accessibility and ease of study of the animals when they were confined
in the Valley, unusual opportunity afforded for observing their habits
and we will look forward to the appearance of Harwell's paper in this
regard.

In addition to those nientiojied above, the writer is indebted to
Assistant Executive Officer Burghduff, Joseph Dixon, Field Naturalist
of the Wild Life Division, National Park Service, and to M. Hall
McAllister for information and assistance in the preparation of this
paper. — Decemher 20, 1933.

52 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

MULE DEER STUDY PROGRAM

By James Moffitt

The Division of Fish and Game lias received numerous reports in
the past two or three years from its game wardens, sportsmen, game
conservationists and U. S. Forest Service employees purporting a
decline in tlie numbers of mule deer inhabiting the northeastei'n por-
tion of the State. Deer kill statistics indicate a reduced kill in this
area in the past two seasons, which, as discussed beyond, may indicate
deer depletion in this section. The Division has investigated the matter
and is of the opinion that some reduction, although not an alarming one,
has occurred among these deer in recent years. It now desires to
ascertain the reasons for the depletion in order that remedial measures
may be undertaken.

Before proceeding with an explanation of the mule deer study
program, by which means it is intended to procure the information
needed, it seems desirable to indicate in more detail than has liereto-
fore been done the range of mule deer in this section, to review the
status of these deer in the past and the kill statistics for the area, to
recount the increasingly restrictive game laws enacted in recent years
and to speculate upon some of the probable reasons for the recent
depletion.

The species concerned is the Rocky Mountain mule deer, Odorm-
leus hemionus hemionus, which California hunters often term the
"Modoc" mule deer in distinction from the smaller California mule
deer {O.h. calif ornicus) of southern California. This is the common
deer of Modoc County and it is also plentiful in most parts of Lassen
County, the eastern half of Siskiyou County and in extreme eastern
Plumas, Sierra and Nevada counties (see Fig. 15). South of Placer
County, where this deer is of rare occurrence, its status is not well
known but a few individuals undoubtedly enter California in suuhium-
along the eastern border south to j\Iono County, where the present
species is thought to meet the range of the newly described Inyo mule
deer {O.h. inyoensis), (see California Fish and Game, vol. 19, 1938,
p. 274). Therefore, the vast majority of the Rocky Mountain mule
deer's range in the State is included in the area under consideration,
which, for convenience, will be termed the "Modoc" region.

The accompanying map (Fig. 15) indicates as nearly as the writer
has been able to ascertain, the average summer range of the Rocky
Mountain mule deer in California. Some few individuals may. in
summer, stray west of the north and south line drawn through Shasta
Valley, but the bulk of the mule deer in this section doubtless stop their
westward spring migration at this valley's eastern edge. Similarly,
further south, occasional mule deer may be noted west of the boundary
line indicated ; but it is believed that in general this line marks the
western range of this deer. Columbian black-tailed deer {Odocoileus
columbianus columhianus) frequently occur east of this line, in fact
they do so commonly and regularly at many points. This is especially

CALIFORNIA FISU AND GAME 53

true in summer, when the black-tailed deer that generally winter to the
westward invade the eastern parts of Siskiyou, Shasta, Plumas, Sierra,
Nevada and Placer counties and western Lassen County. Some black-
tailed deer probably winter with the mule deer east of the boundary
line, as in eastern Siskiyou County (Red Rock Valley) and in eastern
Plumas County (east of Quincy between Keddie and Beckwith peaks,
fide L. B. Mercer), however the great majority of black-tails winter to
the westward. In preparing this map, no attempt has been made to
show the eastern range limit of black-tailed deer or the winter range of
mule deer.

Mule deer winter at many points throughout the area that they
occupy in summer. In fact they winter almost wherever snow depths
will permit them to do so throughout their summer range. When they
migrate, they generally, but by no means always, do so to the eastward
in fall, but at a considerably later date than do the black-tails move
westward. There is never a winter mule deer migration west of the
summer line shown on the map and it is of the greatest rarity that an
individual of this species is said to accompany the black-tails to the
westward, however, there are one or two purported records of this
having happened in Tehama County. Mule deer winter west to Red
Rock Valley, Siskiyou County, in the vicinity of Game Refuge 1-B and
in the rough lavas south of it. In heavy winters, when deep snows
invade the 1-B country, these deer are said to work westward into
Red Rock Valley which is an area of less snowfall (F. B. Starr). They
also winter in the Crowder Flat country, along both slopes of the
Warner Mountains, and on Big Mountain, near Adin, Modoc County
(^4. A. Jordan). A considerable number winter on Bieber Mountain
in northwestern Lassen County and in extreme southwestern Modoc
County {Paid Kehrer). The country between Pittville and Westwood
has too much snowfall to i)ermit deer to winter there and the mule
deer of this area work eastward in late fall to winter east of the
Madeline Plains and in Game Refuge 1-Q, to or across the Nevada
line. The animals that summer in eastern Plumas County southwest
of Honey Lake along the main divide of the Sierra Nevada Mountains
winter on the east slopes of Long Valley and east into western Nevada,
south of this point all Rocky Mountain mule deer summering in Cali-
fornia apparently winter in Nevada. It should also be mentioned that
many, if not most of the mule deer summering in that section of extreme
soutii central Oregon, bounded by the towns of Malin, Bly and Lake-
view, apparently migrate southwesterly in fall to winter in the vicinity
of Game Refuge 1-B in Modoc County.

According to the reports of some early residents of the Modoc
region (L. N. Lorenzen, Mt. Shasta, Thomas Ivory, Canby, and others)
in the early days, fifty years or so ago, mule deer were not at all
])lentiful in the area. Lorenzen recently told tlie writer that old time
cattle riders have informed him that one could ride for a day without
seeing a deer in regions where similar excursions today would reveal
many of these animals. Deer seem to have increased steadily in the
Modoc region from early times until about 1928 when most local
inhabitants agree that the peak population for modern times was
attained. The following year, and 1930, was apparently the time
that the present depletion commenced. The winter of 1932-1933 may,

54

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

and we hope did, mark the low point in this decline, for a number of
local informants have recently expressed to the writer the view that
there were more deer in the area in 1933 than in the previous year.
Althoufjh many people have been interviewed on the subject, it is

Fig. 15. Summer range of the Rocky Mountain mule deer in northeastern California.

difficult to ascertain the extent of the recent depletion, however, the
consensus of such opinion seems to indicate a reduction of about 15
per cent in the herd in the fall of 1932 over a similiar time in 1928.

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 55

Prior to about 1920, the number of "outside" hunters visiting the
]\Iodoc region each season was small and the majority of deer killed
tliere were taken by local residents. From that time until about 1930,
the number of sportsmen from other sections of the State who made
limiting trips into the area grew by leaps and bounds so that by the
end of this period a veritable army of outside hunters made annual
pilgrimages after these large animals. This condition naturally
resulted in a correspondingly higher annual legal kill which kept pace
Avith the increase in numbers of hunters until 1931, when reports of
less comparative success began to emanate from the sportsmen. In the
same period, restrictive legislation which will be discussed later, kept
up with the increase in hunters and was apparently responsible for
preserving the numbers of deer until 1928 or thereabouts. The Division
had no means of recording the annual kill or total number of deer
hunters prior to 1927 when the deer tag license law was enacted. The
statistics provided below for the deer kill in Modoc and Lassen
counties for the years 1927 to 1933, inclusive, will serve well to indicate
the relative mule deer kill for the entire area for this period and
reports from these counties only are provided for the reason that prac-
tically all the deer killed in them are mule deer whereas there is no
means of distinguishing between mule and black-tailed deer, in our tag
system, both of which are taken in the other counties in this area. We
have no means of ascertaining the number of hunters who annually
go after mule deer, but because of their known rapid recent increase
in this area, we are certain that the increase of sportsmen afield in the
Modoc region has been proportionately far in excess of the total increase
for the State, at least through the 1931 season. The Division hopes,
before the 1934 deer season opens, to evolve a means of checking hunters
in and out of the mule deer area which will in future provide this
nuich needed information.

Deer killed Deer tags.

Total both Total in total sold

Ygar Lassen Co. Modoc Co. counties State in State

in97 296 510 806 19,507 110,760

l't?S 393 729 1,122 21,515 105, u38

lO->o '511 835 1,346 21,222 115,472

i^on 585 1,129 1,714 24,132 123,999

q^l - 607 1,486 2,083 25,805 129,005

iqQo 508 916 1,424 18,380 96.702

I'ct'ln 551 954 1,505 17,689 94,500*

*

Approximate, exact 1933 total not yet available.

It should be noted in the above table that the total State deer kill
in all years save 1928 bears a rather consistent ratio to the total
number of deer tags sold or number of hunters in the field. At the
same time, the kill in Lassen and Modoc counties increased out of all
proportion to the State kill. This is a result of more Imnters visiting
the area, at least through the 1931 season. The decrease in the number
of deer Idlled in these counties in 1931 and 1932 is out of proportion to
the decline in deer tag sales for the same period and is probably, in part
at least, a result of deer depletion. The increase in the 1933 Modoe
deer kill is gratifying for, in spite of unsatisfactory (dry) hunting
conditions that obtained in the region last season, more deer were taken
there than in the previous year, notwithstanding a falling off in the
total State kill and a decrease in number of hunters.

56 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

The fact that the numbers of Modoc mule deer held up well in the
face of greatly increased hunting; effort from 1920 to 1928 may
probably be explained by the additional restrictions that were placed
upon the hunters in that period. From 1911 to 1925, Modoc and
Lassen counties were included in Fish and Game District 1 which still
embraces most of the Sierra Nevada country and prior to 1919 also
included Del Norte, Humboldt and Siskiyou counties. In 1919, District
1^ was formed, composed of the last-named counties. During this
period the following open season on deer obtained in District 1: 1911
to 1914, August 15 to October 31 ; 1915 to 1920, August 15 to October
14; 1921 to 1924, September 1 to October 15. The bag limit was two
buck deer per season throughout the period, but after 1915 it was
illegal to kill spike bucks.

District If was formed in 1925 when it consisted of Modoc and
Lassen counties. Here a 30-day open season was declared, September
15 to October 15 in contrast to the six -weeks' season that persisted
in District 1 until 1927. Forked-horn deer were also protected in Dis-
trict If, but the limit was two bucks with more than two points on a
side per season. The next Legislature (1927) reduced the limit to one
such buck per season in Modoc and Lassen counties and changed the
open season to September 16 to October 15, which season was also
adopted for District. 1.

The boundaries of District If were enlai'ged by the 1929 Legisla-
ture to include in this district that portion of Siskiyou County lying
east of the easterly bank of the Klamath River between the Oregon
line and the Siskiyou line of the Southern Pacific Railway and south
along this railway to the south line of Siskiyou County. This, from
a biological standpoint, was an excellent boundary line, for it would be
difficult to locate an artificial one more nearly paralleling the western
boundary of the mule deer's range. It is a pity, therefore, that the
1931 Legislature changed this boundary to that portion of Siskiyou
County lying east of the Pacific Highway (U. S. 99) between the
county's southern line and the town of Weed and east of the Weed-
Klamath Falls Highway between "Weed and the northern line of
Siskiyou County (see Fig. 15). The latter is the present boundary of
District If and no changes have been made in season or bag limit since
1927. It is unfortunate that the above mentioned boundary change
was made for a six-weeks' season (September 1 to October 15) and a
two-buck bag limit, with no forked-horn protection, now exists in the
mule deer range west of the Weed-Klamath Falls Highway. This mat-
ter should be corrected by our next Legislature and it is suggested that
the Pacific Highway would provide an excellent western boundary to
District If from the soutliern Siskiyou County line north to the
Oregon line. Other westward enlargements to District ]f further
south, especially in eastern Plumas, Sierra and Nevada counties are
apparent from the accompanying map and we hope will be made in
1935. The Division endeavored to have such legislation enacted in the
1933 session, but was unable to accomplisli this.

Senator Harold J. Powers, Eagleville, introduced a bill into the
1933 Legislature to shorten the open season in District If to the
period October 1 to 15. This measure was supported by many
sportsmen in IModoc County but mo.st of the local hunters in Lassen

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 57

County opposed it. The writer made a trip to the mule deer area in
March, 1933, to secure the views of our game wardens and others
in this regard. The result of these interviews was the conclusion that
the measure was not a conservation one by reason of the fact that so
short a season would congest the hunters unduly. This congestion of
liunters which occurs yearly in the opening days of the hunting season,
is the hardest thing that the bucks have to face, for men are every-
where and once a mule buck is "jumped" he usually runs quite a
distance before stopping. With a field full of hunters, if the man who
jumps the buck does not kill him, there is much more likelihood that
he will be shot by some other hunter before he stops running, than if
tliere are not so many sportsmen afield. It seems desirable for this
reason, to spread the season over as long a period of time as is reason-
able. The Division adopted this policy and contended that the Modoc
deer population was not in so precarious a position as to justify enact-
ing this measure, which might not work out to the deer's advantage.
This, and the Division's dislike to impose further restrictions on the
hunters in the Modoc area until constructive measures to build up its
deer population are adopted and tried out, was explained to Senator
Powers w^ho did not push his bill thereafter and it "died in com-
mittee."

The 1933 Legislature conferred upon the Director of the Depart-
ment of Natural Resources, with the Governor's consent, the power to
close to hunting upon recommendation of the Fish and Game Com-
mission, any area where added protection is needed for game for such
a time as the Director may designate, or until new legislation thereon
may become effective. This means that the Division could probably
close all, or part of the Modoc area if justification to do so developed,
so with a close watch being kept upon these deer, sportsmen need not
fear that undue depletion will be permitted to occur. The thought
has been suggested that portions of the Modoc area might now be
closed to hunting. Not only does the Division consider that no neces-
sity now exists to do so, but it believes that such a course would only
liasten to create poor conditions in the area's left open by crowding more
hunters into them. It is possible that study may develop that hunters
camping near water in dry sections where springs are far apart is
detrimental to the deer of the vicinity. In such cases it would seem
to be in "order to either close the area to hunting or to prevent camping
at the springs.

Factors other than increased hunting effort are doubtless at least
in part responsible for the recent deer depletion in the Modoc region.
Foremost among these is a disease commonly termed calf diphtheria
and caused by an organism known as Bacillus necrophorus an out-
break of which occurred in the Medicine Lake country, especially in
the vicinity of Mud Lake, in 1923 and 1924.* A more recent and
widespread epidemic of this infection occurred in the same vicinity
and also at White Horse and in other localities in 1931. The
Division's pathologist investigated many cases of this disease from
these areas in that year and definitely diagnosed the disease. This
outbreak continued to a lesser extent the following year and very few
reports of deer death from its cause were obtained in 1933 in spite

* See California Fish and Game, vol. 10, 1924, p. 191 ; vol. 11, 1925, pp. 27-28.

58 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

of careful watch for it. Game wardens treated -water holes in diseased
areas with bhiestone in ID.'i.S, whicli sterilization may have been liel])-
fiil in controllino- and stampings out this disease. It has been impossible
to ascertain the total number of deer that succumbed to the recent
epidemic, but same was considerable and conservative estimates run
into the hundreds.

Illegal hunting', particuhii-ly winlci' l^illing of deer, is another
factor that undoubtedly has luid its effect upon the Modoc deer popula-
tion. In spite of the best efforts of our game wardens, this drain on
the deer herd is known to be considerable and has doubtless increased
in recent years due to economic stress and unemployment. Winter
deer killing in remote sections of a country that is difficult to traverse
at this season on account of deep snows is one of the most difficult types
of violation to apprehend. Further, the all too liberal policy of many
of our courts toAvard convicted violators in late years, on the plea of
economic stress, has tended to ease the penalty for such violations,
which fact works for more abuse of our game laws.

Another possible factor to reckon with in regard to the status
of the Modoc deer herd is that of increasingly intensive sheep grazing
in the area. Formerly, much of the Modoc region was utilized for .
horse and cattle grazing. These animals are mainly grass eaters and they
do not compete with deer for food to the extent that sheep, which also
browse, do. Sheep grazing has increased enormously in the ]\Iodoc
region in the ])ast twenty years and the effect of overgrazing by these
animals is apparent in many localities. This fact may have had an
effect on the deer herd by reducing its available food supply.

Other factors which may Avork in favor of or against the welfare
of Modoc mule deer are enumerated beyond in the outline of the study.

The Division decided to secure more information on Modoc mule
deer preparatory to effecting game management measures in the region,
in the spring of 1933. It also decided to increase the value of its
game refuges in that section at the same time. The original plan to
locate trappers on four of the mule deer refuges in 1933 and on addi-
tional ones in 1934 was by necessity delayed and modified in the summer
on account of reduction in personnel and in income. Nevei-theless, it
was later found possible to proceed Avith a modification of this program
and three skilled predatorv animal trappers and field observers Avere
located on Game Refuges *1-B, 1-F and 1-Q in the fall of 1933. In
addition to removing predatory animals, especially coyotes, from these
areas, these men Avill do everything possible for the Avelfare of deer
and other game and Avill also coo])erate in this study program.

The Division's Bureau of p]ducation and Research has adopted for
its chief field investigational Avork for 1934 (and ])robably succeeding
years also) the administration of the present study ]irogram. The
purpose of this Avork is to ascertain the favorable and unfavorable
factors to the Modoc mule deer, means by AAdiich same can be altered
for the deer herds' benefit, and to compile information that Avill later
proA'ide the basis of a game management program for these animals.
The latter means im})roving habitat and other conditions so that a
lai'ger annual crop is secured and "harA'esting" this crop in such a
manner that the entire herd may maintain its numbers or increase. It
is quite evident that our present knowledge is insufficient to ])ermit

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 59

US to now adopt such a constructive program, so tlie present study has
been instituted to secure the required information in as practical and
speedy a manner as is thought possible.

The natural course to pursue to procure this information would
be to put two or three trained biologists into the field to work out the
problem. On account of reduction in income and lack of funds for this:
purpose, it is impossible for the Division to do so at the present time.
Because we believe that it is imperative to secure information on the
subject at once, we have, therefore, decided to do the best we can with
our available man power and observations will be made by game
wardens and predatory animal trappers under the supervision of two
of the Division's biologists.

Three game wardens, A. A. Jordan, P. Kehrer and F. R. Starr,
men with proven ability to make accurate field observations, will con-
duct prescribed courses of study in as many areas in Siskiyou and
Modoc counties. Each of these men will have a predetermined work
area on which he will be required to do several days' work each month.
The exact location of these areas will not be divulged for the obvious
reason that such a course would probably interfere with the study,
which it is desired be made under absolutely natural conditions.

Three State predatory animal trappers, A. L. Brown, J. L.
McDonald and 0. R. Shaw, who were selected on account of their
ability to make and record wild life observations, will, in addition to
their trapping and patrol duties on State game refuges, conduct
similar programs of study on portions of their respective areas. One
of these men is located in Modoc County and two of them are stationed
on Lassen County game refuges. Thus one man will conduct the study
in Siskiyou County, three in Modoc and two in Lassen counties. The
writer will direct the work of the game wardens and D. D. McLean,
Bird and Animal Economist, Bureau of Game Refuges, will supervise
the activities of the trappers. Junior Range Examiner F. W. Johnson,
U. S. Forest Service, will cooperate with all the workers and his excel-
lent knowledge of range plants will greatly assist them in tlie study
of food plants and range conditions.

The course of study outlined below was prepared at a meeting of
Joseph Dixon, Field Naturalist, Oi^ce of National Parks, Buildings
and Reservations, Dr. E. Raymond Hall, Curator of Mammals and
I. McT. Cowan, University of California IMuseum of Vertebrate
Zoology, J. S. Hunter, Chief, and D. D. McLean, Bird and Animal
Economist, Bureau of Game Refuges of this Division, and the writer.
The meeting was held in Berkeley, November 22, 1933.

The writer presented the program adopted at this meeting to
members of the the U. S. Forest Service and State game wardens at
Mt. Shasta November 27. Among those present were : Sujiervisor T. J.
Jones, of the Shasta National Forest, Junior Range Examiner Jolin-
son and other Forest Service employees. Captain of Game A\^ardens
S. R. Gilloon and game wardens Brice Hammack, Jordan. Kehrer and
Starr. These men all agreed upon the practicability of the program and
considered the study vital at this time. It is a pleasure to acknowledge
the endorsement of and promises of assistance to our study program
that Supervisor Jones and members of the Forest Service provided at
this meeting.

GU CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

The following is the study program that has been adopted :

I. Areas.

To be carefully solocted to present average conditions of different types of
country within mule deer range. Thus one area should present semidesert con-
flit inns. aiKiilier iiiin'-jnuiper associations, another mountain pine timber, etc. Eai-h
individual area should be selected to incorporate, as far as it is possible within its
bounds, all types of country (associations) occurring in the general vicinity. For
instance, a i)inc timlier area should include the average amount of brusli and open
meadow land and water that occurs in the general vicinity. '"Work areas" «n/»t
not be selected because they are known to harbor either greater or lesser than the
average number of deer in the vicinity. In other words, each AVork Area shoukl.
as far as it is possible, be selected to present average conditions of its general
vicinity. It is of course obvious that some of the areas should be located in known
"summer range" and others in "winter range."

Following are some vicinities suggested for consideration to locate AVurk
Areas in. It is believed that most of the important different types of country
contained within Modoc County can be found in these localities :

A. Red Tiock Valley. (Semidesert tyjie with juniper.)

li. Crowder Flat vicinity. (Pine, juniper, mahogany association.)

C. Warner Mountains. (Mountain, pine, brush associations.)

D. Little Hot Spring Valley. (Lava bed type.)

E. Adin Mountain. (Pine, quaking aspen association.)

II. Censuses.

Two types of censuses will be made by the workers. In each case, the counts
will 1)1" made as closely coincident as possible, preferably on succeeding days. As
far as it is possible, censuses by all Avorkers should be made on the same day.

A. Ntimher and date of cenuse.t. Four deer counts will be made each year.

1. Winter count designed to be made at end of fall migration, or
when all deer are on their winter range. Date nearest to January 10
when satisfactory weather conditions obtain.

2. Late winter range census. To be taken at as late a date in
spring as seems positive to still find all deer on their winter range.
Probable date for this census, first half of April. (Note: By subtracting
this count from "1" we should be able to figure the "winter loss." This
count should provide about the minimum deer population for the year. )

3. Faicn census. To be made late enough to be certain to include
all fawns (after latest fawns are walking), yet as eai'ly as possible.
Suggested date, last half of July or August 1. [Note: This census
should provide the maximum deer population.)

4. Prehidifiup season coisus. To secure numl)er of deer immedi-
ately before hunting season opens. Date September 10. {Note: l^y
.subtracting number of fawns counted in this census from number counted
in census "3," fawn loss may be estimated, except loss of very small
young impractical to count, lost prior to census "3," on Work Areas.
This will provide "hunting loss" by subtracting same from buck census
here o!)tained (census "4") potential breeding stock may be computed.)

1*. Kinds of censuses.

1. Strip count. Not to be made in Work Area but to l)e taken
over a definitely laid out course, preferably circular, either in the general
vicinity of the Work Areas or on sojne other desirable tract of land.
This count will be taken four times a year as above, each time over
exactly the same course, by the same observer or observers and at the
same time of day. In different y(>ars, each count should be made on
corresponding days. The length of the route in this count will neces-
sarily vary with the type of country in which it is to be taken according
to the ease or difficulty with which deer may be counted (open versus
brushy or timbered country) and with the number of animals to be
counted. The course should be as long as it is practical for a man to
cover carefully in a full half day, or 5 or 6 hours, perhaps 4 to G miles.

CALirORNIA FISH AND GAME 61

When definitely selected, each "Strip Count Route" should he carefully
laid out, marked (hlazed, etc.) and mapped.

2. Definite area count. Each area should be carefully selected as
outlined in Part I and its size determined in accordance with the require-
ments of this census. These areas will comprise the Work Areas. Each
should be as large as possible, and yet conform with the following require-
ments: that, by any devisable means, the man in charge may, alone,
count with almost full accuracy within a given time, every deer within
its confines. Here, just as in the case of the Strip Count Route, type of
country will greatly affect the size of the Work Area.

C. Census requirements. Workers will arrange to s(>gregate age clas.ses of
<leer and record each separately as follows (in each individual seasonal count) :

1. Number of old (adult) does.

2. Number of yearling does.

3. Number of does with single fawn.

4. Number of does with twin fawns.

5. Number of fawns. (Deer of the season to be counted as fawns,
i.e., April census fawns will be approximately 10 months old. These
animals will be recorded as yearlings in the July census, when a new
fawn crop will have appeared.)

6. Number of spike bucks.

7. Number of forked-horn bucks. (Notes if possible on same that
have or lack "eye-guard" or "brow-tine.")

8. Number of bucks, three-pointei-s or better. (Notes wanted on
exceptionally large bucks, ones with malformed or deformed antlers, etc.)

9. Special data as follows are desired for bucks only in the censuses
indicated :

a. January census: Number of bucks with shed antlers.

b. April census : Number of bucks still carrying antlers.

c. September census : Number of bucks in "velvet."

At the end of each census report, each worker should provide a
statement of remarks upon the particular count in which especial
emphasis should be given to the following points :

10. Weather at census taking time, clear or cloudy, rain or snow
falling, depth of snow on ground. Brief statement of the weather at
this point for the previous ten days. Temperature. Wind velocity and
direction.

11. General condition of the herd, noting all exceptional cases such
as unusually poor animals, condition and color of pelage (coat) and
antlers, visibly diseased or injured animals. Each of the latter cases
should be recorded in some detail.

III. Predatory animals.

The following methods for studying these animals and their effect upon deer
are suggested for the use of the game wardens only. D. D. McLean is preparing
more comprehensive methods for the use of the trappers on the game refuges.

A. Secure estimated number of predators (mountain lion, bear, coyote, bob-
cat, possibly golden eagle) occurring on Work Areas monthly. In reports indicate
whicn of tlH'sc animals and quantity thereof appear to be resident on the area,
and which are only visitors and approximate extent of visit of each. This infor-
mation to be secured by :

1. Observation of the predators in life.

2. Observation of tracks, especially in snow.

B. Effect of predatory animals upon deer.

1. By observation determine if harassment by predatory animals
drives deer from their feeding, resting or watering places or disturbs
them and to what extent in (a) feeding, (b) watering, (c) resting.

2. By observation of deer kills use every method possible (tracks,
evidence, etc.) to ascertain the cause of each kill. In monthly reports
list all kills found on Work Areas, also ones definitely attributable to

62 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

Iircdalor.v jtiiiiuiils llial arc I'diiiiil cIscwIktc, and in Ixitli cases provide
all details.

C At ail seasons, workers should lie on the aleri lo nole esiieciai <'ondilions
(such as deep snow, storm, extrenie cold, or heat, etc.) under which predatory
animals become particularly or more than ordinarily harmful to deer. It must be
• ■mpliasized here that we have little exact information relative ro the effect of
predatory animals upon deer. We wish to particularly stress this phase of the work
and the need for care in executing it. xVIl information must be positive or it is
worthless ; if there is a doubt in a case, express degree of same in your report ; if
the degree of doubt is large, better state "cause unknown" than to att('ni])t to
ascertain it from too scanty evidence.

L). Htomachs of all predators shot or trapped should be labeled as lo date,
locality and condition.s under which same are secured and sent into the ottice for
examination. However, only in extreme cases where the death of numbers of deer
would result, should predators be removed from the Work Areas, because if they are,
i( will defeat the purpose of this study, which is to loam what happens to our deer
under natural conditions.

IV. Disease, parasites, poisons.

A. In the case of live deer that arc visibly diseased, same should be studied
as closely as possible for symptoms which should be recorded, but only in the case
of badly diseased or incapacitated animals should they be killed. All deer carcasses
found, whether or not on Work Areas, if fresh enough to permit of observation
should be carefully examined for the following diseases, symptoms of which are
provided herewith. Each case should be reported in detail with locality in inonlbly
report.

1. Bacillus necrophorus, or, "calf-diphtheria." Symptoms already
known to most game wardens consist of highly inflamed, often nuicous
tilled throat or gullet, mouth, nasal passages or other head areas. The
best way to inspect a specimen for this disease is to slit the mouth back
from the rear corner of the lips to the neck, open the mouth wide and
examine it, especially in back of the tongue and the throat. If these
areas or parts of them are inflammed, show a mucous discharge oi- are
greenish-white in color, it is fairly safe to assume that the aninuil had
"deer disease," as this malady is locally termed. When such diseased
heads are found they should* be sent in for examination.

2. Liver fluke. Remove the liver. If it has a blotchy, speckled
appearance with whitish blotches or mottlings on its surface, then the
animal most probably suffered from this disease, and its liver should be
sent into the office for confirmation. Sometimes the fluke can be found
as a thin whitish or reddish leaflike structure. If the examination shows
a noi-mal, healthy colored liver, that has one or more watery welts about
the size of a dime on its surface, the pi'esence of these "cysts" do not
indicate liver fiuke, but these are the larval stages of the dog tapewonn.
This condition is very common among our deer, but is apparently liarni-
less to them except in rare cases of extreme infesbition. However, record
should be made of all deer livers found to be so affected.

3. Lung worm. Cut the lung open. If it is infested with lung
worms, these parasites will be seen as coiled whitish or gray strings on
close examination.

4. Pink-eye. Pussy, mucous discharging and inflamed eye or eyes
are good indicators for this disease. In such cases, cut ofl' and send in
for examination animal's entire head.

5. Bot larvae. The larvae of the hot fly are frc<iuciitly found in
the nasal passages of deer. In most cases, the presence of these "grubs"
do not appear to affect the animal's health at all. However, .some
cases of severe infestation are on record that have caused either great
incapacitation or even death in deer. To examine an animal for bot fly
larvae infestation, cut open the front of the head from nose to eyes and
expose the sinuses, or nasal passages. If bot fly larvae are present, they
will readily be seen as they are grayish oval or short "cigar" shaped
gnibs varying from one-quarter to one inch in length. Specimens (entire

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 63

deer heads) need not be sent into (he office for examination in oases of
moderate or. light hot fly infestations ; l)ut ii record of the jiresence or
absence of this pai-asite should be included In the reiiort upon <'ach carcass
examined. In cases of heavy infestation, where examination fails to
reveal other diseases or causes for death, and hot larvae is the suspected
cause, then the animal's entire head should be sent into the office for
examination.

(Jeneral instructions regarding disease. Inspect each carcass for all the
alK)ve enumerated diseases. The finding of a single disease in itself is not sulttcient
as the same animal might be suffering from two or more maladies, any one of which
or a combination of all might have been responsible for its death. Only in cases
where parts are thought definitely to be diseased should they be sent to the
otnce ; but in such cases, we do want to receive the affected parts as explained above,
except that livers are not wanted that are infected with dog tapeworm cysts only,
unless they be unusually heavily infested, nor are the heads bearing but moderate hot
larvae infestations desired. Workers are cautioned to thoroughly wash hands and
clothing if soiled after making examination or handling a diseased carcass. Wasli
contaminated parts thoroughly and repeatedly with soap and water. Do not
handle food or pipe before washing hands that have been soiled by examining a
diseased deer. If "black-leg" is suspected to affect deer, rubber gloves should be
worn before touching a diseased carcass and all precautionary measui-es exercised,
as this disease is very dangerous.

B. External parasites: Deer are subject to more or less infestation by fleas
and ticks. Usually the animals seem to suffer little or no harm, save possible
annoyance from these pests. However, an occasional (usually a poor) deer is
found that is very heavily parasitized, particularly by ticks. It is only in such
cases of extreme infestation that the workers need direct attention to these parasites
when the extent of infested areas should be noted together with visible effect upon
the animal. Specimens of the parasites should also be preserved in small bottles of
alcohol, labeled, and sent in for determination. It should, however, be borne in
mind that cases of heavily parasitized deer occur rather as a result of, rather than
as a cause, of sickness. Usually some disease or malnutrition gets the deer's con-
dition down so that it can not combat the parasites that normally live on it, then
they multiply enormously. Therefore, all cases of heavily parasitized deer should
be investigated further for sickness or other ailments.

Mule deer workers should look carefully in cases of bucks examined for
evidence of emasculation through tick bites. There is a popular opinion that
many bucks lose their masculinity from this cause and definite information is
desired in its regard.

Occasionally deer may be found to harbor lice, in this event specimens of the
mites are desired by the office, preserved in alcohol and accompanied with full data
as to host, locality, etc.

C. Poisons. Full data and stomachs for analysis are desired of all deer
suspected of having died from poison. Particularly note the poisonous shrubs or
plants in your vicinity and endeavor to ascertain by observation whether or not
deer eat them and if so, their effect upon the animals. Certain vetches and wild
parsley are among the plants that are sometimes poisonous to live stock and we
desire information relative to their effect upon deer, if the auinia] eats them.

V. Mortality.

A. In the Work Areas the cause of the death of all deer is desired if it is
possible to ascertain. Workers should patrol each area thoroughly at least once
a month in search of carcasses. When a dead deer is found, every possible means
should be resorted to to determine the cause of mortality. Report should be made
separately on each dead deer found and incorporated in monthly reports. If it is
impossible to ascertain cause of death, carcass should be listed and cause shown
as "unknown." It is of utmost importance to record the age and sex of every
dead deer in the report.

B. Reports are also desired of dead deer and cause of their mortality that
are found by the game wardens on areas other than the Work Areas in the course
of their regular patrol duties. These reports, however, should be made separately
and each should be plainly marked to preclude any possibility of its becoming
confused with the Work Area report.

64 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

C. Fnllowinp; are some causes of (ic.-ilh in deer:

1. AVintor kill (starvation).

2. Predators.

3. Hunting (moans will later bo devised for securing an accurate record

of legal hunting kill on Work Areas).

4. Illegal hunting.

5. Wounded deer lost by hunters that die.

6. Accidents (natural accidents, not man-caused, such as falling off

cliff, snagging self in brush, etc.).

7. Old age.

8. Disease.

VI. Food and Water.

This is one of the most important parts of the investigation. It (Mubraces the
relation of our deer herd and live stock and the need of water. It is also one of
the nK)st ditlicult phases of the study upon which to secure definite, unassailable
information. It is, therefore, urged that all workers devote especial emphasis to
this portion of the study and endeavor to assend)le a mass of pertinent facts in this
regard.

A. Ascertain actual food of deer on your area by observation (watching
them eating) and record list of deer food plants in their order of preference
(seasonally) or give percentage figures for food plant preference. Range Examiner
Johnson, of the Forest Service, is an expert botanist, familiar with most of the
forage plants in the mule deer section. He will cooperate with the workers and
familiarize them with the common and important food plants.

B. Note and report from time to time in monthly reports as observations
are made, the effect that deer browsing has upon the food plants. Necessarily
some of these observations should be made in areas free from live stock or at a
season when live stock are not present. Consider the possibility of fencing off small
plots in grazed areas to exclude live stock, yet permit access of deer for use as
study plots in comparison -with the surrounding area.

C. Note and report as above what other animals feed upon the same plants
as the deer and their effect upon same.

1. Other wild animals (antelope, rabbits, squirrels, etc.).

2. Cattle and/or horses.

3. Sheep (domestic).

D. Note and report as above what plants cattle and sheep feed upon that
doer do not eat, and effect upon same.

E. Take photographs illustrating good food growth, poor growth and cases
illustrating where good deer browse has been destroyed by fire, drought, grazing
or other causes. "Before and after" photos are particularly desired.

VII. Migration.

Secure all possible data relative to the migration of deer in your vicinity,
especially on and to and from the AVork Areas. Provide this information in the
monthly reports. The following are some considerations by which to bo gnidrd ni
this phase of the study.

A. Dates of commencement of migrations (spring and fall).

B. Dates of height of same.

C. Dates of conclusion of same.

D. If there are more than the two definite annual migrations, such as a mid-
winter migration, caused by deep snow, lack of food or some other factor, record
and report same.

E. Note direction of migration travel.

F. Note time migrating is done, by day or night or both.

G. Attempt to ascertain distances migrated (distance from summor to winter

ranges).

H. Ascertain range of individual deer (recognizable individuals sueh as bucks
with distinctive antlers, animals with malformed hoofs, etc. Consider possibility of
marking deer, ear tagging or marking fawns for instance, for this purpose).

1. By day or week.

2. In a year.

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 65

VIII. Habits.

There is relatively little exact information available regarding the habits of
deer. Many hunters have quite definite opinions in this regard that vary enor-
mously. We must, by this study, secure a mass of absolutely reliable and true infor-
mation on the subject. This should be done by each worker bearing the following
suggestions in mind at all times, making notes or field observations of same and
incorporating them in the monthly reports. Following are points regarding the
"Life History" or "Habits" of mule deer upon which we particularly desire infor-
mation at this time :

A. Date of commencement of rut.

1. Date when bucks start "running."

2. Date of actual mating. Age classes mating. Do yearling bucks and

does breed? Do very old individuals breed V

B. Dates upon which bucks drop antlers.

1. Note earliest date annually upon which first buck with shed antlers

is seen.

2. Note dates when most bucks on your area shed antlers.

3. Note latest date in spring when buck with antlers is seen.

C. Dates upon which "velvet" is shed.

1. Exact dates of each instance where buck is seen in process of losing
velvet, i.e., shredded velvet clinging to antlers. In each case also
note color of pelage or coat at the time.

D. Following information must be recorded regarding fawns :

1. Date upon which earliest fawn is noted in spring.

2. Date upon which latest new born fawn is noted.

3. Dates between which most fawns are dropped.

4. List dates of all fawns noted so young they can not run.

5. All yearling does with fawns must be specifically recorded.

E. Any reliable information obtainable (in the case of statements of hunters,
etc., provide name and address of same with date upon which statement was
secured) upon the following questions:

1. How long do deer live? (Known positive individual examples.)

2. How do deer "get along with" sheep, cattle or horses when these

animals occupy the same range? In feeding? At water? Proven
examples of specific cases on this subject should be obtainable and
should be secured from reliable persons in the form of signed state-
ments.

3. Are there any black-tailed deer in your mule deer range? If so,

provide map of range, show area inhabited by each species and note
approximate percentages of each kind's abundance.

4. Are there any hybrid (mule x black-tail) deer in your mule deer

range? Provide information in this regard as above.

5. Do deer eat bronco gi-ass? If so, does it cause lesions in their mouth

or throat? Does overgrazing land by live stock increase the bronco
grass crop? Does fire do the same?

6. Is brush-land increasing or decreasing in your vicinity? If decreas-

ing, is it being replaced by conifers? Effect of same upon deer
population.

7. Distance deer range from water (cite examples of deer killed known

distances from nearest water). How often do does water?
Bucks? How does this vary seasonally, or with hot and cold
weather?

8. Do deer show a preference for some water over other? Do they drink

at sheep or cattle troughs or tanks? Do they refuse certain mineral
or muddy water?

9. Do deer use certain mineral springs or salt licks? If so, send in

sample of water or salt for analysis with notes regarding extent of
use by deer.

10. Effect of "salting" (placing salt artificially for live stock or deer)

upon deer? Their use or refusal of same?

5—9030

66 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

II. Information is (lesirod in refianl to tlio trend of the deer lierds popu-
lation in years past. How abundant were deer in your area ;">(),
40, 30. ete.. years ago? Date of "iieak"' of deer abundance in
your vicinity V Dates of low ebh in deer population your vicinity.
(Get signed statements from old residents regarding this.)

1'2. Is the number of deer in your vicinity increasing or decreasing at
the preseut time? (Statements from reliable persons solicited.)

IX. Conclusion.

A. Maps. I'repare a map of your general vicinity of sufiiciently large scale
til enahif plotting upon it, so another could locate without your help.

1. Strip Couut Route.

2. Work Area.

Prepare larger scale map of "Work Area showing in detail all t<ipngrai)liy,
tree, brush, meadowland and water. Be prepared later to mark upon this map,
locations of deer, predators, etc.

B. Reports.

1. Strip Count Census which is to be made four times a year shall
be reported separately immediately following each count.

2. AVork Area reports, including reports of the four annual c(>n-
suses on these areas, and all other information requested in this outline
shall be rendered monthly. Prejiare and forward these to the office as
soon after the end of the month as possible.

C Time expected to be dcxoted to this work.

1. Strip Count Ceiwuis. One day on dates designated. 4 tinu's a
year.

2. Work Area.s. Days required for I'oui- annual censuses, jilus at
least 3 to 4 full days per month, preferably more time, at workers' con-
venience, to be devoted to studying predatoi-s. habits, food, searching for
dead deer, etc.

The above outline should be self -explanatory. The purpose of the
-Strip Count censuses is to secure a broader cross-section of the inakeu])
of the whole deer herd (proportion of age classes and sexes) than would
the counts on the smaller Work Areas provide. It is believed that these
counts over a period of years may well be expected to indicate the
trend of the deer population for the entire region.

At the time that this paper goes to press, AVork and Strip Count
areas have been selected and initial counts are scheduled to be niadr
on them on or about January 10, 1934. This will mark actual com-
mencement of the study Avliich will be closely followed throughout the
year and most probably also in one or two succeeding years, until the
desired information is obtained.

The author wishes to acknowledge with thaidvs the assistance
rendered him in the j)reparation of the range map here provided (Fig.
15) by the following Division employees : J. S. Hunter, S. R. Gilloon,
Wm. Lippincott, C. 0. Fisher, P. Kehrer, L. E. Mercer. F. K. Stan-
and C. 0. Elliger.

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 67

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

A publication devoted to the conservation of vi^ild life and published quarterly by
the California Division of Fish and Game.

The articles published in California Fish and Game are not copyrighted and
may be reproduced in other periodicals, provided due credit is given the California
Division of Fish and Game. Editors uf newspapers and periodicals are invited to
make use of pertinent material.

All material for publication should be sent to James Moffltt, Division of Fish
and Game, 450 McAllister Street, San Francisco, California.

Vol. 20 JANUARY, 1934 No. 1

PERSONNEL CHANGES IN BUREAU OF EDUCATION AND

RESEARCH

On October 10, 1933, the resignation of Leo K. Wilson as Chief
of the Bureau of Education and Research became effective, to permit
liim to accept a partnership in the law firm of McClymonds and Wells.
Mr. Wilson originally came to the Division of Fish and Game on
December 10, 1929, as a publicity man. He was made successor to
Dr. Harold C. Bryant, on July 1, 1930, and continued his work as
editor of California Fish and Game.

The Fish and Game Commission has chosen Dr. J. 0. Snyder to
succeed to the responsibilities of the Bureau of Education and Research
in addition to his duties as Chief of the Bureau of Fish Culture. The
Bureau of Education and Research will retain its identity, and will
continue to operate under a separate budget, under the supervision of
Dr. Snyder.

Accompanying the changes just noted, James Moffitt has been
placed upon full time with the Bureau of Education and Research,
and under the supervision of Dr. Snyder will be responsible for the
routine work of the Bureau, and will also act as editor of California
Pish and Game.

With the high professional standing, and the friendly and untiring
interest of Dr. Snyder in our conservation problems, the sportsmen
of the State are assured of a continuation ef the fundamental scientific
and educational work which should accompany a proper conservation
program. — John L. Farley, Division of Fish and Game, San Francisco,
December 12, 1933.

NEW FISH AND GAME CODE

The new Fish and Game Code which was adopted at the fiftieth
session of the California Legislature and is known as Chapter 73,
Statutes of 1933, became effective August 21, 1933.

This code embodies all the former Penal and Political Code sec-
tions relating to fish and game. The text of the code is clearly worded
and the subjects are grouped together so that the average individual
can refer to any game law that he desires to look up with greater ease
than was possible in the case of our old law books. Everyone seems

68 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

to agree that the new code is a great improvement over the former
coinpihition of our fisli nnd game laws.

Coi)ies ol' the new Fisli and (Jame Code are avaihible, and may be
secured from the Division of F'ish and Game at the price of 25
cents each.

The code is i)ubli.shed in booklet form, size 5| by 8^ inches. In
addition to listing all the active sections of the Fish and Game Code,
there are also provided in smaller type original sections that were later
amended by the 1933 Legislature.

The code is completely indexed and a map showing the fish and
game districts is included. — James Moffitt, Division of Fish and Game,
San Francisco, December 21, 1933.

REGULATIONS GOVERNING IMPORTATION OF CERTAIN
WILD BIRDS AND ANIMALS

In accordance with the duties imposed upon it by Chapter 76,
Statutes of 1933, the Division of Fish and Game has prepared, and
has on hand foi- free distribution to interested persons, a pamphlet
known as "Rules and Regulations Governing the Importation of Wild
Birds and Animals into the State of California and Conditions Under
Which Same May Be Kept in Confinement."

This pamphlet was prepared by the Bureau of Education and
Research in cooperation with the State Department of Agriculture.
It lists the species of birds, mammals, crustaceans and mollusks, the
entry of which into California is prohibited by this law. Certain
species which may be admitted to the State under permit are also listed,
and proper form for application for such permit is provided. Next,
regulations are provided for the destruction of excluded species if
found at large in the State, and conditions undei- which species
imported under this act may be kept in confinement.

The officers responsible for enforcing this act are the fish and
game wardens, the State plant quarantine officers and the county agri-
cultural commissioners.

Birds or animals that are held ca])tive in accordance witli this act
may not be liberated in the State.

The pamphlet closes with a description of some of the birds and
animals covered by this act. In all cases, descriptions are accompanied
by ])en and ink drawings of the species, which were ]>repared by D. D.
IMcLean, of the Division. — Ja)nes MojJUi, Division of FisJi and Game,
San Francisco, Decemher 21, 1933.

C. W. A. WORK TO AID DIVISION ACTIVITIES

California sportsmen are to rea]) much benefit from the Civil
Works Administration program. Approval has been given by Captain
Edward Macauley, engineer for the C. W. A., providing for the expendi-
ture by the Federal government in California of upward of $100,000
on fish hatcheries, egg-collecting stations, game farms and refuges.

This work will provide emijloyment for more than 300 men. Some
of the projects call for 750 days divided between 32 men. The Division
of Fish and Game furnishes all materials.

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 69

Needed repairs to hatcheries, new roads, new brood ponds, new
fences, receiving and aging tanks, all badly needed in the hatcheries,
will thus be provided under the program. On the game farms and
game refuges necessary improvements will be speeded.

This Federal aid will help enlarge the Friant small-mouthed black
bass experimental ponds where more tanks will be added. At Mount
Shasta, Forest Home, Burney Creek, Fall Creek, Basin Creek and
Brookdale the work will enable hatcheries situated in these localities
to increase their output of trout.

Work contemplated on the game farms at Yountville and Chine
will enable them to produce more game birds.

Each project will have a supervisor in charge, selected from the
locality in which the project is located. — 0. L. Warner, Division of
Fish and Game, San Francisco, December 21, 1933.

COMMERCIAL FISHERY NOTES

SARDINES

During September a general strike of all northern (Monterey and
San Francisco) sardine fishermen occurred. The fishermen claimed
that under the existing price of $6 a ton it was impossible to make a
living, so they struck for $8 a ton. Dissatisfaction of many of the
fishermen fishing for the outside floating reduction plants was made
known, they claiming that short weights were being given them by the
outside plants. After many conferences between canners and fisher-
men, and after the N. R. A. board. State Labor Commissioner, and
finally T. A. Reardon, State Director of Industrial Relations, M^ere
called upon to mediate the claims, the strike was settled on October 20,
with a price of $7 per ton, after the Director of Industrial Relations
had been selected as arbitrator.

Several new canning and reduction plants are planning to operate
this season in the northern half of the State. The Bayside Fish Flour
Co. has commenced operating its new plant at Point Richmond. A
new plant at Pittsburg, the Pittsburg Canners, Inc., has installed
machinery in a bean warehouse on New York Slough and started opera-
tions. The Benicia Canning Co. has thought of operating as a sardine
cannery but to date has taken no fish.

For the first three months of the season (August, September and
October), 52,377 tons of sardines have been delivered; 227,650 cases
of 1-lb. ovals and 37,440 cases of other sized cans have been packed,
as compared with 41,349 tons received, 81,328 cases of 1-lb. ovals and
1872 cases of other sized cans for the same period last year (1932).

SARDINE ABUNDANCE

True to the predictions made the early part of the sardine season
by the California State Fisheries Laboratory, sardines in Monterey
Bay and off of San Francisco have been relatively scarcer than in the
fall of 1932. Knowledge of the sardine population, gained through
continual study and sampling of the catch, was the basis for this pre-
diction. No new abundant year class has entered the sardine fishery
in three years. As a consequence, the sardine fishery has been sup-
ported in the fall by the existing older year groups. Naturally, the

70 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

sardines in these groups would decline in abundance when they are
heavily fished, if no new supply of younger fish augmented the existing
population. This has been the case. Also true to the predictions, a
new gron]i of small sardines was apparent in the first catches made
off San I'edro after the season o])ened on November 1, with tlie smaller
fish predominating in numbers over the larger and older existing
groups.

MACKEREL

The California mMckerel catch this year (19:}3) will be the largest
of any season. In 1929 the catch was 57,974,000 pounds and this year,
at the end of October, the catch was in excess of ()0,0()0,0()0 pounds and
will probably exceed the 70.000.000-])ound mark by the end of the
year. The greatest bulk of this catch is landed at San Pedro and San
Diego, and most of the fish are canned.

During October, Fish Bulletin No. 40, "The California Mackerel
Fishery," was received from the printer. This bulletin gives an
account of the mackerel fishery throughout the world but particularly
of the fishery in California in all its aspects, from the fish in the ocean
to the final labeled can on the consumer's shelf.

FISHERIES CODES

Various organizations and industries in the fisheries of the State
have been at work preparing their codes of fair competition under the
N. R. A. or C. R. A. The State Fisheries Laboratory has been able
to aid the various groups in compiling statistics of catches of various
species of fish and the prices paid per pound, for their use in presenting
codes for adoption. In San Francisco the wholesale dealers have pre-
sented a code for the wholesale dealers of northern California to the
C. R. A. under which they will operate. — N. B. S.

FRESH FISH MARKETING

In its campaign to educate people to eat more fish and to try the
various varieties of the sixty or more that are taken from California
waters, the Division of Fish and Game has participated in exhibits
and given demonstrations to over a million people since Seiitembei- 1.

With the heavy drain on the six or seven popular table fish
threatening a depletion, it is the purpose of the Division to show tlie
public that there are dozens of other kinds of salt water fish that are
equally tasty and which furnish just as high a percentage of iodine
and other valuable food elements as do salmon, bass, sole, sand dabs,
barracuda, halibut, smelt and yellowtail.

The exhibit of the Division of Fish and Game represented Monterey
Bay. with animated scenes of moving fishing boats and fishormon
repairing nets. Two large educational signs showing statistical iiifoi--
mation of the importance of the fresh fish industry of California and
"Reasons Why You Should Make Tuesday Fish Day Too" were
posted in the center of the exhibit.

Pamphlets giving the food value of sea foods and our cookery
book "Five Hundred Ways to Prepare California Sea Foods" were
distributed free to interested housewives.

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 71

Demonstrations on methods of preparing and serving fish were
given at various meetings. California newspapers maintaining home
economics departments and household editorial pages are cooperating
by publishing and demonstrating fresh fish recipes, in an effort to create
a greater consumer acceptance and demand for California sea foods. —
A. A. Alstrom, Division of Fish and Game, San Francisco, December-
21, 1933.

KLAMATH RIVER SPAWNING CONDITIONS IN 1932

The season of 1932 was the occasion of an unusually large migra-
tion of salmon into Klamath River. It presented also a temptation to
take eggs for artificial propagation in excess of hatchery facilities.
Pall Creek Hatchery, the only plant for salmon propagation in Klamath
River, has a safe capacity for 3,000,000 eggs. A larger number,
possibly 4,000,000 may be received, but in that case, crowding becomes
entirely too severe for safety. At this time, then, something over
4,000,000 eggs were taken and the racks, still crowded with fish, were
opened.

Selected female fish to the number of 1302 were spawned, and an
estimated number of 9154 were allowed to continue their migration and
spawn naturally. There has been some question as to whether the bed
of the river above the Klamathon racks presented a sufficient number
of suitable gravel bars to accommodate any number of spawning fish,
and also whether the tides caused by the power plant at Copco are
destructive to eggs if such are deposited in the gravel of the bars.

Two assistants, Charles F. Moore and Kenneth E. Sullivan, were
detailed by Earl Leitritz, foreman of the Fall Creek Hatchery, to
determine by actual observation just what happened after the racks
were opened. Work was begun November 4 and continued until
December 1.

The observers covered the river between the racks and the dam
and they also examined Fall, Jenny and Bogus creeks. They worked
independently, and their excellent notebooks agree in the main in their
findings.

Spawning beds were numerous ; 25 or so measuring from 60 to 900
feet long and of various widths, were mentioned in particular. Upwards
of 200 nests were examined. Many pairs were seen spawning — 2811
dead fish were counted by one observer, 2226 of which were in Pall
Creek. This mortality was largely the natural result of spawning and
bore no relation to the condition of the river.

Most of the spawning operations are restricted to gravel bars
which are left exposed at low water, and w^here the drainage is so com-
plete as to destroy the eggs. In many cases, the sudden rise of the
water Mdiipped out the disturbed gravel of the nests and completely
destroved them. There are no spawning beds in the river above the
mouth of Fall Creek as the channel is mostly in solid rock, although
many salmon (300 or more) were found there. Jenny Creek is not fit
for spawning; Bogus Creek was too roilv for examination; Fall Creek
w-as overcrowded. Dead salmon were frequently found in situations
Avhere they had been caught by falling water and perished before they
were able to finish spawning.

72 CALIFPRKIA PISH AND GAME

Both observers conclude that although manj- young fish may come
from natural spawning above the racks, there is great destruction as the
result of varying levels of the river Avater. If fairly constant water
levels were maintained, much natural spawning might be permitted in
that part of the stream.

It follows that the plant at Pall Creek should be enlarged until
it is capable of caring for all of the eggs that might usually be taken
at the Klamathon racks. With ample justification for expansion there,
improvements are being made as rapidly as funds will permit. Tlie
improvements are of such a nature as not to become obsolete in the
event of the erection of a high dam somewhat farther down the
river. — /. 0. Snyder, Division of Fish and Game, San Francisco,
November 1, 1933.

REPORT ON BLACK BASS PROPAGATION WORK

One year of actual experimental work in the propagation of small-
mouth black bass has been completed by the Bureau of Fish Culture,
and a brief summary of its accomplishment is of interest.

At the outset it may be noted that the artificial propagation of this
particular fish is generally conceded to be one of the most difficult,
hazardous and expensive of any which confronts the fish culturist, and
further that at no place has its culture gone very far beyond the
experimental stage. Moreover, we are attempting the work here in the
west far from the native habitat of the species, and in a region where
it does not at present thrive well in nature.

In the propagation of this bass, certain difficulties present them-
selves.

First, eggs can not be collected from wild fish and artificially
fertilized as in the case of trout. Brood fish must be held under semi-
natural conditions and allowed to pair and spawn over gravel nests
in brood ponds.

Second, the newly hatched bass begin to take food when they are
but a fraction of an inch in length. They do not thrive on artificial
food, and hence microscopic animals must be provided in large
quantities and at the proper time for the little fish. When these small
bass attain a length of an inch or so, they demand other small fish as
food, and if not provided they will eat one another.

Third, black bass are voracious and cannibalistic so that large
and small fish may not live together. Grading and sorting are difficult.

Fourth, brood fish must be provided with live food or they will
become diseased or barren.

It then becomes the business of the bass grower to be able to
propagate not only the bass themselves, but also several other species
of minute Crustacea and fishes as well, and have them present in
sufficient quantities at the proper time. It is evident also that to
acco7nplisli all this requires the services of a coni]ietont naturalist,
particularly in a region where nothing of the sort had been ])reviously
attempted. The Bureau was fortunate in having a well qualified man
in its employ and any success that has been achieved is due largely
to the untiring efforts of the present foreman, Merrill W. Brown.*

• Doctors G. C. Embody, H. S. Davis and P. R. Needham and other recognized
experts in the propagation of bass have been frequently consulted.

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 73

Through the friendly cooperation of the Fresno Sportsmen's Club
and Harold K. Fox, its president, a site was procured free of charge
in a deserted gravel pit near Fresno and adjacent to the San Joaquin
River. The construction consisted of a series of dirt ponds holding
about eight acres of water. There was a .stock pond, a spawning pond
and seven rearing ponds. In addition, six small concrete daphnia
ponds were built. Pipes Avhich supply M^ater and afford drainage were
connected with the river. An electrically driven pump formed a part
of the equipment, and a small pump house served as a laboratory.

Leakage soon developed and two of the larger ponds had to be
abandoned. Further leakage also causes an unexpected amount of
pumping and it also seriously interferes with proper fertilization of
the brood ponds.

Fertilization of the water is required to produce an abundant
growth of single-celled algae (minute green plants) upon which daphnia
or other microscopic animals may feed. The latter serve in their turn
as food for the little bass. Brown found after much experimentation
that a mixture of soy bean meal and acid phosphate produced the best
fertilizer. He also discovered that the hot climate was unfavorable to
daphnia, a minute crustacean commonly used for food in the east, and
that a very similar little animal known as moina could be propagated
as needed.

In the process of casting about for suitable fish food of larger
size, red shiners were brought from San Diego, goldfish, mosquito fish,
native minnows and sunfish were experimentally propagated or studied.
At last, it fell to the lot of the bluegill to do its part, and now these
fish of all sizes and ages are available for the always hungry bass.

In short, a system of propagation has been experimentally estab-
lished by means of which a food supply depending upon a chain
of complex operations is made available under the particular climatic
conditions of the location.

Various pests have appeared to deplete the pond fish— herons,
large and small, kingfishers and mergansers. A handy shotgun, more
noisy than efficient, kept these at bay, but it seemed unwise to use it
on the biggest and worst offender, a local angler caught red-handed. At
one time, countless numbers of tadpoles hatched out and seriously
threatened the supply of moina which was intended for the small bass.

The actual expen.ses incurred in the year's work amounts to
$4,138.62. This includes supervision and labor (foreman and part-
time assistant), supplies and miscellaneous charges — not a great deal
when everything is considered. About 40,000 fish were hatched. Six
thousand eight hundred seventy-six bass measuring 2i to 3 inches were
planted in favorable situations where future observation is possible.
Two thousand three hundred fifty of these were successfully shipped to
the region of San Diego, 520 miles, to test the possibility of long
distance transportation. The loss at the ponds is largely traceable to
cannibalism, which was difScult to control as the hatching extended
over an abnormally long period. Extremes of temperature occurring
over short intervals of time interrupted hatching and destroyed fish.

The net results are a carefully established background for future
work and a demonstration that small-mouth black bass may be propa-
gated here. — J. 0. Snyder, Divimon of Fish and Game, San Francisco.
November 20, 1933.

74

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

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OALIFORNTA FTSH AND GAME 75

LARGE-MOUTHED BLACK BASS INTRODUCED INTO LAKE

MERCED -

A plaiiting of larp-e-monthed black bass in Lake IVrprcod, San
Francisco County, Avhicli is used as a storage lake for the municipal
Avater supply of San Francisco, was made on October 28, 1933. This
introduction was sponsored by the Associated Sportsmen of California
and is in keeping with the policy of the Fish and Game Commission
to plant fish in bodies of water in the State where public fishing will
result.

Two hundred and twenty cans of these fish were netted under the
direction of George Neale, in charge of the Bureau of Fish Rescue,
in the upper Sacramento Valley sloughs. They were transported to
San Francisco by motor truck under the care of game wardens of the
Division. Not a fish was lost from the time they were taken from the
river waters until they were released in the lake. Some of the bass
weighed as much as eight pounds, and none w^ere less than one-half
pound in weight. This supply of brood stock will be added to until
some 2000 large-mouthed bass will have been planted in the lake.

These bass are prolific spawners and develop quickly, therefore, it
is expected that within the next three years the lake will be well stocked
Avith this species of game fish. Until they increase in numbers and
size, the lake will be closed to angling. — 0. L. Warner, Division of
Fish and Game, San Francisco, November 15, 1933.

FIRST CALIFORNLA PHEASANT SEASON A SUCCESS

California's first open season on pheasants is now history.

During the six-day period, November 15 to 20, when these great
upland birds could be legally hunted, more men went out in the fields
to try their luck than have fared forth for any other small game in
many years.

While no exact figure could be obtained as to the number of male
birds that were killed during the season, 20,000 seems to be a fair
estimate. This figure is based on reports of game wardens who kept
a careful check on all hunters and their kill, questioned sporting goods
dealers and devoted much effort to ascertain the success of the oi)en
season in every section where pheasants were hunted.

The wardens' reports revealed many interesting facts. A great
number of sportsmen and some of our field men figured there avouW
be a veritable slaughter of these birds because they were beconung so
tame and domesticated. But it appears that the cock pheasant is a
very wary bird and well able to take care of himself. He soon got
it through his head that the report of a shotgun meant no good for
him when his native, wild instincts asserted themselves and he sur-
l)rised many a shotgun wielder with his speed in flying and running,
his deceptive flight, and his ability to hide and back track on the
nimrod.

* The 14th Biennial Report of the State Board of Fish and Game Commis-
sioners for the years 1895-1896, p. 30, reveals that in June, 1805, the .Sprine: Valley
AVater Companv planted 300 larp:e-mouthed black bass in Lake Merced. The.se
fish were procured from the East by the Fish Commission. — Ed.

76 CALIFORNIA FIRTI AND GAME

After the first day, it was quite a feat for a hunter to ^ot his
limit of two birds, and many had difficulty in getting one in sections
where the birds were plentiful.

Women seemed to take great interest in hunting pheasants and the
wardens noted many in the field.

Very few female birds were killed.

Northern and central California were the centers of the most suc-
cessful hunting.

The interest in this new s])ort in California is indicated in a report
by Warden Charles Sibeck, who patrolled the delta region of the Sacra-
mento Valley. One excerpt reads:

"Quail and dove seasons draw many hunters to the delta country,
but on o])ening day of the i)heasant season, men and Avomen bought
licenses to hunt these birds, making up the largest army of hunters I
have ever seen."

Andy Hamilton. Redding, who has for years been active in the
introduction and propagation of pheasants in that vicinity, kindly
provided his personal reactions to the pheasant season in that vicinity
which are quoted here:

"The sportsmen are well satisfied that they have a real game bird
in the pheasant, and one that can take good care of himself, under any
conditions. Unfortunately, Shasta County has a comparatively small
area suitable for pheasants, but what area we have is ideal and the
birds seem to multiply rapidly.

"There was quite a difference of opinion as to how many birds
were killed in this vicinity. It is my opinion that about 1000 birds
were killed. To get this estimate, I personally contacted HO hunters
who on 146 trips killed 362 birds. These were only the hunters who
came in my store."

August Bade, Superintendent of State Game Farms, says there are
some million pheasants in California. The kill of 20.000 would seem
to present no problem of depletion. Most of those avIio followed the
season declare that it will be beneficial to the birds left, that they
Avill not be so tame and will revert to the cunning that has made them
an outstanding game attraction in other States.

Landowners seemed to enter into the spirit of the occasion, and
but few refused permission to hunt on their property if courteously
asked.

Wardens reported the following kill of pheasants in these areas :

Sacramento delta section, 1360 birds; Yuba, 500; Antioeh, 1200 to
1500; Vallejo, 500; Los Angeles and Chino, 1000; Eeddiug, 1000;
Ow'ens Valley, 300 ; Santa Clara and Alameda counties, 350 ; Tule Lake,
over 1000; Bayshore, below "Redwood City. 200; Modesto, 450; Tehama,
250; Xapa. 300; Humboldt and Mendocino counties, 400.— 0. L.
Warner, Division of Fish and Game, San Francisco, Decemher 20,
1933.

1933 QUAIL SEASON

The 1933 quail season seems to have been "spotty" throughout
the State. Early reports indicated that in southern California where
these birds are not as plentiful as they used to be, the hunting was
excellent, and experienced quail hunters had no trouble getting their

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 77

limits. As the season progressed, the birds scattered and locating them
became more difficult.

In central California, hunting was said to have been good, and the
best success was had by those who used trained dogs.

In the northern areas, where quail have been plentiful in previous
years, the sport was not as excellent as in the past.

Little complaint was heard from sportsmen about the reduced
limit, and those who hunt with dogs thought that the six-week season
was about the proper length.

Band-tailed pigeons gave the hunter more sport this season than
they did last. In localities where these birds are to be found, they
were extremely numerous in 1933 and most hunters who went after
them were successful in taking limits. — 0. L. Warner, Division of Fish
and Game, San Francisco, December 20, 1933.

OREGON ADOPTS UPLAND GAME BIRD LANDOWNER

CONTRACT LAW

The State of Oregon has recently enacted a new piece of fish and
game legislation that wall be of interest to California upland game bird
hunters. This act provides the ''set-up" for carrying out the sports-
man-landowner cooperative shooting system lately advocated by so
many game authorities. "We understand that this act has been in effect
for but a short time and that, as yet, no actual contracts have been
undertaken.

The following excerpt from the Oregon Game Code provides the
text of this measure :

Section 30. Game Script — Issuance — Contracts with landowners.

(a) The game commission hereby is authorized to enter into contracts with
any landowner, his lessee or managing agent in any county of the State of Oregon
by the terms of which contract the game commission shall issue to anyone holding
a current hunting license, or combination hunting and fishing license, script or
coupons at a price not to exceed 50 cents, which coupon or script shall entitle,
subject to the iirovisions hereof, the person to whom same is issued, to go upon
any land of any owner thereof who has contracted with the game commission for
the purpose of taking Chinese or Hungarian pheasants or any other of the upland
game birds during the open season and within the lawful bag limits therefor. And
it shall be lawful for the owner of such land or his lessee or managing agen,t to
collect from such hunter one coupon for each of such l)lrds taken on the land of such
landowner, his lessee or managing agent and the game commission is further hereby
empowered to redeem any of such coupons at and for a sum not exceeding 90 per
centum of the amount for which the coupons were originally sold to the licensee.

The provisions of this act shall inure to the benefit of any and all owners
of land, their lessees or managing agents, desiring to take advantage thereof in any
county or counties of the State of Oregon where the game commission shall declare
said script may be used, but nothing herein contained shall be deemed or construed
to require the game commission to provide for the use, sale or redemption of such
script in each and every county in the State of Oregon.

The game commission hereby is authorized to pronnilgate such further rules
and regulations as is necessary to carry out the intent of this act.

(b) The game commission shall furnish to all landowners, their lessees or
managing agents, appropriate signs to be posted by such persons on lands subjected
to the provisions of this act.

(c) Nothing herein contained shall be construed to prevent any landowner,
his lessee or managing agent from limiting the number of said game birds killed on
his land by limiting the number of persons allowed upon his land during any day,
week or hunting season.

78 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

(d) Any person who shall oountorfcit any hunting script issiu'd by the game
coniniissiou or who shall alter same shall he deemed guilty of a felony and, upon eon-
viction thereof, shall be senteuced to pay a fine of not less than one hundred dollars
(,$100) nor more than five thousand dollars ($5,000), or to imprisonment in the
penitentiary for a period of time not oxceetling five years or by both such tine and
imprisonment.

Here in California, our present game laws require no legislative
action to permit the operation of the sportsman-landowner cooperative
shooting system. Legal advice has micd that the existing Pish and
Game Code contains authority for the Pish and Game Comniissioii
to undertake similar contracts to those above described.

Several sportsmen's organizations, notably the Associated Sports-
men of California and numerous chapters of the Izaak Walton League,
are vitally interested in the development and working out of a similar
plan in this State.

The state-w4de Fish and Game Committee of the California State
Chamber of Commerce has had functioning for some time a subcom-
mittee on quail projects which has particularly concerned itself with
the possibility of developing the sportsman-lanclowner cooperative plan
in our State. Progress toward the end of preparing a workable scheme
for use in California is reported by this subcommittee.

The Fish and Game Development Association is another California
organization that is intensely interested in the possibilities of the sports-
man-landowner movement for the improvement of upland game bird
shooting in our State. This progressive organization has continuously
advocated the establishment of "trial areas" in which to test out the
mechanics of operation of the system. It is hoped that actual operation
of at least one trial area may be effected within the near future in
order that we may have early proof of the adaptability of the system
to California conditions. — James Mofitt, Division of Fish and Game,
San Francisco, December 4, 1933.

WATERFOWL ABUNDANCE IN CALIFORNIA IN 1933

In spite of dire prophesies to the contrarj^, the 1933 fall flight of
waterfowl in California seems to have been considerably in excess of
the 1932 flight. At the time this note is written, there yet remain ten
days of the 1933 season and, in the absence of reports from other
areas, it is therefore too early to draw definite conclusions. Perhaps
the large numbers of ducks and geese that have been observed in Cali-
fornia this fall present a concentration here, but this fact can not be
determined until reports are available from other Pacific Coast States.

There seems, however, to be no doubt whatever that ducks were
more abundant in California during the present season than in the
previous year. The Division has made particular eflFort to secure
reports from reliable individuals in the various waterfowl concentra-
tion areas of the State, and in most instances these reports indicate more
birds in 1933 than in 1932.

The writer was at Tule Lake, Siskiyou County, November 28, when
this body of water was still open, and in fact just commencing to
freeze at its margin. No doubt, a similar open condition existed in most
of the lakes of that vicinity and eastern Oregon. This fact, the result
of a warm fall in contrast to an unusually cold one a year ago, per-

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 79

mitted many thousands of ducks and geese to remain on the lakes of
the higher plateau region. At this time, there Avere thousands upon
thousands of ducks on Tule Lake in addition to myriads of geese, and
State Game Warden Fred R. Starr stated that ducks were much more
numerous there than at any time in the previous season.

Several sources have consistently reported more ducks in the
Butte Creek Basin region of the Sacramento Vallev this year than a
year ago. This, in spite of the fact that weather conditions as above
outlined permitted large numbers of the birds to remain in the plateau
region that were unable to stay there so late a year ago.

Suisun Bay and marshes, and the South San Francisco Bay
marshes have had more ducks on them in 1933 than in the prior season.

Early this season, water was, as usual at this time, short in the
San Joaquin Valley. In spite of this fact, ducks are reported to have
visited this section in greater numbers this year from August to date.
Several gun clubs from this region have reported more successful kills
throughout the present season than were obtained a year ago. Large
numbers of ducks were reported in the San Joaquin Valley in Septem-
ber and October, and on the opening of the season, November 1. Fair
shooting was had in this region in November, but less success was had
during the first two weeks in December. Storms occurring about mid-
December brought in a large number of new birds, particularly
widgeon, teal and shovellers, to the San Joaquin Valley, and excellent
shooting is reported from that area after December 16.

Several observers in the Wasco-Delano section of northern Kern
County report more birds there this year than last. Similar reports
emanate from the Lancaster-Palmdale region and from the Imperial
Valley.

When figures from our neighboring States are available, we hope
that the above encouraging reports will not indicate an undue con-
centration of ducks in our State, but will show that the duck crisis
has passed and that the birds are commencing to regain their former
numbers. — James Moffitt, I)ivisio7i of Fish and Game, San Francisco,
December 21, 1933.

DEER TAG RETURNS FOR 1933

Tabulation of deer tags places the number of bucks killed during
the 1933 open deer season in California at 17,689. This is 691 less than
the number legally taken in 1932. The decrease in 1932 over 1931 was
7425, over ten times the decrease of the current year.

Tags sold during 1933 totaled approximately 94,500 a decrease
over last year of about 2200.

In noting the decrease in the number of successful hunters, the
fact must be considered that in game districts 4 and 4f, the season
was five days shorter than normal this year, due to the fact that the
law changing the season in this area to the period August 16 to Sep-
tember 15 did not become effective until August 21. Therefore, the
deer season in districts 4 and 4f did not open until that date and,
of course, had to close on September 15.

The 1933 tags returned show that there were 556 less deer bagged
in San Bernardino, Los Angeles, Riverside, Orange, San Diego and
Imperial counties than in 1932. Los Angeles County this year returned

80 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

571 tags against 819 last season; Riverside, 354 against 488; San Diego,
173 against 3G3 ; San Bernardino, 153 against 187 ; Orange, 36 against
87. Imperial County showed an increase of one, there being five deer
killed there this year.

In Tulare County, there were 104 less deer killed than last year ;
El Dorado, 92 ; Glenn, 97 ; Siskiyou, 8G ; Trinity, 78 ; Placer, 77.'

The following counties registered the greatest gains : Monterey
with 104; Inyo, 116; Kern, 67; Plumas, 83; San Luis Obispo, 59 more
deer killed in 1933 than in the previous season.

Two thousand fifty-seven hunters succeeded in getting their legal
limit of two bucks.

The highest five counties, with Mendocino leading, as it has done
for vears, are : Mendocino, 1233 ; Modoc, 954 ; Plumas, 912 ; Fresno, 882 ;
Humboldt, 838.

Other counties which turned in over 200 tags include : Siskiyou,
823 ; Sonoma, 745 ; Monterey, 631 ; Los Angeles, 576 ; Lassen, 551 ;
Santa Barbara, 547 ; Shasta, 517 ; Lake, 481 ; San Luis Obispo, 436 ;
Ventura, 354; Trinity, 340; Marin, 301; El Dorado, 368; Inyo, 296;
Napa, 281 ; Kern, 263 ; Madera, 266 ; Colusa, 222 ; Butte, 205.

The following figures show the size of the deer killed during the
past season:

Two-pointers, 7417 ; 3-pointers, 5298 ; 4-pointers, 2453 ; 5-pointers,
370; 6-pointers, 58; 8-, 9-, 10-, 11-, 12- and 14-pointers, 2021. There
were ten 10-pointers, two 12-pointers and two 14-pointers reported
killed this year. — 0. L. Warner, Division of Fish and Game, Sa7i
Francisco, December 20, 1933.

DEER AS CARRIERS OF A CATTLE DISEASE

That deer may harbor a certain disease of cattle and possibly
serve as a means of spreading this infection is the conclusion reached
by two investigators, William H. Boynton and Gladys M. Woods of
the Division of Veterinary Science, University of California.

This cattle disease, anaplasmosis, is considered by many to be due
to a minute animal, called a protozoan, which appears as a dot in the
red corpuscle of the blood. Because of its dot-like appearance, it has
been named Anaplasma, a Greek term meaning "without ])roloplasm."
This pin-point organism breaks up the red corpuscles of tlie blood,
thereby causing anemia and jaundice, the ])rincipal symptoms of
anaplasmosis or ''Anaplasma infection."

Through the assistance of Ronald P. Ilarville, two deer, a mule
buck and a southern black-tailed buck, were furnished the investigators
by the Division of Fish and Game. Both were injected with blood
containing the tiny organism, Anaplasma, but neither showed any
symptoms of anaplasmosis, and although a few "dots" resembling
Aniiplasrna were observed in the red corpuscles of the mule deer, they
were too few to justify a positive diagnosis. However, when blood was
taken from the southern black-tailed deer and injected into two cattle,
one of them became infected and exhibited symptoms characteristic
of anaplasmosis. Blood taken from the mule deer and inoculated into
two cattle caused death in both cases, with symptoms and lesions typical
of the disease. This proves that infection was present in these deer
even though no definite sign of the disease appeared. Animals which

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 81

harbor infection without showing any evidence of it themselves are
called "carriers."

Now that deer are proved to be "carriers" of anaplasmosis, how
can they be a menace to cattle ? The fact that anaplasmosis is a blood
infection means that blood from a "carrier" animal must be intro-
duced into a susceptible one in order to produce disease. By what
means can the blood of deer be transmitted to the blood of cattle?
A ready answer is: "insects." Previous discoveries of other investi-
gators indicate that certain ticks and blood-sucking flies may transmit
the disease through their bite. It is possible that these flies may attack
deer ; some of the ticks, at least, which were found on the two deer under
investigation are among those proved to be transmitters of the disease.
Since these ticks may first bite "carrier" deer, drop off, and crawl
onto cattle grazing in the vicinity, biting them in turn, and thereby
injecting the causative agent into the cattle, there is always a chance
of spreading anaplasmosis in this manner— a possibility that should
receive further attention.— TF. H. Boijnton, Division of Veterinary
Science, University of California, Berkeley, Novemler 15, 1933.

ANOTHER "NEW" DEER FOR CALIFORNIA

I. McT. Cowan's work on Pacific coast deer was outlined in the
October issue of California Fish and Game (Vol. 19, p. 274), wdiere
his description of a new subspecies of mule deer from the Inyo region
was mentioned.

The November, 1933, issue of the Journal of Mammalogy (Volume
14, pp. 326-327) contains the description of another "new" subspecies
of mule deer from California. To this deer, Cowan has bestowed the
name Odocoileus hemionus fuliginatus. The type specimen was secured
on the Barona Ranch, 30 miles east of San Diego, October 8, 1928,
and was taken by Webb Toms, Avho was a State Game Warden at that
time.

Cowan provides the following range for the new subspecies : ' ' From
San Jacinto and Santa Rosa Mountains, Riverside County, and San
Mateo Valley, San Diego County, California, southward at least to
La Corona, Sierra San Pedro Martir, Lower California, Mexico. ' ' Thus
the new subspecies inhabits San Diego and southern Riverside counties
in California, and the northern portion of Baja California.

Cowan's paper provides no vernacular name for the new deer, so
its seems advisable to call it the San Diego mule deer because its range
is in the so-called San Diegan faunal district.

This new mule deer is evidently most closely related to the Cali-
fornia mule deer {Odocoileus hemionus calif ornicus) and is of the same
size. The San Diego mule deer differs from the typical California
mule chiefly in its much darker coloration, being, in fact, the darkest
of all mule deer. This darkness is not a slight one, but is extremely
noticeable, and it is remarkable that the fact was not observed long ago.

Cowan had 16 specimens of the San Diego mule deer available for
his study, one of which, from the Santa Ana Mountains, Orange
County, showed a close approach to the California mule deer, hence
it is probable that the subspecies intergrade in that vicinity.— /awes
Moffitt, Division of Fish and Game, Sa7i Francisco, December 20, 1933.

6—9030

82 CALIFORNIA KISIl AM) GAME

DEATH OF BUCK DEER RESULT OF FIGHTING IN RUT

Many hunters believe tliat all buck deer live nntil they are shot
and give little or no alloAvance for the number of deer that die each
year from natural causes or accidents. That the latter factor is respon-
sible for the death of a considerable number of our male deer annually
is beyond question. ]\Iany types of fatal accidents may occur to deer.

For instance, this summer, Captain of Game Wardens S. R.
Gilloon, of Mount Shasta, was called upon to autopsy a spike buck
that was found in a dying- condition near Volmers, Shasta County.
The supposition was that this deer was suffering from an infection
known as Bacillus necrophorus, or ''calf diphtheria." It was brought
into Delta by a government truck where it died, and where Captain
Gilloon later autopsied it. He found no indications of the above men-
tioned disease, but ascertained that the deer's stomach was ruptured,
which, no doubt, accounted for its death. This accident could have
occurred by the deer having been hit on the highway by an automobile,
or by its having fallen off a cliff.

Another accident of a different character was brought to my atten.
tion during the past deer season. Some sportsmen of my acquaintance
were hunting deer with dogs west of Boonville, in Mendocino County,
on September 10, 1938. The dogs ran a three-point buck for some
distance and then bayed it. One of the hunters approached- the animal
quite closely in an endeavor to account for its unusual behavior, for it
is unknown for dogs to bay an unwouuded buck. The animal presented
all appearances of having been wounded, so the man killed it, and on
approaching it, he noticed a deep wound in the thorax, or what is
generally termed, the "sticking place." Skinning the animal later
revealed that this w^ound was unquestionably caused by the animal
running into a snag while attempting to escape from the dogs.
Undoubtedly deer may so occasionally snag themselves when fright-
ened from causes other than hunters.

Another type of accident that it appears may be more common
than the lack of reports of same would indicate is the death of bucks
caused by their fighting in the rutting season.

Game Warden J. W. Thornburg, Jackson, California, lias kindly
provided us with the following notes of his observations in this regard :

During iho ■\vintor of lO.'',! to 1032. -\vliilo stationod at Summit Camp, on the
Salt Spring-Tiger Creek canduit of the Pacific Gas and Electric Company, in
El Dorado County, I had unusual opportunities to observe the numbers of deer that
were wintering in the vicinity.

One day in the latter part of November, 1931, I was driving up the road from
Summit Camp to Bear River Intake and had taken several photographs of the
many deer along the road. On rounding the turn near Beaver Creek, I was forced
to apply my brakes so that all four wheels of the car locked in order to avoid
having a head on collision witli two lioantifnl foni'-point bucks that were battling
in the road.

One of these deer leaped from the road to the upper bank, and after retreating
for about 30 feet, stopped and turned around. The other animal ran a short
distance up the road and thoi also went on up the upper bank. As soon as this last
animal was above the bank, the first buck started aft(>r him with bowed neck, hair
along the back and shoulders l)ristling. and they resumed their battle. I had a front
row seat for the show and watched it from my automobile at close range. What an
opportunity I lost for photographs liaving used all my film prcvioiis to finding tliese
deer.

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

83

I was amazed at the cleverness used by these animals in keeping themselves
liead on to one another in order to prevent one from Retting in a broadside blow.
Time after time, each buck was down on its knees, and like a flash he would be
back on all fours. While down in this manner, his adversary would try to maneuver
ai'ound in time to get a broadside blow at the other. There seemed to be no choice
in size between these two bucks, but the one that left the road first seemed to be
the stronger of the two.

I left these deer fighting and returned to meet Game Warden Vernon Sutton
whom I told about the incident. We then returned to the spot where the deer had
been fighting and walked about a hundred yards up the hill where we saw the two
bucks, one of which was with a number of does, and the other about 100 yards to
one side where he would watch for a few minutes, and then start after the bunch of
(loos. The other buck would let him come within .jO yards of the females when
he would start to meet him, at which the outsider would turn back and quitx;
evidently admit his defeat.

Two days later, at only a short distance from the location of this battle, I
found a dead two-year old buck, well scarred and with a large hole punctured just
behind his ribs. Close examination of his carcass showed many scars of the sharp
points of antlers. There was a scar about three inches in length which ran deeper

-V-

Fig 17. Game Warden Welch and the buck that was severely wounded in a fight
with another. Photographed at Kernville, Cal., November 29, 1933.

toward the puncture. On opening the carcass, I found that the intestines were
punctured which apparently cau.sed the animal's death.

On December 14, 1931, while patrolling the flume, some distance above Bear
River, I found at an underpass, a large four-point buck that had evidently been
in a terrific battle. He had deep scars all over his body, and was so crippled in the
back that his hind legs were useless. He had dragged himself down the hill some
distance from above the flume and was so weak he was unable to go any further.
He had evidently been where I found him for a couple of days. On back-tracking
this animal, I found the snow much torn up for some distance and all the evidences
of a terrific battle.

The finding of these two deer that had unquestionably died of injuries sus-
tained in fighting during the rut, seems to be proof enough to show that there are a
considerable number of male deer that lose their lives each year from this cause.
I believe that there are many more male deer killed by being gored, or by being
otherwise injured in fighting during the rutting season than are killed by locked
horns or antlers, cases of which have been reported. My reason for this contention
is the fact that the antlers must be very nearly the same size, spread and shape
in both animals in order that they may lock.

84 CALIFORNIA PISH AND GAME

Game Warden Roswell C. Welch, Kernville, California, provides
the following report of another instance of buck injury tlirough fight-
ing in the rut.

On Wednesday, November 29, 1933, I received a report that an injured deer
had boon found near Ilavilah by some C. C. C. men. Upon my arrival at the
camp, the superintondont sent a couple of lads with me to point out the place whore
the deer was.

I found the deer to be a very large buck which had apitarontly been in a
battle with another of his kind and had come out second best. One antler had
broken off inside of the skull, aiid buns useless. There were two punctures in his
side which had pierced his lungs. His body was covered with cuts and gashes.
While still alive, it was plain he would soon die so we morci fully dispatched him
and dressed the carcass in an attempt to save the meat.

Apparently, there had been a terrific encounter, as brush and small (reos had
boon tramj)lod and the ground had boon torn up over a considerable area. There
was all the evidence of a battle royal. This buck was extraordinarily large for
this vicinity ; his antlers had five distinct points on each side and several minor
points which some would have counted, but I considered him a fine five-point buck.

It would have been interesting to have seen what this buck's adversary looked
like, and I am wondering how he fared in the encounter, not to mention' my
curiosity as to his size.

The deer in this vicinity are at present right in the middle of the rut, which
was the cause of this fight. Quite often, on patrol, I see evidence of battles in
the torn up ground, and sometimes I see a couple of bucks fighting, but usually
these fights are of short duration. One would be fortunate indeed to have boon
able to have witnessed this fight.

—James Moffitt, Division of Fish and Game, San Francisco, Decemher
4, 1933.

DEER FENCING LAW REPEALED

Chapter 732, Statutes of 19-33, repealed sections 1G2 to 165 inclu-
sive of the Agricultural Code. These sections included the so-called
"Deer Fencing Law" which was enacted by the 1931 Legislature, and
provided for State contributions toward the erection of deer proof
fences to protect crops that were endangered by deer.

The section providing for the issuance of revocable permits by the
Fish and Game Commission for the killing of deer upon evidence of
their destruction of crops was not altered by the 1933 Legislature, but
was merely reworded and is now section 1293 of the Fish and Game
Code. — James Mojfitt, Division of Fish and Game, San Francisco,
December 21, 1933.

DEER HUNTING SUCCESS IN ANGELES NATIONAL FOREST

W. L. Sears, Acting Supervisor of the Angeles National Forest,
has provided some interesting statistics relative to the number of
hunters, cars and success of hunters entering the Saugus District of that
national forest during the first three days of the 1933 deer season as
compared with the previous year. This information was compiled by
Ranger M. W. Durham of the Saugus District and is printed here
through the kindness and permisison of J. W. Nelson, Assistant
Regional Forester, U. S. Forest Service.

Sears remarks that "there is a reduction in numbers [of hunters]
under that of last year which is due, most likely, to the change in the
dates of the opening of the season, there being two seasons in adjoining

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

85

districts now open at the same time, which gives us a better distribution
of hunters."

The following is a compilation of Ranger Durham's figures:

Loss or
193S 19SZ gain

Total number of automobiles 782 1,097 SlU loss

Total number of hunters 822 1,531 709 loss

Total number of persons 2,078 2,531 i'>-H loss

Total deer killed, first 3 days of season 105 85 20 gain

Thus, in 1933, 822 hunters killed 20 more deer than did 1531
hunters in the same area in the previous season. In 1932, only one
hunter out of every 18 was successful in this area while the following
year nearly one hunter out of 8 bagged his buck. — James Moffitt, Divi-
sion of Fish and Game, San Francisco, December 21, 1933.

SHELDON'S DEER OF CALIFORNIA

A paper covered booklet of 72 pages entitled "The Deer of Cali-
fornia," by H. H. Sheldon, former Field Naturalist with_ the United
States' Bureau of Biological Survey, was issued as Occasional Paper
No. 3 of the Santa Barbara Museum of Natural History, November 1,
1933. Copies of this booklet may be obtained from that museum at

$1.50 each.

This publication is printed on coated paper which provides excellent
reproductions of the many illustrations that it contains.

The introduction informs the reader that this treatise is in answer
to numerous discussions, stories, news items and arguments pertaining
to the deer of California. Nevertheless, Sheldon states that considerable
field w^ork and comparative study is yet required to complete the final
classification of California deer. The author notes that just as a
knowledge of football increases the pleasure of watching the game, so
does a know-ledge of the game laws, characteristics and habits of the
quarry add zest to the hunt.

He states that California harbors more varieties of deer than are
found in any other State in the Union, and that our deer hold their
own numerically by reason of the natural protection afforded by wilder-
ness haunts, the reduction of mountain lions, and wise game laws
protecting does and limiting the kill of bucks, and the establishment of
numerous game refuges.

Following the brief introduction is a colored map showing the
ranges of the kinds of deer occupying California, and following
this map, the various species are described. These include the Rocky
Mountain mule deer, California mule deer, burro deer, Columbian
black-tailed deer, southern black-tailed deer and western white-tailed

deer.

Sheldon's distributional map is a great improvement over Hall's
similar. one (see California Fish and Game. vol. 13, 1927, p. 57). _ The
ranges that the present author provides for California deer coincide
fairly well with the ones outlined in Grinnell's recent work (see p. 87,
this issue), but Sheldon more definitely defines the area along the
western flank of the southern Sierra Nevada in which the Columbian
black-tailed and California mule deer evidently meet and intorgrade.
His distributional map shows this to be slightly north of the Yosemite

86 CALIFORNIA FISH AXD GAME

rejiion, "wliicli cipTeos witli inforniatioii at our disposal, oxeept in that
tlie area inliabited by deer of botli species is probably larger than
Sheldon's map indicates, for we have records of "good" black-tailed
deer from the Yosemite Valley and Joseph Dixon lias recently told
ns that he has seen specimens of true California mule deer from the
■western flank of the Sierras as far north as cast of Sacramento.
Sheldon's map indicates that the California mule deer ranges east
across the southern Sierra in Kern, Tulare and Fresno counties into
Inyo County. This treatment must now be modified in view of Cowan's
findings and ascription of a new mule deer to the Inyo region (see
California Fish and Game, vol. 19, 1933, p. 274), so the California
mule probably does not range east of the Sierra crest here or at any
other point.

Sheldon's description of the California mule deer states that "the
upper surface of the tail is centered with the dark median line of
black following its length to the tip, and is edged with white" (p. 15),
he also states that the white rump patch is much restricted as com-
pared with that of the Rocky Mountain mule deer. This description
agrees with Caton's original one of the California mule deer, the type
of which was taken near Gaviota Pass in Santa Barbara County, and
apparently the tails of all mule deer from this region have the dark
doi'sal median line. On the other hand, many examples of California
mule deer from the w^estern flank of the Sierra Nevada from the
Yosemite region to Kern County and also, we understand, from the
San Gabriel and San Bernardino mountains of Southern California,
have pure white tails except for theii- black tips, lacking the dai'k dorsal
stripe. Sheldon does not mention this fact in his text, but in the
cajition for the illustration of such a white-tailed mule deer, photo-
graphed in Sequoia Park, which appears on page 22 of his work, lie
draws attention to this fact and states that these deer come into this
region from the Nevada side and meet the range of the California
mule deer here. On page 25, he illustrates another deer from the same
region which has a very narrow black dorsal tail stripe and avers that
this is the result of intergradatiou between Rocky ^Mountain and Cali-
fornia mide deer, adding that the dark median tail line is not suf-
ficiently prominent to classify fliis deer as a typical California mul(>
deer. The latter statement is doubtless true, but the reviewer can find
nothing- in Sheldon's work to support his statement that Rocky
IMountain (now correctly Inyo) mule deer come west into this region
and interbreed Avith the California form. We consider that California
mule deer are variable as to this character and that in the center of
this form's range more animals have white than black-lined dorsal tail
surfaces. The preponderance of black-striped-tailed deer in the north-
ern extremities of tliis form's range, soutliern San Luis Obispo and
Santa Barbara counties on the west. Tuolumne and IMariposa counties
on the east, maji be the result of intergradatiou of this species with
black-tailed deer. If such is proven to be the case, then the type of
californicus can not be regarded as typical of the race if such a state-
ment can be made, but it represents a borderline specimen indicative
of intergradatiou with black-tailed deer. Perhaps a thorough study of
this form will show that typical examples from the center of its range
have Avhite tails except for black tips. This hypothesis is simply pro-

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 87

vided as another explanation for the tail variability in this form, for
the reviewer is loath to accept the theory that either Rocky Mountain
or Inyo mule deer migrate west in fall to interbreed with California
mule deer. It has been his experience that with the possible excep-
tion of very rare instances in Plumas, Lassen or Tehama counties, all
Rocky Mountain mule deer winter east of tlie Cascade-Sierra crests.

Sheldon's descriptions of deer are accompanied by drawings of
the ears of the various species, their hoofs and metatarsal glands, and
the tails of the different species.

Next the author discusses the antlers of our deer, and among the
illustrations there is one of a large set of antlers from a doe.
Sheldon admits that the number of points on the antlers does not always
indicate the deer's age, but he states that in general this fact is true.
We believe that this statement might more properly be restricted to
mule deer, for black-tailed deer seem to bear forked horn antlers
more often than those with three or four points to the side. In this
section, the author presents some X-ray photographs of the lower jaws
of deer showing the teeth by which the animal's age can be ascertained
with fair accuracy.

A short section on the glands of deer and one on their mating
habits follow.

Next the author discusses some methods of deer hunting in which
he brings out some interesting points in regard to the animal's habits.
There follows an excellent section illustrating and describing the
methods of skinning a deer and of preserving the head for a trophy.
The uses of deer are then discussed and here an excellent method for
preparing jerky is described.

A short section on predatory animals that prey upon deer follows
and next a very brief discussion of the parasites that are harbored by
deer.

The next section, entitled "The Pack Trip and How to Throw a
Diamond Hitch, ' ' wnll probably be of most interest to campers, for the
description and excellent illustrations describe better than we have seen
attempted anywhere the method of throwing this excellent pack hitch.

The volume closes with a list of references to published literature
on the various species of deer and predatory animals treated in this
work.

We believe that Sheldon has prepared a most interesting and useful
booklet that will be of entertainment and value to all California deer
liunters, whom we urge to study it in its original form. — James Moffitt,
Division of Fish and Game, San Francisco, December 29, 1933.

GRINNELL'S REVIEW OF CALIFORNIA MAMMAL FAUNA

A publication entitled, "Review of the Recent Mammal Fauna of
California," * by Professor Joseph Grinnell, Director of the University
of California Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, was issued September 26.
1933. This paper consists of a short inti-oduetion and an account of
all the mammalian species and subspecies known to occur, or to have
occurred within the confines of this State up to the time of publication.

* Univ. Calif. Publ. Zool., Vol. 40, pp. 71-2.'].''), September 26, 1933. Copies may
be purchased from the University Press, Berkeley, Calif. Price $1.25.

88 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

The introduction advises that tlie first attempt to catalog Cali-
fornia mammals was made by the pioneer California naturalist, Dr.
J. G. Cooper, in 1868 when he listed 115 kinds of mammals for the
State. Frank Stephens published in 1006 his ''California IMammals"
which listed 276 kinds. In 1913, GrinnoU published "A Distributional
List of the Mammals of California" (Proc. Calif. Acad. Sci., Vol. 3,
pp. 265-390) which listed 337 species and subspecies. The same author
in 1923 published a nominal list of 417 species and subspecies of
mammals for California (Univ. Calif. Publ. Zool., Vol. 21, pp. 313-
324). The author states that the present Review is in no sense to be
considered more "final" than anj?^ of the similar preceding contribu-
tions and it may therefore be considered in the nature of a progress
report upon the classification of mammals in the State.

The present Review lists 460 species and subspecies of mammals
for California. The account of the species commences with the intro-
duced Virginia opossum. The treatment of each species is as follows :
First, its order, family and scientific name are provided, next vernacu-
lar name, then reference for the animal's original description. Type
locality is next provided and then vernacular synonyms. The mam-
mal's range in the State is then provided in some detail, including
its altitudinal range and the life zones it inhabits.

Following the account of the opossum, moles, shrews and bats are
treated. Next, two kinds of black bear and seven kinds of grizzly
bear are ascribed to the State. The latter are all now thought to be
extinct and the last positive record of a grizzly bear in California was
for one shot at Horse Corral Meadows, Tulare County, in August, 1922.
Fur bearers are next listed as follows: coons (3 kinds), ring-tailed cats
(3), marten (2), fisher, weasels (6). mink (2), wolverine, river otter
(2), sea otter, spotted skunk (7), striped skunk (4), badger (2), red
fox, kit fox (3), gray fox (3), Island foxes (6), mountain, valley
and desert coyotes, and plains wolf. The last wolf taken in California
was secured in Lassen County, in 1924.

The following cats arc ascribed to California : the IMexican jaguar,
which historical evidence indicates once occurred as far north as the
region between Monterey and San Francisco, two kinds of mountain
lion and four wild cats.

We learn from this review that California waters are, or were once,
inhabited by two kinds of sea lions, the Pribilof and Guadalupe fur
seals, the California harbor seal and the elephant seal.

Griunell presents a novel, but doubtless logical, innovation to lists
of mammal fauna on pages 118 and 119 of the report when he lists the
subspecies of man inhabitating tlie State. Four subspecies are recog-
nized, the Causasian, American Indian, Mongolian and Negro. The
author, in his account of the status of the Caucasian, provides the
following, almost facetious, statement: "Nonnative, but now thoroughly
established and spreading and increasing, chiefly by immigration, at an
amazing rate. First came, as voluntary pioneers, in year 1769, settling
in a few coastal localities. Increased but slowly until about 1850
when great numbers arrived from many parts of the world. Disposi-
tion aggressive and tendencies destructive, especiallv of natural habi-
tats, as result of which much of native mammal life, including the
endemic race of man {H. fi. nmericanus) , has been reduced; * * *"

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 89

The introduction advises that man is included in the list because he
came into the State voluntarily. Domestic mammals are not included
because man brought them in. On this basis, wild horses, which
entered eastern California voluntarily, should be included and the
Virginia opossum should be excluded from the list because man intro-
duced it.

The order Rodentia follows the order Primates in which man
is classified. Among the order Rodentia, marmots, ground squirrels,
chipmunks, chickarees, gray squirrels, flying squirrels, gophers, mice
and rats are treated. Sportsmen will marvel at the fact that no less
than 37 different kinds of gophers are ascribed to California, 31 kinds
of pocket mice and 34 kinds of kangaroo rats.

The beaver and muskrat are members of the order Rodentia and
three kinds of beaver are ascribed to California, the golden beaver
which inhabits the Sacramento and San Joaquin valleys, the Shasta
beaver of the Pit River basin of northeastern California, and the
Sonora beaver of the Colorado River and Imperial Valley. Two sub-
species of muskrat inhabit California, the Nevada muskrat, which is
native to the larger streams and lakes tributary to the Great Basin
along the extreme eastern border of the State from Eagle Lake south
to Mono County. Curiously, this rodent appears never to have been
native in the basin of the Pit River. The Colorado River muskrat is
indigenous to that river and since 1911 has spread into irrigation canals
throughout the Imperial Valley.

The porcupine and coneys are included in the order Rodentia.
The following rabbits are ascribed to California: two kinds of white-
tailed jack rabbit, or Sierra hare, two varieties of snowshoe rabbit,
five kinds of jack rabbits, six cottontails, four brush rabbits and the
Idaho pigmy rabbit of the Great Basin region.

Sportsmen will no doubt take greatest interest in the classifica-
tion of the elk, deer, antelope, bison and mountain sheep which are
members of the order Artiodactyla. Two elk, the Roosevelt and dwarf,
or tule, elk are native to this State. The former ranged from Marin
County north through the coastal belt to the Oregon line and at the
present day exists only in small numbers in Del Norte and northern
Humboldt counties. The dwarf elk formerly occupied nearly the entire
San Joaquin and Sacramento valleys and occurred in the southern
coast ranges in San Luis Obispo, Santa Barbara, Monterey and Santa
Clara counties. It has now been reduced to a herd of approximately
140 animals on the State elk refuge near Buttonwillow, Kern County,
and several smaller herds that have been transplanted from this point.
The eastern, or Canada, elk has been planted in California, and a small
herd appears to be thriving in Shasta County and a lesser luimber of
animals in Lassen County.

Two subspecies of black-tailed deer occur in California. The
Columbian black-tailed deer ranges south from the Oregon line, from
the coast east to the Sacramento Valley, south to the north side of San
Francisco Bay. Grinnell states that this subspecies also occurs south-
east along the Sierra to both sides of Mt. Shasta and Lassen Peak,
at least south to the lower Feather River region on the west flank of
the Sierra Nevada. The reviewer believes that more intensive study
of the deer population of the western flank of the Sierra will show that

90 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

this (leer occurs south at least into the Yosemite reg:ion. The southern
black-tailed deer occupies the coast ranges from tlie south side of San
Francisco Bar, south throns'h IMonterev and San Benito counties into
northwestern San Luis Obispo County.

Four subspecies of mule deer are ascribed to Califoi-uia. The
Rocky Mountain mule deer CJi'innell properly ascribes to the north-
eastern corner of the State, but we think that his statement that this
deer's range continues south through the main Sierra Neveda to Tuol-
umne Country will not be borne out wliou more evidence is secured.
According to our observations, the typical liocky Mountain mule ilecr
is a rather rare animal south of the vicinity of Truckee. South of that
point, a few bucks appear to migrate each spring from Nevada west-
ward toward the summits of the Sierra Nevada, and in the fall again
return to the eastern deserts to wdnter.

The Inyo mule deer (see California Fish and Game, Vol. 19,
1933, p. 274) occupies the eastern slope of the southern Sierra Nevada
in Inyo and probably Mono counties.

Grinnell states that the range of a third subspecies, the California
mule deer, extends w^est from the western margins of the Colorado
and Mojave deserts, northwest from the Mexican line in San Diego
County, through Santa Barbara County into San Luis Obispo County.
and northeasterly from Ventura County througli the Tehachapi and
Piute mountains at least to the vicinity of Walker Pass. He states
that this race probably occurs north along the western flank of the
southern Sierra Nevada, and we feel quite certain that it is this sub-
species that occurs northward in this region into the Yosemite region,
in which region this deer seems to interbreed with the Columbian
black-tailed deer, and probably even considerably further northward.

Reference to page 81 in this issue of California Fish and Game
will indicate that another subspecies of mule deer has been named from
California and this new deer, the San Diego mule deer, occupies part
of the southern range ascribed to the California mule deer above.

The burro deer is another subspecies of mule deer which Grinnoll
states occujiies the Colorado desert region, north along the Colorado
River, through the Chocolate and Chuckawalla mountains to the
Granite Mountains, and, formerly at least, from the Mexican line south
of Salton Sea through the Imperial Valley into central Riverside
County.

Grinnell ascribes the western white-tailed deer to California on the
basis of a very definite record of a buck taken in January, 1922. on
Observation Peak, in eastern Lassen County. He also lists another. ])ut
not quite satisfactory, record for this deer from Toi)az, ^Mono County,
in 1930 (see ]\IcLean. California Fisn and Game, Vol. 17, 1931,
p. 342).

T''"nder the range of the ])roiig-horn antelope, Grinnell advises
that this species apparently occui'rcd nearly throughout the State
south and east of the humid coast belt and below the main timber line.
Considerable numbers of antelope still exist in several separate bands
in Modoc. Siskiyou and eastern Lasseu counties. A small herd still
occupies the western side of the San Joaquin Valley, four individuals
are known to yet exist in Antelope Valley. Los Angeles County (see
page 91, this issue), a small herd is said to exist in northwestern
Snu Bernardino Countv. and a few individuals on the Colorado Desert

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 91

near the Mexican line in eastern San Diego, or western Imperial
counties.

Many readers will doubtless be surprised to learn that Grinnell
states that the Oregon bison without any doubt formerly occurred in
the northeastern corner of California, where it apparently traversed
the semidesert valleys of eastern Modoc and Lassen counties.

Four varieties of bighorn, or mountain sheep, are ascribed to
California. The lava beds bighorn formerly ranged this region in
the extreme northeastern portion of the State, where it is now thought
to be extinct as the last individuals are said to have died in eastern
Siskiyou County in the winter of 1913. The Sierra Nevada bighorn
still occupies the higher portion of the southern Sierra from the
vicinity of Mammoth Pass, Mono County, south to the vicinity of
Olancha Peak, in Tulare County. Under this form, Grinnell notes
that ascriptions of the mountain goat to this region of the Sierra
Nevada are apparently erroneous and are now thought to have been
based on the presence of bighorns. This author states that the range
of the desert bighorn is in general the mountain ranges of the Mojave
Desert and Inyo regions, north to the lower slopes of the White
Mountains, Mono County, south to the Chocolate Mountains and west
to the San Bernardino and San Gabriel mountains.

The fourth variety of mountain sheep treated in this Review is the
Lower California bighorn, which occupies the mountains bordering the
west side of the Colorado Desert from the Mexican line, northwest to
the lower northern slopes of the San Jacinto Mountains, in San
Gorgonio Pass. Considerable discussion has recently arisen regarding
the number of sheep of this subspecies now inhabitating the State.
Investigations by M. Hall McAllister, Edmund C. Jaeger and State
game wardens seem to agree in that there are between two and three
hundred of these animals now ranging in Riverside and San Diego
counties.

Grinnell's account of mammalian species ends with the aquatic
mammals, of which he lists nine whales, four porpoises, the dolphin,
cowtish, killer, grampus and blackfish.

The paper closes with a very complete index. — James 3Ioffitt,
Diinsion of Fish and Game, San Francisco, December 22, 1933.

THE PRONGHOEN ANTELOPE IN LOS ANGELES COUNTY

This is a supplementary note to the account of the antelope of
Antelope Valley, Los Angeles Countj^ in the July, 1932, issue of
California Fish and Game (Vol. 18, p. 258). The antelope herd at
that time was composed of seven individuals — one male and six females.

On December 3 of this year, 1933. I again found the herd in the
rolling low hills of Antelope Valley five miles north of Sandberg and
counted four individuals, all females. I followed the herd in my car
across country for two miles and got as close as one hundred and fifty
yards on several occasions by approaching slowly. At this distance
field glasses brought them into good view for study. ]\Iy partner tried
to attract them by waving a red bandana in the breeze on the end of
a stick, but though their curiosity was aroused to the extent of their
standing still to look, they would not come toward us. They could
probably see all they wanted to at one hundred and fifty yards.

92

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

Various ranchers of this region have seen these animals recently
and they too have seen only four in the herd. Tnasmnch as it wonld
be improbable that a herd as small as seven would split, it appears
that three individuals, including: the one male, have met their deaths.
At this rate of depletion and with no male in the herd, antelope in
Antelope Valley -will shortly disappear unless conservation forces can
introduce more antelope to bolster up tliis rapidly disai)i»<niriii^' lierd. —
Harvey T. Anderson, Jr., Junior Assistant Fire and Game Warden,
Count]/ of Los Angeles, December 7, 1933.

Fig. 18. M. E. Beatty and the mountain slieep "mummy"
in situ witli sliells replaced on horns. Photo courtesy
National Park Service.

MOUNTAIN SHEEP FOUND MUMMIFIED IN YOSEMITE

GLACIER

The Sierra Nevada bifrhoi'n. or mountain sheep (Orif< canadensis
sierrae), has been rated as extinct in the Yosemite repjion for at least
fifty years. That these animals once inhabited this area in fair
number, is indicated by the fact that horns and fragments of skulls
are often found by hikers in our high country.

On October 4, 1933, Park Naturalist C. A. Harwell and I were
ascending the eastern slope of Lyell Glacier on our third annual

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 93

glacier measuring expedition. We paused at this point to regain our
breath when I chanced to glance over to my right, where, to my great
astonishment, I saw what appeared to be, at first glance, a living
mountain sheep staring at us across the ice. I called Harwell's atten-
tion to this apparition when we immediately realized that the animal
lacked both hair and horns, and in fact was a mummified specimen.

We discovered that the life-like position was due to the fact that
the animal was supported in an upright position by a pedestal of ice
that the body had shielded and thus prevented the sun from melting.
The warm summer had melted the ice of the glacier sufficiently to expose
all of the animal, with the exception of two of the feet.

The ram seemed to be in a perfect state of preservation, the flesli
dried in the manner of "jerky"; the skin dry and taut as a drum's
head. The missing horn shells were found with little difficulty in the
moraine below, one at a distance of 30 feet and the other about 75 feet
from the specimen.

A closer examination showed that the neck of the animal was
broken, but none of the leg bones or other bones was broken. One
front leg had come apart at the knee joint. We found the missing
part intact near one of the horns, and we realized that we had dis-
covered the first complete skeleton of a Sierra mountain sheep for the
region.

After photographing the ram, we transported it, witli some
difficulty, to our base camp at Lyell Fork and ultimately back to
Yosemite Museum where it is now being prepared for exhibition.

In attempting to piece together the story of the animal, it was
found necessary to have more data, so a return trip was made with
steel stakes and surveying equipment to measure distances and rate
of flow of the glacier. We found that the glacier moved only one inch
during a four-day period, or at the rate of seven and one-half feet
per year. The ram was found 1936 feet from the head of the glacier.
Now, assuming that the animal fed or was caught in a slide while
feeding on the crest of Mount Lyell and was buried in the bergschrund,
it would take close to 250 years for the glacier to carry the sheep to the
spot where found. This great length of time is borne out by the aged
appearance of the horns and the dehydrated flesh.

The animal shows a broken neck, probably sustained at the time
of death, and a concave body, probably the result of varying ice
pressure.

The only hair found on the body was directly back of the ears
and in the folds of the neck.

This mountain sheep is a mature male specimen measuring 55
inches in length and 33 inches in height.

The circumference of each horn at the base is 12 J- inclies, and
the length of the horns along outer curve 27 inches. Judging from
the growth rings on the horns, the animal was a 7-year-old.

The weight, as is, is 45 pounds.

National Park officials feel that this find is one of the most
important discoveries of the year in the whole park system. — M. E.
Beatty, Assistant Park Naturalist, Yosemite, December 18, 1933.

9-i

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

HERON CHOKED TO DEATH BY CATFISH

Tlie accompanying photograph is of a black-crowned night heron
{Nycticorax nycticorax hoactli) wliich was found dead at Hemet
Lake, Riverside County, May 8, ]932. It had evidently choked itself
to death in an unsuccessful attempt to swallow an eiglit-inch catfisli,
part of which can be seen protruding from the bird's mouth in the
])ho1o (Pig. ID). — ,7. //. Oycjer, Game Warden, Perris, June 15, J9:i2.

Fig. in. Niglit heron choked to death by catfi.sh,
Hemet Lake, Cal. Plioto by J. H. Gyger.

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

95

STATEMENT OF INCOME
For the Period July 1, 1933, to September 30, 1933, of the Eighty-fifth Fiscal Year

License sales

Departmental income:

Angling licenses, 1932

Angling licenses, 1933

Commercial Hunting Club licenses, 1933-34

Commercial Hunting Club Operators licenses, 1933-34

Deer tags, 1932

Deer tags, 1933

Fish Breeders' licenses, 1933

Fish Importers' licenses, 1933

Game Breeders' licenses, 1933

Hunting licenses, 1932-33

Hunting licenses, 1933-34

Market Fishermen's licenses, 1933-34

Trapping licenses, 1933-34

Wholesale Fish Packers' and Shell Fish Dealers' licenses, 1933-34.

Totallicense sales

Other income:

Contributions from importers

Court fines

Fish packers' tax

Fish tag sales

Game tag sales

Interest on bank balances

Income from Department of Agriculture Fund, Chap. 825-33-

Miscellaneous sales

Publication sales

Dividends California National Bank, 20 per cent

Total other income.

Total departmental income — current year-

Detail

S5,475 00

80,671 50

125 00

20 00

1,143 25

21,970 00

15 00

5 00

85 00

8,181 18

59,633 50

10,620 00

20 00

680 00

$15 00

6,866 74

21,413 12

100 50

42 27

1,220 61

40,000 00

64 75

140 15

7,418 03

Total

$194,650 43

77,281 17

$271,931 60

96

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

STATEMENT OF EXPENDITURES
For the Period July 1, 1933, to September 30, 1933, of the Eighty-flfth Fiscal Year

Function

Salaries

and

wages

Materials

and
supplies

Service

and
expense

Property

and
equipment

Total

Administration:

$2,089 98
1,380 00

$2,089 98

$110 47
69 93

$29 06
19 10

301 16
1,298 26

623 25

156 13
3,389 96

284 73

1,519 53

89 03

301 16

1,298 26

623 25

156 13

Kent

3,389 96

Aooidpnt and death cl&ims ---

284 73

1,125 00
493 56

1,125 00

Legal

43 56

$28 40

565 52

$5,088 54

$975 00
480 00

$180 40

$6,145 21

$28 40

$11,442 55

Bureau education and research:
Chief

$975 00

$25 81

107 81

$8 77

26 95

777 53

14 80

6 81

1 23

0 00

514 58

134 76

777 53

PostaffP -- -

14 80

6 81

ilii 20
10 50

1 23

270 00
900 00
750 00

3 48
24 43

295 68

Resparch -

934 93

9 00

759 00

Bureau patrol and law enforcement:
Chief and a<isistanta

$3,375 00

$2,775 00
795 00

$101 53

$851 09

$26 70

$4,414 32
$2,775 00

19 79
2,116 27

804 79

$1,722 81

11,707 06

137 34

340 15

5 74

83 00

316 55

161 96

18 00

3.839 08

11,707 06

Postage - - -

137 34

Telephone and telegraph -

340 15

5 74

Kent -

$11 60

83 00

43,935 00

360 63
288 09
338 61

44,023 78

Launches ^

450 05

1,155 00

375 00

90 00

690 00
3,465 50
2,518 55
1,130 33

1,511 61

375 00

90 00

Cominercial fisheries patrol:

690 00

50
561 27

6 16
56 96

3,472 16

Launches - - -

6 00

3,142 78

1.130 33

Traveling -

1,181 90

174 00

58 47

1.181 90

Kent ---

174 00

27 63

86 00

17 00

17 00

Total bureau patrol and law enforcement...

$56,946 38

$3,405 00
2,396 34

$3,702 69

$i 42"
43 80

$15,970 10

$17 GO

$76,636 77
$3,405 00

$1 50

28 21

1,294 62

114 55

5 79

24 19

44 81

2,399 26

Automobiles - - _ .

72 01

1,294 62

Telephone and telegraph

114 55

Freight, cartage and express _ - .

5 79

Kent

24 19

44 81

570 00
5,504 60

12 17
53 50
21 94

582 17

118 31
504 00

$20 26
12 42

5,696 73

Statistics ..

538 36

Total bureau commercial fisheries

$11,876 00

$132 83

$2,135 98

$32 68

$14,177 49

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

97

STATEMENT OF EXPENDITURES— Continued
For the Period July 1, 1933, to September 30, 1933, of the Eighty-fifth Fiscal Year

Function

Salaries

and

wages

Materials

and
supplies .

Service

and
expense

Property

and
equipment

Total

Bureau fish culture:
Chief and assistants

51,740 00
1,020 00

$42 00

1 50

327 08

2,953 18

44 00
290 82

60 61
338 50
d05 55
469 52

$1,782 GO

1,021 50

1,472 44

2,953 18

44 00

Clerical and office

Automobiles

$1,145 36

Traveling

Postage

Telephone and telegraph

290 82

Freight, cartage and express

60 61

Rent

338 50

Heat, light and power

305 55

Hatcheries

27,155 46

14,329 69

$45 21
1 65

41,999 88
1 65

Special field investigations

Fish cars

885 00

223 49

60 45

1 52

633 26

1,168 94
1 52

Blue printing

Cooperative research

795 00
161 00

8.365 76
600 00

1,834 98

98 14

1,526 40
161 00

Temporary help

Fish hatcherv assistant — seasonal

s,365 76

Hydraulic engineering

263 05

29 21

892 26

Special field .

1,834 98

Total bureau fish culture _ .

$42,557 20
Sl,^65 00

$15,796 68

$5,791 04

J>76 07

$64,220 99
SI 365 DO

Chief and assistants .

$127 72

$118 9R
525 78

27 01

28 58
17 96

480 45
78 81

246 70

Traveling

•^■'5 78

27 01

Telephone and telegraph

98 58

Freight, cartage and express

17 96

Heat, light and power _.

480 45

Maintenance

3,164 71

243 43

1,200 00

1,344 13

4 587 65

Temporary help _

243 43

Quail trapping and expansion of quail program.

95 65

390 79

1,686 44

Total bureau game propagation , . _

$5,973 14
$1,200 00

$1,567 50

$1,668 36

$13 09
134 76

$9 209 GO

Bureau fish rescue:
Chief and assistants

$1 213 09

Traveling

134 76

Temporary help

13 00

13 00

Heavy truck service

190 90

190 90

Total bureau fish rescue

$1,213 00

$2,124 99
480 00

$338 75

$1 551 75

Bureau game refuges:
Chief and assistants

$2,124 99

Clerical and office

$12 50

44 58

868 78

492 50

Automobiles.. . .

$27 78

72 36

Traveling . . _

868 78

Laborers

900 00

1,177 00

180 00

900 00

1,177 00

Refuge posting .

ISO 00

Predatory animal control

1,110 00
271 41

1,110 00

Refuge maintenance

1,140 00

1,200 00
885 00

391 47

1,802 88

Predatory animal hunters and trappers — •
seasonal.

1,200 00

Temporary help — «easonal.-

885 00

Total bureau game refuge . .

$8,086 99
$3,285 00

$419 25

$2 46

$2,307 27

$5 60

I 00

240 50

75

907 50

$10,813 51

Bureau licenses:
Clerical and office

$3,293 06

Traveling . _.....

1 00

Postage

240 50

75

Premiums on bonds .

907 50

Total bureau licenses .

$3,285 00

$2 46

$1,155 35

$4,442 81

Total 85th fiscal year expense paid from
support appropriations-

$138,401 25

$21,963 34

$36,363 15

$181 45

$196,909 19

7—9030

98

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

STATEMENT OF EXPENDITURES -Continued
For the Period July 1, 1933, to September 30, 1933, of the Eighty-fifth Fiscal Year

Function

Salaries

and

wages

Materials

and
supplies

Service

and
expense

Property

and
equipment

Total

Special items:

Deer tight fences— Chap. 872-31, from July 1,
1933 to December 31, 1933

$1 498 05

License commissions

7,131 25
209 49

State Fair and other e.xhibits

Total sppninl it/>ms

$8,838 79

$3,793 88

$17,807 49

$495 47

Permanent improvements:
Construction, improvements and equipment..

Prior year expense:
Eighty-fourth fiscal year

Bureau of commercial fisheries. Chap. 825-33
Fresh fish marketing:
Chief and assistants

$495 47
149 03

Clerical and office

$11 55

2 50

105 80

(Mi

49 23

1 15

2,013 70

160 58

Automobiles

2 50

Travelng

105 80

Telephone and telegraph

66

Freight, cartage and express

49 23

Kent...

1 15

Exhibits

$99 84

2,113 54

Total bureau of commercial fisheries,
Chap. 825-33 fresh fish marketing

$644 50

$99 84

$2,184 59

$2,928 93

Grand total proprietary group

$230,278 28

SEIZURES OF FISH AND GAME

Juy, August, September, 1933
Fish:

Abalones-

Barracuda, pounds

Bass —

Calico..

Black

Striped, fish...

Striped, pounds

White sea, pounds

Clams .

Crabs

Catfish

Crappie, perch, sunfish

Lobsters

Salmon, pounds

Trout, pounds.

YcUowfin, pounds

Sturgeon, pounds

Fish traps

Game:

Deer...

Deer meat, pounds

Ducks, geese

Doves

Pheasants .

Quail

Rabbits

Shorebirds

Bear hides

Bear meat, pounds

Rifles ' .

306
54

45

307

251

531

600

115

39

17

233

294

451

556

2,904

20

11

55

1,018

87

118

12

31

17

1

2

100
2

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

99

FISH CASES
July, August, September, 1933

Offense

Number
arrests

Fines
imposed

Jail

sentences

(days)

Abalones; small; overlimit

17

24

1

1
3

15
1
7

13
7

47

15
4

10
3
1
1
5
3

15
4

$400 00

430 00

5 00

25 00

10 00
185 00

25 00
220 00
165 00
105 00
110 00
320 00
175 00
325 00

25 00

10

Angling; no license

10

Barracuda; small .._

Bass^
Calico; overlimit-—

Black; small

Striped-. . .

20

White sea . ...

Clams; small; overlimit . _

25

Crabs; small -.. .

20

Crappie; perch; sunfish; overlimit .

Commercial &hing; no license...^ . .

Lobsters; closed season.. ...

125

Salmon; overlimit; untagged. . . .

50

Trout; overlimit .

Yellowfin; small ......

Operating set lines

Fishing too near mouth of stream and from fish ladder

75 00

40 00

550 00

40 00

Seines; nets; illegal use of ..

Totals

197

$3,290 00

260

GAME CASES
July, August, September, 1933

Offense

Deer; closed season; killing does, fawns; untagged deer.

Bear; closed season

Ducks; closed season

Doves; closed season; overlimit

Hunting; no license

Hunting in refuge

Spotlight hunting

Killing non-game birds

Pheasants; closed season

Shore birds; killing of

Quail; closed season

Rabbits; closed season

Trespassing

Shooting from auto

Totals....

Number
arrests

126

4

11

17

67

28

22

2

7

1

10
5
5
9

314

Fines
imposed

$4,305 00

60 00

200 00

307 00

1,157 00

265 00

1,230 00

35 00

260 00

25 00

195 00

110 00

75 00

125 00

$8,349 00

Jail

sentences

(days)

1,020

50

5

2
'320

25
"120

1,542

lOU

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

iij

UJ

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oo ■

ra ;

t 1 1 t^oo

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37,252

5,536

786,955

1 CTt t

:g :

1^ I

1 .<?« '^ ?Oco -^
I tOO^O co-^ »o

, -co-** ■*iOO

1 !i-ro"!Oodc4

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Santa Cruz

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1 •^ 1

San Francisco,
San Mateo

lo i
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1 1 1 >o ■«<

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Contra Costa. .

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i C^ \

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Sacramento,
San Joaquin

lo— 1 1

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1 *"* 1

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Solano, Yolo

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oo I

Marin

• 00 '

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Mendocino,
Sonoma, Lake

ioo Icoo
1 ."»

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1 lOt^

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Del Norte,
Humboldt.

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Halfmoon

Halibut — Northern

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11 =

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5 eg eg

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•5

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

101

iO I 1 1 tin •!>• i09 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 lOO 1 >m

ICO ' ' 1 It^ i-i "* 1 1 1 . 1 1 1 1 .to 1 ICO
00 '^ "^ 1 1 I40 1 ICO

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II ^11 II 1

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Ol^

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CD

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CO
OO
Ol

di
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Ol

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oo

Ol

Ol

o

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si; 1 ;s 1 : : ; : ; ;

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Ol

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Sculpin

Sea Bass— Black

Sea Bass— White.

Shad

Shark

Sheepshead

Skate

Skipjack __

Smelt.... .-

Smelt — Jack

Sole

Splittail

Striped Bass _

Sucker

Swordfish'-Broadbill

Swordfish — Marlin

Tom Cod _.-

Tuna — Yellowfin

Turbot -

Whitebait-

Whitefish

YeUowtaiL-

Miscellaneous

Ill I I 1 I I 1 I 4> I 1
....... "^ . .

Ill 'V

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|o^c& -o<oaOoSoOOcn

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a

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J2 3

102

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

•s

CO

o

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1-

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CO

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c

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cc

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cc
111

z

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Ul

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Total fish from south of the
International Boundary
brought into California.

Fish from south of the
International Boundary
brought into San Diego.

Fish from south of the
International Boundary
brought into San Pedro.

— o

C73 00

CO CO

00 r^

Total.

San Diego,
Imperial.

Orange.

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Los Angeles.

San Luis Obispo,
Santa Barbara,
Ventura ,

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CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

103

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a.

California Fish and Game

"CONSERVATION OF WILD LIFE THROUGH EDUOATION"

Volume 20 SACRAMENTO, APRIL, 1934 No. 2

CONTENTS

Page
PIITTE TROUT {Saimo sele7iiris Snyder) Frontispiece

A NEW CALIFORNIA TROUT John O. Snyder 105

STREAM IMPROVEMENT A. E. BurghduffllZ

NOTES ON THE FOOD OF TROUT P. R. Needham 119

STREAM AND BAY POLLUTION STUDIES Paul A. Shaio 128

THE LAKE ALMANOR HATCHERY J. H. Vogt 130

CHANGES IN SARDINE FISHING GEAR IN THE MONTEREY REGION,

WITH A NOTE ON EXPANSION OF FISHING GROUNDS___J. B. Phillips 134

THE KERN COUNTY ELK REFUGE Lewis A. Burtch 140

PORCUPINE CONTROL ON FORESTS OF CALIFORNIA Joseph Keyes 148

EDITORIALS AND NOTES 151

STATISTICS-
STATEMENT OF Income 169

Statement of Expenditures 170

Violations of Fish and Game Laws 1T3

Number of Hunters Killing Two Deer, 1933 1T4

Hunting Accidents, 1933 175

Sbven-Ybar Record of Deer Kill in California Between 174-175

Statistics on Deer Kill, Season 1933 Between 174-175

Fresh Fishery Products 176

A NEW CALIFORNIA TROUT

By John 0. Snyder

HE REMARKABLE galaxy of brilliantly colored
California trout has been enlarged by the addition of
another which takes a conspicuous place amongst its
fellows. It is named Salmo seleniris* for a fancied
resemblance of its evanescent tints to the lunar rainbow. Piute Trout
has been suggested as a common name, recalling other aboriginal
inhabitants of the region in which it is found.

* A brief description of the species appears in tlie Proceedings of the Cali-
fornia Academy of Sciences, Fourth Series, Vol. XX, No. 11, pp. 471-472, Nov. 16,
1933. In the parlance of trinomial nomenclature this form would be called Salmo
henshaivi seleniris. The writer can see no particular advantage in writing the
name thus. Here it leads to no better understanding of relationships, and elsewhere
if trinomials are used in relation to western trout their application will often
have to be based on mere speculation.
10775

U)G CALII'OHXIA FISH AND GAME

The newly described sjjeeies is an isolalcd \;iiiiiii1 of N. In nslnnvi,
differing' markedly in tlie a])sence of spots fi'oni tlie body, the more
sU^nder I'oriu and the rebitively small and inoi'e numci'ous scales.

The oiitstandiny characteristic of Ibis ti-ont is the color, well
portrayed in the reproduction of a i)aintin<r by Cbloe Lesley 8tarks.
No two observers aiiree in a desci'iption of its colors, tints and sliades,
some of winch seeminyly come and go with every changing whim of the
fish. Moreover, its swimming movements are often accompanied with
opaline reflections of varied intensity, and the skin in some places has
a peculiar translucent ai)i)earance, so much so that on the head some
of the cranial bones are partly outlined through the overlying tissue.
A sudden disturbance will occasion the appearance of much green
color on the bod}', thus imparting a greenish olive to the dorsal surface
and a paler green to the region below the lateral stri])e. The venti'al
surface may at times darken considerably.

The normally clear white ventral surface is unusual, particularly
on the throat where it forms an advantageous background for the
extensive orange red areas beneath the mandible. As in the case of
other cutthroats, an occasional example bears one or more small,
golden, coin-like spots, located anywhere, but usually on the ventral
surface. There are no dark spots on the body and they are not niiiner-
ous on the dorsal and caudal. Tn some examples the caudal is almost
immaculate. The major parr marks are ten in number, the first inune-
diately bordering the gill opening, the last at the end of the caudal
peduncle. All are crossed by the lateral line, the posterior ones
bisected by it, the anterior ones two-thirds below. Of the secondary
row, sixteen in number, every alternate si)ot dips between the nearby
jirimary ones. The mid dorsal region is marked by a narrow dark
line.

The body is comi)aratively long and slender, so much so as to
attract attention at once. The fins are rather weak.

Proportional measurements were made of each of ten specimens
of S. seleniris from its restricted habitat presently to be described, and
also from a like number of 8. hcnshawi from Silver King Creek, a
tributary of Carson Iviver. Averages of each ten are here given, the
column marked "S" representing ^. seleniris. Considerable dift'erence
ap{)ears. pai-licnlarly in the depth of the body.

.S". 11.

standard lenRlh in niillimcler.s 160.4 1C1.7

Lengtli head in hundredths of .standard length .254 .262

Depth Iiody ".198 '.235

Depth caudal peduncle .099 .110

Length caudal peduncle .159 .164

Length maxillary .141 .147

Length snout .065 .068

Diameter eye .05 .049

Interorl)ital width .078 .077

Depth head .163 .165

Snout to occiput .172 .167

Snout to dorsal .508 .514

Snout to ventral .549 .547

Length base of dorsal .123 .144

Length base of anal .108 .112

Height dorsal .155 .160

Height anal .149 .145

Length pectoral .166 .179

Length ventral .138 .145

Length caudal .198 .215

Dorsal rays 10.0 10.8

Anal rays 10.6 10.3

Scales lateral series 170.9 167.6

Scales above lateral line 30.1 29.7

CALIFORNIA PISH AND GAME

107

Scale counts from ten examples each from the followin;^' localities

are given for comparison.

Lateral series

Lake Tahoe near Tallac 156 to 170

Truckee River near Thisbe _- 157 to 165

Pyramid Lake 153 to 162

Salmo seleniris 168 to 176

Above lateral line
31 to 35
30 to 34
29 to 35
29 to 31

Fish 6 to 8| inches in length appear to be about three years old.
The growth is rapid during the season of active feeding.

This trout is found only in the little streams of Fish Valley, a
remote region in Alpine County east of the Sierra Divide. Its native
habitat is restricted by Llewellyn Falls which form an impassable
barrier between the waters above and Silver King Creek below, which in
turn flows into Carson River. The
waters of the latter eventually dis-
appear in Carson Desert to the
eastward. Carson River was once
tributary to the Quaternary Lake
Lahontan which covered a consider-
able area in Nevada. Its fishes are
therefore related to or identical
with those of other rivers as the
Truckee, Walker and Humbod'
which were also tributaries to the
same ancient lake. This region or
basin, the streams of which have
not had any connection with the
ocean for untold ages, contains
native representatives of both the
rainbow and cutthroat fronts. The
rainbows are S. regalis of Lake
Tahoe, S. smaragdus of Pyramid
Lake, and S. aquilarum of Eagle
Lake. 8. henshawi, the more gen-
erally distributed trout is a cut-
throat, and its relationships are
aii]iarently with similar trouts of
the upper Columbia and Snake
Lake Basin. The

FWJ. 20

Sketch map showing Fish Valley
habitat of the Piute irout.

native trout of the Colorado is

rivers and Salt
related to these.

Trout from below the falls are diflferent from those iinmediatel\-
above in that their bodies and dorsal and caudal fins are well covered
with large and very conspicuous roundish black spots. They are
also considerably deeper and more robust in appearance. The colors
are not nearly so bright. An enumeration of the spots on several
examples from the stream below the falls will be of interest.

Spots on side of head 10

On body above lateral line-
Body l)elow lateral line

On tail above lateral line

Tail below lateral line

On dorsal fin

Caudal fin

10

18

5

5

4

5

6

32

93

38

58

37

36

22

25

57

34

17

34

8

33

20

36

26

24

12

19

17

18

21

19

13

17

9

17

33

34

38

41

25

28

30

55

66

67

21

33

13

43

108

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

All trout of this species found elsewhere in the Lahontan Basin
are similarly spotted. An enumeration of the spots of several speci-
mens follows :

Locality

Lake
'I'd hoc

Tj

iickee Rive

•

Pyrami
Lake

d

Spots on side of head

Body above lateral line

55

95

60
103
53
45
44
42
93

16
100
45
48
25
86
234

12
44
49
39
31
103
284

44

115

175

63

57

55

145

68
92

159
59
82
45

162

6.

102

121

52

56

66

184

20
51
16
42
28
52
65

13
43

Body below lateral line

113

0

Tail above lateral line

Tail below lateral line

43

59

40

7

On dorsal fin

Caudal fin

36

66

41

95

Fig. 21. Llewellyn Fall.s, the barrier
which prevents the passage of trout of
the species Salmo hensliaivi into the

basin
Photo

occupied
by E. L.

by Salmo
Macaulay.

It is a well-known
isolated animals tend to

seleniris.

biological

These fish measured from 14^
to 28 J inches in length. The tspots
of «S'. henshau'i are so numerous,
large and conspicuous that the
.species is commonly referred to by
liatcheiy men as the black-spotted
trout.

Recognizing that the trout
above Llewellyn Palls may be
regarded as members of a species
which is different from that below,
one asks concerning their origin
and the means by which they
arrived. The immediate and only
answer is that they have been there
as long as any trout have been in
the Carson Basin. The falls are
of more recent origin than the
trout. Before the falls became a
barrier to free migration, the trout
of the streams of Fish Valley were
not different from others in the
river below. When the falls became
an obstruction to the passage of
fish those above became insular.
Some of their number might
occasionally drift down over the
falls to be ultimately lost in a
large poyiulation, but none from
below could ever mingle Avith those
above.

principle or law that insular or
change from the parent stock. Just

vary or
why they may vary in any particular way is a matter for speculation
It is not possible at present and in this jiarticular case to account for
the unusual brilliancy of color, or for a loss of the black body spots.
Whatever else may be said, the significant thing is that we have
here an exceptionally good illustration of variation through isolation.
The habitat of the species is sharply defined, the barrier which pro-
tects it is perfectly evident, and the parent stock from which the

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 109

species was derived is in an immediately adjacent region. ]\Ioreover,
the principal distinguishing character, color, is evident at a glance.
Furthermore and of particular interest is the fact that the differentia-
tion of this trout from its parent form is parallel in some respects
with that of the golden trouts west of the Sierra divide. The outstand-
ing characteristics of these trouts, ^S'. roosevelti, S. whitei and *S^. agiia-
honita are brilliant color with much yellow, a reduction in the number
of spots, notably in 8. whitei, and a very definite increase in the number
of scales on the body. These trouts are presumably isolated variants
of the coast rainbow, *S^. irideus. The scales of the latter number 120 to
150 or so in the lateral series, while those of the golden trouts are as
high as 200.

Thomas R. Hanna first called my attention to the peculiar trout
inhabiting Fish Valley in a letter which runs thus: "Fish Valley is
the most southerly meadow on Silver King Creek, the most easterly
tributary of Carson River. Silver King Creek is a small stream that
may be crossed dry shod most times of the year. It has its source
above Fish Valley from the deep snow banks that collect during the
long alpine winters in the deep glacial cirques of the high Sierra sum-
mits. Small streams from these snow banks unite and flow down a
steep and shaded glacial gorge for several miles before they emerge
into the smooth, green and treeless meadow of the Valley. Fish Valley
is about two and one-half miles long. The stream flows between over-
hanging sedgy banks over a granite gravel bottom for twice as far in
its meanderings down the Valley.

"The Valley stream has a multitude of medium size trout that
are native to the stream and differ from any that I have ever seen.
They rise readily to any kind of fly, irrespective of the season or the
amount of native food that may be available. Their basic color is
lemon yellow with brown heads, tails and dorsal fins. They lack
the characteristic spots that are on all trout, and instead they have
a series of soft light brown vertical bars on their sides. Their bellies
are ivory white with a brilliant patch of scarlet under their throat and
gills. On each side a thread-like scarlet line -runs from their gills to
their tail. In their native water, they appear quite transparent and
are difficult to see. When first caught, they are a rich bronze color
with an iridescent sheen, reflecting their yellow, red and brown tones
like the play of colors in a Mexican fire opal. They lose this beauty
and tend to darken after they have been out of water. Their moat is
white, of fine texture and very delicate. I believe they spawn in the
fall of the year.

' ' That these fish live in such a small stream together with the fact
that they are so easily caught dooms them all to an early extinction
unless they are adequately protected. To protect them, I believe that
all of Silver King Creek and tributaries above its junction with East
Carson River in Silver King Valley should be closed at once."

Because of the inaccessibility of Fish Valley, it was found neces-
sary to catch and transport living fish to some place where the artist
might make a satisfactory study of them. In cooperation with the
officials of Steinhart Aquarium, this was accomplished. As a pre-
liminary, Roland Dobler and Walter Thornburg of the State Division

no

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

of Fisii and (iaiiie siu'ccssfully caii^lit oii August 2)5, VJ'.V.'>. aiul Trans-
ferred upAvards of 150 fish to the Alpine Hatchery near Markleeville.
These were fed and held in troughs for a time without loss and ulti-
mately pi'eserved as tlie type and pai-atypes (September 17). Later
tlu' same men packed many moi-e out of Fish Valley to Pickle .Meadow
and delivered them to William ]\Iartin of tlie Steinhart Aquarium
who l)riiiit:h1 ihem to San Francisco (October 'A). A few days later
Dobler and Thond)urji- followed with a small truck of live fish and
delivered them also to the A(piarium. At tiiis date, these fish are still
on display and in fiiu' condition.

In a brief letter recounting the work, Doblei- writes: "The trip
from Pickle Meadow to Fish Valley, a distance of 14 miles, can be made
in about live hours with pnak stock. On arriving in the Valley we
made our camp and later distributed our empty ])ack cans along the
creeks. In fishing we ])lace(l tlie ones eauglit in a bucket uiilil lliei-e

^^

TjcnsL mg: catf T.'-'' *•

Fig. 22. Suniniit of the pa.s.s Ironi Tickle Meadow, looldnj? toward Fi.-^h Valley
on the right. Photo by E. L. Macaulay.

were several and then car.ri(Hl them to the nearest i)ack can. The
latter was then partly submerged in the cre(>k to insure a circulation
of water in the can, where it could remain until \vt' were ready to
come out.

"The fish strike the fly very hard, doing most of their fighting
under water, darting every way in trying to get free, and not breaking
water very often. When a fish missed a fly. it would break water,

turning back on its side insteac

mo

viuL;' on in a t'oi-wai'd direction.

A royal coachman No. 12 hook seemed best. They are game fish and
one of the best flavored that I have eaten.''

Thornburg writes: "Because of automobile ti'ouble, I arrived at
Pickle Meadow a little too late to join the pack train. Leaving the
meadow at 2 ji.m. with my bedding, I took up the trail leading along
Silver Creek for some nine miles u]) the steep mountain sides. 1
stopped on the summit long enough for a sigh of relief, and then

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 111

lieaded down the opi)Osite slope toward Pish Valley some six miles
away. Arriving at seven, I found Dobler camped at the head of the
Valley with preparations for dinner in full swing, certainly a most
welcome sight to me. With a good meal disposed of and a hard hike
of 14 miles behind me, a sound sleep followed.

"Arising early the following morning, we were soon out to get
the fish. Pishing hard for some time and with little success was dis-
appointing when around 10 o'clock they began to strike. By the
middle of the afternoon, a rain drove us to cover and we spent some
time by a little fire. The rain slacking, we were out again and by
nightfall we had around 100 trout.

"Early Monday morning (October 2), we loaded the packs and
fish cans on the horses and started fishing again, adding 20 or more
fish to our catch. We left the Valley at noon and by three in the after-
noon, we delivered the fish to the holding pond in the West Walker.

"We then went to Bridgeport for a night's rest. Leaving there
early on Tuesday, we returned to Pickle Meadow from where we again
packed over into Pish Valley to try our luck once more with the trout.

"Early Wednesday morning we found the fish striking well and
it was not long before 10 or 12 trout would be in the pail and we
would have to hurry for one of the cans which we had located along
the stream.

"I used a fly most of the time although in one pool I baited it
wath pieces of grasshopper wath good results.

"These trout strike the fly very well and seem to be a little
faster than the regular black-spotted ones, but not so lively as the
rainbows. They are not very easily frightened. ]\Iany times Avhile
walking along the banks, T saw a fish leave the shallows and move
to deeper water, when after a few casts he would rise to the fly and
even come back several times if not hooked. In one pool where there
w^ere six or so in sight, I hooked one about eight inches in length. It
fell off on the edge of the bank and finally escaped into the water.
After taking a couple from the pool, this same trout tried it again and
before long managed to join the collection. On this day, I svicceeded
in taking 77 trout, getting them safely into the cans.

"It seemed to make little difference whether a man led or was
in the rear, he had about the same good luck. They seemed to take
the fly as well in the bright sun as in the shady places.

"Upper Fish Valley is a wild mountain meadow through wliich
the stream winds back and forth and has many pools. The sides of
the Valley rise very steep to some two thousand feet. After leaving
the Valley, the stream becomes much faster and the banks are lined
with willows. There are many soda s])rings along the stream.

"The falls are over granite rocks and they have some 20 feet
of perpendicular drop. The water falls on a sloi)ing apron of granite
and soon enters a narrow gorge after which the stream o])ens into
Lower Fish Valley. Here the stream keeps to the west side and it is
bordered by willows and has many fine pools. Pish are more plentiful
here. On leaving the lower Valley, the stream narrows, presenting
much very fast water and many splendid pools. When it reaches
Silver King Valley, it slows up again to its entrance into East Carson
River.

112

CALIFORNIA PISH AND GAME

"We left Fish Valley October 5 and on tlie sixth avo started for
San Francisco with the fish on a small truck and delivered them at
nine o'clock on the following morning without the loss of a fish. They
were all full of pep."

Most of us will take off our hats to such anglers.

Some fishermen protest against a size limit, contending that hooked
fish can not be safely returned to the stream. Here is presented a case
where several hundred fish of various sizes were caught, transported
considerable distances and finally kept for a long time under adverse
conditions and without material loss.

As this region presents an apparently clear cut and unusual
biological demonstration in nature, everything within reason should
be done to preserve it so. As no trout have ever been introduced into
Fish Valley, it is proposed to preserve the purity of the native stock
by keeping it free from foreign introductions or artificial propagation.
This policy will not prevent the transfer of fish of the species elsewhere
if it seems desirable for practical or experimental purposes.

Fig. 23. Fish Valley above Llewellyn Falls, the habitat of Sahiio seleniiis.

by E. L. Macaulay.

rhoto

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 113

STREAM IMPROVEMENT

By A. E. BURGHDUFF

Stream improvement is a phase of conservation that is receiving
much attention at the present time. In a general way, the subject
may be divided into two classes of endeavor : first, retardation of
stream flow by the construction of weirs or erosion dams; second, stor-
age of water near the source of streams, to be released in a continuous
quantity sufficient to maintain stream flow during that portion of the
year when streams would normally be very low or dry.

The first type of improvement is particularly adaptable to spring-
fed meadow streams and undoubtedly the carrying capacity of such
streams can be greatly increased by this method of improvement. It is
this type of construction which makes possible effective stream improve-
ment in the Eastern States. Improvements of this kind do not fit
conditions existing in most of our western streams, where precipitous
rock-bound streams fall thousands of feet in a score of miles. What
the western type of stream needs is an equalizer to insure constant
flow and this can be accomplished by the second class of improvement.

In many instances, and at moderate cost, water can be stored
near the source of streams in sufficient quantities to insure ample flow
during that part of the year when streams are dangerously low or
entirely dry. Climatic conditions in California which cause streams
to go dry during the late summer, entails the loss of millions of young
trout, possibly more than our total hatchery output. If these annual
losses are added to those brought about through agricultural add
hydro-development, it indicates that every effort must be made to
counteract these conditions wherever possible.

The Cherry Creek project in Tuolumne County demonstrates the
possibilities of this method of stream improvement in this State. Th^s
is a typical granite area in the High Sierra, differing only in locatio'n
from scores of similar areas where like results may be obtained. This
area was originally barren of fish life. Many years ago settlers and
stockmen carried trout from Laurel Lake, now included in Yosemite
National Park, and placed them in some of the streams and lakes in
tliis area. These fish throve and increased until excellent fishing was
to be had in several of the lakes and streams in the early season.
There are no springs in the high granite country and when the surface
water runs off, the streams dry up and the lakes recede. As long as
seasons of normal rainfall continued, conditions were favorable and
the fish needed no assistance to maintain their abundance. When the
prevailing dry cycle of years started in the early twenties, the normal
run-off was gone long before the first fall rains commenced, with the
result that fish in the streams were lost and the carrying capacity of the
lakes greatly reduced.

Two sportsmen, F. W. Leighton and W. E. Burnliam of Sonora,
had a summer cabin near a small lake at the base of Mt. Gillett. They
stocked this lake with fish carried there in old oil cans. Their problem

2—10775

114

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

was to make tlu' lake .si'lt'-.sii.staiiiiii<:' and tliis Avas aceomplisliccl by
goin^ up the canyon a few miles and building an earth and rock dam
at the outlet of a jjroup of lakes about fifty acres in extent. The stor-
a<,'(' wat(M' thus impounded was am]ile to insure a prood flow of water
below the dam and to j)ermit the trout in the lake below to ascend the
stream to spawn and insure that the young fish could find their wa.y
back into the lake. This lake thus became self-sustaining and a move-
ment was started to have similar projects commenced on a more
elaborate scale.

In the late summer of 1930, the writer together with F. W. Leigh-
ton and J. R. Hall, Supervisor of the Stanislaus National Forest, made
a survey to determine the feasibility of constructing similar dams near
the source of Cherry Creek tributaries. At this time, all of the upper

^["mjgfi^f/^eaaai*^

Pig. 2 4. Cherry Creek area, Tuolumne County, showing location of (l:im.s regulating;

stream flow.

tributaries to Cherry Creek were dry except for pools in some of the
meadow sections. It was probable that even those pools would dis-
appear before the first fall rains. Consitlerable numbers of trout of
various sizes were stranded in these pools, an annual occurrence which
resulted in heavy losses.

Cherry Creek divides into three main branches, the West, North
and East forks. As a result of the 193U survey, storage dams were
built on each of these branches.

Control storage on the West Fork is accomplished l)y dams on
Long and Buck lakes; the water released from Long Lake passes
through Deer and Jewelry lakes. From Buck Lake it ])asses through
Wood Lake and combining with water from Long Lake, flows two

CALIFORNIA FIRII AND OAME

115

Fig. 25. The Buck Lake Check Dam is eight feet high and 56 feet long.

Photo by Louis Jensen.

Fig. 26. Main Check Dam on Long Lake, Cherry Creek project. This dam is
eight feet high and stores 520 acre-feet of water. Photo by Louis Jensen.

IK! CAIJKOUNIA FISH AND GAME

miles into West Fork at the upper end of Louse Can3()n. Tliese stor-
ages maintain a constant Avater level in the lakes throuj,'li which it
flows and a <;o()d sti'cam of live uatoi' from tlic stoi'a^-c hikes to the
junction of the West Fork witli the juain Cherry. TJie flow through
Louse Canyon September 18, 1933, was about 60 miner's inches.
The lakes and streams in this chain are well stocked with trout and
many small finfiforline's of this year's hatch were observed. It is not
known whether any available storage exists above Buck Lake. If so, an
ideal permanent spawning area in the stream channel above this lake
could be developed, where all natural spawn is now lost through lack
of continuous stream flow.

The center or North Fork chain of lakes includes dams at Emi-
grant Meadow Lakes and Emigrant Lake. The latter, on account of
its large storage capacity, is the key control to the entire watershed
project; wdth the construction of a 24-inch top extension on this
dam, the storage will provide a minimum flow of 80 miner's inches or
more, the full distance to the junction of Cherry and Elinor creeks.
Emigrant Meadow Lakes furnish sufficient storage to adequately
protect the spawning areas above Emigrant Lake and to insure
natural reproduction in the latter.

About three miles below Emigrant Lake the stream enters Cow
Meadow. This meadow is several miles long and for much of the
distance fine gravelly spawning beds exist. A canal-like lake about
one mile long and ranging from ,50 to 100 feet wide and up to 4 feet
deep is situated at the lower end of the meadow. It is proposed to
construct a low erosion dam at the lower end of this canal, to raise
its water level 24 to 30 inches. In addition to deepening this canal,
raising the water level 24 inches will connect up a 15 acre lake which
is about 18 inches higher than the present water level in the meadow.
This lake is now barren but will become a valuable stocking reservoir
W'hen connected with the creek system. The results of the 1931 con-
struction are very pronounced in Cow Meadow. It has never been my
privilege to see any section of stream better stocked with fingerlings
and one and two year old trout than is this section. One has to see
these results to fully appreciate the accomplishment.

The East Fork chain lacks sufficient storage. A dam at Bigelow
Lake supplies live water into Huckleberry Lake at all times but the
evaporation in Huckleberry Lake is greater than the inflow will replace,
resulting in the stream below Huckleberry Lake to its junction with
the North Fork going dry. Storage at Snow Lake, located 21 miles
northeast of Bigelow Lake, would supply the necessary water to offset
evaporation in Huckleberry and would also open up two miles of
excellent spawning area in Horse IMeadow. In addition to a storage
dam at Snow Lake, an erosion dam should be built at the lower end
of Horse Meadow and a low flat dam at the lower end of Huckleberry
Lake to prevent excessive early runoff of surface water.

Regulation of water discharge from these storage dams is accom-
])lished in a simple manner which does not require frequent adjust-
ments. A gate valve, which can be locked in any position, allows for an
opening which will pass a predetermined flow of water. The valves are
then opened to this extent and remain so at all times. When dams are
full and water flowing over spillways, a portion of the surplus water

1

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

117

necessarily passes through the valve. This flow continues after water
has receded below the spillway level and assures a continuous discharge.

The type of construction of these dams is determined by the
character of the lake outlet, but in general it consists of a rock and
concrete wedge built into the narrow lake outlet. Only lakes where the
outlet is narrow and wedge-shaped are selected for storage in order
that material requirements shall be limited. Rock walls are built up
to the required height and each side of the wall is then tied in with
concrete. Walls at the base are one-half as thick through as the height
of the dams and taper to twenty-four inches at the crest. The valves
are placed in the lower center with the locking control stem extending
to the crest of dam.

From the nature of this project and its indicated success, it will
likely become an example of what can be accomplished in the high

^^p»i

^"'^^' ..^dlll^^^^^^^^^^l

■'■•^

'^,

&v

1^^"'"

■^

t-^gMp''"f^-'«

AT-i' - 'j

'■ ^k^

^■!^

■_ irl

■R'

1%

J •<*« " C' »

^i^iZ^^B^^B

"'\.i

P-

r^sm

? ■^>?

1

fWff

X, . r

d>^^ «aP ;^|f y.^ -. -V

i

1"

^w'

WHp^^IEv * ^■^SJKa 1 vlBi*o0HH^v^ ^..^c^H^H

^**-L ..

■ fit-

iJBB^Isi^ltea kk l^jHii^'^SP

'■■ ^ "■-,•'

^;>w- ^ V- * ■ ^f^'^'T^mi

L

rj^M

s_

■■1

Fig. 27. Huckleberry Lake. Looking upstream. Photo by Louis Jensen.

granite areas of the Sierra in water storage and fish conservation.
F'rom its permanency, it insures economical administration and is
undoubtedly an outstanding conservation achievement. If the recom-
mended 1934 construction is done, the Cherry Creek area project can
be considered completed. Additions and improvements to the system
will present themselves from time to time, but the main objective,
insuring a constant flow of water in Cherry Creek and its tributaries
will have been accomplished, and about 70 miles of live trout stream
restored.

During the 1933 season, a C.C.C. subcamp was established on the
upper Clavey River at Bear Lake in Tuolumne County. This camp,
under the jurisdiction of Supervisor Hall, constructed a rock-concrete
dam at the outlet of Bear Lake and, at this date, September 23, 1933,
is engaged in constructing another at Y Meadows, 3 miles above. The
combined storage of these two projects will be about 500 acre-feet.

/

118 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

sufficient storage to keep this fork of Clavey River alive throiigliout
the year. The meadow storage will insure natural spawning areas
above Bear Lake wliile the combined release will provide for natural
reproduction tlirough about 17 miles of average spawning stream.
This should result in good stocking of the lower portion of the Clavey
River. The work done by the C.C.C. men is of excellent quality and
is permanent in nature.

The following cost and operation chart indicates the moderate
cost of these projects and the accompanying photographs show the
general type of construction employed.

COST AND OPERATION OF CHERRY CREEK DAM PROJECT

KU'va-

Name of Lake tinii

Bigelow !l,SOO

lOmigrant 8,850

Emigrant Meadow 9,750

Buck 8,400

Long 8,700

Valve

.Sacks

Area

Release

No. days

Storage

opening

Days

of

In

miner's

protec-

capacity,

number

to

cement

.\cres

inches

tion

acre-ft.

of turns

Cost

Iniild

used

59

80

100

460

9

$1,128

17

51

213

150

120

1,491

12J

788

12

38

23

50

90

160

5

852

13

65

48

70

100

360

5

1,416

24

70

67

80

130

520

7

1,016

15

56

Totals 410 430 540 2,991 __ $5,200 81 280

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 119

NOTES ON THE FOOD OF TROUT

By P. R. Needpiam, Ph.D., Associate Aquatic Biologist, United States

Bureau of Fisheries

With seven photographs by the author

Trout foods are normally derived from two sources, the water
itself, and the adjacent land. Any angler who has lifted stones or
sticks from the bed of a permanent stream has seen the great array of
organisms present. Underwater foods include a host of aquatic insects
such as caddis-fly, mayfly, or stonefly larvae and nymphs, beside numer-
ous shrimp, snails, and fishes. Counts of submerged trout foods from
given areas have shown insect foods to average over 7835 in number
per square yard in certain coastal streams in California. On the other
hand, land foods eaten by trout are mostly insects or other terrestrial
animals that are blown or fall into streams accidentally. Water living
food organisms are available to trout the year round, while in localities
where winter is severe, land foods will be abundant only during the
warm summer months.

Many anglers open stomachs to see what trout have been eating
and use their observations as a guide in the selection of lures. The
varied assortment of bugs in most stomachs and the difficulty of identi-
fying them properly due to their small size usually leads anglers to
conclude that the trout are bottom feeding and hence, they should turn
to bait or sunken fly to stimulate their gastronomic interests.

In the course of the work of the California Trout Investigations
we have had occasion to examine microscopically many stomachs ** of
rainbow and Loch Leven trout and below are presented a few of our
observations along this line that may prove of interest to anglers. In
no sense is this data intended to show how to overcome a trout's critical
taste for our feathered offerings, but instead, may serve to point out a
few interesting dietary idiosyncrasies along with some observations on
the food organisms themselves.

In Table 1, it is shown that the dominant food of young steelhead
trout from the coastal stream, Waddell Creek, were caddis-flies, over
50 per cent of all items eaten belonging to this group. Of the 557
eaten, only one was eaten in the adult stage at the surface of the water.
All the rest were taken as larvae or pupae below the w^ater surface
where they normally live in their immature stages.

* Published by permission of the U. S. Commissioner of Fisheries.

** Thanks are due Francis Sumner of the staff of the Trout Investigations for
his help in both field and laboratory work herein reported. Permission to collect
trout for scientific purposes at all times was granted by the Division of Fish and
Game.

120 CALIKOK.MA FISH AND GAME

Table 1. Foods Consumed by 22 Steelhead Trout from Waddell Creek,

Santa Cruz County *

Number found Per cent

Class of food in 22 stomachs of total

•Caddis-flies 557 50.54

True-flies '. 400 36.29

True bugs 56 5.08

Beetles 53 4.82

Ants, bees, wasps 13 1.17

Miscellaneous 23 2.09

Total 1,10

0

* Fish taken August 9, 10, 1933. Average length, 4 inches ; maximum, 6.9 in.
minimum, 2.6 in.

Fig. 2 8. Caddis-fly larva, Limnophilus, removed from its case. Natural

size.

Caddis-flics (Trichoptera) are probably tlie most important single
trout food in streams. They are abundant in coastal and Sierran
streams. A few inhabit lakes.

The life cycle of a caddis-fly is as follows : the female flies lay their
eggs in water. These hatch into larvae which live from several weeks
to months in the stream bed and then change to pupae and emerge
from the water as adults, thus completing the cycle. Large numbers
of adults emerging from the water at the same time constitute the
so-called ''hatches" of anglers. "Salmon flies" which emerge in large
numbers at times, are members of the stonefl^y group, though emerging
caddis-flies and mayflies are often termed "salmon flies."

Caddis-fl}^ larvae and pupae generall}' live in conspicuous fixed or
portable cases (Fig. 28) made of bits of bark, sand grains, twigs, etc.
The larvae may always be recognized either by their cases or by the
pair of hooks found at the posterior end of the body. Trout often eat
caddis larvae, case and all, and many stomachs contain large amounts
of debris from materials that formed the cases. Many anglers collect
caddis larvae, remove them from their cases, and fish them as bait.

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

121

The second most important item was the two-winged or true-flies
{Dipt era) which formed 36.29 per cent of the total foods eaten. These
have a life cycle similar to the caddis-flies in that Q,g^^ larvae, and
pupal stages are passed in the water. Only 20 of the 400 flies eaten
were taken as adult or so-called "dry" flies, 380 being secured as
larvae and pupae below water. These larvae are readily recognized by
their worm-like form, lack of legs, and apparent lack of a definite
head (Fig. 29). Most of the true-flies eaten belonged to the family
Chironomidae or midges. Their aquatic stages are abundant in
streams and lakes, cold or warm water, and furnish one of the staples
in the diet of young fishes. In size they are usually from one-eighth
of an inch to an inch in length. Many of the larvae are often blood-
red in color whence they derived the name "Bloodworms."

True bugs (Hemiptera) were the third most abundant food eaten,
forming slightly better than 5 per cent of their diet. Part of these
organisms were aquatic "water striders" that skip about on the sur-
faces of pools and a portion of them were strictly terrestrial forms such
as leaf hoppers that had fallen into the water from vegetation on the
banks of the stream.

Fig. 29. Midge. Left to right, adult, pupa, larva. Six times natural size.

Of the 53 beetles eaten, 18 were aquatic forms — diving beetles,
riffle beetles, etc. — and the remainder mainly ground and bark beetles
that had fallen into the water. The few ants, bees, and wasps found
in the stomachs were all typically terrestrial forms. Included in the
"miscellaneous" column in Table 1 are five mayfly and four stonefly
nymphs, one grasshopper, a few mites and spiders.

Of the total 1102 items eaten, over 87 per cent were aquatic in
origin and consisted, as pointed out above, largely of aquatic insects

122

CALIPORXIA FISH AND GAME

which ii()i-iii;illy live in 1hr water. Tlic i-ciiiaiiiiiiy l.'! per cent were
terrestrial in oiiizin tlial had fallen into tlie water accidentally.

If we now examine tlie food of trout from a typical mountain
stream such as the ^Merced River, certain marked ditferences in the
selection of food becomes evident.

In Table 2 is summarized the food of 10 rainbow ti-out taken
recently in the ^Merced River on the floor of Yosomite Valley.* Instead
of caddis-Hies being numerically dominant in the stomachs, wc f(jund
leaf hoppers to predominate along with beetles, there being almost as
many of the latter as of the former in the ten stomachs.

1

Vj

■/

^

w

/

Fig. 30. Larva and adult of riffle beetle. Twelve times actual size.

Table 2. Foods Consumed by 10 Rainbow Trout from the Merced River in the

Floor of Yosemite Valley *

Number found Per cent

Class of food inlOstomaehu of total

Leaf hoppers 294 35.46

Beetles 293 35.34

True-flie.s 108 13.02

Caddis-flies 61 7.35

Mayflies 22 2.65

Stoneflies 21 2.53

Miscellaneous 30 3.63

Total 829

* F^isli taken Oct. 31 and Nov. 2, 1933. Average length, 5.5 inches; maximum,
8.3 in., miiiinnim, 4.05 in.

Leaf hoppers are small insects, usuallj^ less than a quarter of an
inch long, often green in color, that live by the thousands on leaves of
trees and grasses adjacent to streams. Naturally, when as abundant
as they were this year, many fall or are blown into the water. As
many as 104 occurred in a single stomach and only one failed to con-
tain any at all.

* Thanks are due C. G. Thomson, Superintendent of Yosemite National Park,
for his hearty cooperation in furthering our field investigations in the streams and
lakes of the Yosemite region.

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

123

The great majority of beetles eaten were aquatic, most of them
being either larvae or adults of riffle beetles (Fig. 30) that live in the
gravel beds in swift water. A few, 35 of the 293 beetles eaten, were
typical land forms and nonaquatic. This is a surprising find and is
the only instance in the hundreds of stomachs I have examined where
riffle beetles formed a major portion of the food. A few other aquatic
beetles were eaten, such as diving and whirligig beetles, and are included
in the figures given here.

True-flies found in these rainbow trout formed only 13.02 per cent
of the total foods, while it will be recalled that in the young steelheads

Fig. 32. Adult stonefly (Sal-

FiG. 31. Nymph of stonefly mon-fly), Pteronarcys. Com-

( Salmon-fly), Pteronarcys. One mon in streams of northern

and a half times natural size. California from early June to

late August. Drawing by Miss
Helen Thorsen. One and a half
times natural size.

they formed approximately 36 per cent. Of the 108 flies, exactly 100
were typically aquatic larvae and pupae, only eight being secured as
adults after they had left the water.

Caddis-flies which ranked first in numbers in the young steelhead
trout, here rate but fourth place (7.35 per cent) and all of them eaten
were immature larvae and pupae.

About equal numbers of mayfly and stonefly nymphs (Figs. 33
and 31) had been eaten and are surprisingly low, for members of both
groups are abundant in the Merced River as shown by our bottom
collections. Most anglers believe mayflies and stoneflies to be major
foods of trout and large numbers of artificial flies are patterned after
these insects. Mayflies often are eaten in large numbers but stoneflies
or "salmon flies," as they are usually called, are extremely "spotty"

124

CALIFORNIA riRTT AND GAME

in their distribution and actually far fewer of these are eaten, on the
average, than is generally supposed. In Califoi-nia, the large "salmon
fly," Ptcronarcifs ('(difornira (Fig. .'52), is ahuiuhnit in streams noi'th
of Lake Tahoe and in coastal streams north of San Francisco, but is
rare or absent in many of the drainage basins in the more southerly
portions of the Sierra Nevada Mountains,

To attempt to introduce the large salmon fly, Pteronarcys into
streams where they are not now present, would probably prove to be
wasted effort by reason of the fact that being winged forms, they can,
and probably would, have distributed themselves before now had the

Fig. 33. Mayfly nymph
Iron. Note gill-plates on
side of abdomen and de-
pre.ssed body and legs for
living in swift water. Six
times natural size.

Fig. 3 4. Damselfly
nymph, Artjia. Note
three gill-plates on
end of abdomen. Three
times natural size.

necessary environmental conditions that they require as home sites
existed therein. Further, every cold-water, unpolluted stream invari-
ably contains many smaller kinds of stonefly nymphs that are equally
as good food if not of as large size as Pteronarcys.

Mayflies and stoneflies have similar life cycles. The eggs are laid
in the water where they hatch into nym])lis. Wlien grown they emerge
from the water as adults. They have no pupal stage. Mayfly nymphs
can always be recognized by the presence of gills on the back of the
abdomen (see Fig. 33). Xo other aquatic insect possesses gills in this
position. Stonefly nymphs are easily distinguished by their two tails
and tufts of filamentous gills at the bases of the legs. Many possess

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

125

very beautiful contrasting black and yellow bands on their dorsal
surfaces.

Over 55 per cent of the total foods eaten by these rainbow trout
from the Merced River were aquatic in origin and about 45 per cent
terrestrial.

In Table 3 below are listed the foods eaten by eight Loch Leven
and four rainbow trout from another quite different type of stream.
These trout were taken from spring runs tributary to Hot Creek in
Mono County. Three springs supply a large volume of water of even
temperature the year round. Little run-off and no flood waters ever
disturb the stream bed thus offering fairly stable environmental con-
ditions to aquatics. As a result watercress and other aquatic plants
have grown up in the runs in enormous abundance.

■

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Pig. 35. Fresh-water shrimp, Gammarus. Common at Hot Creek,
Mono County. Two times natural size.

Table 3.— Foods Consumed by Eight Loch Leven and Four Rainbow
Trout from Hot Creek, Mono County*

Number found Pej- cent
Class of food in 1~ stomachs of total

Snails and small clams ^92 '«■?,• Ijd

Shrimp ^35 3o.3.i

Oaddis-flies ^'6 ^■^.'^

Damsel fly nymphs 1^ '^■■^''

Miscellaneous ■* •'^'

Totals 705

* Fish taken November 15, 1933. Average length, 9.74 inches; maximum, 12.1
in., minimum, 8.4 in.

Here it is seen that snails and small clams ranked first forming
55.6 per cent while shrimp were second forming 33.33 per cent of the
total numbers of organisms eaten. Bottom collections from the spring

126 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

runs have sliowii slirimp (Pif?. 35) to occur in enormous numbers
here, over 1000 bein": found in an area of one square foot. Snails and
chims are likewise very abundant and the trout a?ain prove them-
selves rank opportunists, eating what they can get, where they can
get it. It is interesting to note that only one snail and 150 shrimp
were eaten by the four rainbows from Hot Creek, tliis species appar-
ently preferring shrimp to snails and clams. With the Loch Levens
the reverse was true, the latter tish showing decided preference for
snails and clams rather than shrimp. The shells of the snails and
clams apparently pass through the digestive tracts of the fish without
harmful effects.

Of the 56 caddis-flies eaten, only four were taken as adults, 52 of
them being aciuatie larvae and pupae. Damsel fly nymi)hs (Fig. 84)
which formed 2.5 per cent of their diet, are usually absent from the
swifter mountain streams, preferring rather the Aveedy margins of
quiet or slowly flowing waters. Their life cycle is similar to that of
the mayflies and stoneflies. They can always be recognized by three
long slender plate-like gills on the tip of the abdomen.

In the case of the Hot Creek rainbows here reported on, 99 per
cent of their foods were aquatic in origin, just five items being terres-
trial in origin.

In summary it is to be noted that the dominant foods eaten by
trout from the three streams reported on above, were mostly small in
size, except for the shrimps, snails, and clams, and large numbers of
each Avere consumed. Also, that the water supplied by far the majority
of food, land forms being comparatively scarce, except for leaf hoppers
found in the rainbows from the Merced River. It probably takes
about as much effort for a trout;to secure a large caddis-fly larva as
a small leaf hop])er, and when Over 100 leaf h()])])crs or fly larvae are
found in a single stomach, it is evident that that fish had been very
busy just previous to his demise. It is generally conceded that small
foods are eaten by small trout and though the average length of the
three lots of fish reported on here was only slightly more than six
inches, I have opened many trout up to fifteen and eighteen inches in
length that contained only such foods as were found in the stomachs
of these smaller fish. Larger fish will eat larger foi-ms such as cray-
fish, minnows, fingerling trout, etc., if they can get them. In many
streams, how'ever, large food organisuLs are lacking and the fish are
mainly dependent upon such everyday iniderwater sta])les as caddis-
flies, ma}"flies, true flies and shrimji. Last opening date on the Truckee
E-iver the 8- to 12-inch trout I caught Avere packed with just such
small underwater forms. One good-sized caddis larva Avill equal man}'
small mayfly nymphs in body weight. The latter forms make up in
numbers what they lack in size in most SAvift-water streams. Caddis-
fly larvae and other large foods are scarce in many streams Avhich
makes it necessary for the fish in such streams to eat the smaller foods
or go hungry. The above .stomach examinations shoAV that they do
just this, eating hundreds of small forms in lieu of a lesser number of
large foods.

In conclusion, the data presents a l)ricf rcA'ieAV of the food of a
few trout from three streams. Due to lack of space, no attempt has
been made to giA^e any data on stomach examinations of trout from

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

127

lakes where their feeding habits are markedly different, or to correlate
actual abundance of foods in streams with actual consumption by
trout. We are doing this as a part of the work of the California Trout
Investigations, the data obtained to be applied toward the development
of a scientific stocking policy. The real basis of all economic progress
is a detailed knowledge of life histories and habits. Applied to the
conservation of trout, the more facts that can be discovered concern-
ing their life histories and habits, the better fitted we shall become to
develop intelligent methods of stream management.

128 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

STREAM AND BAY POLLUTION STUDIES

By Paul A. Shaw

INTRODUCTION

In order to deal intelliofently with the iiiiportaiit problem of
maintaining California waters free from detrimental pollution, it
is essential to have a clear picture of present conditions, based on
accurate data collected in all areas aifected. Such a picture would be
valuable in formulating a general policy relative to i)ollution control,
and in dealing justly with individual cases. The purpose of the present
outline is to indicate the need of certain studies and the general
program of activity that will be conducted relative to pollution.

ORGANIC WASTES

Wastes containing oxidizable organic matter include discharges
from dairies, tanneries, fibre board and paper plants, canneries, win-
eries, domestic sewage, slaughter houses, etc. While the relation of
this important class of wastes to fish life has been the subject of exten-
sive investigation in various eastern States, it has been given but slight
attention in California.

The most dangerous feature of organic wastes lies in their ability
to consume large quantities of dissolved oxygen. This process is rela-
tively slow and the detrimental effect on fish life may pass unobserved,
due to the fact that fish will avoid the area and fatalities occur only
when high temperatures and bacterial activity result in a rapid deple-
tion of oxygen. Thus, while heavy fatalities may be rare, the average
condition of dissolved gases, bottom enviromnent and aquatic life may
be altered sufficiently to make the area undesirable for fish. With an
increasing density of industries and municipalities discharging organic
wastes, important water areas may become unsuitable for fish, reduc-
ijig the normal incoming runs as well as causing tlsh within the area to
seek a more suitable environment.

The ratio between the oxygen available from the diluting water
and the oxygen demand of the waste is particulai'ly valual)le as an
indicator of the intensity of pollution. When this factor is sntficiently
high, natural purification will iirogress without appreciable oxygen
depletion and beneficial nutrient material is furnished for aquatic life.
In such instances, the streams and bays should probably be recognized
as a legitimate means of disposal. However, where this factor is low,
a detailed study of the intensity and extent of pollution may be
required, while in certain cases immediate steps to abate the condition
may be indicated.

The program for study of pollution from oxidizable organic wastes
Avill include the following:

1. Inspect and list industries according to watershed, obtaining
data on the quantity and kind of product, character of discharge,
treatment if any, and point of disposal.

2. Obtain corresponding data on high and low stage stream or
tidal dilution.

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 129

3. Correlate 1 and 2 with published or experimental data to esti-
mate the ratio between oxygen available and the oxygen demand.

4. Conduct special studies to determine the dissolved oxygen and
oxygen demand, preferabl}' at times of low water and high tempera-
ture, in those areas where the above ratio is low^

5. Cooperate with industries to work out modified methods of dis-
posal in areas definitely polluted, resorting to legal action only when
absolutely necessary.

In view of the many California industries discharging wastes of an
organic nature, the value of the above program in maintaining Cali-
fornia waters reasonably free from pollution should be obvious. It
will serve specifically as a basis for :

1. Immediate action in polluted areas.

2. Increased watchfulness in areas of potential pollution.

3. Evaluating and dealing fairly with reported complaints of
pollution.

4. Showdng the trend of pollution if the study is repeated in
later years.

5. Progressive modifications in the pollution code.

OIL POLLUTION

In the past, the most troublesome source of pollution in California
waters has been from oil. Control of this type of pollution has been
particularly emphasized and as a result marked progress has been made
in the control of oil waste. However, continued watchfulness is essential
and inspections at wharves, shipyards, refineries, sewer outfalls, etc.,
will be conducted at frequent intervals.

OTHER POLLUTION WORK

The following items will be given attention in addition to the gen-
eral program on organic wastes and oil pollution :

1. Pollution from hydraulic mining, particularly in the Klamath
and Trinity District.

2. Pollution from sawdust, etc., in lumber mill areas.

3. Pollution from plants discharging toxic chemicals.

4. Study of current literature on pollution control.

5. Study possibility of special code to apply to fish hatchery
water supplies.

6. Investigate specific complaints.

7. Keep the importance of clean streams before the public through :
published articles; local newspaper accounts of control activities;
personal contacts; and through cooperation Avith otlier organizations
interested in abating, or having jurisdiction in regard to pollution.

CONCLUSION

It is to be hoped that conditions which have caused numerous
complaints, such as exist in the Eel and Klamath river districts and
others which may or may not have been brouglit to the attention of
the Division of Fish and Game, will be cleared up satisfactorily as
this study progresses. The task is not a simple one, and the writer
will appreciate receiving all data on which game Avardens, sportsmen
and others have definite information.

4 — 10775

130

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

THE LAKE ALMANOR HATCHERY

By J. H. VoGT

Tlie new Lake Almanor Hatchery, situated on Clear Creek, was
located at this point after many unsuccessful attempts to construct a
hatchery in this district where fish cultural operations could be prop-
erly conducted. This hatchery w^as sufficiently completed January 20th
of the present year to permit placing eggs in the troughs and the
hatcherj' was in operation a few days following this date. All indica-
tions point to the approach of a satisfactory solution of our fish cul-
tural problems in the district with the completion of the new hatchery.

'*»•'

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';

ai^

i

-Jf -

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SSTI

It

an

SIT^HB^^Mi

Fig. 36.

First Lake Almanor Hatchery located near Big ]Meado\v.s Dam.
Photographed in 1917.

The Fish and Game Commission, realizing the importance of the
fishing that would be developed by the construction for power and
irrigation purposes by the Great Western Power Company in the
reservoir known as Lake Almanor, decided to begin fish cultural opera-
tions in that district in the spring of 1916. So many unforeseen
difficulties presented themselves before a satisfactory hatchery site
could be procured in this area that a brief history of operations in the
district is deemed advisable as a matter of record.

The work during 1916 was conducted in a crude waj' and with very
little equipment. The plans were to prove the value of the district
for collecting rainbow trout eggs before beginning extensive develop-
ments. Operations were carried on below Big Meadows Dam where
over 1,750,000 rainbow trout eggs were collected. Investigations made
flua'ing the late spring and summer indicated that additional develop-
ments would be justified on the North Fork of the Feather River near

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 131

Domingo Springs and on Hamilton Branch, both of which are tribu-
tary to Lake Almanor. During tlie fall of this year, a small hatchery
was constructed near Big Meadows Dam (see Pig. 36). Racks were
installed below the dam to trap fish, rack and trap were constructed
in Rice Creek a short distance below a falls in the stream, and an
experimental hatchery was built near Domingo Springs.

Operations were conducted for a few years at Domingo Springs
without satisfactory results when the hatchery w^as moved to its
present location near the egg collection station on Rice Creek. This
hatchery has since been operated with excellent success.

The water supply at the hatchery located near Big Meadows Dam
proved to be unsatisfactory for fish cultural purposes, so hatching
operations were transferred to a site on Clear Creek, near Westwood.
After conducting operations in this small hatchery for a number
of years it became evident that the hatchery equipment was inadequate
to properly supply the district tributary to Lake Almanor and the
adjacent territory in Plumas and Lassen counties. Plans were then
made for the construction of a larger hatchery, but its construction
was delayed for some years pending selection of a suitable site.

The Division was unable to purchase or lease a site on Clear Creek,
where operations were being conducted in the small hatchery, so it
was finally determined to build a new and larger hatchery on Benner
Creek near Chester, where the water supply originated from this
creek. A new hatchery containing ninety-six troughs and other neces-
sary buildings were constructed here in the fall of 1930 by the Divi-
sion of Architecture of the Department of Public Works. Operations
on Clear Creek were suspended and all buildings and equipment
belonging to the Division there were moved to the new hatchery.

Construction work on the new hatchery was completed in January,
1931, and it was immediately prepared for fish cultural operations.
Eggs were transferred from Clear Creek during the early part of
February. However, this site did not prove favorable. Difficulties
in operations were encountered immediately after placing eggs in
the hatchery. The water supply line, troughs and tanks froze solid,
making it necessary to return the eggs to the Clear Creek site. After
repeated attempts to overcome this defect it was decided to hold
the Loch Leven and eastern brook trout at Clear Creek until later in
the season when they were placed in the hatchery at Benner Creek.

Rainbow egg collections were conducted at the tributary egg col-
lection stations and over 5,000,000 rainbow eggs w^ere eyed in the
hatchery during June. The water supply, however, began to rise in
temperature and the quantity of water became insufficient to care for
the eggs and fish on hand. This condition continued until it was neces-
sary to plant all fish during the month of July.

A well over fifty feet deep was dug near the hatchery during 1931
with the view of developing a supply of water to care for the hatchery
during the cold winter months. This effort failed to develop enougli
water to operate a sufficient number of troughs for winter service.
The following winter the supply from Benner Creek again froze and
it was once more necessary to discontinue operations which necessitated
hatching the quota of Loeh Leven and ea.stern brook trout for the dis-
trict in other hatcheries.

132

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

Fig. 37. New Lake Almanor Hatchery. Photo hy AVm. Berrian, December, 1933.

Fig. 3S. Interior view of new Lake Almanor Hatchery. Photo by Wm. Berrian,

January, 193 4.

' CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 133

Operations during the late spring of 1932 developed conditions
similar to the spring of 1931. Insufficient water and its high tempera-
ture made it necessary to move a large number of fish to tanks and
ponds temporarily constructed on Last Chance Creek, and the balance
were distributed to nearby waters as rapidly as possible.

The efforts made to operate the hatchery located on Benner Creek
fully demonstrated that successful fish cultural operations could not
be carried on there. Extensive investigations failed to indicate that
a satisfactory water supply could be developed, so as a last resort,
investigations were made of other possible sites.

After considering all the advantages and disadvantages of differ-
ent sites, it was determined to locate on or near Clear Creek, using
water from Clear Creek, a spring fed stream, for supplying water to
the hatchery. An agreement was entered into with the Red River
Lumber Company covering a twenty-year lease of a site and water
supply. Plans for moving the buildings from the Benner Creek site
to Clear Creek were made and work of razing the buildings and recon-
structing them at the new site commenced in August, 1933, under the
direction of the Division of Architecture. The new hatchery building
was enlarged, making room to hold ten tanks and to provide space for
a food preparing room. Additional quarters will be provided for the
employees and ample garage and storage space allowed. All buildings
are set on concrete foundations and it is believed the new construction
will last for many years (see Figs. 37 and 38).

The Division of Architecture was unable to complete the new
structures within the estimates and the money available, so the project
is being finished by labor furnished by the C.W.A. and is under the
supervision of Ernest Varnum of the Bureau of Fish Culture.

The district adjacent to the Lake Almanor Hatchery h^g gradually
developed into one of the most important trout fishing areas in the
State. Every year an increasing number of sportsmen visit the vicinity
for vacation purposes. This increased fishing makes it necessary to
increase the output of the hatcheries.

During the years of operations at the small hatcheries at Domingo
Springs and Clear Creek, several rainbow trout egg collection stations
have been established on the streams tributary' to Lake Almanor, and
these at the present time constitute one of the most important sources
of supply of rainbow trout eggs for our State hatcheries. With the
completion and increased output of the new Lake Almanor Hatchery
available for the 1934 season, the Division believes that satisfactory
fishing conditions can be maintained in the district for many years.

134

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

CHANGES IN SARDINE FISHING GEAR IN THE
MONTEREY REGION, WITH A NOTE ON
EXPANSION OF FISHING GROUNDS

By J. B. Phillips

NUMBER OF BOATS

The 1933-34 sardine season at ]\Ionterey found a greater number
of purse seine boats fishing out of this port than any previous season.
About 53 purse seine boats fished consistently throughout the greater
portion of the season. The total number of purse seine boats that
delivered at this port was 61. The number of launch and lighter com-
binations showed a decrease from previous seasons. About 15 launch

Fig. 39. Sardine boats anchored off some of the Monterey processing plants,
unloading or waiting to unload by means of suction pumps. Photo by J. B.
Phillips, September, 1933,

and lighter combinations fished rather steadily throughout most of the
season, whereas the total number that fished was 23. Several launch
and lighter captains chartered i)urse seine boats during the course of
the season. In all, 84 different boats made deliveries in the 1933-34
season. Of these, 68 may be considered to have fished consistently
throughout most of the season.

CHARTERED BOATS

A number of the purse seine boats (about 17 of the total number
that fished) were chartered by the local owners or crews of launch and

* Contribution No. 135 from the California State Fisheries Laboratory, Febru-
ary, 1934.

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 135

liyliter combinations. Most of the chartered boats were from Wash-
ington waters, the balance from southern California waters. Ordi-
narily, the original captain and engineer accompanied the chartered
boat, the balance of the crew being made up by the charterer. (The
crew usually consists of 10 men and the captain.) The charterer
usually furnished the net. However, sometimes only the engineer
accompanied the chartered boat but occasionally several of the original
crew went along with the captain.

PURSE SEINES AND RING NETS

All deliveries of sardines to processing plants at Monterey were
made by boats using purse nets, except in one case at the beginning of
the season when a small delivery was made to one of the plants by a
market crew that used a lampara net. The purse nets are of the purse
seine type used largely by the purse seine boats, and of the ring net
type that the launch and lighter combination crews adopted a few
seasons ago in place of the lampara net formerly used.

During the current season, only two of the purse seine boats used
a ring net instead of the purse seine. These were two of the smallest
purse seine boats that can not be readily adapted to the use of the
heavier purse seine. Since the ring net was adopted in a wholesale
manner by the launch and lighter combinations and by many of the
purse seine boats at Monterey in the 1929-30 season, it has come to
resemble the purse seine to a very great degree, especially when used
on the purse seine boats. Now that tanned purse seines are gaining
favor with the purse seine crews at Monterey in place of tarred purse
seines, about the only remaining difference between the purse seine
and the ring net is in the rounded or tapered ends of the latter, the
cork and lead lines being joined to form a single pull rope in the latter.
In the purse seine the ends are square, the cork line and the lead line
extending parallel beyond the ends of the net to form separate pull
ropes. Ordinarily, the ring net is also constructed of lighter webbing.

Ring nets have been losing favor steadily with the crews of the
purse seine boats since the 1930-31 season, when almost 50 per cent
of these crews were using the ring net. Fishermen have found that
the lower initial cost of this net does not offset the constant care auid
repair required because of the lighter construction.

TANNED vs. TARRED PURSE SEINES

Purse seine boats at Monterey are finding that tanned purse seines
are not only cheaper to operate than the conventional tarred purse
seine but are also easier to handle and thereby speed up hauling opera-
tions. The only objection is that the tanned purse seine requires a
periodic tanning treatment so as to lengthen its lasting qualities. Dur-
ing intensive fishing the tanning treatment should be performed at
least once a month. The logical time for this is during the few days'
lull in fishing activities at full moon period, when hard-working crews
like to take a well-earned rest on shore. Nevertheless, the double life
of the tanned net over the tarred net and the easier operation and the
speeding up of hauling operations are becoming the deciding factors.

A few crews experimented with tanned purse seines last season,
and this season about one-quarter of the fleet used the tanned seines,

136 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

either wholly or partially. In some cases, tarred seines are being
replaced witli tanned webbing in ])laee of tarred webbing, and in some
instances a wliole net has l)een snbstituted for the tan-ed net wlien the
latter has worn ont. Althongh it is evident at this time that the
tanned purse seine is gaining favor, its universal adoption in succeed-
ing seasons will depend njion facilities for taiiirmg aiid drying these
large nets. Also, whether all crews believe that the added life and
speeding up of hauling operations offsets the periodic treatment that
must be given a tanned net. The tanning of a purse seine is simplified
by removing the bulky cork line and by splitting a large net into two
sections.

Near the end of the 1933-34 season, the crew of the purse seine
boat Ranger of Monterey had two large wooden tanks constructed
aboard a floating barge to facilitate treatment of tanned ])urse seines
during future seasons. The original purpose in building this tank was
to treat nets with a minimum amount of trouble after the crew had
encountered anchovies instead of sardines. A school of anchovies makes
the same characteristic luminescence at night that a school of sardines
does. The capture of anchovies in sardine nets is annoying because the
anchovies often times gill in large numbers necessitating hand-picking,
and also it is claimed that the slime from this fish has a detrimental
effect upon the net unless it is thoroughly cleansed at the time.

COST OF WEBBING GREATLY INCREASED

Lasting qualities in a net have become a very imi)ortant factor
this season since the price of webbing has increased more than two and
one-half times over that for last season. American webbing (9-thread)
has increased from 40^ a pound at the beginning of last season to $1.07
a pound at the beginning of this season. Japanese webbing has
increased a corresponding amount and sells for about 85^ to 90^ this
season. Most of the crews have found that it is cheaper in the end to
buy American rather than Japanese webbing because of the longer
lasting quality of the American-made product. There is also less knot
slippage in the American webbing.

One or two of the crews have been experimenting Avith English
and Dutch webbing but do not know of their respective lasting qualities
at this time.

HOLD CAPACITIES OF SOME PURSE SEINE BOATS INCREASED

During the past two seasons, a few of the purse seine boats have
increased their hold capacities for carrying sardines by rearrangement
of fuel tanks or forAvard cross-wall below deck. For example, the hold
capacity of the Neiv Admiral was increased from 75 to 85 tons. Pal
from 65 to 83 tons, Portola No. 1 (formerly Agnes 8.) from 75 to 80
tons, Ohio No. 3 from 55 to 68 tons.

NETTING OPERATIONS OF PURSE SEINE BOATS SPEEDED UP

The universal adojition by purse seine boat crews of labor and
time saving devices, such as the power roller on the turntable, the long
bag dip nets for unloading from net into hold, submarine light-scare,
and now the gaining popularity of tanned purse seines, and in general

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 137

* a familiarity with the fishing areas in this region has increased the
average efficiency of purse seine boats over that of several seasons ago,
when the purse seine boats first seriously threatened the launch and
lighter combinations. Several years ago, it took the average purse seine
boat fishing in the Monterey region about three hours to lay out, haul
in the net, and load a catch of 50 tons of sardines. Now the same can be
accomplished in two hours by the average boat using a purse seine.

LIGHTED BUOYS

The lighted buoy has not gained favor as a marker for sardine
schools in the Monterey Region. The schools of sardines during the
greater part of the season are readily located and judged by the lumin-
escent areas that they produce. However, in the San Francisco region,
marker buoys are more popular due to the much reduced or entire
absence of luminescence (due to Golden Gate drainage). With reduced
or absence of luminescence, schools are located mainly by the splashing
that accompanies sardines feeding at the surface of the ocean.

SUCTION PUMP TRIED EXPERIMENTALLY ON FISHING BOAT

A suction pump as an aid to unloading the catch from the net
into the hold of the purse seine boat was first experimented with in
the Monterey Region during the latter part of the 1931-32 season on
the purse seine boat Pal. The apparatus did not prove satisfactory
and was revised by the inventor. It was tried again during the early
part of the 1933-34 season on the purse seine boat Olympic, but again
found unsatisfactory. The principle of this apparatus is the same as
that of the centrifugal suction pumps that are used by all but one
of the Monterey sardine plants for unloading boats in deep water.

The long bag dip-net (see Fig. 2), now common equipment of
purse seine boats, is a simple, inexpensive, fool-proof means of unload-
ing the catch from the net into the hold of the boat. These large dip
nets can hold as much as 2^ tons and will unload as much as 80 tons
per hour from net into boat. This long bag dip-net, however, is not
used in unloading the boat at the processing plants. The shallow dip-
net or ''brail" (see Fig. 3) is used alike for this purpose by purse
seine boats and launch and lighter combinations. The shallow dip-
net or "brail" is emptied in a manner opposite to that used with the
long bag dip-net. The former is emptied by allowing the weight of
the contents to force open the bottom of the net when the purse chain is
slackened. The bottom of the net is kept closed while the net is being
dipped full, by pursing the bottom of the net by means of the chain
that runs through a series of small rings around the bottom edge of
the net. On the other hand, the long bag dip-net is em})tied through
the same opening by which it is filled. After the long bag has been
filled by guiding the mouth or hoop of the dip net into the bunched
fish, the hoop is placed perpendicular to the edge of the hold of the
boat and the end of the bag hoisted. The hoisting is accomplished when
the rope, that is fastened to the end of the bag and which passes
through an overhead block at the end of the boom, is reeled in on a
revolving drum.

5—10775

138

CALIFORNIA PISII AND GAME

ELECTRICAL SHOCKING DEVICE TRIED EXPERIMENTALLY ON FISHING BOAT

An electrical device which the inventor hopes will be an aid to
fishennen in controlling the movements of sardines as tiie net is being
laid around them was given a ])r('liiiiinaiy trial on the purse seine
boat Olympic during the latter part of the .1933-34 season. The move-
ments of fish were to be controlled by shocking them by means of elec-
trodes spaced at inter-
vals around the net,
receiving charges from
a large generator on
the boat. This appara-
tus did not prove very
successful during the
trial period. It is
highly improbable that
the electrical device
could replace the
simple but effective
submarine light that
can be lowered to any
depth and flashed in-
termittently as a scare
to keep the fish back in
the bag of the net
while the bottom is be-
ing pursed. A scare
that the fish can see,
such as the flashing
light, is more effective
than something which
is unseen.

EXPANSION OF FISHING

GROUNDS IN TIIE

MONTEREY

REGION

Until the season of
1924-25, sardine fish-
ing activities in the
]\Ionterey region were
conducted in waters
adjacent to Monterey.
Beginning with the
1924-25 season, the
seining area extended
gradually northward until in 1928-29 the boats fished as far as Half-
moon Bay, a distance of some 70 miles northward of Monterey. With
the advent of a large mnnber of purse seine boats into the Monterey
sardine fishery in the season of 1929-30, the area fished was extended
still farther northward to Point Reyes, a distance of about 115 miles
from Monterey. This fishing area remained constant until the 1933-34

Pig. 40. Long bag dip net such as is used by purse
seine boats for unloading catch from net into hold of
boat. Note that the end of the bag is closed and fas-
tened to hoisting rope, by means of which the net is
emptied. Photo by J. B. Phillips, February, 1932.

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

139

season when it was extended southward of Monterey to Pfeiffer's
Point, some six miles south of Point Sur and about 28 miles south-
ward of Monterey.

The southern area between Point Sur and Pfeiffer's Point was
first fished by a portion of the fleet between January 15 and 19, when
schools of sardines became scarce to the northward of Monterey. The
area to the southward of
Monterey was not fished
again until February 11,
when a portion of the fleet
again fished between
Point Sur and Pfeiffer's
Point. The catches dur-
ing the last trip were com-
posed mainly of medium
small fish which the pro-
cessing plants were re-
luctant to handle, so that
operations in the south-
ern area again ceased.
Probably about 2000 tons
of sardines were taken
during fishing operations
in the area to the south-
ward of Monterey (Point
Sur and Pfeiffer's Point) .

Sardine crews in the
past have been reluctant
to try the coast southward
of Monterey because of
the rugged nature of the
mountainous coast, re-
ports that wicked cur-
rents at various points
interferred with laying
out and hauling nets, and
the lack of safe anchor-
age in case of a sudden
blow. Furthermore, land-
marks are scarce ; for ex-
ample, there are only two
lighthouses to guide a
boat along the 80 miles of
coast immediately south-
ward of Monterey, where-
as, the 80 miles of coast
immediately northward of

Monterey has four guiding lighthouses. The crews that have fished the
southward area successfully do not relish the northward trip back to
port when loaded because the sea is running against them.

Fig. 41. Shallow dip net oi- "brail" with ap-
proximately 500 pounds of sardines about to be
emptied into the suction line hopper or "sump"
alongside of boat. The weight of the contents will
force open the bottom of the net when the purse
chain is slackened. Photo by J. B. Phillips, Febru-
ary, 1932.

140

CALIFORNIA FTSTI AND GAME

THE KERN COUNTY ELK REFUGE

By Lewis A. Burtcii, Agricultural Commissioner, Kern County
With three photographs courtesy of Wharton Huber

Tile tule. or valley, elk {Cervus nannodes) is a s})ecic'S jxa-uliai' lo
California which made its last stand in the southern end of the San
Joaquin Vallej^ They originally roamed in vast abundance through-
out the great iiiterior valley and large herds inhabited the marshes
and sloughs of Tulare, Buena Vista and Kern lakes and those border-
ing the San Joaquin and Sacramento rivers. The survivors of these
bands inhabited the foothills above Buena Vista Lake and Button-

FiG. 42. Bull tule elk along slough in Kern County Elk Refuge. .Tune, 1933.

Avillow and for many years raided the cultivated fields of the Kern
County Land Company and of IMiller and Lux, who were farming in
that area.

Many of these animals were killed by residents for their teeth.
This was a common practice at the time the Elks Lodge was first
organized in Kern County.

Henry Miller, founder of Miller and Lux, feared that the species
would be exterminated and was instrumental in securing legislation,

CALIFORNIA PISH AND GAME 141

both. State and Federal, making' it a felony to kill an elk. Though
fewer elk were killed after this law became effective, the herd con-
tinued to diminish in numbers. These animals had no regard for
fences and were doing considerable damage to the cultivated crops of
Miller and Lux and the Kern County Land Company.

A letter written to James Ogden, manager of the Miller and Lux
Ranch at Buttonwillow, in 1904, by F. T. Hittett indicates that the
elk were given to the government by Mr. JMiller. He states in this
letter : " I have a very large pasture enclosed for these elk in Sequoia
National Park and would like to be able to get these elk there as soon
as possible."

C. Hart Merriam, then Chief, United States Bureau of Biological
Survey, described an attempt in that same year to drive this elk herd
into a corral which had been especially constructed for the purpose
{The Scientific Monthly, Nov., 1921, pp. 465^75). The plan was to
drive the main band from their nightly feeding grounds to the corral,
a distance of six and one-half miles. The date had been set for
November 12, 1904. About 35 expert riders and cattle ropers had
volunteered, among them our State Senator, James I. Wagy, who did
such splendid work in securing the refuge which has recently been
built. The drive was in charge of Superintendent of the Ranch James
Ogden, who reported that the riders were out long before daylight in
order to get behind the elk, between them and the foothills, before day-
light. Members of the Biological Survey went to the corral with
cameras, expecting to photograph the incoming herd. While waiting
they reported that a cloud of dust was seen moving steadily westward at
some distance. From a water tank tower, one spectator stated that
he could see the elk in front of the moving dust, but suddenly the dust
disappeared and it was more than an hour before a rider finally arrived
with the depressing news that the elk had broken and scattered to the
hills and could not be turned. They had turned and charged the
riders, broken through the line and escaped to the hills. A few had
been pursued, roped and hog-tied and a horseman had been sent to the
ranch for wagons in which to bring them in.

After a long wait, the first wagon arrived at the corral bearing
three elk, an old bull, a two-year old male and a calf which was already
dead. All had been injured in the roping and fighting before they
were thrown and tied and the two survivors were nearly paralyzed
from lying so long hog-tied. When the bindings were released and
the animals freed in the corral they had great difficulty in getting up
and standing. It was some time before they recovered the use of their
legs. Nevertheless, the old bull, although scarcely able to stand on
his feet, charged the men in the corral as soon as his fetters were
loosened, driving them over the fence. He then attacked the two-year
old bull, driving his brow tines into its side. The younger animal
soon began to bleed from his nose and mouth and later died. To pre-
vent further harm, the old bull was again caught up and his antlers were
sawed off close to his head.

Shortly after noon, a second wagon, which had been obliged to
travel a long distance to pick up the widely scattered hog-tied elk,
arrived bearing five animals. Three of these were already dead, only
an old cow and a bull calf reaching the corral alive. Thus eight elk
were captured, of which fomr reached the corral alive and four dead

142

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

The skins and skulls of the elk that died during the drive were pre-
served for the U. S. National IMuseuin and these specimens, when later
examined by Dr. Merriam, proved to be a new species which he named
Cervus nannodes {Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash., vol. 18, 1905, pp. 23-26).

The cow, calf and the wounded young bull were then moved,
without great difficulty, from the corral into a cattle car. The utmost
difficulty, however, was encountered in attempting to similarly load
the old bull. Merriam 's account goes into some detail regarding the

Fig. 43. Two fine bull tule elk photographed on the Kern
County Elk Kefuge in June, 1933.

terrific battle that this si)lendid animal, already hornless and much
weakened from previous fighting, waged against horses and men before
he was finally loaded into the car.

The elk were shi])ped in the car by rail to Exeter and on arrival
there it was found that the young bull and the old cow had died,
leaving only the old bull and the calf alive. The latter was here
loaded without difficulty into a crate for wagon transportation 35 miles
to Sequoia Park. Not so with the old bull, who again put up a tre-

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 143

mendous struggle before he was finally dragged with ropes from car
to wagon crate. He continued to fight in his crate throughout the
trip to the Park, necessitating two stops to i-einforce it against the
effects of his kicking. The following day, the wagon reached the
enclosure that had been prepared for the elk on the Middle Fork of
the Kaweah River, where the two survivors were liberated. The old
bull had finally reached the limit of his endurance and he could
scarcely hobble from his crate. When liberated, he slowly staggered
to the river, where he drank, crossed to the far side to lay down on its
low bank. Here he was found in the same spot the next day — dead.
Thus the only animal to survive the original transplanting efforts was
the solitary bull calf.

In the following year, different methods were employed which
proved much more successful. Instead of attempting to drive the
elk into a corral they were chased and roped by vaqueros. On October
15, 1905, 28 elk were thus captured near Buttonwillow. Three of these
died before shipment and of the 25 shipped, 20 reached Sequoia Park
alive, where they formed the nucleus of what was then thought to be
a promising new herd.

There were no more attempts to move elk from the Buttonwillow
herd until 1914 when it had .increased considerably and the animals
were doing much damage, different methods were used this time ; a
large corral a quarter of a mile long was built in an alfalfa field
where the elk had been coming to feed nightly. Here 150 animals were
captured the night of October 11, 1914, but the next day, 90 fought
their way out. Three days later, 25 more were captured and during
the month 54 were distributed to seven localities in the State (Ever-
mann, California Fish and Game, vol. 1, pp. 85-96).

In 1915, the same corral was used when 92 more elk were dis-
tributed to 14 additional places (Evermann, California Fish and
Game, vol. 2, pp. 70-77). Dr. Evermann estimated , that tfiere still
remained in Kern County between 350 and 400 animals. '' ,Jffi: most
instances, the animals did not do well in their new localities so no
further attempts were made to move elk from the Buttonwillow herd.

The elk continued to raid agricultural crops in Kern County but
no complaints were heard regarding their depredations until Miller
and Lux subdivided their large holdings and sold many pieces of prop-
erty to small ranch operators comprising 40, 80 and 160-acre tracts.
These farmers complained considerably of damage caused by the ani-
mals but it was not until 1929 when their demands became insistent
that the agricultural commissioner's office in Kern County was peti-
tioned by the growers for relief. Recitations of damage which had
cost some growers their entire year's work were made, some of them
stating that if something were not done it would be necessary for them
to abandon their places. - *

The agricultural commissioner took the matter up with the Fish
and Game Commission and demanded some action from them. A plan
was proposed by the Commission to remove the entire herd from Kern
County to public parks in other parts of the State, Los Angeles County
already having made a request for tliis band of elk. Wlien this was
announced publicly a storm of protest was made by the Elks lodge,
the Fish and Game Protective Association of Kern County, and many

lU

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

individuals who were interested in the presentation of native species
and who were not desirous of seeinfr tlie last remaiiiiii^' baud of a
species of animal luitive to this county exterminated within its borders.
Many editorials and newspaper articles were written protesting against
the removal or destruction of this herd of animals. Articles headed
in large type read, "Remember the Fate of the Bison." Not wishing
to incur the enmity of so large a representative group of tiie jieople
as was making these protests, other means of solving this agricultural
problem were considered. Among them was the suggestion that Kern
County should purchase a tract of land in the vicinity of Elk Hills,
where this band had taken up their last stand, to be given to the State
for an elk refuge. This proposal was made to the Board of Supervisors

!^:

^^^f- ^#, -^m^jA^i.

Fig. 44. A new arrival at the Kern County Elk Refuge. June, 1933.

at a meeting in January, 1930, bj^ a group of citizens representing the
Elks lodges of Kern County, the Bakersfield Civic Commercial Asso-
ciation, the Fish and Game Protective Association, the American
Legion and others. The agricultural commissioner and members of
the county farm bureau were present and (hMnandcd that some action
be taken to relieve the damage to farmers wlicther it be the piirciiase
of a refuge, the destruction of the herd or its removal from Kern
County.

The Board of Supervisors appointed a committee at this meeting to
investigate the cost of sufficient land for a refuge and to recommend
to the board the amount of money that Kern County should spend on
this problem. This committee represented most of the civic organiza-
tions of the county and made a very careful and thorough investiga-

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 145

tion of the matter, making- a tour of the farms in the vicinity and
noting" the losses suffered by the farmers involved. The investigation
showed a cost of approximately $100,000 to purchase and fence 1000
acres of land.

The committee felt that Kern County should not stand tlie entire
cost of this enterprise but that the State of California and the Fish
and Game Commission should participate equally with Kern County.
Their recommendations to the board were that an elk refuge should be
established and that the county of Kern should contribute not more
than $35,000 for this purpose.

Following" this report, the Fish and Game Commission and the elk
committee attempted to get the State Park Board to assist in the pur-
chase of this refuge. The Fish and Game Commission had already
])]eclged $35,000 as the maximum amount which could be supplied by
the Division of Fish and Game. It was therefore necessary to get the
State of California to participate to the extent of the other one-third of
the expense. Considerable work was done by the committee in an
effort to get the State Park Board to take over this project. After
spending much effort and time in this regard, it was the opinion of the
committee that the State Legislature should be requested to make an
appropriation for this work.

In the meantime, complaints were coming in from the farmers and
considerable damage was taking- place.

Miller and Lux agreed to furnish a piece of ground near where
the refuge would likely be established and furnish fencing for it if
llie Fish and Game Commission would fence it and corral the elk
pending final decision on the refuge. Authorization was received in
September, 1930, from the Fish and Game Commission to proceed with
this program.

After the fence was erected on this temporary refuge a big elk
drive was put on by the members of the Division of Fish and Game
and the interested ranchers. The result of this drive was very similar
to that of the first drive recorded in 1904. When the elk neared the
corral, they broke and ran toward the horsemen, past automobiles, dodg-
ing and jumping everything in their way and scattered like a band of
quail to the mesquite brush. Attempts were made to follow them and
try to drive them but they were so wild by this time that there was no
chance to get near them. Finally, a lone rider with a number of dogs
succeeded in gathering up a small band and driving them into the
refuge. This man was an experienced cowhand who knew how to
liandle wild cattle, so he was employed to attempt the corralling of
the elk herd. He was successful in getting about 75 head into this
enclosure but the balance of them had taken to the hills where they
defied all further efforts to approach them.

This somewhat alleviated the trouble for the time being, but in a
short while those animals remaining outside the corral were back in
the cultivated fields again. They were chased out of the fields with
dogs and shotguns, in spite of whicli they returned to them at night
to feed. At the request of the farmers in tliat district, the Fish and
Game Commission put on a night patrol to ride between the hills and
the cultivated fields. This patrol continued until after the fall harvest
of crops was completed.

146 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

The San Joaquin Valley Elks Association interested themselves in
the refuf2:e project and through the efforts of Frank H. Pratt, District
Deputy Grand Exalted Ruler, a bill was introduced into the Legis-
lature by Assemblyman Jewett, llanford, Kings County, on January
22, 1931. This measure, known as Assembly Bill No. 973, asked for an
appropriation of $50,000 for the creation of a game refuge for tule
elk in Kern County. The Elk Conserv^ation Committee of the Cali-
fornia Elks Association assisted greatly in getting this bill through
the Legislature and in seeing that the elk refuge was completed. The
bill was referred to the Fish and Game Committee and when first con-
sidered by this committee, it was rejected.

Following this, a long battle, headed by tlie committee from the
Elks Lodge was waged in an attempt to get this measure out of com-
mittee. The bill was amended on April 24, 1931, reducing the amount
of the appropriation from $50,000 to $35,000. Governor Rolph was
contacted and he agreed to sign the bill if it was passed by the Legis-
lature.

A group from the Elks lodges of the San Joaquin Valley and other
interested organizations appeared before the Fish and Game Com-
mittee asking for consideration of this bill. They received a very cool
reception by this committee and were given but little opportunity to
express themselves on its merits. IMembers of the committee referred
to the animals as "mangy critters" and very quickly turned the bill
down and dismissed the delegation that went to Sacramento.

We were quite discouraged after this reception and felt that it
would be necessary to seek other means of handling the ])r()blem.
Senator Wagy, who had been working vdth us constantly on this prob-
lem, introduced a bill into the Senate on April 23, 1931, known as
Senate Bill No. 951, entitled "An act to provide for reimbursement
of persons suffering loss by reasons of the act of tule elk during the
closed season." Senator Wagy agreed to withdraw this bill pi'ovided
the committee would i)ass Assendily Bill No. 973. which called for the
appro])riation to take care of the problem. After the above-mentioned
group once more went to Sacramento where they had another session
with the Assembly Committee on Fish and Game, the bill was finally
passed out of committee with the recommendation "do pass." It
experienced no difficulty then in ])assing both the As.sembly and Senate
and in due time it was signed by the Governor.

Considerable discussion followed the signing of the bill as to
which division of the State government should purchase the land. It
was finally determined that the State Park Commission should do so
and on March 15, 1932, this Division purchased a tract of ai)i)roximately
1000 acres near the original site east of Tupman, Kern County. The
Division of Fish and Game, which is charged with the administration
of the refuge, prepared plans for enclosing the area with a seven-foot
fence of steel construction. Contract for its erection was let by the
Department of Public Works on May 1, 1932, and was completed
August 29, 1932. All construction costs were borne by the Division of
Fish and Game out of the Fish and Game Preservation Fund.

The elk which were held in the temporary refuge were then trans-
ferred to the new enclosure. Members of the Division of Fish and
Game then commenced gathering up those animals remaining on the

CALIFORNIA PISH AND GAME 147

outside and after many months of hard work, the last was finally
enclosed in the refuge. About 140 elk comprised the herd thus estab-
lished in the refuge.

Administration of the Kern County Elk Refuge is in the hands
of the Bureau of Patrol of the Division of Fish and Game. Captain
0. P. Brownlow of that unit is in charge and Game Warden Lester
Arnold, Bakersfield, is handling its direct supervision. James Culp,
Tupman, is guardian and caretaker of the refuge.

The final establishment of this refuge was a source of considerable
gratification to the members of the committees who worked so long and
so hard for its accomplishment. — January 12, 1934.

148 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

PORCUPINE CONTROL ON FORESTS
OF CALIFORNIA

By Joseph Keyes, Leader, Rotlent Control,
Bureau of Uiological Survey

For years many sportsmen, hunters and lovers of outdoor stories
believed that the porcupine was protected by law. Even today, when
statements are made that the Federal Government is actually enyayed
in the control of porcupines, many comments are heard that would
indicate that there are still some who believe these animals to be
protected. The fact is, however, that these rodents are not protected
in the United States, and, moreover, that two Eastern States have been
paying bounties on them for several years.

Losses occasioned by the attacks of porcupines on our national
forests have been recognized for several years, and it has been reported
in the Southwest that the damage caused by these animals exceeds
that resulting from fires. The peculiar type of attack wherein the
tree may be completely girdled, especially near the top, may be seen
on many areas of the Modoc, Lassen, and Plumas National Forests in
California — especially along the eastern slopes. Damage is also
apparent on the Tahoe, Eldorado, and ^Nlono Forests.

Porcupines consume succulent plants of many species, and the
buds, leaves, inner bark, and cambium of numerous kinds of trees. In
general, during summer they feed on juicy ground vegetation. Their
fall and winter diet consists largely of bark and leaves of coniferous
trees, especially the western yellow pine and several species of juniper.

During the late summer, fall, and Avinter months, porcupines, in
1h('ii' ctforts to get at the inner layer of bark, often partly or completely
girdle the main leaders, or boles, of the trees. Many of the small
seedlings are com])lelely consumed, while larger ones frequently suffer
injuries serious enough to cause their death, but more often this injury
results in a weakened bushy-topped or spike-top tree that is useless for
commercial purposes. Deep snow may hold these animals to individual
trees for periods of one to three months, in which time the tree may
be completely ruined.

Fortunately, the rate of reproduction of porcupines is not rapid.
They breed but once a year and produce one young (rarely two), born
fully quilled. I\Iany attain the weight of 80 jiounds and live to a ripe
old age. The quills are white, with dark ti})s, sharp, and finely barbed
at the tip, and are used as a means of defense, the greatest damage
being inflicted by the porcupine striking an object with its powerful
tail. The quills are not thrown. Many domestic and wild animals have

* This paper is published to acriiiaint (ho roaders of Cat.tfoiinia Fish and Game
with tlie reasons for and mctliods of Federal porcupine control work in California. The
Pivision lias, as yet, taken no definite stand regarding this work, but is watching'
its results closely, especially as regards the incidental poisoning of harmless or
beneficial species of animal life. No evidence of the destruction of such species
incident to this campaign has been procured to date. — Ed.

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

149

been tortured by tliese quills working into their muscles, and when
they lodge in the mouth of an animal, death often results.

Control operations as now conducted on the forests of the north-

FiG. 45. A. Diagram for preparing a wooden cup for u.se in exposing poisoned
salt for porcupines ; B. Method of attaching poison block to pine tree.

eastern section of .the State involve methods that have been worked out
during the past several years. Salt, of which the animals are very
fond, is treated with strychnine and exposed in small wooden blocks
five inches long cut from two-
by-four-inch lumber. Holes are
bored into each block and filled
with about three tablespoons of
the strychnine-treated salt to
which a small amount of dex-
trine has been added to make it
firm.

These blocks are nailed to
trees frequented by porcupines,
and are securely held in place
by 30-penny nails above a limb
on which a porcupine may rest
while eating the salt (Fig. 45).
Such trees are clearly marked
with a yellow-tin poison sign
(Fig. 46). This tree-blocking
method is supplemented by den
poisoning, in which the poisoned

STRYCHNINE

POISONED BLOCK

Porcupine Station
in this Tree

CAUTION: -This Block must
be kept out of reach of
livestock at all times.

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Bureau of Biological Survy

Fig. 46. Facsimile of tin poison sign
placed on each tree blocked. Black let-
ters on a yellow background. Actual
size 3J inches square.

I.jU CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

salt is placed far back in the rock dens under lava, Avliere porcu-
pines occasionally concentrate, especially dnrinj; the breedin<? season,
stormy weather, or during the extreme lieat of summer. IMembers of
crews carrying on these operations are also provided with a twenty-two
rifle or pistol, supplied with ammunition, and instructed to shoot such
porcupines as thej^ may locate. Hunters and si)ortsmen can render
their forests a valuable protection in localitities where tliese animals
are destructively abundant by likewise keei)ing a lookout for tliese
animals and destroying them when found. Porcupines can generally
be located in the daytime, resting high in ;i ]uiie oi- jiuiiper, or asleep
several feet out on a limb.

CALIFORNIA PISH AND GAME 151

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

A publication devoted to the conservation of wild life and published quarterly by
the California Division of Fish and Game.

The articles published in California Pish and Game are not copyrighted and
may be reproduced in other periodicals, provided due credit is given the California
Division of Fish and Game. Editors of newspapers and periodicals are invited to
make use of pertinent material.

All material for publication should be sent to James Moffltt, Division of Fish
and Game, 450 McAllister Street, San Francisco, California.

Vol. 20 APRIL, 1934 ' No. 2

G. D. NORDENHOLT APPOINTED DIRECTOR, DEPARTMENT

OF NATURAL RESOURCES

George D. Nordenholt was appointed by Governor Rolpli to the
Directorship of the Department of Natural Resources on February 5,
1934. Mr. Nordenholt has an enviable career behind him that seems
to fit him particularly for his present position.

Born in Illinois in 1884, Mr. Nordenholt spent his youth in that
State until he completed two years of study at the University of Chi-
cago. He then went to Colorado where he attended that State's
School of Mines for four years and incidentally won all-American
recognition for playing fullback on its football team. After gradua-
tion from college, Mr. Nordenholt came to Los Angeles in 1908 where
he became tunnel foreman on the Los Angeles Aqueduct and broke a
world's record in tunnel driving. Since that time he has devoted his
energies to mining engineering and petroleum geology, which work
has carried him from Alaska to Central America.

While mining and oil have been Mr. Nordenholt 's business, fishing
and hunting have formed his favorite recreation. He had his first
shotgun at the age of ten and has ever since been an enthusiastic
hunter. A gun and fishing rod formed important items in the equip-
ment for his wide travels and wherever these led him, he always found
wild life and the conditions affecting it of the greatest interest. Mr.
Nordenholt has been a successful big game hunter, but he now prefers
duck and quail shooting. He shoots a 20-gauge double-barreled gun
on waterfowl and a 28-gauge on quail.

Mr. Nordenholt is also an enthusiastic fisherman. He has enjoyed
much ocean fishing in southern California in addition to his favorite
sport, trout fishing, which he has been so fortunate as to have followed
in Alaska, Canada and in many states besides California. The Klamath
River is his favorite stream in our State and he is intimately
acquainted with conditions on this river. The new Director ties his
own flies and confesses that he has one or two variations of his own
invention that he likes best. He has taken an active part in matters
affecting fish and game for a great many years.

152 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

There is no doubt that Mr. Norclenholt's life and activities preemi-
nently fit him for his newly acquired position. The direction of the
Dei);ir1iii('iit of Xntural Iicsniii-ccs ciubracrs supervision of tlic State
Divisions of Mines, Oil and Gas, Forestry, .State Tarks. and Fish and
Game. The new Director's business and recreational life, his wide
travels and experience, continued interest in the out of doors and
fisli and ^uanie matters seem to assure Galifornia sportsmen that tlieir
problems will receive sympathetic and understanding attention.

The Department and this Division are also fortunate in being able
to retain Mr. D. H. Blood, whom Mr. Nordenholt succeeded as Director,
as Deputy Director and Chief Accounting Officer of the Department.
Mr. Blood's loyal and friendl^y help during his three years as Director
of the Department will long be remembered by this Division.

NEW ANGLING AND HUNTING LICENSE BUTTONS

Tlie Fish and Game Commission adopted an identification button
to accompany the 1934 angling licenses, effective January 1, 1934.
The reaction to these buttons was so favorable that the (.'ommission
decided to issue similar buttons with the 1934-1935 hunting licenses.

These buttons are manufactured of metal and are one and three-
quarter inches in diameter. The face is celluloid covered and varies
in color in accordance with the kind of license issued. In achlition to
stating the type of license, there is j^rinted on the face of the button its
classification, whether resident, nonresident, alien, etc., and license
number to correspond with the nundjcr of the usual paper license. In
the back of the button, there is a pocket in which the paper license
is to be carried and a heavy brass safety pin for securely fastening the
button to the clothing.

The colors of the angling license buttons are as follows: resident
citizens and Indians, red ; non-residents, light green ; aliens, orange ;
duplicate buttons are blue.

The colors of tlie hunting license buttons are: resident citizens,
dark green; non-residents, purple; aliens, light blue; declarant aliens,
yellow; duplicate buttons are pink. A button, dark green in color,
similar to that of a resident citizen's is provided for juveniles, with the
word "junior" added.

Section 432 of the Fish and Game Code provides for the issuance
of duplicate hunting or sporting fishing licenses upon the payment of a
fee of 50 cents and furnishing of an affidavit showing the "loss or
destruction of the license previously issued.

Visible licenses have proved to be satisfactory in several eastern
states where they have been employed and leading California sports-
men's organizations have advocated their adoption here for some time.
It is lioped tliat the new buttons will result in a greater sale of angling
and hunting licenses and there is no doubt that they will greatly assist
the game wardens in checking bearers of licenses. — 0. L. Warner,
February 15, 1934.

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 153

NOTES ON THE CALIFORNIA TROUT INVESTIGATIONS

The new experimental weir constructed on Waddell Creek last
summer for use in detailed studies of life history and habits of the
sea-run steelhead trout has proven very satisfactory to date. This was
specially constructed to count downstream as well as upstream migrat-
ing- fish and while it catches all the latter fish, during periods of high
floods only a portion of the former fish can be caught. So far during
the present season approximately four hundred silver salmon and two
hundred steelhead have been handled at the weir, and the steelhead run
is still in progress. For the same period several hundred cottoids and
some immature trout were taken while migrating downstream. The
new weir is proving to be a great asset in working on problems relating
to the conservation of steelhead trout.

Environmental studies made in Sierran streams such as the Merced
River in Yosemite Valley have shown that this stream averaged about
103 pounds of food per acre of riffle area in the month of February.
Food samples from the same areas in August showed an average of 85
pounds per acre. These are significant figures. They indicate that
contrary to the usual belief that foods are scarce in streams in the
winter time, there is at least as much food at this season of the year
and there may be more than in the summer time. Further investiga-
tions will be necessary to verify these findings.

Waddell Creek, a coastal stream near Santa Cruz, M^as found to
average 198 pounds of food per acre of riffle area over all seasons of
the year, or more than twice as much as was found in the Merced River.
Lagoons of coastal streams are very rich in food. Waddell Creek
Lagoon was found to average over 250 pounds per acre of bottom area.
In this connection it is interesting to note that while aquatic insects com-
pose the bulk of foods in coastal and Sierran streams, lagoon foods are
largely shrimps and isopods. These are organisms which can withstand
extreme changes in salinity and other environmental conditions and at
the same time find ample food for themselves in such areas.

Plans are rapidly being developed for an intensive stream survey
of the better fishing areas in California next summer. Through funds
allotted by the Public Works Administration to the United States
Bureau of Fisheries it is planned to operate several four-man field
parties to carry on intensive biological investigations in both streams
and lakes. This work is to be done in cooperation with the Division of
Fish and Game and the National Forest Service as an integral part of
the program of the California Trout Investigations. The object of the
work is to gather such facts on the waters investigated as will assist
in the formulation of well-balanced stocking policies. Detailed plans
for the work will be published later.

In brief, excellent progress is being made on the problems upon
which the staff of these investigations are working, and this is due, in
no small part, to the splendid cooperation extended to us by officials of
the Division of Fish and Game, sportsmen, wardens, fish hatchery
men, and others. — P. R. Needham, Associate Aquatic Biologist, U. S.
Bureau of Fisheries, Stanford University, California, February 16,
1934.

154 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

COMMERCIAL FISHERY NOTES

PACIFIC COAST WHOLESALE FISH DEALERS CONVENTION

On February f) and 6, 1934, llic wliolcsalc iish dealers of the Pacific
Coast met in convention at San Francisco. The delegates represented
the various dealers' associations of the coast, including::

California Producers and Wholesale Fish Dealers' Association.

California Fish Trades Industry.

Northwest Wholesale Fish Dealers' Association.

Commercial Fisheries Association of Oregon.

North Pacific Oyster Growers' Association.

North Pacific Crab Fishermen Association (represented by proxy).

At the convention the delegates approved a set of articles of
association and by-laws for an "association of associations" which
is to be known as the Pacific Coast Fisheries Association. A model
code of fair trade practices, prepared by R. H. Fiedler, Acting Deputy
Administrator for the National Fisheries Code, was presented to the
delegates, and with minor changes was adopted as a regional code for
all associations on the coast. This, then, except for minor details to
take care of purely local conditions, will assure a uniform code for
the various groups on the Pacific Coast, each under local management.

A temporary board of directors, subject to the approval of their
various associations, was elected and a secretary chosen. Temporary
offices of the association will be at 556 Clay Street, San Francisco.
Several committees (price, publicity, legislation, credit, trade classifi-
cation) will be appointed at the first meeting of the board of directors.

Tlie convention was well attended by wholesale dealers from the
entire Pacific Coast of the United States. The formation of a Pacific
Coast association will bring the dealers into closer contact and their
various ])rob]ems can be discussed and solved witli lasting benefit to
the trade as a whole. In addition, the convention afforded an oppor-
tunity for the dealers from the various localities on the coast to
meet each other and become acquainted.

During the meetings several interesting talks were given. Among
the speakers were Arthur S. Coffin of the Sardine Institute, Daniel W.
Hone, Attorney for the California Producers' and Wholesale Fish
])ealers' Association, and iMajor John L. Farley, Executive Officer of
the California Division of Fish and Game. N. B. Scofield, Chief of
the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries of the Division, and otlier infui-
bers of the Bureau were in attendance at the meetings. — G. II. Clark,
March 1, 1934.

TW^O MACKEREL RECORDS BROKEN

On February 2, 1934, the San Pedro fisliing boat, 7. 0. Y ., brought
ashore the largest mackerel ever recorded by the California State
Fisheries Laboratory. This fish was 21 1 inches (545 mm.) in length,
measured to the fork of the tail. It was not possible to weigh the fish
but its calculated weight was in the neighborhood of 3i jiounds. All
the fishermeii and cannerymen who saw it })r()nounced it the largest
mackerel they had ever seen. The size of this fLsh is all the more
remarkable when it is realized that the average length of the Pacific

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 155

mackerel (Pneumatophorus diego) delivered to San Pedro canneries
is about 14 inches and their average weight is a trifle over 1 pound.
Previous record breakers were no more than 18 inches in length and
2^ pounds in weight. This remarkably large fish was caught in a ring
net haul off Huntington Beach in company with 1600 pounds of aver-
age sized fish.

The other record to be established was of an entirely different
nature. During 1933, California fish canneries packed more mackerel
than in any previous year. They produced about 740,000 standard cases ;
over 8 times the 1932 pack and 145,000 cases more than in 1929, which
showed the best previous pack. Although the bulk of the output was
produced at San Pedro, the canneries at San Diego and Monterey also
put up heavier packs than ever before. The large production resulted
from the increased prices of competitive grades of salmon and a grow-
ing consumer demand. Most of the canned mackerel was sold in the
United States although considerable quantities are still exported, prin-
cipally to the Philippine Islands and Italy.

Canners are planning a large pack for 1934 and are making ready
for the coming season which will swing into full stride during the
early summer. In the meantime they are taking what quantities they
can get although mackerel are scarce at present as is usual during the
period from February through April. — Richard 8. Croher, California
State Fisheries Laboratory, February 15, 1934.

AN UNUSUAL SARDINE

One of the largest sardines ever taken in the San Pedro fishing
region was brought to the California State Fisheries Laboratory by
Mr. H. J. Langdon, Cannery Inspector, Division of Fish and Game,
on February 22, 1934. The fish, taken in local waters the previous
night, was 14 inches total length, 300 mm. body length, and weighed
14 ounces. Age determination indicated that it was nine or ten years
old. This sardine was exceptionally fat, and anatomical examination
sliowed an entire absence of sex organs. This lack of sex organs prob-
ably caused the unusual size and fatness of the fish, since the energy
normally expended to mature sex products was devoted to growth in
length and weight. — Frances N. Clark, California State Fisheries
Labo^'atory, February 23, 1-934.

GROUND FISH

In September, 1933, additional work was started on the fishes taken
by the paranzella trawlers which operate principally out of San Fran-
cisco. This is the largest fresh fish fishery of northern and central
California, producing and marketing 12 to 13 million pounds of fish
a year. Of this total about 11 million pounds consists of the various
species of soles and sand dabs. The rest of the catch is made up of
rockfishes, cultus cod, sablefisli, hake, rays and sharks. Large numbers
of people are dependent upon this supply as a source for their fish
needs and it is important that the Division have a more intimate knowl-
edge of the fishery. As a consequence, work was instigated to gather
more information on these fish and on the fishery, and the work will
continue until the major problems are solved.

156 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

In the sliort period the work has been in progress the Division has,
Avith the full and utmost cooperation of the dealers who own the paran-
zella boats, adapted and put into operation a ship's log- book on tliese
boats. These -lofrs are furnished by the Division and are nuule out
daily by the ca]itains of the boats, the dealer receiving a copy, the
boat a copy, and the Division a copy. On thf logs are shown the
detailed operation of the fishing boats, the number and time of drags,
location of grounds, and the catch of various si)ecies for the drap's
and day. Not only are these logs invaluable to the Division for use in
statistical and biological work but they are of equal value to the dealers
who will be able to operate their equipment more efficiently and eco-
nomically with the knowledge gained from the log records.

In addition constant observations are being made in the markets
and on the boats themselves on the proportion of species in the catch,
the sizes of fish taken by the gear, and material is collected which will
lead to a knowledge of the life history of the important species in the
catch.

The dealers and operators of the paranzella boats have most
Avillingly cooperated in all phases of the work. They realize that it is
to their advantage to do anything in their power to conserve the fish
upon which the fishery depends and upon which their business is
founded.— (^. H. Clark, Fehruanj 28, 1934.

THE PISMO CLAM IN 1933

The condition of the population of Pismo clams (Tivcla stiiUoniw)
on Pismo-Oceano Beach is somewhat better than it was a year ago. For
many years the clams have been showing every evidence of serious
depletion due to excessive digging. However, the economic depression
caused a slacking off of digging, and as a consequence the mortality
of clams was probably at a minimum in 1933.

As previously reported by Clark (California Fish and Game,
vol. 18, no. 2, pp. 170-180, 1932) the spawning seasons of 1929, 1930
and 1931 were A^ery successful and resulted in good sets of young clams.
However, the first-year survival of these sets was but 36 per cent, as
compared with an average of over 80 per cent prior to 1929. In other
words, these three good spawnings were not given much chance to
repopulate the beach. Large clams had become so scarce that diggers
took even those less than a year old.

Due to the diminution of digging in 1933, the survival of clams
of all ages has been good since 1932. More clams of the ]927 and 1928
seasons are on the beach than had been expected. These clams are just
attaining legal size (5 inches). The 1929 and 1930 sets are holding
out much better than expected, considering the heavy mortality during
their first two years on the beach, but for some reason the 1931 set is
showing very poorly. Not much can be hoped for from the 1932 set
which was too small to be of any importance, but there are indications
that its first-year mortality was low.

Tlie 1933 set was fairly good, in fact better than any since 1924
with the exception of the three referred to above. As usual, the set
of young clams was poorest in the area closed to digging at the south
end of the beach. The young clams were very small when observed in
November, probably due to the cold summer and a late spaAvning.

CALIFORNIA PISH AND GAME 157

The average size of the 1933 clams was 15 mm. as compared with
22 mm. for the 1931 clams at a comparable date.

New laws proliibitino' digging or the possession of digging tools
on the beach at night and prohibiting the possession of digging tools
at any time in the closed area are expected to facilitate patrol work on
the beach. — Richard S. Croker, California State Fisheries Laboratory,
December 12, 1933.

THE LIFE HISTORY OF THE BAY SMELT

Three species of the Atherinidae, or silversides, family are taken
in California waters. The jack smelt plays the most important role in
the commercial fisheries of the entire State. Bay smelt, however, are
taken in important numbers in the San Francisco and Monterey regions
and small quantities occur in the southern California catches. The
grunion, the third of these three silversides, is renowned because of its
unusual habit of depositing the eggs at high tide line on the southern
California beaches. The life histories of the jack smelt and grunion
have been studied previously and published by the California Division
of Fish and Game.* Dr. Leonard P. Schultz now contributes the life
history of the bay smelt in a recent publication, "The age and growth
of Atherinops affinis oregonia Jordan and Snyder and of other sub-
species of bay smelt along the Pacific coast of the United States." f
Schultz 's work, which is revised in the following paragraphs, is of
special interest because of the problems which have arisen as a result
of the size limit placed on smelts by the last California State Legislature.

Three subspecies of bay smelt are recognized as inhabiting the
mainland bays of the Pacific coast from Oregon to San Deigo, Cali-
fornia. Atherinops affinis oregonia ranges from Oregon to Humboldt
Bay, California. A. affinis affinis is found from San Francisco to Mon-
terey Bay and intergrades with A. affinis littoralis from Monterey to
Santa Barbara. The latter species occurs in bays as far south as San
Diego.

Schultz 's paper covers in greatest detail the life history of A. a.
oregonia but also comprises studies of the life history of A. a. littoralis.
Calculations of the age and rate of growth are based on length frequen-
cies and scale readings. Scales proved satisfactory for age determina-
tion through the third year for the Oregon bay smelt. For the south-
ern California species, scales were not satisfactory because 15 per cent
of the fish failed to form an annulus in the first year and in other
instances the scale structures were so indistinct that in onlj^ 72 per cent
of the total could the annuli be identified.

The approximate average standard length in millimeters at the
end of each year for the two species was found to be as follows :

Age I 11 III IV V VI

A. a. oregonia

Male 98 185 21.5 230 240 255

Female 100 190 220 240 260 280

A. a. littoralis

Both sexes 60 100 115

* Clark, Frances N. 1925. The life history of Leuresthes tenuis, an atherine
fish with tide-controlled spawning habits. Fish Bull., no. 10, 51 pp.

Clark, Frances N. 1929. The life history of the California jack smelt, Atherin-
opsis californiens'is. Fish Bull., no. 16, 22 jip-

Thompson, William F., and Thompson, Julia B. 1919. The spawning of the
grunion {Leuresthes tenuis). Fish Bull., no. 3, 29 pp.

t Univ. Washington, Publ. Biol., vol. 2, no. 3, pp. 45-102, 1933.

158 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

The maximum length for the Oregon bay smelt was 299 mm. and the
oldest specimens were in their seventli or eighth year. The lai-gest
specimen of the southern California subspecies was 169 mm. and the
oldest specimen in its seventh or eighth year. The rate of growth of
A. a. littoralis is much slower than of A. a. oregowia and yet the maxi-
mum age is probably the same for both subspecies.

About 5 per cent of the Oregon bay smelt reach maturity in their
second year and the remainder in their third, but at least two-thirds of
A. a. littoralis mature in their second year and the remainder in their
third. A. a. oregonia spawns in Coos Bay, Oregon, in May, June and
early July. A. a. littoralis spawns in Anaheim Bay and San Diego
Bay in April, May and June and possibly as late as July. Little mate-
rial was available for a study of A. a. affinis, but its life history appar-
ently occupies an intermediate position between A. a. oregonia and
A. a. littoralis.

A. a. oregonia migrates during the spring to the upper part of
Coos Bay, where spawning takes place. In the late summer this bay
smelt occurs only in the lower part of the bay. Between October and
February it is not taken in Coos Bay by commercial fishermen, who say
these fish have entered the ocean. — Frances N. Clark, California, State
Fisheries Laboratory, Fehruarij 21, 1934.

NOTES ON THE SARDINE FISHERY

The sardine season which closed at Monterey and northern
California on February 15 and which will close at San Pedro and
southern California on April 1 will be recorded as the most successful
in the history of the industry so far as the size of the catch is con-
cerned. When the figures are all in, the catch for the season, includ-
ing the floating plants operating outside the 3-mile limit beyond the
control of the State, will exceed 350,000 tons. This amount exceeds
by more than 25,000 tons the previous greatest season of 1929-1930.
Roughly, 125,000 tons of the sardines taken this present season were
used for canning, while 225,000 tons were used in reduction plants.
The number of cases of sardines packed this season was less than
half that of the big season of four years ago. The reason for the
greatly increased catch was the liberal granting of reduction permits
by the Fish and Game Commission.

Similar permits were granted to sardine plants during the pre-
vious season to relieve actual distress among the fishermen and to
enable the sardine plants to operate in the face of the great slum])
in foreign demand for California canned sardines. As the prices
for the reduction products, oil and meal, were also very low, the
fishermen received only $4 per ton for their fish. Quite a number
of the plants did not open and most of the plants which operated
did not exhaust the amount of their permits. The catch was there-
fore light and the season was an unprofitable one, especially for the
fishermen.

The present season opened with much better prospects. There
was a better market for canned sardines and the prices for sardine
oil and meal had advanced nearly 50 per cent over the previous
season. After considerable bickering and a strike of a month on the

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 159

part of all sardine fishermen, the price Avas set at $7 per ton. All
plants in the State operated and two or three new ones started up,
so that all told the season has been a very satisfactory one to both
the fishermen and the canners.

The increase in the amount of sardines caught this season does
not mean that sardines are becoming more abundant. The fact is
that the sardines were less abundant this season and the increased
catch was made by increasing the fishing effort. Many more and
larger boats are now fishing than in the past and the fishermen are
working harder and longer with this increased equipment to make
their catches. That the increase of the present season's catch over
the past season is due to a greater fishing effort is well illustrated
by the operations of the two largest of the floating reduction plants
operating off the California coast. During the present season the
weather conditions were better and the fishermen and the two plants
were more experienced but, with a 56 per cent increase in the number
of large purse seine boats, they were able to increase their catch
but 21 per cent. This means that sardines were not so abundant this
season as last. During the present season the average catch per haul
of the net was only half that of last season.

This decrease in the sardine supply was expected and predicted
at the opening of the present season. The following communication
from the State Fisheries Laboratory, dated August 29, 1933, predict-
ing conditions to be expected during this sardine season, was dis-
tributed to the members of the sardine industry.

During the past year various members of the laboratory staff have formulated
predictions about the 19.33—1934 sardine season. As the season is now opening, we
wish again to call your attention to the possibilities for the coming season.

In discussing the California sardine fishery, it is necessary to distinguish
between the fall and winter fisheries, and our predictions are made on this basis.
By fall fisheiy we mean at Monterey and San Francisco the fishing carried on from
August through November, and at San Pedro fishing in November and December.
The winter fishery includes December, Januai-y and February at San Francisco
and Monterey, and January, Februai-y and March at San Pedro.

In the 1933-1934 season we expect that fall fish in Monterey Bay will be
scarce and lai*ge in size; at San Pedro fall fish Avill probably be fairly abundant
and of small size. In all localities the winter fish will be less numerous than in the
immediatey preceding winters and of unusually large size.

In December, 1932, we pointed out that in the past four years only two rela-
tively abundant year classes have entered the California sardine fishei'y. These
year classes have supplied the major portion of the saixlines taken in the fall months
during these past four seasons. In the winter months the fishery has been main-
tained by older fish which at the present time (August, 1933) have largely dis-
appeared from the fishery because of intensive fishing and natural mortality.

On the bases of these facts, in Februai-y, 1933, tentative predictions were
made for the 1933-1934 sardine season. After the close of the 1932-1933 season
and after the spring conditions at San Diego were determined, final predictions for
the coming season were forwarded to you in July, 1933.

No abundant group of sardines has entered the fishery since 1930. As the
sardine contributes materially to the commercial catch only up to its seventh year,
the year classes which entered previous to 1929 no longer play an important role
in the fishery. The year classes which entered the fishery in the fall of 1929 and
1930 supplied the bulk of the sardines in the 1932-1933 season and played an
important role in the fisheries for the previous three seasons. It is clear that the
sardine fishery is and has been largely dependent uixtn the year classes which
entered the fishei-y in 1929 and 1930. In the coming season, 1933-1934, the industry

160 CALIFORNIA FISII AND GAME

will still have to dcpoiul on those two frroups. It is ocrtain that both groups have
been diminishinjc and will continue ^o diminish in lumdters fmni now on.

San Fi-anfis<-o and .Mniitcrey Fall Fisiicry
(August to December)

The outlook for the Monterey l^'^^'i fall fishery, therefore, is not promising.
Our studies show that no new abundant year class will enter this fishery this
season. The fishery will have to rely on the older year classes (groups entering
the fishery in 1i)2!) and 10.30) which have been the mainstay of the fall fishery
tliroughuut Calit'oinia for the past three and four yeai-s. These year classes can
no longer furnish a large supply of fish to the Monterey fall fisliery. Therefore,
the Monterey boats will have difficulty in obtaining fish in the Bay and will have
to go farther north for their fish. This Avill lengthen the trips, decrease the total
deliveries, and prevent the .smaller boats from jiarticipating heavily in the fishery.
San Francisco will have a fairly abundant supjily of large sardines and tlie boats
in that region will experience less difficulty in making catches than will tiif boats
in Monterey Bay.

The bulk of the Monterey fall sardines for 1933 will be of large size, roughly
eleven inches in total length. San Francisco sardines will be the same or slightly
larger in size.

San Pedro Fall Fishery
(November fo December)

The prospects for the San Pedro fishery in the fall of 1933 are more promising.
In the spring of 1933 observations made at San Diego indicated a fairly abundant
group of quarter-oil sizes. These sai-dines should enter the San Pedro fishery in the
fall of 1933. If this group appears, the San Pedro fall fishery will be supplied by
moderately abundant fish of small size (S to 9 inches, total length). These sizes
will comprise the major part of the catch.

If this year class does not enter the San Pedro fishery in the exi)ected magni-
tude, the fall fishery in this region will experience a scarcity similar to that for
Monterey. The fish will be irregular in size, varying from 9 to 11 inches in total
length.

The abundant year class, which is expected to enter the San Pedro fishery in
the fall of 1933, will have to support the 1933 San Pedro fall fishery and the 1934
Monterey fall fishery ; possibly also the 1935 fall fisheries in all localities if no other
abundant group enters the fishery. For this reason the fish supplying the 1933 San
Pedro fall fishery should be relieve<l of as much strain as possible. To accomplish
this, the industry at San Pedro should be urged to concentrate on tiie winter fishery
(January 15-April 1).

Winter Fishery for All Localities
( January-February-March )

The abundance of the winter fish along the entire coast will presumably be
somewhat less than in the 1932-1933 season. This fishery is supplied by older
fish than the fall fisheries, and in 1933-1934 will chiefiy depend on the year classes
which entered in 1929 and 1930. As pointed out above, these year classes have
been subjected to heavy fishing in the past three years and they probably will not
be able to maintain an abundant w'inter fishery in 1933-1934. The sizes of sardines
in the winter of 1933-1934 will be large, the bulk of the catch exceeding ekvcu
inches in total length.

It may be well to jioiut out at this time that because a high percentage of
the winter fish are quite large, at present, and are rapidly passing out of the
fishery, iilso because there have been only two comparatively abundant groui)s
entering the fishery in the past four years (and these two groups, 1929 and 1930,
have been intensively fished during this period), that two or three years hence the
winter fish will be rather seriously reduced in numbers. Perhaps this reduction
will be so great that the fishermen will not be able to supply the cannery demand.

CALIFORNIA FISII AND GAME 161

Explanations

"Abundance," as used in the above predictions, means relative numbers of
siirdiues only. When we speak of an abundant supply we refer to more than
average, and when we mention "scarcity" we mean less than average. During a
season when we predict a scarcity of fish, boats may and probably will experience
good fishing for short periods. On the other hand, when we predict abundant fish
for a season, there will be time intervals in the season when the boats will have
difficulty in locating fish.

Under present conditions of the industry, we are not able to predict the
actual tonnage to be expected for a given season. This is due to the fluctuating
effort expended by the canneries and the fishermen. In a season when fish are
scarce, the fi.shermen may exert greater effort and the total tonnage caught may
equal or exceed a season when fish are abundant. Predictions of total catch can
not be made unless an industry is stabilized and exerts the same amount of fishing
effort each year.

These predictions were borne out to a remarkable degree of
accuracy. Tlie fishery is entering a period of comparative scarcity
of fish and it is the prudent thing to take good care of the present
supply of sardines. It was due to this warning that the Commission
cut down the amount of the reduction permits issued to each plant
by 1500 tons under that of last year. Sardine shore plants naturally
object to having their reduction activities curtailed while the float-
ing plants, operating offshore outside the State's jurisdiction, can
operate without any restrictions.

The sardine industry of California was about the first of the fish-
ery industries to formulate a code of fair competition acceptable to
the code committee at Washington, D. C. The object of the N. R. A. is
not onl}' to eliminate unfair competition but also to conserve natural
resources, and, as members of the sardine industry believed the floating
reduction plants are unfair competitors and are a menace to the future
supply of sardines on our coast, they sought to include those plants
Avithin the scope of the code and thus bring them under the jurisdic-
tion of the State, the same as the shore plants. This was naturally
opposed at Washington by the floating reduction plant interests.

The Division of Fish and Game aided the sardine canners in their
move to bring these plants under the same State control as the shore
plants by submitting a brief by N. B. Scofield for the final Washington
hearing on the sardine code pertaining to the effect of floating plants
on the sardine conservation program of the Division. This brief was
presented and defended at the Washington hearing on January 29
by John L. Farley, Executive Officer of the Division. The code has not
as yet been signed (March 5) although, to hurry its acceptance so as to
curb the immediate evils of price cutting, it was agreed to let the
matter of including the floating plants in the code go over for further
investigation and future action on the part of the executive committee
of the regional code.

The Bureau of Commercial Fisheries has been of considerable
assistance to different fisheries groups which have been formulating
codes. From the records of the Fisheries Laboratory, charts were
prepared giving the daily sardine landings at Monterey and San Pedro,
to be used in showing fluctuations in the sardine supply and their
effect on the hours of labor of cannery employees. Similar informa-
tion for salmon, shad, striped bass and albacore for the region from

162 CALli'UKXlA FlSll AND GAME

]\Ioiiterey to the Orej^on line is beiiifr furnished for the ^^ilolesale
fisli dealers' organization. — .Y. B. ScnfirhJ, March 5, 1934.

FRESH FISH MARKETING ACTIVITIES

The Bureau of Commercial Fisheries is cooperating with over
five thousand fresh fish dealers in creatinp: a greater consumer accept-
ance and demand for fresh food fish. The principal bars to Avider
distribution of fishery products are the price, or rather the lack of
public knowledge as to the factors that influence prices, and the lack
of public knowledge of proper methods of preparation of fresh fish for
human consumption.

The price question is well illustrated at any gathering where a
representative of the fish industry talks on the marketing of its
products. For w^henever the question of price comes up, the inevitable
(juestion is asked : ' ' Why does fish cost as much and sometimes more
than meats? The ocean teems with them, they cost nothing to feed
and require no care ; while live stock, on which we depend for our
meat supply, have to be fed, housed and cared for almost as carefully
as we care for ourselves. This expense, of course, has to be absorbed
by the ultimate buyer of the meat. With fish there are no such costs
to be considered."

While it is true that fish are self-sufficient and do not depend upon
man's efforts to feed or raise them, the process of getting them from
their native element to our table is a good deal more complicated than
is the case with live stock. Ask any angler sport fisherman who has
spent a day in a mountain stream endeavoring to catch trout and he
will tell you that though the fish are there, it is not always so easy to
catch them.

Men who fish coiTimoreially encounter the same diffieidty in secur-
ing catches of fish that the amateur angler does. They often go out for
days at a time and return with nothing. Naturally their expenses for
gear, boats and living go on just the same. These expenses are not
small, particularly when we realize that the average fisherman has
invested in his gear and boat between $1,000 and $10,000, with larger
fishing gear costing as high as $125,000. The fish he catches must
help pay for this gear and also pay his wages.

Fish are highly perishable unless properly refrigerated. They
must be handled by experienced and skilled men and if sent from
distant points must be cleaned, boxed, iced and shipped by fast trans-
portation at high rates. All of these charges must be added to the
cost of the fish before the wdiolesaler or retailer can take his profit.

Also while the average person would not expect to get fresh
peaches in December unless prepared to pay a premium for them,
the same individual will buy fish not available in local waters, fish
that are in all likelihood expressed from some distant point, and
become indignant at the price asked. This indignation will find its
expression in the conclusion that all fish ai'e liigh-iu'iced with the result
that fish is passed by in future purchasing of food products.

Over fifty different species of excellent food fish are produced from
the waters of the State. The average housewife buying fish only knows

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 163

or calls for three or four kinds and consequently nearly seventy-five per
cent of the fish sold are of these four species. Depletion of these species
and high prices are the natural result of such concentration of con-
sumer demand. The lack of knowledge of the housewife of the great
number of varieties of food fisli and sea foods, and the many ways to
properly prepare them, has led us to compile our cookery book "Five
Hundred Ways to Prepare California Sea Foods. ' '

The recipes used in our fish cookery book were contributed by
leading chefs and cookery experts and were thoroughly tested before
including them in the book. The index contains all the varieties of
fish and sea foods taken in California. It indicates the most popular
ways of preparing and refers the reader to the page whereon the
recipe is found. It also gives the seasons of each variety and the months
in which they are in greatest abundance.

Copies of this cookery book can be procured without charge by
writing to the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries of the Division of
Fish and Game, 450 McAllister Street, San Francisco. — A. A. Alstrom,
March 2, 1934.

FEDERAL WILD-LIFE RESTORATION PROGRAM

Momentous developments with reference to the Federal Govern-
ment's interest in alleviating unsatisfactory wild-life and game condi-
tions throughout the Nation transpired in Washington in January of
this year. Never, in the history of our country, has the Federal Gov-
ernment displayed such an interest in this problem and at no time
have official branches of the Government, conservation, farm and
sportsmen factions been in such unanimity of opinion as was recently
evidenced in Washington.

On January 2, 1934, Secretary of Agriculture Wallace appointed
the so-called President's Committee on Wild-life Restoration consist-
ing of Thomas H. Beck, Wilton, Connecticut, chairman ; J. N. Darling,
Des Moines, Iowa, and Professor Aldo Leopold, Madison Wisconsin.
This committee, which was charged Avith the consideration of a national
wild-life restoration problem of the broadest scope, met continuously
from January 6 to February 8 when their initial report comprising
conclusions and recommendations was transmitted to the Secretary.

This committee concluded that: "A national wild-life restoration
program is economically justifiable and innnediately practical by
utilizing submarginal and commercially unprofitable agricultural lands
now contributing so largely to the surplus of agricultural projects."

Projects comprising approximately 5, 000. 000 acres Avore selected
by the committee and submitted in their report for consideration.
Nineteen projects embracing the restoration of migratory waterfowl
breeding grounds and totaling 198,000 acres were herein included for
the State of California. Foremost among these is tlie restoration for
migratory waterfowl breeding grounds ])urposes of Lower Klamath
Lake. In fact, so important does the committee consider this matter,
that the following quotation is made from the introduction to that
portion of their report relating to migratory waterfowl :

"An ironic commentary on our neglect of waterfowl nesting
areas is had in the proclamation of President Theodore Roosevelt

164 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

setting aside Lower Klamath Lake, Oregon, as a sanctuary, in which
he said, 'this is one of the greatest wild fowl nurseries in the United
States. * * * An outdoni- museum * * * which will prove
of great educational value.'

"And in the report of F. L. Lathrop in 1932 which states, 'Lower
Klamath Lake Avas drained after much difficult}- and expense and
dried u]) — devastated hy numerous fires and ahandouod as unfit for
agricultural development.' "

Another specific project recommended by this committee that
will improve migratory waterfowl conditions for California is the
proposal to retire from agricultural development a large portion of
the submarginal lands adjacent to Malheur Lake, Oregon, aud permit
them to revert into waterfowl breeding grounds.

The restoration of migratory waterfowl nesting areas throughout
the Nation is the first and most immediate concern of this connnittee.
They recommend the speedy acquisition of 4,000,000 acres of land
potentially or actually suitable for this purpose, same to become invio-
late when acquired. To insure immediate possession and control and
still provide time for careful surveys, proper selection aud construc-
tion work, the committee suggested one-year leases at 5 per cent of the
purchase price with options to buy at an agreed price any time during
the lease period.

The committee recommended the purchase of 5,000,000 acres of
submarginal land suitable for development and management as ujiland
game (grouse, quail, wild turkey, rabbits, etc.) areas, and advocated
the ultimate acquisition of 10,000,000 acres for this purpose. Such
land Avould not necessarily become inviolate, but regulated shooting
under State supervision might later be permitted on it at such a time as
the game populations become sufficient.

The purchase of at least 1,000,000 acres of areas known to com-
prise the nesting grounds of such song, insectivorous, ornamental and
nongame birds as are becoming scarce was urged by the committee.
Some instances in this connection related to the nesting sites of herons,
cranes and the long-billed curlew, many of which have been encroached
upon by agricultural development.

The committee recommended the acquisitiou of 2,000,000 acres
needed for the restoration of big game aninuils and fur bearers, which
should include the purchase of outlying farms or ranches where graz-
ing privileges interfere with the protection of wild-life ranges. There
are undoubtedly many instances in California where our deer, elk,
antelope and mountain sheep may be enormously relieved under this
plan.

The President's Committee also advocated the withdrawal of graz-
ing privileges on extensive tracts of public domain, and in the national
parks and forests where the acreage necessary to graze a head is too
great to permit of any profit, and the repurchase of the water rights
in such areas. It urged that the government take title to all reversion
land in the public domain and retain same for the restoration of wild
life and improvement of soil conditions.

It is the intention to carry out the above purchase program by the
use of $25,000,000 emergency funds which President Koosevelt has
made available for the purpose. The committee asked that an addi-

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 165

tional similar amount be allotted from P. W. A. and C. W. A. monej^s
to be used for restoration and improvement of the lands acquired.

The committee finally proposed consolidation and coordination of
Federal departments and bureaus having authority affecting wild life
into a businesslike administration set-up to carry the plan into success-
ful execution.

In addition to this most comprehensive and tremendously
important plan of the President's Committee many other important
conservation measures are now being considered in Washington. Most
of these matters are contained in a message which was adopted and
signed by the Chairman of the Senate Committee on Conservation of
Wild-life Resources, the Chairman of the President's Committee on
Wild-life Restoration, and the representatives of 47 interested organi-
zations, at the Senate Committee hearing on January 25, 1934, and
presented to the President by a select committee the following day.

This message first stressed the enthusiastic apjn'eciation and the
hearty cooperation pledged by these 47 units including sportsmen,
nature lovers and farmers' organizations, representatives of the
Audubon Societies, and sportsmen's magazines, and conservation com-
missioners to the restoration plan of the President's Committee, the
essential proposals of which were included in the text of the message.

The conference unanimously approved the following measures and
recommendations which were also included in the message presented to
President Roosevelt.

1. The duck stamp bill prepared by the Special Senate Committee on the
Conservation of Wild-life Resources, Senate Bill 1658 and House Bill 5632.

2. Senator Joseph T.- Robinson's wild-life refuge bill, No. 2277: A bill to
establish fish and game sanctuaries in the National forests and on other public lands,
approved by the Senate committee and now on the Senate Calendar.

3. The coordination bill, introduced by the Senate committee, to coordinate
conservation activities of the several Federal departments, which passed the Senate
and was approved by the House committee in the last session.

4. Your stimulating order setting aside the sum of $25,000,000 for the with-
drawal of submarginal lands from commercial agriculture which suggests the use of
certain portion of these lands for migratory waterfowl and upland game.

5. That appropriations should be made as authorized under the Norbeck-
Andresen bill and the policy established therein for a period of 10 years (5 years
have already gone) should be renewed.

6. The treaty with Canada established our duty to conserve migratory birds
along their annual flight lanes within our country. When these birds reach the
Mexican border, or the Gulf of Mexico, many of them cross into the domain of our
sister republics to the south, particularly Mexico. We recommend that negotiations
be entered into to bring about a treaty with Mexico similar in character to that
with Canada.

This delegation received an enthusiastic reception from the Chief
Executive, who commented with pleasure upon the novelty of its
unanimity of opinion, an unprecedented occurrence in similar gather-
ings. Executive Officer John L. Farley and Nathan Moran, our mem-
ber of the Federal Migratory Bird Advisory Board, Avere members of
this delegation, having gone to Washington to represent California at
the Senate committee hearings.

Subsequent to this meeting, there was formed in the House a Com-
mittee on the Conservation of Wild-life Resources that will operate in
that body in the same manner in which the Senate committee of similar
title functions. This committee is composed of 14 members. Repre-

16(i CAUFORNIA FISir AND OAMK

sentative A. "Willis Robertson, Virginia, is chairman, and California
is fortnnate in havinf? two Representatives, Frank H. Buck, Vaeaville,
and A. E. Carter, Oakland, members of this committee.

At the time that this note is written, the Senate has passed the
duck stamp bill, Senator Joseph T. Robinson's wild-life refuge bill,
No. 2277, and the so-called coordination bill, No. 2529, which was intro-
duced b}' the Senate committee. Telegraphic advice .just received from
Representative Carter states that the House passed these three bills on
March 5 and that there is every indication that all three measures will
receive executive approval inasmuch as each has received the Presi-
dent's endorsement. — James Mofjlt, March 6, 1931.

1933 DEER KILL STATISTICS

Provisional deer tag returns for the 1933 season appeared on pages
79 and 80 of the January, 1934, issue of California Fish and Gaime.
Final comi)ilation of deer statistics and deer tag sales for the year
1933 have been made and are included under "Reports" in this issue.
—James Moffitt, March 6, 1934.

DEER HERD WINTERS WELL

Reports froin many of the game wardens, notably from Siskiyou,
Modoc and Lassen counties, and along the western flank of the Sierra
Nevada indicate that the deer in these areas are coming through the
winter in fine shape. This condition is due, no doubt, to the fact that
the winter has been such a mild and open one with little or no snow or
unusually cold weather.

Several recent reports from Modoc and Siskiyou counties indicate
that in many instances the deer have not yet been driven down to their
usual wintering grounds and on account of lack of snowfall, they have
been able to winter at higher elevations than usual. The game wardens
report from all sections that the deer are in excellent condition, and
due to the open condition of the ranges loss from predatory animals
has been unusually light. — James MoJJUf. March Ci, 1934.

DIVISION IMPORTS QUAIL FROM MEXICO

The advisability of importing quail from Mexico for stocking in
southern California areas has been considered for some time by the
Fish and Game Commission. The decision to do so was made by the
Commission in August, 1933, when negotiations were commenced with
the Mexican Department of Agriculture at Mexico City to waive that
country's customary 3.1 cents per live bird export tax in favor of the
State of California. The birds were to originate in Baja California
and by the time local problems there were ironed out and the free
export permit obtained, 1934 had arrived.

The permit was issued for ] 00,000 birds, and stipulated they must
originate from points south of San Telmo, which is about 160 miles
south of the border by road. This fact embraced a serious transporta-
tion problem. Nevertheless, when this and other difficulties had been

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 167

overcome 8000 quail were secured during the first six weeks of 1934.
The Division expects to receive considerable more birds before opera-
tions cease for the season. We anticipate that the unused portion of
the permit for 100,000 birds will be received after the close of the
coming nesting season.

All imported quail are received by Division employees at the
border, where they are checked and then transported to the State Game
Farm at Chino. Here they are held under observation for from two to
three weeks after which each is banded with one of the Division's
bands and the birds are then liberated in suitable areas. Under pres-
ent plans these Mexican quail will only be liberated in California in
areas south of the Tehachapi where types of country closely approxi-
mating their native habitat obtain. — A. E. Biirghduff, February 21,
1934.

REVISED ESTIMATE OF 1933 CALIFORNIA WATERFOWL

ABUNDANCE

A preliminary note on waterfowl abundance in California during
the 1933 season appeared on pages 78 and 79 of the January number
of this quarterly.

It now appears in light of subsequent and more complete reports
that this note, which was written before the close of the 1933 hunting-
season, was too optimistic.

Captain of Patrol William J. Harp reported that duck hunting in
the Humboldt Bay district last season was the poorest during his six
years' residence in that area. He believes that less than 25 per cent
of the number of ducks present in that region three years ago were in
evidence during the 1933 season. Harp reported that the widgeon was
the commonest species throughout the entire past season and that the
largest decrease in numbers appeared to be among sprig and mallard.

Late reports from the Sacramento Valley continue to confirm the
concentration of a large number of ducks in the Butte Creek Basin
region, but shooting elsewhere in the Valley, particularly in the so-called
"West Side" area, between Williams, Colusa and Willows, wa.s excep-
tionally poor last season due to a distinct shortage of ducks in that
area. Our earlier report to the effect that Suisun Bay and marshes
harbored more ducks in 1933 than in the previous year seems to be
entirely confirmed by later reports. However, more recent advices
from the Sonoma and Napa marshes and the San Pablo Bay region of
San Francisco Bay indicate fewer ducks in that area last year than in
the previous season.

Similarly later reports from the Wasco-Delano section of northern
Kern County are contradictory to earlier reports we received, in that
it appears that fewer birds were present there in 1933.

Game Warden E. H. Glidden, San Diego, provided a very careful
check on the number of ducks killed on the City Water Department
lakes and Sweetwater Lake in San Diego County which afford most of
the duck shooting in that region. These reports indicate a total kill of
42,638 ducks on these lakes which formed an average of 4.3 birds per
hunter. Glidden advised that in this area, the sprig is apparently the
only species of duck that is holding up in numbers satisfactorily. He

168 CALIFOHXIA FISH AND GAME

states that a decided decrease in the number of the other species of
ducks visitiuf^' San Die<io County lakes was noted in 1933 over the
])revious season witli the exception oi' redhead and rini^-neckcd ducks,
which latter species seemed to be more abundant tluni usual last year.
"With the exception of the three species named, he estimates a 50 per
cent decrease in tlie number of ducks visiting the San Diego County
lakes in 1933 over 1932.

Game Wardens J. W. Harbuck and W. S. Talbott provided detailed
reports upon duck hunting success in the Salton Sea area. Ilarbuck's
report for the southern end of the Salton Sea indicated that ajiproxi-
mately the same number of birds were present and were bagged by
sportsmen last year over the previous one. In that area, he consid-
ered widgeon and sprig to be about even in abundance and these
species comprised 60 per cent of the duck po])ulation in that area.
The balance was made up approximately of 15 per cent shovellers,
10 per cent teal, 5 per cent redheads and 10 per cent other species.

Game Warden Talbott reported on the Mecca section at the north-
ern end of Salton Sea where he states that private and commercial
duck clubs took more birds in the 1933 season than in the previous
year, but that unattached shooters had poor success in this area. Tlie
species bagged in this area in order of abundance were sprig, widgeon,
redhead and bluebill. Talbott believes that there were approximately
the same number of ducks in this area in 1933 as in the previous season.

Later reports than those provided in our January issue fail to revise
the statements therein contained relative to waterfowl abundance at
Tule Lake and in the San Joaquin Valley, other than in the Delano-
Wasco area. — James Moffitt, March 6, 1934.

ADDITION TO LIST OF TOTALLY EXCLUDED ANIMALS
STATE IMPORTATION LAW

In accordance with the provisions of section 9 of Chapter 76,
Statutes of 1933, the Fish and Game Commission and the State Depart-
ment of Agriculture have added the rodent family OCTODONTIDAE to
the list of totally excluded species. Therefore, this rodent family is
hereby added to the list of totally excluded species listed under Regu-
lation 1, pages 3 and 4 of "Rules and Regulations Governing the
Importation of Wild Birds and Animals Into the State of California
and Conditions Under Which Same May Be Kept in Confinement."

The family OCTODONTIDAE includes the subfamily Capromyinae
and the genus Myiocasfor in which the nutria or coypu, M\iocastor cor-
pus, is classified. Tliis South American fur-bearing rodent is the species
most likely to be offered for import into California and all applications
for its importation or that of other members of this rodent family will
be denied. — James Moffitt, Division of Fish and Game, San Francisco,
Cal, March 2, 1934.

CALIFORNIA FISTI AND GAME 169

STATEMENT OF INCOME

For the Period July 1, 1933, to December 31, 1933, of the Eighty-fifth Fiscal Year

Departmental income — current year:
License sales — ■

Angling licenses, 1932 S5,475 00

Angling licenses, 1933 144,761 50

Angling licenses, 1934 63 00

Commercial Hunting Club licenses, 1933-34 1,750 00

Commercial Hunting Club Operators licenses, 1933-34. _ 390 00

Deertags, 1932. 1,143 25

Deertags, 1933 64,038 00

Fish Breeders' licenses, 1933 20 00

Fish Importers' licenses, 1933 5 00

Game Breeders' licenses, 1933 130 00

Hunting licenses, 1931 261 30

Hunting licenses, 1932-33 8,387 18

Hunting licenses, 1933-34 169,726 00

Market Fishermen's licenses, 1933-34 23,290 00

Trapping licenses, 1933-34 911 00

Wholesale Fish Packers' Shell Fish Dealers, licenses, 1933-34... 805 00

Total license sales $421,156 23

Other income —

Contributions from importers J159 15

Courtfines 15.544 01

Fish Packers' tax 63,121 98

Fish Tag sales... 368 73

Game Tag sales 73 62

Interest on bank balances 2,911 55

Income from Department of Agriculture Fund^Chap. 825-33 45,131 65

Kelp Tax 80

Lease of kelp beds 1,025 60

Miscellaneous sales 296 60

Publication sales 218 85

Dividends, California National Bank (50%) 18,545 08

Dividends, Trinity County Bank at Weaverville (12J^%) 88 75

Total other income 147,486 37

Total departmental income — current year $568,642 60

Income for the Genera! Fund:
Filingfees, Section 710, Code of Civil Procedure 2 00

Grand total, departmental i ncome and income for the General Fund $568,644 60

17U

CALIFOKXIA FISH AND GAME

STATEMENT OF EXPENDITURES
For the Period July 1, 1933, to December 31, 1933, of the Eighty-fifth Fiscal Year

Function

Salaries

and

wages

Materials

and
supplies

Service

and
expense

Property

and
equipment

Total

Administration:
Executive

$4,179 96
2,760 00

$4,179 96
3 114 22

Clerical and office

$271 24
630 99
177 74

$82 98

Printing — general

630 99

Automobi le

132 10
1,587 07
2,507 19
1,625 58

309 05
6,962 28
2,703 25

309 84

Traveling .. _ _

1,587 07
2 507 19

Postage

Telephone and telegraph

1,625 58

Freight, cartage and aupress

309 05

Rent..

6,962 28
2,703 25

ApclHent and dpaf.h nliiim!!

Accounting pro rata ,

2,249 98
493 56

2 249 98

Legal .

111 56
15 00
93 97

$65 32

670 44

Premiums nn honds

15 00

Publicity

93 97

Total administration

t9,683 50

$1,079 85
960 00

$1,079 97

$16,130 03

$65 32

$26,958 82
$1 079 85

Bureau education and research:
Chief

Clerical and office

$29 73
208 82

$22 24

128 83

1 23

1,167 11

14 80

21 07

70 35

16'29'

1,011 97
337 65

Automobiles... _. _

Freight, cartage and express

1 23

Traveling

1,167 11

Postage

$29"l8

14 80

Library

540 00

3 48

3 23

86 01

593 73

Photography

73 58

Research _

2,389 03
1,200 00

10 50

2 485 54

Publicity. _

1,216 29

Total bureau education and research

Bureau patrol and law enforcement:
Chief and assistants

$6,168 88

$5,550 00
1,590 00

$331 27

$1,441 92

$39 68

$7,981 75
$5,550 00

Clerical and office

$29 67
8,848 73

$9 45

4,345 77

21,811 95

271 97

796 58

9 20

296 46

535 66

610 28

961 00

207 00

1,629 12

Automobi les

$2,098 80

15.293 30

Traveling .

21,811 95

Postage ..

271 97

Telephone and telegraph

796 58

Freight, cartage and express

9 20

Rent

296 46

Captains and wardens

88,020 GO

760 71
688 83
425 53

11 60

89,327 97

Launches

1,299 11

Fish planting .

2,310 00

3,696 53

Premiums on bonds

207 00

Cooks

750 00
270 00

1,380 00
7,095 50
5,368 71
5,150 33

750 00

Game refuge guard..

270 00

Commercial fisheries patrol:
Chief and assistants

1,380 00

Captains and wardens

6 64
2,776 62

10 66
1,355 58

7,112 80

Launches... .. _

165 75

9,666 66

Fish cannery inspectors — seasonal

5,150 33

Traveling

2,436 50
379 00
188 24

2,436 50

Rent._._ ._

379 00

Automobiles

97 42

285 66

Temporary help .

17 00

17 00

Total bureau patrol and law enforcement...

Bureau commercial fisheries:
Chief and assistants

$117,501 54

$6,810 00
4,796 34

$13,634 15

$34,225 30

$2,276 15

$167,637 14
$6,810 00

Clerical and office ..

$25 01
102 08

$17 00

60 43

2,437 82

7 00

256 80

60 16

73 18

143 45

4,838 35

Automobi les

162 51

Traveling

2,437 82

Postage _. .

7 00

Telephone and telegraph

256 80

Freight, cartage and express.. . .

60 16

Rent

73 18

Heat, light, water and power

143 45

Research . ...

1,140 00
11,203 07

24 01

397 15

68 54

1,164 01

Laboratory

371 42
1,176 00

$70 23
83 75

12,041 87

Statistics...

1,328 29

Temporary help ..

88 39

88 39

Total bureau commercial fisheries

$24,037 80

$616 79

$4,603 26

$153 98

$29,411 83

CALIFORNIA PISH AND GAME

171

STATEMENT OF EXPENDITURES— Continued
For the Period July 1, 1933, to December 31, 1933, of the Eighty-fifth Fiscal Year

Function

Salaries

and

wages

Materials

and
supplies

Service

and
expense

Property

and
equipment

Total

Bureau fish culture:
Chief and assistants

$3,555 00
2,040 00

$13 20

6 55

2,709 66

$160 50

1 50

783 94

4,443 49

99 16

493 88

226 35

1,523 62

705 90

602 87

635 85

1 52

1,011 63

$3,728 70

Clerical and office

2,048 05
3,516 33
4,443 49

Automobiles _ .

$22 73

Traveling. . _ .,

Postage - . ._

99 16

Telephone and telegraph

493 88

Freight, cartage and express

226 35

Rent

1 523 62

Heat, light and power ._ ._

705 90

Hatcheries

53,547 72
1,770 00

24,721 86
274 39

144 61

79,017 06
2 680 24

Fish cars. ... _ . _

Blueprinting- .. ... ._

1 52

Cooperative research .

1,575 00

443 00

11,753 88

1,200 00

3,66S 96

246 41

1 15

2 834 19

Temporarv help

443 00

Fish hatcherv assistant — seasonal

11,753 88

Hydraulic engineering

Special field .

1 12
21 94

487 59

29 21
94 79

1,717 92
3,786 69

Total bureau fish culture.

$79,554 56
12,730 00

$27,995 13

$11,177 80

$292 49

$119,019 98
$2,730 00

Bureau game propagation:

Automobiles

$258 33

$150 50

1,210 70

39 01

101 42

17 96

624 09

242 95

408 83

1 210 70

Postage --- _ .

39 01

Telephone and telegraph

101 42

Freight, cartage and express.. ...

17 96

Heat, light and power .

624 09

Maintenance. . .

6,455 71

405 75

2,400 00

3,539 50

10,238 16

Temporary help ..

405 75

Quail trapping and expansion of quail program.

638 62

1,139 49

$492 18

4,670 29

Total bureau game propagation

$11,991 46
$2,400 00

$4,436 45

$3,526 12

$13 59
50 82
50 00

$492 18

$20,446 21

Bureau fish rescue:

$2 413 59

TraveUng ...

50 82

Rent... --

50 00

Temporary help. __

69 00

69 00

506 90

506 90

Total bureau fish rescue

$2,469 00

$4,249 98
960 00

$621 31

$3,090 31

Bureau game refuges:
Chief and assistants

$4,249 98

Clerical and office

$2 10
183 03

$12 50

97 33

2,136 45

95

974 60

280 36

Traveling, .

2,136 45

Telephone and telegraph

95

2,782 00
360 00

2,782 00

Refuge posting .

360 00

Predatory animal control

2,460 00
873 32

2,460 00

Refuge maintenance

4,065 50

2,600 00
1,755 00

1,543 15

6,481 97

Predatory animal hunters and trappers — sea-

2,600 00

1,755 00

Total bureau game refuge

Bureau licenses:

$16,772 48
$6,570 00

$1,728 28

$23 83
7,368 14

$5,580 55
$7 35

$24,081 31

$6,601 18

7,368 14

Traveling

291 44
580 98
448 79
935 00

291 44

580 98

Kreieht. cartace and exnress

448 79

Premiums on bonds

935 00

Total bureau licenses

$6,570 00

$7,391 97

$2,263 56

$16,225 53

Total 85th fiscal year expense paid from
support appropriations

$274,749 22

$57,214 01

$79,569 85

$3,319 80

$414,852 88

172

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

STATEMENT OF EXPENDITURES-Continued
For the Period July 1, 1933, to December 31, 1933. of the Eighty-fifth Fiscal Year

Function

Salaries

and

wages

Materials

and
supplies

Service

and
expense

Property

and
equipment

Total

Special items:
Claim of chief accounting officer of Depart-
ment of Finance — Chap. 991-33.

Deer tight fences— Chap. 872-31 from July 1,
IQ*^*? tr> DpopTTiKpr 31 1Q33

$2,259 11

1,498 05

18,7.50 00

21,853 07

432 44

Electro Metals Company's claim — Chap.

Sfnfft Pair JinH othrr Pxhibits

$44,792 67

Permanent improvements:

PnTwtrurtinn imTirovemonts and efiiiioment

$43,780 82

IVior year expense:

171 70
25,94? 52

Tntal nrinr vear exDCnse

$26,015 22

Bureau commercial fisheries — Chap. 825-33:
Fresh fish marketing—

$1,710 47
479 03

$1,710 47

$2 15
5 50

$11 55

2 50

238 88

35 00

2 61

59 49

5 15

2,623 39

492 73

9 00

238 88

35 00

2 61

59 49

Rent

5 15

133 39

2,756 78

315 00

315 00

Total bureau commercialfisheries— Chap.
82.1-S3 frosh fish marketinc

$2,504 50

$142 04

$2,978 57

$5,625 11

$535,066170

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

173

SEIZURES OF FISH AND GAME

October, November, December, 1933
Fish:

Abalones

Abalones, pounds

Bass, striped, pounds

Bass, striped (fish)_.-

Clams

Crabs

Cockles

Catfish, pounds

Lobsters, pounds _ _

Mussels, pounds

Salmon, pounds

Spears, fish

Traps, fish

Yellowfin, pounds -

Halibut, pounds

Spotfin Croaeker, pounds

Game:

Antelope

Deer _

Deer meat, pounds

Ducks , geese, mudhens

Doves ^

Non-game birds

Pheasants

Pigeons

Quail

Rabbits

Shorebirds

Swan

Bird nets

Guns

2m

4,500

1,962

44

3,178

244

254

10

2,055

208

2,458

4

41

3,619

1,150

400

1

20

484

90

33

4

17

39

44

2

151

4
2
2

GAME CASES
October, November, December, 1933

Offense

Antelope; killing of

Bear; closed season

Deer; closed season; killing of does, fawns; spike buck; illegal deer tags

Ducks; geese; closed season; selling of

Doves; over limit

Hunting; no license or with an illegal license

Non-game birds; killing of

Pheasants; closed season

Pigeons ; overlimit

Qusil; closed season; trapping of

Rabbits; closed season; snaring of

Shorebirds ; killing of

Swan; killing of

Shooting from auto, boat or highway

Spotlight shooting _

Firearms in refuge

Trapping; closed season

Trespassing

Totals

Number
arrests

1

2
67

54

8
26

6
13

4
10

6
14
19

5

1
11

262

Fines
imposed

$100 00

25 00

1,485 00

350 00

55 00
727 50
130 00
455 00
400 00
410 00

35 00
235 00

75 00
179 50
392 50

165 00

15,219 00

Jail

sentences

(days)

135

ioo

50

907

174

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

FISH CASES
October, November, December, 1933

Offense

Abaloncs: small: overlimit

Angling without license

Bass, striiKid; small: overlimit: closed season

Bass, white sea: small

Catfish; small

Clams: small; overlimit

Crabs; small

Cockles : small

Commercial fishing: no license

Halibut; small

Lobsters; small; trapping of

Mussels; overlimit

Nets, seines: illegal used

Night fishing

Salmon: untagged

Illegal fishing apparatus

Trout- closed season

Totals.. .-

Number
arrests

39

4!

14
1
1

23
4
3

31
1

21
3

13
1
9
7
1

213

Fines
imposed

$840 00

4:?5 00

lUO 00

25 00

20 00

710 00

125 00

75 00

75 00

100 00

245 03

050 00

110 00

ion 00

25 00

?3,725 00

Jail

sentences

(days)

12
05
90

112

22
345

30

67 r.

NUMBER OF HUNTERS KILLING TWO DEER 1933

County of residence of hunter

Number

of
hunters

County of residence of hunter

Number

of
hunters

88

1

7
43

6
21
22

3

10

79

17

139

2
22
63
11
11
21
251

9
19

3

62
13

1

9
80
20

6
33
19

Plumas

29

Alpine -

Riverside

Sacramento . .

23

Amador

46

Butte

San Benito

17

San Bernardino

21

Ooliisa

San Diego

21

Contra Cost&

San Francisco

130

Del Norte

San Joaquin

30

El Dorado

San Lviis Obispo

63

San Mateo

28

Glenn

Santa Barbara

Santa Clara

Santa Cruz .

66

Humbo Idt

57

Imnerial

29

Shasta

33

Kern . . .

Sierra. _

Siskiyou _ ..

10

Kings

Lake

00

Solano

L'Ci

Lassen

Sonoma

99

Los Angeles

Stanislaus

Sutter

Tehama

Trinity

Tulare ...

Tuolumne i.-

20

Madera

10

Marin . _

20

Mariposa

8

Mendocino -----

42

Merced -

1

40

Yolo J

20

Monterey

Yuba

9

State of Nevada.

2

Total.

2,057

Placer .

Alameda.
Alpine.—
Amador.
Butte...
Calaveras

Colusa..
Contra Ci
Del Nort(
El Doradi
Fresno.

Glenn...
Humbold
Imperial.

Inyo

Kern...

Kings..
Lake...
Lassen..
Los Ange
Madera.

Marin...
Mariposa
Mendocir
Merced..
Modoc

Mono

Monterej

Napa

Nevada..
Orange. -

Placer.-.
Plumas. -
Riverside
Sacramer
San Beni

San Bern
San Dieg
San Fran
San Joaq
San Luis

San Mati
Santa Ba
Santa CI
Santa Cr
Shasta..

Sierra..

Siskiyou

Solano.

Sonoma.

Stanislai

Sutter..
Tehama.
Trinity.
Tulare..
Tuolumi

Ventura
Yolo...
Yuba...

Tot;
Deer Ta

10775-

Ala
All
An
Bu
Cai

Col

Coi

De

El

Fre

Gle
Hu
Im]
Tny
Kei

Kit
Lai
Las
Los
Ma

Ma

Ma|
Mei
Mej

Mol

San
San
San
San
Sha

Siei

Sisl
Sol!
Son
Sta]

Sut
Tei
Trii
Tul
Tuc

Veil
Yol
Yul

10'

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME
HUNTING ACCIDENTS— 1933*

175

1933

1932

Number of persons killed.

47
99

29
58

18
41

9
20

19
45

19
34

32

Number of persons wounded, not killed ... .....

124

Number of self-inflicted accidents —
Fatal

17

Nonfatal .

64

Number of accidents inflicted by others —
Fatal

12

Nonfatal .

53

Occurred while hunting large game (deer, bear, etc.) —
Fatal

10

26

Occurred while hunting small game (rabbit, duck, quail, etc.)—
Fatal

12

Nonfatal

57

Occurred while hunting unknown game-
Fatal

10

41

1933 Figures only

Fatal

Nonfatal

Occurred while hunting —
Ducks

2
1
3
1
9
11

10

Quail...

8

Dove . .

6

Pigeon .__.._._ . . ...

Deer-

20

Rabbit

18

Squirrel _ _ _

2

Coyote. . _ ..._..

1

1

'Figures compiled from newspaper clippings.

17(i

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

DC

LJ

CO

S

UJ

o

UJ

a

a

z

<

cc

UJ

a>

CO

1.

s

x:

UJ

tf>

>

u.

o

z

]5

111

E

m

h

o

o

H

U

U

o

3

u.
o

s

k

V)

GO

I

.

1-
z

E

o

n

s

•o

UJ

a

X

c

1-

(O

U.

oc

o

o

u.

c

CO

1-

•.—

u

3

a

Q

O

^

OC

■o

D.

_aj

>

a.
E

UJ

I

O

t/>

Ul

I

</>

UJ

CC

cc
o

<
u

Monterey

1 '"'

1"

8

oo

CO

71.500

4,121

247.366

«■ i

ii

00 GO

CO

Santa Cru»

03 0>

tooo

oo

— c 'O

1 1

00 <«
^ OS

— o

San Francisco,
San Mateo

:g ; ;

lOO • 1

05

oo

CD
CO

s i

to •

2

NO

I— (

Alameda,
Contra Costa . .

?5i

to

CO

i'^r

Sacramento,
San Joaquin .

0500 '

!co !

.in .

Solano, Yolo

;

Marin

CO

to 1

00 i

"» 1

Mendocino,
Sonoma, Lake

i

cm"

C00»0
CO -V CI

;§ :

§ i

COO
(DCS

«o

1—1

Dei Norte,
Humboldt

g52

oo ^Cs ^
t^O r^co

(MOO'^C-l^
«D <-H»0 CO

CO

J3

•3

tn

c8 1

ill

C3 O «

c

I-

1

t

^

c

c
c
c
B

1

■a

il

St

(- —

■III

'c

a;

i
o.

5

5

t- (D C

ferSc

1 y

1 V

1 c:

Q

C

eg

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

177

1 r* ic

o

coco
eo»o

lOOCO

t^cceo

to l>- T-t

CO 00 <^_

5DOO

lO CO

OS O

g

C0 4«

CO OS

ooo

<OCC GO

■xS<O0
OCD
Ol CO

(MO

CDlO
O^

:o :o Oi

O lO 00
C^ CO '-'

_3ja
I I

to M

*^ n S ;S

2^

tavBQ

o

o

03

<^

Jj 3 « «
C3 U U Ol

fi* v 4^ a>

£T3-a

;a'^ o o a C ^-^a^fl"-^

X! ua ^ =: o s

aia2CGa3a3coooa!ccci2CQt-it-it-ii>!>?*<'«

, o

_o a >>

X3 ■ -^

w t3 o ja
"O ^ a w

WSKc

U

3 I, .

a

178

CALIFORXIA FISH AND GAME

Total 6sh from west coast
south of the Interna-
tional V)oiindary brought
into California

m

UJ

o

LJ
Q

i »

Z a>

< fe

CO ^

S M

Ul u

i i

o

CC O

UJ ^

CQ O

O 3

o z.

CO

Fisli from west coa*:t south
of the International
boundary brought into
San Diego_ _

Fish from west coast south
of the International
Boundary brought into
San Pedro

Total-

San Diego,
Imperial-

ccoo c:

-- CC PO

ccc^^

OO CO

oooo

0<M OS
Oi »0 CO
Cfl iC ■v

QOOS

cor<»

O r>- -v c^

■Tt- a; ^j* O

^OO — ^
CC C<1 *—

cM»cr-oiC^oo^cc>r*air-^cD

CD'MOiOCiOiO'C'MOOOOCOOi
COCC'^^'— -^ COOOt^CC— ^C5CC
iC Oi t^ CT -^ '^" oC O I^ t-C CO
*- it^OOuO — COfM I'-C^OO

C^ — CM — t^ •-'

eo^

■f-^fOCliC-XJOiO

r^ liO CTi ^ — ■ r^ r-

(M -<»"

^ir>

coo-^c^^

■^

CO »/5 f

oc o o
— mi^

Orange.

CO CC 00
IC 00 QO

M (M r-

CO

I

O

o

Los Angeles.

X o

OC 'in

o ■>
^ 5

g I

>
oc

UJ

I

X

U
OC

O «i O OS
Tf OCOCsI

»r3 r*iO

■^05 0 0^-
CO OD O O) o:>
00 -^-^ ^

San Luis Obispo,
Santa Barbara,
Ventura _

oc
o

<
u

. C9

CD OO —
t^OOO

o ■>«r CT>

CO Tf lC O
C^ CC OO CO

•V « Oi CD

r^ CO -— lo

OO O ^ OS
CO "^ Oi r-

CO oi"od

05 '— CO

CO o

C'l »C CO CO CO

r^ c^ CO c?sco

W -^ OCS CO
— 00 00

.co»oo

COW3

1 CO -o

O I rt

I 1 r

O iM = _C

c cs c n
<a3CCQ

g-^.c

3j3

05(MCO
00 PO

CO O

.j^^^^ja

■-^5^,^ ferS o =5 o o

ooofcMaaKwwwssssaiSiSpSKtfc

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

179

:D CO

■^ o

00 CD
(N O

OO CS|

oo o

•^ IC CO
CO C^ O

CO i^ ■^

CO OS CD

CO ""^^ oo

ococo

WfOO

O CD

OcDCOOlOOCM'^C^iOI>.C^OOiOCOGO»0'^(M
<M»O00OO'— 'O-rfCO'— '<MC0C0'V'-HC^O»0'— '(Nl
i^iO 1— -coco 05i— lOSt^OS'^iOlO'OM'— 'OO-^I^

t-^^Tji"c<rc^ cocor^ooi'-H*-H cocoic»oo

■^ O CO

C^ O -^

COiO ^ '^ »o t^ o

CD CD Oi Oi "— ' -^ -^
00 oo oo -^ TT CD •-*

CO ui" r-^ CD -^jh"

iI>-C^'— «^00lO'-<(M
, ,_! t^ CO 'M 00 CO OS

00 Oi 00 t- >— < 00 t-
CD (N »f5 O [>• CD CO
W 00 (M to oo 0S^»0

— r CD '-' t-^ t-^ cj 1-H

CO -^t* ^^

iC »0 -^ 00 «0 iO
TP 05 -^ t-- CO O

-H o r^ -H

C9

^ =3 =^

c3 U OJ

OCO CD
OscDCq

oooo ^

to C^) CD
,—1 -"S^

e«.

•<J< CD

^ CD

Ci< a> 1' <i>

Id TT O

00 OS 00
CM 00 -^

CD OCO
CO '-'

lO t^ o
ooc^ o

OS CO -^

CO ^t^ o
r^ ic 00
ooco o

CD t-'T'^
OS l>- lO

t^co ^

COQOcDOOOOtI^i— <00
■— 'CDiOCOOOi— "COCO
C^J^COOOIOC-IOOCDOS
CDCOCDCO'--CO<NCD

Tt< T-. c-1 lO r^ CO

t- 1-1 CO

C3 cc

C3

^ca^=:

<U (D ^ OJ

S "

C3

Bi S » is.SSJ S!^;a'o o o H c t-iaia— i"

4^ C4 ^ ._•

w 13 0-C3
T3 <u a K)

MSKm
M ■ ■

o

s

M

■^■2 a aaat-S^B
■o<;oooooocfi

o

J533-ABSTRACT CALIFORNIA SPORTING FISH & GAME LAWS-19} 5

THIS ABSTRACT WILL BE VALID UNTIL SO DAYS AFTER ADJOURNMENT OF THE 1>}S LEGISLATIVE SESSION

byENTAND CLOSED SEASONS

WHITE SQUARES INDICATE OPEN SEASON. NUMBERS IN SQUARES ARE OPEN DATES

DEER

l'"|"°|"'l'"l"l-'l-l--H-

I »o- I Die I BAG AND POSSESSION LIMITS. ETC.

I-I».' -41^-23-35

innnnnnBEnnr

Rabbits— CoUonldil and Brush

Bear, Fur Animals

Ducks, Geese,
Jack Snipe, Mud Hens

All tXCtPl

4.4'/., 19. 21

ALL

ALL •

EDO

nncBE

i

No Does, Fawns or Spike Bucks

No Fotktd Horned Deer in Dist. IH

No salt- of Venison or Deer Skins

Iwo Gu(ks per Season

except in Vt where limit is one.

SeeNolt->6-9-lO-12

15 per ddf. JU piT Milk, ifivin al*vd)^ open
in4.4'i, n. 21

Sec Not((

I

limil Unr 8 Mud tlin limil \tf itilr i Sff Hirfrt 1(8 U. nnl.

Quail— Valley, Desert
and Mountain

ALL

EXCEPT I

IK.

I

Valley • Desert - Mountain

E.th V.r,,.,

10 per day. 10 in possession.
20 per week

Dove

ALLEXtEPI

r~\_rrm~]

4-41/2-43/1

1 5 Per Day 1 S in posftesiion
30 Per Week

Pheasant

Pigeon

Mn

m

2 Mjlf hirtJv pff dd
2 m pijsM ••Mon

1

10p*''djy 10 <n iiosieiSion

There is no open season on Elk, Antelope, Mountain Sheep, Sea Otter, Beaver, Tree Squirrel, Sierra Hare, R.iil, Wood Duck, Swan,

Shore Birds (except Jack Snipe), Grouse, Sage Hen, Imported Quail, Partridge, or Wild Turkey

BAG AND POSSESSION LIMITS. ETC.

1^1 «I I

lG. i(PI OCT. HOv, (>

Steelhead and
all Trout

(except Golden)

Whitefish

Unlawful to take trout
in waters closed by Gov-
ernor's proclamation

Klddidlh Rivfr. tdkg Almanor

2 'A

I

I

Bag limll for taking
and possession, 25 trout
or 10 pounds and one
trout.

S« Nolt 22

1 \-i-i and Winter
hidmalh River

■ ■■II

I noB

5 Trout regardless of weight

Golden Trout

BLACK BASS

Sunfish

Sacramento Perch
and Crappie

Striped Bass

Crabs

Abalones

Pismo Clams

Spiny Lobster

GRUNION

All ( net PI

i-4( ;..iit*pi{oi

ALL

EXCEPT 4'/.

ALL

AIL EXCEPT
CLEAR LAKE

; unnnanDLrnB

E

ALL

All txapj

l;^. 6-7-8-9

ALL

ALL

jnnnr

I

3 Trout regardle&s of weight

i Trout regardless of wtight

No Sale

No Spearing

tor other

reslrittions

See Notes

12-15-16-20

2t-22-27-2S

30-32

On this

Card

20 per day. None under 5 inches

Not more than 10 Ibt. and one
See Note 22

15 per day

Clear Lake
10 per day

25 per day

No Black Bass under9 in.

No sale

Hook and line only

25 per day
10 per day

Hook and line only
No sale

luMdllUMI, lU ld*,».< )U|

Bnnnom

>tdton UiiUul* 1 ' -6-7-S-9 Ot.T»mb«r IS lo Au(u»l 10

See Note 23. None under 7 inches. No female

■nnnoH

Onl, lor luod. Mu,l b>' bruufhl lo vhvr,. ali-c m ,hr<l
Antllins luense Rcnuir<ll. See Nolc 26

None under 5 inches. No shipment. 15 per day
Ancl-ng iKrnse Rfquifcd Oi\lf id 18d Closed _

I Mi4(. Nont undi, H) ' .. o

See Note 2)

SALMON, See Note A.

STURGEON, No Open Season (possession prohibited).

NOTES IT IS ALWAYS

1. To hunt, kill, possess -wild birds or mammals, to possess
firearms, except under written permit from the Commission,
in Dists. la, lb, Ic, Id, le. If, Is. Ih, 11, Ij. Ik, Im. In, lo, Ip, Iq.
Ir. Is. It, 2a, 2b, 3a, 3b, 3c, 3d, 3e, 3f, Zg. 3h. 4a, 4b, 4c, 4d. 4e, 4f,
4e. or General Grant Refuge, or Mt. Tamalpais Game Refuge,
including Richardson Bay, or San Francisco Refuge, or Silver
Lake Refuge (water fowl may be killed in 4a and 4e), or to
hunt quail in Bolinas Quail Refuge, or to hunt or discharge fire-
arms In Huntln^on Lake Refuge, San Leandro Bay Refuge,
or Monterey Peninsula Refuge.

2. To hunt birds or mammals excepting predators without a
hunting license. To hunt In areas closed by proclamation.

3. To possess any bird net or to net, trap or to hold pro-
tected game or birds of any kind, their nests or eggs except
under written permit from the Commission.

4. To take more than 4 geese per day, 8 per week of all
varieties, and 12 Canada geese and black sea brant. To take
more than 25 mud hens per day, 50 per week. To have more
than 1 dally bag limit of geese and mud hens In possession
by 1 person In 1 day. g

5. To take or kill nongame birds, except blue jay, butcher
bird, English sparrow, sharp-shinned. Cooper or duck hawk,
great horned owl, linnet, crow, black-billed magpie, whit?
pelican, shag, and In DIsts. 1, 2, 3, 4 and 4J, blackbirds.

UNLAWFUL

6 To hunt deer without deer tag license. To fall to attach to
hr.rns of deer Immediately on killing, properly filled out deer
tag or at same time to send duplicate lag to Division. To carry
deer into closed district without having deer tag countersigned,
or to h.avo untagged deer In possession. To tal'. to retain In
possession during open season and for 10 days after, skin and
portion of head bearing horns of deer killed and to produce upon
demand. To use more than 1 dog to hunter In hunting deer or
to allow dogs to run deer In closed season, or to possess doe or
fawn skins, or deer skins not bearing evidence of sex.

7 To trap for profit without first procuring a trapping license
bear, ring-tailed cat, coon. pIno marten, skunk, fisher, wolverine,
mink river otter, fox or muskrat. or to kill same during closed
season, except when destroying property. To Interfere with
traps of licensed trappers. To use saw tooth or spike-Jawcd
traps for taking fur bearers. ,j v. j

8 Tq use any animal other than dog to stalk wild birds.

9. To shoot game from power boat, sailboat, auto, airplane,
or to hunt waterfowl from scull boat in Dists. 8, 9. except on
Wed and Sun., or at any time In Dist. 12 or N.apa River south
of Edgerly Island, and In Mare Island Straits from the Napa
River to "Carqulnez Strait, or to use shotgun larger than 10
gauge, or to possess an extension automatic or cane gun. To
have In possession any device capable of or to be used In
silencing the report of any ftrearm.

10. To shoot resident came botween | hour after aunaet and
1 hour before aunriHe. or ml(,'ratory game between buhhcI
and i hour before sunrlao. To use a apotltght in hunting: K.imt-.

11. To drive game birds by means of auto, airplane, or power
boat over Hhooters.

12. To hold came or Hsh longer than 5 daya after close of
season ; veniaon 15 daya.

13. To Bell wild game, except cottontail and bruah rabbits.
H. To make a false statement in apjilying for license. To

fall to show license upon demand to any olllcer.

15. T'l lake ^'ame or flsh from one district to another when
season Is not open In both. (Special law for deer, trout and
black ba.ss. ) Trout locally taken may bo transported from
open disinct into closed district by the constffnor making an
affidavit In duplicate aetling forth his name, address, number of
anKlinjT Ixen.se and name -ind address of consignee. Original
must be attached to shipment; copy left on file with oiflcer
before whom sworn. Trout may be shipped Into closed district
when accr>mpanied by written statement to effect that trout
were I'^^ral. signr-d by aliipptr. countersigned by agent to whom
offered for shipment. Black bass legally taken may be trans-
ported from open district into closed district.

16. To ship wild birds, mammals, or fish except smoked or
dried (ish other than trout by parcels post, or in conct-aied
packages or without a tag bearing name and address of con-
signee and consignor and contents, or to ship game out of State.

IT. To operate a commercial hunting club without license.

18. To plr.ce obPtructions in streams In Dtsts. 1, IJ. 2, 2i, 2J,
%, 4. ii, 23 and 25 that will stop or Impede fish.

19. To sell striped ba.ss taken with hook and line; to trans-
port or carry striped bass out of State. To ship stri|u-d boss
less than 20 in. in length or more than 10 lbs. in weight. To
I)osse?s more than 5 shad per day between June 1 and I-'eb. 14.

20. To take trout other than with rod and line held m hand
or with lure with more than 2 attractor blades or more than
o hooks. To take trout except by angling In such manner as
to cause trout to voluntarily take hook in its mouth.

21. To li.'ive in possession any Tish spear or gaff (except
landing gaff) within 300 feet of any lake or stream when
uiilnwiul to spear salmon.

22. To take trout in any lake within 200 feet of mouth of any
stream from Oct. 31 to Aug. 1. or in that portion of any stream
flowing Into any lake In Dlst. 23 within 2 miles from Its mouth.
upstream, from Oct. 31 to Aug. 1. To take golden trout in
Cottonwood Lakes group. Including South Fork Cottonwood
Lakes group and * mile of strearp below the lower lake in each
of said groups, except from July 1 to Oct. 31.

23. To bring to shore crabs or lolisters In such condition
that size can not be taken ;or to ship or carry crabs out of DIstg.
li. 2i, 5, 6. 7, 8 or 9. To sell any crabs taken In Eel River or
tributaries or to possess more than 10 crabs taken there or to
lake any between i hour after sunset and J hour before sunrise.

24. To take or possess in Dist. 3 salt water eela of less than
12 in. or more than J5 per day.

25. To take or possess cockles less than 1 J In. in diameter, or
to take or possess more than 15 (Dlsts. 2 and 10) Washington
clams or more than 10 horse clams or more than 30 razor or
jackknife clams per day, or in Dlsts. 18, 19, 21 more than 15 lbs.
of mu.-^sels per day. To take or possess any Pismo clams in
Dist. 18 between i hour after sunset and J hour before sunrise.

or to poAseaa any clam digging implement in that district. To
possess any clam digging implement in any clam preserve.

26. To take red abulooes less than 7 In., in greatest diameter;
grnon. G' : pink, G ; black. 5 ; to dry abalones ; to dive for aba-
lones In JDlsta. 7, 15, l£. 17, \0. 20 and 20a : to take more than 10
iwr day or 20 per week In Dials. 7, 15, 16, 17.19,20 and 20a. To
take more than 10 per day from shore in Dists. 7. 10 and 18; to
take m-^re than 10 black abalones per day In Dlsts. 15, 16, 17,
18, 19, 20, 20a, 21. To possess more than 10 per day In Dlst. 2.

27. To fish for game flsh without having an angling license.

28. To take game flsh between 1 hour after sunset and I
hour before sunrise In Dists. 1. 1), IJ. 2. 2\. 2J. 3. 4, H. 4|.
23. 2.5. To take strli>ed bass by hook and line between sunset
and sljnrlse.

'J9. To fish with nets except In commercial districts or to
Injure any legal neL

30. To f\ft\\ through Ice for any flsh or to take flsh In Dial. 14.

31. To place, cause to be placed, or di.scharge Into any
waters substances deleterious to flsh or plant life.

32. To fish within 210 ft. of flshway or 150 ft. of upper side of
flsh screen, or lower side of dam. or to take flsh except salmon
within I mile of eitht-r side of spawning station, or any laks
wi'hln i mile of spawning station when station is In operation.

33. To kill. Injure or capture Cal.sea lions In Dists. 19. 20.20a.
3 i. To take Invertebrates or marine plants In Hopkins

Mnrin'^ Rr-fuL-e (Mnnlerey Co.) or In that area between the
west Hne of the properly of the Srrlnps Institute and a line
l.onn foet wom of low tide lino (San Diego Co.).

35. To take more than 5 white sea bass from May 1 to June
30. or <o take nt any one time more than 5 under 2** In.

3R. To takf more than 30 lbs of halibut under 4 lbs each, ot
to '"Uf TTir.'-o ti.nn ^ hirr.nmda Ipsr than 3 Ihs. each.

37. To take frogs le.ss than 4 In. In length measured from tip
of nose to posiprior end of body between hind leg.s. or to take or
possess more than 24 frogs per day or 48 frogs per week.

NOTE A. — .SALMON. Salmon rm nol be taV*n on #pirtninB bfd*. or wlthlti
10 mJlCs of sna»n-t.iklnK nation, or 3 mllri norlli ind louih 'if moutli of KlamaJ)
ItKrr .Ml Tallinn bo^lf muti havo lan'lme nrt. anil nn f't]in<V'K Ic^i llian 2'. or
*llrrr Ivhf than ?4 In r;in be lakrn In ocean anr] UumlHiriJi Day Dl^'i Un trrtlied
■almnn ran not ht cafTed or cl<it>t>«d. or brouflit atliorr In «urt) rmrllilon thai ils*
can n't tip drtormlneO. S-Wmon may tw laken wllti hoolc am! line In any dlttrlct
wlien irout (caton for aald dlitrlct li ot^n.

In t>lil 1. talniDn may tit taken with hi^^k ani line or *p^ir bfl»»een Mnr 29 and
Oct Hl.eircpt la) In Feather RUer from II* m'MJth to m<m(h of ths Vut>« : (h) la
Amtrlran Hivrr from III mouth to Fair nik!- brlilco. In Plil 2. (e i In Ruiilan.
Nipa anl NtTfTo riven; (di In Eel Rher and it\ In tidewater in Diitt :. 1
•nd 15. irlth liook and lln« from May 1 to lait day of Feb . Un lltntt 1 r«r day.
in Feather Rlier henveen mnuth of Yu'ja and Thermallin lirlilK'. with hook tni]
line briwren May 1 and Dre. 31. bta limit 2 per day. In 5an Joaquin Rl*er. frgm
mou'h to Mendott weir, with hook and line from April 1 toper. 31. In Dttt. 1%,
(*Uh hook anil line from fttay 29 to Pee. 31 : with ipear from Aug. 1 to Ort 31.
bae limit 2 prr ifay In PliK. 2. 2%. with hook anj line from ftlay I (o Feb.
laii : with freir from Nov 1 to Feb last, bae limit 2 per day. In Dlit. 3. with
h'-oU atd line fr.-im May I lo Oct. 31. bac limll 3 per d^y. In KlamAth Rtrar
Dlst. atjuve nde\»anT. *lih hook and line from May 20 to Pec, 31 ; wlih »pe*r. from
AkiE. 1 to Orl. 31. hai; limit 2 per d4y. In Kt;imith Hirer Dltl. In tidewater. wlUi
hook and line from ^tay 29 lo Dec 31. B>k llnill I* S per day from Miy 2B to
Sept. 5. and 2 per day from Sept. 6 to Pec. 3 1 . n'<t tnore than I daily bac Ilmll la
poisesilon. In DUti. 6. 7. tl. 9 with hook and line from April 1 to Srpt. IS. do
bae limit. In Plits. 10. II. with hook and line from May I to Auf. 30. do bac
limit. In Dltti 12. I2B. UC. 13. with hook and line at my tlm». no bae Hmll.
In Plat. ICA. wliti hook and line from May 1 to Feb. latt, bag lluid 2 pT day.
In PKtf I'>. lf>. 17. 18. with hook and line from Mar 1 i" July l j

LICENSES MUST BE SHOWN UPON
DEMAND

Dtitncis la. lb. Ic. Id. le. H. Ir. lb. li. 1|. Ik Im. In.
lo. Ip. Iq. Ir. is. IL 2a, 2b, 3i. 3b. 3c. 3d. 3e. 3f. 3k. 3h. 4a.
4b. 4c. 4d. 4e. 4/. 4fi. arc Came Rcfugi-s Hunlirg pro-
bibited Anr;!ing in accord.ince wuh law relating to main
districts in which refuge is located

DiBirict8 5. 0.7.8.0.10.11,12. 12ti. 12b. 12c. 13, 16. 17, 18,
19. 19a, 20, 20a. 21. 22, are CoitiroercLil Fishing District*
Ranting -md aiK''"!; ■" accord.tnce with law rclaling to
mam dislricl m which small district i» located

District 14 IS a Fuh Reservation All fishing prohibited.

District 2* J includes those townships in Mendocino

County bordering on Uie Pacific Ocean (except 15 and

16 W. 11 N) and townships 13, H. IS, 16. 17 and 18 N..

R 16 W

District 2^4. Those parts of Mendocino. Lake and Colusa
counties lying east of the Redwood Highway and north of
the L.ikc Tahoe Ukiah Highway. ;ind all of Glenn County.
District 23 The wat*r shed of Lake Tahoc and Truckce
" iver, Rubicon and LiUlc Rubicon above confluence
Water shed of American River and Silver Creek above
confluence Includes waters in water shed of
Co^umnes above mother lode highway bridge,
waters of South Fork American River be
twcen Chill Biu* Bndge and mouth of
Sliver Creek, the waters of the C&rMn.
West Carson and all inbuUriea,
Twin Lakes, Silver. Twin. Blue.
Meadow, Wood. Wmnemocca,
Scott. Bumside Lake and
all tnbiitnry streanu nnd
the drainage .irea of
Webber Creek above
mother todc high-
way bndje

Help
Present
Forest
Fires

ItiMtJ by

Dept. of Natural Resources

Division of Fish and Game

Smcrmmtmt»
Ssm Trauchcm
L»t Amgtt*!

FISH AND CAME DISTRICTS

or

CALirORNlA

/Mit. ...(M, 6. Mi Ml •M'i/x*. ifwt.k ar N„l ,,«
<>.... Mlb,t,-t. hm'-tirit*. *••.!«. •«* fvi.. CAt.ffim
«*.»..< (..r.* !.«»■ ., ,..a... fJ ,-./ f,H. ,tlUm fm.
<-'*.ir>, •ff^m <'u4r'. .*(«•.. ,ltr4kr„l mmd llvr
»■•■•. r*-r., kWr*.*. il'.ftJ b»». kUft A^.t. ft.t^.
ftHf. fl.n ha,%, tl.m^ ('•■•, •kWaari. «.i all

LICENSE PROVISIONS
HUNTING

t.*,n« ,..r J„l. I .B J-„, )•

Rfsidrnis under 18 $1.00

Resident ciii7erts 2.00

NonreMdcnt citizens 10.00

Decl.irani aliens 10.00

Other aliens 25.00

ANGLING

Lmchh Ttir Jinuiry I I* DmMbfr > 1

Resident citi/ens JI.OO

Nonresident citizens . ._ 3.00

Aliens . $.00

Under 18 no license required

TRAPPING

,...)-'. I ■•I"-' >»

Citizens $1.00

Aliens „ 2.00

Under 18 no license required

DEER TAG

t.«f-.t r*<' J.o'i'T I ••> 0<.r*<lMr II

Everyone (2 tags) _ $1.00

COMMERCIAL HUNTING
CLUBS

Citizens - $25.00

Alien* „. 100.00

Operators, citizens — . 5 00

Operators, aliens. _.—.—...- 2^.00

For Lau I in Full S/f

Fi\h and Came

Code

for Commerciat ftth

Laws See Commerciat

Ati tract

For Information Re-

garJtnfi tub or Game

Write to the

Dti tfion 0/ Ft%h

anJ Came

\

California Fish and Game

"conservation of wild life through education."

Volume 20 SACRAMENTO, JULY, 1934 No. 3

TABLE OF CONTENTS

. Page

A STUDY OF THE LIFE HISTORY AND FOOD HABITS OF MULE DEER

IN CALIFORNIA Joseph 8. Dixon 181

EDITORIALS AND NOTES 283

STATISTICS —

Statement of Income 304

Statement of Expenditures 305

Violations of Fish and Game Laws 308

Fresh Fish Landings and Importations 310

A STUDY OF THE LIFE HISTORY AND FOOD
HABITS OF MULE DEER IN CALIFORNIA*

By Joseph S. Dixon

With photographs by the author.

PART I— LIFE HISTORY
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
INTRODUCTION 182

Acknowledgments 185

IDENTIFICATION 186

Characters of the genus Odocoileus 186

Nomenclature 186

DISTRIBUTION OF MULE DEER IN CALIFORNIA 187

CHARACTERS 189

General Characters 189

Measurements 191

Weights 192

Antlers and Horned Does . 192

Ears 19 9

Tail 199

Metatarsal Glands 203

Eye Shine 204

Voice 205

Tracks 206

Beds 209

Mannerisms 215

Senses 219

GENERAL HABITS 224

Extent and Causes of Seasonal Migrations 224

Fluctuations in Mule Deer Populations 230

Winter Range 231

Local Habitat 232

* Contribution from the Wildlife Division, United States National Park Service.
12731

182 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

CONTENTS— Continued

Page
BREEDING HABITS 236

Age at Which Bucks Develop Antlers 236

Breeding Age op Does 238

Growth of Antlers 239

Adult Bucks With Spike Antlers 246

Unicorn Buck 248

Relative Numbers of Bucks, Does, and Fawns 251

Young Versus Mature Bucks as Breeders 253

Battles Between Bucks 255

Friendliness op Bucks ^ 257

Breeding Season and Period of Gestation 260

Age at Which Fawns are Weaned 267

NATURAL ENEMIES 269

Mountain Lion 271

Wildcat 272

Coyote 272

Black Bear 273

Golden Eagle 273

DISEASES 274

Modoc Deer Disease 274

Foot-and-Mouth Disease 276

Internal Parasites 278

External Parasites 279

Eye Disease 280

INTRODUCTION

The mule deer is the most important species of game mammal
found in California. It affords sport, recreation and inspiration to
more citizens of California than does any other native mammal.

The mule deer is not restricted to any particular section or portion
of the State, but, through its various geographic races, is found the
entire length of California from Oregon to the Mexican boundary. As
a matter of fact, it is surprising to find that from 1927 to 1933, inclu-
sive, there was only one county in California in which deer were not
killed, namely, thickly-populated San Francisco County. Deer, either
black-tailed or mule, were killed during that seven-year period in every
other county in the State. Furthermore, the mule deer is found in
all four national parks located in California ; so that the species is
enjoyed by all the people, bringing pleasure both to the sportsman and
to the nonhunting public.

The successful quest of a large "lava" buck is to the average
sportsman, the nimrod's crowning achievement. This is emphasized
with each passing year. Ten years ago only a few local sportsmen
sought Rocky Mountain mule deer bucks in Modoc County. Now, on
the opening day of the deer season, hunters pour into that section by
hundreds from every portion of the west, each intent on "getting"
one of the big "lava" bucks. This increased pressure on the big mule
deer in Modoc County is graphically shown by the data afforded by the
recently installed system of deer tags, which has been introduced by our
State Division of Fish and Game, Avhereby each hunter taking a buck
in California reports to the Division the locality, time, and other details
concerning the killing of the deer. We now have dependable informa-
tion as to the numbers of deer killed in the various counties of the
State. From the deer tags we learn that the reported kill of mule

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 183

deer bucks in Modoc County has been as follows: 1927, 510; 1928, 729;
1929, 835 ; 1930, 1129. Thus it will be seen that the toll levied on mule
deer in this one county more than doubled in these four years.

The so-called "granite" bucks of the higher central portions of the
Sierra Nevada, while not reaching the extreme development of the
Rocky Mountain mule deer bucks of Modoc and Lassen counties, are
famed among hunters for their large size and craftiness, two character-
istics which place them near the top of the list in the eyes of the true
sportsman.

The sportsman takes, on the average, a more active and more
aggressive interest in game animals than does the stockman or the
rancher or the average citizen, yet we find that there are men in other
walks of life who have a very direct and concrete interest in deer.
This is particularly true in the case of certain owners of small orchards
and vineyards along the main western flank of the Sierra Nevada. In
many instances these ranchers are located in the midst of forest lands
or brush-covered areas where deer have bred up because of favorable
conditions, such as abundant food supply and safe breeding places and
relative freedom from their natural enemies. In planting alfalfa, grain
crops, deciduous orchards and vineyards, the rancher who is located
in the chaparral belt is often unintentionally providing an appetizing
addition to the normal food of deer. In a similar manner, the ranch-
man or stockman often affords deer unintentional protection through
his efforts to protect his own domestic animals from the inroads of
predatory animals such as mountain lions and coyotes. Thus it has
come to pass that in many instances deer have increased locally so that
they have become a nuisance and, in certain instances, a source of
serious loss to the vineyardist and the orchardist.

As a result of my studies regarding the food preferences of deer,
I have found that under certain conditions there is serious competition
for food between deer and domestic stock. This struggle for sustenance
between the wild game (deer) and the flocks and herds of man occurs
on both privately owned range land and upon the national forests,
of which we have no less than eighteen in California, covering a total
area of 19,180,000 acres, which is approximately one-fifth of the land
surface area of the State. Through various studies that have been made
of the food requirements of both deer and domestic animals, and
through actual experience in the field, the writer has found that compe-
tition for food is most intense between deer and domestic sheep, the
competition being slightly less between deer and range cattle, and least
of all between deer and horses.

The continued requests that have come to the writer from time to
time for facts and definite data regarding the food habits and life
history of deer in California constitute one outstanding reason for the
publication of this report. From time to time, notably during the
epidemic of hoof-and-mouth disease in California, I have made, at the
request of the Fish and Game Commission, special investigations to
determine all possible facts regarding the extent, distribution and con-
dition of deer that had contracted the disease. At other times during
epidemics among the deer, such as occurred in Modoc County in 1924
and a few years later in Trinity County, I have made special investiga-
tions, at the request of our Division of Fish and Game, which is more

184 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

directly concerned with the welfare of deer in California than any
other State agency. A second State institution whicli has been directly
concerned in ascertaining- definite facts concerning the deer of Cali-
fornia is the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology of the University of Cali-
fornia. Not only have the facts thus obtained been a real contribution
to science, but practical and direct use of them has been made by the
writer and others. The United States Forest Service and the State
Chamber of Commerce have recently shown outstanding interest in
deer as a recreational asset of California.

In addition to sportsmen, stockmen and ranchers, there are other
people directly interested in the welfare of deer, particularly in our
national parks. These are the average citizens who, perhaps, prefer
their deer alive rather than as venison. The recreational and inspira-
tional value of deer in our national parks is becoming more and more
recognized by an increasingly large number of people. The presence
of living deer under natural conditions in the national parks and in the
national forests may satisfy certain human wants just as truly when
the deer are alive as when they are killed and eaten by the hunter.

Many ranchers who have suffered damage from deer have been
forced to take an active interest in the solution of the problems and,
in like manner, stockmen whose flocks and herds compete directly with
deer for food are also taking an increased interest in these animals.

The author has hunted and studied deer in most of the mountain
and foothill counties of California. Furthermore, the observations
here presented cover a period of thirty years. During the ten-year
period, 1920-1930, as Economic jMammalogist in the Museum of Verte-
brate Zoology, I made a special study of the deer of California.
More recently, opportunity has also been utilized to study mule deer in
Arizona, Colorado, Utah, and Wyoming. As a result, it was found
that in these other regions habits of mule deer differed considerably
from those of these animals in (California. It was therefore deemed
important that the data here given as applying to California be
restricted to facts found and observations actually fnade in and known
to apply to mule deer in California.

Because of limited space, necessitating a fifty per cent reduction,
many extensive notes and detailed descriptions covering seasonal color,
skull and teeth characters, nomenclature, bibliography, and dis-
cussion of other scientific details, have been eliminated from this paper,
which deals with the living animal in its native habitat. On the other
hand, special reference has been given here to the ecology, life history,
and food preferences of mule deer in California. It is my firm belief
that any adequate game management is directly dependent upon a
thorough knowledge of these fuiidamental factors. Our game manage-
ment will be no better than our real knowledge of these vital require-
ments of the deer.

It is becoming obvious that the time is rapidly approaching when
an equitable division of forage between wild game and domestic stock
will be a serious question in certain of our national forests. On the
one hand, we have the hunters and sportsmen of the State who are
insisting that every protection possible be afforded the deer, and on the
other hand we have the orchardists, the vineyardists, and stockmen who

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 185

suffer real and concrete damage because of the presence of deer. Any
just solution of this very real problem must be made upon the basis
of known facts, and it is the writer's hope and belief that the data
and facts which this study has brought out will be of basic assistance
in working out an equitable solution of this problem.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author of this study wishes to acknowledge the help of, and to
express his gratitude to, two friends, Annie M. Alexander and George
M. Wright, whose encouragement, interest and support have made this
field investigation and this report possible.

Gus Nordquist, Oakland, California, has given much valuable aid
by generously allowing the writer to examine in the flesh hundreds of
deer heads that have been shipped in by deer hunters from all parts
of California to his taxidermy studio to be mounted. Nordquist has
also aided in the securing of many critical deer skulls which the writer
has used in this study and which are now deposited in the Museum of
Vertebrate Zoology of the University of California.

Dr. A. W. Sampson of the Division of Forestry of the University
of California has kindly worked and conferred with the writer on
numerous occasions regarding the food and forage habits of deer, and
has also permitted use of some of his field observations.

The writer is also indebted to J. Bruce, State Lion Hunter of Cali-
fornia, for the opportunity to accompany him on numerous lion hunting
trips at different seasons of the year. In this way much valuable infor-
mation was gained at first hand in the field regarding the toll taken
by cougars and other natural enemies of deer.

The writer is under obligation to various officials of the Division
of Fish and Game for assistance rendered. He is also obliged to the
Director of the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology for the use of material
in that institution. The writer is likewise indebted to the Director of
the National Park Service and to the superintendents and the park
naturalists in Lassen, Yosemite, and Sequoia national parks. These
gentlemen have furnished information and assistance while the writer
has been engaged in working upon the deer problem in the various
national parks. To the many forest rangers, fish and game deputies,
and other persons who have assisted in numerous ways, I wish to express
my gratitude.

18fi CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAMB

IDENTIFICATION

CHARACTERS OF THE GENUS ODOCOILEUS

The mule deer belongs to the order artiodactyla or Even-toed
Ungulates, and to the Cervidae or "deer" family. The genus Odo-
coileus as described by Rafinesque (Atlantic Journal, Vol. 1, 1832,
p. 109) is placed by Gerrit S. Miller (Bull. 128, U. S. Nat. Mus., 1924,
p. 484) between the genus Cervus (elk) and the genus Mazama
(brockets). Two noteworthy characters which separate the deer family
from other living ungulates of North America are the possession of
antlers and certain dermal glands. The antlers of deer are often
incorrectly referred to by sportsmen and others as "horns." How-
ever, true horns are derived from cuticle, as claws and nails are. Horns
are hollow and are usually present in both sexes. With the exception
of the pronghonied antelope, horns are permanent nnhranched struc-
tures. On the other hand, antlers are true bone, not hollow, and are
normally grown and shed once each year. Antlers are usually branched
and, with the exception of caribou and reindeer, are normally borne
only by the males of the species.

NOMENCLATURE

Following are references to the original descriptions of the various
subspecies or geographic races of mule deer recorded as occurring in
California.

Rocky Mountain Mule Deer — Cervus hemionus Rafinesque, Am. Monthly Mag. 1,
October, 1817: 4?S.
Cariacus macrotis Say, Narrative Long's Expd. to Rocky Mts., 2, 1823 : 88.

California Mule Deer — Cervus macrotis var. californicus Caton, Am. Naturalist, 10,
August, 1876: 464.

Burro Deer — Dorcelaphus hemionus eremicus Mearns, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 20,
February 11, 1897: 470-471.

Inyo Mule Deor — Odocoileus hemionus inyoensis Cowan, Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash.,
46, April 27, 1933 : 69-70.

Southern Mule Deer — Odocoileus hemionus fuligliiatus Cowau, Journal of Mam-
malogy, 14, November, 1933: 326-327.

There has been much difference of opinion regarding the correct
scientific name of the Rocky Mountain mule deer. Vernon Bailey and
H. H. Sheldon have insisted that macrotis is the name that should be
used, while Gerrit S. Miller and Dr. Joseph Griunell have insisted on
using hemionus in their check lists of mammals. My detailed examina-
tion of skulls and teeth of topotype material indicates that several
pages would be needed to give a fair presentation of the facts. Because
of limited space this will have to be left for a later publication. In
this paper common names are used (see distribution map).

CALIFORNIA PISH AND GAME 187

DISTRIBUTION OF MULE DEER IN CALIFORNIA

Of the five forms of mule deer now recognized in California (see
distribution map, Fig. 47) three forms, the Rocky Mountain, Inyo, and
burro deer occur chiefly or entirely east of the crest of the Sierra
Nevada. The other two forms, the California and southern mule deer
inhabit the Pacific drainage of the Sierra Nevada. The Rocky Mountain
mule deer is found in northeastern California, chiefly in Modoc and

DISTRIBUTION OF BLACK-TAILED
AND MULE DEER IN CALIFORNIA

Co/umh/on B/ock-^oi/ed Deer
Southern S/ocA--!'o//ec/ Deer
PocAy Moaniain /^u/e Deer
Co///orn/o Mo/e Deer
Burro Deer
/nyo A/fu/e Deer
7 !§§§§§§! 3ou-fhern Mu/e Deer

Joseph S Dijfon- 1934

Fig 47. Map showing author's concept of distribution of mule deer and coast

black-tailed deer in California.

Lassen counties and then south along the eastern flank of the Sierra
Nevada to Mono Lake. The Inyo deer occurs along the eastern
declivity of the southern Sierra Nevada, extending from Owens Lake
north to the head of Owens Valley, thence swinging east to include the
White Mountains of extreme eastern California. The burro deer
formerly ranged over western Imperial County but was driven out of
that region by settlement of the Imperial Valley and is now (1933)

188

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

restricted to the dry desert washes and Chocolate Mountains of north-
eastern Imperial County and to the eastern portion of Riverside County
(see distribution map).

The California mule deer, in my experience, ranges from the
American River south along the western slope of the Sierra Nevada to
Tehachapi Pass and thence westward past Mount Pinos, to and includ-
ing the Santa Inez, San Gabriel, and San Bernardino Mountains. The
southern mule deer occurs in California in the San Jacinto, Trabuco,
Palomar, and Cuyumaca Mountains in San Diego, western Riverside,
and southeastern Orange counties (see distribution map).

There has been much recent discussion
regarding hybrids of both Rocky Moun-
tain mule deer and California mule deer
with Columbian black-tailed deer. Limited
space prevents full discussion of this
interrelation, but I have personally exam-
ined a number of such hybrid specimens
from the Shasta, Lassen, and Yosemite
areas. As early as 1927, I discovered, and
demonstrated by photographs (see Fig.
48), the presence of coast black-tailed
deer and hybrids in Yosemite Valley,
where only mule deer were reported to
exist. A few years later I was able,
through Nordquist, to retrieve and to
preserve such a specimen from near
Wawona, Mariposa County.

On February 12, 1032, three miles east
of Jackson, Amador County, I examined
the hide and other remains of a Colum-
bian black-tailed buck that had been killed
at that locality late the previous fall.
Both the tail, which was entirely intact,
having been left unskinned, and the
metatarsal gland of the hind leg were
clearly characteristic of a Columbian
black-tailed deer. From this and from

dead deer which I examined on the Stan-

islaiis National Forest during the foot-and-mouth epizootic, I am con-
vinced that the range of the Columbian black-tailed deer extends down
along the lower foothills of the Sierra Nevada at least to Wawona,
Mariposa County (see distribution map).

Fig. 48. Black-tailed doe
in Yosemite Valley, .luly 1,
1927. Note color and shape
of tail of living animal. Mus.
Vert. Zool. No. 5402.

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

189

CHARACTERS

GENERAL CHARACTERS

Rocky Mountain and California mule deer are larger than either
the white-tailed deer of the eastern United States or the true black-
tailed deer of the Pacific Coast. Body robust; ears long and large
(see Fig. 49) ; antlers massive, and, in adult males, the main beams
normally double-forked to form four nearly equal branches or tines
(see Fig. 50). The winter coat of the mule deer is dark gray (see Fig.
51), whereas the summer pelage is rusty or rusty tan. A conspicuous
creamy white rump patch is characteristic of the Rocky Mountain
mule deer. The tail is cylindrical and averages about six inches in

Fig. 49. A mature California mule deer buck. Note robust body, large ears and
massive antlers. Yosemite, December 6, 1927. Mus. Vert. Zool. No. 5607.

length. The tail at its base is white on dorsal, ventral, and lateral
surfaces. In the true Rocky Mountain form of mule deer, the hlack
terminal tail tip never extends more than half-ivay up the tail. The
skull is long and narrow with deep lachrymal pits below the eyes. The
molar teeth are heavy in this race. In all forms of the mule deer the
metatarsal gland on outside of lower hind leg (see Fig. 52) is a
distinctive feature, being much larger than in either the white-tailed
deer or the coast black-tailed deer. The relative average length of the
metatarsal gland proper in adult males in the three types of deer is:
mule deer, 5 inches ; coast black-tailed deer, 3| inches ; white-tailed deer,
1 inch.

190

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

Pig. 50. California mule deer, adult male
with characteristic double-forked antlers.
Yosemite, November 2, 1929. Wild Life Divi-
sion No. 80.

. '^W^A'^

■*■

.». ^^- i. ■ , ...jsrii'i- ...«_

iiU

Pig. 51. The winter coat of the California mule deer is dark gray. Yosemite,
December 10, 1927. Mus. Vert. Zool. No. 5606.

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

191

MEASUREMENTS

The following measurements here given in inches are 'those of
typical Rocky Mountain mule deer which the writer measured in the
flesh on September 24, 1924, eight miles north of Happy Camp, Modoc
County, California.

Adult four-point buck :

Length, 70

Tail, 8

Hind foot, 20

Ear from crown, 9

Height at shoulder, 44

Metatarsal gland, 5i

Spread of antlers, 28

Circumference of antler at base, 6

Length of antler around longest tine, IS

Hoof of hind foot, 3 x 2J

Fig. 52. California mule deer In "blue" winter coat. Note metatarsal gland on
outside of lower right hind leg. Yosemite, September 18, 1927. Mus. Vert.
Zool. No. 5486.

Adult doe :

Length, 61

Tail, 7

Hind foot, 19

Ear from crown, 8^

Height at shoulder, 32

Metatarsal gland, 4^

Hoof of front foot, 25 x 1|

192 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

Male fawn (just acquiring first fall coat) :

Length, 39

Tail, 5

Hind foot, 14

Ear from crown, 6^

Height at shoulder, 25

Metatarsal gland, 3

Hoof of front foot, li x IJ

Measurements of a pair of California mule deer killed September 4,
1924, at Niagara Creek, Tuolumne County, California, in foot-and-
mouth disease, are as follows :

Forked-horn buck:

Length, 59

Tail, S

Hind foot, 18

Ear from crown, 8

Metatarsal gland, 4

Adult doe:

liength, 53

Tail, 7

Hind foot, 17

Ear from crown, 7^

Metatarsal gland, 3^

WEIGHTS

The heaviest reliable weights of mule deer that I have been able
to find are vouched for by J. S. Hunter of our State Division of Fish
and Game, who reports two bucks that dressed 380 and 350 pounds,
respectively, (California Fish and Game, Jan., 1924, p. 19). p]ach
of these deer would have weighed over 400 pounds when alive. The
largest deer killed recently that I have been able to verify, was shot by
Arthur Oliver, 2317 Mission Street, San Francisco. On September 30,
1930, near White Horse Valley in Shasta County, Oliver killed a
large mule deer buck that weighed 308 pounds on standard scales when
gutted but with head, skin, and feet still attached. This animal was
fat and when alive would have tipped tlie scales at nearly 400 pounds.
All of the largest mule deer from California that I have record of
have come from the northeastern corner of the State in the Lassen and
Modoc sections.

The heaviest authenticated weight that I have been able to obtain
of a California mule deer, was of a four-point buck, killed during the
last week of September, 1923, at Sequoia Lake, Fresno County, by
Arthur and William Bullard. This buck, one-half hour after killing,
and not gutted, but with head and feet on, was placed on standard plat-
form scales and found to weigh exactly 200 pounds. Fat on the rump
of this deer was 1^ inches thick.

antlers and horned does

There has been a great deal of discussion regarding the primary

purpose of antlers in the deer family. Since antlers are deciduous

and are grown anew each year, there is a tremendous amount of vitality

and nutriment necessarily expended in their production. Some writers

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

193

have raised the point that it would be much more economical for the
animals involved if the antlers were permanent like horns and not
renewed each year. It has been argued that the primary purpose of
antlers is to afford protection not only to the animal wearing them but
also to other members, such as the female and young of the species.
Caton and others have pointed out that caribou and reindeer are the
only two members of the deer family in North America in which
females normally bear antlers. It is also obvious that if the antlers
were to serve in securing the maximum protection for the species, they
should be borne by the female of the species rather than by the male,
since in such polygamous species as deer the male takes little or, in
most cases, no responsibility in caring for the dependent young of the
species, and the entire burden of caring for the young therefore falls

Fig. 53. Evenly forked, wide spreading, massive antlers are typical in all races
of mule deer. Yosemite, November 2, 1929. W^ild Life Division No. 104.

upon the shoulders of the mother, and she is the one that should be most
entitled to bear the weapons of defense. However, with the two excep-
tions above noted, we find that this is not the case, and we must there-
fore conclude that the primary aim of antlers is to serve some other
purpose than the protection of the weaker members of the species.

It has been suggested that antlers serve importantly as a means of
carrying out physical competition between contesting males, much in
the same manner as boxing gloves serve as a means of carrying on com-
petition between rival pugilists.

It has been suggested that the most efficient form of antler would
be a single long, slender, unbranched spike that would enable its pos-
sessor to give effective sword-like thrusts. It has been pointed out that

194

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

in case of a battle between two strong, vigorous males, the possession
of such weapons would prove deadly to one or probably both of tlie
contestants, and tliat the primary object of the contest would thus be
made abortive. The present branched form of antler (see Fig. 49)
that is found in our present species of deer serves as a foil which per-
mits strenuous contests for supremacy between contesting males,
thereby eliminating the weaker individuals, thus carrying out nature's
method of providing for the survival of the fittest in tliat the stronger
males are the ones that are left to reproduce and carry on the species,
without being critically injured or permanently disabled in the elimina-
tion contests.

Many hunters and not a few writers have claimed that the antlers
of the mule deer buck can always be told by their tendency to develop a
double fork on either antler instead of as in the case of the white-tailed
deer where numerous tines arise from one large central beam. The
antlers of the Columbian black-tailed deer are of the same general

double-branched type as those
of the mule deer. As a matter
of fact, Caton, after years of
study, came to the conclusion
that there was no single char-
acter which would serve posi-
tively to distinguish the antlers
of mule deer from those of
black-tailed deer. While I
believe this conclusion is correct,
there is a general difference in
massiveness, spread and size of
mule deer antlers which places
the species at the top of the list
from the trophy standpoint. In
mule deer the normal type of
antlers (see Fig. 53) have mass-
ive beams and evenly spreading
antlers which result in their
reaching an unusual dimension
both as regards the circumfer-
ence of the antler at the base
and the height and spread. Now
and then a mule deer buck with high or upstanding antlers (see Fig. 54)
will be encountered, but tliis tall type of antler is more characteristic
of the black-tailed deer than it is of the mule deer.

In certain areas where the two species come together, we find
antlers of both types on both the mule and the black-tailed deer, and
in such cases it is practically impossible to tell from the antler alone
wdiich species it represents. The antlers of the adult mule deer buck
are frequently very symmetrical in their division, the tines being of
relatively the same form, diameter, and curvature. This tendency is
especially noticeable while the antlers are still in the formative stage
and in the velvet, and is well illustrated by Fig. 55, which is that of
a large mule deer buck that I photographed on the floor of Yosemite
VaUey.

Fig. 54. Now and then a California
mule deer buck has high, narrow, pinched-
in antlers. Sequoia, December 21, 1929.
Wild Life Division No. 335.

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

195

Mule deer bucks have been reported from time to time as possess-
ing antlers with a spread of upwards of 40 inches. In one notable case
in California, a mule deer buck was killed in the Modoc region and
the head was subsequently mounted. When it was measured, it was
found to have a spread of 40^ inches. The antlers were a magnificent
set, having nine points on each side. However, the authenticity of the
head was questioned, and when it was subsequently examined it was
found that the skull was not the original skull that had borne the
antlers and that the antlers had been artificially attached in a manner
so that a very great spread had resulted. Naturally such a ' ' made up ' '
trophy could not be accepted as a record head. Two large sets of
antlers of mule deer of which I have obtained authentic record both

Fig 55 Antlers evenly forked and nearly grown but still in the velvet. Yosemite,
July 16, 1928. Mus. Vert. Zool. No. 5708.

had a spread of 36 inches. I have measured a number of sets of
antlers that have had spreads of between 30 and 32 inches. The
normal head of good size will have a spread of about 28 inches.

The largest set of antlers of Kocky Mountain mule deer from
California which I have personally examined, photographed, and
measured (see Fig. 56) was killed by "William Junkans on October 8,
1930, 13 miles northwest of Susanville, Lassen County, California. The
official measurements in inches of this record head, which is the
largest mule deer head listed for California, are given {Records of
North American Big Game, Prentiss N. Gray, Editor, published under
auspices of National Collection of Heads and Horns, Derrydale Press,

196

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

New York, 1932, p. 32) as follows: Length of outside curve, 27 ; circum-
ference of main beam, 6 ; greatest spread, 42|- ; number of points, 12-9.

This deer was found by William Junkans to weigh 320 pounds
when gutted, but with hide, head, and feet attached.

In our mule deer in California, we find that antlers are normally
borne only by males of the species. However, during the past ten years
I have been able to obtain three bona fide and verified examples where
antlers have been borne by females of the Rocky Mountain mule deer.
From time to time woodsmen and hunters have reported the occur-
rence of antlered female deer, but since only the mounted heads were
preserved, there has been no proof of sex of the animal kept. The first
of the three antlered does which has come to my personal attention

Fig. 56. Record Rocky Mountain mule deer head for California. Length, 27
inches; spread, 42 J inches. Killed by Wm. .lunkans, October 8, 1930, thirteen
miles northwest of Susanville, California. Wild Life Division No. 2539.

is now number 35,326 in the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology. This deer
was killed on September 11, 1925, at a point approximately four miles
east of Sierraville and twenty-six miles northwest of Truckee, Cali-
fornia. District Ranger H. I. Snider of Truckee states in letters of
September 12 and 30, 1925 : " I saw the cleanings of this deer and know
that it was a doe with horns. The general appearance of the animal
was that of an extra large doe with horns. The hoofs I thought were
rather large for a doe ; however, this deer weighed 160 pounds dressed.
The shape of the head and neck were very much like that of a normal
doe. The bladder and urinary organs appeared normal. Hunters who
killed does in olden times and who saw this female, state that they

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 197

believe she had never had a fawn. Her nipples were about the same
size as those of a buck. ' ' I personally examined the entire fresh skin
of this doe and was able to verify beyond any question of doubt that
the animal was a female. The antlers of the doe were gnarled and mal-
formed. They were still in the velvet on September 11 when the animal
was shot. There was no indication that the velvet would have been
shed at all, and the antlers were similar to those of certain castrated
bucks in which the antlers remain in the velvet. The tail and meta-
tarsal gland of this doe were typical of the Rocky Mountain mule deer.

The second antlered doe (now number 36,543 in the Museum of
Vertebrate Zoology) was shot by Oscar T. Schumacher on September
29, 1926, at a point seven miles south of Truckee, California, about a
mile and one-half from the Truckee River. The head of this doe is
similar to that of an average forked-horn buck of the species. The
antlers are of fair size and have very well developed brow tines low
down near the base. When killed on September 29, the antlers of
this deer were completely out of the velvet, being brown and hard
like those of an ordinary buck. According to Schumacher's testimony,
"this doe was in first class condition, fat and well built, weighing 150
pounds dressed."

The third doe with antlers (number 36,544 in the Museum of
Vertebrate Zoology) was brought to my attention through the assist-
ance of Dr. L. A. Herrick and Dr. Robert T. Legge of Berkeley. This
was a forked-horn doe in good flesh. It was killed on October 8, 1926,
near the Sequoia Silver Fox Farm at Lake Tahoe, California. As in
the previous cases, examination of the partly skinned specimen showed
that the animal was unquestionably a female. A comparison of the
antlers of these two forked-horn does showed that they could be
matched exactly by antlers of forked-horn bucks from the same region.

Measurements of the three antlered does are as follows :

Circumference
Spread, Height above crotcn, at base,

Mus. Vert. Zool. No. inches inches inches

35,326 9f 12*

36.543 101 91 2J

36.544 121 Hi 3

* Antlers malformed ; the rifrht antler with five points has a height of 12
inches, while the left antler has four points and a height of 7i inches.

Considerable discussion has arisen regarding the possible causes of
antlers appearing on heads of the female deer. It would seem to the
writer that antlers in deer are a secondary sexual character and, just
as we occasionally find women who possess beards, it is not surprising
to find in deer an occasional doe with antlers. H. T. Morgan, in The
Genetic and Operative Evidence Relating to Secondary Sexual CJmrac-
ters, published by the Carnegie Institution of Washington (1919, p.
70), states: "There are, however, a few records of horns developing
in this sex [female] in old age, or presumably after disease of the
ovaries. ' ' I would like to point out that in the case of the first antlered
doe, the doe in question was old and the antlers were malformed and
in the velvet, so that it is entirely po.ssible that her reproductive organs

2—12731

198

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

Fia. 57. Mule deer have the largest ears of all North American deer. This
character which gives this deer its name, is especially prominent in females.
Yosemite, July 1, 1927. Mus. Vert. Zool. No. .5413.

Fig. 5 8. Tlie large flexible ears are instantly adjusted to catch the slightest
sound coming from any direction. Yosemite, June 20, 1927. Mus. Vert. Zool.
No. 5414.

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 199

may have been diseased. However, in the two younger does with
antlers I have been unable to find any evidence that the reproductive
organs were aberrant. Furthermore, both of these younger does had
hard, normal, symmetrical antlers free of velvet.

EARS

The mule deer possesses the largest ear in proportion to body size
of any of our North American deer. This is most conspicuous in the
adult doe (see Fig. 57). This character has been utilized in the scien-
tific names hemionus, which may be freely translated as "half mule,"
and macroUs, which means "large ears." Not only is this member of
large size but it is so controlled by a muscular arrangement as to be
instantly adjusted to catch the slightest sound coming from any direc-
tion (see Fig. 58).

The inside of the ear of the Rocky Mountain mule deer is well
covered with long silky hair, light gray in general color. The outside
covering is a shorter, stiffer covering of darker hairs. There is a gen-
eral tendency toward rich dark brown color around the outer rim of
the ear and particularly on the back of the ear (see Figs. 57 and 58),
The black edging of the ear is much less conspicuous in the newly born
fawn than it is in the adult, but comparison between the sexes shows
that even in day-old fawns the males usually show more tendency
toward the dark coloration than the females, which are lighter in color.

In none of our North American deer is the flexibility in movement
of ears as great as it is in the mule deer. It would seem probable
that there is a close interrelation between type of habitat and the
development in the size of the ear. The burro deer and certain Rocky
Mountain mule deer living in extreme open desert country have been
found to possess the maximum ear development, whereas the California
and southern mule deer, which live in dense brush habitats, have ears
of smaller size that are scantily covered with a growth of stiff hairs.

TAIL

All forms of mule deer which occur in California have a character-
istic type of tail, the tail being cylindrical in general form and the
terminal half consisting of long black hairs. In typical Rocky Moun-
tain mule deer, this tuft of black hairs occupies only the terminal half
of the tail, the upper portion of the tail being creamy white on the
dorsal surface and sides and normally naked part way doAvn the under
side. In many instances as the hairs become abraded there is a decided
narrowing of the tail at its middle (see Fig. 59).

The tail of a mule deer doe (Mus. Vert. Zool. No. 35,326) killed
by W. D, Johnson on September 11, 1925, at a point four miles east of
Sierraville and twenty-six miles northwest of Truckee, measured seven
inches in length exclusive of hair, and was typical of a Rocky Moun-
tain mule deer. In extreme examples of the Rocky Mountain mule
deer, the terminal black tip does not occupy more than one-third of the
tail. On the other hand, in many specimens of California mule deer,
the black terminal tip is continued as a distinct black stripe that
extends clear to the base of the tail. As a matter of fact, this charac-
ter was given by the original describer, Caton, as one of the outstanding
characteristics of this form. It has been my experience that, in general,

200

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

mule deer with tails having a black stripe extending up the dorsal
surface are most frequently found in areas where the ranges of mule
deer and black-tailed deer come together or overlap. Therefore, it is
my opinion that this character is a result of hybridization rather than
a dependable subspecific character. This point is well illustrated by
Fig. 60 which shows tails of three deer which I personally photographed

in the flesh on October 16,
1928, and to the same scale.
The first tail (see Fig. 60a)
is that of a typical mule
deer killed at Crank
Spring, Modoc County.
The tail of the deer on the
right (see Fig. 60c) is that
of a Columbian black-tailed
deer from ]\Iineral, Tehama
County. The central tail
(see Fig. 60b) is that of a
hvbrid between a mule deer
and a black-tailed deer
killed on the south fork of
the Merced River in Mari-
posa County. In all three
instances T was able per-
sonally to examine the
entire skins of the animals
with skulls, antlers, legs,
and tails attached. Meta-
tarsal glands, skulls, and
antlers of the three speci-
mens showed conclusively
tliat the first (Fig. 60a)
was unquestionably a mule
deer and that the last (Fig.
()0c) w^as an unquestioned
Coin m b i a n black-tailed
(leer. The central speci-
juen (Fig 60b) was chiefly
black-tail in all three char-
;ictei"S (skull, metatarsal
Lihmd, and tail), and in my
opinion was one of many
hybrids betAveen mule deer
and Columbian black-tailed
deer.

For many j^ears all the
deer in the Yosemite region
in the west central portion of the Sierra Nevada were regarded as typi-
cal mule deer. However, my investigations there have shown that there
are many individuals which, on the basis of tail, metatarsal gland, and
other characters are clearly and vmequivocally black-tailed deer. In
numerous instances I was able to photograph at close range tails of liv-

FiG. 59. In the Rocky Mountain mule deer,
the tail is often constricted in the middle por-
tion as here shown, but with only the terminal
tip black. Specimen from four miles east of
Sierraville, California, September l.'i, 1925.
Mus. Vert. Zool. No. 4684.

CALIFORNIA PISH AND GAME

201

ing deer. On July 1, 1927, I was able to approach within a few feet of a
doe that had a tail on which a broad black stripe extended up the entire
dorsal surface clear to and above the base of the tail (see Fig. 48). By
no stretch of the imagination could such a tail be considered as belong-
ing to a mule deer. I investigated further and found that the meta-
tarsal gland of this particular doe was very short, being not more than
3| inches in length. Taking another instance, on December 6, 1927, on
the floor of Yosemite Valley, I examined at close range and photo-
graphed another adult doe which had a broad black tail (see Fig. 61)
characteristic of the Columbian black-tailed deer. This doe likewise
had the short metatarsal gland of the black-tailed deer.

One other point should be emphasized, and that is that all the
deer that I have been able to examine on the east side of the Sierra

Fig. 60. Photograph of deer tails in the flesh (dorsal view). (a) Rocky
Mountain mule deer from Crank Spring, Modoc County, (b) Hybrid chiefly black
tail, South Pork Merced River, Mariposa County, (c) Columbian black-tailed deer
from Mineral, Tehama County. Mus. Vert. Zool. No. 5840.

Nevada had characteristic and typical mule deer tails. On the western
slopes near the summit of the range, we find that the tails of deer are
practically all of the straight mule deer type, but as I extended my
examinations down the western slope of the Sierra I found an increased
number of deer which showed a tendency toward the black-tailed type
of deer. This has been particularly noticeable in the Yosemite region
and also in the Stanislaus National Forest on the Tuolumne River
where several thousand deer were killed during the foot-and-mouth
epidemic. A very large proportion of the poisoned deer showed strong
tendencies toward the black-tailed type.

The black-tailed tendency is not restricted to adult animals but
was also noted in a pair of spotted fawns (see Fig. 62) on the floor of

202

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

the
the
the

Yosemite Valley on September 17, 1927. Not only was color character
illustrated, but also the characteristic habit of the black-tailed deer to
elevate the tail to a vertical position when surprised or frightened is
clearly shown by the fawn at the left (see Fig. 62). In the case of
typical mule deer fawns, I have never found any instance where the
tail was raised to a vertical position when the animal was suddenly
surprised or frightened.

I have examined a large number of skins of southern mule deer
taken by hunters from the central portion of San Diego County and
found that the majority of these deer do not show the black stripe
down the tail. On the desert side of the mountains in eastern San
Diego County, specimens examined showed that almost without excep-
tion tails were those of typical
mule deer, whereas along
extreme western slope of
mountains near the coast
black stripe down the tail was
most in evidence.

In the cases of Inj'o and
burro deer, I have been unable
to find any trace of a black
stripe down the tail, all tails
being of extreme Rocky Moun-
tain mule deer type.

Tn regard to size of the tail,
it has been stated that the aver-
age length of the tail in the
adult mule deer is from five to
six inches. My own experience
has been that the length of the
tail bone (this does not include
the long terminal tuft of hairs)
in adult Rocky Mountain mule
deer in California averages
eight inches, with seven and ten
inches as extremes. In the case
of California mule deer, tails
have been found to be somewhat
shorter (about one inch) than in true Rocky Mountain mule deer.
There has been considerable discussion among sportsmen, writers,
and even scientists regarding the position in which the tails of mule
deer and coast black-tailed deer are held when the animals are fright-
ened or alarmed. In one instance, a well-known AVestern writer, in an
article on mule deer published in a nationally known magazine, illus-
trated a frightened mule deer with the tail not raised. The writer
was severely criticized by many sportsmen, particularly those in the
East, who believed that when frightened or when running away from
danger, all deer raised their "flags" to a vertical position. I have
taken special pains to ascertain the facts regarding this point on many
occasions and have found that in the coast black-tailed deer, both in
Columbian and southern, the characteristic reaction when alarmed

Fig. 61. A Columbian black-tailed doe
photographed in Yosemite Valley, Decem-
ber 6, 1927. Note width and extent of
black on tail. Mus. Vert. Zool. No. 5666.

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

203

is for the deer to raise its tail above the horizontal position, usually to a
nearly erect position, so that the white under portion is brought plainly
in view as the animal runs away. However, in the case of all forms of
mule deer the tendency under similar circumstances is to keep the tail
down. At times the tail of the frightened mule deer may be twitched
back and forth, as the animal runs away, but in the majority of
instances the tail is not elevated above the horizontal and there is often
no decided movement of this member. After working in a mule deer
country, it is always a matter of interest and surprise upon returning
to the habitat of the black-tailed deer to note this characteristic differ-
ence in behavior. As a matter of fact, in my estimation, it is one of
the most conspicuous differences to be noted between living individuals
of the two species. Certainly it is one of the best field characters that
we have for identifying the two types of deer.

Fig. 62. Columbian black-tailed, spotted fawns in Yosemite Valley. Note
tendency of nearest fawn to raise tail when frightened, a character of black-tailed
and not of mule deer. September 17, 1927. Mus. Vert. Zool. No. 5523.

METATARSAL GLANDS

The most reliable and distinctive external character that I have
been able to find in the genus Odocoileus is the metatarsal gland, which
is a dermal structure located on the outer side of the hind leg slightly
more than halfway above the center of the long bone that extends from
the "knee" or hock, to the hoof. The location of the gland is discern-
ible by the coarse, curly character of the hair that laps over it.

The size (length, in particular) of this gland has been found to be
decidedly constant in each of the three forms of common deer found in
the United States. In the white-tailed deer, the common species of the
eastern United States, and in the western geographic races of this
species, the metatarsal gland is very short, approximately one incli in
length, and has a broad elliptical form or outline. In the Columbian

204 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

and in the southern black-tailed deer of the Pacific Coast, the meta-
tarsal gland is of medium length, being, in average adults, about three
inches in length in females, and three and one-quarter inches in length
in males. In the black-tailed deer, although the longtli of the metatarsal
gland is three times that of the same organ in the white-tailed deer,
the width of the metatarsal gland is actually less, rarely being as much
as one-half inch. In the mule deer, the metatarsal gland reaches its
highest development, attaining a length of as much as five and one-half
inches. A large four-point buck I measured at Hackamore Reservoir,
eight miles north of Happy Camp, Modoc County, California, on Sep-
tember 24, 1924, had a metatarsal gland of five and one-half inches in
length. In an adult Rocky Mountain mule deer doe of average size
measured at the same time and place, the metatarsal gland had a length
of four and one-half inches. A male fawn of the Rocky Mountain mule
deer, approximately four months old, measured at the same locality and
on the same date, had a metatarsal gland three inches long. It will thus
be seen that a four-months-old mule deer fawn may have a metatarsal
gland as long and as wide as that of an adult black-tailed deer.

Form and size of antlers of the mule deer and the black-tailed
deer may vary greatly. The form, size, and color of the tail in the two
species is fairly constant, but I have found the lengtli of the metatarsal
gland to be subject to the least variation, and therefore I regard it as
the most conservative and the most reliable single external character
that can be used to differentiate between the two species. Wliere
liybrids of the Columbian black-tailed deer and the mule deer occur, I
have found that the size of the metatarsal gland is intermediate between
that of the two species. However, in adults of either species I have
found that there is no overlapping except where actual interbreeding
fiJid hybridization has taken place.

EYE SHINE

In former times, before the practice became unlawful, many deer
were killed by "jack hunting" at night. The method used was for the
hunter to carry a small, powerful acetylene searchlight attached to his
hat or cap. When such a light is carried in this manner, close to the
eyes of the hunter, the light from the lamp is reflected back from the eye
of the deer to the eye of the hunter. This "eye shine" is particularly
observable in nocturnal animals such as owls, poorwills, deer and other
night prowlers.

Light reflected from the eyes of nocturnal animals under such cir-
cumstances has been found to vary in color, and certain types or kinds of
animals have been found to have a characteristically colored "eye
shine." In order to determine the facts in the case and to settle various
arguments, I made especial effort to examine and to record the color
and other details of the "eye shine" in mule deer. On December 14,
1929, on the floor of Yosemite Valley, at 8.80 o'clock, I watched two
bucks with considerable interest as they "horned" a certain slender,
smooth willow sapling. They were so intent on this operation that I
was able to watch them at a distance of twenty feet for several minutes
by the aid of a powerful electric flashlight. I found that under such
conditions their eyes shone like two bright-colored flames of white fire.
At certain times when the bucks turned their heads and were not

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

205

looking directly at the flashlight, their eyes had a curious reddish glow,
but only the clear white light was to be seen when they looked directly
at me. I was able to detect the ''eye shine" in deer, and by means of
that to pick them out of a tangled mass of willows where it would have
been impossible otherwise to have detected the animals in their natural
surroundings.

VOICE

I have heard deer call many times, but I have been unable thus
far to detect any specific difference in voice between the various geo-
graphic races of mule deer in California. Although not frequently
heard, the mule deer in the wild has a distinct voice which is used
both by bucks in the heat of battle and by the doe in calling her young.
When in mortal pain or terror a buck, a doe, or a fawn will often utter

Fig. 63. California mule deer doe and her young in hiding place in tall grass.
Tosemite, July 10, 1928. Mus. Vert. Zool. No. 5748.

an agonized bleat which reminds one of the death cry of a stricken
rabbit.

In Yosemite Valley on January 30, 1929, I witnessed, at a distance
of fifty feet, a prolonged fight between two large four-point bucks.
This battle waged back and forth over the meadow until the weaker
buck was driven back into a ditch and forced down upon his knees.
When thus pinned down and helpless, he uttered a hoarse bawl which
was almost a moan. Apparently this was his w^ay of saying "I've had
enough," for the other buck immediately let him up, and the fight
stopped at once.

During the mating season a buck will sometimes use his voice to
frighten a competing buck away from a coveted doe. On December 6,

206 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

1927, in Yosemite, I watched two large bucks in hot pursuit of a cer-
tain doe. Both bucks were decidedly pugnacious. However, when the
larger and dominant buck apjiroached to within thirty feet of the other
buck, he stopped and lowered his head until his nose almost touched
the ground. He then gave a series of hoarse hisses and grunts. Upon
hearing this, the other buck did not stay to fight but departed in haste.
Again in Yosemite on December 10, 1927, I watched a forked-horn buck
feeding with other deer. AVhenever a certain spike buck came near
him the larger buck uttered a warning wheezy grunt, and the hairs on
his back and rump stood up stiffly like bristles.

At 5.30 o'clock on the morning of July 10, 1928, in a meadow in
Yosemite, I watched an old doe which, from her anxious actions, I felt
sure had a fawn hidden nearby. I retired to the shelter of a thicket
and remained in hiding. In just ten minutes, by the watch, this doe
hid in the tall grass. She waited a few moments, after lying down, and
then gave a low bleat or call. Upon hearing this call, her fawn at
once rose up out of the dense grass where he had been hiding (see Fig.
63), and trotted over to his mother, and began to nurse. On four
different dates I have heard and watched nursing does call their fawns
from their places of hiding, and in each instance the mother's call note
was low and intimate, being just loud enough to carry the few yards to
Ihe hidden fawn.

The use of voice, which enables a doe and her fawn to communicate
and to keep in touch with each other, continues at intervals as long as
they remain together, and I have observed does call their fawns long
after the latter had been weaned. On February 27, 1928, in Yosemite,
George M. Wright watched a doe call her fawn of the previous year,
and in his field notes states : "The doe used a quiet little bleat for calling
her fawn. This call was repeated several times, and was definitely
audible for a distance of 125 feet. ' '

TRACKS

Tracks made by deer are of outstanding interest both to the field
naturalist and to the hunter, since they frequently tell a great deal that
men wish to know. The freshness of the track affords some idea of how
recently the deer had been at that particular spot. The size and shape of
the tracks, together with other "sign," will in many instances, but not
always, indicate the sex of the deer. The depth of the track, allowing
for the condition of the soil, can be taken as a fair indication of the
weight, and hence of the general physical condition of the animal.
Under the same soil conditions, a fat heavy deer will make deeper hoof
prints that will a thin animal with hoofs of the same size.

In general, large deer usually make large tracks. However, deer
with bodies of medium size sometimes have large hoofs and hence make
large tracks. Size of tracks alone can not be relied upon to indicate the
true size of a buck's antlers. As illustrating these two points, I offer
the following field experience. On October 7, 1924, five miles north of
Fredonyer Peak in Lassen County, I found and followed the freshly
made trail of a large Eocky Mountain mule deer. As the deer walked
leisurely along, his tracks were 25 inclies apart. The right front foot
track (see Fig 64) measured 4 inches in length and 2f inches in width,
when this buck was walking at normal gait on soft damp ground. This

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

207

is the largest mule deer track that I have been able personally to
measure and to photograph. I followed the tracks of this buck to a
heavy thicket of mountain mahogany, where he was found bedded down
in cool seclusion. When "jumped" at close quarters, this buck was
found to be of only fair size, and his antlers were of but medium size
with only three points on one antler and four points on the other.

In the Yosemite region at 4500 feet elevation on the old Coulter-
ville road on November 24, 1915, I measured the tracks of a large Cali-
fornia mule deer buck made as I watched while the animal was standing
still on level ground, and found that they measured 2f inches in length
and 2^ inches in width. This has, in my experience, been the size
of track made by the average ''good" buck of this species.

)S^iit»9j»i:

. 1 1 J i J 1 1 1 p|t| 1 1 i^^r^ r| , PI . iJi i^f |i t i I • I « t*g|'t'i'l'|'<'i'4 11 * 1 •

Fig. 64. Largest track of Rocky Mountain mule deer known to the author.
It measured 4 inches in length and 23 inches in width. Near Fredonyer Peak,
Lassen County, October 7, 1924. Mus. Vert. Zool. No. 4560.

At Eagle Lake, Lassen County, on May 15, 1925, I watched a buck
of medium size with growing antlers between three and four inches in
length, feeding at mid-day within 150 yards of Eagle Lake. A large
doe was feeding near this buck so that I had an excellent opportunity
to measure and to compare their tracks. I found that the buck's track
measured 2f inches in length and 2 inches in width. I found that
the tracks of the large doe were of similar size and could not be dis-
tinguished from tracks of this medium-sized buck. Watching both ani-
mals as they made tracks was the only way that the tracks of the two
could be separated. These were Rocky Mountain mule deer.

208

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

At Chuckwalla Well in eastern Riverside County, California, on
December 29, 1930, I measured the front foot tracks of a female burro
deer and found that they measured 21 inches in length and nearly 2
inches in width. This is about the size of tracks of average large female
Rocky Mountain mule deer. Tracks of California mule deer are about
one-third smaller than those of either the Rocky Mountain mule deer or
burro deer of comparable sex and age.

Considerable ditference of opinion exists as to ^vhether tracks of a
buck can always be distinguished from those of a doe. My own experi-
ence, including a careful checking of tracks of both sexes, has led to the
following conclusions :

1. In general, tracks made by bucks average larger than those made by does.

2. Tracks made by old bucks are broader, proportionately, than those made
by young bucks and does.

^■^ -«^

.•rK:

v^#

„>***.

Fig. 65. Track made by a Rocky Mountain mule deer running. Note spread
hoofs and imprints of "dew claws." Eagle Lake, Lassen County, May 17, 1925.
Mus. Vert. Zool. No. 4688.

3. Tracks of equal size can not always, by themselves, bo positively identified
as having been made by a buck or doe.

4. Antlered does may make decidedly buck-like tracks. Thus, an old doe with
antlers was mistaken for a buck and shot by W. D. Johnson, on September 11, 1025,
at a locality four miles east of Sierravillo, California. I examined, in the flesh,
the head and feet of this doe. The hoofs of the front feet were two inches in width
and were similar in shape to those of a buck of similar size.

5. In the field it is often possible, by following tracks made by a deer, to
arrive at definite conclusions as to the sex of the animal that made them. For
instance a doe does not stop and "horn" bru.sh or saplings as bucks frequently do. A
positive identification of the sex of the animal may often be had by following tracks
and noting the relative position of urine deposits. In nearly every instance mule
deer stand still while urinating. If the deposit of urine is located well forivard of
the hind foot tracks the animal may safely be listed as a buck, whereas if the urine
deposit is located behind the hind foot tracks, the deer is a doe.

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 209

Tracks of a very young mule deer fawn are rarely seen, for the
reason that the mother usually keeps her fawns carefully hidden in
thickets of grass or brush during the first ten days of their lives. By
the time the fawns are old enough to follow their mothers about and to
run by their sides, their tracks usually measure 1 inch in length and
I of an inch in width. In early summer, smaller tracks, made by very
young fawns, may sometimes be found.

In measuring tracks made by deer, it has been my experience that
tracks made in snow are often unreliable as to size, since actual measure-
ments have shown that such tracks, during a thaw, may increase as
much as a quarter of an inch in size, through melting of the snow, in
twenty-four hours.

Tracks made by running deer show hoofs spread (see Fig. 65)
and such tracks are appreciably larger than would be the case if the
same animal were standing or walking quietly along on firm ground.

BEDS

There is considerable variation in the location of beds among mule
deer. The site chosen varies not only with the season but also with the
age and sex of the animal. Bucks usually choose a different type of
bedding ground than do does and fawns.

Mule deer of both sexes normally do most of their feeding in the
early morning before sunrise or in late afternoon and evening after
sundown. They spend the middle of the day bedded down in cool
secluded nooks, chewing their cuds and digesting the food hurriedlj^
gathered during the early morning hours.

; In summer the bucks retire as soon as the sunshine strikes where
they are feeding (see Pig. 66). On July 15, 1929, I watched a number
of California mule deer feeding on an open meadow. The bucks seemed
to be more sensitive to sunlight than were the does and fawns. Fifteen
minutes after the sun's rays first struck the meadow, the three bucks
(see Fig. 66), as if by some mutual understanding, lined up and left
the meadow, going over to the dense shade of a grove of young yellow
pines, where they bedded down for their daily rest. On July 13, 1928,
I likewise found a large buck bedded down in the dense shade of a
wild plum thicket near a meadow. In general, I have found that
mature bucks prefer rocky ridges for bedding grounds. In such a
retreat, the big buck (see Fig. 67) has a double advantage, being able
to hear the approach of most human hunters, while the rising currents
of air which sweep up both slopes of the ridge often carry to him the
telltale scent of any silent-footed cougar or coyote that may attempt
to capture him through stealth and hidden approach.

During the hunting season the wise old bucks often elude the sports-
man by bedding down in dense secluded thickets where they remain
throughout the day. On September 16, 1923, near the head of Hat
Creek on the eastern flank of Lassen Peak, I found such a buck bedded
down in a thick clump of mountain hemlocks. The experienced deer
hunter learns to look for big mule deer bucks on the higher ridges. A
certain large buck was found in Yosemite to bed down in the same
thicket day after day, but he usually occupied a different bed each day.

In times of necessity, as in midwinter, mule deer will bed down in
snow. This was demonstrated in Yosemite on April 6, 1929, when with

210

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

Fig. 66. As soon as the sun struck this meadow, the big bucks left it to bed
down in thickets for the day. Yosemite, July 15, 1929. Wild Life Division,
No. 132.

Fig. G7. Wise old bucks bed down for safety on rocky ridges as here shown.
Yosemite, January 29, 1929, J. S. Dixon No. 32.

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 211

a foot of snow on the ground and with the trees blanketed with a fresh
fall of snow, I watched a band of twenty deer, including bucks, does
and fawns, on:. their bedding ground. The beds were usually made
singly, but in certain instances, were found in groups, three, and even
four beds to one square rod. These beds were oval in outline and of
sufficient size just to accommodate the body of the deer. They were nor-
mally located either at the foot of some small tree or at the base of
a buckthorn or manzanita bush. In one instance, the bed, which was
unusually large, was actually arched over by bushes, but the other beds
were all so situated that the deer in them had an open' and unobstructed
view of their immediate surroundings.

The beds were observed to be made by a preliminary pawing away
of the snow followed by the snow melting through coming in contact
with the warm body of the reclining deer. I watched one deer prepare
its bed by first pawing away the snow and then bedding down after
turning around several times just as a dog often does before it lies
down to sleep. I saw the same bed occupied by two deer, one after
the other, and in one instance a particular bed was used by three differ-
ent deer in one week. This habit of interchanging beds is characteristic
of the younger deer and has been found to have a direct bearing on the
transfer of deer ticks from one deer to another. An examination of
fresh deer beds revealed the presence there of one or more deer ticks
hidden in the refuse.

When given a free choice, even the old bucks prefer a warm bed of
dry leaves, in the shelter of some dense pine or cedar, to a chilly bed
in the snow. Such a preference was repeatedly shown by a large buck
in December, 1927, in Yosemite. Instead of bedding down in the snow,
this buck regularly chose a warm bed of dry leaves under a dense incense
cedar tree. Here he had an unobstructed view and kept warm and dry,
chewing his cud in comfort (see Fig. 68).

Investigation has shown that in late fall and winter when the
weather turns cold, mule deer seek out sunny nooks, in which to take
sun baths. On October 31, 1929, in Yosemite, I followed a three-point
buck until he found a quiet sunny spot, well screened on either side by
dense incense cedar trees. Here he bedded down in the bright warm
sunlight (see Fig. 69). As soon as the shifting shadows reached the
spot where he lay, he arose and moved over to another sunny spot. I
have noted this habit of taking sun baths many times in does and fawns
also. In summer days does and fawns are more inclined than bucks to
bed down in open meadows. In the Yosemite region, both inside and
outside the park, I found that during dark nights mule deer bedded
down out in the open meadows, away from trees and bushes. I found
that this was the regular custom of mule deer under natural conditions
where they were not hunted by man. On July 1, 1927, I found that all
of the does and fawns, after they had satisfied their hunger, went out
into the open meadow and bedded down in relatively short grass (see
Fig. 57). When I got down on my hands and knees and tried to stalk
such deer I discovered the probable reason for their choice. The first
movement of my body, which was visible above the short grass, was
immediately detected by the deer and they sprang to their feet and were
away instantly. By further experiments, I found that such open
bedding grounds were regularly selected, apparently because of the

212

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

Fig. 68. In winter sheltered beds of warm dry leaves are preferred. Yosemite,
December 10, 1927. Mus. Vert. Zool. No. 5599.

Fig. 69. On cold fall and winter mornings bucks often take sun baths, Under
sheltering- incense cedars, as here shown. Yosemite, October 31, 1929. Wild Life
Division No. 99.

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 213

unobstructed view that the deer thus had. By such advantage they
were able to see, or otherwise to detect, the approach of prowling
predators such as cougar, coyote, or bear, that might try to capture
them through stealth.

Investigation at various hours of the night during July showed
that does and their fawns regularly spent dark nights out in the open
meadows, while seemingly less cautious bucks sometimes spent the
night under some large, lone yellow pine near the edge of the meadow.

Some hunters claim that when the moon shines brightly mule deer
feed under cover of trees at night and bed down in the denser thickets
during the day. These men also claim that during the dark of the moon
the deer feed less at night and are more inclined to bed down at night
out in the open. The other group of hunters claims that the intensity
of the moonlight has little or nothing to do with the deers ' feeding habits
or with their choice of beds. I have made numerous personal observa-
tions on this very point and while no hard and fast rule can be laid
down, definite tendencies may be recognized. At 9.30 o'clock on the
evening of December 6, 1927, in the Yosemite region, the moon was
nearly full and shone so brilliantly from a cloudless sky that I was
able to see almost as well as I could at twilight. By aid of a powerful
electric flashlight, two of us moved cautiously through the woods finding
eleven deer, all except one bedded down in dense shadows under thickly
foliaged trees, chiefly incense cedars. One fawn was grazing just
outside the heavy shadow of a tree. We then searched the moonlit
meadows without finding a single deer in them. During the dark of the
moon I searched these same meadows and found them well populated
with grazing deer. At intervals during the summer and fall I made
frequent investigations and on dark, moonless nights found deer numer-
ous and bedded down out in this open meadow, but they bedded down
in the shadows under trees on bright moonlight nights ; so that my
numerous observations indicate that mule deer tend to bed down in
summer under trees when either the sunlight or moonlight is intense, but
when the light is dim, as during overcast days or during dark nights,
they tend to bed down in open meadows. Further experiments carried
on at various hours of the night revealed the fact that on bright moon-
light nights deer in deep shadows were relatively difficult to see. "While
thus concealed, they had an excellent chance to detect the approach of
any intruder through the moonlit zone surrounding them. On dark
nights visibility was generally poor and the deer then utilized the open
meadows where visibility of surrounding terrain was best.

Many years' experience with the California mule deer has con-
vinced me that this race is much more of a brush inhabitant than either
the Rocky Mountain mule deer or the burro deer. Preference for an
open habitat is most marked in the burro deer which is a true denizen
of the desert. On December 29, 1930, at an unnamed spring, one mile
west of Chuckwalla Well in Riverside County I found and followed the
fresh track of a female burro deer. This deer had bedded down in soft
dry sand in an open wash under an ironwood tree. The bed measured
thirty inches in length and was twenty-four inches wide. Other beds
of other burro deer were found near the first, being entirely out in the
open sandy wash. The Rocky Mountain mule deer frequently beds
down behind a thin screen of mountain mahogany bushes.

3—12731

214

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

Young spotted fawns are usually hidden by their mothers in dense
clumps of grass (see Fig. 63) or in thickets of brush. When surprised
or pursued, such fawns often seek to escape detection by crouching
motionless in their grassy beds with necks outstretched (see Fig. 70).
When undisturbed in their beds, spotted fawns are nearly always found
curled up, this being their normal posture in repose.

In Giant Forest of Sequoia National Park on July 1, 1933, I found
a pair of spotted fawns, known to be six days old, hiding near our camp.
One of the fawns when first found was bedded down in the narrow

Fig. 70. Wlicn pur.sucd, the spotted fawns often seek
to escape detection by hiding with neck outstretched in
the open grassy meadows. Yosemite, July 10, 1928. Mus.
Vert. Zool. No. 5758.

crack of a granite boulder. This crack was ten in dies wide and three
feet deep, being closed at both ends, and had a smooth floor covered with
pine needles. I marveled that so young a fawn could get into and out
of the narrow crack by itself, but such was the case. I watched it,
and after the mother returned from her breakfast in the meadow,
she called them, facing first one and then the other fawn, to her to
nurse, the fawns being hidden separately some sixty feet apart. After

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

215

nursing for ten minutes, each fawn of his or her own volition, and not
being assisted by the mother, went off by itself and selected a safe
hiding place. The first fawn chose to hide in a clump of green grass that
grew between two flat boulders out in the open sunlight. The other
fawn chose an open shelf at the mouth of a wide crack at the base of
a large granite rock (see Fig. 71). This male fawn left and returned
to this bed three times during the morning. Another variation with
locality was apparent, for in Giant Forest the does appear to prefer
having and keeping their fawns on the dry ridges at the protecting
base of some giant Sequoia rather than out in the grassy meadow as in
Yosemite.

Fig. 71. One fawn chose his own resting place and bedded at the ba.se of
a large granite boulder. Giant Forest, Sequoia, July 1, 1933. Wild Life Division
No. 3101.

MANNERISMS

Gait.

The general appearance and movements of the mule deer are rela-
tively clumsy compared with those of the black-tailed deer, and par-
ticularly so when compared with those of the white-tailed deer. The
large body, robust limbs, and particularly the enormous ears of the
Rocky Mountain mule deer give it a clumsy appearance which is notice-
able when the animal is walking and even when it is running or bound-
ing. The hounding gait of the mule deer has received special attention
from numerous writers. As a matter of fact, it is one of the most char-
acteristic attributes of the species and, though seemingly ungainly, such
a bounding gait accomplishes two very desirable and important func-
tions. In the first place, it enables the animal to travel rapidly over

216 CALH'^ORNIA FISH AND GAME

the rough, broken lava and rocky terrain which tliey frequently inhabit.
Secondly, the bounding gait gives the deer a vantfige point frf)iii wliicli
it is able to secure temporarily a better view of its pursuer. In short,
the bounding gait, although seemingly clumsy, is very effective.

When walking at a normal gait, unalarmed and unafraid, the
average distance between tracks of an adnlt Rocky ^louiitain mnle deer
has been found to vary from fifteen to thirty inches. On October 7,
3924, five miles north of Fredonyer Peak, Lassen Count3^ I found the
fresh tracks of a large mule deer buck. As he leisurely walked along,
his tracks were almost in a straight line and were twenty-five inches
apart. When this buck was later surprised and "jumped," I found,
by actual mcasurenu^nt, that he covered tifteeu and sixteen feet at a
single bound. At Eagle Lake, Lassen County, on May 17, 1925, T
measured and photographed the tracks of a female mule deer tluit had
iMin at normal gait across a strip of wet sand along the lake shore, and
tound that the average distance covered by a single bound was nine feet.

The greatest distances covered by mule deer at a single bound that
1 have been able to discover were made by two adult does that were
thoroughly frightened near Niagara Creek, Tuolumne County, on Sep-
tember 1, 192-t. In running on level ground these two does leap(Hl
across a little ditch. One cleared eighteen feet at a single bound and
the other cleared twenty feet, slightly uphill (both of these distances
by actual measurement). It is to be reasonably expected that a deer
can cover a greater distance leaping downhill than it can on the level
ground or uphill. However, out of all the instances where I have
actually observed deer running and have subsequently measured the
distance covered by a single bound, the two cases just reported repre-
sent the extreme observed and measured to date.

With regard to the height to which a mule deer can jump, it
must be confessed that appearances are usually deceiving and that
the animal does not jump nearly so high as it appears. At Niagara
Creek, Tuolumne County, on September ], 1924, I "jumped" a large
California mule deer doe that went bounding off, hopping over the tops
of bushes, one of which, at a distance of fifty yards, I took to be at least
six feet high, but when I came to measure the bush with my steel tape,
I found its height to be forty-eight inches. The extreme high jump
made by a mule deer of which I have been able to obtain reliable data
was reported to me October 16, 1924, by William Horn, in eastern Lassen
County. For a number of years Hoi-ii kei)t a female Kocky IMountain
mule deer that had the run of the rancli but which came back to the
vicinity of the ranch house each year at fawning time, where she
remained until the beginning of the next breeding season. One day
the doe was pursued by a large buck, and, in her effort to escape him,
she ran into the cattle corral near the ranch house. This corral con-
sisted of split posts ten feet in length, buried two feet in the ground
and placed on end. When the deer ran into the corral, Horn slipped
up and closed the corral gate. As soon as the wild buck from the hills
saw that he w-as captured, he made a valiant effort to escape by jump-
ing over the top of the eight foot fence. His first attempt was unsuc-
cessful, but the second time he ran clear across the corral and succeeded
in making it over the top. I personally measured the height of the posts

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 217

and found them to be a full eight feet. This is the greatest height I
have actually measured that I have known a mule deer to jump.

This ability of mule deer to jump has a direct bearing on deer
management. In many instances it has been found desirable to con-
struct deer-proof fences around apple orchards, vineyards, and gardens
in order to prevent serious destruction of valuable property. Numerous
types and heights of fences have been tried out, but of many fences
examined, the one described herewith has proven best as regards cost,
ease of construction, upkeep, and efficiency. This fence effectively
protected an apple orchard located 4h miles northeast of Dunlap, Fresno
County, where in January, 1924, I found mule deer numerous and
hungry.

Split cedar posts, 7 feet long, svmk 18 inches into the ground and
spaced 10 feet apart, supported the fence. The main portion of this
fence consisted of medium weight, 8-strand woven wire hog fencing, 42
inches high. The distance between strands from top to bottom was 9,
7^, 6, 5^, 5, 3, 3, and 2 inches, respectively. A single tight strand of
barbed wire was stretched on the ground 2 inches below the woven wire
fence. Four strands of light barbed wire were placed at intervals
of 5, 7, 12, and 12 inches above the hog fence, being stapled to and sup-
ported by 2 X 4-inch scantlings 4|- feet long, which had been spiked
to the upper portions of the cedar posts. This method placed the high-
est barbed wire 6| feet above the ground, and this proved high enough
to keep the hungry deer out of the apple orchard, thereby protecting
the trees and fruit.

Posture.

When alarmed, the mule deer carries its head elevated with the
nose forward so that it is above the line of the back. When the ani-
mal is walking slowly along, unalarmed and unafraid, the head is often
carried below the level of the back, particularly when the animal is
following, by scent, the trail left by another deer. When grazing
leisurely, the front legs are spread slightly, and the head and neck
are carried close to the ground.

As an example of the different postures in which the head may be
carried, I cite an instance in which I was standing at the edge of an
open meadow but partially concealed by screening branches of a bush.
While I stood watching a doe that was busily feeding on green grass in
the open meadow about sixty feet distant from me, she suddenly,
through a slight movement on my part, became aware of my presence.
At the time, she was headed directly toward me and had her front legs
spread wtII apart, so that her lower lips touched the ground. The
moment she caught sight of the slight movement that I had made, she
gazed intently and fixedly in my direction, but as I remained motionless
she was apparently unable to make out what had caused the movement.
In order to secure a better view of the strange object, she quickly lifted
her head as high as possible and viewed me for a moment in that posi-
tion. Not being satisfied with what she saw, she then stretched her
neck as far as possible to one side and then to the other, gazing intently
at me in all of the positions. She did this without moving any portion
of her body other than her head, neck, and ears. I presume that

218

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

through thus obtaining a view of the strange object from these different
angles, she was able to make out the image of a man for, although I
remained motionless, she immediately turned and trotted off.

As has been previously stated, the ears of the mule deer are exceed-
ingly flexible and may be readily turned in any direction — backward,
sidewise, and forward — so as best to detect the slightest sound. This
ability is particularly marked in the doe, which, through the responsi-
bility of care of young, frequently utilizes the sense of hearing to a
finer degree than do the bucks which have only themselves to look
out for.

In Yosemite Valley on July 20, 1928. I watched an old mule deer
doe (see Fig. 72) which, upon detecting the approach of a large black

Fig. 72. Adult California mule deer doe and twin spotted fawns trying to
locate an intruder. Note use of ears, eyes and nostrils. Yosemite, July 20, 1928.
Mus. Vert. Zool. No. 5510.

bear, had called her two spotted fawns from a thicket of velvet grass.
As the bear turned and wandered off in another direction through the
woods, the doe's ears were flexed constantly, first forward and then
backward, in an intense effort to detect the slightest sound made by
the bear, which was screened in a thicket nearby. In this instance, the
senses of sight, scent, and sound were all used by the doe to secure for
her offspring the greatest possible protection. However, she seemed
to depend more upon her hearing than upon the other senses to locate
the hidden danger.

The position of the tail of the mule deer has been subject to much
discussion. Under normal conditions its short, cylindrical tail hangs
directly downward, or it may be twitched violently back and forth

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 219

when the deer is bothered by flies. This twitching of the tail is per-
haps a nervous reflex manifestation, since I have frequently noted the
tails of mule deer being twitched violently when the only flies around
the deer were buzzing around the animals' forelegs. This twitching
of the tail, under such circumstances, is frequently accompanied by a
violent stamping of the forefeet and perhaps is merely a method of
expressing irritation.

As bearing on the position in which the tail is carried in the
frightened mule deer, I wish to cite the following incident which I have
found to be the typical reaction of mule deer in California. December
8, 1927, in Yosemite Valley, I observed two adult mule deer that were
badly frightened. They ran with tails held straight down, and in this
instance the tails M'ere not twitched back and forth across the white
rump patches as is sometimes the case.

SENSES

Sight.

The sense of sight is highly developed in the mule deer, being some-
what better, in my estimation, than that of the black-tailed deer. This
may be due in part to the more open character of the mule deers'
habitat.

Not only are mule deer able to see well during daylight hours but
their eyes are especially effective during the dim lighting of early morn-
ing and late evening. Because of the limitations of the human eye, I
have been unable to ascertain just how effective the sight of deer may
be at night, but I have repeatedly found under such circumstances that
the eyesight of deer was very much keener than my own. If I may be
allowed a photographic comparison. I would say that the eye of the
mule deer at night may be compared to an f 4.5 lens, while the human
eye would not rate higher than an f 6.8 lens.

As with most other large game mammals, the sight of deer is not
particularly keen or analytical as regards stationary objects. This has
been proven many times by different individuals who, when clad in
neutral colored (khaki) clothes, have remained stationary against a
neutral background and have had deer walk up to within fifteen or
twenty feet of them without detecting their presence so long as the
human observers remained motionless and so long as there was no
telltale breeze blowing from the observers toward the deer. However,
the least movement, such as the mere twitching of a finger or slight
movement of the hand, has been found sometimes in such instances to
be immediately detected by the deer, which, without the slightest hesi-
tation, would immediately dash away.

There is considerable question in my mind, owing to various field
experiences, that the mule deer is able to identify definitely a strange
object at a distance. The extreme wariness of certain old mule deer
bucks that resort to instant flight the moment they detect the moving
figure of the hunter on the skyline, at a distance of two or three hundred
yards, I believe in many cases to be merely an instinctive reaction to
flee from the presence of any suspicious moving object. In short. I do
not believe that in such cases the deer always recognizes the identity of
the moving form.

220

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

Smell.

I feel certain, from numerous and close observations, that the aver-
age doe does not depend upon the sense of sight to identify her own off-
spring, because on numerous occasions I have observed a doe being
followed temporarily by a fawn which was not her own. Several times
I have observed such fawns come up to a doe and start to nurse, it
apparently being a matter of indifference to the fawn whether the doe
in question was its own mother or not. In one instance, a strange
fawn was observed to nurse for several minutes undetected, both the doe
and the fawn remaining quiet until the doe reached around and smelled
of the fawn, whereupon she immediately realized that the fawn was
not her own, and accordingly drove it away with rapid, straight-armed
thrusts of her front legs and feet.

In Yosemite Valley on September 16, 1927, I watched three does
that were feeding together with their fawns, which were so nearly of a
size that I was unable at first to distinguish between them. The fawns
wandered about, running first with one doe and then with another
indiscriminately. "Whenever one of the does wished to be sure of the
identity of the fawn following her, she always resorted to smelling it
(see Fig. 73). This procedure was so uniformly carried out lliat I

Fig. 73. Numerous observations show that does can not always recognize their
own fawns by sight. In case of doubt tliey rely on the sense of smell as here
shown. Yosemite, September 16, 1927. Mus. Vert. Zool. No. 5514.

considered it the "acid test" whereby the mother was able with cer-
tainty to identify her offspring. Repeated observations under such
circumstances proved conclusively tliat tlie does were unable to recog-
nize with certainty their own faw-ns through sight alone.

Tavo other experiences that I have had with mule deer should be
cited as evidence of the degree in which the sense of smell is utilized.

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

221

On December 9, 1927, I watched a mnle deer fawn, not over six months
old, that had been recently bereft of his mother and had been thrown
entirely upon his own resources. This fawn was rooting about in the
six inches of freshly fallen, loose, dry, fluffy snow (see Fig. 74) in search
of fallen leaves and acorns of the black oak. There is a possibility
that this fawn was assisted in a slight degree by the sense of touch in
locating the acorns, but from repeated observations made at a distance
of not more than ten feet, I am satisfied that he depended entirely upon
the sense of smell to locate the desired oak leaves from amid a large
number of dried leaves of other species, among which the oak leaves were
thoroughly mixed.

Fig. 74. In winter, mule deer depend considerably on tile sense of smell in
locating- snow covered food, such as acorns and leaves which they secure by root-
ing about in loose snow. Yosemite, December 9, 1927. Mus. Vert. Zool. No. 5655.

I followed another weaned fawn about for a number of hours on
this same date. The day previous the ground had been warmed and
clothed, particularly under the trees, with a carpet of green, sprouting,
annual wild oats and other grasses. This was the first real blanket
of snow that this fawn had ever seen in his life, and he was apparently
at a loss to account for the sudden disappearance of the green grass
upon which he had been accustomed to feed. As I followed this fawn
about, I found that he depended primarily upon the sense of smell in
his effort to locate food. Any twigs or other likely looking object that
might possibly furnish a meal were immediately approached and sub-
jected to a test through the sense of smell.

On numerous occasions in the fall when the acorns were dropping, I
have watched mule deer standing under oak trees waiting for acorns
to fall. As soon as the waiting deer heard an acorn hit the bed of dry

222

CALIFORNIA PISH AND GAME

leaves, several "would immediately start in the general direction of the
sound. Tlien there would be a scramble to locate the exact spot Avhere
the acorn lay. In a number of observed cases there was considerable
competition between the deer and "digger" squirrels to see which
would secure the acorn. California woodpeckers were also important
contenders for the acorn crop, but in nearly every case observed they
were outwitted by either the deer or the squirrels.

I have noted many times that during the fall and particularly
during the winter, mule deer are able to distinguish between good and
defective (blank or worm-eaten) acorns. Tn order to clieck definitely on
this ability, I purposely selected a number of worm-eaten and blank
acorns and carefully mixed them with an equal number of good acorns.
I scattered them about under an oak tree in the spot where mule deer
were accustomed to hunt for acorns, and concealed myself nearby in
some bushes. In some cases I was able to watch deer feeding at a dis-
tance of not more than ten feet. I have thus become thoroughly con-
vinced through such experi-
ments that a mule deer can and
does detect a defective acorn
without ever touching it. The
blank acorns are, to all appear-
ances, at least as far as the
human eye can detect, exactly
similar to the good acorns.
However, there is one difference,
and that is that the blank acorns
are very light in weight. This
difference can easily be detected
by a person taking them into his
hand. However, I have been
unable to find any character
whereby they can be distin-
guished b}^ the human eye at a
distance of even one foot. The
worm-eaten acorns usually show
very small holes, wliieh might
possibly give the deer some clue.
However, my observations have
shown conchisively that the deer
were able to distinguish such

they were
Since the
acorns in question were not even touched by the deer, the sense of
feeling could not have played any part in the selection. Therefore, I
concluded that the sense of smell was the medium through which such
acorns were detected and left untouched by the deer. In one instance
I tested this power of discrimination of a large mule deer buck, and
found that he was able to select the good acorns unerringly and that
the worm-eaten and particularly the blank acorns were left untouched.

Fig. 75. This buck fed for five minutes
on the pungent leaves of the California
laurel tree and I'eturned to brow.se on the
same sapling: three times in fifteen
minutes. Yosemite, June 26, 1927. Mus.
Vert. Zool. No. 5392.

wormy acorns when
hidden beneath leaves and thus completely out of sight.

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 223

Taste.

The sense of taste is fairly well developed in the mule deer. Certain
plants apparently are more acceptable to them than are other closely
related species. This is well illustrated by the Spanish clover {Lotus
americana) which, in Yosemite Valley, is eaten by deer during the
summer to a larger extent than is any other plant. Apparently a spicy,
pungent leaf, such as that of the California bay or laurel, is not dis-
pleasing to a deer's sense of taste, because on numerous occasions I have
found mule deer feeding rather extensively on the leaves of this tree.
On June 26, 1927, in Yosemite, I watched a forked-horn buck that fed
continuously for a period of over five minutes on the pungent leaves of
a California bay sapling (see Fig. 75). Furthermore, this buck
returned three different times within an hour to browse on this par-
ticular tree, and this selection was made when green growing grass and
other fresh, succulent vegetation was available in an abundance within
a few feet of the bay tree.

As evidence that deer do exercise a selective choice through the
sense of taste, I wish to present an incident that took place in Yosemite
Valley on July 31, 1929. Two large bucks, with antlers well grown
but still in the velvet, came up to a camp table upon which breakfast
dishes had just been placed. These bucks were first directed to the
table by seeing it. As they came closer they began to smell of the
various objects and food on the table and finally, through the sense of
taste, they selected the food that was most to their liking.

224 CALIFORNIA FISTT AND GAME

GENERAL HABITS

EXTENT AND CAUSES OF SEASONAL MIGRATIONS

From the time white men tirst began to settle along the Pacific
slope of the Sierra Nevada in California it has been known that throngh-
ont this region mnle deer occupy separate and distinct summer and
winter ranges.

The normal summer range lies well back in the mountain meadows
and along the higher ridges at elevations varying from 4000 to 12.000
feet. This summer range lies in the Transition, Canadian, and Ilud-
sonian life zones. Contrasting with this relatively liigli sunnner habitat,
the winter range of the same deer lies in the lower foothills from 3500
feet elevation near the lower limit of the yellow pine forest, down to
1500 feet in the rolling oak-covered foothills of the Upper Sonoran
life zone along the eastern margins of the great interior valley of Cali-
fornia.

While the altitudinal variation between the summer and winter
range is considerable, the lineal distance betAveen the two ranges is often
fifty miles. Since two migrations are made each year, an upward
one in the spring and a compensating downward migration in late
fall, we find that many of these mule deer each year complete a total
migration of one hundred miles. It is reasonable to suppose that some
outstanding advantage must be gained to justify this annual expendi-
ture of energy. Various explanations have been given for these exten-
sive seasonal movements of mule deer. Dr. Carl P. Russell in his
illuminating paper on "Seasonal Migration of Mule Deer," published
in Ecological Monographs (vol. 2, 1932, pp. 1-46). has pointed out
details of mule deer migrations in the Yosemite and Yellowstone regions,
and has sought to correlate these movements with temperature, food
supply, breeding cycle, and other phases of the life history of the
mule deer.

For a general review of this matter, the reader is directed to Dr.
Russell's excellent paper on the subject. It is not the present writer's
intention to enter into a detailed discussion of the migration of mule
deer in the Yosemite, since his findings and general conclusions, altliough
made independently, coincide closely witli those set forth in Dr. Rus-
sell's worthy paper. However, considerable added data on this sub-
ject have resulted from my study of mule deer in the Se(|U(»ia and Lassen
sections, as well as some additional data concerning the winter range
of mule deer in the Yosemite region. Presentation of such unpublished
data is believed to be desirable at this time.

Russell has pointed out (p. 39) that: "if suitable food is available
in a given area throughout the year, some or all of the deer in that
area may not migrate." He also points out (p. 37) that : "low tempera-
tures, while bringing about great physical changes in forage plants, do
not render them unfit for food" and that "deer could safely reside
in winter at high levels in the mountains so far as concerns the food

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

225

value of high mountain plants." Russell also points out that it is not
low temperature alone that causes the mule deer to migrate to lower
regions each fall, but ratlier it is the deep snow which, while it does
not destroy the food value of plants, does render these food plants
inaccessible to deer and hence is the chief causative factor in the fall
migration of mule deer. Not only does a heavy snowfall cover up many
food plants but it also makes effective travel for deer difficult or
impossible. Unlike the white-tailed deer of the eastern United States
our mule deer do not "yard" in winter but choose open hillsides where
the snow is not too deep to prevent their moving freely about. Not
only is free movement necessary in order that the mule deer may be
able to obtain a livelihood on winter range where forage is relatively
sparse but, most important of all, free movement is essential if the

Pig. 76. Mule deer trails all inade in twenty-four hours, after a snow.storm on
typical winter range. Pilot Ridge, Mariposa County, January 9, 1922. Mas. Vert.
Zool. No. 3427.

mule deer are to evade capture by their natural enemies such as the
coyote and the cougar.

In 1922, I spent two weeks in midwinter, January 4-17, on snow-
shoes studying food habits and the relation of coyotes to deer on the
upper winter range. Pilot Ridge and Crane Flat, which lie between
Hetch Hetcliy and Yosemite valleys, were chosen for this study. The
deer which range over the central portion of Yosemite National Park
in summer, winter almost entirely within this area. At Hazel Green,
5665 feet altitude, the five feet of recently fallen snow had settled
down to forty inches. At this date, January 9, 1922, tracks of mule
deer made since the last snowstorm, on January 6, were abundant on
the warm south side of the ridge (see Fig. 76) where in numerous

226 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

places the snow was not much over eighteen inches in depth. I spent
several days on snowshoes on this winter range following both coyotes
and deer about so as to obtain first-hand information and facts relative
to- winter food habits and interrelation of the two species. At Crane
Flat in mid-January, I found the snow was slightly crusted and some-
what over five feet deep on the level. The mule deer seemed to realize
that they were at a decided disadvantage in deep, crusted snow and
although food, in the form of wind-broken branches, was plentiful on
the snow, they stayed out of such dangerous areas. Why?

In the morning when the deer began to work up along the south
slopes where the snow was shallow, I found by tracking, and watching
with binoculars, that a pair of coyotes would slip around the hill, one
keeping from 50 to 70 yards above its mate. The coyotes usually
kept within sight of each other, and if hidden from view, each would
stop at 400-yard intervals and wait until the other coyote appeared.

The lower coyote always kept about fifty yards ahead of its
mate. As soon as a deer was located, the lower coyote would attempt
to drive it up the hill and over the crest. If the deer tried to break
back, the second coyote would rush in so that the deer was pocketed
between the two animals. By thus keeping the deer between them, they
were able to drive young or inexperienced deer over the crest of the
ridge into deep-crusted snow, where the deer would break through
at every jump while the coyotes were able to run on top of the crust
and soon to capture and kill the deer that floundered helplessly about.
This and other similar experiences have convinced me that the presence
of natural enemies combined with unfavorable crusted snow may keep
deer out of areas which would otherwise be excellent winter range for
them.

Russell (p. 35) points out that in Yosemite deer on the upper sum-
mer range often begin to seek lower range in advance of the fall snow-
storms. It has been my experience that deer are very well aware that
at high altitudes their danger from natural enemies is greatly increased
in the fall by the possibility of snow falling to depths sufficient to render
them helpless before the attacks of predators, and under such circum-
stances a downward migration before storms may be merely a pre-
cautionary movement to prevent possible disaster. It has been my
experience that some wise old doe, and not a buck, takes the lead in
sucli matters. Snowstorms of slight intensity usually cause a down-
ward migration, while heavy snowstorms, even if they come early in
the fall, cause mule deer to abandon their summer range. I had an
excellent demonstration of this fact at Lassen Peak in September, 1923.
"While camped at 6600 feet elevation on Warner Creek, I encountered
the heaviest September fall of snow that I have experienced anywhere
in western North America. It began to snow on September 23. At the
end of the three days' storm 26 inclies of snow lay on the level meadows.

When the snow first began to fall, I found sixteen Rocky Moun-
tain mule deer within a distance of two miles of camp. The next
morning, with about a foot of snow on the ground, I traveled six miles
back and forth over the identical area and was unable to find any
deer at all. Not even a fresh track could be found. Investigation
showed that the deer began to abandon their summer habitat and started
at once toward their winter range, which lay across a high ridge, 50

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 227

miles east of this point. Subsequent investigation showed that they
did not return to this summer habitat until the following spring.

The same general route is followed by mule deer in going to and
in coming from their summer range. My own investigations extend-
ing over a period of 20 years indicate that rarely do mule deer in migra-
tion pass from one drainage basin to another. AVhen they do, their
absence is only temporary. Thus, mule deer that winter on the
eastern or great basin side of the Sierra Nevada sometimes cross over
the main Sierran crest in late summer, but as far as we have been able
to learn, they nearly always return and winter on the eastern side of
these mountains. This has been noted in Yosemite near Tioga Pass.

In the Lassen section I found that the Rocky Mountain mule deer
ranges regularly as far west as the head of Hat Creek at the eastern
base of Lassen Peak. We have one definite instance in the Lassen sec-
tion, where mule deer wintered on the western side of the divide. On
February 22, 1920, on the north rim of Battle Creek, at an elevation
of 4000 feet, about ten miles above Paynes Creek Post Office in Tehama
County, Gus Nordquist saw three unquestioned mule deer, which he
watched for some time at a distance of 50 feet. There was about two
feet of snow on the level at this date, through which the deer were
pawing to get at food, a gray growth known locally as "squaw carpet.''
Nordquist states that the evidence of pawed snow indicated that these
mule deer had spent the winter in that locality and had not gone down
out of the snow as do the coast black-tailed deer that are native to that
locality.

In contrast to this it has been my experience that during winters
with light snowfall, California mule deer often remain at relatively
high altitudes, from 6000 to 7000 feet, until January first or even later.
This is especially the case in many places along the southern part of
the Sierra Nevada, as at Giant Forest in Sequoia National Park, where
the deer can drop directly from the 7000-foot ridges down into the pro-
tected canyons at elevations of 2000 feet or less, and thereby get out
of the snow in a very short distance. In most such instances the deer
can get below the snow line by merely dropping a mile or two down the
ridge.

Thus in Sequoia Park on January 24, 1924, at 5000 feet deer
were abundant. Here I counted a band of 14 deer and found that they
consisted of six does, six fawns and two large bucks. I v/as able to
approach wdthin 30 feet of many of these deer and found they were all
California mule deer.

On December 18, 1929, I found that much of the ground in Giant
Forest was still bare of snow and that deer were hunting over it for
bits of staghorn lichen that had been blown off the trees by a recent
gale. On the same day at 7000 feet elevation on a M^arm south- and
west-facing slope, I found a band of mule deer, two does, three fawns
and two big bucks, feeding together in a dense thicket of bitter cherry
and snow brush. The brush, four feet in height, effectively concealed
the does and fawns. However, the heads and antlers of the bucks
projected above it. Well traveled deer trails led back and forth through
this thicket, and deer tracks and droppings showed that this was the
favorite feeding ground of all the deer in the region at that time. Some
of the larger bucks were found to be unusually wild, and they were

228 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

believed to be deer that had only recently come down from the higher
mountains. At this time the meadows in Giant Forest were still free
from snow. Ninety-eight inches of snow was officially reported on the
ground on January 31, 1932, when all deer had migrated to lower
elevations in the oak belt.

During seasons of normal snowfall some mule deer remain through-
out the year in Yosemite Valley and do not migrate at all. At this
elevation, 4000 feet, the snow usually does not reach a depth sufficient
to force deer to leave the Valley. However, during winters of heavy
snowfall, nearly all of the deer drift down the Merced River Canyon
to lower levels. According to the park superintendent's report of Feb-
ruary 3, 1932, "between January 30, and February 3, a total of 51
inches of snow fell on the floor of Yosemite Valley." This heavj^, wet
snow packed on top of 32 inches of snow already on the ground gave
a depth of 83 inches, which is the "greatest depth of snow recorded for
Yosemite since park weather records began in 1906."

At my request. Assistant Postmaster Charles "W. Michael and Park
Naturalist C. A. Harwell made special investigations covering available
food supply, migration, and relation of predators to deer during this
critical period. Their findings are so inii)ortant that they are given
herewith in detail. In his letter of February 18, 1932, Michael states :
"During the big storm, at the end of January, or shortly after, most of
the deer went down the canyon. After the storm there was one deer
where there had been ten before. * * *" Continuing, he says:
"My morning walk takes me through the winter haunts of the deer,
about the mouth of Indian Canyon. Twice in the last week Mrs.
Michael and I have had an all-day trip. One trip to Mirror Lake and
one trip down the Valley as far as the bear pits. On the day we went
down the Valley, the only deer seen were three we found opposite the
post office on our return. On the day we went to Mirror Lake, three
deer were seen in Camp 15, feeding on fallen cedar boughs, and two
were seen on the edge of Tenaya Creek. Following is our daily count of
deer seen from February 9 to 17: 1—5—0—2—0—3—8—13."

The 13 seen on February 17 were believed to represent all the deer
between the post office and the Ahwahnee grounds. Of these, probably
10 were deer that had come back up the canyon after the storm.

Concerning the shortage of food supply as the cause of deer leaving
the Valley, Michael states: "Lack of food had nothing to do with the
deer exodus from the Valley. Never since I have been in the Valley has
there been so much available food. The storm brought down such a
litter of branches that the Valley is strewn from end to end with for-
age that has been acceptable to deer in other seasons. * * * Heavy
snows bring within reach much browse that is unreachable in fair
weather. With conditions as they are, there is no reason for deer to
go hungry.

"In my opinion deer leave the Vallej' not from food shortage,
but because in heavy snows thej'' are at the mercy of their natural ene-
mies— coyotes, bobcats and mountain lions. Bobcats are more numerous
in the Valley this winter than they have been for years."

Park Naturalist C. A. Harwell in his report accompanying letter
of February 16, 1932, gives evidence similar to the above report as
follows: "During the extremely heavy storms of the past few weeks

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 229

there has been a noticeable migration of deer from the floor of the
Valley to lower, more open hillsides." Regarding available food, Har-
well states : * ' Hundreds of our black oaks, too heavily laden with snow,
were badly broken. Many of the limbs and branches broken down were
covered with mistletoe. This furnished deer with a new and much
relished food supply. Also boughs of all trees heavily laden with snow
were pushed down within easy reach of these browsing animals. ' '

Regarding actual attacks of predators, Harwell states: "On Febru-
ary 2, electricians Sam Cookson and Joe Gann, while driving up the
highway, one mile east of Arch Rock Ranger Station, at 3 o'clock in
the afternoon, saw a full grown doe jump from a 20-foot bank to the
soft snow at the side of the highway with a wildcat at her throat. They
brought their car to a stop within 20 feet of the two animals * * *
grabbed shovels from their car and hui'ried to the rescue. * * *
The doe was striking the cat sharply with her fore feet. The men
observed that the cat had his teeth deeply imbedded in the throat of
the deer. Blood was streaming from the wound. When Cookson and
Gann got wdthin a few feet, the cat loosened his hold and made an
attempt to escape by scaling the bank. The deer trotted on down the
road out of sight. The soft snow coupled with the steepness of the
bank proved too much for the cat. When he saw he was cornered he
turned on the men. A blow on the side of the head from a shovel
quickly dispatched him. The wildcat was a male weighing 12 pounds,
and is now a scientific specimen at the Yosemite Museum. ' '

The fall migration of mule deer in California precedes the actual
mating season, and in like manner the spring migration back to the
summer range in the mountains is well in advance of the period when
the fawns are born. The fall migration is often hurried, and when
fall snow storms break suddenly, the migration of the mule deer may
become almost a stampede to lower levels that are free of snow. Con-
trasting with this, the spring migration from the foothills to the higher
summer range in the mountains is taken more leisurely. At the lower
levels, deer begin their upward or spring migration as soon as the
ground is free from snow, but at the higher levels, from 6500 feet up
to 10,500 feet, progress is much slower, and deer do not seek these
higher sections as soon as the snow is gone, but wait until the green
spring vegetation has gained a good start.

On June 17, 1933, in ascending Alta Peak in Sequoia National
Park, I found that a few bucks had reached 9000 feet altitude. On June
30, fresh deer tracks were found up to 10,000 feet on Silliman Crest
near Twin Peaks. On July 4, I found deer had reached an altitude of
10,500 feet on the southwest slopes of Twin Peaks even in places where
snow banks still lay several feet thick.

I believe that the spring migration parallels new spring plant
growth. It is obvious that both plant development and deer migra-
tion vary from season to season ; however, the following figures may be
taken as average dates of spring arrival of mule deer on the west slope
of the central Sierra Nevada:

4,000 feet, March 10. 7,500 feet, June 5.

5,000 feet, April 10. 9,000 feet, July 5.

6,000 feet, May 5. 10,000 feet, August 5.

4—12731

230 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

Observations indicate that in tlio Sequoia region migration dates
average 10 days earlier than tlie dates given above, wliile in tiie Lassen
section in the nortliern part oi" the State migration dates were found to
be slightly later than those in the Yosemite region.

There has been considerable discussion regarding the highest occur-
rence of mule deer in California. On August 23, 1933, I found fresh
tracks of a large buck, probably the Inyo mule deer, crossing a pass
■well above timberline at 12,150 feet near Lake South America at the
extreme head of Kern River. However, the highest altitudinal record
for mule deer in California of which I have knowledge is recorded by
George M. Wright, who on July 18, 1923, found a mature buck at
12,750 feet on the southwest face of Mount Kaweah, Sequoia National
Park.

FLUCTUATIONS IN MULE DEER POPULATIONS

John McCauley, a long-time resident of Stage Station, Mariposa
County, told me that in 1900 mule deer had been so hunted in the region
about Hazel Green that the appearance of a deer during the winter
caused an immediate stampede of hunters to that point. Does were
shot as quickly as bucks, and hunters were not concerned about obeying
game laws.

Upon my first visit to Yosemite Valley in 1915, I found deer were
so rare there that whenever one camper discovered a deer he would
call all the other campers to come and see the unusual sight. Through
protection from predatory natural enemies and human hunters, the
deer in Yosemite increased so rapidly that they were numerous there
by 1925. On April 30, 1929, I personally in two hours counted 69 deer
on the floor of Yosemite Valley, and then only covered about three-
fourths of the Valley floor. At this same time a friend on horseback
counted 100 head of deer in one evening on the Valley floor. On March
27, 1930, I counted 96 deer in one hour in Yosemite Valley. In order
to preserve the native flora of Yosemite and to restock an adjoining
area that had been denuded of deer during the foot-and-mouth epizootic,
in two years (1930 and 1931) a total of 137 deer, chiefly yearlings,
were trapped in enclosures and transported by truck from Yosemite
Valley to Hetch Hetchy in the northern portion of Yosemite National
Park. This gave temporary relief.

Great fluctuations in numbers of mule deer have also taken place
outside our national parks. Dan Mann, an old resident of Tuolumne
County, informed the writer that in 1862, deer were very scarce along
the Sonora Pass Road. This continued for about ten years, but by 1876
deer began to be plentiful and continued so until 1890, when heavy
hunting plus a severe winter greatly reduced their number. However,
they gradually increased until at the time of the foot-and-mouth epi-
zootic in July, 1924, deer were more numerous, according to old-timers,
on the Stanislaus National Forest than they had been at any time
since the days of '49, when the first influx of white men began. The
non-sale of deer meat, the protection of does, and the killing off of moun-
tain lions are believed to be the three main reasons for this increase.

During the foot-and-mouth epizootic and the resulting eradication
campaign which in the deer extended from July 12, 1924, until June
10, 1926, when all quarantine restrictions were removed, a total of

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 231

22,214 deer were slaughtered (Charles Keane, ''The Epizootic of Foot
and Mouth Disease in California," State of California Department of
Agriculture, Special Publication, No. 65, 1926, p. 51).

Since these 22,214 deer were killed on 1000 square miles of range,
it has been argued that the deer population was "22 deer per square
mile," which hardly represents the facts in the case, because it must
be remembered that at least three armies of deer crossed this area on
spring and fall migrations from the foothills to the uplands during the
foot-and-mouth disaster, so that the 22,000 deer killed represented the
deer population on more than 1000 square miles. In the early days of
California, it was customary for meat hunters to lie in wait and to
shoot many deer at certain passes through which the deer traveled in
migration, but the number of deer so killed in such areas should not
be cited as representing the normal deer population of these limited
areas.

It is interesting to note that ten years after the deer had been
wiped out in the campaign to control the foot-and-mouth disease,
through a voluntary cessation of hunting, infiltration, and breeding up
of the deer, good hunting was again to be had in the Stanislaus National
Forest.

It is the writer's experience that five mule deer per square mile is
a fairly good deer population on average range in California.

WINTER RANGE

On the south-facing slope of Pilot Ridge, Mariposa County, which
at 4,000 feet elevation is covered with bluebrush and scattered clumps
of golden oak trees, on January 21, 1921, we found mule deer numerous,
fourteen being in sight at one time and over fifty being encountered
in a distance of one mile. The average depth of snow at this time
was eighteen inches, although it reached a measured depth of two feet
in several places. The deer were found to stay under the golden oak
trees where they were sheltered and where we found that they pawed
out beds in the snow, which there was only about eight inches deep,
so that they could lie down on the thick carpet of dead leaves beneath.
This tendency of deer to seek beds of dead leaves rather than snow to
rest on, is graphically shown by a photograph (see Fig. 68), and has
been noted by the writer many times.

This area on the south side of Pilot Ridge is one of the most impor-
tant wintering grounds of deer in the State, since many of the deer
which spend the summer in the central portion, winter just outside the
Park in this area.

On January 8, 1922, at the writer's request, John McCauley took a
census of deer observed by him on a day's horseback trip through this
important winter range. " The route covered included Deer Flat, Bull
Creek, and Anderson Valley. The distance traveled was 18 miles, which
was covered in six hours. During this time, 37 deer, consisting of 22
does, 13 bucks (nearly all 2-point or larger) and 2 fawns were seen,
singly and in bunches, as follows: 10 a.m., 1 doe; 10.30 a.m., 2 bucks, 1
doe; 11.35 a.m., 1 doe, 2 fawns; 12.30 p.m., 5 bucks, 6 does; 2.40 p.m.,

1 doe ; 3.45 p.m., 1 large buck ; 4.15 p.m., 3 bucks, 4 does ; 4.20 p.m.,

2 does; 4.30 p.m., 2 does; 4.35 p.m., 2 does, 2 bucks; 4.40 p.m., 2 does.

232

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

LOCAL HABITAT

The local habitat of the mule deer in California varies jjreatly with
locality. In tlie JMocloc region mule deer are commonly found in the
open stands of Jetfrey and western yellow pine, or at times the big
bucks may be found foraging- out in the broken lava beds adjacent to
the yellow pine forest (see Fig. 77). Tt would seem impossible for ani-
mals as large and as heavy as the mule deer to run as fast as they do

Fig. 77. In the Modoc region Rocky Mountain mule
deer often forage out in the brolien lava bed.s at the
margins of the western yellow pine forests. Medicine
Lake, Siskiyou County, September 25, 192 4. Mus. Vert.
Zool. No. 4451.

over the broken lava beds where a man would certainly fall if he
attempted to run across them at full speed.

In the central Sierran region the mule deer is a characteristic
inhabitant of the yellow^ pine and white fir forest. In such localities the
deer often may be found bedded doAvn during the heat of the day in
the shade of some large yellow pine. However, the older bucks, during
the hours of sunlight, show a decided preference for the seclusion of

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 233

the shady incense cedar thickets. Here in the early morning they
may be found taking a sun bath, screened from intruders by the droop-
ing branches of the cedar trees, in the brilliant svinshine which shoots
through an opening like a spotlight. The more experienced bucks,
particularly those that come in contact with hunters, show a tendency
to bed down on or near the crest of rocky ridges where it would be
difficult for a man to approach without giving some warning through
the breaking of dead limbs or the dislodging of loose rocks. Such a
buck is illustrated by Fig. 67. I finally succeeded in ''snapping" this
wise old buck in his noonday bed, but at that only one photograph was
secured, for the second the sound of the releasing shutter startled him
he bounded away without stopping to take a second look. Does and
fawns show less care in choice of bedding places. However, when a
mountain lion is in the vicinity, I have found that all of the deer shov.^
much greater care in selection of bedding places and tend to bed down
under such circumstances on or near the crest of the ridges, keeping in
the shade but out in the open rather than in thickets of brush, so that
the air currents which sweep up either side of such ridges during the
daytime can carry to them the scent or sound of any approaching
enemy.

During the summer, mule deer tend to leave the forest and to graze
out in the open meadows during early morning and late evening. There
is also a considerable tendency, especially in areas where the deer are
not hunted, for the animals to bed down out in the open meadow where
they can have a wide vista and can detect the approach of any potential
enemy.

There has been much conflicting evidence given regarding the daily
range of the mule deer. In certain instances I have found that a given
individual could be found day after day in a relatively small area, not
over one mile square in extent. This has been particularly true with
certain bucks that have been found to repair day after day to a certain
ridge or clump of brush where they have remained in hiding. During
midsummer or midwinter, the daily movement of a given deer has been
found to be much less than it is during the spring or fall when migra-
tory movements from the winter to tlie summer range are in order.
On the summer range, and also on the winter range, I have found that
certain individual deer, when they have not been alarmed by predatory
animals or hunted by man, have a monthly range of not over one town-
ship in extent, and in many cases the entire day is spent in an area
less than 1000 acres in extent.

The seasonal range of mule deer is in some instances very slight,
perhaps not more than five miles in extent. However, in the majority
of cases in California mule deer there is a seasonal shifting of four or
live thousand feet in elevation and from 20 to 70 miles in distance. At
Eagle Lake, in Lassen County, on May 15, 1925, Rocky Mountain mule
deer were working westward around the southern end of the Lake en
route to their summer range. The difference in distance between the
summer and winter ranges in that particular locality varies from twenty
to thirty miles. In the central portion of the Sierra Nevada there is a
greater distance between the summer and winter ranges of the mule
deer, owing to the fact that the western slope of the Sierra Nevada in
that region has a very low gradient.

234 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

In connection Avith the suppression of the foot-and-mouth disease
anionp: deer in the Stanislaus National Forest, in 1924, it was found that
the summer range of mule deer was, in certain instances, as much as
50 miles distant from the winter range.

On July 28, 1929, west of Saddlebag Lake along the crest of the
Sierra Nevada, I found freshly made tracks of deer. The nearest
known wintering ground of mule deer to the west was 50 miles distant.

During the rutting season, mule deer bucks have been known to
travel as much as ten miles overnight. One of the best illustrations of
the range of mule deer that we have been able to secure was reported
by H. C. Bryant {Jounml of Mammalogij, Aug., 1924, p. 201) : "In
1921, Ranger Henry Skelton and his brother, stationed at Cascada,
about eight miles down the canyon from Yosemite, took an interest in
a tame doe with two fawns. Incidentally, one of the fawns became so
injured that it was mercifully killed. The doe became so tame that it
could be petted. In sending to a mail-order house for materials, a small
bell was noted in the catalogue and w'as ordered, that it might be placed
around the neck of the tame doe. Having been thus marked with a
leather collar and a bell, the doe was continuously identified in the
vicinity during the rest of the summer. In the following summer
(1922), this same doe with the bell was reported along the south rim
of Yosemite Valley on the Pohono trail. During the past summer
(1923), the same animal was reported many times from Little Yosemite
Valley, a minimum distance of seventeen miles from the place where
it M'as first belled, and in the summer of 1924 along the Half Dome trail
about four miles north of its 1923 habitat. She has wintered regularly
at Cascada." Observations that have been made in years following
1924 showed that this individual doe had about the same annual range
over a period of years, and that her daily range, both on the winter and
summer ranges, covered a relatively small area, not more than one
square mile in extent.

The Rocky Mountain mule deer and the burro deer are more par-
tial to open woods and broken rock country than are either the black-
tailed or California mule deer, which latter are regular brush inhabi-
tants. However, on the west slope of the Sierra Nevada at the lower
altitudes which form the winter range of the California mule deer, I
have found that at this season they are very partial to the protection
afforded by scattered clumps of brush, especially to scrub oak. or buck
brush.

The California mule deer is a characteristic inhabitant of the
chaparral belt, and in this area, while many of the deer do make a
regular spring migration to the summer range in the higher mountains,
there are a certain number of deer to be found in the brush belt through-
out the year.

In the vicinity of Giant Forest, Fresno County, I found that mule
deer make a decided and often extensive seasonal migration. In hunt-
ing mountain lions with State Lion Hunter J. Bruce in that region in
midwinter, we found that the majoritv of the deer at that season of
the year were to be found in the brush belt just below the lower edge of
the yellow pine belt. The extreme elevations of the winter range varied
from 1500 to 4800 feet. However, the bulk of the deer were to be found
between the 3000-3500-foot contour lines. In this region on August

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 235

30, 1930, I found that the larger bucks were high up near timberline,
two large bucks being seen on the very summit above Silliman Pass
(11,400 feet). A few days later, on September 1, 1930, I crossed
Elizabeth Pass (11,650 feet). As I climbed up out of Deadman Canyon,
the highest elevation at which deer tracks or droppings could be found
was 10,000 feet. However, the bare granite basins on both sides of
Elizabeth Pass, together with the broken slides, appear to be effective
barriers which discourage deer from crossing the pass. Investigation
of the high granite ridges in that vicinity showed that in late summer
deer, especially the big bucks, regularly reach an elevation of 11,000
feet.

Grinnell and Taylor (MS) report deer tracks being found as high
as 11,500 feet, in the vicinity of Mount Whitney. In the Yosemite
region, at 10,400 feet, near Saddlebag Lake, I found numerous fresh
deer tracks on July 28, 1929. In this locality the altitudinal summer
range of deer was found to reach 11,000 feet. On July 23, I found
fresh tracks of six deer, all apparently does and fawns with no large
bucks in the entire group, at an elevation of just under 10,000 feet near
the upper belt of dense lodgepole pine trees at the west base of Mount
Dana. The freshly cropped vegetation showed that these deer had
browsed along the edge of a green alpine meadow and had eaten both
fresh green grass and shrubby vegetation.

236

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

BREEDING HABITS

AGE AT WHICH BUCKS DEVELOP ANTLERS

Under normal conditions in the central Sierra Nevada region, the
first antlers of male California mule deer are single spikes from three
to ten inches in length. Such antlers start to develop when the animal
is about one year old. However, in early faAvns the growth of the
antler is sometimes sufficient to perforate tlie skin the first season
(Caton, Antelope and Deer of America, 1877, p. 192). I have several
times verified this fact. In Yosemite on January 30, 1929, I observed

,1*^

Fig. 7 8. After reaching: full physical development a mule deer buck besin.s to
decline. Although his antler.s retain their full spread a reduction in points takes
place as here shown. Yosemite, December fi, 1927. Mus. Vert. Zool. No. 5618.

two male mule deer fawns in which antlers had just broken through
the skin on the tops of their heads. One had little sharp antlers not
over an inch long protruding through and above the surface of the skin.
Another male fawn had small antlers over one and one-fourth inches
in length. In both instances the diminutive antlers were hard and
free of velvet. At this date the majority of buck fawns gave no indi-
cation of their antlers coming through the skin at any time in the near
future. In both instances just cited the fawns stayed close to and were
dependent on their mothers. These fawns could not have been more
than eight months old at the date of observation.

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 237

In the Modoc and Lassen regions in northeastern California it has
been my own observation, as well as that of residents of the region, that
a male Rocky Mountain mule deer in normal strength and vigor will
have his first antlers "forked-horn." In one well-attested instance in
the Lassen region, a mule deer buck known to have been only a year-
ling had three points on one antler and two on the other (Grinnell,
Dixon and Linsdale, Vertebrate Natural History of Lassen Peak Region,
1930, p. 572).

It has been pointed out that deer in captivity t«nd to produce
smaller antlers than those of the same species and age in the wild.
It has been thought that this difference in size of antlers may be due to
the presence or absence of certain foods of high mineral content. This
difference in available food might well account for the variation that
we find in the size of antlers in the same species of deer in localities
only a few miles apart.

During the second year of his life a mule deer buck is usually a
"forked-horn." The brow tine, which is commonly known to hunters
as the "eyeguard" is not acquired until the third year, at which time
a third point is usually added to each antler. Basal snags, or pro-
tuberances at the base of the antler below the eye-guard, are only
present on old bucks. Many of these old bucks are only * ' forked-horns ' '
and frequently lack brow tines (see Fig. 78).

Some hunters have claimed that the age of a buck can always be
determined by the number of points on his antlers. AVhile there is a
general relationship between age and the number of points, no hard and
fast rule can be laid down, because, as will presently be shown, there is
much variation in antlers with age even in the same individual.

My own experience has been that the development of antlers in a
normal male mule deer is as follows: yearling, forked-horn or spike,
varying with sub-species ; two-year-old, forked-horn, rarely a three-
pointer ; three-year-old, three-pointer, rarely a forked-horn ; four-year-
old to eight-year-old, four pointer. Four points, exclusive of tlie brow
tine, on each antler is the regular number of points for a fully adult mule
deer buck. Aside from freak sets of antlers, the largest number of
points of which I have dependable record in mule deer in California is
seven full points on one antler and eight on the companion antler.

Antlers in deer are secondary sexual characters and are closely
linked up with the reproductive system. Where it has been possible
personally to check on the animal in the flesh, it has invariably been mj^
experience that all bucks bearing freak antlers or antlers that never
shed their velvet have been sexually aberrant.

After reaching full normal size of four points, some bucks subse-
quently add extra prongs and snags or even an extra tine or two to
their antlers (see Fig 56). However, the majority of mule deer bucks
rarely develop more than four main tines to each antler. After a buck
has reached the zenith of his physical perfection, and although his
antlers may retain their full spread, a reduction in the number of tines
frequently takes place from year to year, so that we commonly find
large old bucks (see Fig 78) having antlers that are reduced to only
three, two, or in extreme cases only a single tine or "spike." In seve-
ral instances I have been able to examine the skeleton, skull, and par-
ticularly the worn teeth, of such bucks that have fallen to the hunter's

238

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

rifle, and have been able to prove beyond question that they were old,
decadent individuals. The more observant hunters recognize these
large, old forked-horn bucks and frequently refer to them as "Pacific"
bucks (see Fig. 79). Other le.ss observant hunters marvel at their
size but maintain that they are just "forked-horns" and that they
therefore must be young deer.

BREEDING AGE OF DOES

Caton states that none of the Rocky IMountain mule deer which
he raised "showed the least inclination to breed the summer they were
a year old." However, Ranger Oscar L. Barnum gives, in letter of
February 15, 1931, the known breeding data of two Rocky Mountain
mule deer does in California, thus:

Born First hred Fawn horn

July 17, 1928 November 27. 1929 (single) June 2.3. 19.S()

July 17, 1928 December 7, 1929 (twins) July 5, 1930

Fig. 7 9. A so-called "Pacific" buck is merely a large old decadent buck In
which the antler.s have been reduced to the "forked horn" stage as here pictured.
Yosemite, December 6, 1927. Mus. Vert. Zool. No. 5625.

My observations show that many yearling mule deer does in Cali-
fornia fail to breed and that over half of them do not breed successfully
until they are over two years old. The normal breeding range of the
average mule deer doe has, in known instances, been from 2 to 12
years of age.

The average deer hunter finds a doe that has "lost her fawn"
through a coyote, bear, eagle, or disease, and jumps to the conclusion
that every doe seen in late summer or fall without a fawn is a barren
doe. My year-round investigations show that this is not the case and
that the percentage of barren does has been exaggerated and is actu-
ally not more than 5 or 6 per cent.

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

239

GROWTH OF ANTLERS

The interval between the dropping of the old antlers and the time
when the new antlers start to grow again in mule deer of California
has been found, by accurate check, to vary from two to four weeks. As
soon as the old antler is dropped, the top of the pedicel, where the
antler joined the skull, becomes granulated around its entire margin
and in a short time is completely overgrown. This process has been
noted by me many times. On February 8, 1930, in Yosemite, I observed
and photographed a buck that was known to have shed his antlers
one week previously. In this instance, a distinct granular ring had
already formed around the outer rim of the pedicel or process of the
skull upon which the antler grows (see Fig. 80). Within ten days the

Fig. 80. As soon as the antler is shed the scar becomes granulated and in a
short time heals over, as in this California mule deer buck with antlers shed one
week. Yosemite, February 8, 1930. Wild Life Division No. 781.

.pedicel was completely covered with black naked skin, which then
remained free of any covering of velvet or hair until after the new
antler had begun to develop.

My own observation has been that the most vigorous mature bucks
which are the first to drop their antlers are also the first to start to grow
new antlers in the early spring. The earliest date upon which I have
actually observed antlers "sprouting" was March 4, but in the case of
the unicorn buck of Yosemite, George Wright (MS) reports the new
antlers had begun to develop on March 2, 1928. Immature bucks,
together with sickly or poorly nourished males, are the last individuals
to shed their antlers and are correspondingly late in growing a new set.
In Yosemite Valley on April 8, 1929, George Wright noted bucks with
new antlers ' ' nearly an inch long. ' '

240

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

On April 29, 1929, I found a group of five mature bucks that were
feeding liarmoniously together in a willow i)atch on the floor of Yosemite
Valley. These bucks were in much better flesh than they liad been when
seen the last of the previous January. At this season the bucks were
actually wilder than the does and fawns. Antler groAvth had begun in
all five bucks, and in each case the length of the new antler was recorded
in inches, as follows: \, 4, 1, 11 and 2i. In any given buck the two
antlers were of equal length and diameter. Tlie antlers had attained
their full diameter, from 1^ to If inches, from the start, so the growth
was all longitudinal (see Fig. 81). At this early stage of growth,
the antlers were dark bluish-black in color, turgid in texture, and
covered with a verj- short and fine growth of downy hair. The new

Fig. si. By the la.st of April, California mule deer hurk.s
antler.s a.s jiiuch as 2i inches long, as here shown. Yosemite,
S. Dixon No. H.

have new prowing
April 29, 1929. J.

growing antlers were apparentl.y decidedly sensitive to the touch.
Although the bucks were quite playful at this season, care was taken not
to strike their antlers against those of another buck or against any other
hard object such as the limbs or trunk of a tree. Instead of selecting
a smooth willow sapling to rub his tender antlers on, one buck mas-
saged his antler by reaching around and gently rubbing its tender tip
against the skin of his belly or on the inside of his hind leg. Tliis
operation was repeated three times within a period of five minutes
and proved to be the regular "manicure" method employed.

Oscar L. Barnum (in a letter of March 3, 1931) states that the
first sets of new antlers observed by him in Rocky Mountain mule deer
in the Modoc region have been as follows : On April 17 and April 23,
1927, two bucks were noted, each with new antlers about three inches

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

241

in length ; on April 15, 1929, a buck was observed with new antlers
three inches long ; and on April 14, 1930, two bucks were seen with new
antlers each about 2^ inches long. Barnum reports that in his
section by the first of May practically all of the bucks have new
antlers large enough to be seen without difficulty. He states that in
the Modoc region branching of the antlers is in evidence by May 20 and
that the antler is fully grown by the middle of July, although the velvet
is not normally shed until about the tenth day of September.

My own extensive observations, together with those of George M.
Wright, made in Yosemite, indicate that on the average California mule
deer bucks are a trifle later in developing full antlers than are Rocky
Mountain mule deer in the Modoc region. The reason why the earliest
dates for new antlers come from Yosemite was possibly the fact that
they were especially watched for and were detected at an early stage

Fig. 82. In Yosemite, many of the bucks had new antler.s grown out to the first
forking- by July 1. Yosemite, June 29, 1927. Mus. Vert. Zool. No. 5386.

of development when less than an inch in length, while in the Modoc
region the new antlers were not noted until they had made considerable
growth. In the Modoc region branching of antlers was in evidence by
May 20. In Yosemite on May 24, 1928, Wright found that many of
the bucks had antlers grown out to about the first forking, while some
antlers had barely begun to fork on July 1 (see Fig. 82). On July
15, 1929, in Yosemite, I watched two large bucks that were feeding in
a meadow (see Fig 83) and found that their antlers were not over three-
fourths grown. A large four-point buck photographed at the same
place on August 1, 1929 (see Fig. 84), had antlers not yet fully
grown.

On July 18, 1928, I watched a band of nine buck deer feeding har-
moniously on an area not more than an acre in extent in Yosemite.

242

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

,'ra--r__ii

Fig. So. Two large bucks biting- ticks on eacli oilier. Note that the antlers
are not over three-fourths grown by the middle of July. Yosemite, July 15, 1929.
Wild Life Division No. 144.

Fig. 84. A large 4-point buck in full "red" summer coat but with antlers
still in velvet and not fully formed. Yosemite, August 1, 1929. Wild Life Division
No. 165.

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

243

There were four-point, 2 ; three-point, 3 ; three-two-point, 1 ; two-point, 2 ;
spike, 1. All their antlers were in the velvet and appeared to be three-
fourths grown. On August 1, 1929, in Yosemite, I found a spike buck
that had antlers between 5 and 6 inches long but still in the velvet. In
the Yosemite region, the earliest date upon which I have found bucks
with antlers practically grown but still in the velvet was July 20.

By the tenth of September some of the bucks begin to "fight
brush" in order to free their antlers of velvet. One of the most notable
instances in which I was able to witness removal of the velvet from
a buck's antlers took place in Yosemite Valley in 1927, where, on Sep-
tember 14, I found a very tame buck with large antlers still in the
velvet (see Fig 85). At this date he was all shed out into the short

Fig. 85. California mule deer biiciv with antlers fully grown but still in the velvet.
Yosemite, September 14, 1927, 5 p.m. Mus. Vert. Zool. No. 5 47 8.

"blue" (really gray) winter coat. He was fat and in excellent con-
dition, with large well-balanced antlers that carried three tines on each
side. I watched him for some time at a distance of ten feet as he fed
on goldenrod stalks which were just ready to bud. As far as I could
see, even with binoculars, the velvet was as solidly attached as ever to
the antlers, and there was no break or tear in it at any point. I left
him at 6.20 p.m., still chewing peacefully on the goldenrod. Twelve
hours later, at 6 o'clock on the morning of September 15, I met this
same buck coming out of a thicket of western chokecherry where I later
found evidence that he had been ' ' horning ' ' the brush to free his antlers
of velvet. The velvet which the day before had covered his antlers now
hung in long limp ribbons from the base of his antlers, to which support
the shreds remained firmly attached. The shreds of velvet caused
the buck considerable worry in that every time he lowered his head to

244

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

graze on the grass they dangled in front of liis eyes and obscured his
vision. The bnck kept shaking his head vigorously and twice I saw
him take the oft'ending strands in his mouth and cliew tliem oil' as higli
up as he could grasp them. The velvet thus obtained was not dropped
or thrown away but was chewed up and swallowed with evident relish.
By 7 o'clock all of the velvet had been "bobbed" by being chewed off to
the level of the buck's moutli. The buck then went out and after
bedding down in the center of the meadow began chewing his cud (see
Fig. 86). Half an hour later this buck was down near our camp horn-
ing some smooth willow saplings in an effort to get rid of the remaining
velvet. He no longer rubbed the tips of his antlers, wliieli were then
hard and polished and a beautiful brown in color, but spent most of his
energy in trying to remove the velvet where it was still tightly attached
at the base of his antlers. By 9 o'clock the wet, stringy strips of velvet
iiad begun to dry and to shrivel up into narrow "shoestrings" which,
two days later, resembled strips of dried up, twisted rawhide (see Fig.
87) that remained tightly attached to the antlers. However, the bony
burr at the base of the antler stuck out and protected the velvet so

^'|%'.:

Fig. 86. The same buck (see Fig. 85), thirteen hours later with velvet hang-
ing in shreds but with the ends bitten off, chewed up, and swallowed by the buck.
Yosemite, September 15, 1927, 6 a.m. Mus. Vert. Zool. No. 5481.

that even repeated rubbings of the antlers against willow saplings
failed to remove it. I was much interested in finding out just how
the strips of dried-up velvet would finall}^ be gotten rid of, so I con-
tinued to keep close watch on this particular buck and, on the morn-
ing of September 18, I watched him lower his liead, then reach forward
with his right hind leg and using the sharp points of the hoof as a
chisel, he neatly pried off! and dislodged the remaining shreds of dry,
stiff velvet.

It has been my experience that shedding of velvet on the antlers of
vigorous bucks in good physical condition is rapid and complete.

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

245

Inspection at close range of tame bucks observed in the act of remov-
ing the velvet shows that there is normally a wet, vascular, bloody film
between the velvet and the hard bony surface of the antler which serves
much in the same way that the freshly flowing spring sap of a willow
permits the ready separation of the bruised bark from the wood.
However, in cases where the buck is sickly or poorly nourished, the
velvet dries down and adheres tightly to the antlers, so that it is very
difficult for the buck to scrape it off.

In selecting a ''rubbing post" upon which to remove velvet and
to polish their antlers, bucks show a decided preference for straight,
upright saplings of smooth-barked willow, wild plum, or wild cherry.
Small saplings between two and three inches in diameter are most
frequently chosen (see Fig. 88). On January 30, 1929, in Yosemite, I
found many wild plum saplings that had been "horned" by bucks so
that the bark had been removed
and bare white patches two
inches wide and 18 inches long
resulted. These "barked" areas
were nearly always within
three feet of the ground. Many
of these "barked" areas showed
grooves cut into the wood.
Such grooves have been mis-
taken for toothmarks by some
people, but close inspection
showed that the indentations
had been made by the sharp
round-pointed eyeguards and
tines of the deer rather than
by his relatively wide, flat,
chisel-like lower incisor teeth.
Furthermore, in nearly every
instance, the shreds of wood and
pieces of bark that had been
raked off or gouged out by the
antlers were found lying dried
up on the ground at the base of
the barked saplings, thus com-
pleting the evidence.

Bucks continue to polish their antlers long after the last bits of
velvet have been removed. In fact, they "horn" certain saplings as long
as they retain their antlers. On December 10, 1927, in Yosemite, I
photographed a buck in the act of vigorously "horning" a bush (see
Fig. 88). On the evening of December 13, I watched a three-point
buck "horn" a willow sapling, stripping all of the bark off one side of
the sapling for a distance of 26 inches. After the smaller buck had been
working on the willow for a period of four minutes, a large four-point
buck came along and chased him away and began to "horn" the same
willow.

The larger buck stopped three different times and smelted the spot
where the other buck had been rubbing the base of his antlers on the

Fig. 87. Buck shown (see Fig. 86),
but two days later with velvet dried up.
Yosemite, September 17, 1927. Mus. Vert.
Zool. No. 5485.

5—12731

246

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

willow. This incident suggests that saplings that are regularly
"horned" by a number of different bucks, as I have found frequently
to be the case, may serve as "intelligence posts," just as certain "bear
trees" are selected and bitten, rubbed and scratched by bears.

ADULT BUCKS WITH SPIKE ANTLERS

Hunters have reported the killing at rare intervals of old bucks
that have carried spike antlers. That the antlers of such old bucks do
revert to single spikes has been questioned by certain authors. Caton,
in his excellent book on the antelope and deer of America, states (p.
232) : "We have no well authenticated, reliable observations to justify
the conclusions that these [large] spike antlers are ever grown upon

■»» .r«*^s&w*«^*^^'"

Fig. 88. A California mule deer buck horning a willow. Mule deer continue
to polish their antlers long after the velvet is off. Yosemlte, December 10, 1927.
Mus. Vert. Zool. No. 5624.

adult animals. All we have on the subject is a sort of general con-
jecture, founded no doubt upon exceptional cases."

The best concrete evidence that I have been able to secure on this
point is as follows: On January 31, 1929, I found an old buck in
Yosemite Valley that carried a tall, four-point antler on the right side
of his head, while his left antler was a straight spike one inch in diam-
eter and ten inches in length (see Fig. 89). A good check was obtained
on the length of the spike, which was fully two inches longer than his
ear. This buck had received an injury to his left hip, so that he walked
with an unusual weaving motion. The injury appeared to have been
done by the antlers of some large buck. This may have been the reason

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

247

why this buck was very shy and kept out of the way of all of the larger
bucks.

Gus Nordquist has mounted between 300 and 400 deer heads each
year for the past ten years. He has thus had an excellent opportunity
to observe unusual sets of antlers since deer heads from all over
California are shipped to him to be mounted. Nordquist has taken the
trouble to examine the teeth and skulls of two large spike bucks and
stated that the worn teeth and the characters of the skull in each case
showed that the bucks that carried these large antlers were unquestion-
ably old individuals. Nordquist states that in one instance the spike
antlers were over fifteen inches in length and more than an inch and
a quarter in diameter at the base. Examination of the teeth and skull
proved that the animal that wore the antlers was well past middle age.

Fig. 89. This old buck's left antler was a straight spike ten inches long and
one inch in diameter. The other antler was tall and carried four points. Yosemite,
January 31, 1929. J. S. Dixon No. 30.

I have personally examined two sets of spike antlers that measured
over fourteen inches in length and well over an inch and one-eighth in
diameter. In both instances there was conclusive evidence that the
bucks were old.

Nordquist and I have both found that in nearly every instance
where an old buck has been found bearing spike antlers, there have
also been several extra snags, from one to six inches in length, clustered
about the base of the main antler. The presence of such snags or prongs
at the base of the antler has been shown by both Caton and Nordquist
to be characteristic of age, and restricted to antlers of old bucks.

In 1930 I found that in Yosemite Valley all of the older bucks had
dropped their antlers by February 8, the earliest date a buck was seen

248

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

without antlers having been reported by Charles Michael as January
27. In 1931, because of the mild winter, w^e thought that the bucks
might drop their antlers earlier than they did in 1930. However, this
was not the case, since only two old bucks had dropped their antlers
by February 8, 1931. As a general rule, the mature and more vigorous
bucks are the first to shed their antlers, some being without them by
January 15. In 1929, the last buck with old antlers was noted in
Yosemite on March 30, and by April 9, some of the mature bucks which
had dropped their antlers early had new ones nearly an inch in length.

UNICORN BUCK

Among the many cases of malformed antlers in mule deer which
I have personally observed and studied, in all but two instances the dis-

FiG. 90. The "unicorn" buck. Note oddly shaped antlers and location of the third
antler. Yosemite, December 6, 1927. Mus. Vert. Zool. No. 5612.

tortion was restricted to the two antlers themselves and did not involve
any other bony process. How^ever, in the case of the unicorn buck of
Yosemite, we have a deer that developed a third bony process or antler
growing out of the center of his face about halfway between his eyes
and nostrils (see Fig. 90). This third antler first made its appearance
as a single spike, but in 1927 it developed two prongs or tines. On
September 14, 1927, the third antler was still in the velvet and had a
height of 2^ inches with a basal diameter of one inch. His regular
antlers were in the velvet also, and at this date had a spread of 30
inches and were apparently nearly grown. On November 18, 1927,
two residents of Yosemite saw the unicorn, and on that date the shreds
of dry velvet were just peeling off his antlers. On December 6, 1927,

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

249

I again encountered this buck and found that his antlers were full-
grown and carried several extra tines or points (see Fig. 91). By
this time the buck was in full winter pelage and his antlers, including
the one on his nose, were free from velvet, being hard and polished.
According to local residents, the unicorn buck came back in the spring
with a hole or depression in his forehead where the supernumerary-
antler had been. A knob began to appear there simultaneously with
the budding antlers.

**01d Horny" was one of the tamest bucks in the park, yet, unlike
the other older bucks, he never was mean, even during the rutting
season, or vicious toward men, women, or children. It was thought
from his malformed antlers and his exceedingly gentle behavior that
he was sexually deficient. However, examination of his reproductive
organs and subsequent observations proved that this was not the case.
His testicles, though small, were intact, and the fact that this buck was

seen to drive off other large

bucks and to mate successfully
with several does proved that
he was sexually potent. For
some unknown reason, other
larger and more powerful bucks
repeatedly gave way and relin-
quished their rights, even to the
coveted does, to the unicorn.
When another buck came near
him, "Old Horny" faced the in-
truder, then, lowering his head,
gave a hoarse hiss or grunt.
Upon receiving such a challenge,
the other buck always departed
in haste.

It became obvious during
the winter of 1928 that "Old
Horny" was fast entering upon
a decline. His body became
thin and emaciated and his
spirit was broken. Watch was
kept, but he grew more feeble,
and on February 24, 1928, after
the two main antlers were shed,
he was placed in one of the gov-
ernment barns where he could be fed and taken care of. Finally, in
the first week of March, in spite of all that could be done for him,
"Old Horny" died. A post mortem by George M. Wright revealed
that he was heavily infested with ticks. A large bump was present on
the right side of the lower jaw. When the head was skinned, it was
discovered that the lower jaw on the right side and an area extending
all the way back to the base of the cranium was infected and full of pus.
When the skull was cleaned it was found that the skull was not bilater-
ally perfect and that the two antler sockets were not in the same rela-
tive position.

During the life of the unicorn there had been much discussion and
debate regarding the exact location of the third antler with regard to

Fig. 91. A close up of the "unicorn"
buck to show location and forking of
third antler on face in front of eyes.
Yosemite, December 6, 1927. Mus. Vert.
Zool. No. 5611.

250 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

the bones of the sknll. Certain leading scientists claimed that in the
deer family only the frontal bones produced antler sockets and that
therefore the third antler must also be located on the frontal bone. The
skull of this interesting buck was cleaned and preserved by George M.
Wright and then placed in the Yosemite Museum where it may be
examined by those interested. Examination of the cleaned cranium
revealed the fact that the third antler was not an outgrowth of the
frontal hones, but was located more than halfway down on the nasal
hones (see Fig. 92).

This is such an important specimen that full details .should be
placed on record. I found that the cleaned skull measured, in milli-
meters, as follows:

Length, 295; zygomatic width, 132; interorbital width, 89; length
of nasals, 88 ; greatest width of nasals, 39 ; height of third antler, 54 ;

Fig. 92. Skull of "unicorn" buck showing third antler growing out of nasal
and not frontal bones of skull. Specimen in Yosemite Museum photographed
April 5, 1928. J. S. Dixon No. 5.

greatest width of third antler, 30; distance to anterior end of nasals
from front base of third antler, 28; distance from posterior end of
nasals to posterior base of third antler, 37 ; width of foramen magnum,
14; length of foramen magnum, 19. The teeth in both the upper and
lower jaws were much worn. Several of the upper molariform teeth
were worn down until they were only a little over one millimeter thick.
I do not recall having examined any deer skull in which the teeth were
so nearly worn clear down to the gums. The sinus bones were unusually
thick and heavy, and the whole skull showed signs of heavy bone
deposits.

At the time of his death "Old Horny" had shed his two main
antlers; however, the third antler (see Fig. 92) remained firmly
attached. I was much interested in seeing just how the third antler
is attached. It springs from a socket which, except for size, is in every
way similar to the ones from which the two main antlers spring. The
cleavage line is quite distinct, but it had been noted in previous years

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

251

that the third antler was not dropped until some weeks after the two
main antlers were shed.

On December 14, 1929, I discovered a forked-horn buck on the
fioor of Yosemite Valley that had a rudimentary third antler in the
center of his forehead almost directly between his eyes (see Fig. 93),
This rudimentary antler was at this date out of the velvet and was
hard and white like the polished tip of an ordinary antler. It was
somewhat smaller than the third antler that "Old Horny" carried, being
about f of an inch in diameter and about 1^ inches high. There was

Fig. 93. Unicorn Jr., showing extra antler between eyes. Yosemite, December
14, 1929. Wild Life Division No. 114.

no sign of its branching, and the terminal tip was not over ^ inch in
diameter. Because this buck had certain mannerisms and physical
characteristics that were strikingly like those of "Old Horny" we
christened him "Unicorn Junior." Although it is impossible for me
to produce scientific proof of the fact, it is my belief that "Unicorn
Junior" was one of the progeny of "Old Horny," and this belief has
been strengthened by subsequent observations.

RELATIVE NUMBERS OF BUCKS, DOES, AND FAWNS

On September 13, 1927, I counted a typical band of 19 California
mule deer in a meadow in Yosemite Valley and found them to be as
follows :

1 large 4-point buck, with antlers still in the velvet.

1 3-polnt buck, with antlers still in the velvet.

1 forked-horn buck, with antlers still in the velvet.

1 spike buck.

9 does (1 doe had twin fawns) ; 4 does, 1 fawn each; 4 young does, no fawns).

This represents an average gathering of mule deer.

252

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

It has been my experience that mule deer are more gregarious than
coast black-tailed deer. With mule deer it is a regular experience in
late winter to encounter bands of from six to twenty individuals (see
Fig. 94).

From 6.30 to 7 o'clock during the evening of June 29, 1927, in

Yosemite, I watched a band of 16 deer feeding in an open meadow, and

found they were as follows:

1 large buck, antlers in velvet, twelve inches long, and forked.

1 small buck, antlers in velvet and unbranched.

7 adult does.

7 yearling fawns.

Pig. 94. In late winter California mule deer often go in bands. Note use of
ears to detect approach of enemy, also uniformity of tail pattern. Yosemite, April
29, 1929. J. S. Dixon No. 31.

From 6 to 6.40 p.m. on December 6, 1927, in Yosemite Valley, of

22 deer grazing in the meadow there were :

1 large 4-point buck.
1 forked-horn buck.

1 spike buck.

5 adult does.

2 young does.

12 fawns (two pair of twins and eight singles).

At Round Meadow, in Sequoia National Park, on June 9, 1933,
I counted the California mule deer in the meadow at 6 o'clock in the
evening and found the herd consisted of :

3 large 4-point bucks.
1 forked-horn buck.

1 spike buck.
8 pregnant does.

6 young does.

8 yearling fawns.

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 253

On September 16, 1933, I counted the deer in this same meadow and
found :

5 adult bucks (three 3-point and two 4-point).
8 adult does.
4 young does.

3 spotted fawns.

On December 18, 1929, I counted the deer in this meadow and
found :

2 adult bucks.

4 adult does.
4 fawns.

At first sight the relative number of mature bucks to does and
fawns may seem comparatively unimportant. However, a detailed
study of mule deer in various parts of California indicates :

1. The hunting season of mule deer comes before the mating season.

2. Vigorous, mature bucks bear the biggest and best antlers.

3. Such bucks carry the "heads" that make the best trophies, and
thus the individuals that nature has selected to breed and to perpetuate
the race are the very ones especially sought for and killed by the
licensed hunters of the State.

4. Where the number of such vigorous breeding bucks is unduly
decreased, mating is deferred, or accomplished by inferior bucks,
resulting in many late or weakling fawns being born.

5. Such late or weakling fawns are often not properly weaned,
owing to lack of suitable green, succulent forage in late summer. As
a result, these fawns continue to be a serious drain on their mothers,
so that both mother and fawn enter the winter in a backward, weak-
ened condition, falling easy prey to predators, disease, cold, and star-
vation.

YOUNG VERSUS MATURE BUCKS AS BREEDERS

At mating time, in a polygamous species such as the mule deer,
victories go principally to males of full physical strength and vigor.
The tendency is for the weaker bucks to be driven off by the stronger
ones, and a system of selective breeding which tends to exclude both
immature and old decadent males from breeding results. It is believed
that this is nature 's way of insuring the survival of the fittest, thereby
keeping up the vitality and vigor of the race.

It would appear, from my investigations, that this critical breed-
ing period in a mule deer normally extends over a relatively short
span, perhaps for not more than three or four years of his life when
he is in his prime and physically at his best.

It has been pointed out that physical strength and sexual potency
may not decline uniformly in an aging animal. It has been found that
in elk and in other members of the deer family, a well-established bull
or buck may sometimes hold his harem against all rivals after there
has been a decided lowering in his fertility. However, the leadership
of the "herd" buck is challenged constantly and he is forced to fight

254 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

numerous battles each breeding season if he is to maintain his leader-
ship. Just as soon as the leading buck becomes decadent and is unable
to defend his harem, younger bucks slip in and secure the coveted does.

Oscar L. Barnum, forest ranger, stationed at Cedarville, California,
cites such an instance (California Fish and Game, vol. 16, no. 2, p.
184). His report, somewhat condensed, is as follows: On November 6,
1926, in the Warner Mountains of Modoc County, California, a band
of 17 deer (14 does and 3 bucks) were observed mating. "One buck was
a large seven-pointer, the second, a three-pointer, and the third buck
a forked-horn. The large buck was continually trying to drive the smaller
bucks away from the does. I watched them for about an hour and a
half. The large buck would chase the three-pointer about 100 yards
from the does, then look back and see the forked-horn with the does.
He would then chase off the forked-horn while the three-pointer would
follow back to the does. During the time that I watched them the
small bucks made nine covers and the large buck not one. The large
buck 's exertions were telling on him and he was nearly run down. ' '

The instance just cited is, I believe, a clear case of a "decadent"
buck being dethroned. The shooting by hunters of such "aged"
bucks accomplishes three things. It removes the decadent buck, per-
mits regular breeding to continue, and at the same time provides the
hunter with a valued trophy.

However, a study of the breeding habits of mule deer has con-
vinced me that each season approximately ninety per cent of the effective
mating is accomplished by a relatively small number of dominant bucks.
It should be stated here that the number of ' ' covers ' ' that a buck makes
is not a true index of "effective" breeding. Repeated observations
have shown that young bucks, particularly spike bucks and, to a lesser
extent, forked-horns, tend to run with the does the year round, and
this has given rise to the assumption that they are more of a factor in
reproduction than they really are. Another point which should be
noted here is that a young buck tends to chase a doe for days when
she is "in heat" and will "cover" her as many as a dozen times
during that time. Contrasted to this, a mature buck usually "serves"
a doe once or twice at the critical time, and then leaves her and hunts
up a new female. Thus, while a spike buck may make as many "covers"
as a mature buck, the number of females with which he effectively mates
is decidedly less than it is with a mature buck.

Another reason why spike bucks and forked-horns appear to have
a large part in the reproductive activities is the fact that these young
bucks are the ones that are abroad most frequently in the daytime, and
hence are the ones usualh^ observed in actual pursuit of does. During
the hunting season the larger bucks tend to hide out in dense brush
during the day and thus they escape the hunter's watchful eye, which
is fortunate for the deer of the future. This habit of the big bucks to
remain under cover carries over into the mating season, which follows
the hunting season. On December 7, 1927, even in Yosemite Valley
where protected, I found that during the late morning and early
afternoon the older bucks did not come out into the open meadows but
remained hidden in the dense azalea and cedar thickets. As soon as
the afternoon shadows began to fall, the larger bucks started to come
out into the meadows to feed, keeping, for the most part, well within

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 255

the shadows. After sundown, these larger bucks came out and fed
in the open meadows along with the other deer. Thus, it was found
by repeated observations that these old bucks were the first deer to
leave the meadows in the morning, as well as the last individuals to
come out into the open meadows in the evenings.

From "sign" and tracks left in the snow, it is evident that most
of the mating takes place at night. The mating that occurs in the day-
time is more likely to take place during the morning and evening hours
than during the middle of the day.

During the rutting season I have followed mule deer about for
days at a time in freshly-fallen snow, and have found that the normal
mating practice is as follows: The most virile bucks are those that are
just reaching maturity. Such bucks may, in some cases, be threcT
pointers, although the majority have acquired the fourth tine or point
to each antler. My field studies of deer in Yosemite and in the Sequoia
region, which have extended over a number of breeding seasons, have
shown that in each season 90 per cent of the effective mating was
accomplished by such dominant bucks. The usual procedure is as
follows: As soon as their antlers become hardened and are freed of
velvet, the bucks stage a series of combats which demonstrate which
bucks are dominant and which are the weaker individuals. Through
such elimination contests, a practical understanding is reached among
all the bucks as to which is superior, and each buck learns his proper
place. In most instances, the weaker bucks give way to their superiors
whenever they appear on the scene.

The oestrum period in female deer varies, so that all the does are
not ready to mate at the same time. When the pre-oestrum period
is reached by a doe, she is singled out and closely followed by one of
the dominant bucks until she is ready to mate. This "running" of does
by bucks may extend from two to five days and is often confused with
actual mating, which takes place subsequently as the final chapter in
the mating episode. Mating having been accomplished, the "herd"
buck hunts up a new doe and runs at her side until she is ready to mate.
The actual breeding period thus covers at least two months, November
15 to January 15, but in the majority of cases mating takes place
early in December.

BATTLES BETWEEN BUCKS

In Yosemite Valley in the afternoon of January 30, 1929, I wit-
nessed a sharp fight between two large bucks which, by my watch,
lasted 12 minutes, when there was a brief pause of two minutes, after
which the fight was continued for another five minutes. The battle
began at 3.50 and ended nineteen minutes later, at 4.09 o'clock. At the
start, one buck was grazing out in the edge of a meadow with three
does. The other larger buck came out of the timber where he had been
sleeping during the middle of the day, crossed over and began sniffing
around the does. This was the immediate cause for combat. The heads
of both bucks went down at the same instant, and they came together
with a sharp clash that could be distinctly heard 60 yards distant.
There was a vigorous tussle from the start. Both bucks were old four-
pointers and had evidently been in many previous bouts, so that each
knew all tricks of the game. After the first brisk clash of antlers, the

256 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

bucks settled down to a steady fencing match. In case of an ordinary
fight between bucks, the terminal forks of the antlers catch (see Fig. 95)
and keep the combatants a certain distance apart. The initial part
of the battle consisted in each buck making a vigorous attempt to pusli
his adversary backward so as to force him to bend his neck. This at
once gave the advantage to the aggressor, because the sharp terminal
points of his antlers would then project far enough beyond the enemy's
guard so that they would gouge into his adversary's eye, ear, or neck.
As long as both bucks remained in a straight line facing each other
neither could gain much advantage, but as soon as either one gave
ground or was forced back so that his body was at right angles to his
opponent he was caught at a disadvantage, for then the points of the
other buck's antlers would begin to reach past his own antlers and
would gouge him in the eye, ear, or neck. By watching with binocu-
lars bucks that were fighting, I have repeatedly seen the points of the
antlers driven into the bases of the bucks' ears.

Fig. 95. In an ordinary fight between bucks, the terminal forks of the antlers
catch and each buck attempts to force his adversary to bend his neck, thus permit-
ting the tip of the enemy's antler to reach through and gouge his opponent's eye,
ear, or neck. Yosemite, November 2, 1929. Wild Life Division No. 150.

When fighting hardest, one of the bucks would frequently bend his
forelegs and drop to his knees. This move was the equivalent of a
"clinch" and merely slowed up the fight until the buck could regain
his breath and strength, when he would again rise on all four feet and
the struggle would be continued. Neither buck appeared to have any
advantage in size or strength, and the battle was waged back and forth
over an area 50 feet square in the meadow. Once, when one of the
bucks was forced backward into a ditch and was "pinned" down, he
gave a hoarse grunting sound which was almost a moan. Then by a
supreme effort he forced his adversary back and, having regained his
feet, the battle raged again.

At this point there was a brief two-minute rest between rounds,
during which the two bucks backed off, with stiff necks and heads held
high. Then, holding their tails erect, they lowered their heads, locked

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

257

antlers, and the contest was renewed and continued for another five
minutes.

Finally one of the bucks backed off and started to nibble at a tuft
of grass. The other buck rushed at him but this time he did not accept
the challenge but turned tail and trotted off to a brush pile where he
began to browse on dead oak leaves. The victorious buck made no
effort to follow up or to punish his vanquished foe, seemingly being
content to let his adversary go unharmed the moment the opponent
was willing to acknowledge defeat.

In such battles between bucks, casualties are relatively rare. In
my study of mule deer in California, I have found that now and then
two large bucks will fight with such force and vigor that the tines of
their antlers will be forced past each other and become locked, so that

Fig. 96. Two friendly California mule deer bucks, with antlers recently shed,
biting ticks on each other's head and neck. Yosemite, February 8, 1930. Wild
Life Division No. 775.

both bucks become exhausted and eventually die a lingering death
through their being unable to pull their antlers apart so that each
might go his separate way. The chief purpose of the fighting that
takes place between bucks appears to be to afford a series of competitive
tryouts to see which buck shall be driven out and which one left to
breed.

FRIENDLINESS OF BUCKS

As soon as the rutting season is over there is a marked change in
the behavior of the larger bucks. Their antagonistic attitude toward
each other is replaced by a general tolerance and even fellowship. For
example, as early as January 14, 1921, near Sawmill Mountain on the

258

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

South Fork of the Tuolumne River, I found four large bucks, all four-
pointers, that were feeding together in a close band. Numerous fresh
scars on the smooth-barked limbs of manzanita bushes in the vicinity
indicated that these bucks had been sharpening and polishing their
antlers there only a few days previously. I followed these old leaders
of the deer herd about through the snow for some time and was sur-
prised to find that they were entirely friendly and not at all antag-
onistic toward each other.

A similar incident was noted by the writer in the Giant Forest
in Sequoia National Park January 24, 1924, when two large bucks, a
three-pointer and a four-pointer, were watched feeding amicably
together. In this instance there was conclusive evidence that in this
region some fighting among bucks had taken place as late as the middle

^W^x:*\".:

.■:^i'j'fi^:^t'-lht

Fig. 97. When biting ticks on each others' heads these big California mule deer
buclts were especially careful to avoid striking their tender growing antlers. Yosemite,
July 19, 1929. Wild Life Division No. 163.

of January. However, fighting appears to cease even before the bucks'
antlers are dropped. After the antlers are shed there are frequently
decided demonstrations of friendliness among bucks. On February 8,
1930, in Yosemite Valley, I watched a pair of old bucks that recently
had shed their antlers, as they stood busily engaged in biting wood-
ticks on each other's necks (see Fig. 96). This friendliness continues
among the larger bucks during late spring and summer after their
antlers are well developed and nearly grown. On July 15, 1929, I
found four of the larger bucks in Yosemite Valley banded together.
Two of these bucks spent a great deal of time in biting ticks on each
other's necks. By this date their antlers were well grown, having

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 259

spreads of 24 and 26 inches. These dimensions were checked by measur-
ing the distance between two trees where the bucks passed. I noted
that these bucks were very careful to prevent their antlers from striking
when they were standing close together (see Fig. 97). At this season
these bucks, which four months later would be fighting viciously for
supremacy, were the acme of gentleness. Soon after the sunshine
reached the meadow where they were feeding, the comrades, by mutual
consent, lined up in single file and left the meadow for the seclusion
and heavy shade of a nearby dense grove of young yellow pines where
they bedded down, almost touching each other.

This sociability was marked among the bucks of Yosemite on the
evening of July 18, 1928, when I watched nine bucks (two 4-pointers,
three 3-pointers, one 3-2 pointer, two 2-pointers, and one spike) feeding
harmoniously together in an area not exceeding one acre. At times
five of the bucks fed contentedly together in the meadow on a plot of
ground 50 feet square. When thus closely banded together, the larger
bucks took special care not to touch or to strike their antlers (then
nearly grown) against those of their comrades. This restraint was
probably primarily due to the tenderness of their own growing antlers
rather than to any particular consideration for the "other fellow."

In order to test the sensitiveness of a buck's growing antlers while
they were in the velvet, I have twice very gently touched the tips of a
tame buck's antler. I found the velvet soft and the antler warm to the
touch. However, the buck was very sensitive when the slightest pres-
sure was applied to his antler and immediately shook his head and
trotted away.

In marked contrast to this friendliness between the adult bucks
during the summer, I found that the young bucks were exceedingly
jealous of each other, especially when does were about. On July 13,
1929, in Yosemite Valley I watched a forked-horn buck with antlers
still soft and in the velvet chase a smaller buck with undeveloped
antlers away from an adult doe. The forked-horn made no effort to
use his antlers but drove his adversary away by effective thrusts of
his forelegs and sharp hoofs, thus using the same method of defense that
the doe uses the year around.

I have watched in vain during many "rutting" seasons for some
evidence of kindly consideration on the part of the bucks for the does.
However, in Yosemite Valley on July 12, 1928, just after sunrise, I was
watching a doe that was exceedingly heavy with fawn as she grazed
about near the margin of an open meadow. Her sides were greatly
distended, and her full udder indicated that she would give birth to
her fawn within the next few days. I was much surprised to see an
adult three-point buck follow this doe about and lick her back and
sides. He even stood and nibbled woodticks on her back. The doe did
not resent the attentions thus showered upon her. On the contrary,
she stopped and stood still to receive them. The buck made no amorous
advances and seemed only to be interested in the well-being of the doe.
I have never seen such real gentleness shown does even by the most con-
siderate bucks during the mating season, at which time the males might
be expected to lavish the greatest care on the females.

260

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

BREEDING SEASON AND PERIOD OF GESTATION

According to my observations, which have extended over many
seasons, the period of gestation in the mule deer is about seven months
(205 to 212 days).

In 1927, the first actual copulation that I was able to discover
in deer in Yosemite took place on December 10. I had been watching
the deer daily from the sixth of December, so had actual mating taken
place during the daytime I would have had a fair chance to notice it.

The following season, the first fawns that I was able to find were
born at noon on the ninth day of July, 1928. In 1928, the earliest
observed actual breeding among deer took place on December 2. The
earliest fawns observed the following season were born on June 30.

T^^^'

Fig. 98. Does far advanced in pregnancy, as here shown, are more seaate and
do not bound wildly about as at other seasons. Yosemite, July 10, 1928. Mus.
Vert. Zool. No. 57 49.

The most definite data that I have been able to secure on the
period of gestation of the Rocky Mountain mule deer in California has
been obtained through the kindly interest of U. S. Forest Ranger Oscar
L. Barnum. In a letter of February 15, 1931, Barnum states :

"Mr. J, W. Stiner of Cedarville, California, has had three pet
female mule deer at his place, and he has kept an accurate record of the
date when these deer mated and he also set down the dates when the
fawns which resulted from these matings were born. 'Fleet,' the old
doe, bred December 21, 1927, and gave birth to twin female fawns on
July 17, 1928. In 1928 she took the buck on December 24, and gave
birth on July 19, 1929, to twin fawns. In 1929, she bred December 23,

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 261

and gave birth July 16, 1930, to a male and a female fawn. She bred
again on December 21, 1930.

''One female fawn that was born July 17, 1928, bred for the first
time on November 27, 1929, and gave birth to a single fawn on June
23, 1930. The other female that was also born on July 17, 1928, bred
for the first time on December 7, 1929, giving birth to two fawns on
July 5, 1930. This doe bred the following season on December 18,
1930."

From the above data it will be seen that the actual gestation period
of Rocky Mountain mule deer in four known instances was 205, 207,
208 and 209 days, or approximately seven months, in marked contrast
to six months which is so often given for this species.

Observations ' have shown that practically all of the deer in the
Yosemite region breed between December 10 and January 27, these
two dates representing the earliest and latest dates upon which actual
copulation has been observed. Checking up by actual observation the
following summer, I found that the first fawns (twins) were born at
noon on July 9, and that 90 per cent of the pregnant does had dropped
their fawns by July 30.

When adult does are far advanced in pregnancy (see Fig. 98), they
are much more sedate and do not bound wildly about as they do at other
times of the year. This change in the demeanor of a pregnant doe was
strikingly illustrated by an experience that I had on May 15, 1925, at
Eagle Lake, Lassen County, California, when a large doe was noted
loping along an open stretch of timber which led down toward the lake.
She was very heavy with fawn and, although considerably alarmed, she
slid along easily, not bouncing about stiff-legged as does customarily
do under such circumstances when they are surprised in late summer
or fall.

The fawning period of the mule deer is found to extend over
several weeks. This is doubtless due to the fact, which I have observed
many times, that all the does do not breed at the same time, and, since
the breeding season extends over almost two months, the fawning
period likewise varies considerably. Due to the fact that the mating
season varies slightly from year to year, according to the general cli-
matic variation of the season, we find that there is considerable varia-
tion both as regards the mating period and the subsequent fawning
period. In all of the various seasons that I have spent in Yosemite, I
have never seen other than an occasional spotted fawn before the first of
July, and in many instances individual does which were known to be
heavy with fawn have been watched critically for days at a time at
this period of the year.

Thus on July 2, 1929, at 5.30 in the morning I was watching an
old mule deer doe in the meadow by the Ahwahnee Hotel in Yosemite.
She was a mature doe in good flesh and was in the full red summer coat,
I could tell by her anxious actions and by the way that she kept watch-

6—12731

262

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

ing, that she had a fawn liidden somewhere in the tall grass in the
open meadow. I remained hidden in a clump of brnsli and, after a
period of ten minutes spent in anxious waiting and watching, the doe
went over and lay down in the tall grass. She then gave a low call,
which at a distance sounded like the mewing of a cat. Upon hearing this
call, her fawn rose up out of his hiding place in the grass, walked over
to her and began to nurse (see Fig. 63). This fawn was able-bodied
and was at least three days old. It was probably born the last day
of June. Two other fawns were observed this same day, so that at
least three fawns were known definitely to have been born in Yosemite
by July 2 during the season of 1929.

On July 9, 1928, while watching deer in a meadow in Yosemite
Valley, an old doe was observed lying partially hidden in the tall grass

Fig. 99. Female California mule deer fawn, twenty-four hours old and weighing
6i pounds, in normal resting posture with feet doubled up under her body. Female
fawns are lighter colored than male fawns. Yosemite, July 10, 1928. Mus. Vert.
Zool. No. 5772.

in the open meadow. When approached within a distance of six feet,
she laid back her ears and struck at the intruder with her forefeet, as
much as to say, "Keep your distance." The observer did not force
her to get up, since she groaned and was in obvious labor pain. I
passed near this same doe at 11 o'clock that morning and noted that she
was still lying down practically in the same spot where slie had been
observed at 7 o'clock. At 12.30 o'clock, the doe was in acute distress,
and a close inspection showed that one fawn had just been born and
was lying beside the doe, which was feebly licking her offspring. The
fawn was still wet and too weak to walk but dragged its hind legs
feebly as it tried to crawl about. The second fawn of this litter was

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

263

born a few minutes later. This pair of fawns was left and not dis-
turbed until they were 24 hours old (see Fig. 99). At subsequent inter-
vals thereafter I weighed and measured them with the following results :

Female Fawn, Born July 9

July 10 July 12

Weight 6i pounds 6| pounds

Length 23J inches 26 inches

Tail 3 inches 3J inches

Hind foot 9 inches 9i inches

Ear from crown Si inches 4^ inches

Height at shoulder (measured standing) 14^ inches 16 inches

Metatarsal gland 2 inches 2 inches

Male Fawn, Born July 9

July 10 July 12 July lit

Weight 6| pounds 11 pounds 7| pounds

Length 23f inches 26 inches 27i inches

Tail 3i inches 3i inches 3-5/16 inches

Hind foot 9^ inches 9^ inches 9f inches

Ear from crown 3| inches 4 inches 44 inches

Height at shoulder (measured standing) 14| inches 17 inches 17 inches

Metatarsal gland 2 inches 2g inches 2\ inches

Color: The male fawn was much browner and notably darker on the dorsal
surface than the female fawn. The female fawn was very pale, almost tan, above.

By July 20 only a few does (less than 10 per cent) remained that
were obviously heavy with fawn, but these gave promise of giving birth
to their young within the next few days. From time to time, extremely
late fawns have been known to be born as late as the middle of August.
However, it is believed that such fawns do not represent the normal
breeding season, but it is probable that in such cases fertilization did
not take place at the first mating.

On July 14, 1929, a pair of fawns was born during the night near
our camp. An unsuccessful search for them was made soon after day-
light, although we knew that they could not be far away. Our retiring
from the scene gave the mother her much desired opportunity to return
to her young. This she did so skillfully that we were unable to follow
her as we had planned, but a subsequent search revealed her, together
with her offspring, hidden in a clump of marsh grass. The fawns, when
found, were still wet, and could not have been more than two or three
hours old. They were able to stand up for a few minutes at a time, but
the mother wisely made no effort to try to lead them away but kept
them hidden in the dense grass where she nursed and protected them.

It was a matter of distinct surprise to me to find that when her
hour of trial drew near, the doe, instead of seeking seclusion in some
dense thicket or inaccessible boulder pile on the mountain side, went
out into the open meadow to give birth to her fawns, keeping them well
hidden for the first few days of their lives in the dense cover of sedge
or other tall marsh grass.

In a number of instances I have been able to follow from birth the
wanderings of certain fawns. Thus in the instance of a pair of fawns
which were born on the ninth day of July, 1928, I carefully followed
them for the first nine days of their lives. I found that instead of hiding
her fawns close together or at the same place, this mother kept them

264

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

hidden in the tall fjrass some fifty yards distant from each otlier. On
the morning of July 10, when the fawns were not quite one day old, I
found the motlier nursing them at 8 o'clock in the morning. She first
went to the female fawn and nursed it, then started to coax it across the
meadow as fast as its Aveak legs permitted for a distance of about one
hundred yards to a point where the male fawn was hidden in a bunch
of marsh grass. The mother nursed the male fawn for 10 minutes and
the female for 15, then, thoroughly drained, she went off to feed by the
river. We kept watch all day, but the mother did not nurse the female
fawn again until 3.40 in the afternoon, while the male fawn was not
nursed until 5.45 o'clock — an interval of almost ten hours elapsing
between meals in this instance. While the mother was away feeding,
the female fawn wandered nearly eighty yards from the spot where
her mother had left her. However, the mother seemed to know about
where to find her offspring and succeeded in locating this fawn without

Fig. 100. Female fawn nursing, standing sheltered by its mother's body.
Yosemite, July 10, 1928. Mus. Vert. Zool. No. 5749.

difficulty. In another instance where the fawn had wandered away
during the mother's absence, I watched and found that when she was
unable to locate her fawn she gave a low bleat which was scarcely
audible to my ears at a distance of 60 yards, but, upon hearing its
mother call, the faAvn jumped to its feet from its hitling place and
then the mother rushed quickly over to it.

This particular doe usually remained standing while the fawn
nursed, but normally during the first three or four days of their lives,
fawns nurse while the mother is lying down hidden in tall grass. This
latter arrangement makes for greater safety for the mother and her
offspring. If the doe stood while the fawn nursed, the latter frequently
walked in between its mother's forelegs and nursed with its tail to its
mother's head (see Fig. 100). The female fawn was noted to nurse

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 265

steadily for a period of eight minutes by the watch, indulging in the
frequent buttings of the mother which are so characteristic in the case
of a domestic calf. After an interval of rest of 10 minutes, it again
nursed for an additional period of two minutes. The fawns normally
nursed hurriedly, 10 minutes' nursing forming a full meal. The male
fawn was led by his mother, after he had nursed, back to the identical
spot which had served as his hiding place during the entire morning.
Contrasted to this, his sister had wandered over a five-acre tract of
open meadow during her mother's absence. However, during the rest
of the day both fawns remained in close hiding.

On various occasions I have taken the opportunity to test out the
theory which has often been advanced that during the first few days
of their lives the fawns carry no scent or body odor. When the fawns
were from two to five days old I tried repeatedly, with my nose within
an inch of the living animal, to detect any odor, but was unable to do
so. I even buried my nostrils in the fawn's hairy coat without being
able to detect any distinctive odor. I then tried smelling the metatarsal
and hoof glands, but again I was unable to detect any odor. This test
was repeated a number of times with various fawns that were less
than a week old, but always with negative results. In another instance
while I was hunting cougars with J. Bruce, State Lion Hunter of
California, I have known his foxhounds and bloodhounds, which had the
sense of smell highly developed, to pass by within six or eight feet of
a young fawn hidden in the grass without detecting its presence. In
a similar manner I have watched black bears hunting for fawns in the
meadows during the early morning hours, and noted that they appear
to hunt entirely by sight rather than through the sense of smell.

From these various experiences I have come to the conclusion that
young faM'ns do not give off any appreciable odor during the first few
days of their lives.

Unexpected hiding places are sometimes utilized by certain does.
Thus on July 14, 1929, in Yosemite, a doe gave birth to twin fawns at
3 o'clock in the afternoon. The following morning she moved both
fawns from their birthplace in an azalea thicket to new hiding places in
another thicket nearby. One of the fawns of its own volition wandered
over to the river's edge, a distance of 50 yards. Here it crawled into
and hid under a pile of driftwood and debris. The extreme heat of the
fawn's hiding place seemed to be unsatisfactory, and the doe promptly
proceeded to take it back to the azalea thicket.

When first born, the fawns escape detection and pursuit by crouch-
ing in the grass and remaining motionless with necks outstretched
(see Fig. 70). However, this is not their regular posture when in repose,
for when undisturbed the same fawns are nearly always found curled
up with heads turned back resting upon their bodies. This latter
position is the true or normal resting posture.

On July 12, 1928, I watched a male fawn three days old as he
sought to escape notice when frightened from his hiding place in a
dense clump of saw-grass that was thirty inches high, but instead of
hiding there, he sneaked out on the farther side and, crouching low to
the ground, crawled off thirty feet to one side of the spot where he
disappeared, and there lay down with his neck outstretched amid the
thin grass in the open. However, owing to the brown, spotted pattern
of his back, he was well concealed.

266

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

By July 18 I found that a pair of fawns born July 9 were able to
run and to follow their mother about, instead of sneakinp: through the
grass as had been their former custom. On this date I tried to approach
the mother and her two fawns but they were off in a flash. The doe
was very w'ild and ran out into a patch of tall velvet grass so that
the fawns were completely out of sight, and only the ears of their
mother showed above the grass. I found that when the fawns were
nine days old they were so large and so active that I could no longer
approach to within 20 feet of them.

In the Giant Forest of Sequoia National Park I found that Cali-
fornia mule deer does often select some secluded nook at the buttressed
base of a giant Sequoia for their nursery. In San Diego County I
found that the fawns of the southern mule deer are usually born under
or near some brushy thicket or even in a rock pile. There is considerable
variation with locality as regards exact spots where fawns are born.

The number of fawns in a lit-
ter is also subject to consider-
able variation with locality, sea-
son, and food supply. In 30
years' experience with mule deer
in all parts of California I have
found that a young doe usually
gives birth to a single fawn.
Older does frequently give birth
to twins. In Sequoia National
Park in 1933 I found that twin
fawns were born in about one
case out of four, and I believe
that this is about the average
])roportion of twin fawns.

The udder of an average nurs-
ing doe which we observed in
Yosemite Valley, July 10, 1928,
was found to be, when full (see
Pig. 101), five inches in diam-
eter and about four inches in
depth. As nearly as could be
judged through a comparison of
the udder of a doe with that of a
domestic milk goat, the capacity
of this doe's udder was about
two-thirds of a quart at each
nursing. When a doe has two
fawns it is the usual thing to
find the udder of the doe soft
and only partly full, due to repeated nursings. Even in one observed
case where we knew that the fawns were not nursing for nearly eight
hours, we took note of the fact that when the doe would return to her
fawns in the evening her udder was not greatly distended with milk. It
was only full enough to remove the wrinkles. The four teats on the
doe's udder were about five-sixteenths of an inch in diameter and from
one to one and a fourth inches in length. Older does were observed
to have larger mammae than the younger does.

Fig. 101. The udder of a nursing Cali-
fornia mule deer doe, as here shown, is
about five inches in diameter and holds
when full about two-thirds of a quart of
milk. Note heavy infestation of wof>d
ticks on the inside of the doe's thiRh.
Yosemite, July 6, 1929. Wild Life Divi-
sion No. 171.

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

267

Regarding the amount of milk consumed by a fawn when first born,
I have the following evidence to offer. A fawn onlj^ two or three days
old that, through the death of its mother, was known not to have nursed
for twelve hours and was obviously very hungry, consumed four ounces
of fresh cow's milk when it was diluted one-half with water and fed
in an ordinary nursing bottle with the regulation rubber nipple. It
would therefore seem that four ounces of milk is a square meal for a
young fawn having a weight of five and one-half pounds.

AGE AT WHICH FAWNS ARE WEANED

Fawns of the mule deer are usually weaned when they reach an
age of from 60 to 75 days. On September 18, 1927, in Yosemite Valley,
I followed a doe and her two fawns about to see when they would

Vv^* ^^h

li^m

'm'

r,.>^

Fig. 102. A California mule deer fawn just weaned learning to eat green grass.
Yosemite, September 18, 1927. Mus. Vert. Zool. No. 5517.

be weaned and what they would eat when first thrust out on their own
resources. The two fawns under observation were still spotted, although
the new fall coat had begun to creep in and the white spots were becom-
ing dim (see Fig. 102). The mother of the fawns made considerable
effort to discourage them from nursing. She would not stand still when
the fawns tried to nurse. Finding, after several futile attempts, that
their mother would no longer nurse them, the fawns began to cast
about for green food. One of them began first to smell and then to
nibble at the fresh tender tips of certain weeds and was particularly
attracted by the new blades of velvet grass and blue grass, which it
sought out and devoured with relish. "While I watched the fawns feed-
ing, their mother slipped away from them and hid in a clump of azalea

268

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

bushes, where she could watch them, yet leave them largely to their
own resources. However, at the first alarming sound, the mother
rejoined her offspring and they all stood alert in the open with ears
cocked forward in an attempt to locate the hidden danger.

After the fawns have been weaned, the average doe shows a renewed
interest in her offspring. This solicitude increases with the coming of
winter storms, and constant watchfulness for danger is kept by the
mother. On December 8, 1927, I watched a mother and her nearly
grown fawn feeding on the tender young blades of sprouting annual
grasses that had sprung up under a protecting cover of dead weeds.
Although the fawn by this time was well grown and in the full winter
coat, his mother stood at attention and remained on guard while her
offspring fed with his head hidden in the weeds and grass.

Pig. 103. This fawn was not properly weaned and continued to nurse, thereby
endangering his own as weU as his mother's life. Note the thinness of this doe.
Subsequent observations proved that she did not survive the following winter's cold
and snow. Yosemite, December 8, 1927. Mus. Vert. Zool. No. 5643.

During the December snowstorms, the more venturesome fawns
root about independently in the fresh snow for fallen oak leaves and
acorns. In Yosemite on December 9, 1927, some of the fawns were
found still by their mother's side foraging on dead weeds that stuck
up through the snow. As a matter of fact, in many cases, the mother 's
active care extends through the entire first winter of the fawn's life,
and it is not unusual to find a doe in early summer followed by both
a small young fawn and her nearly-grown last year's fawn. I have
found, in certain cases where the fawns bore some distinguishing ear-
mark so that positive recognition was possible, that they followed their
mothers about during the second summer of their lives. In these cases

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 269

the final break between the mother and her fawn did not take place
until the following fall, when the fawn was fifteen months old.

From extensive observation over a period of ten years, it has been
my experience that the weaning time is a most critical one in the fawn's
life. If green food is available and the fawn makes the transfer from
milk to a green food diet, there is an excellent chance that the young
animal will not only make a good growth, but that it will fatten up
in the fall and enter the winter in excellent physical condition. On the
other hand, experience has shown that where, through lack of suitable
green forage, the fawns are not properly weaned but continue to nurse,
they not only endanger their own future welfare but may even be the
means of the untimely death of their mothers. In Yosemite Valley on
December 8, 1927, I found a pair of such fawns that had not been
promptly weaned and which still sought to nurse. As a result of nurs-
ing them, their mother was exceedingly thin, being so gaunt that her
ribs could be counted. The mother's physical condition was so poor
(see Fig. 103) that it was a question of serious doubt if she could sur-
vive the winter. In fact, subsequent investigations proved that she
did not. In December, the physical condition of the two fawns was
good, but they had not properly learned to seek their own food and to
get along without their mother so that, with her death, their existence
was also jeopardized.

It has been my observation that on our forest lands serious compli-
cations result if the range is overstocked early in the summer with
domestic sheep or cattle ; so that little or no green grass remains by
the time the fawns should be weaned. In one instance in Fresno
County early in September, I found the range so grazed over by cattle
that we had to take in feed for our pack burro. The physical condition
of the does, and particularly of the fawns that we saw, was decidedly
poor, and their chance of resisting disease, escaping natural enemies,
and surviving the hardships of winter was greatly decreased.

270 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

NATURAL ENEMIES

Tn eonvorsation on July 18, ID.'U), .]. Bi-uoo stated that lio had found
liundreds of doer kilU'd by mountain lions in the snow, but he had uot
found a sing:le instance in which the lion had sprung from a tree upon
a deer for which it had lain in wait. He has never known lions to
po up a tree exce])t when they have been pnrsued by dogs. Mountain
lions sneak up to and often rush out from behind boulders and strike
down deer, but I have been unable to find any well-authenticated
instance where they have lain in wait in trees and sprung upon deer
that passed by. Mountain lion tracks in the suoav show that they ordi-
narily ca])ture deer b}' first sighting or scenting them. The big cats
then sneak up behind some tree trunk, boulder, or screening clump of
brush until they get within rushing distance of the deer which varies
from 25 to 75 feet. At this point the lion waits until the deer has its
head down feeding. It then makes a few gigantic bounds, covering
from 10 to 16 feet at a leap, and hits the deer, knocking it off its feet.
The massive forelegs of the lion receive the shock of the impact. Moun-
tain lions thus strike down deer by the impetus or force of their fast
moving bodies. Deer that have been knocked down are promptly disem-
boweled by the lion's strong canine teeth. Lions do not "ride deer
around" and then reach over and "cut" the deer's throat, as is popu-
larly believed. Only one deer out of several hundred killed by lions and
examined by Bruce M'as found to show any tooth or claw marks on the
ihroat. Young deer are often killed by being bitten through the neck at
the base of the skull or through the back of the shoulder blades.

The mountain lion does not catch every deer that it seeks to cap-
ture. Careful investigation by the writer shows that only about one out
of every three attempts is successful. Usually only one rush is made by
the lion, and it rarely pursues the deer more than 300 feet. If the
deer discovers the lion's attack in time, it usually escapes through quick
action by jumping to one side and then rumiing rapidly away. On
two occasions I have found where a lion "missed" two deer in succes-
sion. Bucks, does and fawns all fall victims, although young deer are
killed more frequently than are adults.

On February 5, 1918. John J. IMcCauley killed a medium-sized
female mountain lion that his dogs had treed at 4500 feet on the south
side of Pilot Kidge in INIariposa County. After this female had been
skinned, she was cut open and found to contain three unborn kittens
about the size of Avoodrats. These kittens were alive and opened their
mouths. They were spotted and covered with short dense fur and prob-
ably would have been born within a few days. By back-tracking the
trail of this pregnant lioness, McCauley found that only the previous
night she had killed and partly eaten a large three-point buck. This
l)r()ves that a pregnant fenude cougar, allliougli heavy with young, was
able to strike down and kill a large full-grown buck deer.

In this same region on January 28, 1921, McCauley treed and
killed a lion kitten that was about ten months old and weighed 55 pounds.
This half-grown kitten had killed a small deer, and its tracks in the
snow showed that it had stayed in an area of approximately one acre

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 271

for over a week, during which time it lived on the one deer that it had
been able to kill.

At Lynchburg, Placer County, on July 19, 1920, the writer and
State Lion Hunter Bruce found a spotted fawn, which we judged to
be about three weeks of age, that had just been killed and partly eaten
by a one-third grown mountain lion kitten. The vegetation where the
fawn lay showed that there had been quite a struggle before the kitten
had been able to kill the fawn. When I went back to photograph this
dead fawn the following day, I found that a large black bear had dis-
covered it during the night and had ' ' cleaned up ' ' the fawn carcass.

This brings out an important point which is often overlooked. I
have found that the deer eaten by both bears and coyotes have in many
instances really been killed by mountain lions. The fact that deer hair
or other remains of deer are found in feces of bears and coyotes is there-
fore not conclusive evidence of guilt, since both bears and coyotes are
notorious scavengers. My experience, extending over thirty years
in California, indicates that only about one-third of the deer eaten by
the black bear and the coyote are really killed by these predators.
This point was strikingly illustrated on January 15, 1921, on the south
side of Pilot Ridge in Mariposa County, when the writer and J. Bruce
found the remains of a deer that had recently been killed and partly
devoured by a mountain lion. This deer had been struck down by a
lion while it was feeding in seeming security on an open slope. The
lion had then dragged the deer forty feet down the hill to the shelter of
a buck brush bush, where the lion ate his fill. Tracks in the soft earth
showed that after the lion had left, a coyote had located the ''kill" and
had proceeded to clean up the remains of the carcass (see Fig. 104). I
tracked this coyote, a large female, down the trail to a goat camp where
it had been shot. I personally examined the stomach of this coyote and
found that its contents consisted entirely of the hair, meat and bones of
a deer. Had I not examined the condition and the source of this
coyote's meal, I would have naturally supposed that it had killed a deer.

MOUNTAIN LION

From a study of the lion skins which have been presented for
bounty, and from field work covering all sections of the State over a
period of years, I have come to the conclusion that the adult mountain
lion population in California in 1932 was about 600 individuals. Rec-
ords show that about 42 per cent of the lion hides that have been pre-
sented for bounty have been those of females. This is rather surprising
since the present bounty is $30 on females and only $20 on males.
However, it should be stated that the $20 is paid in all cases in which
there is any question or doubt of the sex of the animal, and since care-
less skinning often destroys the evidence of sex on the pelt, there is an
understandable loss in the number of females reported.

A careful check on the numerous spotted mountain lion kittens by
State Lion Hunter Bruce has shown that at birth the male kittens are
only slightly more numerous than females.

If we place the number of breeding females at 300 we will not be
far from the facts. Under normal conditions, female cougars breed
every other year and the average number of young in a litter has been
found by the writer to be 2.3 kittens. The annual crop of mountain

272

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

lions in California Avould therefore be 345 kittens per year. Death
from natural causes plus the toll taken by bounty hunters (wliich has
averaged 326 per year over a long period) together with observed facts
would indicate that the number of mountain lions in California is
gradually being reduced.

The mountain lion or cougar is, in my estimation, the most impor-
tant natural enemy of deer in California. In one lot of 43 cougar
stomachs from all sections of California, 34, or 80 per cent, contained
remains of deer. Since the mountain lion in a natural state rarely if
ever eats carrion, practically all the deer meat and hair found in a
lion's stomach may be safely assumed to have been killed.

If we accept 50 deer per year as the usual kill of the average adult
mountain lion, we find that this would about equal the number of deer
killed annually by the licensed hunters of California.

Fig. 104. Remains of a California mule deer killed by a mountain lion and
the carcas.s later cleaned up by a coyote. Pilot Ridge, Mariposa County, January
15, 1921. Mus. Vert. Zool. No. 3429.

WILDCAT

AVildcats are known to kill deer in winter in deep snow. Out of
71 Avildcat stomachs that I have examined, from deer country in Cali-
fornia, only two contained remains of deer. Out of 186 wildcat stom-
achs from 62 localities in California, field examinations showed that 16
contained deer remains. As has been related in this paper in the sec-
tion, "Extent and causes of seasonal migration," an actual attempt of
a wildcat to kill a grown California mule deer doe was witnessed by Sam
Cookson and Joe Gann in Yosemite on February 2, 1932.

During my study, which has extended over many years, I have
failed to find evidence to substantiate the general belief that wildcats
kill large numbers of j^oung mule deer fawns.

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 273

COYOTE

On July 8, 1928, as we came into Yosemite Valley at 7 o'clock in
the morning, the sun was shining brightly. At the base of El Capitan,
a mule deer doe was seen in close pursuit of a coyote. The coyote was
first sighted running rapidly across the road directly in front of our
automobile. It was evident that it was in a hurry to escape from some-
thing that was pursuing it. Just at the moment the coyote crossed
the main paved highway, the doe was first observed, being only a few
jumps behind. The two animals were so close to our car that the doe
stopped suddenly, being unable to get across the road ahead of it. How-
ever, the moment the car passed, she immediately renewed her pursuit
of the coyote, making effective stabs at it with the sharp hoofs of her
forefeet. The coyote, although large and able-bodied, made no effort
to fight back but crawled as quickly and quietly as possible into a dense
clump of brush where it tried to escape notice by remaining motionless.
However, the doe jumped high in the air and came down stiff -legged
upon the brush pile with all four feet gathered directly beneath her,
making repeated efforts to land with her sharp hoofs upon the coyote
hidden in the thicket. The coyote, finding its attempt to hide unsuccess-
ful, finally sneaked out and made a rapid dash for liberty. The con-
dition of the doe's udder and reproductive organs indicated that she had
a newly born fawn hidden somewhere in the near vicinity.

The relation of coyotes and wildcats to mule deer is further dis-
cussed under the heading of seasonal migration.

BLACK BEAR

At 4 o'clock on the morning of July 22, 1929, a large, lanky, brown-
ish-colored black bear caught and killed a week-old fawn within a few
yards of our camp in Yosemite. Our attention was attracted by the
agonized bleating of the fawn when the bear first caught it. One of
the men who was camped nearest to the scene rushed over to the spot
where the fawn was bleating and caught the bear "red-handed." The
bear had the fawn down and was just tearing it to pieces. This same
bear was seen to catch another fawn out in the meadow the previous
morning, and appeared to comb the meadows regularly searching for
fawns during the early morning hours from 3 to 6 o'clock. None of
the other black bears that I noted in the vicinity seemed to specialize
in fawn hunting as did this individual,

GOLDEN EAGLE

The golden eagle is, in my experience, the only important avian
enemy of mule deer in California, and its attacks are usually upon
spotted fowns. Stephen Headington of Escondido, California, witnessed
such an attack by a pair of eagles upon a fawn along the upper San
Luis Key River in San Diego County. This reliable observer informed
me that the doe did her utmost to protect her fawn by standing directly
over it. However, she was unable effectively to guard against the
onslaught of the two eagles which attacked at the same moment, first
from above and then successfully from both sides. It is my belief that
in most instances the fawn escapes by crawling off and hiding under
some dense thicket of brush. I personally know of only three mule deer
fawns having been killed by golden eagles in my years of field experience
in California. Out of sixty nests of the golden eagle that I have
examined in this State, none has held any remains of deer.

274 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

DISEASES

MODOC DEER DISEASE

In the middle of August, 1924, reports came to the California Fish
and Game Commission that deer were dying in large numbers in the
central portion of Modoc County, just east of INIount Shasta. At the
request of the Commission, I proceeded at once to this locality and,
together with game wardens Miller and French, went thoroughly over
the ground in question.

The general situation we found to be as follows: The area con-
cerned lies largely in the lava bed formation where even under normal
conditions forage is scarce and water scarcer. In order to provide a
larger water supply, stockmen had created artificial reservoirs by
building dams and holding back the water wliich accumulated from
melting snows in certain natural shallow depressions, the permanent
natural springs in the region being very few, of limited capacity, and
scattered over a wide area, as much as 15 to 30 miles distant from each
other. Our investigations show^ed that the deer which were found dead
or dying w'cre all in the near vicinity of the artificial reservoirs which
served as water holes both for domestic stock and for deer. The season
had been one of unusual dryness, and both forage and water supply
had become almost exhausted through the grazing of domestic animals,
particular!}' sheep. As soon as the sheep had begun to die, the}' had
been moved out of the country to better range, but the deer were left
to shift for themselves as best they could.

Our first stop was made at Lower Mud Lake. This lake normally
covers ten or fifteen acres, but at the time of our visit (August 18, 1924)
it was found to cover less than half an acre and to be nearly dry. Here
I found three dead deer within 100 feet of the water. These were two
adult does and one spotted fawn. All had been dead for over ten days,
but they had not died at the same time. One dead domestic sheep was
found near the water's edge. Thirteen dead deer were counted about
this pond.

Our next step was to visit an area at Happy Camp, where we knew
there was a spring of permanently good water, to see if deer were
dying there also. Our tour of inspection showed no sick or dead deer
in the vicinity of Happy Camp. We then went back to Lower Mud
Lake, where Warden Miller and I, in half a day's hunt, found seven
more dead deer, as follows: two large four-point bucks, one three-point
buck, one spike buck, two does, one spotted fawn. All of these deer
were found within 250 yards of Little Mud Lake, which was nearly
dry. These deer had been dead from one to four weeks. They had not
all died at once, and each one was found lying headed away from the
water. They had apparently become so weakened that they had fallen
down and had not been able to return to their search for food after
visiting the water holes to get a drink.

The country for miles around this water hole had been heavily
"sheeped" so that food was difficult for the deer to secure. One

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 275

domestic sheep and one steer were found dead near the water hole, so
that it was evident that other animals besides deer were affected.

Our investigations were continued at Spaulding's Reservoir, where
deer were dying apparently from the same malady. At the latter place
I examined the stomach of a doe that had recently died. The examina-
tion showed that the heart, liver, and lungs were normal, but that the
stomach had ulcers from three-fourths to one and one-half inches long
and nearly as wide, over one-third of its inner surface.

On September 24 our investigations were continued at Hackamore
Reservoir, which is located about eight miles due north of Happy Camp
ranger station. When full, Hackamore Reservoir covers about three
hundred acres, and it is shown on the Forest Service map as being on
national forest land and not on privately owned or patented land.
This reservoir had apparently been made by sheepmen to catch snow
water in a shallow basin, so as to provide water for their flocks. The
dam which holds back the water is made of earth and faced with rock.
It was found to be about one hundred fifty feet long and ten feet high
at the highest point. At the time of our visit, the water was practically
dried up, there being only a mud bog about one hundred feet long and
twenty feet wide with a shallow sheet of water which M^as very foul and
filthy, with decayed vegetation located at one end. Within a distance
of one-fourth of a mile from this water hole we found dead deer as
follows : adult does, 26 ; yearling does, 3 ; adult bucks, 2 ; yearling
bucks, 2 ; fawns, 28. A total of 61 deer had died within a quarter of a
mile of the water hole. It will be seen from the above that does and
fawns suffered much more severely than did the bucks. It was found
that a four-point buck and a large doe had waded out into the pond
and had eaten mud, the water being so nearly dried up that they could
not get any to drink. We carefully inspected the stomachs of these,
deer and found that they were over half full of mud. Vegetation found
consisted of service berry leaves (20 per cent) and manzanita leaves
(20 per cent). The intestines of both the buck and the doe contained
only mud. Forage plants in this vicinity had been severely brow^sed,
service berry bushes having been browsed to a height of fifty inches.
Manzanita bushes, being the least desirable, were about the only plants
left.

From our investigations, which revealed as many as sixty-one dead
deer at one water hole, we concluded that several hundred deer had
died in the Modoc region during the one summer. Representatives
from the State Veterinary Office, Bureau of Animal Industry, as well
as local physicians, examined the deer that had died but failed to agree
on the cause of their death. On cutting open numerous deer that had
recently died, including one large four-point buck (see Fig. 105), I
found that there were well-marked points of infection at the roof of
the mouth and particularly at the base of the back upper molar teeth.
A further investigation showed that the infection had spread from this
point and had involved the optic nerve, which accounts for the blind-
ness noted in some of these diseased deer.

From recent investigations in California and elsewhere (see W. M.
Rush, Northern Yellowstone Elk Stuchj, 1932, p. 55, published by Mon-
tana Fish and Game Commission) it now seems fairly certain that the
"Modoc" deer disease was caused by infection of wounds or mechanical
injuries in the mouths of the deer by an organism known as Actinomyces

276

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

necrophoriis causing serious necrotic sores wiiich break down not only
the soft tissue and nerves but even attack the bones. It seems probable
that this and more recent outbreaks in the Modoc region were caused
by mechanical mouth injuries sustained while the deer were browsing
excessively on sharp spines of snow brush, becoming infected with
Actinomyces necrophorus through drinking stagnant water at the reser-
voirs where hundreds of sheep and cattle watered.

In this same region, as at Happy Camp, where there were perma-
nent secluded springs where the deer watered, I found no dead or
diseased deer and no signs of the infection. It was found that at
Hackamore Reservoir and at Lower Mud Lake when the snow came and
the deer spread out and left the polluted reservoirs the disease soon
disappeared. It is therefore suggested that in the future at the first
outbreak such reservoirs be thoroughly fenced against deer so that they

Fig. 105. A close examination of the teeth of this dead 4-point buck showed
extensive pus areas at the base of the back upper molar teeth. Recent investiga-
tions indicate that these necrotic sores were caused by infection of mouth sores by
an. organism called Actinomyces necrophorus. Hackamore Reservoir, Modoc
County, California, September 24, 1924. Mus. Vert. Zool. No. 4556.

will be forced to leave the vicinity instead of remaining until they
perish.

FOOT-AND-MOUTH DISEASE

For a full account of the 1924 outbreak of this disease the reader
is referred to The Epizootic of Foot and Mouth Disease in California
by Dr. Charles Keane, California Department of Agriculture, Special
Publication No. 65, 1926. Keane (p. 7) states that "prior to the Cali-
fornia outbreak foot-and-mouth disease had gained entrance into the
United States on six occasions." The outbreak in California extended
from February 17, 1924, until June 10, 1926. The presence of this
disease among California mule deer on the Stanislaus National Forest

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

277

was definitely established on July 12, 1924. Keane (p. 50) states:
"The outbreak among these wild animals was due to spread from
infected cattle * * *." This point needs to be stressed for future
reference. At the request of our State Fish and Game Commission, I
proceeded to Niagara Creek, to determine positively that the native
mule deer actually had contracted the disease. This fact was definitely
attested to by both Dr. Day and Dr. Snyder. On September 2, 1924,
on Niagara Creek I examined a dead doe that showed characteristic
sloughed patches between the two parts of each hoof, and also slight
lesions of the gums and other parts of her mouth. The same day I
examined and photographed the feet of a dead forked-horn buck. The
hoofs of both front and hind feet of this buck were nearly ready to
drop off (see Fig. 106), as they had sloughed at the base, and showed
conclusively that this deer had a bad case of foot-and-mouth disease
when he died. Examination at this time showed that in *' clean" deer
the dried hoofs of dead deer remain firm and show no signs of slough-

PiG. 106. Foot of dead California mule deer buck showing presence of foot-
and-mouth disease. Niagara Creek, Stanislaus National Forest, September 2, 1924.
Mus. Vert. Zool. No. 4532.

ing. Investigation showed that the disease was wide-spread among the
deer of the region, 30 per cent of 43 deer killed at this time showing
infection, and that there was danger that the deer might spread the
disease up and down the Sierra Nevada with gravest consequences.
An attempt was made, while the infected area was small, to kill all the
deer on the limited area by use of strichnine mixed with salt and placed
on salt logs after all domestic stock in the immediate region had been
destroyed. Prior to this 3400 cattle and 3000 head of sheep were killed
and buried on account of the disease, within a radius of a few miles.
As the disease continued to spread among the deer, an intensive cam-
paign to eradicate the epizootic in the known infected area, which
eventually covered about 1000 square miles, was begun on December 1,
1924. In this campaign a total of 22,214 deer were slaughtered and
examined by veterinarians. Of this number, 2279 showed lesions of

7 — 12731

278

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

foot-and-mouth disease. The last deer showing old lesions was killed
on September 12, 1925, and all quarantine was removed on June 10,
1926. Perhaps the most important lesson to be learned from this
tragic experience is that such infectious diseases are similar to forest
fires. Prevention is much better than cure, and where an outbreak
or fire does occur it should be controlled promptly while still in the
"ten-acre" class.

INTERNAL PARASITES

Internal parasites such as lung worms, round worms and tape
worms, cause considerable loss of mule deer in California at certain
times when climatic and other conditions engender a heavy infestation
of such parasites among the deer. As regards ordinary conditions when

Fig. 107. California mule deer doe protecting: her nose from attack of deer
bot fly. Note position of nose between hind leg and body. Yosemite June 20, 1927.
Mus. Vert. Zool. No. 5416.

the deer are in good physical condition and well scattered over the
entire range losses from this source are relatively small, but when the
deer are in poor flesh and are concentrated on limited areas as some-
times occurs on winter range during heavy snowy winters, then losses
from internal parasites may become acute. These parasites usually
kill indirectly by so weakening the deer tliat during the stress of a hard
winter such infected deer frequently die off through exposure and cold
or become so weak that they are easily captured by predators. In
California the most serious infection of lung worms noted among deer
has occurred in the Columbian black-tailed deer in the Trinity region.
In my experience with deer in California, I have found the various
races of mule deer to be relatively free from this disease. Now and

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 279

then I have found a mule deer with a tape worm (Moniezia), but both
these and round worms have not been found in more than 2 or 3 per
cent of the dead deer I have examined.

EXTERNAL PARASITES

External parasites such as hot flies, wood ticks, and deer flies, are
the indirect causes of serious loss among mule deer. The deer bot fly
(Cephenomia pratti) is widespread and causes much suffering and loss
among our mule deer. On June 20, 1927, in Yosemite, I watched an
adult doe attempting to escape the attack of a bot fly. In domestic
sheep and in reindeer bot flies have been observed to deposit their eggs
directly into the nostrils of their victims. Although I have watched
bot flies in deer for many hours I have never been able, although close
enough (15 to 20 feet) to follow clearly with binoculars all the move-
ments of the bot fly, to detect the depositing of eggs directly into the
nostril of the deer. Whenever the doe observed in Yosemite found that

Fig. 108. Larva of deer bot fly (x2) which infests the internal
nares and turbinal passages of the deer's nose, causing much pain
and loss among both mule and black-tailed deer, August 3, 1928.
Mus. Vert. Zool. No. 5793.

the bot fly came within six inches of her nose she would shake her head
violently and stamp her front feet. At other times she would raise
her hind leg and extend it forward so that her nose was protected on the
inside by her body and on the outside by her hind leg (see Fig. 107),
At such times she was observed to lick her hind leg, possibly using
her tongue also to protect her nostrils from the bot fly.

Some of the bot flies are successful in depositing eggs, for in the
majority of fresh mule deer heads that I have examined in California
I have found from 1 to 34 larvae of the deer bot fly in the frontal
sinus or throat of the deer. I have been unable to detect any difference
between the bot flies which infest Columbian black-tailed and California
mule deer. Apparently the same bot fly attacks both species of deer
in Yosemite. The larvae of the bot fly have a row of dark, stiff,
bristle-like organs along the top and on both sides of their bodies (see
Fig. 108) which protrude and prevent the living larvae from being

280 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

blown out of the internal nares and tui'binal passages of the deer. In
extreme cases these parasites work up through the turbinal passages
of the deer's head and have been known to penetrate nearly to the brain.
In other instances they cause inflammation, and some drop down into
the anthrum where they cause infection and sometimes even the death
of the host.

It has been suggested that if large auger holes were bored in salt
logs and filled with salt and the sides of such holes smeared with pine
tar, the deer might in getting salt also collect enough pine tar on their
noses to prevent ovipositing of the bot flies. The bot fly larva is a
serious and widespread drain upon our mule deer, but corrective
measures are difficult to apply.

The commonest external parasite of mule deer in California is the
woodtick {Dermacentor occidentalis), which is given bj^ Essig {Insects
of Western North America, 1926, p. 21) as the "most abundant tick
on the Pacific Coast and the deer is the preferred host. ' ' He also states
that this is the tick commonly acquired in brushy areas in central
California. California mule deer are often heavily infested with these
ticks. In Yosemite on July 6, 1929, I counted 50 woodticks on an area
4 inches square of thin skin on the inside of a doe's leg (see Fig. 101).
In winter when the deer are in full coat the presence of woodticks is
often revealed by the irregularities in the pelage. This was particularly
noticeable in a doe observed and photographed in Yosemite Valley (see
Fig. 109). By close observation I found that woodticks tend to gather
where the deer have difficulty in reaching them, as at base of tail (see
Fig. 110), at base of ears, and on the neck. However, the deer circum-
vent the ticks by biting them on each other (see Fig. 83). Thus in
Yosemite on July 13, 1928, I watched two does standing side by side
nibbling ticks on each other. By watching with binoculars at close
range I saw one doe reach over and nip a large woodtick off her com-
panion's body, just behind the front leg. Having pulled the tick off
with her incisor teeth, the doe gave it a few hasty bites and then,
instead of dropping it, she deliberately swallowed it. The habit of one
mule deer biting ticks on another is common to both sexes and to all
ages from fawns to old bucks.

The woodticks do not in themselves often directly cause the death
of deer, but they do tend to reduce their vitality and resistance so
that indirectly they contribute to the loss of deer. I know of no prac-
tical management method of eradicating woodticks from wild deer.

At least two species of deer tick flies occur upon deer in Cali-
fornia. They are known as Lipoptena depressa and L. subidata. In
both the Modoc and Lassen areas deer tick flies are sometimes said to
infest the Rocky Mountain mule deer to such an extent as seriously to
weaken the mammals. However, I have never found more than a mild
infestation of these parasites.

EYE DISEASE

An infectious unidentified eye disease, resembling but seemingly
different from pink eye, has been found common at times in California
mule deer. In Yosemite on December 10, 1927, I found a spike buck that
had an infected eye. Many of the young deer in Yosemite contracted
this disease that winter. A characteristic symptom is the covering of

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

281

S^

Fig. 109. California mule deer doe heavily infested with wood ticks. The
rough spots in the pelage on the side of this deer indicates one or more wood ticks
at the base of each spot. Yosemite, January 29, 1929. J. S. Dixon No. 29.

Fig. 110. Mule deer buck trying to reach a wood tick on his back near the
base of his tail. "Wood ticks choose places difficult or impossible for deer to reach
so that the deer often have to bite ticks on each other (see Fig. 97). Yosemite,
July 18, 1927. Mus. Vert. Zool. No. 5704a.

282

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

the eye with a bluish film, so that the animal's sif2:ht becomes impaired or
even temporarily lost. An advanced case of such a diseased deer
was examined closely at Hospital Rock in Sequoia National Park on
December 20, 1929. Here I found a spike buck with badly infected
eyes. One eye Avas so inflamed and filled with yellow stringy pus that
the deer could not see out of it. The other eye was also infected and

Fig. 111. Spike buck with eye disease. Note that one eye is closed and filled
with yellow pus and the other eye Is also badly infected. Deer are thus tempo-
rarily blinded and if they escape predators such as the mountain lion and coyote
during this period, they usually recover. Hospital Rock, Sequoia National Park,
December 20, 1929. Wild Life Division No. 560.

nearly as bad (see Fig 111). If the deer which are thus temporarily
blind can escape from predators such as mountain lions and coyotes,
they usually recover in about three weeks, as the disease is rarely in
itself fatal. This disease was prevalent in Yosemite in 1927 and again
in 1933, and at times assumes serious proportions where deer are
croAvded together in a restricted area on winter range.

(To he concluded)

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 283

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

A publication devoted to the conservation of wild life and published quarterly by
the California Division of Fish and Game.

The articles published in California Fish and Game are not copyrighted and
may be reproduced in other periodicals, provided due credit is given the California
Division of Fish and Game. Editors of newspapers and periodicals are invited to
make use of pertinent material.

All material for publication should be sent to J. O. Snyder, Division of Fish
and Game, 450 McAllister Street, San Francisco, California.

Vol. 20 JULY, 1934 No. 3

DIXON'S MULE DEER STUDY

The editor of California Fish and Game is gratified to be able to
present to the readers of this publication in this issue the first install-
ment of J. S. Dixon's "A Study of the Life History and Food Habits
of Mule Deer in California." This portion of the paper covers the life
history section completely and the remaining installment on the food
habits of mule deer will be concluded in the October number.

The subject of mule deer conservation in California is such an
important one at the moment and Dixon's paper is such a valuable
contribution to it, that other articles on file for publication in our
quarterly have been held up in order that this paper might be published
at once. Although the author has trimmed his manuscript to the mini-
mum, it was impossible to publish the entire paper in this issue, as was
desired, and even at the exclusion of other main articles, publication
of the foot habits section must be deferred until the October issue.

Joseph S. Dixon, author of this paper, needs no introduction to
most California sportsmen, for his abilities as a field naturalist and
wild life photographer are nationally recognized. Dixon, although
born in the East, moved to California in his childhood and spent his
youth at his family's home at Escondido, San Diego County, where
his studies of natural history commenced at an early age. Later he
attended the Throop Institute of Technology at Pasadena, and Stanford
University. A trip to Alaska in 1913-14 in which he was shipwrecked
and forced to spend the winter on the Arctic seacoast near Demarcation
Point followed and afforded him wide experience with Arctic collecting
and natural history. On his return from this trip, Dixon became affiili-
ated with the University of California Museum of Vertebrate Zoology
where for many years he held the position of Economic Mammalogist
until his association with the Wild Life Division of the National
Park Service in 1929. Besides collecting trips in southeastern Alaska,
Dixon had great opportunities for studying wild life in California
during his association with the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology and later
with the National Park Service. That the author made the best of
these opportunities as regards deer, always a favorite study of his, is
attested by the excellence of his present paper, which we consider is

284 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

by far the most important contribution to the subject that has yet
been publislied.

The Division plans to print a quantity of separates of the two
installments of this paper that will be combined in one cover with an
index upon completion of the October issue and will then be available
to the public at a moderate price covering the cost of printing. — Ed.

PERSONNEL CHANGE

James Moffitt has resigned his position of economic biologist of
the Bureau of Education and Research. For some time he has been
engaged in investigations relating to the conservation of birds and
mammals, particularly the geese, ducks and deer. In the recent past,
he acted as editor of California Fish and Game, and is responsible
for this issue.

NEW FOREST SERVICE FISH AND GAME REGULATION

On March 29, 1934, Honorable H. A, Wallace, Secretary of Agri-
culture, issued Regulation G-20A providing for the control and man-
agement of both fish and game in the National Forests by the Secre-
tary of Agriculture. The regulation assumes the right to establish
hunting and fishing seasons, to fix bag and creel limits, specify the sex
of animals to be killed, fix the fees to be paid for permits, and to
describe the terms and conditions under which hunting and fishing shall
be conducted.

The Fish and Game Commission addressed the following communi-
cation to the Secretary of Agriculture:

May 9, 1934.
Hon. H. A. Wallace,
Secretary of Agriculture,
Washington, D. C.

Dear Mr. Secretary :

We have recently received a copy of Regulation G-20A issued by the Secre-
tary of Agriculture, in which authority is assumed by the Secretary to establish
hunting and fishing seasons ; fix bag and creel limits ; specify the sex of animals to
be killed ; fix the fees to be paid for permits, etc., in the National Forests.

The members of the Fish and Game Commission of California are quite dis-
turbed over this regulation, which would set up a divided jurisdiction over our fish
and game and would seem to indicate that the Secretary is of the opinion that the
Fish and Game Commission, and the Legislature of this State, have not properly
protected and managed the wild life of California.

The members of the Commission have enjoyed close cooperation with the
representatives of the United States Forest Service in this State in handling our
wild life, and employees of the Commission have materially assisted the Forest
Service in the prevention and suppression of fires. In fact, the relationship has
been so mutually helpful that it is difficult to understand the purpose of Regulation
G-20A.

Without doubt you know that the fish and game work of California is sup-
ported entirely from the revenues received from license sales ; consequently, the
setting up of special fees for the privilege of hunting or fishing in the National
Forests would not only add to the burden rarried by the sportsmen of the State,
but would result in a serious curtailment of the work being carried on by the State.

It seems obvious that the exercise of the authority assumed in Regulation
G-20A could not help but create conflicts of interest and authority between the
State and Federal agencies involved, as well as added confusion to the sportsmen
whom both are serving.

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 285

The Attorney General of California was requested and has submitted his
opinion relative to the authority of the Secretary of Agriculture to prescribe rules
and regulations for the management of fish and game in the National Forests. It
is his belief that authority for such action is lacking. A copy of this opinion
is enclosed.

In view of the opinion of the Attorney General, the Fish and Game Commis-
sion would appreciate additional information relative to the authority for the
issuance of Regulation G-20A, the provisions of which, in so far as they refer
to fish and game management, the Fish and Game C<)mmission can not at this
time recognize.

Respectfully yours,

John L. Fakleiy,

Executive Officer.

Letters were also sent to all members of Congress similar to the

following :

May 9, 1934.

(Similar letter sent to all members of Congress from California)

Hon. Hiram W. Johnson,
Senate Office Building,
Washington, D. C.

Dear Senator Johnson :

Honorable H. A. Wallace, Secretary of Agriculture, has recently issued
Regulation G-20A, in which authority is assumed for the management of fish
and game in the National Forests. This regulation provides for the establish-
ment of hunting and fishing seasons ; the fixing of bag and creel limits ; specifying
the sex of animals to be killed ; fixing of fees to be paid for permits, and other
related matters.

Such assumption of authority, except as it may pertain to migratory birds,
is contrary to the whole background of fish and game management in this country,
and the Fish and Game Commission of California doubts the authority of the
Secretary to issue such regulations. This question has been referred to Attorney
General U. S. Webb, of California, and his opinion is: "that it was not the intent
of Congress to authorize the Secretary of Agriculture * * * to promulgate rules
or regulations with respect to hunting and fishing in National Forests, which would
conflict with the laws upon that subject enacted by the various states in which
the National forests are situated." A copy of this opinion is enclosed.

As you well know, the National Forests of California embrace the more
important recreational areas of the State, and the assumption of authority to
manage fish and game in these areas would result in serious conflict of authority
between State and Federal agencies ; confusion to the sportsmen ; reduced revenues
and reduced work by the Fish and Game Commission. This regulation chal-
lenges the right of States to manage the wild life within their boundaries.

The regulation is based, in part, upon the statement that the prevention of
over-grazing, and erosion, and the protection of watersheds, timber, and other
resources are dependent upon the regulation of the wild life population to the
carrying capacity of land and water. In California over-grazing by wild life
does not exist as a problem, but over-grazing by domestic stock in the National
Forests to the detriment of wild life exists in many cases. It would seem that
this regulation may be intended to regulate \vild life for the benefit of stock and
sheep men at a time when an effort is being made to reduce the production of
many of our commodities, including live stock. Certainly the management of fish
life can not be construed as a necessary factor in the prevention of over-grazing,
erosion, and the protection of watersheds and timber.

The members of the Fish and Game Commission have requested me to inform
you of this regulation, and to ask you to enter protests in the proper places to
secure a change in this order which will make it compatible with the best interests
of California.

For your information, I am also enclosing a copy of a letter addressed to the
Secretary of Agriculture, covering the same subject.

Very truly yours,

John L. Farley.

Executive Oflicer.

286 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

In response to the letter addressed to the Secretary of Agriculture,
the following answer has been received :

[COPT]

Department of Agrtouxture.

Washington, May 23, 1934.
Mr. John L. Farley, Executive Officer,
Division of Fish and Game,
450 McAllister Street,
San Francisco, California.
Dear Mr. Farley :

Your letter of May 9th is received.

It would be most disappointing to me if the adoption of Regulation G-20A
disturbed, disrupted, or in any way interfered with such friendly and cooperative
relations between State and Federal officials as you describe. As a matter of fact,
the regulation was designed to improve and cement that relationship. If it does
otherwise it will fail to accomplish one of its major purposes.

Public attention has been focused recently on better planning for the develop-
ment and use of natural resources. Quite naturally, the public demands that land
under public ownership be made fully productive. With this awakened interest on
the part of the general public, it is important that the interest of public officials
be correspondingly increased. Under existing practices there is too much of a
tendency to attempt to defend unsatisfactory condi-tions by a denial of responsi-
bility. This condition should be remedied, and the adoption of Reg. G-20A is a
step in that direction.

It would be unfortunate if we failed to accept facts. There are cases where
cooperative effort has failed to provide a sensible system of managing a forest
or part thereof in the interest of wild-life production. This failure is not due as a
rule to a lack of cooperativeness on the part of officials in charge, nor is it due to
inadequate knowledge of conditions prevailing and the action required. It is due
largely to inadequate and inelastic State laws or other circumstances over which
officials have no control. This results in some areas being depleted of wild life, while
other areas become overstocked.

The application of Reg. G-20A to such conditions is in no way inconsistent
with the primary purposes of State laws or the objective of State officials. It
merely provides a means by which these objectives can be attained.

If under the State law all areas on National Forests can be made to produce
a maximum of wild life consistent with the requirements of other resources and
the needs of the public, State officials need have no fear of the application of
Regulation G-20A.

If on the other hand this objective, to which I feel sure all interests will
readily agree, can not be obtained under existing practices, then Regulation G-20A
should be given a fair trial. In this way it becomes an effective instrument for
the accomplishment of a definite goal, and it would appear that the question of
jurisdiction should be subordinated to the paramount issue of getting the greatest
net public benefit from the public property.

While it is appreciated that the opinion of Attorney General Webb is con-
trary to the opinion of the Solicitor of this Department on which Regulation G-20A
was based, the Department does not feel it would be redeeming its responsibility
as a manager of public property if it failed to take such reasonable means as will
insure the protection and development of all resources. In the event that any State
in which the regulation is to be applied prefers to have the question of jurisdiction
settled before reasonable management of a given area is applied, the Department
will welcome a clear definition of its responsibility by the courts.

The point should be emphasized, however, that the regulation will be applied
to specific cases where cooperation has failed, and that in each case an intensive
field investigation by competent authorities selected by the Department will be made
in cooperation with representatives of the State and other interested agencies if they
care to participate in such examinations.

It is hoped the above explanation of the regulation and its purposes will allay
any fears State officials may have of the Department's intention to disrupt cooper-
ative relationships where satisfactory results are being or can be obtained. When
the plans of the Department are understood, it is believed State and Federal officials
will join wholeheartedly in a constructive measure for the development of the wild
life resource.

Sincerely yours,

(Signed) R. G. Tug well,

Acting Secretary.

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 287

The fundamental problem involved is of such great importance
that it has seemed advisable to quote the correspondence in detail, and
whatever the decision may be relative to the authority of the Secretary
of Agriculture to regulate fish and game in the National Forests, it is
hoped that the rights of the public to the fish and game in the National
Forests will never be subordinated to the interests of the stock and
sheep men for the relatively small revenue which is received for grazing
privileges. — John L. Farley, May 29, 1934.

FUNDS FOR FEDERAL WILD-LIFE RESTORATION PROGRAM

SHRINK

The recommendations of President Roosevelt's Committee on Wild-
life Restoration were published in California Fish and Game, Vol. 20,
April, 1934, pp. 163-166. In that account it was stated that $25,000,000
of emergency funds had been made available for the purchase of sub-
marginal lands for the purpose of carrying out recommendations of this
committee.

It subsequently developed that this sum, which was to be allotted
from P.W.A. and C.W.A. funds, is not available for this purpose for
the reason that the areas which were considered by the committee for
purchase for game refuges and sanctuaries do not qualify with the legal
requirements of submarginal lands as defined in Federal acts setting
up the funds for their purchase. Nevertheless, we understand that the
sum of $1,000,000 has been definitely appropriated for the purchase
of Federal game refuges under the plans submitted hy the President's
committee. This tremendous reduction in funds available for this
purpose will largely nullify the constructive program submitted by the
President's committee and is, of course, greatly regretted by all sports-
men throughout the Nation. — James Moffitt, May 3, 1934.

GAME WARDEN CONFERENCE

The annual conference of game wardens, the first since 1932, was
held in Los Angeles April 5 and 6. The entire warden patrol force
consisting of 127 men gathered at the Jonathon Club, privileges of
which were secured through the efforts of Commissioner Earl B. Gil-
more.

Talks were given by the commissioners. Director of the Department
of Natural Resources George D. Nordenholt, Supervising Assistant
0. M. Thurston of the Los Angeles County Department of Forestry,
Fire and Game Wardens, Federal Game Protector George Tonkin,
Deputy Attorney General Ralph Marron, Executive Officer John L.
Farley, bureau chiefs and other employees of the Division.

The pistol shoot, a much anticipated event of these conferences,
was held at the Los Angeles Police Department range, the morning of
April 6. Sincere thanks are due this department and Chief of Police
James Davis for the many courtesies extended to the wardens at this
event. The shoot was won by Game AVarden C. 0. Fisher, and on
behalf of the Division, President J. Dale Gentry presented the silver
trophy donated by Commissioner I. Zellerbach in 1926. — E. L. Macaulay,
May 28, 1934.

288 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

IN MEMORY OF F. W. VAN SICKLEN
(1855-1934)

F. W. Van Sicklen, Fish and Game Commissioner from June 25,
1907 to November 3, 1910, died suddenly in San Francisco on March 6,
1934 of heart failure, folhnvinj; a minor operation.

Van Sicklen, a native of Vermont State, moved to California wlicn
he was 24 years of age and settled in Alameda, where he resided until
1910, after which date he made his home in San Francisco, Avhere he
had been prominent in business for many years.

Former Commissioner Van Sicklen was. throuj^hout life, an ardent
sportsman and conservationist. He pursued his favorate recreations,
hunting and fishing, over the entire State and engaged in them up
to a short time preceding his demise.

During his regime, Van Sicklen was highly influential in bringing
about several important accomplishments on the part of the Commission.
Noteworthy among these were the establishment in 1908 of the first
State Game Farm, at Ilayward, Alameda County; the im])ortation from
Illinois and planting in this State in the same year of a carload of
fresh water fishes (crappie, blue-gilled sunfish and yellow perch) ;
transplanting many rainbow and golden trout in the southern Sierra
in 1909 and 1910;* the purchase in 1908 of the first fish distributing
car ; and the establishment in the years 1908 and 1909 of branch offices
in Los Angeles and in Fresno, which greatly facilitated the dispatch
of the Commission 's business in these centers.

While serving as Commissioner, Van Sicklen gave unstintingly of
his time and sound counsel, and since his resignation in 1910 he alwaj^s
continued to have a keen interest in the Commission's activities. His
passing is a matter of sincere regret to a number of older Division
employees who worked under him and to a host of friends among
California sportsmen. — James Moffitt, May 3, 1934.

MORE TULE ELK PLANTED IN OWENS VALLEY

The transfer of the Yosemite elk into Owens Valley has previously
been reported in this magazine (see California Fish and Game, Vol. 20,
1934, pp. 37-51) and now I believe all those who are interested in
wild life would like to know of the progress of this magnificent herd
of Tule elk.

The Yosemite herd arrived in Owens Valley on October 11 of last
year and, although they were penned up in a small paddock for about
ten days, they were given their freedom on October 20, 1933. For the
first month I visited these animals on an average of twice a week and
soon had some of them eating apples out of my hands.

We had one old bull who had apparently been struck across the
nose whom we called "Roman Nose" or "Geronimo." To game
wardens Carl J. Walters and Eugene Walker this bull stood out with
a great deal of prominence, as shortly after he was released he left the
herd and was always found from a half mile to a mile from the rest
of the animals.

It soon became apparent that the whole community was very much
interested in the welfare of these elk. for scores of people visited the
pasture where they were released and in which they stayed for nearly

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 289

two months before venturing into other fields. We were told by a
number of people that they had taken apples by the box to feed to
the elk so it is evident that they fared pretty well on fresh fruit during
the first two months of their existence in Owens Valley.

With the Yosemite elk being so contented and doing so well the
Fish and Game Commission decided that they would transplant some
of the elk from the Kern County elk refuge, which at that time was
greatly overcrowded and, to the writer, it seemed that Owens Valley
was a paradise as compared with the Kern County refuge in regard
to feed.

In order to make this transfer from the Kern County refuge it
seemed necessary that we meet with the authorities of that county so
that we might explain, to them just where an allotted portion of their
elk would be taken to and what kind of a range they would have in
Owens Valley. Wardens Carl Walters and Eugene Walker and I
made a trip to Bakersfield January 26 where we met Captain 0. P.

Fig. 112. Part of the tule elk herd in Owens Valley. Photo by G. V^. Dow,

May 20, 1934.

Brownlow and Game Warden Lester Arnold of that district, and after
gathering up some sportsmen and county officials we had a meeting the
next day which resulted in their consent to move a certain number of
their herd to Owens Valley.

The first step necessary was to see that proper traps were made
at the refuge so the elk could be transferred without any fatalities.
Under the able direction of Captain Brownlow a large wire fence
was built forming a trap and at one end was a board corral where
the animals could be roped and placed into crates for shipping.

Game wardens Walters and Walker left Independence, February
2, to trap the elk and I left Lone Pine February 9 for Bakersfield,
where I stayed overnight and there met E. L. Macaulay, Chief of
Patrol. The next morning at 6.15 we left Bakersfield for the refuge.
At Tupman we met Captain Brownlow and game wardens Arnold,
Walters, Walker, R. J. BuUard, W. I. Long and Roswell C. Welch.

290 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

After having a fine breakfast we left for the corrals, arriving there
at 7.30, where the elk were penned up. We started loading imme-
diately and at 12.30 p.m. 22 head had been loaded and were ready to
start for Owens Valley.

The Fish and Game Commission truck, supplied by Warden
Walters, w^as loaded with five cows and one large bull. The next truck,
which was supplied by the Rainbow Club of Bishop, was loaded with
ten cows and six calves. Two of these calves were bulls and the other
four were heifers.

Walters' and Walker's truck arrived at its destination at about
10 o'clock that night and the other truck arrived at 1.30 o'clock the next
morning and was unloaded at 2.45 with the weather good and cold.
Warden Arnold and John Loustalot accompanied the trucks in a
pickup to supervise their transportation and I followed in my car until
we were well up on the Tehachapi grade, where I left them to come
ahead to make arrangements to get some help to unload at the
destination.

We did not unload these animals into a corral as we did the ones
from Yosemite, which was a mistake, in my estimation. I believe they
would have been much better off if they had been put in a corral and
fed for at least ten days. However, they did not wander very far before
becoming thoroughly acclimated.

Walters and Walker left Monday, February 12, for the second
load and they returned the following day with four cows and two big
bulls, making a total of 28 head in this shipment from the Kern County
refuge, which, combined wdth the Yosemite herd, gives us a total of 54
head now in Owens Valley.

During the latter part of March one of the big bulls made the
longest known journey for the newly transported herd by coming about
tw^enty-five miles south to Lone Pine to feed in an alfalfa field. A
remark was made around town that old Geronimo had gotten lonesome
to see me and was wondering why I had not been up to give him
some apples. After I heard that he was here I started him back and
he has never been seen down here since.

During the month of March we were able to count as many as 52
head of the 54 that are in the Valley. I wish I could report at this
time the number of calves that we have this year but I can not as I
have not seen a single calf.* However, on May 20 I was able to find
23 head of female stock in one bunch and while I located some bulls
with their antlers about two-thirds grown, they were separated by about
a mile from the cows. We feel very proud of the fact that the 54 head
were transplanted without a single fatality.

With a strip of land along the Owens River averaging five miles
wide and 70 miles long it is apparent that we have room for a large
herd of elk.

In addition to this elk herd I am very much interested in bringing
into Owens Valley some buffalo and antelope, as I am sure that it would
be an ideal place for them. — G. W. Dow, Lone Pine, California, Ma/y
23, 1934.

* Editor's Note. — Mr. Dow reports that on June 25, subsequent to the writing
of this article, he has seen as many as nine new calves playing in the fields with
their mothers.

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 291

EARLY BLACK-TAILED DEER BREEDING RECORD

Game Warden R. L. Sinkey reported seeing twin fawns of the
Cohimbian black-tailed deer {Odocoileus columMamis columhianus)
on the Lovvery Range in Capay Valley, Yolo County, California, on
March 16, 1934. Sinkey wrote that these fawns were active and were
walking and nosing around when he first saw them. They quickly
sighted him when they immediately stepped out of sight. The Game
Warden, no doubt correctly, judged from these actions that the fawns
were at least ten days old.

The gestation period of black-tailed deer is said to range from 206
to 212 days and is usually accepted as averaging 210 days. Figuring
that these fawns were born on March 6 and the gestation period at the
latter interval means that the mother bred on August 8, 1933. This is
an exceptionally early breeding record for deer in this vicinity, where
the rut does not normally commence until the latter half of September
or early in October. Nevertheless, the fact that some individuals breed
in August in this section is further substantiated by Sinkey 's statement
that he has often seen bucks and does together during the first half of
August and that week old fawns have been noted in other years around
April 1.— James Moffitt, May 3, 1934.

ANTELOPE DOE COVERS FAWNS TO CONCEAL THEM

A few antelope does from what is usually known as the Mt. Dome
antelope herd have, for the past seven or eight years, crossed the
Southern Pacific Railway tracks between Macdoel and Dorris and have
worked west to the fenced brush range of Charles Lough in the Indian
Head country. This is on the western flank of Butte Valley.

Lough, an old-time cattleman, informed me that about June 15,

1933, he was walking along the inside of one of his pasture fences when
he came upon a low pile of sage and bitterbrush that he could not
remember placing there, and which he could see no reason for anyone
else having done. As he stood over this little brush heap, he was sur-
prised to see that it raised and lowered slightly but rhythmically. After
ascertaining that this was no delusion on his part, he gently lifted the
brush and found two very young antelope fawns under it that had
presumably been cached there by the mother who had gone off to water.

This is the only instance I have heard of where antelope have
covered up their very young fawns in an effort to conceal them. Per-
haps this action is to protect them from the sight of golden eagles, which
are fairly numerous in this vicinity and are said to prey on young
antelope fawns. — F. R. Starr, Game Warden, Macdoel, Calif., December
23, 1933.

UNUSUAL AGE ATTAINED BY WILD GEESE

Captain of Game Wardens John O'Connell reported on April 30,

1934, that Louis Springer, P. 0. Box 35, Lodi, California, has in his pos-
session four captive live wild geese that were crippled and caught by W.
AV. Andrews, Springer's grandfather, eight miles west of Lodi in 1868.
Old time residents in this vicinity, when questioned by O'Connell,
stated that the Springer family has had these geese in their possession

292

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

as long as they could remember. There is, of course, no way of deter-
mining how old the birds may have been when wounded, but if all were
only in their first year, they would now be 66 years old, which presents
an unusual record of longevity even for geese.

Captain O'Connell wrote that Andrews secured six geese in 1868,
three of which were lesser snow geese (Chen hyperhorea hyperborea)
and three white-fronted geese (Anser alhifrons alhifrons). Two of the
white geese escaped from the pen last winter and were shot by some
boys so but one white goose and three "gray" ones survive at this
time. The white-fronted geese mate but do not lay eggs. One of them
is blind in one eye and its other eye is now starting to turn white.
The accompanying illustration (Fig. 113) is from a photograph taken
prior to the escape of the snow geese and shows two of these birds with
the three "gray" ones. — James Moffitt, May 3, 1934.

. T^r ii»tap^K:^sfc'Bir'rTf»s. . _\i 'a

Fig. 113.

Three white-fronted and two lesser snow geese wounded near Lodi in
1868 and now in possession of Louis Springer of that city.

SAND-GROUSE LIBERATED IN CALIFORNIA

An experimental introduction of sand-grouse was made to Ana-
verde Valley, west of Palmdale, Los Angeles County, in March, 1934.
Twenty-one birds, ten pairs and an extra female, comprised this initial
California planting.

Sand-grouse, of which there are 17 species and three genera, com-
prise an order of birds having characters of grouse and pigeons. Most
species of sand-grouse, including the birds recently liberated in Cali-
fornia, superficially resemble ptarmigan or red grouse in size and con-
formation excepting that they have weaker feet and legs than grouse
and longer, more pointed wings like pigeons. On account of their weak
feet and legs, sand-grouse are said to be unable to alight elsewhere
than on the ground, where they also roost at night. In spite of this
fact, they are said to be well able to cope with natural enemies, for an
open situation is selected for roosting where the birds remain excep-
tionally alert and escape their enemies by rapid flight. Their power of

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

293

flight is said to be extraordinary, swift and soaring in nature, and per-
mits the birds in their native habitat to range many miles from the
limited water supply of the arid regions which they inhabit.

Sand-grouse are native to most of Africa including Egypt, Arabia,
Persia, India and Southwestern and Central Asia. Some migratory
forms enter southern Europe in summer and sporadic invasions of this
bird have occurred in northern Europe even as far as the British Isles.
Some species are highly migratory and others are permanent residents
of the regions which they inhabit. All are birds of open, more or less
barren regions and since they are said to fly as much as 20 to 25 miles
daily for water, they are able to forage in arid regions at great distances
from this element which is so necessary for the survival of our native
desert quail. For this reason, the fact that it seems possible that sand-
grouse may be successfully introduced into certain arid regions of the

"^§1'"

Fig. 114. Sand-grouse in Anaverde Valley, Los Angeles County. At left, birds
in holding pen, two males in foreground, females at rear. Right, female after libera-
tion. Photos by G. H. True, Jr. March 2, 1934.

State where native game birds are unable to exist on account of lack
of water, the present experiment is being watched with great interest.
Sand-grouse normally lay but two or three eggs to the clutch,
varying with the species, but literature at our disposal fails to inform
whether or not they breed more than once in a season. Perhaps, on
account of their pigeon-like relationship, they may breed twice or more
in a year. At any event, their low egg production, if they nest but
once a year, indicates that they are birds well able to cope with the
natural enemies of their native land. How they will fare against our
predatory species remains to be seen. The State Game Farm, at Yount-
ville, has experimented with two pairs of these birds for the past two
seasons and has found them to be hardy and to propagate successfully
in captivity.

8—12731

294 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

The Division was enabled to make this interesting introduction of
sand-grouse through the generosity of M. E. Lombardi, vice president,
Standard Oil Company of California, San Francisco, who purchased
the birds and donated them to the State for stocking purposes. Mr.
Lombardi was introduced to the writer in the fall of 1933 by G. Dallas
Hanna and 11. S. Swartli of the California Academy of Sciences, when
the possibility of this introduction was first discussed. It has always
had the support and endorsement of these scientific gentlemen and of
the Academy.

Mr. Lombardi has kindly written, for inclusion in this note, the
observations he made upon these birds in their native habitat, whicli
prompted his interest in them that finally resulted in the present intro-
duction. His recent letter is quoted as follows :

I first became interested in these birds when I saw them in countless numbers
on the northern Mesopotamia Desert. I was traveling by automobile from Nisibin
to Mosul in Iraq and thence to Kirkuk. This was in the spring of 1933 and great
flocks of sand-grouse appeared to be coming down out of the foothills to the north
and onto the desert. I was told that this movement was made in the spring when
the new grass appeared after the spring rains on the desert. They seemed to assemble
around the small rock-strewn hills but were sometimes seen covering as much as
half an acre in flocks on the flat desert floor. While on the ground they look sur-
prisingly like white-tailed ptarmigan, being somewhat larger, however. In flight
they resemble a large pigeon as their wings are more the shape of pigeon wings than
the usual round wing of a grouse. Their flight is very rapid and they can fly for
long distances going and coming from water. They are shot for sport by the few
Europeans in that area but are said to be not particularly good for the table. I
do not think the Arabs destroy many of them since the Arabs are armed with
rifles for the most part, and shotgun ammunition is very expensive.

I later saw these birds in Arabia near the head of the Persian Gulf and also
in traveling from Bagdad to Damascus across the desert some distance south of
the locality of my first observation of them. Later in the spring they seemed
to be in smaller flocks and pairs.

The Mesopotamia Valley has many physical characteristics which are similar
to the southern part of the San Joaquin Valley. It is entirely treeless and grass
appears only in the springtime. The climatic conditions are similar, being featured
by a very hot summer, and rains only in the winter and spring. Instead of sage-
brush, there appears a thorn bush and some other shrubs similar to those seen in
our desert valley. I also saw filaree, wild mustard and a grass similar to foxtail.
Water is scarce during the summer, being confined to the large rivers (Euphrates
and Tigris and a few of their tributaries) as well as some of the ancient canals now
unused. The foothills encircle the upper end of the Mesopotamia Valley just as
they do the lower part of the San Joaquin. On them, there is more vegetation,
very similar in appearance to the vegetation on our foothills. I saw plants which
are almost the same in appearance as manzanita and also others that might be
identified as near relatives to our desert foothill shrubs although, not being a
botanist, I could not identify them.

The fact that sand-grouse live in an environment so similar to ours, with
climatic conditions approaching our southern deserts, led me to believe that they
might be successfully introduced in certain sections of California.

After much discussion in the winter of 1933-1934 regarding the
advisability of importing wild trapped birds direct from Asia for
this planting, it was finally determined to purchase the present stock
from a local game breeder, because these birds were thoroughly accli-
mated to California weather, having been originally imported from
Calcutta in January, 1933. This decision was reached in Janury, 1934,
when Mr. Lombardi agreed to purchase and to donate to the State, the
21 sand-grouse recently planted. Delivery of the birds was made to
the Division at Palmdale on February 14, whence they were transferred

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 295

to holding pens in Anaverde Valley, the ultimate point of liberation.
Eleven birds occupying one pen were freed here on March 2 from a
point adjoining a State quail refuge caretaker's house in the center of
the Valley. Some of these birds made a rather long flight toward the
neighboring hills where released, but later returned to join others that
liad remained close to the pens. The second pen of ten birds was
liberated a week later. Most of the first lot worked southwest into the
hills bordering the valley shortly after liberation and the last one seen
near the house was noted on March 24. The birds from the second
pen remained longer in the valley floor, but they too later joined the
others in the rolling foothills.

These birds were liberated on land posted as State quail sanctuary
and patrolled daily by Refuge Caretaker C. H. Edmondson. Preda-
tory animal control work has been carried on here by Edmondson for
two years and is to be continued. The situation was selected for this
planting only after most careful consideration of many sites and it
promises to be an ideal one. Thus conditions appear to be promising
for the success of this planting of sand-grouse, yet it should be borne in
mind that many factors involve the successful introduction of any
foreign species, the lack of any one of which may cause failure. There-
fore, should the present planting prove to be a disappointment it will in
no wise conclusively demonstrate that this species can not be successfully
introduced into some other type of desert habitat in the State.

The Division wishes again, on behalf of the sportsmen of Cali-
fornia, to acknowledge with gratitude Mr. Lombardi's generosity in
making this introduction possible. — James Moffitt, April 25, 1934.

NOTES ON STREAM SURVEY WORK IN CALIFORNIA *

As noted in the last issue of this magazine, three stream survey
parties are now operating in California under the direction of the
writer on funds allotted to the U. S. Bureau of Fisheries from the
Public Works Administration. Each party consists of one leader and
three scientific assistants. Intensive stream survey work is being carried
on in the following areas: Klamath-Trinity, Sierra and Mono-Inyo,
National Forests.

The Klamath-Trinity party left Stanford May 1 for Copco, where
they began operations. The field work of this party is under the direc-
tion of A. C. Taft, Assistant Aquatic Biologist of the Bureau of Fish-
eries. The other four members are Leo Shapovalov, Peter Doudoroff,
Mitchell Hanavan and Kelshaw Bonham. Two trucks were assigned
this unit for the entire period of five months' operations.

The Mono-Inyo and Sierra parties left Stanford June 1, going to
North Fork in the San Joaquin drainage, where a brief training period
was inaugurated for the members of these parties. Afterwards, the
Sierra party began actual field work on the streams and lakes in this
National Forest, and the Mono-Inyo party began working the streams
that fiow to the east from the crest of the Sierra in the southern end of
the Owens Valley, Each of these parties is to spend four months in the
field.

♦ Published by permission of the U. S. Commissioner of Fisheries.

296 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

Dr. Osji'ood Sinitli is in charge oi the Mono party, and also attaelied
to this group are Emmett Hooper, Francis Sumner and Arthur Welan-
der. Dr. AValdo Furgason is in charge of the Sierra party, and has the
following scientific assistants : Allan De Lacy, Harry Hanson and Hugh
Israel. Practically all of the personnel are well-trained fisheries men
which "will greatly facilitate securing the necessary biological, physical
and chemical data required.

The Mono-Inyo group is to have two trucks for its use at all times,
and only one truck has been assigned to the Sierra party by reason
of lack of roads in this region. Pack stock for entrance into inaccessible
regions is to be secur&d as needed.

Each party is completely equipped with nets and seines for making
quantitative studies of the density of trout populations in various
waters, chemical apparatus for determination of gasses dissolved in
water, thermometers, instruments for measuring the food supply in
both lakes and streams, air rubber boats for securing data on higli
Sierran lakes and many other pieces of equipment. The information
obtained will be used to develop balanced stocking policies for the
waters in the areas surveyed.

As noted previously, this work is being conducted as an integral
part of the program of the California trout investigations, a coopera-
tive project between the U. S. Bureau of Fisheries and the California
Division of Fish and Game. Direct cooperation of the stream surveyors
is to be had on stream and lake improvement projects inaugurated by
the U. S. Forest Service and the California Division of Fish and Game.

In summary, intensive field investigations are being carried on by
a force of 14 men including the waiter, supplied with adequate scientific
apparatus for obtaining detailed facts on the waters investigated, and
it is hoped that the information obtained will prove most useful in the
w'orking out of sound measures for the conservation of trout in these
areas. — P. R. Needham, U. 8. Bureau of Fisheries, Stanford University,
California, June 1, 1934.

COMMERCIAL FISHERY NOTES

CHANGE IN FORM OF FISHERY STATISTICS

Beginning with this number of California Fish and Game, the
tables giving the California fresh fish landings will be changed in form.
Beginning with the first quarter of 1934 (January, February, March),
the fresh fish landings, including all fish, niollusks and crustaceans,
irrespective of their origin, will be shown on one table under eight
geographical fishing regions. Region 10, Del Norte, includes the Klam-
ath River, Smith River and waters from tlie Oregon line to Trinidad
Head ; Region 20, Eureka, includes waters from Trinidad Head to Point
Arena; Region 30, Sacramento, includes the delta of Sacramento and
San Joaquin river systems, San Pablo and Suisun bays, and Lake
County ; Region 40, San Francisco, includes San Francisco Bay and the
coast from Point Arena south to Pigeon Point; Region 50, Monterey,
includes Monterey Bay region from Pigeon Point to Piedras Blancas;
Region 60, Santa Barbara, includes the section from Point Dume to
San Mateo Point ; and Region 80, San Diego, covers the waters from San
Mateo Point to the Mexican line and includes Salton Sea.

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 297

In addition to the large table showing the complete landing, there
is a table showing the fish imported into the State by region of landing,
with a third table showing the importations by point of origin.

This change of form has been adopted after careful consideration
and trial over a three-year period since the installation of tabulating
machines for compiling the commercial catch statistics. — .¥. B. Sco field,
Mmj 28, 1934.

GIANT SQUID TAKEN AT LAGUNA BEACH

On April 14, 1934, Captain 0. B. Ayres brought to the California
State Fisheries Laboratory a giant squid, Moroteuthis rohusta, that
liad been captured alive that morning in the surf at Laguna Beach,
California. This squid was over nine feet long, which great size, how-
ever, is not unusual for this species. Moroteuthis is very rare in Cali-
fornia, being a more northern form. The present specimen is probably
the first record for southern California.

The total length of the squid was 112| inches, including the ten-
tacles, which measured 65^ inches. The distance from the tip of the
fin to the front of the eye was 47 inches. The eight sessile arms meas-
ured 30 inches. A description of this species is given in volume 19
(1933) of California Fish and Game (J. B. Phillips, "Description of a
giant squid taken at Monterey, with notes on other squid taken oft the
California coast," pp. 128-136). — B. S. Croker, California State Fish-
cries Laboratory, April 16, 1934.

ADEQUATE FRESH FISH INSPECTION AND GRADING

The per capita consumption of fishery products in this country is
lower than in any important country of the world.

The failure on the part of the fishing industry to recognize and
enforce among themselves the standards of quality has prejudiced the
consuming public against this valuable foodstuff and is the principal
cause for their inability to increase the per capita consumption.

The Federal and State agencies for meat inspection have proven
very effective in eliminating undesirable practices. They also have
established adequate standards of quality and have functioned as
guarantors of the public health by establishing and enforcing minimum
hygienic and sanitary standards. The inspection and grading of fish
would be no more difficult than the grading of agricultural products,
which has been carried on by the Division of Markets of the State
Agricultural Department with the cooperation of the producers, for
many years. A similar service to include fish and shellfish would do
much to make these valuable foods more important elements in human
diet than they have been in the past.

Article VIII, Title B, Section F of the National Fishery Code,
provides : " To encourage the distribution of strictly high quality prod-
ucts of the industry and otherwise to protect the consumer against
inferior merchandise." Under this section the producers of fresh fish
should sponsor legislation to extend the same privileges and advantages
of State inspection and grading as are now given to other producers
of food commodities.

298 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

FRESH FISH SALES

In gatherinp: statistieal information on fresh fish sales from 400
side line fish dealers, we find that the meat dealer who carries fish as
a side line dislikes very much to handle fish. In most instances they
would be satisfied if meat markets could be restrained from selling fish
and have it sold by exclusive dealers only. In this way the consuming
public should be able to get a wider variety to choose from, and could
be sold fish six day5 a week, displayed and handled in a sanitary manner
and sold at a price considerably less than that necessarily charged by
the side line dealer. The following table indicates the statistical infor-
mation procured from side line dealers :

Fish carried as a profitable item — 30 per cent.

Fish carried as an accommodation — 70 per cent.

Average number of varieties carried — 1.

Best seller — 1, salmon; 2, halibut; 3, sole; 4, rock cod.

Frozen fish sales — Unfavorable, 74 per cent ; fair, 10 per cent ; good, 16 per
cent.

Method of refrigeration — Mechanical, 76 per cent ; ice, 24 per cent.

Push sales by advertisement — Yes, 62 per cent ; no, 38 per cent.

Days of sale — Monday, 4 per cent ; Tuesday, 13 per cent ; Wednesday, 13
per cent ; Thursday, 45 per cent ; Friday, 100 per cent ; Saturday, 14 per cent.

— A. A. Alstrom, May 25, 1934.

THE 1934-1935 SARDINE SEASON

At the beginning of the 1933-1934 sardine season the staff of the
California State Fisheries Laboratory drew up a statement predicting
the relative abundance and size of sardines to be expected in the 1933-
1934 season. A discussion of the success of these predictions and predic-
tions for the 1934—1935 season are submitted in the following report.

RESULTS OF THE 1933-1934 PREDICTIONS

Because of the differences between the fall and winter fisheries
along the entire California coast, it is necessary to consider the two as
separate units. The fall fishing at San Francisco and Monterey extends
from August through November, at San Pedro through November and
December. The winter fishery at San Francisco and Monterey lasts
from December to February, at San Pedro from January to March.

With one exception the ])redictions for 1933-1934 proved remark-
ably accurate. The forecast for the fall fishing at San Francisco and
Monterey was that sardines would be relatively scarce and of large
sizes, roughly 11 inches in total length. This proved to be the case.
Fishermen had difficulty locating large schools of fish, and at times
during the fall months the Monterey crews were forced to range as far
north as San Francisco. The fish were as a whole large, though there
were a few more small fish in the catch than had been expected.

For the San Pedro fall fishery, it was predicted that a new abun-
dant group would enter the fishery, that these fish would be small, 8
to 9 inches, and that larger fish would be very scarce. These expec-
tations were fulfilled.

For the winter fishery at all ports a relative scarcity of fish was
anticipated. Off Monterey and San Francisco this held true. In the
San Pedro area this prediction was wrong, as fish were exceptionally

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 299

available to the fishermen. Since there is no way in which the actual
abundance of winter fish could have increased, it is probable that an
unusually large part of the coast's sardine population gathered in the
San Pedro area during the 1933-1934 winter season.

PREDICTIONS FOR THE 1934-1935 SARDINE SEASON

Fall Fishery: San Francisco and Monterey {August-November) .

The moderately abundant year-class which entered the San Pedro
fishery in the fall of 1933 will be the main support of the Monterey
fishery in the fall of 1934 and, as a consequence, fish will be quite
abundant. These fish will average 9^ to 10 inches in total length. The
San Francisco fall fishery will also be influenced by this same year-
class but more large fish will occur in the fishery than at Monterey.
The boats in both the Monterey and San Francisco fall fisheries should
not have great difficulty in making catches and sardines will be con-
sidered fairly abundant.

Fall Fishery: San Pedro {Novemher -December).

Studies of young fish indicate that the year-class entering the fish-
ery in the fall of 1934 will be below normal in abundance. Conse-
quently in the San Pedro fall fishery the year-class which entered in
the fall of 1933 will be the main support of the fishery. As at Mon-
terey these fish will be satisfactorily abundant and average 9^ to 10
inches in total length.

Winter Fishery: All Localities.

During the winter in all localities sardines will be no more abundant
and perhaps less so than in the winter of the 1933-1934 season. The
group which entered the San Pedro fall fishery in 1933 will play a
small role in the winter fishery and help somewhat to increase the
abundance. A small proportion, perhaps one-fourth, of the winter fish
will be approximately 10 inches in length but the majority will be 11
inches or greater.

POSSIBILITY OF OVERFISHING

The California sardine population has been subjected to very heavy
fishing for the last decade and has withstood the strain remarkably
well. "Whether it can continue to do so is a question of considerable
doubt. Many people have compared the California fishery with the
far larger sardine fishery of Japan and the huge herring fishery of the
North Sea. Each of these is nearly four times the size of our California
sardine fishery and the natural assumption is that there can be no
danger of depletion here if we are taking less than one-third as much
as these other fisheries. The answer is that the fishing areas off the
California coast are comparatively meager and comprise only a small
fraction of those of Japan or the North Sea, and that in terms of tons

300

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

of fish per square mile of fishing area the California catch is by far
the largest of the three. The figures are as follows:

Japan

North Sea__

Pacific Coast (United States and British Columbia)
California alone

Average catch

1929, 1930, 1931,

tons

946,000

926,000
320,000
241,000

Area within the

100-fathom line,*

square statute

miles

443,000

177,000

33,000

14,000

Tons per

square

mile

2.2

5.2

9.8

17.2

*For practical purposes the fi.shing area of a district can be considered to be the area within the 100-fathom line,
since it is only in or close to relatively shallow water that fish find an adequate food supply. Areas around islands are
included.

Since many fisheries have been badly depleted by far less intensive
fishing than we are giving the California sardine, it is obvious that this
fishery must be carefully and continually watched for further signs
of overfishing. This is being done. Besides this it should be made
possible to restrict the catch at any time that it seems necessary, in
order to give the fish a chance to recover from the strain. To be fully
effective, such restrictions should affect the entire industry instead of
only a part of it, as is now the case. At present the State can not
regulate the catch of the floating reduction ships.

In addition to the need of placing the entire industry under uni-
form regulations it would be very desirable to readjust the industry so
that part of the present strain would be shifted from the fall to the
winter fishery. During the fall months most of the available sardines
are comparatively young fish which are decidedly smaller than those
taken in the winter. They have spawned only once, twice or not at all.
The winter fish are older, and have had several spawnings. Also tliey
are larger and it takes only seven-tenths as many of them to make a
ton. At present 50 to 60 per cent of the sardine catch (by weight) is
fall fish, and a readjustment so as to throw more of this strain on the
winter fish would be a great aid in maintaining the supply. — Confrihii-
iion No. 140 from the California State Fisheries Laboratory/, May 18,
1934.

THE CATCH OF SARDINES IN CALIFORNIA *

The fluctuations in the seasonal sardine catch of this State furnish
an outstanding example of the changes from year to year in the total
catch as governed by changing economic conditions rather than changes
in the supply of fish in the sea.

Before 1916, the catch was insignificant because fishermen were not
seeking sardines. The sardine canning industry developed during the
period of the World War and the catch rose to what was considered in
those years a huge tonnage. The business slump of 1921 caused the sag
in the total catch for the two seasons 1920-21 and 1921-22. The revival
of business prosperity with its boom period up to 1930 was responsible
for the great increase in the cannery utilization of sardines. This was a
period of increasing sales abroad with the consequent enlargement of
canneries, employment of additional fishing crews, the building of

1934.

* Contribution no. 138 from the California State Fisheries Laboratory, May,

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

301

larger boats, and a steady increase in plant capacity to keep pace with
the enlarged shipments to foreign countries. Diiring the prosperity
period of 1922 to 1930, the catch rose steadily to more than five times
what it had been previously. One break appeared in this steady upward
trend. During the season 1924-25, the unusually large catch resulted
from adverse court decisions, so that for several months the laws against
unlimited reduction of sardines were not operative and extra boat
catches were reduced to fish meal and oil to take advantage of the good
prices for by-products then prevailing.

3Sa.

Sardines

.300 tj
250 "^

rishlnj Seasons

A

f

i

/

\

ZOO ^

•

/

\

f

1

1

ISO «

/

N

/

\

/

too

/

' '

r

/

^^

-SO A

^

Q\

Fig. 115. Graphic representation of California sardine catches per thou-
sand tons from 1916 to 1934.

The world-wide economic slump after 1929 reduced the sales to
Asiatic and European countries so that the total catch of sardines
dropped with the slump in the purchasing power of foreign countries.
The rates of foreign exchange almost prohibited the purchase of goods
in this country. The upward swing in the sardine catch for the last
two seasons is the direct result of a business recovery policy of the
Division of Fish and Game, by which permits were issued for the
reduction of sardines into salable fish oil in order that fishermen and
cannery workers might find employment and be rescued from the
county charity rolls. It is just as absurd to assume that the recent
increased catch is due to an increasing supply of sardines, as to claim
that the two slumps in catch for the depression years of 1921 and 1930
were caused by a sudden scarcity of sardines in the ocean.

TABLE 1
California Sardine Catch by Fishing Seasons

1

Season

Tons

Season

Tons

1916-17

29,430
74,610
73,270
69,570
40,930
38.410
65,160
81,090
172,860

1925-26

137,690

1917-18--

1926-27

147,700

1918-19

1927-28

182,870

1919-20... . . . .

1928-29.

254,450

1920-21.-

1929-30

324,240

1921-22. .

1930-31

173,820

1922-23-

1931-32

133,440

1923-24

1932-33

205,530

1924-2.5

1933- 34 .

315,150

302

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

The sardine catch for tlie State is shown by fishinp: seasons in Table
1, which is a summation of the records of the California Division of
Fish and Game. This catch represents deliveries made chiefly to can-
ning: plants with small additional amounts used by fresh fish markets.
In addition to these records, deliveries have been made during the past
four seasons to reduction ships off the California coast outside the juris-
diction of this State. In order that we may know the drain upon our
sardine supply, these deliveries to the offshore reduction ships have
been calculated and added to the cannery catch in Table 2. In Table 3,
the tonnage delivered to reduction ships has been segregated into
months, although this separation is only approximate and may not accu-
rately indicate the exact month in which the fish were caught. There
is a lack of data showing daily deliveries to these ships, whereas in the
case of cannery deliveries we have the records showing not only daily
landings but also the tons delivered daily by each individual fishing
boat.

TABLE 2
Cannery and Reduction Ship Catch of Sardines in California for Last Four Seasons

Season

Canrery and
market catch

Reduction
ship catch

Total tons

1930-31

173,820
133,440
205,530
315,150

10,200
14,100
55,890
77.130

184,020

1931-32

147.540

1932-33

261,420

1933-34 .

392,280

Totals

827,940

157.320

985,260

TABLE 3
Sardines Delivered to Reduction Ships

Tons

Tons

1930-31
November, 1930

600
2,490
4,500
2,550

1932-33
September, 1932

7,056

December, 1930

October, 1932

7,662

January, 1931

November, 1932

18,174

February, 1931 ...

December, 1932

7,284

.Taiuiarv 1Q33

13 734

Total

10,200

Februarv, 1933...

1,980

Total. _

55,890

1931-32
August, 1931

3,800
1,500
5,440
354
3,000

1933-34
August, 1933 .

10,074

September. 1931...

September, 1933..

4,632

October, 1931

October, 1933

9,144

November, 1931

November, 1933 ..

19,706

December, 1931

December, 1933

14,544

.lanuarv 1034

8.352

Total

14,100

February, 1934... .. ..

10.680

Total . .

77,132

Total for four seasons (1930-31 to 1933-34): 157,322 tons.

Since the beginning of the large scale sardine industry in Cali-
fornia, the two chief canning centers have been ]\Tonterey and the region
about Los Angeles. In recent years new canneries have been located
at various places in the bay region about San Francisco, so that this

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

303

northern region is becoming: increasingly important as a sardine canning
center. (See Table 4.) Fishing seasons for Monterey and northward
have been calculated from May 1 through April 30 of the following
calendar year. For the areas about Los Angeles and San Diego the
•season from July 1 through June 30 has been used. This arrangement
of dates was chosen in the past to conform to the natural sardine season
which is earlier in the northern part of the State. The sardine fishing
season was regulated later by State law establishing a closed season.
Beginning with the summer of 1929, the open season for Monterey
and northward was legally defined as August 1 to February 15, and
for southern California as November 1 to March 31.

TABLE 4
California Sardine Catch by Areas for Seven Seasons

Season

San Francisco

Monterey

Los Angeles

San Diego

Total tons

1927-28

11,660
13,510
20,940
25,800
21,600
18,760
36,320

99,480
120,280
160,110
109,340

68,880
102,990
152,360

67,480

119,250

140,540

38,650

42,650

83,600

124,880

4,250

1,410

2,650

30

310

180

1,590

182,870
254,450
324,240
173,820
133,440
205,530
315,150

1928-29

1929-30

1930-31

1931-32

1932-33

1933-34.

TABLE 5
Monthly Sardine Catch at Four Areas of California

1933

1934

July

August

Sept.

October

November

December

January

February

March

San Francisco.

100

59

2

1

1,856

18,310

3

2,675

12,258

4

1

2,822

15,024

5

11,167

30,183

17,932

96

6,302
25,157
27,629

8,283

25,845

21,640

585

3,048

24,387

43.800

680

Monterey

San Pedro

San Diego

38

14.020

224

Totaltons.

162

20,169

14,938

17,851

59,3''8

59,088

57,353

71,915

14,282

In Table 5, the recent monthly catches are shown at the four
principal sardine fishing areas of the State, illustrating the concen-
tration of heavy catches in the fall and winter months. — W. L. 8cofield,
California State Fisheries Laboratory.

304 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

STATEMENT OF INCOME
For the Period July 1, 1933, to March 31, 1934, of the Eighty-fifth Fiscal Year

Departmental income — current year:
License sales:

Angling {.censes, 1932.. - - 300'. W oS

Angling licenses, 1933 --- • , ,,.

Angling licenses, 1934... - ---- ^''-i'', ;^'

Commercial hunting club licenses, 1933-34 _ - L'^O (K)

Commercial hunting club operators' licenses, 1933-34. ^ -^^^ uu

Deertags, 1932 - -- --- --- qc'ttr oO

Deer tags, 1933-. - - 90 00

Fish breeders' licenses, 1933 --- -- „~ ,,„

Fish breeders' licenses, 1934.... - "^^^ ""

Fish importers' licenses, 1933.. --- .j' „»

Fish importers' licenses, 1934. - --- J.

Game breeders' licenses, 1933 ^^" ""

Game breeders' licenses, 1934 - ' „„

Hunting licenses, 1931 -- -- --- „ ,„_ ,g

Hunting licenses, 1932-33 -- o.t'qm in

Hunting licenses, 1933-34 - in,i»i W

Kelp licenses, 1934 - „, „.„ „„

Market fishermen's licenses, 1933-34.... -S-;^^" ""

Market fishermen's licenses, 1934-35 t^^ ""

Trapping licenses, 1933-34 '■^°: ""

Wholesale fish packers' and shell fish dealers' licenses, 1933-34. ^"^ ""

Total license sales. - -'"

Other income:

Contributiocs from importers - ■>! 804 P

Court fines. — - j" '^jg ,5

Fish packers tax -- .',,^g qq

Fish tag sales -- '"„, rg

Game tag sales -- - , ,,o, 'c.>

Interest on bank balances "„"„v"oo " " a<C'ii\ Vk

Income from Department of Agriculture Fund, Chapter 825-33 lo.'^^ 00

Kelp tax... ... J jug 2Q

Lease of kelp beds -- - — I'lS'i 67

Miscellaneous sales — - -- - 'nno cq

Publication sales - 10 kas ns

Dividends California National Bank, 50 per cent ---- i'*'*'!^ "»

Dividends Trinity County Bank at Weaverville, 25 per cent ^'° ""

Total other income. - --

Total departmental income, current year

$670,078 23

243,767 23
$913,845 46

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

305

STATEMENT OF EXPENDITURES
For the Period July 1, 1933, to March 31, 1934, of the Eighty-fifth Fiscal Year

Function

Salaries

and

wages

Materials

and
supplies

Service

and
expense

Property

and
equipment

Total

Administration:
Executive

$6,269 94
4,140 00

$6,269 94

Clerical and office

$608 20
550 45

2,254 37
399 79

$163 28

4,911 48

Printing, Fish and Game Magazine

550 45

Printing, general

2,254 37

Automobile ._

266 48
2,350 22
3,203 29
2,883 32

520 35

10,249 05

3,779 89

666 27

Traveling

2,350 22

Postage .

3,203 29

Telephone and telegraph .

2,883 32

Freight, cartage and express

520 35

Rent

10,249 05

Accident and death claims

3,779 89

Accounting pro rata

3,374 98
493 56

3,374 98

Legal

1,694 62

22 50

183 00

1,461 57

$73 32

2,261 50

Premiums on bonds

22 50

Publicity _..

183 00

Pro rata General Fund expense. Chap. 923-33-

1,461 57

Total administration

$14,278 48

$1,079 85
1,440 00

$3,812 81

$26,777 57

$73 32

$4^942 18

Bureau Education and Research:
Chief....

$1,079 85

Clerical and office .

$32 23
366 11

$49 34
222 84
1,630 85
14 80
57 27
49 60
25 29

1 26

2 05
75 87

$3 07

1,524 64

Automobiles...

588 95

Traveling.

1,630 85

Postage

14 80

Library

810 00
3,949 03
1,737 50

3 48
100 61

56 22
10 50

926 97

4,109 74

Publicity.

1,762 79

1 26

Freight, cartage and express

2 05

Photography

3 23

79 10

Total bureau education and research

Bureau patrol and law enforcement:
Chief and assistants

$9,016 38

$8,325 00
2,385 00

$505 66

$2,129 17

$69 79

$11,721 00
$8,325 00

$35 83
17,352 03

$10 95

6,654 04

32,573 95

452 16

1,179 47

10 82

421 28

945 77
1,057 69
1,071 00

214 50

$56 86
3,388 85

2,488 64

Automobiles

27,394 92

Traveling...

32,573 95

Postage

452 16

Telephone and telegraph

1,179 47

Freight, cartage and express

10 82

Rent

421 28

Captains and wardens.

132,105 00

1,210 04

2,019 21

425 53

11 60

134,272 41

Launches

3,076 90

Fish planting

3,465 00

4,961 53

214 50

Cooks

1,125 00
495 00

2,070 00

10,725 50

8,362 42

8,493 18

1,125 00

Game refuge guard

495 00

Commercial fisheries patrol:
Chief and assistants.

2,070 00

Captains and wardens

10 04
3,800 79

13 66
1,605 78

10,749 20

Launches

207 15

13,976 44

Fish cannery inspectors, seasonal

8.493 18

Traveling

3,845 54
575 00
294 07

3,845 54

Rent

575 00

Automobiles.

352 98

647 05

Temporary help.

283 14

283 14

Total bureau patrol and law enforcement...
Bureau commercial fisheries:

$177,834 24

$10,215 00
7,196 34

$25,206 45

$50,925 68

$3,664 76

$257,631 13
$10,215 00

Clerical and office

$69 73
271 74

$19 96

119 25

4,005 68

60

397 31

99 82

108 93

251 57

7,286 03

390 99

Traveling

4.005 68

60

Telephone and telegraph

397 31

99 82

Rent...

108 93

251 57

Research

1,710 00
16,927 58

24 01
695 22
701 80

1,734 01

531 12
1,512 00

$93 36
83 75

18 247 28

Statistics

2,297 55

Temporary help

88 39

88 39

Total bureau commercial fisheries

$36,137 31

$1,762 50

$7,046 24

$177 11

$45,123 16

306

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

STATEMENT OF EXPENDITURES— Continued
For the Period July 1, 1933, to March 31, 1934, of the Eighty-fifth Fiscal Year

Function

Salaries

and

wages

Materials

and
supplies

Service

and
expense

Property

and
equipment

Total

Bureau fish culture:
Chief and assistants

$5,370 00
3,060 00

$13 20

9 47

4,640 92

$160 50

8 75

1,702 32

5,606 39

150 ly

855 39

457 27

2,019 28

1,035 77

653 13

645 63

6 42

1,381 94

$5,543 70

Clerical and office

$12 30
725 47

3 090 52

Automobiles

7 068 71

Traveling

0,606 39

Postage

150 19

Telephone and telegraph

855 39

Freight, cartage and express

457 27

Rent

2,019 ''8

Heat, light and power.

1,035 77

Hatcheries

80,575 00
2,655 00

32,413 39
274 39

789 41

114 430 93

Fish cars

3.575 02

Blue printing..

6 42

Cooperative research

2,480 71

802 40

13,231 29

1,800 00

5,504 94

449 60

1 15

4,313 40
802 40

Temporary help..

Fish hatchery assistant, seasonal

13,231 29

Hydraulic engineering

36 55

72 79

035 39

29 21
94 79

2 501 15

Special field

5,672 52

Total bureau fish culture

$115,479 34
$4,095 00

$37,910 31

$15,318 37

$1,652 33

$170,360 35

Bureau game propagation:
Chief and assistants

$4,095 00

$521 42

$202 16

1,722 80

51 61

132 54

18 55

759 33

391 60

723 58

Traveling

1,722 80

51 61

Telephone and telegraph

132 54

18 55

Heat, light and power

759 33

Maintenance

9,681 71

610 55

3,571 07

6,951 72

17.025 03

Temporary help

610 55

Quail trapping and expansion of quail program
Purchase of quail and pheasants

1,112 22
1,917 86

1,710 69

$492 18

6,886 18
1,917 86

Total bureau game propagation

$17,958 33
$3,600 00

$10,503 22

$4,989 28

$18 63
66 00
59 00

$492 18

$33,943 01

Bureau fish rescue:

$3 618 63

Traveling

66 00

59 00

Temporary help

69 00

69 00

Heavy truck service

760 20

760 20

Total bureau fish rescue

'$3,669 00

$6,374 97
1,440 00

$903 83

$4,572 83

Bureau game refuges:
Chief and assistants

$6,374 97

Clerical and office

$3 62
356 44

$12 50

108 37

3,326 24

95

1,456 12

Automobiles

464 81

Traveling

3,326 24

Telephone and telegraph

96

4,106 00
450 00

4,106 00

Refuge posting

450 00

Predatory animal control

4,210 00
1,129 48

4,210 00

Refuge maintenance

6,105 50

4,100 00
2,628 50

2,140 70

9,377 68

Predatory animal hunters and trappers,
seasonal

4,100 00

Temporary help, seasonal..

2,628 50

Total bureau game refuges

$25,204 97
$9,855 00

$2,502 76

$38 68
8,515 11

$8,787 54
$13 29

$36,495 27

Bureau licenses:
Clerical and oflSce

$9,906 97

8,515 11

Traveling

296 38

696 50

661 94

1,090 00

296 38

696 50

Freight, cartage and express.

661 94

1,090 00

Total bureau licenses

$9,855 00

$8,553 79

$2,758 11

$21,166 90

Total eight-fifth fiscal year expense
paid from support appropriations

$409,433 05

$90,757 50

$119,635 79

$6,129 49

$625,955 83

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

307

STATEMENT OF EXPENDITURES— Continued
For the Period July 1, 1933, to March 31, 1934, of the Eighty-fifth Fiscal Year

Function

Salaries

and

wages

Materials

and
supplies

Service

and
expense

Property

and
equipment

Total

Special items:
Claim of chief accounting officer of Depart-
ment of Finance, Chapter 991-33. --

$2,259 11
6,176 91

Construction of Russian River jetties, Chap.
989-33... _-

Deer tight fences, Chapter 872-31:
From January 1, 1934, to June 30, 1934....

?73 80
1,498 05

From July 1, 1933, to December 31, 1933. .

1,571 85

18,750 00

30,463 08

440 91

Total deer tight fences, Chapter 872-31

Electro Metals Company's claim. Chap.
599-31

License commissions

State Fair and other exhibits---

Total special items

$59,661 86

Permanent improvements:
Construction, improvements and equipment. -

$48,295 13

Prior year expense:
Eighty-third fiscalyear

$71 70
26,009 19

Eighty-fourth fiscal year

Total prior year expense

$26,080 89

Bureau commercial fisheries. Chap. 825-33, fresh
fish marketing:
Chief and assistants

$3,012 97
809 03

$3,012 97

Clerical and office-.

$44 99
6 50

Sll 55

2 50

604 63

130 00

2 61

129 84

18 04

2,713 91

865 57

Automobiles

9 00

Traveling

604 63

Postage

130 00

Telephone and telegraph-

2 61

Freight, cartage and express.. _

129 84

Rent

18 04

Exhibits

136 23

2,850 14

Temporary help .--

315 00

315 00

Total bureau commercial fisheries. Chap.
825-33, fresh fish marketing-... -..-

S4,137 00

J187 72

83,613 08

$7,937 80

Grand total, proprietary group - _ _ .

$767,931

308

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

SEIZURES OF FISH AND GAME
January, February, March, 1934

Fish:

Abalones - - 1.250

Bass —

Black 4

Rock, pounds 33

Striped, pounds_. - 1.099

Barracuda, pounds .- 175

Clams -- - 3,295

Crabs - 16

Cockles - --- 463

Crappie, perch, sunfish, pounds. -- 165

Halibut, pounds - - 56

Lobsters 450

Mussels, pounds - 75

Smelt, pounds -.- 781

Scallops, pounds 400

Trout - - - 118

Steelhead, pounds 1,802

Spotfin croaker, corbina, pounds 1,806

Yellowfin.. ----- - 2,533

Nets, seines — 2

Lobster traps, spears - - 26

Game:

Deer 14

Deer meat, pounds.. 750

Deer hides 6

Ducks, geese 465

Doves 6

Non-game birds 20

Pheasants 2

Pigeons 2

Quail 21

Rabbits i-. .-- 21

Tree squirrels .- 1

FISH CASES
January, February, March, 1934

Offense

Abalones; small; closed season

Angling without license

Bass —

Striped; small; closed season

Black; closed season

Barracuda; small

Clams; small; overlimit ,

Crabs; small

Cockles; small

Commercial fishing; no license

Crappie; perch; closed season...

Lobsters ; closed season

Nets; seines; illegal use of

Scallops; selling of local ,

Steelhead; untagged; spearing of; and netting of

Sturgeon ; possession of

Illegal fishing apparatus

Trout; closed season..

Totals

Number
arrests

50
29

5
2
2

63
3
1
3
8
6

17
4
5
1

14

23

236

Fines
imposed

1624 00
410 00

200 00
50 00
50 00

720 00

25 00
25 00
110 00
110 00
125 00
25 00
150 00

360 00
460 00

$3,444 00

Jail

sentences

(days)

92
85

351H

25

75

"so"

110

788

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

309

GAME CASES
January, February, March, 1934

Offense

Elk meat, possession oL.

Deer; meat in closed season; killing does, spike bucks

Ducks; closed season; selling of

Doves; closed season

Hunting without license

Non-game birds, killing of

Night hunting _

Pheasants , closed season

Pigeons ; closed season

Quail ; closed season

Rabbits ; closed season

Squirrel; tree; killing of

Woodducks; killing of

Shooting from highway

Firearms in refuge

Spotlight hunting

Using a Maxim silencer

Trapping game birds. ._

Totals

Number
arrests

1
52.
29

1
22
18

3

5

1

2

6
1
2
1

156

Fines
imposed

Sl,655 00

855 00

25 00

240 00

380 00

25 00

100 00

25 00

25 00

75 00

50 00
10 00
35 00
50 00

$3,550 00

Jail

sentence

(days)

180
620
270

37>^
30
50
100

10
75

1,372

9—12731

310

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

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312

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

FRESH FISH IMPORTATIONS* FROM FOREIGN COUNTRIES FOR JANUARY, FEBRUARY AND MARCH, 1934
Compiled by the Division of Fish and Game, Bureau of Commercial Fisheries

Species of fish

Landed in
Region 7 J,
Los Angeles

Landed in
Region 80,
San Diego

Total pounds

Barracuda .. __ _

8,500

13,704

45,213

281

17,107

19,955
24,433

28,455

Cabrilla ^ ,

38,137

Corbitia, Mexican.. - .., _^

45,213

Orouper .

3,959

63,591

109

146

4,240

Halibut, California

80,698

Mackerel, Pacific .... . ....

109

Maclicrcl, Spanish

146

Mullet .

980
35

5,423
1,292

980

Pompano, Mexican

35

Rock Bass

1,890

61,523

394

30,626

1,897

1,326

434

• 134

10

6,223

7,313

Rockfish-. . .

62,815

Sablefish--

394

Sea-bass, Black

92,854
2,228
1,065

123,480

Sea-bass, White ..

4,125

Shark,

2,391

Sheepshead

434

Smelt

134

Sole

10

Totuava

581,801

1,002,850

15.504

16,272

741,917

2,782,304

12,957

221,151

101,166

290

588,024

1,002.850

Tuna, Bluefin

15,504

470

908,523

5,181,551

15,498

69,932

444,535

100

16,742

Tuna, Skipjack . .

1,650,440

7,963,855

Whitefish.

28,455

291,083

Lobster, Spiny .

545,701

Reptile:
Turtle

390

5,664,894

6,837,259

12,502,153

*Thcse importations are included in tables of landings.

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

313

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1533-ABSTRACT CALIFORNIA SPORTING FISH & GAME LAWS-153 5

THIS^BSTRACT^lLl^BE VALID UNTIL 90 DAYS AFTER ADJOURNMENT OF THE I»5 LEGISLATIVE SESSION

OPEN^NlT CLOSED SEASONS -^=-^

TIIITE SQUARES INDICATE OPEN SEASON. NLMBERS IN SQUARES ARE OPEN DATES

Cli.VAIl!

DEER

1... I... |...|,..|,..|.,,. I ,.. |,,o |>,. 1.,

BAG A^D POSSLSSION U>1ITS. EIC.

1-1 "i-4', -23-20

Rdbbils-tollonlail and Brush J" '"{.I'j'i

Bear, Fur Animals

ALL

Ennr

jDnannnnaEDE
nnoBC

No Docs, Fawns or Spilie Bucks

No Forked Horned Dter in Dist. I},

No Mle of Vcniion or Deer Skins

Iwo Sutks per bcdson

except in W where Itnnl is one

S« Nolo 6 9- 10-12

10 (xt wffli. VjMin dl»Ji> ojwfi
in 4. 4',. H. .'1

See Note 7

Ducks, Geese,
Jack Snipe, Mud Hens

ALL ■

%UI_ itmt Hal if yi4 VI milt iwMlf^lU II. ail.

Quail— Valley, Desert
and Mountain

At.L

tXllIM |i

I

Valley - Detert - Mountain

10 per day. 10 in poueiuon.
20 per week

Dove

All tXCU'I

4-.i;.-.i ,

nnnnDUUBun

15 E'er Day IS in posscftiion
30 Per Week

Pheasant

m

2 MjU' litrds per ddt

2 in possf-ssfon

Pigeon

10 p*' djv lU in pukbc^vion

20 p,r «.-.V

There is no open season on Elk, Antelope, Mountain Sh
Shore Birds (except Jack Snipt), Grou

SC,S

Sea

.ii;e

Otter, Ik
rHen, Im

avf

. 1 r

.1- s.
11 ail

iiirrci, S
I'artnJ

crra Han;, Rail, WooJ Duck, Sw an,
i;c, or Willi 1 urkcy

I^IJSII 1 ' "■ l-l ■l-l-l-

u„.

...

>...

ucr.

.0.

BAG AND PUiSf-SSlON LIMITS. ETC

KIdmjth Rivff. \iVt Almdnnr

:

Bag limit for taking

and possession, 25 trout
or 10 pounds and one
trout.

Steelhead and
all Trout

2yz

. BHI^

No Sale

No Spearing
ta oilier

23-25

JCIH

(except Golden)

Whitefish

Truckee River

■

■

1

■

■

restnttions
See Notes

See NoK 22

■

■

■■

■

■

■

l2-IS-t6-2(l

in waters closed by Gov-
ernor's proclamation

Ih-S^nd Winter
KldtndlhR'ver

20

5 Troul rt|;,ifd!(;iiol wfight

10-32

R«vw«n. Hj(u. Itioiiro. Nl lO .'.
i . U*. I»l»ilrr ; 1 IS

23

■

■

3 Trout rcgardloi of wcighl

Oa this
Card

(ouol.

L

3 Trout rcs-irJIos of weight

Golden Trout

Ml IMtfl

1 -4 ' .

._ ■

■

■

m

^0 per day. None under 5 inches

l-4'..liift«(ol
lbl)■llu4lJ^^?'^J0f

■

B

See Nole 22

BLACK BASS

ALL

[XCtPI 4%

■

■■

1

■

15 per day-
la (M4 VoM. t ',

Clear Lake
10 per day

25 per day

No Black Bass under 9 in.

CltARlAKt

No sale
Hook and line only

Sunfish

ALL

J

■

Sacramento Perch

All txiiri

CltAR lAhl

1

25 per day

Hook and line only
No sale

and Crappie

CLtAR lAKI

10 per day

Striped Bass

ALL

S-fl< indrf 1.' ,a>li'v % fn i*f ^ -a ».-m,m. Sm* t. 1. Uir«
t,«, V.d*. ^,j S« l%>t,x IS «•« J»

Crabs

All IKtll'l

1 ■;.6-7.B-'>

1

1

Ve Nole 23. None under 7 inrhes. No Femjle

Abalones

1

■

1

0"1, 'CI t"oJ Mull br bioufM la \h^r .li,« •« *tK<l

Anclms l.irnv Rtquifid. !>ce Nole 26

Pismo Clams

17

■ . mi

None undir 5 crahes. No shipmtrl. 15 p« day
knfUnz Ixmv Rtqutrnj Di^lml IKa Closed

Spiny Lobster

ALL

L__ J

See Note 23

GRUNION

ALL

■■ ■

SALMON, See Note A.

STURGEON, No Open Season (possession prohibited).

NOTES IT IS ALWAYS UNLAWFUL

1. TO hunt, kill, possess wild birdg or mammalg, to possess

firearms, except under written permit from the Commission,
in DiHts. la. lb, Ic. Id. le. If, Ip, Ih. II. Ij. lit. Im. In. lo. Ip. Iq.
Ir. Is. 11. 2a, 2b. 3a. 3b. 3c. 3d. 3e, 3f, 3p. 3h, 4a. -lb, 4c. 4d. 4e, 4f,
4*?. or General Grant Refuge, or Mt. Tamalpals Game Refuge,
including' Richardson Bay. or San Francisco Refuge, or Silver
I^ake Kefuge (water fowl may bo killed in 4a and 4e), or to
bunt quail in BoUnaa Quail Refuge, or to hunt or discharge fire-
arm.s In Huntington Lake Refuse, San Leandro Bay Refuge,
or Monterey Peninsula Refuge.

2. To hunt birds or mammals excepting predators without a
hunting license. To hunt In areas closed by proclamation.

3. To possess any bird net or to net, trap or to hold pro-
tected game or birds of any kind, their nests or eggs except
under written permit from the Commission.

4. To take more than 4 geese per day. 8 per week of all
varieties, and 12 Canada geese and black sea brant. To take
more than 25 mud hens per day. 50 per week. To have more
than 1 daily bag limit of geese antf mud hens In possession
by 1 person In 1 day.

5. To take or kill nongame birds, except blue' jay. butcher
bird. English sparrow, sharp-shinned. Cooper or duck hawk,
great horned owl, linnet, crow, black-bllled magpie, white
pelican, shag, and In Dlsts. 1, 2, 3, i and 4], blackbirds.

G. To hunt doer without deer tag license. To fall to attach to
iKirns of deer immediately on killing, properly tilled out deer
lag or at same time to send duiillcate tag to Division, To carry
doer into clo.sed dl.-strlct witliout having deer tag countersigned,
or to have untagged deer in possession. To fall io retain in
posst-ssion during open season and for 10 days aftor. skin and
portion of head bearing horns of deer killed and to produce upon
demand. To use more than 1 dog to hunter In hunting deer or
to allow dogs to run deer in closed season, or to possess doe or
fawn skins, or doer sltins not bearing evidence of sex-

7. To trap for proflt without first procuring a trapping license
bear, ring-tailed cat, coon, pine marten, skunk, fisher, wolverine,
mink, river otter, fox or muskrat. or to kill same during closed
season, except when destroying properly. To Interfere with
traps of licensed trappers. To use saw tooth -or »pike-jawed
traps for taking fur bearers.

8. Tq use any animal other than dog to frtalk wild birds.

9. To shoot game from power boat, sailboat, auto, airplane,
or to hunt waterfowl from scull boat in Dlsts. 8, 9. except on
Wed. and Sun., or at any time in Dist. 12 or Napa River south
of Edgerly Island, and In Mare Island Straits from th<i Napa
River lo Carquinez Strait, or to use shotgun larger than 10
gauge, or to possess an extension automatic or cane gua. To
have in possession any device capable of or lo be used in
silencing the report of any firearm.

10. To shoot resident game between | hour after sunset and
1 hour befure sunrise, or migratory eame between suntjet
and i hour before sunrise. To use a spotlight In hunlinfe' game.

11. To drive game birds by means of auto, a-lrplane, or power
boat over shooters.

12. To hold game or fish longer than 5 days after close of
season : venison 15 days.

13. To sell wild game, exc^t cottontail and brush rabbits.

14. Ti) nialie a false statement in apjilying for license. To
fail to show license upon demand to any officer.

15. To take pame or fish trom one district to another when
season Is not ojieu in both. (Special law for deer, trout and
black bass.) Trout legally taken may be transported from
open district Into closed district by the consignor making an
affidavit in duplicate setting forth his name, address, number of
angling license ami name :ind address of consignee. Original
must be attached to .shipment; copy left on file with officer
before whom swurn. Trout may be shipped into closed district
when acc*:>mpanied by written statement to effect that trout
were icfr.il. sipnod by shrpper, countersigned by agent to whom
offered for shipment. Black bass legally taken may be trans-
ported from open district Into closed district.

16. To ship wild birds, mammals, or fish except smoked or
dried fish other than trout by parcels post, or in concealed
packages or without a tag bearing name and address of con-
signee and consignor and contents, or to ship game out of State.

17. To operate a commercial hunting club without license.

18. To pl:;ce obFtructions in streams In Dists. 1, li. 2, 2J, 23,
8, 4, 4i, 23 and 25 that will stop or impede fish.

19. To sell siriped bass taken with hook and line; to trans-
port or carry striped bass out of State. To ship striped bass
less than 20 in. in length or more than 10 Iba. In weight. To
possess more than 5 shad per day between June 1 and P'eb. 14.

20. To take trout other than with rod and line held in hand
or with lure with more than 2 attractor blades or more than
3 hooks. To take trout except by angling In such manner as
to cause trout to voluntarily take hook in its mouth.

21. To have in possession any fish spear or galY (except
landing gaff) within 300 feet of any lake or stream when
unlawful to spear salmon.

22. To take ti out in any lake within 300 feet of mouth of any
stream from Oct. 31 to Aug. 1, or In that portion of any stream
flowing Into any lakein Dist. 23 within 2 miles from Hi mouth,
upstream, from Oct. 31 to Aug. 1. To take golden trout in
Cottonwood Lakes group, including South Fork Cottonwood
Lakes group and * mile of strearp below the lower lake in each
of said groups, except from July 1 to Oct. 31.

23. To bring to shore craba or lobsters In such condition
that size can not be taken ;or to ship or carry crabs out of DIsts.
li. 2J., 5. 6, 7, 8 or 9. To sell any crabs taken in Eel River or
tributaries or to possess more than 10 crabs taken there or to
take any between J hour after sunset and i hour before sunrise.

24. To take or possess In Dlst, 3 salt water eels of less than
12 In. or more than 15 per day.

25. To take or possess cockles less than IJ !n. In diameter, or
to take or possess more than 15 (Dists. 2 and 10) Washington
.clams or more than 10 horse clams or more than 30 razor or
jackknife clams per day, or in Dlsts. 18^ 19, 21 more than 15 lbs.
of musspls per day. To take or possess any PIsmo clams in
Dlst. 18 between } hour after sunset and J hour before sunrise.

or to possess any clam digging implement in that district. To
possess any clam digging implement in any clam preserve.

28. To take red abalones less than 7 in., in greatest diameter ;
green. 6.', ; pink, G ; black, 5 ; to dry abalones; to dive for aba-
lones in Dists. 7, 15. l£. 17, 19. 20 and 20a ; to take more than 10
per day or 20 per week In Dists. 7. 1 5, 16, 17. 19, 20 and 20a. To
take more than 10 per day from shore in Di.sts. 7, 10 and 18 ; to
take mnre than 10 black abalones per day in Dists. 15. 16, 17,
18, 19. 20, 20a. 21. To possess more than 10 per day in Dist. 2.

27. To fi.sh for game fish without having an angling license.

28. To take game fish between 1 hour after sunset and t
hour before sunrise in Dists. 1, IJ. IJ, 2. 2i, 23. 3. 4, 4*. 43,
23, 25. To take striped bass by hook and line between sunset
and stjnrlse.

29. To fish with nets except In commercial districts or to
Injure any legal net.

30. To fish through Ice for any fish or to take fish in Dlst. 14.

31. To place, cause to be placed, or discharge into any
waters substances deleterious to fish or plant life.

32. To fish within 250 ft. of fishway or 150 ft. of upper side of
flsh screen, or lower side of dam, or to take fish except salmon
within i mile of either side of spawning station, or any lake
wiihin h mile of spawning station when station Is in operation.

33. To kill. Injure or capture Cal. sea lions In Dists. 19.20,20a.
3 i. To take invertebrates or marine plants in Hopkins

Mnrinf Refutre (Monterey Co.) or in that area between the
west line of the properlv of the Srripps Institute and a Una
1.000 fpet west of low tide line (San Diego Co.).

35. To take more than 5 white sea bass from May 1 to June
3D. or fo tnke at any one time more than 5 under 28 In.

36. To take more than 30 lbs. of halibut under 4 lbs. each, or
to ••'Up rnr.«-p i|i-in 1 birrarnda less than 3 Ihs. each.

37. To take frogs less than 4 In. In length measured from tip
of nose to posterior end of body between hind legs, or to take or
possess more than 2 4 frogs per day or 48 frogs per week.

NOTE A. — SALMON. Salmon can iwt be taken on FpavvniPK bed';, or nlthln
1 0 mlle> of spawn-taking Gtatifin, rir 3 rnltcs nortti and souMi nt moutli of Klama-b
Bl>er All sal-non boals must havw landin;: n€t. and ni Clunpii.k |CiS llian 2 7, or
slKer lesK than 24 in. ran be taken In oreati and Humli'iMt Bay DUis Undersized
■almnn an not be carfed or clubbed, or brouKlit ashore in evrh n.nJitlon that ilz*
eon mt be dt-tcrmlncd. Silmon may be taken wUh hook anil line hi any dlGtrlrt
when trout season for satd dletrlct ts open.

In Dlst. 1. Ealreon may be taken wU>i lurok and line or spear between Miy 29 and
Oet. 3l.eicept (al In Feather River from lla mnuth to mnulh of the Vuha : (b) In
.American Hi^er from in mouth to Fair Oak« brlilce. In Plit. 2, <f) In Russian.
Napa and Navs'ro rlvera ; (d) In Eel Rher and {e) In lldewaler in Dtiti. 2. S
and 15. trlth hook and line from Mar 1 to last day of Fed., bae limit 2 per day.
In Feather RUer beiiveen mouth of VuSa and Thermalllo hrldse. with hook and
line bcnveen May 1 and Dec. 31. bta limit 2 per day. In San Joaquin Rlfer. from
mouth to ^tenJot^ weir, with hook and line from April 1 to Der. 31. In Dtst. \%.
wUh hook and line from May 29 to Pec. 31 ; with spear from Aue. 1 to Oct. 31,
bag limit 2 per .lay. In DIili. 2. 3V4, with hook and line from May I to Feb.
last: with (pear from Nor. 1 to Feb. last, tta^ limit 2 per day. In Dlst. 3. with
hnok and line fr.im May 1 to Oct. 31, bag limit 2 per dny. In Klamath Rtrer
Dlst, above tldeifaier. with hook and line from May 2 9 to Dec. 31 ; with sptar, from
Aug. 1 to Ort. 31, bag limit 2 per day. In Klaraalh Rlrer Dlst. in lldeivaier. with
hook and line from May 29 to Dec 31. Bag limit t- 5 per day from May 39 lo
Sept. 5. and 2 per day from Sept. 6 to Der. 3 1 . nnt more than I dally bag limit In
pojsesslon. In DIsii, 6. 7, H. 9 with hiwk and line from April 1 to Srpt, 15. no
bag limit. In Dlsts. 10. 11. with hook and line from May 1 to Aug. 30, do bac
limit. In Diets 12. I2B. 12C. 13. with hook and line at any time, no bag Umlt.
In Dlst. IIA. with hook and line from May 1 to Feb. last, bag llialt 2 per day.
In Dlsts 15, 16. 17. 1». wlih hook and line from Mar. 1 to July 15.

. / r^A^'" I [ ~

LICENSES MUST BE SHOWN UPON
DEMAND

Distncls la. lb. U. Id, le. If, Ig, Ih. li. Ij. Ik. Im. In.
lo. Ip, Iq, Ir. Is. IL 2a. 2b. 3a. 3b. 3c. 3d. 3e. Sf. 3g, 3h, 4a.
4b. 4c, 4d, 4e, 4f, 4g, are Game Refuccs Hunting pro-
hibited Angling in accordance with law relating to main
districts in which refuge is located

Distncfi 5. 6. 7, 8, Q. 10. 11, 12, I2a. 12b. 12c, 13. 16, 17, 18,
19, 19a, 20, 20a, 21, 22. arc Commercial Fishing Districts.
Hunting and aigling in accordance with law relating to
mam district in which smalt district is located

Dislnft 14 is a Fisb Reservation. All flshmg prohibited.

District 2'/2 includes those townships in Mendocino

County bordering on the Pacific Ocean (except 15 and

16 W , 1 1 N ) and townships 13. 14. 15. 1$. 17 and 18 N..

R 16 W

Distnct 2%. Those parts of Mendocino. Lake and Colusa
counties lying east of the Redwood Highway and north of
the Lake TahoeUkiah Highway, and all of Glenn County.
District 23 The wat<r shed of Lake Tahoe and Tmckee
River. Rubicon and Little Rubicon above confluence.
Water shed of Amencan River and Silver Creek above
confluence, locludes waters in water shed of
Cosumnes above mother lode highway bridge,
waters of South Fork Amencan River be-
tween Chill Bar Bndge and mouth of
Silver Creek , the waters of the Carson.
West Carson and all tribuUnes,
Twin Lakes, SUver. Twin. Blue,
Meadow. Wood, Wmnemtwca.
Scott. Bumside Lake and
all tnbutary streams and
the drainage area of
Webber Creek above
mother lode high-
way bndge.

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Help
Prevent
Forest
Fires

Utnti by

Dept, of Natural Retources

Division of Fitb and Came

Sstramemt»

Sam Frauclte»

FISH AND CAME DISTRICTS

OF

CALIFORNIA

hi"'
LICENSE PROVISIONS
HUNTING

L.««K v.ir Julv 1 to June )a

Residents under IS $1.00

Resident citizens 2.00

Nonresident citizens 10.00

Decl.irant aliens 1 0.00

Other aliens 25.00

ANGLING

L>(«fltc tnr Jinuiry t «o Occrmbcr )l

Resident citizens $2.00

Nonresident citizens 3.00

Aliens 5.00

Under IS no license required

TRAPPING

LtCMW r*jr July I lo Jun* Ht

Citizens $1.00

Aliens _. 2.00

Under 18 no license required

DEER TAG

lictnif rear }tnttty I lo DMOnlMr II

Everyone (2 tags)^ $1.00

COMMERCIAL HUNTING
CLUBS

Lic«BM ycif Jalf I ui JuB* 1ft

Citizens _ $2 5.00

Aliens .._ lOO.OO

Operators, citizens 5.00

Operators, aliens .„. 25.00

for Lawi in Full Sec

Fisb and Came

Code

For Commercijjl Fisb

Laws See Commercial

Abitract

For Information R^-

garding fisb or Came

Write to the

Diiiiion of fish

and Game

vi>

California Fish and Game

"CONSEIRVATION OF WILD LIFE THROUGH EDUOATION"

Volume 20 SACRAMENTO. OCTOBER, 1934 No. 4

TABLE OF CONTENTS

A STUDY OP THE LIFE HISTORY AND FOOD HABITS OP MULE DEER

IN CALIFORNIA. PART II. FOOD HABITS Joseph S. Dixon 315

FOURTH ANNUAL BLACK BRANT CENSUS IN CALIFORNIA /. Moffitt 355

AN EXPERIMENT IN QUAIL IMPORTATION Gordon H. True, Jr 365

QUAIL BANDING RETURNS FOR 1932 AND 1933 Gordon H. True, Jr. 371

THE FRESHWATER COMMERCIAL FISHERIES OP CALIFORNIA

Richard S. Croker 375

EDITORIALS 385

COMMERCIAL FISHERY NOTES 392

STATISTICS-
ANGLING License Sales 399

Statement of Income and Expenditures 395—398

Violation of Fish and Game Laws 399-400

Fresh Fish Landings and Importations 401—404

A STUDY OF THE LIFE HISTORY AND FOOD
HABITS OF MULE DEER IN CALIFORNIA*

By Joseph S. Dixon

With photographs by the author

{Concluded from California Fish and Game, Volume 20, Number 3,

July, 1934, pp. 181-282.)

* Contribution from the Wildlife Division, United States National Park Service

PART II— FOOD HABITS

TABLE OF CONTENTS

FOOD HABITS 316

General Statement of Food Habits 316

Methods Used in This Study 316

Kinds of Food Eaten by Mule Deer 318

Deer as Eaters op Grass 318

Availability op Various Foods 321

Palatability op Various Poods 321

Seasonal Variation in Food Habits 322

Summer 322

Fall 328

Winter 334

Spring 337

Competition With Horses, Cattle, Sheep and Goats 341

Cultivated Crops Eaten by Mule Deer in California 342

Game Management 343

Explanation op Pood Tables . 344

Lists op Trees, Shrubs, Herbs, Grasses and Sedges Eaten 346

15172

316

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

GENERAL STATEMENT OF FOOD HABITS

In general, mule deer in California browse relatively more than
they graze, although at certain seasons fresh green grass may form as
much as 90 per cent of the food eaten by California and southern mule
deer. Browse is a general term applied to shoots, twigs, leaves and
fruits of woody plants, vines, bushes and trees. Deer and domestic
stock are said to graze on grasses, sedges and clovers.

In California, under normal conditions, mule deer forage in quite
a different manner from domestic stock. Unlike domestic sheep or
cattle, they scatter out when feeding and do not forage and trample

the meadows in closely packed
flocks or herds. There is also
a decided difference in the de-
gree of utilization of forage
plants. Deer tend toward re-
peated but liglit utilization
taking a nip here and tliere as
tliey pass by food plants,
whereas under similar condi-
tions, cattle and sheep tend to
stop and to browse heavil}' on
such plants. The relatively
light pruning by deer permits
bushes and plants to keep up
a continuous growth and is
not so destructive to the range
as is the heav}- utilization and
trampling of domestic stock.
When mule deer breed and
become overabundant, then
serious damage to the range
may result. Then even seed-
lings of coniferous trees mav
be killed h\ overbrowsing (see
Fig. 116)."

Fig. 116. Western yellow pine seedling killed
by repeated browsings of mule deer.
Yosemite, March 30, 1930. Wildlife Divi-
sion No. 566.

METHODS USED IN THIS STUDY

In my study of mule deer
in California, it soon became
apparent that one of the critical factors which called for close observa-
tion and attention was that of their food habits and food preferences.
Hunters, ranchers and stockmen, as w^ll as naturalists, have given
accounts of the food habits of deer at different localities and diff'erent
seasons. Some observers have even gone so far as to state that deer
never eat this or that plant, that grass is "seldom touched," and have
made various other statements which need verification. In my study of
the mule deer in California, I have purposely selected certain typical
regions and have made detailed observations on the food preferences
of deer in Modoc, Lassen, Plumas, Mariposa, Fresno and San Diego
counties.

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 317

My study of deer has covered all seasons and extended over nearly
a score of years and has involved a counted total of over 1000 deer that
have actually been watched, for a total of approximately 680 hours, in
order to see what their food preferences might be at different seasons
of the year and under different conditions. In Yosemite Valley during
a single period of observation extending from June 20 to July 2, 1927,
a total number of 136 deer were watched for a total of 1218 minutes.
By making such a comprehensive study, it is believed that a more
accurate and a better general understanding of the food preferences
of deer has been obtained than was previously known. It has been my
experience that under certain conditions and in certain seasons of the
year, mule deer will feed almost exclusively on certain types of foods
and plants. If we took into consideration only such observations, a
very biased picture would result.

In order to approach sufficiently close to deer to be able to see what
they actually ate, it was necessary that the deer be fairly tame and not
fearful of the presence of man. Another important point was that if
the free, natural food preferences were to be studied it was necessary
that the full complement of food plants be present, because it was soon
recognized that deer on range lands or other areas that have been
heavily grazed by domestic stock, of necessity ate whatever plants
remained and were available at that time. For these and other reasons,
it was found expedient to make a special study of the food preferences
of deer in our National parks because there grazing by domestic stock
has been practically eliminated and because there the full complement
of native plants was present. Furthermore my study in Yosemite was
made early before deer became overly abundant there.

Kentucky blue grass, meadow fescue and velvet grass are all
present on the floor of Yosemite Valley. This not only gave the
observer an opportunity to detect the food preferences of deer as
regards native vegetation, but also gave opportunity to ascertain what
the reaction of deer might be toward some of our most important
introduced range plants and forage grasses.

In order to insure accuracy, I have verified my findings through
the use of 8-power binoculars, which has made it possible for me to be
able to see with certainty just what species of plant the deer were
feeding on.

The duration of browsings has been recorded accurately "by the
watch, ' ' and is not mere guess work.

Four methods of recording the findings regarding the food prefer-
ences of deer have been utilized. The first was to secure actual photo-
graphs of the deer in the act. In order to do this, it was necessary to
use a fast, long focus lens, and to be within 25 feet of the deer. For
this type of work, I found that a Ross telecentric lens of 17-inch
equivalent focal length, with a value of F 5.4, fitted to a 4x5 Graflex
camera, gave good results. By means of such apparatus, I have been
able to secure graphic and dependable evidence showing what deer eat.
In many instances I have not only been able to observe but actually to
photograph deer eating certain plants or the foliage of certain trees

318 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

that I had been told Avere not eaten by tliem. The second means of
recording sucli findings was my fieltl notebook which I carried with me
so that the findings could be recorded on the spot. In order to secure
proper identification of certain species, it was found desirable to
prepare regular herbarium specimens, which were dried in the usual
manner, and later submitted to botanists. Field identifications have
been based upon Sudworth's, Forest Trees of the Pacific Slope and
Jepson's, Manual of the Flowering Plants of California. A fourth
method of ascertaining and recording food habits of deer is by examina-
tion of stomach contents of animals that have died in winter or tliat
have been killed during the open hunting season. This method furnishes
a fair idea of the amount of food eaten at a meal and since mule deer
usually browse twice a day, morning and evening, the daily food
requirement of an individual can thus be obtained. For instance, the
full stomach of an average sized fork-horn buck was found to weigh 12
pounds, which would represent a meal for that deer.

KINDS OF FOOD EATEN BY MULE DEER

Up to January 1, 1934, over 200 different kinds of vegetation
have been found to have been eaten by the various races of mule
deer in California. I have attempted to list these items of food under
various groups, namely, (1) trees, (2) brush or shrubs, (3) herbs,
(4) grasses and sedges, (5) fungi and miscellaneous (see tables).

An attempt has also been made in these tables to indicate under
each species the parts of the plant eaten, locality and seasonal use,
availability and the author's estimation of the palatability and relative
importance of the article as food. Thus it will be seen from the tables
that coniferous trees, although occurring commonly in the habitat
of mule deer, have low palatability and are, as a class, little used as
food. Contrasted to this, certain species of deer brush and oaks with
a wide distribution are both palatable and abundant so that they are
much eaten and have a relatively high importance as deer food. Mush-
rooms and other fungi are eaten at various seasons. Acorns and berries
are regular items of diet. Mistletoe, mosses and lichens are eaten
when available in winter.

DEER AS EATERS OF GRASS

Many people, including some hunters and a few scientists, main-
tain that deer do not eat grass. Dr. E. Raymond Hall, in writing on
The Deer of California (California Fish and Game, vol. 13, 1927,
p. 242), states: "As with other deer, grass is seldom touched." Dr.
A. W. Sampson, Associate Professor of Forestry at the University of
California, and a recognized specialist in grazing studies and range
management in the West, in discussing the seasonal variation in the
food of mule deer in California in a letter of March 14, 1928, to the
author states: "At this time of year grasses, particularly Brmnus
hordeacus and Bromus rigidus, constitute in some cases at least three-
fourths of the food of deer."

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 319

In California there is no question but that at certain seasons of
the year fresh green grass is eaten extensively by deer. I have made
special efiPorts to ascertain the facts regarding this disputed point, and
have found that at certain seasons v^hen the ground is covered with
snow and also in the dry season of early fall, relatively little grass is
eaten because at such times green grass is not available. However,
a careful observer under such conditions will not jump to the con-
clusion that grass is "seldom touched," because adequate field investi-
gations have proven that such a statement is not in accord with
the real fact. My observations, which have been made in every month
of the year, indicate that some grass is eaten whenever it is available
and that at certain seasons, fresh green grass forms as high as 90 per
cent of the food eaten by mule deer.

On the winter range of mule deer in the upper foothills of Cali-
fornia, the rainy season normally begins in October and continues
until April or May. This rainy season is accompanied by moderate
temperatures in the foothills during the winter, so that the annual
grasses germinate and start to grow as soon as the rains begin. Usually,
in the foothill region, the annual grasses have developed a new growth
of three or four inches in height by Christmas time. This succulent
green forage is an important source of food supply to the mule deer
on its winter range.

In Yosemite Valley on October 31, 1929, I found a buck working
over a pile of fallen black oak leaves. In addition to acorns, which
were eagerly sought for, he made special effort to secure the fresh
green blades of grass that had grown and developed under the protec-
tive covering of leaves.

During the first week of December in 1927 and in 1928, I found
all ages and both sexes of mule deer feeding extensively on the blades
of freshly-sprouted annual grasses. On February 8, 1930, in Yosemite,
I watched two old bucks that had recently shed their antlers and
found that they were eating a considerable amount of recently-sprouted
annual grasses which, at that time, had reached a height of about one
and one-half inches. On this date, I watched two does and five fawns for
three hours and found that practically all of their time was spent in
grazing on fresh green grass together with an occasional dry oak leaf.
Very little browse was taken. On March 28, 1930, at five o'clock in the
morning I found deer grazing in the open meadow. By 6.30 o'clock
there were 23 there, all feeding on fresh green grass. One buck, two
does, and three fawns were carefully observed with binoculars a few
feet distant and were found to spend all of their time feeding in warm
sunny spots where freshly-sprouted meadow fescue and wild oat grass
had reached a height of from two to two and one-half inches. During
the entire one and one-half hours that I watched them, these deer fed
exclusively on fresh green grass.

On April 29, 1929, in Yosemite, I watched 12 deer for a period of
one and one-half hours, during which time they spent the total of 1080
"deer minutes" (one deer minute equals one minute's foraging), feed-
ing on fresh green grass. At this season it was found that the deer
spent more time eating grass than all other foods combined.

320

CALIFORNIA FISFI AND GAME

On May 12, 1929, i watched 13 deer (three bucks, six does and
four fawns) as they fed in an open meadow. During tlie hour tliat J
watched them I had an excellent opportunity to observe that at least
90 per cent of their food at this season consisted of fresh green growing
grass which at this date had attained a height of four to six inches.
By watching carefully Avith binoculars at close range, I found that
Kentucky blue grass and meadow fescue were being eaten most exten-
sivel}' and that the two together formed about 40 i)er cent of the food
taken, while small annual weeds, too immature and too small to be
identified, formed the remaining portion of their diet.

Fig. 117. Dead limbs covered with staghorn lichen are broken off by winter
storms. A mule deer fawn is here shown stripping and eating the moss from
such a fallen limb. Sequoia National Park, December 19, 1929. Wildlife
Division No. 352.

On July 16, 1928, in Yosemite, I watched three large bucks as they
grazed in an open meadow. One four-point buck fed steadily for 10
minutes on Kentucky blue grass and for 15 minutes on meadow fescue
grass.

Between June 20 and July 2, 1927, I watched 136 different deer
feeding for a total of 1217 minutes, and found that green growdng
grass was selected as food by a larger number of deer than was any
other species of plant with the exception of Spanish clover.

A similar condition was found to exist in San Diego Count}- wdiere
for man}^ years I found southern mule deer feeding regularly and
extensively, in early winter, upon fresh, green and tender wild oats.

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

321

AVAILABILITY OF VARIOUS FOODS

A certain species of plant may be palatable and may occur abun-
dantly in the lower foothills of the Sierra Nevada and still have but
slight importance as food because it is outside of the mule deer's habitat.
Conversely, some preferred plants such at Ceanothus may occur abun-
dantly at elevations of 6000 feet in the Sierra Nevada and yet are
inaccessible in winter because of being covered with from 3 to 6 feet of
snow. However, the same winter storms that snow under the Ceanothus
thickets break off and bring down on top of the snow tons of green
conifer branches, whole clumps of mistletoe and many dead branches
that are covered with staghorn lichen or unsea moss. All of these
"windfalls" are eagerly sought for and eaten (see Fig. 117). I find
that the melting of the snow in the early spring uncovers many fallen

Fig. lis. Greeji growing milkweed leaves were never noted eaten by deer, but
in the fall the dry frosted leaves of this plant were eagerly sought and eaten
by bucks, does and fawns. Yosemite, September 17, 1927. Mus. Vert.
Zool. No. 5492.

acorns and dead leaves which were unavailable as food during the
winter. These hidden items are important to mule deer and are eagerly
sought for in early spring. Fungi are eagerly eaten in late summer
when they are at hand.

PALATABILITY OF VARIOUS FOODS

In considering the palatability of various grasses, plants, shrubs
and trees as food of deer we must take into account all seasons of the
year, because a plant which may be scarcely touched under one set of
conditions will often be extensively utilized at some other time. For
instance, I have watched California mule deer for at least 100 hours
feeding amid patches of growing purple milkweed (Asclepias cordi-
folia) without seeing them even taste it. Close inspection of the green
plants showed that none was browsed. I was about to conclude that

322

CALIFORNIA TISH AND GAME

this milkweed, said by some people to be injurious if eaten by domestic
stock, was a total loss as food for deer. However, in the fall after the
first hard frost had killed the milkweed plant stalks, I found that the
dry leaves were especially soupht for and eaj^erly devoured by bucks,
does and even by fawns (see Fig. 118). My final appraisal of the pala-
tability of any given plant is based upon the degree with which deer,
at all seasons, utilize it for food (see tables),

SEASONAL VARIATION IN FOOD HABITS

Both seasonal and geographical variation in food preferences of
mule deer in California are great. Many pages would be required to
give in detail all of my observations on food habits. Since this is not
feasible, I am presenting here the outstanding food plants eaten at
various seasons of the year. For convenience these food items are
treated under four seasonal heads.

SUMMER

In summer, mule deer in California feed to a greater extent than
at any other season, upon green leaves, growing herbs, weeds and
meadow grasses. Table A presents a fair example of mule deer food
in summer.

TABLE A
Food Preferences of California Mule Deer, Yosemite Valley, June 20-July 2, 1927

Determined from actual observation of browsing deer

Common name
Yard grass
Meadow fescue
Spanish clover
Western choke cherry
California black oak
Kentucky blue grass
Curly dock
Hoi-scwccd
Green manzanita
Deer brush
Crook dogwood
California wild rose
Bigelow snoezeweed
Innocence
California laurel
Canyon live oak
Gooseberry
Black Cottonwood
Yellow monkey flower
Staghorn lichen
Laceweed
Blue curls

Scientific name
Pol y (JO n urn avir ii hire
Fesfuca elafior
Lotus amcricatiiis
Primus demissa
Quercns heUoqqli
Poa prateiisis
Rumex crisp us
Erigeron canadensis
ArctosiapJiylos patuln
Ccanolh us inlcfierrim us
Cornus califoniica
Rosa califoniica
Jlelenium bigclovii
Collinsia tiiictoria
Vm hcllu la ria calif or )\ ica
Quercns chrysolepis
Rihes roezlii
Populus trichocarpa
Mimulus I rimuloides
Unsea

Gai/ophytu m ratnosissimum
Trichostema ohlonguin

Numl>er of

Total

deer browsing

doer

on plants

minutes*

19

404

27

362

27

345

10

38

13

IS

8

13

8

11

2

5

3

Si

3

3

1

2

1

2

2

2

2

n

3

u

i

Total number deer watched 136

Total actual grazing time (deer minutes) 1217$

*In computing "deer minutes," the number of deer observed feeding upon any
one species of plant is multiplied by the number of minutes spent in feeding. Thus,
if two deer browse on curly dock, each for a period of five minutes, the result would
be totaled as: curly dock, 10 minutes.

Note. — Careful watch was kept to see if any of the deer ate plants said to be
poisonous to domestic cattle or sheep. Azalea and larkspur, both said to be poison-
ous, were not only present but abundant. Cow parsley, said to be nonpoisonous,
was also abundant but I have never, during over 100 hours of close observation,
seen a mule deer eat any of these plants when green.

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 323

In Yosemite on June 21, 1927, from five to six o'clock in the even-
ing, California mule deer were seen eating the following : Deer brush,
eaten twice by three deer, total time, 3 minutes ; green manzanita,
eaten twice by two deer, total time, 1| minutes; tender leaves of Cali-
fornia black oak, eaten three times by three deer, total time, 4 minutes ;
horse mint, eaten by three deer, total time, 2 minutes. From six to
seven o'clock, the four deer fed in the open meadow. Here, meadow
fescue grass was the favorite food, being eaten by all four deer for a
total time of 60 minutes. The deer fed with their heads down in the
grass (see Fig. 82), which was in bloom, nipping off the young, short,
tender blades. They did not nip off the heads or tops of the grass as

Fig. 119. A buck feeding on deervetch or Spanish clover. This legume is of out-
standing importance among all native plants as summer food for mule deer
in Yosemite. Wildlife Division No. 213.

horses and cattle often do. This fact might easily lead one to believe
that the deer were not eating grass, but close watch at a distance of
20 feet showed positively that it was being eaten.

Near Royal Arches at 6.30 p.m. on June 23, 1927, several deer
were feeding on closely grazed open grass land, so that a clear view
could be had. At 20 feet, it was possible, with binoculars, to see clearly
that the deer were eating young tender blades of meadow fescue grass
exclusively.

On June 24, 1927, in Yosemite, I quietly followed a certain buck
at a distance of 10 to 15 feet, when I could see even without binoculars,
that he was feeding entirely on yard grass. At this time, all the other
deer fed greedily on green leaves on a branch freshly broken from a
California black oak.

324

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

On June 26, 1927, at seA^en o'clock in the morning;, just before the
sun struck the meadow, seven deer were feeding on a low lupine-like
plant known as Spanish clover or deervetch (Lotus americanus) (see
Fig. 119). This legume is, among all native herbs, the most important
and is more sought for by California mule deer than any other summer
forage plant, a fact that should not be lost sight of in deer management.

On June 26, 1927, I watched and photographed a doe that found
a Pacific plum sapling that was out of her reach and "rode" it down,
holding the branch with her neck while she ate the green leaves. On
the same day at eleven o'clock, on a talus slope near ]\Iirror Lake,
I followed a fine sleek buck as he returned twice in 15 minutes and
browsed on the green pungent leaves of the California laurel oi- bay

Fig. 120. These twin fawns hid in a patch of cow parsley and tried to eat grass
when four weel<s old. Sequoia National Park, August 9, 1933. Wildlife
Division No. 3100.

tree (see Fig. 75). Many hunters have told me that this was one tree
that deer never eat !

On June 27, 1927, in Yosemite, I found a fine California mule
deer buck busily feeding on meadow fescue grass (see Fig. 82). At
this time mule deer seem to ])refer deervetch and yard weed to other
forage in the early morning. IMeadow fescue and other grasses were
eaten regularly in the evening ; thus five deer were each seen to eat
meadow fescue grass for as long as 10 minutes at a stretch.

On July 9, 1928, at 5.30 in the morning at the foot of Royal
Arches, I found two does feeding on meadow fescue and velvet grass.
One of these deer was seen to browse on canyon live oak for two
minutes but she stopped twice and took a single bite out of a yerba
santa shrub.

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

325

On July 10, 1928, at Yosemite, a fawn known to be just thirty-
hours old, was seen to try to eat the tender young blades of meadow
fescue. A single blade was with difficulty nipped off, and several
moments were spent in trying to chew it without success. The fawn
then turned its attention to some dark dry soil and ate several mouth-
fuls of it, possibly for the mineral salts it contained. On August 9,
1933, at Round Meadow in Sequoia National Park a pair of spotted
fawns about a month old hid in a patch of cow parsley (see Fig. 120)
and tried to eat green grass.

I have noted many times that just a few days before they give
birth to their fawns, mule deer does search for and eat extra large
amounts of green willow leaves. This habit has been noted several

Fig. 121. This pregnant doe ate large quantities of elderberry blossoms just
before her fawn was born. Yosemite, July 6, 1929. Wildlife Division No. 200.

times in Yosemite and particularly in Sequoia National Park, in 1933
where I watched nine does that were about to give birth to young. I
think that this preference for a diet of willow and other leaves at this
]^artieular time helps in some way to prepare the does for the fawn's
birth ; for as soon as the fawns are born and begin to nurse the does at
Sequoia ceased hunting willow leaves and ate a large diet of succulent
green grass possibly to produce a good milk supply. In another case
at Yosemite on July 6, 1929, I watched a California mule deer doe
that was unusually heavy with fawn, as she browsed ravenously on a

326

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

velvet elderberry bush. She appeared particularly to crave the clusters
of elderberry blossoms devouring four great clusters in as many
minutes (see Fig. 121).

On July 2, 1929, I was catching grasshoppers in the meadow to
feed to a young California pygmy owl when a pregnant doe heavy with
fawn, came up and begged to be fed. My young daughter asked me to
give this deer some grasshoppers to eat. I replied that deer were
vegetarians, but when I held out a nice, fat grasshopper, the doe came
up and took it, chewed it awhile and then swallowed it. She then fol-
lowed me begging for more. I gave her two more grasshoppers whicli

she ate with avidity. She
later ate both grasshoppers
and green katydids but
seemed to prefer the grass-
hoppers. Her unusual appe-
tite may have been due to
her pregnant condition.

In Yosemite on July 6,
1929, I watched one doe'tliat
made a sj)ecial hunt for
young seedlings of the Cali-
fornia black oak hidden
under a thick ear])('t of fal-
len leaves. During one 20-
minute period, 7.50 to 8.10
a.m., I found that she located
the hidden seedlings by aid
of her nose. These oak seed-
lings were then about three
inches high, above the acorn,
and the tap root extended
down about the same dis-
tance. The doe sought and
ate the sprouted acorn, both
halves of which remained
tightly attached to the
middle stem of tlie seedlings.
In 20 minutes this doe found
eleven oak seedlings and ate
In six instances the seedlings

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^r^^^^^E^^

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^^^^^^^^H^jp

hM&v^H

1

^H|

h

^^^9^B

■

^^^^^

Im

^

l^g|h

Hi

r^^^^^

■ >9^^b_ ■*

r ^ ^^1

Fig. 122. This large yellow evening primrose
is a favorite food of mule deer and has,
through deer eating it, become almost ex-
tinct in Yosemite Valley, outside of fenced
areas. Yosemite, July 10, 1928. Mus.
Vert. Zool. No. 5778.

the sprouted acorns from all of them
were pulled up and destroyed.

In Yosemite Valley when I first visited it, nearly 20 years ago,
deer were rare there and in certain spots great fields of tall yellow
evening primrose covered large areas (see Fig. 122). There were
originally acres of evening primroses in Yosemite Valley. As the mule
deer increased, under total protection, they ate more and more of the
primrose plants until by 1929, I was able in two weeks' search to find
less than six plants outside of fenced gardens. Even in the native
wild flower garden at the Ahwahnee Hotel, protected by a supposedly
deer-proof fence, I found that with all sorts of native grasses, clovers
and herbs present, the deer that managed to "overcome" the fence,

CALIFORNIA FISPI AND GAME

327

first sought out, ate and destroyed all of the evening primrose plants.
They next attacked and ate most of the leaves and tender shoots of a
bed of thimble-berry bushes that had been carefully reared there.

On July 16, 1927, I photographed a large four-point buck that was
making a meal of the tender, growing frond tips of the common brake or
fern (see Fig. 123). The tips of this fern are eaten regularly by Cali-
fornia mule deer.

Mule deer browse some even in mid-summer. This was demon-
strated by a doe observed and photographed on July 1, 1927, while
she was browsing in a thicket of western choke cherry (see Fig. 124),

Fig. 123. The tender growing tips of tlie common brake fern are regularly eaten
by mule deer as here shown. Yosemite, July 16, 1928. Mus. Vert. Zool. No.
5709.

and also by a buck which was photographed while he was browsing on
a willow on July 4, 1929 (see Fig. 126).

On July 23, 1929, at an altitude just under 10,000 feet at the
western base of Mount Dana, I found fresh tracks of six deer, all being
of medium size with no large tracks of bucks. By following these
tracks I found freshly cropped vegetation which showed that the deer
had browsed along the edge of a green meadow and had eaten both
grass and shrubs particularly certain alpine willows. In the Mount
Whitney region on August 23, on a divide at the very head of Kern
River, I found where a large Inyo mule deer buck had crossed a
divide at 12,150 feet coming over from the east side. Here again

328

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

certain low alpine willows had been browsed so that a decided prefer-
ence appears to be shown for such shrubs in late summer at high
altitudes in the Sierra Nevada.

FALL

I have found that mule deer in California feed heaviest upon
weeds during the fall months. The term "weeds" is here used in the
agricultural sense, referring to certain herbs which seriously interfere
with agricultural pursuits. Mule deer are fond of many species of
such "weed" plants wliieli the rancher or orcliardist considers as

Fig. 124. A California mule deer doe browsing on western clioke cherry. Note
that all leaves have been eaten to a height of 54 inches. Yosemite, July 1,
1927. Mus. Vert. Zool. No. 5404.

nuisances. Weeds such as tumble-weed, horseweed and curly dock are
kept pruned back by deer, the repeated nippings keeping a fresh
supply of tender growth coming on in the dry season especially in late
summer and early fall when green food is at a premium. Golden rod,
sagewort, mugwort and even that fern pest, the common bracken, are
all eaten extensively in the early fall. Even milkweed is then eaten.

Among the shrubs we find that buck brush and snow brush which
have been lightly utilized during the summer are heavily utilized by
mule deer in the fall. In many instances, I have found that poison oak,
gooseberry bushes and especially Nevada currant bushes are most
heavily consumed by mule deer in the early fall.

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 329

The following table has been selected as showing typical food prefer-
ences of California mnle deer in September.

TABLE B

Food Preferences of California Mule Deer, Yosemite, September 13-18, 1927

Determined by actual observation of deer eating each plant.

Total

No. of deer seen deer

Plant and scientific name eating this plant minutes

Deer hrash, Cea^iothus integerrimus 5 does 150

\elvet grass, Notholcus lanatus 20 bucks, does,

many fawns 95

Dragon sagewort, Artemisia dracunculus 20 bucks, does 90

CRlitomia. hlaek oak, Quercus kelloffgii 6 does, fawns 90

Western golden rod, SoUdago occidentalis 15 bucks, does 60

Tuuible-weed, Amaranthiis yraecizans 4 does 60

California mugwort, Artemisia heterophylla 8 bucks, does 55

Common golden rod, Solidago calif ornica 10 bucks, does 30

Lessingia, Lessingia leptoclada 5 does 30

Western choke cherry, PrMWMS rfemissai 3 does 30

(Wire) buckwheat, Eriogonum virgatum 4 does 20

(Slender) buckwheat, Eriogonum nudum 3 does 16

Creek dogwood, Corniis c. californica 2 does 10

Milkweed, Asclepias cordifoUa 2 does, buck 10

Horseweed, Erigeron canadensis : 1 fawn 10

Common brake, Pteris aquilina 2 bucks 5

Curly dock, Rumex crispus 1 doe 5

Mountain hemp, Apocynum androsaemifoUum 2 2

Canyon live oak, Querctis chrysolepis 1 buck 2

Gooseberry, Ribes roezHi 1 doe 2

Meadow fescue, Festuca elatior 5 fawns

Total deer watched 120

Total actual grazing time (deer minutes) 850

ri\

In the Lassen section, at 6600 feet on Warner Creek in Shasta
County, on September 24, 1923, I found that nearly all of the Rocky
Mountain mule deer were feeding on currant bushes which grew
abundantly on rocky talus slopes. Earlier in the season these currant
bushes had been little eaten by the deer but as soon as the leaves began
to turn yellow in the fall, then they were eagerly sought for and
devoured in great quantities. At this same date mule deer in the
Lassen Peak region were starting to browse heavily on snow brush and
huckleberry oak. One large buck, killed by a local hunter, had his
stomach nearly full of finely-chewed huckleberry oak leaves. In the
late fall at Eagle Lake, Lassen County, considerable tobacco brush is
eaten by Rocky Mountain mule deer.

On October 7, 1924, five miles north of Fredonyer Peak in Lassen
County, I followed a large Rocky Mountain mule deer buck for several
hours as he leisurely fed in early morning across a sage-covered flat. He
had browsed along eating the leaves of antelope brush in preference to
all other forage, with mountain mahogany second choice. On October
15, 1924, at Observation Peak, in extreme eastern Lassen County I found
that mule deer were feeding almost entirelj^ on mountain mahogany
which grew abundantly there. On the California-Nevada State line
north of Observation Peak, I found that antelope brush (Purshia)

330

CALIFORNIA FISTT AND GAME

known locally as "buck" brush grew abundantly and served as the
l)rincipal food of Rocky Mountain mule deer in that region in late
fall and winter.

On September 24, 1924, at Ilackamore Reservoir in ]\Iodoc County,
I examined two dead Rocky Mountain mule deer, a four-point buck and
a doe, and found their stomachs over half full of mud that they had
eaten. Vegetation found in tliese deer stomachs consisted of service
berry leaves, 20 per cent ; and manzanita leaves, 20 per cent ; mud, 60
per cent, made up the rest of the stomach contents. Stomach contents
of a dead fawn at this locality consisted almost entirely of manzanita
leaves. The intestines of these two adult deer contained only mud
wiiicli may liave been eaten because of the lack of salt.

In Yosemite, on September 15,
1927, four California mule deer
does were watched and photo-
graphed as they returned re-
]:)eatedly to browse on a green
tumble-weed (see Fig. 125).
Another doe nearby was found
feeding on the leaves and twigs
of a gooseberry bush (see Fig.
127). At this time in Yosemite,
mule deer were feeding more ex-
tensively on deer brush than on
anv other forage plant (see Fig.
128).

This greatly increased use of
Cennofhns by mule deer in the
fall has been noted and recorded
by the writer dozens of times
in the Lassen, Yosemite and
Sequoia sections of the Sierra
Nevada as well as in the moun-
tains of southern California. It
is my conclusion, after 30 years '
experience, that Ceanothus is
without doubt the most impor-
tant genus of forage plants for
deer in California. Wm. A. Day-
ton, in his Important Westerti Browse Plants (Miscellaneous Publica-
tion No. 101, July, 1931, U. S. D. A.) considers Ceanothus integerrimus
as "probably the most important single browse species in California."
It has been my experience that this holds for deer, as well as for cattle
and sheep. However, several other species of Ceanothus are nearly as
important to mule deer as integerrimus. As authorities do not agree on
common names for Ceanothus I am forced here to use scientific names in
order to be definite. In the Lassen, Yosemite and even in Sequoia sec-
tions Ceanothus cordulatus known as snow brush or white thorn is
abundant over hundreds of square miles, being more abundant, if not

FXG. 125. California mule doer doe eat-
ing tumble-weed. Mule deer are
fond of many agricultural weeds,
especially in late summer and
early fall. Yosemite, September
15, 1927. Mus. Vert. Zool. No.
5500.

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

331

Fig. 126. California mule deer browsing on green willow leaves. Yosemite,
July 4, 1929. Wildlife Division No. 214.

Fig. 127. This mule deer doe fed regularly on gooseberry bushes in the fall.
Yosemite, September 15, 1927. Mas. Vert. Zool. No. 5497.

2—15172

332

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

quite so palatable, as intcgerrimus. As far as deer are eoncenied, T can
not agree with Daj'ton's statement, p. 108, that cordulatus is "dis-
tinctly inferior as a browse." In southern California Ceanothus divar-
icatus is an important browse shrub for southern mule deer. It has
been my experience that in Lassen and Modoc counties, tobacco brush
{Ceanothus vehitmus) is eaten rather extensively at times in the fall by
Rocky Mountain mule deer so I can not agree with Dayton's statement,
p. 110, that this species is "except for limited use by goats, worthless
as browse." Another species of deer brush {C diversifolius) is an
important browse shrub but grows at the lower elevations and hence
is used chiefly by Columbian black-tailed deer.

Fig. 128. Mule deer browse lightly on Cianolhus intcgerrimus in summer but
utilize it he;ivilv in the tall and early winter as here shown. Yosemite,
September 15, 1927. Mus. Vert. Zool. No. 5498.

Among the California mule deer in Yosemite, I find that utilization
of such plants as sneezeweed, horseweed and California mugwort is
most marked in September (see Pig. 129). Even milkweed leaves
which had remained untouched all summer were eagerly sought for
when killed by frost in the fall (see Fig. 118). By September, fruits of
Pacific service berry, bitter cherry and other shrubs become ripe and
are eaten extensively at times. Acorns begin to mature and drop at this
season but although they are eaten extensively in late fall by mule deer,
they become more important in early and late winter. Among the
several varieties of oak trees that provide acorns (see tables), I would

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

333

place California black oak and scrub oak among the first with canyon
live oak and California blue oak in secondary rank. Huckleberry oak
is more utilized for its leaves than for its acorns.

In early fall, green grass and other succulent herbage is especially
important to fawns that are being weaned. On September 18, 1927, in
Yosemite, I watched two spotted fawns feeding by themselves in the
edge of the meadow. Their mother had slipped away in an effort to
wean them. The fawns were hungry and selected the tenderest grass
blades which were eaten exclusively (see Fig. 102). The middle of
September, or weaning time, is an important period in the life of a
mule deer fawn. When a doe begins to wean her fawn, if a suitable
supply of green grass or other green forage is absent it frequently

Fig. 129. A California mule deer buck eating sneezeweed and horseweed.
Yosemite, September 14, 1927. Mus. Vert. Zool. No. 5479.

means that the fawn will continue to nurse and thus will be a drag on
its mother and both she and fawn enter the winter in poor condition
and in several known instances did not survive (see Fig. 103).

On October 31, 1929, in Yosemite, I watched a large four-point buck
for an hour as he picked up stray tufts of grass that had been hidden
and covered by fallen leaves. I was surprised to find that 60 per cent
of what he ate during the hour consisted of fallen leaves of California
black oak, many of which had just been blown off the trees. Many
brown dry oak leaves were also eaten. Acorns of the California black
oak were eagerly sought for and formed 30 per cent of the food eaten
during the hour. Considerable fresh green grass was also eaten.

I found that the mule deer were able to tell and reject faulty i.e.
wormy or blank acorns without even touching them.

334

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

In Sequoia National Park, I observed tliat squaw-root {Cantni
gairdneri) often known in the West as "Queen Anne's lace," and is
quite different from "Queen Anne's lace" of eastern United States, and
grows abundantly in both Round ^Meadow and Crescent Meadow form-
ing a white "bedspread" over tlie meadows. Late in Se])tember, 1933,
the white flowering heads of this plant were extensively eaten by mule
deer.

WINTER

Winter months const it iitc tlie lean season for mule deei'. IJy the
first ])art of the winter, the deer have usually come down from the

iFiG. 130. Buck eating dead sc'ilge in ivintcr. Sedge was rarely eaten in summer.
Sequoia National Park, December IS, 1929. W'ildlife Division No. 210.

high summer range and are found at low altitudes in the foothills.
Normally, the seasonal fall rains insure a good growth of fresh annual
grasses in the foothills by December and this green food supi)ly is
heavily utilized to supplement their diet of browse. This heavy utiliza-
tion of green grass in early winter by both California and southern
mule deer has been set forth at length under the chapter on "Deer as
Eaters of Grass." It may seem paradoxical, but fresh green grass is
an important and regular article of diet of mule deer in winter in
central and southern California.

For the Rocky Mountain mule deer which winter east of the
Sierra Nevada, green grass is in winter just a memory. In Sequoia
National Park, on December 18, 1929, I explored an acre thicket of

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 335

snow brush (Ceanothus cordulatus) that grew on a warm, sunny slope
high on a warm ridge. There was a dense thicket of bitter cherry grow-
ing just below the snow brush but the deer, two big bucks, two does
and three fawns, were all browsing on the leaves and twigs of snow
brush. In a meadow nearby the mule deer were eating large quantities
of dead, soggy Carex stalks. These deer had used this sedge only at
rare intervals while it was green and growing, but in the fall after the
sedge had become dry and frosted and then soaked up for several weeks
by rain and snow until it had become soft like ensilage the deer ate it
greedily (see Fig. 130). Does, bucks and fawns all were observed to
eat the dead moist stalks of sedge (Carex) that had been killed by frost
and matted down in shallow water.

Typical food preferences of mule deer at Giant Forest, observed
on December 18, 1929, were as follows:

2 does ate sedge (Carex) 50 deer minutes.

1 buck ate sedge (Carex) 20 deer minutes.

2 does ate snow brush (C. corduJatvs) 90 deer minutes.

3 fawns ate snow brush (C. cordulatus) 90 deer minutes.
2 bucks ate snow brush (C. cordulatus) 120 deer minutes.

1 fawn ate chinquapin (leaves) 15 minutes.

2 does, 1 buck and 2 fawns ate staghorn lichen.

Staghorn lichen or unsea moss is an important winter food.
Repeated observations in winter revealed that even fawns nibble the
moss from fallen limbs and in several instances I have seen deer
expectantly waiting until they heard the crash of a fallen limb, where-
upon they went directly to the spot and ate the lichen (see Fig. 117).
The lichen has an acid flavor not unpleasant to the taste.

In both Sequoia and Yosemite, as well as in San Diego County, I
have observed that in January the dead, dry leaves of the California
black oak are seldom eaten. However, as soon as it rains or snows and
these leaves become moist and soften a bit, the deer eat them in large
quantities. Leaves that become matted down and moist from contact
with the damp ground are often pawed or rooted up and eaten. Even
the fawns locate and eat these leaves after rooting about in the snow
(see Fig. 74). The older deer sometimes paw the snow away in
order to get at both dead leaves and acorns. On January 30, 1929,
in the Yosemite region, I found that acorns from California black oaks
formed the chief diet. These acorns were sought for amid the fallen
leaves by bucks, does and fawns. The deer are evidently able to detect
defective acorns, for without fail I found that a wormy acorn or a blank
acorn that contained no meat was always rejected. As a test I experi-
mented by throwing a handful of good acorns broadcast on the ground
where the earth was already littered with blank or defective ones. The
good acorns were picked out unerringly by the deer while I observed
them with binoculars. Now and then a deer would miss a good acorn,
but it did not pick up the blank acorns, not touching or coming within

336

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

four or five inches of them. I could not tell the jrood acorns by looking?
at tliem or by Smelling them but had to test them by wei<Tht, but the
mule deer knoAV their acorns. Many of the does hunted for acorns at
the margins of melting snow banks (see Fig. 131).

In eating acorns, the deer pick them up daintily taking care that
no gravel, sticks or stones are included. The acorn is then munched
carefully aiul in from 30 to 60 seconds tlie hull or outside covering is
droi)ped, sometimes in two or three large pieces, but usually in several
smaller ones. The meat of the acorn is then chewed into a fine pulp
and swallowed. Old bucks appear to be most appreciative of acorns

Fig. 131. Man,\- deer hunt in late winter
meUing snow banlts, as here shown.
Dixon No. 1.

for fallen acorns at the margins of
Yosemite, January 30, 1929. J. S.

but does and fawns spend considerable time hunting for them under
snow and dead weed stalks (see Fig. 132). If they get their nose
within four inches of an acorn they usually locate it, but at times they
miss good acorns in plain sight within a foot of their nose.

I found that buck brush (C. cuneatns) is utilized heavily by mule
deer in winter when heavy snows crowd them down into the lower
winter range. Yerba santa is likewise largely browsed at this season,
many of the bushes being stripped of all their leaves and even all of the
twigs and shoots to the size of a lead pencil are eaten. ]\Iost of the
yerba santa bushes are not browsed on to any extent until heavy snows

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 337

come when the deer go after them in earnest. One buck on January
31, 1929, spent 15 minutes at a stretch nibbling at twigs of a yerba
santa bush.

Green manzanita bushes are likewise heavily utilized in winter
and on January 31, 1929, I found that many of these were being
stripped of all foliage up to a height of 60 inches which is about as high
as a deer can reach with his front feet on the ground.

Scrub oak is another important food plant in winter. Acorns are
usually a heavy crop on scrub oaks and these together with the leaves
of this oak are in my experience about the best and most dependable
food supply of southern mule deer in winter.

A study of the food habits of burro deer which I made late in
December, 1930, in the Chocolate Mountains show^ed that these were
feeding along the desert washes chiefly on palo verde, ironwood
(tesota), catclaw and mistletoe. Previous investigation along the Colo-
rado River near Blythe, determined that in the fall burro deer feed
extensively on the pods and leaves of honey mesquite.

Fig. 132. Doe and fawn hunting for acorns under snow and amid dead weed
stalks. Yosemite, December 9, 1932. Mus. Vert. Zool. No. 5642.

SPRING

In late winter and early spring, California mule deer feed largely
on willows, of several species, as well as manzanita and certain conifer-
ous trees such as white fir, incense cedar and western yellow pine.
Acorns of the California black oak are important in spring as are also
tender blades of newly sprouted wild oats and annual grasses.

338

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

The following notes were taken March 28, 1930. in Yoseniite.

Eaten by Total deer ininutts

Meadow fescue and wild oats 6 deer rJO

Aleadow fescue 6 deer 90

Wild oats 6 deer 90

Willow (fallen branch) 3 deer 9

On April 29, 1929, in Yosemite, I saw mule deer eat :

Eaten by Total deer ininutt's

California black oak (acorns) 8 deer 80

Western choke cherry (green shoots) 2 deer 16

Meadow fescue (3 inches high) 12 deer 1080

California laurel (leaves) 1 deer 3

Green manzanita (leaves) 2 deer 5

Willows (green twigs and buds) 10 deer 70

Fig. 133. A buck mule deer browsing on Mariposa manzanita.

29, 1930. Wildlife Division No. 786.

Yosemite, Marcli

On this date, I found all o£ the does and fawns hunting acorns
under the black oaks at the edge of the meadow. They went about
rooting amid dead fallen leaves for acorns that had recently been
uncovered b}^ the melting snow banks. "Willow twigs were much sought
for at this time. The willows had not yet leafed out but the deer were
making special efforts, many of them standing up on their hind legs
and breaking down the taller branches so as to feed on the yellow buds.
In certain instances the deer were seen to straddle and ride down
slender saplings or to hold a branch down with their necks while
feeding on the willow buds.

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

339

On March 28, 1930, in Yosemite at 8.35 a.m., I watched an old
buck browse on the lower branches of a young white fir. This buck
reached up and at one time stood goat-fashion, with his front feet
placed on a horizontal limb, browsing to a measured height of 66
inches. This buck then stood up on his hind legs and getting his neck
over some of the lower, limber branches, held them down while he bit
off the tender tips. When these branches were finally released, they
sprang back to their natural position eight feet above the ground.

On March 30, 1930, I found a young western yellow pine about 30
inches tall that had been repeatedly browsed by mule deer so that no
needles were left (see Fig. 116) and the tree had died.

On March 26, 1929, deer in Yosemite were found to be feeding
largely on mistletoe that had been knocked or blown off the California

Fig. 134. A California mule deer doe climbing up to browse on green leaves of
manzanita which is chiefly utilized in winter. Yosemite, March 29, 1930.
Wildlife Division No. 564.

black oaks. On April 6, 1929, deer were seen .eating incense cedar
boughs and green manzanita. On March 27, 1930, in Yosemite, one
mule deer was seen browsing on Douglas fir for three minutes and
another one fed on white fir for a similar period. On this day, prac-
tically all of the doer in Yosemite were observed to be feeding largely
on grass just starting to grow. At 6.30 o'clock on the morning of
March 28, 1930, I counted 23 California mule deer out feeding along
the edge of the meadow. I watched one buck, 2 does and 3 fawns
closely and found that they spent all of their time feeding on warm,
sunny exposures under the oaks where wild oats and other annual

340

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

j2:rasses grew from 2 to 21 inches liiuli. They fed exclusively on these
frrasses. On IMfirch 29, I'J'U), at (i.l.") in tlie niorniii---, I watched an old
buck browse continuously for elfven minutes on the leaves of the Mari-
posa manzanita. The lower limbs had all been stripped of leaves to a
height of 60 inches so that the buck had to stretch to tlie utmost to

Fig. 135. A California mule doer doe standing on her
hind legs to browse on green leaves of California
buckeye. Sequoia National Park, April 21, 1933.
AVildlife Division No. 2990.

reach fresh forage (see Fig. 133). A few minutes later I watched an
old doe browse for seven minutes at a time on green manzanita (see
Fig. 134). The Mariposa manzanita was the commoner form at this
particular point, and nearly every clump of it was browsed as high as
deer could reach keeping their feet on the ground. The manzanitas

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 341

are too stiff and too brittle for the deer to "ride" down as they do the
willow saplings.

At Hospital Rock in Sequoia National Park on April 21, 1933, I
watched a doe repeatedly stand up on her hind legs in order to eat
fresh, green leaves of the California buckeye (see Fig. 135). This
unusual food preference was apparently due to the overbrowsed con-
dition of the range at that place as I have rarely found deer eating
buckeye leaves until they become yellow and drop from the trees.

COMPETITION WITH HORSES, CATTLE, SHEEP AND GOATS

Some claim that there is little or no competition for food between
mule deer and domestic stock. Those who have studied the matter
thoroughly think otherwise. Dr. A. W. Sampson, a recognized author-
ity, in his investigation of food habits of deer in California, found that
in 46 .species, embracing 6 genera, of food plants eaten by deer that
38, or 82 per cent, are palatable to sheep ; 33 or 71 ])er cent are of value
as food for goats ; 25 or 54 per cent are eaten by cattle and 16 or 34
per cent are grazed by horses.

My own conclusions coincide quite closely with Dr. Sampson's
except that I find that if we consider the utilization of trees such as
scrub oak and such thorny shrubs as gooseberry and Ceanothns, then
food preferences of mule deer are most nearly like those of goats.
Among the herbs, there is serious competition between deer and sheep
and there is competition in the grasses between both horses and cattle
and deer. Turning to the genus Ceanothus which is, I b?lieve, correctly
evaluated by Dayton in his Important Western Browse Plants, p. 106,
as the ''most important single browse species in California," we agree
that mule deer prize and utilize this shrub to even a greater extent
than do either cattle or sheep. The same, in my experience, is true of
antelope brush or bitter-brush (Purshia triclentata) which probably
shares second place with western choke cherry and Pacific service berry
and creek dogwood. These last three species are utilized much more
by mule deer than by cattle or sheep and with better results since I
have never known a mule deer to .suffer any poisonous effect from
eating any of them.

ESTIMATED PALATABILITl ES

Dixon.

U. S. Forest Service Yosemite

Grasses Cattle Sheep Deer

Agrosti.s, Red-top grass 80 50 70

Poa, Blue grass 90 70 70

Phleum, Timothy 90 70 65

Herbs

ArhiUea.Yiirr<nv 20 40 50

Anter, Aster 20 40 50

Heracleum, Cow parsnip 80 70 10

Heuchera, Alum root 0 10 30

342 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

Dixon
U. S. Fort'sl Sorvicc yosoiiiite
Shrubs Cattle Sheep Deer

A incUnichlfr. Serxico horry HO 70 7;)

Cefl»o^/ii(s, Deer brush 80 85 1>(»

Cornus, Dogwood 5 10 30

Populus, Aspen ; 50 50 60

Prunus, Choke cherry 30 30 75

Ribes, Ciooscberry 10 20 30

Salix, AVillow 30 70 40

Mule deer in California utilize heavily both Ceanothus cuneaius
and Ceanothus cordulatiis. Dayton reports, p. Ill, that where cuneatus
has been "grazed extensively, it has a bad effect on the animal's kid-
neys, especially the male live stock." No such ill effect on mule deer,
which feed extensively^ on these species in fall and winter, has been
found by me.

Since it has been definitely shown that deer and domestic stock,
particularly sheep and goats, do compete seriously for food or browse on
the range, this fact should be fully considered in any proposed plan
of range management of our National forests. National parks ami on
the public domain.

CULTIVATED CROPS EATEN BY MULE DEER IN CALIFORNIA

It has been my experience that most of the damage caused by deer
to cultivated crops in California is due to depredations of Columbian
and southern black-tailed deer rather than mule deer. This is due to
the fact that for the most part, mule deer live in rough mountainous
areas at higher altitudes where there is a, minimum of fanning opera-
tions. The mule deer is also wdlder by nature and has not liad such
close association M'ith man as has the coast black-tailed deer.

However, damage to deciduous orchards, to vineyards, to truck
and to other field crops is sometimes caused by both California and
southern mule deer. Most of such damage known to me has been in
the foothill sections of the southern Sierra Nevada and in the mountain-
ous parts of San Diego County whei-e T sjx'nt several years on a
mountain fruit ranch.

Items are here listed in order of freciuency of attacks: Among
orchard crops, prune, apple, pear, apricot, peach, cherry, ])lum and
almond trees were known to be eaten and damaged by mule deer.
Prune trees suffered most severely.

Among: truck crops, watermelons, casabas, cantaloupes, squash,
corn, cabbage, carrots, potatoes and beans were the main items damaged
by deer.

Among forage crops, alfalfa, clover, vetch, oats, barley and wheat.

Among vineyard crops, mission and other wane grapes suffered
most followed by tokay, muscat and Thompson seedless. Eastern table
grapes such as Concord and Isabella, suffered least of all.

For a full discussion of this subject of Damage hy Deer to Crops
in California see California Fish and Game, April, 1932, pp. 136-147.

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 343

GAME MANAGEMENT

Game management is primarily concerned in securing sustained
annual crops of wild game for recreational use. In order to accomplish
this, we must know the life history, food habits and other requirements
of the game species to be produced.

In general, it may be said that food, shelter and safe breeding
places are three most essential requirements. In the case of mule deer
in California we must consider in our game management plan :

1. Control of hunting.

2. Control of predatory animals.

3. Control of food and water,

4. Control of disease and parasites.

5. Control of game refuges and cover.

6. Competition with domestic cattle, sheep and goats.

I feel that control of hunting is fairly well provided for under
our existing California game laws, but constant watch must be kept
to see that closed seasons, bag limit and laws preventing killing of
does and fawns are observed by hunters. It may become necessary to
reduce the bag limit to one buck per season in districts 4, 4i and 4|.

In regard to control of predatory animals, the fine work that has
been done by State Lion Hunter Jay Bruce and other men together
with the substantial bounty paid on mountain lions by our California
Fish and Game Commission has, I believe, been of greatest importance.
In southern California, certain counties have paid an additional bounty
which has brought the total up to over $50 per lion so that it is believed
that this greatest natural enemy of the mule deer is adequately cared
for.

Experience may show that further control of coyotes on the ' ' fawn-
ing grounds" of the mule deer in California may be good game manage-
ment. In so far as concerns mule deer, I doubt if any further control
of wildcats and golden eagles is justifiable at this time.

It has been my experience that in the Modoc region development
and protection of the relatively scant water supply is highly desirable
since in many places living springs are rare and far apart. There are,
in my experience, many areas in this region that would support a
decidedly larger deer population if an adequate water supply could be
provided. Ten miles is about the maximum distance that mule deer
naturally forage from water and I believe that for best results the
"cruising radius" of mule deer should be less than five miles.

Under present grazing practice the salt logs which are provided
on the range for domestic sheep and cattle automatically provide suf-
ficient salt for deer also. However, I believe that on game refuges and
elsewliere where salting of domestic stock is not practiced, salt logs
should be provided especially for deer.

The tragic experience and slaughter of over 22,000 deer in the
Stanislaus National Forest which were infected with the foot-and-mouth
disease from range cattle should be a constant warning to us of

344 CALIFOKNIA FISH AND GAME

dangers from such sonrt'cs. Tlic ordinary diseases and parasites of
mule deer are relatively difficult to treat and to control, but epizootics
of foot-and-mouth disease in our wild deer of California are probably
preventable, since they were unknown among our native deer prior
to their introduction by infected domestic stock.

Control and maintenance of the range is of most vital importance.
In reality our capital game investment lies in the range or food supply
of our mule deer. If the carrying capacity and pi-oductivity of the
range is kei)t u]) to a high standard, it will be possible to nuiintain
H good annual ci'op. Thei'efore, an equitable division of Torage, i)ai'-
ticularly of browse, must be made between doiiu'slie stock and wild
deer. If the range is allowed to be depleted as on tlie Kaibab Plateau
by both domestic stock and deer, it will take years to i-estore the forage.
All of the deer in the world will avail us but little if we lack forage
and range to sustain them.

EXPLANATION OF FOOD TABLES

In the following tables, I have tried to give in condensed form,
the main points of interest relating to some 200 different kinds of trees,
shrubs, herbs, sedges, grasses and fungi known to have been eaten by
mule deer in California. To some this ma.y seem a large number of
food plants for one kind of deer to eat, but several geographic races
and several life zones are involved. Although the data here presented
represent many years of close observation of food habits, I doubt if 1
have discovered half of the plant species tliat are eaten by mule deer
in California.

I expect that the experience of other observers may vary from
mine. 1 have several times been ready, after months of observation,
to conclude that a certain plant was rarely, if ever, eaten by mule deer.
Then going out at some unusual season, 1 have found this same ])lant
highly utilized as food. To get a true estimate of relative values of
food plants, the observer must follow the deer every month in the year.

In compiling these tables I have followed: Sudworth, Check List
of the Forest Trees of the United States, U. S. D. A., Misc. Circ. No.
92, March, 1927, with supplemental list for trees. For all other plants,
I have tried to follow Jepson's Memueil of Ihe Flowering Plants of
California, 1925. Among the herbs, it frequently happened that Jepson
gave only the scientific name of the plant, no common name being
given. In a few instances of this sort, I have had to use the best
common name that I could find. In one or two instances, notably in
the genus Lotus I have rebelled and have used the name "deervetch"
because of the great importance of this genus as forage for mule deer
in California.

In the tables, "Chief Seasonal Use" does not mean that the plant
is not used at other seasons. Availability is based upon relative
abundance and accessibility of a given plant within the range of the
mule deer in California. Thus an annual that might be abundant in
summer on the winter range of mule deer might have little importance

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 345

as food because of the animals being absent at that season in the higher
mountains.

Under "Locality," I have given a main use locality. In some
instances, utilization may have been noted in a dozen different local-
ities.

"Relative Importance" of a forage plant is based upon all of the
above factors and is given as the writer's opinion in the last column.

346

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

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CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 355

FOURTH ANNUAL BLACK BRANT CENSUS

IN CALIFORNIA

By James Moffitt

The fourth annual census of black brant, Branta dernicla nigri-
cans, was made in California February 10 to 12, inclusive, 1934.
Results of the three previous censuses have been reported upon by the
writer in California Fish and Game as follows : vol. 17, 1931, pp. 396-
401; vol. 18, 1932, pp. 298-310; vol. 19, 1933, pp. 255-263.

The 1934 census was, in many respects, the most satisfactory one
made to date. The cooperators felt that the counts that they made in
California this year were the most accurate ones secured during this
work. This year, for the first time since this work was undertaken,
other states interested themselves in it and censuses were made in
Oregon and Washington coincident with ours. The results of these
counts are recorded in this paper and serve to provide a much more
intelligible idea of the entire Pacific Coast brant population than could
California censuses alone portray.

The census of black brant on Mission and San Diego bays was
made by Game Warden E. H. Glidden, assisted by Clinton G. Abbott,
Director of the San Diego Natural History Museum, and A. Muel-
heisen of that city on February 10, 1934. Most of the day was devoted
to taking the census, the greater part being spent on Mission Bay.
Tides for the day in San Diego Bay were as follows: high tide, 5.56
a.m., 6.1 feet; low tide, 1.30 p.m., -1.0 feet. The tides on Mission Bay
were one and one-half hours later. This party recorded 154 brant on
Mission Bay and seven birds were seen on San Diego Bay on the mud
flat on the east side northwest of the old cotton seed plant. The total
number of brant observed in this region therefore was 161 birds.

The writer took the census on Morro Bay the same day where he
was assisted by Game Warden F. W. Hecker and Dr. A. P. Marshall,
of San Luis Obispo. The count was commenced at 7.40 a.m. and com-
pleted at 10.10 a.m. and was made from an outboard motorboat. The
day was clear and calm and the excellent weather materially assisted in
permitting us to secure what we all agreed was a very accurate record
of the number of brant present on Morro Bay that day, a total of 3895
individuals. The tides on Morro Bay February 10, 1934, were as fol-
lows : high tide, 7.24 a.m., 6.0 feet ; low tide, 2.59 p.m., -1.3 feet. During
the course of census taking, a close watch was kept for brant flying
between the Bay and the ocean but as no bird was seen to do so we
concluded that all the brant of the immediate vicinity were in the Bay
as inspection of the calm ocean from the sand dunes on the beach failed
to reveal a brant on its glassy surface. However, there may have been
some brant on the coast that day a few miles to the northward as Game
Warden Hecker and fishermen told of numbers that they had seen feed-
ing in the kelp on the ocean off Cayucos a few days previous. Accord-
ing to fishermen and local residents, it is an annual custom for the
brant to feed in the ocean in this vicinity, a few miles northward from

356 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

Morro Bay, at this season, but they do not resort to this coast before
early February so whatever feed it is tliat draws them there is prob-
ably not available or suitable before that time. We regretted very
much our inability, on account of lack of time, to visit this part of the
coast that day to count the birds. This should be done in taking future
brant censuses in the region when it would be highly desirable to
ascertain what factor is responsible for the birds' presence there.

Censuses were made in 1934 at the same time on Drakes, Tomales
and Bodega bays in order to eliminate the possibility of birds shifting
from one to another of these neighboring bodies of water which fact
suggested itself in 1933 when the census on Tomales Bay was taken two
days later than were the counts on Drakes and Bodega bays.

T. T. McCabe, Berkeley, California, again took the census on
Drakes Bay, this being the third year in which he has counted the brant
there on February 11. This year he was assisted by J. E. Cushing, Jr.,
San Francisco. The tides on Drakes Estero (for map see California
Fish and Game, vol. 18, 1932, p. 302) were approximately the same as
those listed in the following paragraph for Tomales Bay. The census
was taken from 9 a.m. to 1.45 p.m. during which period a strong south-
west wind was blowing causing whitecaps to form on the Estero and
the birds to be restless. This condition rendered making an exact count
impossible, but the cooperators felt that they secured a reasonably
accurate census notwithstanding. No count was attempted on Estero de
Limantour and the results obtained apply solely to Drakes Estero
where a total of 2189 brant was noted by the census takers.

The writer's attempt to count the brant on Tomales Bay the morn-
ing of February 11, 1934, from an outboard motorboat was frustrated
by a balky motor so an estimate of the birds' numbers was made from
shore from seven to ten o'clock. This count netted 5238 brant, but was
feared to be low because the wind that hindered McCabe 's and Cush-
ing's work on Drakes Bay was also blowing on Tomales Bay where it
made accurate counting difficult and working from shore by necessity
made it hard to count brant on the opposite (westerly) shore, where,
fortunately however, no birds were seen with the glasses. About 2 p.m
the southwest wind that had been blowing strongly all morning, sud-
denly ceased and the brant all congregated in large flocks in smooth
water between Hamlet and Toms Point on the eastern shore of the Bay
where they were easy to count accurately from shore (see ma]i, Cali-
fornia Fish and Game, vol. 18, 1932, p. 301). Here 5565 individuals
were recorded between 2.45 and 4 p.m., which number was thought to
represent more accurately the total number of brant present on Tomales
Bay that day than did the morning's count and is therefore accepted
as the figure for the 1934 census. The tides on Tomales Bay on
February 11, 1934, were as follows: high tide, 8.36 a.m., 6.4 feet; low
tide, 3.51 p.m., -1.2 feet. The day was clear with wind and calm as
above noted.

Dr. Jean Linsdale, assisted by W. H. Behle, Berkeley, took the
1934 census on Bodega Bay on February 11 (Linsdale took the 1932
and 1933 censuses at the same point on the same date). In commenting
upon the 1934 census Linsdale stated : "In spite of the strong wind, we
made a fairly satisfactory count, beginning at 8.45 a.m. The locations
of the birds and the point from which they were counted were much
the same as for last year. * * * By noon, the brant had con-

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 357

gregated in bunches, much as last year, but there were more people on
the Bay in boats this time and the birds moved about too much to
satisfactorily map their locations." (For map of Bodega Bay showing
location of black brant on February 11, 1933, see California Fish and
Game, vol. 19, 1933, p. 256.) Linsdale and Behle counted a total of
1298 brant on Bodega Bay this year. The tides here were similar to
those listed above for Tomales Bay.

Captain of Game Wardens W. J. Harp and the writer counted the
brant on Humboldt Bay on February 12, 1934. The weather was clear
and calm that day with the following tides : high tide, 10.01 a.m.,
7.2 feet ; low tide, 5.15 p.m., -1.2 feet. We devoted the morn-
ing, commencing at 9.30 a.m. to census taking on South Bay, where,
working from outboard motorboat we secured a very satisfactory count
totalling 10,860 brant. In the afternoon we circled North Bay by
automobile, stopping and scanning its placid waters with glasses from
every vantage point and concluded that 6000 brant fairly represented
the number of birds present there that afternoon. Thus the total census
for Humboldt Bay was 16,860 brant.

J. B. Pliillips, Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, who is located at
the Hopkins Marine Station, Pacific Grove, kindly advised that he
noted approximately 400 black brant on the Pacific Ocean off the
Station on February 11, 1934. This is an unusual number of birds
for tliis locality, where the species is usually noted only in migration
and these brant peen by Phillips were doubtless moving along the coast
between two of our larger bays favored with growths of eel grass and
fi-equented by this species.

Recapitulation of the 1931, 1932, 1933 and 1934 Black Brant Censuses

LoraUtv l^^l ^^32 19S3 ]93.',

Humboldt Bay Unsatisfactory 29,415 5,000 16,860

Bodega Bay None made 3,200 977 1,298

Tomales Bay 9,445 6,285 7,409 5,565

Drakes Bay None made 2,108 318 2,189

Morro Bay 4,493 2,938 None made 3,895

Mission Bay 71 No birds 115 154

San Diego Bay No birds No birds No birds 7

1933 FALL BRANT MIGRATION IN CALIFORNIA

The fall migration of black brant in California in 1933 seems to
have been the earliest one on record since observations have been
especially sought by me during the past ten years, or perhaps the
interest in this matter that my queries have instilled into various
persons has resulted in a more careful watch being kept for the.se birds,
resulting in earlier records. At any rate, numbers of brant were seen
on Tomales Bay and in the ocean off Tomales Point during the last
two weeks of October, 1933. H. J. Jensen who resides at Hamlet on
Tomales Bay told me on November first last that several hundred brant
stopped in the bay for a day or two on or about October 25 and tliat a
few individuals were noted there on October 19 and every day follow-
ing. Mr. H. C. Conrad, San Francisco, told me that he went fishing
in the Pacific Ocean off Tomales Bay on October 14 where he saw
flocks of brant averaging 50 birds each that totaled 300 individuals.
I was gunning for ducks on Tomales Bay on November 1, 1933, when
I saw a flock consisting of 16 brant fly into the bay from the ocean
about midday. I was unable to revisit Tomales Bay last fall until

358 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

December 16 by which date brant were very numerous there. At that
time, Jensen and others told me that the birds had become sufficiently
abundant by mid-November to afford fair sport, whereas they usually
do not appear in such numbers on this bay until Thanksgiving or later.

Captain of Game Wardens W. J. Harp, Areata, wrote me on Janu-
ary 6, 19.34, stating that brant shooting during the 1933 waterfowl
hunting season had been very successful. The birds put in their
appearance on Humboldt Bay far earlier in 1933 than in the previous
year. Harp stated that small flocks commenced to arrive about Decem-
ber 1, 1933, and that the species was sufficiently common after December
15 to afford good sport to hunters for the remainder of the season
(until December 31). Harp estimated that there were 10,000 brant
present on Humboldt Bay during that period. The previous season
(1932) brant were so late in reaching Humboldt Bay that few were
shot before the season closed on December 31 and the birds had not
arrived there in numbers by February 12, 1933 (see California Fish
AND Game, Vol. 19, 1933, pp. 258-259).

At the time of my visit to Morro Bay, February 10, 1934, Game
Warden Hecker and A. C. Silva stated that brant became common on
its waters exceptionally early in the preceding fall and that good shoot-
ing was had from mid-November until the close of the gunning season.

An unusually late date for brant to tarry in our waters in the
spring was provided by S. H. Dado of this Division who noted a flock
of 12 or 13 individuals in the ocean off New Years Island, San Mateo
County, on May 29, 1934.

BRANT CENSUS IN OREGON, WASHINGTON AND BRITISH COLUMBIA

Through the kind offices of Dr. I. N. Gabrielson, Bureau of Biologi-
cal Survey, U. S. Department of Agriculture, I was successful in inter-
esting the Oregon State Game Commission into cooperating with our
brant census work to the extent of directing its game wardens stationed
along the Oregon coast to count the brant present there February 10-12,
1934. Results of these observations were kindly provided by State
Game Supervisor F. B. Wire in letter dated February 26, 1934, as
follows :

"We have received copies of officers' reports concerning black or sea brant
observed in Lincoln and Tillamook counties as follows :

John H. Price, State Police, Newport :

"On February 12th, observed about 100 black or sea brant in this
vicinity as follows : Yaquina Bay about SO, Siletz Bay 20. There have been
large flocks of sea brant on Yaquina Bay for some time."

Earl C. Williams, State Police, Tillamook :

"With reference to letter from JMr. Wire rel. observing number of black
brant or sea brant between the dates Feb. 10th and 12th, did not get a chance
to personally observe for the two days mentioned, but on inquiry, there seemed
to be more in Netarts Bay than anywhere else. I observed some two or three
thousand in bay and am told that a large number migrated on north from the
bay about two or three days ago."

My inquiries to the Washington State Department of Game in the
fall of 1933 relative to the numbers of black brant frequenting the
waters of that State met with hearty and cordial response from Director

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 359

of Game Lou Ovenden. As a result this gentleman delegated Arthur S.
Einarsen, then of the Department, to gather all possible information on
the subject during the season and to transmit same to me. During the
fall hunting season, Einarsen devoted much time to this detail and
prepared a masterly report on the subject under date of December
18, 1933, which he forwarded to the writer with permission to use in
whole or in part in connection with the present paper. We are there-
fore greatly pleased and highly obligated to the Washington Depart-
ment of Game to quote from Einarsen 's report as follows:

Black brant {Branta bernicla nigricans) are found in varying abundance
within the territorial limits of the State of Washington during the different
seasons of the year.

With the opening of the shooting season, on October 16. 1933, very few
reports were made of bhick brant being seen on the opening day, although
many snow geese {Chen hyjierboreus) , a few Canadian honlcers (Branta
canadensis), and also a scattering of whistling swan (Cygnus columhianus) ,
were seen on the opening day. On the Skagit Flats three geese were shot —
one a snow goose, and the other two Canadian geese. Following through the
season there were no rei)orts of an abundance of brant until about November
1st, when visitors to the ocean coast, between Grays Harbor and the Columbia
River, reported them in considerable numbers, feeding along the coast line.
As excellent hunting can be enjoyed in both Grays and AVillapa harbors as
soon as the black brant enter these areas to feed, their actions were closely
watched, and very few entered the bays until about Thanksgiving time when
the majority of the birds still favored the open ocean along the coast. It was
not possible for me to make personal observation of their numbers and actions
but through the word of hunters there seems to be little doubt that such
conditions existed.

In the northern portion of the State brant can be expected to congre-
gate, chiefly in the following areas : The Gulf of Georgia, near Point Roberts
and Blaine, Bellingham Bay, Samish Bay, Padilla Bay, Bellingham Channel,
Rosario Straits, the Straits of Juan de Fuca, Livingston Bay and Hood Canal.

A continual contact maintained with the shooting fraternity, gave little
encouragement until about November 15th, when a few birds were reported
from the Livingston Bay area, and with scattei-ed reports of increasing
numbers in Bellingham Bay, where about November 23d, a few birds were taken.
On December 2d and 3d a hasty trip along Hood Canal and the Straits
of Juan de Fuca, in the Dungeness and Protection Island districts revealed
vei-y few birds. Nonnally these areas are highly favored, but on these dates
the annual winter residents had not arrived to a noticeable degree. Communi-
cating with boatmen employed on regular runs through the districts where
brant might be exijected to appear, it was generally reported that no great
numbers were apparent until about December 1st, and up to date have been
increasing with rapid strides.

Going into the field in the northern district on Puget Sound, on
December 12th, the Blaine area on the Gulf of Georgia produced fair numbex-s
of birds. As there is considerable high ground to the south of Blaine, over-
looking the Gulf of Georgia, by means of field glasses, approximately 30
small flocks, ranging in numbers from 10 to 100, could be seen feeding on
the (iulf. These waters are not hunted to any degree, and as there are a
few sand spits on the Lummi Indian Reservation, which are not open to
shooting by the general public, they are favorite resting areas for the brant.

On December 13th Padilla Bay and Samish Bay claimed my attention,
and these areas were found to be occupied by brant in such numbers that
plans were made to follow them closely on the following day. In ghmcing
at the attached sketch [see map, Fig. 136] maybe it will be noticed that
there is an abundance of open water and that eel grass flats abound in the
district, and later investigation of the crops of five brant dissected revealed
the presence of nothing but eel-grass in their diet. The more limited area
lies to the south in the Padilla Bay district, and it was found that there
is a definite daily migration, beginning at daylight in the morning, from the
northern areas when hundreds of flocks fly into Padilla Bay, almost touching

360

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

land, as far south as the entrance to Swinomish Slough. This definite daily
migration continues until about noon. As this was the approximate time
of high water, it leaves a little doubt in my mind as to whether the tide stage
influenced their actions or whether this was a normal daily occurrence.
I had not the opportunity to establish this point, but the fact remains that
the southerly migration on both the 13th and 14th terminated about that time.
There was little activity until evening, with the first of the flight northward
beginning about 4 p.m., and until long after dark, the flight continued.
It was my assumption that the northerly flight is for the i)urpose of reaching
more open and unrestricted waters where the brant may drift and rest at
night without being cast upon the shore as there are heavy currents in these

Fig. 13U. Map showing brant concentration areas, State of Washington.

bays, which in conjunction with the storms that were persisting, could be
expected to drift them onto the beaches in a short while. Even in Samish
Bay they must be continually alert to keep off shore as with the heavy
winds they drift quite rapidly.

Observing birds at close range on December 14th, it was found that
they could breast a fifty-mile gale with ease, both in the air and on the
water. At one spot, with a four-knot tide running, with seas approximately
12 feet high, a small group of about twenty birds remained practically
stationary for an hour's time, but, of course, were continually alert to retain
their position.

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 361

Outside of the gony (albatross) there is no bird to my knowledge
that pays as little attention to the storm tossed waters as the black brant.
On the 14th of December the sea was comparatively calm,, with thousands
of brants winging their way to the south and coming to rest in Padilla
Bay, near Hat and Saddle-Bag Islands. The wind gradually increased so
that at noon it had reached a velocity of approximately 50 miles, but this
terrific wind did not cause them any inconvenience or develop a flight of
birds, and all brant that were seen in the air were still approaching from
a northerly direction, boring southward at a terrific rate, and coming to rest
in apparent satisfaction among the flocks already feeding in Padilla Bay.
At the same time a flock of approximately 50 snow geese were seen upon
the horizon to the north, a distance of approximately six miles, but these
birds were in sight for twenty minutes, weaving back and forth against
the wind, and continually changing their elevation, depending upon the gusts
of wind, and finally disappearing to the south, skimming the waves. Brant
in a similar situation flew as straight as an arrow with a uniform speed that
would take them out of sight in about five minutes. A rough count of the
birds seen on the 14th, passing Point Williams on Samish Island, places
the figure at 7900. Only the southward bound birds were counted and there
could be little possibility of duplication, since during that period less than
fifty birds passed Point Williams, drifting northward.

Hunters who periodically visited these grounds during the past season,
report that the migration reached the area only about the fifth of December,
and very few birds were taken until December 10th, when the daily kill in
the district would sometimes amount to fifty birds. They are not generally
sought after, except by a few limited hunters, who were properly equipped. On
December 13th, several bags were investigated, an aggregate of fourteen birds
scrutinized. They were all of the species of Branta lernicla nigricans,* and
with few exceptions were in prime condition.

Generally speaking, it is the consensus of opinion amongst the gunners
who seek brant, that the present season is much too early to give them good
brant hunting, as the migration reaches this State on its sheltered waters only
a short period before the season closes [December 15]. The thought arises
that if this season is maintained generally through the west coast, it may con-
tribute a great deal to the maintenance of the abundance of black brant since
they can not then be overshot and they are not poached upon in this State
during the closed season, since any hunter preying upon them would be far
more conspicuous than a poacher on ducks that enter the fields and other
obscure places to meet their doom at the hands of a skulking poacher.

Plans are going forward to collaborate with the State of California, whose
work is under the direction of James Moffitt, to take a general census on Feb-
ruary 10th to 12th, and there is little doubt that a quite accurate count can
be taken by the use of our field force at certain strategic spots. Fortunately
the interest in brant is being developed before their value as a game bird is
generally appreciated and remedial measures to perpetuate them, if inaugu-
rated in the near future, will be easily enforced as very limited resentment of
any type will need be combatted. * * * Field observations above recorded
were made to ascertain to what extent the brant are being hunted, and it was
found that the entire kill of brant this year throughout the State of Washing-
on, probably was less than one thousand birds. The Puget Sound area alone
shows records of about 470 birds killed, and, of course, there will be some not
generally reported or known of. The southern portion of the State, along the
coast, including Grays and Willapa harbors, have produced some birds, but
their number is unknown, and I believe the above figures would be extremely
liberal. It is doubtful if the returns requested of license holders will be even
as accurate, as many of the brant hunters take out parties of gunners on the
favorite grounds, and do not report their kill, as they feel the numbers which
they should record to be extremely high and derogatory to their continued

* Dr. Joseph Grinnell, Director, University of California Museum of Verte-
brate Zoology, advised me on June 15, 1934, that E. J. Booth, Bellingham, Wash-
ington, sent a brant to him to be identified which he shot on the Samish Flats,
Skagit County, Washington, on December 10, 1933. Dr. Grinnell stated that this
bird Is possibly somewhat of an Intergrade between Branta bemicla nigricans and
Branta hernicla hrota, but that It is so far nearer the latter as properly to bear the
name hrota, the Atlantic or light-bellied brant. — James Moffitt.

362 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

existenfo, as action to curtail this shooting might be attempted in thi> li^ht
of such information.

Due to the necessary expense, a complete coverage of (he brant areas
could not be made, but information will be assembled as far as possible to ren-
der a reasonable appraisal of existing conditions in all districts for the winter of
1933-34.

(Signed) Arthur S. Einarsen.

Upon receipt of this report, I wrote Einarsen drawing his attention
to the statement in the second paragraph of his report to the effect
that brant were noted along the Washington ocean coast after Novem-
ber 1, but few entered the bays until the last of that month. I com-
mented to him upon similar habits that I have noted in the past in this
species along the California coast where we ajDparently have an early
fall flight of brant, some of which appear off our shores in mid-
October, but the birds do not enter our bays in numbers until
after mid-November. One theory that I have in this regard is that
these early south-bound birds are migrating to Lower California and
they apparently do not stop except for brief rests along our coast.
Another theory that I suggested to Einarsen might account for the
habits of the Washington coast brant as well is that the spawning of
our herring may be a factor in governing the time at which brant enter
our bays. In preceding years I have noticed that the arrival of these
birds on Tomales Bay has closely coincided with the first spawning of
our herring {Clwpea pallasii), further that the early spawning schools
of herring deposit their eggs on isolated patches of eel grass in different
parts of the bay, which are very noticeably the patches of eel grass
first utilized by brant for food. The fact that the first appearance of
numbers of brant on Tomales Bay in several different seasons has closely
coincided with the commpucement of herring spawning and the fact
that the birds feed mainly where these fish have spawned, are respon-
sible for my opinion in this regard.

In response to this suggestion, Einarsen kindly replied as follows,
which seems to settle the question in tliis regard :

I can see that there, perhaps, are some points of difference in the habits
of black brant in regard to their custom, in California, in foraging on eel-
grass covered with herring spawn. From years of experience on the bays and
inlets of Puget Sound, I have become acquainted with all of the herring
spawning grounds, the majority of which are in shallow water where eel-grass
abounds, all hough there are a few deep water spawning areas also. Peculiarly
brant are not found on any of the spawning grounds, which is entirely at
variance with the California situation. Our local herring {Clupca pallusii)
begin spawning during the month of January and continue until about the
middle of May. Many of these favored spots, to which they retvirn to spawn
year after year, are in the center of the brant waters, notably Hales I'ass, a
portion of Bellingham Bay, the Duckabush Flats, near Brinuon in the Hood
Canal district, and Birch Bay, a short distance from the exceptionally heavy
concentration of brant, near Sandy Point, Gulf of Georgia. As I have spent
a great deal of time at all of these spawning grounds, I feel justified in making
the statement that in I'uget Sound I have never seen a solitary brant taking
advantage of this abundant food, although I have fine pictorial records of
thousands of other birds that congregate annually, during the herring spawn-
ing season, to solve their food problem. 1 shall devote more time during the
present season to substantiate these statements.

At Director of Game Ovenden's request, Einarsen and other mem-
bers of the Department conducted a brant census in W^ashington on

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 363

February 14, 1934. Binarsen wrote that this survey was quite suc-
cessful although he imagined that certain districts which were missed
would have swelled the total count, but that roughly there was an
abundance of brant on that date and they were still particularly numer-
ous in the Straits of Juan de Fuca near Dungeness. Due to the fact
that Einarsen severed his connection with the Department the day
following the census taking, no detailed and itemized report was pre-
pared, but in his letter to me dated July 17, 1934, he wrote that there
was considerable enlightenment in this survey for certain districts
which had been considered as highly favored by brant produced very
small numbers. This can be accounted for by the fact that the shoot-
ing season had closed and it was not necessary for them to be isolated
into the&e districts but they could migrate into areas that during the
open season would have been disastrous for them to occupy. The result
of this census provided a total of approximately 30,000 birds for the
State of Washington for that day, which it is interesting to compare
with the grand totals for Oregon and California, respectively 3000
approximately and 29,986. It seems strange that the numbers for the
State of Washington approximately equal our count for California for
the former state is so favored with inlets and bays supporting growths
of eel grass that seem to afford ideal feeding places for this species
that I should think its waters could support far larger numbers than
can our few suitable California bays.

1 regret very much that pressure of other work preceding the 1934
brant census taking time prevented my contacting the British Columbia
Game Department and friends residing along the coast of that Province
relative to cooperating with our work to the extent of counting the
brant in their respective localities on the dates designated. I did
address Kenneth Kacey, West Vancouver, British Columbia, in this
regard and he was so kind as to take a census of the brant in this
vicinity on February 10 and 11. On the first day, Mr. Eacey
visited Sea and Lulu islands where no brant were noted although a
small flock had been reported there in November. The next day he
noted a flock of from 50 to 60 birds in the Sound about a mile northwest
of Crescent Beach. Stewart Loutit, an experienced hunter and a relia-
ble observer, at Mr. Racey's request, kindly made observations on the
brant present near Point Roberts on February 11, 1934, where he
noted but 150 birds lying in flocks of from 30 to 40 each about a half
mile off shore. Mr. Loutit stated that there had been about 1500 brant
in this locality at the beginning of the hunting season and that most
of these birds moved down towards Birch Bay on the American side of
the international boundary and that only between four and five hundred
individuals wintered about Point Roberts, Boundary and Mud bays.
Racey wrote that there has been a great reduction in the number of
brant in this locality during the past two years which he attributes
principally to damage to their principal food, eel grass, by excessively
high tides and the silting in of channels.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion I wish especially to acknowledge with sincere appre-
ciation the assistance of those who cooperated with the 1934 census
taking and without whose help this work would have been impossible.

4—15172

364 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

I feel especially grateful to those who helped in outside states and
provinces, for this brant census began as a California project of my
conception and it is certainly not my intention to attempt to make it
an annual affair all along the Pacific Coast. Last winter I had hopes
of securing a rather accurate record of the total number of brant on
the Pacific Coast north of the Mexican boundary at census taking time.
That we were successful in this as far as the United States is con-
cerned, seems assured, and I feel that had I been able to make more
requests to Canadians for assistance, we should also have secured a
fairly complete census for British Columbia as well.

I feel assured that a fifth annual brant census will be taken in
California in February, 1935, for the cooperators all seem to Ix' in
sympathy with continuing this work. The dates will probably be the
same as were originally selected, for even though February 10 to
12 now seems to be too early to secure maximum brant concentration
in California (two or three weeks later would be better for this pur-
pose) this factor, to me, is overweighed by the desirability of con-
tinuing our counts on the same dates, now that we have the records
for four seasons.

I fully appreciate the importance and desirability of periodically,
say every five years, taking stock as it were of all our Pacific Coast
black brant by taking coincident censuses wherever the species is kiunvn
to occur. In this way we could very definitely ascertain the trend of
this species. However, it seems useless to consider such an undertaking
and to again burden our indulgent northern neighbors with the riMiuest
for another census until means are devised for counting the black brant
wintering in Lower California where large numbers are known to resort.
This problem presents real difficulties, for transportation by road is
almost Impossible along the central part of the peninsula where the
birds are known to winter in large aggregations. To attempt to take
the census by boat, would, I fear, be more expensive than the results
would justify, so sea-plane, if the birds could be counted from one,
appears to be the only practical solution. If it develops that it is
practical to so count brant, I shall try to organize a party to do so and
hereby solicit help from anyone interested in this enterprise. If this
could be arranged, I would then advocate that a very careful count be
also made at the same time all along the Pacific Coast to the northward
as far as brant are known to winter and the accumulated results should
provide a fair estimate of the total number of birds wintering on this
side of the Pacific. Such information might become invaluable in the
event, for instance, of an eel grass shortage on the Pacific Coast such
as the one which has recently so seriously reduced the numbers of
Atlantic brant. — August 27, 1934.

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 365

AN EXPERIMENT IN QUAIL IMPORTATION

By Gordon H. True, Jr.

When the Division of Fish and Game inangurated its qnail replen-
ishment program in southern California early in 1932, the valley quail
that were used for restocking were solely the product of the Los Ser-
ranos State Game Farm, at Chino. During the following season, the
increase in the total acreage of available refuge lands warranted the
purchase of birds from private breeders to supplement the production
of the game farm. Over nine thousand quail were liberated during this
2-year period. It was then that the Commission conceived the idea
of importing valley quail from the west coast of Lower California
since, by so doing, the volume of birds available for restocking purposes
might be immeasurably increased and the cost of the program to the
sportsmen materially reduced. The author wishes to take this oppor-
tunity to present to the sportsmen an account of our operations in this
direction, an experiment that will most certainly react in their favor.

Negotiations were officially set in motion during the month of
September, 1933. Since the Division did not number among its
personnel a man with a thorough understanding of the Mexican, his
language and methods, the first step was to enlist the aid of such a
personage. In San Ysidro, California, we found H. S. Weir, a man who
possessed all the desired qualifications and who willingly consented to
act in the capacity of official intermediary between the Division and
the Mexican government. Preliminary negotiations consumed much of
the fall of 1933 and it was not until the month of December that they
had been completed and we were able to proceed. Time was then short,
with the rainy season rapidly approaching, but the Division was none
the less elated for it held in its hands written permission to import from
Mexico a total of one hundred thousand quail. The Mexican govern-
ment graciously consented to waive the export tariffs in the case of all
birds destined for southern California refuges. On December 23,
1933, the first truck load of birds passed over the border.

The quail were secured by Mexican trappers, and brought to the
border by truck where they were delivered to representatives of the
Division at San Ysidro. According to a regulation of the Mexican
Department of Agriculture, trapping activities were confined to terri-
tory south of the village of San Telmo, Lower California, situated at a
distance of some two hundred miles below the border. Each shipment
was inspected by a Mexican official resident at San Telmo, was sealed by
him and taken to San Ysidro without further formality. It had been
hoped that the Lower California birds could be liberated immediately
upon their arrival on southern California soil, but, it was later deemed
advisable to alter the original plan. The long, rough, dusty journey
from San Telmo to the border resulted in a number being dead or in
a dying condition upon arrival. Consequently, each shipment was
taken to Chino and held at the game farm until the birds had recuper-
ated from the effects of the rough handling they had received. After a

366

CALIFORNIA FISU AND GAME

sufficient period of time had elapsed, the quail were sorted, banded with
aluminmn ]og bands and liberated at various ])oints throu<i:hout southern
Calii'uruia.

It was to be expected that a certain percentage of loss would be
incurred in handling a large number of birds, and anticipating the
situation, it was stii)ulated that the trappers rather than tli(> Divi-
sion should assume responsibility for most of the loss. Conse-
quently, proper deductions were made on payment. It was hoped that
this arrangement would result in more careful handling of the birds on
the part of the trap])ers and that a lower percentage of loss would
follow.

"We paid a visit to a quail trapper's camp in Lower California. It
was late in the evening when we arrived at their bivouac. The darkness

Fig. l;!7. Typical L,ower Calit'ornia quail cover near San Qiiiiuin. I'liolo liy

G. H. True, Jr.

allowed us to see but little of our iininediate surroundings, but to the
eastward we could nuike out the rugged peaks of the ISan I'edro jMartir,
against the sky outlined by a full moon. The trapi)ers, or cordoniceros
as they call themselves, were squatted about their fires preparing supper.
On each fire was a blackened ])ot of coffee aiul an e(|ually blackened pot
of frijoles. At one tire, a young Mexican was busily engaged in trans-
forming unhealthy looking lumps of dough into deliciously crisp tor-
tillas. So interested were we in that particular phase of Mexican
cookery that it was with a feeling of reluctance that we withdrew to a
discreet distance, pitched our own camp and hastened to care, Amer-
ican fashion, for the needs of the inner man. As we attacked a rapidly
vanishing mountain of ham and eggs, one Domingo produced a battered
guitar and a hastily organized trio of young cordoniceros proceeded
to fill the moonlit night with Spanish melody. Tired out, we soon
sought our blankets while still forms about slowly dying fires told us
that our ]\Iexican hosts were likewise consigning themselves to the
forgetf ulness of repose.

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 367

We were up and about at dawn and hurriedly gulped down a
hastily prepared breakfast, anxious to see all that was being done.
Senor Jose Felix, the chief trapper, informed us, however, that we
hurried needlessly, for the trappers wanted at least an hour's start ere
we appeared upon the scene. They left camp as he spoke, in two
battered, topless touring cars loaded down with rolls of wire and other
quail trapper's accoutrements, and soon vanished to the eastward in a
cloud of dust. Wliile waiting for our hour of departure we had time
to look about us and noted that we were in a wide valley that narrowed
rapidly to the eastward as the low, rolling foothills of the San Pedro
Martir encroached upon it. We were in a barren land, treeless and
drab, but none the less magnificent because of those very qualities.
Low shrubs of various species, few over 12 inches in height, comprised
most of the vegetation. Here and there were interspersed clumps of
cholla and, less frequently, the pithaya or organ pipe cactus. We were
camped in a group of larger shrubs, similar in appearance to the creo-
sote bush, and these, together with the ever-present mescal, or maguay,
completed the picture that was spread before us.

As we sat there drinking in the scenery the time passed quickly
and soon we were trudging eastward in the wake of Senor Felix, a
tall, powerful man with an ornate buckskin overcoat and, best of all, a
fair speaking acquaintance with the English language. As we jour-
neyed up the valley we met with several coveys of quail, for it was
still early and the birds were busy feeding. The several hundred birds
that comprised each covey evidenced little alarm at our approach,
merely moving out of our path and continuing their search for food.
We also observed at various points large Vs of piled brush and were
told that these were the remains of quail traps that had been in use
prior to our visit. This prompted Senor Jose to embark on a detailed
account of quail trapping methods, but in the midst of his discourse he
stopped short and raised his hand for silence. We ceased our chatter-
ing and in the dead silence that followed we heard a faint but incessant
clicking noise coming from a point not far distant.

Quickening our pace we soon arrived at the source of the strange
sound and saw before us five of the trappers advancing slowly across
the floor of the valley in a semicircular skirmish line. Each of the
boys held a stick or stone in either hand and by striking them rapidly
together produced the clicking noise that had piqued our curiosity. As
we drew still nearer we could see that the line of trappers partially
surrounded a large covey of quail that was being slowly driven toward
the mouth of a brush V, similar to those we had observed on our walk
from the encampment. As the covey approached the trap, the pace
of the drivers became perceptibly slower though still accompanied by
that incessant clicking. The birds gradually entered the V, milled
about for a few moments and then flushed, flying over and beyond the
trap. This galvanized the trappers into instant action and we, like-
wise, rushed forward, unwilling to miss a single step in the procedure
we had come to witness. We found the apex of the V was open and
led into a long tunnel of wire mesh, in which a number of birds were
fluttering madly. This tunnel, the functional part of the trap, had
been constructed by unrolling the wire and securing the edges to the
ground with wooden pegs. Enough slack remained to allow the wire

368

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

to be propped up, tent-like, by means of slender sticks about two feet
long and notched at one end. One end of the tunnel was blind and
the other, of course, communicated with the opening in tlie apex of
the V. As a final touch, the tunnel had been lightly covered with
brush. While we were making the above observations, the trappers
were engaged in removing the props from the tunnel, and the wire
fell upon the two dozen birds that had been captured, pinning tliem to
the ground without apparent injury. Stones were placed here and
there on the wire to hold the birds more securely and the captives were
then carefully removed and placed in containers. The tra]) was reset
and the trapping crew was again ready to proceed.

Another trap was located not far from the one just described
and the covey was rounded up and driven toward it. "When this second
trap had taken its toll of birds the covey was driven back to the first
one. Tliis process was repeated again and again, the birds being driven

Fig. 138. San Telmo Vallev, Lower California. Note line of quail drivers.
Photo by G. H. True, Jr., January 31, 1934.

in a rough circle and into each trap, in tui'ii, until llicy luid become
so wary that none would enter the tunnels. Senor Felix explained
that the trappers would now locate another covey, set their traps in a
similar fashion and repeat the process just as we had seen it. Anotlier
trapping crew was working some distance westward and were enii)l()y-
ing essentially the same method with the additional factor of a line of
brush fires set by the trappers as they moved along. This it was
explained, was to prevent tlio quail from doubling back and is used
wherever the cover is exceptionally heavy.

We were next conducted to the "holding pen," a large expanse
of wire mesh pegged to the ground and covered with brush. Beneath
the wire a number of birds were imprisoned and their lot was cer-
tainly not an enviable one. Although an attempt had been made to
prop the wire up by means of short sticks, the birds had little room for
movement and were forced to content themselves with remaining in one
position. Food and water had been provided but it is doubtful if the

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME . 369

birds either fed or drank while in such confined quarters. There they
were to remain, however, until a sufficient number had been collected to
warrant a trip to the border. In some instances, we were told, old
adobe houses had been utilized as holding pens but the above-described
method was, unfortunately, the one most commonly employed.

There is little to criticize in the quail trapping method just
described. It is an ingenious method and one admirably suited to
Lower Californian conditions, though it would be of little use in a
region only sparsely populated with quail made wild by continual
shooting. The "driving method" as depicted here is distinctly advan-
tageous in that only a relatively small percentage of birds is taken
from each covey insuring a permanent breeding stock and a consequent
large annual crop of young birds. The methods employed in holding
and handling the birds are in contrast to the trapping procedure open
to considerable criticism. When one considers that the birds were held
for at least several days, and often as long as a week, in close con-
finement with virtually no food or water, and were then subjected to
an arduous two hundred mile journey in poorly ventilated trucks, it
appears strange that the losses were no greater. The fact that so many
birds survived that sort of treatment is a tribute to the hardiness of
the species. The trip to San Telmo was made in order that a thorough
investigation of Mexican methods might be conducted and to so alter
the plan of operations that losses might be reduced to the minimum.

The quail imported from Lower California are not identical to the
bii-ds that we know as natives of southern California. The San Telmo
(juail is referred to in scientific journals as Lophortyx californica
jdumhea, a subspecies of the California quail that inhabits the coastal
regions of the State. It differs but little, however, from the valley
quail, Lophortyx californica vallicola, in either habits or coloration
and is adapting itself admirably to a new environment. Even in such
a poor quail year as 1934 has proven itself to be, we have found the
Lo'wer Californian birds mating freely with not only their own kind,
but with native birds as well, and the pround father of many a family
of young quail produced this year on California refuges displays the
slightly reddish head that proclaims his alien origin.

In all, 8297 live birds completed the journey from San Telmo to
Chino of which 7517 were released after a short stay at the game farm.
Seven hundred and eighty quail remained at the game farm as breeding
stock, to be released at the close of the hatching season. The imported
quail cost the sportsmen of California exactly $1,918. This sum
represents not only the actual cost of the birds but includes as well
the cost of trapping permits and the salary of the Mexican inspector
stationed at San Telmo. The cost per bird planted was a fraction
more than twenty-three cents.

As the above figures indicate, we have imported less than 10 per
cent of our quota of one hundred thousand quail. This was due to the
fact that trapping activities commenced after the optimum trapping
season was over and were limited by inclement weather and the rapidly
approaching mating season. In addition, the difficulties involved in the
transportation of the birds to the border tended to limit the number of
shipments.

370 . CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

The plan to be followed this year will, it is hoped, result in the
completion of the quota. Briefly, it involves the establishment of a
base of operations at San Quintin, a Lower California seaport. There
the birds will be held, sorted, banded, and then shipped to California
by boat in lots of at least ten thousand. The birds will be taken to San
Quintin at the close of each day's trapping activities and need not be
held as they were at San Telmo. The quarters available at the seaport
are spacious and will allow the birds to be held with a minimum of
injury. The altered method of procedure should finally result in better
quail shooting in southern California.

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

371

QUAIL BANDING RETURNS FOR 1932 AND 1933

By Gordon H. True, Jr.

In July, 1932, the Division of Fish and Game inaugurated the prac-
tice of banding the quail liberated on sanctuaries in southern California,
with the conviction that, through banding, important data relative to
the quail refuge program would be obtained. Already we have learned
jnuch concerning the spread of birds from various points of liberation

and the data gathered rela-

tive to the survival of game
farm reared quail have en-
abled us to answer the critics
who condemn the practice of
liberating pen-raised birds
and question their successful
reproduction under natural
conditions. In addition to
possessing a certain scientific
value, the bands serve to re-
mind the hunter of the
efforts that are being made
on his behalf.

A band encircling the leg
of a quail may provide us
with information in two
ways. The actual return of
a band after the bird has
been shot constitutes one of
these. The second way is
through the provision of an
easy means of field identifi-
cation since banded birds
may be easily picked out
from the others by the use
of field glasses or the un-
aided eye. This paper deals
primarily with the first-
named method of securing

data, but before proceeding directly to a discussion of baud returns, a
general treatment of the banding program is advisable.

Over a period of time beginning in the month of July, 1932, and
ending August, 1934, 16,728 valley quail have been banded and released
south of the Tehachapi. In addition, 839 Gambel quail have been
banded and liberated. Of the valley quail, 7517 were wild birds
imported from the Avest coast of Lower California and the balance were
reared on the State game farm at Chino.

A number four aluminum poultry band has proved to be the most
satisfactory for quail banding purposes. The bands are serially num-

iFicj. 139. Catching quail prior to banding at
Los Serranos State Game Farm, Chino.
Photo by G. H. True, Jr.

372 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

bered and bear the printed request that they be returned to the Divi-
sion of Fish and Game. The first bands used were inscribed with the
number and "Notify Game Comm. " on the outside and the address to
which the bands are to be sent, "San Francisco, California," was to be
found on the inside of the aluminum circlet. It was learned, however,
that the hunter seldom opens a band and, in consequence, any inscrip-
tion on the inside may be overlooked. On the bands now in use, there-
fore, the entire legend, "Return to F. & G. Com. S. F." may be read
on the outside. The above may appear to be of minor importance to
the reader, but so anxious are we tliat bands taken by sportsmen be
returned that we wish to leave no stone unturned — even in the case of
such a relatively simple matter as a band inscription.

Fig. 14 0. Banding Lower California quail prior to release, Antelope Valley.

Photo by G. H. True, Jr.

A careful record is kept of all band numbers, each one being
entered on an especiall.y prepared record sheet. With the number is
listed the age of the bird, the sex, the point at whicli it was released
and the date thereof. In addition, a column is reserved for such data
relative to the recovery of the band as the date, locality and the agent.
The latter may be, and most frequently is the hunter. A predatory
mammal or bird, or even accidental death may, however, be responsible
for the recovery of a band. Upon the receipt of a band, a card is
mailed to the person making the return thanking him for his coopera-
tion and setting forth, for his information, data relative to the release
of the bird that w^ore the band. To this card is attached a return
postal card on which the sportsman is requested to set down specific
information concerning the point at which the band was taken by refer-
ence to some well known landmark. Up to the present time this system
has met with a very satisfactory response on the part of the quail
hunter. Individuals have failed to return cards, as requested, in only
a few instances.

In reviewing the band returns for tlie 1932 and 1933 seasons the
author does not attempt to make a lengthy analysis of the results.

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 373

The banding system has not been in vogue long enough to allow
many definite conclusions to be drawn. At the end of the year 1932
only 10 bands had been returned. Of the 10 birds, six had been
shot and four taken by other means. This small return may be
accounted for by the fact that up to and including the 1932 open
quail season only a relatively few birds had been released and,
further, the sportsmen had not yet become acquainted with our
work. It is presumed, however, that the ten bands represent only a
fraction of the total number taken. By the close of the 1933 season a
total of 59 bands had been recovered, the increase over the previous
year being the result of a vast increase in the number of birds released
and a considerable extension of the area over which the liberations
were made. Again, as in the case of the 1932 returns, it is believed
that the number of bands received was far less than the actual number
of banded birds killed during the season.

The reports of 1933 show that of the 59 returns, 10 were made
anonymously and 25 separate individuals were responsible for the
recovery of the remaining 49. The largest number returned by one
individual was nine while two hunters recovered six and five bands
respectively. Five men averaged three birds, the same number took
two and 13 recovered one band each. The average number of banded
birds taken per hunter was slightly less than two, since only 49 were
actually killed by shotguns. Ten birds died by other means, one being
killed by an owl, another taken from the stomach of a Cooper hawk,
and so on.

In the case of 35 of the birds killed we were able to learn the exact
date on which the shooting took place. An average period of 113.6
days had elapsed between the date on which each of the above 35 quail
was liberated and that on which it was taken. The maximum period of
liberty was, in the case of two birds, 480 days and one had been at
liberty but 16 days before being killed — this last being the minimum.
These data .show conclusively that game farm reared birds are able
to survive under natural conditions.

Of the 59 bands taken, 26 were from Riverside and San Bernardino
counties, 20 from the Antelope Valley region of Los Angeles County,
and one from San Diego County. It should be explained that the
above mentioned areas correspond with the three groups of quail sanc-
tuaries that have been established in southern California and, further,
that in the case of the San Diego County group but one liberation had
been made prior to the 1933 quail season. In addition to the birds
from the vicinities of these southern California refuges, two were taken
in the northern part of the State, near Morgan Hill, and were products
of the State Game Farm at Yountville, which institution is likewise
carrying on the banding program. The two birds taken in the north
complete the total of 59, which includes representatives from 15 dis-
tinct liberations.

Only 25 of the returns included really accurate information con-
cerning the exact point at which the birds were killed. From these
data, however, we have been able to calculate the distance of the point
of recovery from the point of liberation, the maximum being 10.5 miles
and the minimum, one mile. The average distance was 4.86 miles.

374 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

These distances, measured on a straiglit line, are the shortest
routes over whicli it was possible for the quail to travel.

As a brief summary of the bird banding activities, it may be stated
that as a result we may determine among other things where refuges
may be most advantageously located and how far thej^ should be
spaced to insure the maximum amount of shooting in tlie intervening
territory ; what amount of successful shooting results from the refuge
program; to what extent farm reared birds will mate and produce
young under natural conditions; and the fate of wild birds tliat have
been introduced from the outside.

In order that full advantage may be taken of our quail banding
efforts, it is necessary to have the complete and willing cooperation of
all interested sportsmen. It is hoped that this exposition of what has
been already planned and accomplished may be an aid to that end.

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 375

THE FRESHWATER COMMERCIAL FISHERIES OF

CALIFORNIA*

By Richard S. Croker

There was a time when the river fisheries of California surpassed
those of the ocean, bnt that was many years ago. Saltwater fishing
methods have been improved so as to take greater toll of the schools of
ocean fish, canneries have been established and enlarged, and the rapid
growth of coastal cities has opened up larger markets, so that now
the ocean catch far exceeds the take of the freshwater. Of the hun-
dreds of millions of pounds of fish caught every year in California, less
than five million are taken from inland waters. Nevertheless, many
fishermen derive their livelihood from the rivers and lakes of the
central part of the State.

The most important fishes taken in the rivers of California are
anadromous species, that is, fish that spend the greater part of their
lives in saltwater but enter the rivers for spawning purposes and
occasionally to feed. These are the king and silver salmon, the striped
bass and the shad. The extensive gill net fishery for these species is
well known and as it has been covered in previous publications of the
California Division of Fish and Game, it will not be taken up in the
present article. Two other anadromous fishes, the sturgeon and the
steelhead, were formerly taken commercially. The capture of the
former was prohibited in 1917 to preserve it from extinction, and the
latter, due to depletion, has been removed from the commercial list.

It is with the true freshwater fishes that we are concerned at
present. There are eight species of these that are caught commercially
in California. All of them descend at times into the brackish waters of
bays and estuaries, but they are essentially freshwater species. Five
of them are native to central California waters. These are the
split-tail (Pagomchthys macrolepidotus) , the Sacramento pike {Ptycho-
cheilus grancUs), and two species known as hardheads (OrtJiodon
microlepidotus and MylopJiarodon conocephalus) , and the western
sucker (Cat ostomus occidentalis) . The other three species were intro-
duced into our waters by the California Fish Commission during the
latter part of the last century. The carp {Cyprinus carpio) came from
Asia by way of Europe and the eastern United States. The square-tail
catfish (Ameirus nelidosus) and the fork-tail catfish (A. catus) came
from the Mississippi Basin. The carp, split-tail, hardheads, and Sacra-
mento pike are all members of the carp or minnow family, Cyprinidae.f

In 1933, the recorded commercial catch of the eight freshwater
species totaled about 580,000 pounds. The value of these fish to the
fishermen was approximately $28,000. The catfish, principally the fork-

*Contribution No. 139 from the California State Fisheries Laboratory, May, 1934.

t The fork-tail catfish is sometimes called "blue catfish," and the square-tail
IS sometimes referred to as "yellow catfish." The Sacramento pike is occasionally
called "squawfish," and the hardhead is sometimes known as "blackfish," especially
in Clear Lake. The names used in the text are those authorizd by the California
Division of Fish and Game.

376

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

tail species, is by far the most important freshwater species, both in
amounts caught and in value. (See Pigs. 141 and 144.) The suprem-
acy of the catfish is usually more marked than it was in 1933. All
other freshwater fishes, with the exception of game species, such as
black bass and trout, are grouped together by the fishermen and
called "rough fish," "coarse fish" or "Chinee fish." The latter
term originated from the fact that the Chinese are particularly fond
of these species.

Within the boundaries of our State there are thousands of miles
of rivers and streams and hundreds of lakes. In years gone by,
commercial fishing was carried on in every bit of accessible water
that contained fish. All the coastal streams contributed trout, salmon
and sturgeon to the markets at San Francisco. Lake Tahoe and the
Truckee River were once important trout producers. The Sacramento
River supplied the fish for the Pacific coast's first salmon cannery
over seventy years ago, and has remained an important fishing region
ever since. Clear Lake in Lake County annually produces a con-

FiG 141 The deUveries of the eight species of freshwater fish in the State
of California, by years, 1916-1933. Note that the catfish landings gen-
erally dominate the fishery. Amounts given in round weight.

siderable harvest of fish. Buena Vista Lake, now shrunken to a swamp,
and Tulare Lake, now dry, furnished quantities of fish not so many
years ago, before reclamation projects encroached on their borders and
irrigation districts diverted their water sources. Nigger Slough in
Los Angeles County furnished carp in abundance before it was drained
about fifteen years ago. Salton Sea, a great saltwater lake in the
Imperial Valley, has long been the scene of operations of commercial
fishermen. Scattered ponds, lakes and streams throughout the State
have also contributed at times to the commercial fisli catcli.

Today, restrictive legislation, passed to preserve the natural
resources of the State, confines commercial fishing in inland waters to
but a few localities. The most important of these is the Sacramento-
San Joaquin River system, which furnishes the bulk of the catch.

In the extensive area of the Central Valley, there are many hun-
dreds of miles of water open to commercial fishing. These include
the main channel of the Sacramento River from Vina in Tehama

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

377

County down to the mouth, the San Joaquin River below Stockton,
Steamboat Slough, Sutter Slough, most of the connecting water courses
in San Joaquin and Contra Costa counties, and Suisun Bay. Prac-
tically no commercial fishing is carried on above Sacramento or for
freshwater fish in Suisun Bay, but all the intervening legally open
waters are thoroughly exploited.

The total catch of freshwater fish (exclusive of anadromous
species) in this district in 1933 amounted to 374,000 pounds. In
former years the catch was very much greater, but since the World
War it has only once (1929) exceeded the million-pound mark. (See
Fig. 142.) Several factors contributed to the diminution of the
fishery during the years just before the war. Reclamation projects
deprived the fish of spawning and feeding grounds; irrigation dis-
tricts diverted water; unscreened irrigation ditches caused destruction
of many young fish; and fishermen formerly harassed and caught

10

o

■Q
m 6

IS

c
2

DELIVERIES OF FRESH-WATER FISH
BY DISTRICTS, 1916-1933

■^--° Clear Lake
• All other

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— v

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Fig.

142. Yearly landings of all species of freshwater fish by dis-
tricts, 1916-1933. Note that the Sacramento-San Joaquin
River district leads, followed by Clear Lake. The other dis-
tricts include the catch in southern California lakes and
reservoirs principally. Amounts given in round weight.

spawning fish. The main river and connecting sloughs above the city
of Sacramento remained productive, although on a diminished scale,
as late as 1918, but since that year there has been practically no com-
mercial fishing above Sacramento. Washington Lake, across the river
from Sacramento, at one time was very productive as was Sacramento
Slough near the mouth of the Feather River, but both are now dry.
Reclamation projects disturbed the rough fish most. These have
become so scarce that their former good market has vanished because
of the resulting absence of a steady supply. Formerly carp and
catfi.sh were shipped in carload lots to Eastern markets but when
the supply failed in large measure, the Eastern dealers turned to
other sources of supply. At present the bulk of the production of
California freshwater fish is consumed locally.

378

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

During the war, the increased demand for fish maintained the
catch at a fairly high level, but the post-war depression affected the
river fisheries and the catch decreased markedly. From 1922 to 1929
the total catch of freshwater fish in the valley-delta area increased
considerably. (See Fig. 142.) The larger catches were probably not
the result of greater availability of the fish but of the increased demand
and correspondingly greater effort on the part of the fishermen. The
number of fishermen has not increased in proportion to the rise of
the catch, but each fisherman now uses many more nets than he did
ten years ago. The recent depression has resulted in a curtailment of
fishing effort since 1930 and the catch has slumped to a marked extent.

Fig. 143. The Sacramento River near Courtland, typical catfish
water. Photograph by R. S. Croker, April, 1931,

The greater part of the catch of freshwater fish in the river dis-
trict is composed of catfish. The delicate flavor of this fish is known
and appreciated, resulting in a relatively good sale. The towns of the
Sacramento-San Joaquin Valley and the San Francisco region are
the best markets, but quantities are shipped to Los Angeles. Occasional
shipments are still made to the Rocky Mountain States, especially to
the cities of Denver, Butte and Salt Lake. Californians prefer the
white meat of the fork-tail, whereas the people of the Mountain States
prefer the reddish flesh of the square-tail species. The Chinese like
the large fish, those over 12 inches long, and prefer to get them alive.
The smaller ones, 9 to 12 inches long (7 to 10 inches, dressed) find
favor with other consumers who usually buy in small amounts yet
wanting several individual fish.

The fishermen deliver catfish to the markets dressed, that is, with
the heads, skins and viscera removed.

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

379

They receive 8 to 18 cents a pound for dressed fish and 4 to 8
cents a pound for the relatively small amounts of live fish sold to
Chinese dealers. In cleaning, the catfish loses 50 per cent of its weight.
The catch figures collected by the Division of Fish and Game and
shown in their various publications are of the deliveries of fish as
made by the fishermen, which in the case of catfish, is just half of the
round weight. As the deliveries of other freshwater fish are given in
round weight, it has seemed advisable to double the recorded weight of
catfish to facilitate comparison with the other species. This has been
done throughout this article, unless otherwise noted, but has not been
previously done in other California State publications.

In the river district, the carp is second to the catfish in order of
pounds landed, but the prices paid for it are so low that it ranks but
third in value. Consumers of carp prefer to buy their fish alive, and
as they will live in a small tank indefinitely they are often retailed
while still wriggling.

0

too

Thousand Pounds

200 300

Carp HHI
Split-fail ■
Sucker 1
Pike 1

1

POUNDS

FRESH-WATCR FISH

1933

0

5

Thousand

to

Dollars

15 20

^^^"

Hardhead^^^^

IHHHI

I

Carp 1

Split-fail 1

VALUE
FRESH-WATER FISH

Sucker \

1933

Pike 1

^

Pig. 144. Deliveries and values of each of the species of
freshwater fish taken commercially in California in
1933. Amounts given in round weight.

Because of the poor demand for carp, the fishermen receive nothing
for small lots mixed with other fish, and seldom receive more than 2
cents a pound for larger loads. The average price in 1933 was 1 cent
per pound.

In the river fishery, the hardhead is third in poundage and second
in value. It is the favorite of the Chinese as it will remain alive in
captivity and has a sweet flavor, although it is rather bony. The price
paid to the fishermen for live hardhead is sometimes as high as 20
cents a pound, averaging about 10 cents in 1933. Those brought to
market dead bring 2 to 4 cents a pound. The price, as with other
"Chinee fish," is highest in the spring when they are scarce and
lowest in the fall when they are most easily caught. The market will

5—15172

380 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

not absorb any large quantities of hardhead, so the price can be
maintained only by holding the catch to a low level.

TABLE 1— PRICES PAID TO FISHERMEN

The average price paid to California fishermen for the several species of fresh-
water fish. The low price paid for hardhead in 1933 was due to large scale opera-
tions of seiners in Clear Lake and to the fact tliat much of the hardhead was
marketed dead rather than alive as usual (see text).

Average price Average price Average price
per lb. per lb. per lb.

Species 1926-29 1930 1933

Catfish* $0.14 $0,135 $0,115

Hardhead .11 .13 .05

Pike .04 .OG .05

Sucker .03 .05 .01

Split-tail .05 .03 .01

Carp .02 .02 .01

♦Price given for catfish only is the price paid for dressed fish ; to obtain a value
comparable to other species, divide above price by two.

The split-tail, Sacramento pike and sucker are unimportant,
although good prices are occasionally paid for small quantities of them
when alive. The Chinese of the valley and bay regions are the princi-
pal consumers of these fish.

Besides the recorded catch of these fish delivered to wholesale
dealers, there are tons of freshwater fish caught and sold direct to the
consumer. The ranchers and others who live near the fishing grounds
buy quantities of dressed catfish from the fishermen. The managers
and cooks of the Chinese and Filipino ranch gangs, working in the
neighborhood of the river, buy their fish direct from the fishermen.
They purchase both dressed and live catfish and live rough fish. The
amounts thus sold are considerable, and the money realized by their
sale is an important item.

Only the adult rough fish are used for food. The young of the
hardhead, Sacramento pike, split-tail, and of another minnow or chub,
Lavinia exilicauda, are used as live bait by striped bass and black bass
sport fishermen in the river region. Many commercial fishermen make
some additional money by catching and selling small minnows for bait.
They catch them in baited traps and keep them alive until sold. Dur-
ing the summer when the commercial catfish season is closed the sale
of minnows is almost a necessity for some of the fishermen.

The universally used type of gear in the river district is a baited
trap known as the fyke net. This net is used for tlie capture of all the
species of freshwater fish. Some carp are caught in the shad, bass and
salmon gill nets in the lower river, but there is no regular gill net
fishery for freshwater fish. In the old days, beach seines M^ere
employed in Washington Lake and enormous catches were sometimes
made at one haul. At present beach seines are illegal in the river
region.

The fishermen who take catfish are located along the Sacramento
River from Courtland to the mouth, and on the rivers and sloughs
between Stockton and the Sacramento River. Each has his own terri-
tory, including several miles of river and slough, which is conceded to
him by the unwritten consent of the other fishermen. Most of the

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 381

fishermen locate as near as possible to the legally closed waters out of
which the catfish sometimes venture. The fyke nets in the lower reaches
of the river near Pittsburg are operated hy gill netters as a side line.

Most of the fishermen live in houseboats moored to the bank.
Usually the base camp consists of the dwelling boat, a cleaning barge,
live cars, and a net tarring tank which is on the shore. The live cars, in
which the fish are kept until marketed, are large boxes set in the water.
Thej^ have holes or slits through which the water can circulate but
which are small enough to prevent the escape of the fish. The boats
from which the fishermen tend their nets are 16- to 20-foot skiffs pow-
ered with outboard motors.

Each fisherman uses 50 to 100 fyke nets. Some of the fishermen
work in pairs, in which cases as many as 150 or more nets are employed.
These nets are no more than stationary baited traps. (See Fig. 145.)
The net consists of tarred webbing of 22-inch mesh stretched over 5
iron hoops to form a sort of modified cone. The largest hoop is at the
open end. A mesh sack containing bait is at the closed end. To get at
the bait, the fish must enter at the open end of the trap. Mesh funnels
on the second and third hoops direct the fish toward the bait but

Fig. 145. A typical Sacramento River fyke net. The open end is at the
right; the bait is l<ept in a bag at the small end of the net. To get to
the bait, the fish must pass through the mesh funnels, which then pre-
vent their escape. Photograph by D. H. Pry, Jr., Pittsburg, October,
1932.

hinder their escape. The nets are usually about 14 feet in lengtli. In
some nets the hoops taper from 4i feet down to 2^ feet in diameter.
Others have a 6-foot hoop at the open end and one of 1^ feet as the
smallest. The cost of the average fyke net is about $20. The webbing
must be dipped in coal tar every 30 days to prevent deterioration,
resulting from contact with catfish slime. A number of years ago it
was the general practice to place mesh wings on either side of the
opening to lead the fish toward the trap, but the wings were held to
be destructive and were outlawed. The fishermen now use an increased
number of the wingless nets.

The fisherman places his nets in deep water close to the bank of
the river or slough. The net is lowered to the bottom and a rope or
wire from each end is made fast to an overhanging tree or stake on tlie
bank. The ropes are made taut enough to keep the lioops upright.
The lines are not marked, but rather are concealed from the prying
eyes of net thieves. The nets are often stolen and more often robbed

382 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

of fish and thrown back in the water tangled beyond all hope of fishing
success. During periods of unusually heavy depredations the fisher-
men fasten the ropes to underwater snags. In the spring when the
catfish move upstream, the net is placed so that the open end faces
downstream to intercept the fish. At other times it is immaterial
which way the opening faces.

The best bait is fresh sardines. The fishermen obtain the sardines
from the dealer to whom they deliver their catch. Most of the sar-
dines are caught at Monterey and San Francisco. During the sardine
canning season the Pittsburg fishermen obtain their bait from the can-
neries at that point. As each fisherman uses 500 to 1000 pounds or
more of sardines every week, the fyke net fishery is of some impor-
tance to the sardine fishery. When fresh sardines are available, the
fishermen buy more than they need and salt the surplus for times of
scarcity. Salted sardines are nearly as good as fresh ones.

The fisherman leaves his nets in the w^ater for 24 hours or more.
The nets which are placed in the best locations are lifted every day,
others are left 2 days, and those in the poorest places sometimes are
left for 3 or 4 days. The fish do not suffer from the confinement as
there is plenty of room to swim around inside the trap.

In making his rounds the fisherman runs his boat directly over
the net and hauls on the line fastened to the open end, -pulling the
whole net into the boat. The swarms of small bait-stealing fish make
their escape through the coarse mesh as the net is lifted. The fisherman
raises the closed end and shakes the net so that the entrapped fish fall
through the open month into the bottom of the boat. Then he replen-
ishes the bait and lowers the net. On the way to the next net he
returns the illegal and undesirable fish to the water. In spite of the
2|-inch mesh, some undersized fish are taken. The minimum size limit
for catfish is 9 inches total length or 7 inches exclusive of any part of
the head. The catfish are very hardy and stay alive until the base is
reached. Here they are thrown into the live cars until the fisherman
is ready to dress them. The few remaining undersized fish escape
through the cracks or are sorted out during cleaning.

The method of cleaning catfish is ingenious. The cleaner makes a
shallow cut between the top of the head and the dorsal fin, impales
the head on a hook which is fastened to the wall, seizes the skin at
the cut wdth a pair of pliers, and pulls the skin off in one piece. Then
he grasps the body and pulls it away from the head. The viscera stay
with the head and the flesh is free from everything except the bones.

Some of the fishermen have their own trucks and deliver to the
markets at Sacramento, Stockton or Pittsburg. The fish companies
send out trucks to pick up the catch of the others and to take bait
to them.

The open season for catfish and other species taken in fyke nets
in the river district is from September 1 to April 30. Spring is gener-
ally the best time for catching catfish. In midwinter they do not come
to the bait. At this time the fishermen often put 8-foot hoops in front
of the regular fyke nets and set them at the surface to catch ' ' Chinee
fish" which they sell direct to the neighboring Chinese. During the
somewhat muddy w^ater of early spring, the catfish start moving
upstream out of the deep holes where they are alleged to have spent the

CALIFORNIA FIRII AND GAME

383

winter. They are hungry and enter the traps freely. In years when
the river is low and elear in the spring, the eatfish do not seem to move
mucli. The poor spring fishing of some seasons has been attributed to
h)w water by the fishermen.

Second only to the Sacramento-San Joaquin River district in the
production of freshwater fish is Clear Lake. This beautifully situated
body of fresh water is technically part of the Sacramento Eiver drain-
age system in that its surplus waters flow into that stream. However,
(luring the present series of dry winters there has been practically no
run-off to the river. Clear Lake contains the same native species of
commercial and game fishes found in the Sacramento. The square-
tail and fork-tail catfishes, the carp and various game fishes have been
introduced into the lake with success.

The catch in Clear Lake varies greatly from year to year due to
fishing conditions and economic factors. The trend was upward from
1916 to 1925, in which year 360,000 pounds were taken. (See Fig. 142.)

Fig. 146 Seining for "rough fish" in Clear Lake. Preparing to lay out the
1200-foot seine from the apron of the barge. Photograph by H. B. Nidever,
January 7, 1932.

During the years from 1926 to 1931, the catch decreased considerably.
Until 1931 the greater part of the catch consisted of catfish, principally
the square-tail species. From time to time quantities of rough fish,
mostly carp, were caught in the lake but the take of these fish never
approached that of the catfish. In 1931 the State Legislature passed a
law prohibiting the shipment of catfish out of the district in winch
Clear Lake is located, and as a result it has ceased to be an important
factor in the lake fishery. On the other hand, in 1932 the Division of
Pish and Game issued a permit to a group of fishermen allowing them
to seine coarse fish from the lake. It is due to the operations of these
men that the Clear Lake catch showed a large increase in 1932. (See
Fig. 142.) Practically all of the 1932 and 1933 catch in the lake con-
sisted of rough fish, mostly hardhead.

384 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

The best fishing in Clear Lake has always been in the winter and
early spring with few fish of any kind being taken during the summer
and fall. The lake is at present open to fishing throughout the year.

The standard type of gear for taking catfish was formerly the trot
line. This is a set line bearing many hooks. The best bait for catfish
is sardine. Since 1931 hand lines or rod and line have been the only
legal types of gear for catfish. The fishermen formerly shipped their
catfish to Sacramento or San Francisco for marketing.

Seines are used for catching rough fish in the lake. The fishermen
operate under a permit which requires them to return all catfish and
other game fish to the water alive. Commercial fishing licenses are
required also. It is hoped that the seining will reduce the numbers of
coarse fish which are so numerous in the lake that they are considered
pests. A barge which can be moved to different parts of the lake is
the base of fishing operations. The large seine is set out from the barge
by a motor boat, and is hauled in with power winches. (See Fig. 146.)
Trucks are used for shipping the fish to market in San Francisco and
Sacramento. The trucks are equipped with tanks so that live fish can
be transported. The fish not sold are donated to charity or used for
fertilizer.

Commercial fishing in other inland bodies of water in California
is now on a permit basis. From time to time it seems advantageous to
remove excess carp from reservoirs and natural lakes where they have
become too numerous. The fishermen use beach seines and sell their
catch if they can although the sale is of secondary importance. The
catch records show only amounts sold to dealers. Guadalupe Lake in
Santa Barbara County, Lake Elsinore in Riverside County, and the
Los Angeles City reservoirs have all been seined at times for carp.

Nigger Slough, between Los Angeles and Wilmington, was once
the habitat of numerous carp. Fish dealers in Los Angeles occasionally
sent fishermen, equipped with beach seines, to the Slough to catch carp.
The Slough was partially drained about 1918, and the fish perished.

Salton Sea was once an important fishing area for carp, humpback
suckers (Xijraiichen cypho) and mullet {Mugil cephalus). The fisher-
men made their catches with seines and trammel nets, and shipped their
fish to Los Angeles by train and truck. As the lake gradually receded
and became more salty, the carp and suckers perished but the mullet
fishery survived until 1931. Since then the Salton Sea fishery has been
on a permit basis. The statistics on the catch from this body of water
have never been adequate and are not included in the graphs accom-
panying this report.

The inland fisheries of California will not again surpass the ocean
fisheries, but they may supply our markets with considerable quantities
of excellent fish for many years to come.

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 385

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

A publication devoted to the conservation of wild life and published quarterly by
the California Division of Fish and Game.

The articles published in California Fish and Game are not copyrighted and
may be reproduced in other periodicals, provided due credit is given the California
Division of Fish and Game. Editors of newspapers and periodicals are invited to
make use of pertinent material.

All material for publication should be sent to J. O. Snyder, Division of Fish
and Game, 450 McAllister Street, San Francisco, California.

Vol. 20 OCTOBER, 19.34 No. 4

DIXON'S MULE DEER STUDY

The concluding installment of Joseph S. Dixon's article, "A Study
of the Life History and Food Habits of Mnle Deer in California," is
the leading article of this issue. The first installment on "Life
History" appeared in the July, 1934, number of this magazine.

Reprints of each of these articles have been ordered and will be
available under one cover at a nominal fee.

GEORGE NEALE RETIRES FROM DIVISION

George Neale, for over 25 years a member of the Division of Fish
and Game, and since 1928 chief of the Bureau of Fish Rescue,
retired on pension on August 1, 1934.

Neale entered the employ of the Division in 1903. Prior to that
time he had been a game warden in Sacramento County. Shortly after
entering the service of the Fish and Game Commission, he was placed
in charge of all deputies in 23 northern counties. He held this impor-
tant position until 1922. In March, 1922, he was appointed executive
officer, from which position he resigned in 1925.

So well versed in fish and game subjects, and especially fish, he
was put in charge of the newly formed Bureau of Fish Rescue in 1928,
which position he held until his retirement.

Neale developed the saving of game fish into one of the most
important activities of the Division. At a cost of never more than
$6,000 per year, he saved, annually, 4,000,000 of various species of
sport fish. Fish that would have been swept to destruction by receding
waters, improperly screened diversion points and the flooding of
large areas of farm lands have been rescued and placed in waters
that insured them being saved for the sportsmen's creels.

Few men in the Division had a wider knowledge of game and fish
than George Neale, and he applied this knowledge to the benefit of
the Division and the sportsmen.

386 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

The work of the Bureau of Fish Rescue has been incorporated
Avith that of the Bureau of Fish Culture. Foreman Merrill Brown,
who has had charge of the Friant black bass experimental ponds, will
assume responsibility for the details of fish rescue and distribution
so ably administered in the past by George Neale. — 0. L. Warner,
August 24, 1934.

FEDERAL MIGRATORY WATERFOWL REGULATIONS, 1934

The new regulations affecting migratory waterfowl provide that
each State may take not more than 30 days for an open season on wild
ducks and geese. A State may take 30 consecutive days, or it may
take two, three, four, five, or six consecutive days, for as many consecu-
tive weeks as wall total 30 days. Such days as a State decides on must
be the shooting days for each week until the end of that State's
season. It is not possible under the new regulations to have a Wednes-
day and a Saturday shooting, but such days as are selected must be
consecutive. A State may take less than the 30 days open season if the
commissioners of that State believes the supply of ducks will not
warrant a month's shooting.

California has the distinction of taking the shortest open duck
season of any State in the Union, with 22 days, shooting on Saturdays
and Sundays, from October 20 to December 30.

California's week end consecutive days was decided upon after
Fish and Game Commissioners J. Dale Gentry, I. Zellerbach and Earl
B. Gilmore had made a carfeul study of the waterfowl situation in
California, and after conferences with sportsmen, originized and unor-
ganized. They decided two days a week for eleven weeks would give
the hunter plenty of time to get limits and at the same time conserve
the supply of birds that light in this State. They reduced the total
days each State might take by over 25 per cent, and though there was
some protest at first, all true sportsmen are seeing the justice of the
position of the commissioners.

Seasons selected by other western States are as follows : Oregon
and Washington will take three days, Friday, Saturday and Sunday,
for 10 weeks, starting October 18 and closing December 23 ; Montana
will take the same three days, opening October 5 and closing December
9 ; Utah, Saturday, Sunday and Monday, opening October 12 and
closing December 16 ; Colorado and Nevada, Saturday and Sunday,
opening October 1, closing January 6 ; Nebraska and West Virginia
are the only two States taking 30 consecutive days.

The bag limit for ducks in California will be 12 with a possession
limit of 24. Only 5 or an aggregate of 5 of any of the following
"imperiled species" maj^ be included in a daily bag, with possession
of 10; Eider, canvasback, redhead, greater and lesser scaup, ringneck,
blue wing, green wing, cinnamon teal, shoveller and gad wall.

The limit on geese is 4 with possession 8 ; coot bag and possession
25 ; jacksnipe bag and possession 20.

It will be unlawful to kill Ross geese, wood, ruddy and bufflehead
ducks, or swans.

Baiting of waterfowl regulations were also changed. To be able
to legally bait waters and lands, application must be made to the

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 387

chief of the Bureau of Biological Survey. To receive a permit, after
a thorough check has been made as to the advisability for such feeding,
the applicant must agree to keep an accurate record of the persons
shooting on the baited property; the total number of waterfowl killed;
the various species bagged; number of blinds and number of occupants
of each blind each day, and daily kill of birds by gunners in each
blind ; kind of feed to be used, intervals of baiting and that there be
no shooting after 3 p.m. on open days. This record is to be sent to
the Bureau within 30 days after the close of the season in the api)li-
cant's State. — 0. L. Warner, August 29, 1934.

WESTERN ASSOCIATION OF FISH AND GAME COMMIS-
SIONERS' MEETING, 1934

The fourteenth annual convention of tlie Western Association of
State Fish and Game Commissioners, was held at Portland, Oregon,
June 14tli to 16th. This Association consists of the fish and game
officials of the eleven Western States. It was organized in 1921 and the
original meeting was called for the purpose, primarily, of forestalling
further extension of Feileral jurisdiction over fish and game. It can be
truthfully stated that the Association ran true to the concepts for whicli
it was originally organized. Nine of the eleven States which comprise
the Association w^ere represented at the Portland meeting. California
was represented by J. Dale Gentry, president of the California Fish
and Game Commission. Most of the States sent two or more repre-
sentatives, which indicated unusual interest in the matters which w^ere
up for consideration.

The U. S. bureaus represented were the Forest Service, National
Park Service, Bureau of Fisheries and Biological Survey. The different
activities of these bureaus were represented by the western supervisors
of such activities. British Columbia, which has many problems in
common with those of our western States, was as usual well represented.

The meeting was presided over by M. L. Corrigan, president of the
Oregon Game Commission. Mr. Corrigan has been an ardent sports-
man throughout his life and has been a member of the Oregon Commis-
sion for many years. Both he and the personnel of the Oregon Commis-
sion are to be congratulated for the manner in which the meeting was
conducted and the entertainment provided. Portland's famous "Rose
Carnival" was under way and the delegates were made complimentary
guests, a consideration greatly appreciated.

Commissioner Frank T. Bell of the U. S. Bureau of Fisheries
appeared before the Association for the first time and discussed prob-
lems of common interest with the States, and expressed a desire to
cooperate in further improving sport fishing.

W. C. Henderson of the Bureau of Biological Survey, discussed the
migratory bird situation and emphasized tlie effects of drought and
reclamation on the abundance of water-fowl in general. Ilis was not a
cheerful report and there was probably not a person present who did
not personally feel that there should be no open season on migratory
birds during the current year. Mr. Henderson explained what the
Duck Stamp Bill will permit the Bureau to accomplish but regretted

388 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

the delay in getting clearance for Federal funds allotted for the acquisi-
tion of marginal lands.

Papers were presented by the different delegates covering the
major problems which are continously before those engaged in solving
conservation problems. Fish culture, planting, and upland game bird
raising and distribution, received the usual attention and progress was
reported, in most instances.

Everyone was on the "qui vive" to hear C. E. Rachford's discus-
sion and explanation of U. S. Forestry Regulation G-20-A, which regu-
lation contemplates taking over from the States jurisdiction of fish and
game on national forest areas, whenever, in the judgment of the Secre-
tary of Agriculture, the States are not cooperating with the Forest
Service to the satisfaction of the latter. That the promulgation of this
order, coming without consultation with the States, would meet with
strenuous opposition, was indicated by the questions submitted to Mr.
Rachford, and to requests for further enlightenment on the Forest
Service's ultimate aims. After a day's discussion of Regulation G-20-A,
the subject was referred to a resolutions committee. This committee
submitted the resolution which appears herein, together with Regulation
G-20-A, and the resolution received unanimous approval of the Western
Association :

"Reg. G-20-A. When the secretary shall determine upon consideration of
data and recommendations of the forester, that the regulation or the prohibition for a
specified period of hunting and fishing upon any National Forest or portion thereof
is necessary for the accomplishment of the purposes above set forth, he shall designate
such National Forest or portion thereof, established hunting and fishing seasons
therefor, fix bag and creel limits, specify the sex of animals to be killed, fix the fees
to be paid for permits, designate the authorized official to whom application for
permit shall be made, and describe the terms and conditions under which hunting
and fishing shall be conducted with a view of carrying out the purpose of this
regulation. Public notice of such designation shall be given by such means as the
forester shall deem adequate for the purpose. Carcasses of animals or fish taken
under permit shall be marked or tagged for identification as directed by the forester.

Reg. T-8J. Upon National Forest lands designated under Reg. G-20-A, the
following acts are prohibited : Hunting, trapping, catching, disturbing, or killing any
kind of game or nongame animal, or game or nongame bird, or taking the eggs of
any such bird, except during hunting and fishing seasons established by the secretary,
and in accordance with the terms and conditions of a permit issued by a duly
authorized officer which is valid and subsisting at the time."

The resolution reads as follows :

"Your committee, appointed to study and report upon section G-20-A, of the
order of the Department of Agriculture, has met and considered the said section
and has heard arguments thereupon, and the committee unanimously reports as
follows :

Since the days of early England it ha^ been the unquestioned right of the
sovereign to control the taking of fish and game. Prior to the Magna Gharta, the
title to fish and game was fixed in the crown, and since that time, and particularly
since the adoption of the system of English common law by the sovereign States of
the United States, it uniformly has been held that the title to the fish and game
within the boundaries of a State is vested in that State, in trust, however, for the
people thereof.

This theory has been upheld uniformly by the decisions of courts of last
resort in every State where the matter has had judicial cognizance; and by the
Supreme Court of the United States where it has been on appeal many times. It
is submitted that, inasmuch as the question presented by Regulation G-20-A here in
question already has had the judicial intei-pretation of our courts, the States affected
should take a determined stand, that these judicial decisions shall not be reversed
by usurpation by any ambitious governmental department or bureau.

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 389

We feel that the threatened enforcement of regulation G-20-A is an unlawful
appropriation of the property of the people of a sovereign State which the officers
of that State, and particularly the fish and game commissioners thereof, are sworn
to defend. Any attempt on the part of a Federal bureau or agency to transgress
upon this duty and riglit is in direct violation of all the principh's of the organic
acts and constitutions of the States invidved, as well as of the Federal Constitution
itself. It also is in direct violation of the spirit of all statutes and acts promul-
gated by the Congress of the United States, the legislatures of the several States,
and of the judicial interpretations rendered thereupon.

We believe the States involved should, if necessary, curl) tliis threat before
same is accepted, in any part, by the public, for while the initial steps toward the
enforcement of this section of the order may seem mild and only inconsequential in
result, still it may be the initial step in complete usurpation of State rights amount-
ing to confiscation of property without due process of law. We feel that the
principle is entirely unsound, unjust and uncalled for.

Therefore, we respectfully recommend that all States involved unite in most
strenuously resisting any attempt of the Federal bureaus in affecting the menacing
threats contained in said order.

We have been and still are appreciative of any cooperative work done by the
Federal bureaus in cooperation with the fish and game commissions of the several
States in furtherance of propagation and protection of wild life, and we shall
continue to welcome such cooperation so long as same does not ripen into usurpation
of State powers ; and to the end that the State rights be safeguarded and that any
attempted usun:)ation might be checked at its inception, it respectfully is recom-
mended that this association appoint an interim committee to consist of three members
and to be appointed from the States constituting this association. Such committee to
be appointed by the president and to devise ways and means to bring about an early
determination of the question herein involved. Such committee to be subject to the
call of the chainnan of the committee."

Before adoption of the resolution, Mr. Racliford warned the asso-
ciation that the Forest Ser^dce might determine it advisable to exercise
complete control over the National Forests, which would mean that the
States would have no jurisdiction nor any rights thereon.

The 1935 meeting of the association will be held at Santa Fe, New
Mexico. Present at the Portland meeting were D. H. Madsen, now
with the National Park Service; R. G. Parvin, game commissioner of
Colorado, and A. E. BurghdufP, assistant executive officer of the Cali-
fornia Fish and Game Commission, who assisted in organizing the asso-
ciation at Salt Lake in 1921.

The Resolutions Committee was composed of Federal Judge Colin
Neblett of New Mexico, Dr. Irving Vining of Oregon and Newell Cook
of Utah.— A. E. Burghduff, July, 1934.

PLANT SILVER SALMON IN EAGLE LAKE

Warden C. 0. Fisher in cooperation with local sportsmen has
planted 266,000 silver salmon in Eagle Lake, Lassen County. This is
part of a state-wide experiment, utilizing to a greater extent this
easily propagated species as a sport fish. Individuals grow rapidly
and mature in three years. It is not expected that they will reach a
size comparable to ocean grown fish, but it has been found tliat second
year examples are much larger than rainbow trout of the same age.
It is intended to follow this introduction with others annually until
something definite is learned as to their success in the lake.

According to Fisher's observations, food in the form of young
minnows (these of the genera Leucidius and Siphateles) locally known

390

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

as wliitefisli is abundant, and the introduced salmon began to feed
upon them almost immediately.

The fish were transported in a truck in the usual manner, the
cans unloaded on a raft, whicli was towed about the lake by a power
boat. The fish were thus widely scattered, insuring a good distribution
in areas well supplied with food. The plantings were made at inter-
vals from July 14 to 28, 1984, with almost no loss.

Fig. 147. Transfer of .silver salmon from truck to raft for distribution in

Eagle Lake.

It may be remarked here that these were healthy and active finger-
lings averaging over 3 inches in length, 14 to the ounce, samples of the
exce])tionally fine fish that have been grown this year at the new Lake
Almanor Hatchery under the able supervision of Foreman William
Berrian. — J. 0. Snyder, August 9, 1934.

WATER STORAGE IN SANTA CLARA COUNTY

In the near future, six large dams will be constructed in the
Santa Clara Valley Water Conservation District. The Coyote Creek
dam will be 100 feet high with a reservoir capacity of 30,000 acre-feet.
The others on Almaden, Calero, Guadalupe, Los Gatos and Stevens
creeks are said to range from 21 to 115 feet in height and have a com-
bined reservoir capacity of about 19,660 acre-feet.

It is stated that the reservoirs are for storage purposes, the waters
to be used through percolation in the replenishment of well water in
Santa Clara Valley.

It is presumed that fishing conditions in the region will not be
greatly altered. Although the reservoirs do not give promise to addi-

CALIFORNIA FISH AND OAME 391

lional fishing water because of their necessarily great variation in sur-
face level the matter of an adaptable stocking policy is under con-
sideration. Of late years, the winter migration of steelheads that
formerly stocked these streams has become all but extinct, and tlie
lower courses of most of the creeks seldom carry water to the bay.
The proposed dams will not better this condition and it is altogether
likely that the little natural spawning of trout that uoav occurs will
entirely cease. — J. 0. Snyder, August, 1.934.

ADDITION TO LIST OF TOTALLY EXCLUDED BIRDS,
STATE IMPORTATION LAW

In accordance with the provisions of section 9 of Chapter 76,
►Statutes of 1933, the Fish and Game Commission and the State Depart-
ment of Agriculture have added the Hawaii rice bird {Munm nisoria
Temminck), belonging to the Ploceidae or weaver finches. It is a
native of Malaysia. This bird is therefore added to the list of totally
excluded species listed under regulation 1, pages 3 and 4 of the "Rules
and Regulations Governing the Importation of Wild Birds and Animals
into the State of California and Conditions under which Same May Be
Kept in Confinement."

The birds are dull colored, have no song that is worthy of the
name and are rather unsatisfactory cage birds. Their food is primarily
seeds of weeds and grasses. In rice growing districts, the principal
food in seasons when available is the green or unripe rice grain. As
the birds are extremely gregarious, the damage they do to rice is very
considerable. In seasons when the rice is not heading, or when the
grains are too hard, the birds feed on seeds of grasses and weeds.

392 CALIFORNIA PISH AND GAME

COMMERCIAL FISHERY NOTES

SUMMER OCEANOGRAPHIC WORK

The oceanograpliic program of the State Fisheries Laboratory for
the summer of 1934 consisted of seven trips on the patrol boat Bluefin
in the waters of southern California. The patrol boat Alhacore sta-
tioned at Monterey conducted experimental hauls with an otterboard
trawl in order to demonstrate the eifectiveness of larger meshed savings
gear in taking flatfishes. This was done in addition to keeping up her
regular schedule of observations as a part of the hydrobiological survey
of Monterey Bay which is being conducted jointly by Stanford Uni-
versity and the Division of Fish and Game.

The first research trip of the Bluefin this season was the explora-
tion of the waters off San Diego on March 5-10, to seine for the small
' ' quarter-oil ' ' sizes of sardines in an effort to estimate their abundance
as compared with former years. This work, by H. C. Godsil and R. S.
Oroker of the laboratory staff, was for the purpose of determining in
advance the relative number of the small sardines which would make
up the entering size class appearing for the first time in the commercial
catch at San Pedro in the fall of 1934. It was found that the "quarter-
oil" sizes, resulting from the spring spawning, were scarce and as a
result, the San Pedro cannery catch in the autumn would contain few
very small fish as compared with the fall of 1933 when the smallest
size class was unusually abundant.

A second trip in March was made by H. C. Godsil (March 12-16)
to observe the abundance of large winter sardines farther offshore than
the localities visited by the boats fishing for the canneries. During
the winter of 1933-34 the fishing had been confined largely to areas
close to shore so that we had insufficient knowledge of the presence of
large adult fish off shore. Many large schools of "winter fish" were
observed by Godsil south of Point Conception in the neighborhood of
the channel islands, indicating that fishing had concentrated inshore
taking advantage of available fish near by rather than because of a
scarcity of sardines elsewhere in the San Pedro area.

During April two seining trips on the Bluefin were made to fish-
ing areas off San Diego. The first trip, on April 1-4, was made by
H. C. Godsil and R. S. Croker and the second trip was by R. S. Croker
and D. H. Fry, Jr., on April 23-27. These trips confirmed earlier
observations as to the scarcity of small sized sardines to be expected in
the San Pedro commercial catch of the following autumn.

On May 14-18, a 600-mile trip on the Bluefin was made by R. S.
Croker in southern California waters and on the high seas off Lower
California as far south as Cape San Quentin, including Tanner, Cortes
and other fishing banks. This trip was to locate albacore, if possible,
as well as other tunas and to make observations on the occurrence of
sardines in these areas. Albacore were not sighted and sardine schools
were not located. The rough seas encountered on this trip might explain
the failure to see sardines. Yellowtail and bonito were found in

CALIFORNIA PISH AND GAME 393

abundance and ripe spawning bonito, both male and female, were
found over a wide area, suggesting a rather extensive spawning range
for the latter species. As a preliminary trial of the method of
attaching tags to tuna, three bonito were tagged by R. S. Croker
during the trip. The mechanics of tagging proved satisfactory so that
we are now in readiness for an extensive tagging program in an attempt
to dissolve some of the mystery as to the movements of tuna schools in
the waters off Mexico and southern California.

A four-week trip (June 7-July 6) w'as made by H. C. Godsil down
Ihe coast of Lower California and into the gulf as far as La Paz. The
purposes of the trip were to locate tuna schools and fishing banks, to
initiate tuna tagging, to extend our knowledge of mackerel spawning
time, density, and localities, and to continue our observations on the
occurrence and spawning of sardines to the south of the State line.
The mackerel and sardine observations made on the trip were very
successful. Plankton net hauls were made for mackerel eggs and larvae
at frequent intervals down the coast. Sardines were observed and
samples taken from what appears to be a local population in the Gulf of
California near La Paz. Tuna scouting was unavoidably curtailed and
difficulty was encountered in keeping bait alive in the tank which had
an insufficient circulation of sea water.

August 9 to 18 a trip was made by H. C. Godsil and R. S. Croker
among the channel islands off southern California in an attempt to
locate and tag albacore and other tunas. No fish were taken but the
staff members are consoled by the fact that commercial fishermen also
were unable to make catches in the same localities during the 9-day
interval.

Other research trips planned for the Bluefin during the autumn
wall be postponed because of a change in schedule by which the patrol
boat will be engaged in transporting wild quail from Lower California
for planting in suitable locations in this State. — W. L. S., August
21, 1934.

UNCOMMON FISH TAKEN AT SAN PEDRO

A few unusual fish have been taken in the commercial fish citch
of the San Pedro region within the past few months.

On March 15, 1934, a tongue sole, Sijmphurus atricaudus, was
caught by the boat President. This is the only true sole occurring along
the California coast and is taken only occasionally in the commercial
catch.

Two specimens of Macrourus stelgidolepis have been brought into
the San Pedro fish markets, one on March 9, 1934, and one on July 2,
1934. This is a relatively rare fish and has no common name. It
belongs to the familv Macrouridae. A related species, taken on the
Atlantic coast, is called a rat-tail. Fish of this family are taken in
comparatively deep waters. They are characterized by a deep body,
narrowing abruptly to a long, slender tail. Our specimens were about
15 inches in length.

A sunfish, Mola mola, was seen at the San Pedro markets on Sep-
tember 28, 1933, and another on July 2, 1934.

The Japanese herring, Etrumeus microps, appears occasionally m
the fish catches of these waters. On May 22, May 24, and June 11, 1934,

394 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

one of these fish was found with the mackerel catch. These three
individuals were all females with ripening eggs and with a size range
of 275 to 295 mm. — Frances N. Clark, California State Fisheries Labora-
tory, August, 1934.

ALBACORE

During the month of August, 1934, the fishermen of the Los Angeles
district were taking albacore in commercial quantities for the first time
in many years. The last run of any importance in this district occurred
in 1930 and up to this year, with the exception of an occasional stray,
no albacore have been taken in these waters.

Throughout the month of July, several single fish were taken in
the roundhaul nets incidental to other fishing activities. During the
first week of August, several of the cruising swordfish boats started
locating albacore while trolling. In a few days a great many of the
small gig boats were out prospecting for fish and catches of a few fish
up to a ton were being landed both at the fresh fish markets and at the
canneries.

Approximately fifty tons of the fish were delivered to the canneries
during the first two weeks of August while the markets received about
two tons during the same period. The price being paid to the fishermen
was eight cents per pound at the markets and one hundred fifty-five
dollars per ton at the canneries.

At the present writing (August 15) the run has fallen off and some
of the old timers are rather skeptical as to whether or not the fish are
going to appear in quantities large enough to be of any general value.

It is interesting to note that the fish were first observed and taken
in the Los Angeles area and that no fish were taken at San Diego during
the first appearance of the fish in local waters. During the second
week in August, a few fish were taken at San Diego. — L. G. Van Vorkis,
Terminal Island, August 22, 1934.

BLUEFIN TUNA

Bluefin tuna have returned to southern California waters and are
being taken by the purse seine boats in good quantities.

The first catch was made in April and the local run started the
early part of May. This is very unusual since the fish do not ordi-
narily appear before the first or the fifteenth of June. The catches
have been very spotted and have varied a great deal in quantity. Dur-
ing the early part of the season, the landings were comparatively light,
running from three to fifteen tons per boat. It was not until the first
part of August that an unusually heavy run was experienced.

The 1934 catch, up to the middle of August, has been approximately
ten million pounds. This is well above the ordinary catch although
it amounts to only about half of the record take of twenty million
pounds made in 1930 — L. G. Van Vorhis, Terminal Island, August
21, 1934.

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 395

STATEMENT OF INCOME

For the Period July 1, 1933, fo June 30, 1934, of the Eighty-fifth Fiscal Year

Departmental Income, Current Year —
License sales:

Angling licenses, 1932 $5,475 00

Angling licenses, 1933 300,170 00

Angling licenses, 1934 83,719 00

Commercial hunting club licenses, 1933-34 1,750 00

Commercial hunting club operators' licenses, 1933-34 395 00

Deertags, 1932 1,143 25

Deer tags, 1933... 95,776 00

Deertags, 1934 4 00

Fish breeders' licenses, 1933 20 00

Fish breeders' licenses, 1934 365 00

Fish importers' licenses, 1933 5 00

Fish importers' licenses, 1934 60 00

Game breeders' licenses, 1933 130 00

Game breeders' licenses, 1934 970 00

Hunting licenses, 1931 1 261 30

Hunting licenses, 1932-33 8,387 18

Hunting licenses, 1933-34 330,779 00

Hunting licenses, 1934-35 79 00

Kelp licenses, 1934._ 50 00

Market fishermen's licenses, 1933-34 25,040 00

Market fishermen's licenses, 1934-35 24,440 00

Trapping licenses, 1933-34 1.413 00

Wholesale fish packers' and shell fish dealers' licenses, 1933-34 990 00

Totallicense sales $881,421 73

Other income:

Contributions from importers $324 15

Court fines --. 27,107 56

Fish packers' tax 192,637 06

Fish tag sales 1,576 10

Game tag sales 106 32

Interest on bank balances 5,332 57

Income from Department of Agriculture Fund — Chap. 825-33 45,131 65

Kelp tax 116 76

Lease of kelp beds 1,309 20

Miscellaneous sales 1,248 07

Publication sales 553 30

Dividends California National Bank (50%) 18,545 08

Dividends Trinity County Bank at Weaverville 178 50

Totel other income 294,166 32

Total departmental income, current year — $1,175,588 05

6—15172

396

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

STATEMENT OF EXPENDITURES
For the Period July 1, 1933, to June 30, 1934, of the Eighty-fifth Fiscal Year

Function

Salaries

and

wages

Materials

and
supplies

Service

and
expense

Property

and
equipment

Total

Administration:
Executive

S8,360 00
5,520 00

$8,360 00

Olfirical and offic6

$1,090 37

2,175 52

3,469 94

635 26

$230 01

6,840 38

2,175 52

3,469 94

389 57
3,232 79
4,392 22
3,966 12

631 95

13,354 66

4,491 92

1,024 83

3,232 79

Postage

4,392 22

3,966 12

631 95

Rent

13,354 66

Accident and death claims

4,491 92

4,500 00
493 56

4,500 00

Legal

3,582 05

42 50

438 25

2,670 68

$81 32

4,156 93

42 50

438 25

Pro rata General Fund expense, Chap. 923-33.

2,070 68

Total Administration _ -

$18,873 56

$1,079 85
1,920 00

$7,371 09

$37,422 72

$81 32

$63,748 69

Bureau Education and Research:
Chief

$1,079 85

Clerical and office ,

$35 91
491 83

$65 06

258 63

2,348 17

14 80

2 42
104 37

3 47
73 17
53 10
34 29

$3 07

2,024 04

750 46

Traveling

2,348 17

Postace

14 80

Teleohone and telesraDh

2 42

PhotograDh V

8 30

45 10

157 77

3 47

Library

Research

Publicity

1,080 00
5,140 00
2,450 00

27 86

136 80

41 50

197 87
10 50

1,378 90
5,340 40
2,525 79

Total Bureau Education and Research

Bureau Patrol and Law Enforcement:
Chief and assistants

$11,669 85

$11,100 00
3,180 00

$742 20

$2,957 48

$256 54

$15,626 07
$11,100 00

Clerical and office

$53 50
27,780 04

$12 70

10,858 88

45,916 23

603 83

1,620 05

27 40

618 78

1,105 12

1,551 12

1,257 75

$56 86
9,699 29

3,303 06

Automobiles

48,338 21

45,916 23

603 83

Teleohone and teleffraoh

1,620 05

Freight, cartage and express

27 40

Rert

618 78

Captains and wardens

176,146 67

1,506 07

2,366 17

629 58

102 50

76 54
14 06
49 59

178,834 40

Launches

3,931 35

Fish planting __ _

4,620 00

6,556 92

Volunteer deouties

102 50

Premiums on bonds

229 50

229 50

Temporary help

2,237 77

1,500 00

720 00

2,760 00
14,355 50
11,291 29

9,333 18

2,237 77

1,500 00

Game refuge guard

720 00

Commercial fisheries patrol:
Chief and assistants

2,760 00

Captains and wardens

13 83
5,373 21

17 66
2,766 31

14,386 99

Launches

293 95

19,724 76

9,333 18

Travelinc

5,256 02
841 50
359 07

5,256 02

Rent

841 50

Automobiles

678 61

1,037 68

350 64

350 64

Total Bureau Patrol and Law Enforcement-
Bureau Commercial Fisheries:
Chief and assistants

$237,595 05

$13,620 00
9,596 34

$38,503 51

$73,041 92

$10,190 29

$359,330 77
$13,620 00

Clerical and office

$84 94
347 29

$23 96
254 51
5,694 22
60
585 77
129 73
146 92
361 37

9,705 24

Automobiles

$976 12

1,577 92

5,694 22

Postage

60

Telephone and telegraph

585 77

Freight, cartage and express

129 73

Rent

146 92

361 37

Research . . ... ....

2,280 00
22,687 58

33 24

1,154 57

580 00

855 45

100 92
500 18

2,414 16

Laboratory.

907 24

25,249 57
580 00

Statistics

2,016 00

143 30

3,014 75

Temporary help

88 39

88 39

Total Bureau Commercial Fisheries

$48,272 31

$3,055 49

$10,120 32

$1,720 52

$63,168 64

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

397

STATEMENT OF EXPENDITURES
For the Period July 1, 1933, to June 30, 1934, of the Eighty-fifth Fiscal Year -Continued

Function

Bureau Fish Culture:

Chief and assistants

Clerical and office

Automobiles

Traveling

Postage

Telephone and telegraph

Freight, cartage and express

Rent

Heat, light and power

Hatcheries

Fish cars

Blue printing

Cooperative research

Temporary help

Fish hatchery assistant, seasonal.

Hydraulic engineering

Special field

Total Bureau Fish Culture-

Bureau Game Propagation:

Chief and assistants

Automobiles

Traveling

Postage

Telephone and telegraph

Freight, cartage and express

Heat, light and power

Maintenance

Temporary help

Quail trapping and expansion of quail program
Purchase of quail and pheasants

Total Bureau Game Propagation.

Bureau Fish Rescue:
Chief and assistants.

Traveling...

Rent

Temporary help

Heavy truck service.

Total Bureau Fish Rescue.

Bureau Game Refuges:

Chief and assistants

Clerical and office.

Automobiles

Traveling

Telephone and telegraph

Lion hunters

Refuge posting

Predatory animal control

Refuge maintenance

Predatory animal hunters and trappers,

seasonal

Temporary help, seasonal

Total Bureau Game Refuges-

Bureau Licenses:

Clerical and office .

Printing, licenses and applications.

Traveling

Postage _

Freight, cartage and express

Premiums on bonds

Total Bureau Licenses-

Total eighty-fifth fiscal year expense paid
from support appropriations

Salaries

and

wages

$7,185 00
4,080 00

108,536 67
3,540 00

3,110 71
1,520 35
21,646 04
2,400 00
7,340 00

J 159,358 77

$5,460 00

13,005 71

744 95

4,726 07

$23,936 73

$4,800 00

117 00

$4,917 00

$8,500 00
1,920 00

5,479 00
450 00

8,145 50

5,600 00
3,982 00

$34,076 50

$13,140 00

$13,140 00

$551,839 77

Materials

and
supplies

$13 20

23 94

6,953 11

)2,139 24

415 47

1 62

637 58

50 26
99 76

$70,334 18

$630 88

10,039 86

1,641 77
2,135 67

$14,448 18

$4 27

$4 27

$11 16
557 97

3,282 35

$3,851 48

$111 77
15,776 06

$15,887 83

$154,198 23

Service

and
expense

$100 50

12 75

3,091 37

7,807 58

219 53
1,198 29

896 25
2,774 04
1,640 01
1,076 80

725 63

16 46

1,762 81

957 72
5 50

$22,405 24

$270 04

2,250 61

72 79

174 10

40 59

1,300 07

448 63

2,493 59

$7,050 42

$42 24
107 56
109 00

1,187 20

$1,446 00

$12 50

182 96

4,752 46

95

5,530 00
2,199 81

$12,678 68

$22 04

340 62
1,838 14
1,071 29
1,177 50

$4,449 59

$171,572 37

Property

and
equipment

$165 28
2,913 68

1,068 65
"'22'67'

225 28
94 79

$4,490 35

$64 70
'492'i8'

$556 88

$328 20

$328 20

$17,624 10

Total

$7,358 70

4,281 97

12,958 16

7,867 58

219 53

1,198 29

896 25

2,774 04

1,640 01

172,821 36

4,681 10

18 08

5,533 77

1,520 35

21,646 04

3,633 26

7,540 05

$256,588 54

$5,460 00

900 92

2,250 61

72 79

174 10

40 59

1,300 07

23,558 90

744 95

9,353 61

2,135 67

$45,992 21

$4,846 51

107 56

109 00

117 00

1,187 20

$6,367 27

$8,500 00

1,943 66

740 93

4,752 46

95

5,479 00

450 00

5,530 00

13,955 86

5.600 00
3,982 00

$50,934 86

$13,273 81

15,776 06

340 62

1,838 14

1,071 29

1,177 50

$33,477 42

$895,234 47

398

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

STATEMENT OF EXPENDITURES
For the Period July 1, 1933, to June 30, 1934, of the Eighty-fifth Fiscal Year— Continued

Function

Salaries

and

wages

Materials

and
supplies

Service

and
expense

Property

and
equipment

Total

Special items:
Claim of Chief Accounting Officer of Depart-
ment of Finance — Chapter 991-33

12,259 11
7,325 76

Construction of Russian River Jetties — Chap-
ter 989-33

Deer-tight fences— Chapter 872-31:
From January 1, 1934, to June 30, 1934

$73 80
1,498 05

From July 1, 1933, to December 31, 1933..-

$1,571 85

18,750 00

38,313 71

538 32

Total deer-tight fences— Chapter 872-31-

Electro Metals Company's Claim — Chap-
ter 599-31 ---

License commissions

State Fair and other exhibits

Total special items

$68,758 75

Permanent improvements:

$67,496 43

Prior year expense:
83d fiscal year

$82 35
26,043 69

84th fiscal year .

Total prior year expense

$26,126 04

Bureau Commercial Fisheries— Chapter 825-33
Fresh fish marketing:
Chief and assistants

S4,490 47
• 1,139 03

$4,490 47

Clerical and office

$123 40
6 50

$11 55

19 42

1,155 63

260 00

2 61

180 68

40 57

3,545 95

1,273 98

Automobiles

25 92

Traveling

1,155 63

Postage

260 00

Telephone and telegraph

2 61

Freight, cartage and express .

180 68

Rent

40 57

Exhibits

205 47

3,751 42

Temporary help

351 00

351 00

Printing .

1,852 02

1,852 02

Pro rata administration

696 21

$103 79

800 00

Total Bureau Commercial Fisheries —
Chapter 825-33— Fresh fish marketing-

$5,980 50

$2,187 39

$5,912 62

$103 79

$14,184 30

Grand total proprietary group

$1,071,799 99

In addition to the above expenditures the following amount was transferred from the Fish and Game
Preservation Fund into the State Employees' Retirement Fund -.- $17,000 67

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME
ANGLING LICENSE SALES, 1914-1933

399

Year

Number
sold

Value

Year

Number
sold

Value

1914

81,965

87,262

111,994

No record

. No record

No record

No record

176,873

183,116

225,171

184,417
89,620
115,518
125,572
123,080
146,724
163,183
183,319
189,738
232,995

1924

202,690
222,983
246,167
262,886
217,788
225,774
248,319
242,857
212,662
175,936

$210,988

1915

1925.

232,501

1916

1926

1927

256,629

1917 ._

273,202

1918

1928'_

1929

1930

445,764

1919 _ __

471,826

1920

508,875

1921

1931

1932

497,317

1922 -

436,373

1923 -

1933

358,568

'Resident license fee increased from Jl.OO to S2.00 each.

SEIZURES OF FISH AND GAME

April, May, June, 1934
Fish:

Abalones, pounds

Barracuda, pounds

Bass —

Black -

Striped

Striped, pounds

Clams

Crappie, perch, sunfish

Cockles

Halibut, pounds

Lobsters, pounds

Scallops, pounds

Salt Water Perch, pounds

Salmon, pounds

Trout, all kinds, pounds

Yellowfin, pounds

Yellowtail, pounds

Nets

Fish traps

Game:

Deer

Deer meat, pounds '

Doves

Ducks

Pheasants

Pigeons

Quail

Rabbits

Non-game b;rds

Tree squirrel

Guns

Bird traps --

278
60

38

105

29

2,622

141

610

14

814

34

75

1,370

872

1,992

17

1

13

11

205

5

109

7

8

7

9

11

1

2

1

400

CALIFORNIA PISH AND GAME

FISH CASES
April, May, June, 1934

Offense

Abalones; small; overlimit

Angling, no license

Bass —

Black ; small

Striped; small; overlimit

Barracuda; small

Clams; small; overlimit

Cockles; overlimit i

Commercial fishing license act; violations of

Crappie, sunfish, perch; closed season; overlimit

Halibut

Nets, illegal

Trout ; closed season ; overlimit

Lobsters; closed season

Sabnon ; small

Fish traps, illegal

Fishing in closed waters

Illegal fishing gear

Miscellaneous fish cases

Totals

Number
arrests

41
.48

10

14
3

46
2

22

17
1
9

50
3
1
3

21
2
'4

297

Fines
imposed

$870 00
490 00

265 00
205 00

560 00
50 00
96 00

255 00

200 00

1,200 00

25 00

135 00

375 00

5 00

5 00

J4,736 00

Jail

sentences

(days)

12^

30

50
47H

143

GAME CASES
April, May, June, 1934

Offense

Deer; closed season; killing does, fawns; spike buck

Ducks; closed season

Doves; closed season

Grouse; closed season

Pheasants; closed season

Pigeons; closed season

Quail; closed season

Rabbits; closed season

Tree squirrels

Firearms in game refuge.

Hunting license act; violations of

Non-game birds; killing of

Spotlight hunting

Shooting from automobile

Totals

Number
arrests

38
2
2
1
6
3
2
4
1
8

11
1
4
1

84

Fines
imposed

$775 00
40 00
75 00

$1,408 00

Jail

sentences
(days)

495
"75

75 00

450

65 00

25 00

80 00

108 00

165 00

120

1,140

CALIFORNIA PISH AND GAME

401

FRESH FISH IMPORTATIONS* FROM FOREIGN COUNTRIES FOR APRIL. MAY AND JUNE. 1934
Compiled by the Division of Fish and Game. Bureau of Commercial Fisheries

Species

Barracuda

Cabrilla

Corbina, Mexican-
Grouper -.

Halibut, California.
Mackerel, Pacific-..
Mackerel, Spanish..

Perch

Rock Bass

Rockfish

Sardine

Sea-bass, Black

Sea-bass, White

Shark

Sheepshead

Sole

Totuava

Tuna, Albacore

Tuna, Bonito

Tuna, Skipjack

Tuna, Yellowfin

Whitefish

Yellowtail

Miscellaneous Fish.

Crustacean:
Lobster, Spiny...

Mollusk:
Clam, Cockle.

Reptile:
Turtle

Total pounds.

Landed in
Region 70,
Los Angeles

9,685

104,389

17,295

25,467

23,613

20

1,331

10,428
12,429

108,925
4,002

96,217

916,470

1,144

258,909

',718,528

3,536

118,612

360

10,066

7,800

9.449,226

Landed in
Region 80,
San Diego

21,495
113.900

15.440

48.767

90,846

253

278

37,497

39,499

613

60,876

43

604

171

40

71,868

751,258

11,628,596

2,272

387,836

28,131

2,601

13,302,884

Total pounds

31.180

218,289

17,295

40,907

72,380

90,866

1.584

278

47,925

51,928

613

169,801

4,045

604

171

40

96,217

916,470

73,012

1,010,167

19,347,124

5,808

506,448

360

38,197

7.800

2,601

22,752,110

*Included in tables of landings for Region 70, 1 os Angeles, and Region 80, San Diego.

402

CALIFORNIA PISH AND GAME

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403

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CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

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INDEX TO VOLUME 20

All numbers in italics refer to pages where definite information pertaining

to subject is given.

Abalone, 20, 24, 28.
Abbott, Clinton G., 355.
Aetohatus californicus, 6.
Ahwahnee Hotel, 326.
Albacore, 392.
Albacore, 161, 392, 89^
Albatross, 361.
Albright, Horace M., 40, 44.
Alexander, Annie M., 185.
Alstrom, A. A., fresh fish marketing,
70-71 ; fresh fish marketing activi-
ties, 162-163 ; adequate fresh fish
inspection and grading, 297-298.
Ameirns catus, 375.

nebulosus, 375.
Amphioxis, 6.
Anaplasma, 80.
Anchovy, 6.

Anderson, Harvey T., Jr., the pronghorn
antelope in Los Angeles County,
91—92.
Andrews, W. W., 291, 292.
Angling and hunting license buttons, new,

152.
Anser alhifrons alhifrons, 292.
Antelope, 32, 89, 90-91, 164; doe covers
fawns to conceal them, 291.
Pronghorn, 186; in Los Angeles
County, 91-92.
Antler defined, 186; growth of, 239-2Jf6.
Argonaiita pacifica, 27.
Arnold, Lester, 147, 289, 290.
Association, Bakersfield Civic Commer-
cial, 144.
California elks, 166
California producers and wholesale fish

dealers', 154.
Fish and game development, 78.
North Pacific crab fishermen, 154.
North Pacific oyster growers, 154.
Northwest wholesale fish dealers', 154.
Oregon commercial fisheries, 154.
San Joaquin Valley elks, 146.
Atherinops affinis affinis, 157, 158.
littoralis, 157, 158.
oregonia, 157, 158.

B

Bacillus necrophorus, 57, 62, 82.
Bade, August, 76.
Badger, 81, 88.
Bailey, Vernon, 186.

Banding returns for 1932 and 1933, quail,
371-37J,.

l/,-19.

Barnum, Oscar L., 238, 240, 241, 254,

260.
Bartsch, Paul, 23, 24, 27, 28, 29.
Bass, black, propagation work, report on,
72-73; large-mouthed, intrdducfd
into Lake Merced, 7^-75.

Rock, 5, 8.

Spotted, 5.

Striped, 10, 161 ; tagging of.
Bat, 88.
Bear, 81, 61, 213, 271.

Black, 88, 218, 265, 273.

Grizzly, 88.
Beatty, M. E., 50; mountain sheep found
mummified in Yosemite glacier,
92-93.
Beaver, 89.

Beck, Thomas H., 163.
Behle, W. H., 356.
Bell, Frank T., 387.
Berrian, William, 132, 390.
Berry, Samuel Stillman, 29.
Bibliography, octopus, 29.
Bird, State Importation Law, addition to

list of totally excluded, 391.
Bison, 89, 144.

Oregon, 91, 144.
Blackfish, 91.
Blood, D. H., 152.
Bluefin, 392, 393.
Boat,

Agnes S., 136.

Alhacore. 392.

/. 0. Y., 154.

Neic Admiral, 136.

Ohio, 13G.

Olympic, 138.

Pal, 136, 137.

Portola, 136.

President, 393.

Qiiinnat, 14.

Ranger, 136.
Bobcat, 30 31, 32, S3, 34, 35, 61, 228.
Bonito, 392, 393.
Bonham, Kelshaw, 295.
Bonnot, Paul, 10.
Booth, E. J., 361.
Booth, Roy, 42.
Borell, A. E., 47, 50.
Bowers, George B., 1.
Boynton, William H., deer as carriers of

a cattle disease, 80-81.
Brant, black, census in California, fourth
annual, 355-36/,.

(405)

406

INDEX

Branta bernicia hrota, 361.
nigricans, 355—36.^.
canadensis, 359.
Brown, A. L., 59.
Brown, C. L. 40.
Brown, Merrill W., 72, 386.
Brownlow, O. P., 147, 289.
British Columbia game department, 363.
Bruce, Jay, 185, 234, 265. 270, 271, 343.
Bryant, H. C, 40, 67, 234.
Buck, Frank H., 166.
Bullard. Arthur. 192.
Bullard, R. J., 289.
Bullard, William, 192.
Bureau of Animal Industry, 275.

Commercial fisheries, 154, 161, 162, 357.
Education and research, 58, 68, 284 ;

personnel changes in, 67.
Fish culture, 72, 133.
Fish rescue, 75, 385, 386.
Game refuges, .59.
Patrol, 14.
Burghduff, A. E., 50, 51 ; stream improve-
ment, 113-118 ; division imports
quail from Mexico, 166-167 ; West-
ern Association of Fish and Game
Commissioners meeting, 1934, 387—
389.
Burnham, W. E., 113.
Burteh, Lewis A., the Kern County elk

refuge. 140-147.
Button, new angling and hunting license,
152.

California Academy of Sciences, 37, 38,

44.
California Fish and Game. 37, 49, 52,
67, 85, 86, 90. 91. 143, 148, 156, 166,
. 192, 254, 283, 28^, 287, 288, 296, 297,

315. 318. 342. 3.55. .356. 357. .358.
California fish trades industry, 1.54.
California. State of

Agriculture (Dept. of), 68, 168.

Architecture (Div. of), 133.

Fisheries Laboratory, 1, 70, 154.

Forestry (Div. of), 152.

Mines (Div. of), 152.

Natural Resources, G. D. Nordenholt

appointed director, 151-152.
Oil and Gas (Div. of), 152.
Public Works (Dept. of), 146.
State Parks (Div. of), 152.
California State Chamber of Commerce,
41, 78, 184.
Fish and Game Committee, 78.
Caribou, 193.
Carnegie In.stitution, 197.
Carp, 375, 377, 379, 38^.
Carter, A. E., 166.
Cat, house, 31.
Ringtail, 31, 88.
Wild, 88, 229, 272, 343.

Catfish, 377, 378. 379, 380, 382, 384;
heron choked to death by. 9.}.
Fork-tail. 375. 378. 383.
Square-tail. 375. 378. 383.
Caton, John Dean, 193, 194, 199, 236,

246.
Caiostomus occidentaUs, 375.
Cattle, 316, 341-342 ; disease, deer as car-
riers of a, 80-81.
Cervus hemionus, 186.
macrotis, 186, 199.
iiannodes, 1)0, l.'f2.
Changes in sardine fishing gear in the
Monterey region, with a note on ex-
pansion of fishing grounds, 131^-139.
Chen hypcrhorea hyperhorea, 292, 359.
Cherry Creek project, 113-118.
Chickaree, 89.
Chipmunk, 89
Cirroteuthis macrope, 27.
Civilian conservation coi*ps, 47.
Clam, 6-7, 24.

Cockle, hard-shell, 7.

Rock, 7.
Gaper, 7.
.Tacknife, G, 9.
Pismo, in 1933, 1511-157.
Purple, 7.
Razor, 6.
Soft-shell, 10.
Washington, 7.
Wedge shell, 7.
Corbina, California, 5.
Clark. Frances N., an unusual sardine,
155 ; life history of the bay smelt,
157—158 ; uncommon fish taken at
San Pedro, 393-394.
Clark, G. H., tagging of striped bass,
14-19 ; Pacific Coast AVholesale Fish
Dealers Association, 154 ; ground
fish, 155-156.
Club, Associated Sportsmen's, of Califor-
nia, 74, 75.
Fresno Sportsmen's, 73.
.Tonathon, 287.
Rainbow, 290.
Cliipea pallas'd, 362.
Cod, cultus, 155.
Code, Fish and Game, new, 67-68.

Fisheries, 70, 154. 297.
CoflSn, Arthur S., 154.
Commercial fishery notes, 69-70. 154-

158, 392-394.
Committee on Wild-life Restoration,

President's 163, 164, 165.
Coney, 89.

Conference, game warden, 287.
Conrad, H. C, 357.
Contract law, Oregon adopts upland

game bird landowner, 77-78.
Convention, Pacific Coast Wholesale Fish

dealers, 15Jf.
Cook, Newell, 389.

INDEX

407

Cooke, A. H., 29.

Cookson, Sam, 229, 272.

(Jooper, J. G., 88.

Corrisaii, M. L., 387.

Cougar, 209, 213, 265, 271-272.

Cow, 32.

Cowfish, 91.

Cowan, I. McT., 59, 81.

Coyote, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 61, 88,
200, 213, 226, 271, 273, 343.

Coypu, 168.

C. R. A., 70.

Crab, 7, 20, 28.

Croaker, 8.
Spotfiii, 5.
Yellowfin, 5.

Croker, R. S., 392, 393; and Donald H.
Fry, Jr., a preliminary survey of
Mission Bay State Park, 1-13 ; two
mackerel records broken, 154-155 ;
tbe Pismo clam in 1933, 156-157;
giant squid taken at Laguna Beach,
297 ; fresh water commercial fisher-
ies of California, 375—384.

Cndahy Packing Company, 4.

Culp, James, 147.

Curlew, long-billed, 164.

Ciishing, J. E.. Jr., 356.

C. W. A., 132, 165, 287; work to aid
division activities, 68-69.

('t)<l)iiis cohimhianus. 359.

Vynoscion nohilln, 5.

Cypi'inus carpio, 375.

Dado, S. H.. 14, 358.
Daphnia, 75.
Darling, J. N., 163.
Davis, II. S., 72.
Davis, .James, 287.
Day, Dr., 277.

Dayton, William A., 320, 322, 341.
Deer, 32, 33, 164; poison, 63; tag returns
for 1933, 79-80; as carriers of a cat-
tle disease, 80—81; for California,
another "new," 81; result of fighting
in rut, death of, 82-84; fencing law
repealed, 84; hunting success in
Angeles National Forest, 84-85; of
California, Sheldon's, 85-87; herd
winters well, 166; kill statistics,
1933, 166; kill in California, seven
year record of, 174; fence, 217 ; dis-
ease, 274-282.
Black-tailed, 89, 189, 215; breeding
record, early, 291.
Coast, 202, 227, 252.
Columbian, 89, 187, 188, 194, 200,

201, 203, 278, 342.
Southern, 187, 204, 342.
Burro, 90.

Mule, 90; study program, 52-66; in
California, a study of the life his-

tory and food habits of, life history,
181-282; food habits, 315-354;
study, Dixon's, 283, 284.
California, 81, 90.
Inyo, 81, 90.
Rocky Mountain, 90.
San Diego, 81, 90.
White-tailed, 90, 189, 203, 215.
DeLacy, Allan, 296.
Del Monte Properties Company, 38.
Del Paso Park, 38, 39.
Disease, cattle, deer as carriers of a,
80-81.
Deer, 57, 62-63, 274-282.
Hoof-and-mouth. 183. 188, 231, 270-
278.
Division of Fish and Game, 1, 9, 14, 47, 52,
57, 67, 68, 70, 80, lOi), 119, 133, 145,
152, 154. 155, 157, 161, 168, 182, 183,
185, 192, 296, 365, 371, 375, 379, 383,
392 ; imports quail from Mexico,
166-167.
Dixon, .Joseph, 51, 59, 86 ; a study of the
life history and food habits of mule
deer in California, part 1, life his-
tory, 181-282; part 2, food habits,
315-354.
Dixon's mule deer study, 283-284. 3S5.
Dobler, Roland, 109, 110, 111.
Dolphin, V>1.
Donax califonilca. 7.
Dorcelaphus hemioniiH eremh-ux. 186.
Doudoroff. Peter, 29.5.
Dow, G. W., 41. 42. 43. 45. 47. 48. 49;
more tule elk planted in Owens ^'al-
ley, 288-290.
Duck, 32; abundance in California in 1933,
78-79; stamp hill. 165.
Bufflehead, 386.
Canvasback, 386.
Eider, 386.
Gadwall. 386.
Redhead, 386.
Ringneck, 386.
Scaup, greater, 386.

Lesser, 386.
Shoveller. 386.
Dunwoody, Cliarles (J.. 41. 42.
Durham, .Af. W., 84.

Eagle, golden, 61. 27.',. .343.
Ecological Monoyraphs, 224.
Edmondson. C. II., 295.
Einarsen, Arthur S., 359. 362, 363.
Elk, 89, 164, 186; herd, history of the
Yosemite, 37-51; refuge, the Kern
County, 140-147.
Dwarf, 89.
Roosevelt, 89.

Tule. planted in Owens Valley, 2SS-
290.
Elliger, C. O., 66.

408

INDEX

Elodonella heathi, 26.
Embody. G. C, 72.
p]ssig, PI O., 280.
Etrumeus tnicrops, 393.
Evermann. Barton Warren, 37, 49.
Experiment in quail importation, 365-
370.

Farley, John L., 45, 50, 154, 165, 287;
personnel change in Bureau of Edu-
cation and Research, 67 ; new Forest
Service fish and game regulation,
284-287.

Felix, Jose, 367.

Fiedler, R. H., 154.

Fish marketing, fresh, 70-71; dealers
convention. Pacific coast wholesale,
154; ground, 155-156; marketing
activities, fresh, 162-163; inspection
and grading, adequate fresh, 297-
298; taken at San Pedro, uncommon,
393-394.

Fish and Game Commission, 45, 57, 67, 75,
78, 130, 143, 145, 158, 166, 183, 274,
277, 284, 285, 289, 290, 343, 387.
Montana, 275.

Fisher, 88.

Fisher, C. O., 66,. 287, 389.

Fishery, notes on the sardine, 158-162;
statistics changes in form of, 296-
297; of California, freshwater com-
mercial, 375-38//.

Fishing gear in the Monterey region, with
a note on expansion of fishing
grounds, changes in sardine, 134-
139.

Flounder, 8.

Fourth annual black brant census in Cali-
fornia, 355-364.

Fox, Harold K., 73.

Fox, 31, 32.
Gray, 88.
Island, 88.
Kit, 88.
Red, 88.

Freshwater commercial fisheries of Cali-
fornia, 375-384.

Frog, 32.

Fry, D. H., Jr., 392; and Richard S.
Croker, a preliminary survey of
Mission Bay State Park, 1-13.

Fundulus parvipinnis, 6.

Furgason, Waldo, 296.

Gabrielson, I. N., 358.
Game farm, Chino, 167, 365.

Yountville. 293, 373.
Gann, Joe, 229, 272.
Gar, 6.

Gentry, J. Dale, 287, 386, 387.
Gillichthys mirahilis, 6.
Gilloon, S. R., 59, 66, 82.

Gilmore, Earl B., 287, 386.
Glidden, E. H., 167, 355.
Goat, 32, 341-342.

Mountain, 91.
Goby, 9.

Long- jaw, 6.
Godsil, H. C, 392. 393.
Goldfish, 73.
Gony, 361 .

Goose, abundance in California in 1933,
78-79; unusual age attained by wild,
291-292.

Canadian, 359.

Ross, 386.

Ruddy, 386.

Snow, 359, 361.
Gopher, 32, 89.
Grampus, 91.
Gray, Prentiss N., 195.
Great Western Power Company, 130.
Grebe, 32.
Grinnell, Joseph, 38, 40, 45, 49, 186, 235,

237, 361.
Grinnell's, Joseph, review of California

mammal fauna, 87-91.
Grouse, 164.

Sand, liberated in California, 292-295.
Grunion, 157.
Grunsky, C. E., 44.

Gyger, J. H., heron choked to death by
catfish, 94.

H

Hake, 155.

Halibut, California, 5.
Hall, E. Raymond, 59, 318.
Hall, J. R., 114.
Hamilton, Andy, 76.
Hammack, Brice, 59.
Hanavan. Mitchell, 295.
Hanna, Thomas R., 109.
Hanson, Harry, 296.
Harbuck, J. W., 168.
Hardhead, 375, 379, 380.
Harp, William J., 167, 357, 358.
Harville, Ronald P., 80.
Harwell, C. A., 50, 228.
Hatchery, Fall Creek, 71.

Lake Almanor, 130-133, 390.
Hawk, Cooper, 373.
Headington, Stephen, 273.
Heath, Harold, 25, 29.
Hecker, F. W., 355, 358.
Henderson, W. C, 387.
Heron, 73, 164 ; choked to death by cat-
fish, 94.
Herrick, L. A., 197.
Herring, 362.

Japanese, 393.
History of the Yosemite elk herd, 37-51.
Hittett, F. T., 141.
Hone, Daniel W., 154.
Hooper, Emmett, 296.
Hopkins Marine Station, 357.
Horn, William, 216.

INDEX

409

Horn defined, 186.

Huber, Wharton, 140.

Hunter, J. S., SO, 66, 192.

Hunting license button, new angling and,

152.
Hypsopsetta guttulata, 5.

1

Importation of certain wild birds and
animals, regulations governing, 68;
law, addition to list of totally ex-
cluded animals. State, 168; experi-
ment in quail, 365-370; law, addi-
tion to list of totally excluded birds,
391.

Israel, Hugh, 296.

Ivory, Thomas. 53.

Jaeger, Edmund C, 91.

Jaguar, Mexican, 88.

Jensen, H. C, 357.

Jensen, Louis, 115, 117.

Jewett, A. F., 146.

Johnson, F. W., 59.

.Tohnson, Hiram W., 285.

Johnson, W. D., 199, 208.

Jones, T. J., 59.

Jordan, A. A., 53, 59.

Journal of Mammalogy, 81, 234.

Junco, 32.

Junkans, William, 195, 196.

K

Keane, Charles, 231, 276.

Kehrer, Paul, 53, 59, 66.

Kelp, 8.

Kern County elk refuge, llfO-lItl.

Kern County Land Company, 140.

Keyes, Joseph, porcupine control on for-
ests of California, 148-150.

Killer, 91.

Kingfish, 10.

Kingfisher, 73.

Klamath River spawning conditions in
1932, 11-12.

Lager, Oscar, 28.

Lancelet, 6.

Langdon, II. J., 155.

Lathrop, F. L., 164.

Lavinia exilicauda, 380.

Law, Oregon adopts upland game bird

landowner contract, 77-78.
Leavitt, E. P., 40.
Lcgge, Robert T., 197.
Leighton, P. W., 113, 114.
Leitritz, Earl, 71.
Leopold, Aldo, 163.
Lewis, W. B., 39.
License buttons, new angling and hunting,

152.
Linsdale, Jean, 237, 356, 357.

Lion, mountain, 81, 61, 88, 2;M, 270, 271-

272.
Lippincott, William, 66.
Lombardi, M. E., 294, 295.
Long, W. L, 289.
Lophortyx californica jylumbea, 369.

californica valUcola, 369.
Lorenzen, L. N., 53.
Loustalot, John, 290.

M

Macaulay, E. L., 108, 110, 112, 289;
game warden conference, 287.

Macauley, Edward, 68.

Mackerel, 70, 393, 394; records broken,
two, 154-155.

Macrourus stelgidolepis, 393.

Madsen, D. H., 389.

Mann, Don, 230.

Marketing, fresh fish, 70-71; activities,
fresh fish, 162-163.

Marmot, 89.

Marron, Ralph, 287.

Marshall, A. P., 355.

Marten, 88.

Mather, Stephen T., 38.

McAllister, M. Hall, 37, 39, 40, 44, 45,
51, 91.

McCabe, T. T., 350.

McCauley, John, 230, 231, 270.

McClymonds and Wells, 67.

McDonald, J. L., 30, 31, 32, 59.

McLean, D. D.. 59, 61, 68; predatory
animal studies, 30-36.

McMillin, H. C, 10.

Menticirrhus iindulatus, 5.

Merced, Lake, large-mouthed black bass
introduced into, 74-75.

Mercer, L. E., 53, 66.

Merganser, 73.

Merriam, C. Hart, 37, 141, 142.

Merrill, W. K., 47.

Michael, Charies W., 228, 248.

Miller and Lux, Inc., 37, 38, 140, 141,
145.

Miller, Gerrit S., 186.

Miller, Henry, 140.

Mink, 31, 88.

Minnow, 9, 73, 375, 380.
Top, 6.

Mission Bay State Park, a preliminary
survey, 1-13.

Moffitt, James, 67, 284; history of the
Yosemite elk herd, 37-51 ; mule deer
study program, 52-66 ; new Fish and
Game Code, 67-68 ; regulations gov-
erning importation of certain wild
birds and animals, 68 ; Oregon adopts
Upland Game Bird Landowner Con-
tract Law, 77-78 ; waterfowl abun-
dance in California in 1933, 78-79 ;
another new deer for California, 81 ;
death of buck deer result of fighting
in rut, 82-84 ; deer fencing law re-

410

INDEX

pealed, 84 ; deer hunting success in
Angeles National Forest, 84-85 ;
Sheldon's deer of California, 85-87 ;
Grinnell's review of California mam-
mal fauna. 87-91; Federal wild-life
restoration program, 163-166 ; 1933
deer kill statistics, 166 ; deer herd
winters well, 166 ; revised estimate
of 1933 California waterfowl
abundance, 167-168; addition to list
of totally excluded animals. State
importation law, 168; funds for Fed-
eral wild-life restoration program
shrink, 287 ; in memory of F. W.
Van Sicklen. 288; early black-tailed
breeding record, 291 ; unusiuil age
attained by wild geese, 291-292 ;
sand-grouse liberated in California,
292-295; fourth annual black brant
census in California, 355-364.

Mola mola, 393.

Mole, 88.

Moore, Charles F., 71.

Moran, Nathan, 165.

Morgan. II. T., 197.

Moroteufhis rohusta, 297.

Mosquito fish, 73.

Mouse, 32.
Pocket, 89.

Mud sucker, 9.

Muelheisen, A., 355.

Mugil cephaJus, 6, 38-^/.

Mullet, 6, 38^.

Museum of Natural History, Santa Bar-
bara, 85.
San Diego Natural History, 355.
United States National, 142.
Vertebrate Zoolog;^', University of Cali-
fornia, 87, 184, 185. 196, 197, 199,
203. 283. 361.
Yosemite, 93, 229, 250.

Muskrat, 89.

INIussel, 8, 20, 24.

My a arenaria, 10.

Mylopharodon eonoecphnhis, 375.

Myocastor coy pus, 168.

N

National Forest, Angeles, deer hunting
success in, 8Jf-85.
Stanislaus, 114, 188, 201, 230, 231, 234,
276, 277, 343.
National Park, Lassen, 185.

Sequoia, 37, 143, 185, 214, 227, 229,

266, 320, 334.
Yellowstone, 45.
Yosemite, 185, 225.
Neale, George, retires from division, 385-

386.
Neblett, Colin, 389.

Needham, P. R., 72 ; notes on the food of
trout, 119-127 ; notes on the Califor-
nia trout investigations, 153 ; notes
on stream survey work in California,
295-296.

Needlefish, 6, 8.
Nelson. J. W., 84.
Net, fyke, 380-382.

Long bag dip, 137.

Ring, 135.
Nidever, H. B., 383.

Nordenholt, George D., 287 ; apiiointed
director. Department of Natural Re-
sources, 151-152.
Nordquist. Gus, 185, 227, 247.
N. R. A.. 7(9, 161.
Nutria, 168.
Nycticorax nyciicora.v hoactli, 9Jf.

Oceanographic work, summer, 392-393.

O'Connell, John, 291, 292.

Octopi of California, 20-29.

Odocoileus columbianiis columhiamiK, 52,
291.
hemioniis californiciis, 52, 81.
fulignatus, 81, 186.
hemionus, 52.
inyoensis, 52. 186.

Ogden, .Tames, 141.

Oliver, Arthur, 192.

Opossum, 31, 32.
Virginia, 88, 89.

Oregon adopts I jdand Game Bird Land-
owner (,\)ntract Law, 77-76'.

Oregon State Game Commission, 358.

Orthodon microlepidotus, 375.

Otter, river, 88.
Sea, 88.

Ovenden. Lou, 359, 362.

Owl, 373.

Palmer, T. S., 38.

Paphia staminca, 7.

Puralahnix maculatofasciatus, 5.
nehulifei; 5.

Parallfhthys calif or mens, 5.

Parvin, R.' G., 389.

Pectcn circ III arts, 7.

Perch, salt Avater, 5, 10.

Personnel changes in Bureau of Educa-
tion and Research, 67; change. 28-'f.

Pheasant season a success, first Califor-
nia, 75-76.
Chinese, 77.
Hungarian, 77.

Phillips, J. B., 297, 357; octopi of Cali-
fornia, 20-29'; changes in sardine
fishing gear in the Monterey region,
with a note on expansion of fishing
grounds, 134—139.

Phoca intulina, 9.

Pigeon, band-tailed, 77.

Pike, Sacramento, 375, 380.

Pneumdtophorous diego, 155.

Pogonichthys macrolepidotus, 375.

Poison, deer, 63.

INDEX

411

Pollution studies, stream and hay, 128-

129.
Polypus iimaculatus, 25, 26.

calif ornicus, 26.

gilhertianus, 26.

hongkongensis, 21, 25, 26.

leioderma, 21.
Porcupine, 89; control on forests of Cali-
fornia, 148-150.
Porpoise, 91.
Powers, Harold J., 56.
Pratt, Frank H., 146.
Predatory animal studies, 30-36.
Preliminary survey of Mission Bay State

Park, "a, 1-13.
Price, John H., 358.
Propagation, bass, black, work, report on,

72-73.
Ptychocheilus grandis, 375.
Purse, seine, 135, 136.
P. W. A., 165, 287.

Quail, 32, 35, 36, 164, 393; season, 1933,
76-77; from Mexico Division im-
ports, 166-167 ; importation, experi-
ment in, 365-370; trapping, 367-
369; banding returns for 1932 and
1933, 371-374.

Queenfish, 10.

Quinnat, 14.

Rabbit, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 89, 164.
Raccoon, 31, 32.
Racev, Kenneth, 363.
Rachford, C. E., 388, 389.
Rat, kangaroo, 32, 89.

Wood, 32, 33, 34, 270.
Rat-tail, 393.
Ray, 155.
Sting, 9.

Bat, 6.

Round, 5.
Ray, J. N., 30, 31, 32.
Ray, R., 30, 31, 32.
Regulation G-20A, 284-287, 388-389.
Reindeer, 186, 193.
Robertson, A. Willis, 166.
Robinson, Joseph T., 165, 166.
Roccus lineatus, 14-
Rockfish, 155.

Rolph, James, Jr., 146, 151.
Roncador, stearnsi, 5.
Roosevelt, Franklin, 164.
Roosevelt, Theodore, 163.
Rush, W. M., 275.
Russell, Carl P., 224, 225, 226.
Rust, Lee, 47.

Sablefish, 155.
Salmo aquilarum, 107.
aqua-honita, 109.
7 — 15172

hennhaiii. 106, 107, 108.
irideus, 1(19.
regalis, 107.
roosevelti, 109.
seleniris, 105—112.
smaragdus, 107.
whitei, 109.
Salmon. 161, 375 ; spawning, Klamath
River, 71-72.
Silver, plant in Eagle Lake, S89-S90.
Sampson, A. W., 185, 318, 341.
Sand dab, 155.
.S'an Francisco Chronicle, 28.
Sanguinolaria nuttalli, 7.
Sardine, 69-70, 382, 384, 392, 393; fish-
ing gear in the Monterey region, with
a note on expansion of fishing
grounds, changes in, 134-139; an un-
usual, 155 ; fishery, note on the, 158-
162; season, the 1934-1935, 298-
300; in California, the catch of, 300-

Sardine Institute, 154.

Sactidomus nuttalli, 7.

Scallop, 7, 24.

Schisothaerus nuttalli, 7. •

Schultz, Leonard P., 157.

Schumacher, Oscar T., 197.

Scientific Monthly, 37, 141.

Scofield, E. C, 14, 16.

Scofield, N. B., 154, 161; notes on the
sai-dine fishery, 158-162; changes in
form of fishery statistics, 296-297.

Scofield. W. L., the catch of sardines in
California, 300-303.

Sea-bass, white, 5.

Sea lion, 88.

Seal, 9.

Elephant, 88.

Sears, Dean L., 42.

Sears, W. L., 84.

Season, pheasant, a success, first Califor-
nia, 75-76; quail, 1933, 76-77.

Shad, 161.

Shapovalov, Leo, 295.

Shark, 6, 8, 155.

Shaw, O. R., 30, 31, 32, 59.

Shaw, Paul A., stream and bay pollution
studies, 128-129.

Sheep, 32, 316, 341-342.

Mountain, 89, 91, 164; fouud mummi-
fied in Yosemite glacier, 92-93.

Sheldon, H. H., 186.

Sheldon's, H. H., deer of California,
85-87.

Shiner, red, 73.

Shoveller. 79.

Shrew, 88.

Shrimp, 7, 9.

Sibeck, Charles, 76.

Silva, A. C, 358.

Sinkey, R. L., 291.

Skate, 6.

Skelton, Henry, 234.

412

INDEX

Skunk, 31, 32.
Spotted, 88.
Striped, 88.

Smelt, 5, 6,- the life histoi-v of the, 157-
15S.

Smith, H. M., 24.

Smith, Osgood, 296.

Smithsonian Institution, 27.

Snider, H. I., 196.

Snyder, J. O., 67, 277 ; Klamath River
spawning condition in 1932, 71-72 ;
report on blaek bass propagation
work, 72-73 ; a new California trout,
105-112 ; plant silver salmon in
Eagle Lake, 389-390; water storage
in Santa Clara County, 390-391.

Sole, 155.
Tongue, 393.

Split-tail, 375, 380.

Springer, Louis, 291, 292.

Squid taken at Laguna Beach, giant, 297.

Squirrel, 33, 34, 35, 36.
"Digger," 222.
Flying, 89.
Gray, 32, 89.
Ground, 32,' 89.

Standard Oil Company, 294.

Starks, Chloe Lesley, 106.

Starr, F. R., .53, 59, 6G, 79 ; antelope doe
covers fawns to conceal them, 291.

State Park Commission, 146.

Steinhart Aquarium, 109, 110.

Stephens, Frank, S8.

Stiner, J. W., 260.

Stream improvement, 113-llS.

Stream and bay pollution studies, 128—
129.

Stream survey work in California, notes
on, 295-296.

Sdrongylura exilis, 6.

Study of the life history and food habits
of mule deer in California, 181-282;
315-354.

Sturgeon, 375.

Sucker, western, 375, 380.

Sullivan, Kenneth E., 71.

Sumner, Francis, 119, 296.

Sunfish, 73, 393.

Sutton, Vernon, 83.

Swan. 386.

Whistling, 359.

Swordfish, 394.

Symphurus atricaudus, 393.

Taft, A. C, 295.
Tagelus caUfornianus, 6.
Tagging of striped bass, l/f-19.
Talbott, W. S., 168.
Taylor, W. P., 235.
Teal, 79.

Blue wing, 386.

Cinnamon, 386.

Green wing, 386.

Thomson, C. G., 40, 41, 42, 45, 49, 50.

Thornhurg. J. W.. 82, 109, 110.

Thurston, O. M., 287.

TiveJa stultoruni, 156.

Tonkin, George, 287.

Townsley, F. S., 45, 47, 50.

Trapping quail, 367-369.

Trout, 375; a new California, 105-112;
notes on the food of, 119-127; in-
vestigations, notes on California,
153.

True, Gordon H., Jr., experiment in quail
importation, 365-370; quail banding
returns for 1932 and 1933, 371-374.

Tugwell, R. G., 286.

Tuna, 393.
Bluefin, 394.

Turbot, diamond, 5, 8.

Turkey, wild, 164.

U

Umbrina roncador, 5.
United States Bureau of Biological Sur-
vey, 37, 38, 85, 141, 148, 149, 358,
387.
Fisheries, 295, 296, 387.
Forest Service, 52, 59, 84, 184, 387;
fish and game regulation, new. Regu-
lation G-20A, 284-287, 388-389.
National Park Service, 37, 38, 42, 92,
181, 185, 387.
University of California, 184.

Division of veterinary science, 80.
Chicago, 151.
Stanford, 30, 392.
Urolophus halleri, 5.

Van Sicklen, F. W., in memory of. 288.
Van Vorhis, L. G., albacore, 394 ; bluefin

tuna, 394.
Varnum, Ernest, 133.
Vining, Irving, 389.
Vogt, J. H., the Lake Almanor hatchery,

130-133.

W

Wagy, James I., 141, 146.

Wales, Joe, 22.

Walker, E. L., 47, 50, 288, 289, 290.

Wallace, H. A., 163, 284.

Wallace, J. R., 31, 32.

Walters, C. J., 47, 50, 288, 289, 295.

AVarden conference, game, 287.

Warner, O. L., C. W. A. work to aid di-
vision activities, 68-69 ; large-
mouthed black bass introduced into
Lake Merced, 74-75 ; first California
pheasant season a success, 75-76 ;
deer tag returns for 1933, 79-80;
new angling and hunting license but-
tons, 152; George Neale retires from
division, 385-386 ; Federal migratory
waterfowl regulations, 385-386.

INDEX

413

Washington State Department of Game,
358, 359.

Water storage in Santa Clara County,
890-391.

Waterfowl abundance in California in
1933, 78-79; revised estimate of
1933 California, 167-168; regula-
tions, 1934, Federal migratory, 386-
387.

Weasel, 31, 88.

Webb, U. S., 285.

W^eir, H. S., 365.

Welander, Arthur, 296.

Welch, Roswell, 83, 84, 289.

Western Association of Fish and Game
Commissioners meeting, 1934, 387-
389.

Weymouth, F. W., 6, 10.

Whale, 91.

Whitefish, 390.

Widgeon, 79.

Wild-life restoration program, Federal,
163—166; restoration program,
shrink, funds for, Federal. 287.

Williams, Earl C, 358.
Williamson, M. A., 42.
Wilson, Leo K., 67.
Wire, F. B., 358.
Wolf, 88.
Wolverine, 88.
Woodpecker, California, 222.
Woods, Gladys M., 80.
Wright, George M., 42, 44, 45, 185, 206,
230, 239, 241, 249, 250.

Xyrauchen cypho, 384.

Yellowtail, 392.

Yosemite elk herd, history of, 37-51.

Zellerbach, I., 287, 386.

].'J172 11-34 3M

1933-ABSTRACT CALIFORNIA SPORTING FISH & GAME LAWS-193 5

THIS ABSTRACT WILL BE VALID UNTIL JO DAYS AFTER ADJOURNMENT OF THE IJJS LEGISLATIVE SESSION

OPEN^ND CLOSED SEASONS^

WHITE SQUARES INDICATE OPEN SEASON. NUMBERS IN SQUARES ARE OPEN DATES

OA.AI1

DEER

Z-Z'/,-3

I-H.-4M- 23-25

Rdbbits— Collonldll and Brush

Bear, Fur Animals

All LXCII'I

4, i%. I'l. 21

ALL

.1. .<!.-. I ... I ,.., I ,„„ I .uo h.„ I ,U |.V. h

BAG AND POSSESSION LIMITS, ETC.

pnnnnpnBBn

nfnnnEinni i

No Does, Fawns or Spike Bucks

No Furkfd Horned Deer in Dist. 1?^

No salt of Veo'son or Deer Skins

Two Bucks ptT Season

except in 1 M where limit is one

S« Notes 6-9-10-12

IS pit ddj. iO p*f vi'k S>'jion dlwdji op^n

Sec Note 7

Ducks, Geese,
Jack Snipe, Mud Hens

ALL-

See Not* ■

bf putili^i'd ai M>on ai Ainc

oricd in CdLlurnid an4 *>iH

Quail— Valley, Desert
and Mountain

ALL

fXCH'I 1 1

Dove

All tXtll'I

4-4'/.,-4;,

4-4Vi-4'::,

I

IS tu^ii itifj. JO arn^, ptiitnsNi lunri. ii iiuft d^if). fOunMI
tiiTi! Urv.r I Hud tirw lifflit \n Dnir i W ii<yrv 9 (4 1 ). <mt

Vatley - Desert - Mountain

E.ch V.,.,i,
10 per day. 10 in possession.

20 per week

jDnuuBjnr

15 Per Day 15 in possessioa
30 Per Week

Pheasant

m

2 Mjlf birds per ddy
2 tn possession

Pigeon

10 p*'"" dd> 10 I'l (lOSSVSMU

20 prr ^cik

There is no open season on Elk, Antelope, Mountain Sheep, Sea
Shore Birds (except Jack Snipe), Grouse, Sage

Otter, Beaver, Tree Squirrel, Sierra Hare, Rail, Wood Duck, Swan,
Hen, Imported Quail, Partridge, or Wild Turkey

l^^ISSH 1 "''-c'^

1-

1-

....

1-

tut

IU"l

,u,.

ituG.

btPI

OCl.

...

['tC

BAG AND POSSESSION LIMITS. ETC.

I-lh■l^i■^-^Ji.l-4-4^, 4'iis

KLimdlh Wrvrr. [jfce Alnidnor

g

M

Bag limit for taking

and possession, 25 trout
or 10 pounds aod one
trout.

Steelhead and
all Trout

2K'

23

m

■

1"

No Sale

No SpMnii;
tor olher

23-25

HE U

(except Golden)

Whitefish

Unlawful to take trout
in waters closed by Gov-
ernor's proclamation

Truckee River

1

1
1

leslrtdions
See Notes

Uc Nolt 22

■

■

1

■

■

■

■

12-15-16-20

IH-Sindttinlef
kldinarh River

23

1

S Trout rtgardless oi weight

21-22-27-2S
30-32

Ruuiiii, Htfj. 1U<«>io. trt in i.
2.. 12*. Iidn-dfT i 1 li

23

r"

■

j

J Trout rf gardlesi of weight

Oa this
Onl

^.Mrdmrnlo Hi>rr bflKCin Vmj
1 trry dn<J M.ddk C rt ek. ShdUd
Co«oU

1 —
1

i Trout rcgardleis of weight

Golden Trout

All (KCtPI

1 -4 ! :■

D ■

20 per day. None under 5 inches

l-4',..f.((pl(0l

tonooudljknfioup

■

See Note 22

BLACK BASS

ALL

fXCtPI 4'/.

■

i-

13 per day

Clear Lake
10 per day

No Black Bass under 9 ia.

CltARLAKt

No sale
Hook and line only

Sunfish

ALL

25 per day

Sacramento Perch

AUtXCtPI
CltAR lAKt

25 per day

Hook and line only

and Crappie

CILAR UKf

10 per day

No sale

Striped Bass

ALL

rr.ih» H..«livm*»..inioOio->l1,..lav.4 JiiM'. Itl 1« A^.l lOlN

Hunt .ndtr t.' l(u»r\, S (.fi do "i .n twismwn flani to fcf Uif«

■ mm ^itigf> Sfj W Nm.> It 4«i ^K

Crabs

AlKKUPI

1K-6-7-8.9

,o|

■

■

■

1

S.d«>nU.%Unti 1 l>6-r-8-9 D«»mtKr 15 lo AuluM JO

Sre Note 23. None under 7 inches. No Femdle

Abalones

1

■

1

Onl, lor lui>d Mu',1 be broufht 10 Ihorc dl.>r in thdl

An?lin? lufd'.e Required. See Note 2^

Pismo Clams

17

■

«

None undff S inthes. No sbtpment. IS ptr ddy
An^tin? iKfnw R(quifPd DistrKt t8a Closed

Spiny Lobster

ALL

c:., ~\

NaSjirvl M<dl. None wndtr lO'-^of a*(r 16 uxfiu

See Note 23

GRDNION

ALL

■ DDB

. NOTES IT IS ALWAYS

1. To hunt, kill, possess wild blrda or mammals, to possess
firearms, t-xcept under written permit from the Commission,
In DIsts. la, lb. Ic, Id. le, If, Ig. Ih, 11. IJ. Ik, Im. In, lo, Ip. Iq.
Ir, Is. It. 2a. 2b. 3a. 3b. 3c, 3d. 3e. 3f. 3jr. 3h, 4a. 4b, 4c. 4d, 4e, 4f,
fS. or General Grant Refuge, or Mt. Tamalpais Game Refuge,
Including Richardson Bay. or San Francisco Refuge, or Silver
Lake Refuge (water fowl may be killed in 4a and 4e). or to
hunt quati In Bolinas Quail Refuge, or to hunt or discharge fire-
arms In Huntington Lake Refuge. San Leandro Bay Refuge,
or Monterey Peninsula Refuge.

2. To hunt 6irds or mammals excepting predators without a
hunting license. To hunt In areas closed by proclamation.

3. To possess any bird net or to net. trap or to hold pro-
tected game or birds of any kind, their nesta or eggs except
under written permit from the Commission.

4. To take more than 4 geese per day, 8 per week of all
varieties, and 12 Canada geese and black sea brant. To take
more than 25 mud hens per day. 50 per week. To have more
than 1 daily bag limit of geese and mud hens In possession
by 1 person in 1 day.

5. To take or kill nongame blrda, except blue' jay, butcher
bird, English sparrow, sharp-shinned. Cooper or duck hawk,
treat horned owl, linnet, crow, black-billed magpie, white
pelican, shag, and in Dlsta 1, 2. 3, 4 and 4J, blackbirds.

UNLAWFUL

6. To hunt deer without deer tag license. To fall to attach to
horns of deer lmmedin,tfly on killing, properly filled out deer
t^ag or at same time to send duplicate tag to Division. To carry
deer into closed district without having deer tag countersigned,
or to have untagged deer in possession. To fall to retain In
poss.ssion during open season and for 10 days after, skin and
portion of head bearing liorns of deer killed arid to produce upon
demand. To use more than 1 dog to hunter in hunting deer or
to allow dogs to run deer in closed season, or to possess doe or
fawn skins, or deer skins not bearing evidence of sex.

7. To trap for profit without first procuring a trapping license
bear, ring-tailed cat, coon, pine marten, skunk, fisher, wolverine,
mink, river otter, fox or muskrat, or to kill same during closed
season, except when destroying property. To interfere with
traps of licensed trappers. To use saw tooth -or spike-jawed
traps for taking fur bearers.

8. To use any animal other than dog to stalk wild birds.

9. To shoot game from power boat, sailboat, auto, airplane .
or to hunt waterfowl from scull bf.»at In Dlsts. 8, 9, except on
Wed. and Sun., or at anv time in Dist. 12 or Napa River south
of Edgerly Island, and In Mare Island Straits from the Napa
River to Carquinez Strait, or to use shotgun larger than 10
gauge, or to possess an extension automatic or cane gun. To
have in possession any device capable of or to be used in
silencing the report of any firearm.

10. To shoot resident game between i hour after sunset and
I hour before sunrise, or migratory game between sunset
and i hour before sunrise. To use a spotlight In hunting game-.

11. To drive eame birds by means of auto, airplane, or power
boat over ehoolers.

12. To hold game or fish longer than 5 days after close of
season; venison 15 days.

13. To sell wild game, exo^t cottontail and brush rabbits.

14. Tu make a false staiement in applying for license. To
fail to show license upon demand to any officer.

15. To take pame or fish from one district to another when
season is not open in both. (Special law for deer, trout and
black bass.) Trout legally taken may be transported from
open diairict Into closed dislrict by the consignor making an
afiadavlt in duplicate setting forth his name, address, number of
angling license and name n nd address of consignee. Original
must be attached to shipment; copy left on file with officer
before whom swurn. Trout may be shipped into closed district
when accumpanied by written statement to effect that trout
were I'^pal. signed by shrpper. countersigned by agent to whom
offered for shipment. Black bass legally taken may be trans-
ported from open district Into closed district.

16. To ship wild birds, mammals, or fish except smoked or
dried lish other than trout by parcels post, or in concealed
packages or without a tag bearing name and address of con-
■Ignee and consignor and contents, or to ship game out of State.

IT. 'I'o operate a commercial hunting club without license.

18. To place obstructions in streams in Dists. 1, IJ. 2. 2i, 23.
S, 4, <J. 23 and 25 that will stop or impede flsh.

19. To sell striped bass taken with hook and line; to trans-
port or carry striped bass out of State. To ship striped bass
less than 20 in. in length or more than 10 lbs. in weigfit. To
possess more than 5 shad per day between June 1 and Feb. 14.

20. To take trout other than with rod and line held in hand
or with lure with more than 2 attractor blades or more than
3 hooks. To take trout except by angling In auch manner as
to cause trout to voluntarily take hook in its mouth.

21. To have in possession any fish spear or gafC (except
landing gaff) within 300 feet of any lake or stream when
unlawful to spear salmon.

22. To take trout in any lake within 300 feet of mouth of any
stream from Oct. 31 to Aug. 1, or In that portion of any stream
flowing into any lake in Dist. 23 within 2 miles from \\s mouth,
upstream, from Oct. 31 to Aug. 1. To take golden trout in
Cottonwood Lakes group. Including South Fork Cottonwood
Lakes group and i mile of strearp below the lower lake in each
of said groups, except from July 1 to Oct. 31.

23. To bring to shore crabs or lobsters In such condition
that size can not be taken ;or to ship or carry crabs out of Dists.
li. 24. 5, 6, 7. 8 or 9. To sell any crabs taken in Eel River or
tributaries or to possess more than 10 crabs taken there or to
take any between i hour after sunset and i hour before sunrise.

34. To take or possess in Dist. 3 salt water eels of less than
12 tn. or more than 15 per day.

25. To take or possess cockles less than 1 S In. !n diameter, or
to take or possess more than 15 (IMsts. 2 and 10) Washington
clams or more than 10 horse clams or more than 30 razor or
jackknife clams per day. or In Dlsts. 18» 19, 21 more than 15 lbs.
of mussels per day. To take or possess any Pismo clams in
Dist. 18 between ) hour after sunset and i hour before .sunrise.

or to possess any clam digging implement In that district. To
possess any clam digging implement in any clam preserve.

26. To take red abalones less than 7 In., in greatest diameter ;
gr«;en. 6^ : pink. G ; black. 5 ; to dry abalones; to dive for aba-
lones in DIsta. 7, 15. 1£. 17, 19. 20 and 20a ; to take more than 10
per day or 20 per week In Dints. 7, 15, 16. 17.19.20 and 2ua. To
take more than 10 p*r day from shore in Dlsts. 7. 10 and 18 ; to
take mnre (Imn lU black abalones per day in Dist.s. 15. 16, 17,
18. 19. 20, 20a, 21. To possess more than 10 per day in Dist. 2.

27. To fi^h for game fish without having an angling license.

28. To take game flsh between 1 hour after sunset and 1
hour before sunrise in Dlsts. 1. 14, IJ. 2. I'i. 2|, 3. 4. 4). 4S,
23. 25. To take striped bass by hook and line between suna«t
and slmrlse.

29. To fish with neiB except in commercial districts or to
Injure any legal net.

30. To fish through Ice for any fish or to take flsh in Dist. 14.

31. To place, cause to be placed, or discharge into any
waters suhstanrea dpioterious to fish or plant life.

."12. To fish within 20O fi. of fishway or 150 ft. of upper side of
flsh screen, or lower side of dam, or to take fish except salmon
within i mile of either side of spawning station, or any lake
wi'hin h mile of spawning station when station Is In operation.

33. To kill, injure or capture Cat. sea lions in Dists. 19.20.20a.

3 4. To take invertebrates or marine plants In Hopkins
Marine Refuce (Monterey Co.) or In that area between the
west line of the properfv of the Scripna Institute and a line
l.ono ffet west of low tide line (San DIego Co.).

35. To take more than 5 white sea bnss from M-iy 1 to June
30, or to tnke at any one time more than 5 und^r 2f! In.

36. To tako more than 30 lbs. of halibut' under 4 lbs. each, or
tn "-k^ m'-''-'' th-^n ^ h->rr.Triida Ip^s than 1 Ihs. each.

37. To take frogs less than 4 In. In length measured from tip
of nose to postprlor end of body between hind less, or to take or
possess more than 24 frogs per day or 48 frogs per week.

NOTE A. — .SALMON. Salmon ran not be taken on M>a-«n4n| beds, or wlUiIn
10 mile?, of spawn-laklne nation, or 3 mtlei norUi and mu(^ ''t moutli of KlunaJt
niter .Ml salTion boats Diutt ^av'^ landing net. anj no l'iiifw>k kit iltan 11. w
»lKer ietr. tlian 21 In ran bo taken In ocean •nd Humlwldl Bay Dlsii. Undrnlud
iaimon ran not he ealTed or cl'ibbcd. or brouf^il ashore In aurti rt.ndltlon that tlM
can nil be determined. Snimon may bo taken with hook vit! line tn any dlitrlrt
when trout season for aald dlitrlct la open.

In Dist. 1 . salmon may be taken with huok and line or iprar briween May 2f uid
Oft. 31.ei(-(>[ii la> In Feather River from !(• m'uith to tonuth of tho Yuba; (b) to
American Kner from Iti mouth to Fair Oaks brl'lse. Tn Dlit. 2, (el In Ruadtn.
Napa and NavaTu rivers; (d) In Eel Rl«er and (et In tldewrer In Pltti. t. S
and If), trlth hook and line from May I to last day of Feb.. bag limit ) pfer day.
In Feather RHer between mnuih of YuL^a and ThermilHo hrtdse. with hook and
line bcHvi-en May 1 and Dee. 3 1 . bax limit 3 per day In San Joaquin Olwr, froa
Dtourh to ktendnt] weir, with hook and line from April 1 to Dec. 31. In Dlit. 1%.
with hook aniJ line from May 29 to Per. 31 : with ipear from Auk. I to OcL 11.
las Itmlt 2 per .t>y In Dials. 2. 3^. with hook and line from May I to P»b.
tail ; with spear from Not 1 to Feb last, bac limit 2 per day. In Dist. 3, with
hr.oh atd line from May I to Oct. 31. ba^ limit 2 per d^y In Klamath Rlrcr
Dist. above lldei*aier. with hook and tine from May 29 lo Dcr. 31 : wtih apear. froni
Auk. I to On. 31. bai: limit 2 per dav. In Klaroalh Rtrer Dist. Id tidewater, with
hook and line from ^Iay 29 to Dee 31. Dai limit I' 5 per day from May J» U
S=ept. S. and 2 per day trom Sept. 6 to Dec. 3 I. not more than I dally baK IIbU la
po«ae)«lon. In Dlsti 6. 7. 8. 9 wlih hook uid line from April 1 to Sept IS. M
baE limit. In Dlsts. 10. 11. with houk and line from May 1 to Aug. 30. no (>•(
limit, tn Disis. 12. 12B. t3C. IS. with hook and line at uty time, no bag Uadt.
In Dist. 12A. with hook and line from May 1 to Feb. last, bag llalt 3 per day.
In Dl5ts !'•. Ifi. 17. IR. with hpofe and line from Mar, 1 to July IS.

LICENSES MUST BE SHOWN UPON
DEMAND

Distncls la. lb. Ic. Id. le. If. Ig. Ih. li. Ij, Ik Im, In.
lo. Ip. Iq. Ir, Is, U 2a. 2b. 3a. 3b, 3c, 3d, 3e. 3f. 3f;, 3h. 4a.
4b. 4e. 4d, 4e, 4f. 4g. are Game Refuges Hunting pro-
hibited Angling in accordance witb law relating to main
districlB in which refuge is located

Districts 5. 6. 7. 8, 6, 10, 11. 12. I2a. I2b, 12c. 13. 16. 17. 18,
19. 19a. 20. 20a. 21. 22. are Commercial Fishing Distncls
Honting and aigling in accordance with taw relating to
main district in whicb smal) district is located
DiBtri« 14 IS a Fisb Reservation All flshirg prohibited.
District 2'/a includes thoae townships in Mendocino
County bordering on the Pacific Ocean (except 15 and
16 W . 1 1 N ) and townships 13. 14. 1^ 16. 17 and 18 N ,
R 16 W

Distnct 2%. Those parts of Mendocino, Lake and Colow
counties lying east of the Redwood Highway and north of
the Lake Tahoe-Okiah Highway, and all of Olenn Connty.
Distncl 23 The water shed of Lake Tahoe and Truckce
River, Rubicon and Little Rubicon above confluence.
Water shed ol American River and Silver Creek above
confluence. loclades waters lo water shed of
Cosumnes above mother lode highway bridge,
water? of South Fork American River be-
tween dull Bar Bndge and mouth of
Sil7er Creek , Che waters of the Carbon.
West Carson and all tributaries.
Twin Lakes, Sdver, Twin, Blue,
Meadow, Wood. WmnemtKca,
Scott, Bumside LaJce and
all tributary streams and
the drainage area of
Webber Cre«k above
mother lode high-
way bndfc

,lfr*k.md ami mW'

Help
Prevent
Forest
Fires

Utmtd by

Dept. of Naiurmt Resources

Division of fisb and Came

Sscrmmtmim
SsM Frtnf Uem
L»t Amgtlat

nSH AND CAME DISTRICTS

OF

CALIFORNIA »

1933

1935

LICENSE PROVISIONS
HUNTING

Residents undfr 18 }l.00

Resident citizens 2.00

Nonresident citizcnt 10.00

Decl.irant aliens 10.00

Other aliens 25.00

ANGLING

t. >•<••* Ttx Ji*uirT I •• DnvMbv* II

Rrttdcnt citi/cnt S2.00

Nonresident ctitzcns 3.00

Aliens 5.00

Under 18 no license required

TRAPPING

L.<»i* ><*r ;•!» I •• )-» )•

Citizens $1.00

Aliens „ _. 2-00

Under 18 no license required

DEER TAG

EveiTone (2 tags)_ __. $1.00

COMMERCIAL HUNTING
CLUBS

CitizciU - $2».00

Aliens .- 100.00

Operators, citiieni i.OO

Operators, aliens 2$. 00

for L4U f 111 f i*i/ See

fiib and Ga^te

Codt

for Comwirrciat Fiib

Lant See Commrrnml

AhitTtcl

Tor Imformstiom Mj-

Itrdlmg Fllb or GtwU

Vrile lolhe

Dft-ilMK of Filk

amJ Cmmt

CAUPORNIA
FISH»GAME

•fcONSERVAnON OF WILD UFE THROUGH EDUCATION*

25c per copy

$1.00 per year

30

DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES

DIVISION OF FISH AND GAME

San Francisco, California

Fish and Game Commissioners appointed by the Governor. Term at pleasure of

Governor. No compensation

J. DALE GENTRY, President San Bernardino

EARL B. GILMORB, Commissioner Los Angeles

I. ZELLERBACH, Commissioner San Francisco

JOHN L. FARLEY, Executive Officer San Francisco

A. E. Burghduff, Assistant Executive Officer Los Angeles

450 McAllister Street. Phone Underbill 8700

BUREAU OF FISH CULTURE

J. O. SNYDER, Chief San Francisco

J. H. Vogt, Assistant Chief San Francisco

A. E. Burghduff, Hatchery Inspector Los Angeles

L. Phillips, Hatchery Inspector San Francisco

E. V. Cassell, Superintendent of Mt. Shasta Hatchery Mt. Shasta

Geo. McCloud, Superintendent Mt. Whitney Hatchery Independence

D. A. Clanton, Superintendent Forest Home Hatchery Forest Home

Ed Clessen, Foreman Fort Seward Hatchery Alderpoint

Earl Leitritz, Foreman Fall Creek Hatchery Copco

Peter Topp, Foreman Yosemite Hatchery Yosemite

C. L. Frame, Foreman Big Creek Hatchery Davenport

Geo. E. West, Foreman Cold Creek Hatchery Ukia.h

J. L. Stinnett, Foreman Feather River Hatchery Clio

R. A. McCloud, Foreman Kaweah Hatchery Three Rivers

J. C. Levtris, Superintendent Tahoe Hatchery Tahoe

Wm. Berrian, Foreman Lake Almanor Hatchery Westwood

H. E. Cole, Foreman Basin Creek Hatchery Tuolumne

Archie Thompson, Foreman Burney Creek Hatchery Burney

K. H. Shebley, Foreman Kings River Hatchery •'^^^,"?

Donald Evins, Foreman Prairie Creek Hatchery 9^^^?^

John Marshall, Foreman Brookdale Hatchery Brookdale

Allan F. Pollitt, Foreman Klamath Egg Collection Stations . Gottville

Preston Bills, Superintendent Distribution Car 01 Mt. gu^®!^

L. Rider, Superintendent Distribution Car 02 7.—^^i; ^"^^'^^

Clarence EUiger, Assistant Hydraulic Engineer San Francisco

BUREAU OF COMMERCIAL FISHERIES

N. B. SCOFIELD, Chief San Francisco

S. H. Dado, Assistant Chief San Francisco

H. B. Nidever, Field Inspector San Francisco

L. G. Van Vorhis Terminal Island

W. L. Scofield, Supervisor, State Fisheries Laboratory Terminal Island

BUREAU OF LICENSES
H. R. DUNBAR, Chief Sacramento

BUREAU OF EDUCATION AND RESEARCH

J. O. SNYDER, Chief San Francisco

James Moffitt, Economic Biologist ^an Francisco

Opie L. Warner, Publicist San Francisco

Paul A. Shaw, Toxicologist San Francisco

BUREAU OF GAME REFUGES

J. S. HUNTER, Chief San Francisco

Jay C. Bruce, State Lion Hunter San Lorenzo

D. D. McLean, Field Naturalist San Francisco

A. D. McLellan, Game Refuge Supervisor San Francisco

BUREAU OF GAME FARMS

AUGUST BADE, Chief Yountville

E. D. Piatt, Assistant in Charge Chmo

Gordon H. True, Jr., Field Production of Game San Francisco

BUREAU OF FISH RESCUE AND RECLAMATION
GEORGE NEALE, Chief Sacramento

BUREAU OP PATROL

E. li. MACAULAY, Chief of Patrol San Francisco

K. P. AUred, Assistant Chief of Patrol San Francisco

C. S. Bauder, Assistant Chief of Patrol Los Angeles

SAN FRANCISCO OFFICE

J. L. Bundock Oakland

T. K. Duncan Concord

C. E. Holladay San Jose

M. F. Joy San Francisco

McPherson Lough Palo Alto

Forrest J. McDermott Santa Cruz

C. R. Peek San Mateo

Orben Philbrick Monterey

Fred Post Salinas

Lee C. Shea San Francisco

J. P. Vissiere Watsonville

WM. LIPPINCOTT San Rafael

W. J. Black Vallejo

C. M. Bouton San Rafael

C. L. Bundock Fairfield

Chas. F. England Vallejo

Bert P. Laws San Anselmo

Geo. Smalley Antioch

R. J. Yates San Rafael

A. H. WILLARD Sacramento Office

Earl I. Hiscox Auburn

Ray O'Connor Grass Valley

Nelson Poole Sacramento Office

Albert W. Sears Placerville

Chas. Sibeck Sacramento Office

R. L. Sinkey Woodland

W. J. HARP Areata

E. R. Caldwell Eureka

Scott Feland Fortuna

Ed Johnson Garberville

W. F. Kaliher Fortuna

T. F. Miller Klamath

S. R. GILLOON Mt. Shasta

Brice Hammack Yreka

A. A. Jordan Alturas

Paul Kehrer Pall River Mills

C. R. Love Redding

Fred Starr Macdoel

S. J. CARPENTER Maxwell

Roy W. Anderson Red Bluff

Lee Atkinson Williams

L. W. Dinsdale Yuba City

Taylor London Oroville

E. O. Wraith Chico

J. D. DONDERO

Ray Diamond Willits

Ovid Holmes Fort Bragg

Geo. N. Johnson Napa

Earl Macklin Ukiah

L. A. Mitchell Point Arena

K. J. Ransdell Lakeport

HENRY LBNCIONI Santa Rosa

J. H. Groves Cloverdale

V. E. Vox Arx Santa Rosa

JOSEPH H. SANDERS Truckee

C. O. Fisher Susanville

L. E. Mercer Quincy

J. E. NEWSOME Newman

H. E. Black Madera

C. L. Brown Mariposa

M. S. Clark Merced

C. L. Gourley Los Banos

L. W. Longeway Sonora

Geo. W. Magladry Modesto

J. O'CONNELL Stockton

Alvin Granstrom Lodi

Wm. Hoppe Tracy

Lee Straight Walnut Grove

Vernon Sutton Angels Camp

J. W. Thornburg Jackson

E. W. SMALLEY Hanford

F. A. BuUard Reedley

R. J. Little Gridley

O. P. BROWNLOW Visalia

Lester Arnold Bakersfleld

Ray J. Bullard Porterville

W. I. Long Woodlake

Roswell C. Welch Kernville

LOS ANGELES OFFICE

A. R. Ainsworth Santa Maria

R. E. Bedwell Ventura

E. H. Glidden San Diego

J. H. Gyger Perris

J. W. Harbuck Brawley

W. L. Hare Santa Ana

F. W. Hecker San Luis Obispo

H. C. Jackson Santa Barbara

T. R. Jolley Idyllwild

W. S. Talbott Mecca

C. L. Towers Los Angeles

Paul Turner Paso Robles

LARUE F. CHAPPELL Pasadena

W. C. Malone San Bernardino

C. L. Savage Ontario

E. H. OBER Bishop

A. F. Crocker Bridgeport

Eugene Walker Independence

C. J. Walters Independence

COMMERCIAL FISHERIES PATROL

S. H. LYONS, Supervisor Fisheries Patrol Terminal Island

C. H. GROAT, Captain Terminal Island

R. F. CLASSIC, Captain Monterey

COBURN F. MADDOX, Captain San Diego

N. C. Kunkel Terminal Island l T. J. Smith Terminal Island

T. W. Schilling Pismo Beach |

Launch Patrol

Walter Engelke Motor Vessel "Bluefln," Terminal Island

L. J. Weseth Launch "Albacore," Monterey

Brol Greenleaf Launch "Albacore," Monterey

C. M. Bouton Launch "Quinnat," San Rafael

W. J. Black Launch "Hunter," Vallejo

Wm Hoppe I Launch "Rainbow," Walnut Grove

Geo. Smalley Launch "Walter R. Welch," Pittsburg

T. F. Miller Launch "Silverside," Klamath

Captains indicated in capitals.

DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES

DIVISION OF FISH AND GAME

San Francisco, California

Fish and Game Commissioners appointed by the Governor. Term at pleasure of

Governor. No compensation

J. DALE GENTRY, President San Bernardino

EARL B. GILMORE, Commissioner Los Angeles

I. ZELLERBACH, Commissioner San Francisco

JOHN L. PARLEY, Executive Officer San Francisco

A. E. Burghduff, Assistant Executive Officer Los Angeles

450 McAllister Street. Phone Underbill 8700

BUREAU OF FISH CULTURE

J. O. SNYDER, Chief San Francisco

J. H. Vogt, Assistant Chief San Francisco

A. E. Burghduff, Hatchery Inspector Los Angeles

L. Phillips, Hatchery Inspector San Francisco

E. V. Cassell, Superintendent of Mt. Shasta Hatchery Mt. Shasta

Geo. McCloud, Superintendent Mt. Whitney Hatchery Independence

D. A. Clanton, Superintendent Forest Home Hatchery Forest Home

Ed Clessen, Foreman Fort Seward Hatchery Alderpoint

Earl Leitritz, Foreman Fall Creek Hatchery Copco

Archie Thompson, Foreman Yosemite Hatchery Yosemite

C. L. Frame, Foreman Big Creek Hatchery Davenport

Geo. E. West, Foreman Cold Creek Hatchery Ukiah

J. L. Stinnett, Foreman Feather River Hatchery Clio

R. A. McCloud, Foreman Kaweah Hatchery Three Rivers

J. C. LcAvis, Superintendent Tahoe Hatchery Tahoe

Wm. Berrian, Foreman Lake Almanor Hatchery Westwood

H. E. Cole, Foreman Basin Creek Hatchery Tuolumne

Peter Topp, Foreman Burney Creek Hatchery Burney

K. H. Shebley, Foreman Kings River Hatchery PYesno

Donald Evins, Foreman Prairie Creek Hatchery Orick

John Marshall, Foreman Brookdale Hatchery Brookdale

Allan F. Pollitt, Foreman Klamath Egg Collection Stations Gottville

Preston Bills, Superintendent Distribution Car 01 Mt. Shasta

L. Rider, Superintendent Distribution Car 02 Mt. Shasta

Clarence Elliger, Assistant Hydraulic Engineer San Francisco

BUREAU OF COMMERCIAL FISHERIES

N. B. SCOFIELD, Chief San Francisco

S. H. Dado, Assistant Chief San Francisco

H. B. Nidever, Field Inspector San Francisco

L. G. Van Vorhis Terminal Island

W. L. Scofield, Supervisor, State Fisheries Laboratory Terminal Island

BUREAU OF LICENSES
H. R. DUNBAR, Chief Sacramento

BUREAU OF EDUCATION AND RESEARCH

J. O. SNYDER, Chief San Francisco

James Moffltt, Economic Biologist San Francisco

Paul A. Shaw, Toxicologist San Francisco

Opie L. Warner, Publicist San Francisco

Ralph Bandini, Assistant Los Angeles

BUREAU OF GAME REFUGES

J. S. HUNTER, Chief San Francisco

Jay C. Bruce, State Lion Hunter San Lorenzo

D. D. McLean, Field Naturalist San Francisco

A. D. McLellan, Game Refuge Supervisor San Francisco

BUREAU OF GAME FARMS

AUGUST BADE, Chief Yountville

E. D. Piatt, Assistant in Charge Chino

Gordon H. True, Jr., Field Production of Game San Francisco

BUREAU OF FISH RESCUE AND RECLAMATION
GEORGE NEALE, Chief Sacramento

BUREAU OP PATROL

E. L,. MACAULAT, Chief of Patrol San Francisco

K. P. Allred, Assistant Chief of Patrol San Francisco

C, S. Bauder, Assistant Chief of Patrol Los Angeles

SAN FRANCISCO OFFICE3

C. L. Bundock Oakland

J. L. Bundock Oakland

T. K. Duncan Concord

C. E. Holladay San Jose

M. F. Joy San Francisco

McPherson Lough Palo Alto

Forrest J. McDermott Santa Cruz

C. R. Peek San Mateo

Orben Philbrick Monterey

Fred Post Salinas

Lee C. Shea San Francisco

J. P. Vissiere Watsonville

WM. LIPPINCOTT San Rafael

W. J. Black Vallejo

C. M. Bouton San Rafael

Chas. F. England Vallejo

Bert F. Laws San Anselmo

Geo. Smalley Antioch

R. J. Yates , San Rafael

A. H. WILLARD Sacramento Office

Earl I. Hiscox Auburn

Ray O'Connor Grass Valley

Nelson Poole Sacramento Office

Albert "W. Sears Placerville

Chas. Sibeck Sacramento Oifice

R. L. Sinkey Woodland

W. J. HARP Areata

E. R. Caldwell Eureka

Scott Feland Fortuna

Ed Johnson Garberville

W. P. Kaliher Fortuna

T. F. Miller Klamath

S. R. GILLOON Mt. Shasta

Brice Hammack Yreka

A. A. Jordan Alturas

Paul Kehrer Fall River Mills

C. R. Love Redding

Fred Starr Macdoel

S. J. CARPENTER Maxwell

Roy W. Anderson Red Bluff

Lee Atkinson Williams

L. W. Dinsdale Yuba City

R. J. Little Gridley

Taylor London Oroville

E. O. Wraith Chico

J. D. DONDERO

Ray Diamond Willits

Ovid Holmes Port Bragg

Geo. N. Johnson Napa

Earl Macklin Ukiah

L. A. Mitchell Point Arena

K. J. Ransdell Lakeport

HENRY LENCIONI Santa Rosa

J. H. Groves Cloverdale

V. E. Vox Arx Santa Rosa

JOSEPH H. SANDERS Truckee

C. O. Fisher Susanville

C. L. Gourley Westwood

L. B. Mercer Quincy

J. B. NBWSOME Newman

H. B. Black Madera

C. L. Brown Mariposa

M. S. Clark Merced

L. W. Longeway Sonora

Geo. W. Magladry Modesto

J. O'CONNELL Stockton

Alvin Granstroni Lodi

Wm. Hoppe Tracy

Lee Straight Walnut Grove

Vernon Sutton Angels Camp

J. W. Thornburg Jackson

E. W. SMALLEY Hanford

F. A. Bullard Reedley

O. P. BROWNLOW Visalia

Lester Arnold Bakersfield

Ray J. Bullard Porterville

W. I. Long Woodlake

Roswell C. Welch Kernville

LOS ANGELES OFFICE

A. R. Ainsworth Santa Maria

R. E. Bedwell Ventura

A. F. Crocker Bridgeport

B. H. Glidden San Diego

J. H. Gyger Perris

J. W. Harbuck Brawley

W. L. Hare Santa Ana

P. W. Hecker San Luis Obispo

H. C. Jackson Santa Barbara

T. R. JoUey Idyllwild

E. H. Ober Palmdale

W. S. Talbott Fallbrook

C. L. Towers Los Angeles

Paul Turner Paso Robles

Eugene Walker Independence

C. J. Walters Independence

LARUE F. CHAPPELL Pasadena

W. C. Malone San Bernardino

C. L. Savage Ontario

COMMERCIAL FISHERIES PATROL

S. H. LYONS, Supervisor Fisheries Patrol Terminal Island

C. H. GROAT, Captain Terminal Island

R. F. CLASSIC, Captain Monterey

COBURN F. MADDOX, Captain San Diego

N. C. Kunkel Terminal Island I T. J. Smith Terminal Island

T. W. Schilling Terminal Island |

Launch Patrol

Walter Engelke Motor Vessel "Bluefln," Terminal L^land

L. J. Weseth Launch "Albacore," Afonterey

Brol Greenleaf Launch "Albacore," Monterey

C M Bouton-- Launch "Quinnat." San Rafael

W. J Black Launch "Hunter," Vallejo

win Hoppe Launch "Rainbow," Walnut Grove

Geo.' Smalley:::::::-::_:::: Launch "waiter R- Welch," Pittsburg

T. P. Miller Launch "Silverside, Klamath

Captains indicated In capitals.

CALIFORNIA STATE PRINTING OF.'ICE

HARRY HAMMOND, STATE PRINTER

SACRAMENTO. 1934

CALIFORNIA
F1SH»»GAME

25c per copy

$1.00 per year

J731

DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES

DIVISION OF FISH AND GAME

San Francisco, California

Fish and Game Commissioners appointed by the Governor. Term at pleasure of

Governor. No compensation

J. DALE GENTRY, President San Bernardino

EARL. B. GILMORE, Commissioner Los Angeles

I. ZELLERBACH, Commissioner San Francisco

JOHN L. FARLEY, Executive Officer San Francisco

A. E. Burghduff, Assistant Executive Officer Los Angeles

450 McAllister Street. Phone Underlain 8700

BUREAU OF FISH CULTURE

J. O. SNYDER, Chief San Francisco

J. H. Vogt, Assistant Chief San Francisco

Alan C. Taft, Assistant Chief San Francisco

A. E. Burghduff, Hatchery Inspector Los Angeles

L. Phillips, Hatchery Inspector San Francisco

E. V. Cassell, Superintendent of Mt. Shasta Hatchery Mt. Shasta

Geo. McCloud, Superintendent Mt. Whitney Hatchery Independence

D. A. Clanton, Superintendent Forest Home Hatchery Forest Home

Ed Clessen, Foreman Fort Seward Hatchery Alderpoint

Earl Leitritz, Foreman Fall Creek Hatchery Copco

Archie Thompson, Foreman Yosemite Hatchery Yosemlte

C. L. Frame, Foreman Big Creek Hatchery Davenport

Geo. E. West, Foreman Cold Creek Hatchery Uklah

J. L. Stinnett, Foreman Feather River Hatchery Clio

R. A. McCloud, Foreman Kaweah Hatchery Three Rivers

J. C. Lewis, Superintendent Tahoe Hatchery Tahoe

Wm. Berrlan, Foreman Lake Almanor Hatchery Westwood

H. E. Cole, Foreman Basin Creek Hatchery Tuolumne

Peter Topp, Foreman Burney Creek Hatchery Burney

K. H. Shebley, Foreman Kings River Hatchery Fresno

Donald Evins, Foreman Prairie Creek Hatchery Orlck

John Marshall, Foreman Brookdale Hatchery Brookdale

Merrill Brown, Foreman Bass Hatchery Frlant

Allan F. PoUitt, Foreman Klamath Egg Collection Stations Gottville

Preston Bills, Superintendent Distribution Car 01 Mt. Shasta

D. Rider, Superintendent Distribution Car 02 Mt. Shasta

Clarence Elliger, Assistant Hydraulic Engineer San Francisco

J. H. Wales, Biologist Palo Alto

BUREAU OF COMIMERCIAL FISHERIES

N. B. SCOFIELD, Chief San Francisco

S. H. Dado, Assistant Chief San Francisco

H. B. Nidever, Field Inspector San Francisco

L. G. Van Vorhis Terminal Island

W. L. Scofield, Supervisor, State Fisheries Laboratory Termmal Island

Arthur A. Alstrom, Supervisor, Fresh Fish Marketing San Francisco

BUREAU OF LICENSES

H. R. DUNBAR, Chief Sacramento

BUREAU OF EDUCATION AND RESEARCH

J. O. SNYDER, Chief San Francisco

Paul A. Shaw, Toxicologlst San Francisco

Opie L. Warner, Publicist San Francisco

Ralph Bandlni, Assistant Los Angeles

BUREAU OF GAME REFUGES

J. S. HUNTER, Chief San Francisco

Jay C. Bruce, State Lion Hunter San Lorenzo

D. D. McLean, Field Naturalist San Francisco

A. D. McLellan, Game Refuge Supervisor San Francisco

BUREAU OF GAME FARMS

AUGUST BADE, Chief Yountville

E. D. Piatt, Assistant in Charge Chino

Gordon H. True, Jr., Field Production of Game San Francisco

BUREAU OF FISH RESCUE AND RECLAMATION

GEORGE NEALE, Chief Sacramento

BUREAU OP PATROL

E. L. MACAtTLAY, Chief of Patrol San Francisco

K. P. Allred, Assistant Chief of Patrol San Francisco

C, S. Bauder, Assistant Chief of Patrol Los Angeles

SAN FRANCISCO OFFICE

C. Li. Bundock Oakland

J. Li. Bundock Oakland

T. K. Duncan Concord

C. E. Holladay San Jose

M. F. Joy San Francisco

McPherson Lough Palo Alto

Forrest J. McDermott Santa Cruz

C. R, Peek San Mateo

Orben Philbrick Monterey

Fred Post Salinas

Lee C. Shea San Francisco

J. P. Vissiere Watsonville

L. T. Ward Alameda

WM. LIPPINCOTT San Rafael

W. J. Black Vallejo

C. M. Bouton San Rafael

Ed Clements Fairfield

Chas. F. England Vallejo

Bert F. Laws San Anselmo

H. S. Vary Antloch

R. J. Yates San Rafael

A. H. WILLARD Sacramento Oflfice

Earl I. Hiscox Auburn

Ray O'Connor Grass Valley

Nelson Poole Sacramento Office

Albert W. Sears Placerville

Chas. Sibeck Sacramento Office

R. L. Sinkey Woodland

W. J. HARP Areata

W. C. Blewett Eureka

E. R. Caldwell Eureka

Scott Feland Fortuna

Ed Johnson Garberville

W. F. Kaiiher Fortuna

T. F. Miller Klamath

S. R. GILLOON Mt. Shasta

Brlce Hammack Yreka

A. A. Jordan Alturas

Paul Kehrer Fall River Mills

C. R. Love Redding

Fred Starr Macdoel

S. J. CARPENTER Maxwell

Roy W. Anderson Red Bluff

Lee Atkinson Willows

L. W. Dinsdale Yuba City

R. J. Little Gridley

Taylor London Oroville

E. O. Wraith Chico

J. D. DONDERO.

Ray Diamond Wlllits

Ovid Holmes Fort Bragg

Geo. N. Johnson Napa

Earl Macklin Ukiah

L. A. Mitchell Point Arena

K. J. Ransdell Lakeport

HENRY LENCIONI Santa Rosa

J. H. Groves Cloverdale

V. E. Vox Arx Santa Rosa

JOSEPH H. SANDERS Truckeo

C. O. Fisher Susanville

C. L. Gourley Westwood

L. E. Mercer Quincy

Alvln Granstrom Portola

J. E. NEWSOME Newman

H. E. Black Madera

C. L. Brown Mariposa

M. S. Clark Merced

L. W. Longeway Sonora

Geo. W. Magladry Modesto

R, A. Tinnin Newman

J. O'CONNELL Stockton

Wm. Hoppe LodI

Vernon Sutton Angels Camp

J. W. Thornburg Markleeville

E. W. SMALLEY Hanford

F. A. Bullard Reedley

Geo. Smalley Auberry

Ray Ellis iFresno

O. P. BROWNLOW Visalia

Lester Arnold Bakersfleld

Ray J. Bullard Porterville

W. I. Long Woodlake

Roswell C. Welch Kernvllle

LOS ANGELES OFFICE

A. R. Ainsworth Santa Maria

R. E. Bedweli Ventura

A. F. Crocker Bridgeport

C. S. Donham Plsmo Beach

E. H. Glidden San Diego

J. H. Gyger Perris

J. W. Harbuck Julian

W. L. Hare Santa Ana

F. W. Hecker San Luis Obispo

H. C. Jackson Santa Barbara

T. R. Jolley Idyllwlld

E. H. Ober Palmdale

W. S. Talbott Fallbrook

C. L. Towers Los Angeles

Paul Turner Paso Roblea

Eugene Walker Independence

C. J. Walters Independence

LARUE F. CHAPPELL Pasadena

W. C. Malone San Bernardino

C. L. Savage Ontario

COMMERCIAL FISHERIES PATROL

S. H. LYONS, Supervisor Fisheries Patrol Terminal Island

C. H. GROAT, Captain Terminal Island

R. F. CLASSIC, Captain Monterey

COBURN F. MADDOX, Captain San Diego

N. C. Kunkel Terminal Island 1 T. J. Smith Terminal Island

r. W. Schilling Terminal Island |

Launch Patrol

Walter Engelke Motor Vessel "Bluefln," Terminal Island

L. J. Weseth Launch "Albacore." Monterey

Erol Greenleaf- Launch "Albacore," Monterey

C. M. Bouton Launch "Qulnnat." San Rafael

W. J Black Launch "Hunter," Vallejo

Wm. Hoppe - Launch "Rainbow," Walnut Grove

H. S. Vary Launch "Walter R. Welch," Pittsburg

T. P. Miller Launch "Silverside," Klamath

Captains Indicated in capitals.

CALIFORNIA STATE PRINTINO OFFICE

HARRY HAMMOND, STATE PRINTER

SACRAMENTO, 19*4

CALIFORNIA

GAME

AND

"cONSERVAnON OF WILD UFE THROUGH EDUCATION

25c per copy

5172

$1.00 per year

DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES
DIVISION OF FISH AND GAME

San Francisco, California

Fish and Game Commissioners appointed by the Governor. Term at pleasure of

Governor. No compensation

J. DALE GENTRY, President San Bernardino

EARL B. GILMORE, Commissioner Los Angeles

I. ZELLERBACH, Commissioner San Francisco

JOHN L. FARLEY, Executive Officer San Francisco

A. B. Burghduff, Assistant Executive Officer Los Angeles

450 McAllister Street. Phone Underbill 8700

BUREAU OF FISH CULTURE

J. O. SNYDER, Chief ; San Francisco

J. H. Vogt, Assistant Chief San Francisco

Alan C. Taft, Assistant Chief San Francisco

A. E. Burghduff, Hatchery Inspector Los Angeles

L. Phillips, Hatchery Inspector San Francisco

E. V. Cassell, Superintendent of Mt. Shasta Hatchery Mt. Shasta

Geo. McCloud, Superintendent Mt. "Whitney Hatchery Independence

D. A. Clanton, Superintendent Forest Home Hatchery Forest Home

Ed Clessen, Foreman Fort Seward Hatchery Alderpoint

Earl Leitritz, Foreman Fall Creek Hatchery Copco

Archie Thompson, Foreman Yosemite Hatchery Yosemite

Wm. Berrian, Foreman Big Creek Hatchery Davenport

Geo. E. West, Foreman Cold Creek Hatchery Ukiah

J. L. Stinnett, Foreman Feather River Hatchery Clio

R. A. McCloud, Foreman Kaweah Hatchery Three Rivers

J. C. Lewis, Superintendent Tahoe Hatchery Tahoe

Donald Evins, Foreman Lake Almanor Hatchery Westwood

H. E. Cole, Foreman Basin Creek Hatchery Tuolumne

Peter Topp, Foreman Burney Creek Hatchery Burney

C. L. Frame, Foreman Kings River Hatchery Fresno

Allan Pollitt, Foreman Prairie Creek Hatchery Orick

John Marshall, Foreman Brookdale Hatchery Brookdale

Merrill Brown, Foreman Baas Hatchery and Fish Rescue Friant

Preston Bills, Superintendent Distribution Car 01 Mt. Shasta

L. Rider, Superintendent Distribution Car 02 Mt. Shasta

Clarence Elliger, Assistant Hydraulic Engineer San Francisco

J. H. Wales, Biologist Palo Alto

BUREAU OF COMMERCIAL FISHERIES

N. B. SCOFIELD, Chief San Francisco

S. H. Dado, Assistant Chief San Francisco

H. B. Nidever, Field Inspector San Francisco

L. G. Van Vorhis Terminal Island

W. L. Scofield, Supervisor, State Fisheries Laboratory Terminal Island

Arthur A. Alstrom, Supervisor, Fresh Fish Marketing San Francisco

BUREAU OF LICENSES
H. R. DUNBAR, Chief Sacramento

BUREAU OF EDUCATION AND RESEARCH

J. O. SNYDER, Chief San Franci.sco

Paul A. Shaw, Toxicologist San Francisco

Opie L. Warner, Publicist San Francisco

Ralph Bandini, Assistant Los Angeles

BUREAU OF GAME REFUGES

J. S. HUNTER, Chief San Francisco

Jay C. Bruce, State Lion Hunter San Lorenzo

D. D. McLean, Field Naturalist San Francisco

A. D. McLellan, Game Refuge Supervisor San Francisco

BUREAU OF GAME FARMS

AUGUST BADE, Chief Yountville

E. D. Piatt, Assistant in Charge Chino

Gordon H. True, Jr., Field Production of Game San Francisco

BUREAU OF PATROL

B. L. MACAULAT, Chief of Patrol San Frinol^ro

K. P. AUred, Assistant Chief of Patrol " San F?anc «^

C. S. Bauder, Assistant Chief of Patrol Los Angeled

SAN FRANCISCO OFFICE

C, L. Bundock Oakland

T. K. Duncan Concord

C. E Holladay San Jose

M. F. Joy San Francisco

McPherson Lough Palo Alto

Forrest J. McDermott Santa Cruz

C. R. Peek San Mateo

Orben Philbrick Monterey

Fred Post Salinas

Lee C. Shea San Francisco

J. P. Vissiere Watsonville

L. T. Ward Alameda

WM. LIPPINCOTT San Rafael

W. J. Black Vallejo

C. M. Bouton San Rafael

Ed Clements Fairfield

Chas. F. England Vallejo

Bert F. Laws Inverness

H. S. Vary Antioch

R. J. Yates San Rafael

A. H. WILLARD Sacramento Office

Earl I. Hiscox Auburn

Nelson Poole Sacramento Office

Albert W. Sears Placerville

Chas. Sibeck Sacramento Office

R L. Sinkey Woodland

W. J. HARP Areata

'W. C. Blewett Eureka

E. R. Caldwell Eureka

Scott Peland Fortuna

Ed Johnson Garberville

W. F. Kaliher Fortuna

T. P. Miller ^__Klamath

S. R. GILLOON Mt. Shasta

Brlce Hammack Treka

A. A. Jordan Alturas

Paul Kehrer Fall River Mills

C. R. Love Redding

Fred Starr Macdoel

S. J. CARPENTER Maxwell

Roy "W. Anderson Red Bluff

Lee Atkinson "Willows

L. "W. Dinsdale Yuba City

R. J. Little Gridley

Taylor London Orovllle

E. O. Wraith Chico

J. D. DONDERO Lakeport

Ray Diamond Willits

Ovid Holmes Fort Bragg

Geo. N. Johnson Napa

Earl Macklin Ukiah

L. A. Mitchell Point Arena

K. J. Ransdell Lakeport

HENRY LENCIONI Santa Rosa

J; S- Groves Cloverdale

V. E. Vox Arx Santa Rosa

JOSEPH H. SANDERS Truckee

C. p. Fisher SuHanville

C. L. Gourley Westwood

L. E. Mercer Quincy

Alvm Granstrom Portola

J. E. NEWSOME Newman

H. E. Black Madera

C. L. Brown Mariposa

M. S. Clark Merced

L. W. Longeway Sonora

Geo. W. Magladry Modesto

R. A. Tinnin Newman

J. O'CONNELL Stockton

Wm. Hoppe Lodl

Vernon Sutton Angels Camp

J. W. Thornburg MarkleeviUe

E. W. SMALLEY Hanford

F. A. Bullard Reedley

Ray Ellis Fresno

O. P. BROWNLOW Visalla

Lester Arnold Bakersfield

Ray J. Bullard PorterviUe

W. I. Long Woodlake

Roswell C. Welch Kernville

LOS ANGELES OFFICE

A. R. Ainsworth Santa Maria

R. B. Bedwell Ventura

A. F. Crocker Bridgeport

G. S. Donham Pismo Beach

E. H. Glidden San Diego

J. H. Gyger Perria

J. W. Harbuck Julian

W. L Hare Santa Ana

F. W. Hecker San Luis Obispo

H. C. Jackson Santa Barbara

T. R. JoUey Idyllwild

E. H. Ober Palmdale

Geo. Smalley Terminal Island

W. S. Talbott Fallbrook

C. L. Towers Los Angeles

Paul Turner Paso Robles

Eugene Walker Independence

C. J. Walters Independence

R. O'Conner Terminal Island

LARUE F. CHAPPELL Pasadena

W. C. Malone San Bernardino

C. L. Savage Ontario

COMMERCIAL FISHERIES PATROL

S. H. LYONS, Supervisor Fisheries Patrol Terminal I.«iland

C. H. GROAT, Captain Terminal Island

R. P. CLASSIC, Captain Monterey

N. C. Kunkel Terminal Island | T. J. Smith Terminal Island

T. W. Schilling San Diego

Launch Patrol

Walter Engelke Motor Vessel "Bluefln," Terminal Island

L. J. Weseth Launch "Albacore," Monterey

Erol Greenleaf Launch "Albacore," Monterey

C. M. Bouton Launch "Quinnat," San Rafael

W. J. Black Launch "Hunter," Vallejo

Wm. Hoppe Launch "Rainbow," Walnut Grove

H. S. Vary Launch "Walter R. Welch." .\ntiorh

T. P. Miller Launch "Silverside," Klamath

Captains indicated in capitals.

CALIFORNIA STATE PRINTING OFFICE

HARRY HAMMOND, STATE PRINTER

SACRAMENTO, 1934

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