/A. L BfSCHOFF Pi9 Santa Fe Avenue \AIbany, California CALIFORNIA FISH AND "CONSERVATION OF WILD LIFE THROUGH EDUCATION* 25758 STATE OF CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES DIVISION OF FISH AND GAME SAN FRANCISCO, CALIFORNIA EARL. WARREN GOVERNOR WILLIAM H. MOORE DIRECTOR OF NATURAL RESOURCES FISH AND GAME COMMISSION NATE MILNOR, President Mono County GERMAIN BDLCKE, Commissioner San Francisco LEE F. PAYNE, Commissioner Los Angeles W. B. WILLIAMS, Commissioner Alturas GEORGE P. MILLER, Executive Secretary San Francisco BUREAU OF FISH CONSERVATION A. C. TAFT, Chief San Francisco A. E. Burghduff, Supervisor of Fish Hatcheries San Francisco Brian Curtis, Supervising Fisheries Biologist San Francisco L. Phillips, Assistant Supervisor of Fish Hatcheries San Francisco George McCloud, Assistant Supervisor of Fish Hatcheries Mt. Shasta D. A. Clanton, Assistant Supervisor of Fish Hatcheries Fillmore Allan Pollitt, Assistant Supervisor of Fish Hatcheries Tahoe William Berrian, Foreman, Fall Creek Hatchery Copco Archie Thompson, Foreman, Tosemite Hatchery Yosemite John Marshall, Foreman, Feather River Hatchery Clio Leon Talbot, Foreman, Mt. Whitney Hatchery Independence A. N. Culver, In Charge, Kaweah Hatchery Three Rivers Donald Evins, Foreman, Lake Almanor Hatchery Westwood Ross McCloud, Foreman, Basin Creek Hatchery Tuolumne Peter Topp, Foreman, Burney Creek Hatchery Burncy C. L. Frame, Foreman, Kings River Hatchery Fresno Harold Hewitt, Foreman, Prairie Creek Hatchery Orick Edward Clessen, Foreman, Brookdale Hatchery Brookdale Harry Cole, Foreman, Yuba River Hatchery Camptonville Clarence Chansler. Fish Hatchery Man, Madera Hatchery Bass Lake R. C. Lewis, Assistant Supervisor, Hot Creek Hatchery Bishop Cecil Ray, In Charge, Kern Hatchery Kernville Carl Freyschlag, Foreman, Central Valley Hatchery Elk Grove Joseph Wales, Biological Surveyor Mt. Shasta Leo Shapovalov, Senior Fisheries Biologist San Francisco William Dill, Senior Fisheries Biologist Fresno G. S. Gunderson, Fish Hatchery Man, Coy Flat Camp Nelson BUREAU OF GAME CONSERVATION J. S. HUNTER, Chief San Francisco Gordon H. True, Jr., In Charge, Pittrr.an-Robertson Projects San Francisco Donald D. McLean, Economic Biologist San Francisco Roy M. Wattenbarger, Supervisor Los Banos Refuge Los Banos Russell M. Reedy, Supervisor Imperial Refuge Calipatria Ralph R. Noble, Supervisor Suisun Refuge Joice Island John R. Wallace, In Charge, Predatory Animal Control San Francisco Asa L. Brown, Supervising Trapper Beaumont John L. McDonald, Supervising Trapper Anderson O. R. Shaw, Supervising Trapper Salinas BUREAU OF GAME FARMS AUGUST BADE, Chief Yountville E. D. Piatt, Superintendent, Los Serranos Game Farm Chino BUREAU OF MARINE FISHERIES RICHARD VAN CLEVE, Chief San Francisco S. H. Dado, Assistant Chief San Francisco W. L. Scofield, Supervising Fisheries Researcher Terminal Island Frances N. Clark, Supervising Fisheries Researcher Terminal Island Donald H. Fry, Jr., Supervising Fisheries Researcher Terminal Island Harry C. Godsil, Senior Fisheries Researcher San Diego J. B. Phillips, Senior Fisheries Researcher Pacific Grove Paul Bonnot, Senior Fisheries Researcher Stanford University Geraldine Conner, Fisheries Statistician Terminal Island California Fish and Game "conservation of wildlifb through education" Volume 29 SAN FRANCISCO, OCTOBER, 1943 No. 4 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page In the Service of Their Country 156 A Self-Filling Quail Watering Device Ben Glading 157 A Bee Repellent for Use in Quail Watering Devices Ben Glading and David M. Selleck 165 Epidemiological Studies on Coccidiosis of California Quail I. Occurrence of Eimeria in Wild Quail Carlton M. Herman and John E. Chattin 168 Deer Refuges Under the Buck Law F. P. Cronemiller 180 Golden Trout Propagation in California George McCloud 191 The Relationship of Fish to the Clear Lake Gnat, in Clear Lake, California Arthur W. Lindquist, Christian C. Deonier and J. E. Hancey 196 James Moffitt, 1900-1943 , Brian Curtis 203 Editorials and Notes — An Outbreak of Mycotic Pneumonia in Mallards Carlton M. Herman 204 A Record Yellowtail Gerhard Bakker, Jr. 204 Twenty-five Years Ago in "California Fish and Game" Brian Curtis 204 In Memoriam — Curtis Lee Bundock L.F. Chappell 206 Alvin Granstrom L. F. Chappell 206 Charles R. Love L. F. Chappell 206 Arthur Boeke H. B. Dunbar 207 Reports 208 Index to Volume 29 213 California Fish and Game is a publication devoted to the conservation of wild- life. It is published quarterly by the California Division of Fish and Game. All material for publication should be sent to Brian Curtis, Editor, Division of Fish and Game, Ferry Building, San Francisco, California. i The articles published herein are not copyrighted and may be reproduced in other periodicals, provided due credit is given the author and the California Division of Fish and Game. Editors of newspapers and periodicals are invited to make use of pertinent material. Subscribers are requested to notify the Division of Fish and Game, Ferry Build- ing, San Francisco, California, of changes of address, giving old address as well as the new. 25758 ( 155 ) In %te ^crttce of Wm Country Now serving with the armed forces of the United States are the following 142 employees of the California Division of Fish and Game, listed in order of entry into the service: J. William Cook Merton N. Rosen Albert King E. L. Macaulay E. R. Hyde George Werden, Jr. E. A. Johnson Henry Bartol Edson J. Smith John F. Janssen, Jr. Richard Kramer Arthur Barsuglia George Metcalf James F. Ashley William Jolley Rudolph Switzer Jacob Myers Charles McFall Lloyd Hume John E. Fitch William H. Sholes, Jr. James Reynolds Paul Gillogley Ralph Beck Charles Cuddigan James H. Berrian Edward Dolder John Woodard Bob King Ross Waggoner John Canning William Richardson William Plett John Finigan Trevenen Wright John A. Maga Elmer Doty William Dye A. F. Crocker Lester Golden Richard N. Hardin Henry Frahm Lawrence Rubke Virgil Swenson Harold Dave Howard McCully Austin Alford Belton Evans Willis Evans James Hiller Robert Terwilliger Eugene Durney Charles W. Kanig Howard Shebley Donald Tappe Richard S. Croker J. G. McKerlie Robert Kaneen Elmer Lloyd Brown Douglas Dowell William Roysten Dean L. Bennett John Chattin C. L. Towers Carlisle Van Ornum Harry Peters Mark Halderman John B. Buttler Charles Comerford Niles J. Millen Carol M. Ferrell J. Alfred Aplin James E. Wade Nathan Rogan Henry Shebley S. Ross Hatton Jack Wm. Cook John J. Barry Chester Ramsey Elmer Aldrich Robert N. Hart Ralph Dale James D. Stokes George D. Seymour Glenn Whitesell A. E. Johnson Gustav E. Geibel Wm. Bradford Ernest E. McBain John Hurley Karl Lund Henry A. Hjersman Elden H. Vestal Walter Shannon Jack R. Bell Harold Roberts Edwin V. Miller Phil M. Roedel Richard De Large Arthur L. Stager Chester Woodhull W. S. Talbott Leo Rossier Richard Bliss William D. Hoskins Edgar Zumwalt Earl Leitritz John M. Spicer Wm. Longhurst George Booker J. Ross Cox Harold Wilberg Leslie Edgerton Arthur L. Gee George Shockley Laurence Werder Robert McDonald Frank L. D. Felton James A. Reutgen David M. Selleck Chris Wm. Loris James T. Deuel Lionel E. Clement Thomas Borneman Richard Riegelheth Willard Greenwald Carl G. Hill H. S. Vary Emil Dorig Donald Glass Ruth Smith Wm. J. Overton Daniel F. Tillotson Earl S. Herald Theodore Heryford Ellis Berry Lawrence Cloyd Eleanor Larios John Laughlin Ralph Classic Owen Mello Gordon L. Bolander frilled in Cine of Butg Byron Sylvester Arthur Boeke A SELF-FILLING QUAIL WATERING DEVICE By Ben Glading 1 Bureau of Game Conservation California Division of Fish and Game Water is assumed to be an important factor in the management of the western species of quail. Many different types of artificial watering troughs have been devised and used to provide supplementary water for quail in arid regions (Rahm, 1938; True, 1933). The writer has used many of these devices during the course of investigations into the man- agement of valley quail, but none of the various types of installations tested have proved entirely satisfactory. c. V 'k'?}?i:*'VfS-'& A .0 0". ;B t Ft'-oVV o. ,T y. la O O a . ft ■ 9 o, O; °-. ■ ' '.-. .•'■.".;•*.>' o °-.V'e*'-.e'''">5V ;S'-A-'-:ei!.*?.*'o^.-5 6 jjL± x> Fig. 46. Plan and sections of self- maintaining-, self-filling trough. Desert model. This installation is placed in an excavation corresponding with out- side contours. The top of the struc- ture is level with the earth surface. Structure is to be made of rein- forced concrete (1 part cement, 5 parts gravel). An oiled earth catchment apron is to be built, draining into the small settling basin. Main tank is covered with either redwood planking or reinforced concrete. A shade and coyote guard is to be built over the sloping drinking trough. The small capacity of most of the quail watering troughs tried has necessitated several filling and inspection trips per season, while mechani- cal difficulties have been present in nearly all cases, making the use of , such tanks a positive hazard to any population of quail entirely dependent on them. In some instances the reservoir would not maintain its supply 1 Submitted for publication, June, 1943. (157) 158 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME of water for more than a few days, while in others, failure of the dis- pensing device resulted in no water getting to the trough where it could , be used by the quail. It is of paramount importance, when such watering ^ installations have been successful in attracting quail to otherwise barren areas, that their operation be sure and be such as to require as few main- tenance visits as possible. The quail watering device described here is felt to be free from prac- tically all types of mechanical difficulties and if properly installed, should require only one visit per year for cleaning. In certain types of terrain, (^ visits could be made even less frequently. The first structure of this new ^ type was placed at the Bitterwater Experimental Area 2 in southern San Benito County, California, in the summer of 1942. In 1943, three more similar installations were made at Bitterwater, one at Kettleman Hills, and two in southern California on quail refuges near Riverside. '•*>»•*'■' *.> J *?•! %ff& '<* Fig. 47. Excavation for Gavilan installation (southern California quail refuge). Note outside form of settling basin in lower left and of trough at the upper edge of picture. This tank-trough combination, which has come to be called the ' ' gallinaceous guzzler, ' ' is placed so that the top of the tank is flush with the grounffsurlace ." The inside dimensions of the first tank employed at. Bitterwater were 5 feet by 5 feet by 26 inches deep ; its walls and bottoms As were of reinforced concrete 4 inches thick. A concrete trough 7 inches wide and about 5 feet long, sloping from ground level to a 26-inch depth, was built parallel to the tank along one entire edge (Fig. 46) . The tank and trough had one side wall in common, with a two-inch opening at the bottom to connect the two. (See Figs. 47 to 51 for tank in construction.) / 2 One of the experimental areas of Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration, Project ^* California 6R, The Management of Valley Quail in the South Coast Counties of Cali-^P fornia. Grateful acknowledgment is hereby extended to Messrs. David Selleck, Fred Ross and R. W. Enderlin, of Project 6R, for many suggestions pertinent to the con- struction of these watering devices; and to Fred Ross for drawing Figures 46, 53 and 55. . - ■— — « Fig. 48. Covering- inside form of trough with building- paper to facilitate removal Note 2-inch pipe attached to lower side of form ; this will form the connection between tank and trough. Fig. 49. Tank and troug-h form in place. Note hog-wire reinforcing between forms and in bottom of tank. ! C « , >r~ ii***F *«# #•*?' Fig. 50. Gavilan (southern California quail refuge) tank with wooden cover. Man- hole for cleaning is at lower right. Fig. 51. Bitterwater Tank #6, three-fourths full of water, prior to roofing with redwood planks. SELF-FILLING QUAIL WATERING DEVICE 161 Fig. 52. Completed Bitterwater Tank $6 ; collecting' apron has not yet been oiled, nor has shade been placed over trough. The tank was then covered with redwood planking and 8 inches of earth. A coyote-proof exclosnre and a shade were placed about the trough. (See Figs. 52 and 55 for completed tank.) Thu^it will be seen that the 400-gallon reservoir is in hydrostatic equilibrium with the drinking trough, and all that is necessary is for the quail to follow the gradually receding water. One complete season 's oper- ation has demonstrated that this installation will maintain a supply of water throughout a moderately dry California summer. A somewhat larger tank may be necessary for more arid regions. The tanks installed in 1943 were of more than 600-gallon capacity, in anticipation of developing such a tank for desert use. The inside dimensions of the storage tanks on the larger square installations were 7 feet by 5 feet by 30 inches, and the trough was correspondingly enlarged. (See Fig. 46 for details of these larger types.) Two of the 1943 struc- tures placed at Bitterwater were made with a circular tank 7 feet in diameter and 30 inches deep (Fig. 53). The form for pouring this type of concrete trough is somewhat more difficult to make and is recommended only for situations where a number of installations are contemplated. It has the advantage however that once the original form has been built, the resulting installations are easier to pour and more strongly con- structed. The 1943 installations were supplied with a solid concrete cover for the storage tank, and a manhole and cover 18 inches in diameter to allow access to the tank for cleaning (Fig. 54). 162 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME Settling basin is 12" deep r Fig. 53. Circular modification of quail watering device. Original forms for this type are more difficult to build than for the square model, but this type is better for mass production. Construction details similar to square model. Radius of curves for sides of trough is 6' from center "A" (inside wall) and center "B" (outside wall). Trough slopes from ground level at 8" end to 30" deep at 4J" end. c Fig. 54. Box Springs (southern California quail refuge) installation just after removal of forms. Bolts have been set in the concrete surrounding the trough to hold coyote guard and shade. The form for the concrete roof is being installed. The manhole will be in upper left corner of the tank, and a wash-tub will serve as inside and outside form for hole and cover. Settling basin with screen at lower right corner. SELF-FILLING QUAIL WATERING DEVICE 163 k. -r — °JJJ)»M)m$> Fig. 55. General ground plan for complete installation, showing position of rain collecting apron, shade and coyote guard, and fence. In order to do away with the necessity for annual filling of the tank, a rain-collecting apron was built uphill from it and connected to it by a settling basin that led into the tank by a two-inch opening (Figs. 52 and 55 ) . The area of this apron was calculated so that one-half of the mini- mum possible annual rainfall of the locality (about 3 inches in the case of the Bitterwater structures) would fill the reservoir. The collecting apron on Bitterwater tank #6 was roughly circular and about 18 feet in diameter. A screen was placed about the settling basin, in order that floating debris would not accumulate in it. A fine screen was placed in the opening between the settling basin and the tank. The collecting apron was constructed by first cleaning off all vegetation, then shaping it up with a six-inch berm at the periphery. During the heat of the summer, hot road oil was spread over the apron and allowed to soak in. A second application of road oil may be necessary during the second summer of operation. Following is a list of materials needed for the "desert" or larger square model : lumber for forms, roughly 100 board feet of #3 pine 1" x 6", and nails ; building paper for wrapping trough form ; 12 sacks of cement for tank-trough-settling basin structure ; and 2\ yards of mixed sand and gravel. If a concrete top is to be made this will require about 2\ sacks of cement and about \ yard of gravel additional ; if a redwood plank top is to be made, this will require about 80 board feet of redwood 2" x 12" and several lengths of 2" x 4" redwood. Screen will be needed for the settling basin and inlet to the tank ; \" hardware cloth is good for the debris screen surrounding the settling basin, while copper fly screen 2—25758 164 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME should be used in the opening- from the settling basin to the tank. TJie^ shade and coyote-proof guard over the trough can be made with bolts if" set in the concrete, supporting two two-by-six planks laid flat (Figs. 54 ^ and 55), or may be constructed of logs. About 25 gallons of road oil is. required for treating the catchment apron. The whole construction, including excavation, setting up forms, pouring concrete, preparing and oiling the catchment basin and fencing the whole installation can be done by experienced workers in five man-days. This does not include labor for hauling materials, which would vary with the locality of installation. IL This type of tank has worked perfectly as far as hydrostatic opera- tion is concerned during the year and a half the first one has been in service. No quail were attracted to it the first summer due to its exces- sive use by bees. This was cured, however (Glading and Selleck, 1943), and quail use was observed during the summer of 1943. Literature Cited Glading, Ben and David M. Selleck 1943. A bee repellent for use in quail watering devices. California Fish and Game, vol. 29, no. 4, pp. 165-167. Rahm, Neal M. 193S. Quail range extension in the San Bernardino National Forest — progress report, 1937. California Fish and Game, vol. 24, no. 2, pp. 133-158. True, Gordon H., Jr. 1933. The quail replenishment program. California Fish and Game, vol. 19, no. 1, pp. 20-23. U W A BEE REPELLENT FOR USE IN QUAIL WATERING DEVICES By Ben Glading and David M. Selleck x Bureau of Game Conservation California Division of Fish and Game A common difficulty encountered in the operation of artificial water troughs ToFarid land game is their invasion by bees. Various workers have reported that bees have taken over their installations, quickly drain- ing the tanks and driving game away. Bees^can take an_unbelievable quantity of water. Gordon H. True, .Tr sta.fr»s that a 5(Lga.n on barrel insbiithern California was drained by bees in 10 days. Our observation at Tank #6, Bitterwater, California (Glading, 1943) revealed that bees took approximately four gallons per day over a 17-day period. A solution to this difficulty presented itself somewhat accidentally during the course of a quail watering experiment conducted at Bitter- water in southern San Benito County, California.2 It was noted that five out of six quail troughs installed in this area were infested in varying degrees by bees from a nearby apiary, and by wild bees. The remain- ing trough (Bitterwater #4) was a 400-gallon float valve installation which had a reservoir consisting of a discarded acetylene generator. This tank was lined with a thick coating of carbide residue (Ca [OH]2 plus impurities). In order to test the possibilities suggested by the lack of bees at this old carbide tank, the following experiments were devised. Tank #6, which had the worst infestation, was used as the site of the tests. Water similar in source to that in Tank #6 was placed in a five- gallon can near the trough for several days. During this period, as stated above, the bees drank approximately 70 gallons in 17 days from the quail watering device. The trough was then screened so that bees had to rely on water from the nearby five-gallon can. Four cans (approximately three-quart capacity) were then placed nearby and treated as follows : #1 — filled with water from same source as Tank #6. #2 — filled with water from same source as Tank #6 and enough car- bide residue to make a saturated solution. #3 — filled with water from same source as Tank #6 and enough com- mercial hydrated lime (Ca [OH]2) to make a saturated solu- tion. #4 — filled with water from same source as Tank #6 and screened from bees. A sloping screen 1\" wide was placed in each can, with the exception of Can #4, to allow easy access by the bees. 1 Submitted for publication, June, 1943. 2 Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration, Project California 6R, The Management of Valley Quail in the South Coast Counties of California. (165) 16G CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME The five-gallon can from which the bees had been drinking removed, and the bees were forced to choose from the test cans, shows the results of this experiment after 24 hours exposure to bee use & was Table 1 TABLE 1 Loss of H2O Can No. Treatment in 2b hours 1 H2O 54 ozs. 2 Saturated carbide residue 10§ ozs. 3 Hydrated lime 10§ ozs. 4 H2O screened 10§ ozs. It was noted that bees swarmed about the plain water but left both the carbide and hydrated lime treated waters alone. This seemed to be conclusive evidence that bees were repelled by the lime water. i\ S*i-§%. ^ - * • . * ~4f m •% \ M. * A ; ■ v Fig. 56. Bee-repellent experiment after one day's exposure to bee use. The lefthand and center cans contain a saturated solution of carbide residue and slaked lime, respectively, while the righthand can has just a few inches of plain water remain- ing in it. The can on the upper right was screened against bees as a check ; its water loss was approximately the same as that in the two treated cans. The next question was, would quail continue to use troughs filled ^ with a saturated calcium hydroxide solution. Accordingly, Tank #5, a vacuum installation that had considerable quail use, was treated with enough hydrated lime to produce a saturated solution. About five pounds of lime to 100 gallons of water was enough to saturate the drinking water. Quail use at this installation continued after the treatment. The other Bitterwater troughs, all of which had some quail use, were similarly / treated with enough water-slaked lime to make a saturated solution, and ?■ bee use was immediately greatly reduced, while quail use continued. BEE REPELLENT IN QUAIL WATERING DEVICE 167 In the summer of 1943, a number of bees were again seen about Tank trough #6. It was observed, however, that they were not taking water from the drinking trough itself, but were gaining access to the main tank chamber through a hole in the roof and were drinking water that was condensed in drops on the roof. The hole in the roof of the tank was plugged. The bees then availed themselves of water that crept up the sides of the trough by capillary action. It was noted that the bees were drinking this capillary water about one inch above the surface of the water in the trough. Between the water surface and the line of bee drinking, there was a precipitate of what was presumed to be Ca Co3 (it bubbled when put in vinegar). Carbon dioxide of the air acting on the Ca (OH) 2 of the lime water exposed by capillary attraction removed the calcium hydroxide from the water and left a precipitate of calcium corbonate about one-half inch above the water surface ; the water above this line was devoid of lime, hence acceptable to bees. Water loss from this type of use by bees was negligible compared with the use of untreated water. It is suggested that where concrete troughs are used that they be coated with any of the wax concrete coating compounds; this will reduce capillary action on the sides of the troughs. Literature Cited Glading, Ben 1943. A self-filling quail watering device. California Fish and Game, vol. 29, no. 4, pp. 157-164. EPIDEMIOLOGICAL STUDIES ON COCCIDIOSIS OF CALIFORNIA QUAIL I. OCCURRENCE OF EIMERIA IN WILD QUAIL 1 By Carlton M. Herman and John E. Chattin Bureau of Game Conservation California Division of Fish and Game Introduction Coccidia, protozoa which usually parasitize the epithelium lining the intestines and caeca, occur in a great variety of animals. Although a number of genera have been described, only two (Eimeria and Isospora) are common in birds and mammals. For the most part species of coccidia which occur in one species or group of birds or mammals are not infective to other species or groups. Thus the coccidia of cattle are infective only to cattle, the coccidia of sparrows will not infect chickens or quail, and most of the species observed in quail and chickens are not transferable between these two hosts. All of the species of coccidia which have been reported from quail or which we have observed from these birds belong to the genus Eimeria. Three species thus far have been named and described from quail in California, but we have observed at least five species. The life cycle of coccidia is, in general, very similar for all species. These parasites are ingested by mouth and usually infect the cells lining the intestinal tract. Resistant oocyst stages pass out of the intestinal tract with fecal droppings and in the case of the quail forms studies, reach infectivity (complete sporulation) within 48 hours, at which time they are capable of causing infection in susceptible animals which eat them. A number of reports have been made of the presence of coccidia in quail in California and other areas of the United States, and in related game birds in various parts of the world. However, the present paper presents the first extensive survey of the occurrence of these parasites in a species of wild bird. O'Roke (1928) examined an unstated number of wild quail from several areas in California and observed no coccidia. He later (in McLean, 1930) noted the occurrence of four species of Eimeria in valley quail raised in an aviary. Two species of Eimeria, with a questioned third, were identified by Henry (1931) from California quail (Lophortyx ealifornica) and mountain quail (Oreortyx picta) from game farms, together with a few wild birds. Herman and Jankiewicz (1942) recog- nized three species of Eimeria in both wild and captive quail. Four species of Eimeria, with a possible fifth, were recognized by Herman, Jankiewicz and Saarni (1942) from trapped quail at the San Joaquin Experimental Range. These last authors examined 121 birds during the period between April and October, 1941, and reported infection in 89. The percentage of infection was higher in adult than in young birds. A 1 Submitted for publication, June, 19 43. (168) EPIDEMIOLOGICAL STUDIES OP COCCIDIOSIS OF QUAIL 169 rise and fall in intensity of infection was observed in individual birds at different samplings. Monthly incidence decreased from April (94.7% ) ^ to September (23.8%) and showed an increase in October, suggesting a possibility of seasonal variation. Herman, Chattin and Saarni (1943), in a further analysis of this same material from the Experimental Range plus samples collected subsequently, found a variation in the monthly intensity of infection which seemed correlated with the food habits of the birds. Acknowledgments The material reported in this paper was studied at the Los Angeles Wildlife Disease Research Station of the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service during which time the senior author was Technical Advisor. Work Projects Administration Official Project No. 65-2-07-344 performed the routine procedures incident to the preparation of the material for micro- scopic examination. This is part of an extensive cooperative project on the causes of wild- life fluctuations and animal diseases. The fecal samples were collected in part by the personnel of the California Division of Fish and Game, forming the staff of Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration Project, Cali- fornia 6R (The Management of Valley Quail in the South Coast Counties of California) , and in part by other field personnel of the Division. The soil samples were collected by Ben Glading, David M. Selleck, and Elmer C. Aldrich of the Division, working on the Federal Aid project, and by Roy Saarni of the U. S. Forest Service. The samples collected by the latter cooperator were part of a cooperative study with the Forest Service, the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and the University of Cali- fornia. Although extensive, detailed field notes were kept by these work- ers concerning the collection of the soil samples, only a brief statement summarizing the technique of collection and source of this material is included in the present paper. Materials and Methods Quail (Lophortyx calif ornica subsp.) were trapped in 19 areas in California, numbering from 4 to 239 birds during trapping periods which varied from 1 day to li months ; most collections covered a period of less than 1 week. Three separate samplings were taken from birds at Bitter- water, San Benito County, and 7 samplings were made at the Dune Lakes Club, San Luis Obispo County. At the latter area, portions of intestinal tracts were collected from birds shot by hunters during the period from November 15 to December 31, 1941. ^\ The locations from which samples were obtained are shown in the accompanying map (Fig. 57). Because of the artificial nature of the quail management at the Dune Lakes Club and the large series of samples studied from that area, a brief description of the locality is presented. It is located on the coast in San Luis Obispo County. The area is com- posed mainly of low, rolling sand hills, made up of fine sand with practi- cally no humus. It is extremely well drained. Rainfall occurs only in ^f) winter months and during 1941 registered about 30 to 40 inches. A heavy morning dew and several lakes provide an abundant summer water sup- ply for the birds. Cover, consisting of sandhill brush species, is very 170 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME ample. Annual legumes and filaree are practically absent. Usually pre- ferred quail foods are almost lacking during the summer but green food is available from the first rain until late April. However, the birds are fed artificially at least twice a week and crop studies show cracked corn forms the bulk of the diet throughout the year. Census counts by Glad- ing and other field cooperators indicate that during the period of sampling there were about 2,000 quail inhabiting a 400-acre area. The birds trapped at Modjeska, Orange County, were removed shortly thereafter to Dune Lakes where they were kept confined in pens for more than a month before samples were taken and hence may be con- sidered as captive birds. Samples from several game farms are included for comparative purposes. The trapped quail were placed in individual cages and confined until droppings were deposited. Figure 58 illustrates the type of cage developed on the Federal Aid project for this purpose. The sample was • SURPRISE VALLEV • LITCHFIELD MILL SBOR OUCH WILDER RANC PACiriC GROVE 10 Ml . %. BIG Si 9SAN JOAQUIN EXPERIMENTAL RANGE RANCHO QUIEN 5ABE \ \ \ \ \ DUNE LAKE \ 9 MODJESKA ^ Fig. 57. Map of California showing sites from which fecal samples from quail, and soil samples, were collected for this study. EPIDEMIOLOGICAL STUDIES OF COCCIDIOSIS OP QUAIL 171 placed, while still moist, in a vial containing sufficient 2 per cent potas- t sium dichromate solution to cover the fecal material. This chemical j inhibits bacterial development and serves to preserve the coccidial oocysts in good condition for subsequent diagnosis in the laboratory. Each vial received droppings from only one quail and was labeled with the band number of the bird and the date on which the sample was collected. it&ri* • Fig. 58. Holding- cage used for securing fecal samples from quail. Clean sheets of paper were placed under each compartment to catch the droppings. Photo- graphed by Ben Glading. In the laboratory the entire sample was placed in a 15 ml. centrifuge tube which was filled with water and spun at about 2,000 revolutions per minute for 90 seconds. The coccidial oocysts, having a greater specific gravity, were thrown to the bottom of the tube. The supernatent fluid was then decanted and the centrifuge tube was filled with zinc sulfate solution made up of 331 grams per liter of water (specific gravity 1.180 as per Faust et al., 1939) and recentrifuged at about the same rate of speed for an additional 60 seconds. This change of specific gravity causes the coccidial oocysts to float on the surface of the liquid. A drop of the surface film was removed from the tube by adherence to the flat- tened end of a glass rod and transferred to a microscope slide. The entire drop was examined under the low power of a compound micro- scope (5X ocular and 10 X objective — yielding a magnification of 50 X) and the findings were rated according to the number of coccidial oocysts present as follows: 1-10 oocysts, 1+ ; 11-50, 2+ ; 51-100, 3+ ; 101-500, 4+ ; 501-1,000, 5+ ; 1,001-5,000, 6+ ; over 5,000, 7+. Soil samples were collected as follows : 1. San Joaquin Experimental Range, in the foothills of the Sierra Nevada near O 'Neals, Madera County. The incidence and intensity of coccidian infection of quail on this area has been reported in a previous paper (Herman, Jankiewicz and Saarni, 1942). Soil samples, usually sufficient to fill a 2-ounce jar, were collected from a variety of locations. 3 — 25758 172 CALIFORNIA PISH AND GAME In all cases samples were taken only from areas frequented by concentra- tions of quail. These were primarily at water holes. Samples were taken at various depths from the surface to a depth of 1 inch, and included wet material close to water holes, soil at various distances from the holes, at the fringes of wet and dry areas, and also dry soil several feet from the water holes where quail were likely to dust themselves. When a water hole became dry and therefore no longer used by the quail, no further samples were taken. A total of 556 samples was collected during the period between May, 1941, and January, 1942. 2. Dune Lakes Club. Soil samples, usually sufficient to fill a 1-pint carton, were collected as at the San Joaquin Experimental Range from a variety of locations frequented by concentrations of quail. One hun- dred seven samples were collected on July 2, 1941, and 103 further samples were collected on December 11, 1941 ; the latter samples were mainly from approximately the same spots as the first sampling. In most cases four samples were taken from each spot at odd ^-inch depths ; i.e., the first -J inch, the third \ inch, etc. 3. Quien Sabe Ranch. All soil samples from this area were col- lected from about a single spring on May 6, 1941. The shallow spring was situated at the base of a cliff, the terrain sloping away from the cliff in a gradual decline across a meadow. The ground immediately around the spring contained many loose stones and boulders and was well shaded. From about 8 feet away from the spring the meadow was unshaded and served as cattle pasture. The nature of the terrain immediately around the spring makes it unlikely that the cattle used it for watering purposes, but there was positive evidence that it was used by predatory mammals as well as quail and other birds. Samples of soil were collected from the spring and the moist soil surrounding it and at intervals in two directions away from the spring across the pasture for about 300 yards. A total of 103 samples of soil was collected in 1-pint cardboard con- tainers. They were collected at varying depths, but mostly on the sur- face \ inch. Close to the spring, samples were taken at distances of a few inches apart, and the interval was increased in the two directions away from the spring. Several of the spots close to the spring under the shadows of boulders appeared to be used by the quail as dusting or resting places. The soil samples varied from 2 ounces to 1 pint of material. Each individual sample was thoroughly stirred to insure a homogeneous mix- ture and, roughly, 2 grams were weighed out. The 2-gram samples were then treated in the same manner as the fecal samples, as described above. In the first five samples of material received from the Experimental Range, six 2-gram tests of each sample were compared and it was decided that the results were sufficiently comparable to consider a single 2-gram sample an adequate examination. Results All coccidia observed from quail feces or intestinal material belonged to the genus Eimeria. No attempt was made in this study to differen- tiate species of the parasite. The findings obtained from the examination of 3,500 fecal samples of quail, and the contents of portions of intestinal tracts from the Dune Lakes hunt, are presented in Table 1. In the areas where fecal samples EPIDEMIOLOGICAL STUDIES OF COCCIDIOSIS OF QUAIL 173 ^ TABLE 1 Incidence and Relative Intensity of Coccidian Infection in Quail • Locality County Trapping dates Total examined Per cent positive '-d cd n cd a + 1 -a cd cd CD B to + 1 *0 n cd CD D + 1 IS CD CD CD B life + 1 1 CD CD CD D «*■ en + 1 •-d CD CD CD a + 1 T3 CD CD CD B -J + 1 Areata Humboldt Mendocino Marin... Oct. 13-Nov. 3, 1941 Nov. 11-13, 1941 Sept. 24-Oct. 10, 1941 Feb. 1-26, 1942 Nov. 7-Dec. 10, 1941 Nov. 23-Dec. 16, 1941 Aug. 22-Oct. 9, 1941 Oct. 20-Nov. 7, 1941 Aug. 8-Nov. 27, 1941 Aug. 23, 1941 Oct. 10-19, 1941 July 12, 1941 Oct. 10-19, 1941 Feb. 1-12. 1942 Nov. 19-Dec. 10, 1941 July 26, 1941 Sept. 12-16, 1941 Nov. 5-8, 1941 Aug. 30-Sept. 6, 1941 Sept. 22-25, 1941 Oct. 24-26, 1941 Nov. 11-14, 1941 Nov. 15-Dec. 31, 1941 Jan. 13-16, 1942 Feb. 13-15, 1942 Mar. 25-28. 1942 Dec. 2-11, 1941 Sept. 19, 1941 Aug. 25-Sept. 11. 1941 Sept. 18-23, 1941 Feb. 10, 1942 152 19 143 34 92 187 •299 142 8 5 99 26 74 49 60 4 119 115 192 112 139 129 **132 192 171 103 18 174 35 35 142 92.8 84.2 58.1 47.1 19.6 96.8 49.7 54.6 87.5 40.0 61.6 11.5 70.3 77.5 80.0 50.0 34.4 56.5 67.7 78.6 68.3 72.1 70.5 94.3 81.2 49.5 50.0 70.2 54.3 42.9 46.5 38.2 52.6 25.2 32.4 14.1 19.2 19.0 25.0 37.5 40.0 32.3 7.7 31.1 49.0 30.0 25.0 22.7 25.2 25.5 27.7 32.4 29.5 43.2 32.3 49.7 32.0 33.3 51.2 37.2 31.5 35.9 21.1 15.8 12.6 5.9 4.4 21.9 7.0 14.5 18.4 10.5 9.1 2.9 20.3 4.3 9.2 25.0 14.5 5.3 9.1 5.9 1.1 26.7 1.7 4.6 12.5 .7 Fort Bragg Inverness 2.1 Surprise Valley. Modoc Litchfield Lassen Corning Hillsborough... Wilder Ranch . . Pacific Grove... Tehama San Mateo Santa Cruz Monterey Monterey Monterey. San Benito San Benito San Benito San Benito San Luis Obispo . San Luis Obispo. San Luis Obispo. San Luis Obispo. San Luis Obispo. San Luis Obispo. San Luis Obispo San Luis Obispo. San Luis Obispo. San Luis Obispo. San Luis Obispo. Santa Clara Orange*** San Mateo San Mateo Los Angeles 6.4 .7 .7 1.6 .3 .5 ..... lOMi.S.BigSur Jolon-Lockwood Bitterwater 12.1 14.9 18.4 18.3 10.1 3.8 18.9 6.1 13.3 4.0 3.0 Bitterwater 5.4 4.1 16.7 25.0 1.7 1.7 8.9 7.1 4.3 7.0 4.5 15.6 4.1 1.9 Bitterwater Quien Sabe Suey Ranch 1.7 Shandon 5.9 15.6 18.2 24.1 18.7 23.3 17.4 24.5 16.4 6.8 11.1 13.2 14.3 11.4 7.0 4.2 11.3 9.9 17.8 13.0 12.4 5.3 17.2 10.0 6.8 La Panza Dune Lakes Dune Lakes Dune Lakes 1.7 3.1 .9 .9 .5 .9 Te" Dune Lakes Dune Lakes Dune Lakes Dune Lakes Dune Lakes Gilroy.. 3.1 .6 1.0 5.6 .6 1.0 .6 1.0 .5 Modjeska 4.6 2.9 .6 Howell (G.B.B.) Klose (G.B.B.) . Castaic (G.B.B.) 2.8 .7 * These 299 samples were taken from 185 birds. ** Examination of fecal material collected from intestines of birds shot during annual hunt. *** These birds had been kept in captivity for more than a month prior to collection of samples. (G.B.B.) Captive birds bred in Game Farms. from 49 or more birds were examined during one period, total infection varied from 19.6 per cent at Litchfield during November and early December, to 96.8 at Corning during approximately the same period. Intensity of infection varied considerably for different areas and even in the same area at different trappings. In all but one area the greatest number of infected birds had 1-f- or 2-j-, i.e., "light" infections ; the samples from birds at Corning had a greater number with 3+ and 4-f-, i.e., "medium" to "heavy" infections with a greater percentage of "very heavy" infections than birds from any other area sampled. A comparison of the percentage intensity of infections in birds from a few of the areas is shown in the graphs in Figure 59. The points of the solid curves of these graphs are plotted on the intensity of infection as shown in Table 1, i.e., 1-f-, 2-f-, etc. The points of the broken curves are the sums of 1-f- and 2-(-, 3-(- and 4-f-, etc., and may be interpreted as "light," "medium to heavy" and "very heavy" infections. All game farm flocks of birds studied, an example of which is illustrated in Figure 59-C, showed a sharp drop from ' ' light ' ' infections to ' ' medium. ' ' The same type of curve was obtained from a tabulation of the findings of the birds trapped at Modjeska (Figure 59-A) but kept in captivity for a period prior to collection of samples. The tabulation for the sam- ples from Bitterwater birds trapped in early February, 1942 (Figure 59-B), presents the same type of curve. The March samples from Dune 174 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME Lakes, not shown in Figure 59, also give a similar picture. Other tabu- lations, due to higher percentages of 2+, 3-f, or 4-f- infections cause the upper curve to have a more gradual drop. Samplings with such findings are shown in the graphs of the Bitterwater, October, samples (Figure 59-D) with a high per cent of 3+ infections, and the Quien Sabe sam- ples (Figure 59-E) with a high per cent of 4-f infections. Only in the 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 MODJESKA SEPT 19. 174 BIRDS BITTERWATER FEB 7- FEB. 20. 49 BIRDS 7 + f* Ul U 50 40 30 20 a. Q. CASTA/C (G.BB) FEB. 10 ISS BIRDS BITTERWATER OCT I0-0CTI9. 74 BIRDS 1+ 2+ 3+ 4+ 5+ 6+ 7+ 1+ 2+ 3+ 4+ 5+ 6+ 7 + QUIEN SABE NOV.I9-DEC.10. 60 BIRDS 50 40 30 20 10 1+ 2+ 3+ 4+ 5+ 6+ 7+ -A \CORNING \nOV.23-DEC . 16. ' \ 187 BIRDS * \ 1+ 2+ 3+ 4+ 5+ 6+ 7+ INTENSITY Fig. 59. Solid lines are plotted from observations in Table 1. Broken lines represent the same observations grouped in larger categories ; points represent the sums of the intensities of 1+ and 2 + , 3+ and 4+, and 5 4- and 6 4- and may be inter- preted as "light," "medium to heavy" and "heavy" infections. I EPIDEMIOLOGICAL STUDIES OF COCCIDIOSIS OP QUAIL 175 Corning samples (Figure 59-F) was there such a high per cent of 3+ and 4+ infections as to cause the broken curve to show a greater per- ^) centage of "medium" to "heavy" infections and thus a rise instead of the fall in the curve that was indicated with the samples from all other areas studied. From the data obtained from the samplings at Bitterwater and Dune Lakes it is evident that there is a variation in the intensity of infections within a single area at different periods as well as difference a between areas. In a previous paper Herman, Chattin and Saarni ' (1943) showed this to be the case at the San Joaquin Experimental Range. In that paper a curve of the variation in the intensity of infec- tion by months during a period of 11 months was presented and an attempt was made to correlate the curve with the food habits of the birds, suggesting that changes in diet might be a factor. Figure 60, derived in the same manner,2 yields a similar curve for the intensity of infections of the Dune Lakes birds, with a high point in January just as AUG SEPT OCT. NOV. DEC JAN FEB DATES OF TRAPPING P ERIOOS , 1941 - 1942 MARCH Fig. 60. Varying intensity of coccidian infection at Dune Lakes. 2 The points in this graph were derived by tabulating all 1+ infections as 1, 2 + as 2, etc.. and dividing the sum by the total number of samples examined during the respective period. 176 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME it was at the Range. The low point for the samples in November and December may be explained on the basis that this represents material pri- marily from the main intestinal tracts of shot birds and does not include any caecal infections which may have been present. TABLE 2 Analysis of Some Repeat Samples of Birds During the February Trapping at Dune Lakes 1st Sample 2nd Sample 3rd Sample Findings No. Neg. 1+ 2 + 3+ 4 + Neg. 1+ 2 + Neg. 4 2 1 1 __ — — 1 1+ 19 2+ 5 3+ 2 During the February work at Dune Lakes several of the birds were re-trapped within the three-day period. The findings of these samples are tabulated in Table 2. Of four birds which registered negative in the first test, two were negative, one was 1+ and one was 2+ the second time trapped, and the single bird trapped a third time was 1+- Changes were also evident during the three-day period in birds which were orig- inally positive, some of these showing negative in the repeat samples. Examination of the soils from San Joaquin Experimental Range revealed coccidial oocysts in 106 of the 556 samples studied. Of these, 42 had the typical morphology of a common cattle parasite (Eimeria zurni) ; five contained oocysts of Isospora sp., similar to the forms reported from passeriform birds from the same Experimental Range (Herman, Jankiewicz and Saarni, 1942) ; and 11 had oocysts similar to those reported from cottontail rabbits on the San Joaquin Range (Her- man and Jankiewicz, in press). Of the remaining 62 positive samples, 47 had not sporulated and 15 were Eimeria sp. In view of the fact that all studies to date demonstrated that the Eimeria of quail sporulated within 48 hours and all samples were not examined until at least a week after collection, it seems logical to conclude that these nonsporulated oocysts do not represent quail coccidia. In all the 15 samples in which Eimeria occurred which might possibly have come from quail, five or less oocysts were encountered in each 2 gram sample studied. In view of the small numbers of oocysts encountered no tests were made to determine whether quail would be susceptible to these Eimeria and they, just as feasibly, could have come from other animals on the Experimental Range as well as quail. Of the 107 soil samples examined from Quien Sabe Ranch, 20 revealed coccidial oocysts. Most of these were represented by a single, nonsporulated, degenerated oocyst, two from the pasture area were of the E. zurni type, one was similar to E. beechyi of the squirrel. Only in one sample, obtained from the shaded area near the spring, was a single oocyst of Eimeria found which it was felt may have come from quail. In the first 107 samples of soil from Dune Lakes, 16 showed coccidial oocysts. Most of the positive samples contained a single oocyst, ten were not sporulated or had degenerated, and two were typical rabbit forms. One sample contained the nesting material and top inch of soil * EPIDEMIOLOGICAL STUDIES OP COCCIDIOSIS OP QUAIL 177 from a nest which had been inhabited by quail until about one month previous to collection of the sample. Three tests of this material revealed between 60 and 100 oocysts of Eimeria per 2 gram sample. Approxi- mately 250 sporulated oocysts from this sample were fed to a quail about a month old. This bird had been hatched in captivity at the State Game Farm in Chino, was negative for coccidia for four days prior to feeding with the experimental oocysts and for 18 days thereafter. On the 11th day after inoculation the bird was placed in a cage with other infected quail and on the 19th day after the original inoculation showed parasites similar to those from the quail in the same cage. Too little is known as yet concerning the life cycles of the quail coccidia to state whether this test was adequate to conclude that the parasites obtained from the soil sample were not quail coccidia but rather from some other species of animal which had used the nest subsequently. Discussion In the present paper coccidia were found in fecal material from birds in all areas sampled, and in most the incidence was high but the intensity was low. In the birds from Corning the incidence and inten- sity of infection were both high. From observations on young quail in captivity it is evident that at least some of the coccidia can prove fatal to the birds heavily infected. Research on chickens and other captive bird species has shown that some species are extremely pathogenic, while others are only mildly or negligibly so. It seems safe to assume that the same will prove true with the species occurring in the quail. Of the five species observed none resembled Eimeria tenella, the most severe hemorrhage-producing species which occurs in chickens. From our present data it is impossible to state how much of the coccidia found was of importance pathogenically, or had any effect on the health of the wild birds. It may be that most of the oocysts observed were Eimeria of little pathogenic significance. However, until recently, it was thought by most workers on the basis of the few meager observations which had been reported, that coccidia were not common in wild birds. Our data demonstrate a high incidence in most cases. Further study will be neces- sary before any statement can be offered on the significance of these findings. It is impossible at present also to explain the cause of the differences in intensity of infection in various areas as illustrated in Figure 59. The differences in intensity obtained from the various samplings at Bitterwater and Dune Lakes indicate that a seasonal as well as geograph- ical factor is involved. Herman, Chattin and Saarni (1943) attempted to explain their findings at the San Joaquin Experimental Range on the basis of seasonal food habits of the birds, but the demonstration of a similar curve (Figure 60) from the Dune Lakes fecal samples, where the food supply is more or less constant and almost entirely grain throughout the year, can not be explained by the same hypothesis. The data presented in Table 2 suggest a possible source of error in the methods followed in this study. It is felt that the chief source of error is the possible source of the fecal sample. Not only are coccidia specific as to host, but one species may infect only the caecum, whereas another may infect only the main intestinal tract. Thus, if a bird had a heavy caecal infection and a negative intestine, fecal material from 178 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME the caecum would be positive, while if from the intestine the bird would be diagnosed as being uninfected. Mixtures from both sources would account for variations between the extremes. However, it is felt that with the large numbers of samples taken from each area studied, the error would be negligible and at any rate would have no significant bear- ing on the general conclusions which can be drawn from the data. Further studies, now in progress, which may enable us to differentiate between caecal and intestinal coccidia, will, it is hoped, produce some of the answers to the many questions which can present themselves in any attempt to explain much of the data presented in this preliminary publication. Numerous investigators studying coccidiosis in poultry have empha- sized the importance of contaminated soil in the chicken runs as a source of infection. Patterson (1933) carried out extensive experiments _ on the effect of environment on Eimeria tenella of the chicken. In a review of the literature he points out the general belief that coccidia live for a year or longer in the soil. He cites one investigator who claimed that the oocysts can remain infective in the soil for four or five years. John- son (1927) is of the opinion that rapid drying of feces containing oocysts prohibits sporulation and therefore such material would not be infective. In his experiments Patterson fed the oocysts to uninfected birds to deter- mine whether they retained their infectivity. The results of his studies would indicate that coccidial oocysts require moisture and can not with- stand decomposition or putrefaction if they are to be kept alive and infective for even as short a period as 23 weeks, which was the duration of his experiments. With oocysts kept in soil with a 20 per cent moisture content, allowed to evaporate without restoration, and held at atmo- spheric temperature he failed to infect chickens after 10 weeks, while coccidia kept in soil under "natural" conditions of weathering exposed to direct sunlight caused infections for 10 weeks (the maximum period tested) and when shaded from direct sunlight caused infections for 21 weeks (the maximum period tested) . It would seem, therefore, if the same results should hold true for the oocysts of the coccidia of quail that, except under conditions of severe drying, oocysts should remain viable in soil for at least a period of several months. The scarcity of oocysts of Eimeria which might represent the quail coccidia in soil samples from the three areas examined and the extremely small numbers of these oocysts when present leads us to the opinion that soil contamination is not an important factor in the spread or mainte- nance of coccidiosis in wild quail. Even during December and January at Dune Lakes and at the San Joaquin Experimental Range, when inci- dence of coccidia was high in the quail, soil samples collected from spots where quail were most likely to concentrate yielded no appreciable amount of Eimeria oocysts. However, it is assumed from the brief experiments of Herman and Jankiewicz (1942), who showed that the quail lose their infections in the absence of possibilities for reinfection, that infections in wild quail and the increases which are evident from our data are due to repeated reinfection. If contaminated soil is not an important factor the findings can be explained only on the basis of a more direct infection due to the coprophagous habits of the host. * EPIDEMIOLOGICAL STUDIES OF COOCIDIOSIS OF QUAIL 179 Summary A total of 3,500 quail fecal samples have been examined for the presence of coccidia. Eimeria spp. were found to be present in 19 dif- ferent areas and 3 game farms. The lowest incidence of infection where more than 49 samples were collected was 19.6 per cent; many areas showed over 50 per cent of the birds to be infected, and several were over 90 per cent. The intensity of infection varied in different areas as well as in the same area at different times of the year. At Dune Lakes, where periodic samples about a month apart were taken, the highest intensity of infection was at the end of August with another high point in January. Examination of soil samples from three areas seem to indicate that soil contamination is not an important factor in the maintenance of coccidiosis in wild quail. Literature Cited Faust, E. C, W. Sawitz, J. Tobie, V. Odom, C. Peres and D. R. Lincicome. 1939. Comparative efficiency of various technics for the diagnosis of protozoa and helminths in feces. Jour. Parasit., vol. 25, pp. 241-262. Henry, D. P. 1931. Species of coccidia in chickens and quail in California. Univ. Calif. Publ. Zool., vol. 36, pp. 156-170. Herman, C. M., J. E. Chattin and R. W. Saarni. 1943. Food habits and intensity of coccidian infection in native valley quail in California. Jour. Parasit., vol. 29, pp. 206-208. Herman, C. M. and H. Jankiewicz. 1942. Reducing coccidiosis in California valley quail during captivity. Cali- fornia Fish and Game, vol. 28, pp. 148-149. 1943. Parisites of the cottontail rabbit on the San Joaquin Experimental Range, California. Jour. Wildlife Management, (in press). Herman, C. M., H. Jankiewicz and R. W. Saarni. 1942. Coccidiosis in California quail. Condor, vol. 44, pp. 168-171. Johnson, W. T. 1927. Two basic factors in coccidial infection of the chicken. Jour. Amer. Vet. Med. Assoc, vol. 23, pp. 560- McLean, D. D. 1930. The quail of California. Game Bull. No. 2, Division of Fish and Game, State of California. 47 pp. A section entitled "diseases and parasites of the valley quail" prepared by E. C. O'Roke appears on pp. 35-37. O'Roke, E. C. 1928. Parasites and parasitic diseases in the California valley quail. Cali- fornia Fish and Game, vol. 14, pp. 193-198. Patterson, F. D. 1933. Studies on the viability of Eimeria tenella in soil. Cornell Vet., vol. 23, pp. 232-249. 4—25758 DEER REFUGES UNDER THE BUCK LAW ' By F. P. Cronemiller TJ. 8. Forest Service Throughout the west, a system of refuges has been considered an essential part of big-game management. The first two decades of the twentieth century found big-game numbers far below those the environ- ment could support. It was generally thought that recovery of the herds from the days of unrestricted hunting was not sufficiently rapid, and that other measures were needed in addition to the closed seasons, bag limits, and sex restrictions that had been placed in effect. This view was strengthened by the feeling that the law-enforcement organizations were insufficient to make the existing regulations fully effective. During this period an extensive system of big-game refuges was started, on the underlying theory that the animals would increase within them and that they would serve as reservoirs to restock adjoining terri- tory. The theory evidently presupposed — 1. That hunting would keep numbers down in the territory open to shooting. 2. That game would increase within the refuges. 3. That the lack of balance and the resulting population pressure would cause an overflow of animals from the refuges. Typical of the western states, California has set aside a large num- ber of sizeable big-game refuges during the last 25 years. These are principally for deer, since these animals form over 95 per cent of the State 's big-game population. The writer had an important part in rec- ommending many of these areas. Within the State are 45,000,000 acres of woodland and forest, the bulk of which is big-game range. Over 2,500,000 acres are closed to hunting by established big-game refuges and other protective measures. In addition, there are over 1,700,000 acres within the national parks which are closed to hunting. Numerous questions have arisen concerning these 4,200,000 acres of refuges and their effect on the deer herds and hunting in the surrounding territory. The marked general increase in the deer population during the period the refuges have been in operation, and the tenacity of the herds in areas subjected to extremely heavy hunting, have led many to believe that the refuge system has been an effective tool in deer man- agement. State legislation in California permits the taking of male deer with branched antlers only. It is unlawful "to possess . . . female deer, spotted fawn, spike buck, . . . and in District If, forked-horn deer."2 Each year for the seven years 1935 to 1941 inclusive, each national forest in the State has kept quite accurate records on individual deer killed. These included antler measurements, actual weights, and loca- tion of kill. Antler measurements were taken of over 75,000 animals, actual weights of over 10,000, and the location of each kill was entered on a map as kills were reported. The measurements have served as an 1 Submitted for publication March, 1943. Published by permission of U. S. Forest Service. 2 In portions of District 1| Rocky Mountain mule deer predominate. (180) ! DEER REFUGES UNDER THE BUCK LAW 181 indication of the condition of the crop of animals harvested. The spot maps of the deer kill have served many purposes, an important one being to aid in interpreting the effect of the refuge system. It was apparently assumed that refuges would maintain deer popu- lations and perhaps increase them within their immediate vicinity. When functioning at their best the deer-kill spot maps would appear " LEGEND Big Gome Refuges Parks and Monuments Fig. 61. Map of California, showing refuges, national parks, national monuments. like that of the eastern part of the Plumas National Forest. In Figure 62, the heavier kill in the vicinity of State Fish and Game Refuges 1-P (established in 1927) and 1-V (established in 1935) could be interpreted as showing their successful operation. A study of these areas on the ground, however, shows that the concentrated kill adjacent to the ref- uges, which reflects heavier deer populations, is due in part at least to other factors such as quantity of preferred forage species and proximity 182 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME or accessibility to desirable winter ranges. In some places the high population or kill within a short air-line distance from the refuge has no relation to it, since the herds are separated by a topographic barrier. Many refuges were established without much thought as to the food supply available. Game Refuge 2-A in Mendocino and Lake counties, established in 1917, was one of these. It was placed in a timbered area where there was a minimum of suitable forage and a low deer population. After 25 years there is no evidence that the number in the vicinity has increased. As seen in Figure 63, the kill is very low in nearly all of the □ LEGEND Forest Boundary. Looation of Deer Kills- Township 36 sq miles Fig. 62. Spot map of deer kill, Plumas National Forest, 1938. contiguous area. The areas of heavy kill coincide with the areas of more abundant forage. Where refuges are established on migration routes, needed protec- tion may be given deer from overshooting or from the deadly methods of the ambuscade. On the other hand, large refuges on summer ranges at the head of migration routes may result in the only territory open to shooting being on these routes. Migrations in the Sierra and Cascades in California start near the close of the hunting season (October 15). If fall storms are early, the downward movement will be within the open season ; if late, it will not occur until afterwards. If the early storms are DEER REFUGES UNDER THE BUCK LAW 183 heavy, the movement will be abrupt and a heavy kill will result in the open territory. As a result, such refuges function differently in differ- ent seasons. j Topographic barriers in many cases have partially defeated the purposes of refuges. Boundaries have been made along deep canyons, high, almost uncrossable ridges, large bodies of water, etc. The Hunting- ton Lake Refuge, created in 1931, is an example. Its boundaries include the deep canyons of the San Joaquin River and Big Creek, the high cirque of Kaiser Crest at 9,000 to 10,000 feet elevation, powerhouse pen- stocks, and Huntington Lake. This refuge was created partly to pro- mote park-like conditions in the highly developed recreational area to the north of Huntington Lake, where vacationists could see and photo- SCALE □ LEGEND Forest Boundary Location of Deer Kills Township 36 so; miles Fig. 63. Spot map of deer kill, Mendocino National Forest, 1938. graph deer and also be free from the stray bullets of the hunters. Still, had the herds overflowed in accord with the refuge theory, the deer population would have increased in parts of the contiguous area. That this did not occur is indicated by the spot map of the deer kill for the Sierra forest, which is shown in Figure 64. Refuge 1-K (created in 1917) is similarly bounded ; on the south by the deep canyon of Kings River and on the north by the escarpment of Spanish Mountain, 9,000 to 10,000 feet in elevation. The area of heavy kill to the north, indicated in Figure 64, is a separate biotic unit, and these herds bear little relationship to those in Refuge 1-K. Refuge 1-K was abandoned in 1941, and the kill that year in the accessible area, which is the upper or northerly part of the refuge, was much less per unit of area than in the territory to the north, long open to shooting. 184 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME The herds of Yosemite National Park have contributed little to sport hunting on the Sierra Forest. The southerly and westerly boundary of Yosemite is to a large extent on legal land subdivisions cutting across natural wildlife units, yet the spot map (Fig. 64) does not indicate that a higher population has been developed in its vicinity by this long-estab- lished sanctuary. SEQUOIA NATIONAL FOREST Town LEGEND Forest Boundary. Location of Deer Kills. Ship 36 sq miles. Q Fig. 64. Spot map of deer kill, Sierra National Forest, 1938. An inspection of the spot map of deer kill for the Sequoia Forest does not indicate that the large area included in the Sequoia National Park has been of value as the refuge theory would have it. In Figure 65 the cir- cumscribed areas marked " A " are in the better deer range and all within four miles of the north and south boundaries of the park. It would be assumed that within these areas there should be a definite indication of refuge influence if such existed. They contained 185 square miles, and there was recorded a kill of 0.76 deer per square mile in 1940. In an area (! ^ DEER REFUGES UNDER THE BUCK LAW 185 SCALE tO 5 10 Miles D LEGEND Forest Boundary Loca+ion of Deer Kills Township 36 scj miles. Fig. 65. Spot map of deer kill, Sequoia National Forest, 19 40. 186 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME more remote from the park (Area B-l), with similar environmental con- ditions, containing 328 square miles, the kill was 1.03 per square mile. If Area B-2, still more remote, is added, the kill was 1.18. The area to the west of the park is late fall and winter range and not occupied by deer in any great number until the close of the hunting season. The value of big-game hunting in California normally is recreational rather than as a supplemental food supply. Management therefore con- siders the ' ' trophy ' ' quality of animals taken. A heavy take of buck deer over a period of years results in fewer of the older age classes being avail- able. The crop then consists mostly of juveniles two or three years of age, small in size, and of insufficient antler development to be termed a □ LEGEND Forest Boundary Location of Deer Kills Township 36 sq miles PASADENA Fig. 66. Spot map of deer kill, Angeles National Forest, 19 35. trophy. An analysis of limited data indicates that the trophy quality may increase in the vicinity of refuges. In Area A on the Sequoia Forest the bucks taken averaged nearly 10 pounds heavier than in Area B and had correspondingly greater antler development. Area B-2 on this spot map, and others, repeatedly show that high populations are developed and maintained under the buck law away from the influence of a refuge. This is clearly illustrated by comparing two separate units on the Angeles Forest (Fig. 66). The Liebre-Sawmill Mountain area is a mountain range separated from the San Gabriel Moun- tains by the fairly broad Santa Clara River drainage into which the Mojave Desert intrudes, forming a definite barrier to deer movements. Over one-half of the San Gabriel Mountain portion of this forest is within Game Refuge A-B. This was. created in. 132a,. partly for the purpose of DEER REFUGES UNDER THE BUCK LAW 187 reducing human use and thereby increasing the protection of important watersheds from fire. For many years the deer kill was very high in Los Angeles County.3 Some credited the large refuge as being the manage- ment tool that permitted the deer kill to be maintained. Such ' ' off-hand ' ' conclusions were no doubt reached without consideration of the barriers of desert and urban areas between the different hunting areas in the county or without knowledge of the kill from year to year in the vicinity of the refuge. Studies in this area indicate the herds do not have the mobility of the migrating herds of the north. The few does that have been under more or less continuous observation for periods of several years have a year-long radius of movement little more than one-fourth mile. Known bucks have confined their lifetime movements to a few hundred acres. These movements have been exceeded only by those deer that summer at the highest elevations where deep snows force the animals to somewhat lower elevations for winter. Individual deer definitely have a "home base, ' ' and the spread of these deer under minor population differentials is probably negligible. It can be safely stated that because of the desert barrier the kill on Sawmill and Liebre mountains was not appreciably influenced by Refuge 4-B in the San Gabriels. The territory open to shooting is similar in character on both mountain ranees, yet the San Gabriels contain some- what better quality deer forage due to the fact that a larger proportion is at a higher elevation. The more succulent forage plants occur above the 4,000-foot contour ; in the Liebre-Sawmill mountains only about 10 . per cent of the hunting area is above this limit, whereas in the San Gabriels this figure is near 20 per cent. From 1935 to 1941 inclusive, a total kill of 1,742 deer has been recorded for the Sawmill-Liebre area and 1,145 for the San Gabriel. The average annual kill per square mile was 0.97 and 1.05 respectively. The highest average kill on the Sawmill-Liebre area was 1.43 per square mile (1938) and the lowest 0.68 (1935 and 1941). In the San Gabriel area the highest was 2.17 (1935) and the lowest 0.22 (1941). The change in deer kill in the two areas over the 7-year period in which records were taken (Table 1) raises another vital question. TABLE 1 Deer Kill for the Sawmill-Liebre and San Gabriel Areas, 1935 to 1941, Inclusive Year Sawmill-Liebre San Gabriel 1935 175 337 1936 258 304 1937 325 209 1938 366 145 1939 279 84 1940 165 32 1941 174 34 In the fall of 1937, rangers reported that in excess of 200 deer had ») died in the Pacoima, Tujunga, and Arroyo Seco drainages in the San Gabriel Mountains. The area in which losses were noted was bisected by 3 The Angeles National Forest is almost wholly within Los Angeles County. 188 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME the refuge boundary, and the focal point seemed to be within the refuge. Posting carcasses in the field indicated an intestinal disturbance which at the time was assumed to result from a poison. The quick onset of the losses and the rapid spread to areas that had supported a large deer population for many years and were remote from orchard sprays and other poisons indicated an epidemic disease was causing the loss. This was borne out by the fact that the losses continued over a three-year period, as reflected in the kill recorded. The analysis of the maps and records leads to the conclusion that the large refuge area has not maintained the deer population, and has given rise to the question as to whether or not the refuge has been a major factor in causing the catastrophe that has overtaken the herd. Refuge 4-B is an example of a sanctuary created partly for reasons other than game conservation. The protection of a series of watersheds from fire was a factor in determining its placing and its size, and perhaps crystallized the decision to establish it. Similar action has been taken in other areas of high fire hazard, and still other refuges and parts of refuges have been created in the interest of protecting power installa- tions, highly-developed scientific observatories, and the particular inter- est of individual landowners. On the other hand, areas within the national forests closed to public use for fire protection under regulations of the Secretary of Agriculture have been effective refuges, where the hunting season does not extend beyond the fire season. Under the California State Fish and Game Code, areas may be closed to hunting where required for the special protection of game animals. Such action has been taken where extensive brush fires have removed needed protective cover. Deer are often attracted to these areas by the temporary increase in desirable food consisting of succulent sprouts and herbs. The escape cover is eliminated by fire, and a very heavy kill may result unless a closure is effected. After a period of three to five years, cover is partially reestablished, the forage loses its attractiveness, and the concentration is dispersed. The area is then reopened to hunting. Such temporary refuges are effective in limiting the take of the legal males. In opening refuges, the hunting effort for the first year or two is far above normal. Hunters assume these newly-opened areas offer a better opportunity to secure a deer, and they flock to such areas in large numbers. The result is usually a heavy take but only average success per individual hunter. There is increased hazard to the hunter from stray bullets, and an immediate reduction of the number of legal males to that of the surrounding open territory. For this reason the periodic opening or shifting of refuges does not appear to be an effective tool in deer management, except in the case above cited where the change in the forage results in a dispersal of the animals before the area is opened to shooting. Discussion In order to explain why deer refuges have demonstrated so little positive evidence of their effectiveness and have shown much that is negative, their theory must be explored and the inherent characteristics of the animals examined. . 1. The breeding potential of deer is high — if realized, it is sufficient to double the size of the heards at least every two years. With herds DEER REFUGES UNDER THE BUCK LAW 189 averaging over 40 per cent breeding does, and with a doe-fawn ratio of 1 :1.5 at birth, the 500,000 deer in the State could produce 300,000 fawns a year. Yet only 40,000 animals are removed annually by legal hunting. Over 200,000, then, must succumb to disease, weather, starvation, preda- tors, and other causes. 2. Deer are polygamous and promiscuous in their breeding habits. The taking of a portion of the legal males does not interfere with the breeding potential. A study of 2,681 bucks taken on the Angeles Forest during the seven-year period 1935-1941 showed that hunting removed less than 40 per cent of the legal males each year. This is believed to be the heaviest kill in the State. Those who have studied deer herds during the breeding season could not possibly assume that the so-called "barren" doe could be the result of a scarcity of bucks, when the ratio of breeding males to mature females is no lower than 1 to 3 or 4. 3. In only a few instances is there evidence that marked population differentials exist between the refuges studied and adjoining open areas. However, should they exist, there is strong evidence that such conditions do not result in any considerable dispersal from the more concentrated areas. Deer have a definite "home base." This is particularly true under the natural conditions of a refuge. It consists of selected places for cover, feeding areas, watering places, and avenues of escape. Popu- lations may expand until there is a shortage of food, a lower level of nutri- tion, and less resistance to disease and severe weather. Then there is a natural reduction in the herd to the capacity of the habitat. Such vicious circles are also known to take place in areas open to shooting under the buck law. Should major differences in population exist between adja- cent areas similar in character, it can not be denied that some movement may result. The point is that these differentials generally do not exist to a marked degree. Refuges to a certain extent serve as sanctuaries for the legal males during the hunting season, but not in all cases. After the Cleremont Refuge in the Plumas Forest was abandoned in 1935, the kill within that area was no higher than that in the surrounding territory that had been open for many years. No concentration was noted in the area that had been included in Refuge 1-K, when it was opened in 1941. On the other hand, on two different areas on the Modoc Forest that were opened after a number of years of closure, a concentration of legal males was found. The number of other deer, however, was low. 4. Refuges with flexible control are usable for protecting particu- larly vulnerable herds, such as those whose escape cover has been destroyed by fire, herds concentrated on migration routes, or plantings in underpopulated areas. There are possibilities in the use of refuges to improve the trophy quality in local areas where the existing season and bag limit is insufficient to allow the herds to produce animals of desirable size. In addition, they can be used when other uses of land preclude hunting. Conclusions As a result of the study it is concluded : 1. That deer refuges under the California buck law are of value where visual recreation is of greater importance than hunting. 2. That they are of value in areas of concentrated human use requir- ing the removal of the hazard of stray bullets. 190 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 3. That they are of value to furnish needed protection on well- defined migration routes, and in such localities to promote better sport. 4. That they are of value to furnish needed protection to deer on certain burned-over areas where escape cover is removed and concen- trations are heavier because of a temporary increase in the amount of succulent feed. 5. That the establishment of a refuge as a means of reducing human use of an area, such as for the purpose of protecting a watershed from fire, is not meeting an issue squarely. Obviously the answer in this case is to establish an open season when human use will not be a threat to the major values and at a time when the animals are in a satisfactory condi- tion for taking. 6. That under a buck law, refuges temporary in character may be of value in special problem areas, to prevent a heavy take of bucks and particularly to maintain the sporting values of trophy hunting. 7. That the use of a refuge as a game-management tool presupposes improper management of the areas open to shooting — this to the extent that hunting reduces the herds excessively or interferes with the breed- ing potential. 8. That refuges have not increased hunting opportunities but have resulted in a reduction in the take approximately equivalent to their proportionate area. 9. That retention by the Legislature of authority to establish, adjust, and abolish refuges precludes effective management and lends per- manency to errors inherent in a system of fixed refuges and to the prob- lems that develop within them. 10. That deer refuges under the buck law should be re-examined in the light of present-day knowledge and given a general overhaul. ' GOLDEN TROUT PROPAGATION IN CALIFORNIA1 By George McCloud Bureau of Fish Conservation California Division of Fish and Game The native golden trout of California were originally found only in three small streams : Soda Creek, flowing into the Kern River from the west, and Golden Trout Creek and the South Fork of the Kern, flowing into the same river from the east.2 Prior to 1918 the only plant- ing and distribution of these fish was effected by catching the young and adults from their native streams and transporting them to barren waters throughout the high Sierra. The first work of this kind was done by the early cattlemen who ran their stock in the Kern River watershed during the summer ; later it was carried on by the California Fish and Game Commission and by private individuals of the San Joaquin Valley. The wardens took an active part, particularly A. D. Ferguson, who was in charge of the Fresno office, and Deputies Sam Ellis, F. A. Bullard, E. W. Smalley and 0. P. Brownlow (1908-1916). The first attempt to propagate golden trout in California was made about 1910. The U. S. Bureau of Fisheries (now part of the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service) sent the late G. H. Lambson to Volcano Creek to collect eggs, but the trip was begun too late in the season, and the fish had already spawned. In 1917 the California Fish and Game Commis- sion tried to collect eggs from the Cottonwood Lakes in Inyo County, near Mt. Whitney, where the golden trout had been introduced by cattle- men many years earlier from Mulkey Creek, a tributary to the South Fork of Kern. Frank Shebley, then Superintendent of the Mt. Whitney Hatchery, and Ed Ober of the Patrol Department, were detailed on this mission. In this case again the start was made so late that the fish had completed spawning before operations could commence. One or two late females from which eggs were taken and sent to the hatchery must have been overripe, because the eggs failed to hatch. Early in 1918, W. H. Shebley instructed me to use every effort to obtain golden trout eggs from the Cottonwood Lakes. With the pre- vious failures in mind, I laid my plans well in advance. To avoid any possibility of being too late, I made my first reconnaisance trip to the lakes in March, and found them frozen solid with about six feet of snow on the ground. On my next trip, May 15th, I found them still frozen, with about the same amount of snow ; but I also found a few males with milt at the outlet of the lowest lake. On June 1st two men were sent to Cottonwood Lakes to open camp and to put in traps, holding tanks, etc. At that time all material had to be carried on pack animals from Lone Pine, a distance of 26 miles, and a climb of 7,000 feet. The start was made none too soon, as shortly 1 Submitted for publication, April, 1943. 2 Golden Trout Creek was formerly called Whitney Creek and Volcano Creek. Its trout was originally set up as a distinct species, Salmo roosevelti, but it is now gen- erally accepted that this is only a color phase of Salmo aguabonita, to which species all of the golden trout from east of the Kern River are now referred. It is this fish which has furnished most of the stock for transplantation. The Soda Creek form is still con- sidered a separate species, Salmo whitei. — Ed. (191) 192 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME after the first of June we caught spawning fish in our traps in the lower lakes. At this high altitude — 11,000 feet — the trout begin to go out of the lakes into the small streams before the ice leaves and almost before any sign of spring can be seen. Since these fish go downstream as well as up to spawn, traps at the Cottonwood Lakes were operated in both the inlets and the outlets. The first egg-take was made on June 13, 1918. Initiating a practice which has been followed with excellent results ever sinee, the eggs were held overnight in cans in a small stream between two of the lakes, and the next day carried by pack mule to Lone Pine, and from there to the Mt. "Whitney Hatchery near Inde- pendence, 20 miles farther north, by motor truck. During the first years, our crew at Cottonwood Lakes had to live in the open. Camping out at this elevation in May and June is no picnic, --—^— ■-—■--"— 'sc i Fig. 67. The Cottonwood Lakes country. especially when working in ice-cold water all day. In 1930 our bureau constructed a small sheet-iron cabin with cement floor, equipped with cook stove, table, chairs and cots. In 1934 it erected two small hatching troughs to eye part of the eggs at the lakes, with the hope that this might give better results than the transportation of green eggs to the hatchery. A two-year trial showed no advantage in this system and it was dis- continued. An important improvement in the general situation has been the construction of a good automobile road from Lone Pine to two miles beyond Carol Creek at the base of the mountain. This cuts the distance to be made by pack animal to about 16 miles, which can be covered in four or five hours by saddle horse. The collection of golden trout eggs was very successful in the Cotton- wood Lakes from 1918 through 1938, the desired number, approximately GOLDEN TROUT PROPAGATION IN CALIFORNIA 193 1,000,000 annually, being easily taken in most of those years (see Table 1). In 1939 the take suddenly dropped to only 320,000 eggs, and in 1940 and 1941 fell still farther. The reasons for this are uncertain ; a large anglers' catch of spawned-out fish schooling near the inlets in 1938, together with disease which was undoubtedly present in 1938 and 1939, may have been factors. In view of the low returns, and of the reduction in manpower due to the war, egg-taking operations were not attempted in 1942 and 1943. Other changes have been noted in the golden trout of Cottonwood Lakes since the beginning of our work there. Fish were probably not as plentiful in 1918 as they have been in some years since, and the number of fishermen has increased in the ratio of something like 20 to 1. In the two lower lakes the fish are now about the same size as in 1918. In Lake Number 3, after a gradual decline in size associated perhaps with a large population brought about by closure to fishing, there has recently been a marked increase in size. This could easilv be due to the decrease "%* Fig 68. Trapping golden trout spawners in Cottonwood Lakes, June 25, 1933. in the number of fish in the lake in the last four years. In 1933 the Lake Number 3 spawning traps caught 4,889 trout, in 1941 they caught 834. In 1933 they averaged eight inches, in 1940 they were reported to average 11 inches. In 1918 Lakes 4 and 5 contained a few fish— not more than seven or eight hundred adults combined, I should estimate — of large size, 194 CALIFORNIA PISH AND GAME TABLE 1 Golden Trout, 1918-1943 — Cottonwood Lakes Egg-Collecting Station- Mount Whitney Hatchery Date Egg take Local plants Shipped Destination 1918 --- 520,000 145,000 5,000 fish 25,000 fish 225,000 fish San Gabriel River Santa Ana River McCloud River-Truckee River* 1919 . 965,000 410,000 252,000 eggs Tahoe Hatchery 1920 782,000 567,000 28,000 fish Los Angeles County 1921-22-23— Not operated 1924 490,000 412,000 1925. . 490,000 430,000 1926 500,000 425,000 1927 500,000 300,000 1928 690,000 530,000 50,000 eggs 25,000 eggs 5,000 eggs Bozeman, Montana Caledonia, New York New York City Aquarium 1929 1,060,000 766,000 50,000 eggs 25,000 eggs Bozeman, Montana Tahoe Hatchery 1930 - -- 1,250,000 1,200,000 1931 975,000 745,000 1932 910,000 765,000 50,000 eggs 5,000 eggs 80,000 eggs 10,000 fish Alpine Hatchery Steinhart Aquarium Tahoe Hatchery Redding, Shasta County 1933** 1,015,000 902,500 15,000 eggs England 1934** 1,762,350 1,590,980 100,000 fish Tahoe Hatchery 1935 1,380,900 858,480 27,520 eggs 15,000 eggs 25,000 eggs 50,000 eggs 50,000 eggs 25,000 eggs 50,000 eggs Hot Creek Hatchery Steinhart Aquarium Springville, Utah Wyoming Yosemite Hatchery Montana Tahoe Hatchery 1936 - --- 1,204,000 611,544 25,000 eggs 100,000 eggs 50,000 eggs 25,000 eggs Hot Creek Hatchery Yosemite Hatchery Tallac Hatchery Enemclaw, Washington 1937 1,047,625 666,374 90,000 fish 10,000 eggs 20,000 eggs 25,000 eggs Hot Creek Hatchery Denver Fish and Game Iowa State 1938 1,171,650 664,288 200,000 eggs 25,000 eggs 100,000 fish Hot Creek Hatchery Tahoe Hatchery 1939 320,000 208,000 1940 108,000 87,000 1941 271,000 1942-43— Not operated Notes — "Local Plants." These fish were planted directly from the Mt. Whitney Hatchery in Inyo, Mono, Tulare, Fresno, Madera and Alpine counties. The general policy has been to confine the planting of golden trout insofar as possible to areas close to and similar to their native habitat. "Eggs" in "Shipped" column signifies eyed eggs. * These fish were shipped on the State fish car and were assigned to the McCloud River and Truckee River. The fish for the McCloud River were first taken to the Sisson Hatchery, and later planted from that station. •* During 1933 and 1934 the egg-take figure shows only 80% of the actual take. The method used during this period was to deduct 20% to account for unfertile eggs and other loss in the hatchery. GOLDEN TROUT PROPAGATION IN CALIFORNIA 195 running as high as five and six pounds. In 1933 they produced 2,600 spawners, but the average length was only 11 inches. In 1941 the 4 ) number of spawners was only 226. The total catch in the spawning traps of all the lakes was 8,900 in 1933 ; in 1940 it was only 740 ; in 1941, 1,429. The nearby lakes on the South Fork of Cottonwood Creek, where no egg-taking has been done, also suffered a drop in population in 1938, in which year hundreds of dead and dying fish were seen in these waters. ^ During our first years of golden trout culture we had considerable trouble with disease, but after several years of experience this was eliminated. A summary of golden trout propagation at the Mt. Whitney Hatchery is given in Table 1. THE RELATIONSHIP OF FISH TO THE CLEAR LAKE GNAT, IN CLEAR LAKE, CALIFORNIA1 By Arthur W. Lindquist, Christian C. Deonier and J. E. Hancey Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine Agricultural Research Administration TJ. S. Department of Agriculture In the study of the biology and control of the Clear Lake gnat (Chaoborus astictopus D. & S.) attention was given to the role that the various species of fish play in the natural control of the pest. Chaoborus is the dominant insect found in the lake, and bottom samples have yielded as high as 1,000 larvae per square foot (Lindquist and Deonier, in press). Emerging adults have averaged 535 per square foot over the lake during a season (Lindquist and Deonier, 1942.2). Fig. 69. Clear Lake as viewed from the northeast shore. Clear Lake is located in Lake County, California, and has an area of approximately 40,000 acres (Fig. 69). The shore is regular, with few bays and coves. The greatest depth at zero Rumsey gauge reading (a gauge for determining the lake's level) has been found to be 27 feet in the upper portion and 50 feet in the lower portion. It appeared that fish would have access to all stages of the gnat and that examination of the digestive tract would yield information on their food habits. Seventeen species of fish were taken in Clear Lake (1938-41 ) and are listed herewith. The common names used are in accordance with the proposals of the Committee on Common and Scientific Names of 1 Submitted for publication June, 1943. (196) RELATIONSHIP OP FISH TO CLEAR LAKE GNAT 197 Fishes of the American Fisheries Society. Identifications were made by the junior author according to the keys of Evermann and Clark. Some W identifications were verified by Dr. Paul R. Needham. Ictalurus catus (Linnaeus) White or Fork-tail catfish. Ameiurus nebulosus (Le Sueur) Brown bullhead or Square-tail catfish. Gambusia affinis (Baird & Girard) Mosquito fish. Helioperca incisor (C. & B.) Bluegill sunfish. 0$ Pomoxis sparoides (Lacepede) Black crappie or Calico bass. Archoplites interruptus (Girard) Sacramento perch. Lavina exilicauda (Baird & Girard) Hitch. Pogonichthys macrolepidotus (Ayres) Split-tail. Cy primes carpi 0 (Linnaeus) German carp. Huro salmoides (Le Sueur) Large-mouth black bass. Apomotis cyanellus (Rafinesque) Green sunfish. Orthodon microlepidotus (Ayres) Blackfish. Siboma crassicauda (Baird & Girard) Sacramento chub. Ptychocheilus grandis (Ayres) Squaw fish. Catostomus cocidentalis (Ayres) Sacramento sucker. Cottus gulosus (Girard) Sculpin. Hysterocarpus traski (Gibbons) Freshwater viviparous perch. Analyses of Digestive Tracts The digestive tracts from 355 fish comprising 10 species have been examined. These are summarized in Table 1. Although records were made of various food contents of the digestive tract, only the Chaoborus contents, which normally constitute the main item, will be discussed. The numbers of the various stages of this insect could not always be counted, but fairly accurate estimates were made. The stomachs of many fish were empty, but the presence of Chaoborus could be detected in the intestinal tract by the chitinous remains of adults, larvae and pupae. TABLE 1 Data on Analyses of Digestive Tract Contents of Fish in Clear Lake, California. Intestines Are From Same Fish of Which Stomachs Were Examined Dates Stomach Stage of Chaoborus eaten Intestines Species Number exam- ined Number contain- ing food material Number contain- ing Cha- oborus Number exam- ined Number contain- ing food material Number contain- ing re- mains of Cha- oborus Fork-tail catfish Square-tail catfish Mosquito fish Bluegill sunfish Calico bass (Black crappie) Aug. to June Nov., Jan., April _. July, Aug., Sept. . . June, Sept June, Sept June, Sept June, Sept June, Aug., Nov... June, Aug., Sept... June, Sept 139 35 8 39 12 17 32 31 28 14 82 13 8 38 8 14 22 22 19 11 37 10 8 21 3 5 8 10 14 0 All stages Larvae 110 35 8 3 9 12 28 17 24 4 79 35 66 35 Adults and eggs. All stages Larvae and pupae... Adults, larvae, pupae Eggs in small specimens All stages Eggs and adults. None 3 6 3 22 15 22 3 Sacramento perch Hitch 4 2 Split-tail 9 9 German carp Large-mouth black bass 14 198 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME Fork-tail catfish. One of the heaviest feeders on Chaoborus larvae and pupae is the fork-tail catfish. It also feeds heavily on adults, but in some cases it appears that the adults are spent females which died on the water after oviposition in the evening. An estimated 5,000 adults were found in one stomach. The greatest number of larvae found was 1,076 in the stomach of a 9-inch fish. The largest number of pupae recorded was 195. The intestines are frequently packed, and estimates of thousands of larval remains have been made in 8 to 12-inch fish. Of the 82 stomachs that contained any material, 45 per cent of them con- tained Chaoborus. Of the 79 intestines in which food was found, 83 per cent of them contained Chaoborus larval and pupal remains. The nega- tive characteristic of this fish, in so far as gnat control is concerned, is its fondness for the small fish that are desirable gnat feeders. Square-tail catfish. This fish is most active during the winter months and consumes great numbers of larvae. The greatest number of larvae JnwflL ^ to-" v*;>^i '*«2rv-', , -£mp Fig. 70. Heavy concentration of Chaoborus astictopus eggs along shore. found in a stomach was 392, while several thousands have been indicated in the intestines of a single fish. Nearly 77 per cent of the stomachs con- taining food had Chaoborus larvae, while 100 per cent of the intestines showed larval remains. This species is very valuable as a consumer of Chaoborus, and no program of fish manipulation should be instituted which might decrease the population of the catfish. Mosquito fish. The Gambusia lives close to shore and other sheltered spots, such as beds of tules and other aquatic plants. Its food apparently consists largely of adult gnats and eggs. It seldom ventures into deep water where the larvae and pupae are plentiful. In the evening and early morning it is observed feeding on adult female gnats alighting on the surface of the water. This species feeds on gnat eggs which float in compact drifts on the water surface as shown in Figure 70 (Lindquist & Deonier, 1942.3). Specimens have been examined in which the entire RELATIONSHIP OP FISH TO CLEAR LAKE GNAT 199 digestive tract was packed with these eggs. Gambusia does not appear K in numbers until the latter part of the summer. Bluegill sunfish. This fish also feeds heavily on ovipositing female gnats close to shore. A stomach from a 2f-inch specimen contained 356 adults and another of the same size had 220 adults. One specimen had eaten 87 Chaoborus larvae. Eggs were frequently found in the digestive tract. Calico bass. This species is a game fish, but the stomachs of 3, or 38 per cent of those having food material, contained Chaoborus larvae and pupae. One specimen had 151 pupae and 207 larvae in its stomach. Sacramento perch. This game fish is moderately abundant and appar- ently feeds considerably on pupae as well as on larvae. In the five fish in which the stomachs contained gnat material, one-third of the total Chaoborus recorded were pupae. The largest number of larvae found was 212. Hitch. The young of the hitch, when 2 or 3 inches in length, are found in association with the bluegill sunfish close to shore, where they consume ovipositing gnats. One stomach contained 40 adults. The digestive tract is frequently packed with Chaoborus eggs. Thirty-six per cent of the stomachs and 41 per cent of the intestines in which food material was found contained some stage of Chaoborus. As the young hitch grow they move farther out from shore and become plankton feeders. Few Chaoborus have been found in the large hitch. Split-tail. This species is usually abundant and it feeds heavily on all stages of the gnat. It starts its predatory career on Chaoborus as small fingerlings and apparently keeps it up throughout life. The young feed on ovipositing females in the evening and also consume myriads of eggs in the egg drifts. The stomach of a 2^-inch specimen contained an esti- mated 46,000 eggs. The larger fish taken in November corfbained up to 400 larvae in the stomach. Several hundred have been estimated in the intestines. Forty-five per cent of the stomachs containing food had various stages of Chaoborus. The young of this fish are used for bait fishing and are usually abundant, but during 1941 very few specimens were taken by anyone. Some factor had upset the productivity of the species. Although this species is not considered a desirable food fish, its importance in natural control of the gnat should be considered in the formulation of any regulations regarding commercial seining. German carp. The carp apparently contributes to natural control of the gnat. The food in its digestive tract is difficult to study because of the mixture of plant tissue and detritus. Large schools of the carp have been observed sucking in the surface film. At times this film is composed of millions of Chaoborus eggs ; at other times of pupal exuvias, adults, and algae. The digestive tract contains myriads of adults. One 11-inch carp had a record number of 40,000 specimens, most of which were probably spent females. Larvae are frequently found in the digestive tract, but it is doubtful if these fish feed heavily on them. There is no doubt but that carp prey heavily on eggs. Large-mouth black bass. Of all the species in the lake the black bass is probably the least important in natural control of the gnat. No evidence 200 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME of Chaoborus was found in the digestive tract of 14 specimens, although the young bass may feed on gnats. Older bass feed heavily on the various species of small gnat-eating fish. The toll of small fish exacted by the bass must be very large. Notes on the Abundance of Fish There are at times perhaps millions of fish in Clear Lake. Their total consumption of eggs, larvae, pupae, and adults of Chaoborus appears to / be enormous, yet it is not sufficient for adequate natural control. The wintertime feeding by fish is very valuable because during this season the Chaoborus do not reproduce. The decrease of larvae from a peak in October to a low in May as determined by systematic bottom samplings was an annual occurrence. The larval population was 24.7 per cent less in May, 1939, than in October, 1938. Decreases for the corresponding periods in succeeding years were : 1939-40, 28.2 per cent ; 1940-41, 41.7 per cent; 1941-42, 62.7 per cent (Lindquist & Deonier, in press). Carp have at times been present in enormous numbers. Commercial seining has been carried on for a number of years, and reports indicate that hundreds of tons have been taken. Other indications of the fish population is the occasional epidemic of dead fish. They have been reported piled up on shore in drifts 1 foot high and several feet wide. Our observations showed thousands of fish on the shoreline during the spring and summer of 1940. The spawning runs up the creeks of split-tails and hitch give some indication of the great numbers in the lake. Tens of thousands of split-tails and hitch have been observed moving in a solid mass up a small creek only 4 feet wide. Evi- dence of a great catfish population is indicated by the many tons taken by illegal fishermen. It has been stated that gill nets give an indication of fish abundance in different lakes, but no doubt a great number of net catches are required for worthwhile evaluation. During August 1938, a 125-foot net, 6 feet deep, with meshes of 5 different sizes (1 inch to 3 inches bar measure) , was used a total of 165 hours. The average take per hour was 2.1 fish for a total of 346. The split-tail was indicated to be the most abundant (more than 3 times its nearest competitor) ; then, following in order, the hitch, carp, fork-tail catfish, and Sacramento perch. The mesh may have been too small to yield true proportions of carp, and there is reason to believe that the large-mouth black bass is more abundant than the catches indi- cate. During June, 1940, the same size gill net was used again for 165 hours but only 98 fish were taken. During May, 1941, the net was oper- ated a total of 141 hours but only 19 fish were taken. One set of 16 hours in October, 1941, yielded 16 fish. Two sets for a total of 33 hours in January, 1941, yielded 12 fish. Relations of Chemistry of Water to Fish Population In table 2 are given the chemical analyses of the lake water during 1940 and 1941. The content of dissolved oxygen was determined by the Rideal-Stewart modification of the Winkler method (American Public I Health Association and American Water Works Association, 1939 ) . The dissolved oxygen of the surface water varied from 4.4 to 12.0 p.p.m. In the bottom water it varied from 1.7 to 11.0 p.p.m. On June 27, 1940, the RELATIONSHIP OP FISH TO CLEAR LAKE GNAT 201 * bottom water had a dissolved oxygen content of 1.7 p.p.m., which is dangerously low for some species of fish. It is believed that the stagnant condition existing during June was responsible, in part at least, for the many fish which were dying. It is believed that a depleted fish popula- tion will materially reduce the natural control of Chaoborus and that no steps should be taken that will alter the water chemistry so that it will be inimical to the various species of fish. TABLE 2 Chemical Analyses of Water at End of Pier (Except as Indicated). Water Depth 4 to 10 Ft. Date Dissolved oxygen, p.p.m. Surface Bottom Free carbon dioxide, p.p.m. Surface Bottom Phenolphthalein alkalinity, p.p.m. Surface Bottom Methyl orange alkalinity, p.p.m. Surface Bottom Temperature, °F., of water sample Surface Bottom June 10, 1940. - June 26, 19401. June 27, 19401, June 28, 1940' . June 29, 19401. June 20, 1940.. Nov. 27, 1940.. Dec. 2, 1940.. Dec. 17, 1940.. Jan. 14, 1941.. Feb. 6, 1941.. Mar. 15, 1941.. Mar. 29, 1941.. Dec. 2, 1940'. April 17, 1941_. May 16, 1941.. June 19, 1941.. July 15, 1941.. Julv 15, 1941i. Aug. 14, 1941.. Aug. 14, 1941i. Sept. 16, 1941.. Sept. 16, 194P. 9.0 7.0 4.4 6.2 5.1 6.0 5.7 3.3 8.5 8.3 8.1 12.0 9.5 6.3 9.0 8.7 8.0 8.7 8.0 7.0 6.5 10.5 7.4 3.1 1.7 2.3 4.5 6.0 4.9 5.7 6.3 8.0 8.3 11.0 9.3 5 1 8.7 8.0 7.2 8.0 7.1 6.8 6.0 7.3 7.0 1.0 6.7 3.0 2.0 1.0 5.0 2.0 0 .0 0 0 Trace 1.5 1. 0 3.0 8.0 2.5 1.5 1.0 5.5 2.0 2.0 2.0 0 0 Trace 3 1.0 5.5 12 7 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 131 132 137 144 0 0 0 160 0 90 100 85 100 110 110 0 134 137 133 140 0 0 0 150 0 100 110 95 100 110 120 0 84 80 79 77 77 56 55 48 48 48 62 56 56 56 76 70 84 82 82 78 84 77 75 75 76 80 57 53 48 48 48 58 56 53 55 66 68 81 80 80 76 73 1 Analyses of water } 2 mile off shore; water depth 18 to 25 ft. 0 Summary Seventeen species of fish taken in Clear Lake are listed. The diges- tive tracts from 355 fish comprising 10 species were examined. All stages of Chaoborus were found in 9 species of fish, but it is believed that all species feed on this insect at some time during their life. The fork-tail catfish, square-tail catfish and split-tail are important feeders on all stages of the gnat. As many as 1,076 larvae have been found in the stomach of a 9-inch fish, while several thousands have been estimated in the intestine. Nearly 77 per cent of the stomachs of the square-tail cat- fish that contained food material had Chaoborus larvae, while 100 per cent of the intestines showed larval remains. Indications of abundance of various species of fish were sought from gill net catches, spawning runs, commercial seining, and illegal fishing. Clear Lake apparently harbors an enormous fish population. Data on the water chemistry are given. 202 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME Literature Cited Lindquist, Arthur W., and Christian C. Deonier / 1942.1. Abundance, distribution and seasonal habits of the larvae of the Clear Lake gnat. Jour. Kans. Ent. Soc, vol. 16, no. 2. In press. 1942.2. Emergence habits of the Clear Lake gnat. Jour. Kans. Ent. Soc, vol. 15, no. 4, pp. 109-120. 1942.3. Flight and oviposition habits of the Clear Lake gnat. Jour. Econ. Ent., vol. 35, no. 3, pp. 411-415. American Public Health Association and the American Water Works Association. \ 1939. Standard methods for the examination of water and sewage. 8th edition. ( JAMES MOFFITT 1900-1943 James Moffitt lost his life in an airplane crash at Dutch Harbor, Alaska, on July 2, 1943, while serving as Lieutenant with the air forces of the United States Navy. He leaves an empty place in the lists of those working with and for Avild animals which will be hard to fill. He combined the best qualities implicit in the words "amateur" and "pro- fessional." His love of the outdoors, his eagerness to share its pleas- ures with his friends, his warm sense of fair play, made him the ideal sportsman. As a zoologist, his capacity for careful observation and painstaking study gave him high rank, and made him, among other things, a recognized authority on the wild geese of North America. He was able to inspire others with his own keen enthusiasm for the work in which he was interested. He had the vision to understand the broader values and relationships of problems which might have seemed merely isolated phenomena. The annual census of the black brant wintering in California, which he originated and with the help of others carried on for twelve successive years until interrupted by the war, stands as the most important long-range survey of bird populations in this part of the world. He was born March 21, 1900, the oldest son of Dr. and Mrs. Herbert C. Moffitt. After early education here and abroad, he entered the University of California in 1917, but left to enlist in the Navy at the age of eighteen. Returning to civilian life after the first war, he did not go back to the University, but continued his study and collection of birds. After some years spent in business with the firm of Blake, Moffitt and Towne, he joined the staff of the California State Division of Fish and Game, and was for a while editor of this magazine. In 1936 he was appointed Curator of Birds and Mammals in the California Academy of Sciences. He was a director of the National Audubon Society, and past president of the Audubon Society of the Pacific. Immediately after Pearl Harbor he volunteered for the second time in the service of his country; was commissioned Lieutenant in the United States Naval Reserve in March, 1942; and was assigned to active duty shortly thereafter. He is survived by his widow, Elizabeth Schmieden Moffitt, and his daughter, Alice Moffitt Gatterdam.— Brian Curtis, Editor, California Fish and Game. (203) EDITORIALS AND NOTES < AN OUTBREAK OF MYCOTIC PNEUMONIA IN MALLARDS Just after the opening of the duck hunting season in October, 1941, a disease epidemic occurred among mallards in Modoc County. "Warden , Don Davison estimated between 300 and 350 mallards died within a two ( or three week period. No further cases were observed subsequently. Four dead birds were sent to the laboratory by Davison during the height of the outbreak. Autopsy revealed extensive destruction of the lungs with a greenish mold which was caused by the fungus Aspergillus sp. Lung involvement by these organisms is usually referred to as mycotic pneumonia. Sick and dead ducks were found only in a limited area along the South Fork of the Pit River between Alturas and Likely, involving the side wash just south of Fitzhugh Creek. In a forty-acre tule marsh here, and especially in the central ten acres thereof, most of the infected birds were concentrated. Only mallards were affected. The epidemic sub- sided as rapidly as it had begun. — Carlton M. Herman, Bureau of Game Conservation, California Division of Fish and Game, May, 1943. A RECORD YELLOWTAIL An exceptionally large yellowtail, Seriola dorsalis (Gill) was deliv- ered by the purse seiner "Venus" to the Franco-Italian Packing Com- pany, Los Angeles Harbor, on June 8, 1943. This specimen, caught off Guadalupe Island on a handline, baited with mackerel, weighed 67 pounds when received at the cannery, and measured 58^ inches in total length. A previous record given by the Tuna Club of Santa Catalina Island is 60| pounds for a yellowtail taken on a rod and reel in 1908. — Gerhard Bakker, Jr., Bureau of Marine Fisheries, California Division of Fish and Game, June, 1943. TWENTY-FIVE YEARS AGO IN CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME The first paper in the October, 1918, issue of California Fish and Game was E. C. Starks' "The Flatfishes of California," a continuation of his valuable series on our native fishes. In conjunction with this appears a short dissertation by him "On Common Names of Fishes." / He points out that confusion has arisen because of the lack of any rules v for common names such as govern the application of scientific names, and also because of the tendency of pioneers to give to unknown fishes in new territories the names of more or less similar forms in their original homes. He speaks specifically of marine fishes, but the same situation exists with regard to our freshwater species. To mention only one case the "Sacramento Pike" (Ptychocheilus grandis), a predatory rough fish , of little value for which no fishing license is required, is often called V. "whitefish"; at the same time we have a true salmonoid whitefish, the (204) EDITORIALS AND NOTES 205 Rocky Mountain Whitefish {Prosopium williamsoni) , in the Truckee and other east slope rivers, which is nonpredatory, of food value, and for which a fishing license is required. Further, the Sacramento Pike does not belong to the pike family at all, but to the minnow or carp family. It is for this reason that the Committee on Common and Scientific names of Fishes of the American Fisheries Society has proposed for it the official designation "Sacramento Squawfish." It is to be hoped that when this committee has finished its work and published its report we can begin to eliminate some of the confusion in the common names of fishes, both marine and freshwater. One of the leading editorials twenty-five years ago discussed ' ' The Dangers of the Bounty System." At that time half the counties in the state paid bounties on predatory animals, among which were included rabbits, blue-jays and buzzards, and the sum so expended in the preced- ing fiscal year had come to over $53,000. The editorial raises the ques- tion as to whether the results achieved justified the expenditure of so much money, and points out the difficulties of distinguishing between bounty-free and bounty-paying species, as well as the danger of fraudu- lent transportation of predator remains into high-bounty areas. It is because of these weaknesses that the whole bounty system, once a wide- spread favorite throughout the states of the union, has been very greatly curtailed. The State of California now pays a bounty on only one predator, the mountain lion — $30 on females and $20 on males; and about a dozen counties pay bounties ranging from 50 cents to $10 on bobcats and coyotes, plus in some cases a supplement to the state bounty on lions. It is generally felt that the bounty system has proven satis- factory for mountain lions, but that for the other predatory species the paid trappers and hunters are more effective. — Brian Curtis, Editor, California Fish and Game. IN MEMORIAM CURTIS LEE BUNDOCK It is with regret that we announce the death of Warden C. L. Bun- dock, at his home in Oakland on June 5, 1943. He was 43 years of age. Warden Bundock was the son of J. L. Bundock, who served as a warden with the Division of Fish and Game from 1910 to 1934. Much of his early training in law enforcement was under the teaching of his father. ' ' Bun, " as he was affectionately known by his associates, entered the service on December 1, 1925, and he retired on disability April 7, 1943. For over a year preceding his death, Bundock had suffered from an ailment from which apparently there was no relief. During this period his unfailing cheerfulness gained the respect of all who came in contact with him. He leaves a mother, wife and daughter who reside at 5439 Camden Street, Oakland, and to whom we wish to extend our sincere sympathy. — L. F. Chappell, Chief, Bureau of Patrol, California Division of Fish and Game, June, 1943. ALVIN GRANSTROM Alvin Granstrom passed away at his home in Yuba City on July 21, 1943. Warden Granstrom entered the service as a game warden in Sep- tember, 1929. He served in this capacity in various parts of the State and since 1938 has been stationed at Yuba City. He was regarded very highly by the bureau as a willing, efficient and energetic law enforce- ment officer. We, of the department, will miss him. Al belonged to the Masonic fraternity and was also a member of the American Legion under whose joint auspices the funeral was held at Yuba City on Saturday, July 24th. He is survived by his wife and daughter to whom we extend our sincere sympathy. — L. F. Chappell, Chief, Bureau of Patrol, California Division of Fish and Game. CHARLES R.LOVE We regret to announce the death of Warden Charles K. Love which occurred at Redding, California, on August 11, 1943. Warden Love entered the service of the Division of Fish and Game as a game warden in August, 1929. His service with the Division has been principally in Shasta County where he was greatly respected by a host of friends and acquaintances. Warden Love was forced to take sick leave in November, 1942, and was apparently suffering from a rather minor infection. His condi- tion failed to improve after several months and he continued to grow steadily worse until the time of his death, in spite of the excellent care which he received. (206) IN MEMORIAM 207 Charley was a quiet, efficient officer in the prosecution of wilful violations of the law, and at the same time carried on a successful edu- cational program among the younger generation in observance of con- servation. He is survived by his wife and a son and daughter, to whom we extend our sympathy. — L. F. Chappell, Chief, Bureau of Patrol, Cali- fornia Division of Fish and Game. ARTHUR BOEKE It is with deep regret that we announce the death of Arthur Boeke, who was killed in an airplane crash in the Alaskan theater of activities while serving as a Second Class Radio Man in the United States Navy. Mr. Boeke was born in South Dakota in 1910. He became a mem- ber of the Division of Fish and Game, Bureau of Licenses, on June 14, 1940. He was inducted in the Army March 5, 1941, and was sent to Fort Monmouth, New Jersey, for radio instruction. On August 1, 1941, he returned to the employment of this Division, having been discharged from the Army on account of four years previous service with the United States Marines in China. On May 12, 1942, he joined the United States Navy and was assigned to the Oklahoma Agricultural and Mechanical College, Still- water, to continue his studies in radio work. Upon graduation he went to Treasure Island, San Francisco, and later to the naval air patrol at Mills Field. In March of 1943 he was assigned to C G Photo Expedition Flight Air "Wing 4, Patsu 3, Alaska. He was married just before his departure for Alaska. In the few years that Mr. Boeke was in the employ of this Division he endeared himself to his fellow workers for his pleasant and congenial personality and proved himself to be a most capable and efficient worker. His devotion to duty is well exemplified by his service in his country 's defense.— H. R. Dunbar, Chief, Bureau of Licenses, California Division of Fish and Game. REPORTS FISH CASES April, May, June, 1943 Offense Number arrests Fines imposed Jail sentences (days) Abalones: Overlimit, undersize, no license, removal from shells below high tide Abalones: Possession in District 2 and taken in District 2J/2. no affidavit Bass, Black: No license, closed season, overlimit, undersize .... Bass, Striped: After sunset, undersize, more than one pole, no license, overlimit, for sale Catfish: Selling undersize, closed season Clams: Closed season, taking in preserve 18a, overlimit, undersize, no license.. Crabs: Undersize ... - . Crappie: Closed season - Frogs: Overlimit Game fish: No license, closed season Lobsters: Closed season Lobsters, spiny: Undersize Perch: No license, closed season Salmon: Other than angling, closed season, undersize - Sturgeon: Possession Sunfish: Closed season, overlimit Trout: More than one pole, closed season, no license, overlimit Yellowtail: Selling without commercial license - Angling: Closed season, no license, more than one pole Failure to show license on demand Failure to keep record of fresh fish purchased and from whom Failure to return bass to water taken in shad net, possession sturgeon False statement to secure fishing license Fishing within 150 ft. of lower side of dam -. Fishing in fish ladder Fishing in closed waters - Lending license to another Operating drift gill net in Mexican drift District 12C - Operating gill net in District 2 Pollution Possession fish and fishing equipment in fish refuge Possession spear in prohibited area Taking fish with net or trap Taking fish other than with hook and line Taking marine life within marine refuge Using another's license Using trawl net in 12^ fathoms of water in District 17 Wilful waste of food fish.. Totals 162 11 31 31 3 27 1 15 2 30 1 1 3 3 2 27 41 1 54 1 1 4 2 1 1 12 1 1 3 5 1 5 1 2 1 3 4 1 $4,280 00 275 00 850 00 600 00 75 00 630 00 25 00 400 00 50 00 555 00 200 00 50 00 60 00 100 00 50 00 685 00 1,225 00 25 00 1,050 00 25 00 100 00 170 00 110 00 25 00 25 00 275 00 50 00 100 00 100 00 525 00 25 00 125 00 100 00 50 00 25 00 85 00 400 00 25 00 496 $13,525 00 GAME CASES April, May, June, 1943 Offense Number arrests Fines imposed Jail sentences (days) Beaver: No commercial license Deer: Closed season, killing doe Deer Meat: Closed season Doves: Closed season Ducks: Closed season, shore bird, overlimit, possession wild baby ducks Ducks: Taking young from nest Geese: Closed season Non-game birds Pheasants: Closed season Quail: Closed season Rabbits, Cottontail: Closed season Sage hens: Possession Disturbing traps of licensed trappers - Hunting: No license, failure to show license on demand Night hunting and using artificial light Possession spotlight and rifle in deer inhabited area Possession firearms in game refuge Shooting before and after legal time Shooting from automobile, killing mallard duck, no license Spotlighting Trapping bear in refuge, discharging firearms in refuge Totals 1 7 26 2 4 1 1 1 27 2 4 2 1 5 2 2 1 6 1 6 2 $75 00 1,250 00 2,090 00 75 00 325 00 50 00 35 00 50 00 1,740 00 75 00 125 00 200 00 10 00 80 00 200 00 70 00 50 00 175 00 175 00 150 00 100 00 104 $7,100 00 (208) REPORTS 209 SEIZURES OF FISH AND GAME April, May, June, 1943 Fish: Abalones - 75 Abalones, black 103 Abalones, green 8 Abalones, red - - 529 Bass, black - --- 88 Bass, striped - - - - - - --- 25 Catfish ---- - - -— 12 Catfish, pounds 16 Crappie - - 66 Clams, cockles - - - 102 Clams, horseneck -- - 15 Clams, pismo - - - 164 Lobsters, spiny - 8 Sunfish.. -— 377 Sunperch — -- 25 Trout - - 247 Trout, loch leven - - 7 Trout, rainbow --- - 175 Trout, steelhead - 229 Game: Deer - - j» Dear meat, pounds 158 Deer meat, jars - 20 Doe_ 2 Doves 5 Ducks, mallard ' Geese, Canada 1 Pheasants — — -- » Pheasants, male 1» Pheasants, hen - - - 6 Quail, valley . 2 Rabbits, eottontail -— 12 Sagehens J Shorebirds - * 210 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME STATEMENT OF REVENUE For the Period July 1, 1942, to June 30, 1943, of the 94th Fiscal Year V Revenue for Fish and Game Preservation Fund: License Raenue: 1943 Series- Angling $299,189 50 Hunting 155 00 Trapping 3 00 Fish packers and shell fish dealers 20 00 Deer tags 9 00 Fish tags 2,267 36 \ Game tags 58 47 Market fishermen 68,140 00 Fish Importers 20 00 Fish party boat permits 226 00 Fish breeders 250 00 Game breeders 882 50 Game management — Licenses 140 00 Game management — Tags 1 14 Kelp license 10 00 Total 1943 series $371,431 97 1942 series — Angling $571,541 00 Hunting 508,785 00 Commercial hunting club 725 00 Commercial hunting club operator 280 00 Trapping 1,177 00 Fish packers and shell fish dealers 920 00 Deer tags 116,042 00 Fish tags 1,722 00 Game tags 158 67 Market fishermen 52,850 00 Fish importers 5 00 Fish party boat permits 86 00 Fish breeder 35 00 Game breeder 102 50 Kelp license 20 00 Total 1942 series $1,254,449 17 1941 series — Angling $426 00 Hunting 13,406 50 Deer tags 39 00 Total 1941 series $13,871 50 Total licenses 94th fiscal year $1,639,752 64 Other revenue: Court fines $31,762 10 Deer meat permits 6,767 00 Lease of kelp beds 1,334 50 Publication sales 549 38 Fish packers tax 299,823 19 Kelp tax 1,671 17 Salmon packers tax 35,598 25 Miscellaneous 28,944 89 Total other revenue 406,450 48 Grand total revenue all years. Fish and Game Preservation Fund $2,046,203 12 i REPORTS 211 _ STATEMENT OF EXPENDITURES For the Period July 1, 1942, to June 30, 1943, of the 94th Fiscal Year Function Salaries and wages Materials and supplies Service and expense Property and equipment Total Administration: Demolition of exposition exhibits. . Education and public information. Executive Exhibits Fish and game magazine Library Office Total Administration. Patrol and Law Enforcement: Cannery inspection Executive Land patrol Marine patrol Office Pollution patrol Total Patrol and Law Enforcement . Marine Fisheries: Central Valleys investigation. Executive Field supervision Fish cannery auditing. Office Research and statistics Shark liver analysis Total Marine Fisheries . Fish Conservation: Biological survey Executive Field supply Fish food unallocated Fish planting Fish rescue Office Operating expense unallocated Pollution inspection Statistical Structural maintenance Alpine Hatchery Arrowhead Lake Egg Collecting Station . Basin Creek Hatchery Bear Lake Egg Collecting Station.. Benbow Dam Experiment Station Black Rock Springs Ponds Bogus Creek Egg Collecting Station Brookdale Hatchery Burney Creek Hatchery Central Valley Hatchery Claremont Copco Egg Collecting Station Coy Flat Station Experimental Hatchery Fall Creek Hatchery Feather River Hatchery Fillmore Hatchery Fort Seward Hatchery.. Fishing Creek Hot Creek Hatchery... Huntington Lake Hatchery Kaweah Hatchery Kern Hatchery Kings River Hatchery King Salmon Experiment Station Kirman Lake Egg Collection Station Klamathon Egg Collecting Station Lake Almanor Hatchery $2,900 00 7,804 92 $49 99 429 58 2,351 62 12,706 13 1,984 64 428 25 2,206 43 $10 21 310 77 3,342 97 71 47 58 30 75,875 51 $323 32 3 61 $10 21 3,260 76 11,577 47 71 47 1,984 64 3,161 49 90,791 68 $25,762 67 $19,211 58 15,547 41 282,056 50 62,668 25 10,003 15 10,990 31 $5,098 89 $45 94 315 61 16,589 16 5,201 98 77 90 456 33 $79,669 23 $562 92 1,605 60 61,411 18 25,957 80 927 15 1,790 72 $326 93 $9,833 72 3,623 17 4 43 41 55 $110,857 72 $19,820 44 17,468 62 369,890 56 97,451 20 11,012 63 13,278 91 $400,477 20 $4,070 44 8,410 00 125 00 $22,686 92 $421 44 90 07 $92,255 37 $2,940 81 894 44 $13,502 87 $9 51 7 60 15,297 81 58,762 12 108 95 4,546 90 93 55 4,131 08 250 64 9,611 03 6,500 00 77 38 3,995 84 $528,922 36 $7,442 20 9,402 11 125 00 4,131 08 15,734 78 76,915 89 6,593 55 $86,665 37 $11,326 60 12,445 00 5,747 78 2,724 59 9,809 62 7,295 87 4,045 00 3,052 12 2,295 02 829 47 6,329 40 T,298*39 $5,260 91 $472 38 167 64 136 64 9,433 45 424 68 359 82 38 05 260 92 152 45 154 50 153 64 304 39 90 51 1,326 75 $24,328 00 $880 29 661 04 713 87 6,838 25 1,919 66 2,357 19 789 60 $4,090 33 $82 84 165 23 50 25 7,743 12 5,248 81 5,555 43 1,485 26 1,094 73 669 69 186 76 740 69 1,356 00 623 91 149 98 6 65 600 80 40 00 74 49 55 50 85 00 616 19 380 09 1,593 34 54 59 "l2~77 2 00 22 61 "Y81 1,195 50 486 48 7,005 66 5,396 83 19,491 94 1,640 00 219 00 85 00 211 48 605 67 322 25 6,717 70 270 23 14,942 09 690 17 4,323 53 3,152 65 6,337 02 13,588 92 33 46 584 75 778 46 2,158 53 481 46 7,768 37 28 67 822 92 220 11 397 77 4,582 40 339 63 150 00 2,850 60 149 35 839 34 834 48 641 21 30 10 05 24 25 1,010 76 46 80 11 21 52 92 62 73 11 01 72 72 $120,344 61 $12,762 11 13,273 68 6,598 29 16,271 70 5,068 93 12,691 86 8,123 52 260 92 4,938 14 4,562 62 3,072 57 1,338 43 97 16 8,269 72 40 00 1,425 13 55 50 85 00 9,867 18 6,723 63 7,821 27 186 76 85 00 1,625 98 486 48 7,878 24 6,128 06 30,844 96 2,249 86 150 00 31,444 34 872 98 5,758 63 4,838 31 9,136 76 30 491 51 52 92 9,602 05 212 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME STATEMENT OF EXPENDITU RES— Continued For the Period July 1, 1942, to June 30, 1943, of the 94th Fiscal Year Function Salaries and wages Materials and supplies Service and expense Property and equipment Total Fish Conservation — Continued: Little Walker Lake Egg Collecting Station... Madera Hatchery Mad River Egg Collection Station Mt. Shasta Hatchery Mt. Tallac Hatchery Mt. Whitney Hatchery Prairie Creek Hatchery Rearing Reservoir Rush Creek Egg Collecting Station San Lorenzo Egg Collecting Station Sequoia Experiment Station Shasta River Egg Collecting Station Snow Mountain Egg Collecting Station Tahoe Hatchery Waddell Creek Station Yosemite Hatchery Yuba River Hatchery Total Fish Conservation. Engineering: Engineering Executive Inspecting fish screens. Office.. Total Engineering. Game Conservation: Duck rescue Elk Refuge Executive Game management Grey Lodge Honey Lake Refuge Imperial Refuge Los Banos Refuge Office Predatory Animal — lion hunting Predatory Animal — trapping Research Statistics Suisun Refuge Winter feeding and salting of game. Total Game Conservation Game Farms: Castaic farm Executive Chino farm Fresno farm Game Bird Distribution — Los Serranos. Game Bird Distribution — Yountville Game management Los Serranos game farm Office Redding farm Sacramento State Farm Valley Center farm Willows farm Yountville boarding house Yountville game farm Total Game Farms . Licenses: Executive License distribution. Office Total Licenses Grand totals. $459 18 2,685 53 861 00 43,955 73 3,050 06 18,319 43 6,134 00 1,270 00 253 33 $372 81 $3 75 597 79 $30 84 9,011 26 805 33 12,262 25 1,713 09 329 42 2,751 17 4,031 00 1.S44 11 7,661 98 206 45 5,256 13 3,564 19 8 66 992 68 5 07 149 81 1,824 10 25 26 250 15 260 72 2,697 11 303 33 4,339 23 397 52 611 38 10 00 109 65 1,172 36 112 16 194 02 1,229 29 18 92 280 49 78 14 35 87 24 18 30 40 138 57 240 26 1_29 $260,961 21 $9,560 85 5,005 00 1,438 36 1,672 91 $71,103 68 $785 37 130 47 365 62 33 23 $44,984 41 $2,935 69 765 19 70 34 27 02 $1,101 65 $17,677 12 $386 75 2,390 00 10,985 00 13,832 70 4,603 71 2,604 48 4,208 88 4,365 81 6,495 80 47,912 21 10,869 50 299 84 4,516 50 $1,314 69 $11 17 57 71 509 46 1,871 91 483 82 24 00 62 50 555 67 50 02 512 20 2,840 56 639 98 175 38 507 09 97 03 $3,798 24 $610 51 426 40 1,873 63 3,254 23 212 82 71 96 211 34 437 57 184 91 4,997 44 10,010 49 1,395 39 783 67 352 11 $57 24 138 76 41 96 550 00 ~102~43 1 16 223 70 58 09 61 51 $113,471 18 $1,950 26 4,365 00 2,616 27 1,480 00 1,892 50 8,915 16 1,460 00 1,960 00 1,970 00 110 00 2,095 00 450 14 22,351 98 $8,398 50 $1,335 78 190 25 7 97 588 83 64 55 139 75 54 02 3,410 69 $24,822 47 $164 29 185 92 $1,234 85 276 77 291 27 839 61 239 56 6,061 61 370 65 1 89 100 71 179 13 1,392 90 7 99 300 77 99 24 20 30 193 03 17 44 2,464 58 $85 59 779 46 $51,616 31 $4,365 00 18,108 02 2,229 82 $13,500 66 $49 21 4,542 62 46 98 $5,498 84 $436 13 72,994 60 1,345 51 $865 05 $205 38 7 51 $24,702 84 $4,638 81 $74,776 24 $212 89 $462 93 3,686 97 861 00 55,699 97 4,182 90 34,951 31 8,244 61 2,210 80 263 33 118 31 5,054 78 4,148 23 2,187 94 10,955 63 250 63 5,786 77 3,904 34 $378,150 95 $13,281 91 5,900 66 1,873 72 1,733 16 $22,790 05 $1,008 43 2,874 11 13,425 33 19,097 60 5,342 31 645 96 2,878 32 5,304 55 4,601 90 12,229 14 60,821 35 12,966 38 1,258 89 5,375 70 97 03 $147,927 00 $3,450 33 4,741 17 7 97 3,575 75 1,546 44 240 46 2,125 65 13,718 75 1,467 99 2,623 13 2,360 51 130 30 3,127 64 707 14 31,657 63 $71,480 86 $4,850 34 95,850 62 3,629 82 $104,330 $1,484,804 33 2 V. INDEX TO VOLUME 29 Accipiter cooperi, 93 Alpine County, muskrats in, 76 Alturas vicinity, muskrats in, 69 Ameiurus nebulosus, S3, 197 American pintail, a parasite in, 148-149 Anderson Valley, muskrats in, 70-71 Anatomical differences between the ring-necked pheasant and the domes- tic chicken as an aid in law enforce- ment, 141-147 Another wall-eyed pollack at Monterey (note), 83 Antelope Valley, muskrats in, 77 Apomotis cyanellus, 197 Archoplites interruptus, 197 Ash Creek, muskrats in, 69 Aspergillosis, 17 Aspergillus, 204 Atherinidae, 82 B Bakker, Jr., Gerhard, A record yellowtail, 204 Ballard Reservoir, rehabilitated for trout, 83 Bass, calico, 197 ; large-mouth black, 197, 199-200 Bats, fish eating, 79-81 Bee repellent for use in quail watering devices, a, 165-167 Big Valley, muskrats in, 69 Bitterwater experimental area, 157-164 ; 165-167; 168-179 Blackfish, 197 Boeke, Arthur, in memoriam, 207 Bodega Bay, occurrence of brant, 20 ; eel- grass, 24 Bolander, Gordon L., and Carlton M. Her- man, A parasite in the muscles of ducks in California, 148-149 Botulism, ducks suffering from, 149 Box Springs southern California quail refuge, 157-164 Brant, black, twelfth annual census in California, 19-28 Branta canadensis canadensis, 3-18 Bubo virginianus pacificus, 93 Bullheads, 83 ; brown, 197 Bundock, Curtis Lee, in memoriam, 206 Burnt Ranch, muskrats in, 73 Buteo borealis calurus, 93 ; B. Swainsoni, 93 Butte County, muskrats in, 74 Butte Creek, muskrats in, 74 Cachalot, 150 "Cage nest" method for determining food habits of nesting barn owls and marsh hawks, 122-133 Canada geese, 3-18 Carp, German, 197, 199 Catfish, 83; white or fork-tail, 197, 198; square-tail, 197, 198 Catostomus arenarius, 53 Catostomus occidentalis, 197 Central Valleys, fish rescue in, 133-140 ; project, 89 Chaoborus astictopus, D. & S., 196-202 Chatten, John E., and Carlton M. Herman, Epidemiological studies on coccidiosis of California quail, I. Occurrence of Eimeria in wild quail, 168-179 Chicken, domestic, 141-147 Chubs, 83; lake, 53; Sacramento, 197 Circus hudsonius, 93 Clark, G. H., resignation of, 150 ; Salmon at Friant Dam— 1942, 89-91 Clear Creek, muskrats in, 72 Clear Lake, California, 196-202 Coccidia, 168-179 Coccidiosis of California quail, epidemio- logical studies on, 168-179 Cod, 83 Colorado River, muskrats in, 78 Cottonwood Lakes golden trout egg-col- lecting station, 190-195 Coitus, 83 ; gulosus, 197 Coutolenc, muskrat here, 74 Coyotes, 15, 16, 18 Crappie, black, 197 Creel returns from hatchery trout in June Lake, California, 51-63 Cronemiller, F. P., Deer refuges under the buck law, 180-190 Crow, 16 Cube, powdered, for poisoning fish, 83 Curtis, Brian, James MofBtt, 1900-1943, 203 ; Mussel poisoning twenty-five years ago and today, 151-152 ; Twenty-five years ago in CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME, 43-44, 84, 151, 204-205 Cyprinus carpio, 197 (213) 214 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME Dafila acuta tzitaihoa, 148 Deer refuges under the buck law, 180- 190 Deer, special regulations 1942 season, 42- 43 Del Norte County, muskrats in, 72 Deonier, Christian C, Arthur W. Lind- quist and J. E. Hancey, The relation- ship of fish to the Clear Lake gnat, in Clear Lake, California, 196-202 Devils Garden, muskrats in, 69 Distribution of Muskrats in California, the, 64-78 Dodgeland, muskrats in, 74 Dondero, J. D., retirement of, 45 Dow, J. S., A study of nesting Canada geese in Honey Lake Valley, California, 3-18 Drakes Bay, occurrence of brant, 21 ; eel- grass, 25 Duck, a parasite in the muscles of, 148- 149 ; mycotic pneumonia in mallards, 204 Dune Lakes, 92-121, 122-133, 168-179; muskrats in, 76 Eagle Lake, muskrats in, 70 Eelgrass, 19, 24-28 Effect of mining silt on yield of fry from salmon spawning beds, the, 29-41 Eimeria, 168-179; beechyi, 176; tenella, 177, 178 ; zurni, 176 Elder Creek, muskrats in, 73 El Dorado County, muskrats in, 75 Epidemiological studies on coccidiosis of California quail, I. Occurrence of Eimeria in wild quail, 168-179 Falco mexicanus, 93 Fall River Valley, muskrats in, 70 Feather River, muskrats in, 74 Federal aid in wildlife restoration project California 6-R, the management of California valley quail in the south coast counties of California, 92-121, 122-133, 157-164, 165-167, 168-179 Fish-eating bats of the Gulf of Cali- fornia, the, 79-81 Fish rescue in California, 133-140 Food habits of nesting barn owls and marsh hawks at Dune Lakes, Cali- fornia, as determined by the "cage nest" method, 122-131 Food habits, raptor pellets as indicators of, 92-121 Friant Dam, 1942, salmon at, 89-91 Gadidae, 83 Gallinaceous guzzler, 158 Gambusia affinis, 197, 198-199 Gasterosteus aculeatus, 53 Gavilan quail refuge, 157-164 Glading, Ben, A self-filling quail watering device, 157-164 Glading, Ben, and David M. Selleck, A bee repellent for use in quail watering devices, 165-167 ; Food habits of nesting barn owls and marsh hawks at Dune Lakes, California, as determined by the "cage nest" method, 122-131 Glading, Ben, Daniel F. Tillotson and David M. Selleck, Raptor pellets as indicators of food habits, 92-121 Glenn County, muskrats in, 75 Gnat, Clear Lake, 196-202 Golden trout propagation in California, 191-195 Gonyaulax catanella, 151-152 Goose, Canada, 3-18 Goose Lake, muskrats in, 68-69 Granstrom, Alvin, in memoriam, 206 Grunion in Monterey Bay (note), 82 Guadalupe Lake, muskrats in, 76-77 Gudger, E. W., The fish-eating bats of the Gulf of California, 79-81 Gulf of California, the fish-eating bats of, 79-81 Gull Lake, 52 H Hancey, J. E., Arthur W. Lindquist and Christian C. Deonier, The relationship of fish to the Clear Lake gnat, in Clear Lake, California, 196-202 Happy Camp, muskrats in, 72 Hartson Reservoir, 9, 17 Hawks, food habits of, 92-121, 122-133; Cooper's, 97; marsh, 96, 122-133; prairie falcon, 97 ; red-tailed, 97 ; Swain- son's, 97-98 INDEX 215 Helioperca incisor, 197 Hensley, Arthur L., and Howard Twin- ing, The distribution of muskrats in California, 64-78 Herman, Carlton M., An outbreak of mycotic pneumonia in mallards, 204 Herman, Carlton M., and Gordon L. Bolander, A parasite in the muscles of ducks in California, 148-149 Herman, Carlton M., and John E. Chattin, Epidemiological studies on coccidiosis of California quail, I. Occurrence of Eimeria in wild quail, 168-179 Ictalurus cat us, 197 Imperial County, 77-78 ; Valley, 77-78 Index to Volume 29, 213 Indian Valley, muskrats in, 75 Hysterocapus traski, 197 Hitch, 197, 199 Honey Lake, muskrats in, 70 Honey Lake Valley, California, a study of nesting Canada geese in, 3-18 Honker, 3 Humboldt Bay, occurrence of brant, 19-20 ; eelgrass, 24, 27 Humboldt County, muskrats in, 72 Huro salmoides, 197 Hypomesus pretiosus, 82 I In the service of their country, 2, 50, 88, 155 Inyo County, muskrats in, 76 Isospora, 176 June Lake, California, creel returns from trout in, 51-63 K Kern County, muskrats in, 76 Klamath River, muskrats in, 72 Klamath Lake, lower, muskrats in, 72 Labyrinthula, 24-28 Lassen County, muskrats in, 69-70 Laughlin, John, Anatomical differences between the ring-necked pheasant and the domestic chicken as an aid in law enforcement, 141-147 Lavinia exilicauda, 197 Lencioni, Henry, retirement of, 44 Leuresthes tenuis, 82 Lewis, J. C, retirement of, 44 Limantour Bav, occurrence of eelgrass in. 25 Lindquist, Arthur AV., Christian C. Deo- nier and J. E. Hancey, The relationship of fish to the Clear Lake gnat, in Clear Lake, California, 196-202 Little River, muskrats in, 73 Little Shasta River, muskrats in, 72 Little Valley, muskrats in, 69 Lophortyx calif ornica, 168, 169 Los Angeles County, muskrats in, 77 Love, Charles R., in memoriam, 206 M M & T Ranch, muskrats on, 74 Madeline Plains, muskrats in, 69-70 Maga, John A., and Paul A. Shaw, The effect of mining silt on yield of fry from salmon spawning beds, 29-41 McCloud, George, Golden trout propaga- tion in California, 191-195 Mendocino County, muskrats in, 73 Miller, George P., Special regulations affecting the 1942 deer season, 42-43 Mining silt, effect on salmon spawning beds, 29-41 Mission Bay, occurrence of brant, 22-23 ; eelgrass, 26 Modoc County, muskrats in, 68-69 ; re- habilitation of reservoir for trout fish- ing, 83 Moffitt, James, 1900-1943, 203 Moffitt, James, Twelfth annual black brant census in California, 19-28 Mono County, muskrats in, 76 Monterey, grunion at, 83 ; Sperm whale at, 150-151 ; Wall-eyed pollack at, 83 Morro Bay, occurrence of brant, 21-22 ; eelgrass, 25 Mosquito fish, 197, 198-199 Mundona Lakes, muskrats in, 77 Muskrats, the distribution of, in California, 64-78 ; Colorado River, 65 ; mink-dyed, 67; Nevada, 65; red, 69 Mussel poisoning twenty-five years ago and today (note), 151 Mycotic pneumonia in mallards, 204 216 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME Nevada County, muskrats in, 75 Noctilio, 79-81 N North Humboldt Bay, occurrence of brant in, 19 Oceano, muskrats in, 76 Oncorhynchus kisutch, 30 Ondatra zibethica bemardi, 65, 76 ; cinna- monia, 69, 70; mergens, 65, 68, 70, 75, 76; pallidus, 76 Oregon state, eelgrass samples from, 26, 27; presence of Labyrinthula, 26-28 Oreortyx picta, 168 Orr Lake, muskrats in, 72 Orthodon microlepidotus, 197 Osmeridae, 82 Oso Flaco Lake, muskrats in, 76 Outbreak of mycotic pneumonia in mal- lards, an (note), 204 Owls, food habits of, 92-121, 122-133; barn, 95, 122-133 ; Pacific horned, 95-96 ; western burrowing, 96 Pacific coast eelgrass conditions, 1941- 1942, 24-28 Panzarotti, 82 Parasite in the muscles of ducks in Cali- fornia, a, 148-149 Perch, freshwater viviparous, 197 ; Sacra- mento, 197, 199 Peromyscus, 100 Petrolia, muskrats in, 73 Pheasants, ring-necked, and domestic chicken, anatomical differences, 141-147 Phillips, J. B., Another wall-eyed pollack at Monterey, 83 ; Grunion in Monterey Bay, 82 ; Young sperm whale beached at Monterey, 150-151 Physeter catodon, 150 Pintail, American, a parasite in, 148-149 Pisonyx, 79-81 Pit River, lower, muskrats in, 70 Placer County, muskrats in, 75 Plumas County, muskrats in, 75 Pogonichthys macrolepidotus, 197 Point Mugu, occurrence of brant, 22 ; eel- grass, 25 Poisoning fish, 83 Pollack, wall-eyed, at Monterey, 83 Pomoxis sparoides, 197 Prairie Creek, muskrats in, 73 Predators, goose nest destroyed by, 15, 16, 18 Prosopium williamsoni, 205 Ptychocheilus grandis, 197, 204 Q Quail, occurrence of Eimeria in, 168-179 ; self -filling water device, 157-164 ; bee repellent for use in quail watering de- vice. Quien Sabe Ranch, 172 Raptor pellets as indicators of food habits, 92-121 Record yellowtail, a (note), 204 Refuges, deer, under the buck law, 180-190 Rehabilitation of Modoc County reservoir for trout fishing (note), 83 Reithrodontomys, 100 Relationship of fish to the Clear Lake gnat, in Clear Lake, California, the, 196-202 Reports, 46-47, 85-86, 153-154, 208-212 Resignation of G. H. Clark, 150 Riverside County, muskrats in, 77 Rodents, cricetine, 100 Russian River, muskrats in, 73 Salicomia, 25 Salmon at Friant Dam— 1942, 89-91 Salmon Creek, muskrats in, 73 Salmon, eggs in gravel nests, 29 ; the effect of mining silt on spawning beds, 29-41 Salmo gairdnerii, 53 ; trutta, 53 Salvelinus fontinalis, 53 San Bernardino County, muskrats in, 77 San Diego Bay, occurrence of brant, 22- 23; eelgrass, 26 Sandrat, 65 San Francisco Sea Products Company, 150 San Joaquin experimental range, 171-172 San Joaquin River, Friant Dam a bar- rier on, 89 San Luis Obispo County, muskrats in, 76 Santa Barbara County, muskrats in, 76-77 Sarcocystis rileyi, 148-149 Scirpus acutus, 10, 52 ; paludosus, 10 Scott Valley, muskrats in, 72 INDEX 217 Sculpin, 197 Sea lettuce, 26 Self-filling quail watering device, a, 157-164 Selleck, David M., and Ben Glading, A bee repellent for use in quail watering devices, 165-167 ; Food habits of nesting barn owls and marsh hawks at Dune Lakes, California, as determined by the "cage nest" method, 122-133 Selleck, David M., Ben Glading and Daniel F. Tillotson, Raptor pellets as indi- cators of food habits, 92-121 Seriola dorsalis, 204 Shandon experimental area, 93 Shasta County, muskrats in, 70-71 Shasta River, muskrats in, 72 Shaw, Paul A., and John A. Maga, The effect of mining silt on yield of fry from salmon spawning beds, 29-41 Siboma crassicauda, 197 Sierra County, muskrats in, 75 Sierra Valley, muskrats in, 75 Siphateles bicolor, 83 ; obesus, 53 Siskiyou County, muskrats in, 71-72 Skunk, 16 Smelt, bay, 82 ; jack, 82 ; surf, 82 Smith River, muskrats in, 72 Sonoma County, muskrats in, 73 South Humboldt Bay, occurrence of brant in, 19 ; eelgrass, 24 Special regulations affecting the 1942 deer season (note), 42-43 Speotyto cunicularis hypugaea, 93 Spiny-rayed fish, rescue of, 133-140 Split-tail, 197, 199 Squaw fish, 197 Stickleback, three-spined, in diet of rain- bow trout, 53 Study of nesting Canada geese in Honey Lake Valley, California, a, 3-18 Sucker, Sacramento, 197 ; sand bar, 53 Sunfish, bluegill, 197, 199 ; green, 197 Surprise Valley, muskrats in, 68 Sutter Basin By-pass, muskrats in, 74 Sutter County, muskrats in, 74 Theragra chalcogramma fucensis, 83 Tillotson, Daniel F., Ben Glading and David M. Selleck, Raptor pellets as indicators of food habits, 92-121 Tomales Bay, occurrence of brant, 20-21 ; eelgrass, 24-25, 27 Toms Creek, 83 Toreson reservoir, rehabilitated for trout, 83 Trinity County, muskrats in, 73 Trout, creel returns in June Lake, 51-63 ; eastern brook, 53 ; golden, 191-195 ; Loch Leven, 53, 83 ; rainbow, 53, 83 Tule District, 5 Tule Lake, muskrats in, 71-72 Tule Lake National Wildlife Refuge, trap- ping muskrats on, 71-72 Twelfth annual black brant census in California, 19-28 Twenty-five years ago in CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME (editorials), 43-44, 84, 151, 204-205 Twining, Howard, and Arthur L. Hensley, The distribution of muskrats in Cali- fornia, 64-78 Tyto alba pratincola, 93 Viva lactuca, 26 VanCleve, Richard, Resignation of G. H. Clark, 150 U V Vestal, Elden H., Creel returns from hatchery trout in June Lake, California, 51-63 W Wales, J. H., Rehabilitation of a Modoc County reservoir for trout fishing, 83 Wall-eyed pollack at Monterey, 83 Watering device for quail, 157-164 ; bee repellent for use in, 165-167 Whale, young sperm, 150-151 White Mallard Canal, muskrats in, 74 Woodhull, Chester, Fish rescue in Cali- fornia, 133-140 World War I, 43; II, 44 Yellowtail, 204 Young sperm whale beached at Monterey (note), 150-151 Zostera marina, 27 25758 9-43 4200 BUREAU OF ENGINEERING JOHN SPENCER, Chief San Francisco Clarence Elliger, Assistant Hydraulic Engineer San Francisco Samuel Kabakov, Junior Civil Engineer San Francisco BUREAU OF LICENSES H. R. DUNBAR, Chief Sacramento L. O'Leary, Supervising License Agent Sacramento R. Nickerson, Supervising License Agent Los Angeles Othella Coleman, License Agent San Francisco ACCOUNTS AND DISBURSEMENTS D. H. BLOOD, Departmental Accounting Officer Sacramento BUREAU OF PATROL E. L. MACAULAY, Chief of Patrol (absent on military leave) San Francisco L. F. CHAPPELL. Chief of Patrol San Francisco CENTRAL DISTRICT (Headquarters, Sacramento) C. S. Bauder, Inspector in Charge Sacramento Northern Division A. A. Jordan, Captain Redding Jos. H. Sanders, Captain Sacramento A. H. Willard, Captain Rocklin E. O. Wraith, Captain Chico L. E. Mercer, Warden, Butte County Chico Taylor London, Warden, Colusa County Colusa Albert Sears, Warden, El Dorado County Placerville E. C. Vail, Warden, Glenn County Willows Don Davison, Warden, Modoc County Alturas Earl Hiscox, Warden, Nevada County Nevada City Nelson Poole, Warden, Placer County Auburn E. J. Johnson, Warden, Plumas County Quincy Charles Sibeck, Warden, Sacramento County Sacramento Earl Caldwell, Warden, Shasta County Burney Don Chipman, Warden, Siskiyou County Dunsmuir Brice Hammack, Warden, Siskiyou County Yreka Louis Olive, Warden, Lassen County Susanville Fred R. Starr, Warden, Siskiyou County Dorris R. E. Tutt, Warden, Sierra County Downieville R. W. Anderson, Warden, Tehama County Red Bluff Harold Erwick, Warden, Tehama County Corning C. L. Gourley, Warden, Trinity County Weaverville C. O. Fisher, Warden, Yolo County Woodland R. A. Tinnin, Warden, Yuba County Marysvllle Wm. LaMarr, Placer County Tahoe City Southern Division S. R. Gilloon, Captain Fresno John O'Connell, Captain Stockton R. J. Little, Warden, Amador County Pine Grove L. R. Garrett, Warden, Calaveras County Murphys F. A. Bullard, Warden, Fresno County Reedley Paul Kehrer, Warden, Fresno County Fresno Lester Arnold, Warden, Kern County Bakersfield C. Ix Brown, Warden Fresno Ray Ellis, Warden, Kings County Hanford H. E. Black, Warden, Madera County ■ Madera Gilbert T. Davis, Warden, Mariposa County Mariposa Hilton Bergstrom, Warden, Merced County Los Banos H. Groves, Warden, Merced County Merced R. J. Bullard, Warden, San Joaquin County Tracy Wm. Hoppe, Warden, San Joaquin County Lodi Geo. Magladry, Warden, Stanislaus County Modesto, W. I. Long, Warden, Tulare County Visalia Roswell Welch, Warden, Tulare County Porterville F. F. Johnston. Warden, Tuolumne County Sonora Donald Hall, Kern County Kernville COAST DISTRICT (Headquarters, San Francisco) Wm. J. Harp, Inspector In Charge San Francisco Northern Division Scott Feland, Captain Eureka Lee C. Shea, Captain Santa Rosa Ray Diamond, Warden, Humboldt County Areata W. J. Black, Warden, Humboldt County Garbervllle W. F. Kaliher, Warden, Humboldt County Fortuna M. F. Joy, Warden, Marin County Napa R. J. Yates, Warden, Marin County San Rafael Ovid Holmes, Warden, Mendocino County Fort Bragg Floyd Loots, Warden, Mendocino County Willits Leo Mitchell, Warden, Mendocino County Point Arena Garrie Heryfbrd, Warden, Mendocino County Ukiah J. E. Hughes, Warden, Solano County Dixon Bert Laws, Warden, Sonoma County Petaluma "Victor Von Arx, Warden, Sonoma County Santa Rosa Jack Sawyer, Warden, Lake County Lakeport Southern Division O. P. Brownlow, Captain Alameda Ed Clements, Warden, Contra Costa County Martinez Henry Ocker, Warden, Monterey ,County King City F. H. Post, Warden, Monterey County Salinas J. P. Vissiere, Warden, San Benito County Hollister C. R. Peek, Warden, San Mateo County San Mateo C. E. Holladay, Warden, Santa Clara County San Jose F. J. McDermott. Warden, Santa Cruz County Santa Cruz J. W. Harbuck, Santa Cruz County Watsonville SOUTHERN DISTRICT (Headquarters, Los Angeles) Earl Macklin, Captain in Charge Los Angeles E. H. Ober, Captain, Special Duty Los Angeles James Loundagin, Warden, Mono County Bishop C. J. Walters, Warden, Inyo County Independence Fred Albrecht, Warden, Los Angeles County Los Angeles Walter Emerick, Warden, Los Angeles County Palmdale Theodore Jolley, Warden, Orange County Orange Western Division L. T. Ward, Captain Escondido F. W. Hecker, Captain San Luis Obispo E. H. Glidden, Warden, San Diego County San Diego Orben Philbrick, Warden, San Luis Obispo County Paso Robles R. E. Bedwell, Warden, Santa Barbara County Santa Barbara H. L. Lantis, Warden, Santa Barbara County Santa Maria Eastern Division H. C. Jackson, Captain San Bernardino W. C. Blewett, Warden, Riverside County Indlo C. S. Donham, Warden, Riverside County Idyllwild W. L. Hare, Warden, Riverside County Elsinore W. C. Malone, Warden, San Bernardino County San Bernardino Erol Greenleaf, Warden, San Bernardino County Big Bear Lake Otto Rowland, Warden, San Bernardino County Victorville MARINE PATROL C. H. Groa.t, Inspector in Charge Terminal Island L. G. Van Vorhis, Captain Monterey Kenneth Webb, Warden Monterey Kenneth Hooker, Warden, Cruiser Rainbow III Tiburon Otis Wright, Assistant Warden Monterey Walter Engelke, Captain and Warden, Cruiser Bonito Newport Robert Mills Antioch N. C. Kunkel, Warden Newport Beach Leslie E. Lahr, Warden Wilmington Ralph Miller, Warden San Francisco Tate F. Miller, Warden San Pedro T. W. Schilling, Warden Terminal Island G. R. Smalley, Warden Richmond T. J. Smith, Warden San Diego B. L. Walker, Warden Long Beach Carmi Savage, Warden Santa Monica POLLUTION DETAIL Paul A. Shaw, Chemical Engineer San Francisco R. L. Schoen, Warden Wilmington Walter R. Krukow, Assistant Warden Santa Barbara MARINE PATROL AND RESEARCH BOATS Cruiser Bonito, Newport Harbor Cruiser Rainbow III, Antioch Launch Shrapnel. Suisun ( printed in California state printing office SACRAMENTO, IJ43 GEORGE H. MOORE, STATE PRINTER