CALIFORNIA
nSH»GAME

tONSERVAnON Of WILD UFE THROUGH EDUCATIONT

STATE OF CALIFORNIA

DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES

DIVISION OF FISH AND GAME
San Francisco, California

EARL WARREN
Governor

WARREN T. HANNUM
Director of Natural Resources

FISH AND GAME COMMISSION

HARVEY E. HASTAIN, President
Brawley
LEE F. PAYNE, Commissioner PAUL DENNY, Commissioner

Los Angeles Etna

EDWIN L. CARTY, Com.missioner WILLIAM J. SILVA, Commissioner

Oxnard Modesto

E. L. MACAULAY

Executive Officer

San Francisco

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

CARLTON M. HERMAN, Editor Berkeley

Editorial Board

RICHARD S. CROKER San Francisco

BRIAN CURTIS San Francisco

JOHN E. CHATTIN Berkeley

California Fish and Game is a publication devoted to the conservation of wildlife.
It is published quarterly by the California Division of Fish and Game. All material for
publication should be sent to Dr. Carlton M. Herman, Editor, Division of Fish and
Game, Strawberry Canyon, University of California, Berkeley 4, California. Manu-
scripts should be typed, double spaced, and conform to the style of previous issues.

The articles published herein are not copyrighted and may be reproduced In other
periodicals, provided due credit is given the author and the California Division of Fish
and Game.

This publication is sent free of charge to interested persons, who may have their
names placed on the mailing list by writing to the editor. Subscriptions are for one
year and must be renewed annually. A postcard will be included with each October
issue for renewal of subscriptions. Subscribers are requested to notify the Division of
Fish and Game, University of California, Berkeley 4, California, of changes of address,
giving old address as well as the new.

California Fish and Game

"conservation op wildlife through education"
Volume 34 ISSUED OCTOBER 1, 1948 No. 4

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

The Abalones of California P. Bonnot 141

Progress Report on Studies of Striped Bass Reproduction in Rela-
tion to the Central Valley Project

A. J. Calhoun and C. A.Woodhull 171

A Critical Review of Range Survey Methods and Their Application

to Deer Range Management W. P. Dasmann 189

Fertilit}^ of Eggs of the Ring-necked Plieasant

H. Twining, H. A. IIjersman and W. Macgregor 209

Notes —

Do Lobsters Shrink When Cooked ? W. h. Scofield 217

Deep Dragging by Eureka Otter Trawlers E. K. IIolmberg 218

Use of Dukw's in the Fishery for Basking Sharks,

C etorhinus maximus J. E. Fitch 219

Retirement of S. H. Dado R. S. Croker 220

Retirement of H. C. Jackson L. F. Chappell 221

Retirement of W. C. Malone L. F. Chappell 221

Reviews —

One Day at Teton Marsh J. F. Ashley 222

The Ways of Fishes B. Curtis 222

Animals Alive J. A. Aplin 223

Fire C. M. Herman 223

The Great Forest C. M. Herman 223

How to Live in the Woods C. M. Herman 224

Reports 225

Financial Statements 227

Index to Volume 34 233

(139)

THE ABALONES OF CALIFORNIA'

By Paul Bon not

Bureau of Marine Fisheries

California Division of Fish and Game

Introduction

The initial human population of the West Coast of North America
was relatively sparse ; the culture late Stone Age. One store of food was
the abalone, which was plentiful and easily procured. The shell supplied
material for personal adornment and served as a medium of exchange.
Exploitation was circumscribed by weather and natural indolence, and
(lid not seriously affect an inherent abundance, maintained by the repro-
ductive ability of the species. This state of affairs prevailed for thou-
sands of years.

The first immigrants who came to the West Coast found natural
resources so diverse and redundant that there was little incentive to
make use of such a lowly form as the abalone, especially since most
Caucasians have a bias on the subject of eating snails. In the last 50
years the human population of the West Coast has increased phenome-
nally, and the abalone, eulogized and promoted by civic and financial
interests, has become a culinary delicacy much appreciated by epicures.
Under these circumstances the supply is not equal to the demand and
legal restrictions have been necessary to curb commercial over-exploi-
tation.

The sport take, responsive to the above mentioned panegyrics, has
also gradually and steadily increased. Laws have been passed to regulate
the noncommercial abalone hunters, but it is difficult to enforce them
effectiveh\ Sportsmen, and so-called sportsmen, have become so numerous
that they infest the coastal areas on every low tide. They are so persever-
ing in gratifying their acquisitive propensities, and many of them are
so indifferent to legal restrictions or so lacking in a sense of probity
that the abalone has virtually disappeared from the beaches.

The commercial divers now work with an annual revocable permit.
They may not take abalones legally in water of less than 20 feet in depth,
and the abalones must conform to minimum sizes measured across the
greatest diameter of the shell : Red 8 inches, green 7^ inches, black and
pink 6 inches.

The sportsmen's abalone territory is from the high tide mark to a
depth of 20 feet. They may take five red abalones, or 10 abalones in the

1 Submitted for publication May, 194 S.

( 141 )

142

CALIFORNIA FISH AXD GAME

aggregate, in any one day. Their minimum size limits are : Red 7 inches,
green 65 inch, pink, 6 inches, black five inches. An angling license is
required. (Note : These laws in effect in 1948, subject to change in later
years. Consult latest Fish and Game Regulations.)

Life History Notes

Abalones are marine gastropods or snails. Many of their anatomical
features and habits resemble those of their rehitives, the land snails.
The abalone is a very primitive form and lias an ancient lineage. Tlieir
shells are found imbedded in the rocks of tlic Paleozoic. They arc bisexual
and the sexes are readily distinguishable. The gonad, or reproductive
gland, is a large horn-shaped organ, -svhich lies against and bends around
to the rear of the muscular foot. In the male the gonad is smooth and
cream colored; in the female it appears grainy and is a dark green.

t entacio

l„-;ul

gill chuiubtr

— mantle

Figure 53. Dorsal view of abalone with shell removed. Drawing by He.ster Bonnot

The gonads mature during the winter and tlie eggs and sperm are liber-
ated into the water periodically, during the spring and summer. The
shell is formed while the abalone is still verj- small. It is composed of
three layers ; the outer or periostracum, a thin horn-like semitransparent
substance ; a thick middle layer of caleium carbonate ; and an inner of
mother-of-pearl or nacre. The shell is secreted by glands along the edge
of the mantle. The holes in an abalone shell lie directly over the gill
cavity. When the shell is clamped tightly to the rock, sufiScient water
can be pumped in under the edge and discharged through the holes to
supply the necessary oxygen and even a certain amount of food in the
form of diatoms. In common with most molluscs the abalones have no
eyes, but they are able to distinguish between light and dark by means
of eye spots around the edge of the mantle. They are vegetarians, feed-
ing on marine algae, and inhabit rock bottoms from the high tide line

F

Figure 52. The Red Abalone

ABALONES OF CALIFORNIA

143

out to a depth of about 100 feet. Beyond 100 feet there is comparatively
little lifzht. Seaweed does not flourish in the absence of light and is
therefore rare or entirely absent in deep water, and abalones are cor-
respondingly scarce. Altliongh the abalone has survived tlie vicissitudes
of many geologic ages, it is so delicately adjusted to its present environ-
ment that even minor changes can be fatal. An unusually large discharge
of fresh water from a river or creek will kill all tlie abalones in the iinme-

— surface attached to shell

liead

iiuirillo

Figure 54. Abalone foot with viscera removed, ready for trimming.
Drawing by Hester Bonnet

diate vicinity. The shifting of sand by strong bottom currents will
sometimes smother large numbers. Any form of confinement or artificial
restraint is usually lethal in a short time.

Our knowledge of the life liistory and ecology of the abalone was,
until quite recently, very limited. It has been difficult for the biologist
to investigate the sub-littoral zone. As a source of information, the
average abalone diver is not reliable, simply because he is not a trained

Figure 55. Tagged black abalones, I'oint Lobos State Park. I'hoto by W. U. Kipley

144

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

Figure 56. Tagged black abalones, Point Lobos State Park (Cypress Cove). The
small black abalone on the left stayed on the same spot for two years. Photo by W. E.
Ripley

observer and, in any case, manifests little curiosity concerning ecological
principles and the efficacy with which they can and do control the destiny
of the species which provides the raw material of his industry.

Several years ago, a diving program was inaugurated by the Cali-
fornia Division of Fish and Game in an endeavor to acquire some of
the deep water details of the life of the abalone. A Division biologist
was instructed to learn to dive. The original survey covered the area
from Monterey to Point Conception (Bonnot 1940) . Subsequent surveys
and spot dives have added materially to current information and have
contributed an extensive knowledge of the magnitude and dispersal of
the present abalone population and of the environment in which it lives.

For several years a tagging experiment has been carried on in an
endeavor to learn something of the growth and movements of the abalone.
Celluloid fish tags are fastened to the shell, through one of the open holes,
with a German silver pin. The principal difficulty encountered in this
experiment has been the inability to find sufficient abalones in the littoral
zone. However, several hundred have been tagged, and a fair percentage
have been recovered and checked over a period of three years. The results
are as yet only tentative, but they indicate that abalones do not migrate
to any extent and that the growth varies irregularly from year to year.

Abalones forage during the night, and where the surrounding ter-
rain permits, they will sometimes travel a considerable distance, return-
ing to their ' ' home spot ' ' by day break. The ' ' home spot ' ' area, covered
by the foot, is always perfectly clean, and sometimes in soft rock a
straight-sided depression an inch deep indicates that the animal has
lived there a long time.

ABALONES OF CALIFORNIA 145

The species of abalones found along our Pacific Coast are not
numerous. Some of them are rare deep water forms and are seldom seen
outside of museums.

The descriptive details given here may sometimes be difficult to see.
Except for the blacks the usual abalone shell supports a more or less
heavy growth of algae, corralines (algae with a calcareous coating),
barnacles, and worm tubes, and it may be necessary to remove some of
the incrustation before it can be identified.

The outside surface of the shell can be cleaned fairly well with a
wire brush. To do a good job however, it is advisable to use acid. Apply
sulphuric or hydrochloric acid with a small paint brush. The acid should
be allowed to work for a short time and then be washed off and another
application brushed on. When the actual surface of the shell is reached,
it should be washed carefully to remove all traces of the acid.

The Commercial Fishery

Among the first immigrants to arrive on the West Coast were a number
of Chinese. The Chinese have been inured for ages to over population and
to the consequent utilization of every available organism which appeared
capable of providing any nourishment. They contemplated the abundant
supply of local abalones with gustatory and mercenary satisfaction, prob-
ably indulged in laudatory vociferation — in Cantonese — and began to
gather them in quantity irrespective of species or size. The meat was dried
and sent to China. Because of this prodigal despoliation, minimum size
limits were imposed for the various species (1911), and the drying and
exporting of abalones was forbidden (1915). These several restrictions
effectively curbed the promiscuous exploitation. The beaches could no
longer supply a profitable quantity of legal-sized abalones, so the fishery
was moved out into deep water. The Chinese apparently are not divers, so
abalone harvesting was taken over by the Japanese. The original Chinese
shore fishery was along the southern coast from Point Conception into
Lower California. The Japanese divers worked out of Monterey and
gradually extended their operations to the south. During the depres-
sion of the '30s, a number of white divers started operating at Morro and
San Simeon in San Luis Obispo County, and the center of the industry
gradually shifted from Monterey to the southern area (see Table 1).
Few abalones were landed from the Monterey-Morro area during World
War 11. The Japanese were not allowed to work, and nearly all of the
other divers went to Southern California to gather gelidium, the marine
alga from which agar is manufactured. Agar is essential in bacteriologi-
cal work. Previous to the war, 90 percent of the agar used in this country
was imported from Japan, and with the advent of war it was necessary
to utilize a local supply.

The canning of abalones began at Cayucos in 1905. Subsequently
they were canned at Point Lobos, San Pedro, and San Diego, and by
1917 there were five plants. Because fresh abalone steaks cost less to pro-
duce and are always in demand, the canned product was never too
remunerative, and the canning plants gradually dropped out. One can-
nery at Point Tjobos, near Monterey, operated until 1981.

2— 0240S

146 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

Red Abalone

Haliotis rufescens Swainson

Distinguishing Characters : A large abalone reaching 10 to 12
inches in diameter. Outside color of the shell dull brick red, a narrow red
border around the edge of the shell. Inside, iridescent with prominent
dark green markings. Holes slightly tubular, large, three or four open.

Distribution : Point Saint George in Northern California to La Paz,
Lower California. The center of population is between Monterey Bay and
Point Conception. This is the principal commercial species. The largest
landings are at San Simeon, Morro Bay, and Monterey (see Table 1,
p. 164).

ABALONES OF CALIFORNIA

147

5^*- *^

.« yi-^.-^

--<~^

k;:^v,

:\>

««
X

X

•j|f»KB«

■< -•,

m: \

.rA,

r.*'^

r^/^;.

■•'i:

'v^^A."^*

%

■"■#:

"-^♦w*-
'.^,'

u > f

■ ^

\' ,'

*"

'Ai

/ <

.'. '^'''

M'

W-

•

INCHES

Figure 57. Red Abalone

148 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

Black Abalone
Haliotis cracherodii Leach

Distingiiisliing Characters: The shell reaches a diameter of 6
inches, and is more cupped than most of the others. Color, outside green-
ish black, inside pearly. The shell is usually clean; not supporting a
growth of other organisms. Five to eight holes usually open.

Distribution: Coos Bay, Oregon, to Santa Rosalia, Lower Cali-
fornia. The black is a littoral zone form and is seldom found below the
low tide level.

They are comparatively plentiful but are not used to any extent.
They appear to be able to subsist entirely on diatoms when necessary.
They will sometimes be found in cracks and holes in the rocks which they
evidently entered when small and remained until they became too large
to ever get out again. Such individuals would have no other source of
food but diatoms, supplemented by occasional pieces of detached sea weed
that might be washed in by water currents.

ABALONES OF CALIFORNIA

149

INCHES

Figure 58. Black Abalone

loO CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

Pink Abalone

Haliotis corrugaia Gray

Disting'uishinp- Characters : Shell round, arched, with a scalloped
edge. Markedly ridged on the outside. Outside surface dull green to red-
dish chestnut edged with black. Grows to 7 inches in diameter. Holes
slightly tubular, large, three or four open.

Distribution : Monterey, California, to San Quentin Bay, Lower
California.

Taken by skin divers and commercial divers in small quantities in
Southern California. Sometimes called the corrugated abalone.

AUALONES OF CALIFOKNIA

151

/

\,

■^
••

INCHES
Figure 59. Pink or Corrugated Abalone

152 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

Southern Green Abalone

Haliotis fulgens Phillippi

Distinguishing Characters : Shell reaches 8 inches in greatest dia-
meter and is a dull reddish brown with 30 or 40 spiral ridges. Inside
iridescent, marked irregularly with various shades of blue and green.
The holes are small, slightly elevated and circular, five or six open.

Distribution : Farallon Islands to Gulf of California.

Taken in Southern California by both sport and commercial divers.

A1{AI;()XKS OK CAIJKOKNIA

153

INCHES

Figure 60. Simtluin < Ireen Abaloiie

154 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

Threaded Abalone

Haliotis assimiUs Bail

Distingnishinfi' Characters : Shell thick and solid, reaches a dia-
meter of 4 inches. Ontside of shell reddish or dark preenish, etched with
many fine lines; inside pearly and iridescent. A moderate furrow below
the line of holes whic^h have slightly raised edges. Five to seven open.

Distribntion : Farallon Islands to San Diego, California.

This is a deep water form seen only by the divers. Occasionally a
few shells are washed ashore and can be picked up on the beaches.

ABALONES OF CALIFORNIA

155

Figure 61. Threaded abalone. I'holo by Al Johns, Vernon M. Haden, San Pedro

156 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

Japanese Abalone

Haliotis kamschatkana Jonas

Distinguishing Characters : Shell longer and not so round as most
of the other species. It is thin, with a sharp edge and prominent spire,
and reaches a length of 6 inches. There are four or five holes with raised
edges and a deep channel under the line of holes. The outside color may
be orange, greenish or purple or irregular combinations of these colors.
Inside silvery, iridescent.

Distribution : Sitka, Alaska, to Point Conception, California. Not
plentiful in California but increasing in abundance in the northern part
of the range. It is also found in Japan.

This species is abundant in Alaska but has not been utilized to any
extent. There are sufficient numbers to support a small commercial
fishery.

ABALONES OF CALIFORNIA

157

Figure

62.

Japanese abalone, Craig, Alaska. Photo by Al Johns,
Vernon M. Haden, San Pedro

158 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

Northern Green Abalone

Haliotis wallalensis Stearns

Disting'uishing Characters : Kesembles the southern green, but the
shell is more elongated and flattened, dark briek red, mottled with pale
bluish green. Not larger than 5^ inches. Edges of holes not elevated, five
or six open.

Distribution : Westport, Northern California, to Point Conception.

A small, relatively rare species.

ABALONES OF CALIFORNIA

159

Figure 63. Xorthern Green abalone

160

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

Commercial Fishing Methods

The first abalone fishing-, in quantity, was initiated by the Chinese
who collected them between the tide lines. When this area became
unprofitable because of legal restrictions — it had also been pretty well
decimated — the Japanese introduced the diving suit and moved into deep
water. They gradually reduced the number of legal-sized abalones near
Monterey, and it became necessary to extend operations. A 50- to 65-foot
vessel was essential to make the long runs down the coast and to provide
living quarters for the five-man crew. A diving boat was towed to and
from the fishing grounds, as there is no shelter for small craft along this
stretch of coast. The original type of diving boat contained a stationary
water-cooled gas engine and the air pump. It was propelled with oars.
When the diver was down, the boat followed him about by means of a
long scull. The crew member who handled the boat stood in the middle of
it and worked the oar over and about a single upright wooden peg in the
stern. The boat was under perfect control and could even go astern with
no appreciable change in the ordinary sculling movements. The crews
worked for the abalone processing companies either for wages or on a
share basis. The diver received the largest wage or share — and earned
it (Bonnotl930).

The present fishery is based on diving, but there have been some
changes in methods, accessory gear and financial arrangements. The
contemporary divers are all Caucasians. Each diver owns his boat and
hires his crew, usually two men. The diving boats are 20 to 80 feet long
and are power driven. The air compressors are sometimes driven from
the main engine; or they may be separate units with their own one

$

FiGVRR 64. A Japanese diving boat worlving south of Monterey in 1939. The diver

is down. Photo submitted by Roy Hattori

ABALONES OK CALIFORNIA

IGl

Figure 65. Abalone diving gear, consisting of suit, chest weights, net bag, life lin?,
helmet, breast plate and air hose. Photo submitted by Roy Hattori

Figure 66. A Japanese diving crew, 1939. Roy Hattori, diver.
Photo submitted by Roy Hattori

3 — 92408

162

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

FiGURK G7. Abalone boat, 19 47. Note ladder, helmet
and air hose. Photo by John F. Janssen

cylinder air-cooled engines. In either case, a 30- or 40-gallon steel tank
acts as an air reservoir, an innovation the Japanese divers lacked. In
case of failure of the engines or of a compressor the tank contains suf-
ficient compressed air to last the diver five or ten minutes, plenty of time
to bring him to the surface. The boat follows the diver about while he is
on bottom, sometimes a rather hazardous business. It is maneuvered in
and out of narrow crevices, rising and falling with the surging of the
sea. There are usually reefs and consequently "breaks" over the rocky
bottoms where abalones are found and the boat handler must be
constantly on the alert.

The diver travels along the bottom at any depth from 30 to 100 feet,
prjdng the abalones from the rocks with a flat piece of iron. If taken
unaware, abalones may be detached easily, but if disturbed they promptly
increase the suction and grip the rock tenaciously. It then requires con-
siderable effort to remove them. The diver carries a net bag, which holds
about two dozen abalones. into which he drops his catch. When it is full,
he signals the line tender who fastens an empty bag to the life line and
the diver draws it down, coiling the line in his left hand. He detaches
the empty bag, fastens the full one to the snap provided and goes on with
his hunting while the tender hauls up the line and the loaded bag.

Abalone diving is one of the most exacting and physically debili-
tating of present day fishing methods. The diver must be mentally alert
and physically able to meet any sudden emergency which could be
dangerous. The boat man must hold the boat close to the diver, keeping
the lines forward away from the propellor while avoiding rocks and
"breaks" that might jeopardize the safety of the craft and the diver.
The line tender keeps the lines slack, but it is essential that he should be

ABALONES OF CALIFORNIA

163

Figure GS. The author dressed to go down except for
chest weights and helmet

able at all times to "feel" the diver and to receive and send the jerks on
the life line by which they "talk" to each other. The various activities
of a diving crew are few and simple, but they must be conscientiously
performed — on occasion with split second timing. Inexperience, inatten-
tion, or horseplay on deck has been responsible for the deaths of several
divers in the last few years. A number have been badly hurt but survived.
The first Japanese divers received $1 a dozen for the abalone they
landed, which price had increased to $2.50 by 1941. Tlie present price is
$6. An average day's fishing will yield about 20 dozen, but occasionally
a diver will find an area that is unusually productive or one overlooked
for several seasons and will be able to take, for a short time, up to 100
dozen a day.

164

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

TABLE 1

Ab:

clones Land

ed by Commercial Di

ivers

Sd)

( Tjuis Ohisp

0

San

Luis Obispo

Moil

terei/

Count !/

-

Mon

terey

County

1026___

40,800 doz.

355 doz.

1937__.

. 28,664 doz.

28,565 doz.

]927___

54,249

361

1938__.

. 24,079

18.188

1()28___

40,997

327

1939__-

. 15,789

20.065

]!)29___

6S.249

353

1940_...

. 16,268

18.211

]!»80___

(iP,.179

350

1941___

_ 9,779

10.227

1!)31___

04.216

1.027

1942__.

73

3,216

1!«2___

42,707

13,636

1943__.

2

12,631

m33-_-

44,430

10.693

1944__.

54

25,469

1034___

55,736

8,710

1945__.

. 3.357

34,005

1985___

53,124

23.919

1946_-

. 4,371

36,058

1936___

31,513

33,843

The red abalone is not found in commercial quantities in Southern
California, and the green and pink abalones are the species utilized in
that area. They are smaller than the reds and relatively less abundant.
In order to make a living the divers collect both abalones and gelidium
or agar weed.

Abalone diving is more dependent on weather conditions than most
types of fishing. There are many days when surface conditions appear
ideal, but a strong bottom surge will prohibit diving. The divers average
12 working days a month.

Commercial Processing

The divers deliver their catches daily to the processing plants and
as the abolones are highly perishable, the work of preparing them is
begun as soon as possible. The first step is to remove the animal from the
shell by pushing a fiat, stiff piece of iron up to the base of the muscle,
holding the abalone in one or both hands and bringing the free end of the
iron down smartly on the bench. The viscera is stripped off and the foot,
or muscle, is put into a tank of fresh water and ^washed. The tough outer
surfaces and the edges of the mantle are then removed. A very sharp
I'uife and some experience is necessary, or trimming can be very wasteful.
The trimmings of an adept worker represent about one-third of the
weight of the uutrimmed foot. After trimming, the muscles are left for
a time on a smooth wet surface to relax and flatten and are then sliced
across the "grain" with either a hand or power slicer into slices about
one-half inch in thickness. A slice of abalone before it is pounded has the
consistencj" of the tread of a better grade tire casing. The slices are sorted
roughly as to size and are then pounded on a block with a wooden mallet
to soften the hard muscle fibers. The finished product is packed in five
and ten pound wooden boxes and shipped at once or placed under refrig-
eration. Until quite recently the trimmings were discarded as they could
not be legally used. They are now sold to a number of concerns who grind
them and prepare a canned chowder.

An occasional abalone in the regular catch is referred to by the
trade as a " dark meat. ' ' In contrast to the usual abalone meat which is
pure white, the "dark meat" is a smoky grey. There is a prejudice
against it, and therefore, it is not readily saleable although it is in no
way inferior to the white meat. The dark meat is usually sold with the

ABALONES OP CALIFORNIA 165

trimmings for chowdcf. Some districts ])r()(,liic',e predominantly dark
meat abalones, possibly a result of tlie local food supply.

In 104.'}, T. 1). Ixcvica, who was operating' an abalone processing
l^laut at New})ort JJeach, California, collected some data on the weights
of the eomi^onent parts of the abalone. These data are of interest as they
demonstrate the yield of saleable meat from abalones of various sizes
and tlie loss that T'csults in trimming.

Green (H. fiih/ois) Pink ( II . (nrruf/afn)

Size S.l indies 7.1 inches

Weights-
Total 51.04 ounces .Sit.Sr) ounces

Shell 10.84 is.r>n

Animal 31.6:} 21.05

Foot 21.54 15.05

Gut 8.24 5.00

Gonad 3.04 2.00

Trimmings 8.32 5.85

Meat 13.16 0.75

These figures are averages of seventeen specimens in the case of
H. fulgeyis and five specimens of //. corrugata. Both sexes are repre-
sented. By some simple calculations and the application of the rule of
three the following results are obtained.

Trim HI iiifi
Total ]V(/t. Foot Wf/t. \V(/t. Meat Wgt.

1 (loz. 0.0 inch ahah.ne___ 40.0 ll).s. IC).:', lbs. (i.l lbs. 10.5 lbs.

8.5 37.8 15.4 ,5.8 10.0

8.0 .35.0 14.5 5.4 0.3

7.5 33.4 13.6 5.1 8.8

7.0 31.1 12.7 4.8 8.2

0.5 20.7 11.8 4.5 7.0

There are no comparable figures, at present, for the red abalone
which constitutes the bulk of the commercial catch. The processors have
found that a dozen 8-inch red abalones will average 12 pounds of sale-
able meat. If 25 percent is added to the figures given here, a close approxi-
nuitiqnj>f the weights to be expected in the reds will be obtained.

One of the arguments against taking ' ' shorts ' ' is conclusively demon-
strated by these figures. It costs the same to procure and process a dozen
abalones whether thev ai'e eight inches in diameter or onlv six inches. It
is obvious that the margin of profit to the processor precludes the use of
any quantitj' of undersized abalones.

The Sport Fishery

The sportsman takes his abalones in tlie littoral zone. Originally a
limit of legal-sized abalones could be obtained, at low tide, on almost any
rocky beach. It could be done dryshod or perhaps by wading in ankle-
deep pools. A few years ago, it became more difficvdt to find legal abalones
on the beaches, but there were plenty of small ones. Today an abalone of
any size, above the level of the minus tides is a rarity. The sportsman who
gets his limit of legal abalones now is a rugged individual who wades out
into the surf up to his neck and feels for them in crevices and on the under
side of rocks. There are sometimes other things in the ci-evices and under
the rocks which introduce an eleuu^it of chance and adventure. As most
of the good tides are during the winter and are at their best earlv in the

]66 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

morning or late in the afternoon, it is obvious that abalone hunting has
become a rigorous pastime.

The sportsmen have extended their activities, especially in Southern
California, out to and sometimes beyond the twenty foot limit. It is dis-
tinctly disconcerting to a diver who is working in 35 or 40 feet of water
to be suddenly hit on the back by some unknown "varmint, " and it does
not appreciably loAver the consequent rise in blood pressure to discover,
after turning about, that the unknown is a grinning young sportsman
clothed in a pair of goggles and a G-string. In Southern California where
the ocean water is relatively warm and clear, ' ' skin diving ' ' for abalones
has acquired a considerable following. It is a rather dangerous amusement
as the rocks on which abalones are found are usually covered with a more
or less dense growth of sea weed. A "skin diver" in 30 feet of water can
not afford to spend much time in freeing himself of one or more strands
of sea weed that the surge has thrown around him. This is an appropriate
place to mention the story, which recurs periodically, of the abalone that
caught the fingers of a hunter, usually a Chinese, and held him until he
was drowned by the rising tide. It's a good story. It is conceivable that a
' ' skin diver ' ' in fairly deep water or in the surf might be detained long
enough to be drowned ; but in a situation where he could breathe and get
his feet under him, he would only suffer from outraged dignity and pos-
sibly some lacerated fingers.

Uses of Abalone Shell

The shell of the abalone was used originally by the coast Indians to
enhance their physical charms and as currency. The first Chinese who
collected abalones discarded the shells. Later, however, after some enter-
prising white men manufactured curios from them which had a ready
sale, the Chinese saw their possibilities. Thereafter considerable quanti-
ties of shell were shipped to China to be used for inlay work or to be cut
into rough blanlvs, which were sent back to American manufacturers to
be turned into ornaments. So great was the demand for abalone shell orna-
ments that during the '70s the shell was worth twice as much as the meat
(Edwards 1913). Abalone shell curios and jewelry, and blister pearls
enjoyed quite a vogue for many years, but there is little demand at
present. Until 1939, a single small manufacturer in Southern California
turned out products made of abalone shell and to protect his market suc-
cessfully blocked all attempts to rescind the law forbidding the export of
abalone shells from the State. However, in 1941, this section of the law
was changed. Now that it is legal to ship the shells outside the State,
apparently nobody wants to do so. Tons of abalone shell are being used
as material for retaining walls or are simply piled up and slowly disinte-
grating at Monterey and Morro Bay.

A few shells are cleaned and polished and sold to tourists. Some have
lead plugs inserted in the open holes and are used as soup plates. They
make a very colorful article but do not retain their lustre and color if
subjected to much heat.

Many of the shells contain a small species of boring clam (Pholadidea
parva). As the clam bores downward, it frequently breaks through the
nacre or inside layer of the shell. The abalone covers the break with a
layer of nacre ; the clam continues to bore and more nacre is deposited.

ABALONES OF CALIFORNIA 167

Tin's contest results in a blister pearl. These are cut out and mounted as
l)iiis, brooches, and ear rinjzs, and have a small sale.

Preparation (or Processing)

A good many people, especially newcomers to the coast, gather aba-
lones and then do not know what to do with them. The methods of prepar-
ing abalone, as practiced in the commercial processing plants, can be used
by the sport fisherman with substitute equipment. A heavy knife will
serve in place of the mechanical slicers and a wooden potato masher or
a rolling pin will do for pounding if a M^ooden mallet is not available.
Pounding the steaks is absolutely necessar^^ and usually requires a little
practice. The slices are slippery, and it is suggested that a fork or similar
implement be used to hold them in order to keep them in place and avoid
mashed fingers. If the pounding is too heavy, a pasty mass results ; if too
light or uneven, hard spots will remain. Pound until the steak feels soft
and velvety.

There are not many methods of preparing abalones for the table.
The least troublesome procedure, for those that are not too confident of
their ability to satisfactorily pound the hard muscle, is to grind it with a
meat grinder and make a chowder, as for clams. Having made a success
of pounding the steaks, it will be a change to fry them. Season the slices
with salt and pepper, dip in a beaten egg and then in fine bread crumbs
or flour. Fry them in hot oil until slightly brown on both sides. Don't over
do it. Cooking beyond the "slightly broAvn" makes them dry and tough.

A simple method of preparation has been evolved by the sportsmen
along the Northern California coast. The trimmed foot is given a pound-
ing and then browned in hot oil in the same manner as that prescribed for
a slice. After browning, the foot is put in the oven or in a closed sauce
pan and simmered for a half or three-quarters of an hour.

Conservation — and the Abalone

A natural resource which is expoited by both sportsmen and com-
mercial fishermen is usually a source of discord and recalcitrant dialec-
tics between these two diametrically opposed schools of thought. The
sportsmen claim that when commercial diving is prohibited, abalones
from deep water move in and repopulate the beaches which they have
exhausted. This is not a valid premise. Abalones migrate very little. The
occasional large abalone found above high tide, in a section previously
denuded, is usually a storm-transported individual too old and weak to
maintain its hold in deep water. There are plenty of "short" abalones,
(under the legal commercial 8-ineh minimum) on all suitable rocky bot-
toms in deep Vvater; however, the beaches adjacent to territory where
diving has never been carried on are no moi-e plentiful supplied than are
those where the divers work continually.

The diver works under rigid legal restrictions, and he must land his
catch promptly, at specified points, as the abalone is highly perishable
and must be processed immediately. A record of his catch must be kept,
and he can be and is checked ^periodically. There are, under normal condi-
tions, fifteen or twenty diving crews. These men are interested in a steady
industry from which they can obtain a living and few of them know-

168 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

iiifi'lv break any of the ]e<i'al restrictions. The present commercial regu-
lations were, for the most part, sng<j;estecl b}' the clivers themselves or
have their approbation.

For every commercial diver there are thonsands of sportsmen — and
so-called sportsmen. On every minns tide, they gather along the seashore
and glean abalones. The real sportsmen take only abalones of legal size
and within the bag limit; others take anything they can find. The game
wardens check hundreds of of them but naturally can only make "spot"
checks. However, even this partial policing results in many arrests and
the confiscation of many thousands of undersized abalones, some no
larger than a silver dollar. It is not very difficult to understand why the
abalone has virtually disappeared from the littoral zone.

Administrators and biologists, entrusted by the body politic with
the responsibility of managing a natural resource, endeavor to apply
the approved tenets of conservation. The accepted definition of con-
servation is utilization to the fullest extent possible without jeopardizing
the basic supply.

The abalone has been "utilized" in the littoral zone until it is
practically nonexistent, while man.v deep water areas have not been
worked at all. Having systematically stripped the beaches of abalones,
some of the sportsmen would sponsor legislation to curb the activities of
the commercial divers. The fable of the dog in the manger seems appro-
priate.

The deep water area between Monterey and Point Conception pro-
duces an average of 60,000 dozen legal abalones annually. This amount
seems to be a reasonable yield for the State, from both an economic
and biological standjioint. The most feasible method of administering
this resource would be to open the entire coast to diving with the neces-
sary power vested in the Fish and Game Commission to open and close
districts or coastal areas as changing conditions warranted. By per-
mitting the divers to work in one or more areas for one or two years and
then shifting operations to other sections, the supply of abalones would
be drawn from the whole coast instead of from only part of it. In the
areas where diving is forbidden to the north of San Francisco, there are
probably more abalones dying annually of old age than the divers tak^
in the open districts.

ABALONES OF CALIFORNIA 169

References

Bonnot, Paul

19:>0. Abalones in California. California Fish ;iml Came, Vol. 16, pp. 15-2;i, 6 figs.
1940. California abalones. Cnliforiiia Fish and (iame, Vol. 20, pp. 200 211, ?> figs.,
map.

Croker, R. S.

1931. Abalones. Calif. Div. Fish and Game, Fish Bull. No. 30, pp. 58-72, 5 figs.

Cnrtner, W. W.

1917. Observations on the growth and haliits of tiie red and lilacU abalones.
Master's Thesis. Stanford University.

Edwards, C. L.

1913. The abalono industry in California. Calif. Fish and Came. Comm. Fish P.ull.
No. 1, pp. ~>-l~>, o figs.

Keep, Josiah

1935. West coast shells. Stanford Univ. Press, pp. 139-145.

Palmer, C. F.

1907. The anatomv of Californian llaliotidae. Proc. Acad, of Nat. Sci. of Phila-
delphia, pp. 396-407, 4 tigs., 1 pi.

Phillips, J. B.

1937. Abalone. Calif. Div. Fish and Game, Fish Bull. No. 49, pp. 107-118, 3 figs.

Scofield, N. B.
1928. Abalone safe from extermination. Calif. Fish and Game, Vol. 14, pp. 87.
1930. Conservation laws provide ample protection for abalones. Calif. Fish and
Game, Vol. 16, pp. 13-15.

Tressler, D. K.

1923. The California abalone industry. Marine Prods, of Comm. The Chem. Cat,

Co., N. Y., pp. ni.-.-r.i8.

PROGRESS REPORT ON STUDIES OF STRIPED

BASS REPRODUCTION IN RELATION TO

THE CENTRAL VALLEY PROJECT'

Bj' A. J. Calhoux and C. A. WoouiiULL
Bureau of Fish Conservation
California Division of Fish and Game

Introduction

The major California siniwnin^' o-rouiuls of the striped bass ail lie
within the Central Valley. The l^elta Cross Channel, involving? several
great diversions of the waters in which these fish spawn and in which their
early stages develop, constitutes an important part of the master water-
control plan known as the Central Valley Project, now in the process of
development. Tlie purpose of the Cross Channel will be to transfer
surplus Sacramento River water southward across the Delta to a point
near Tracy, where it will then be pumped out and caused to flow along
the west side of the relatively arid San Joaquin Valley through the
Delta-Mendota Canal, now under construction. A continuing series of
problems involving the protection of striped bass against these and other
Central Valley Project water manipulations is to be anticipated. Solu-
tion of such problems will require an extensive knowledge about striped
bass reproduction in the Central Valley.

Such knowledge has been slow to accumulate, although sporadic
attention has been given to the matter of striped bass reproduction both
in California and on the Atlantic Coast. N. B. Scofield (1910) described
the general location of the areas in the Central Valley where ripe fish
were taken and the months during wiiich they were present. He noted
an abundance of such fish in the vicinity of Bouldin Island (see map,
figure 71) in 1008, 1904, and 1905 so great that commercial fishermen
had to agree among themselves to limit their daily catches in order not
to glut the market. He also indicated that the Sacramento River and
certain of its tributaries were important spawning areas. All of this
agrees substantially with present information. Scofield made plankton
tows "at different times during the season in the river, the sloughs, the
flooded islands and on the tule flats in the hope of catching a young
bass just hatched, or eggs before hatching, and thus get some clue to
where the striped bass spaAvns, but without results." As a matter of
fact, nothing was kno^vn definitely concerning the specific locations of
striped bass spawning grounds in California until quite recently. E. C.
Scofield (1931) believed that bass spawned primarily in the flooded
islands of the Delta, but information obtained subsequently does not
support this view. Considerable attention was given to studies of striped

1 Submitted for pubUcation July, 1948.

( 171 )

172 CALIFORNIA FISH ANB GAME

bass reproduction in connection with the survey of the Sacramento River
system and the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta which was begun by the
California Division of Fish and Game in January, 1939. The primary
purpose of this investigation was to determine the effect of the Central
Valley Project upon the fishes of the area. Much valuable information
was obtained before the survey was interrupted by the war, but little
w^as learned about locations of actual spawning areas. Hatton (1942),
speaking of the recovery of striped bass eggs in the San Joaquin Delta,
states, "At no time were eggs taken in abundance, which may indicate
that the major spawning areas are to be found elsewhere."

No mention is made by any of the above workers of the very char-
acteristic spawning behavior of the striped bass, long recognized on the
Atlantic Coast (Worth 1903, Merriman 1941) under the term "rock
fight" because the fish, there called "rocks," appear to be fighting at
the surface of the water when they spawn. Woodhull (1947) describes
a case of such spawning activity on a large scale observed in California.
He showed that the fish were actually spawning by towing a plankton
net through groups of splashing fish and recovering freshly-spawned eggs.

Illustrations and descriptions of the early stages of striped bass
have been given by Scofield and Coleman (1910), Pearson (1938) and
Merriman (1941).

It is the purpose of the present report to outline facts learned about
striped bass reproduction during 1947. to propose certain theories about
the movements of small striped bass within the Sacramento-San Joaquin
Delta, and to discuss some of the problems anticipated in connection
with the operation of the Delta-Mendota and the Cross-Channel pump-
ing plants. These features of the Central Valley Project present the
most immediate threat to California striped bass.

Methods

In 1947, field studies of striped bass reproduction were mainly
exploratory. I^ittle was known about seasonal and regional distribution
and movements of the early stages of this species in Central Valley rivers.
Collection of eggs, larvae and fry were made by towing conical nets of
various sorts behind a launch and, less frequently, by fishing nets with
the current from a stationary position. Leim (1924) had recovered large
numbers of striped bass larvae in plankton tows in a Nova Scotia river
incidental to studies of shad reproduction and Hatton (1940, 1942) had
collected small numbers of eggs and larvae in plankton nets in the Central
Valley on several occasions.

in our studies a plankton net 20 inches in diameter at the mouth
with a five-foot cone of 30 mesh per inch bolting cloth was used to collect
eggs and larvae.- A larger net with six-foot mouth diameter and a
fourteen-foot cone of bobbinet about eight mesh per inch was used to
collect the fry.^

The abundance of small particles of plant detritus present in
waters of the San Joaquin Delta presented a serious obstacle to recovery
of eggs and larvae. As much as two quarts of such debris was sometimes
taken in a plankton net during a five-minute tow. Nets clogged rapidly

2 Striped bass less than i inch in length are referred to here and elsewhere in this
report as "larvae." .

3 The term "fry" is used to designate the small striped bass longer than J inch.

STRIPED BASS REPRODUCTION 173

uiuler such conditions and adcMiuate saniplin<i- was often iiuixjssibli;.
The Sacramento River in the vicinity of Rio Vista j^enerally carried
iiuicli less debris in suspension. This explains in !)art the great success
experienced in collectinu' larvae tliere.

Both eggs and newly-hatched larvae of striped bass have a distinc-
tive appearance (Pearson 1938) and there seemed to be no reasonable
])ossibility of confusing them with other fish eggs or larvae which might
be encountered simultaneously in the Delta and immediately adjacent
waters. ISimilarly, the fry were unmistakable at first glance. Intermediate
larvae Avere more of a problem, however, and they required careful
examination under magnification to be distinguished from otlier small
fish in the samples. Fortunately, Pearson's drawings of series of striped
bass larvae wliich he hatched and reared were available for reference
in this connection.

All measurements of fish were from the tip of the lower jaw to the
fork of the tail, recorded to the nearest tenth of an inch. An arbitrary
dividing line between larvae and fry of striped bass was established at
().r)5 inches for convenience in classifying and discussing samples.

1947 Recoveries of Striped Bass Eggs and Larvae

Sacramento River

Certain facts were already known about striped bass spawning in
the Sacramento River. A major up-river migration occurs annually in
the spring, centering in April and May, and consisting of fish which are
ready or nearly ready to spawn. Its upper limits appear to fall well above
Knights Landing on the Sacramento River and above Marysville on the
Feather River (see Figure 70). Observations of the angling catch
coupled with interviews of local residents form the basis for these state-
ments.

Spawning behavior was reported to occur regularly each year in
the Sacramento River in the vicinity of Verona and in the Feather River
near Marysville (Shanghai Bend) by individuals resident in the area
who appeared to be reliable sources of information.

It was difficult to understand the results of Hatton's fyke-netting
operations at Hood (Hatton 1940) in the light of these reports of heavy
spawning each year near Verona and Marysville. Hatton operated fyke
nets more or less continuously between March and October of 1939 in
the Sacramento River at Hood, but he took no striped bass fry there until
August 3d, when he began to capture what appeared to be occasional
stragglers. The answer seems to be that eggs and larvae flush down the
river past Hood long before they are large enough to be caught in a fyke
net with half -inch mesh.

Scofield (1910) indicated that in 1910 large numbers of striped bass
passed through Cache Slough and Prospect Slough (see Figure 71) in
the course of their spawaiing migration but that they apparently
returned to the main Sacramento River upstream to spawn. He suggested
that Prospect Slough might be an important spawning ground in most
years. It is interesting to note in this connection that a large bass which
had been tagged in January, 1947, in the San Joaquin Delta was caught
by an angler during April of the same year in Prospect Slough, and
another was taken at about the same time at Knights Landing on the
Sacramento River above Verona. These two fish were almost certainly on

174

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

CW 29 VI-46

Figure 70. Reference map of the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta and the Sacra-
mento River, showing- locations of the Delta-Mendota diversion and the proposed Cross
Channel Pumping Plant

their spawning migration. Some of the mature striped bass which spend
the winter in the southern half of the Delta must therefore cross over to
the Sacramento River to spawn. However, the recovery at about the same
time of another of the same group of tagged fish at Mossdale indicates that
some also continue up the San Joaquin River.

Results of 1947 sampling for striped bass eggs and fry in the Sacra-
mento River are summarized in Table 1. The discovery that considerable

STRIPED BASS REPRODUCTION

175

numbers of eggs and newly-hatched larvae were being carried rapidly-
down the river past Verona in mid-April was of considerable interest.
No striped bass eggs were ever taken near Rio Vista although exten-
sive towing was carried on thei-e and many larvae were collected. It
appeared to be a reasonable conclusion that most of these larvae had come
from spawning grounds some distance up the Sacramento River. This is a
point of great importance from tlie standpoint of the Central Valley
Project, and it is receiving major attention in 1948 studies. Larvae were
abundant near Rio Vista in mid-May of 1947. During late May and
early June they were ai)parontly well distributed in the Sacramento
River between Collinsvillc and Chipps Island and were still present in

the vicinity of Rio Vista.

TABLE 1

1947 Sacramento River Recoveries of Striped Bass Eggs and
Larvae in Plankton Nets

Date

Location

Minutes of
Ashing

Number of
eggs

NumVier of
larvae

Approximate
age of
larvae
(days)*

April 17
April 22
April 20

Verona

60

39
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

8
3
4

53

248

26

11

2

9

2 to 4

Rio Vista ..

2 to 4

Rio Vista

230
190
330
16
60
60
60

4

Mav 14

Rio Vista

5 to 9

May 15
May 20

Rio Vista -

5 to 9

Collinsville _-

6 to 14

Mav 28

Chipps Island _ _-

15 plus

15 plus

June 4

Rio Vista _ .

15 plus

* Estimated roughly from Pearson's drawings.
San Joaquin River and Delta

The San Joaquin Delta has been recognized as an important striped
bass spawning area for some time. There have been numerous observa-
tions of large-scale spawning activity there by Division of Fish and Game
personnel ("WoodhuU 1947). Hatton collected striped bass larvae in
plankton nets on June 8, 1939 in False River and in Washington Cut
and on June 23, 1939 in Sycamore Slough (Hatton 1940). In 1940 he
took striped bass eggs in Piper Slough, Three Mile Slough and the San
Joaquin River below the mouth of Three Mile Slough during May, but
never in abundance (Hatton 1942). Interviews with anglers and resi-
dents of the area indicated that widespread spawning occurs there each
year.

Preliminary plankton-net sampling in the San Joaquin Delta during
early April of 1947 did not capture any striped bass eggs or fry, but it is
by no means certain that they w^ere absent. Activities were seriously
hampered by the abundance of debris in the water. Later sampling was
more successful. Results are summarized in Table 2. Both eggs and
larvae were recovered in some numbers in the San Joaquin River near
the Antioch Bridge, and they w-ere also taken at other stations.

An attempt was made to evaluate the importance of the San Joaquin
River above the Delta as a striped bass spawning area. 1947 was an
abnormally dry year, and the flows in the San Joaquin were negligible in
comparison with those in the Sacramento. No eggs or larvae were
recovered in the course of limited sampling at Mossdale and San Joaquin

176

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

TABLE 2

1947 San Joaquin River Recoveries of Striped Bass Eggs and

Larvae in Plankton Nets

Date

Location

Minutes

of
fishing

Number

of

eggs

Number

of
larvae

Length

of
larvae

April 24
May 20
May 20
May 20
May 28
June 4

Buoy 21.......

Antioch Bridge
Winter Island..

Antiofh

Antioch Bridge
Antioch Bridge

10
34
10
10
82
30

2
21
0
1
0
0

0
33

2
7

14
1

0.2-0.4
0.2-0.5
0.2-0.4
0.2 -0.5
0.5

City. However, in years of normal rainfall the San Joaquin above the
Delta is probably a spawning area of some importance, for it is known
from catch records that a migration of ripe striped bass ascends the river
for a considerable distance in some years.

1947 Recoveries of Striped Bass Fry

Suisun Bay

On June 13th sampling with the large tow-net was begun. The regu-
larity wdth which striped bass were taken in it in Suisun Bay during
the first few days it was in use, seemingly at any point where it might
happen to be dropped over for a ten-minute tow, was a source of some
surprise. The general picture of the distribution of striped bass fry
during late June and early July, on the basis of tow-net samples, is shown
in Figure 71, in which locations of tow-net stations are indicated by dots.
Black dots represent stations at which fry were caught, and half -black
dots represent negative stations. Striped bass fry were present through-
out the Suisun Bay region at least as far west as Sealbluff Landing by the
middle of June, judging from two-net catches. This area was surveyed
by means of brief surface tows in mid- June, as outlined in Table 3. All
such tows recovered bass fry until sampling was extended west of Seal-
bluff Landing. It is interesting to note in this connection that Hatton
(1940) began to recover bass fry "in his f3'ke nets at Martinez on June

14, 1939. " ,

TABLE 3

1947 Tow Net Stations in Suisun Bay *

Date

June 13

June 13

June 13

June 13

June 13

June 13

June 14

June 14

June 14

June 14

June 14

June 14

June 14

June 14

June 17

Location

Minutes

of
towing

Number
of
fry

Number

per
minute

Ship channel near Pittsburg

Ship channel below Pittsburg

Ship channel below Pittsburg**

Ship channel near Mallard Island**

Ship channel near Simmons Point

Ship channel near Stake Point

14 mile off Middle Point

Near Sealbluff Landing

Off Avon Wharf ^

Carquinez Straits, under S.P. Bridge

North shore Suisun Bay, opposite Avon 1

North shore Suisun Bay opposite Point Edith

Suisun Slough , near mouth. _

Suisun Cutoff, near Point Buclcler

Mouth Sacramento River, near Collinsville . .

10
10
10
10
30
15
20
30
30
30
20
20
20
20
20

15

6

5

9

104

18

36

37

0

0

4

5

22
22
48

1.5
0.6
0.5
0.9
3.5
1.2
1.8
1.2
0
0
0.2
0.2
1.1
1.1
2.4

* All surface tows, unless otherwise indicated.
** Net about 10 feet below the surface.

STRIPED BASS REPRODUCTION

177

o SACRAMENTO

LEGEND
• TOW-NET STflllON AT WHICH STRlPEO B4SS FRY WERE CAUGHT.
O TOW'NET STATION AT WHICH NO STRlPEO BASS FRY WERE CAUGHT

DELTA MENDCIA jf

PUMPING STATION ^^""^

CW 29 VI 48.

Figure 71. Locations of 1947 tow-net stations

Sacramento River

When tow-netting- was extended up the Sacramento River above
Collinsville a situation quite unlike that in Suisun Bay was found. Sacra-
mento River tOAV-net samples are summarized in Table 4. Ten twenty-
minute surface tows in sequence up the river from Tolands Landing to
the north end of Steamboat Slough yielded a total of only nine striped
bass fry. About two weeks later a series of deep tows over the same course
revealed that the fry were fairly abundant in the deeper water in the
vicinity of Rio Vista but were still scarce near the surface. Above Rio
Vista even deep tows were negative. There appear to have been few
striped bass fry left in the Sacramento River between Isleton and Ryde

4—92408

178

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

TABLE 4
1947 Tow Net Stations in the Sacramento River and Its Tributaries

Date

Location

Type

Minutes

Number

of

of

of

tow

towing

fry

Surface

20

1

Surface

20

3

Surface

20

0

Surface

20

1

Surface

20

15

Surface

20

0

Surface

20

2

Surface

20

1

Surface

20

1

Surface

20

0

Surface

20

0

Surface

• 20

0

Surface

30

8

Deep

30

20

Deep

30

47

Surface

30

0

Surface

30

1

Deep

30

0

Surface

30

0

Deep

30

0

Deep

20

6

Surface

15

20

Number
per

minute

June 17
June 17
June 17
June 17
June 17
June 18
June 18
June 18
June 18
June 18
June 18
June 18
July 2
July
July
July
July
July
July
July
July
July

Sacramento River, Tolands Landing

Sacramento River, Chinaman's Cut

Sacramento River, lielow Rio Vista

Sacramento River, Rio Vista

Cache Slough, mouth of Miner Slough.,,

Sacramento River, Rio Vista

Sacramento River, Rio Vista

Sacramento River, below Isleton

Sacramento River, Ryde

Sacramento River, Walnut Grove

Sacramento River, Paintersville

Steam Boat Slough, end of Sutter Slough

Sacramento River, Rio Vista

Sacramento River, Rio Vista

Sacramento River, Rio Vista

Sacramento River, Rio Vista

Sacramento River, Ida Island

Sacramento River, Ida Island

Sacramento River, Ryde

Sacramento River, Ryde

Cache Slough, Hamilton Landing

Cache Slough, Hamilton Landing

0.05

0.2

0

0.05

0.8

0

0.1

0.05

0.05

0

0

0

0.3

0.7

1.6

0

0.03

0

0

0

0.3

1.3

by the end of June. This is of considerable interest, for the Cross Channel
Pumping Plant will probably be located on the Sacramento River at
Walnut Grove in the center of this stretch of river.

The scarcity of striped bass fry in the main channel of the Sacra-
mento River above Isleton can be explained readilj' on the basis of water
flows. The flow in this region is large in relation to the size of the channel.
The striped bass eggs, larvae and fry resulting from spawning in the
Sacramento River and its tributaries are believed to flush rapidly down
to the head of the Suisun Bay where the tidal floAvs dampen the carrying
power of the river flow. This theory is supported by the general picture of
distribution of the fry revealed by results of tow-netting, and it receives
further confirmation from the fact that fiy remained abundant in Cache
Slough. The latter channel has a devious connection with the Sacramento
River at its upper end, and appears to be comparable with the San Joa-
quin Delta, with respect to the behavior of its currents and flows.

Hatton 's fyke-netting results at Hood, already discussed, indicated
that there were few if any striped bass in the Sacramento River at Hood
during late June and Juh' of 1939 and only stragglers subsequently.
Hood is only seven miles above our last station. It can therefore be
inferred that the distribution and movements of striped bass fry in this
area were essentially similar in 1939 and 1947. Both were relatively dry
years characterized by small flows in the Sacramento River during the
spring.

San Joaquin Delta

Tow-net catches in the San Joaquin side of the Delta revealed a situ-
ation similar to the one discovered in Suisun Bay, mentioned above.
Striped bass fry were taken in virtually all tows anywhere the net was
dropped over between June 17th and July 10th. Stations are outlined in
Table 5 and Figure 71. Negative tows were almost never encountered. The
fry were present in the San Joaquin River itself at all stations, in Three

STRIPED BASS REPRODUCTION

179

Mile Sloufrh, in Old "River, in the Mokelumne River near its mouth and
in the Soutli Forlc of the Mokelnnme River. The regularity of positive
tows scattered at random over sucli a wide area lias led to the conclusion
that striped bass fry were abundant over virtually the entire central sec-
tion of the Delta. This region is undoubtedly a nursery ground of the
greatest importance.

Tlie coutiiiuing abundance of striped bass fry throughout the San
Joaquin Delta well into July apparently resulted from the fact that the
net outward flow there is negligible in relation to tidal flows. The Delta

TABLE 5
1947 Tow Net Stations in tlie San Joaquin Delta

Date

June

17

June

17

June

20

June

20

June

20

June

25

June

25

June

25

June

26

June

2fi

June

28

June

28

July

10

Location

Number
of

tows

Total
minutes

of
towing

Number
of
fry

Number

per
minute

Three Mile Slough__

San Joaquin River, near Kentucky Ijanding

Mokelumne River, near mouth...

Old River, near Franks Tr

Old River, near Holland Tr

South Fork Mokelumne River, at mouth

South Fork Mokelumne River, below Terminous
South Fork Mokelumne River, above Terminous

San Joaquin River, above mouth Old River

San Joaquin River, near Mandeville Reach

San Joaquin River, near Headreach Cut-off

San Joaquin River, near Vulcan Island

San Joaquin River, near Donlon Island

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

12

10

4

1

4

20

20

20

20

20

20

10

10

120

100

40

10

40

300

46

31

7

IS

30

0

9

90
207
58
22
16
159

2.3
1.6
0.4
0.9
1.5
0
0.9
0.8
2.1
1.4
2.2
0.4
0.5

Cross Channel can be expected to generate net flows toward the Delta-
Mendota Pumping Plant, and bass fry may be swept along in some num-
bers to the diversion near Tracy. This point is discussed in detail in a
subsequent section.

Several series of ten-minute tows repeated in rapid sequence over
the same course resulted in surprisingly uniform rates of capture of
striped bass fry. Moreover, there was a close correlation between towing
time and number of fry caught in another series of comparable tows of
varying duration. The fry must have been rather uniformly distributed
horizontally in the San Joaquin Delta channels where these series of
tows were made. Their rate of capture in the fry net promises to provide a
good semi-quantitative index of abundance on the nursery grounds after
methods have been standardized, judging from results obtained during
1947.

Early Avork with the fry net west of Pittsburg had revealed a con-
centration of fry at the surface of the wmter. However, later sampling at
other places showed that vertical distribution was highly variable, and
that the fry were also sometimes more or less uniformly distributed and
sometimes concentrated toward the bottom.

Rate of Growth of Striped Bass Larvae and Fry During 1947

IMeans. standard deviations and ranges of lengtlis of striped bass
larvae and fry collected in 1947 are given in Table 6. These data provide
an index of the rate of growth which occurred during the spring and

180

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

earl,y summer. Only eggs and very small larvae (0.2 inches) were taken
in April. Eggs and larvae ranging from 0.2 to 0.5 inches were collected in
May. Larger ones were also present in late May judging from the sizes
of those caught in June. It was not until June 13th, when the large fry
net was used for the first time, that adequate sampling of striped bass
OA'er 0.5 inches in length was possible. Frequency distributions of lengths
for series of fry caught in this net between June 13th and July 10th were
consistently of the "normal" type, and they were surprisingly uniform
over the whole nursery area, from the upper San Joaquin Delta to the
lower section of Suisun Bay. These facts coupled with other available
information concerning recoveries of eggs and larvae indicate that most
of the striped bass spawning which occurred in 1947 took place between
the middle of April and the latter part of May.

TABLE 6
Lengths of Series of Striped Bass Larvae and Fry Collected in 1947

Date

April 17-29

May

14-15

May 20-28

June

4

June

13

June

14

June

14

June

14

June

14

June

17

June

17

June

17

June

17

June

20

June

25

June

26

June

28

July

2

July

3

July

10

Locality

Sacramento River, Rio Vista and Verona

Sacramento River, Rio Vista

San Joaquin River, Antioch Bridge to San

Joaquin Point

Sacramento River, Rio Vista

Suisun Bay, Pittsburg to Stalse Point

Suisun Bay, Middle Point

Suisun Bay, Sealbluff Landing

Suisun Slough, near mouth

Suisun Bay, Point Buckler

Sacramento River, Sacramento Point

Three Mile Slough

San Joaquin River, Kentucky Landing

Cache Slough, mouth of Miner Slough

Old River, vicinity of Franks Tract-

South Fork Mokelumne River, at Terminous __

San Joaiiuin River, Venice Island

San Joaquin River, Headreach Cut-oif (below

Stockton)

Sacramento River, Rio Vista

Cache Slough, Hamilton Landing

Antioch Bridge

Number

of

fish

15
301

82
9

157
36
37
23
22
48
46
31
15
48
99

304

36

75

24

155

Mean

length
(inches)

1.00
0.98
1.24
1.18
1.18
0.93
0.95
0.97
0.81
0.97
1.23
1.20

1.31
1.30
1.28
1.53

Stan,
dev.

0.22
0.21
0.19
0.23
0.26
0.24
0.28
0.28
0.12
0.21
0.23
0.25

0.36
0.24
0.17
0.27

Range

0.2
0.2-0.3

0.2-0.5
0.2-0.4
0.5-1.7
0.5-1.5
0.9-1.6
0.9-1.6
0.8-1.9
0.5-1.6
0.4-1.6
0.5-1.6
0.6-1.1
0.6-1.8
0.6-1.8
0.6-1.9

0.5-2.4
0.8-2.0
1.0-1.6
1.0-2.6

Preliminary results of 1948 studies have borne out the belief that
the time of occurrence and the duration of the spawning season will vary
appreciably from year to year depending upon water temperatures dur-
ing the winter and the spring. Spawning was unusually early in 1947,
from all indications. In years of normal spring run-off the fry will prob-
ably be somewhat retarded in their development compared with 1947.

Striped Bass Problems Arising in Connection With
the Delta Cross Channel

Description of the Delta Cross Channel and Associated Structures

In order to understand the problems of striped bass protection
arising from the Delta Cross Channel and its associated pumping plants,
it is necessary first of all to understand the project itself. Many aspects
of the final design and operational plans of this part of the Central Valley
Project still remain uncertain, but a fairly good general outline of the
definitive structures is, nevertheless, emerging, and several major fea-

STRIPED BASS REPRODUCTION

181

tures are already under construction. Tlio purpose of the Cross Channel
will be to angment the water supply oi' the relatively arid San .Joaquin
Valley, using- Sacramento River water which now wastes to the ocean.
The locations of the Delta-Mendota and the Cross Channel pumping
plants, at the terminals of the Cross Channel, are shown in Figure 70. The
name ' ' Cross Channel" is in some respects a misnomer, for existing Delta
channels will be used for whatever cross-flows are made. The primary
installation will be the great Delta-Mendota Pumping Plant, already
under construction, and scheduled for completion in the summer of 1950.
It will be located on an intake canal leading out of Old River near Tracy.
Photographs of the excavation for the intake canal and the foundations
for the pumping plant as they appeared on July 8, 1948, are shown in
Figures 72 and 73. The pumps will lift water 200 feet up onto the shoulder
of the hills which parallel the west side of the San Joaquin Valley. From
there it will flow south by gravity 120 miles through the Delta-Mendota
Canal. The latter will be linked with other canal systems and will termi-
nate at the Mendota Pool. Figure 74 shows a completed section of the
Delta-Mendota Canal about one and one-half miles north of its intersec-
tion with Highway 50. The maximum capacity of the Delta-Mendota
Pumping Plant will be 4,600 cubic feet per second, which is the equivalent
of a fair-sized river. The only safe assumption is that this capacity will
eventually be fully utilized, although 1,100 cubic feet per second is
reserved for future development and will not be used until storage in
addition to that provided by Shasta is available. Tentative schedules of
water demands indicate that from 2,000 to almost 4,000 cubic feet per
second will be removed during the initial years of operation in April, May,

tj-.~

Figure 72. Excavation of Delta-Mendota intake canal in progress, July S, 19 4S.
This view was taken looking toward tlie site of the immping plant from the BjTon-
Bethany Highway

182

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

Figure 73. Foundation of the Delta-Mendota Pumping Plant
under construction, July 8, 1948

June and July. These are the months when bass eggs, larvae and fry will
be particularly vulnerable.

The source of the water which is to be removed by the Delta-]\Iendota
pumps is a matter of great interest. The Delta itself will act as a mam-
moth reservoir from which the water will be drawn. Original plans for
an actual canal which would have carried the water in a closed circuit
from the Sacramento River near Hood directly to the Delta-]Mendota
Pumping Plant (Ilatton 1940, Van Cleve 1945) have been entirely
abandoned. As the project is shaping up, the onl.y construction work on
the actual Cross Channel will be such dredging and levee reenforcing as
is necessary to enable existing channels to pass the necessary flows. Use
of the San Joaquin Delta as a reservoir involves a number of uncer-
tainties which promise to remain unresolved until operation of the Delta-
Mendota Pumping Plant begins. Large transfers of Sacramento River

STRIPED BASS REPRODUCTION

183

Figure 74. Completed section of the Delta-Mendota Canal near its
intersection with Highway 50

water into the San Joaquin Delta in addition to those already occurring
naturally through Georgiana Slough and Three Mile Slough will prob-
ably be necessary to prevent saline intrusion up the San Joaquin River.
For this reason a second set of pumps, referred to as the Cross-Channel
Pumping Plant, has been proposed. It would transfer water directly
from the Sacramento River at Walnut Grove into the present channels
of the Mokelumne River, through which the water would flow southward
across the San Joaquin Delta to replace removals at Tracy. Although
final decisions with regard to this feature have not yet been reached by
the Bureau of Reclamation, indications are that it will become necessary
in the immediate future.

The tidal currents which churn Delta waters continuously, produc-
ing flows up to 150,000 cubic feet per second in the main San Joaquin,^
greatly complicate the over-all picture, and there is some uncertainty
about what is going to happen with regard to salinity in the Delta when
the Delta-Mendota pumps begin to operate in 1950.

No major changes in water temperatures are anticipated in the Delta
as a result of the operation of the Cross Channel.

Preliminary Evaluation of the Cross Channel as a Threat to the
California Striped Bass Population

It must be emphasized, at the outset, that available information on
distribution and size of early stages of striped bass is based on studies
made during 1947, a notably dry year. It is being assumed that the
situation found in 1947 was fairly representative. If it develops that

♦Maximum flows of 153,000 c.f.s. were measured in the San Joaquin River by
Bureau of Reclamation engineers in August and October of 19 45. Tides were normal.

184 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

such an assumption was unjustified, certain of our ideas may have to be
modified.

At this point it will be well to outline briefly the over-all picture of
striped bass reproduction in the Central Valley as we now understand
it in order to provide a background for the discussion which follows. The
spawning season centers in the months of April, May and June. Spawn-
ing occurs extensively each year over much of the San Joaquin Delta,
and presumably also in the rivers flowing into it in years of normal
rainfall. Spawning of major importance occurs also in the Sacramento
River above Sacramento and in the Feather River between its mouth
and Marysville and perhaps above the latter point. The eggs are semi-
buoyant, and they develop while they are being carried along in suspen-
sion in the water. They hatch in about 74 hours at 60° F. (Merriman
1941) , and take somewhat less time wben the water is warmer. The small,
delicate larvae which emerge are helpless and at the mercy of the cur-
rents. In tyj)ical river channels such as those of the Sacramento and
Feather Rivers in which there is a one-way flow toward the ocean the
eggs and larvae are swept rapidly downstream out of the spawning areas.
In the channels of the San Joaquin Delta, on the other hand, in which
downstream flows are negligible b}^ comparison with the tremendous,
oscillating, tidal flows, large numbers of eggs and larvae remain and
develop in the actual spawning areas, flushing back and forth continually
through the many channels of the Delta. The entire San Joaquin Delta
constitutes a nursery area of the greatest importance for the very young
striped bass. Suisun Bay is another such area.

Turning now to the various problems which arise in connection
with the Cross Channel, the most serious difficulty promises to stem
from the fact that the Delta-Mendota Pumping Plant will be diverting
large flows of water from the main San Joaquin Delta spawning and
nursery area during the period when it contains large numbers of
striped bass which are too small to be stopped by fish screens. It will not
be surprising if many small bass are drawn to the Delta-Mendota diver-
sion, especially in dry years such as 1947, and perhaps also in years of
normal rainfall. There are many unknown factors involved in Delta
interactions of river flows, tidal currents, effects of the diversion, and
movements of small striped bass in response to currents. It is therefore
impossible to estimate the force of the attraction which the Delta-Mendota
pumps will exert upon these fish, or the area which will be involved. It is
greatly to be hoped that the attraction will be small and localized, in
which case losses of small bass may not be very great. Actual losses occur-
ring during the initial years of operation must be determined so that it
will be possible to develop a fish -protection program to match them.

The possibility of screening the Delta-Mendota intake canal with a
fine-mesh rotary screen is being considered by the Bureau of Reclama-
tion.^ A by-pass canal will also have to be built if screens are installed, for
it is useless to screen fish from a channel if they have no place else to go.

A purely reconnaissance type of cost estimate made by the Bureau
of Reclamation indicates a probable total cost for screens, fish pump and
by-pass canal amounting to from $5,000,000 to $8,000,000 depending
upon size and location of the by-pass canal. It must be emphasized that

^ One inch is probably about the minimum length of striped bass which can be
gereened at such a diversion. There may even be some difficulty with flsh this size.

STRIPED BASS REPRODUCTION 185

these estimates are of very preliminary nature, and can })e taken to
indicate only a possible range of cost for fish protection facilities at
this location.

Final decisions have yet to be reached by the Bureau of Reclamation
Avili regard to these structures, and it is very uncertain at the present
time if they will be constructed.

Serious difficulties may arise if large numbers of striped bass larvae
and fry are carried to the Delta-Mendota diversion. It remains to be seen
what can be done to minimize losses of such fisli. A number of possi-
bilities suggest themselves. Fish rescue within the canals supplied by
the Delta-Mendota pumps may offer a partial solution, if large numbers
of fish pass through the pumps and survive. Passage of the Old River
Channel through a sizeable lake which could be created by flooding one
of the adjacent "islands" might produce a break in the continuity of
currents carrying larvae and fry toward the outlet. This in turn might
retard their rate of travel sufficiently to permit most of them to reach
screenable size before arriving at the diversion. The cost of such a project
would be so great that it could be justified only if very large losses of
small bass actually occur at the Delta-Mendota outlet. Moreover, the
various agencies interested in salinity control in the Delta would like
very much to eliminate existing flooded areas of this sort, such as Franks
Tract and Sherman Island Lake, and would scarcely look Avith favor on
proposals to create new ones.

Another method of reducing the gravitation of large numbers of
striped bass fry toward the Delta-Mendota outlet might be to pump
additional salinity-control water into the Mokelumne River at Rio Vista
during early summer, assuming the Cross Channel pumps materialize.
This might increase the proportion of fry flushing into Suisun Bay from
the San Joaquin side of the Delta. Normally, most salinity-control Avater
would pass doAvn the Sacramento River. This scheme is mentioned here
only as a possibility worth investigating in the event that we are faced
with major losses of small bass at the Delta-Mendota outlet following
operation of the Cross Channel.

The possibility of resorting to the artificial propagation of striped
bass arises inevitably in any such discussion as this. It would be feasible
to hatch eggs and to rear fish through the larval stage, judging from
available information (Worth 1910, Scofield 1910). This should lead to
no false illusions, however. The possibility of maintaining even a frac-
tion of a fish population the size of our present striped bass population
by artificial propagation can scarcely be given serious consideration.
A glance at the area over which fry were abundant in 1947 (Figure 71)
will emphasize this fact. Actual numbers of fry present must have been
astronomical, and anything a hatchery could turn out would be insig-
nificant by comparison. Over and above this fundamental objection are
the many practical difficulties involved. These are well illustrated by
Scofield 's troubles in connection Avith attempts to operate a striped bass
hatchery on the San Joaquin River many years ago. He finally abandoned
the project entirely after three consecutiA'C years of fruitless efforts to
obtain ripe spaAvn. Attempts to hold mature fish in pens until they
ripened were not successful. We could anticipate similar difficulties.
Anglers could not be counted upon to supply fish with suitable eggs,
for female striped bass do not bite Avell when the eggs are fully ripe.

186 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

In the East, where successful hatchiug on a small scale has been carried
on over a long period, ripe fish were apparently all obtained on the
spawning grounds in nets, under conditions which are not duplicated
in California. "VVe would rarely be justified in netting females for their
eggs, because there would always be the possibility that they might have
spaA^med in areas unaffected by the Delta Cross Channel. It is one of
the tenets of modern fisheries biology that artificial propagation is at
best but a poor substitute for natural reproduction, which it rarely
approaches in ef!icienc3\ All in all, hatchery operations offer little hope
of solving any of the striped bass problems Avhich may arise from opera-
tion of the Delta Cross Channel.

On the basis of 1947 tow-net catches, it is evident that the total
number of striped bass fry present that year on all the nursery grounds
was very great indeed. Furthermore, a large proportion were in Suisun
Bay and in other waters beyond the influence of the Delta-Mendota
diversion. It therefore appears probable that even if losses at the diver-
sion are quite large of themselves, they will be relatively small in relation
to the total numbers of fry present on the nursery grounds. It should
not be inferred from this that we mean to condone such losses. However,
it is gratifying to be able to report that the Delta-Mendota diversion
will probably not bring about any disastrous reduction in the size of
the striped bass population.

The second major Cross Channel problem centers about the pro-
posed Cross Channel Pumping Plant at Walnut Grove. While it is not
yet certain that this installation will be built, indications are that it will
be, and soon. Preliminary results of 1948 studies have confirmed the
belief that sizeable numbers of striped bass eggs and larvae flush down
the Sacramento River. From all indications, they are carried past Walnut
Grove quite rapidly. Numbers of such eggs and larvae passing through
the Cross Channel pumps v/ill presumably be proportional to the volume
of water pumped during the brief period while they are present. Other
channels such as Steamboat Slough will carry their share of the down-
stream migrants safely below the diversion. The pumps will have a low
lift. Maximum clearance will presumably be provided, so that fish of
some size will pass through them without injury. This installation should
therefore not cause too much trouble. It can be expected to divert into
the San Joaquin Delta only a minor portion of the total Sacramento
River down-stream delivery of bass larvae and fry ; much less, in fact,
than already passes normally from the Sacramento River into the San
Joaquin Delta through Georgiana Slough.

Several long-range programs have been set up to study means of
protecting the striped bass and other fish against harmful effects result-
ing from the Central Valley Project in general and the Delta Cross
Channel in particular. In addition to the striped bass investigation and
the salmon investigation of the California Division of Fish and Game,
an ambitious ecological study of the Delta in relation to Cross Channel
problems is being undertaken by the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
These three programs promise to pay large dividends in helping to
provide solutions to the manifold fish-protection problems which will
arise as the Central Valley Project expands and matures.

STRIPED BASS REPKODUCTIOISr 18?

Summary

Striped bass eg'ps were collected dmiiiL: the 11)47 season in the
Sacramento River at Vei-ona and in the San Joaquin River at the
Antioeh Bridp-e, Buoy 21, and Aniioch. I^arvae were taken in larjre
jiunibers in the Sacramento River at Rio Vista, and in lesser numbers at
many other w'idely-scattered points. Fry were found to be abundant
throughout most of Suisun Bay and the San Joaciuin Delta in late June
and early Jnly. They had a mean length of about one inch at that time.
Few fry were taken in the Sacraiiionto River above Rio Vista, and
numbers present there are believed to have been small. Vertical distri-
bution of fry was found to be variable.

The distributional pattei-n of striped bass fry in the early summer
of li)47 appears to have J'esulted from flow conditions in the various
channels. The early stages of striped bass are believed to flush rapidly
down and out of the Sacramento River, because of its large net flow. In
the San Joaquin Delta, on tlie other hand, where river flows are neg-
ligible by comparison with the tremendous tidal currents, large numbers
of the eggs and larvae apparently remain and develop in the general area
of the spawning grounds.

The Delta-Mendota Pumping Plant, now under construction, will
divert large flows of water from the San Joaquin Delta during the
period when striped bass too small to be stopped by fish screens are
abundant there. Sizeable losses of small bass may occur at this diversion.
Actual losses occuring during the initial years of operation wull have
to be determined in order to evaluate the threat which this installation
presents. It is impossible to predict the magnitude of losses to be expected
because of the many unknown factors involved. Possible protective
measures are discussed. Even if losses at the diversion are quite large of
themselves, it is probable that they will be relatively small in relation
to the total numbers of fry present on the nursery grounds, and they
should therefore not bring about an}' disastrous reduction in the striped
bass population.

If the Cross-Channel Pumping Plant is built, it can be expected to
divert a minor portion of the total Sacramento River down-stream
delivery of striped bass larvae and fry into the San Joaquin Delta. This
installation does not appear to present any great threat to the striped
bass population.

188 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

References

Hatton, S. Ross

1940. Progress report on the Central Valley fisheries investigations, 1939. Calif.
Fish and CJame, ^•ol. 26, no. 4, pp. 334-373.

1942. Striped bass spawning areas in California. Calif. Fish and Game, vol. 28,
no. 1, p. O.J.

Hatton, S. Ross and G. H. Clark

1942. A second progress report on the Central Valley fisheries investigations.
Calif. Fish and Game, \ol. 28, no. 2, pp. llG-123.

Leim, A. H.

1924. The life history of the shad {Alosa sapidissima (Wilson) ) with special
reference to the factors limiting its abundance. Contributions to Canadian
Biology, new series, vol. 2, no. 11, pp. 161-284.

Merriman, Daniel

1941. Studies on the striped bass (Rocciis saxatilis) of the Atlantic Coast. Fishery
Bulletin of the Fish and Wildlife Service, vol. 50, pp. 1-77.

Pearson, John C.

1938. The life history of the striped bass, or rockfish, Rocciis saxatilis (Walbaum) .
Bulletin of the Bureau of Fisheries, vol. 49, pp. 825-851.

Scofield, Eugene C.

1931. The striped bass of California (Roccus lineatus). Calif. Division of Fish and
Game, Fish Bulletin No. 29, 82 pp.

Scofield, N. B.

1910. Notes on striped bass in California. Twenty-first Biennial Report of the
Board of Fish and Game Commissioners of the State of California for the
years 1909-1910, pp. 104-109.

Scofield, N. B. and G. A. Coleman

1910. Notes on spawning and hatching of striped bass eggs at Bovddin Island
Hatchery. Twenty-first Biennial Report of the Board of Fish and Game
Commissioners of the State of California for the Years 1909-1910, pp.
109-117.

U. S. Bureau of Reclamation

1944a. Hydraulic I^aboratory Report No. 145 : Skeleton outline of a plan for develop-
ing the Delta-Mendota irrigatio]i water supply and salt water repulsion in
the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta region — Central Valley Project, Cali-
fornia. Mimeographed release of the Branch of Design and Construction of
the U. S. Bureau of Reclamation, Denver, Colo., dated July 10, 1944.

1944b. Hydraulic Laboratory Report No. 155. Second progress report on Model
Studies of thhe Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta Central Valley Project,
California. Mimeographed release of the Branch of Design and Construction
of the U. S. Bureau of Reclamation, Denver, Colo., dated Sept. 29, 1944.

1945. Compi'chensive plan for water resources development. Central Valley Basin,
California. Mimeographed release. Bureau of Reclamation, Region II,
I'roject Report Xo. 2-4.0-3.

Van Cleve, Richard

1945. A preliminary report on the fishery resources of California in relation to the
Central Valley Project. Calif. Fish and G.inip, vol. 31, no. 2, pp. 35-52.

Woodhull, Chester

1947. Spawning habits of the striped bass (Rocciis saj-atilis) in California waters.
Calif. Fish and Game, vol. 33, no. 2, pp. 97-102.

Worth, S. G.

1903. Striped bass in North Carolina waters. Trans. Am. Fisheries Society 1903,

pp. 98-102.
1910. Progress in hatching striped bass. Trans. Am. Fisheries Society 1909,

pp. 155-159.

A CRITICAL REVIEW OF RANGE SURVEY

METHODS AND THEIR APPLICATION

TO DEER RANGE MANAGEMENT '

By William P. Dasmann

Bureau of Game Conservation

California Division of Fish and Game

Introduction

Western deer, in their proper habitat, depend upon range vegetation
for food. In order to maintain a thrifty and productive deer herd, it is
necessary first to maintain a thrifty and productive deer range. Live-
stock production may be based on cultivated pasturage but practical deer
production cannot be. Deer are a factor in the range complex and deer
management must be based on range management to be successful in
the long run.

As stated by Ellison and Croft (1944), the objective in range
management is the sustained production of forage crops and the control
of water flow to optimum capacities of range sites. This can be accom-
plished only where a state of balance exists among the major site factors
of climate, topography, soil, and living things. In an earlier paper (Hum-
bert and Damann, 1945) it was pointed out that while climate and
topography, in a broad sense, cannot be altered by man ; man can exer-
cise some control over soil. But it is not practical to control range soils
except through the medium of vegetation. It is only the plant-animal
factor with which the range manager can work, practically and generally.

The deer range manager may alter the vegetation cover by thinning,
pruning, weed eradication, fertilization, re-seeding, or controlled burn-
ing but the cost of such measures is usually too high for general applica-
tion. Ordinarily, adjustments in the plant cover must be made through
control of the degree of cropping by range animals. To maintain or
re-establish a plant cover adequate to hold the soil, control water flow,
and produce the optimum amount of forage possible on each site, enough
of the annual growth of vegetation must be left in place to enable the
plants to carry on their life processes. The range manager needs to be con-
cerned not so much with the fraction that range animals take as with the
fraction of vegetative growth that range animals leave. This fraction may
be called the range maintenance reserve.

The number of animals that will take no more than the forage crop
in all but poorest growth years is the maximum number a range unit will
support on a sustained basis. Since range is dynamic, changing con-
tinually with fluctuations in precipitation, temperature, evaporation,

1 Submitted for publication May, 1948.

The author wishes to express appreciation to .Joseph F. Pechanec, Pacific North-
west Forest and Ranse Experiment Station, for helpful suggestions many of which have
been incorporated in this paper.

(ISO)

190 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

and varying nse patterns, no rate of stocking can be considered final.
Changes in stocking must be made at intervals in order to balance demand
with supply. The range manager needs to make periodic surveys to enable
him to keep track of such vegetation trends.

The purpose of this paper is to evaluate some of the accepted range
survey methods and to point out those that appear best for use in deer
range management.

Range Survey Methods

Most range land surveys fall into one of three classes: (A) forage
inventories, (B) range condition surveys, or (C) forage utilization
checks.

A. FORAGE INVENTORIES

Forage inventories usually aim at the appraisal of the quantity and
quality of forage present on a range unit in order that an estimate of its
carrying capacity may be made. Carrying capacity has been defined by
the author (Dasmann, 1945) as "the maximum number of foraging
animals of a given class that can be maintained in good flesh year after
year on a range unit without injury to the range forage growing stock or
to the basic soil resource." Carrying capacity is often expressed in
animal unit months of forage. An animal unit month of forage is the
quantity of vegetation that will support a mature cow and her sucking
calf for one month.

The Original Mefliod: This method of appraising forage crops is
still in common use under greater or lesser degrees of refinement through-
out the world. It consists of examining the range unit, comparing its areas
with other areas of known carrying capacity with which the examiner is
familiar and arriving at an estimate of the number of animals the range
unit will support. Obviously this method is subjective and open to the
personal bias of the examiner. The factors that enter into the estimate
will vary with individuals. The estimate will be no better than the
experience, memory, and judgment of the man making the survey.

The trained range examiner will make use of a knov/ledge of range
indicators in formulating judgments. Some of the commonly used range
indicators are listed later in this paper. Indicators of range condition,
range trend, and plant utilization, tell a story if the range examiner is
trained to read them. (Ellison and Croft, 1944 ; Talbot, 1937.)

The Feconnaissaiwc Method: Jardine originated the reconnaissance
method of forage inventory and used it on the Coconino National Forest
in Arizona in 1911. It is based upon the amount of forage per acre as
indicated by plant density and upon the relative palatability of the dif-
ferent plant species represented.

Forage density is a measurement of the horizontal aspect of vegeta-
tion. It is expressed in terms of ground surface covered by vegetation. A
completely covered ground surface (when viewed from directly above)
is considered as having a density of ten tenths. Only the current year's
available growth of browse plants is included in the measurement.

Palatability is defined by the Western Range Survey Conference,
(19.S7) as the percent of the total current year's growth within the reach
of stock to which a species is grazed when the range unit is properly
utilized under the best practical range management. Palatability ratings
are now more properly called Proper Use Factors.

RANGE SURVEY METHODS 191

The range examiner usiny the reconnaissance survey method esti-
mates for each sub-type (a) the average density of the plant cover, (b)
the ratio in per cent that each important plant species makes of that
average density, and (c) tlic area of the sub-type. Using this information
the carrying capacity is then determined in terms of forage acres as

shown in Table 1.

TABLE 1

Determination of Carrying Capacity by Reconnaissance Method
Adapted From Dasmann (1945)

(In this cxamijle it is iissuined the subtype has aii average density of .3, com-
position ratios as shown in column 1, and an area of 5(X) acres.)

(1) (2)

Species rercciitaye-coiiiposition J'alutaOiliti/ (1x2)

Asp .G .70 .42

rtr .3 .40 .12

Lui) .1 .20 .02

.56

Average density (.3) x .50 = .168 (forage factor)*

500 acres x .168 = 84 forage acres

84 -T- .8 (forage acre requirement for cattle) = 105 cow months.

Under the best practice a forage acre requirement per animal is
determined for each locality as follows: A grazing unit upon which
desirable range conditions and proper use of forage prevails is selected
and surveyed. The forage acre requirement is then computed by dividing
the total forage acres on that unit by the average number of animal
months of grazing per year allowed on the unit during recent years.

By substituting a definite procedure, i.e., density estimates, per-
centage composition ratios, sub-types, plant palatability ratings, for an
undefined subjective process, the reconnaissance survey is an advance-
ment over the older method. It has an additional advantage, also, in that
the data secured under this method can be checked in the field at a
later date.

The Square-foot Density Method: This method, more properly
called the Point-Observation-Plot Method, of forage inventory was
described by Stewart and llutehings (1936). It differs from the older
method chiefly in its technique for determining density. AVith the recon-
naissance method the examiner must select for each sub-type a repre-
sentative sample of vegetation upon which to make his density estimates.
The square foot density method eliminates the need for personal selec-
tion by sampling each sub-type with small plots established along a line
at predetermined intervals. These plots are usually 100 square feet in
area. The amount of vegetation present on a plot is determined by esti-
mating the number of square feet of completely covered ground surface
for each of the represented plant species. The separate densities of plant
species should add up to the total plant density. The total plant density
plus the number of square feet of unvegetated ground should equal 100.

* The forage factor is the percent of the ground surface which Is covered with a crop of available palatable
vegetation of ten-tenths density.

192 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

The average of all plots falling in each sub-type is considered as repre-
sentative of the vegetation present on that sub-type. Plant palatability
ratings are used as in the reconnaissance method. The carrying capacity
is then determined as is shown in Table 2.

TABLE 2

Determination of Carrying Capacity by Point-Observation-Plot
Method (Dasmann, 1945)

(1)
Average Density (2)

Species All Plots in Sab-tyjie Palatability (1x2)

Asp .18 .70 .126

Ptr .08 .40 .032

Lup .04 .20 .008

.166

500 acres x .166 (forage factor) = 83 forage acres.

This method of range survey further eliminates individual bias and
personal errors from the work. By spacing many small plots at mechan-
ical intervals, it oifers quantitative data as suggested by Stewart and
Hutchings (1936) that is both randomized and replicated and lends itself
to statistical analysis. Also, by concentrating the range examiner 's atten-
tion upon a small plot, more exact and detailed observations usually are
obtained.

Discussion of Above Methods: Both the reconnaissance and the
square-foot density methods of forage inventory have an outstanding
weakness, i.e., their use of density alone as a quantitative measure of
vegetation. By making no allowance for height, density measurements
ignore the three dimensional aspect of plant growth.

Schwau and Swift (1941) point out that density alone is not a true
index of the amount of forage available (a) because it ignores differences
in volume; (bj because "ratings of forage types * * * are necessarily
in terms of ratio and do not attempt to express a physical measure of
the forage present," (c) because forage acre requirements of livestock
are based on studies of units presumed to have been properly grazed
which element rests upon personal judgment; (d) and because of the
difficulty of exact determination of the density of shrubs where part of
the plant is older growth, part of the current growth is unavailable, and
where many layers of twigs and leaves over-story one another.

Smith (1944) determined that there is extremely poor agreement
between the amount of vegetation produced from clipping and estimates
of density. He states that density is a poor index of forage yield even
within a single species.

One would think that with so many weaknesses so aptly pointed out,
the use of a density measurement as a sole indicator of forage yield would
no longer be considered a basis for inventories. But it is still used. It
is true that as a measure of the horizontal aspect of plants, and for com-
parisons of relative spread of vegetation on ranges of similar site and
type, the density measurement has its place.

RANGE SURVEY METHODS 193

Both the reconnaissance and sqnare-foot density methods are also
weak wliere roiiion-wido pala1f)1)ility rating's (proper use faetoi-s) are
used. Pahitability is defined not as the amouut that viaij be used but as
the amount that is used. This definitely involves livestock preference.
But livestock preference is a fiuctuatiug factor that varies considerably
with climate, season, type, and sub-type. Where such ratin^^s are worked
out lueally, or for areas of siinihu- vcyetative composition, climate, and
cropping season, their use in a carrying capacity determination may be
more dependable. But regional palatability ratings add to the other
errors.

One way to eliminate tlic tvoul)lesome density element from forage
inventories would be to substitute actual weight of forage on randomized
plots as determined by clipping and weighing. The yield could then be
expressed in poinds of forage per acre. Beruldsen and Morgan, accord-
ing to Pechanec and Pickford (IDoTb), have proved this method accurate
and the method is ol'ten used for intensive studies in certain forage types.
However, it is too time-consuming and hence too expensive for use on
extensive surveys.

Weight Estimate Method: Tliis method of forage inventory was
developed by Pechanec and Pickford (1937b). They report that men can
learn to estimate weight of vegetation on small plots and that while
"weight estimates are subject to slightly more personal error than
density estimates * * * they are superior to density estimates for indi-
cating actual yield. ' '

Schwan and Swift (1941) recommended the use of a weight-estimate
method for forage surveys of big game ranges. They stressed the advan-
tage of a method that depends on physical rather than ocular checks and
pointed out that estimates can be compared directly with actual weights,
instead of computing the error against the crew mean as must be done
with density methods. They stated that in actual field tests, maximum
error of weight estimates did not exceed 20 percent, but agree with
Costello and Klipple (1939) in the need for a proportionately greater
number of plots in highly important types.

Carhart and Means (1941) reported the application of a forage
weight per acre method in a survey of deer and elk ranges in Colorado.
They had determined that some dozen plant species furnish the bulk of
forage on deer ranges in that state, and pointed out that time can be saved
by limiting the survey to such key forage plants, rather than to include
all vegetation in the forage inventor3^

The author (Dasmann, 1945) has previously suggested that the pal-
atability rating be eliminated from the weight-estimate method and that
instead the estimated weights be reduced by the amount that must be
left for the plants to carry on necessary life processes (metabolic reserve),
and further redviced by the amount that grazing animals will probably
leave unconsumed where the key species received no more than allowable
croppino". The earrving capacitv would then be deterniinod as is shown
in Table 3.

-92408

194 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

TABLE 3

Determination of Carrying Capacity by Weight-estimate Metlnod

(Dasmann, 1945)

(1) (2) (.3)

Average Weight/ Acre AUoivable Preference Available

Species All Plots — Pounds X Cropping Factor X Hating = Crop — Pounds

Asp 700 .60 1.0 420

Ptr r>00 .50 .8 200

Lup (6) 200 .80 .7 112

1,400 732

Available crop per acre in pounds X surface acres -^ monthly animal require-
ment = animal mouths of forage available.

Discussion: Pickford and Reid (1940b) reported that the weight-
estimate method, on the basis of data from three experimental areas,
is best suited to types running heavily to bunch grasses and to sedge
meadow types. They state that the use of this method in highly variable
types such as found on timbered range is questionable. Pickford and
Reid further indicated that there is no question here of the greater
accuracy in portraying forage production claimed for the weight-estimate
method. The question, rather, is the practicability of the method for
general use in range surveys due to the likelihood of excessive cost,
arising out of the large number of plots needed. It should be pointed
out, however, that the factor w4iich ran up the number of plots needed
to obtain a satisfactory degree of accuracy in their study was the scat-
tered occurrence of highl}^ productive meadows. Were the survey con-
cerned primarily with key deer forage species and most of them shrubs,
as suggested by Carhart, the accuracy for a given number of plots may
have been much higher.

Until a better method is developed, the weight-estimate method
appears as the most practical and dependable for making forage inven-
tories of big game ranges, where this information is really needed. Deer
managers should remember, however, that the end product of such a
forage inventory will be an estimation of the number of deer that the
range will safely carry. To use this information, it will be necessary to
know the number of deer currently on the range.

Rasmussen and Doman (1943) tested various deer census methods
on a large deer-tight fenced area in Utah upon which the actual number
of deer was later determined. They tried the general reconnaissance
census, strip census, airplane census, drive count, meadow and feed
ground counts, and track counts. Only the drive count, with men spread
at eight rod intervals, yielded an accurate estimate of the total popula-
tion. This method is too unwieldy and costly for general application.
The authors concluded that since methods of counting mule deer have
not proved successful in determining total numbers, the value of this
type of count appears to be limited to determining trends. Total popu-
lations can be determined more accurately by use of ratios and indices.
Stoddart and Rasmussen (1945) emphasized even further that in the
final analysis, forage utilization must form the basis for mule deer man-
agement. So far as the fiuthor has been able to determine, no new reliable

RANGE SURVEY METHODS

195

census method fur determining total deer populations has been developed

since 1943.

It should be considered, also, that the fora^in? habits of range
animals vary -with t()po<irapliy, character of soil, rockiness, density of
vegetation cover, distance from water, and other factors. On well-watered
rano-es of soft soil, gentle topography, and constant tioristic composition,
distribution of cropping is most apt to be regular and uniform. As
ranges recede from this pattern, distribution becomes more uneven. Some-
times large areas are used oidy lightly or not u.sed at all, while forage
plants in adjacent areas suifer from over-cropping. Often such use-
patterns cannot be altered without heavy expenditures for range improve-
ments. Adjustments in estimated carrying capacities based on forage
inventories must, therefore, be uuide to allow for the local pattern of
use if depletion of concentration areas is to be prevented. Thus, no
matter how perfect the inventor}^ method, the rate of stocking must
fiiuilly be based on what is ha'ppening on the ground as determined by
checks on forage utilization and range trend.

B. RANGE CONDiTiON SURVEYS

Kange condition surveys seek to appraise the status of the range
complex and to determine whether the trend in plant and soil develop-
ment is up, down, or in ai:)proximate balance. Range condition is a
reflection of the accumulated effects of past use ; range trend is an expres-
sion of the effects of current use. Both condition and trend can be diag-
nosed by a consideration of various range indicators.

Sampson (1923) demonstrated that one of the most important
indicators of condition of range is the succession stage of its vegetation.
The evolution of soil from bare rock to fertile field is a process accom-
panied by a succession of vegetation changes. Weathered rock supports
lichens Avhich assist mechanically and chemically in developing it to a
place where it will grow certain shallow-rooted, short-lived annuals. The
soil supports the plants ; the plants till, fertilize, shade, and hold the soil.
This process goes on until we find the fully developed soil supporting a
climax stage of vegetation characteristic of its particular site.

When the plant cover is subject to over-cropping the plants weaken,
begin to thin out and die. The soil, receiving less protection from sun.
wind, and water may bake, blow, and wash.* Lower stage plants with
less rigid soil requirements move in. If the grazing load is lightened
sufficiently, both soil and vegetation will recover, but if sub-climax plants
in turn are over-cropped, retrogression will proceed to a still lower stage
until a balance is reached.

The range examiner who knows the successional niches of certain
common plant species can often learn a great deal about a range from
the occurrence and abundance of such indicator plants.

There have been many lists of range indicators compiled. The lists
given below present a composite of data taken from several sources,
principally Ellison and Croft (1944) ; Talbot (1937) ; Pickford and

* Sampson (1944) points out that Craddock and Pearse (1938) found that wheat-
grass proved 2,000 times more effective in preventing erosion than an annual weed cover
and 300 times more effective than Downy chess.

196 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

Reicl (1942) ; White, Frandsen, Humphrey, and Nelson (1942) ; and
Handbook for Range Managers (1940).

I. Indicators of soil condition

1. Occurrence of litter.

2. Mineral soil between plants.

3. Bare soil surface (consider soil salts).

4. Absence of horizon A (dark, gritty soil).

5. Observed movement of soil (muddy water, dust).
(>. Plants on soil i)illars; soil humps on slopes.

7. Exposure of plant roots.

8. Soil remnants ; islands or hummocks of better soil.

9. Erosion pavement, lichen lines, old soil lines.

10. Gullies or blow-outs, rills, shoestringing.

11. Stream-bank cutting.

12. Wind or water deposits of soil (dunes, bars),
l.'j. Terracing (from stock trails).

II. Indicators of vegetative condition

1. Species of plants present and their relative abundance (Succession
stage).

2. Age classes of plants (Presence or absence of seedlings).

3. Density and height of plants (consider influence of particular site).

4. Vigor of plants (consider site and precipitation).

5. Dead or dying plants.

6. Presence of annuals and/or ground-hugging, top-rooted plants (Cheat
grass, knotweed, etc.).

7. Invasion of bare spaces.

8. Patchy vegetation.
III. Indicators of utilization

1. Close grazing of inferior species.

2. Range uniformly close-cropped.

3. Stones, cow dung, gopher mounds, and stock trails plainly visible.

4. Plants close-cropped under brushy trees, low shrubs, and thickets.

5. Hedged shrubs, browse and grazing lines.

6. Accessibility of palatable species.

7. Condition of timber reproduction.

8. Dead or dying plants.

9. Flesh condition of livestock or deer.

Range Condition — Carrying Capacity: The Soil Conservation Serv-
ice makes use of a method for estimating carrjnng capacity based directly
on range condition sitrveys. This agency's criteria of range condition as
expressed by AVhite, Frandsen, Hmnphrey, and Nelson (1942) are given
as ' ' composition of plant cover, forage density, volume growth, vigor of
key species, and degree of erosion." Briefly, this method necessitates a
localized study of (a) tlie factors that make up excellent, good, fair, poor,
and very poor range condition on various types (b) a study of the rates
of stocking, seasons of use, and other grazing practices that have brought
about the occurrence of these conditions and (c) a correlation of (a)
and (b) resulting in recommended carrying capacities and methods of
management designed to maintain the best conditions and improve all
others.

The study includes clipping and weighing data; forage yields are
expressed in terms of pounds per acre. Emphasis is placed on pounds
per acre of litter remaining at the end of the season of use ; the value of
litter in protecting and developing the soil, and in providing earlier
growing and more vigorous herbaceous forage is stressed. From the local
study, local standards are compiled. These standards can then be used
by range examiners as a guide in making condition surveys and carrying
capacity estimates of other range units in the vicinity.

RANGE SURVEY METHODS 197

Discussion: Because the range condition method bases carrying
capacity directly upon condition of soil, vegetation cover, and plant
species composition, instead of screening data tlii-ongh a series of ratio
formulas, it appears superior to the other methods discussed above. But
this approach to carrying capacity is difficult for the deer range manager
to apply because of the need to detcT-mine rates of stocking (number of
deer) before carrying capacities can be determined.

Condition surveys, on the other hand, are essential to sound range
management and should be used in conjniiction witli i-ange utilization
ehecks to reveal the full range i)icture. It sometimes hapjiens, for
instance, on steep slopes or on highly erosible soils that damage occurs
from a degree of use that would be classed as light to moderate else-
where. Indicators of condition and trend will reveal such sore spots.

Condition surveys can be useful also in deer range management
where it is desired to determine extensivel}^ the condition of range lands
and whether they are getting worse or better.

Studies of food preferences of western deer indicate that even where
grasses and weeds are an important factor in their diet, browse forage
is taken to an extent that any list of key forage species Avill contain many
palatable shrubs. Because this is so, it is believed that condition surveys
of deer ranges should give more recognition to palatable shrubs than is
usual.

The opportunity fur using the condition standards for range types
that have been compiled by the Soil Conservation Service, the Forest
Service, and other agencies, should not be neglected. It should be stressed
again, however, that range condition is usually a reflection of past forage
utilization and that the principal factor att'ecting trend that man can
manipulate is rates of stocking.

The question naturally arises (a) if estimated carrying capacities
must be adjusted on the basis of utilization cheeks to allow for existing
patterns of use and possible errors of survey, (b) if the effect of current
rates of stocking is best determined from forage utilization checks, and
(c) if the factor most indicative of future improvement or deterioration
of a range is degree of cropping of vegetation, why not go directly to
forage utilization checks for a base in deer management?

C. FORAGE UTILIZATION CHECKS

The most direct way to determine the carrying capacity of a range
unit is to stock it with a known number of animals, watch what happens
and then adjust the stocking and or the grazing season until proper use
is attained. Even where the number of animals is not known, a similar
procedure may be used; viz., check the use at the end of one or several
of the seasons. If it is not satisfactory, add or subtract known numbers
of ainmals until the desired result is reached.

Range administrators have used less direct methods for determining
carrying capacity because of a lack of adequate sampling methods, plus
a lack of personnel with the time and/'or training necessary to make such
checks. AYestern ranges with their intricate pattern of grazing and
browsing use posed difficult problems for the range examiner. It was
thonght safer to stock ranges on the basis of forage inventory surveys
than to rely on judgments of local field men. As range research pro-
gressed, however, several sampling techniques were developed that gave

198 CALIFORNIA TISH AND GAME

reliable data on utilization and trends without unwarranted expenditure
of time. The development of the key plant species concept and the recog-
nition of use patterns and resultant key (hea^^ use) areas, have led to
some simplification of the job of making utilization checks. There remains
the problem of selecting suitable sampling methods. Several of the
methods are discussed below.

Methods for Estimating Degree of Cropping

General Reconnaissance Method: This method, as described by
Pechanec and Pickford (l937a) , estimates on the basis of general observa-
tions the total plant height or volume removed from extensive areas. A
refinement leading to greater accuracy is to first estimate the percent of
plants actually grazed and then the percentage cropping of this fraction.
The accuracy of the estimates varies with the individual range examiner
and is not subject to statistical checks.

The recognition and proper evaluation of range indicators is basic
to the best type of reconnaissance check. A division of intensity of use
into light, moderate, and heavy, as indicated by stubble heights, visibility
of soil surface from stand-off view, degree of uniformity of cropping, and
other indicators, is common practice today. There has been a shift of
emphasis toward less concern with the percentage of the volume or
weight of forage which has been taken and more concern with the amount
of shrub growth, height of stubble, and abundance of litter (i.e., the
range maintenance reserve), which has been left. The method is especially
valuable in judging degree of use on complex annual type ranges and on
meadows, but utilization standards based on range indicators have been
developed for many western range types.

Actual Weight Method: Beruldsen and Morgan, according to
Pechanec and Pickford (1937a), used sets of randomized plots or tran-
sects. On one set the full crop of ungrazed forage is clipped and weighed ;
on the other the stubble remaining after the season of use is clipped and
weighed. This method is simple and eliminates personal errors but is
time-consuming and involves protecting the first series of plots from
grazing.

Stem C Glint Method: Stoddard, according to Pechanec and Pickford
(1937a) , based this method on the assumption that the percentage utiliza-
tion varies directly with the percentage of the total number of stems that
are grazed. The method is simple and free from personal error, but was
the least accurate of those reported by Pechanec and Pickford. It is labor-
ious and is theoretically unsound since it is based on the premise that
the entire individual plant is removed by grazing.

Height-weight Method: A method estimating the degree of cropping
was developed for the Forest Service by Campbell and Crofts (1938),
Lomasson and Jensen (1938) and others. As expressed by Pickford and
Reid (1940a), it consists in computing the average height of the grazed
stubble in per cent of average ungrazed heights of plants. The average
per cent height removal is converted by use of charts to percentage utiliza-
tion based on weight of forage removed. Pickford and Reid after field
comparisons of this with the ocular by-plot method, reported that the
principal weakness of the stubble height method springs from the fact
that shape of plants after grazing usually is so complicated that measure-
ment of stubble height is reduced to an estimate and because the greatest

RANGE SURVEY METHODS 199

part of a plant's weight is near its base, a small error in measuring aver-
age stubble height may represent considerable error in the estimate of
its use.

Clark (1945) determined that the variability in plant height and
weight relationship within a species, resulting from site, zone, and year,
indicates there is considerable error in the use of height-weight tables or
scales based on averages. lie quotes Campbell (]937) to point out that
when the continued productivity or gradual decline and death of good
forage grass may depend upon a difference in foilage removal of as little
as 10 per cent, a more accurate measure of utilization is necessary.

Ocular By-Flot Method: This method, described by Pechanec and
Pickford (1937a), is based on volume-weight relationship. Visual esti-
mates of degree of cropping are made in percentages of tlie total weights
of each species removed from small plots as shown by volume. Field men
must become proficient at mentally correlating weight with plant volume
and growth form. Accuracy of estimation can be checked by clipping and
weighting procedures. With this method errors in personal judgment
tend to be compensating. It is reasonably accurate, sensitive to fluctua-
tions, and rapid.

Clark (1945) recoinmended the use of the ocular estimate by-plot
method because in field comparisons, the ocular estimate by-plot method
has proved not only adaptable to all classes of forage, but also sufficientl}'
rapid for general field procedure. "When employed by a trained technician
it has yielded reliable estimates of use. He states that its accuracy is
shown to be but little affected by the sort of variation in height-weight
distribution noted in these studies, and that technicians can learn to
appraise such features as difference in height, character of growth, and
pattern of herbage removal, and to evaluate properly their respective
effect on the relative amount of forage removed.

Ocular Estimate hy Averages of Plants MetJiod: This method,
described by Pechanec and Pickford (1937a), is a refinement of the
ocular by-plot method. Here, the percentage weight removal is estimated
for each individual plant, instead of for all plants, on the plot and these
are averaged. It is relatively free from personal error and its high corre-
lation with volume removal adapts it to accurate range studies. It is
slightly less rapid than the plot estimate method.

Twig Measurement MetJiod: Aldous (1945) described this method as
a practical and reliable means to determine the annual percentage utiliza-
tion of each browse species on winter deer range. One or more lateral
branches of a shrub are tagged and the current twig growth on the out-
side of the tag is measured before deer enter a range and again after they
leave. If livestock and/or deer are on the range and crop the plant during
its growing season, this method is less adequate. It then becomes necessary
to estimate the average length of uncropped leaders whieli increases the
probability of error. This method is based on the assumption that inten-
sity of cropping is proportional to percentage of twig growth removed,
which will not hold where leaves or fruits make up a considerable part
of the forage taken. Also, where current growth is not readily distinguish-
able from the balance of the twig at the time of measurement, complica-
tions ensue. However, the twig measurement method offers a simple

200 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

mechanical teclmique and may prove adequate for certain shrub and tree
species on fall and winter deer ranges.

Visual Estimate MetJiod: Hormay (1943) described a method for
estimating the utilization of shrubs. The average leader length of all
ungrazed twigs on a shrub is estimated in inches. An estimate is made,
in per cent of the total, of the number of leaders that have been cropped.
An estimate is made of the percentage of the twig growth inches that have
been taken from the cropped leaders. For instance, if 50 per cent of the
leaders are cropped an average of 30 per cent, the average cropping
for the shrub is computed at 15 per cent. Hormay suggested that such
averages for individual shrubs may be weighted with the product of
crown circnniference X average ungrazed leader length. lie pointed out
that while this product is not a direct measurement of either volume or
yield it serves the purpose of permitting relative comparison to be made
in total production and total utilization as well as percentage utilization.

Sampling Methods

Number of Plots: Costello and Klipple (1939) reported that the
laws of statistical analysis apply to range forage sampling. They found
that it takes nearly as many sample plots to determine the average density
or forage factor of a range type one acre in area as it does to sample a
10,000 acre type to the same degree of accuracy.* These authors pointed
out that the number of plots needed for a reliable estimate of either the
density or forage factor is not proportional to the area of the type to be
sampled. Apparently the number of plots needed is mostly dependent
upon the heterogeneity of the vegetation cover and is related to area only
as heterogeneity is related to area. This is clearly shown in Table -4.

TABLE 4

Accuracy (with odds of 19 to 1) obtained by samples of 100 plots on areas of
different size (adapted from Costello and Klipple (1939).

Percentage of Accuracy Obtained
Size of Area in Square Miles For Plant Densifij

1 93.23

2 92.66
4 94.01
8 90.82

12 89.26

16 91.72

20 90.60

100 89.65

10,000 . 91.85

Costello and Klipple concluded, among other things, (a) that the
law of diminishing returns applies to accuracy of surveys by the plot
method, (b) that different vegetation types require different numbers of

* "The number of plots required to give a mean density or a mean forage factor
of any desired degree of accuracy was calculated by transposing the formula for the
standard error of a mean to the following form :

^. , - , ^ the standard deviation -."

Number of plots r= — v, — -—

the standard error of the mean

The standard error of the mean was given an arbitrary value depending on the
accuracy desired.

RANGE SURVEY METHODS 201

plots to secure a f?iven decree of sampling? accuracy, (c) that different
portions of a type generally require different numbers of plots for a
jjiven deprree of accuracy, and (d) that seasonal and yearly fluctuations
in floristic composition result in seasonal and yearly fluctuations in the
sampling int(Mi.sity necessary to survey the same area with a given degree
of accuracy. While these conclusions are based on studies of forage
density and forage factors, the same principles should hold for plant
height, volume, and weight.

Type of Plots: According to Bauer (1943), Christidis (10:^) rec-
omended that sample plots be long and narrow to reduce the effect
of heterogeneity, and Pechanec and Stewart (1940) found that long,
narrow plots were generally somewhat more efficient than square ones
of the same size. Bauer, after reviewing the literature on efficiency of
various sizes and shapes of plots used to sample density and freciuency
of vegetation species, reports that in laboratory tests line transects
proved superior to quadrats for sampling both percentage ground
covered and numerical abundance of plant species. In his tests, known
areas on which discs of various sizes and colors were used to simulate
a chaparral community, were sampled and the figures obtained could be
compared with true values.

It has been generally recognized that line transects are effective
for sampling grasses. Bauer, after making his laboratory tests, checked
this sampling method on a Chapparal area on which the density and
frequency of plants had been determined by time-consuming methods.
He reports the results checked very favorably with the control data and
suggests that this method for sampling coverage and frequency of shrubs
be used in other shrubby types.

Discussion

On the basis of the literature reviewed above, it is suggested that a
reconnaissance method based on range indicators be used where rapid,
extensive utilization checks are w^anted. For more intensive utilization
cheeks, it is suggested that the visual estimate method be used for shrubs,
and that an ocular estimate by plant method be used for grasses and
forbs, both in conjunction wdth line transects. For intensive studies of
jdeld and utilization, the actual weight method is suggested.

It should be stressed, however, that no matter what method of
utilization check is used, full consideration should be given to other
indicators. Allowable degree of cropping may vary considerably with
soil, slope, and other site dift'erences. The intensity of use a plant can
withstand can vary within species and with seasons. Reliable data must
be determined for each locality on the basis of what is happening on the
ground.

Aids for Sampling Forage Utilization

Key Areas: As has been pointed out before, the pattern of use by
grazing and browsing is seldom even. On some ranges, it is so uneven as
to create areas of heavy, moderate, and light cropping of forage plants.
This is particularly true of winter deer ranges where occurrence of snow

202 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

limits the distribution of animals for extensive periods. As a result, the
forap'e plants on mid-winter concentration areas are subject to more
intensive cropping than those occurring elsewhere on the range. It
follows, therefore, that where vegetation on such key areas is not over-
cropped, over-cropping should not occur generally over the balance of
the range. Sometimes, areas of steep slopes or light, unstable soils, may
be considered keys to a range.

Key areas can serve the range examiner once they are reliably
determined. Too critically important to sacrifice, field men may give
such key areas the intensive examination they deserve, confident that the
range will not suffer elsewhere as long as stocking does not exceed carry-
ing capacity on areas where use is heaviest.

In contrast to key areas, there occurs on most ranges small spots,
usually around water or along main passes, where vegetation must be
sacrificed if the range is to be used at all. Such areas are present on all
ranges. The objective should be to delimit them and not allow them to
spread.

Key Plant Species: Deer, like sheep and cattle, display preference
for certain foods. If present on a range, preferred plant species will
supply the bulk of the forage that deer consume.

Mitchell (1941) reported that on the Umatilla National Forest in
Oregon on 319 spots examined only eight of 68 plant species identified
appeared on 50 or more plots and of the eight only four were utilized by
deer and elk to an extent of 10 percent or more. He points out that
Einarsen (1940) found that blacktail deer in western Oregon used only
three plant species heavily and 19 species moderately to lightly in spite
of an abundance of varied vegetation.

Carhart (1941) reported that deer in Colorado generally depend
on a limited number of forage plants for their sustaining diet, and
indication are that they use these consistently whether the range is
overgrazed or not.

The Interstate Deer Herd Committee (1947) reported that bitter-
brush, sagebrush, juniper, and grass made up over 79 percent of the
volume of food taken by deer on that range as indicated by stomach
samples.

Many others have published supporting data to indicate that on
most deer ranges there exist a relatively few key plant species which deer
prefer and from which they take the bulk of their diet. While deer may
subsist on other food species, where the preferred plants are not present,
the loss of key plant species from a range is generally synonymous with
a lowering of carrying capacity. Mitchell reported that Forsling and
Storm (1929) found that cattle lost weight after the preferred plant
species were depleted, and we can safely assume that a similar prefer-
ence nutrition relationship applies to deer.

It follows that such preferred plant species are critical foods on
deer ranges and, like key areas, can serve to reduce the problem of
making adequate utilization checks. Because they are subject to the
heaviest use, it can be assumed that where these preferred plants are not
over-cropped, no other plant species of significant occurrence will be

RANGE SURVEY METHODS

203

generally over-ero])pecl. It is imixji-Uuit tluit key si)eeie.s be determined
on the ground. Once they are determined for any range unit, the range
examiner can limit liis utilization checks to observations of the degree of
cropping of a limited niiinber of plant species thus simplifying his job
immensch'.

Table 5 lists some of the forage plants preferred by deer on ranges
in the west. Field men will have to determine which plants are most
imjiortant on any specific range examined.

TABLE 5

Highly Rated Deer Forage Plants

(Only plant species rated high by at least one author are included in this table.
Ratings are derived from the following sources :

1. Plants rated as excellent, good, fair, and poor deer forage in "A Study of the
Life History and Food Habits of Mule Deer in California" ; Joseph S. Dixon, California
Fish and Game, Vol. 20, Nos. 3 and 4, 1934.

2. Palatability ratings from "A Study of Plants Eaten by Deer on the Santa
Barbara National Forest" ; Cyril S. Robinson, Region 5, Forest Service, 1936.

3. Preference ratings of from 0 to 100 based on weights of forage taken where
deer had a free choice. The first figure (viz. 80/30) is the rating when plants are green ;
the second, the rating when cured. Taken from "The Experimental Feeding of Deer" ;
A. A. Nichols, University of Arizona, 1938.

4. Preference ratings based on the percentage of the species in the deer diet divided
by the amount available on the range. Taken from "Colorado Deer-Elk Survey," Vol. 5,
Colorado Game and Fish Commission, 1941.)

Species

Common name
Shrubs and trees

Preference ratings

1

2

3

4

Amehnchier alnifolia

Service berry . .

2 09

Amorpha californica _

False indigo . .

80/50

Artemesia triderUata .

L

G
G
E
E

1.14

Cercocarp-us leiifolius

20
60
60
40

3 36

Cercocarpus betubides

Birch leaf mahogany

3.36

Ceanothus inte^errimus

Sweet birch .

Ceanothus leurodermis

Chaparral whitethorn _

Cemothu.^ fendteri

90/30
99/60
99/90
99/80
85/25

Caltiandra eriophylta

MesQuitillo . . _

CeUis pillida .

Celtis reticulata

Mountain hackberry .

Cowania stansburiana-

CUff rose

Ephedrasp .

L
E

40
20

1 07

Eriogonum nudum . .

Tall buck wheat

Eriogonum wrightii _

99/60
99/60
99/80

75/5

Eysenhardtia orihicarpa . .

Pendlcra Tupicnla ...

Krameria pirvifolia

Cosahui

Juniperua communis

5.00

Odenontoma repenn .

Creeping hollv' grape . _

5.78

Pachistima myrsinites

10.88

Populus spp

G
G
E
E

60"

99/99

Prunus emarginata

Bitter cherry .

Prosopi^ chilensis

Prosopis pubescent .

Screw bean - -

Pseudotsuga laxifolia. .

1.03

Purshia Iridenlata

Bitter brush .

E

.99

PuTshia glanduhsa

70

Quercus emoryii

90/10
80/10

Quercus gambelii . .

Ganibcl oak .

Quercus kelloggii

E
E
E

30
20

Quercus dumosa

California scrub oak _ _

Quercus v-iccinifolia .

Quercus spp.

Scrub oaks - _ - -

1.93

Rhammus crocea

70

80

Sambucus glauca

Elderberry -__ ..

Vitis arizonica

99/60

204

CALIFOIINIA FISH AND GAMfi

Common name
Forbs

Preference ratings

Artemesia mexicana

A stragalus nothoiys

Amaranthus palmeri...

Atriplex wrightii

Calandrinia caulescens.
Chenopodium fremontii.

Erodium spp

Ipomoea cordifolia

Lotus wrightii

Lotus mollis

Lotus americanus

Medicago hispida

Oenothera hookeri

Polygonum aviculare...

Portulaca lanceolata

Sonchus oleraceus

Talinnm patens

Trifolium obtusiflorum.

Vicia americana

Vieia sativa

Vicia exigua

Loco weed

Careless weed

Salt weed

Calandrina

Lambsquarter

Filaree

Morning glory

Buck clover

Birdsfoot trefoil...

Spanish clover

Bur clover

Evening primrose.

Yard weed

Purslane

Sow thistle

Talinum. _..

Creek clover

American vetch

Common vetch

Vetch..

E
G
G
E

L
G

20

30

90
20

80/10
80/—
99/—
75/-
95/—
99/—
— /99
75/-
85/—
95/—

95/-

80
60
60

99/-
99/-
99/-

85/15

Common name
Grasses and grasslike plants

Preference ratings

Species

1

2

3

4

Festuca elatior

E

40

Triodia mutica

Slim triodia

85/—

On most ranges there occur some plants which are not generally
abundant but which are eagerly sought and cropped by deer wherever
they are present. Not offering sufficient volumes of forage to become a
practical base for carrying capacity, such species can only be favored
by extremely light use or by rotation use practices not applicable to
deer. Further research may reveal that such plants offer trace elements
important to the well being of deer.

Conclusions

Sound deer management involves the production of deer on a sus-
tained cropping basis. As a crop, deer are indirectly a product of the
soil and directly a product of the palatable vegetation the soil sustains.
Where deer out-balance the forage supply, they over-crop range vege-
tation. Plants are damaged and start to thin out. This depletion of the
vegetation cover lowers carrying capacity and exposes soil to the action
of sun, wind, and water. It takes nature 300 to 1,000 years to produce
one inch of top-soil. Where soil is lost at a rate faster than that, fertility
declines and the better types of forage plants can no longer flourish.
Thus a vicious circle of destruction starts to revolve. If corrective meas-
ures are not taken in time the process must end inevitably in depletion
of deer numbers as well as damage to watersheds.

A basic problem in deer management is to balance the number of
deer on each range unit with the carrying capacity of that unit. The

RANGE SURVEY METHODS 205

deer rano-e manaprer should aim at adjustment of stoekinp: to a level at
which the ve<>'etative cover and/or the soil mantle will not be damaged
in any but the i>oorest growth years. It is believed the most direct and
reliable method of deei- population control is one based on utiliziation
checks of intensity of cr()i)ping key plant species on key areas (where
they occur), strongly supi)lcmented by observations of general range
condition and trend as shown by indicators as discussed in this paper.
Tlie deer range manager, by controlling consumption of forage,
work.s to maintain (or re-establish) a balance among range site factors.
Ilis standard in setting up range carrying capacities is to limit the
animals to that number which will take no more than the allowable crop
of forage, and will have a range maintenance reserve adequate to protect
the soil, regulate waterflow, and produce an optimum amount of forage
year after year.

References

Alclous, C. M.

1945. A winter study of nnih' doer in Nevada. .Tour. Wildlife Mgmt., Vol. 9, No. 2,
pp. 145-151.

Bauer, Harry

1943. The statistical analysis of chaparral and other plant communities by means
of transect samples. Ecology, Vol. 24, No. 1, pp. 45-GO.

Beruldsen, E. T., and Morgan, A.

1934. Notes on botanical analysis of irrigated pasture. Imp. Bur. Plant Genet.
Herbage Publ. Ser. Bull. 14, pp. 33-43.

Campbell, R. S., and Crofts, E. C.

1938. Tentative range utilization standards, Black Grama. S. W. For. and Range
Exp. Sta., Research Note, No. 26, 4 pp.

Carhart, Arthur H.

1941. Deer food requirements in Colorado; Colorado Game and Fish Commission,
Pittman-Robertson Deer-Elk Survey. Vol. 5, pp. 1-25.

, and Means, Harland

1941. Forage weight per acre method for appraisal of herbivorous animal require-
ments. Colorado (Jame and Fish Commission, Pittman-Robertson Deer-Elk
Survey, Vol. 5, pp. 29-51.
Clark, Ira

1945. Variability in growth characteristics of forage plants on summer range in
central Utah. .lour, of Forestry, Vol. 43, No. 4, pp. 273-283.

Costello, F. F., and Klipple, G. E.

1939. Sampling intensity in vegetation surveys made by the square foot density
method. .Jour. Amer. Soc. Agron. 31 (2) ; pp. 800-810.

Dasmann, William

1945. A method of estim.'iting carrying capacity of range lands. .Tour, of Forestry,
Vol. 43, No. 0 ; pp. 400-402. "

Dixon, Joseph S.

1934. A study of the life history and food habits of mnle deer in California. Calif.
Fish and Game, Vol. 20, Nos. 3 and 4, pp. 1.3(;-144.
Ellison, Lincoln, and Croft, A. R.

1944. Principles and indicsitors for judging condition and trend of high range
watersheds. Intermountain Forest and Range Expor. Sta. Research Paper
No. 0, Ogden, Utali, 0.5 pp.

206 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

Forsling, C. L., and Storm, Earle V.

1929. The utilization of browse forage on summer rauge for cattle in southwestern
Utah U. S. D. A. Circular 62, 29 pp.

Hormay, August L.

1943. A method of estimating grazing use of Bitterbrush. Calif. For. and Range
Exper. Sta., Research Note No. 35, 4 pp.

1944. Moderate grazing pays in California annual type ranges. Leaflet 2.39,
U. S. D. A., Forest Service, 8 pp.

Humbert, .John, and Dasmann, William

1945. Range Management — A restatement of definitions and objectives. Jour, of
Forestry, Vol. 43, No. 4, pp. 263-204.

Interstate Deer Herd Committee

1947. Second Progress report on the cooperative study of the interstate deer herd
and its range. Calif. Fish and Game, Vol. 33, No. 4, pp. 306-309.

Jardine, James T., and Anderson, Mark

1919. Range Management on the National Forest, U. S. D. A. Bulletin No. 790.

Lommasson, T., and Jensen, Chandler

1942. Determining the utilization of range grasses from Height-Weight tables.
Northern Region, U. S. Forest Service, 9 pp.

1938. Grass volume tables for determining range utilization. Sci. 87, pp. 444.

Mitchell, G. E.

1941. The determination of carrying capacity of wildlife areas. Sixth Trans.
N. Amer. Wildlife Conf., pp. 140-148.

Nichols, A. A.

1938. The experimental feeding of deer. University of Arizona, Tucson, 39 pp.

Pechanee, Joseph F., and Pickford, G. D.

1937a. A comparison of some methods used in determining percentage utilization
of range grasses. .Jour. Amer. Soc. Agron., Vol. 54, No. 10, pp. 753-765.

1937b. A weight estimate method for the determination of range or pasture pro-
duction. .Tour. Amer. Soc. Agron., Vol. 29, pp. 894-904.

Pickford, G. D., and Reid, E. A.

1940a. A comparison of the ocular-by-plot method and stubble-height methods of
determining percentage utilization of range forage. Range Research Progress
Report, 1937-1938 Pacific N. W. Forest and Range Exper. Sta., pp. 22-23.

1940b. Sampling intensities for some methods of estimating range forage. Range
Research Progress Report, 1937-1938; Pacific N. W. Forest and Range
Exper. Sta., pp. 1-21.

1942. Guides to determine range conditions and proper use of mountain meadows
in eastern Oregon. Range Research Report No. 3, Pacific N. W. Forest and
Range Exper. Sta., 19 pp.

Rasmussen, D. I., and Doman, Everett R.

1943. Census methods and their application in the management of mule deer.
Eighth Trans. N. Amer. Wildlife Conf., pp. 369-379.

Reid, Elbert H., and Pickford, G. D.

1942. An appraisal of range survey methods from the standpoint of effective man-
agement. Pacific N. W. Forest and Range Exper. Sta., 1942, 66 pp.

Robinson, Cyril S.

1936. A study of plants eaten by deer on the Santa Barbara National Forest.
Region 5, Forest Service, 8 pp.

Sampson, Arthur W.

1944. Effect of chaparral burning on soil erosion and on soil moisture relations.
Ecology, Vol. 25, No. 2, pp. 171-191.

1923. Range and Pasture Management. John Wiley & Sons, 421 pp.

ftANGE SURVEY METHODS 20 7

Schwan, H. E., and Swift, Lloyd

1!>41. Forage inventory methods with special references to big game ranges. Sixth
Trans. N. Amer. Wildlife Conf., pp. 118-125.

Smith, Arthur D.

1I>44. A study of the reliability of range vegetation estimates. Ecology, Vol. 25,
No. 4, pp. 441-448.

Stewart, G., and Hutchings, S. S.

1936. The Point-obser»ation plot method of vegetation survey. Jour. Amer. ii<tc.
Agron., Vol. 28. pp. 714-22.

Stoddart, L. A., and Ra.<nnussen, D. I.

1945. Deer Management and Range Livestock Pr^xJu'^'tion. Circular 121, Agricul-
tural Exi^»er. Sta., Utah St^itr- .Vgricullural College, Logan, Utah, 17 pp.

Talbot, M. W.

1937. Indicators of southwestern range cfjndilions. U. S. D. A. Farmer's Bulletin
17S2, 34 pp.

U. S. Forest Service

1940. HandlK»ok for range manag'-rs. Kegion 5, 243 pp.

Western Range Survey Conference

1937. Interagencj- Range Sur^-ey Committee. Instructions for range surveys. Zi) i>\).
WLite, Frandsen, Humphrey, and Xel.son

1942. Range Condition. Soil Conservation Service. Rejrion 7, 32 pp.

FERTILITY OF EGGS OF THE RING NECKED

PHEASANT '

By nowAKi) TwiM.Nc;,- 1Ii:.m;y A. H.ikksma.n, and \Vai.i..\(K MA((;i!i:(;nR

ISuroaii of Game Conservation

California Division of Fish and Game

Investigators who have Avoi-kcd with wild pheasants are aware of
the importance that sportsmen attach to the existence of ;in optimum
cock-hen ratio. Hunters fear tliat intensive Imiitinu- pressure may reduce
the number of cocks below the point at wliich all hens will be successfully
mated.

Standard textbooks on poultry, such as Lippincott and Card (1946),
recommend a ratio of one rooster to as high as 2.") hens for ^lediterranean
type chickens. Byerly and Godfrey- (1!)37) found that of 65 laying
pullets mated to a light Sussex male, 62 laid some fertile eggs. Teget-
meyer (1911, p. 109) representing the point of view of the old English
gamekeeper recommends one cock pheasant to six hens. Xestor (1948,
p. 49) states that in pheasants a ratio of one cock to five or six hens is
desirable for coverts in England. James Ashley, biologist of the Cali-
fornia Division of Fish and Game, tells of talking with a keeper of a
shooting preserve in Norfolk, p]ngland. This man considered the optimum
ratio of cocks to hens to be 1 to 13, provided the cock distribution through
the coverts was uniform. If he found that there were too many cocks
just before nesting season, he would shoot the wandering cocks that
seemed to be attached to no territory until the 1 to 13 ratio was reached.
Beebe (1926, p. 52) observed a harem size of four to eight hens for the
Chinese pheasant in its native range. Randall (1941, p. 6), working in
Pennsylvania on an area with a sex ratio of one cock to seven hens, found
"fertility" was 94.1 percent. Einarsen (MS) describes the actions of a
cock that had been placed in a tield pen with 12 hens. The bird was
observed mating 31 times during the month the birds were under observa-
tion. Some matings Avere probably not observed. "Fertility" was 89.8
percent in this field, where brailed birds were being studied.

Shick (1947) found that pheasant hens on a game farm produced
"fertile" eggs for an average maximum of 22 days after the cock bird
was removed from the cage. lie cites experiments made at game farms in
Iowa which showed 75 percent fertilit}^ of eggs collected from a pen
with one cock and 50 hens. lie points out that the spring sex ratio on
the Prairie Farm in ]\Iicliigan has averaged one cock to seven hens but
data resulting from studies on nesting in this area have shown a normal

1 Submitted for publication May, 191S. Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration, Project
California 22-R. The Life History and Management of the Ring-necked Pheasant in
California.

Dr. Lewis Taylor, of the Poultry Research Laboratory, University of California,
has been kind enough to furnish numerous references in the literature on the subject of
fertility of hens' eggs and has assisted greatly by applying his knowledge of poultry to
problems related to pheasants.

2 Resigned May 31, 1948.

G— 92408 ( 209 )

210 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

production of ' ' fertile ' ' eggs. He concludes that it appears reasonable to
assume that a single cock easily could service 10 to 12 hens in a breeding
season.

Investigators on the subject heretofore commonly have determined
fertility by incubating the eggs and observing the development of the
eggs. Those that are candled out after a few days of incubation and
show no sign of development are called "infertile. " Field workers study-
ing pheasant nesting habits have made a practice of breaking intact
eggs left in a nest after the brood has hatched. Those eggs that show no
sign of development have been called "infertile" and the blame is
usually placed on unsuccessful mating.

Investigators of reproduction in game birds so far have used the
word "fertile" to apply to those eggs that are capable of hatching,
and in so using the word are in accord with definitions given in dic-
tionaries. Embryologists would prefer that this term be reserved for
eggs in which fertilization has taken place, whether or not the fertilized
o\Tim is capable of embryonic development. Thus, if development of a
fertile egg is stopped by some early zygotic lethal (or inherent death
factor), the egg would be classified as one with dead germ but still would
be classed "fertile." Henceforth in this article the terra fertile will be
used according to the embryologist 's definition.

Fertility of eggs can be established cpiickly and easily by exam-
ination of the germinal disc. For a person doing field research on game
birds the technique is simple and invaluable in establishing percentages
of fertile eggs to be found in the wild or on the game farm. In early
June of 1947, for example, 45 percent of the eggs at a California state
game farm failed to develop. Examination of samples of fresh eggs,
however, showed 100 percent fertility. It was found that the hot sun
had killed the germ before any visible sign of development. A comparison
of fertility and hatchability of chicken eggs has been reported by Munro
and Kosin (1945).

Description of Fertile and Infertile Eggs

The infertile germinal disc is whiter than the fertile and its margins
are irregular. There are many clear vacuoles (lacunae) usually con-
centrated around the edge of the disc. Pandor (1817) made drawings
of fertile and infertile discs and described each briefly. Prevost and
Dumas (1827) described in detail the gross appearance of germinal discs.
Kosin (1945) in describing the infertile bla.stodisc, points out that the
most conspicuous feature "* * * is the presence of varying numbers
of large lacunae, in extreme cases giving the surface a reticular appear-
ance. These lacunae are nothing more or less than gaps on the protoplasm
of the disintegrating blastodisc. When these gaps are deep enough, they
reach to the underlying yolk, which then can be seen through them."
Drawings of fertile and infertile germinal discs depicting general differ-
ences are shown in Figure 75.

The fertile germinal disc of both pheasant and chicken eggs can be
quickly and easily distinguished without the aid of a glass. The area
opaqua (outer ring") is not an intense white. The disc is round or nearly
so and the margins are clean cut. The area pellucida (central core) is
often clear but frequently is invaded bj' greater or lesser amounts of

FERTILITY OF PHEASANT EGGS

211

Albumen

Yolk
Germinal Disc

Infertile

FiGURR 75. Germinal discs of unincubated ring-necked pheasant eggs

white material. One or more small vacuoles may occasionally occur on
the periphery of the blastoderm. Kosin (loc. cit.) shows that the fertilized
blastoderm at the time of layinci: consists of several thousands of cells
in contrast to the unfertilized egg which undergoes no cell division.
Byrd (in litt.) in an investigation of fertility of chicken eggs has segre-
gated fertile germinal discs into four types according to the appearance of
the white material in the area pellueida. lie has found that an infertile
disc may occasionally superficially resemble a fertile one. Close exam-
ination, however, will reveal many inconspicuous vacuoles in the disc.
Examination, by us, of 105 pheasant eggs disclosed only one of this type.

Kosin (1945) classified eggs as infertile and fertile, then incubated
the yolks and watched for development. He found that "* * * the
macroscopic method of detecting fertile blastoderms is in complete agree-
ment with the incubation data. ' '

Characteristics of infertile and fertile chicken eggs closely parallel
those of pheasants.^ In comparing our results with those of Olsen, it
appears that pheasant eggs show a greater tendency toward invasion of
white material into the area pellueida.

Materials and Methods

In 1946 a limited fertility experiment was conducted with Mon-
golian ring-necked pheasants at a California state game farm. On May
21st eight hens were separated from cocks and placed in a common pen.

212

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

No record was kept of eggs collected on May 21st and 26th. During the
remaining- 30 da.ys eggs Avore collected daily and date-marked with pencil
to insure separate handling. There was a total egg production of 104 for
this period.

The method employed was to set the eggs in an incubator for hatch-
ing. The eggs were candled daily and when it was determined that
embryonic development had ceased in any of the eggs, the latter were
broken into Petri dishes for examination of the germinal disc or embryo.
A dissecting microscope and hand lens were available but seldom
employed as they infrequently contributed to accuracy.

In 1947 search of certain areas in the Sacramento Valley resulted in
the finding of 171 Chinese ring-necked pheasant nests. Only 38 clutches
hatched. When it became obvious that eggs in certain nests could not
hatch, the eggs were picked up and used for analysis of fertility. These
included eggs that were occasionally left in a nest after predation, eggs
left in abandoned nests, and eggs from dump nests, (nests in which more
than one hen lays eggs, which are seldom hatched). Single eggs were
classified as "dropped eggs." Many additional eggs were obtained from
nests that had been exposed in mowed fields. A total of 2,522 eggs of
wild pheasants were picked up and of these 1,228 were examined ; yet no
nest capable of hatching was disturbed. In addition 337 eggs from the
State Game Farm at Yountville, discarded for purposes of incubation
because of cracks or breaks in the shell incurred in laying or in handling,
were checked for fertility. Eggs were broken into Petri dishes in the
laboratory for examination.

Results of Fertility Tests

In the limited fertility experiment of 1946 it was found that the
gross fertility was 76.0 percent up to and including the day of the last
fertile egg which was laid on the twenty-seventh day, June 16. It was

Egg F

TABLE 1
ertility Computations

Total
nests

Number
eggs
found

Unexam-
ined or
undeter-
mined

Number
fertile
eggs

Number

infertile

eggs

Percent of

fetility of

examined

eggs

I. Field Study Nests

Dump nests . ' ■__ _.

49

77
38

7

553

672

354

77

18

438
150
230

193

556

27

17

5

264

80

149

334

112

349

60

8

166
67
81

26
4
5
0
5

8
3
0

92.8

Destroyed' .

96.6

Hatched2

98.6

Abandoned

Dropped eggs

100.0
61.5

II. Mowed Field Nests

Alfalfa, 1st cutting

65
23
29

95.4

Alfalfa, 2d cutting..

95.7

Vetch

100.0

III. Totals of Wild Eggs...

2,522
337

1,291
6

1,177
306

51
25

95.9

IV. Yountville Game Farm

Cracked eggs

92.4

Grand totals.

288

2,859

1,297

1,483

76

95.1

1 Eggs left after visit by predator, trampling by sheep, etc. Included some dump nests.

2 Undeveloped eggs left after hatching have been placed in the infertile column. The percentage of fertility
then could not be less than 98.6 percent.

FERTILITY OF PHEASANT EGGS

213

found that the fertility dropped markedly the twenty-first day after
sexual segregation (Figure 2a). I'revious to the noticeable drop in fer-
tility on the twenty-first day, the fertility averaged 89.7 percent. Owing
to the small number of hens involved and the lateness of the laying sea-
son it was decided to repeat the experiment in subsequent years.

Comparative fertility of eggs collected in 1947 is shown in Table 1.
Only 13 dropped eggs were examined of which eight were fertile (61.5
percent). Fertility of eggs found in dump nests (92.8 percent) was
slightly lower than that for destroyed nests (96.G percent) or for hatched
nests (98.6 percent or higher) . Sixty eggs from six abandoned nests were
all fertile as were 81 eggs from nests found in mowed vetch fields.

Nests found in mowed alfalfa fields included eggs from both dump
nests and "going nests" (being incubated). Fertility averaged !>5.4 per-
cent for the first cutting of alfalfa and 95.7 percent for the second cutting.

The pre-nesting sex ratio in the areas in which nests were found
varied from 59 cocks to 100 hens to 27 cocks to 100 hens. No difference was
noted in fertility of eggs from areas of different cock-hen ratios.

In both 1947 and 1948 no areas with a markedly unbalanced cock-
hen ratio could be found ; so the effect on fertility of a shortage of cocks

May2l-3I '

June 1-21

April 24-30

May 1-31

T^MoyHI I
April 2&50

Figure 7G. Fertile egg production of pheasant hens in a state game farm. Broken
lines indicate days during which data were not secured, (a) Fertile egg production of
eight pheasant hens segregated from cocks in 1946. (b) Fertile egg production of 24
pheasant hens segregated from cocks in 1947. A single cock was reintroduced with the
hens the evening of May 24th. (c) The ri.se in fertility of eggs from 24 phea.sant hens
after introduction of a single cock on April 25, 194S.

2l4 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

could not be studied for wild birds. Twenty-four hens were sepj^rated
from tlieir cocks on April 24, 1947, at a State Game Farm. Eggs from
this cage were thenceforth collected daily. The date of collection was
marked on the shell of each egg and examination for fertility was made at
the end of each week. After the twenty-first day, fertility dropped
steeply (Figure 2b). The last fertile egg was laid on the twenty -ninth
day after removal of the cocks.

One cock was introduced into this pen on the third day after the last
fertile egg was laid. For four days thereafter, because of a misinterpre-
tation of instructions, eggs were not picked up. On the fifth day fertility
was already up to 46.1 percent (Figure 2b) . By the twelfth day fertility
was 84.0 percent, and by the eighteenth day it was 91.7 percent, or about
average for the game farm. Thereafter, fertility fell off slightly, possibly
because of the lateness of the season.

The following year a similar experiment was made. The last fertile
egg was laid on April 20th, twenty-six days after the cocks were removed.
A single cock was put in the cage with 24 hens on April 25th, and eggs
were picked up daily thereafter. The eggs collected between the sixth
and fifteenth days after the introduction of the cock averaged 84.0 per-
cent fertile. The rise in fertility is shown in Figure 2c.

As a test of the ability of one cock to service a large number of hens,
a single cock was put in a cage with 50 hens before breeding started. On
April 22, 23, and 24, 1948, these hens laid 105 eggs. Examination of
these showed 91 to be fertile (86.7 percent) and 14 infertile. This com-
pared favorably with the average percentage of fertility (86.3 percent)
for this game farm during the period of April 23d to May 8th of the
previous year.

Again from May 18 to 22, 1948, 100 eggs were collected from this
pen, of which 90 were examined by cutting a window one centimeter
square in the shell of each egg. The shell membrane was removed with a
pair of forceps. The germinal disc was then typed as fertile or infer-
tile and the data written on the shell. The windows were sealed with
cellulose tape and the eggs were incubated for 24 hours, when they were
re-examined for development. In the 90 eggs examined development had
proceeded according to the original fertility typing. Of these eggs 65
(72.2 percent) were fertile. It is pointed out that an infection of gape-
worm in the parent birds seemed to have lowered egg production and
also may have affected the fertility.

Summary

The germinal disc of an infertile egg is whiter than that of a fertile
egg, the margin is irregular, and there are many clear lacunae (vacuoles)
usually concentrated around the edge of the disc. The germinal disc of a
fertile egg is not an intense white, the margin is clean cut, and, except in
unusual cases, there are no vacuoles.

An examination of 1,177 eggs picked up from wild nests showed a
percentage of fertility of 61.5 for dropped eggs, 92.8 for dump nests, 96.6
for destroyed nests, 98.6 or higher for hatched nests. Sixty eggs from six
abandoned nests were all fertile as were 81 eggs from nests found in
mowed fields. No difference was noted in fertility of eggs from areas with
cock-hen ratios ranging from 59 cocks to 100 hens to 27 to 100 hens.

FERTILITY OF PHEASANT EOGS 215

Wlion 24 liens were separated from cocks, fertility dropped off steeply
after the twenty-first day. The last fertile ep'g was laid on the twenty-
ninth day after separation. Fertility of 50 hens with one cock was 86.7
percent in April and 72.2 percent in May.

Conclusion

Tests on the jiame farm have shown that a ratio of one cock to 24
hens or one cock to 50 hens resnlts in normal fertility of eggs. Our experi-
ments have shown that one servicing by the cock lasts for a period of
about 21 days. Shick (loc. cit. p. 304) found that the average was 22 days.
On an area (Sartain Ranch) that received perhaps the heaviest hunting
pressui-e in California in 1946 the cock-hen ratio dropped to 3.4 cocks to
100 hens. An influx of cocks from other areas changed this ratio to 22
cocks to 100 hens before breeding season, but the evidence indicates that
even though the post-hunting season ratio had remained unchanged, there
would have been no problem of infertility of hens.

In no instance have sex ratios as low as two cocks to 100 hens been
observed in the field, a ratio which the previous pages have shown result
in an adequate percentage of egg fertility. Given a reasonably short sea-
son and adequate cover, hunters will not shoot down the cocks to the point
below which fertility of hens is endangered. Legal hunting of cocks there-
fore, has little effect on the field fertility of pheasants in their observed
Sacramento Valle}^ habitat.

References

Beebe. Willinm

1926. Plicasnnts, their lives and homes. Doubleday, Page & Co. Garden Citv, New
York, 2 vols., IT, pp. .•'.09, 30 ills.
Byrd. Samuel F.

In lift. Letter from Dr. Samuel F. Byrd to Howard Twining dated February, 1948,
concerning work done hy Dr. Marlowe Olsen.
r.yerly, T. C. and (Jodfrey, A. B.

19.'i7. Fertilizing capacity of male chickens in natural matings. C(mf. on the
National Poultry Improvement I'lan : r»4-r(S.
Dorland, W. A. Newman

1947. The American illustrated medical dictionary. I'liiladelphia and London, W. B.
Saunders Co., 1660 pp.

Einarsen, A. S.

1948. Unpublished manuscript ou field fertility of pheasants.
Kosin. Igor L.

1945. The accuracy of the macroscoi)ic method in identifying fertile Tiuincuhated
germ discs. Foultry Sci. 24 (3) : 2S1-2S3.

Lippincott. W. A. and Card, I.. E.

1946. Poultry production; 7th Ed. Lea and Febiger, Piiila., Pennsvlvania ; Tables
39, 440 pp.

Munro, S. S. and Kosin. I. L.

1945. Proof of the existence of pre-ovipositional embryonic deaths in the chickens
and their bearing on the relation between fertility and hatchability. Canadian
•Tounial Res., Section D., Zool. Sci. Vol. 23 : 129-138.
Nestor

1948. Suggestions for increasing wild pheasants. Country Sportsman 25 (270) ; 49,

216 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

rander, C. H.

1917. Beitrage zur Entwickliiigsgescliichte des IliihncliL'ns iui Eye. Bruiiiier. Wurz-
burg, 42 pp., 11 ills.

Prevost, J. L. and Dumas, J. B.

1827. Menioire siir le developpemeiit du poulet dans I'oeuf. Am. Sci. Nat. XII :
pp. 415-443.

Randall. Biorce E.

1041. The life equation of the ring-necked pheasant in Pennsylvania, Pennsylvania
Game News, Vol. 7, No. 4 : 6-7.

Shick, Charles

1947. Sex ratio — egg fertility relationships in the ring-necked pheasant. Jour.
Wildlife Mgmt., Vol. 11, No. 4 : 302-306.

Tegetmeyer, W. B.

1911. Pheasants — their natural history and practical management. Horace Cox,
London ; 276 jip.

NOTES

DO LOBSTERS SHRINK WHEN COOKED?

Some fish dealers claim that the spiny lobster {I^aniilirus interrup-
fns) shrinks in lonji'th as a resnlt of cookin;j: and subsequent icinfr or
refrip-eration. Some dealers honestly believe this, but more frequently
this claim is a convenient alibi for possessinjo^ "shoi'ts" a little under
the legal minimum si7.(> limit of 10^ im-hes. On several occasions during
the last few years, fish and game wardens have measured a number
of lobsters before and after cooking and have found no shrinkage in
length but unfortunately these trials were not recorded for future
reference.

In order to have a definite record, the following trial was made at
a San Pedro fish market on ]\Iarch 15, 1948. P'ifteen live lobsters were
measured at 10 a.m. The small lobsters, or "bugs" as they are often
called, were cooked about noon and left to cool that afternoon. They were
iced the following morning and measured again about 1.30 p.m. on
March 16th. The two measurements were made carefully in the same
manner by the same warden nsing the same measuring stick. Measure-
ments were read to the nearest sixteenth of an inch. Each lobster was
marked with a serially numbered metal tag clamped on the tail.

The accompanying table presents the results in inches and six-
teenths.

Alive

Cooked and iced

Change in
length to

Inches

Sixteenths

Inches

Sixteenths

Hi of
an inch

10

12
8
8
8
9
8

12
8
8

12
13
12
12
8
14

10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
11
10
12
10
12

12
10

8

8

8

8

12

10

8

14

12

10

10

8

14

10
10

-4-2

10

10
10

—1

10

10
10

-12

10
11
10
12
10

^ 2
-1
-2
-2

12

The lobster is a rather awkward animal to measure accurately and
small variation is to be expected in several measurements of the same
lobster. Use of a scale graduated in units smaller than one-sixteenth of
an inch therefore does not seem justified. It is apparent from the avail-
able figures that the natural error in measurement is greater than

( 217 )

218 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

possible shrinkace due to eooldii":. In fact the limited measurements
available do not prove that any shrinkag'e or lengthening occurs. If there
is any shrinkage it would require very careful measurement of a large
number of animals before such a slight change in length could be
demonstrated. For all practical purposes the shrinkage or lengthening,
if any, is negligible and can be disregarded.

Pleading shrinkage as an excuse for possessing short lobsters is not
a new idea. At San Diego nearly 30 years ago (March 27, 1919) fish and
game wardens measured 78 lobsters before and after cooking but the
measurements were recorded in quarter inches. Tn five instances on the
first measurement a border line case was estimated in eighths of an inch.
The second measurement, after cooking, was less carefully done and in
only one case was an eighth inch recorded. The final result showed an
average of one-sixteenth of an inch shorter on the second measurement,
which seems to have been considered as evidence that shrinkage could be
disregarded. This result can not be accepted as demonstrating shrink-
age. The scale units used were too large and obvioush'' the second measure-
ment was more hastily taken so that the two measurements were not
stricth' comparable. The wardens of 30 years ago were not concerned
with splitting hairs to a sixteenth of an inch. Maybe they were right.
If there is any shrinkage, it is too small to notice on an ordinary measur-
ing stick, so what difference does it make whether the lobster shrinks or
not? — W. L. Sco field, Bureau of Marine Fisheries, California Division
of Fish and Game, March, 1948.

DEEP DRAGGING BY EUREKA OTTER TRAWLERS

During the month of April, 1948, two otter trawl captains, Noel
Franklin of Wiq" Andrew Jackson" and Ralph Mason of the "Memories"
dropped their nets out near the 200 fathom curve off of the Northern
California coast. They obtained good catches of Dover sole, Microstomus
pacificus, and sablefish, Anoplopoma fimbria. A scarcity of Dover sole in
the depths where they were normally taken led to the exploration of the
deeper water. As a result of these experiments, fishing operations are
being conducted at depths varying between 185 and 215 fathoms. No
change in gear was used other than a cable to depth ratio of 2 to 1 rather
than the 3 to 1 ratio usually employed. By a cable to depth ratio is meant
the amount of cable necessary to make the net fish properly at the
desired depth. Cable lengths of 300 fathoms are commonly used to fish
depths of 100 fathoms, but it was found that a cable length of 400 fathoms
would allow the drag net to fish properly at 200 fathom depths.

By deep dragging the fishermen stated that they could obtain a full
load in a day and a half, while four- or five-day trips had to be made
when fishing in shallower water to obtain a similar load. Single hauls
of 15,000 pounds were made by these large trawl vessels. As a result
of the success of these two vessels, additional trawlers with winches large
enough to carry the extra steel cable required, will probably be rigged
for dragging in deeper water. The bottom area between 100 and 200
fathoms, newly invaded by these trawlers, will add approximately 1,500
square miles to the 6,000 already utilized by the California trawl fishery.

A sample of the deep water catch indicated that the Dover sole had
spav\Tied some months previous to being caught. The average weight of

NOTES 219

the fish measured in the round, was two pounds and five ounces with
vi\u<xi' limits of fi-om one to five pounds. The 100 fish sample varied in
lenjith between 14 and 2:j inches with an avera«;e of 19 inches. Measure-
ments were made from the tip of the snout to the end of the longest
caudal ray.

Dee]) dragginiG: allows the vessels to follow the Dover sole on their
migrations to deeper water. The abundaiu'e of sablefish at these greater
depths makes dragging there additionally lucrative. The opening of
new area to the fishery will tend to relieve the pressui'e on old grounds
where other species have been subjected to increasingly heavy fishing
during the last 15 years.

The few Rex sole, Glyptoccphalus zacMrus, seen in the catch were
mostly females heavy with eggs. Sablefish made up about 40 percent of
the total catch, but the fishermen said they threw back many of the small
sablefish weighing less than five pounds, as the market will not accept
them. It is of interest to note that the small sablefish were not spared by
the five-inch mesh nets in use on these vessels. — Edwin K. Holmherg,
Bureau of Marine Fisheries, California Division of Fish and Game,
Maij, 1948.

USE OF DUKW'S IN THE FISHERY FOR BASKING SHARKS,

CETORHINUS MAXIMUS

An unusual and unique method of fishing for basking sharks is
being emplo3''ed by fishermen at Pismo Beach, California. This entails
the use of surplus U. S. Army DUKWs in team with a small land plane
of the Piper Cub type.

The DUKW is parked on the beach and the plane makes routine
scouting trips over the water. When a group of basking sharks is sighted,
the plane circles the spot and calls the DUKW by one-way radio. The
DUKW with a crew of three travels up or dowm the beach until opposite
the circling plane and then enters the surf. Most of the sharks are taken

TPJSK23J: I.B

m

j»> «^ at

Figure 77. DUKW and plane on lieacli at Pismo. Photo by .John F. Janssen, Jr.

220

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

between one-fourth mile and one mile off-shore and within four feet of
the surface.

The plane remains in sight of any other sharks in a school while
the one which has been harpooned is being killed by the crew of the
DUKW. The dead shark is then tied to an anchored buoy and the DUKW
goes to shore, races up or down the beach until opposite the remainder
of the school of sharks and again enters the surf. The same procedure
is repeated until the sharks have either sounded or moved out of the
vicinity.

The sharks are left tied to anchored buoys (usually not over two
days), until sold to a processing plant via long distance telephone. When
a shark has been sold, the crew of the DUKW takes one end of a long

Figure 78. DUKW showing pulpit and spear ready for use. Truck is sometimes used
for pulling the carca.ss to the beach. Photo by John P. Janssen, Jr.

line out through the surf and ties it to the tail of the shark. The DUKW
then returns to shore, where the other end of the rope is hooked up to
its winch and the shark is pulled ashore, up a sliding ramp, and into
the bed of a truck, which hauls it to the processing plant.

During the calendar year, 1947, approximately one hundred basking
sharks were taken at Pismo Beach by these DUKW's. In the first two
months of 1948, some fifteen were landed. The best day in 1947 for a
single DUKW was seven sharks.— John E. Fitch, Bureau of Marine Fish-
eries, California Division of Fish and Game, June, 1948.

RETIREMENT OF S. H. DADO

S. H. Dado, Assistant Chief, Bureau of Marine Fisheries, retired
on June 80, 1948, after over 30 years' service with the Division of
Fish and Game. Starting as a Special Agent in 1918, Mr. Dado was
made Senior Supervising Deputy in 1927. His title was changed to
Assistant Chief of the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, as it was then
known, in 1931.

NOTES 221

Howard Dado, in his long association with N. B. Scofield wlio
founded the Bureau, was instrumental in the growth of the organization
which administers the extremely important marine fisheries of the State.
Since his first apiioiiitment, the fishing industry has grown tenfold, and
all this time Howard has maintained close touch with the members of
the industry, compiling catch reports and giving guidance to the industry.

When ]\Ir. Dado's retirement was announced, the Fish and Game
Commission passed the following resolution :

"WiiKRKAS, For the past thirty years Mr. S. H. Dado, Assistant Ciiicf.
Bureau of Marine Fisheries, has faitlifully served the piihlic, the State of Cali-
fornia, and the Fish and (Jame Commission ; and

"WiiKHEAS, Durins this time Mr. Dado has given unsparinRly of his talents
toward the sniontli functioning; of liis I'ureau wliich lias thrown to keep i)aee
with the e.\i)an(linf; fisheries ; now, therefore, he it

"h'csolrcd hy the Fish and fJame Commission of the State of California,
in reguhir meeting assenihled, that its regret be e.\i)ressed to Mr. Dado at his
retirement ; and be it further

"Jicsolved, That its thanks and appreciation be and hereby are expressed
publicly to Mr. Dado for his contributions to progress in fisheries conservation."

These sentiments were reaffirmed by representatives of the fisheries.

The best wishes of all his associates go to Howard and Mrs. Dado,
who will continue to make their home in San Mateo. — Richard S. Croker,
Chief, Bureau of Marine Fisheries, California Division of Fish and Game,
July, 1948.

RETIREMENT OF W. C. MALONE

W. C. Malone, having reached retirement age, was retired on June
30, 1948.

' ' Bill ' ' Malone was appointed a part-time deputy with the State in
1916. At that time, he was County Fish and Game Warden for San
Bernardino County. He was made a full-time State Deputy in 1930, and
has served in that capacity until retirement. Except for a few temporary
assignments, his entire career with the division has been in San Ber-
nardino County.

Many changes have occurred in fish and game since Bill Malone first
became a warden in San Bernardino County in 1916, and he has many
interesting experiences to recount.

Bill and Mrs. Malone will make their home in San Bernardino. Our
best wishes go to them for a long, and happy retirement. — L. F. Chappell,
Bureau of Patrol, California Division of Fish and Game, August, 1948.

RETIREMENT OF H. C. JACKSON

It is with regret that we announce the retirement of Assistant Chief
of Patrol H. C. Jackson, which occurred June 30, 19-18, after 17 years
of service with the bureau.

Assistant Chief Jackson entered state service as a fish and game
warden in 1931, and was stationed in Santa Barbara County. In 1938 he
was elevated, through promotional examination, to the position of Captain
of Patrol. He served in this capacity in several of the Southern California
districts until 1946, at which time he was promoted to Assistant Chief
of Patrol.

222 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

The training' school for wardens was started at this time, and Jack-
son, in addition to other dnties, was assigned the task of initiating the
school in-ograni, serving as its director. The accomplishments of the school
under his management, were outstanding and met with unanimous
approval. He was largely responsible for the compilation of information
for the "California Warden's Manual," which is an exceptional publi-
cation on the subject.

Chief and Mrs. Jackson will make their home in Southern California,
and intend to do considerable traveling. Our best wishes go to them for
a happy and enjoyable retirement. — Ij. F. Chappell, Bureau of Patrol,
California Division of Fish and Game, August, 1948.

REVIEWS

One Day at Teton Marsh

I>v Sallv C';iniis;li;u- ; illustratt'd hv Goor^e and I'atritia Mattson. New York,
Knopf, 1947. 2:«) pp., illus. $3.50.

As the title .states, the story is set at Teton Marsh, Wyoming, and covers a
period of a few days during the autumnal equinoctial storms. The marsh was created
from a meadow by a heaver dam and the destruction of the dam during the storm
effects the li\es and welfare of the several animals desci-ihed in the story.

The activities of each (')f the lu-incipal charactei-s are covered in separate chapters
but the interrelationship between them is clear.

The book can be read in installments without affecting its continuity and is
heartily recommended for limited time reading or for an evening's pleasure. — Jan
F. Afifilcy, Valifoniia IHcision of Fish and Game.

'les

The Ways of Fishes

By Ijconard P. Schultz, Curator of Fishes, ^Smithsonian Institution, United
States National Museum, with Edith JNI. Stern. A'an Noslrand Co., Inc., 1948. 264 pp.,
S<l figs. $4.

The title of this volume is highly successful in that it provides the reader with a
clear idea of the contents. l»r. Schultz himself has furiher defined them in his i)reface :
"This book will make no attempt to give a comprehensive picture of the behavior of
fishes. It will simply tell something at)out the habits of those fishes which seem to me
most unusual and interesting."

There is here, then, no effort at an organized i)resentation of facts about evolu-
tion, anatomy or physiology. 'Fhere is, instead, a series of notes or comments, many
of which are drawn from Dr. Schultz's personal observations. He has traveled widely
in North and South America, and in the far Pacific regions. He has traveled largely
for the purpose of finding out about fish. And his writings show his tremendous energy,
his enthusiasm, and his interest in all that has to do. with his favorite form of animal
life. Kandoin selections from his chapter headings show the wide range of topics
covered : "Migration," "Fishes dangerous to man," "Males that incubate," "Electricity
and luminescence," "Nest builders in streams."

One may Avish that a more complete and critical account had been given of the
"homing" of salmon than the two i)ages allotted to this, one of the moat talked of,
investigated, and written about of all fish "ways"; one may question the amount of
space {']0 pages) devoted to the classification of fishes in the appendix, a check list,
down to f.-imilies, of all known fishes living and fossil — and wonder whether tihose
so advanced in ichthyology .ns to benefit from this will be readers of the rest of the
volume. I>ut no one can help being interested in Dr. Schultz's personal encounters
with stinging fish in the United States, in South America and in the South Pacific;
in the exact and revealing observations he made, while stationed at Bikini waiting
for the finale of "Operations Crossroads," on flying fishes, their motive power,
methods of locomotion, speed of flight and distances covered ; in his rectification of
many of the mlsconce])tions about sh.-uks, coupled with his verification of the fact
that certain species do attack and devour human beings ; in his brief but none the less
vivid summary of his own very thorough observations on the spawning act of the
landlocked sockeye salmon, otherwise known as the "little redfish" or kokanee. And,
for my money, as it will I expect be for many others', the most successful single chapter
in the book is "Home Aquaria : Their A B C's" : eight pages of do's and don't's, of
advice about such essential factors as oxygen, plants, light, temperature, feeding and the

RFA'IEWS 223

like, so siinpi.v and so coinp.ictl.v presented ;is (o make il possible for tlit; he^inner to set
up and keep a home aquarium williout passiii;; throujih the many pitfalls which often
beset liis path. — lirian Cidtis. ('itli)oiiii(i Dirision of I'isli and (Iditic.

Animals Alive

I'l.v Austin II. Clark; illustrations by Fre(lerici< M. I'.a\er. I >. \'aii Xosti-.nid
Co., 1!)4,S. 42(J pp., illus., appendix, in(le.\. $4.

This is one of a new j;roup of books in various fields of natural history desi^'ned
for the entertainment and education of the K**ueral reader. 'Die authors have been
selected from the staff of the Smithsonian Institution. This alone should indicate the
ami)le (lualiticalions of Dr. Clark to write such a bo<>k.

The i>recise infoi-mation contained is presented in an easy manner wbicii will
not bore the diletante in zoology. At the same time no ))rofessional biologist can read
this book without adding {;r*':itl.V to his store of knowledfje. It is as if you f?ot the
professor to talking- after the lecture was over and he told of the many sidelights of
his subject. In other words, this is true science in its most readable foiin.

Any book of this sort must of necessity lack much coutinuiry. However, the
reader will be so intriiruefl by the continuous How of interesting' information that more
than an outline is unnecessary.

The title mif,dit have been "An Introduction to Ecology" as the animals are
considered in their environnu-nt rather than as zoo si)ecimens. This book will be a
valuable auxiliary to the regular college zoology text and will also be of use as collateral
reading on the high school level.

The illustrations are scienl ifically accurate altlu/iigh they certainly yank the
animals out of their environment. Also the relation of the drawings to the text is
rather \ ague. The printing leaves nothing to be desired. — J. A. Aplin, California Divi-
sion of Fish and Game.

Fire

By George R. Stewart. New York, Random House, 1948. 336 pp. $3.

This is another novel by the author of "Storm." The author is a professor of
English at the University of California who has exhibited an ability to delve into a
subject to its core for authentic data on which to base his story.

The chief character is a forest fire and the narrative carries the reader from
the events leading up to the birth of the fire, through its eleven days of life and its
final demise. It is very vividly told ; a map on the inside covers and flyleaves enables one
to follow the progress of the fire as it moves over one ridge and then another.

Not only does this story give the reader the interesting approach of the trials and
tribulations of a forest fire and the relation to its fellow flora and fauna, but it also
depicts man's conflict and efforts in combatting and finally overcoming it. Even a
human love interest is brought in, along with humor, tragedy, failure and final victory.
The reader is constantly right on the spot sweating along with the rest of the fire-fight-
ing crews. The book is fascinating reading and an education for all outdoorsmen. —
Carlton M. Herman, Editor, California Fish and Game.

The Great Forest

r.y Richard (i. Lillard. New York, Alfred A. Knopf, 1947. 399 + xiv pp.,
illus. ■$;").

This is really a history book. It begins : "When explorers landed, America was
trees." America is vastly different today. The changes that have occurred and the
political, industrial, economic and social implications of depletion of our forest heritage
is documented in a clear, readable and unbiased presentation.

This book is a history of the trees of the United States, the role they have played
in the peaceful, though often rugged development of our country ; their part in the
wars we have waged ; forest fires ; land clearing for agricultural purposes ; the hnnl)er-
ing industry and its deveIo))ment, (>xi)!oitation, laboi- problems and its future; con-
servation and vital importance to our future history. The author, a native of California
and currently a professor of English at the University of California at Los Angeles,
well acquainted with forests by virtue of his extensive travels, has done a tremendous
amount of research through literature and documents to make this work a valuable
reference as well as interesting reading. He has presented an important part of the
history of our country that is usually omitted from most textbooks to which the aver-
age American is exposed in the academic interlude of early life.

Appendices include a list of the biggest trees of the common North American
species, a history of the "most famous log cabin" (birthplace of A. Lincoln), relative

224 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

value of forest crops, a list of present day uses of wood and uses of turpentine and rosin,
specifications of the lumber used in the construction of a modern fishing boat of the
North American fleet and illustrations of an overhead cableway skidder and the uses
of lumber in construction. Sources of principal quotations are documented at the back
of the book which also includes a very extensive bibliography and useable index.

Because of the role of the Great Forest in our past history, in our current housing
shortage and high costs of lumber, and the vital importance of all our natural resources
to our future well being, this book is a must not only for conservationists but for every
American who wants to know what goes on. — Carlton M. Herman, Editor, California
Fish and Game.

How to Live in the Woods

By Homer Halsted. Boston, Little Brown and Co., 1948. 249 pp., illus. $2.75.

This is the kind of book all sportsmen and campers like to read. It contains much
factual information on tools and other equipment, an excellent chapter on first aid, a
list of sources of infcu'mation on where to go. To the novice planning to go traveling on
foot, via dogsled. horseback, automobile or canoe, the book has all the information on
what to take and what to do with it when you get there and how to be sure of getting
back in one piece. It considers wearing apparel, tents, supplies, groceries, hunting and
fishing equipment. It explains many ways of making a fire and how to prepare your
food, including many interesting recipes. One full page is devoted to the art of dish-
washing.

To the experienced camper such a book can be a lot of fun, particularly when
read in camp. Where you agree with the author you feel an inward pride at your own
knowledge ; where you disagree with his advice, you have many interesting topics for
discussion or argument. The suggested lists of groceries for trips of various lengths
will undoubtedly come up for much discussion, for every camper soon develops his own
ideas on this sul)ject. The author presents methods of treatment of fish and game, but
here again sportsmen soon develop their own theories. The author dresses his deer on
its back and then hangs it head up. The reviewer has heard much controversy on this
subject among hunters.

An amusing discussion that may strike a familiar chord to many a camp cook
is the author's notes on preparing eggs : "scraml)led eggs are usually a second thought
with me. If a yolk is runny, or breaks when put into the pan, I whip it up with a fork,
as it fries, and smugly announce that we're having 'em scrambled, for a change."

The jacket of the book states that the author has had wide experience in count-
less camping, fishing, hunting and prospecting expeditions as well as service with the
army. If the jacket gets lost, the reader will still be aware of this. — Carlton M. Herman,
Editor, California Fish and Game.

REPORTS

REPORTS

225

GAME CASES
April, May, June, 1948

Offense

Number
arrests

Fines

Jail

sentences

(days)

Deer: Clased season, possession doe, spiles buck, yearling

Deer meat: Possession closed season

Doves: Possession closed season, 22 rifle

Ducks: Closed season, purchase

Frogs: Over limit, under size, closed season, shooting —

Geese: Possession closed season -

Nongame: Shooting

Mudhens: Possession closed season

Pigeons: Possession closed season

Pheasants: Hen, closed season, 22 rifle

Quail : Possession closed season

Rabbits: Possession closed season

Shorebirds: Possession

Hunting: No license, spotlighting, early shooting, in refuge, using traps, un-
plugged gun, shooting from power boat, public highway, allowing dogs to
run deer, falsifying license application ._

Totals

20
40

7

8
15

2
10

1
14
20

2
11

1

55

206

12,930 00

5,19R 00

338 00

512 00

380 00

85 00
122 50

25 00
560 00
810 00

60 00
315 00

25 00

1,975 00

13.333 50

99

727

30

856

FISH CASES
April, May, June, 1948

Offense

Number
arrests

Fines

Jail

sentences

(days)

Abalones: Over limit, under size, out of shell

Angling: No license, set lines, spear within 300' of dam, closed season, night
fishing, back dating license, transfer of license, falsifying license application,
early fishing, using traps, restricted area, using explosives, game fish or bait.

Bass: Under size, night fishing, closed season

Catfish: Under size, over limit, closed season

Crappie: Closed season

Bluegill: Over Umit

Sunfish: Closed season, over limit

Clams: Under size, over limit, out of shell, failure to show

Crabs: Under size

Cockles: Closed season, over limit

Lobsters: Under size

Pollution: Oil, sawdust, sewage

Salmon : Snagging, closed season _ _.

Trout: Closed season, over limit, netting, set lines, 22 rifle

Seine nets: District 22, illegal use

Gill nets:.

200

603

26
9
2
7

10

150

5

13
4

19
2

47

Records: Failure to submit, failure to issue receipt

Commercial: Fish wastage, no processor's permit, failure to register boat,
bringing filcted fish ashore, no party boat license, possession striped bass,

no license, under size fish

Chumming: ,

Perch: Closed season

54
4
1

$6,975 00

10,504 00

518 00

165 00

50 00

200 00

220 00

3,225 00

125 00

210 00

175 00

2,500 00

50 00

1,668 00

350 00
425 00

4,195 00

125 00

35 00

Totals.

1,166

$31,715 00

11

67)^

78J4

7 — 92408

226 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

SEIZURES OF FISH AND GAME

April, May, June, 1948

Fish:

Abalones _- 1,464

Abalones, pounds - - 1,365

Bass 112

Bass, pounds 15

Catfish - - 277

Catfish, pounds 69

Clams 4,039

Crabs 45

Crabs, pounds 1,200

Crappie 30

Bluegills 216

Cockles__._ 2,209

Lobster 31

Salmon, pounds 11

Sunfish.. 126

Trout - 354

Trout, pounds.. 1 44

Suckers — 68

Mackerel and sardines, pounds 507, 770

Game:

Deer -- 21

Deer meat, pounds 704

Doves 12

Ducks . 21

Frogs . 121

Geese 3

Mudhens 1

Nongame 12

Pigeons 31

Pheasants..- -- 15

Quail 2

Rabbits 16

Shorebirds 1

Squirrels .- 1

FINANCIAL STATEMENTS

227

DIVISION OF FISH AND GAME

STATEMENT OF EXPENDITURES

For the Period July 1, 1947, to June 30, 1948 (Ninety-ninth Fiscal Year)

Function

Salaries

and

wages

Operating
expenses

Equipment

Total

Administration:
Conservation education and public information.

Executive .- - -

Library

Office ,.

Office — Fresno. _

Office — Terminal Island

Totals, Office.

Redding Warehouse.
Undistributed

Totals, Administration -

Patrol and Law Enforcement:

Headquarters

Airplane

Cannery inspection

Land Patrol:

North Coast District

N ortheast District

North Valley District

South Valley District

South District

Totals, Land Patrol.

Marine Patrol:
Headquarters.

Bonita

BroadbiU

Perch

Rainbow

Tuna

Tyee

Yellowtail

Small Boats..

Skipjaclc

Grunion

Totals, Marine Patrol

Undistributed

Totals, Patrol and Law Enforcement.

Marine Fisheries:

Central Valleys Investigation

Executive (Headquarters)

Library

Marine Fisheries Investigation

Statistics

Undistributed ._ _.

Vessel— N. B. Scofield

Vessel — N. B. Scofield — abatement

Totals, Marine Fisheries.

Fish Conservation:

Biological Survey

Fish Screens and Stream Improvement-
Headquarters

Statistics

Undistributed

Hatcheries (See list, p. 230)

Totals, Fish Conservation .

$S,588 92

10.487 35

6,198 69

35,143 33

$30,318 65

6,979 79

177 52

56,188 37

408 90

$865 29
21 12

1,048 67
638 54
661 83
147 38

$45,772 86

17,488 26

7,424 88

91,970 24

1,130 73

147 38

$60,418 29

$100,133 23

82 24
6,727 80

$3,382 83

48 58

$163,934 35

82 24
6,776 38

$60,418 29

$18,563 43

2,478 40

12,800 26

108,718 02

45,362 70

83,965 53

74,771 12

118,964 22

$106,943 27

$21,280 72

1,896 85

1,207 32

24,551 05

11,375 51

22,300 06

13,512 10

29,766 40

$3,431 41

$1,187 01
151 14

14,115 11

4,444 41

1,716 71

3,299 94

13,684 81

$170,792 97

$41,031 16

4,526 39

14,007 58

147,384 18

61,182 62

107,982 30

91,583 22

102,415 43

$431,781 59

$93,749 70

1,334 30

4,384 30

5,330 00

3,348 40

5,085 00

2,492 24

4,945 00

4,922 00
3,280 00

$101,505 18

$24,048 63
1,443 43
2,784 13
4,780 14
3,000 98
3,526 64
1,401 02
2,059 42
2,347 09
954 17
02 34

$37,200 98

$20,618 70

1,910 12

5 63

249 26

41 07

1,912 45

55 56

475 43

319 03

$570,547 75

$138,417 03
4,687 85
7,174 06

10,305 46
6,396 45

10,524 09
4,008 82
8,079 85
2,666 72
5,876 17
3,342 34

$128,877 00

$47,074 59

$25,587 25

$201,538 84

$100,832 10

$2,565 44

$103,397 54

$594,500 68

$30,748 95

29,745 12

2,805 00

54,305 83

47,565 35

19,569 78

$273,796 76

$11,868 32

12,336 98

1,533 34

8,629 46

10,543 85

7,050 36

60,268 71

—65,000 00

$66,751 82

$2,930 75

3,395 38

142 25

13,402 91

2,315 12

198 22

2,211 28

$935,049 26

$45,548 02

45,477 48

4,480 59

76,338 20

60,424 32

7,248 58

82,049 77

—65,000 00

$184,740 03

$58,685 66
11,915 89
24,708 10

311,141 75

$47,231 02

$8,240 13
3,895 60

10,056 84

1,298 02

152,755 16

97,443 69

$24,595 91

$4,305 10
299 46
385 10

13,086 60
11.870 98

$256,566 96

$71,230 89

16,110 95

35,150 04

1,298 02

165,841 76

420,456 42

$406,451 40

$273,689 44

$29,947 24

$710,088 08

228

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

DIVISION OF FISH AND GAME

STATEMENT OF EXPENDITURES— Continued

For the Period July 1, 1947, to June 30, 1948 (Ninety-ninth Fiscal Year)

Function

Salaries

and

wages

Operating
expenses

Equipment

Total

Hatcheries:

Alpine

Basin Creek

Benbow Dam Experimental Station __.

Brookdale

Barney

Cedar Creek

Central Valley

Crystal Lake

Fall Creek

Feather River

Fillmore

Hot Creek

Huntington Lake

Kaweah

Kern

Kings River __

Lake Almanor

Little Walker Lake Egg Collecting Station.

Madera __

Miscellaneous Egg Collecting Station

Mt. Shasta

Mt. Tallac

Mt. Whitney...

Moorehouse Springs

Mojave River

Prairie Creek

Sequoia

Tahoe

Whittier

Yosemite

Yreka Warehouse

Yuba River

Hatchery Supervision

Totals, Hatcheries-

Game Conservation:

Field Supervision

Big Game Investigation

Big Came Range Management

Big Game Trapping _

Disease Investigation and Research

Food Habits— Investigation and Research.

Fur Management

Game Statistics

Upland Game Investigation

Waterfowl Land Acq. and Dep

Headquarters

Predatory Animal Control:

East Central California

North Central CaUf ornia

Northern California

Southern California

West Central California

Undistributed

Game Farms (See list, p. 229)

Game Management (See list, p. 229)

$6,029 84
2,429 00
8,313 68
7,469 05

15,052 12

2,964 92

5,545 00

5,437 15

27,867 48

24,219 01

1,080 00

5,419 13

6,096 76

8,017 66

10,306 00

879 00

2,738 88

4,034 40

51,006 26

11,609 12

26,894 02

1,171 00

6,300 44

6,473 62

5,908 00

9,349 52

10,222 00

7,063 25

4,292 26
26,953 18

$311,141 75

$20,747 42

4,357 00

6,855 00

7,093 29

13,753 15

5,000 06
2,480 00
3,181 00
3,520 00
19,245 83

21,496 72
13,982 08
23,146 60
20,840 40
14,791 35

103,933 04
76,591 22

$81 45

1,066 46

260 13

1,155 15

1,315 00

260 00

4,210 40

1,899 02

814 06

814 53

10,279 20

22,142 14

401 36

1,145 47

1,778 08

1,438 38

2,007 92

22 45

366 27

603 66

13,832 84

1,644 96

12,424 22

157 93

2,582 34

1,524 35

2,768 81

3,438 61

3,293 24

1,456 67

34 72

248 48

1,975 39

$21 53

98 68

396 49

188 17

13 80

4,668 73
576 63

579 11

246 18

22 31

72 46

$97,443 69

$3,106 61

651 53

1,116 62

2,761 30

3,002 98

62 91

927 86

304 86

662 05

582 81

8,936 57

2,627 53

3,822 50

7,634 92

2,615 59

2.851 52

38,746 49

43,645 24

25,043 51

Totals, Game Conservation.

$361,014 16

$149,103 40

26 50

2,838 93
118 35
900 84

44 70

114 47
208 43
292 61
117 33

91 36
233 37

$11,870 98

$599 70

6 03

3,679 71

155 31

41 00

653 44

71 70

611 97

24 86

52,357 98

820 22

4,909 65

$63,931 57

$81 45

7,096 30

2,689 13

9,490 36

8,882 73

260 00

19,659 01

5,052 11

6,372 86

6,251 68

42,815 41

46,937 78

1,481 36

7,143 71

8,121 02

9,478 35

12,386 38

901 45

3,131 65

4,638 06

67,678 03

13,372 43

40,219 08

1,328 93

8,927 48

7,997 97

8,791 28

12,996 56

13,807 85

8,637 25

34 72

4,632 10

29,161 94

$420,456 42

$24,453 73

5,008 53

7,977 65

13,534 30

16,911 44

62 91

5,968 92

3,438 30

3,914 75

4,102 81

28,794 37

24,124 25

17,804 58

30,806 38

23,455 99

17 642 87

91,104 47

148,398 50

106,544 38

$574,049 13

FINANCIAL STATEMENTS

229

DIVISION OF FISH AND GAME

STATEMENT OF EXPENDITURES— Continued

For the Period July 1, 1947, to June 30, 1948 (Ninety-ninth Fiscal Year)

Function

Salaries

and

wages

Operating
expenses

Equipment

Total

Game Farms:

Bakorsfield ...,_.__

$2,533 00
3,801 91
2,672 00

5,188 85
9,584 72

$135 19
1,323 21
1,380 09
1,114 35
4,347 91

$2,668 19

Brawley

$7 69
191 78

5,132 81

Castaic .

4,243 87

Chico

6,303 20

115 88

14,048 51

Tjoa Ran OS

Los Serranos _

18,542 74
2,181 30
3,415 34
5,196 64
4,962 62
998 OO
583 22
2,672 00
4,913 18

36,687 52

7,034 02

378 47

2,356 96

3,046 63

2,261 75

240 61

22 65

931 07

1,.501 30

17,571 03

94 51

25,671 27

2,.559 77

Porterville _

30 14

23 89

5,802 44

Redding

8,267 16

7,224 37

Stockton

1,238 61

Ukiah

605 87

Valle V Center

43 59
108 36
204 38

3,646 66

Willows _ -

6,522 84

Yountville

54,462 93

Totals, Game Farms

$103,933 04

$4,173 40
2,589 54
1,776 59
7,709 86
6,680 66
4,521 83
2,988 00
4,028 00
1,270 71
6,081 99
9,091 09
3,591 00
3,095 99
3,591 00
3,893 68
6,634 00
4,873 88

$43,645 24

$,555 36

541 44

925 16

606 11

1,557 38

8,174 89

619 13

757 30

233 10

1,731 29

2,370 28

1,472 25

1,345 22

924 73

1,337 23

1,158 12

734 52

$820 22

$148,398 SO

Game Management:

$4,728 76

Dovle Winter Ranee

3,130 98

Elk Refuge

$37 25

757 46

46 15

24 99

2,739 00

9,073 43

8,284 19

Imperial Public Shooting Grounds

12,721 71

3,607 13

Interstate Deer Herd _ __

14 17

2,0io"74"

407 14

124 33

16 70

1,108 18

8 62

157 57

196 35

4,799 47

1,503 81

Los Banos Refuge

9,824 02

11,868 51

5,187 58

4,457 91

Southern California _

5,623 91

5,239 53

Suisun Refuge

7,949 69

5,804 75

$76,591 22

$25,043 51

$4,909 65

$106,544 38

$180,524 26
$35,753 45

$68,688 75

$5,729 87

$254,942 88

Licenses:

Salaries and Wacfps

$35,753 45

$68,898 52

68.898 52

Eoninment

1,103 03

1,103 03

Totals. Licenses

$37,753 45

$68,898 52

$1,103 03

$105,755 00

Reimbursement Maintenance Deduction

$—14,315 19

Totals, Fish and Game Support 1947-48 F. Y. .

$2,737,986 21

Contributions to State Employees' Retirement Fund

Other Current Expenses:
Game Management (in cooperation with the
Federal Government as provided by the Pitt-

$—22,147 81

$110,270 90

Reimbursement from Federal Government, pro
rata, share Pittman-Ro!)ertson Act

$—20,010 61

$90,260 29

Special claim for Secretaries of State Board of

905 36

Totals Other Current Exoenses

$91,165 65

230

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

DIVISION OF FISH AND GAME

STATEMENT OF EXPENDITURES— Continued

For the Period July 1, 1947, to June 30, 1948 (Ninety-ninth Fiscal Year)

Function

Salaries

and

wages

Operating
expenses

Equipment

Total

Capital Outlay:
Construction, Improvements, Repairs and Equip-
ment
Administration —
Office Buildings; Redding and Alturas -

$10,568 90

Patrol and Law Enforcement —
Purchase of Boat .. --

$10,402 87

Marine Fisheries —
Terminal Island Laboratories ._

$4,500 00

Research Vessel

77,044 13

i

Totals, Marine Fisheries

$81,544 13

Bureau of Fish Conservation —
Central Valley

-1

$646 77

Fall Creek Hatchery

595 52

3,994 97

Hot Creek Hatchery .

467 54

Kaweah Hatchery

1

1,804 71

Kern River Hatchery

1

780 68

919 82

5,798 54

Mt Whitney Hatchery .

8,802 17

265 01

Tahoe

620 17

Yuba River Hatchery

4 49

Totals, Bureau of Fish Conservation

$24,700 39

Bureau of Game Conservation —

Food Habits and Disease Laboratory

$256 13

Imperial Valley Public Shooting Grounds

1,750 16

150 19

331 38

Tehama Winter Range

378 99

Valley Center Game Farm

4,500 00

Totab, Bureau of Game Conservation ..

$7,366 85

Totals, Conservation, Improvement, Repairs
and Equipment

$134,583 14

1

10,269 69

Totals, Capital Outlay

$144,852 83

Grand Totals, Fish and Game Preservation
Fund Expenditures for the Fiscal Year,
1947-48, for the period, July 1, 1947 to
June 30, 1948

$2,996,152 50

FINANCIAL STATEMENTS 231

DIVISION OF FISH AND GAME

STATEMENT OF REVENUES

For the Period July 1, 1947. to June 30, 1948 (fJinety-ninth Fiscal Year)

Revenue for Fish and Game Preservation Fund:

1948 series— Detail Total
Angling:

Citizen $1,458,997 00

Excessfee 210 10

Nonresident 1 year 9,265 00

Nonresident lOday 1,163 50

Alien 17,5.50 00

Duplicate 493 50

Fish tags 6,348 80

Game tags 165 36

Fi.sh importer... .• 70 00

Fish party boat permits 617 00

Market fisherman 73,440 00

Fish breeder control 505 00

Game breeder. 2,565 00

Kelp license . 10 00

Game management area licenses 350 00

Game management area tags 3 60

Hunting license 48 00

Deer tags _ 12 00

Deer meat agents locker permits _.. 7,264 00

Deer meat agents — Wardens.. 304 00

Total 1948 series $1,579,381 86

1947 series^
Angling:

Citizen ___ $843,276 00

Alien 6,650 00

Nonresident 22,299 00

Duplicate 4,613 50

Hunting— Archery— Citiaen 2,332 00

Archery — Nonresident 75 00

Hunting— Citizen ^ 915,509 00

Hunting— Junior 1 43,983 00

Hunting— Nonresident 48,080 00

Hunting — Declared alien 2,450 00

Hunting— Alien 2,950 00

Hunting— Duplicate. ._ 3,276 50

Hunting — Commercial club citizen 675 00

Hunting — Commercial club operator — Citizen 225 00

Trapping— Citizen 1,570 00

Trapping— Alien 24 00

Fish packer and shellfish dealer — Citizen 14,795 00

Fish packer and shellfish dealer — Alien.. 580 00

Archery — Deer tags 590 00

Deer tags 299,604 00

Fish tags 3,891 76

Game tags 344 70

Market fisherman 50,810 00

Fish importer.- 40 00

Fish party boat permits 155 00

Fish breeders control 70 00

Game breeder _ _ 250 00

Kelphcense 50 00

Game management — Area licenses 120 00

Game management — Area tags ' 178 68

Deer meat agents— Locker permits 4,000 00

Deer meat agents— Wardens 397 00

Total 1947 series $2,273,864 14

1946 series —

Angling — Citizen $4 00

Angling — Alien 5 00

Hunting — Citizen 254 00

Hunting— Junior 22 00

Hunting— Duplicate 11 00

Trapping— Citizen 3 00 $296 00

3 00

Total 1946series... $299 00

232 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

DIVISION OF FISH AND GAME

STATEMENT OF REVENUES— Continued

For the Pei-iod July 1, 1947, to June 30, 1948 (Ninety-ninth Fiscal Year)

DetaU Total

Other Revenue —

Lease of kelp beds $1,565 00

Fish packerstax 192,061 36

Kelptax 2,098 05

Salmon packerstax 7(,895 66

Sardine tax 40,294 43

PubUc shooting grounds 1,830 00

Miscellaneous revenue 27,534 99

Court fines- 123,739 25

Interest on surplus money investment fund 15,430 41

Total other revenue $482,449 15

Grand total Fish and Game Preservation Fund $4,335,994 15

INDEX TO VOLUME 34

233

INDEX TO VOLUME 34

Abalone, red, color jilate between 141-142
Abalones of California, The, 141-lGO
Ainciiinis iichiilo.su.s, '.)!•
An extension of the range of Luvaris

imperialis Rafinesque, 31>-40
Animals alive, '2-'.'>
Anoiiyiiioiis

Appointment of Commissioner E. L.

Carty, 136
Appointment of E. L. Macanlay as ex-

etutive officer, 136
LaiKlinj; of sardines along Pacific Coast,

82
Resignation of Commission President,

n. 11. Arnold, 136
Resignation of Emil J. N. Ott, Jr., as

e.xecutive officer, 136
Anoplopomii finilnia, 37
Aiilin. .T. A., Animals alive, review. 223
Appointment of E. L. Macaulay as ex-
ecutive officer, 136
Appointment of Commissioner E. L.

Carty, l.'id
ArcJioplifes intcrniiitu.s, 9.3-100
Arnold, H. H., resignation, 130
Ashley, James F., One day at Teton

Marsh, review, 222
Atherinopsis californiensis, 56
Atherinops affinis lifloralis, 37

B

Basking shark fishery revived in Cali-
fornia, 11-23
Bass, striped,

Color plate between 171-172

Reproduction, 171-188
Beaver, management of, 115-131
Biology, of hitch, 101-110
Birds,

Bobwhite, 33

Cormorant, 56

Gull, 56

Pelican, brown, 56

Phalarope, 56

Pheasant, 135-136, 209-216

Quail, Australian, 33

Quail, Mountain, 33

Quail. Valley, 33-36
Bounot, Paul, The abalones of California,

141-169
Bonnot, Paul and Wm. Ellis Ripley, The
California sea lion census for 1947,
89-92
Brarln/isiius frcnafu.s. 54. 56
Breeding season and productivity in the

interstate deer herd, 25-31
Burghduff, A. E., Retirement of, 40

Calhoun, A. J. and C. A. Woodhull,
Progress report on studies of striped
bass reproduction in relation to the
Central Valley Project, 171-188

8 — 92408

California sea lion census for 1947, The,
S9 !)2

California valley quail in New Zealand,
The, .•'.."..■;(■>

California's fish screen program, 45-51

Carty, l-^. L., Appointm<Mit as Commis-
sioner, 1.36

C'rt.s/or ciiiifirlcnKi.s repenthius, 115-131

Cerviis cliipliiis. .33

Cetorhinus maximus, 11-23, 219-220

(^haohovua asiiciopus, 102

Chappell, L. F., Retirement of II. C.
Jackson, 221-222

Retirement of W. C. Malone, 221

Chattin, John E., Breeding season and

productivity in the interstate deer

herd, 25-31
Clam, pismo, 1947 census, 82
Clear Lake, Sacramento hitch in, 101-110
Clear Lake, Sacramento perch in, 9.3-100
Colin us lurfjinianiis, 33
Contribution to the life history of the

Sacramento perch (Archoplites in-

terruptus) in Clear Lake, Lake

County, California, A, 93-l(X>
Cox, Keith W., Sablefish run at Monterey

Bay, 37
Critical review of range survey methods

and their application to deer range

management. A, 1S9-207
Croker, Itichard S.. Retirement of S. H.

Dado, 220-221
Crustacea

Lobster, 71-80, 217-218
Curtis, Brian, The ways of fishes, review,

222-22.3

and J. C. Eraser, Kokanee in

California, 111-114

Dado, S. H., Retirement of, 220-221

Dasmann, William P., A critical review
of range survey methods and their
application to deer range manage-
ment. 189-207

Deep dragging by Eureka otter trawl-
ers, 218-219

Deer, iinxluctivity. 25-31

Do lobsters shrink when cooked?, 217-
218

Dukw's, basking shark fishery, 219-220

Eggs, fertility of ring-necked pheasant,

209-216
Eiiffraulis iiiorda.r, 5.5
Etithi/nnus lineafiis. .37-38
Experiments on the management of

Colorado River Beaver, 115-131
Explosives, fish killed by, 67
Explosives, use and effect of, in California

coastal waters, 53-70

234

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

Fertility of eggs of the ring-necked

pheasant, 20!)-21(i
Fire, 223
Fish,

Anchovies, 55

liass, kelp, 5(5

larseinouth black, 00
striped, 171-188

Barracuda, 57

Blackras-. 1?,3

Bluejrill. O:',

Bullhead, l.rown, 90

Carp, 90

Catfish, 00

Effect of explosives on, 53-70

Goby, 81, 135

Grnnnion, 37

Halibut. California, 58

Herring, thread, 134-135

Hitch. Sacramento, 05, 101-110

Kingfish, 57

Kokanee. 111-114

Louvar. 30-40

Mackerel, Monterey Spanish, 134

]\Ii(lshi])men, 58

Mudsucker, 81

Perch, Sacramento, 03-100

Perch, salt-water, 54, 56

Pollock, 58

Queenfish, 57

Rockfish, 55

Sablefish, 37

Sardine, Pacific, 3-10, 82

Sculpin, 133-134

Sea-bass, black, 55

Shark, basking, 11-23, 219-220
whale, 12

Skipjack, black, 38-39

Smelt, bay, 37
jack, 56

Sunfish, green, 00
Fish screen program, California's 45-51
Fishing, for lobsters, 75-76
Fitch, John E., Some new and unusual
fishes from southern California, 133-
135

Use of Dukw's in the fishery for

basking sharks, Getorhinus mnximna,
210-220

and Parke H. Young, Use and

effect of explosives in California

coastal waters, 53-70
Fox. B. C, see Henslev, Arthur I. and

B. C. Fox
Eraser, J. C, see Curtis, Brian and J. C.

Eraser

G

Genyonenms lineatus, 57
GilUchthys niirahilif!, 81
Gnat, Clear Lake, 102
Great forest. The, 223-224
Grunnion, 37

H

TIaliofis

(ix.'^uiiilis, 154
corni(/ata. 150
cracherodii, 148
fiilgens, 152
luitisrhailana, 156
riift'srciis, 145
traUalen.si.s, 158
Hensley, Arthur I. and B. C. Fox, Ex-
periments on the management of
Colorado River beaver, 115-131
Herman, Carlton M., Fire, review, 223

How to live in the woods, review.

224

The great forest, review. 223-224

Hermaphroditism in Chinese ring-
necked pheasant, 135-136

Hitch, Sacramento, biology of, 101-110
Hjersman, Henry A., The California val-
ley quail in New Zealand. 33-36

see Twining, Howard, Henry A.

Hjersman and Wallace Macgregor

Holmberg, Edwin K., Deep dragging by

Eureka otter trawlers, 218-219
How to live in the woods, 224

I

Tctahrrus raiii/i. 99
Icticus ifichaiiiis, 133

Jackson, H. C, Retirement of, 221-222
Janssen, John F., Jr., Summary of re-
covery of California sardine tags on
the Pacific Coast, 3-10

K

Kokanee in California, 111-114

Landing of sardines along the Pacific

Coast, S2
Lams, 56

Lavinia e. exilicauda, 95, 101-110
Lepomis cyanellus, 00

fnncrochirns, 03
Leuresthes tenuis, 37
Life history, of Sacramento perch, in

Clear Lake, 93-100
Lobsters, shrinkage in cooking, 217-218
Lobster, spiny, in southern California,

71-80
Luvaris imperiaUs, 39-40

M

Macaulay, B. L.. Appointment as execu-
tive officer, 136

Macgregor. Wallace, see Twining, How-
ard, Henry A. Hjersman and Wallace
Macgregor

Malone, W. C, Retirement of, 221

INDEX TO VOLUME 34

235

^r.-iiiiinjils,

I'.cjivcr, C()l(ir;i(l(> Ki\i'r, ll.")-!.'!!

Df.T. L'r)-:n, ;'.:5

Sea lions, 50, 89-92
Whale, iivi'v, iiG
Maiiauciiii'nt, of Colorado Kivrr braver,

iir. i;;i

Rantfe siir\('.v mctiioils, aiii)lica( ion to
(leer. 1S9-20T

Marine Fisheries, Hurean of, 1947 Pismo
clam census, 82

Marine fishes, reared in laborator.v, 37-38

McITufrli. J. L. and P.oyd W. Walker,
Rearini: in.irine fishes in the labora-
tor.v, 37-38

Mirvopterus sulmoidcs, 99

Rlidfire, phantom, 102

Rlollusks, clam, pismo, 82

Murph.v, Garth T.. A contribution to the
life history of the Sacramento perch
{ ArchopJitcs inferniplun) in Clear
Lake, Lake County, California, 93-
100

Notes on the biolojjy of the Sac-
ramento hitch [Lnrinia e. e.rilicauda)
of Clear Lake, Lake County, Cali-
f.u-nia. 101-110

N
Naiitirhthi/s oriilo-fasciatiis. 133-134
New Zealand, California valley quail in,

33-3(5
Notes on the biology of the Sacramento
hitch (Lavinia e. exilicauda) of
Clear Lake, Lake County, Califor-
nia, 101-110

Observations on the mudsucker, Gil-

lichthys mirabilis, 81
Occurrence of the black skipjack (Eu-

thynnus lineatus) off Southern

California, 38-39
Odocoileiis h. hetnionus, 25-31
OiicorJii/iichus nerka keinierh/i. 111-114
One day on Teton Marsh, 222
Opisthoiieiua liberiate. 134-135
Oreoriijx piefa. 33
Ott, Emil J. N.. Jr.. resignation, 136

Pfnuilinia interniplus, 71-80, 217-218

Paralahrfiv clathnitua, 56

Paydlichthys cnlifornicitH, 58

Parasites, of beaver, 129

Pelecanus occidentalift califoniicus, 56

Perch, Sacramento, life history in Clear
Lake, 93-100

PhfiJaropus, 56

Phfildcrocorax. 56

Phasiainis colchicus, 135-136

Pheasant, hermaphroditism in. 135-136

Pheasant, ring-necked, fertility of eggs,
209-216

Phillips, J. B., Basking shark fishery re-
vived in California, 11-23

Phillips, f-ouie 1., Retirement of. 40

Pismo clam census, 1947, S2

Phili/psiilhi ciistorix. 129

I'olhicli lis riifiia. 58

Piiriclithi/n ini/ridKtcr. 58
nntdiuH, 5S

l't)t<ntiO(/(t(iii. 9.5

Progress report on studies of striped
bass reproduction in relation to the
Central Valley Project, 171-188

Q

Quail, California valley, in New Zealand,
33-36

R
Range management, deer, survey methods,

189-207
Rearing marine fishes in the laboratory,

37-38
Reproduction, in strijyed bass, 171-188
Resignation of Commission president,

H. H. Arnold, 13(;
Resignation of Emil J. N. Ott, Jr., as

executive officer, l.'Ki
Retirement of A. E. Burghduff, 40
Retirement of Louie J. Phillips, 40
Retirement of S. H. Dado, 220-221
Retirement of W. C. Malone, 221
Review of range survey methods, deer,

189-207
Review of the southern California spiny

lobster fishery, A, 71-80
Rhncienecis glaucus. 56
Rhiiieodon ii/pus, 12
Ripley, Wm. Ellis, An extension of the

range of Lucaris imperialis Rafi-

nesque, 39-40

see Bonnot, Paul, and Wm. Ellis

Ripley
Roccii.<< sdsratilis, 171-188
Roedel. Phil IVI.. Occurrence of the black

skipjack {EiifJu/iinufi lineaius) off

southern California, 38-39
Rosen. Merton N., Hermaphroditism in

Chinese ring-necked pheasant, 135-136

Sablefish run at Monterey Bay, 37
Sardine, recovery of tags from, 3-10
Sardines, Landings along Pacific Coast,

82
l^lardiiwps caenilea. 3-10
Scofield, W. L.. Do lobsters shrink when

cooked? 217-218
Sconiberotnorus concolor, 134
Screen, fish, program in California, 45-51
Sea lion, census, 89-92
Seriphns politus, 57
Shark, fishery in California, 11-23
Sharks, basking, use of Dukw's in fishery,

219-220
Skipiack, black, occurrence (jff southern

California, 37-38
Smelt, bay, 37

236

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

Some new and unusual fishes from
Southern California, 133-135

Sphijraciia arijentea, 57

Spinv lobster fishery in southern Califor-
nia, 71-80

Stereolcopis gi(/as, 55

SticJwrchix siihtriquctiis, 129

Summary of recovery of California sar-
dine tags on the Pacific coast, 3-10

Si/noictis i/jisilophorus, 33

Taft, A. C, Retirement of A. E. Burgh-
duff, 40

Retirement of Louie I. Phillips, 40

Tags, on fish, sardine, 3-10

The ways of fishes, 222-223

Tivela stidtorum, 82

Trawlers, deep dragging by, 218-219

Twining, Howard, Henry A. Hjersman
and Wallace Macgregor, Fertility of
eggs of the ring-necked pheasant, 209-
216

Typhloffohius californiensis, 135

U

Use and effect of explosives in Califor-
nia coastal waters, 53-70

Use of Dukw's in the fishery for bask-
ing sharks, Cetorhinus maximus,
219-220

W

Wales, J. H., California's fish screen pro-
gram, 45-51

Walker, Bovd W.. see McHugh, J. L. and
Boyd W. Walker

Weisel, George F., Observations on the
mudsucker, Gillichthys miraiilis, 81

Wilson, Robert C, A review of the south-
ern California spiny lobster fishery,
71-80

Woodhull, C. A., see Calhoun, A. J. and
C. A. Woodhull

Young, Parke H., see Fitch, John E. and
Parke H. Young

Zalophus calif ornianus, 56

92408 6-48 6M

'mmm^^