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HTSH A

G\LIFDRNIA FISH- GAME

"CONSERVATION OF WILDLIFE THROUGH EDUCATION'

Caiifornia Fish and Game is a journal devoted to the conserva- tion of wildlife. Its contents may be reproduced elsewhere pro- vided credit is given the authors and the California Department of Fish and Game.

The free mailing list is limited by budgetary considerations to persons who can make professional use of the material and to libraries, scientific institutions, and conservation agencies. Indi- viduals must state their affiliation and position when submitting their applications. Subscriptions must be renewed annually by returning the postcard enclosed with each October issue. Sub- scribers are asked to report changes in address without delay.

Please direct correspondence to:

LEO SHAPOVALOV, Editor Department of Fish and Game 926 J Street Sacramento 14, California

Individuals and organizations who do not qualify for the free mailing list may subscribe at a rate of $2 per year or obtain indi- vidual issues for $0.75 per copy by placing their orders with the Printing Division, Documents Section, Sacramento 14, California. Money orders or checks should be made out to Printing Division, Documents Section.

u

VOLUME 40

OCTOBER, 1954

NUMBER 4

Published Quarterly by fhe

CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME

SACRAMENTO

STATE OF CALIFORNIA

DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME

GOODWIN J. KNIGHT Governor

FISH AND GAME COMMISSION

WILLIAM J. SILVA, President Modesto

LEE F. PAYNE, Commissioner CARL F. WENTE, Commissioner

Los Angeles San Francisco

HARLEY E. KNOX, Commissioner WELDON L. OXLEY, Commissioner

San Diego Redding

SETH GORDON Director of Fish and Game

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME Editorial Staff

LEO SHAPOVALOV, Editor-in-Chief Sacramento

JOHN E. FITCH, Editor for Marine Fisheries Terminal island

CAROL M. FERREL, Editor for Game Sacramento

J. B. KIMSEY, Editor for Inland Fisheries ^ Sacramento

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Tlic I'sc of a lllaiikct Xi't in Sampling' I''isli 1 'opiilat ions

• litlix I\Al)(i\ K II and Iv\Kl. I). (Illilis ."{.'):')

A I'oilahic I )cci- 'I'rap and ( 'atcli-Xct Mi:i,\l\ l(. ('i.o\i;k -Un

He'i't'Ul Extension oi' tlu' i\an;4i' nl' Muskrats in (.'alii'uniia

George D. Seymour ■'>!'>

'■p

riic Sage (irousc in Calit'uinia, With S[»rriai Rtdfrcnc*' t(^ Fcjod Habits Howard R. Leach and Arthik L. Hexsley 385

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The Life History of the Tui Chul), SipJiateles hicolor (Girard), From Ea<ih' Lake, California J. B. Kimsey 395

A Comparison of Japanese and Hawaiian Specimens of the Black Skipjack, Euthynnus yaito H. C. Godsil 411

r\^

rhe Effect of Aurofac-Enriclied Diet (Aureomycin and Bjo) Upon

mng King Salmon Earl S. Herald,

Robert P. Dempster, and Howard McCully 415

Jfge and Length Composition of the Sardine Catch Off the Pacific Coast of the United States and Mexico in 1953-54

Frances E. Felix, Joiix MacGregor. Axita E. Daugherty,

and Daniel J. Miller 423 Notes

A Record-Size Thresher From Southern California

David C. Joseph 433

Ocean Recoveries of SaeranKMito River Tagged Steelhead

Eltox D. Bailey 436

Delayed Decomposition of a Trout Carcass E. R. Germax 436

A Blue Crayfish From California Cadet Haxd 437

Reviews 439

Index to Volume 40 443

( nr.i )

2—1859

THE USE OF A BLANKET NET IN SAMPLING FISH POPULATIONS'

JOHN RADOVICH and EARL D. GIBBS

AAciriiu? Fisfierios Branch

California Dupartnicnl of Fisfi and Gome

INTRODUCTION

Purpose

For a loiiu' time, tlici'c lias hccii a ii I lor a (jiiick y(>t safe and

officieut luctliod of saiiipliiii; pcla'jic iiiarinc lish populations. Since 1950 the Marine Fisheries lirandi of the California Depai'tment of Fish and (Jame lias employed small explosive charges to stun fish, which Avere snbsequently dip iictlcd, while floating at the surface. This method, although meeting with some success, was dangerous, and in October, Ido'A, an accident occurred that precipitated experimenta- tion to discover an alternate method of sampling fish populations. After approximately seven months it is believed that a sampling method which is not only safer, l)ut also (juicUcr and more efficient, has evolved. It also shows considerable promise of heconung a valuable aid in the capture of live bait, as well as of other commercial species.

A Brief Historical Review

The principle of lift nets and blanket nets is simple and undoubtedly such nets have been employed in i)rimitive fisheries for centuries. Although they have been re])laced with more efficient gear in many industrial regions, today this |)riiiciple is still used in many areas of the Pacific Ocean. There are a gi-eat many variations in this type of device and, since similar gear has had such Avide usage, it is difficult to credit any one country with its origin.

Because of the simplicity of priiu-iple, relatively low cost, and ease of oi)eration, various techniques have been devised by fishermen un- aware that their method may have been tried before, or was being used in some remote area.

Off Southern California many ideas and devices have been re- originated. The fishery for Pacific mackerel sponsored many such methods. Hoop lift nets, blanket nets, and other similar types of gear were tried. Some were used to capture fish attracted to chum, others were used in conjunction with a night light, and some incorporated both methods of attracting fish.

The Japanese have been quite successful willi a net of this type in catching sauries and other fish for bait as well as for food. The Jap- anese bait net is rectangular, alxuit '-Vl feet long and '21 feet wide.

Submitted for pul>lication Juno, 10r> I.

( n.-.:'. )

35-4 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

The net is set to hang vertically (cnrtaiii-like) from a long bamboo float -which is kept about 20 feet from the vessel by two bamboo poles. A night light is then set out to attract fish, which are subsequently captured by lifting the bottom of the blanket net to the vessel. Although this net is efficient in catching sauries and certain other small fishes, some species seem to avoid this curtain of webbing.

In the Philippines, a blanket net, which differs from the Japanese net in that it is suspended from a pole rigidly secured between two pilings, is used in shallow water. This net is also pulled by lifting the bottom edge.

The Division of Fish and Game, Territory of Hawaii, has been ex- perimenting with the Japanese lift net, with one major modification. Instead of suspending the net from a float, the net is set from the side of the vessel and the bottom edge is lifted by two lines, one at each lower corner, leading through blocks at the ends of two rigid out- riggers. The advantage of this method lies in the fact that there is no curtain of webbing in the water while the fish are being attracted to the light. This net has been further modified, recently, by enlarging it to 43 by 48 feet (from 32 by 27 feet) and using minnow webbing extensively. It is used primarily in catching bait, and has been some- what successful with fish of about 2i inches in length.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE BLANKET NET FOR SAMPLING FISH POPULATIONS

The California Department of Fish and Game has been working with various devices to sample fish populations since 1949. After ex- perimental attempts to sample sardines with such types of gear as beach seines, gill nets, a mid-depth trawl, and dynamite, two standard routines were inaugurated in 1950. One consisted of scouting for and locating schools of fish at night, either through the biolumenescence they created, or by the use of echo-souncling equipment. Upon location of a school, sampling was accomplished b3^ detonating a light explosive charge under water and j)icking up the stunned fish with dip nets.

The other routine emploj^ed a 750-watt light suspended above the surface of the water at regular intervals while the vessel drifted at night. After a given length of time, any fish that had been attracted to the light were sampled with an explosive charge.

These methods were dangerous to the person handling the explosives, 3'ielded relativelj^ small samples of fish, and were extremely time con- suming (often more than 45 minutes were required to maneuver the vessel to pick up a few fish). Occasionally many more fish were killed than were needed.

After the occurrence of an unfortunate accident, the result of han- dling explosives, emphasis was again placed on development of a safer sampling method.

A trap lift net was constructed to the specifications described by Siebenaler (1953) for one which had been used with some success in the Gulf of Mexico during 1952 by the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service vessel Oregon. This net was essentially a rigid, box-like pipe frame, 8i feet on a side, with a light frame that slid up and down between a fixed bottom and top. The entire device was submerged with the top just clear of the surface of the water, and a night light was suspended

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;il)<)\(' the siii-t';i('c of llic wjilcr. Al'tcf llsli \\;\(\ hccii ;itti-;ictc(| the tr;i|) was spniiiu- hy piilliii'j up \\\r slidiii'j- ri-;iiiic, wliicli ill turn piillnl ;i Wrill of AvchliiiiL; aloiiu; tlic i'i;^i(l rraiiic, lliiis ciil i-appiii<r llic (isli.

JJef'oi'c coiuplct ion of the initial cniisc to test this '^cnv, it )\H(\ be- come appai'ciit tlial its nsc in a idiiliiic sainpliiiL;' sur'vcy was liiiiitccl. The ji'oar, licavy and cniiilx'i-sonic. was soiiicwiial danijci'ons, ('X(:c\>\ in shellcrcd walci's. Im-cii a sli^^lil roll ol' the vessel eansed enonji'li dis- turbanee to IVi^bten tbe fish away. Andiovies and smelt wei'(! sampled inside tlie shelter of the San Pedro Bi-eakwater, but in the open ocean, outside the breakwater, the motion ol' the franic krpt the fish away and, tlioULih they could be seen iiiilliiiL:- in a lariic circle aroniid the net, none could be captured.

Captain Paul D. Petricli, Master of the Department's survey vessel Yellowfin, conceiY<'<l the idea of a blanket net. The idea seemed promisino- and a net was constructed of" H-iiich stretched mesh web- bino' from an old gill net.

Under the supervision of Andrew Felando, Netman-Boatswain of the Yellowfin, the crew further modfiied and rehung the net several times during the initial and subsecpient cruises.

The blanket net seems to be a more successful means of sampling than the former method entailing the use of explosives. It is not only faster and safer, but results in larger individual samples of fish.

Although the ])riuciple of setting the net is essentially the same as that developed by the Hawaiian Division of Fish and Game, the idea occurred independently and the Hawaiian experiments were not known at the time. The M'eighted bag, over-all size, and method of hanging make this net somewhat different from other types of blanket nets.

CONSTRUCTION OF GEAR Blanket Net

Constructed of three sections of cotton twine webbing, the over-all dimensions of the blanket net are 50 by 66 feet. One section is made of three-inch stretched mesh and the other two of three-quarter-inch stretched mesh. These latter two sections are bound on their edges by a selvage of two-inch stretched mesh, six meshes deep, attached to num- ber 21 manila line which forms the edges of the net.

For convenience in discussing the blanket net, future reference to the line forming the perimeter of the net will be given in relation to its position on the net. The line on the 50-foot side next to the vessel will he called the inboard line, the line on the opposing side the lead line, and the two lines on the 66-foot sides the fore and aft sidelines. Three weighted rib lines sewed in the bag of the net, together with the lead line, facilitate rapid sinking of the net. Further dimensions and sjiecifi- cations are shown in Figure 1.

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Rigging

The outriggers were constructed ol' eucalyptus |)oU's cut to 55-foot lengths, Avith diameters at the butt and tip ai)proxinmtely eight and three inches, respectively. Each outrigger was secured at its base by a two-inch chain through the butt and sus])ended by a topping lift.

356

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

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ALL LEADS 4 OUNCES EACH

FIGURE 1. Diagram showing construction of the blanket net.

Each topping lift was rigged as follows : a six-inch double block was fastened to the mast and a two-inch manila line was reeved from the double block through two six-inch single blocks. Each single block was connected by a one-quarter-inch wire ])ennant to a one-quarter-inch wire bridle which was secured to the outrigger. Each outrigger, thus suspended by a topping lift, could be raised or lowered as desired. Guy lines, running fore and aft, were secured to the outboard end of each outrigger, controlling the horizontal position of each pole.

KL.WKirr NKT SAMI'IJNO

OPERATION OF THE BLANKET NET

Tlw iicl is lowered \rrl ic;il ly iiiln the WJitcr iiiilil it has roaclM'd its iiiaxiiiiiiiii depth ( H'i^iii'e 'J), liirtiii^- lines, attached to the coniei-s of the load line, are then j)ulled in through blocks at the end of eaeh out- ritrc'er. As tlic net is drawn tlu-on-ih the water, the weij,dited rih lines and the resistanee of tlie net to the water cause a ba^' to form ('Fi'jnre

3).

After the lead line is out of the water, the fore and att sidelines are shortened until they are also above the surface. The net is then com- ]>letely set (Figure 4). The net then nuiy be brought alongside the vessel by slackening tlie lifting lines while pulling on the fore and aft sidelines, keeping all edges above the snrlace of the water (Figure 5j.

FIGURE 2. Net in the wafer prior to pulling on the lifting lines.

358

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

FIGURE 3. Lifting the lead line. The bag is forming as the lifting lines are pulled.

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FIGURE 4. Net completely set. The bag is about fi/e fathoms below surface of the water.

FIGURE 5. Net being brought alongside the vessel. Lifting lines are slackened, and sidelines ore taken in.

360

CALIFORXIA FISH AXD GAME

FIGURE 6. Ready for broiling. The bag becomes a pocket as the slock webbing is gathered.

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FIGURE 7. The blanket net set from the survey vessel YELLOWFIN. Photograph by R. Collyer, February, 1954.

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As the lU'l is 1ii-()1il;'1iI ;il(iii^siili' llu' \i'sscl. Ihr excess w rMiin;.'- is <i-atlu'fi'(l, lv('e|)iii^- iiit;i('t ii \)i\'^ li'din which the (ish may ho liriiih-d ' l''i;_'-- iire 6).

'I'lic ciilii'c opcralion, cxclihliii-i' time f'of ln'iiiliiiu', c;iii hr c(.iiii)li'tc<l vvilliiii 5 to 10 inimilcs witli li\c or six men.

Some factors that should bo considered for the siic(;essriil operation of the blanket net are summarized as follows:

1. The vessel should be headed so that it cannot dril'l o\ci- the net. Under most conditions this can be accomplished by stopping' the vessel with the net on the windward side.

2. To facilitate its sinking the net should be wetted down thoi-on;^hly prior to its operation.

3. To avoid bunching, and to allow the bag to form nnifonid.w the net should be paid out evenly.

4. While the net is being brought alongside the vessel, the excess folds of webbing should be gathered continonsly, thereby keeping the fish intact in the bag. This is especially important when the fish are to be retained for live bait.

RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTAL CRUISES

The %-inch, Cotton Twine, Blanket Net

Throughout four experimental cruises (November 7, 1953 — April 14, 1954) two primary factors were considered : the ability of the net to capture fish and its efficiency of operation under the various con- ditions of wind and sea.

Recorded observations on the operation of the blanket net to date indicate it to be a satisfactory means of sampling fish, as well as of capturing live bait.

The initial trial of the original net was made off Cedros Island, Baja California, on the afternoon of November 9, 1953, so that its operation could be observed during daylight liours. The first set yielded 20 black- smith, 2 halfmoon, and 1 rock wrasse, although the set was made with no intention of catching fish.

Seven sets were made that night on schools of sardines, mackerel, and jacksmelt, but because of the large webbing a great percentage of these fish was either gilled or escaped. The following day the net was rehung, using smaller three-quarter-inch stretched mesh, and additional weights were added to aid in sinking the net.

Thirty sets were made with the blanket net on this first cruise (November 7-17, 1953) and approximately 15,000 fish representing 22 species w^ere taken. Of these, sardines and northern anchovies com- prised about 55 percent.

In subsequent cruises the net was rehung several times and additional weights were added, until the present specifications evolved.

A total of 191 sets made with the blanket net during the four cruises yielded approximately 90,000 fish. These sets were made in seas varying from calm to moderate and in winds up to 25 miles per hour. Of the 90,000 fish taken, some 50,000 were sardines, which were taken in 99 sets, 20,000 atherinids, and 16,000 northern anchovies. A list of the species taken is presented by common and scientific name in Table 1.

362

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

TABLE 1

Common and Scientific Names of Species Taken by the Cotton Twine Blanket Net Off the Coast of Baja California (November 7, 1953, to April 14, 1954)

Common name	Scientific name	Common name	Scientific name
Pacific round herring- _	Etrumeus acuminatus	California barracuda	Sphyraena argentea
Pacific sardine	Sardinops caerulea	Gulf barracuda	Sphyraena sp.
Pacific thread herring. _	Opisthonema libertate	Jack mackerel	Trachurus symmetricus
Northern anchovy	Engraulis mordax	True pompano	Trachinotus paitensis
Slough anchovy	Anchoa delicatissima	California pompano	Palometa simillima
Deepbody anchovy	Anchoa oompressa	Pacific mackerel	Pneumatophorus diego
Pacific saury	Cololabis saira Hyporhamphus unifas- ciatum Strongylura exilis Cypselurus cali/omicus Fodiator acutus Ophichthus zophochir Atherinopsis californien- sis Atherinops affinis Leuresthes tenuis	California bonito Sierra	Sarda lineolala
Halfbeak	Scomberomorus sierra
California needlefish	California salema Queenfish _ _	Xenistius californiensis Seriphus politus
California flyingfish	Blacksmith	Chromis punctipinnis
Sharpchin flyingfish	E,ock wrasse	Halichoeres semicinctus
Yellow snake-eel	Half moon _	' Medialuna californiensis
Jfif.Wsmelt	Cabezon
	Scorpaenichthys marmo-
Topsmelt	Squid	ratus
	Loligo opalescens
California grunion

The number of sardines and percentage of sets in which this number was taken in 99 sets is presented in Table 2. The largest yield of a single set was approximately 15,000 sardines. On only one occasion were sauries observed in quantity under the light. At this station, one set yielded approximately 1,000 sauries, which seemed to be the entire school. Atherinids were common throughout the area and large numbers were taken, frequently over 1,000 fish per set.

TABLE 2

Number of Sardines and Percentage of Sets in Which This Number Was Taken in 99 Trials

Number of sardines	Percentage
1-100 --	55.5
101-500	29.4
.501-1.000 - --- --	5.0
1 001-5 000 - - - - - . -	8.1
Over 5,000 -	2.0

Total	100.0

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^i'able •) coiiipJU'cs the size n\' sjirdiiic s;iiii|ilcs l;ikrti hy d \ii;tiiiitc with sanil)i('S obtained by I be bijinkct iirl. Tbc dy ii;iiiiiti' d;d;i were taken from three re^'nbii- siii-\cy crniscs in tbc \';i\\ ol' III.");;, |)rcccdiii<r tlic t'onr ex))oi"im(Mital cruises. The dynaniile stations i'e|(icsent ;ii)|)i'o.\iinalely tiio same area, but dilTci- in time ol' yeai'. Allbonj^li lliis eomparison indicates thai I be blanket net yields lar^'ei' sampb's of sar'dines than did tbe prcNioiis inetbod, tliis \v;is more di;ini;it ie;dly (b'lnonst r"i1ed in tlu> bir^c samples of fish that were taken at some stations which, had dynamite been used, probably would have yielded less than KKJ fish. Eighty sets were made with tlie blanket net to obtain the 48 samples shown in Table )! and GT) percent of these samples were taken by siii;j]e sets. On three occasions sardines were observed nnder the li^'ht, but were not taken. There was no difficulty in keej)in<i' flu; vessel's bait tanks supi)lie(l with live bait durin;:i' the cruises. Sardines in excess of those needed for a sample were kept for live bait and this aided in the catching of 621 yellowtail (Scriola dorsalis), wliieli were subse- (piently tagged and released. Tn addition to those fish used for bait and samples, approximateh' 1,500 live sai'dines were delivered to the Steinhart >\.(iuariniii in San Francisco for experimental studies.

TABLE 3

A Comparison Between Dynamite and the Blanket Net tor Obtaining Sardine Samples. The Number of

Samples and Percentages Are Shown at Different Sample Sizes Up to 100 Fish Per Sample.

At Some Stations More Than One Set Was Made to Obtain the Sample.

	Dynamite	Blanket Net
Number of sardines in sample	Number of samples	Percentage	Number of samples	Percentage
1-20	37 4 2 1 6	74.0 8.0 4.0 2.0 12.0	17 4 2 1 24	3.5.4
21-40 41-60	8.3 4.2
61-80, _ __ _	2.1
81-100 .. .	50.0

Totals	50	100.0	48	100.0

Marlon Blanket Net

A new blanket net, essentiallj' the same as the experimental model but with several minor modifications, was constructed in ]May, in.")4. The basic changes were the snbstitution of one-half-inch mesh marlon webbing for the three-quarter-incli mesh cotton webbing, the ratios of lianging, and the addition and placement of weights.

The dimensions and specifications of the new net are shown in Fig- ure 8.

The marlon net was used on an t'xperinieiita] cruise, ^fay 24 to .luiu^ 11, 1954, off the coast of California by the survey vessel Yef^lowfix. On this cruise 23 species were taken (Table 4).

The largest number of fish taken from a single set was approximately 100,000 juvenile northern anchovies. One set yielded approximately 50,000 juvenile northern anchovies and 20,000 juvenile Pacific herring.

364

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

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FIGURE 8. Diagram showing construction of the one-half-inch mesh, morion

webbing, blanket net.

Pish as small as 50 mm. in length were taken in the one-half -inch mesh marlon net without gilling.

At fonr stations between Santa Cruz and Halfmoon Bay a total of eight juvenile king .salmon was taken, 81 to 130 mm. fork length.

Squid were numerous and catches up to 500 pounds per set were made. In some locations it was apparent that sets could have yielded continnonsly between 300 and 500 pounds.

In general, the marlon net proved successful, especially for smaller sizes of fish.

l!l,.\.\Ki;'r M/l' SA.MI'MXfJ

365

TABLE 4

Common and Scientific Names of Species Taken by the Marlon Blanl<et Net Off tfie Coast of California (l^ay 24 to June 11, 1954)

( '(MlllllOll IKI lite	Si'ii'iitilir iiaiinr	Common name*	Scientific nairie
	Toritnlf} '■aliforn ir.d Sanliiioiis cucniliit	Queenfiftli	Seriphus polilus
l':icilic saiiiinc	Walleye surfpi'icli	//i/pi;rprosopon argenleum
I'acilic hcrriiin Noit lirni Miicliovy _	Cluiicii imlld.'ii EiiOi'iiulis iiiiirildx	Shiner perch	Cyviatofjtister riffgref/ala
Bocaccio__	Sebastodes paucispinis
Ninlit siiH'lt	Spin' II '-h us rstarbai	Yellovvtail rocUfish	Seboitodes flavidua
Surf smell _	Ifi/ix'ntesus pretiosus	Sablefish	Anoplopoma fimbria
Kills; salmon	On ciirhi/n cli us t.iliii nytscha	GroonlinK seatrout	Hexagrammos decagram- mus
Pipefish _- .	Syngnathus sp.	Lingcod
	Ophiodon elongatua
JacUsmolt	.4 til erin opsis calif «rn ie n sis	Cabezon
	Scorpaenichthys marmo-
Topsmelt	Atherinops affinis		ratus
California Ki'imii 111	Lt'uresthes tenuis	Blenny-eel	Ulvicola sanctaerosae
Jack niackorol	Trnc.hiirus symmetricus	SQuid _ _-	Loligo opalescens

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

It is ironic indeed that a better sampling technique shoidd be de- veloped as a result of an accident which occurred while using the old technique. If a name be given to this net, it seems only proper to call it the Bevington Net, after Mv. C. L. Bevington, marine biologist of the California Department of Fish and Game who was critically in- jured in October, 1953, while working with explosives in sampling fish populations.

REFERENCES I\ask, John L.

1947. Japanese fishing gear. U. S. Fish and WiUll. Scrv., Fish. J.cadot 234, 107 i). C Reproduction of Rept. no. 71, Supreme Commander Allied Powers, Gen. Ildqts., Nat. Resources Sect.)

Siebenalor, J. B.

1953. Trap lift net for catching tuna bait lislics. U. S. Fish and Wildl. Serv., Comm. Fish. Rev., vol. 15, no. S, p. 14-17.

Umali, Agustin F.

1950. Guide to the classification of fishing gear in tlic Pliilippinos. U. S. Fish and Wildl. Serv., Res. Rept. no. 17, 165 p.

A PORTABLE DEER TRAP AND CATCH-NET'

MELVIN R. CLOVER

Game Management Branch

California Department of Fish and Game

INTRODUCTION

Ti';ippiiii:>- cleer for the purpose of 1;iu<iino- and takiiif;- measurements is a usel'ul research technique in the study of proper maiiagenient procedures. Formerl}^ bulky wooden box or corral-type traps were used in California. These traps had the disadvantages of requiring numerous ])ersonnel for operation and were difficult to move on winter ranges \viu>re there is an ever changing deer concentration i)attern. Further, a problem of deer suffering injuries while confined in wooden traps was encountered. Because of these difficulties, trapping opera- tions were limited. With the objective of overcoming these difficulties, a trap has been designed and used successfully for two trapping sea- sons. At the time of writing, 115 deer have been handled successfully with the Clover deer trap, with the loss of only one deer due to injuries.

Prior to actual operations, an experimental trap w^as tested near Sequoia National Park. Some of the deer trapped were camp ground habitues and readily captured. The reactions of the deer being trapped were watched. Some resultant escapes furnished the clues needed to perfect the trap. It was of interest to note that there was no noticeable difference between tame deer and Avild deer in their trap-fighting re- actions when frightened by people or passing animals.

The first trap was constructed of 1^-inch water pipe. Weighing 185 pounds, it hardly met the portability requirement. However, it was found that i^-inch black pipe had sufficient strength, and the complete trap weighed 80 pounds. The trap can be constructed of high tensile strength aluminum tubing to weigh about 35 pounds, but the cost is doubled.

CONSTRUCTION DETAILS

The Clover deer trap, Figures 1 and 2, is basically a joipe frame- work box covered with tuna netting, or manila trawl netting witli a 4 0 -inch mesh. To the trade the latter is known as Intermediate Bag- Trawl Webbing 4^-incli mesh. To meet the requirements for each trap the following pieces of netting are required : two pieces 17 by 9 meshes, one piece 17 by 8 meshes, and two pieces 9 by 8 meshes. These are laced to the pipe framework with ^-iii^'li manila line. Otlu'r materials required and construction details are shown in Figure 1.

1 Submitted for publication Febrviary, 1954. Financed in part by Federal Aid in Wild- life Restoration Project California W-41R, "Big Game Studies," and in part by the Fresno County Sportsmen. Grateful acknowledgment is extended to all personnel of the U. S. National Park Service and of tlie Department of Fish and Game wlio aided and encouraged this work.

(367)

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CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

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No.

MATERIAL

I 2

3/4" BLACK PIPE

3 4 5

6

7

8 9

To"

1/2 BLACK PIPE

1/2 ELBOW

3/4 ROLLED STEEL

1/2" BLACK PIPE

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3/8" BOLT

1/4 ROPE

Igth.

84

44'

36'

48'

30" +

2 1/2"

100

1/4" TUNA NETTING 100 sq.ft.

No.

12

13

MATERIAL

VICTOR RAT TRAP

HEAVY WRAPPING TWINE

15

BLACK NYLON THREAD

10 HEAVY CORD

16

17

18

20

21

1/4" PLAIN galv. WIRE

HANDMADE HOOKS

APPLES OR ALFALFA HAY

CATCH NET HOOK- ONE END

1/4 GATE LIFTING ROPE

1/4 ROPE TOTREEor equiv.

1X2X5 DEADMANTIED WITH 1/4" ROPE -opp. cor.

FIGURE 1. Diagram showing construction details of the Clover deer trap. Drawing by Cliffa Corson.

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FIGURE 2. Photograph of the assembled pipe frame of the Clover deer trap. Photograph by Homer F. Bryan.

The primavY supports for tlio trap are the side frames. These are made b.y carefully biitt-Aveldiii,ii- the 7-foot lengths of pipe (1) * to the 44-inch lengths (2). The corner bracing of the f-inch rod requires sturdy welds to prevent frame distortion. The next step is to make the spacers (3) -which hold the sides apart. Elbows (4) are fitted to the three-foot, 4-inch pipes, and short rods (5) threaded and fitted to the other end of the elbows. The rod ends should then slide into the open pipe ends of the sides frames. The 4-foot runner bars (6) guide the drop bars (7) and provide rigidity to the trap.

Prior to belting the runner bars to the spacers, tlie drop bars are made by welding 2-J-inch rings to each end of the 3()-inch lengths of f-inch pipe. As these must drop freely along the runner bars, it is preferable to drill the bolt holes after a free movement is assured by proper positioning of the runner bars. The measurements of length and bolt hole si)acing must be made carefully if it is desired to fold the trap.

The netting ma\- (hen be laced to tlie side frames and toji. These should be separate pieces, since the top jiiece must be removed in order to allow the trap to fold. When folcling the trap longitudinally, the resulting package measures 9^ by 4 feet by 3 inches (Figure 3).

* Numbers in parentheses refer to items in Figure 1.

370

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

Several may be loaded ou the bed of a half-ton pickup truck. With the drop bar in position, thread each side mesh of the netting onto the runners. The top of the netting is laced to the spacer bar and the bottom to the drop gate. Thus, the fall of the drop gates closes the open ends. Plooks (16) are made of soft wire to suspend the drop gates. Cords tied to the hooks pass through a ring fastened to the top netting and then to the bar of a rat trap tied about 6 inches below the top of one of the side panels. A black nylon thread is tied to the rat trap trip and led through a ring stake across the center of the trap to an anchor ring stake at the opposite side. These rings are used to prevent accidental tripping resulting from the trip thread rubbing on the side net. This is especially j)rone to occur during windy conditions. Dyeing the netting with green shingle stain was found desirable.

FIGURE 3. Folded Clover deer trap being held by the author, showing ease of portability. Phofograph by Homer

F. Bryan.

A loose net with a purse line was found to immobilize the trapped animals, with escapes a negligible factor. A piece of 5-inch mesh cotton tuna netting is cut into a 7-foot by 7-foot square. A 13-foot length of -}-inch manila line is woven through alternate meshes on the perimeter of the net. The ends are tied and a harness snap secured to the tied ends of the line.

Another method is to construct the catch-net in the shape of a box. In this case a piece of netting is cut to just fit the trap opening. A piece of netting 12 feet by 2 feet is tied around the smaller piece, thus form- ing a box just fitting the end of the trap and extending out 2 feet.

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As ill the prcxioiis drsi^n, a l.'J-Foot piirsr line is stniii;.'- arniiiMl the opening:.

USE OF THE TRAP

The placement of llic ti-ap varied with locjil coriditioiis, hui opcjn reeding- areas were usually preren-ed. It was ioiiiid that the dccf most siiscH'pt il)le to trapi)iiiy were those moviiiji- alone or in small 'jr'»iii)S. Spookiiiess was more apt to be evidenced when dcr]- wi-fe in lar-<,'e gronps. If one deer Avas frightened hy the trap, its bolting usually cansed tlie otliers to rnn away.

After tlie trap has been positioned, lie guy wires (15) to t(jp cor- ners, joining them diagonally across the top. Opposite bottom corners are tied to deadmen (21) placed in the ground at a niiniinnin depth of 12 inches. The opposite top corners are tied to whatever is handy to prevent the trap from upsetting.

A rl-inch line is tied to the center of the drop bar and threaded through each mesh of the netting to the top and then secured to either side. This is the lift ro])e (19) used for raising the gate in order to release the trapped animal. The trap is now ready to set. Lift the gates and slip the hooks into holding position. Set the rat trap and adjust the cords (14) for proper length.

It was found that pre-baiting the area with a salt block, followed by pre-baiting with alfalfa hay a few days prior to setting the trap, produced the best trapping results. The hay would usually lie un- touched for two or three nights, unless the deer w^ere accustomed to this type of food. It was found that good success was obtained if two traps were set close together. With success in each trap, the removal was complicated as one deer would fight the trap excessively while the other was being handled. Therefore it is wise to place the two traps so that they are separated by some natural sight barrier. Noise and rapid movements should be avoided when approaching a trapped animal.

Baiting with alfalfa and cut apples was found to produce excellent catches. It is important to keep the bait well away from the trip thread, since the deer should hit the thread with its forelegs. This insures that the animal will be well within the trap and not block the movement of the drop-gate.

When a deer is captured, fold and hang the catch-net on the wire hooks (18) secured to the end of the trap. These hooks must be rigid enough to support the catch-net, but soft enough to bend when sub- jected to stress. Snap the purse line to the trap. It is important that the catch-net be centered over the opening, or the deer might escape to one side of the catch-net. Pull the drop gate up with the lift rope and walk around the trap to the other end (Figure -i). The deer normally bolts for the opposite end, hitting the catch-net. The final position of the deer is about 10 feet from the trap, neatly pocketed in the catch-net. If the operation involves ear tagging only, the ears may be pulled through the netting for this purpose.

If the animal is to be weighed and/ or if body measurements are to be taken, it is necessary to remove it from the net. Straddle the deer to hold it down, W'Orking so that the deer's hoofs are kept to the front. Work the netting carefully from around the legs and hobble securely.

372

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

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FIGURE 4. Clover deer trap in use, showing catch-net in place. Photograph by Homer F. Bryan'.

As the animal is now helpless, the netting may be removed and the animal processed.

"When the deer is ready for release, it is good practice to cover its head with a small piece of canvas before removing the hobbles. Back away quietly and, if the deer hasn't already departed, break a small stick or Avhistle. Moving to a safe position is a good precaution if a buck is being handled during the rutting period.

It is possible that intensive predator control is helpful to successful operations. An abundance of coyotes apparently made deer difficult to catch in the San Joaquin River area. The removal of 31 coyotes from

I'oiri'Ai'.M: I)i:i:k 'ikai' '')~'->

(lie area in a sliort pci-ind of liinr was FolldWiMl l)_\ j^ood di'i-r I rapiiiirj' success.

A lai-jicr sized (Uover trap was const iiidcd which sii<!('(!ssriilly caii^dil a l)ull tide cllc ((-crvua nannodrs) an lioiir ;\\'\cy tlu; trap was set. A total ol' sc\rn elk was cauj^'ht and ci-alcd \>\ the aidlioc without assist- ance, deinoiistratiiif? the ease of eniphiymcnt ol' the ('lover trap.

SUMMARY

Tlie Clover deer trap was designed i'or good trapj)iiij4- charactei'isti<;.s, ease of operation, tlie use of nnniiiium personnel, ease of poi'tal)ility, and mininiuni of injury to trapped animals. Tt lias met these objectives niidei' field tests and gives promise of hciiiii- a piactical device for live- fra])pin^ many species of animals if constructed in varying sizes.

RECENT EXTENSION OF THE RANGE OF MUSKRATS

IN CALIFORNIA'

GEORGE D. SEYMOUR

Game Management Branch

California Department of Fish and Game

INTRODUCTION

A study ui" llie annual i'ur uateli reports of the lieeused trappers has revealed an extensive spread of muskrats into Central California in the last decade. During this period, 1943-52, the muskrat has risen to the status of the most important fur bearer in the State, both in num- ber of aniuuils taken and in total value of the raw furs. The most recent figures available, for the 1952-53 trapping season, show that 91,266 animals, of which 83,053 were muslvrats, were taken by com- mercial trappers. The estimated value of the 1952-53 fur catch is placed at $104,500, of which $83,000 or 79 percent derives from muskrats.

The origin and distribution of muskrats has been reported in detail by Storer (1938) and by Twining and Ilensley (1943). According to Storer two varieties of native muskrats were found in California: the Nevada muskrat {Ondatra zihcthica mergens) of that portion of Cali- fornia east of the Cascade-Sierra divide, and the Colorado River musk- rat, commonly known as the sandrat (0. z. hernardi), of the Colorado River.

EXTENSION OF THE MUSKRAT RANGE

Imperial Valley Area

The first major extension of muskrats from their native range in California was recorded by Dixon (1922). The completion of the Inter- national Canal from the Colorado River to the Imperial Valley in 1901 opened the entire Imperial Valley area to the establishment of sand- rats along irrigation ditches and drainage canals. The animals quickly took advantage of these num-made watercourses to spread into new territor.y. The muskrats thrived so well that an estimated 25.000 pelts were sold from the Imperial Valley area in 1919. By this time the farmers in the valley were beginning to suffer damage to ditch banks and levees caused by the burrowing activities of the auinuds. In order to alleviate the damage, a program of muskrat control was initiated. This consisted of destroying the muskrat habitat by cleaning the ditch banks of vegetation, mainly by sprajdng heavily with oil. The success of this procedure is attested by the fact that the number of animals reported taken by trappers has gradually decreased in Imperial County

1 Submitted for publication April, 1954.

( 37". )

376

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

to a present reported take of around two to three thousand per year. Actnally, at present there is little trapping in the Imperial Valley due to the clean, vegetation free condition of the ditches. The trapping that is now available in the county is mostly along the Alamo and Colorado

Rivers.

Early Extension of Range in Northern California

The high prices offered the trappers for muskrat pelts in the 1920 's stimulated trapping and general interest in the animals. Trappers began to plant muskrats in suitable habitat where they were not present naturally. In addition, muskrat farming was started. For this purpose, animals were imported from the northern and eastern states, since the furs from these areas were of better quality than the native varieties.

Y///\ NATIVE MUSKRAT RANGE

MUSKRAT RANGE UP TO 1943

MUSKRAT RANGE UP TO 1953

O KNOWN PLANTING SITE F FORMER LOCATION OF MUSKRAT FARMS

FIGURE 1. Distribution of muskrats in California up to 1953, based on trapping records and

field observations. Drawing by Cliffa Corson.

MUSKKATS IN (AMI'OKX lA '-U I

The \('\ii(l;i iiiuskrat is (Uily ;i\(M-;i^'(' in si/c mid (|iiality and the saiid- rat iioniially l)riii^s only onc-tliifd the pi-icc oT a ^ood nuft lit'rn pi'lt.

Muskrat rannin<i' was of two main tyjx's. Sonn'tiini's a |)fiini'd larm was set \\\) I'oi' the animals, lint nioi'c ol'lcn Ihc animals wed' mrfrjy Inrncd loose in ponds and iiiarslics to I'imkI for t licnisclvcs. hi lliis maiuicr, most of the suital)le Iial)i1at in Modoc, Siskiyou, Trinity, and Shasta Counties became well stoeke(l with miiski-ats.

Restrictive Legislation

Tiu' muskrat com[)laints registi'red by the Imperial X'allcy I riaj^-ation District brought into focus the damage problems in Imperial Valley, and on ]\[ay 15, 1929, the Department of Fish and Game (then the Division of Fish and Game), at the suggestion of the State Depart- ment of Agriculture, gave notice that no more muskrat farming would be allowed w^est of the Cascade-Sierra moinitain svstem. In VJ'S'-i, legis- lative action incorporated the 1929 commission regulations into the Fish and (iame Code. However, these restrictive measnres came too late to prevent the sj^read of miiskrats into the Central Valley, for by this time fur farms in the upper reaches of the Sacramento River system in Shasta and Butte Counties had opened the entire Sacramento River drainage system to muskrat colonization. The earliest trapping record for the Sacramento Valley was for three muskrats caught near Oroville in 1929 by II. S. Anderson. They were probably the result of plants or escaped animals from some of the early fur farming efforts in Butte County.

Present Distribution

Figure 1 gives the present range of muskrats in California and shows the extension of the range to 1953. The period 1943-52 has been char- acterized by a marked increase in the muskrat catch in the Central Valley area. Figures 2 and 3 compare the catch records in 1940 with 1952.

It is of interest to note that the recent spread of muskrats in the Central Valley has occurred simultaneously with the increase in rice culture and irrigated pastures in the area. Rice acreage has risen from 237,000 acres in 1943 to 429,000 acres in 1953, an increase of 81 per- cent. Rice culture, especially, creates favorable habitat for muskrats. An abundance of water with resulting weed filled drainage ditches provides excellent habitat for the animals. Figure 4 shows a typical drainage ditch in the rice-growing districts. Once the animals entered the Central Valley, it was an easy matter for them to spread in the irrigation systems and along stream courses.

CATCH RECORDS

The catch of muskrats in California since 1939, when county catch figures were first recorded, is shown in Table 1. A further breakdo\\Ti of the catch is shown in Table 2. This table shows the catch in the Cen- tral Valley area only, and points up the recent rapid extension south- ward in this area. As noted from Table 2, such counties as Contra Costa, Solano, and San Joaquin have been major muskrat producers only since 1950 and 1951.

378

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME



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FIGURE 2. The muskrat catch as reported by commercial trappers for the 1940-41 trapping season. Uro-^'mg by Cliffa Corson.

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380

CALIFORXIA FISH AND GAME

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MUSKllA'I'S IN CAfilKOItNIA

383

FIGURE 4. Drainage canal in rice-growing area which is typical muskrat habitat. The domi- nant vegetation is the common cattail, which furnishes a major portion of the food of the ani- mals. Pbofograph taken November, 1948, in Yolo County, California, by George Metcalfe.

Value of the Catch

The value of the state-wide catch the last 10 years is shown in Table 3. Over this period, 1943 to 1952, muskrats have provided in- come of over three-quarters of a million dollars. The lowest yearly income in the period was $29,300 in 1949, and the best year was 1943, when nearly $114,000 was realized. The past three years (1950-52), over 500 trappers per year have reported selling pelts.

TABLE 3 Numbers of Muskrats Reported Caught From 1943 to 1952 and Average Prices Paid

Season of catch	No. of trappers reporting	No. of muskrats caught	Average price paid	ToT.\LS
1943-44 .	1,152 1,101 1,116 1,113 843 649 625 555 572 517	57,209 56,425 49,800 46,247 49,084 50,513 38,581 50,661 71,553 83,053	SI. 99 1.65 2.05 1.30 2.00 1.20 0.76 1.53 1.08 1.00	SI 13 800
1944-45	93,100
1945-46 ---	102.100
1946-47 --	60,100
1947-48	98,200
194S-49 -	60,600
1949-50	29,300
1950-51	77,500
1951-52 ---	77,300
1952-53	83,100

Totals		553,126	—	S795,100

4—1859

384 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

DISCUSSION

]\Iiiskrats are now the number ojie fiij- pi-odiicer in California, both in total number of animals eanglit and in total value of the furs, and as such, are a valuable resource. They provide income for over 500 individuals a year at the present time. Unfortunately, under certain circumstances, they can cause damage to farm irrigation systems. In areas of light or sandy loam soils, such as the Imperial Valley, musk- rats have caused considerable damage to small levees and canal banks by their burrowing activities. Water seeps through the burrows and caving in of the burrows further aggravates the damage. Where heavy clay soils are prevalent, as in the Sacramento Valley, this type of dam- age is proportionately small. In the Sacramento Valley, investigations have indicated that such damage as honeycombed check levees and. gnawed headgates, blamed on muskrats, has actually been done by Norway rats {Rattus norvegiciis) .

The author believes that w^here muskrats have been proved to be causing extensive damage, control measures should be taken to reduce their numbers. However, in manj^ situations the animals can live com- patibly with agricultural practices. Muskrats have not been a problem with respect to feeding on agricultural crops in California. In fact, their main item of food is the roots and tender shoots of the common cattail {Typlia latifolia), a troublesome weed of ditches and waterways. Where muskrats achieve sizable numbers, trappers readily take off most of the annual increase of the animals.

LITERATURE CITED Dixon, Joseph

1922. Rodents and reclamation in the Imperial Valley. Jour. Mammalogy, vol. 3, no. 3, p. 136-146.

Storer, Tracy I.

1938. The muskrat as native and alien : a chapter in the history of animal acclimatization. Calif. Fish and Game, vol. 24, no. 2, p. 159-175.

Twining, Howard, and Arthur L. Hensley

1943. The distribution of muskrats in California. Calif. Fish and Game, vol. 29, no. 2, p. 64-78.

THE SAGE GROUSE IN CALIFORNIA, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO FOOD HABITS'

HOWARD R. LEACH and ARTHUR L. HENSLEY

Game Management Branch

California Department of Fish and Game

INTRODUCTION

The sage grouse or sagehen (Centrocerctis iiroplnisidinis } . altliDii^li llic largest native upland game bii'd in Calit'oniia, is one of the least known to the sportsman. Tlie sage gronse by nature of its habitat is resli'ieted to the semiarid sagebrusli ranges of eastern Califoi-nia, and as a result is far removed from the metropolitan areas. Gi'iiiin'll and Miller (1944) list the sage grouse in California as occurring from tlie Nevada line west througli Modoc County to the west side of Lower Klamath Lake in eastern Siskij'ou County; and south along the east side of the Sierra Nevada, as far as the vicinity of Big Tine in Owens Valley, Inyo County (Figure 1). The altitudinal range is from 3,500 feet near the Pit River, in extreme northeastern Shasta County, to 12,000 feet in the White Mountains of ]\Iono County.

HISTORY OF THE SAGE GROUSE REGULATIONS

The first legal protection aflforded the sage grouse in California was in 1901, when a closed season was enacted, making it unlawful to l^ossess them betw'een February 1 and October 1. At the same time the sale of sage grouse was prohibited and the shipment of more than 25 by any one person in one day was made illegal. Li 1903, the closed season extended from February 15 to September 1. In 1911, a bag limit of four per daj^ and eight per week was put into effect, and the open season reduced to the period from September 1 to December 1. In 1918 the open season was further reduced to the period from August 15 to September 30.

Despite the enactment of this early legislatioii governing the take of sage grouse, they rapidly diminislied in nnnd)ers. The Lnited States Forest Service report on game conditions in California for 1921 stated that the birds were so reduced in Mono and Inyo Counties that a closed season there was recommended (Anon., 1922). On the basis of this report, District 4^ (Inyo and Mono Counties) was closed to sage grouse hunting in 1921. Courtright (1923) reported that the birds

1 Submitted for publication May, 1954. This study was made possible with funds of Federal Aid in "Wildlife Restoration, California Project '\V-25-R, "Food Habits Invpstiffations." The authors wisli to express their appreciation to Messrs. Ri'ssell M. Bushey, Sr., W. M. Pollard, Fred Jones, Hugo Hermann, Gene Gerdes, A'erne Fowler, and otiier workers of the department who assisted in collectinjr data for this report. Thanks also are due to the many sportsmen who cooperated at the checking- stations. ]Mr. C. M. Ferrel, former leader of Project W-25-R, made a number of the stomach analyses.

( 385 )

386

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

FIGURE 1. The range of sage grouse in California (shaded area). Drawing by Cliffa Corson.

were almost extinct in Modoc County. In 1925 all counties were opened to hunting for a 15-day period from August 1 to 15. The State Legis- lature set aside Game Refuge IQ in Lassen County as a sage grouse and antelope refuge in 1928. A 15-day season with a bag limit of four per day and eight per season was held from 1925 to 1931, at which time the season was closed state-wide. In 1944, the season was opened for three days. It was not opened again until 1950, when a two-day season, September 1-2, with a two-bird season bag limit, was authorized in ]\Iono County. This season continued in effect the following year. In 1952 a one-day season (September 1) with a three-bird bag limit was held in Mono County, and a similar season with a two-bird bag limit in Modoc and I asscn counties. This report is based on data gathered from the 1950, 1951, and 1952 sage grouse seasons.

SAGE OROUSE IN CAT.TFORNIA

387

HUNTER SUCCESS

( 'lu'ckiii^ slat ions were set up in .Muno ( 'unnt^ dnrinii' tlic ID.")!}, lljol, and 1952 seasons, pi-iiiiaril\ to clicck tlh' Imntin^'- prcssuro and to de- termine tlie ai)proxiniate kill of biids. Snccossful hunters wore rc- qnestod 1o fill out a quostirmiiaii-r. In addition, liiiidcrs wore clieeked in the held. No attempt was made to determine liie total numher of hunters ])articipating in the hunts. Table 1 is a comparison of the hunter success over the three years, as compiled Irom checking station records.

TABLE 1

Comparison of Hunter Success, Mono County, Seasons of	1950, 1951, and	1952
	1950	1951	1952
Niinibor of hunters checlted ... -	893 750 84 1,026 1.2 1.34 2.33	984 598 60 971 1.01 1.62 3.40	1,760
Number of succes-sfu! Ininters checked Percentage of .successful hunters-	849 48
Number of birds checked .	1 665
Average number of birds checked per hunter Average number of birds per successful hunter. Average number of hunter hours to bag a bird.	0.96 1.96 4.60

The trend over the three years was one of increase in huntinrr pres- sure and a decrease in the percentage of successful hunters. In IDoO. a total of 893 hunters was checked, of whom 84 percent was successful, bagging 1,026 birds. The 1951 hunting check listed 984 hunters, of whom only 60 percent were successful, taking 971 birds. In 1952, of the 1,760 hunters checked, only 48 percent bagged the 1,665 sage grouse taken.

The percentages of hunters by counties of origin are shown in Table 2. It is evident from these figures that over 50 percent of the hunters seeking sage grouse in Mono County were from other counties. Los Angeles County contributed the most hunters of any one county.

TABLE 2 Residence of Hunters Checked, in Percentages

County	1950	1951	1952
Los Angeles	37 26 21 16	39 26 15 20	33
Inyo _. __ __	24
Mono	12
Other ...	31

BIOLOGICAL DATA

Age Ratios

An age classification to determine the ratio of adult to young was made of birds checked through the clieeking stations. The characters used in age classification were as follows :

388

CALIFORNIA PISH AND GAME

1. Size of Bird. Especially the head and feet of adults are larger than those of immature birds.

2. Differential Plumage. Juvenile birds of both sexes have a tri- angular patch of finely streaked feathers on the upper portion of the breast and in general have a softer plumage than adult birds.

3. Coloration of Toes. Toes of juvenile birds are colored light green, in contrast to the dark colored toes of adult birds.

4. Flexibility of MandiMe. The lower bill of juveniles is more flexi- ble than that of adults.

Table 3 is the composition of the ratio of adult to young birds over the three years.

The ratios of adult birds to young birds indicate a relatively poor liatch or brood survival in 1951, but an excellent one in 1952. The pre- season sample brood count made in June and July of 1952 gave a ratio of one adult hen to 4.4 young.

TABLE 3 Age Ratios of Birds Inspected

Year	Ratio	Birds checked
1950	100 adults to 284 young 100 adults to 131 young 100 adults to 304 young	1,026
1951 . - --_	971
1952 ..	1,665

Weights

Weights were taken of a small sample of birds by means of a spring scale. The weights of two adult males were 4 pounds and 4 pounds 12 ounces. Of the three adult females weighed, one w^as 2 pounds 8 ounces and two were 2 pounds 12 ounces. The weights of 70 juvenile birds varied from 1 pound 3 ounces to 2 pounds 7 ounces, the average juve- nile weight being 1 pound 15 ounces.

Patterson (1952) in his study of the sage grouse in Wyoming found that, unlike many other upland game birds, sage grouse of both sexes attain their maximum weights not in the fall, but in the early spring. Weights of mature males during the strutting season varied from 5 pounds 2 ounces to 7 pounds. Weights of females during the breeding season were found to average slightly over 3 pounds. The weight of ('alifornia sage grouse as given by Dawson (1923) is 4 to 8 pounds for the males and '■'> to .") jjounds for females.

Food Habits

Patterson (1952; speaks of the sage grouse as representing a true climax inhabitant of a climax vegetative type. Although the original range of the sage grouse extended over much of the western states as far east as Kansas, Nebraska, the Dakotas, and northward to south- western Canada, its distribution coincided with that of the geographi- cal range of sagebrush (Artemesia spp.). Unlike most upland game birds, which are primarily granivorous, the sage grouse depends in

.SA<iK (Jiiorsr; i.\

Ai.ii()i;\ lA

:J8!J

liir<^c pari iipdii llic lc;ira<i(' of sa^chi-iisli for its siislcnaiico. Tliis in effect may aecounl for tlie lack of flie hard iiiiisciilar' '/\/./.i\nl so ty[)i<'al of llie other ^alliiiaceoiis l)ii'(ls. Dawson (]!)2."!j went to the oxtoiit (W sayiiiji' that tho shrc grouse has so \i)u<r deixMuled iij)on Ww. loavos and tender shoots of the sa^ehnish and lii-easewood for subsistence that it is inaeapahle of (1i<i'est in<:' ^rain. Ilowevei', I'atterson ()>' definition classified the stomach of the sa^c ^^I'onse as bein;^- a ^i/zard. It is iike|\- that sncli an or^'an is capabh' of di^'est ini;- many of the softer sheUed seeds or aehenes identided in the stomachs of thi' ITo sa'je ^'rouse herein reported. Bi«>'liteen s])ecies of seeds were ich'ntified.

A total of 22 sage grouse stomachs Avas collected from hunter kills in INIono County in lO-lO and an additional 113 stomachs were collected in lOf)!. The results of the analysis of these stomachs are shown in

TABLE 4

Food Items Eaten by 135 Sage Grouse Collected in Mono County, California September, 1950-51

Scientific name

Common name

Parts eaten

Volume (percentage)

Frequency of

occurrence (percentage)

Plant Food

Artemisia tridentata

Tri/olium sp

Juncus sp

Forbs

Symhoricarpos rotundifoliiis

Taraxacum vulgare

Tetradymia spinosa

Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus

Gramineae

Chrysothamnus sp

Artemisia carta

Perideridia sp.*

Rihes sp

Bryophy ta

Equisetum sp

Hordeum sp

Cyperaceae

Carex sp

Liliaceae

Eriogonum sp

Rumex sp

Cleomella parvi flora

Cruciferae

Rosa sp

Astragalus sp

Lupinus sp

Phlox sp

Convolvulus sp

ScrophuJariaceae

Achillea m illefolium

Chrysothamn us nauseosus

Compositae

Animal Food

Formicidae

( )ther Insecta

Common sagebrush.

Clover

Rush

Unidentified

Sno wberry

DandeUon

Cottonthorn

Rabbitbrusb

Grass family

Rabbitbrusb

Hoary sagebrush

Yampah

Gooseberry

Moss.-

Horsetail

Wild barley

Sedge family

Sedge

Lily family

Buckwheat

Dock

Cleomella

Mustard family

Wild rose

Rattle-weed

Lupine

Phlox.

Morning glory

Figwort family

Yarrow

Rabbitbrusb

Unidentified

.A.u(s... Insects.

I>eafage, flowers

Leafage

Leafage, fruits. . Leafage, flowers. Leafage, flowers

Leafage

Seeds

Leafage

Stems

Florets

Leafage

Seeds

Leafage, seeds...

Seeds

Seeds..

Seeds

Leafage

Seed pods

Leafage

Flowers, seeds...

63.9

8.0

7.6

6.7

4.6

2.3

1.8

1 . I

I .1

0.9

0.7

0.1

0. I

trace

1.1

trace

91.1 35.6 43.0 45.9 28.9 8.9 2.2 27.4 19.3 8.9 0.7 3.7 5.9 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 1 .4 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 3.7 1.4 1.4 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 2.9

69.6 32.6

I'erideridia = Kiilnphus of Jcpson. A ti.ice of t!rit was fimiul In lint 7

I iii'iccnl (if I lie .sldiiKiclis.

390

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

TABLE 5

Food Items Eaten by 40 Sage Grouse Collected in Lassen County, California

September, 1952

Scientific name

Common name

Parts eaten

Volume (percentage)

Frequency

of occurrence (percentage)

Plant Food

Artemuia tridentata

Lactuca scariola

Eriophyllum lanaium

Helianthus annuus

Forbs

Cleome platycarpa

Gramineae

Cruciferae

Eriogonum sp

Bromxis teclorum

Ribes sp

Agoseris sp

Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus- Ch rysothamnus nauseosus _ _

Compositae '.

Plant galls

Common sagebrush.

Prickly lettuce

Woolly sunflower

Common sunflower- Unidentified

Stink-clover

Grass family

Mustard family

Buckwheat

Cheatgrass

Gooseberry

Rabbitbrush

Sunflower family

Leafage

Flowers

Leafage

Leafage, seeds.-.

Leafage

Seeds

Leafage

Leafage, flowers.

Leafage

Florets

Seeds

Flowers

Leafage, flowers

Leafage

Seeds

Animal Food

Melanoplus spp

Lepidoptera larvae- Other Insecta

Grasshoppers

Moths, butterflies- Insects

29.3

21.0

6.3

3.6

2.1

2.0

1.9

1.1

0.1

trace

32.5

0.1

trace

95.0

65.0

37.5

20.0

15.0

42.5

15.0

17.5

12.5

32.5

5.0

2.5

10.0

5.0

7.5

97.5 10.0 30.0

Table 4, which is a summary of the food items eaten by the 135 sage grouse collected in Mono County expressed in terms of volume and frequency of occurrence. Table 5 is a summary of the food items eaten by 40 sage grouse collected from the Bull Flat and Line Spring areas east of Honey Lake, Lassen County, during the 1952 season (Figures 2 and 3).

The stomachs were collected in the field from hunter killed birds and preserved in formaldehyde. Upon receipt of the material in the Department's Food Habits Laboratory the contents were removed and washed in fine mesh screen and the excess moisture removed. An indi- vidual analysis was made by separating and identifying the items of food. The ((uantity of each item was measured in a graduated cylinder by w^ater displacement to determine the percentage composition of each stomach. These data were summarized by use of the aggregate per- centage method described by Martin, Gensch, and Brown (1946).

The leafage of sagebrush w^as the most important item in the diet of the sage grouse collected in Mono County (Table 4). Sagebrush was found in 91.1 percent of the stomachs and made up 63.9 percent of the volume of the total food taken. There was one occurrence of the leafage of hoary sagebrush, which made up 88 percent of the stomach contents of one bird. Most of the birds collected by the hunters in Mono County during the two hunting seasons of September 1-2, 1950 and 1951, were evidently collected in close proximity to water. The localities from which the birds were collected were as follows: Eough Creek, 10; Mono Lake, 29; Sumner's Meadows, 8; Masonic, 5;

RAGE nROT^SE IX PAUFORXrA

nm

Lobdel Liikc, 27; Ijoiij:: Valley, 24; r.odir, (1; i;ii(|jr<'|)(»i-l, '.) ; and iiii- kiiowu locality, 17. It was appiinnl tli;ii the iiiaj(ii-it\' <»r the saj^o f^rouso wei'e suppleincnt iiiii' tli(>ir did of sa^cltnisli with the Icafajre of several sj)eci('s of ripar-iaii or iiiarsli <ji-o\viii'j- plants availatilc ahoiit soiirees of water. Tliese iiicliidrd siidi plants as iddxrr, laisli, dandelion, f^reen ji'rass, horsetail, and snowhcia-y. iSotli the leafage and berries of siiow- beiM-y were eaten. In all, these plants eonli-ibnted 2:{.(i pereciit to the diet. In addition, unidentilied i^reen I'orb leatipjc made n|t (i.7 percent, of the food. The leafage and flowers ot" both cottonthoiii and rabbit- brushes were eaten, contributing 1.8 i)ci'eent jind 2.0 per<;ent to the diet, respectively. The oidy seeds contributing niatei-ially to the diet were those of yampah (0.1 percent) and a gooseberiy (0.1 pei'cent). Several species of weed seeds were identified in the stomachs ; however, no species was found in sufficiently great bulk or fre(iucncy of occur- rence to be considered an important item of food. The animal diet consistetl entirely of insects. Of the insects eaten, ants were the only item contributing materially to the food, being found in 69.6 percent of the stomachs and making up 1.1 percent of the total diet.

W

FIGURE 2. General view of the Bull Flat area of Lassen County, California, showing typical

sage grouse habitat. The area shown was a favored hunting spot during the September 1, 1952,

season. Phofograph faken September, 1952, by H. D. Bissell.

392

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

The analysis of the 40 sap-e uroiise stomachs collected in Lassen County in 1952 is shown in TabU^ .1. Tliirty-six of these sage gronse Avere collected from hunter kills ne;ir Bull Flat on September 1st. Most of these birds were killed in a small area of a dry mud fiat that was covered extensivel.y bj' sunflowers. It was thonght at the time that the birds were concentrating in this area because of the abundance of sunflowers ; but when the stomachs were analj'zed, it became evident that the sage grouse were seeking grasshoppers, which were abundant in the area. Grasshoppers were found in 97.5 percent of the stomachs and contributed 32.5 percent to the total diet. Of the other insects eaten only the larvae of a lepidopterous insect were eaten in a meas- urable amount, contributing 0.1 percent to the diet. Available in the mud flat were the flowers of prickly lettuce, w^hich evidently were avidly sought by the birds, making up 21.0 percent of the food and occurring in 65.0 percent of the stomachs. The leafage of woolly sun- flower and the leafage and seeds of common sunflower made up 6.3 percent and 3.6 percent of the diet. The seeds of stink-clover con- tributed 2.0 percent to the diet and were found in 42.5 percent of the stomachs. The staple item of diet, sagebrush leafage, was found in 95.0 percent of the stomachs and bulked 29.3 percent of the diet. The re- mainder of the bulk of food taken by these sage grouse consisted of: forb leafage (2.1 percent), grass (1.9 percent), leafage and flowers of

-^

FIGURE 3. A sunflower covered mud flat in the Bull Flat area in which sage grouse were con- centrated, apparently because of the abundance of grasshoppers, a favorite food item. Photo- graph iaken September, J 952, by H. D. Bissell.

sA(;i: cuorsK i.\ cai.ii'oijma '.i'J'S

Jill iiiiidriililici ('ni<-irc|-;ic (I.l | x'i'ccii I ) . ;iii(l tlir Iciifil^n- of hiick- wlical (0. 1 iicrcciil I.

Xot iiiclii(|c(l ill Ihr siiiiiiiKii'ics (if 111.' ;il)()V(' sa«;(' j^toiis*' food lial)it.s (!;it;i \\;is ;i sloiii.icli (•((llcclcil in ( )cl oliri-, l!).").'',, hy Xick KniiacolT of lln' Dcp.irtiiM'iil i>r h'isli ;ii[i| (i;iiiic ;ii i|ic .Madcliiic Wafer-fowl .Ma(i- a^ciiiciil Area in Lassi'ii ('onnly. It is notcwDrlliy tli;it this hini liad cafcu 111 i;raiiis of cidl i\;ilc(| \\lir;i1 {'rrilicitin (K \l i rii m ) . uliidi i'oi'iiu'il 100 ])erci'nl of its sloiiiiicli coiitciits.

DISCUSSION Food liahit studies h\ otlicf workers eonfui'iii eloseU' with the |-esiilts

op the analysis of Califdinia sage oToiise st(;iiiac'hs in this report. (Jirai'd ( 1!).S7) fcpoi-tod on the analysis by the Food nal)its Section f)f the ('. S. r>nrean of 1 biological Survey of 88 saye grouse stomachs eolleeted in •Inly and August, 1934, in Sublette County, Wyoming. Vegetable matter m;ide up S8..1 percent and animal food 11.5 percent of the total diet. Ol' tlie \-eget;il)le food, the (V)7iipositae, represented mainly by six sp(H'ies of sagebrush, furnished 78.1 percent of the food taken. Dande- lion ocenired ill nine of the 33 stomachs examined. The Leguminosae, consisting princii)ally of white clover, supplied 11.2 percent of the total food ;ind the i-em;iinder of the vegetable diet was represented by 10 other families. Ants were found to have been the most important of the insect food taken, having contributed 9.6 percent of the total food contents.

l\asmusseu and Oriner (1938), in tlieir study of Utah sage gi'ouse, cited the analysis of 61 stomachs analyzed by the U. S. IMological Sur- vey. These sage grouse were collected from the Strawberry Valley Federal Refuge in northeastern Utah from ]\ray to October. It was found that 97.6 percent of the adult birds' diet was jilant material and of this 77.5 percent consisted of two species of sagebrush {Artotiisia tridentata and A. cana). Of the total diet, 85.8 percent proved to be l)lants of the Compositae. Other important foods were grasses, which made up 3.9 percent of the total contents; Leguminosae (princijndly Trifolluni), 2.4 percent; and Ranuncidaceae, 3.0 percent. Only 2.4 ])er- cent of the adults' summer food was animal nuiterial, and this con- sisted almost entirely of ants. It was found tluit the young sage grouse diet in June consisted of 47.5 percent animal food and 52.5 ]iereent plant material. However, by August the consumption of plant food by .juvenile birds increased to 95.5 percent, which seemed to indicate that young grouse adapt themselves to an adult grouse diet when they are nbout three months old.

Patterson (1952). in his study of Wyoming sage grouse. ])resented a summary of the analysis of 104 stomachs. The year-round diet of the adults was comprised of nearly 96 percent plant material, the re- mainder being animal matter. Sagebrush, principally .1. tridentata, A. nova, and ^4. cana, furnished 77 percent of the adult tliet and over 46 percent of the diet of immature birds. The aninud matter consisted whollj^ of insects, of which ants, grasshoppers, and beetles bulked the largest in the insect diet. Many of the same species of plants identified

394 CALIFOENIA FISH AND GAME

by Patterson in tlie Wyomino- sage gronse stomachs were found to have been eaten by California sage grouse. These plants included sagebrush, rabbitbrush, dandelion, prickly lettuce, gooseberry, and clover.

The close similarity between diets of California sage grouse and those reported from Utah and Wyoming can be attributed to the fact that the distribution of sage grouse coincides with the sagebrush climax char- acterized b}^ similar plant associations.

SUMMARY

The opening of a limited hunting season on sage grouse in California in 1950 and 1951 in Mono County and in 1952 in Mono, Lassen, and Modoc Counties afforded an opj)ortunity to collect data relative to hunting success and food habits of a game bird of which little was known. The increased number of hunters in 1952 over those in 1950 attests to the growing interest of California sportsmen in sage grouse hunting. The analj'sis of 175 sage grouse stomachs collected from hunter kills revealed that 38 food plants were utilized by the sage grouse and that insects, notably ants and grasshoppers, were important items of food. The staple item of diet was the leafage of sagebrush, which was supi^lemented by the leafage of such plants as clover, dandelion, green grass, green forbs, snowberry, woolly sunflower, and common sunflower.

LITERATURE CITED Anon.

1922. United States Forest Service report on game conditions. Calif. Fish and Game, vol. 8, no. 3, p. 182.

Courtright, G. W.

1923. Mule deer need further protection. Calif. Fish and Game, vol. 9, no. 1, p. 32.

Dawson, W. L.

1923. The birds of California (Students' Ed.). South Moulton Co., San Diego. Vol. 3, p. 1602-1608. Girard, G. L.

1937. Life history, habits, and food of the sage grouse, Centrocercus urophasianus Bonaparte. Univ. of Wyo. Pubis., vol. 3, no. 1, p. 1-56.

Grinnell, J., and A. H. Miller

liJ-W. The distriI)iition of the birds of California. Pacific Coast Avifauna, no. 27, Cooper Ornithological Club, Berkeley, Calif., p. 117. Martin, A. C, R. H. Gensch, and C. P. Brown

VMi>. Alternative methods in upland gamebird food analysis. Jour. Wildl. Mangt., vol. 10, no. 1, p. 8-12.

Patterson, R. L.

Ill."i2. The sage grou.se in Wyoming. Wyo. Game and Fish Comm. 341 p. Rasmussen, D. I., and L. A. Griner

1938. Life history and management studies of the sage grouse in Utah, with special reference to nesting and feeding habits. Third No. Amer. Wildl. Conf., Trans., p. 852-864.

THE LIFE HISTORY OF THE TUI CHUB, SIPHATELES

BICOLOR (GIRARD), FROM EAGLE LAKE,

CALIFORNIA'

J. B. KIMSEY

Inland Fisheries Branch

California Department of Fish and Game

INTRODUCTION

For some years the Eaple Lake Rainbow Ti-out (Salmo f/airdneri aquilarum) lias been on the verge of extinction. Tn ir)48 a projj^ram of investifj-ation was started to determine what measnres shonld be taken to preserve this interesting species. It soon became apparent that the relationship of the other fish species in the lake to the tront would have to be determined before an adequate management program could be formulated. The Tui Chub, Siphateles hicolor (Girard), is the most abundant species and so was selected for the initial study.

This is the fifth life history study of native California fishes of the minnow family (Cyprinidae). Studies have been completed on the Venus Roach, Hcsperolencus vouistvs (Fry, 1936), Sacramento Hitch. Lavinia e. cxilicauda (Murphy, 1948), Greaser Blackfish, Orthodon microhpidotus (Murphy, 1950), and Sacramento Squawfish, Pfycho- cheilus grandis (Taft and Murphy, 1950). Harry (1951) has described the embryology and early development of the Tui Chub from Eagle Lake. The above studies have been helpful in analyzing the forage potential of these minnow^s for warmwater fishes.

DESCRIPTION OF EAGLE LAKE

Eagle Lake (Figure 1) lies in northeastern Lassen County at an elevation of 5,100 feet, and has a surface area of approximately 15,000 acres (19-1:1). The closed drainage basin of 498 square miles has a mean seasonal runoff of 91,000 acre-feet. The principal tributary stream is 26-mile long Pine Creek, which has its origin in a spring area above Stephens Meadow^s, about six miles west of Bogard Ranger Station. The low^r 20 miles of Pine Creek, below^ Bogard, and several smaller inlet streams are intermittent.

An irrigation project that began delivery of water llirougii a tunnel to Willow Creek Valley in 1924 has lowered the lake about 30 feet. This project is no longer operating and the tunnel is now blocked.

Although the latest period of near desiccation was caused by the irrigation project, there is evidence that the lake had great natural fluctuations and has in tlie past reached a much lower level than at present. Conversely, several much higher levels in the past are indi- cated by wave-cut terraces. The most definite of these is about 50 feet above the level of 1924. Other more indefinite terraces are situated

1 Submitted for publication July, 1954.

(395 )

3f)6

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

*10' / s

:»»•

K) to so «o ir

•TOHII lAT

EAGLE LAKE Lassen County, California

I 1 I m/las

Scale

• ff 10' to to

^lifeOM\CK||K

FIGURE 1. Map of Eagle Lake. The contours are at 10-foot intervals.

about 30 feet hiji-her than this. Hubbs and Miller (1948) made similar observations and in addition noted a gravel beach about 60 feet above the 1924 level. During the Pleistocene these higher levels very probably caused a surface discharge to Lake Lahontan via Willow Creek Valley. This surface discharge is further indicated by the fact that four of the five native species of fishes are of Lahontan origin.

i;a(;M'; i.aki: 'iii ( ini!

:'.f»7

TdIhI ;ill<;iliiiit y of I lie l;ik<' \;iric(l in l!l|s I'l-om ."):M p. p.m. at tlic iiioiilli (>r IMiic ("i-('<'k ill .liiiic to IlOO p. pill, ill tlic sluilldw iiortlwrii scctidii ill AiiLjiist. .\\ci"i^'(' total alkalinity \v;is ;ipproxiniat.oly 70!» p. p. 111. for all stations in IfllS. 'riic jtll v;ii-i('(l I'i-omi H.4 to 9.(').

Surface Icinpcrat iircs rjinuc from iiiiK-li liclow IVcrziii^' in winter, wlicii as iiiiicli ;is IS indies of ie(> may ronn, to a siiiiiriier iiiaxijiiiim of 70 (lejiToes V. i-econled in August, 1!)4H. Oxyj^cn is |)|(Mitifiil in tlio upper layers, hut below the .'{.l-l'oot, level during" the suiiinier mouths it is t'reipiently nonexistent oi' too low to su|)poi't fish lilV. The oxyj^'eu fe<iime (liiriui:' the winter stao'uation period, when the hike is frozen over, is not known. An ill-(l(»fined thermoeliue is formed dui-iiiji- the sum- mer mouths and lluetuates between the r},")- and HO-foot levels. Stron*r southerly winds which occur almost daily durin<; the summer usually eause enonjih circnlation to prevent the formation of a elear-cnt ther- iiioeline. Temi)erat lire ami oxygen data for a station in the southern part of the lake are given in Table 1.

TABLE 1

	Temperatures and D	Issolved Oxygen at a Station Off Canyon Point
	April 12, 1949	June 23, 1949	Sept.	9, 1948	Nov.	8, 1949
Depth ill ft.	T(M11\|).	Dissolved	Temp.	Dissolved	Temp.	Dissolved	Temp.	Dissolved
	in	oxygen	in	oxygen	in	oxygen	in	oxygen
	degrees	in	degrees	in	degrees	in	degrees	in
	F.	p.p.m.	F.	p.p.m.	F.	p.p.m.	F.	p.p.m.
Surface	41	10.2	65	10.7	67.5	10.2	56	12.2
5			64	9.2	66.9	10.7	50	10.0
10	40	*	64	9.2	66.6	9.3	48	10.2
15			64	9.1	66.6	9.1	42	10.2
20	40	*	64	9.2	64.9	9.0	42	9.6
25 . _ . -	40	*	63 62	9.1 8.7	64.6 64.0	9.0 8.2	42 42	9.2
30	8.4
35			58	5.2	64.0	5.3	45	8.4
40	40	*	56 56	1.2 2.8	62.1 *	2.4 .65	42.5 41.5	8.4
45	6.4
50	40	*	54.5 54	2.3 .8	60.4 60.1	1.3 .4	40.5	6.2
55

* Not taken.

BIOLOGY Systematics

The geiins SipJiateles is represented by two species in California, one of which, Sipliatclcs hicolor. has four subspecies.

Snj'der (1917) reported collecting two sjiecies of SipliaUhs in Eagle Lake, a fine gill-rakered form (SipJiatelea pcctinifcr) and a coarse gill- rakered form (Siphafeles ohcsiis). Meristic data for 2!>2 specimens col- lected dnring the current study indicate that a poiuilation of inter- grades between these two species exists. The gill-raker count of this popnlation exhibits a bimotlal curve (Figure 2^, luit all other char- acters upon which the two sjx'cies are ditVereiit iated show a uniforin intergradation.

398

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

30			/	I
to 125		j	J
i.20			V		A	r	^	L
'B 15				\	/\	1		\
-? 0				\				\
E Z 5				\	f			\	<
0	L^	J							V

12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 Number of Gillrokers on Firsf Arch

FIGURE 2. Distribution of the number of gill rakers on the first gill arch for 272 tui chubs from Eagle Lake.

The population now occnrring in Eagle Lake is best described by the scientific name Sipliateles hicolor : obesus x pectinifer. Two body forms, one obese with an obvious nuchal lump and the other slender, also occur in the population but cannot be correlated with gill-raker counts.

Distribution Within Eagle Lake Basin

The Siphateles of Eagle Lake (Figure 3) is tj^pically lacustrine in habit. It was not observed in the tributary streams at any time, except in Pine Creek below the lowermost rapids. Pine Creek has a long estu- ary-like channel which remains connected with the lake after the creek ceases to flow. For all practical purposes, this channel is a part of the lake, since no perceptible flow can be noted in it. Gill nets placed in the channel in 1948 and 1949 produced no adult Siphateles. Pine Creek empties into Delta Bay, where the tui chub spawns very heavily, so it is possible that some of the post-larval fish may find their way into the estuary ; several individuals four or five inches long were seined there in November, 1947. Since the estuary supports a heavy plant growth, similar in character to that of the open lake, a few fish may even spawn there.

No Siphateles were found in the lowermost semipermanent pools of Pine Creek above the estuary in 1947, 1948, 1949, or 1950. They were taken from the upstream side of the Pine Creek slough fish counting weir in 1953 and 1954, indicating that they may have migrated from an upstream area. It is believed these fish either resulted from recent bait introductions or had migrated into the area above the weir when it was open.

KAdij'; \>.\Kv. Ti I ( iiiit ;!!»!)

FIGURE 3. The obese form of the tui chub from Eagle Lake.

Movements

Observations in the open waters of the lake indicate that fish of the same year chnss school top-ether, with only a few older and yonn<rer fish present nntil the first spawning-. The schools break np on the spawn- ing: g:ronnds and become well mixed thereafter. During the spawning period the immature one- and two-year classes are scatterecl in the lake, while the older fish are concentrated on the spawning grounds.

Gill netting in the deeper south end of the lake during the spawning period produced a few large individuals not in spawning condition. There was no indication that these fish were spawned out. Fish of the same size range were noted actively spawning in Delta Bay.

No observations were made from the latter part of December tlirough March. However, it is inferred from observations made during the fall and spring that the adults confine themselves largely to the deeper portions of the lake during the winter.

The ice was off the northern and middle sections in 1949 by April 2, but did not go off the southern section until April 11. Nets placed in the shallow middle section of the lake on April 9 caught only suckers (Cafosto)u}(<i tahoensi.'^). On April 10, two gill nets placed in the chan- nel between the middle and southern sod ions at the edge of the ice took 114 adult Svphateles during a 12-hour period. The position of the netted fish indicated that a mass exodus was under way from the deeper ice-covered southern section into the shallow ice-free northern and middle sections. Examination showed the fish to be sexually mature, but not ready to spawn. Snyder (1917) observed a similar seasonal movement of Siphateles from deep to shallow water in Pyi-amid Lake, Nevada.

After about May 1, gill nets placed in the shallow northern and mid- dle sections of the lake were filled rapidly with adults. This continued through the spawning period, until late September, when almost no adults were observed. At this time, however, the shallow shore areas were swarming with young of the year.

In general, the largest fish are in the deep south portion of the lake. From May through August only a few very large individuals were found in this part of the lake. In the latter part of August noticeably larger numbers of smaller fish were taken, and in September nets were quickly loaded to capacity with fish of all sizes. The area in the deeper sections of the lake suitable for fish life is limited by the scarcity of oxygen below 35 feet during most of the summer months.

400

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

Fish occasionally venture into the low oxygen regions, since a few were always found in nets set at those levels. Such fish, unlike shallow- water specimens, were invariabh^ dead and of the pale silvery color usually associated with asphyxiation.

The schools can often be located by the large flocks of white pelicans and cormorants which feed on them. The movement of these birds to the southern portion of the lake, coincident with the first poor net catches of SlphateJes in the northern and middle sections, is further indication of the seasonal movement of the fish.

Parasites

This fish appears to be lightly parasitized in Eagle Lake. Several nematode and cestode intestinal parasites were found and stages of one or both of these were occasionally noted in connective tissue and the mesentery, with no apparent ill effects. A large ulcerous swelling was found on the nape of one fish. Individuals taken in the estuary of Pine Creek were noticeably more heavily parasitized than those of the open lake.

Food Habits

The newly-hatched fish begin to feed almost immediately upon roti- fers, diatoms, desmids, and other microscopic material.

In July, 1948, 30 specimens ranging in size from 12.0 to 26.8 cm. (4.7 to 10.5 inches) standard length were taken for stomach analysis from gill nets in which they had been held for as long as 12 hours. Because of the long period in the nets, many of the stomachs were empty, and it was necessary to examine intestinal contents as far as the first bend beyond the stomach. The intestinal tract is about as long as the fish and the stomach is only slightly muscular.

TABLE 2

Foods Eaten by 30 Tui Chubs Collected in July, 1948 — Average Standard Lengtti 17.4 cm. (Range 12.0-26.8 cm.)

Number of gill rakers	Number	Plant remains	Plankton	Caddis- fly cases	Chiron- omid larvae	Surface Insects	Hydra- carinae
1.5 _	1 1 2 .3 3 1 1 1 3 3 6 0 3 1 1	1 "I 1 1 1 1 2 2 1	1 2 3 1 1 1 2 3 6 3 1 1	1 1	1 1 1	1 1 I 1 1
16 . - -
17 18	1
19
20
2] .
22 --.
2.3
24
25.	2
26 --
27 .
28 - .	1
29
Totals Percentage of occurr	30 once	14 40. G	2.5 83.3	2 0.0	4 13.3	10.0	4 13.3

i:a<;i-i-; i. \ki. i i i ( ii ii-. 101

The iMiiuc" <il' Hie 'jill i';il<ci' cniiiils slidwcd ijir |\|ii.';il liiiiHMliilily <»r lliis cli;! r;i('l cr in the |i(i|)ii l;i I ion. 1! ii\\('\ci-, no cun-rhit ion \v;is roimd hcl \v<'('ii the iiiinihci- (if '_;ill i-.'ikcrs .-inil thi' Fudil scjcclrd. TIm' rrsdlts (>r (lie stoiiiacli coiitciil ;iii;ilysis, Ihl'cI Iht with llir ui|| r;i|-.iT (l;it;i, ;ir'i' presented in 'r;d)le "2.

Animal plankton (»('('Mri-('d in 83.3 porcoiil n\' I In- stoMiiichs. ('oprpods and cladocerans were I lie most nnnicnms oT these oi-'janisins and tlie contents ol' tlie entire i;iit were often (lyal a bright oran<i<'-i'ed from the pigment ui' eopepods. The remains of hiiiliei- plants, pi'ineipally PotdnKxji'ton, oeenrred in -l(!.(i percent of the slomaehs. jJeeailse tlie indixidnals in this exandnalion were taken on the spawning;- 'jronnds, where larec nnmhers (d' these plants oei-nr, the ainonnt of plant re- mains in this sample is probably ;:i'reater than normal. I'hy toplankton was not found in any of tlie adult stonuielis. However, it is (piiekly rendered unrecognizable by digestion. Surface insects occurred in Id. (5 percent of the cases. In one instance, during a hatch of small black- winged mayflies a whole school a])peared to be feeding exclusively on that item. The caddisily cases and the chironomid larvae may be classed as bottom foods and occurred 6.6 and 13.3 percent of the time, respec- tively.

With the exception of a few scales found in three stomachs, no fish remains were noted. These scales may inadvertently have been included during dissection or ingested by the fish during their sti'uggles in the gill nets. They are not believed to be indicative of pisci\-oi'ous tend- encies.

Spawning

The tui chub of Eagle Lake typically spawns for the first time in the spring- of its third year. The earliest date on which ripe spawners were taken in nets was June 16, 1949. The scarcity of ripe females at that time, and the occurrence of newly-hatched Sipluiteles, indicate that spawning begins about the middle of ]\Iay. On ]\Iay 10, '[9'A), a male dropped by an osprey was found to be sexually mature (tlowing milt). The water temperature at that time was 57 degrees F. After about the first of July fish in spawning ccmdition no longer occurretl.

The most obvious changes in the female associated with spawning are a slight enlargement of the anal region and protrusion of the genital papilla, a deepened body, and a reddish tinge of the fins. The male's fin coloration is intensified in the same way and, in addition, he becomes covered with small, white tubercles.

Fertilization and deposition of the eggs were not observed. At various times during the spawning period, however, a group of fish was noted swimming slowly and crowded together near the bottom. In each in- stance they were in water not over thri'e feet deep, where numerous aquatic plants were growing. Periodically tlie t1sh became excited and milled around, often stirring up clouds of silt which obscured the scene. Plants and bottom material collected after such an occurrence on June 25, 1948, included uncleaved eggs which hatched into k^ipliatchs on or about July 3, 1948. No attempt was made to observe spawning activities at night.

402

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

Newly extruded eggs are from 1.5 to 1.9 mm. in diameter, increasing slightly in size after fertilization. Their color is at first a pale orange- yellow, which changes to a light straw-yellow. They are very adhesive, and when spawned artificially stick to the pan and hands individually and in clumps, whether fertilized or not.

A series of six screen-topped quart jars was placed in the lake, each containing approximately an equal number of fertilized Siphateles eggs. Some of the eggs were free, others attached to plants. Into three jars bottom mud was introduced, while the others were allowed to re- main clear. The results, presented in Table 3, suggest that only eggs attached to plants or otherwise kept off the bottom and out of the mud will develop normally.

TABLE 3

	Results Obtained From Experimental Hatching of Tui Chub Eggs in Under Different Conditions	Eagle Lake
Jar No.	Eggs	Mud or Clear	Results after 72 hours
1	Free Free Free Attached to plants Attached to plants Attached to plants	Clear ..	Alive
2 ... .	Mud (eggs submerged) . Mud (eggs on surface) _ Clear Mud (eggs submerged) . Mud (eggs on surface) .	Dead
3 - - ...	Alive (covered with
4.. ..	Saprolegnia) Alive
o__	Dead
6 . .- -	Alive

Eggs were found on three species of rooted aquatic plants : Myrio- pliyUum spicaium L. var. exalhescens Jepson, C eratophyllum demersum L., and Potamogeton sp. These plants, particularly the Potamogeton, are often torn from the bottom by various diving birds. Siphateles eggs were occasionally found attached to floating masses of this plant ma- terial in the open lake. This may explain why newly-hatched Siphateles were taken in surface plankton tows in the middle of the lake, far from known spawning areas.

An 11-inch female produced 11,200 ripe eggs (measured volumet- rically). This figure is probably low, since only ripe eggs were found. Dissection of other females indicates that the eggs do not all mature at the same time.

The incubation period of the eggs in the lake is not known. Newly- fertilized eggs collected July 25, 1948, and left in a quart jar in the laboratory, where the air temperature varied from 40 to 90 degrees F., hatched and the fry were found actively feeding in nine days. The liatching time at the more stable lake temperature is probably less.

Postlarval Life

Upon hatching the yolk sac has been absorbed and the larvae are well developed. They remain in plant beds until they are about 1 or 2 cm. long, at which size they first begin to appear along the shore in numbers. Most of the small fish occur where the plant beds are not very thick and at this time their numbers do not appear impressive. As they increase in size, however, the tremendous numbers become ap- parent. Along the shore of Delta Bay in late August, 1949, a black belt

EAGLE LAKE TUI CHUB

403

oi' these small iisli iiun'ed ciway as we a|)|)r()ai'li('(|, and rctiinicd to the shallow shoi'(> line as soon as we had passed. This plant hed and shore- line existence continued until late SeptendxT, when the aii- temperature reached 40 de^n-ees V. during' tiu; early moi-nin«r hours. In Deeemher, lOoO, no fish wei-e seen in the shallows of the west(!i-n section of Stones Bay, where in late August, 1I)4S, I nniiiidous schools of tui chubs of the year had occurred. It therefore ai)pears that tin; youn<^ of the year nu<irate into tiie open waters at the onset of their first wint(!r and in subsecpient years return to the shallows only durinjr spawning.' |)eriods.

B

FIGURE 4. Scale of tui chub in its fifth year, from Eagle Lake.

404

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

Growth

Growth rates were calculated from scales of 121 specimens. Scale samples were taken from approximately halfway between the lateral line and the origin of the dorsal fin. A typical scale is shown in Figure 4.

The length of the anterio-lateral radius on 67 scales was plotted against the standard length, giving a correlation coefficient of 0.97 (Figure 5). Scales were found to be forming on individuals 2 to 2^ em. (0.78 to 0.97 inches) long.

Little diftieulty was experienced in reading the scales to the fifth annulus. An unusually large number proved to be regenerated, even though they are firmly embedded in the adult. A number of adult fish Avith large scars from wounds apparently inflicted by water birds were found, but this would not seem to account for the large number of scales lost by smaller fish. It appears that the scales are more deciduous when the fish are small, since the greatest loss appeared to be about the time of the formation of the first annulus. Fish shorter than 12 cm. (4.7 inches) lost more scales during their struggles in the gill net than did the larger ones.

	3.6
	3.4
	3.0
	2.7
	24
Ctf
-^—
e	2.1
:i	1.8
<\>
Nl	lb
tn
n	L2
u
CO	.9

.3

0

									•
						• •
						•	• • •	• •
					i	•	■		«
				•	i •	•
			(	s»
			•	•
		<
	- ^	r" >•

>
								r =	.97

6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 33 36 Standard Lenqth-Cen+imeters

pIGUR^ 5. Regression of scale :ize and fi:h length for the tui chub in Eagle Lake.

KAiilJ; LAKE TIJI ('Ill'lt

405

35

in

E O

30

25

^20

D

-o

c D

C/)

10

0

7

Aqe Groups

FIGURE 6. Growth rate of the tul chub in Eagle Lake. The fine vertical line is the range, the

black portion of the box one standard deviation, the horizontal line the mean, and the clear

box three times the standard error of the mean.

From Figure 6, it can be seen that growth is regular until the fourth year, when it begins to taper olt' .The wide overlap in size ranges of year classes is probably caused by the extended spawning period.

Means for the sixth- and seventh-year classes may be considered tentative, due to the small numbers of individuals. Because of siniwning checks and erosion from other causes, the scales become very difficult to read beyond the five-year-age group. The largest unaged individual was a female 40.9 cm. (16 inches) standard length.

406 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

Fish of the year collected September 10, 1948, varied in length from 2.2 to 4.2 cm. (0.85 to 1.6 inches) standard length. The lake freezes over during December and the formation of the annulus probably occurs about the time the fish migrate into the shallow waters, just after the ice goes off. This is about one month prior to spawning.

The length-weight relationship curve is shown in Figure 7.

The condition factor (K) was calculated for 139 specimens ranging in standard length from 12.4 to 34.9 cm. The average value for K was 1.92 (range 1.04-2.94). The lower values were consistently associated with the smaller sizes. The average of 61 values taken from spawners between June 16 and June 25, 1948, was 1.98 (range 1.42-2.94). Im- mediately after spawning the condition index dropped slightly, making the average for 42 specimens taken between July 17 and July 27, 1948, 1.82 (range 1.04-2.39). A series of 36 examples taken well after spawn- ing between August 3 and August 27, 1948, had begun to recover and had an average K of 1.94 (range 1.20-2.73). The differences are ad- mittedly slight, but indicative of the effect of spawning.

ECONOMICS

The average fisherman considers any non-game fish a "rough fish" and therefore unfit for human consumption. This feeling is particu- larly strong because chemical treatment of lakes has made it possible to eradicate all "rough fish" in a lake and then to substitute a pure population of "game fish." This negative attitude is relatively new, as most of the early settlers utilized any fish at hand for food, whether it be sucker, minnow, or trout.

The tui chub of Eagle Lake has an excellent flavor, although it is somewhat bony, particularly in the caudal area. Cooked immediately after being caught, it is excellent in everj^ way. Many of the local people at Eagle Lake utilized it and considered it to be very good. A large series was canned, using a variety of methods. A water pack proved best. The meat, when properly brined, was white and firm, and in the canning process the bones became quite soft. The resulting prod- uct was quite palatable and was used in much the same way as canned tuna.

Some sport fishing is furnished by the species. The best fishing area is in the south section of the lake, where the fish are easily taken with worms. "When caught in this fashion, their bite is a gentle tug, but they furnish some good action when taken on light tackle. More active fishing was reported on moonlight nights, when surfacing schools were fished with a small spinner.

In 1942, 1943, and 1944, a permit was obtained by a commercial fish- ing concern to seine and transport rough fish from Eagle Lake for mar- ket. A letter from a representative of this company states that com- mercial quantities of tui chubs were netted in only one year (1943). They were taken during the month of May from spawning concentra- tions in Delta Bay. About 8,000 pounds were obtained for export over- seas. The company interested in exporting them canceled their order, thereby forcing the fish onto the local market. Since people complained

EAGLE LAKE TUI CI MM

lOi

750
700						V
650						«
600						• •
550						• • •
500					• • •
450					• • • * 1
2 400					V^
i 350				4	t Jh
cr 1 300 250					• r
			• • •	u
200				•
150				•
100			• •
50			• •
	• ••	••

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 Siandard Lenq+h- Genii meters

FIGURE 7. Length-weight relationship of the tui chub in Eagle Lake.

the fish were too bony, only a few hundred pounds were ever used for food and the remainer had to be dumped. In 1949, the company con- sidered using them only for reduction purposes, the maximum value being placed at $20 a ton.

408

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

MANAGEMENT

When the tui chub is considered as a factor in warmwater fish management, it appears to fall in about the same category as the greaser blackfish, Orthodon microlepidotus (Murphy, 1950).

The only marked difference is in food habits. Orthodon adults feed primarily on a combination of plankton and bottom materials, with a preponderance of vegetable matter. Siphateles takes primarily animal foods feeding upon zooplankton, some higher plants, and larval insects which are found on the plants. The young blackfish and tui chub feed upon nearly the same food items. The slower growth rate of Siphateles may be attributed to the more rigorous climate of Eagle Lake.

The spawning time, as based upon temperatures, is about the same as for the largemouth black bass, or about 60 degrees F. The spawning areas and habits of the black bass and the tui chub do not conflict.

In Eagle Lake this fish, along with several others, is an important buffer species for the Eagle Lake Rainbow Trout. This trout, an en- demic species, migrates up Pine Creek about April of each year to the area above Bogard to spawn. ]\Iany of the adults are trapped in that area when the creek ceases flowing in its lower reaches. It seems likely that all of the newly -hatched fish are caught in that area, to remain there until the next year's spring freshets. When these yearling trout enter Eagle Lake they are about 5 to 7 inches long. Large flocks of pelicans, mergansers, and other fish-eating birds concentrate at the shallow sand bar found at the mouth of the stream.

At this time the spawning migration of Tahoe Suckers (Catostomus tahoensis), Lahontan Red Sided Shiners {Bichardsonius egregius), and the Lahontan Speckled Dace (Rhinichthys o. ro'bustus) into Pine Creek is in progress and they buffer against predation on the trout by the water birds. As the trout enter the lake this role is assumed by the myriads of tui chubs then moving into the shallow Delta Bay area prior to spawning. This buffer action is not a matter of the min-

FIGURE 8. A catch of tui chubs taken by sports anglers from Eagle Lake In September, 1948.

EA(ii,i': i,\Ki; III (III I! 400

HOWS ;iii(l suckers Iiciiil;' iiioi'i' ;ii'ci'|)|,ii)|i' in iln' |iic< l,i lois. Imt rjillicc OIK' ol' I rciiiciKldiis ;i\;ii l.iliilil \ ;il ;i liinr wlini Idr I'lirjlc Lake rain- bow is iiiosi \ iilii('ral)l('.

Since liii cliiihs rrc((iiciil l\ swim iicai- llir siiilacc. Ilicy are available to the birds xirlnajiy all llie lime they are present and a^ain biilTcr the trout in t he (i|)eii lake.

Slioiild Ihe Iroiil enter the lake as fineerl i ii^rs or \'v\ . thei'e \v(tiild be eonipelit ion I'or food and the liii i-liiib pruliubl^' would depress th(! trout po])ulatioii.

Siphatclcs luis dovoloped into a ratlier spectacular nnisauce when introduced into waters to wliieli if is not native. I'liis has lieen espe- cially true when if occurs in trout lakes in which aii^liii<_;- is maintained by finiicriinji' ])lan1s. This writer believes that this phenomenon is <liie primarily to the poor trout spa\viiin<2: facilities of most of these lakes and the subse(pieut uiiravorable position of the predator trout pf)pula- tion. Competition IxMwccn small planted trout and t<ii)li(it(les is be- lieved to be severe. In larger lakes, where Siphateles is native, a good trout fishery often exists.

Field observations indicate the tui chub does not reach as large a size m waters of lower productivity, such as Donner Lake, Nevada County. It may pro\e to be a good forage fish for largemoiith black bass in certain fluetnating reservoirs.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The study was initiated at the suggestion of Mr. Harry A. Hanson as part of a general biological survey of Eagle Lake being directed by him. The facilities of the Chico State College Eagle Lake Biological Field Scliool were made available by Drs. Vesta Holt and Thomas L. Rodgers. Dr. Robert R. Harry made available data collected during his study of the embryonic and early larval stages. Dr. Paul R. Xeedham aided in the preparation of the material presented as partial require- ment for the blaster of Arts degree at the University of California. Messrs. Sam Webb, L. L. Dahl, and J. W. Cavanee were most lielpful during the field work. Mrs. Barbara Thoma Kimsev carried out the experimental canning.

SUMMARY

Eagle Lake, Lassen County, Caiiiornia. is an alkaline hdvc lying in a closed basin, with only intermittent inlet streams. Although the lake surface is now lowered as a result of both evaporation and irrigation, it has fluctuated widely in the past through natural causes.

The writer considers the tui chub of Eagle Lake a hybrid population, Siphateles hicolor: ohesus X pectinifer, in which a peculiar bimodal gill-raker pattern exists. No correlation could be detected between the gill-raker counts and any otliei- cliaracter ordinarily used to differ- entiate these forms.

The adults feed primarily upon the larger zooplankton, higher plants, and insect larvae. Newly-hatched fish begin to feed almost immediately upon rotifers, desmids, diatoms, and other microscopic material.

The tui chub spawns when the water temperatures are approxinuitely 60 degrees F., laying its adhesive eggs on plants in water not over three or four feet deep.

410 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

It inhabits the shore areas and shallows during its first year. After that, it returns to these areas only during the spawning period.

In Eagle Lake it attains a mean standard length of 6.6 cm. (2.7 inches) at the end of the first year, 11.2 cm. (4.4 inches) in its second year, 16.7 cm. (6.6 inches) in its third, 21.6 cm. (8.5 inches) in its fourth, 24.9 em. (9.8 inches) in its fifth, 28.1 cm. (11.1 inches) in its sixth, and 32.5 cm. (12.8 inches) in its seventh. The maximum size recorded (unaged) was 40.9 cm. (16.0 inches). Lengths of age groups were calculated from scale measurements.

The species may prove useful as a forage fish in fluctuating reservoirs.

LITERATURE CITED Fry, Donald H., Jr.

1936. Life history of Hesperoleucus venusttis Snydex-. Calif. Fish and Game, vol. 22, no. 2, p. 65-98.

Harry, Robert R.

1951. The embryonic and early larval stages of the tui chub, Siphateles Mcolor (Girard). from Eagle Lake, California. Calif. Fish and Game, vol. 37, no. 2, p. 129-132.

Hubbs, Carl L., and Robert R. Miller

1948. The Great Basin, with emphasis on glacial and post glacial times. II. The zoological evidence. Univ. of Utah Bull., vol. 38, no. 20, p. 17-166. Murphy, Garth I.

1948. Notes on the biology of the Sacramento hitch {Lavinia e. exilicauda) of Clear Lake, Lake County, California. Calif. Fish and Game, vol. 34, no. 3, p. 101-110. 1950. The life history of the greaser blackfish (Orthodon wicrolepidotus) of Clear Lake, Lake County, California. Calif. Fish and Game, vol. 36, no. 2, p. 119-133. Snyder, John Otterbein

1917. The fishes of the Lahontan system of Nevada and northeastern California. U. S. Bur. Fish., Bull., vol. 35, 1915-16, p. 31-86.

Taft, Alan C, and Garth I. Murphy

1950. The life history of the Sacramento squawfish {Ptychocheilus grandis) . Calif. Fish and Game, vol. 36, no. 2, p. 147-164.

A COMPARISON OF JAPANESE AND HAWAIIAN

SPECIMENS OF THE BLACK SKIPJACK,

EUTHYNNUS YAITO'

H. C. GODSIL

Marine Fisheries Branch

California Department of Fish and Game

The black skipjack of tlic llHwaiiaii Islands was doscribod and its rclntioiisliip to tho tunas discussed by CJodsil ('1954^. The fiudiu;rs wcro compared with Kisliiuouyc's (1!)2;J) description of l\ idh i/n mis i/aifo from Japan, and as no differences were detected, the Ilawaiian speci- mens were assigned to that species.

After the work had been eomi")leted, three specimens of E. i/nifo were received from Japan. Tiiese specimens wxn*e secured from the Tokyo fish markets and sent to the California State Fisheries Laboratory by Dr. Bruce W. ITalstead, School of Tropical and Preventive IMedicine, Loma Tjiuda, California, whose cooperation is gratefully acknowledfred. An examination of these three specimens showed that they a<rreed essentially with the Hawaiian specimens, so that there can be no doubt as to the specific identity of the Japanese and Hawaiian fish.

In external appearance the Japanese specimens were indistinonish- able from the Haw^aiian. The proportional measurements (Table 1) conformed closely to those of the Hawaiian specimens, althoup:h in many instances they showed a tendency tow^ard higher values. The differences were slight and with but two exceptions could be attributed to the effects of freezing and prolonged cold storage.

Fin ray and gill raker counts agreed in general with those of the Hawaiian sample. All three specimens possessed 15 first dorsal rays, 8 dorsal finlets, 14 anal rays, and 7 anal finlets. Two specimens had 12 second dorsal rays and the third one 13. The gill raker count was 8 -|- 1 + 22-24 = 31 - 33. In the count of gill teeth, two of the Japanese specimens had 26, which is one less than the recorded mininnuu in the Hawaiian sample. The third Japanese specimen had 28 gill teeth. The comparable counts in the Hawaiian sample (8 fish) were: first dorsal ravs 14-15; second dorsal ravs 12-13; dorsal finlets 8; anal rays 13-14; anal finlets 7 ; gill rakers 7-9 + 1 + 22 - 24 = 29 - 34 ; gill teeth 27-29.

While the general view of the viscera, in situ, was similar to that of the Hawaiian specimens, a detailed examination of the visceral organs was not made ; neither were the specimens arterially injected. The condition of the specimens rendered this impractical. However, the specimens were skeletonized, and a positive indentification was made on the basis of the diagnostic characters of the vertebral column.

1 Submitted for pulilication May, 1954.

(411)

412

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

TABLE 1

Measurements Made Upon Three Japanese Specimens of Euthynnus yaito and the Resulting Proportions in Relation to Body Length. The Values Obtained From Hawaiian Specimens (Godsil, 1954)

Are Shown for Comparison.

Fish	Fish	Fish
No. 9	No. 10	No. 11
399 mm.	405 mm.	401 mm.
108	109	109.5
126	124	130.5
243	243	242
260	265	261
118	118	120.5
..	_.	105
99	97	101
173	171	169
145	146	140
123	124	117.5
25	26	28.5
29	28	28.5
58	65	61
57	59	57.5
27	..	29
27	27	29
14	15	14
43	43	44
46	46	46
31	31	32
30	30	32

Range in

ratios, Japanese

Range in

ratios, Hawaiian

Body length

Head length

1st dorsal insertion

2d dorsal insertion

Anal insertion

^"entral insertion

Greatest body depth

Dorsal- ventral distance

Dorsal-anal distance

Ventral insertion to vent

Length of 1st dorsal base

Length of 2d dorsal base

Length of anal base

Pectoral length

Height of 1st dorsal

Height of 2d dorsal

Height of anal

Diameter of iris

Maxillary length

Snout to posterior margin of eye

Fleshy interorbital distance

Snout to above plane

3.66- 3.72 3.07- 3.27 1.64- 1.67 1..53- 1.54 3.3.3- 3.43

3.97-

2.31-

2.7.5-

3.24-

14.07-

13.76-

6.2.3-

6.86-

13.83-

13 . 83-

7.27-

2.49-

2.35-

4.18

2.37

2.86

3.41

15.96

14.46

6.88

7.00

14.78

15.00

-, 7.82*

2.53*

■ 2.38*

3.44- 3.11- 1.65- 1.48- 3.07- 3.55- 3.86- 2.28- 2.75- 3.23- 14.29- 14.02- 5 . 54- 6.41- 12. lo- ll.91- 6.06- 2.31- 2.14-

3.60

3.23

1.70

1.52

3.24

3.99

4.18

2.38

2.95

3.53

15.53

17.38

6.05

7.00

14.15

8.00*

2.51*

2.34*

* Ratio of this measurement is to head length. All other measurements are related to body length.

The possession of 39 vertebrae and the absence of any trace of pro- tuberances on the 33d and 34th vertebrae unmistakably identified these specimens as E. yaito.

In the examination of the Japanese specimens, several minor dif- ferences were apparent. The ratio of body length divided by head length ranged from 3.66 to 3.72, whereas in the HaAvaiian specimens the comparable range in eight specimens was from 3.44 to 3.60. This can- not positively be attributed to the effects of prolonged cold storage be- cause the Hawaiian specimens were also frozen, although stored for a lesser time. Similarly, the recorded difference in the proportion body length divided by ventral insertion was appreciably higher in the Jap- anese fish. The significance of these differences must await further investigation.

A slight difference exists in the ratio of head length divided by the distance between the snout and the posterior margin of the eye. Neither of these measurements are perceptibly affected by cold storage. The range in the Hawaiian sample was from 2.14 to 2.34, whereas the Jap- anese specimens varied from 2.35 to 2.38.

Each skeletal element of the Japanese specimens was compared with the comparable structure in Hawaiian specimens. In only two char-

HIiA(;K SKIIMAf K }]:{

;icl.(M-s were |»(ilriili;il (lirrcrciMTs iii»li-(|, ;iii(l liolli oT llifsc wrn- rt'laiivf. ()l" llic l)()ii('s ex;! mi iinl nn 1 1 i rrrmicrs wefc iilisci'Vi'd ill the t'dllnwin^;:

IMciyfjoitl Artinilar

Prcm.'ixilhir.v rn-orliilnl

r<ist('iiivici«' <;iirMs<iii\iii

OlMMClll.ll- llOllCS I'l.xllflllliorill

("Ijuiclc, iiiid cuiil i;;ii(iiis liuiifs l>i-iiliiry

Maxilhir.v I Ivoiiinrnliltiiliir

Ilyjil assciiilil.v I'fh ic Kinllr

I*iiliitin(> M*-Nii|il<-r.VK'>iil

Aiixilinrv iii;i \ illary ( Jiiinlral*-

N'clrliral rulliliiil

The teeth on Ixitli j.iws ;i|i|)r;ircil sin.ilh'i' ;iiii| moi-c hrist !<• likr in tin- Japanese fisli. The dirrciTncc, tlion^h sli'jlit, was visually apjian-nt when specimens of tlir same size were din-ctly compared.

Tlie posterior portion of tlie paras|)liciioid dilVei-ed in shape in ih'- two samples. This dill'erenee can hest be (h'serihed as two charaeters. Those portions of the parasphenoid formiii^i- tlie lateral marfrins of the posterior aperture of the myodome were distinetly cii-iular in appear- ance in all of the Jajianese specimens, whereas in the Hawaiian speci- mens they were relatively straij^ilit and sli;;litly diver-i'ent posteriori}'. Moreover, in ventral view the shape of this aperture of the myodome appeared different. In the Hawaiian specimens it was shallow, while in the three Japanese specimens it Avas deeper.

The second cliai-acter concerns the same bone. The total extent of the parasphenoid (ventral view) posterior to the orbit is visually divided into two portions by a low, sharp transverse ridge in small specimens of the Hawaiian yaito. In large specimens this ridge develops into a short, blunt but unmistakable process on each side. Such ridges or processes are lacking in the Japanese yaito, and this portion of the bone is not visually divided. It is perhaps worth recording that the single sjjcci- men of E. yaito taken in California waters ((iodsil 10.14) agreed in general in the above characters with the Hawaiian rather than the Japa- nese specimens.

All of the above diflt'erences are relative. In no ease could a specimen be positively identified by any one of them. It is possible that they are merely extreme variations of the specific pattern. If they should prove to be associated with locality, they are merely indicative of population differences, and by no means justify a specific separation. The simi- larity in the anatomy of the two forms indicates overwhelmingly that they are of the same species, and individnally indistinguishal)le.

REFERENCES

(Jodsil, H. C.

1954. A descriptive study of crrlain iuii:i like ti.slu's. Calif. Dept. Fish and Uaine. Fish r.ii]l. 97, lSS"i).

Kisliinouye, Kaniaixiolii

1923. Contributions to tlie comparative study of the so-called .scombroid fishes. Tokyo Coll. Agri., Jour., vol. S. p. •J!t:i-4Tr..

THE EFFECT OF AUROFAC-ENRICHED DIET (AUREO- MYCIN AND B12) UPON YOUNG KING SALMON

EARL S. HERALD end ROBERT P. DEMPSTER

Stfiiihcirt Aqucirium

Ccilifornici Accicloiiiy of Scioncei

and

HOWARD McCULLY

Mcirine Fisht'ries Branch

California Departmunt of Fish and Game

During' the past few years many aquarists and a(|nati(' Ijiolofjists have been experinientint;' witli tlie nntihiotics, as bolli tlicrapcutie at,'fnt.s and dietary supplements. Tliis lias resulted iu a variety of claims and statements — many of conflicting nature. Upon examination of these two phases as they relate to fishes, a prompt conclusion is reached that some of the antibiotics are certainly effective as thei-apeutic atrcnts — l)Ut under specific conditions. The biy (pu^stion at present concerns their value as dietary supplements. Our preliminary studies at Steinhart Aquarium have dealt with this dietary piublcm, and will be described later in this paper. It should be pointed out that our priinai\v interest is in the use of antibiotics as growth supi)lements and not as a source of protein or of carbohydrates.

Anreomycin (chlorotetracycline) and vitamin Bi_. have been re- ported to achieve spectacular growth results when adih'd to the normal feed of such animals as chickens, turkeys, pigs, and young cattle (Anon., 1949; Cravens, 1950; Stokstad, 1952). Of considerable signifi- cance is the effect of these agents in lu-oducing .111 even growth rate, with no runtiness among the animals uiuUm- treatment. However, anreo- mycin and vitamin Bi^ have one serious disadvantage when considered for use as a dietary supi^lement — tbey are too costly. In order to over- come this problem and to meet a low-cost criterion for a suitable anti- biotic food sujiplement, Aurofac Avas develojied, and is now nuirketed by the Lederle Tjaboratories Division of the American Cyanamid Company.

To determine whether or not these same growth l)enefits couUl also be obtained in routine aquarium practice, it was decided to experiment first Avith young king salmon. Tlie results were so unexpected that it seems advisable to present tliciii here, together with a snnunary of certain similar experiments which have lieen carried out at other places.

1 Submitted for pnblicntion .TnnuM-y, 19r.4. Tlie fheniioaUy d<sfriptiv.' ct^nori.- narn.^ chlorotetracycline has replaced anreomycin. "Aureomycin" is the trade name for the product of I.ederlc l^alxiratorie.^ l>i\i.siin of the .-Vmerican ("yanaiiiid ('»nipany We are using the t<rni 'aurt'dniycin" in this paper because it is more familiar

(415)

416 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

PREVIOUS INVESTIGATIONS V^ITH AUREOMYCIN AND OTHER ANTIBIOTICS

Brown Trout

Wolf (1952) has reported a series of experiments with aureomycin, vitamin B12, and terramyein (oxytetracycline)^ as supplements to the diet of brown trout tingerlings. The tests, with ten lots of 200 fish each, covered a 16-week period (May 11-August 30). When Aureomycin and Bio in the form of Anrofac were added to a basic diet, there was no apparent increase in the size of the fish. A slight growth advantage, however, was believed to result from the addition of this agent to a poor diet of vegetable meals. Aurofac did not have any effect on the mortality. At the onset of these tests, Aurofac was used according to the manufacturer's recommended dosage for farm animals of 0.8 per- cent by weight. This corresponds to a concentration of 32.6 p. p.m. After a few weeks with no apparent effects, this amount was doubled, and later doubled again. The small amount of growth advantage discernible with an Aurofac and vegetable meal diet occurred only when the aureo- mycin was used at a concentration of 65.7 p.p.m. or higher and, accord- ing to Wolf, the data were not sufficient to establish statistical validity. Addition of 18.0 to 71.8 p.p.m. of terramyein in the diet did not stimu- late growth, but may have lowered the mortality slightly in both series of diets. Wolf concludes that his experiments raise little hope that antibiotics and vitamin B12 will prove beneficial in the diets of brown trout.

Cutthroat Trout

Mr. Jack E. Bailey, biologist for the Montana Department of Fish and Game, writes of their preliminary tests at the Arlee Hatchery with Aurofac fed to cutthroat fingerlings. These tests were initiated with four-week-old fish, in four groups of 10,000 fish each, and using a six-day-per-week feeding schedule. The first group was fed liver mixed with Aurofac 2-A, at the 2.5 percent level. The second group received the same diet plus a weekly one-hour treatment of 1 : 500,000 PMA (Pyridylmercuric acetate). The third was the control group, receiving a straight liver diet, while the fourth group received the liver diet plus PMA. The tests were continued for 11 weeks, at which time a bacterial gill disease caused partial cessation of the experiment. Auro- fac did not inhibit the disease, and there was no visible effect on the growth, although accurate measurements were not made. There seems to have been a very slight decrease in mortality in the Aurofac group in comparison with the control.

Rainbow Trout

The effects of terramyein, arsanilic acid, Chloromycetin, penicillin, and aureomycin on rainbow trout were tested in a controlled experi- ment by Wagner (1954). The drugs were given in the form of com- mercial feed supplements in the concentration of 22.0 p.p.m. of the food, except for the arsanilic acid. The arsanilic acid was administered in the concentration of 21.8 p.p.m. of the food. At the beginning of the

- The chemically descriptive generic name oxytetracycline has replaced terramyein. "Terramyein" is a trade name of Charles Pfizer and Company, Incorporated. W^e have used "terramyein" because it is better known.

KKI'KC'I' oi \l KOI Ar |,\UM HID DIKT 417

cxpcriiiiciil, Ihc hoiii i;iipj-,(| Ironi :!l !•> ..1 tiiiii. iii i-'imtii. Sum- ot' 1-he fish on Ihc .sii|i|)h'iii(iilr,| ilii-ts showfil as rapid an inrrra-sr in woi^'ht, .-IS the ('(iiilidl LMdiip (i\ii- Ihc whnh- tiiiu' of tlir rxpcriliicllt. Tiio aulhor hclic\cs ih;il Ihc mi |.| ihiiicnls iiihiltitiMl thr iiorinal iiirrpa>M> in yrowlh.

Mr. Horace (1. l''i;iiil/., .Ic, of ihc l'"r;iiizliiirs| liinnhou Tront Com- pany, Inc., of Sali(Li, ( 'o|(.i;i(|,,, wi-ilcs that tlicy nrv n.sin^' Aurofnr routiii('l\' as a dietary siipph'ineiit for lin^nM•lill^'•^ np to tliri'i* anil oni«- luilf indies \o\\'^. .\llhoii<^ii they ha\c nof observed aii\ lieiiefieial u'r<)\vth effect as a result of Ani-orac. ihc\ ha\c round that it reduces niorlality in tliese youiiii' fish to ahoul oncicnih the iHuiiial rati-. AuroFar was used at tlie "2 percent lexcl.

Mr. M. .1. Madseii, Cliiel' of h'ishi'rics Division, I'tah Fish and (Jarne Commission, has suiimiai'i/.cd ihc State of I'tah 's feeding,' experinn-nt.s with Ani'ofac, aureoinycin. hacilraciii. ami terrainycin. These tests were eonduded at Clenwood State Fish llatchci'y hy .\lr. .Madseii ami June F. ^o^vell. The tests were started in 1 !••')() on small lots of rainbow trout and no ill etrects were attributed to the use of the aiitibioties. In 1951, all the fish in the hatchery were fed food supplemented with 55.5 p. p.m. of bacitracin. Tlie youn^- trout of l!t.")l averajred seven fish to the pound on Au<iust 1, 1951, while fish the same a<:e had avera<.'ed 10 to the pound on August 1 of the precedini;- year, it was also noted that the Glenwood brood of lihll did bettei- than did the (isli from another lot of eggs from the same source reared in another hatchery without antibiotic supplements in their food.

In 1952, Aurofac, aureomyein, and baciti'aciii were used in the food supply of all trout reared at Glenwood. Tln' mortality of two- to six- inch fish was considerably reduced, and more uniform growtii with a reduction in the number of "runt" and ''pinhead" fish was observed.

June Powell conducted a series of experiments at (ilenwooil Hatchery that extended over a period of 12 weeks in 1952. In these experiments varying amounts of terramycin and bacitracin in combination with vitamins were used in the feed mixtures of all lots. In the case of one lot, the composition of the feed nnxture was not reported. This h)t contracted "red gill" and presumably was dropped from the experi- ment.

Mr. Madsen states that "In fish there is seldom found an absolutely healthy individual; some are just sicker than others. The use of anti- biotics in feed nearing the spoiling stage because of bacteria lias proved quite helpful in rendering this feed usable." lie eoncludes that any evaluation of antibiotics as food supplenuMits for trout nuist be con- sidered preliminary.

Eastern Brook Trout

Mr. Royall Scott (personal comunuiication, 19531. of the Clear Springs Trout Farms, West Buxton, :\faine, writes that they have been experimenting with Aurofac as a means of controlling ulcer disease but that he is not yet ready to make detiinte statements on that point. He does say that Aurofac with a diet containing a major portion of dry feeds results in an improvenumt of the food eonvei-sion ratio of from 3 to 19 iierceut. Like residts were not obtained when Aurofac was added to an all-meat diet.

418 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

Tropical Fishes

The controTersy over fish foods fortified with antibiotics has not been limited to fishes of cold fresh Tvater. Much has also been said about the effects of such foods on tropical fishes. NiiiCrelli and Atz (1952) have brought up pertinent arguments in their urticle, "Don't be a hypochondriac about your fishes." They report trisating guppies ^vith aureomycin by dissolving the antibiotic in the aquarium water at the concentration of 350.9 p.p.m. without causing any mortality or observing any distress. As a safe therapeutic measure, they recommend a concentration of 132 p.p.m. of aureomycin in the aquarium water. In discussing antibiotics as food supplements, they point out the possi- bility that continued use. of antibiotics in food may cause a vitamin deficiency by destroying vitamin-producing microbes in the fish's gut. They also call attention to the possible danger of producing anti- biotic-resistant strains of disease organisms.

The reaction of newborn guppies, Lebistes reticulaius, to aureomycin was observed by Berke, Silver, and Kupperman (1953). The drug was added to the food for a period of six months. AVe were unable to deter- mine from the pajDcr the concentration in which the drug was admin- istered. Apparently it was given in massive doses in the food. The treated animals grew much less than did the control. The character and perhaps the quantity of microorganisms present in the aquaria was changed. This is shown by the overgrowth of Candida albicans that de- veloped in the treated tank. The presence of Candida albicans is of the- oretical importance because it is the cause of a most serious disease (moniliasis) that may appear as a complication of antibiotic therapy in man. The authors do not report whether or not this pathogenic or- ganism invaded the tissues of the fish.

Dr. Aaron Wold of Hofstra College, Hempstead, New York, has tested the effects of aureomycin on tropical fishes. He reports (Wold, 1952) that fish kept four days in water containing 65.9 p.p.m. of aureomycin became hollow-bellied, refused to eat, swam at the surface, and finally died. Further work by Dr. Wold resulted in the develop- ment of a tropical fish food containing 59.5 to 79.3 p.p.m. of aureo- mycin. This food is now marketed on a large scale. Dr. Wold and others have attributed beneficial effects to the use of such products. We cannot fully accept such claims until the details of substantiating experiments have been published.

Salmon

In our experiments we used Aurofac, manufactured by the Lederle Laboratories Division of the American Cj^anamid Company. Its in- gredients are stated as follows: "dried extracted aureomycin meal and fermentation solubles, diatomaceous earth, and solvent extracted soy- bean oil meal." It is certified to contain not less than 1.8 grams of aureomycin hydrochloride per pound and not less than 1.8 milligrams of vitamin Bio activity per pound. Crude protein is not less than 10 percent, crude fat not less than 1 percent, and crude fibre not less than 7 percent. The manufacturer recommends that Aurofac be mixed with the food at a concentration not to exceed 1.4 percent. This is

i:i'i'i;( c ()!■ Ai KOI A(-i;\i<i( iii:i) dikt 4I<j

0(|ual to a confCMtrjitioii of :.:..'i i).p.in. ..f aiin'oiny.-in in tin* frxKl,* The considcrahic aiiioiint of lcstiii._-- wliidi lias Ix-rn tU,w lia.s .shown lliat tlie same i-clativi- r.'siilts can In- acliii'Vcd Uy iisiiit; i-itlifr the purified B12 a id aiircdiiix I'iii, <>v ilir li-ss costly Aiirorar.

There have' been I wo s.iIiikhi cxpii-iiMcnts othrr than ours, UNin(; aureoniyeiii-eivichfd foods, h'ohinsoii, I'ayiif, I'aJnHT, and HiirrowH (I!)")!), ^vorkill,^■ with lin^crlin^- red saiinon { Oncnrlninchiis iitrkn), found uo effect 011 the izrowth rate, hiil ihcy thoiiirht that the fish may have been ]u-olcclcd IVom an aiicinic tcndciii'y. Tin- dir't consiMtod of beef liver, hosi' spN'cn, caniicd salmon, and salmon visi-cra rncal.

Earp, Ellis, and Ordal (l!).").'!) irpnit ihat Klickitat Hatchery (Washing-ton) tried to control an onllncak of Karp's kidney diseuHe in kino- salmon fino-erlino-s by addinu- Aurofac to the food at a level of 39.9 p.p.m of aureomycin. The Aveekly mortalities wen- ,s.2 percent in the spring stock and l;{.7 ])ercent in tlie fall stock when treatment was beg-nn August 20, 1951. The moilalily rates in both stocks declined to about 1 percent by Hie last week in Scptrmhi'i-. hi another four weeks they began to rise and during llic week ending December 29 they reached ^'^^ percent in the fall stock and 11 percent in the spring stock. During- January mortalities again fell to from 5.0 percent to 7.5 percent, after which time treatment Avitli snlfa drugs was begun. T^nfortunately there was no control and thus there is no way of know- ing whether these changes in mortality resulted from the treatment with aureomycin.

In order to test the effectiveness of Aurofac on young salmonids at Steinhart Aquarium, two cold (49 to 51 degree F.) freshwater tanks of 1,000 gallons capacity each were prepared. Each tank was stocked with approximately 900 five-montli-old fingerling king salmon {Onco- rhynchus tshawytscha) with an average fork length measurement of 62 mm. Addition of Aurofac to the diet was initiated on ]\[ay 3, 1951, using the maximum ratio recommended by the manufacturer: i.e., 1.4 pounds of Aurofac to 100 pounds of feed, or 55.9 ji.p.m. of aureomycin in the food. The Aurofac in this proportion was mixed thoroughly with finely ground raw horse heart and fed to one group of the salmon fingerlings. The other group was held as a control, with the tish feil the same amount of heart without Aurofac. Both grouj^s were fed once a day for six days of each week.

On July 31, 1951, Aurofac was discontinued and both tanks were fed only raw heart because of the obvious size difference between the tish in the Aurofac tank as compared with those in the control tank. When the results were tabulated, it was surprisingly found that Aurofac had actuallv retarded the fishes' growth (Table 1). At the end ot S:'> days on the Aurofac diet (July 25, 1951) the average growth increa.se was only 4.7 mm., in comparison with an average increase of 18.1 nnn. m the' control tank. The salmon in both tanks were infected with a bac- terial disease. The svmptoms were those of Earp's kidney diseast^ as described bv Earp. Ellis and Ordal (1953). Earp ha.l identitied this disease in another lot of young king salmon from Steinhart Aquarium

3 To make comparisons easier, we have reduced aH concentrations of aure<w^^^ nartc! r,er miUion n n m. The p.p.m. as used here is the equn-ilent ot tne niuro ?mm per mi Iter of the bacteriologist, and the miUipram per liter or kilogram of

fhe pharmacologist. The 50 milligrams per ^,^1^" "^^ ^, \^, •'^^"'^:;f^„t^"«'„^ ver ^u™d and the gram per ton of the feed man equals 1.11 p.p.m. The nulligram per pouna

equals 2.22 p.p.m.

420

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

TABLE 1

Effects of Aurofac-enriched Diet Upon King Salmon Fingerlings

Start of test — (May 3, 1951)

Number of fish in each tank

Number of fish measured

Average fork length

83 days after start of test — (July 25, 1951)*

Number of fish measured

Average fork length

Increase in average length in 83 days

Spread of measurements at end of 83 days

201 days after start of test — (November 20, 1951)

Number of fish measured

Average fork length

Increase in average length in 201 days

Spread of measurements at end of 201 days__

Mortality between July 26 and August 23, 1951

181

Aurofac-e	;n	riched diet	Normal diet
900			900
17			17
62		mm.	62 mm.
18			18
67.0	mm.t	80.1 mm.t
4	7	mm.	18.1 mm.
34	mm.	26 mm.
12			12
87	9	mm. J	106.5 mm.t
25	9	mm.	44.3 mm.
42	mm.	26 (44) mm.§

99

* Aurofac feeding stopped six days after this date, i.e., on July 31, 1951. 1 1 equals 4.84 and p equals less than .001. % t equals 3.37 and p equals less than .001. § See text discussion.

early in 1951. The fish took food readily until the disease had advanced to the point that the fish were obviously very sick. Typical lesions of the disease could be found among the controls but they remained rela- tively healthy throughout the course of the experiment.

The mean fork lengths of the two groups were 67.0 mm. for those in the Aurofac tank and 80.1 mm. for those in the control tank. The "t" test of significance showed a value of 4.84, with a probability of occur- rence of less than .001. Most sigTiificant was the difference in mortality rate. The controls had slightly more than one-half the mortality of the treated salmon. Three and three-quarters months later (i.e., 201 days or six and one-half months after start) another check was made of the growth rate in both tanks. The average increase in the control group was 18.4 mm. greater than that of the Aurofac group.

It has been reported that in addition to increased growth rate in pigs and chickens resulting from the use of Aurofac, this material has produced very uniform animals. By contrast, the exact opposite oc- curred after Aurofac had been fed to these salmon fingerlings. At the time of the 83-day check, the spread of length measurements of the Aurofac-fed fish covered 34 mm., whereas the controls covered only 26 mm. At the 201-day recheck the spread of measurements for the Auro- fac-fed fish was 42 mm., and for 11 of the 12 controls, 26 mm. However, the twelfth control fish was much larger tlian the others and extended the spread of measurements another 18 mm. to 44 mm.*

From these data, it is apparent that Aurofac produced a detrimental effect upon king salmon fingerlings when fed at the maximum ratio recommended bv the manufacturer. The effects of feeding Aurofac

^Samples taken on the S3d day (July 25) showed that the coefflcient of variability, V, was 13.7 for the length measurements of the Aurofac-fed fish, whereas the v for the controls was 8.6. Sam.ples taken on the 21st day (November 20) have a V of 16.2 for the Aurofac-fed fish and a V of 11.9 for the controls. (Coefficient of variability is the standard deviation expressed as a percentage of the mean.)

KKFKC'i' <»i' \ri((»i'A( -i;m{|<iii;i> uikt 421

Altlionu'li lliei'i' ean lie no (Imilii thai the use nl' Aili'ittae in twod lias increased the Lii'nwlh lale in ciilain animals such as eliiekeiis and pi^s, this has yet to lie deiiKuisli aird in earid'nily enntnilled experi- luents uith (ish. 'riiei'e is evidence that aniedmycin i> elVcctive in s(»ine iisli diseases.

The earei'id assistance ol' Slcinharl A(|iiai-iiiiii statV memhcrs Walter Seliiioebeli and Ndixal (ireen in (air\in'j (Mil this experiment is ^'rat«'- t'ully acknowIedLi'ed. 'The Aiii-tilac used in the test was t'nniislied fln'ouu'li the cdiii'tesy td' William ( '. L(iiiL;ldin and ('ompany, San l<'ran- L'iseo re])resentatives (if the i>ederle liaixiratories Division (d" the Ani'-ri- can C'Vanamid Company.

REFERENCES Anon.

1940. 'I'lic .•iiiini;)! iiidlcin factor in iiouiliv and swine nnlrition. Animal I"im-<| I>c|it., I^cdcrlc l.alioratories Div., Aincr. Cyananiid Co., li!) p. (.Minifo. )

r>orlvC, IMulliii, Alliert ;\I. Silver, and Ilerljert S. Knuiiernian

1953. Effect of aureoniycin npon si'owtli and niatnration of Lchistcs rttiuhttiin. Soc. Exptl. Biol, and Med., Proc, vol. M, iml 1. p. .T2-:',4 .

Cravens, W. W.

1950. ^'itaniin B12 and the antittiotics in nutrilidii. I'\'edstuiTs, \ul. '1'2, p. ."hir>(>.

Earp, B. J., C. H. Ellis, and E. J. Ordal

1!).")3. Kidney disease in yiunii;' saliiKin, W'.isli. I>fpl. Fish., S|)ec. Kept. Sit., no. 1.

Nigrelli, Ross F., and James W. Atz

1952. Don't he a hypocliondriac ahont yonr fi.shes. Aquar. .Tonr., vol. 23, n<>. 10, p. 201-205. Robinson, Leslie A., Merl H. Payne, Jr., David D. I'alnier. and Roj^er E. Bnrrows

1951. Tests of liatchery foods for lihieliacU salmon T.J.'O. I'. S. Fisli and Wildlife Serv.. Spec. Sci. Rept. : Fisheries no. G3.

StoUstad, I']. L. R.

1952. Antihiotics in .•uiiinal nutrition. Antihiotics and Cliemothcrapy, vol. 3, no. 4, ]i. 434-441.

Wagner, Edward I).

1954. The elTects of antihiotics and arsanilic acid <in the growtli of rainhow trout fingcrliugs. Prog. Fi.sh-Cnlturist, vol. 10, no. 1, p. 3(>-3S.

Wold, Aaron

1952. Effects and uses of auroomycin. .\qnar. .Tour., vol. 2.'1. no. 11. p. 2.32-2.".5.

Wolf, Lonis E.

1952. Experiments with antibiotics and vitamin B12 in the diets of hrowii trout lingerlings. Prog. Fish-Culturist. vol. 14. no. 4. p. 148-1.")3.

AGE AND LENGTH COMPOSITION OF THE SARDINE CATCH OFF THE PACIFIC COAST OF THE UNITED STATES AND MEXICO IN 1953-54

FRANCES E. FELIN cincl JOHN McicGREGOR

United Stales Fisfi and Wildlife Service

and

ANITA E. DAUGHERTY and DANIEL J. MILLER

Marine Fisheries Branch

California Department of Fish and Gome

Tin's report on aue and l('ii<ith coinpositioii of the cali-li of sanliiios {Sardi)ioi)s caerulca) off the I'acific Coast of North America is the eig-hth of a series which gives siiuihir data from l!)41-42 to the present season (Felin, et al.)-

During- the 1953-5-1: season, 2,856 tons were huuled in the San I'edro region; this inelnded fish landed at Santa Barbara, Port IIiK'ncme. Santa Monica, Los Angeles-Long Beaeli Harbor, and Newport. During the same period, 316 tons were landed at San Diego ; these fish were trucked to tlie Los Angeles area for processing, but are here referred to the San Diego region. Fish landings at Monterey and Santa C'niz amounted to only 113 pounds, and no sani])U^s were taken in this region. At Ensenada, Baja California, fishing is carried on throughout the year, but only data for the period August 2 througli December 20. roughly ajiproxiniating the California sardine seast)n, were used in this report.

Sampling was carried on, in the manner described for the preceding season, at San Pedro, San Diego, and Ensenada.

Tables 1-5 show, bv sex and ren-ion of eatch, the K'iiirtli-fre(|nent'\ distributions of sardines of each year chiss as taken in the 11)53-54 random scak* samples.

Table 6 gives calendar dates for the lunar months included in Table 7.

Table 7 gives total tonnages and numbers of fish of each age caught in each region, estimated in the same manner as described for the pre- ceding- season.

Table 8 gives, bj^ sex and region of catch, the mean length and stand- ard error of the mean for each year class sampled in the l!)53-54 season. These are based on the random scale samples.

Sampling and age determinations were continued by personnel of the California Department of Pish and Game and the P. S. p^'isji and Wildlife Service. A visiting fishery biologist. ]Miss Mary Samuel, from Central JMarine Fisheries l\(>search Station of the Ministry of Fooil and Agriculture, Government of India, assisted in processing of data.

1 Submitted for piiblicatiiin .Inly, l!i.")4.

(423)

424 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

REFERENCES

Felin, Frances E., Ray Anas, Anita E. Daugherty, and Leo Pinkas

1952. Age and length composition of the sardine catch off the Pacific Coast of the United States in 1951-52. Calif. Fish and Game, vol. 38, no. 3, p. 427-435.

Felin, Frances E., Anita E. Daugherty, and Leo Pinkas

1950. Age and length composition of the sardine catch off the Pacific Coast of the United States and Canada in 1949-50. Calif. Fish and Game, vol. 36, no. 3, p. 241-249.

1951. Age and length composition of the sardine catch off the Pacific Coast of the United States and Canada in 1950-51. Calif. Fish and Game, vol. 37, no. 3, p. 339-349.

Felin, Frances E., John MacGregor, Anita E. Daugherty, and Daniel J. Miller

1953. Age and length composition of the sardine catch off the Pacific Coast of the United States and Mexico in 1952-53. Calif. Fish and Game, vol. 39, no. 3, p. 409-417.

Felin, Frances E., and Julius B. Phillips

1948. Age and length composition of the sardine catch off the Pacific Coast of the United States and Canada, 1941-42 through 1946-47. Calif. Div. Fish and Game, Fish Bull. 69, 122 p.

Felin, Frances E., Julius B. Phillips, and Anita E. Daugherty

1949. Age and length composition of the sardine catch off the Pacific Coast of the United States and Canada in 1948-49. Calif. Fish and Game, vol. 35, no. 3, p. 165-183.

Mosher, Kenneth H., Frances E. Felin, and Julius B. Phillips

1949. Age and length composition of the sardine catch off the Pacific Coast of the United States and Canada in 1947-48. Calif. Fish and Game, vol. 35, no. 1, p. 15-40.

SAKDIM: CATf II. l<;5^-54

425

1

o

a 2 o

-a cs

a

O

o

01

a

s	H
X!

(in	k<
a
03	k— (
M	<^

— « —

_ ~ .. «

— — M

_ X

— IN — ■■^

o

03

(N

05

03 O

IB

h f^

C«5N(N(MWM(N'Oe^e<5C^

<M — — ■M — CI — C) — •

-Hrt^OJ C^C^JCC — — —

o

rt — ri OJ C>) — •

2	H
t3

d,	li<
c
:«	^T^
OJ	l<

cc c^ •— CI — — n :c CI — — '

O

oj C

T3 «

5 M

o

OOOCl'l'OOCOO-'

■^ lo lO i.*^ ».•? i."^ w c ;r

i^-ct^t^t-ocooo — —

426

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

TABLE 2 Length Composition of tiie 1950 Year Class in 1953-54

	1950 year class, age 3
Standard length mm.	San	Pedro	San Die	go	California total	Ensenada	Grand total
	M	F T	M F	T	M F T	M F T	M F	T
196- -- - -- --	3 5 2 3 5 4 3 3 1	1 4 5 2 2 5 2 7 2 6 2 5 3 2 2 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1	1 1 1 1 5 3 1 1 2 1 1 1 2 1 1	1 1 1 2 8 2 3 1 2 1 2 1 1	1 1 1 1 1 1 4 2 6 10 3 13 3 1 4 5 3 8 5 3 8 5 3 8 3 3 6 3 2 5 2 2 2 1 3 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1	2 2 1 1 1 2 3 2 1 3 1 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 1	1 3 1 1 3 6 3 10 4 3 2 7 4 6 3 5 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1	1
198 - -
200	3
202 - .- - --	1
204	4
206 - .-	9
208 -	14
210	5
212 --	n
214	9
216 --.	8
218	6
220	5
222	2
224	3
226 --- -.	2
228 - ---	1
230	1
232	1
234
236 - -. ---
238	1
240 --	1

Totals - -	29	18 47	14 12	26	43 30 73	8 7 15	51 37	88

SAItDINK f.VI( II, 1953-54

TABLE 3 Length Composition o( the 1949 Year Class in 1953 54

427

	H)49 yi-ar rlium, nan 4
Standard IcIlKlll nun.	San I'lilrii	San Dii'uo	CuliforiiiH totui	,. , i «ir»fid tijtal
	M F T	M 1 1 \l F T	M F T T
198 200 202 204	1 I ') •> 1 1 2 2 1 1 2 3 1 1 2 1 3 4 3 7 1 1 2 1 1 3 2 -) 1 1 2 1 2 3 2 2 3 3 3 3 1 1 2 2 2 4 1 1 1 1 2 2	to — — to — — to CO to to CO —	1 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 2 1 3 3 1 1 2 2 1 "i 2 7 2 3 -> 4 t 8 1 1 2 2 2 3 2 5 1 1 2 1 2 3 2 2 3 3 3 3 1 1 2 2 2 4 1 1 1 1 2 2	1 1	1 1 2 2 1 1 I t 3 ■> T *
206
208	.7 1 X
210- 212 214 216 218..-. 220 222 224 226 228 230		2 3 4 ii 2 7 2 3 5 ( 4 8 i 1 2 2 2 3 2 5 1 1 2 1 2 3 2 2
232	3 3
234 __ 236 238 240 242 244 246	3 3 1 1 2 2 2 4 I 1 1 I 2 2
Totals	28 25 53	6 9 15	34 34 68	1 2 3	35 36 71

428

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

TABLE 4

Length Composition of tlie 1948 Year Class in 1953-54

Standard

length

mm.

1948 year class, age 5

San Pedro

M F T

San Diego

M F T

California total

Ensenada

M F T M F T

Grand total

M F T

192

194

196

198

200

202

204

206

208

210

212

214

216

218

220

222

224

226

228

230

232

234

236

238

240

242

244

246

248

250

252

254

Totals

1 4 3 5 3 5 6 1 1 1 1

1 4 2 3 2 1

48 44 92

4 6 4 7 4 5 7 2 1 1 1

1 4 2 4 2 1

1 1

1 5

10 6

11 9

12

14 5 2

3

2 1 3 4 4 4 6 1 2 5 2 4 3 2 1

14 18 32

62 62 124

7 11 18

1 2 1 1 4 8 5 7 4 5 7 2 1 1 1

1 4 2 4 2 1

1

2

1

4

6

12

10

13

6 10 8 13

14 5 2 4 2 1 3 4 4 4 6 1 2 5 2 4 3 2 1

69 73 142

SAICDINK (JATCII, If;^V^}

TABLE 5 Length Composition of 1947, 1946, and 1945 Year Claises in 1953 54

429

206

208-_

210.

212

214-

216

218

220

222

224

226

228

230

232

234

236

238

240

242

244

246

248

250

252

254

256

258

260

262

264

Totals

I I

1 :t

	1	1
1	2	3
1		1
	1	1
3		3
1		1
•>		o
1	1	o
3	2	0
2	1	3
1	2	3
	6	6
	3	3
2		2
	1	1
	2	2
	1	1
1		1
1		1
2	1	1 2

25 28 53

2 1 3

1 1

3 4 7

1 1 2

1	1	3 1
2	1	3
1 1	2 1	3 2
	1	1
3 1		3 1
1	1	•>
3	2	5
2	1	3
1	o	3
	6	6
	4	4
2		2
	1	1
	2	2
1 1 2	1	1 1 1 2

28 32 60

I 1

0 1 1

1 1

1 3 1 2 2 2 5

1 3

2 3 6 6 4 4

2

1 1

2 2

1 1 1 1

1 1 2

28 33 61

1 I

1 2

3 3 1 1

Han

IV.lm

M K T

1 1

10 10 20

0 1 i

430

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

TABLE 6 Calendar Dates of Lunar Months for the 1953-54 Season

"August" July 26-August 23

"September" August 24-September 22

"October" September 23-October 22

"November" October 23-November 20

"December" November 21-December 20

"January" December 21-January 19

"February " January 20-February 1 7

TABLE 7

Age (Year Class) Composition of the Sardine Catch in the 1953-54 Season (Numbers of fish are given in thousands, i.e., 000 omitted)

	Catch	Number of fish by age (year class)
	Tons	Nos.	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8
	1952	1951	1950	1949	,1948	1947	1946	1945
San Pedro "October" "November" _	1,365 1,075 80 316 20	9,240 5,818 474 1,964 124	554 381 389	263 84 85 65 4	2,297 924 393 25	1,848 937 471 30	3,631 1,733 733 46	594 1,261 223 14	53 401 79 5	97
"December"

"February"^

Totals San Pedro San Diego^	2,8.56 289 21 6	17,620 1,908 298 99	1,324 114 19 81	501 54 4 18	3,639 474 47	3,286 382 48	6,143 750 89	2,092 123 65	538 11 21	97
"November"	5
"December"

Totak San Diego	316	2,305	214	76	521	430	839	188	32	5
Totals California Ensenada "August" - - -	3,172 1,241 1,275 709 406 3,221	19,925 6,552 39,963 4,170 2,388 18,949	1,538	577 524 797 250 143 1,137	4,160 2,097 3,188 1,793 1,027 8,148	3,716 524 797 292 167 1,326	6,982 3,407 5,181 1,752 1,003 7,959	2,280 83 48 379	570	102
"September" _ .
"October"
"November" _ _
"December" - __ _--

Totals Baja California	6,852	42,022	--	2,851	16,253	3,106	19,302	510	--	--
Grand totals	10,024	61,947	1,538	3,428	20,413	6,822	26,284	2,790	570	102

1 Numbers of fish for this lunar period were prorated at the same ratio of age composition as the San Pedro

catch for .January.

2 Numhers of fish in the San Diego catch were prorated at the same ratio as the San Pedro catch for the com-

parable months. 2 Numbers of fish for this lunar period were prorated at the same ratio as the Ensenada catch for August.

SAUDINI'; (A If II. |i;, .;-5^

in

TABLE 8

Number of Fish, Mean Length, and Standard Error ol the Mean for Each Year CIlM in the 19!)3 54 Season, by Region of Catch

XvAV ( 'ill.SS

1<I.")2 Male I'Viimlc

Tl)t!ll

1951 Male Female TotaL.

19-)0 iMale , Female Total..

1949 Male.. Female TotaL-

1948 Male.. Female TotaL.

1947 Male.. Female. TotaL.

1946 Male... Female Total..

1945 Male-. Female Total...

N<

13

7

20

29 18 47

28 25 53

48 44 92

25 28 53

10 10 20

Sim I'lilr.

1(13 1112 102

212 213

213 222 210

220 226 223

223 228 220

236 237 237

237

245

.\l. S.IC.

I .05 I .34 0.81

2.01 1 . 63

0.46 1.10 0.58

1.21 1.16 0.86

0.87 1.15 0.74

1 . 50 1 . 39 1.01

1.51 0.84 1.20

I

6 10

14 12 26

6 9

15

14 18 32

.Sun i>i(!K'>

No. I M

179 Hi7 172

188 193

210 212 211

209 212 211

211 215 213

214 224 219

y.ttMtuulm

6. 18
1.34
2.72
5.34	0
. .	3
3.85	3
1.07	M
0.80	7
0.68	15
0.56	1
0.85	■>
1.25	3
1.26	1
0.56	11
0.64	18
2.00	0
4.19	1
2.00	1
	--

207

Ji»7 207 207

205

203 211 208

0.33 0.33

0.(18 0.58

0.33

1.17 0.87 0.81

NOTES

A RECORD-SIZE THRESHER FROM SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA

Oil IM.-iy II, llir)|, llir I ii(lr|ii'iH|(iit l''i^li ('(I.. S;iii rnlrij, rrvJ'\\cA an unusually lai'^c fiMii.ili' cniiiiiiDii tlirrshcr. Alnjiius nilpiniis, whioh contained four I'lnhiyns ,i|)|iiiiac|iinL;- hii-lli, 'I'lir shark was hrMiis/lif into tli(> niarkcl l)y Mi- .loc Stai^naro, ow iin- oT tlu' hnat Si-ortT II. after becomiii^' entaiii^lcd in his uill nets the pn-vidiis nit'lif approxiiriatrly fivo miles ofP Ne\v|i(iii i'.cach. Staicinrnts IVoni hnth tin- fisherman and the ni(Mi in Iho iiiarkfl indiraifd that this was the hirj.'t'st thresher tlioy liad ever scmmi and was. iiuircoN it. the first from wliich tliey had taken ])ups. The ])nps were saxcd and |)i-es('iit('d to the ('alil'firnia Stato Fisheries Laboratory, Tenninal Ishind. hut nnlui-tiniately tho adult was neither measnred nor weij^lied and had been rediieed to an etTi- ciently triiiniuMl eareass S(i inches in h'uuth when first seen by our personnel.

The tail, esimated by .Mr. Sta<>'nan) Id ix' between ei<.dit ami nine feet in length, had been cut off in order to facilitate removal of tlie fish from the net. Tn the market, the liead was removed from the body with a cut beginning- ai)j)roximately IG iiu-hes beliiiul the snout and running down and back over the gill slits. The caudal peduncle was severed just anterior to the caudal fin. If 16 inches (for the head) is added to onr measnred carcass length of 86 inches we arrive at a minimum figure of 102 inches exclusive of the tail. Proportional measurements for Alopias viilpi)ius on the Atlantic Coast (Bigelow and Sehroeder. 1948), as well as those obtained from the embryos of the i)resent speci- men, indicate that the 1()"2 inrlies re]-»resents but 4() to 48 ])ereeut td" the total length. The total length, tlien. was i)resumably between 17.7 and 18.5 feet with the addition of the tail, l"]stiiiiates of the fisherman and the men in the market, as well as figures given by Bigelow and Sehroe- der, indicate tliat GOO ]i(Minds woidd hi' a eonservativi^ weiirlit for this animal.

In view of the remai-ks "Reaches no ^reat size in ("aiifornia. Most specimens seen run from five to eight feet." (Roedel. 1 !).'):?). it would appear that this individual, approximately 18 feet in length, was not only unusual but probably const it lies a record size for threshers landed in California.

According to information given b\ P.igelow and Sehroeder. Alopios vulphiHi^ does not mature sexually befoi-e attaining a length of at least 14 feet. Since thresliers of this size appear to be exeeptionally rare off California, while the small iinniatiiiv lish ai-e relatively eomnion. we might speculate on the reasons for this apparent ditferenee in distri- bution between young and adults. Probably either the adults live con- siderable distances offshore, wliere their chances of being captured

( 433 )

434

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME TABLE 1

Measurements of Four Term Embryos of ttie Thresher, Alopias vulpinus

Body measurement

Total length in mm.: 1,228, 1,273, 1,280, 1,367

Snouth length:

In front of eye

In front of outer nostril

Distance between inner ends of nostrils

Eye diameter:

Horizontal

Vertical

Interorbital width

IMouth width

GiU opening lengths:

1st

2d

3d

4th

5th

Distance from snout to:

Insertion first dorsal

Insertion second dorsal

Insertion pectoral

Insertion pelvic

Insertion anal

Upper precaudal pit

Tip lower caudal lobe

First dorsal fin:

Anterior margin

Vertical height 1

Length attached base

Insertion to tip posterior lobe

Second dorsal fin:

Vertical height

Length attached base

Insertion to tip posterior lobe

Anal fin:

Vertical height

Insertion to tip posterior lobe

Pectoral fin:

Anterior margin

Insertion to tip posterior lobe

Pelvic fin:

Anterior margin

Insertion to tip posterior lobe

Distance from:

Posterior insertion 1st dorsal to anterior insertion 2d dorsal

Posterior insertion 2d dorsal to upper precaudal pit

Anterior insertion anal to lower precaudal pit

Caudal fin:

Upper precaudal pit to tip of upper lobe

Lower precaudal pit to tip of lower lobe

Percentage of total length

3.7-4.0 3.0- 3.4

1.3- 1.5

1.1- 1.3 1.7- 1.8

4.0- 4.2

5.2- 5.5

2.0- 2.4 2.3- 2.6 2.6- 2.7 2.5- 2.7 2.3- 2.5

22 . 6-23 . 7 41.4-42.2 15.4-16.2 33.7-35.0 42.4-44.0 46.9-48.1 50.8-55.0

8.0- 8.5 5.3- 5.7

6.1- 6.4 6.7- 7.0

0.6

0.7- 0.9 2.1- 2.2

0.8 2.0-

2.5

14.3-14.8 8.2- 8.6

5.4- 6.6-

6.1

7.2

13.1-13.7 4.8- 5.2 3.6- 4.0

52.0-54.1 6.6- 7.3

\()Ti:s 4:J'i

Mi-(' (■()iis('(| iiciil I \ sli'jhl. or, sirii'c iIh' spcrifs is |iriinarily a tropiral

illlll W.inil tr||||)r|';itr rnini, llir li lil j( ifi I \ of \l\V<JfV i IH li V itIlial.H of iir<'<*(l'

iii^' si/c ocelli' ill w .iiiMcr \\iil«'i-s to t lie sniil Ii (if ( 'jilifoniia. Krports frntii rcliahli' ohscrx i-is hll of sn-in^'- ciiofiiioiis t lii-fslifrvs in tin* (liilf of ('ali- loi'iiia, ,111(1 (•(■itaiiil\ T^^ td "JO I'luit indiviiliiJils woiiM nut tir cniisitlcp'il uiiiisiial aliiii'j llii' lr(i|iical A iinTica ii masts.

'I'lic I'diir pups taki'ii Iidim iIh' fi'iiialf \vi'i;.'lnMl a lntal nf .'»() iiountix, faiiLiiiiu- iii(li\ itiiially lioni I 1 •_' to l;!.(; pdiinils. In total li'ns.'tli tlu'V vai'icd I'l'oni IS.."1 to .').!> iihIm's ami tlic st-xrs wiTf rtpially tlivi<|)'<l. b^rcc-li vi III; I lircslicr-^ ol' a smallcf si/.i' liavr licrii taken on tin* N«'\v l^jii,L;laii(l coasl ami IIhtc is no doiilit that tlu'sc pfcscnt s|)fcini«'iis wi-ri? prai't ii-ally i-fady I'oi- liiilli. Tlnir ninliijical seal's, tlioiitrli still visiMi*, were very iiieonspieiioiis.

Because piihlislied dala i!i\iii'_: proportional iiieasureinenfs for tlio species are based on only a lew iiidi\ idiials, and none of thrs*' from Paeifie Coast tlii'esiiers, the foiir yoiiii;^- spceinieiis wer'e iiM'asiir«'(l to add to tlie relatively niea<i('i- reeocd. Measurements wci-e made to the nearest millimeter and are expressed in 'I'ahle 1 as a pei-cciitafre of the total lenj^i'th (snout to tip of iipprr eamlal lohei.

All measurements wei-e made with eitliei- ealijiers or dividers and hence are straiglit line measurements between points on the sui"face of the body. For example, the distance from the snout to the insertion of the first (h)rsal fin was determined by plaein<r one caliper |)oiMt at the tip of the snout and the other at the anterior insertion of the first dorsal, thus actually measuring a hypothetical strai<;ht line run- nino- dia<i'onally between these two points. It should be noted that cer- tain body measurements made by l>i<ielow and Schroeder on Atlantic Coast Alopias vuJpinus. were made in a si<inificantly ditferent way and are not directly comparable to ours. Their nu'asurement of snout to first dorsal insertion, for example, is aloni:- a horizontal line between perpendiculars from the two i)oints and gives a shortt'r measurement than that obtained by our method.

Although as yet the data are far too scanty to di-aw any conclusions, certain discrepancies in body proportions appear between this material and a like-sized individual from the Atlantic Coast. These discrep- ancies appear too great to be accounted for by differences in methods of measurement alone.

LITERATURE CITED

lii^flow, Henr.v I'., iind Williiiiii ('. Siliiucdcr

1048. Fishes of tlic western .\inih .^lianlic. lit. 1. eli;ii>t. :;. Sii.irks. S.-:un F-.tiiul. Mar. lies., ^Nlem. 1. p. .V.t-:.4(;.

Roedel. Pliil M.

1953. Common ocean fislies of the Cnlifornia coast. Calif. l)ept. Fish ami «;aiue. Fish I'.iill. !»1. p. 14.

— David C. Joseph, Marin f ?"isli(ri(s Branch. California 1)4 jiartnunt

of Fisli and (!a)n< \ .htn( . l!h')i.

436 CALIFORNIA PISH AXD GAME

OCEAN RECOVERIES OF SACRAMENTO RIVER TAGGED STEELHEAD

Two tagged steelhead rainbow trout, Salmo gairdneri gairdneri, have recently been recovered by ocean fishermen off the California coast. Both fish had been tagged and released in the Sacramento River near Fremont AVeir, 81 river miles above the confluence of the Sacra- mento and San Joaquin Rivers, by personnel of Federal Aid Project F7R. The fish were trapped for tagging while on their upstream spawn- ing migration.

Mr. Don Hitchcock of San Francisco returned a tag taken from a 21-inch steelhead caught May 28, 1954, eight miles southeast of the Farallone Islands, 23 miles off San Francisco. It was caught on com- mercial salmon troll gear, with herring for bait. This fish was tagged January 8, 1954, with Petersen disks attached with stainless steel wire.

Mr. Arthur Smith of San Francisco returned a tag taken from a 25- inch female steelhead caught three miles off* Point Reyes, Marin County, on June 13, 1954. It was taken on a 2|-inch gold-colored spoon trolled at a depth estimated to have been between 25 and 30 feet. This fish was tagged with a tantalum wire attached staple tag (Calhoun, California Fish and Game, 1953, vol. 39, no. 2, p. 209-218) on August 21, 1953. Three months later, on November 22, 1953, it was checked through the counting station at the fish ladder over the Clough Dam on Mill Creek, Tehama County. This station is 155 stream miles above where the fish was tagged.

AYhile certainly not unexpected, these are the first reports of any Sacramento River tagged steelhead being recovered outside the Golden Gate. More than 2,600 adult steelhead have been tagged near Fremont Weir since July, 1950. — Elton D. Bailey, Inland Fisheries Branch, California Department of Pish and Game, July, 1954.

DELAYED DECOMPOSITION OF A TROUT CARCASS

Carcasses of trout are often seen early in the spring in lakes, es- pecially near the shores, and their deaths are commonly attributed to "winter-kill." Dead fish, often showing little decomposition, are some- times also found well into the summer ; their deaths have generally been assigned to other factors, such as disease. The following observation of delayed decomposition of a fish carcass made in Castle Lake, Siskiyou County, California, is of interest in this connection and suggests that at least in some instances they may also have been caused by winter-kill.

On October 9, 1946, Castle Lake was treated with rotenone to elimi- nate all fish life (Wales, California Fish and Game, 1947, vol. 33, no. 4 p. 267-268). This lake has a surface area of 47 acres, a maximum depth of 120 feet, and lies at an elevation of 5,200 feet.

Six species of fishes were present in Castle Lake at the time : Lake Trout, Salvelinus namaycush; Rainbow Trout, Salmo gairdneri; Brown Trout, Salmo trutta; Eastern Brook Trout, Salvelinus fontinalis; Golden Shiner, Notemigonus crysoleucus; and Klamath Speckled Dace, Rhinichthys oscidus klamathensis.

Cube powder with a 5.4 percent rotenone content was applied at the general rate of 1.35 pounds per acre foot of water, and several hundred extra pounds were placed in the deeper water to ensure complete kill.

xoTKs 4:17

Xuiiicrous tests iiuidc wifli lioiit in live cji^rs imiicatrd tli«- ••MHti'iict> of Icllijil coiKlitioiis ill 111,. |;i|<r iiiiii| .|ii|y, 1!(47, Tlif rx plaiiiilioii for this cxcciilidiijiIlN Imi'j- pen. 1(1 \'>,y itir 1 1 issipatioii of tin- rotnioiir in 11i()ii<iiit to li.' ill llir r.icl I hat (Ij the \n\ii- fro/.c ovn- .soon jiftiT tin? trcatiiicnt, rcliiciiii^ Ihi' ciiciilaf ion ot walrt- ami ilt-layini,' Hi** oxidation ol tlic rotciioiic and i 1' i ;iii iiii iisii;i II y lartrc (|iianfity of lifrris |m»\viI«t was |)]ac'(!(l ill ilu' (|c(|) w.iin-. \\ li.iicvcr flic reason tor tin* iontr pi-riod of" toxicity, tlirrc semis lilHr ddulii ili;it .id (isli wen- killt-d.

On May '.'A, I!)")], the writer was in a skilV on the lake wln-n h<' saw a white object hoiinciiiL: on the waves a^'aiiisl the rock clilTs at flic sontli end of the lake. ( )ii rowiiej- (doser it was appai-cnf that tlic object was ;i portion (<[' a lisli e.-ireass. It was e;ireridl\ lifted info the b<»at ainl I'oiind to be the mid section of ,i lish lliat jn'obably had wci'^'licd abinit eight pounds. Although some deeomposit ion lunl taken place the flesh was still linn. The skin had disai)|)eared, the bones were soft, ami each

myotome stood out (dearly, d'l lor was definitely that of (h'cayinj;

(isli, but not nearly as strong as that of spent salmon carca.sses.

At the time of clieniieal treatment tlu' lake contained some lake trout weighing as much as 15 pounds and brown ti-ont possibly as larj,'e as 10 pounds. Therefore, the carcass found 5;") months later could liave been of eitlier species.

It is known that after chemical Ireatnu'nt many of the fish settled to the bottom, from which they could not be recovered. Tliis was par- ticularly true in the sonth end of the lake, where the maximmn depth is 120 feet. Temperatures at a deptli of 100 feet in Ca.stle Lake have been known to reach 52 degrees F. in July, but probably do not rise above 40 degrees F. for more than four months of the year. At a depth of 100 feet the oxygen content is low, ranging from 1 to .") p. p.m. There is considei-able ooze on the bottom in this portion of the lake and fish may settle into it so that they are insulated from the warmer summer temperatures, and possibly cut oft' from oxygen. It is probable that this particular carcass decomposed at an exIreuKdy slow rate, until finally, in the sjn-ing of 195], enough gasses had aecnmnlated to bring it to the surface. — E. B. Ocninni, Inland FIs/urics llranch, Calif uvniii Dr. partment of Fish and Game, Jidy, 1954.

A BLUE CRAYFISH FROM CALIFORNIA

Blue crayfish have bt'cn reported from the eastern Inited States a number of times. These reports concern either eraytish in which the normal color is blue {Camharus caroliniis monongah nses) or blue varie- ties or randcmi blue individuals of otherwise normally coloi-ed animals. These blue crayfish seem to be restrit-teil to the genera Caniharus ami Procamharus. Dr. Horton II. Ilobbs, Jr. {in lift.) reports that lie has observed blue members of several species of Procamharus and occasional specimens of Cainhanis harloni harfoni and C. lon;fuli(s linnnihis. as well as others. I'ublished reports by Xewcombe (i;)29a, 192lU)i and Penn (1951) discuss the occurrence of blue crayfish in otherwise normal populations. It was of interest therefore to find an example of the "blue phase" in a California crayfish of the genus Pacifastacu.'<. ( Botts (1950) established Pacifasfavits as a new genus for our native west American crayfishes and used Astacus klamathcnsis Stimpson as the genotype.)

438 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

Throiigli the kindness of Mr. Dan Dean of Berkeley we received in September of 1953 a bright blue specimen which he had collected in Silver Lake, Amador Comity. The specimen was an immature male about three inches long. "We have kept the specimen alive and it has moulted twice and now measures four inches from rostrum to telson. The first moult was sent to Dr. Hobbs, who considers it to be inter- mediate in character between P. leniusculus and P. trowhridgi.

The writer has submitted the above brief account for two purposes : first, to record the occurrence in the genus Pacifastacus of the "blue phase" and, secondly, in the hope that some of the readers of this journal may have information concerning the occurrence of other blue crayfish in California. Very little is known as to the causes of the ran- dom appearance of blue crayfish and, indeed, little more will be known until a careful study has been made of living specimens. If any reader of this note has information to contribute it is solicited and will be gratefully received. We are particularly anxious to obtain more living examples of blue crayfish in the hope that experimental studies can be made which will elucidate this rather unusual phenomenon.

LITERATURE CITED Botts, Eicliard

1950. Die Flusskrebse Euro pas (Decapoda, Astacidae). Abh. senckenb. naturf. Ges. no. 483, p. 1-36, 6 pis., 25 figs.

Newcombe, C. L.

1929a. A new blue crayfish. Science, vol. 70, no. 1809, p. 217.

1929b. The crayfishes of West Virginia. Ohio Jour. Sci., vol. 29, no. 6, p. 267-288.

Penn, G. H.

1951. A color anomaly of the Louisiana red crawfish, Procamharits clarkii (Girard). La. Acad. Sci., Proc, vol. 14, p. 66-67.

— Cadet Hand, Department of Zoology, University of California, Berke- ley, March, 1954.

REVIEWS

Biological Conservalion

By John 1). Ulnck ; Tlif I'.liikisl.ui Cuini-nnv, Inc. X.'w V..ik, lif.VI ; xiv f .TJX p.,

Thi.s is .'I liiiok wiiili'ii 111 si'iM' III (lie collcuc lf\cl ;i.h n |c.\l ill Ki'iii-nil roiiJwrvM- tion. Tllc ;ililli(ir liiiiisrlf sl.iirs w i I h rcriTi'llcc to llir silliji'Ct liillltiT, "It (Nm^ n»t propos(> to rxli.nisl liic lidil nf iimsrrx .'it imi inil riillifr Id l)iiil)l ii ' ' •iiml of inriirinnl idii ripiiccriiin^ i-ciic\\ .1 lilr ri'siuirrcs siirli ;is soil, wtihT, ;, ; In iiliil

forcsis; Id iircsciit an iiil indiiclory study of the prolilciiis of wilillil't? conM^rvation ;iii(l tlu'U to t'onsidor wildlil'i; ('oiiscrviilioii rrom iIh- hroiidcr viewpoint."

Orj:;anization is excellent, with (•hiii)ters and siililicadiiiKs distinctive iind folluw- ins each other in loRifal sccincncc. 'Plic ti'xt is divided into six iiiiiiii piirts : Un«»|r (Ninsiderations, The l^iniroiiineiit, Fish and (»tiier Aijiiatic Aiiiiiials, I'.irds, .Minn- nials, and Solviiij;- the rrdhlein.

Althou^li the space devoli'd to niaji>r indixidiial wildlife speeies is iieee.ssjirily limited, capable selection of material has lieeii exhihited and llif enrient .stntii.s of important species on a national tiasis is clearly i)resenteil.

Most textbooks tend to he a rather dry asseinhlay;e of factual data, hiii here the author has demonsti'aled his ability to write interest iii^'ly and at the s:iiiie time to maintain factual integrity. Well chosen illustrations dispersed throuj^bout add to its attractiveness.

No attempt is made to introdncc the snl)joct of our marine fisheries resonree.s. This is be]ie\-ed a rather serious omission, in \ iew nf the jiroelaimed objeetive of the author. As the title indicates, empliasis has been placed upon wildlife, with somewhat limited supportinj; data on the conserx-ation of water, soils, and forests. It is, therefore, not anticipated that this book will replace any of the standani general conservation textbooks now in use, which jrive a broader introflnction t<> the subject. It should, however, ser\(' as a supiileiuental reference for those seeking a well rounded i)icture of conser\ation of our inland tishes, birds, anil niainmals.

An annotated l)iblioj;raphy rec(unmeuded as a core library for reference work in biological conservation should prove useful to those desirinj: to delve further into the snbject. Also included as a separate* appendix is a film ^uide designed to ac(iuaint teachers with some of the heller conservation lilius and how they may he obtained; a W(n-thwhile feature, desi)ile the tad that it ma\- soon become out- dated.

Although this book is written for the beginner, rather than the professional wibl- life man, most workers in the various lields of couser\ation may prolit by readinu it. Most of us are prone to become so inxolvn! in our own specialty that the impor- tance of such basic necessities as our soils, forests, or waters are given insiitlieient attention. We need i)eriodically to read a boidi of this type to re;iligii our persper- tive. — Willis A. Er(i)is, ('(ilifoni in I h /ki rt im 11 1 nf Fish mnl (inmi.

Inferfidal Invertebrates of the California Coast

By S. F. Light; revised by Kalph 1. Smith, Frank A. l'iielk:i, Pouahl 1'. Abbott, and Frances M. Weesner ; I'nixersity of California I'ress, r.erk«dey, I'.ChI ; xiv + 446 p., l.'5S text figs. $.">.

Based on S. F. Fight's syllabus "Laboratorx- and Fitdd Text in Invertebrate Zoology," the present book, exteusi\el.\ rex ised, is the work of •_'!' leading zoologists. A few of these contributors include sm h aiiihorities as Cadet Hand 1 sea aiieiiiones). Libbie Hyman (flatworms), Olga Ilariinau i polychaetes). Uobert .1. Men/ies an<l Milton A. Miller ( isopods ) , Irwin .M. Newell 1 lu.-irine mites). Ji>el \V. iIeilg|M>th (pycnogouids) , .loan (". Kattenbuiy and K. I. Smith ( bryo/.oaiis) , aixl I>oii;ild I*. Abbott (ascidians). There are also sections by Kolf Bidin on iiitert idal tislies and Isabella A. Abbott on common conspicui>us algae. For eadi group, tliere is a list tiy up-to-dat<' scientific name of the species known from the region. Tlie keys in

I 4:'.'.) )

440 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

many instances represent original research and cover an assemblage of species for which keys do not exist elsewhere. The reviewer tested several of these and found them all workable.

A 52-page section giving general directions for field work and suggested field studies is well worth time spent in careful perusal. Especially important is the brief section labeled "Field Notes." There are many professional zoologists who Avould do well to read and then abide by the rules set forth here.

There is a fairly complete phylogenetically arranged bibliography, and the entire volume is well indexed.

While probably much too technical for the average citizen, this book should become a highly prized and (in time) well worn possession of every serious student and professional zoologist. — John E. Fitch, California Department of Fish and Game.

American Seasbells

By R. Tucker Abbott ; D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc., New York, 1954 ; xiv + 541 p. ; 24 color and 16 black and white plates ; 100 text figs. $12.50.

Recent, reliable, all-inclusive works on American seashells could, until this present volume, be considered as rare as some of the shells Mr. Abbott discusses on page six. The scope includes marine waters of the Atlantic Coast from Labrador to Florida, the Caribbean Islands, and the West Indies ; of the Pacific Coast from Alaska to Lower California and Central America. Since it would be a physical impossibility to describe properly in one volume the more than 6,000 kinds of mollusks which are to be found within these geographical limits, the author is to be commended for having selected 1,500 species which in most instances include repre- sentative shells of the two ocean shores. The reviewer fully realizes there are those who will take exception to this statement and should like to add at this point that while he feels the Pacific fauna (considerably richer than that of the Atlantic) was somewhat slighted, the basic types, though often Atlantic forms, are definitely illustrated. A rather rough check of all groups shows Atlantic Coast gastropods, bivalves, tusk shells, and cephalopods ahead of Pacific Coast representatives by some 440 to 225, 260 to 145, 10 to 1, and 10 to 5, respectively. Only among the chitons (20 to 10) are more Pacific than Atlantic specimens described.

The several beginning chapters show excellent taste and make extremely interest- ing reading. These cover a diversity of subjects : "Man and Mollusks," lives of the various mollusks, collecting, and "How to Know American Seashells." A systematic account takes up 400 pages and includes scientific and common names, geographical ranges, descriptions, comparative remarks, and habitats of the 1,500' species. This is followed by an annotated bibliography, which is arranged by both area and subject matter. The entire volume is completely indexed.

The illustrations (by F. M. Bayer and J. C. McConnell) are clear and concise and the colors for the most part fairly true.

In general the volume is so well done that it almost makes the reviewer feel picayunish for criticism of the author's choice of common names for a very few Pacific Coast species. Prime among these is the use of "Californian tagelus" for a species which in 1952 alone realized over $15,000 to California bait diggers and is known to over 1,500,000 sport fishermen and bait dealers in California as the "jack- knife clam." The few other common names to which the reviewer takes exception are again those used for species which are of economic importance on the Pacific Coast and which differ greatly from names printed in our fish and game laws or on our marketed products. Common names, regardless of the care with which they are selected, will always be a bone of contention with some individuals. Generally speak- ing, however, the names used in this work are exceptionally good and many lead one to wish that he had thought of them first. — John E. Fitch, California Department of Fish and Game.

The Book of Wild Pefs

By Clifford B. Moore; Charles T. Branford Co., Boston, Mass., 1954; xii -f 553 p., 128 drawings, 214 photographs. $5.95.

To quote from the author's prefatory remarks : "This volume is intended as a liandy reference and source Ixiolc on the care and feeding of our most common native (and in a few cases, 'naturalized') wild life forms in captivity, and should prove especially useful to teachers, laboratory and museum workers, boy and girl scouts, parents, and, in fact, to all whose backyard is the forest, desert, or merely subur-

UI'.VIKWS HI

U.'iii fool hills." Afiir I'i'vii'wiiiK I hi' I'liiilnit s nf iIiIm iMxtk, I niii ••tiMiu that lh«

iiiroriiiiil i<iii (iiiil.i iiM'il ihrrriti roiilij he iinciI ii<I\ ntilaKi'oitMlv >>v inntiy emiAnferm in

stale ('onscrv.i I inn i|i|iii r( mciils, l)fiiiK i-v|iiTiiilly useful in ■ • ti hi r<"

(ho ;;('n('r':i! piihlic ami In workers in i-eseiireh lahnraloii. 1 nf ft

lo those $(il (nieslidiis jisked hy the piililie iire in thiN hotik. Aim ihr inrtm

prosenled Ii.im' heen well ijiiriiiiieiileii li\ llie niitliiir'x imtmoiuiI ..,^ •■ "■•i by

previdlis lileral ure <i\\ I he siihjeet.

There is a sm prisiiij; aiiiniiiil nf inrniinal inn anil refcrenre iliitn In tln» 'J whicii ai-e f;i-oiipeil inin li\e niajnr parts ; 'I'he Aipiariiini, Terrarin. Ii Spiders as I'els, Mammals, mmI I'.irds. Ymi can lind out Niich delnilM on hinl n»>»it hoxes as llnnr si/.e, eiil i-Miire Imle iliaiiieler, rnvity depth, hejicht al»4»v«' Broitilil, rtr.,

Inr a variety nf iiirds. ( >i'. y an liinl mil in detail the monthly rhntiK«>« in fnod

intake for a mamma! sin h as the skunk. The index, while short, in f«>tm>rrh#>n>ilv*» ill its coverajie of major siihjeel divisions and featured MnimiilH.

Each of the li\e p.nK of the I k has a list of "nther Helpful Material." Th«»

listings are somi'wlial annoy in;;, >ime they do not follow any alplialielir, rhrono- logic, or system.-itir order. .\lso, the pieliires and charts, which raiiRf from i»oor lo good in quiility, are not necessarily closely rel.ated to the text.

One would gather from reading the hook in detail that the taking of wild nnimnlM for pets is a simple matter, willi fi'w prohlems altai-heii, and with no moral i.M.mji-^ involved. Hoyvover, the autiior is lanfnl to give judicious wurninKs related to the taking of game birds, as well as small native birds. He refers the render to the Btate conservation agemies and the Federal (Jnveriiment for permits and details of the law.

The section on the care of deer, while giving g I information about them. Mays

nothing to discourage the reader from jmrposely obtaining a yoimg deer. Since California law i)rohibits the taking of deer fawns, this section of the book i.s mii»- leading to Californians and to residents of other states where similar laws arc in effect.

Readers here in the West may lind iliemselves somewhat at ji disaflvantaRe, bo- can.se the majority of the animals and plants discussed are eastern form.s. Western forms such as the ring-tailed cat are omitted. However, the tyiie of information liresented for the eastern forms still should be applicable to a large deRrec in the West.

AVorkers in the field of fi.sli and ganu' man.igement ami natural history shouh! find this bocdv highly nsefnl in their day to day contacts with the everipiestioniiig general public. It already has proved very useful in the work of the ("alifoniiu .Junior Museum. This book is written in a simple style which should l>e ea.Mly understood by the layman as well as the technician. — Fred 0. Ihendrn. Director. California Junior Musciou, Sacrainoiiu.

Tricks Tbaf Take Fish

By Harold F. Blaisdell ; Henry Holt and ("ompany. New York, i;>.".4 ; vi + liOO p. : line drawings by Walter Dower. .$:'..!».".

It is evident that the author of this book lias spent considerable time l)oth in fishing inland waterways and in the study of feeding habits of game fishes. These studies have resulted in the de\elopiiieiit of various fishing methods that put fish in the creel. The title of the book could api>ro|)riately be changed to "How to Fish."

Ten chapters arc devoted to the use of all types of sport tishing tackle, various natural baits and artificial lures, and specific methods of their use. liaii tUIiing is particularly stressed.

Throughout the book ^[r. Blaisdell points out that the mefhi^l of present uig a lure is actually the "trick" that takes tish. To achieve this end he explains various methods, new and old, to put the lure where it presents a gi-H>d imitation of itatural food for the fish. Many methods are further explained by the use of sketches.

The "how-to-do-it" methods are adequately discussed, and spiced with stories of streamside exiieriences. The book is definitely written for the angler who has a working knowledge of fishing methods, and brings out the finer points of the art.

"Tricks That Take Fish" should be a welcome addition to a tisherman"s library, and will enable him to make better catches as well as to enjoy fishing more fully. — Chester WoodhuU, California Department of Fixh and Game.

442 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

Traite de Pisciculture, Second Edition

By Marcel Huet ; Editions T^a Vie Rustique, Brussels, Belgium, 1953 ; xii + 371 p. ; 280 figs. Boards 285 Belgian francs, cloth 345 Belgian francs ; postpaid.

This second edition maintains the same high qiiality as did the first. Small changes occur throughout the text, but the major difference is noted primarily in Chapter V, Article IV, "Pisciculture des Tilipia." This emphasis is more appreciated when the great impetus in the use of Tilipia throughout Africa and the Far East is realized.

The illustrations are excellent and although the French text precludes its effective use by many American fish culturists it will certainly prove useful to those who are bilingual. — J. B. Kimseij, California Department of Fish and Game.

INDEX TO VOLUME 40

Alallliliis I'.:l\ ; ITn|n;,'y nl'. Kir. 1-JI Alli.icnrc, ;'..'l".i \li>l)itts r i(li)iii IIS, 1."..". |."i."i Aini's, ( 'li.i rlcs 'r. ; scr IC \ ckin.-in, I-"isliiT,

:iihI Ames .1 mis Slip.. 1 7-."«7

.Viiiiiiiotics, nr.- fji

I stiiciis, l.".7- V.\S

I /////(/ spp.. 1 7 .'17 Alil-cniii.\ cin, 1 1.")- iLll Aurofju'. 4ir>-4'Jl

B

i;,,. nr,-i-_>i

l'.,iilry, I'^ltoii 1).; Ocean recoveries of Saci'iimeiilo River ta^^i^ed steel- head. »:'.(;

Italdwin, \\'a,\ne .1.: 1 ndeiw.-iier explo- siiiiis not liarnil'nl lo salmon, 77

I'.ass : hlack sea, oMit ; kelp, almornial specimen. 7S-7!> ; rede.ve hlack.

L'(i;!-L'(ii : stri|)ed. :',2:i-:!L'.s

Uaxler. .Iidm \j.; A kelp bass. I'lini- hihni.r ridthraius (Girard), with .■ihnormal fins. 7S-7!>

r.err.N . S. Stillmau; On the snpposed stenohathic haliitat of tlie Cali- fornia sea-inu.ssel, 69-7o

Bishorn, desert, 2G7-271

I'.ischoff. Arthur I.; Abnormal fetal de- v(dopment from a mule deer. .'UO-

Bitterbrush. 2ir)-234, 2;r)-2<>r>

lUaisdtdl. James A.; see l)asm;inn and r.laisdell. 21.--2:M

lUunt. V. E.. Jr.; Two mid-I'acilic re- coveries of ( "aliforni.-i-l .-luued al- ba core, a:!!)

r.ounl.N pa.vments on mounl.-iiii lions.

' 1 ('.2- i (•.:',

Hnichi/isliiis frcinitiis. IS.'i-lltS

linuitd rnnadenxis, .">-l(i

]>ur,i;ei-. Georjio V.; The stains of in- troduced wild turke.\s in ("alifor- nia. 12:M4.-.

Calhoun. A. J. ; s(>e Skinner and Cal- houn. ;',2:!-:'.2.s

Cii III liii nis en I'oli II II s iiiiiiiiiin/iili'iisis. l.">7-

4;{8

Castle Lake. 4;i()-4:i7

Catch records; cattish, white. .■ll.".-."'.21 ; mnskrats. .■J7.~>-.")S4 ; s.ardines. 42.";-

4:11 : vellowi.-iii, 2'.ir.-:;i'_>

Ciiiiish. white, .''.i:; :'.2l

CalosloHiidjie, 27.'! 2H."i

CeilMiiMe.s ; I'i.sino chiin. I'.Kt-JOl ; Itimh

Cm-k, HUUn Crnlrorrrriiii iiroi>hiiniiiiii4M, '',HrtP,U\ ('liemicals, ]ii;rienltnr)il, Mi7-t7'! t'ihiliis hrrrliif/i, 7.') 7<> ('lam, I'isino ; censuses, I'.t'.t "Jitl ClcHHCii, Kdward ; retiri'iupiit i»f, H(> ClinoroU im : iiiiiiHk, <><! ; rvrnlvtm, Wt ('lover. Melviii II.; I)«mt nuirkiiiK «1«*-

vices, 17r)-l.Sl ; A portjible ijfiT trap and c;ilcii-nel, .'5t»7-->7.! ('(dlins. I'.. I>. ; see Miller and ColiinH Collyer. Kidiert I». ; Ta^CKinj; ex|M>ri- meiits on the yellowtail. Srrioln ilorsalis (Cilh. 2'.r.-:;i2

Ciihililliis siliid. ."'.'.(- Hi

("oloiado River b;isin. lower; postiarvnl

fishes. 27."!-'2N." : red shiner. 2^7-

2'.»4 ( "omniei ii;i I catch; s.-irdines. 12.'; l-".l ;

yellowtail, 2iC.-.';i2 Coot ; nesting studies, 17-'{7 Cr.-iylish. blue. 4:?7-4:i.S ( "I'onemiller. Fred I*.; see Robiii.sun and

Cronemiller. 2ti7-271 Cyprinidae, 27.'!-2N-'">, .".ti.">- 1 Id

Dasmann. William I'., and James A. Blaisdell : I>eer and forage rela- tionshiii on the Lassen-Washoe interstate winter deer range, 21"i- 2.". 1

I »aui,'herl.\ . Anita E. ; see Feliii. Mae- (Iregor. I>augherty. and Miller. 42.".-4:!l

I 'iM'i- ; abnormal fetal development, .'^4(>- .'541 ; fawn i>n>dnctioii and sur- vival, 21."i-2.".4 : food studies, 'Sir*- 2('.»'. ; hiirvest. 2."..'">-2t'>(> : henl studies, 21.")-2.". ». 2.'!.''»-2(i«! ; hunter kill, 2 o ."• - 2 < ■> t > ; management studies. 2.".-''>-2<>ti ; marking tie- vices, 17.''>-l.si ; Rocky Mountain mule, 21.".-2;'. ». 2:>.'"i-2«;»; : tniok count. 2-'!">-'2t>i'> ; winter mortality. 2.'{.".-2t;t; ; winter range. 21.'.-2:{4. 2.".."i-2t'.t'>

l>i'mpsier. Robert 1'.: see Herald. I)empster. and McCully

!'e\ils (lartlen; cleer herd. 2r>r»-2l>*>

l>c\Viii. .(.dm \V.. Jr.; A survey of the Coast Cutthroat Trout. Sithiio vhirki rliirki Richardson, in Cali- fornia. :;2ii-:5;5."i

( 44:: )

444

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

Dill, William A., and Leo Shapovalov ;

Sal 1110 rosei, not a valid species,

3:^7-338 Distribution; iniiskrals, 37^-384; red

shiner, 287-294 ; sajic .urouse, 385 Duck, ruddy, 17-37 Ducks; nesting studies, 17-37

Eagle Lake, 395-410

Eberhardt, Robert L. ; Observations on

the saury {Cololabis saira) seen

near the California coast during-

1950-52, 39-46 Ectoparasites ; collection of, 75-76 Editorship ; change of, 213 Embiotocidae, 183-198 Epigeichthys atropurpureus, 67 Euthynnus yaito, 61, 411-413 Explosions, underwater; effect on

fishes, 77

Felin, Frances E., John MacGregor, Anita E. Daugherty, and Daniel J. Miller ; Age and length com- position of the sardine catch off the Pacific Coast of the United States and Mexico in 1953-1954, 423-431

Felis concolor, 147-166

Fish populations ; sampling, 353-365

Fish tagging ; see tagging

Fisher, Karl C. ; see Ryckman, Fisher, and Ames

Fishes ; Colorado River basin, lower, 273-285, 287-294 ; effect of explo- sions on, 77 ; intertidal, food of, 65-68 ; introductions, 203-204, 287-294; native postlarval, 273- 285; tropical, 418

Fishing, commercial ; Pacific mackerel, 55-59 ; sardines, 423-431

Fishing, sport ; creel returns, 89-104

Fitch, John E. ; The Pismo clam in 1952 and 1953, 199-201

Food studies ; bighorn, desert, 269-271 ; interstate deer herd, 215-234 ; in- tertidal fishes, 65,68 ; sage grouse, 385-394; tui chub, 395-410

Forage ; bighorn, desert, 269-271 ; deer, 215-234, 247-261

Fulica americana, 17-37

Gadwall, 17-37

German, E. R. ; Delayed decomposition of a trout carcass, 436-437

Gihhonsia metzi, 66

Gibbs, Earl D. ; see Radovich and Gibbs

(Jobie.iox maeandricus, 66

Godsil, H. C. ; A comparison of Japa- nese and Hawaiian si)ecimons of the Iilack skipjack, Eiithi/nnus //rnVo. 411-413

Goose, Canada, 5-16 Ground squirrel, 75-70 Grouse, sage, 385-394

H

Il.-iislcad, I'ruce AV. ; A note regarding the toxicity of the fishes of the skipjack family, Katsuwonidae, 61-63

Hand, Cadet ; A blue crayfish from California, 437-438

Hensley, Arthur L. ; see Leach and Hensley

Herald, Earl S., Robert P. Dempster, and Howard McCully ; The effect of Aurofac-enriched diet (aureo- mycin and B12) upon young king salmon, 415-421

Herbicides, 167-173

Honey Lake Refuge, 5-16

Hubbs, Carl L. ; Establishment of a forage fish, the red shiner (No- tropis hitrensis ) , in the lower Colorado River system, 287-294

Hubbs, Carl L., and Laura C. Hubbs ; Data on the life history, varia- tion, ecology, and relationships of the kelp perch, Brachyistius frenatus, an embiotocid fish of the Californias, 183-198

Hubbs, Laura C. ; see Hubbs and Hubbs

Hunt, E. G. ; see Naylor and Hunt

Hunting records ; deer, 262-264 ; sage grouse, 387

I

Ictalnrus catus, 313-321

Insecticides, 167-173

Interstate Deer Herd Committee; Eighth progress report on the co- operative study of the Devils Garden interstate deer herd and its range, 235-266

Introductions, of fishes ; bass, redeye black, 203-204; red shiner, 287- 294; shad, threadfin, 203-204

J

Johnston, Richard F. ; The summer food of some intertidal fishes of Monterey County, California, 65- 68

Joseph, David C. ; A record-size thresher from Southern California, 433- 435 ; see Roedel and Joseph

K

Katsuwonidae, 61-63

l\<ilKUtroniis pelamis, 62

Kimsey, J. B. ; The introduction of the redeye black bass and the thread- fin shad into California, 203-204 ; The life history of the Tui Chub, Siphnteles hicolor (Girard), from Eagle Lake, California, 395-410

iNor.x

445

l„lssrn W.lslior ,|,.,|- \>vn\. "J I .'. •-'.•. I

l.<-:icli, llow.'iril U.. iiiiil Arlliiir I,. Ili-ii slcy ; Tlic sii;;c jji-uiisi- in ("nli iDrniii, willi s|irci:il irrcrciiri' lc>

food iiiiiiiis, :;s:. .■•.'.•i

Life history; imtcIi. ImI|.. In.'. IHS; i'''I sliiiicr, '_*ST 'J'. > I ; Inml, roiisl rul- tlirunf, .".Ll'.t .■;.".:. ; liii rliiili, :!'.•."»- IK)

Lion, niomilaiii, I IT Hii;

IjoVujo oiKilcxcrns, 17 •")!

Lower KliiiuMlli X;ili<.n:il Wij.ilil'r Krf- ugc, IT-."."

M

MacGrejcor, .iciliii ; sec I'^cliii. M:h- Crot;("". l':ni,i;ii('rt.v, :ni(l .Miller

Mackerel, Pacific; lisliery, ."»."»-.")!»

Mallard, 17-37

Marker, deer, 17r)-181

Markinj;; see tasKins

McCully, Howard; see TTernld, Peiup- ster, and .Mc('ull.\

INIcGowan, .Tt)lui A. ; Observations on the sexual behavior and spawn- ing of the squid, Lolifio opa- lescens, at La JoUa, California, 47-54

McLean, D. D. ; Mountain lions in Cali- fornia, 147-166

Meleagris gallopavo, 123-145

Micropfcnis coosae, 203-204

Migration ; albacore, 339 ; catfish, white, 313-321; deer, 235-266

Miller, A. W., and B. D. Collins; A nesting study of ducks and coots on Tule Lake and Lower Klam- ath National AVildlife Refuges, 17-37

Miller, Daniel J. ; see Felin, Mac- Gregor, Daugherty, and Miller

Miller, Robert Rusli ; see Winn and Miller

Minnow ; tui chub, 395-410

Movement ; albacore, 339 ; tui chub, 395-410 ; yellowtail, 295-312

Muskrats, 375-384

Mussel, California sea, 69-73

Mytilus californianiis, 69-73

N

Naylor, A. E., and E. G. Hunt ; A nest- ing study and population survey of Canada geese on the Susan River, Lassen County, Calil'or- nia, 5-16

Nesting studies; ducks and coots, 17- 37; goose. Canada, 5-16

Nets ; blanket. 353-365 ; deer, ."'.(m-.".".". : lift, 353-365

Nofropis hifrrn.iin, 287-294

I iiliii-oilriiK h rill in nun hrmiimuii, 'ZXTt'JiW,

'S.',:>ii\i\

Ulif/orotliin : nilifllio, iWi ; unyilrri, OH

< hill, I Iti/iuli im : f*\>\i., 77; lnhinryturhn,

115 12 I U ti il II I r II ; : I h I I li 1 1 II I, r r n n r d i , WlTt ',

~iliilliiiii iiirifiinn, .'575 (his riitiiiilinsis nrlnoni, 2*>7 271 (t.ii/iini in iiiniiinsix, 17-37

I'lirifiiatiinix, \'\~- \'.',S

I'liniliiltnw rliilhriil us, ~S~U

I'arjisites; colleelion frnin niaininalM. 75-76

I'elgen, I)avi(l 10.; Progress re|i«irt on tile tagging of white catli.sh {Irtiiliinis riitiis) ill the Sarrn- niento-Saii .Toai|uin I)eltn, 313-

::2i

I'erch, kelp ; life history and r>-latioii-

ships. 1.S:M98 riiillips, .1. r.. ; Another hirge black sea

bass caught in Monterey Bay,

I'intail, 17-:'.7

I'luit iiiiiiophorus diego, 55-5!t

rollnlion, 105-121

Population studies; Canada goose, 5-16

I'r(iiiiinhiinis. 4.".7

I'in)<hi(i tridcnl'ilii. 215-li:'. 1, li:;5-L't;i;

Radovich. .John, and Earl IK (libbs; The use of a blanket net in sam- pling fish populations, 35.3-365

Redhead, 17-37

Red shiner, 287-294

Ref Hires : Lower Klamath National Wildlife Refuge. 17-37; Tule Lake National Wihllife Refuge, 17-37

Regulations; sage grouse, 385-.38('»

Keish, D(uiald .L, and Howard A. Win- ter; The ecology of Alamitos Bay, California, with special ref- erence to pollution, 10.5-121

Reviews; American seashells. 440; Baja California. 345; Biological Conservation. 4.3'. > ; Tiie Black River studies. 316-.". 17 : The Inxik of wild pet.s. 440-441; Culture and diseases of game fishes, 82-83; A guide to binl finding west of the Mississippi. 205; Handbook of freshwater fishery biology with the first supplement. 346; How animals move. 208; How to fi.sh the Pacific Coast. SI : Hunting and fishing in

446

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

North America, 205-206; Hunt- ing crows year round, 206 ; In- tertidal invertebrates of the Cali- fornia Coast, 439-440 ; Keepins^ and breeding aciuariuni tislies, 207; Land and water trails, 206; Lives of game animals, 207 ; Methods and principles of sys- tematic zoology, 81-82 ; Our wildlife legacy, 343-344; The practical fly fisherman, 344-345 ; Striped bass fishing in Califor- nia and Oregon, 343 ; Traite de pisciculture, second edition, 442 ; Tricks that take fish, 441

Robinson, Cyril S., and Fred P. Crone- miller ; Notes on the habitat of the desert bighorn in the San Gabriel Mountains of California, 267-271

Roccus sax-atilis, 323-328

Roedel, Phil M., and David C. Joseph ; The Pacific mackerel fishery in the 1951-52 and 1952-53 seasons, 55-59

Rudd, Robert L. ; Field reporting of suspected wildlife poisoning by agricultural chemicals, 167-173

Rush Creek Test Stream, 89-104 Ryekman, Raymond E., Karl C. Fisher, and Charles T. Ames ; An ap- paratus for collection of ectopar- asites from mammals, 75-76

Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta ; tag- ging of white catfish, 313-321

Sage grouse, 385-394

Sagehen, 385-394

Salwo; clarki, 416; clarki clarki, 329- 335; gairdneri, 89-104, 416-417, 436; gairdneri aqiiilarum, 395; gairdneri gairdneri, 436 ; gaird- neri ginerti, 337-338 ; rosei, 337- 338 ; trutta, 89-104, 416, 436-437

Salmon ; effect of explosions on, 77 ; king salmon juveniles, 415-421

Halvelintis : fontinaUs, 89-104, 417, 436; naiuayciish, 436-437

Sampling ; fish populations, 353-365

San Gabriel Mountains, 267-271

Sardines, 423-431

Sardinops caenilea, 423-431

Saury, 39-46

Scaup, lesser, 17-37

Sea-mussel, California, 69-73

Seriola dorsolis. 295-312

Seymour, George D. ; Recent extension of the range of muskrats in Cali- fornia, 375-384

Sliad, threadfin, 203-204

Shapovalov, Leo ; see Dill and Shajio- valov

Shoveller, 17-37

Signalosa petenensls atchafalayae, 203- 204

Siphateles; hicolor, 395-410; Ijicolor: ohesus X pectinifer, 395-410

Skinner, John E., and A. J. Calhoun ; Field tests of stainless steel and tantalum wire with disk tags on striped bass. 323-328

Skipjack, black, 411-413

Skipjack family ; toxicity in, 61-63

i^patitla clypeata, 17-37

Squid ; spawning and sexual behavior, 47-54

Squirrel, ground, 75-76

Stereolepis gigas, 339

Striped bass, 323-328

Susan River, 5-16

Tagging ; albacore, 339 ; catfish, white, 313-321 ; plastic tubing, 295-312 ; steelhead, 436 ; striped bass, 323- 328 ; yellowtail, 295-312

Teal, cinnamon, 17-37

Thresher, 433-435

Th 1111 nil s germo, 339

Tivela stultorum, 199-201

Toxicity ; in skipjacks, 61-63

Trap ; deer, 367-373

Trapping; deer, 367-373

Tropical fishes, 418

Trout; brown, 89-104, 416, 436-437; coast cutthroat, 329-335 ; cut- throat, 416 ; delayed composition of, 436-437; Eagle Lake, 395 Eastern brook, 89-104, 417, 436 Kern River rainbow, 337-338 lake, 436-437; rainbow, 89-104 416, 436; Rush Creek tests, 89 104 ; steelhead i-ainbow, 436 winter-kill, 436-437

Tui chub, 395-410

Tule Lake National Wildlife Refuge, 17-37

Turkey ; California introductions, 123- 145

V

Vestal, E. H. ; Creel returns from Rush Creek Test Stream, Mono County, California, 1947-1951, 89-104

INDIA'

w

AN'cliliiii;; ; colldii. '.\7i'.', '.'Ai7t ; iiiiirliiii, .''..">''-

.■'.i;.'.

A\'iini. Ilow.'iril I':ili<>tl. iiiid KhIxtI Kiisli Miller; .\jiti\f piisl liir\ :il fislics of till' liiwiT ( 'oloriitlu Kivcr liiisiii. Willi :\ kf.v Id tlii-ir idciil iliciil iim, '2~'.',-'2Srt

^^'illl('^. Iliiw.inl A.: ^ii' Ivi'ivli ;iiii! Wiiiifi-

\\ iiii.r kill

t:'.7

447

\ irvifi»-n fiiroruin, ti7 \ Iphinirr iiiiiroMiin, tiT

\. iiowiiiii. j;tr.;;ij

1859 7-54 5,500

prhilcJ in California state printinc office

:m:mm