CAUFDRNiS Fiai^GAME VOLUME 47 California Fish and Game is a journal devoted to the conserva- tion of wildlife. Its contents may be reproduced elsev/here pro- vided credit is given the authors and the California Department of Fish and Game. The free mailing list is limited by budgetary considerations to persons who can make professional use of the material and to libraries, scientific institutions, and conservation agencies. Indi- viduals must state their affiliation and position when submitting their applications. Subscriptions must be renewed annually by returning the postcard enclosed with each October issue. Sub- scribers are asked to report changes in address without delay. Please direct correspondence to: CAROL M. FERREL, Ed/for Department of Fish and Game 987 Jedsmith Drive Sacramento 19, California Individuals and organizations who do not qualify for the free mailing list may subscribe at a rate of $2 per year or obtain indi- vidual issues for $0.75 per copy by placing their orders with the Printing Division, Documents Section, Sacramento 14, California. Money orders or checks should be made out to Printing Division, Documents Section. u b V VOLUME 47 OCTOBER, 1961 NUMBER 4 Published Quarterly by the CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME SACRAMENTO EDMUND G. BROWN, Governor FISH AND GAME COMMISSION JAMIE H. SMITH, President HENRY CLINESCHMIDT Vice President — .Redding WM. P. ELSER Commissioner Los Angeles THOMAS H. RICHARDS, JR. Commissioner ..Sacramento DANTE J. NOMELLINI Son Diego Commissioner Stockton DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME Walter T. Shannon, Director - Sacramento OFFICE-FISH AND GAME COMMISSION 722 Capitol Avenue Sacramento 14 1001 Jedsmith Drive Sacramento 1234 East Shaw Avenue Fresno 627 Cypress Street Redding OFFICES-DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME 722 Capitol Avenue Sacramento 14 Ferry Building San Francisco 724 South Spring Street Los Angeles 51 1 Tuna Street Terminal Island 407 West Line Street Bishop 271 Tyler Street Monterey 619 Second Street Eureka Room 12, North Ramp Broadway Pier Building San Diego CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME Editorial Staff CAROL M. FERREL, Editor-in-Chief - Sacramento JOHN E. FITCH, Editor for Marine Resources Terminal Island ELTON D. BAILEY, Editor for Inland Fisheries Sacramento MERTON N. ROSEN, Editor for Game Sacramento DONALD H. FRY, JR., Editor for Salmon and Steelhead Sacramento TABLE OF CONTENTS Page A Method of Predie'tiiig Tuna Catch by Using Coastal Sea-Surface Temperatures Frcnik J. Hester 313 A Mechanical Net-Puller for Skiff Fishing AYith Gill Nets Emil J. Smith, Jr. 327 Occurrence of the Round Stingray, Urolophiis halleri Cooper, in Humboldt Bay, California E. A^ Best 335 Observations on a Die-oft' of Molas (Mala mola) in Monterey Bay Daniel W. GotshaU 339 History of Yearling King Salmon ^larked and Released at Nimbus Hatchery George H. Warner, Donald H. Fry, Jr., and A. Nelson Culver 343 Brush Management in Relation to Fire and Other Environmental Factors on the Tehama Deer Winter Range H. H. Biswell and J. H. Gihnan 357 Grass Reduces Bitterbrush Production E. L. Hulhard and H. F. Sanderson : 391 Castle Lake Investigation — Third Phase: Rainbow Trout ./. H. Wales and D. P. Borgeson 399 Note New Northern Record for Black Skipjack {Euthgnnus lineatus) John C. Nowell 415 Note Two Unusual Cephalopods Taken Near Monterey Julius B. Phillips 416 Note Range Extensions for Two California Fishes, With a Note on a Rare Fish Julius B. Phillips 418 Note An Inexpensive Well Microtome for Laboratory Use Eohert A. Iselin 419 Retirement, Earl Leitritz 421 Retirement, Donald D. McLean 422 Reviews 423 Index 427 (311) A METHOD OF PREDICTING TUNA CATCH BY USING COASTAL SEA-SURFACE TEMPERATURES' FRANK J. HESTER U.S. Bureau of Commercial Fisheries Biological Laboratory, San Diego, California INTRODUCTION From its start nearly 60 years ago the California tuna fishery has grown into the state's largest fishery, both in value and in pounds landed (Power, 1960). Yellowfin tuna {Neothimnus macropterus) and skipjack {Katsiiwonus pelamis) now are the two most important species and comprise the bulk of the California tuna landings. These are tropical tunas and seldom enter California waters in commercial quan- tities, the greatest portion of the catch being made by large bait boats and purse seiners operating off Mexico, Central America and South America. In contrast to the distant fishery supported by yellowfin and skipjack is the fishery for the temperate tunas, albacore {Thunnus germo) and bluefin {Thunnus saliens). During the summer and fall, both of these species occur off the California and Baja California coasts where they are taken by many boats incapable of making the long trips to the tropics. Baitfishing and trolling produce the major portion of the albacore catch, whereas the bluefin is almost exclusively a purse-seine fishery. For detailed accounts of these methods see Godsil (1938) and Shimada and Schaefer (1956) on baitfishing, Scofield (1956) on troll- ing, and AVhitehead (1931), Scofield (1951) and Orange and Broadhead (1959) on purse seining. The catches from the California albacore and bluefin fisheries have varied markedly from year to year. The author, and other researchers, feel that some of this variation has been attributable to changes in the ocean climate off' the California coast. The present study attempts to relate fluctuations in the temperate tuna catch (bluefin and albacore) to environmental conditions as measured by sea-surface temperatures at two shore stations in southern California. ERRORS IN ESTIMATING AVAILABILITY FROM CATCH RECORDS The majority of the local tuna catch has been made during the summer months. The seasonal nature of the California tuna fishery indicates that fluctuations in catch due to changes in the geographical distribution of the fish are of major importance. Some of this variation may be due to changes in the behavior of the fish rather than their actual absence from California waters. Present knowledge makes it 1 Submitted for publication March, 1961. (313) 314 ('AI>IF()KXI.\ I'ISII AM) CA.MH dil'licull, if lint iiiipossihlc, to (list iiijiiiisli I)c1 w t'l'ii lliict nations caused by absence and those eaused by behavioral differences. For this study, no attempt is made to sepai'ate tliese two causes. Instead it is assumed tliat two ]io]iulations of tuna, one of albacore and one of l)iuefin, ai'e so located tliat during' the summer months tiieir ranjics include the Avatei's off southern California. The dejiree of presence (availability) of these populations is samphnl by theii- i-espective fishei-ies. This method of sami)lin^- is subject to ei-rors introduced by inclement weather and ciian^es in the economy. Both of tliese eri-ors can be ti'cated as part of the samplin<>- error. Variations in landings due to changes in population size (abundance) can also be treated as a randondy distributed sam- plin^ DISTRIBUTION OF CATCH According to Clemens (1955), the usual albacoi-e season starts ai-ound the middle of June. During the three years covered in his report, 1951- ]953, the first catches were made in the vicinity of Cedros and Guada- lupe Islands. As the sunnuer progi-essed, the fishery moved up the coast terminating in the fall with the majority of tiie catches being made north of Point Conception. During the spring of lilGO, the l)Ui"eau of C\)mmercial Fisheries, San Diego Biological Laboi-atory, in coopei'ation with the V. S. Navy, initi- ated an offshore albacore survey. Trolling gear was placed aboard five radar picket vessels .stationed about 250 miles offshoi-e from southern California to Washington. The early season catch as re])orted by these ships seemed to follow the northward and inshore march of the 59 de- gree isotherm (John.son, 19(j()). Apparently the northward movement of the fishery reported by Clemens is related to sea temperature. This concept was origiimlly develo]ied by Thompson (1917). who utilized mean minimum aid temperature data from nuiritime stations as an index of sea temperature. He observed a striking: correlation between observed temperatures and the noi-fhward movement of the fishery. Recently, Kadovich (1961) has ])ointed out that mo\cinen1 of tiic fishei'v is related to tem])erature. It is common kiu)wle(lge that the bluefin fishei-y dex-elops furthci- south than the all)ac(ii-c fisliei'w often starting in .hinc near ('a|»e San Lazaro, Baja California, and shows a similar northward movi'uient later in the season. Catches are made off southern California in the late summer and early fall (Skogsberg, 1925). Schools ai-e i-epoi-ted north of point (V)nception. but the catcli from this area is negligible. That tempei-ature does i)lay an important role in th(> movements of these fishes was dramatically shown by changes in the catch localities for albaeoi'e and bluefin during the recent waini period 1957 to lIMiO. Sea-sui'face teiiiperatui'cs durini; these years i-angcd 4 degrees F. higher than the lO-year mean (^b-(iai\v, 19fi()). The usually large fishei'y for albacore off Baja California failed; it deve|o])ed instead sevei-;d bun- PREDICTING TUNA CATCH 315 clred miles to the north. At the same time, the bluetin catch oflf southern California increased, resulting in the largest landings from California waters since the late 1940 's. The striking contrast between the most productive bluefin areas in August 1952 and 1953, two years of cold water temperatures, and August 1957 and 1958, is shown in Figure 1. The data came from tuna seiner logbooks maintained by the fleet since 1952 for the Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission. PT. CONCEPTION ^BALBOA UNITED MEXICO GUADALUPE I C.SAN LAZARO-C^ AREA OF BEST CATCH AUGUST 1952 8 3 1957 a 8 C. SAN LUCAS FIGURE 1. Changes in the most productive areas for bluefin fishing between August 1952 and 1953 and August 1957 and 1958. 316 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME TEMPERATURE EFFECTS Any attempt to postulate some parlieular upUniLuu lemperaliire i'or albacore would have to explain the difference of several dep:rees in water temperature existing between our troll fishery and the Japanese liole and line fishery. The best Japanese catches occur in waters warmer than off CaliJornia (Calif. .Mar. Res. Connn., l!)GU, Murphy). The reverse seems to be true for bluefin, as the Japanese net fishery is eon- ducted at a lower temperature than ours (Uda, 1957). In this case, liowever, a different popnlation of bluefin tuna may be involved since traus-Pacific migrations have not been demonstrated for bluefin as they have for albacore (Otsu, 1960). It is possible that temperature affects the behavior of a fish in such a way tliat the best catches for particular ty{)es of gear occur at dif- ferent temperatures. For example, there is some indication that bait- fishing for albacore is more successful later in the season when the schools are more concentrated. This concentration of schools may be related to the higher water temperatures which occur later in the season. Several indirect effects might influence the capture of tunas. One is the increased basic productivity found in areas of upwelling. Schaefer (1957) also points out that areas of tropical tuna concentrations appear to coincide with regions of high basic productivity. An in- crease in the amount of tuna food in an area could result in a tempera- ture-tuna relationship seemingly dependent upon the cooler water asso- ciated Avith the upwelling. High productivity as well as other factors which may be correlated with temperature can produce changes in water clarity and these in turn may influence fishing success. Some attempts have been made to relate fishing success to turbidity (Whitehead, op. cit. and Murphy, 1959). The latter relates albacore catch to underAvater visibility on the assumption that troll caught albacore are sight feeding. Thus trolling success might be poor in the turbid coastal water close to shore, Avhereas net fishing for bluefin may depend upon pooi- underwater visibility resulting in better catches near shore and at inght. CHANGES IN LANDINGS Yearly tuna landings are reported by the California Department of Pish and Game in its Fish Bulletin series. The catch is divided into fishing boat landings from waters north of the California state line, California Avaters, and Avaters south of the International liorder. The total landings from 1945 through 1959 are given in Table 1. The cut- off date, 1945, A\'as chosen in order to exclude some of the economic factors present during the Avar years. In addition to total landings, albacore and bluefin landings from south of the International Border and from California AA'aters haA^e been provided. An increase in the bluefin catch from California Avaters Avas coincident Avith the Avarm- Avater conditions in ]f*57 and ]i>5H. For comparison, tropical tuna landings from California Avaters also have been given in Table 1. The ])resence of commercial quantities of these fish in California Avaters may be r(^garded as a further indication of dianges in ilie oceanic PREDICTING TUNA CATCH 317 TABLE 1 Landings in Millions of Pounds for Bluefin and Albacore Thousands of Pounds for Yellowfin and Skipjack^ Total California albacore landings* Total California bluefin landings Landings from south of the International Border Landings from California waters Year Bluefin Albacore Albacore Bluefin Yellowfin Skipjack 1945.. .. 21.77 18.06 13.14 36.42 44.02 61.75 30.68 49.79 33.83 26.11 29.00 37.04 43.47 27.10 32.74 20.59 22.03 20.83 6.53 4.39 2.74 3.86 4.58 9.17 21.02 13.61 12.62 20.31 30.72 15.30 6.45 6.50 6.07 4.84 2.12 2.73 3.02 3.67 5.87 15.37 11.13 10.01 9.85 15.11 2.17 12.26 8.96 5.76 25.93 23.58 23.60 17.62 26.70 20.49 11.82 19.69 21.06 20.91 0.72 0.00 8.78 9.10 7.40 10.50 20.40 38.14 13.28 23.10 13.30 14.29 9.31 15.87 22.61 25.39 32.52 14.14 15.53 14.76 1.69 2.27 0.01 0.84 0.91 3.90 5.65 2.48 2.61 10.46 15.61 13.13 4.96 32.65 3.32 0.41 9.88 1.46 0.00 0.00 0.10 0.00 0.00 0.10 70.85 417.71 81.68 93 08 1946 . 1,747.06 893.05 319 19 1947 1948 1949 - 9Q gg 1960 ... 12 42 1951 1952 1953 0.59 0.53 1 "^8 1954... .. 14 40 1955 1 24 1956 0 88 1957 1958. 353.46 2 488 91 1959 1.380.96 1 Source — Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Marine Resources Operations. * Includes some fishing boat landings from north of the state line. climate off California. The data were plotted (Figure 2) using fishing boat landings reported from California waters for skipjack, yellowfin, and bluefin, and landings from waters south of the International Border for albacore. The figure indicates that a change took place towards the end of the 1940 's which was reversed in 1957. This change was characterized by a decline in skipjack, yellowfin, and blue- fin landings, and a rise in albacore. The rise in the albacore catch and the decline in bluefin are most interesting. Since the two fisheries are essentially independent, albacore being caught with hook and line and bluefin being netted, fluctuations due to fishermen's preference for one species over the other are eliminated. This relationship can be explained by postulating two population centers, one for albacore and one for bluefin. These centers of abun- dance, which are indicated by the best catches for the two species, do not coincide, bluefin occurring south and inshore of albacore. During cold years, the center of the albacore population would move south resulting in higher catches south of the International Border. Logbook records show that substantial catches of albacore were made off Baja California during the early 1950 's when bluefin were rare north of Cedros Island. During warm years, the albacore would move northward resulting in lower catches in the southern fishery. At the same time, the center of the bluefin population also would move northw^ard result- ing in increased bluefin catches in California waters. The relationship is examined in more detail in Figure 3 where southern albacore catches and northern bluefin catches have been plotted against each other. A northward movement of bluefin should be accompanied by an increase in bluefin catch and a decrease in albacore catch. 318 CALIFORNIA FISIT AND GAME v — 1 . s 1 110^ ' \ 1 . / \ / 5 1 ° ° / \ 110 \ 't \ II \ II c/) Q 4 ", ^110 - / \ ^o o // -J o / \ /\ ^ / \ '/ a / \ /\ \ / \ // \ \ 1 \ \ / \ // 1 1,0^ V / 19 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 YEAR 1 Q □ /\ /^^c-o / \ if) Q 20 3 O Q. Ll_ O o / D \ / I _i \' \ / \ _i 10 s 19 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 YEAR 1 FIGURE 2. Top: S)cip;acfc— fishing boat landings from California waters, open circles. Yellow- fin -fishing boat landings from California waters, closed triangles. Bottom: A/faocore — fishing boat landings from waters south of the International Border, open squares. B/uefin— fishing boat landings from California waters, closed circles. A hifih inverse correlation exists hclwccn ])liir(iii jiml ;ill)aeore catches as is shown hy a correhitioii coefficient of — 0.S4. This coefficient can be int("ri)reted to mean that 84 percent of the fhictuations in landings between the two species arc dne to sonic coinmoii clement. In this case it IS assumed that tlie cimiiMdii elenieiit is iiiii\ cinciil of the fish popnla- fions due to cii\ii'(iiiiiiciit;il factors. PREDICTING TUNA CATCH 319 in CM o C\J _L in in in g »o saNnod JO SNoniiiM - Nuanna Q O CL U- O CO z o I o o < GO 320 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME TEMPERATURE AS AN INDEX OF AVAILABILITY OF ALBACORE AND BLUEFIN A source for sea temperature data covering the same period and areas as the catcli is difficuH to find. Since li)4f), California Coopera- tive Oceanic Fisheries Investigations (CCOFl) has run a series of station lines from San Francisco to Cape San Lucas but the coverage is missing for certain key months. Sea-surface temperatures collected by tlie U. S. Weather Bureau are sparse prior to 1950. However, sea- surface tcnipoi-atures are available from sliore stations along tlie Cali- fornia coast back to 1935. These data have been colk'cted by the Uni- versity of California, Seripps Institution of Oceanography, under a program initiated by Dr. George F. McEwen. Observations from the two stations south of latitude 34° N., La Jolla, and Balboa Pier, have been averaged for use in this study (Tabic 2). Although these shore stations are in the northern part of the area to be considered, they probably will provide an index to environmental changes in the sea off southern California and northern Baja California. This is due to the common circulation of the waters from Point Conception to Point Eugenia (Calif. Mar. Kes. Comm., 1958). The bulk of the local tuna has been caught during -Itily. August and September. A comparison has been made in Figure 4 between the annual catch of bluefin from California waters and albacore from waters south of the International Border, and the sea-surface tempera- tures at Balboa and La Jolla averaged together for these three months. Two lines were fitted by the method of least squares, A-A' for albacore and B-B^ for bluefin. The equation for A-A' is : 1) ^, = 163.84 — 7.65T, where A.^ is the estimated albacore catch (millions of pounds) south of the International Border and Tg is the average surface water tem- perature (degrees Centigrade) July through September at Balboa and La Jolla. The standard error of an estinuited catch is 7.412 and the standard error of the slope is 2.68. The equation for B-B' is: 2) S, = -112.32 +6.17T, where Bg is the estimated bluefin catch (millions of pounds) from Cali- fornia waters and T., is as above. The standard error of an estimated catch is 4.607 and the standard error of the slope is 1.66. The slope of the line in equation (1) is significant at the 5 percent level, the slope in equation (2) at the 1 percent level. The inverse relationship between the bluefin and albacore catch is apparent. A study of j^ear to year temperature changes indicates that warm years along the southern California coast are preceded by warm water temperatures in winter. This has been atti-ibuted to increased advection from the south during the winter months (Calif. Mar. Res. Comm., 1953) and other causes. The relationship between winter and summer temperatures provides a convenient way to predict unusually good or bad years for the local tuna fisliery. In Figures 5 and 6, the southern albacore and northern bluefin catches were plotted against Balboa and La Jolla sea-surface temperatures averaged together for the months PREDICTING TUNA CATCH 321 csi TO O CD -a c - ■a O 00 05 00 CO CO (N O CO t^ O >o 00 lo o 00 CO CO •!«< CO CO CO CO CO CO ■* r-l ^ -H i-l »-H CO 00 Tt* CD lO 1-1 i-l 1-1 »H ^ Mean-Balboa a < Tj< CD 05 03 t^ O) 05 00 (N CO CD CO Ol "O Tj* O O 00 t^ IN 03 >0 lO 1-1 IN 05 1-1 t^ 1-1 IN CO »o »o Tj^ -^ 1-H f-l I— ( .— 1 T-i lO lO -^ CO IC .— I -H .— 1 T— 1 t— 1 (N •* CO t^ CO 1—1 1—1 1—1 1—1 1—1 03 -t< CO lO O CD CO m O CO 03 CO CO lO CO N I— 1 »-l I— 1 I— 1 fH w CO T)l CO TjH 00 CO 05 00 00 CO CO Ol IN CO ^ T-l 1-1 rH r-l 03 t^ CO IN CD Ol CO 00 CO O rH CO •* "O lO 1— 1 1— 1 I— 1 1-H 1— 1 w O: CO 00 -1 CO (N O t^ 00 Tf CO ^ IN (N I— ( I— I 1— 1 »— ( 1— 1 0 O O) l^ o C^ CO CO CO •* .-( ^ 1-) I-l .-I no O O IN Ol lO CO >0 00 Tt< CO oq •* lo >o 1— 1 1-( 1— 1 1-( I— ( Mean-La Jolla ft (N t^ O O O 00 -I t^ 00 rh t^ 03 IN O CO CD O: ^ CD O •* t^ O CO C^l r-H t~ IN O O CO CD lO Tt< TjH I— < T— I 1— I 1— ( .— t lo lo ira Tf lo »— t 1— 1 I— I T— 1 T— ( ^ Tfl lO J^ l^ 1—1 1—1 1—1 1—1 1-i 03 05 CO t^ —1 N O CD 00 Tt< Tf CO CO ^ CO CO 1— I I— 1 I— 1 I— 1 I— < »-< 03 CO >0 CO o: OS M< CO O CO CO CO CO Tjl rH f— 1 1— 1 T— 1 I— 1 lO CO CO -^ 05 CO OO 00 CO 1-1 TjH CO ^ lO CD 1—1 1—1 1—1 1—1 tH 05 00 CD Tt< CD O: t^ 00 .-1 CD CO IN CO CO IN 1— I r- ( .— I f— ( 1— I r~ 00 Oi 00 c0 C13 ^ O 1-1 Ol 00 CO O (N (N C>) Ttl CD lO 1— 1 1— ( 1— 1 ^^ 1— 1 1-5 (^ CO lO CD 00 .-1 O ■* »0 (N ^ CO CO CO w I— ( I-H 1— t 1— 1 I— 1 CO lO -< t^ o t^ IN t~ 05 -^ M CO CO CO TtH T— ( I—I t-i 1—1 rH 00 -H 1-1 CD O CO CO 00 o o CO (N Tf CO CO T-I F-H 1—1 1—1 1—1 Sum- mer mean La Jolla Balboa ■* t^ T)< o t~ o> 00 lO t^ CO 05 03 05 00 05 l-l 1-1 T-l ^ I-< O M 00 -f CD -H "O 05 00 00 05 00 r* X 00 (N O O 00 Tf IN cq ^ lO 00 22g2g 03 O -D m a 03 CD Tti rt ^ (N CO O O Tl< CD OJ 03 OS 00 00 1— < T— 1 I— I T— I I— ( CO O -H CO 03 00 00 M CO cs 00 CD CD CO CD »— 1 T— 1 »— 1 »— t T— I IN O 'J' 0> t^ O: ^ Tfi ^ (N t^ t^ 00 Ol o 1— 1 rH 1— t 1— 1 C^ < t^ 03 O lO "^ t^ CD CO — 1 CS 2 2 ° 2 2 CO -^ IN O I^ .-< 00 CO CO CJ 00 t> 00 00 t~ »— 1 T— 1 1— 1 ^H 1— 1 (N 03 lO -itl O CD CD t^ lO Ol 1^ 03 O 03 00 .-1 1-1 IN rt rt 00 O O 00 lO t^ O ^ Oi 05 00 O 03 t^ 00 rH IN rt ^ T-l -f lo ) 00 CO IN 00 00 03 00 o ^ ,-H rt ,1 05 _c« C 03 0) ft 20.31 18.89 19.56 19.31 20.19 19.31 17.77 18.12 17.63 19.10 20.58 18.82 19.15 20.21 21.01 3 Tfi O "O -t (N rt' ^ ^' o ^ CS IN IN 00 o c>^ eq rt rt (N O O 00 o -< (N C-> r^ M IN Ol CJ: O 03 -H — 1 rH C^ M (N a 03 C3 o m O CD Ol CD CO CD lO lO >C 00 ^ -H IN 00 t^ CO lo o lO lO *0 lO LO Tt< 03 00 CO HH CO CO Tt< Tt< t> lO U3 CO t^ t^ 1-1 rt CO 00 00 C o »o >c to Oi 0> 05 Ol C33 lO CD t^ 00 03 »0 »0 lO to lO c^ a Oi a Oi 1— 1 1—1 I— 1 rH 1—1 322 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 30 - D 25 ■ A = 163.84- -765T--^'^.A s S V. to i 20 'No ° o ' N CL _ >* U. -v. O ^ 15 "s • • B . z o " X • ^ o --" • s ^■v.-" 1 10 - .-^". X '' o -^ o ^ N. < Bj= -112.32 + 6.17 T^ ^^^^ ■^.^^, 5 1 1 ■ ^'^,7.5- 0 ISO" 185° 19.0° 19.5° 200° 205° 210° SUMMER TEMPERATURE — CENTIGRADE FIGURE 4. A/bocore — yearly fishing boat landings from waters south of the International Border, open squares. 6/uefin — yearly fishing boat landings from California waters, solid circles. Temperafure — average July, August and September sea-surface temperature, Balboa and La Jolla. January through April for each of the years li)4r) lliroimli l!).")!). Lines were fitted to tlie data and the equations are: 3) ^,„ = 135.11 — 8.447',<, where A^, is the estimated albacore catch south of the International Border and T^^ is the avera<>e winter sea-surfaee temperature January throualboa and La .Jolla. The standard error of an esti- mated catch is 5.324 and the standard ei-ror of tlie slope is l.Tf) ; 4) 5„ = -6L41 +4.84r«; where B,^ is the estimated bluefin catch from California waters and T,,^ is as above. The standard error of an estimated catch for bluefin is 4.853 and the standard error of the slope is 1.45. l>()tli slopes ar(^ sip'- nificant at the 1 percent level. Of interest is the reduction in staiuhird error for both species, implying- a closer tie between winter conditions and subsequent events tlian lid ween tlie simultaneous events, lalc-li and summer water tem])erature, shown in l^'igure 4. The relation does suggest temi)erature as an easily lucasurcil indi- cator on which to base predictions. The statistical validity of the pre- ceding is based on the assuin|)t ions tliat llic tciiiiicrat nres are measured without error, that the vai-ialions in catcli due to sampling by the fishery are normally disti'il)uted about some mean value, and tluit tlu^ standard deviations for the catch at each temperature are equal. Tlie temperature for any year was the average of over 200 observalioiis and errors from this soui'ce slioiihl Ix' iiiiniinal. PREDICTING TUNA CATCH 323 30 - A^I35 II -8 44T^ a 25 s A a a to o §20 o a. u. o co'S z 2 -J _i 2 10 D s 's D '^. 1 I o 5 t «f D ^. \ '^. A' sA 1 1 1 1 1 >.i° ,1, 0 13.0° 13.5° 14.0° 14.5° 15.0° 15.5° 16,0° WINTER TEMPERATURE — CENTIGRADE 16.5° 17.0° FIGURE 5. >A/bocore— fishing boat landings from waters south of the International Border. lemp^Toiure—ayexoQe sea-surface temperature January through April, Balboa and La Jolla. 30 • 25 - 20 CO o z 8 Q- to 1 B' I o o 5 B=— 61.41 + 4.84 T ^^ ■ ..-<"■■ • . -1 . -• •! 0 130° 13.5° 140° 145° 150° 155° 16.0° 16.5° 170° WINTER TEMPERATURE — CENTIGRADE FIGURE 6. Bluefin — fishing boat landings from California waters. Temperafure — average sea- surface temperature January through April, Balboa and La Jolla. 324 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME By accepliiig tlie precedinj^- assumpliuns, it now sliould be possible to make catch predictions based on temperature. For example, the fonr-nionth average winter water temperature for Balboa and La JoHa diiriiiji' ^'^{^() was 14.;?5 degrees C. From equation (4) we would then e.sliinate the IDGU California bluefin catch to be 8.0 million pounds and from (3) we w^ould estimate the albacore catch south of the International Border to be L'^.f) million pounds. Fiducial limits at about the ()() percent ])r()l)ability level would be 3.2 to ]2.8 million pounds for bluefin. Similarly, we can estimate that the 11)60 albacore landings from Avaters south of the International Border will lie be- tween the 66 percent confidence limits of 8.5 and 19.3 million pounds. The actual landings for 1960 are not yet available from the California Department of Fish and Game, so it is not possible to check our fore- cast. Preliminary reports, without regard to area of catch, indicate that the bluefin figure should be close. An earlj^ season tie-up by the albacore fleet wall probably result in an over-estimate for the albacore prediction. However, since the equations were derived from data that were uncorrected for economic factors, the source of error due to the tie-up should be already included in our confidence limits. FORECASTING TOTAL CATCH So far only catches from limited areas have been considered. An attempt to predict total California landings from sea-surface tempera- tures is more involved. Total California albacore landings (Table 1) are made up of fish from south of the International Border, fish from California waters, and fish from north of the California state line. Although temperature might influence the movements of the fish in the latter two areas, the errors, which before could be treated as ran- dom sampling errors, become large north of the International Border. This is primarily due to large changes in fleet size depending on the success of the salmon troll fishery and the southern albacore fishery. The effect of weather probably is important too and would produce greater variability in the size of the catch north of Point Conception. For this reason an average of the ir)-year landings is probably the best available estimate for the landings from California waters for any j^ear. This average is 17.60 million pounds. Until a pre-season measure of changes in effort is available for the albacore fishery, a closer esti- mate of total catch cannot be made. Total bluefin landings closely follow^ the trend of the landings from California waters. The relationship between total bluefin landings and winter water temperature is given by : 5) Bt = —76.52 + 6.40r,„ where Bt is total bluefin landing in millions of pounds and T,o is the winter sea-surface temperature previously described. The standard error of an estimated catch is 6.947. The standard error of the slope is 2.08. The slope is significant at the 1 percent level. The total estimated California bluefin catch for 1960 is 15.32 ± 6.9 million pounds at the 66 percent confidence level. PREDICTING TUNA CATCH 325 SUMMARY 1. Tuna landino-s from southern California waters fluctuate from year to year both in quantity and area of capture. 2. A correlation has been shown between sea-surface temperature (July, August, and September mean) at two southern California shore stations and bluefin and albacore catch from selected areas. 3. This correlation holds when winter water temperatures are used permitting a forecast of bluefin and albacore catch before the season begins. 4. Equations have been given for predicting any year's bluefin and albacore catch in selected areas and limits of confidence are set. 5. Landings from the selected areas have been compared witli total California landings. REFERENCES California Marine Research Committee 1953. California cooperative oceanic fisheries investigations, Prog. Rept., 1 July 1952—30 June 1953, 44 pp. 1958. lUd., Prog. Rept, 1 July 1956—1 Jan. 1958, 57 pp. 1960. Ibid., Rept., 1 Jan. 1958—30 June 1959, vol. 7, 217 pp. (Murphy, p. 168) Clemens, H. B. 1955. Catch localities for Pacific albacore (Thunnus germo) landed in Califor- nia, 1951 through 19,53. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Fish Bull. 100, 28 pp. Godsil, H. C. 1938. The high seas tuna fishery of California. Calif. Div. Fish and Game, Fish Bull. 51, 41 pp. Johnson, J. H. 1960. Navy vessels troll for albacore. U. S. Bur. Com. Fish., Calif. Fish. Market News Mon. Sum., Pt. 2— Fish. Inform., August 1960, pp. 2-4. McGary, J. W. 1960. Sui'face temperature anomalies in the central North Pacific, January 1957-May 1958. Calif. Mar. Res. Comm., Calif. Coop. Ocean. Fish. Invest., Rept., vol. 7, pp. 47-51. Murphy. G. I. 1959. Effect of water clarity on albacore catches. Limnol. and Oceanog., vol. 4, no. 1, pp. 86-93. Orange, C. J. and G. C. Broadhead 1959. 1958-1959 — A turning point for tuna purse seine fishingV Pac. Fisher., vol. 57, no. 7, pp. 20-27. Otsu, T. 1960. Albacore migration and growth in the north Pacific Ocean as estimated from tag recoveries. Pac. Sci., vol. 14, no. 3, pp. 257-266. Power, E. A. 1960. Fishery statistics of the United States 1958. U. S. Bur. Comm. Fish., Stat. Digest 49, 424 pp. Radovich, J. 1961. Relationships of some marine organisms of the northeast Pacific to water temperatures. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Fish Bull. 112, 62 pp. Schaefer, M. B. 1957. Report on the investigations of the Inter-American Tropical Tuna Com- mission for the year 1956. Inter-Amer. Trop. Tuna Comm., Ann. Rept. for 1956, pp. 33-70. Scofield, W. L. 1951. Purse seines and other roundhaul nets in California. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Fish Bull. 81, 83 pp. 1956. Trolling gear in California. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Fish Bull. 103, 45 pp. 326 CALIFORNIA KISIl AM) CA.MK Sliiin.id.i, r.. M. .111(1 .M. I'.. Schapfer 19r»(i. A study of cliiiiiKi's in fisliiiifr effort, iiliundiinco nnd yirdd for yoUowfin ;iiid skipjack Uiiia in llip caslcrn tropical I'acific Ocean. Inter-Amer. Trop. Tuna Conim.. I'.nll., vol. 1, no. 7, pp. 351-469. f^koKshorK. T. I'.tLT). Preliminary invest ii;;it inn of the purse seine industry of southern Cali- fornia. Calif. I)i\. I''isli and (lame. V'\s\\ Hull, '.t, '.l.l ])|). Thompson. W. F. r.ilT. Temperature and the alliacore. Calif. Fish and (iame, vol. li, no. 4, pp. 153-159. Ida. -M. l'.)57. A consideration on the lonj; ye.n-s trend of th<' fisliprics tiu<-tn;it ion in relation to sea conditions. Japanese Soc. Sci. Fish., r?nll., \-ol. '2'A. no. 7 and 8, pp. 368-372. Whitehead, S. S. 1931. Fishinjr methods for the bluefin tuna (Thunnus thi/nnuK) and an analysis of the catches. Calif. Div. Fish and Game, Fish liull. 33. .32 pp. A MECHANICAL NET-PULLER FOR SKIFF FISHING WITH GILL NETS^ EMIL J. SMITH, JR." Marine Resources Operations California Department of Fish and Game INTRODUCTION For years Marine Resources Operations personnel felt the need for a mechanical net-puller. The usual "armstrong" method of retrieving involved from four to six men and was anything but economical. The use of large crews normally necessitated "borrowing" personnel from other projects to supplement the small number of men normally en- gaged in any particular investigation. This practice was usually satis- factory but one could not always depend upon obtaining extra men when needed. Personnel of the Barracuda and AYhite Seabass Management Study, Dingell- Johnson project F-16-R, procured samples of project species in several ways : from the sport and commercial fisheries in southern California waters, and with gill nets, beach seines and hook and line. Local samples were normally procured from the existing fishing indus- tries but on occasion specimens of sizes not captured by the commercial fisheries had to be taken with sampling nets. On survey trips into Mexi- can waters, however, procuring samples required extensive use of gill nets. During the project 's first Mexican cruise in October 1958 it re- quired two to four men to retrieve gill nets by hand. The large crew effectively limited the amount of gear that could be handled in the •skiff at one time and necessitated frequent returns to the research vessel to unload. A second survey cruise to Mexican waters was planned for January and February 1960, at which time widespread sampling for white seabass in the upper Gulf of California was proposed. The large area to be covered by the survey and the short hours of daylight at that time of year pointed up a need for greater efficiency in handling gill nets, our main sampling tool. Project personnel felt the best way to speed up the operation would be to develop a net-puller so that nets could not only be lifted faster but could be fished in mucli deeper water than was formerly possible. RESEARCH A survey of equipment being iised by commercial while seabass fisher- men in southern California was conducted in the fall of 1959. That 1 Submitted for publication July 1960. This work was performed as part of Dingell- Johnson Project California F-16-R, "Barracuda and Wiiite Seabass Management Study", supported by Federal Aid to Fisli Restoration Funds. - Since this article was written the author transferred to the Water Projects Branch. (327 ) 328 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME tliou^'lil to lie llic most siiit;il)lc to ilic jKM'ds (jf tlie j)roject was being used by skiff lislicnncii 'I'oiii Faiiiici- around Santa Barbara and Theo- doic ]\. Plicgley at Newport ]^ea<' axlo. Xo jiiiidc rollers were employed. This skiff was also operati'd l)_\- one iii;iii. Vnv (■coiioiiiy. tlic cliitcli \\;is d ispciiscd with; fisli removal was effected by simply lil'nui: the net led. Nets were set over the side of tlie skiff ;ind here also a vertical guide bar was used to keep lliem away fi-oni tin; outboard motor. DEVELOPMENT The net jiurdy we developed (Figure '■)) incorporated many of llie features of the commercial ourdies but was adapted to our particular needs by beiiifj; self-contained so il coidd be removed from the skiff when not in use. The gurdy was powered by a three-horsepower Brio-jis and Stratton, alumiinim block, air cooled, 'ine was chosen because of initial low cost and ready availal)ility of spare parts. Power is transmitted fi-om the engine to the reduction gear by a double v-belt drive. A speed reducer having a gear ratio of 35 : 1 was installed. The engine geared down tlirough a 6:1 reduction gear, de- veloped a driveshaft speed of (iOO r.p.m. which was further reduced by a ratio of "2 A in the pulleys, giving a final speed of 28 i-.p.m. at the gurdy head. This speed is ideal for pulling nets. The gurdy head was constructed of two steel tank ends, vulcanized and bolted together with a wooden spacer. The wooden spacer was used to keep anchor lines from cutting through the vulcanized gurdy faces. The ccmiponents were mounted on a piece of alumiinnn alloy deck ]date with aluminum channel bi-ackets. The cover framework was con- structed of aluminum angle material and the entire luiit was covered with one-fourth-inch marine plywood to keep nets from becoming en- tangled in the machinery and to kec^j) excess salt water oH' the motoi'. Gurdy; steel tank ends vulcanized ♦ bolted together w/wood spacer. GILL NET GURDY w//m////M/m Sleeve coupling- ^Shoft speed: 28 RPM Reduction Gear ^35-1 ratio Motor; Briggs-tStratt on, gos Mod:943069 3HP, w/6-l reduction geors Pully:Gotes 2B-34 v- Belts Gates Vulco Pully:Gotes 28-6 8 2-groove type B-68 2-groove type FIGURE 3. Sketch of gill net gurdy showing component parts. Channeled framev/ork and plywood covering not included. MECHANICAL NET-PULLER 331 The assembled unit weighed approximately 150 pounds but could have been made lighter with several modifications. Instead of housing the reduction gear in a steel case, as we did, aluminum could have been used. A smaller unit such as a Bond speed reducer, Series QV or OEV, could have been used and by all calculations would have produced sufficient torque. This substitution would have cut the weight by at least 20 pounds. Steel tank ends were used in constructing the gurdy head but it was felt that aluminum could have been used just as well. The project's net-puller employs a v-belt drive without the benefit of a clutch, which was found to be unnecessary. However, with but a slight modification an idler pulley used as a clutch could be installed between the motor and reduction gear. An alternate arrangement would be to use a standard Briggs and Stratton motor developing a shaft speed of 3,600 r.p.m. and having a centrifugal clutch. The gurdy would then be disengaged when the speed of the motor was reduced. With this plan a pulley speed reduction of 1:3.3 would work satisfac- torily. A centrifugal clutch would also add a safety feature in that the clutch would disengage whenever the gurdy was overloaded and the speed of the engine was reduced to half of its normal operating speed. The vulcanized gurdy head was designed to pull nets and would be a little awkward if used exclusively to pull beach seines and crab or lobster pots. When handling only lines it would be more practical to substitute a standard metal drum for the rubber one so that lines could be slacked oft" when necessary, a difticult feat if more than one turn was taken around the wooden spacer of the net gurdy. When handling lines exclusively a higher gurdy speed is desirable and this could be effected by changing the diameters of the pulleys. GILL NET SKIFF Gu\cessitated another man. During the cruise to the (lulf of Califoi'uia an average of live nets a night were set in from 3 to 180 feet of water. The net gurdy not only allowed us to fish deeper than was previously possil)l(' l)ut the time MECHANICAL NET-PULLER 333 saved in the operation permitted our engaging in other types of sam- pling. SUMMARY A mechanical net-puller or gurdy was developed by Dingell-Johnson Project F-16-R to assist in fishing with gill nets to obtain samples of project species. Fishing gill nets by hand had proved difficult and time consuming in deep water and required a two to four man crew. The net-puller enabled fishing with gill nets to a depth of 180 feet and it was felt the.y could have been fished deeper. By using the gurdy, one man could handle the nets. The gurdy was also found useful for pulling beach seines and lobster pots and with slight modification its efficiency for these purposes could be greatly increased. «;l OCCURRENCE OF THE ROUND STINGRAY, UROLOPHUS HALLERI COOPER, IN HUMBOLDT BAY, CALIFORNIA' E. A. BEST Marine Resources Operations California Department of Fish and Game INTRODUCTION The round stingray was first described from the waters of San Pedro and San Diego Bays by Cooper (1863, p. 95). Since then various authors have redescribed tlie fish and recorded the areas of southern California, Baja California and the Gulf of California in which it is found. Carman (1913, p. 401) divided TJrolophus into two genera, UrolopJuis and Urohatis, on the basis of disk shape. Bigelow and Schroeder (1953, p. 418) considered this differentiation as merely specific and relegated Urohatis to synonymy with JJrolophiis. OCCURRENCE IN HUMBOLDT BAY On May 12, 1960, while observing seining operations to eliminate bat rays {Myliohatis califoniiciis) from the oyster beds of the Coast Oyster Company of California in north Humboldt Bay, Humboldt County, California, I collected a single male round stingray 408 mm. in total length. It was taken in a seine haul in one of the shallow sloughs that are characteristic of the bay. This capture extended the range approxi- mately 290 miles in a northwesterly direction. The preserved specimen has been deposited in the California Academv of Sciences collection (CAS No. 26786). The successful haul was made at approximately low water during a series of spring tides. The predicted low for Humboldt Bay on May 12 was — 1.6 feet. At that stage, the water would probably not be more than six feet deep anywhere in the slough and generally would be con- siderably less. RECORDED RANGE The recorded range of Urolophiis halleri has been given as Pt. Con- ception, California, south to Panama by most authors. These have been based on records of Hubbs (1920, p. 82), who took a single individual at Goleta, California, just north of Santa Barbara, and Jordan and Gilbert (1883, p. 621) who presented information op tAvo specimens from Panama. Herald (1953, p. 237) reported Vrolophns halleri in Elkhorn Slough, Monterey Bay ; the first record north of Pt. Conception. He stated that the estero at Goleta was the type locality; ho we veir,, Cooper in his 1 Submitted for publication September 1960. (335 ) 336 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME oriyiiial desfripliuii {op. cit., p. 'd'i) did not .specii'y a type-locality but inferred the mouths of muddy creeks of San Pedro and San Diego Bays were the preferred habitat. This was further emphasized b^- Jlolloway et al. (1953, p. 78) who stated that 125 specimens were easily obtained by seining a lagoon at Seal Beach, just south of San Pedro, and 12 were collected from Mission May, San Diego. Starks and Morris (1907, p. 172) reported it was the commonest stingray of San Diego Bay. Following Herald's i-epoi'L Ivocdel (1953, p. 28) gave the i-ange as ^lonterey Baj- to Panama. ASSOCIATED SPECIES Captured in the same haul with the louud stingray were: '2i) liiiiwn smootlihoiiiids Triakis henlei (Gill) 1 leopard shark Triakis sentifasciata (Jirard 31 bat rays Myliohutin culifornifjus (iill 1 redtail surfperch Amphistichus rhodoterus (Agassiz) 1 walleye surfperch Hyperprosopon argenteum Gibbous 6 Pacific stajrhorn sculpins Leptocottus annatus Girard 2 California halibut Paralichthys californicus (Ayres) 10 starry flounders Platichthys stellatus (Pallas) The two halibut marked the first record for that species from within Humboldt Bay. Gunderson (1960, p. 373) previously reported them from the mouth of Humboldt Baj' and further north on the open coast at Redding Rock and olf the Klamath River. The two seined on May 12 ill Humboldt Bay were 286 mm. and 340 mm. in standard length and were deposited in the California Academv of Sciences collection (CAS No. 26787). The same day a seveugill shark {Notorynchus uiaculatu.s Ayresj was found stranded by low tide on au oyster bed approximately one mile from the seining site. TEMPERATURES The California Department of Fish and Game, in cooperation with the Coast Oyster Company of California, maintains a recording ther- mograph ill the slough where the round stingray was collected. The temperature on May 12, 1960 was 55 degrees F. Average temperatures for the 10-day period May 3 through 12, 1960, and for several pre- vious years were : 1956 56 degrees F. 1959 thermograph ino})erative 1957 56 degrees F. 1960 56 degrees F. 1958 53 degrees F. The occurrence of a round stingray in Humboldt Bay fits in well with the recent movements of southern forms to more northerly areas (CCOFI 1958, p. 13; Radovich ]9(J0, p. 163). Herald et al. (1960, p. 60 and personal communication) recorded Urolopkus in the Elkhorn Slough area of Monterey Ba}^ in June or July of every year from 1952 through 1960, with the exception of 1957. Hydrographic surveys of Monterey Bay (CCOFI op. cit., p. 17) indi- cated the early 1950 's were cold-water years and 1957 produced the warmest water in more than a decade. The annual capturing of round OCCURRENCE OP THE ROUND STINGRAY 337 sting-rays in Monterey Bay since 1952 probably reflects a better eollect- inff method, i.e., intense concentration of hook and line fishermen, rather than movements associated with warm waters. Of the 13 round stingrays from Elkhorn Sloug'h 10 were males, 1 a female, and 2 of unrecorded sex. On this basis, Herald et al. (op. cit., p. 65) suggested a probable separation by sexes during June and July. The capture of a male at Humboldt Bay supports this theory. Among elasmobranchs, segregation of sexes has been demonstrated for the soupfin shark (Galeorhinus zyopterus Jordan and Gilbert) bj^ Ripley (1946, p. 17) and for the blue shark {Prionace glauca (Lin- naeus)) by Strasburg (1958, p. 351) who briefly reviewed behavioral and geographical sex-segregation among sharks. SUMMARY 1. A male round stingray collected in Humboldt Bay May 12, 1960 extended their known range some 290 miles northward. 2. A preponderance of males in the northern portion of the range during May, June and July suggests a separation by sex for that time of year. 3. Round stingrays apparently are annual visitors to Monterey Bay, but were not recorded there until 1952. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I wish to extend my thanks to the Coast Oyster Company of Cali- fornia. The interest, enthusiasm and cooperation of the management and employees have made efforts to catalog the marine life of Hum- boldt Bay a pleasure. Appreciation is also expressed to Dr. Earl S. Herald and Mr. W. I. Follett, California Academy of Sciences, for critical review of this manuscript. LITERATURE CITED Bigelow, Henry B., and William C. Schroeder 1953. Fishes of the Western North Atlantic. Part 2 : Sawfishes, Guitarfishes. Skates and Rays. Mem. Sears Found. Mar. Res., No. 3, pp. 1-514. ("alifornia Cooperative Oceanic Fisheries Investigations 1!)58. Progress Report 1 July 1956 to 1 January 1958. Sacramento, Marine Research Committee, 57 pp. Cooper, J. G. 1863. On new genera and species of California fishes. No. II. Proc. Calif. Acad. Nat. Sci., vol. 3, no. 6, pp. 93-97. Garman, Samuel 1913. The Plagiostomia (Sharks, Skates and Rays). Mem. Mus. Cunip. Zool. Harvard, vol. 37, 515 pp. Gunderson, E. G. 1960. A range extension of the California halibut {Paralichthys califormrus) . Calif. Fish and Game, vol. 46, no. 3, pp. 373-374. Herald, Earl S. „ , ^ 1953. The 1952 shark derby at Elkhorn Slough, Monterey Bay, and Coyote Point, San Francisco Bay. Calif. Fish and Game, vol. 39, no. 2, pp. 237-243. Herald, Earl S., Walter Schneebali, Norval Green and Kenneth Innes. I960.' Catch records for seventeen shark derbies held at Elkhorn Slough. .Monterey Bay, California. Calif. Fish and Game, vol. 46, no. 1, pp. 59-67. 338 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME IIi>ll(p\\;i\ . Jnliii Vj., Nnrniiiii (". P.mikoi' and P.nicc W. Iliilstoad. I'.iri."). Tlic vcnoin of Irohnfis hnJlvri (Cooper) the round .stingray, ("alif. ]'"ish and (I.'inic. \ol. '.\\\. no. 1, \\\). 77-82. ITuhlis, Carl L. I'.IUO. Not(>.'< on I lie rays of California. Copeia, no. Sti, \\\). .S1-S2. .Ford.'in. David S.. and Charles W. Cilltert 1SS;'>. List of fishe.s now in the iMn.seuni of Yale College, collected hy I'rof. Frank II. Bradley, at. I'anama, with description of three new .species. I'roc. r. S. Nat. Mns., vol. .1 (1SS2), pi). (520-632. R.idovich. .John irt(>(>. Hedistrihution of fishes in the eastern north Pacific Ocean in V.^'u and 1i».")S. Calif. Cooii. Ocean. Fisli. Invest.. Kept. vol. 7. w. 1(;:M71. Kil)ley. Wni. Ellis li>4(>. The soni)tin shark and the lishery. Calif. Di'pl. Fish .ind Came, Fish Itnll. no. (14. i)|). 7-37. Koed(d. IMiil M. 19r)3. Common ocean tislies of the ('aliforni.a coast. Calif. Dept. Fish tiiid (i.inie, Fish r?nll. no. !)!. 1S4 pj). Starks, Edwin Chapin, and lOarl Leonard .Morris 1907. The marine fishe.s of Southern California. U. Calif. I'ulil. Zool.. vol. :;. no. IL pp. L19-251. Strasburg, Donald W. 1958. Distribution, abundance, and habits of peLagic sharks in the central I'acific Ocean. U. S. Fish and Wild. Serv., Fish. P.nll.. vol. .".S, no. 1.'',S. i)p. 335-361. OBSERVATIONS ON A DIE-OFF OF MOLAS (tAOLA I^OLA) IN MONTEREY BAY' DANIEL W. GOTSHALL Marine Resources Operations California Department of Fish and Game Molas are noted for their almost worldwide distribution in tropical and temperate waters. They occur off central and northern California primarily during summer months and at times are very common both inshore and offshore. On August 21, 1960 while Department of Fish and Game personnel were interviewing skindivers in the Pa,cific Grove area, several reported large numbers of dead molas. The tish had been observed on the bottom at depths of 80 to 50 feet, particularly off' Cannery Row, Monterey. Three weeks later, on September 9 and 10, the author observed several molas floating ventral side up in the kelp off Lovers Point, Pacific Grove and off' Cannery Row. All appeared to be dead. A fisher- man who had snagged a carcass said it weighed about 10 pounds and was in good condition except that the eyes were missing. Skindivers again reported seeing dead and dying molas off Cannery Row during this ]Kn-iod. The number reported by the various divers ranged from 12 to 80. Ail were approximately 18 to 24 inches long. Skindivers did not report any dead molas off Cannery Row during the weekend of September 24 and 25, but three were seen off Lovers Point and two off Point Pinos, Pacific Grove. All were floating on the surface and those observed off' Point Pinos were lacking dorsal and anal fins. No comments were received on the condition of the carcasses seen off of Lovers Point. A group of skindivers using SCUBA off Cannery Row on October 2, reported a few dead and dying molas, near where they were first re- ported in August. Some of these fish had large portions missing from the ventral and dorsal regions. All appeared to be about the same size as was previously observed. On the same day, the author observed a very weak mola a few yards off'shore near Lovers Point. It was lying on its side with its ventral surface protruding slightly above the water, suggesting that it was near death and had lost its equilibrium. Another heavy die-off evidently occurred later in the month. On October 22, the author observed an estimated 20 to 25 molas floating on the surface a few yards off of the rocky shore. In one small area just north of Hopkins Marine Station, there were about 10 individuals. These appeared to be lifeless when observed through 8x40 binoculars and all had a portion of the ventral region protruding above the sur- face of the water. 1 Submitted for publication January 19G1. (339) 340 OAL-TFORNIA PISH AND OAME 36 40 N PT PINOS FIGURE 1. Location and quantity of dead molas in Monterey Boy during 1960 Date Area Nuinhcr of Molas Observed or Reported August 21 5 several September 9, 10 5 up to 30 September 9, 10 3 several September 25 1 2 September 25 2 3 October 2 3 1 October 2 -. 5 few October 22 5 up to 100 October 22 4 10 October 23 5 1 October 25 1 up to 12 Oil tills sairie date, skindivers using SCUBA reported seeini;' an esti- mated ]()0 carcasses in about 50 feet of Avatei- ott' Cannery Row. On the following day (October 23) skindivers working in 30 feet of water, in this same area, found only one carcass. This specimt'ii measured 48 cm. (19 inches) from the tip of the snout to the tip of the tail. The anal and dorsal fins and eyes were missing. The same day, skindivers re- ported seeing 5 to 10 dead molas on the bottom and one or two on the MOLA DEE-OFP 341 surface off Pt. Pinos.- All were of approximately the same size as those previously reported and most were missing dorsal and anal fins. On October 29, a diver reported seeing five badly decomposed mola car- casses off Cannery Eow. This same diver stated he had observed a sea lion throwing a mola about in this area a few days earlier. It appeared to be alive at the time but one fin was missing. From this, one might infer that some of the mutilation reported earlier could be attributed to sea lions ; however, the missing eyes probably resulted from the feed- ing activities of gulls. A question that arises in the author's mind is whether the penchant molas have for floating at the surface on their sides is normal behavior or an indication of sickness and approaching death. Wales and Myers (1930) concluded that the molas observed offshore floating on their sides were "disabled" and that the natural position was upright. They based this conclusion on many observations of molas in waters around Hopkins Marine Station, Pacific Clrove. Fraser-Brunner (1951) believed the easily approached and captured molas, "while 'basking' at the surface are in fact sick or dying fish'', and suggested that heavy infestation by parasites might be the cause for such disablement. Other authors take the opposite view. Norman and Fraser (1938), stated that molas are fond of basking in the sun at the surface during calm weather, lying on their sides, with the dorsal fin protruding from the water. Further underwater observations, such as those disclosing the Mon- terey Bay die-oft', may help answer this and other questions pertaining to the habits of fishes. REFERENCES Fraser-Brunner. A. 19.51. The ocean sun fishes (Family Molidae). Brit. Mus. (Nat. Hist.) Bull., Zool. vol. 1, no. 6, pp.- 89-121. Norman, J.R. and F.C. Fraser 1938. Giant fishes whales and dolphins, W.W. Norton and Co., Inc. New York. 361 pp. Wales, Joseph H. and George S. flyers 1930. On the occurence and habits of ocean sunfish {Mola mola) in Monterey Bay, California. Copeia, no. 1. p. 11. " One of the clivers reported observing- a similar die-off in October or November 1959. -44529 HISTORY OF YEARLING KING SALMON MARKED AND RELEASED AT NIMBUS HATCHERY' GEORGE H. WARNER, DONALD H. FRY, JR., and A. NELSON CULVER California Department of Fish and Game INTRODUCTION A release of marked king salmon yearlings was made into the Ameri- can River in 1957 to determine the effectiveness of rearing the fish to this age at Nimbus Hatchery. At Nimbus most of the king salmon are released at an age of about 90 days. The fish selected for the experi- ment were from eggs taken in late December 1955 from American River stock at the hatchery. Late running fish were used because the waters at Nimbus have been too warm for rearing salmon until well into November. It was anticipated that the progeny of late running- salmon would return in the season when the water temperatures at Nimbus were more favorable for salmon reproduction. MARKING AND PLANTING In January and Februar^^ 1957 a total of 20,579 king salmon year- lings averaging 8.1 fish per pound were marked. The smallest fish in the lot weighed 10.6 per pound and the largest 6.8 per pound. Starting on March 7 and ending on April 8, 1957, seventeen separate releases of slightly over 1,000 fish each were made. All of the fish were planted in the American River at the hatchery. The number of eggs used to produce the 20,579 marked yearlings was estimated to be approximately 50,000. This is slightly less than the average egg production of nine female salmon. Assuming a ratio of three males for every two females,^ these 50,000 eggs would repre- sent the offspring of 13 males (including jacks), or, 22 fish of both sexes. Each fish was marked by excising the adipose and left ventral fins. This mark was assigned by the Pacific Marine Fisheries Commission for this experiment. OCEAN RECOVERY OF MARKED SALMON ^ Commercial Catch In 1958, the year following planting, nine marked fish from the Nimbus release were found in that portion of the ocean troll catch which was sampled by Department of Fish and Game employees. In 1959 two marked fish were observed. Although the ocean sampling program covers all commercial salmon landings from Crescent City to Avila 1 Submitted for publication, April 1961. - In this experiment the sex ratio of the marked fish returning- to the American River was estimated to be 1.46 males per female. See Table 4. 3 Data supplied by Paul Jensen, Marine Resources Branch. (343) 344 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME (8aii Luis ( )l)i.si)() Coiiiily), Nimbus luarkcd iisli were recovered only at Bodega Bay and Point Reyes. For the purposes of the sampling profi'rain llicsc local ions arc iiidiidcil in llic San l*'rancisco port area. The adipose left ventral tin mark used lor the Ximbus tish was also used in the Columbia Rivei- and l'u Total _.. 9 1 1 22,390 9,245 168,868 61,441 73 1959 July 8 August 7 Total. - 2 15 ^ All recoveries were taken in the San Francisco area although catches were sampleii tin mighout California, Oregon, and Washington. Since only a portion of the troll catch was sampled, the numbers of marked fish were weighted np to the numbers which should theoretically have appeared in the entire catch (Table 1). Thus, it is estimated that in 1958 a total of 78 marked fish was taken by com- mercial fishermen and an additional lo in 195!). Xone were taken in 1960. The average weight of the marked salmon sampled in 1958 was 7.2 ])ounds dressed, head on. Assuming the same average weight for the 73 tish taken in the fishery, the total weight of marked fish would be 526 pounds. At an average price of !^().H5 per pound, the salmon had a net worth to the fishermen of $1S4.1(). The fifteen marked salmon in the 1959 catch had an estimated average weight of 15.5 pounds each, or a total Aveight of 282 pounds. At the average price of $0.50 per pound which pi-evailed during this season, these marked salmon were worth $116 to the fishermen. Combining the value of the mai-ked. com- mercially-caught fish for 1958 and 1959, we find that it is ai)pro.\iinately $300. Sport Fishery The ocean s])<)v\ fisluu'y was not sampled but xci-hal reports wei'e received of marked fish appearing in the catch, and two such fish were turned in by San Francisco party boats. Pelgeii (1955) has calculated MARKING KING SALMON 345 the value of sport caught sahnou to be about $17 per fish. The total value of the marked salmon to the sport fishery is unknown but $34 represents a minimum figure. RETURNS TO HATCHERY The first returns of the marked fish to Nimbus Hatchery occurred in the fall and winter of 1957-58 (the year of release). One hundred TABLE 2 Weekly Returns to Nimbus Hatchery of Marked King Salmon In holding ponds Monthly totals Male Female Annual totals 1957-58 Oct. 13 to Oct. 19 Oct. 20 to Oct. 26 Oct. 27 to Nov. 2 1 1 7 3 9 59 34 Nov. 3 to Nov. 9 Nov. 10 to Nov. 16 Nov. 17 to Nov. 23 Nov. 24 to Nov. 30 11 14 22 12 Dec. 1 to Dec. 7 Dec. 8 to Dec. 14 Dec. 15 to Dec. 21,.^ Dec. 22 to Dec. 28 Dec. 29 to Jan. 4 16 6 10 1 1 102 1958-59 Oct. 26 to Nov. 1 1 4 139 189 4 Nov. 2 to Nov. 8 Nov. 9 to Nov. 15 1 2 17 19 18 28 54 Nov. 16 to Nov. 22 __ Nov. 23 to Nov. 29 Nov. 30 to Dec. 6 35 14 6 9 5 79 17 13 6 5 Dec. 7 to Dec. 13 ._ - - - Dec. 14 to Dec. 20 Dec. 21 to Dec. 27 - - Dec. 28 to Jan. 3 _ ^. 2 1 1 Jan. 11 to Jan. 17 - - 336 1959-60 Sep. 27 to Oct. 3 _ 2 1 1 3 1 13 6 4 30 19 1 Oct. 18 to Oct. 24 Oct. 25 to Oct. 31 - -- - Nov. 1 to Nov. 7 -_ 1 6 Nov. 8 to Nov. 14 Nov. 15 to Nov. 21 - -- Nov 22 to Nov. '^8 Nov. 29 to Dec. 5 1 2 6 5 3 1 1 Dec. 6 to Dec. 12 _ Dec. 13 to Dec. 19 Dec. 20 to Dec. 26 _ _ Dec. 27 to Jan. 2 __ .. 1 54 346 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME and two iuai-k('(l ^izi-ilsc were recovered. All were iiiales. These ilsli had an average fork leiifjth of .'^5 centimeters. Dnring the following season. ] 958-59, an even more spectacular showing- was made witli the return of ;iS6 marked fish to the hatchery. Of these three-year-old fisli, 11 1 were males and 225 were females. In addition, 21 male salmon nnder 66 centimeters in length were recovered from the upstream face of the Nimbus fish rack. Had the rack struc- ture been a completely effective barrier, these fish presumably would have entered the hatchery. Marked salmon continued to retui-n to Nimbus in the 1959-60 season although in smallei- inimbers than in tlie ])n'c('ding year. Fifty-four TABLE 3 Marked Salmon Recovered in American River 1957-58 Season Recovery date 1957 Nov. 25. 25_ 25_ 25. 25. 25. Dec 3- 3. 3. 3. 3. 3. 3. 3. 3. 3. 3. 3. 3- 4. 4. 4. 9- 9. 9. 9- 9. 9. 9. 9. 9. 9. 9. 9. 9. 10. 10. 10. 10. 10. 19. 19. 19- 27. Sex Length (cm.) M 35 M 38 M 39 M 39 M 40 M 40.5 M 36 M 39 M 40 M 40.5 M 40.5 M 41.2 M 41.6 M 42 M 42 M 42 M 44 M 45 M 48 M 39.5 M 39.5 M 41 M 35 M 37 M 37.2 M 38 M 38 M 38.5 M 39 M 40 M 41 M 43 M 43 M 44 M 44 M 36 M 36 M 39 M 42.5 M 44 M 40.5 M 45 M 45 M 46.5 1958-59 Season Recovery date 1958 Dec. 4 4 16 23 23 23 1959 .Tan. 2 Sex M F F F F F F F 1959-60 Season Recovery date Mi.')it Dec. 17. 18. Sex F M Length (cm.) No data No data 61 59 68 70 77 7.") Length (cm.) 59 48 MARKING KING SALMON 347 -were recovered — 15 males and 39 females. A single marked female "was removed from the fish rack. During- 1957 sixty-seven percent of the marked grilse or jacks entered the hatchery after November 15 when water temperatures were favor- able for salmon reproduction. This figure is not particularly significant since jacks are seldom used in a hatchery operation. However, it is significant that in 1958 ninety-two percent of the marked fish arrived at N^imbus after the period of critical water temperatures, and eighty- three percent in 1959. This would indicate that the time of migration is an inherited characteristic ; i.e., the progeny of a late-running strain continue to run late. Detailed information on time of arrival of marked fish at Nimbus Hatchery is presented in Table 2. RIVER RECOVERY OF MARKED SALMON As would be expected, some of the marked fish spawned in the American River downstream from Nimbus Hatchery. The salmon sur- vey crews recovered 44 carcasses of marked fish in 1957, eight in 1958, and two in 1959. With the exception of six carcasses wdiich were taken on Nov. 25, 1957, all other marked fish were recovered in December and early January. See Table 3. On the basis of tag and recovery ex- periments performed in earlier years, it was estimated by the survey crews that water conditions in each of the three years were such that they recovered about 25 percent of the salmon actually in the river below Nimbus racks. It was estimated that they recovered about 92 percent of the fish which got above the racks. On the basis of these assumptions it is estimated that the total return to the river, including the hatchery, was 278 fish in 1957, 391 in 1958, and 63 in 1959. Of these 732 fish it is estimated that 435 were males and 297 females. For details see Table 4. EGG PRODUCTION OF RETURNING MARKED FISH Of the 264 marked female salmon returning to Nimbus Hatchery in the 1958-59 and 1959-60 seasons, 179 were spawned artificially. The average number of eggs produced per marked female was 5,700 and the total take from these fish amounted to 1,020,300 eggs. This repre- sents a return of about 20 eggs for every one expended. An abnormally high mortality of 32 percent in the holding ponds reduced the 264 females which entered the hatchery to the 179 which were spawned. Practically all the marked fish were very "green" on arrival and had to be held an unusually long time before their eggs ripened. For the purpose of determining the number of eggs that marked salmon deposited in the spawning riffles of the American River, it was calculated that there were 28 large females in the 1958 run and five in 1959 for a total of 33. Multiplying this figure by 5,700 (the average number of eggs per marked female spawned at the hatchery), it is estimated that 188,100 were produced by this segment of the marked salmon population. When this egg production is added to the number taken at the hatchery, we find that an estimated 1,208,400 eggs w^ere produced by the marked fish which returned to the American River to spawn. 348 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME TABLE 4 Recoveries and Estimated Total Returns to American River Num bers recovered Estimated total returns Male Female Total Numbers Male Female Total Percent total 1967 102 0 44 0 0 0 102 0 44 102 0 176 0 0 0 102 () 176 13.7 On or above NimbiLS racks American River downstream from racks 0 24.3 Total 1957 146 111 21 1 0 225 0 7 146 336 21 8 278 111 23 4 0 225 0 28 278 336 23 32 38.0 1968 45.9 On or above Nimbus racks American River downstream from racks _ 3.1 4.4 Total 1958 - 133 15 0 1 232 39 1 1 365 54 1 2 138 15 0 4 253 39 1 4 391 54 1 8 53.4 1969 Entered hatchery 7.4 On or above Nimbu.s racks American River downstream from racks 0.1 1.1 Total 1959- 16 295 41 273 57 568 19 435 44 297 63 732 8.6 Three year total 100.0 TABLE 5 Summary of Recoveries of Marked Nimbus Salmon 1957-1960 Source Actual recoveries Wpichtcd recoveries Percent recovery (weighted) Commercial ocean troll fishery*-. 11 2 492 22 54 88 2 492 24 216 0.427 0.009 Nimbus Hatchery 2 . 390 0.116 American River below rack 1.049 Total 822 3.991 » All talii'n in 1958 and 1959. TABULATION OF MARKED FISH RECOVERIES FROM ALL SOURCES Since there is no information availal)l(' on tlie iiinnl)or of marked salmon taken in tlic ocean s]ioi-t fishery or in tlie sporl fishery in inland waters, any tabulation of marked fish returns will he a minimum fiiiure. In Table 5 all available recovery data are summarized, showinp: that we can account for approximately 4 percent of the marked fish released. MARKING KING SALMON 349 COST AND VALUE OF REARING KING SALMON TO YEARLING SIZE The cost of rearing the 20,579 king salmon yearlings used in this experiment was abnormally high because of the special treatment made necessary b,y the high water temperatures at Nimbus Hatchery. The Department expects to have an adequate supply of cool water in the future; hence the cost of rearing this particular group of fish would have no bearing whatsoever on the cost of rearing others in years to come. To estimate the cost of rearing a similar number and size of fish under the more nearly normal conditions which should prevail in the future, we propose to use the average cost per pound of rearing catch- able and subcatchable trout. In 1958 the average cost of rearing such fish for all hatcheries of California was 72fS per pound.^ The cost of raising fish in the larger, lowland hatcheries of which Nimbus would be a fairly typical example was less than the State average, but to be on the safe side we propose to use the average figure of 72^. The 20,579 yearling salmon averaged 8.1 fish per pound and weighed a total of 2,540 pounds. At 72fS per pound this represents a total cost of approximately $1,830. As discussed above, this group of fish is known to have produced a commercial catch worth approximately $300 and a sport catch with a minimum value of $34. It is quite probable that the actual value of the sport catch considerably exceeded the $34 minimum figure, but it is highly doubtful that the combined commercial plus sport values even approached the cost of production of these fish. In other words, rearing salmon to yearling size would be a prohibitively expensive way of providing fish for the sport and commercial fisheries. On the other hand, if future experiments prove that the hatchery returns obtained thus far are at all typical, it would seem that using this method might be a satisfactory and cheap method of building up the run of king salmon in a stream which has been badlj" depleted by over-fishing, pollution, or some natural disaster. Calculated on the basis of the cost to produce a spawning fish re- turned to the hatchery or to the American River, the average cost of the 732 returning spawners was $2.50 per fish; if we deduct all jacks (two-year-olds) the cost goes up to $4.03. The abnormally high mor- tality of 32 percent which occurred among females in the hatchery holding ponds at the time of the experiment is no longer a problem and is not likely to recur after the temperatures of the hatchery water supply are reduced to a more nearly optimum level. Even assuming that these mortalities did recur at the previous rate, the average cost of surviving adults would be only $5.97. This is still a very low cost for a fish whose progeny would normally be expected to contribute three or four fish to the commercial plus sport fisheries every three or four years. The cost is especially low if it is used (as it should be) only in streams where spawners are in short supply. Various salmon marking experiments have indicated that for king salmon a reasonably healthy condition exists when the sport and com- mercial fisheries take three or four salmon for every one that returns to spawn. (The ideal ratio varies from stream to stream.) In this experiment, there were more than eight spawners for every fish taken * California Trout Production and Costs 1957-195S by Macklin and Tharratt. Inland Fisheries Administrative Report No. 58-15. 350 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME by tlie c'oninicrc'ial fisliery. The sport fishery was not ])r()])erly sampled but typically the sport catch is much smaller than tlie commercial catch. Eve]i if the sport catch of this particular group equalled the commercial catch, it would mean Ili;it more than four fish escaped to spawn for every one that was canjiht. In other words, of those fish that were either caught or escaped to spawn, it appears that something well in excess of 80 percent escaped to spawn instead of the more usual 20 to 25 percent. Considerably more impressive than the ratio between fish caught and fish Avhich escaped to spawn is the percentage of the fisli planted which either returned to the hatchery or spawned naturally in the American Kiver. This amounted to a total of 732 fish, or 3.56 percent of the total nnml)er planted. Of these fish, 492 w'cre taken at the hatchery — this is 2.39 percent of those released. A comparison was made with returns from 47 lots of fall run kings released by the California Department of Fish and Game, the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and the Wash- ington State Department of Fisheries. Thirty-four of the forty-seven lots of marked fish were released as "fingerlings" or ''spring releases". Ninet}^ days is a common age of release for such fish. It is possible that some groups of "fingerlings" may have been held until summer. The three highest rates of return were made under conditions which were not comparable with the others.^ Of the other thirty-one groups the rate of return " ranged from 0.000 to 0.471 percent, and the mean was 0.070 percent. Two groups of fish definitely were released in their first summer. The returns were 0.002 and 0.009 percent. Nine groups were held until fall. Their rates of return i;nii:iMl tVom 0.002 to 0.432 percent ; the mean was 0.164 percent. Four of these fall releases are described in detail by Cope and Slater (1957). In each of four years a part of the fall run kings was marked and released as fingerlings in the spring, and a roughly equal part was held until fall. Mortality during the summer somewhat reduced the iiiiinbers re- leased in the fall. The commercial gill net fisliery was sampled to deter- mine which group contributed most. To (piote from Cope and Slaters' sunnnary : "Comparisons of returns to the gill-net fishery and to Cole- man Hatchery of adult marked salmon from botli spring and fall re- leases indicated that fish from spring releases averaged largei- than those from fall releases, but that somewhat more fish were recovered from fall releases than from spring. The greater return of fall-released fish was more marked at Coleman Hatchery than in the conunercial fishery. Thus, spring-released fish conti-ibuled tlie greatei- weight to the gill-net fishery, while fall-released fish conlributed the greater weight to the Coleman Hatchery returns". We eonld find i-ecoi-ds of only two usable groups of fall run kings which were released as vearlings. The i-ates of return were 0.072 and ^ These three experiments were done on tlie I U-.scliule.s liiver in Waslii;mton. Foniierl.v this river liad no salmon runs because of an impassable waterfall near its moutli in PuKet Sound. A lishway was built around tlie falls. The salmon were jilanted near salt water. The total returns to the stream were 0.98 percent, O.'J') percent, and O.fiS percent (as compared with :\.?,ft i>erce,it in the American Kiver). "The rate of return could not be measured in the same way for each release. When available the ligure used is based on fish which actually entered the hatchery. In some instances the count included all marked lish which passed through a count- ing: station on their way to the spawniiiiT grcjunds or the hatchery. MARKING KING SALMON 351 0.073 percent, which is not appreciably better than the mean rate of return for fingerlings. Besides the experiments involving fall run kings we found records of more than twenty releases of spring rnn kings, most of which were yearlings. These spring rnn yearlings were released by the Oregon Game Commission in the Umpqna and Rogue Rivers. The Rogue River experiments involved the release of sixteen groups. The mean rate of return was 0.797 percent. The highest was in the range of 3.5 to 3.7 percent (some marks had regenerated and could not be assigned to the proper group with certainty). The poorest return was 0.000 percent. Various factors which could have affected the rate of return are dis- cussed in the 1959 report of the Oregon State Game Commission, Fish- ery Division. The average size of the fish in the different groups var- ied from less than ten to about thirty fish per pound. The fish which were reared to the larger sizes showed the best returns. Only one Umpqua release was written up in such a manner that the data could be used in this comparison. About 1.5 percent of these fish were taken in the commercial troll fishery, 0.2 percent in the river sport fishery, and 3.4 percent escaped to spawn. Tlie Umpqua and Rogue River returns included all spawning fish which escaped the fisheries at the river mouths ; i.e., these returns cor- responded to the 2.39 percent which returned to Nimbus Hatchery plus the 1.17 percent which spawned naturally in the American River (total 3.56 percent). Only two groups of spring run kings were found which were re- leased as fingerlings in their first spring. The returns were 0.000 per- cent and 0.046 percent. Another two groups were released in their first fall. The returns were 0.007 and 0.049 percent. The marking experiments discussed above do not demonstrate that there is or is not a difference between the rate of return of spring run and fall run king salmon released at the same age. There were 31 groups of fall run fingerlings and only two groups of spring run finger- lings. There were nine groups of fall run fall releases and only two groups of spring run fall releases. Finally, there were two groups of fall run yearlings and seventeen groups of spring run yearlings. For details see Table 6. These marking experiments were performed by four different organ- izations in many different places for many different purposes over a 33-year period. Conditions which seriously affected survival rates in some experiments were lacking in others. The methods of recovery differed from place to place. These things and others tended to give greater variation in the rate of return than would be expected in a set of controlled releases made as part of a single experiment. If we assume that the age at release has more influence on the rate of return than any difference between spring run and fall run fish, then we must conclude that on the average a much higher rate of re- turn can be expected if the fish are released as yearlings. The return of the Nimbus fish (fall run) was about the same as the best returns of the groups of spring run yearlings, and was far better than any return of fall run kings — including the two groups of yearlings. It would appear that further experimenting with fall run yearlings could be expected to produce high rates of return. We cannot predict the 352 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME TABLE 6 Returns From King Salmon Marking Experiments Number of experiments Percent return* Max. Min. Mean Fall run king salmon Released in their first spring (often at about 90 days' ace) Released in their first summer Released in their first fall Released as yearlings Spring run king salmon Released in their first spring- Released in their first fall Released as yearlings 312 2 9 2 2 2 17 0, 171 0.009 0.432 0.073 0.04(i 0.049 3.6± 0 . 000 0.002 0.002 0.072 0.000 0.007 0.000 0.070 O.OOfi 0.104 0.072 0.023 0.028 0.950 ' As used here, the teim "return" could licit he given the s;imc meaning for each release. In some experiments the term included only those fish which were actually retaken at the hatchery. In other instances it in- cluded a count of all marked fish passing througli a counting station on their way to the spawning grounds, etc. -Tlie.se experiments do not include three releases made in the Descliutes Kiver. Wasliington. which had spectacuhirly high returns under conditions which were entirely atypical (see text for details). Also excluded are several experiments which were so performed as to greatly reduce the chance of any hatchery returns. eoiLsisteiiey of those returns. T^nrortuiiately tlio cost of rearing; year- lings is liigli, but not so lii^li as to make experimenting inij)ractical. DISCUSSION It is diffieiilt to draw conehisions from a single salmon marking experiment involving only a relatively small number of fisli. However, the evidence obtained from the release of some 20, ()()() marked year- ling salmon at Nimbus Hatchery cannot be ignored. The returns of the Nimbus experiment were compared with those of 65 other releases of marked king salmon. The proportion which returned to spawn was found to be several times as high as that of any group which was released when appreciably less than a year old. The only groups with roughly comparable rates of return were of spring run yearlings released in Oregon. In Oregon and AVashington most spring run king salmon migrate to the ocean as yearlings, so liold- ing them in the hatchery would not upset their normal migi-alion pat- tern. Fall run kings normalh' migrate to sea as fingerlings. but the Nimbus experiment would seem to indicate that holding them in the hatchery will increase their chances of survival. By way of contrast, the only other releases of fall run yearlings (two releases made in the Pacific Northwest) showed returns which were about the same as the average return for fingerlings. ]\Iore ex]ieriments will be needed to determine if the Nimbus results can be duplicated. If these first Nimbus returns are typical and if additional spawners are needed it Avould appear desirable to hold some fall run kings until they are j'earlings. If a net gain of over a million eggs in the hatcherv' and in the natural spawning beds can be achieved l)y a ridease of 20,000 yearling salmon produced from 50,000 eggs, it would appear that spawning runs could MARKING KING SALMON 353 be built up rapidly by releasing several hundred thousand yearlings for a period of a few years. On the other hand, the data show that the group of marked fish made a rather minor contribution to the commercial fishery. There are probably several reasons for this, one of which is that over 53 per- cent of the marked fish matured in their third year and less than 9 percent in their fourth.^ As a result of this unusually high percent of three-year-old spawners, the fish were available to the commercial fishermen for only a short period of time. Contributing to this same lessening of availability was the long staj^ in fresh water. This results in slower growth and a smaller average size at maturity. It is probable that the marked fish did not reach the 26-inch commercial size limit until later than others of the same year class. It is unfortunate that there was no program to sample the ocean sport catch. With a 22-inch size limit on sport caught salmon, it is probable that the marked salmon made a relatively more substantial contribution to the sports fishery than they did to the commercial catch. Normally the commercial catch of kings is several times the sport catch; in this instance the ratio is of course unknown. Marking experiments show variable rates of survival from year to year, but if yearling kings consistently do show a reasonably high rate of return, the method should be valuable in enabling hatchery men to build up the run in a stream without going elsewhere for a source of eggs. The "robbing Peter to pay Paul" method of taking eggs from one stream for planting in another is all too apt to damage Peter without benefiting Paul. SUMMARY 1. A total of 20,579 yearling king salmon from a late-running strain was marked and released at Nimbus Hatchery in the spring of 1957. About 50,000 eggs were used to produce these fish ; this repre- sents the egg production of about nine females, or, 22 fish of both sexes. 2. Based on marked fish recoveries in the portion of the ocean troll catch sampled by Department of Fish and Game personnel, it is calculated that 88 marked salmon from the Nimbus plant were taken by the troll fishery in 1958 and 1959. These fish had a value of approximately $300 to the fishermen. 3. There is evidence that marked fish from Nimbus were taken in the ocean sport fishery, but no sampling was done and no estimate could be made of numbers. Two marked fish were returned by sport fishermen ; these represented a value of $31. 4. A total of 492 marked fish returned to the hatchery. Of these, 102 were two-year-old jacks, 336 were three-year-old fish, and 54 were four years of age. In addition, an estimated 24 marked fish died above the Nimbus fish racks. Over most of the Pacific coast, four-year-old spawners are the most common. This used to be true throughout California, but there are indications that in the Sacra- mento the proportion of three-year-old spawners has been increasing and may now exceed the four-year-olds, but not by any such proportion as that given above. 354 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 5. Marked females were nearly all green on arrival at the hatcher}^ and had to be held an unusually long time before spawning. A mortality of 32 percent occurred during this period. 6. Most of the marked fish returned to the hatchery in late November and December, indicating that progeny from a late-running strain of salmon tended to retain llic I;i1e-running characteristic. 7. A total of 1,020,300 eggs was laken from marked fish returning to Nimbus Hatchery. This I'epi'esented a net gain of more than f)0(),()00 eggs over the number of eggs required to ])ii>(luce the group of fish which was marked. 8. It is estimated that 216 marked salmon spawned in the American Kiver. Of these, it is calculated that 33 were females which pro- duced 188,100 eggs. i). About 4 percent of marked yearling salmon released at Nimbus Hatcher}' can be accounted for in the ocean catch iind in the spawn- ing runs in the American River. 10. High temperatures at Nimbus Hatchery resulted in an abnormally high rearing cost for the fish used in this experiment. The Depart- ment expects to have a cooler water supply in the future. 11. Based on the 1958 average rearing cost of catchable and sub-catch- able trout, the future cost of rearing a similar group of salmon would be about $1,830 as compared with the $300 value of the commerical catch fi-oni this group and the minimum sport catch value of $34. 12. The cost of producing a spawner (at 1958 rearing costs) would be about $2.50 per fish, or $4.03 if two-year-old spawners are excluded. 13. A healthy king salmon fishery often supports a catch-to-escape- ment-ratio at least as high as three or four to one; in this experi- ment the ratio was less than one-fourth to one. 14. Tlie yearling salmon which returned to the hatchery were 2.39 percent of the total number released; an additional 1.17 percent spawned naturally; thus the total spawning escapment was 3.56 percent. 15. Nimbus Hatchery returns were compared with the hatchery returns of 65 other releases of marked king salmon. Thirty-one of these groups were of fall run fingerlings released in their first spring. Nine groups of fall run fish were released in their first fall. The average rates of return were 0.070 and 0.164 percent respectively. Seventeen groups were of spriiiy run yearlings. The average rate of total sjjawning escapement was 0.95 percent and the maximnin was about 3.6 percent. There were eight other groups of fish which did not fit any of the above classifications. 16. If future experiments show similar rates of return, the release of yearling kings might pi-ove to be an effective way of building up a depleted run. MARKING KING SALMON 355 REFERENCES Cope, Oliver B., and Daniel W. Slater 1957. Role of Coleman Hatchery in maintaining a king salmon run. U. S. Fish and Wildlife Serv.. Res. Rept., No. 47, 22 pp. Ellis, C. H., and R. E. No])le 1959. Calculated minimum contributions of Washington's hatchery releases to the catch of salmon on the Pacific Coast and the costs assessable to hatchery operations. Wash. Dept. Fisheries, Fish. Res. Papers, vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 88-99. Macklin, Robert, and Robert C. Tharratt 1959. California trout production and costs. 1957-1958. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Inland Fisheries Branch, Admin. Rept. No. 58-15, 34 iip. (Mimeo.). Oregon State Game Commission, Fishery Division Annual Rept. for 1954. Annual Rept. for 1955. Annual Rept. for 1959. Pelgen, David E. 1955. Economic values of striped bass, salmon, and steelhead sport fishing in California. Calif. Fish and Game, vol. 41, no. 1, pp. 5-17. Rich, W. H., and H. B. Holmes 1929. Experiments in marking voung chinook salmon on the Columbia River, 1916 to 1927. Bull. U. S. Bur. Fish., vol. 44, pp. 215-264. Snyder, John O. 1931. Salmon of the Klamath River, California. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Fish Bull. 34, 130 pp. Wilimovsky, Norman .!.. and Warren O. Freihofer 1957. Guide to literature on systematic biology of Pacific salmon. U. S. Fish and Wildlife Serv., Spec."Sci. Rept. Fish., No. 209, 266 pp. BRUSH MANAGEMENT IN RELATION TO FIRE AND OTHER ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS ON THE TEHAMA DEER WINTER RANGE' H. H. BISWELL School of Forestry, University of California, Berkeley; and J. H. OILMAN California Department of Fish and Game, Redding INTRODUCTION The studies reported here were started on the Tehama deer winter range in the summer of 1948 and were continued until the spring of 1960. The primary objective was to stndy browse conditions — partic- ularly brush seedling establishment and growth — witli the idea that certain environmental factors might be manipulated to improve deer ranges. Fire was the principal factor studied, but attention was given to the importance of soils, competition of herbaceous vegetation with the brush seedlings, deer browsing, and weather. In September of 1947 an intense wildfire burned several thousand acres in the middle of the deer winter range, killing the aerial portions of nearly all the shrubs. On July 7, 1948, plots were located along a 6-mile strip between Mill Creek and Antelope Creek, on both burned and unburned portions. Data were taken from these plots. The Tehama deer winter range is utilized by Columbian black-tailed deer (Odocoilens hemionus columhianus [Richardson]). These deer are migratory, summering in and about Lassen Volcanic National Park, and Avintering along the foothill slopes bounded by the watersheds of Battle Creek on the north and Deer Creek on the sonth. Deer usually move from the summer to the winter range in the middle of October. Once they reach the winter range they disperse over the area and re- main approximately 210 days. By the first week in May they have generally started their return to the summer range. No deer remained during the summer in the area where the plots were located. The fall migration is well known to sportsmen, who concentrate much of their hunting effort there from the middle to the end of October. Heavy hunting also occurs after the deer have settled on their winter range. While the Tehama deer winter range is regarded as an excellent area for both deer and hunters, the brush stand could be improved in some places. DESCRIPTION OF THE TEHAMA DEER WINTER RANGE The Tehama deer winter range consists of over 220,000 acres. The State of California owns 42,897 acres of this range which is managed 1 Submitted for publication April, 1961. A contribution of Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration Act Project, California W-51R, Big- Game Investigations. (357) 358 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME by tlie California Department of Fish and Game. It lies in the western foothills of the Sierra Nevada in Tehama County, between elevations of about 800 and 3.000 feet. Geologically, the area is of volcanic origin, having been influenced by a series of mud flows attributable to the volcanisin of the Lassen Park region to the nortlicast. Steep-sided canyons with exposed, prominent rim rocks and hiva outcroppings cliaracterize the area. During the period of study, no livestock grazed around the stud.y plots; therefore cattle had no effect on the browse plants being inves- tigated. A few rabbits, California ground squirrels, kangaroo rats, and pocket gophers are on the range. Grasshoppers were abundant during some years. Vegetation The general aspect is woodland-grass of the Upper Sonoran life- zone. On the lower portion of the area, blue oak (Qucrcus (loiKjIasii) and wedgeleaf eeanothus {Ceanothus cuneaUis) are the dominant woody species (Figure 1). The shrubs and trees increase in abundance at higher elevations, and here the principal species are wedgeleaf ceauothu.s, California scrub oak {Q. dumosa) scrub interior liveoak (Q. ivislizenii, var. frutescens), western mountain mahogany {Cerco- carpus hetidoides), and two non-sprouting manzanitas, whiteleaf and common, (Arctostaphylos viscida and A. manzanita). Scattered about are a few other species of less importance, such as yerba santa {Erio- dictyon calif ornictim) , Fremont silktassel (Garry a fremontii), western hop-tree (Ptelea haldwinii), chaparral honeysuckle (Lonicera inter- rupta), California juniper (Jiiniperus calif ornica), California laurel FIGURE 1. Woodland-grass vegetation in the lower elevations of the Tehama deer winter range. During fall, deer eat acorns and dry leaves of the blue oak. BRUSH MANAGEMENT 359 (Umhellularia califomica), redbud {Cercis occidentalis) , and pitcher sage (Sphacele calycina). At the upper portion of the range, above the plot locations, other browse species occur, such as deerbrush (Ceanothus integerrimus) and squaw carpet (C. prostratus). For the entire winter range, woody species cover about 17.5 percent of the surface area, and are distributed in a striated fashion as shown in Figures 2 and 3. "Woody species are ^•»«K- f >^*j.> '^H-"^ -■*• s?.. »£J**jS% '' **? •*> FIGURE 3. Aerial photo of Tehama deer winter range. Note the striated distribution of the woody species. Black dots ore locations of study plots 1 to 6. 360 CALIFORNIA FISTT AND GAME most abundant on the nortli exposures where they often form iJiilin' dense cliajiarral over areas several acres in extent (Figure 4). The herbaceous vegetation consists chiefly of annuals, botli grasses and forbs. Together they cover about 27.2 percent of the soil surface. The grasses consist mostly of soft chess {Bromus mollis), foxtail fescue (Fesiuca megalura) , red bronie (B. rttbcns), ripgut brome {B. rigid us), slender wikloat (Athena barbata), California melic (Melica calif ornica) , and malpais bluegrass {Poa scabrclla). I'rineipal forbs are redstem filaree {Erodium cicutarium), Napa thistle (Centaurea melitensis), lotus {Lotus subpinnatus), and godetia ()..') percent of the range, and 54.8 (All com- clovers (Tri folium spp.), hairy {Godetia dudleyana). Perennial grasses account for only percent is composed of nonproductive rocks and bare soil, position figures are from Leach and Hiehle, 1957). Both the gi'asses and forbs are species found abundantly thi'oughout most of California's annual plant vegetation. Tliese species germinate with the advent of fall rains, grow rather rapidly for a while, then slow down until, in late December, January, and early February, they grow very little. Rapid growth starts again in late February, and by May 1 the annuals are mainly dry. As with most of California's ranges, the annual vegetation is quite variable from year to year, both in species composition and amount of forage on the ground at any given time (Talbot et al., 1939). The amount of growth is determined largely by combinations of precipitation and temperatures. Although the range does not have high grazing capacity for livestock, the forage is nutri- tious and of good quality. «e •■ FIGURE 4. Typical brush cover on north exposures. BRUSH MANAGEMENT 361 Soils Two soil series are found over the Tehama winter range. The Toomes series predominates, and consists of well-drained lithosols developed from volcanic breccia composed of angular basic igneous rocks cemented together by tnffaceous sediments. These soils are found under the blue oak-grass and grass vegetation (Figure 1). Characteristically the Toomes soils are brown, shallow, slightly acid, and rocky. The soils on the ridge tops and high plains are 8 to 12 inches deep ; on north facing slopes they may be 24 inches ; but on some of the south facing slopes they are only 3 to 8 inches deep. In many places the soils are too shallow to support other than annual herbaceous vegetation. The Stover soil series occur on ledges and concave slopes of a volcanic breccia where soil material has accumulated through creep of colluvial action in combination with the weathering of less resistant strata of the formation. These soils are brown, very slightly acid, with modern profile development. They range in depth from 30 inches to over 5 feet, but are predominantly 30 to 40 inches deep. This type of soil supports the scrub oak, scrub interior liveoak, and associated shrubby species. The striated character of the vegetation shown in Figures 1 and 2 is determined largely by the differences between the Toomes and Stover soils. Climate The climate is characteristic of the foothill region of California. The winters are generally quite mild, but with some freezing of soils, and the summers are hot. Precipitation records for the years of study are shown in Table 1. Although infrequent, heavy persistent snows do occur, and can be important as far as the deer are concerned. Snow sometimes covers the herbaceous forage, making it largely unavailable. Further- more, snow storms can cause the deer to concentrate where food condi- tions are not favorable. For example, in the winter of 1948-49, heavy snow caused many deer to move down to the bank of Mill Creek where TABLE 1 Precipitation Records for Red Bluff, California Precipitation (inches) Season Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. 1947-48 .02 4.77 1.15 1.97 2.06 .98 4.47 6.51 2.68 1.02 .13 .14 1948-49 .70 .53 .78 5.15 ..39 1.77 8.33 .10 1.74 0 T 0 1949-50 Tt T .94 .74 5.48 4.33 2.05 .33 .60 .21 0 .05 1950-51 .17 3.53 2.20 4.56 5.10 2.46 .12 .82 1.51 .10 0 .04 1951-52 .33 1.98 4.21 4.54 6.32 1.60 4.31 .74 .49 .95 .20 0 1952-53 .03 .10 2.21 10.09 3.56 .26 .55 4.24 1.29 1.13 0 .10 1953-54 0 .58 3.11 .46 3.55 3.00 4.07 1.24 .01 .83 T 1.23 1954-55 .15 .40 6.82 5.26 2.96 .09 ..50 1.68 .18 .26 .08 0 1955-56 1.11 .38 3.63 7.71 8.63 1.09 .01 1.27 4.04 .58 T 0 1956-57 .29 .50 .08 T 3.56 1.92 2.61 1.61 1.67 .01 T 0 1957-58 2.47 4.30 1.20 2.59 5.50 11.38 5.57 2.47 1.49 1.06 .42 .07 1958-59 .21 .46 .13 1.10 5.86 4.08 .41 .39 .28 .05 T .03 1959-60 1.03 .04 T 1.06 4.63 4.27 2.45 2.36 .48 T T 0 * Precipitation on the Tehama winter deer range was probahly somewhat greater than that at Red Bluff. Never- th-eless, the records for Rod Bluff indicate the distrihution and amount of precipitation on the range, t Trace. 362 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME many of tliciii died. Normally, however, snows are lijrlit, and iiidt oft' rapidty. FOOD HABITS OF DEER Food habits of deer on llie Tehama winl cr i-an^'e wei-c studied by the Game ^lanagemcnt Branch of the California Department of Fish and Game, and the results were reported by Leach and Ilielde (1957). Their studies show the relative^ amounts of jjrasses, forbs and browse con- sumed, and the importance of acoi-ns and dry oak leafafje after the deer arrive on the range (Figure 5). Browse was found to be the most im- portant food item in the winter, but in the spring the grasses and forbs comprised most of the forage. For the entire winter season, browse, in- cluding acorns and oak leafage, accounted for nearly 70 percent of the diet, and herbaceous vegetation for about 30 percent. The heavy use of herbaceous plants in March and April indicates the competition that exists between deer and livestock for forage on foothill ranges. On the first of May, deer fed heavily on the abundant new leaves of oaks, al- most to the exclusion of other food. 100 OCT. NOV. DEC. JAN. FEB. MAR APR MAY FIGURE 5. A graphic representation of foods eaten on the Tehama winter deer range. (Adapted from data by Leach and Hiehle, 1957.) ECOLOGY OF BRUSH SPECIES In managing brushlands for game, the ojiei-alor, or game manager, must be able to identify each species ami know its value as browse. Furtliciiiiore, he must know the ecology of each species: where it iiornially grows; Avhether or not it loses its leaves in the fall and is bare while deer are on the range ; whether it reproduces only from seed or stump sprouts or both ; its reaction to a single fire and to repeated burn- ing ; its ability to compete successfully with other vegetation ; and its general resistance to browsing. With this information, the game man- BRUSH MANAGEMENT 363 ager is able to manage his range efficiently, and to predict the success of any new management practice. The following discussions are concerned only with species within the particular study areas. Wedgeleaf Ceanothus The most abundant and widely distributed shrub on the Tehama deer winter range is wedgeleaf ceanothus. On the Tehama range it grows to a height of 9 feet but averages about 6 feet. The leaves are smaller than in many other portions of its distribution range. Strains with larger leaves probably would be more desirable as deer browse. This shrub does not lose its leaves in winter, and is generally considered an excellent browse for deer on winter ranges. Sheep are also fond of this browse, but cattle eat it sparingly unless other forage is scarce. This species principally reproduces by seed except occasionally when a new plant arises by layering as a result of a limb 's coming in contact with the soil, chiefly when protected from grazing. Wedgeleaf ceanothus produces seed every j^ear, but the crop is larger some years than others. The capsule dehisces upon opening, and the seeds are cast up to a distance of 35 feet. Seeds are hard-coated, and may lie viable in the ground for many years. Their germination is in- creased by fire, however, many seedlings emerge in openings each year in the absence of fire. The leaf fall is large, and a deep litter accumulates beneath the shrubs. No new seedlings become established under dense brush. ^r--**- " %. K f. !| '^\W^k FIGURE 6. With protection from browsing, wedgeleaf ceanothus grows rapidly (left) may produce seed within four or five years, but with heavy browsing the plants may kept low (right) and within reach of deer for many years. and be 364 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME Sometimes wedgeleaf ceanotluis Ijccomes very dense, and jk* her- baceous vegetation grows in the uiuliM-story. When sneh areas are burned, new seedlings emerge in great abundance and grow rapidly where there is little eompetitioji from herbaceous vegetation. Without utilization, height groAvth is rapid and new ])lants may begin to produce seed within four to five years. With heavy deer utilization in Aviiiter, the shrubs may be suppressed so that the entire tops are kept within deer reach for 20 or 25 years (Figure 6). Under this condition the plants produce few seed, if any. and a fire through brusli will greatly reduce their abundance on the range. The game manager can be sure that, if a repeat burn occurs before another seed crop is produced, both the stand and its can-ying cajjacity for deer will be greatly re- duced. Oaks California scrub oak and scrub interior liveoak are similar in gen- eral appearance on the Tehama deer winter range. Both are about 8 to 10 feet tall, and grow under similar situations (Figure 7). However, they can be identified by the lower leaf surface, which in Califoi-nia scrub oak is light blue, and in scrub interior liveoak, a glossy green. These chaparral oaks are second to wedgeleaf ceanothus in browse abundance on the Tehama range. Two other oaks have importance for deer: California black oak at higher and California blue oak at hnvei- elevations. These oaks grow 30 to 60 feet tall. They drop tlieir leaves in winter, while the two chaparral oaks are evergreen. Oaks are important to deer in several ways: (1) the evergreen spe- cies provide browse in winter; (2) Ihe new leaves of all four oaks are FIGURE 7. Appearance of scrub Interior liveoak in 1958, 11 years after it wos burned. It sprouts vigorously. California scrub oak appears similar to this. (Wedgeleaf ceanothus in the foreground.) BRUSH ' MANAGEMENT 365 readily eaten in the spring; (3) the dry leaves of the decidnons oaks are eaten in the fall soon after they drop (Fignre 5) ; and (4) all species provide acorns. Althongh the two chaparral oaks are not highly preferred food items, they do furnish a constant and steady source of browse in winter, and may be very important when other browse is scarce. Browse of California scrub oak is preferred to that of scrub interior liveoak. Deer seem to be fond of the very young leaves of all oaks, and browse on them heavily wherever they can be reached. Deer also take a surprisingly large quantity of dry oak leaves. If deer mi- grate to the winter range before green grass becomes available, they apparently feed on dry oak leaves in preference to dry grass. Acorns are an important food item to deer. They become available at a critical time of the year, often just before green grass becomes suffi- cient and preceding the winter months. When acorns are abundant they comprise a large percentage of the food in the fall (Figure 5). As a result the deer may become fat, and they go through the winter in better flesh and with less mortality than if acorns were not avail- able. During the years of this study, the acorn crop varied from abund- ance to scarcity. The chaparral oaks are vigorous sprouters following fire. California black oak and California blue oak also sprout, but not so vigorously as the chaparral oaks. Western Mountain Mahogany This is another rather abundant shrub on the Tehama deer winter range as well as throughout most of the Sierra Nevada foothill region. On the Tehama range it eventually grows into a small tree 12 to 18 feet tall. Even as a tree, however, it produces annually a few sprouts at the stem base, which are available to deer. This shrub is partly deciduous, losing about one-fourth to three-fourths of its leaves each fall. However, since the leaves drop in late September, this might be a reaction to drought conditions rather than to frost. Stumps of western mountain mahogany sprout vigorously after fire (Figure 8). On the Tehama winter range, all stumps seen produced sprouts following the fire in 1947. The sprouts are nutritious and are readily eaten by deer and some by cattle. Stockmen also have found the sprouts to be excellent sheep browse. The seed crop varies from very heavy in some years to very light in others. The seed has a plumose awn, and ma}' be blown in a brisk wind a distance of 150 yards from the parent tree. Seed coats are thin and the seeds germinate readily without fire. In this respect, western moun- tain mahogany differs from a majority of chaparral species, most of which are favored by fire. After the seeds have fallen they are readily destroyed by fire, so that seedlings are seldom seen on areas burned intensely in the late season. However, in Madera County it was found that light fires under mature shrubs before seed fall prepare a seedbed. When this happens, new seedlings may appear in great abundance in the next growing season (Biswell et al., 1953). Time of fire is there- fore important to this species in reproduction from seed. The shrub is resistant to browsing on winter ranges. However, on year-long deer ranges, new sprouts following fire are browsed so heavily that many plants eventually die. 366 fATjlFOHXIA FISH AND GAME FIGURE 8. Many sprouts and dense growth of western mountain mahogany in October, 1952, five growing seasons after the fire of 1947. It was estimated that one-half to two- thirds of the leaves had fallen, probably as a result of the dry summer season rather than frost. Verba Santa This shrub is widely distributed in the Sierra Nevada foothills of Califoriua. It is a pioneer species that germinates from seed the first year after fire in areas of burned brush that are mostly free of com- petition from herbaceous vegetation. A few seedlings may continue to emerge for two or three years after fire. Without competition, the seed- lings grow rapidly and the plants reproduce thereafter by shoots from stolons that grow laterally from ihc ]);ii(Mi1 plants (Figure 9). Such shoots may appear in tlie first growing season after fire and for sev- eral years thereafter. Mature shrubs are mostly three to six feet tall on the Tehama deer winler range. This species is not well liked by any kind of livestock, ami during sunnner scarcely any kind of animal, even goats, can be forced to browse upon it. On ranges heavily utilized by livestock, where com- BRUSH MANAGEMENT 367 FIGURE 9. Young plant (left) of yerba santa arising from rhizome (underground stem). In fertile, moist soils new plants may begin to appear in the first growing season after fire. (Courtesy J. E. Street) petition from iieigliboriiig plants is reduced, yerba santa can become dominant (Biswell, 1961). Although not browsed in summer, yerba santa holds its leaves in winter and is browsed by deer on winter ranges, mainly when other, more palatable browse becomes scarce. For this reason it may occupy a more important place on the range than most people think. On the Tehama deer winter range, all yerba santa seedlings studied were browsed during the 1948 winter season. Generally, with better browse sufficient, yerba santa showed little use. In fairly heavy brush, yerba santa dies out entirely in 20 or 25 years. In heavily utilized areas, where grazing reduces competition, it may live longer. However, the seeds remain viable in the soil for many years and the shrub appears again after the next fire. The seedlings are unusually sensitive to competition from herbaceous vegetation. On the Tehama deer winter range no seedlings were ever observed in 3fi8 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME the areas ul' biiriiocl licrbaceous vegctaliuu or on the iiiil)iiniclant does not put out new leaves until shortly before the deer leave. .\\ that time llie leaves are browsed to some extent. ( )tliei'wise, it has little or no value on the range. California laurel is seai'ce, and the mature k'aves ai'C not well liked by deer (Figure 10). It is an evergreen species. Following fires on year-long ranges the new^ spi'outs ai-e often kept browsed so closely that the ])lants are killed. This was observed uuuiy times on areas else- where where deer are resident. On the Tehama wintei- range the new s})routs mature so fast after fire they become uu|)alatable during the first season, before the deer ret n in fiom iheii- snmmer i-ange. BRUSH MANAGEMENT 369 \ FIGURE 10. California laurel grew rapidly after the fire, and showed practically no brows- ing use. (Picture taken March, 1951, three growing seasons after the fire.) BRUSH SEEDLING STUDIES Special attention was given to the brush seedlings that emerged in the first spring after the fire of 1947 (1948 crop) and also to those that appeared in subsequent years under various conditons. Studies were made of the survival or mortality of seedlings, during both sum- mer and winter, height, growth, utilization by deer, and seed produc- tion. Selection of Plots For these studies, 30 plots, four feet square, were selected on July 7, 1948, along a 6-mile strip in about the middle of the Tehama deer winter range (Figure 3). Ten of the plots were on unburned range and 20 on burned. Of the latter, 10 were located where dense brush had burned, and the other 10 near-by where grass had burned. The 10 unburned plots were in grass, but were close enough to brush so that new seeds could be cast on them each year. Thus, three conditions were represented: (1) unburned herbaceous cover; (2) burned herbaceous cover; (3) burned brush with no herbaceous cover the first year. The plots were selected to ensure that several to many brush seed- lings would be available for study. As expected, seedlings were far more numerous on the burned brush plots without herbacous cover than they were on the other plots. After the plots were staked, the new seedlings were counted and measured. During the first four years meas- urements were made five times each year, and thereafter, twice a year 370 CALIFOKXIA riSIl AND (iAMK exfOjit in tlic ffill of 1I)r)4 jiiul llie full ycai- of 1!).")!) wlicn no mcasiirc- nuMits were made. In addition to these ])lots, a liali'-acre deer exclo.sure made it possible to observe non-utilized plants. Herbaceous Vegetation TTci-baceons ve*retatioii cont I'ihntes to the deer diet. It also maiidains infiltration eajiaeity and ])roteets the soil a years are shown in Table 2. Oidy estimates of den- sity were taken in ]!)48 and l!>4r). In 1948 oidy a few ])lauts grew on the plots of burned brush, while under the other two conditions the density was about 30 percent. In 1949 the density on the burned brush plots increased to five percent, and remained the same for the other two conditions. By the third 3'ear, 1951, the differences among plots were much less (Table 2). The effect of the fire on herbaceous vegetation was not determined. Ilowevei', studies elsewhei-e in aninuil vegetation have shown that the grasses decrease somewhat in proportion, and the forbs increase. There is no significant effect on the density of the vegetation (Ilervey, 1949). On the burned brush plots, brush seedlings received practically no com])etition from herbaceous plants the first summer, and only slight comjjetition the second summer. As will be seen later, the near absence of herbaceous vegetation on the burned brush plots greatly favored the survival and growth of brush seedlings the first year or two after the fire. Although the density of herbaceous vegetation on the uuburned and burned herbaceous ])lots was about the same, competition seemed to be less on the latter, pi-obably because the shrubs had been killed and their wide-speading roots no louiici' took moisture from the soil. The figures on percentage comjiositiou of cover show several things characteristic of annual vegetation, e.g., a large fluctuation in abun- dance of species from year to year, and a decrease in some of the broad- leaf species, such as redstem filarcc with light grazing or protection. Pereiniial grasses increased during tlic period of study, probably as a result of lighter grazing. Availability of forage to deer vai'icd fioiii ycai- to year, and was strongly affected by rainfall. In the fall and cai-ly winter of 1956 the forage was particulai-ly light because of low rainfall. In early Xovfuibcr BRUSH MANAGEMENT 371 _o TO 03 TO E CO CM (U > o I — o CD X> « '«> c o o 3 Lh a s -§ ID a 3 > M w 00 to Ol (N d CO ^ ^ .1 ^ , ^ OS CO d O) I— 1 II .-H I— 1 d 21.5 1.0 17.0 26.5 10.0 9.0 15.0 in 03 (N d OOiOiOi-OO iiO 1 1 1 rO oscoooo^rt ICO 1 1 1 !d (N C^ .-1 1 ^ 1 1 1 1 rt i-O I— ( o d O5C0CDt^U5 1 I-* 1 1 1 IcD OOCOt^o6>-( 1 lOO 1 1 1 !r-I 0»0>0 -»<— i«-(HOO 'MCO-fOOt (M (M T-H 1 ^ ^ OS CO CO d lOiOOOOiOiOO lOO lO coi-Hcoo3ioddrt iTiiio '•*' —1 CO 1 . C^ 03 1-H o d OiOO"5000>000 1 IIO Ttii-iiocDin(N-HOO.-irt 1 iTji (N O: CD d O iiOOOlOiO-rfiO 1 IIO ICO O '--^TlicOOCOCO 1 iC^ iO M 1 IN CO 1 1 1 w 1— 1 O: T-H CO d O it>.^iC iOC0i01>C0 ICD O iOOtIHCO iC-)COi-lr-HCrtO CO d 21.5 8.5 35.0 7.5 7.5 9.5 0.5 10.0 05 1— 1 d ooor^iNoo»o lie 1 lO i»o lO-HOcDcOrt* iCD 1 iiO iCO M -H 1 IN 1 1 1 HH 1— 1 f— 1 CO CO d COiOTt)iN>OCO i>00 i(n"-h00 1-1 .-1 -H 1 5.. 50 14 0.71 108 5.50 Spring, '51 1 5.00 14 5.82 104 4.98 Fall, '51 1 8.00 13 10.09 90 8.22 Spring, '52 1 8.00 12 12.00 84 8.85 Fall, '52 1 8.00 12 14.83 81 10.35 Spring, '53 1 0.00 12 12.92 74 10.07 Fall, '53 1 8.00 12 10.25 73 13.71 Spring, '54 1 0.00 12 15.. 50 71 11.45 Spring, '55 1 5.00 12 17.42 66 ] 3 . 39 Fall, '55 1 5.00 12 19.83 05 15.80 Spring, '50 1 5.00 12 19.07 59 15.70 Fall, '50 1 7.00 12 22.58 58 18.74 Spring, '57 1 7.00 12 22.92 55 17.82 Fall, '57 1 7.00 12 24.58 55 20.82 Spring, '58 1 7.00 12 20 . 42 51 21.73 Fall, '58 1 0.00 12 29.00 51 21.90 Spring, '00 1 5.00 12 28.10 51 24.60 Western July 7, '48 21 2.05 5 3.00 0 0 mountain Fall, '48 14 1.93 0 0 mahogany Spring, '49 9 1.90 0 0 Fall, '49 0 2.75 0 0 Spring, '50 5 2.00 0 0 Fall, '50 4 2.75 0 0 Spring, '51 3 2.00 0 0 Fall, '51 3 3.00 0 0 Spring, '52 3 3.50 0 0 Fall, '52 3 4.33 0 0 Spring, '53 3 2.83 0 0 Fall. '53 3 0.33 0 0 Spring, '54 3 3.33 0 0 Spring, '55 3 4.00 0 0 Fall, '55 3 5 . 0)7 0 0 Spring, '50 3 5.00 0 0 Fall, '50 3 0.33 0 0 Spring, '57 3 0.33 0 0 Fall, '57 3 7.00 0 0 Spring, '58 3 8.07 0 0 Fall, '58 3 9.00 0 0 Spring, '00 3 7.20 0 0 Yerba santa July 7, '48 0 0 140 3.12 Fall, '48 0 0 125 7.55 Spring, '49 0 0 84 0.92 Fall, '49 0 0 77 10.52 Spring, '50 0 0 73 10.05 Fall, '50 0 0 43 13.02 Spring, '51 0 0 43 12.09 Fall, '51 0 0 43 17.88 Spring, '52 0 0 42 20 . 40 Fall, '52 0 0 42 21.20 Spring, '53 0 0 40 22 22 Fall, '53 0 0 39 24^55 Spring, '54 Spring, '55 0 0 34 28.44 FaU, '55 0 0 31 32.24 BRUSH MANAGEMENT 375 TABLE 3— Continued Survival and Growth of Brush Seedlings That Emerged in the Spring of 1948 Unburned herbaceous Burned herbaceous cover cover Burned brush Average Average Average No. of height No. of height No. of height Species Season plants (inches) plants (inches) plants (inches) Yerba santa ^Continued Spring, '56 0 0 29 32.24 FaU, '56 0 0 25 32.74 Spring, '57 0 0 23 33.91 Fall, '57 0 0 22 29.14 Spring, '58 0 0 19 30.79 Fall, '58 0 0 17 29.58 Spring, '60 0 0 8 29.75 Manzanita July 7, '48 7 1.71 15 2.31 54 1.52 Fall, '48 0 3 2.33 2,5 1.66 Spring, '49 0 1 2.00 2.50 FaU, '49 0 0 4.00 Spring, '50 0 0 2.50 FaU, '50 0 0 3.50 Spring, '51 0 0 2.00 FaU, '51 0 0 3.00 Spring, '52 0 0 0 The seedlings of different species grew at different rates. Those of yerba santa attained a maximum height of 25 inches the first summer, and new plants arose as sprouts from underground stems (Figure 9). At maturity, on the Tehama range, this plant is mainly 3 to 6 feet tall. Therefore, it makes a large percentage of its total growth the first season. The maximum height of wedgeleaf eeauothus for the first summer was 10 inches on the burned brush plots where soil nutrients were high and there was almost no competition from herbaceous vegeta- tion. On the unburned herbaceous plots the maximum height of wedge- leaf ceanothus was only 5 inches, and on the burned herbaceous plots, 6 inches. On the burned brush plots, wedgeleaf ceanothus seedlings were vigorous while those on the other plots with competition appeared weak. During the first summer, manzanita seedlings grew a maximum of 3 inches, and western mountain mahogany, 4 inches. Not only was growth of seedlings greatest on the burned brush plots where competition was low and soil nutrients high, but utilization was greatest there. The wedgeleaf ceanothus seedlings on the burned brush plots outgrew the others during the first summer, but by the end of the winter season they were no taller because of the hea\aer utilization. After a winter of browsing use. the seedlings averaged about the same height under all three conditions (Figure 13). On the burned brush plots all wedgeleaf ceanothus seedlings were browsed by the end of the winter period, but only about 30 percent of the seedlings on the her- baceous plots showed any browsing (Figure 14). There was evidence that the seedlings on the herbaceous plots were protected somewhat by old, dry grass and therefore escaped deer browsing. On the burned brush plots there was nothing to obscure the seedlings. 376 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME o I o < a: UJ > < BURNED BRUSH, NO HERBACEOUS COVER BURNED HERBACEOUS COVER UNBURNED HERBACEOUS COVER JUL. ' AUG. ' SEP. ' OCT. ' NOV^ ' DEC. JAN. ' FEB. ' MAR. ' APR. II 15 7 28 1948 31 13 28 1949 FIGURE 13. Wedgeleaf ceanothus seedlings under three conditions of cover. They grew fastest in the burned brush areas, but were utilized most in those places also. At the end of the first winter season the plants were about the some height under all three conditions. 100 Q UJ ^ 75 o (D CO I- z iiiclics; scriih oak, 8 feet 9 inches; Fremont silklasscl. It IVct L' iiidics. FIGURE 17. Upper, Fremont silktassel at the end of the growing season in October, 1952. Lower, Fremont silktassel near the end of the browsing period in April, 1953. I»i-o\\siii^f di'])rcssc(l sj^rout f;ro\vlli wvy litilc except in Fremont silktassel, simie of which were browsed hack heavily the first summer. ?]ach winter the deer ate all of the reyiow 1 li. and this gradnally weak- BRUSH MANAGEMENT 383 ened the plants (Figure 17). This plus extreme defoliation by grass- hoppers in some instances caused a few of the plants to die. Regrowth on heavily utilized Fremont silktassel plants during the summer after the first winter of browsing averaged 5.4 inches per plant; in 1950 it averaged 3.9 inches; and in 1952, only 1.3 inches. Thus, the measure- ments showed gradual weakening in the plants as the seasons passed. In contrast, unbrowsed plants showed good growth. For example, in 1952, when regrowth on heavily utilized plants was only 1.3 inches, the growth on protected plants was 9.7 inches. Seed Production from Sprouts In contrast to the slow growth of seedlings and their dcA^elopment to the seed producing stage, sprouts grew much faster and produced seed at an earlier age. California scrub oak produced a few seed in 1950, the third year of sprout growth; western mountain mahogany in 1952, the fifth year of growth ; and Fremont silktassel in 1955, the eighth growing season. UTILIZATION OF MATURE WEDGELEAF CEANOTHUS Utilization of mature wedgeleaf ceanothus plants on the range was estimated during three seasons by Dasmann (1950). In addition, the authors measured utilization in one year, near the study plots, by the marked twig method, with results very close to Dasmann 's estimates. He assigned utilization figures for the three years as follows: 1947- '48, 10.6 percent; 1948- '49, 24.4 percent; 1949-'50, 16.7 percent. For the measurements near the study plots the utilization (by both methods) was about six percent. During these years all of the seedlings of this species were heavily utilized, with about three-fourths of the new height growth removed each year. It can be concluded that the seed- lings of wedgeleaf ceanothus are much preferred to the nearby old plants. DAMAGE FROM GRASSHOPPERS Grasshoppers were abundant locally in some years. They fed heavily upon western mountain mahogany, but very little on other species. During 1958, many shrubs were completel}' stripped of leaves. In an area where western mountain mahogany contributes heavily to deer diet, grasshoppers could be important in reducing the range carrying capacity for deer. DISCUSSION The game manager should have in mind an idealized game habitat toward whch he works, on the basis of the best information available. Furthermore, he should strive to improve his management plan through research and observation. The Tehama deer winter range is already an excellent habitat for deer. However, it would be worthwhile to have more shrubs for browse in some places, and to thin them in others, especially on north expo- sures. In some places a new stand of brush should be initiated since the present plants are decadent and are producing little nutritious browse (Figure 18). In a few places blue oaks have thickened, and the 384 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME Avedgeleaf ceaiiothus intermixed with them is dying out (Figure 19). Clearly, the carrying capacity of such ranges can be iiu-rcased. On the other hand, the game manager is challenged with the problem of main- taining the present carrying capacity. The objective in Ihis research was to obtain ecological information which can serve as a basis in developing management practices to main- tain and perhaps improve winter deer ranges. It is well known that browse is essential for deer, both as food and cover. Basically, deer prefer browse over herbaceous vegetation. However, if the browse is at all inferior, the diet may be made up largely of herbs — at least when they are green and nutritious. On a deer winter range where there is no new growth of shrubs until spring, the browse becomes poorer week by week as the animals select the better portions ; at the same time the herbaceous forage may be utilized more and more. It can be concluded that both shrubs and herbaceous plants are necessary for the best wel- fare of deer on winter ranges. Browse becomes of supreme importance when snow makes the herbaceous plants unavailable to the deer. On a deer winter range, shrubs that hold their leaves are obviously far more desirable than those that do not. Also, sprouting species may have an advantage over non-sprouting ones since they recover more rapidly after fire and are not so easily diminished by repeated burning. Fortunately, most of the shrubs and trees on the Tehama v.'inter range have value for deer in the proportions in which they occur. On some of the other winter ranges certain species, such as scrub interior liveoak and yerba santa, are too abundant in relation to other species ; in such cases these species may not be utilized appreciably, but still FIGURE 18. Decadent stand of shrubs now furnishing very little browse for the deer. Re- generation to a new stand is highly worthwhile in such places. BRUSH MANAGEMENT 385 FIGURE 19. Wedgeleaf ceanothus dying out from old age and not regenerating itself in this area where the blue oak has thickened and where competition from grass is high. they occupy space and compete with the more desirable plants. This is not the case on the Tehama deer winter range, at least to any noticeable extent. Importance of Soil Ecologists know that one of the most important factors governing distribution of vegetation is the underlying soil. It was pointed out that the striated nature of the vegetation on the Tehama deer range is chiefly the result of differences in soils, with the shrubs generally on the deeper soils. Over certain portions of the Tehama range it would be worthwhile to have more shrubs for browse. However, the Toomes soils predominate, and on some of the south-facing slopes they are very shallow — perhaps not over 3 to 8 inches deep — and are cemented together by tuffaceous sediments. These soils probably will not support shrubs, and are more suited to shallow-rooted grasses. If the game manager undertakes to increase shrubs, therefore, it should be on the (;ieeper soils — perhaps w^here shrubs formerly grew but have died out. 386 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME Use of Fire Controlled firo can be used To iiiipi-oxc bfiislilaiHls for ^anie. Fire increases gennination of liard-eoated seeds and kills Die toi)s of sprout- ing: species, thereby cansing new sprouts to arise from the stumps. Thus a new cro]) of bi'usli is initiated which, in some cases, may be thicker than the preceding!; crop. The yield of browse may be jrreatly increased. Furthermore, deer prefer the browse of young' plants and sprouts to that of older plants. Tests have also shown that the protein content and browse value of younj^ plants and new sprouts are improved. When dense brush is burned, most of the seedlings arise during- the first spring- after the fire, and a few follow for one or two years thereafter. When all plants are killed by fire, no more seedlings may appear until Ihe new plants produce seeds in the area. Some of the sprouting- species on the winter rang-e grew rapidly and began producing seed within a relatively few yeai's, but this was not true of the non-sprouting wedge- leaf ceauothus. These plants were browsed to the point at which most of them would not produce seeds for perhaps 15 years or longer. The conclusion is, to maintain wedgeleaf ceauothus, or any other highly palatable, non-sprouting species, fire must be used judiciously. Firing of such brush before the plants mature and produce seed is sure to lower the amount of this species in the stand, and iierhaps, also, the rang-e carrying capacity for deer. After 12 years of study on the Tehama range, it appears that no one spot of wedgeleaf ceauothus can be burned more often than every 20 or 25 years, and perhaps longer where browsing is heavy, without lowering the amount of this plant in the stand. This is not the case with sprouting species. These plants produce seed much more (|uiekly after a fii'c; furthermore, they regrow from stump sprouts. ITow to use fire can sometimes he a pro])hMii. Always there is danger that a fire will escape and do damage elsewhere. AVhen dense brush is pushed over, it can be burned at selected times during the fall or early spring without excessive danger of escape. Pushed-over brush can be burned the first winter season after treatment, or two or three years later, and many seedlings will start after the fire. However, if the firing is done after the first of Ai)i-il, the number of seedlings that emerge may be few the first year and may not apjiear in abundance until the following spring. By tlial time the grasses Iuinc increased in al)undance, and afford greater com])etition to the brush seedlings. It is therefore wise to burn brush the first year after it is pushed over, and early enough so that seedlings will emerge during the first spring. Probably any spring burning should be completed by the first of ]\Iarch. Other- wise it should be held over until the next winter season. The acreage that might be burned in any one season is dependent on the amount that can be i^ushed over. Tn general, the more the better. Fire can sometimes be used in standing brush in sinnmer Avhen ade()uate fire-lines have been prepared and when sufficient help is available to do it in one day. A permit to bni-n nmst be obtained from state Division of Forestry ])ersonnel. This kind of brush cannot be burned in standing position when the grass is green, such as might be done in chamise chapari-al, because dry grass is needed to carry fire between brush ]ilan1s. The acreage tliat might be burned in one opera- BRUSH MANAGEMENT 387 tion will be governed very much by where the fire-lines can be estab- lished at reasonable cost and the help available to make the burn. Always, plans should provide for completing a burn within one day. With these provisions, the acreage to be burned might vary from a few hundred to 2,000 or 5,000. If a burn is made in July or early August many sprouts will be available for deer during the next winter. Plant Competition Competition from other vegetation is important in preventing brush increase. On the Tehama winter range many brush seedlings emerged nearly every year in those places where old plants produced seeds; however, nearly all of them died as a result of competition. Following the fire, most of the seedlings in the burned herbaceous vegetation also died as a result of competition. In the burned brush areas competition was not so great, and enough seedings survived to insure an adequate stand of brush bj' the time the plants reach maturity. On the burned brush areas only one plot was without a seedling in 1960 and the others had one to 12, far more in most cases than could be supported when the plants reach maturity. Competition from herbaceous vegetation w^as the main cause of seed- ling mortalitj^ on the Tehama deer winter range. The question is : What can be done to reduce such competition? It must be remembered that herbaceous vegetation starts growth in the fall, and brush seedlings start growth in the spring. Also, the annual herbs mature in early May, while the brush seedlings grow throughout the summer. The annual vegetation depletes the soil of its moisture, and leaves little for summer- growing brush seedlings and, perhaps, summer weeds. Heavy cattle grazing for a year or two before the annuals mature might be a means of reducing competition and favoring brush seedlings. Grazing reduces the water-using capacity of these plants and results in more summer- growing plants, such as weeds and brush seedlings. Heavy grazing followed by late rains creates conditions favorable for brush seedling survival. This method of reducing grass competition was not tested on the Tehama deer winter range, and there might be some question about the wisdom of using it as a management practice because of the pos- sibility of increased runoff and erosion. However, this method warrants observation and study. Another method for reducing competition and preparing a seedbed would be to scrape the soil surface with a bulldozer blade to a depth of 1 or 2 inches, before seed fall. This could be in the late spring while the soil is still moist or later during seed fall. The scraping could extend out for 30 feet or so around wedgeleaf ceanothus shrubs since the seeds are cast about 35 feet from the parent plants, and farther for western mountain mahogany since the seeds of this plant might be blown up to 150 yards in the wind. This method would be limited to the less rocky areas, but is one well worth testing. Deer Browsing and Other Factors Deer browsing was not an important factor in seedling mortality. However, it does retard growth of plants and delays seed production. It was pointed out that new plants of w^edgeleaf ceanothus following 388 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME fire mi{?ht not produce seed in ay)])rocinble amounts for 15 or 20 years. If a reburn slionld occur during' Ili;it time, tlie slirub Avould be dimin- ished in abuiulaiu'c. Tlieret'ore, in a hiirniiiy program it is important to time the fire M'ith seed production. Other factors causing a small amount of mortality were frost heav- iiii:- the first two or three years after fire, i-odcnts and rabbits, and de- foliation by quail and grasshoppers. Planting of Browse Planting brush seeds may be a means of increasing browse, but needs further testing. Research indicates that successful planting recjuires careful selection of site and prejjaration of seedbed to reduce competi- tion. Successful planting might be accomplished by seeding in scraped bulldozer lanes on well-suited soils. Tn one test, J. L. Iliehle of the California Department of Pisli and Came, obtained an excellent stand of wedgeleaf ceanothus seedlings by planting treated seeds. IToweyer, all seedlings died within two or three years as a result of competition. Just before planting, the seeds were treated by dropping them in boil- ing water and adowing tlie water and seeds to cool overnight. Tlic seeds are not killed by the boiling water. Tn fact, Clarence Quick (l!).")!)) found tliat seeds of certain ceanothus species would germinate after 25 minutes of constanl boiling in water. IManling of treated .seeds in suitable places needs further testing before sound recommendalions can be made. SUMMARY fStudies of l)i-o\vse conditions and reprothiction in relation to fire and other environmental factors were made on the Tehama deer winter range over a period of 12 years. Fire resulted in more brush seedlings and sprouts and better range for deer. However, fire must be used judiciously or the nonsprouting species will be diminished in abundance and the carrying capacity may be decreased. fn the absence of fire, a few to nuniy brush seedlings emerged in different years, but nearly all died. IMortality was mainly caused by j)lant competition. Other factors of less importance were frost heaving, browsing by deer, cutting by rabbits and rodents, and defoliation by grasshoppers and quail. Kesearch is needed on methods of reducing competition to increase bi-ush seedling survi\al. and on other means of inci'easing browse for deer. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS During the nei-iod of studv, able assistance was furnisjied by many individuals to whom we grat(>fully exiiress aiiiireciation. partieulai-ly dames Street, .lames JMallory, Hex Pieper, and Koberl (;il)bens of the TTniversity of California; and llerbei-f llagen. Jack llield.", ;iiid William Dasmiiiiii (if llie (';i]if(ii'ina I )i'|i;ii-1 nienl of |<'ish ami (iame. BRUSH MANAGEMENT 389 LITERATURE CITED Biswell, H. H. 1961. Manipulation of chamise brush for deer range imiirovement. Calif. Fi.sli and Game, vol. 47, no. 2, pp. 125-144. Biswell, H. H.. A. M. Schultz, and D. W. Hedrick 1953. A possible method of increasing western mountain mahogany on game range. Calif. Fish and Game, vol. 39, no. 2, pp. 187-189. Dasmann, William P. 1950. Browse utilization cheek on Tehama winter deer range. Office Report. Calif. Dept. of Fish and Game. Sacramento. Hervey, D. F. 1949. Reaction of a California annual-plant community to fire. Jour. Range Management, vol. 2, no. 3, pp. 116-121. Leach, Howard R., and .Tack L. Hiehle 1957. Food habits of the Tehama deer herd. Calif. Fish and Game, vol. 43, no. 3, pp. 161-178. Quick, Clarence R. 1959. Ceanothus seeds and seedlings on burns. Madrono, vol. 15, no. 3, pp. 79-81. Schultz, A. M., .J. L. Launchbaugh, and H. H. Biswell 1955. Relationship between grass density and brush seedling survival. Ecology, vol. 36, no. 2, pp. 226-238. Talbot, M. W., H. H. Biswell, and A. L. Hormay 1939. Fluctuations in the annual vegetation of California. Ecology, vol. 20, no. 3, pp. 394-402. GRASS REDUCES BITTERBRUSH PRODUCTION' R. L. HUBBARD and H. R. SANDERSON Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station Susanville, California Land managers are gravely concerned about bitterbrush (Purshia iridenta) mortalit}' on many ranges in the West. On many areas the loss has been due to overgrazing by big game and livestock ; on other areas the cause is not clear. This paper reports a study of one possible cause that is especially important in the arid West — competition for soil moisture. The study was done in an area where sizable blocks of bitterbrush have died from unexplained causes. Although it is too early to tell whether competition caused the mortality, the results do show that competing grasses reduced bitterbrush growth and production signifi- cantly. THE STUDY AREA The study area is located in the northeastern corner of California east of Mt. Hebron on the Klamath National Forest. Commercial quan- tities of ponderosa jjine grew on the area until about 20 years ago when most of the mature pine was clear-cut. Now clumps of pole-sized pine, and a few mature trees, are scattered through the area (Figure 1). Dense stands of bitterbrush occur generally over the area, along with big sagebrush (Artemisia iridentata), rabbitbrush {Chrysothaninus spp.), and mountain-mahogany {Cercocarpus ledifoliiis). Perennial grasses in the herbaceous understory include : bottlebrush squirrel- tail {Sitanion hystrix), Idaho fescue (Festuca idahoensis) , western needlegrass (Stipa occidentalis) , and sedge (Carex sp.). Cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum), mule's ear {Wyethia mollis), and miscellaneous forbs are also present. Perennial grasses are not particularly dense. Line intercept tran- sects run in an area of complete bitterbrush die-off intercepted about 1.6 feet of perennial grass basal area per 100 feet of line. Many of the perennial grass plants are growing under the bitterbrush plants (Figure 2). The Forest Supervisor estimates average annual precipitation at about 20 inches, much of it falling as snow. This study was made in 1960, the second dry year in a row. At Tulelake, the closest weather station with long-term means available, precipitation was 59 percent of the 25-year average in the 1958-59 season and 81 percent in 1959-60. The bitterbrush on several sizable blocks has died almost completely except under small islands of pine. As nearly as can be determined, die-off has been heavy for at least 15 years. The largest of these blocks 1 Submitted for publication April, 1961. Part of the research upon which this paper is based was done on Federal Aid to Wildlife Restoration Project California W- 51-R, Big Game Investigations. (391) 392 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME FIGURE 1. General view ot a bitterbrush die off area near Mount hlt;bron, Lalitornia. of complete die-off is about 200 acres. This study Avas located in a die- off area of only about 27 acres because it Avas felt that there was a better chance that the die-off was still poinorous state. No dead plants but 10 to 20 percent of tlu> plants contain a maximum of 1") iiorccnt dead material. Fair: Up to 25 percent of the bitteihrusli plants dead, and 30 to 40 percent of tlic live i)lants contain as mucli as 60 percent dead ma- terial. Remaining plants in good condition. BITTERBRUSH REDUCTION 393 > • ^ ^^ " \ M •V ^» .,^ •■ -"^ -^ FIGURE 2. A dead bitterbrush plant showing dense perennial grass understory. Poor: Up to 90 percent of the plants dead. Most remaining plants have some dead material. Die-off: Ninety percent or more of the bitterbrush plants dead. The breakdown of bitterbrush condition classes in the Bray quad- rangle is as follows : Class Area, acres Percent ■ Excellent — 0 0.0 Good 2.630 4.9 Fair 45,623 85.0 Poor 4,657 8.7 Die-off 734 1.4 Total 53,644 100.0 None of the stands in the Bray quadrangle were good enough to be classed excellent although some in adjoining quadrangles do come up to the specifications for an excellent stand. The area has been grazed by livestock for at least 80 years. Live- stock use was much greater in the early days than it has been since the advent of grazing regulations by the U. S. Forest Service. Bitter- 394 rAT.TFORKTA FTl^TT AND TiA^fE brush plants app.-ii'ciitly did hccoiiic established ciilici- diwinti' or im- mediately after ratlier heavy livestock use. One possible exi)huiati<)U for the current downward trend of bitterbrusli condition is that the reduced jii-aziny has permitted an inci-ease in competition for moisture from perennial grass. The pui'ijose of this study was to determine tlie etfect that competition fiom peivimial ^i-ass has upon tlie vii^oi- and pi-(»duet inn of l)i1terbrnsli. METHODS Two 75 X 75 foot areas were selected and fen<'e(l ajzainsi livestock in 1958. Botli of these exclosures were near an area of total die-otf. In one, adjacent to the die-otf, the bitterbrush was in poor condition. The other exclosure was further from the edge of the die-otf. Here, the bitter- brush was in fair to good coiulition. Half of each of tliese plots was weeded of everything but bitterbrush in 1!)59 and reweeded in 19(i(). Measurements of average leader length and average number of leaders per branch were made on 15 randomly selected plants on each plot in FIGURE 3. The finger is pointing at the first main fork of old wood. The two branches above this fork were the type of sampling units used in this study. BITTERBRUSH REDUCTION 395 the fall of 1960. A branch was defined for this study as that portion above the first fork of old wood (Figure 3). Four such branches were selected on each bush, one from each quarter. Every attemj)t was made to keep bias out of this branch selection. This was done by facing away from the plant, reaching behind, grab- bing terminal leaders, and then following down to the first main fork. Once a branch was selected, all leaders on it w^ere measured. A leader was considered to be any new growth over i/^ inch long. Previous studies have shown that 19 to 39 leaders are needed for an accurate estimate of average leader length (Hubbard and Dunaway, 1958). In this study 50 leaders were measured on each bush to insure an ac- curate estimate. Some bushes did not have 50 leaders on the 4 branches selected. In such cases, additional branches had to be selected. The estimate of average number of leaders per branch was based entirely, however, on the first four branches. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Effect of Weeding on Leader Length Removal of perennial grass and weed understory caused a dramatic increase in leader length on both plots (Figure 4). Average leader length on plants in good condition was 1.4 inches on the unweeded por- tion, and 2.1 inches on the w^eeded area. Average leader length on poor condition plants was 0.9 inches on the unweeded portion, and 1.7 inches on the weeded. 0,9 Good Condition Poor Condition FIGURE 4. Average leader length on bitlerbrush in fenced plots in the Mount Hebron die-off area. Looking at the analysis of leader lengths (Table 1), we find the ef- fect of the weeding treatment was highly significant (99 percent level). The difference between the good and poor condition plots was also highly significant — even though leader groAvth on the weeded plants in the poor condition plot was essentially the same as that on the unweeded plants in the good condition plot. The reason for the highly significant 80fi CALIFORNIA FISH AM) CA.Ml TABLE 1 Analysis of Variance of Leader Lengths Found on Weeded and Unweeded Fenced Plots in the Mt. Hebron Bitterbrush Die-off Area Source of variation d. f. Sum of squares Mean square F. Leaders Plants 49 14 1 1 1 2933 2999 35.41 114.53 426.57 149.74 0.59 2,407.26 3,134.10 0.72 8.14 426.57 149.74 0..59 0.82 .88 9 93** Treatments (T) (weed) Condition (C). .520.20** 182 60** (C) X (T) 71 Error. Total. ** Sigiiiflcant at the 0.01 level. difference between conditions was, apparently, the wide range between the relatively loiio- leadei's on the g'ood, weeded ])lants and the extremely short leaders on the poor, unweeded plants. The interaction between condition and w-eeding was not significant, meaning that the response to weeding was not related to plant condi- tion. This lack of relationship can also be shown by comparing gains in leader length due to weeding on the two plots. On the good condition plot, the gain was 0.7 inch ; on the poor plot, 0.8 inch. Generally, you would expect that the more vigorous ])laiits would respond more strongly to release. That they didn't suggests that competition from the understory was more severe on the poor condition ])lot. Effect of Weeding on Number of Leaders The response to weeding in term of number of leadei's produced is much the same story as for leader length. Effects of weeding and con- Good Condition Poor Condition FIGURE 5. Average number of leaders per branch. BITTERBRUSH REDUCTION 397 dition were, again, both highly significant (Table 2). In this test, how- ever, the interaction between condition and weeding also was significant. The average number of leaders per branch more than trebled, from 3.0 to 9.7, following weeding of the poor condition plot (Figure 5). On the good condition plot, the increase was less than 1^/^ times, from 7.1 to 11.1. Here, the evidence is even stronger that competition from under- story vegetation was more severe on the poor condition plot than on the good. Both leader length and number of leaders responded similarly to weeding. Consequently both measurements are probably good indexes to plant vigor. It is sometimes difficult to measure leader length on heavily grazed plants. It may be that a leader count is a satisfactory substitute. TABLE 2 Analysis of Variance of Number of Leaders/Branch Found on Weeded and Unweeded Fenced Plots in the Mt. Hebron Bitterbrush Die-off Area Source of variation d. f. Sum of squares Mean square F. Branches 3 14 1 1 1 219 239 156.00 1,736.06 1,659.00 478.84 116.21 4,132.89 8,279.00 52.00 124.00 1,659.00 478.84 116.21 18.87 2.75 Plants-- ... . - 6.57* Weeding _ 87.91** Condition (C) X (T)_ 25.37** 6.14* Error _. Total * Signifleant at the 0.05 level. ** Significant at the 0.01 level. CONCLUSION This study very clearly demonstrated that competition from other plants reduces bitterbrush growth and production. Production is a function of both number and length of leaders. Both were increased by removing the herbaceous understory from plots in an area of bitter- brush mortality near Mt. Hebron, California. This study was conducted during a drought year, which undoubtedly increased the degree of competition for moisture. The response to weeding does not prove that the understory com- petition is actually killing the bitterbrush — only that it is reducing pro- duction and probably vigor. Previous studies have shown that low-pro- ducing plants may hold on for many years (Hubbard, Sanderson, and Dunaway, 1960). This may be true here. Undoubtedly, heavy grazing, soils, insects, and other factors influence the mortality. The present study will be maintained for several years, and mortality will be checked. Efi:'ects of heavy grazing will also be checked. Compar- able, unf enced plots were established and weeded at the same time as the fenced plots reported here. Grazing was too heavy on these plots to get reliable estimates of leader length. On both the fenced and un- f enced plots, each plant was classified as to condition and the height and diameter were measured. Also, selected plants in each plot were photo- graphed. Changes in size and condition will be used to assess the effect of grazing and the interaction between grazing and understory competi- tion. 398 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME The apparent close correlation between leader lenjzth and average nnnibor of leaders per branch needs further stud3^ It maj'^ be that a count of leaders per branch is an adecinate, single measure of plant vigor. If so, it will simplify and speed the gathering of informatif)n on the effect of grazing. LITERATURE CITED IIiil)linr(l, Ricli.-ird L. and David Dunaway I!).")8. Variation in loador length of bitterbrush. U.S. Forest Service, Calif. Forest and Range Expt. Sta. Res. Note 145, 4 pp. Ilnbbaid. Hi( liaid L.. II. Reed Sanderson and David Dunaway 11»(!U. Herbage production and carrying capacity of bitterbrush. U.S. Forest Service Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Expt. Sta. Res. Note 157, G pp. CASTLE LAKE INVESTIGATION-THIRD PHASE: RAINBOW TROUT' J. H. WALES and D. P. BORGESON "" Inland Fisheries Branch California Department of Fish and Game Castle Lake, Siskiyou County (Figure 1), is fairly typical of the numerous glacial cirque lakes of western North America. It lies at the head of a steep-sided canyon at an elevation of 5,200 feet, 11 miles southwest of the town of Mt. Shasta, California. Vertical cliffs, evidence of glacial action at the canyon head, rise abruptly from the south end of the lake. It is bordered by steep mountain slopes on the east and west. At the north end the water is impounded by a low moraine, FIGURE 1. Castle Lake, with Mt. Shasta in background. Photograph by J. H. Wales. "^ Submitted for publication March, 1961. This work was performed as part of Dingell- Johnson Project California F-8-R, "Trout Management Study", supported by Fed- eral Aid to Fish Restoration funds. 2 The senior author is now Associate Professor, Department of Fish and Game Man- agement, Oregon State College, Corvallis, Oregon. ( 31)9 ) 400 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME llirou^^li ^vllil•ll llie outlet stream lias ciil. The iKuilicni third of this 48-acre lake is shallow, with a maxiiiniin depth of 15 feet, while the remainder is a deep bowl which has a iiuixiiiiiiiii depth of 122 feet and contains 1,750 of the lake's 1,900 acre-t'eet of wjiter. The lake drains only 200 acres, and its water source is chietly from snow and luimerous sprinjrs. Consequently, the tributary streams are very short and steep and flow oidy briefly each year. They are of no value as spawning t I'ibutai'ies. The soil of the lake's drainapre is ))()or, and the lak'e itself is low in fertility. Total dissolved solids amount to onlj^ 20 }).p.Ri. Secchi disk visibility ranges from 40 to 55 feet. Summer surface tem- peratures never exceed 75 degrees Fahrenheit. A thermocline develops in the deep, south ])oi'tion of the lake in June. Complete oxygen deple- tion occurs below 85 feet in late summer of some years. The authors believe that many of the conclusions derived from the Castle Lake investigation will be generally applicable to similar waters in Avestern North America, llntehinson (1957) expresses this point concisely: "A group of lakes confronts the investigator as a series of very complex physiochemical and biological systems, each member of which has its own characteristics and yet also has much in common with the other members of the group." Castle Lake is especially well suited as a test water. A single access road terminates at the lake, thus enabling a creel checker to intercept and interview' all anglers at the end of their fishing day. Angling pres- sure is high enough for adequate evaluation of various experiments by creel census. This paper covers the third phase of the Castle Lake investigation, the rainbow trout phase. Results of this phase, covering the years 1952 through 1959, are com])ai-ed witli earlier results and the implica- tions are discussed. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors wi.sh to thank Carl Hill and other Mt. Shasta Hatchery personnel for their help in rearing and planting the experimental fish, and George W. McCammon for his help in interpreting and presenting the data and for supervising the 1959 census. SUMMARY OF PREVIOUS INVESTIGATIONS The first phase of the Castle Lake investigation began in 1988, when rainbow (Snlmo ffairrhirrii). brown (Sahno tndta), eastern brook (S(ih'(ii)ri(s fonii)Kiiis), and lake (SaJv<]iin(s namaijcush) trout were present. The lake also contained small populations of two cyprinids, the golden shiner (Notemigonus cryftoleucas) and speckled dace (Rhi- )ii(hthys oscnhis). The original design of this iuAcst i.Liat iou was to stock Castle Lake for several years with equal uuinbei-s of rainbow. ])r()ok. and brown trout and from their contribution to the catch determine the one best suited to conditions existing in the lake. Aftei- the most suitable species had been chosen, it was ])laiine(l to determine the l)est size and luimber to stock. The plans were evaluated by means of a complete creel census. Data on growth rates and food of the four trout species were col- CASTLE LAKE INVESTIGATION 401 lected during this phase. Some basic limnological features were also investigated. The results of the initial phase were reported by "Wales (1946). Sig- nificant conclusions were the following : 1. The survival of stocked brook, brown, and rainbow fingerlings was very low, primarily as a result of predation by brown and naturally-spawned lake trout. Survival of subcatchable-sized and catchable-sized fish of all three species was much higher ; however, maintenance plants of large fish were inefficient, since the lake's productivity was not utilized effectively. 2. Brown trout were the dominant species, providing about half of the catch in numbers and over half of the total weight of the catch. Since the interrelationships of several trout species mask the potentialities of any single species, it was decided to select one species and study its suitability to Castle Lake. The brook trout was the species chosen, because of its widespread use in other lakes of this type. To carry out this plan, the lake was treated with rotenone at the close of the 1946 angling season. All fish were killed and the lake re- mained toxic to trout until July, 1947. The lake was restocked with fingerling and subcatchable-sized brook trout in 1947.^ Additional brook trout fingerlings were stocked in August, 1948, after which brook trout plants were discontinued, since growth rate data indicated overstocking. A complete creel census during the years 1947-53 and a five-day-per- week census in 1954 were used to evaluate the survival and growth of the brook trout plants. Wales and German (1956) reported the results of this phase of the investigation. The most important findings were the following : 1. Removal of the highly predatory brown and lake trout increased survival of brook trout fingerlings remarkably. The mean survival to the angler of planted brook trout fingerlings prior to chemical treat- ment was 1.9 percent, while the 1947 and 1948 plants returned 34.6 and 36.4 percent, respectively, to the creel. 2. Angling success, in terms of numbers of fish, increased, despite an appreciable increase in angling pressure. From 1941 through 1946 the mean number of angler days per year was 596 and the mean catch per angler hour was 0.61. From 1947 through 1951, the mean number of angler daj's per year was 1,077 and the mean catch per angler hour was 1.50. This difference is exaggerated by the contri- bution to the catch of a large plant of subcatchable-sized brook trout in 1947 for which plants of subcatchables and catchables in 1942 and 1943 compensated only partially. Furthermore, the average size of the fish was smaller from 1947 through 1951. In 1945 the catch per acre per year was 9.6 pounds, while the mean for the years 1947-51 was 10.3 pounds. 3 In California, hatchery trout are classified as follow.s : Fingerlings — one ounce each or smaller. Subcatchables — larger than one ounce each, but smaller than six fish to the pound. Catchables — six fish to the pound or larger. 402 CALIFORNIA FISH AM") OAMK 3. Ill the absence of othor spoeios, the brook front established a self- sustaininji' ])t)i)iihitioii. lirook trout si)a\vii suceessi'ully in the numer- ous sprinfjs near the east shore of Castle Jjake. Rainbows cannot re- produce in the lake. 4. It Avas hypotliesized that a combination of brooks and rainbows in Castle T^ake would ])rovide a greater yield than brooks alone. In 1952 the rainbow trout phase of tiie investi<;ation was bet?un. Ex- perimental lots of marked rainbow tin last two years of the rainbow trout phase. This was probably due to the deterioration of the Castle Lake road and the development of good trout angling in nearby Dwinnell Reservoir. Total catch during this phase reached a high in 1955 of 6,066 trout and then dropped to the low for the period, 2,548 trout, in 1956. The abnormally large catches in 1952 and 1955 resulted fidni plants of catchable-sized rainbows. CASTLE LAKE INVESTIGATION 403 =1: CD ID O in 05 CT3 C3 o to E E CO S^ en rH >n IN 00 CO CM CM CM CO CO T^ i^ »-H ci -rs -TS- CO 3- in 0 0 00 00 03 OS 1 1 CO -* in ^ t~ t- I-H I-H CO o§ ^ ' 1 in ■* in in •n r-H CO 0: s^ g55 CO TtH d d ■* OS i^ 3 OS 6^ in CO ■* CO t^ a> CM CO 00 in 0: I-H 0 in CO Tf r)> 00 CM -D OS * CD -*■& i-h'^' CM I-H 0 T*< CO 0 0 1 1 t^ . 00 n 10 in 05 (N g§ IN d CO g^ 00 3 0-1 £^ ' 0 m d CO CD in S^ ^g in &^ 05 I— 1 Tt< 01 -H --tt 00 CO CO l-H_ CM CM CO in OS I-H c6 (nS ^^ i-h" CM CO OS Tt< Tf -* 0 I-H cq CO ^ , CM ' 1 =0^ 00 in ^ IN in CO S5 0 -* I-H CO CO sS> (N &^ is? ' CO >n d IN CO OS vp g^ Oi 1— t 0 CO IN rt 00 Tt( CD t~ CO CO ,Ni"in (nS- c^ t^ CO '^ c^ — 1 bjo 1 ^ S ' en -0 2 1 t> 1 d -M 3 »3 0 ,,— ^ 0 1 ft -8 2 : -»^ ^ ' J3 M 3 c3 3 0 0. "bb : °j 1 0 -»^ 3 0 bt 3 0) u a 3 i "2 1 -d 0 1 be 3 g ca '> 1 g 03 +3 IS ^ 3 2 S ^ 1 •^ 0 3 0 ED a 03 +3 "bb 3 03 0 "3d 3 03 0 3 0 M 0 0 u a OS 3 CO CO "5) a 1 "0 1 1 t4H 0 0 "0 u ft +3 2 0 0 CO 0 0) ft 03 M 1 4) 03 e a '^ t4 OJ '3 X "ea C J3 ■♦H ■4^ CO i T3 03 03 OJ M 3 XI » u bC 3 S 0 c a T3 ;h p. ft cC 3 03 0 a u a; «*H 0 ■4^ «4H 0 3 03 0 "2 fti-H S tH "3b 03 (h 4) j3 0 -*^ 03 0 a) 0 1 a 03 3 0 o3 4i 3 0 i-, 4H & 0 .D 0 2 i3 a 't 0 m 03 0) e*H ■a .d 1 bC o3 bC 1 ii> en cC e*H 0 -3 a "0 t. 0 1^ ft 03 Fh a -a ^ a 13 t-H 0 Hi a a; Ch 3 3 0) d a is S ;: CO 3 0 > > 'S ca 0 0 > > 0 3 3 ^ s ^; H ^ 53 to 6.7 percent in 1956. Since 1956 tin's ]i('rcoiitage has been 8 or less. In the two years in -which catcliablc trout wci-c stocked (1952 and 1955) the percentage of limit catches was the highest (7 and 9 percent, respectively). During the other six years the percentage of limit catches ranged between 2.5 and 5.0 percent. The percentage of zero catches recorded during this phase ranged from 31 percent in 1958 to 49 percent in 1954. The rainbow trout catch fluctuated considerably during this period (Figure 2). The brook trout catch declined steadily after 1954. The mean weights of brook and rainbow trout taken from 1955 through 1959 were almost identical, being 0.194 pound for the rainbows and 0.199 pound for the brooks. Although their mean size was compar- able with that of the rainbows, brook trout attained a greater maximum size in Castle Lake during this period. For example, during 1959 only one rainbow over 11 inches (11.2) was caught, whereas 12 brooks larger 4000 3000 X 1— 1 * ft t ft O TO OS Oi 0) lO IN CO CO 03 OS OS OS OS « 3 O 'u. 03 > -*^ ^-^ 03 o ?T lO cc j3 M or ^ O M 3 ft ft ft ft ft 03 tC lO lO -I- CO o CO O -H rt IM O O OS OS OS ^ .— t t— ( r^ l-i c T^ ^^ c »c C3 OS IC lO *"". i^ OS »-H S-C-Scssc j:: l-H o ft ft ft ft ft ft ft a Tf to t^ t^ IN O X ^ T)< OS (N CO OS to M o N 00 t'i 00 00 t-^ l^ 1 00 'w Qi So c3 Ui QJ > 1^ 00 < 'I* -f O °. -f t^ . OS (N CO Ol CO O -H h^ ft ft ft ft ft ft ft ft t^ t CO O M o o O X O -^ CO t^ OS cc O lO O ->0 O CC CD o OJ _N N N N N K C< N W o o o o o o o bc w w w\ c -- CO OS ■^ CO 00 '^ OS --C OS c c ..H ^ — — — OI 03 E ^ > c^ > > t. a: K c; _] c3 > 4-= > ~t;> 1^ ffl <; <; o; -i; •< J B '5 I» . . 03 (B M O) is (l. fcifc t. fc, fc m H E h- h< H [- :- B a K c: K K K a: C8 o c c 00 r^ CO o Lh c c t^ 'O r- 01 o V o o -r 00 t ic o lO <0 '.0 -f '0 -f o — 7. Calif. !>i'pt. I'ish and Game, Inland Fisheries .\dinin. Kept. no. 5S (i. l:7 |>p. i.Miuieo.) Wales, J. IT., and E. K. Gi'rman 195('>. Castle l^ake in\(>stigation — second phase: easln-n brook trout. Calif. I'ish and (Jame. \ol. 42. no. 2. pp. 9.". Kts. Ward J>., and W. Kier 1959. Califoi'iiia trout product ion and costs, l'.t.5S-19.59. ("alif. I>cpi. I''isb and Game. Inland I'^ishiuies .Vdinin. {{('lit. no. .59-16. 81 pp. (.Minico.) NOTES NEW NORTHERN RECORD FOR BLACK SKIPJACK (EUTHYNNUS UNEATUS) On September 2, 1960 a black skipjack was taken on trolling gear off San Simeon, California, approximate lat. 35° 20' N. ; long. 121° 40' W., by Mr. AYarren Beadle and Mr. Ken Bntler of the albacore vessel DOR ANN. The fish weighed nine and one-half pounds and had a fork length of 602 mm. Black skipjack are common off Mexico and Central America, but had been reported from California waters only twice previously: in July 1939 one was taken with a catch of bluefin tuna by a purse seiner operating near Santa Barbara Island; the second was caught by a sport fisherman off Dana Point during July 1951. The present specimen is especially notable because it extended the known range of black skipjack northward by about 110 miles. FIGURE 1. Black skipjack, Euffiynnus /inea/us Kishinouye. REFERENCES Fitch, John E. 1952. Distributional notes on some Pacific Coast marine fishes. Calif. Fish and Game, vol. 38, no. 4, pp. 557-564. Godsil, H. C. 1954. A descriptive study of certain tuna-like fishes. Calif. Div. Fish and Game, Fish Bull. 97, 185 pp. Roedel, Phil M. 1948. Occurrence of the black skipjack {Euthynnus lineatus) off southern California. Calif. Fish and Game, vol. 34, no. 1, pp. 38-39. — John C. Nou-ell, Marine Resources Operations, California Department of Fish and Game, December 1960. ( 415 ) 416 fATJFORXTA FISH AXD f.WW. TWO UNUSUAL CEPHALOPODS TAKEN NEAR MONTEREY A iiiiilc fiapjack dcviHish. Opisllmlf nth is ral ifniiiliiiKi iJcri'v. was taken in about 'i.lO fathoms oil' Monterey Bay, I\Iarch 4, !!»()() l)v Cap- tain Dom Gi-illo of tlie Montei-ey trawler TWO BROS. (i. II. This was only the second male reported fi-om the Califoi-nia coast. The species was described in 1949 on the basis of two adult females trawled off Eureka in April 1948 (Berry, 1949). The first and only previous male was canragg. REFERENCES rhillip.s, Julius B. 1957. A review of llic rocklishcs of CalirDruia ( I'ainily Sc-iuiiacuidac ) . Calif. Dept. Fi.sh and Game, Fish \\\\\\. 104, l.">8 pp.. (i. ("(imrniiii "ccan tishcs nt' tlic ( 'alit'nriii;i coast. Calif. l>cpl. I'"isli and (laiiie. Fish liull. !»1. 1S4 i.p. 17.". Iij,-s. — Julius B. VhiUips, Mmiiic I'csoin-ces Operations, Culifornia Department of Fish and Game, -I uly JSKiO. NOTES ■il9 AN INEXPENSIVE WELL MICROTOME FOR LABORATORY USE Frequently in laboratory work concerning fisheries investigations a need arises for a microtome. The microtome here described (Figure 1) is inexpensive to build, simple to operate, and can be constructed with the aid of a drill press and a small metal lathe. This instrument is similar in design to a hand microtome, but differs in that it utilizes a depth micrometer as the adjusting device, and has legs to facilitate its use. The specifications and dimensions are flexible and may be modified to fit specific needs. List of Parts and Materials Items and Dimensions Required Tool steel body, 3x1^ inches 1 Steel piston (dowel pin), fxf inches 1 Steel legs, 1 x 6^ inches 3 Aluminum hold-down clamps, i x 4 x 1-inch 2 Allen cap screws, 6-32 x 1-inch 2 Allen set screws, 6-32 x ^-inch 3 Depth micrometer with 0- to 1-inch rod 1 Plastic razor blade holder 1 Single-edge razor blade 1 WELL BODY LEG SET SCREW MICROMETER \PL&STIC BLM)E HOLDER AND BLADE FIGURE 1. Microtome and knife. Phofograpb by A. E. Vogel. 420 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME CONSTRUCTION AND USE The body of the microtome is tool steel 3 inches in diameter by 1^ inches thick and has through its center a f-inch cylinder (well) fitted with a steel piston. The depth micrometer is attached to the underside of the body with two small "L" type hold-doAvn clamps secured with 6-32 X 1-inch Allen cap screws. The legs are -l-inch diameter steel and slightly bent for stability (Figure 1). They are anchored to the body in 1-inch deep holes and are made fast with 6-32 x j-inch Allen set screws. The microtome knife is a standard single-edge razor blade held in a plastic blade holder. Material to be sectioned is imbedded in a supporting medium such as pith-wood or a vaseline-paraffin mixture and placed in the micro- tome well. A preliminary cut made in the area to be sectioned will smooth the surface. Subsequent cuts can be made by adjusting the micrometer to the desired thickness. — Robert A. Iselin, Marine Re- sources Operations, California Department of Fish and Game, January 1961. RETIREMENT EARL LEITRITZ Earl Leitritz, who served as supervisor of the California hatchery program for many years, retired from State service on August 4, 1961. Leitritz's entire career was associated with fish hatcheries. His boy- hood love for fishing steered him to his first regular job at Mt. Shasta Fish Hatchery, California, where on July 21, 1923, he went to work as an apprentice fish culturist, under the tutelage of the late Captain G. H. Lambson. Mt. Shasta Hatchery at that time was known as the largest fish hatchery in the world. Fish were distributed throughout the State by two specially equipped railroad fish cars. Leitritz spent the greater part of two seasons as a car messenger on the fish cars. After completion of his apprenticeship, he continued as a fish culturist until May 1, 1931, when he was promoted to Fish Hatchery Foreman, in charge of Fall Creek Fish Hatchery and egg collecting stations on the upper Klamath River, in northern California. In this assignment, he directed the salmon and steelhead trout operations in that area : collec- tion of eggs, salmon and steelhead rearing, and distribution of the young fish. In June, 1939, he was promoted to Fish Hatchery Superintendent, in charge of j\It. Shasta Hatchery, where he remained for a little over two years. In October, 1941, he was promoted to Fish Hatchery Inspec- tor for northern California, with headquarters at San Francisco. The position title of Fish Hatchery Inspector was changed to Assistant Supervisor of Fish Hatcheries on March 1. 1942. On January 26, 1943, Leitritz began a 31-month tour of duty Avith the U. S. Army. On his discharge from the Army, August 6, 1945, he returned to his former position with the then California Division of Fish and Game. On September 8, 1947, he was promoted to Supervisor of Fish Hatch- eries, to direct all fish hatchery operations in California. During the period 1949 through 1952, he was the Department's fish hatchery ex- pert in carrying out a $4,300,000 fish hatchery expansion and modern- ization program. His many original ideas in hatchery design and layout established California as a leader in the field. On reorganization of the old Division of Fish and Game into the present Department of Fish and Game in 1952, his position was reclassi- fied to that of Fisheries Management Supervisor, and he moved from San Francisco to Sacramento March 1, 1953, when the headquarters location was changed. licitritz is well known throughout fish cultural circles for his writings on hatchery subjects. He has been a periodic contributor to The Pro- gressive Fish Culturist, Outdoor California, California Fish and Game, and U. S. Trout News. Some of his publications have been reproduced (421 ) 422 CALIFORNIA FISH AND OA^VFE in Eiijrlaiul and France. TTis latest ])nb]icati()n. Trout and Salmon Cul- ture (Fish Bull(ti)t 107), has received international acceptaiico as the definitive treatise on tront and salmon cnltnre and is presently being translated into Japanese. After retirement. Leitritz will devote his time to eonsnltation work for a Seattle company mainii'aclui'in.u' iish cidtnral equipment, to the development of his 520-aere ranch in Surprise Vallej', Modoc County, California, and to his long-time hobby of restoring antique automobiles. His colleagues and many friends wish him well in these endeavors. — ^yaUcr T. S]ian)io)i, Director, Califor)iia I)cpart)ncnt of Fish and Game. RETIREMENT DONALD D. McLEAN Donald D. McLean, Game Manager III, retired from the Department of Fish and Game on June 30, 1961 after 31 years of service. He is a native of Mariposa, California. Prior to joining the then Division of Fish and Game, he collected biological specimens in southeast Arizona and adjacent Mexico and served four years as Assistant Park Naturalist at Yosemite National Park. His career with the Department encompassed virtually all ])hases of game research and management. However, his special interest was in research. He was gifted with exceptional powers of observation and his general knowledge of California wildlife was unequalled in the Depart- ment. His varied interests are reflected in his writings. Notable are a game bulletin on the quail of California, a booklet on upland game, and various articles in CALIFORNIA FISH AND G A:\IE on deer, antelope, waterfowl, and mountain lions. He is an accomplished artist and his drawings and sketches of birds and mammals have appeared in numerous Dei)ai'tmeiit publications. Mr. McLean was active in organizations outside the Department, being a permanent member of the Board of Governor's of the Cooper Ornithological Society and a life member of the California Academy of Sciences. His co-workers and many friends in the Department extend best wishes for a long and happy retirement. — Ben (iJading, Chief, Game Management Branch, California Department of Fish and Game. BOOK REVIEWS Ecology of Inland Waters and Estuaries By George K. Reid; Reinhold Publ. Co., New York, 1961; xvi + 375 pp., $9. This is the best introductory text for limnology this reviewer has seen, The roles of geology, chemistry and biology in their broadest sense are presented in a logical sequence. The text is divided into five sections, the first of which is a discussion of how lakes, streams and estuaries are formed and maintained. It is concerned with what might be called geohydrology. Water is discussed as a modifier of landscapes. The second section is quite brief and is concerned with the physical and chemical features of water itself. The third section discusses water as an environment, including such aspects as solar radiation, thermal characteristics, movements, and dissolved gases and solids. Each of the topics is discussed in terms of hikes, streams, and estuaries. The subject is first thoroughly covered in terms of lakes. The same characteristics are then reviewed in terms of streams and estuaries. The fourth section is a review of the kinds of organisms found in the three aquatic environments. This section is perhaps of least interest and usefulness. It is rather more general than the rest of the text would dictate. A more extensive bibliography would be helpful. A number of excellent general references on aquatic animals have not been included. Part five introduces ideas concerning the relationship of organisms and environ- ment and although it is shorter than one would have expected, it is quite adequate. There is an interesting introduction to the use of radioactive tracers in limno- logical studies. This, however, is a field that is developing so rapidly that the most important advances are still to be found in "occasional papers." The treatment, however, is adequate for the group this book is written for. The illustrations are generally good, well reproduced, and demonstrate what they are meant to demonstrate. There is a good bibliography and the book is well indexed. The general makeup of the book is of high quality. If I were teaching limnology, I would certainly use ECOLOGY OF INLAND AVATERS AND ESTUARIES. I would recommend the use of this book as a re- fresher for old students and as an introduction to the field of limnology for new students. — •/. B. Kimseij, California Department of Fish and Game. Ring of Bright Water By Gavin Maxwell; E. P. Dutton, 1960; x plus 211 pp., 78 black and white photographs, $5. The author of this book is a very versatile man : prose writer and poet, portrait painter and photographer, naturalist and keeper of wild and domestic pets, linquist and student of his fellow men, and one-time shark fisherman. He has written books about his shark fishing experiences, about the Marsh Arabs of Southern Iraq, about the Sicilians. The greater part of the present book is laid at his home on a remote sea loch on the northwest coast of Scotland. He sees with the eye of an artist and naturalist, and describes what he sees with the tongue of a poet — an ideal combination. He has an appreciative and discerning eye for sea and sky and plant life, for wild birds and dolphins and seals and fishes, for all the color and life about him. Most of all, his book concerns his pet otters. Having lost his dog companion of many years, the author started looking about for another pet to keep him company, and thought of an otter. In the marshes of Southern Iraq he found a baby one. which died after a few days but left him con- vinced that this was indeed what he wanted. Shortly afterward, he acquired a second one, Mijbil, which he brought home with him to London, and later to his cottage in Scotland. After Mijbil's accidental death a year later, he made great ( 423 ) 424 CALIFORNIA FlSll AND GAME efforts to find another otter, and event iiiilly s<'7-255 Coloration: changes in ilic lilnck ci-oaker, 163-174 Cordone, Alnio J. and Don W. Kelley : The influences of inorganic sedi- ment on the aquatic life of streams, 189-228 Corynehnctiniu in pi/of/eries: see abscess, multiple i>unilent Cost: of rearing king snlnMin to yearling size, 343-355 Crabs : morphology of the first zoeal stages, 103-111 Crabs, pelagic red : mass stranding at Monterey Bay, 97-101 Craig, William L. and Joseph J. Graham : Report on a coopera- tive, preseason survey of the fish- ing grounds for albacore {Thitii- nus f/ermo) in the eastern north Pacific, 1959, 73-85 Croaker, black : life history and ecology, 163-174 Crustaceans : collected in sediment bot- tles, 261-272 Culver, A. Nelson : see AVarner, Fry and Culver Daugherty. Anita : see "Wolf and Daugherty Deer : incidence of multiple purulent abscess, 293-300 ; movements of the McCloud Flats herds, 145- 152; studies of brush manage- ment at Ti'haina winter range, 357-389 Deer, Columbian bluck-tailed : as an in- habitant of chaniise lands, 125- 144 Devilfish, flapjack : occuiTenco in Mon- terey T.ay. 416-417 Die-off: of nmlas at Mtuiterey Bay, 339-341 Disease: botulism at San Jacinto Val- ley, 113-114; mu]li|>l(' purulent abscess in deer, 293-300 DistriI)ution : of l)lack skipjack, 415 ; of California sea otter. 2S7-292 ; of the black croak(>r. 163-174 ; of the round stingray, 335-338 ; of tuna catch, 313-326; of IMsmo clams in intertidal zone, 1.59-162 Dorv. i)(>i)eve : occurrence off Californi;t. 418" Ducks: fond liahits .at llumholdt Bay, 41-53 E Ecology : of the black croaker, 163-174 Egg production: fniiii niai-ked king salmon, 343-.'!55 Eggs, fish: influences of sediment, 189- 228 Enhydra lutris nereis: see otter, Cali- fornia sea Euthynnus lineatus: see skipjack, black Fire: relation to brush management at Tehama winter deer range, 3.57- 389 ; use in chamise brush ma- nipulation, 125-144 Fishery : for California sardines, 19.58- 59, 273-285 Fishes : species taken by charter-boat skindivers, 303-305 Fishing : skiff fishing with gill nets, 327-333 Food habits: of deer in chamise lands, 125-144; of the black croaker. 163-174; of waterfowl at Hum- boldt Bay, 41-53 ; species feeding on pelagic red cral)s, 97-101 Forage: quality and availability to deer on chamise lands, 125-144 ; re- lation to brush management at Tehama winter deer range, 357- 389 Fry, Jr., Donald H. : King salmon spawning stocks of the California central valley, 1940-1959, .55-71; see Warner, Fry and Culver Gear, fishing : construction of small boat trawling apparatus, 87-95 ; types used in locating albacore, 73-85 Gilman, J. H. : see Biswell and Gilman Glynn, Peter, AV. : The first recorded mass stranding of pelagic red crabs, Fleuroncodes plniiipes at Monterey Bay, California, since 1859, with notes on their biology, 97-101 Gotsball. Daniel W. : Observations on a die-off of molas (Mola mola) in Monterey Bay, :'.39-341 Graham, Joseph J. : see Craig and ( Ira ha in Craham, Laurence M.: see Hill and Graham (irass: effect on production of bitter- brush, :',91-.39S Cra/.ing: relation to brushlaml manage- ment, 125-144 INDEX 429 INDEX TO VOLUME 47-Continued Growth : of channel catfish, 5-26 ; of rainbow trout at Castle Lake, 399-414; of the black croaker, 163-174 H Habitat : of the black croaker, 163-174 Habitat, fish : influences of sediment, 189-228 Hester, Frank J. : A method of predict- ing tuna catch by using coastal sea-surface temperatures, 313-326 Hiehle, Jack L. and Jack R. Slosson : A method of immobilizing bear for ear tagging, 302-303 Hill, Harold M. and Laurence M. Graham : Waterfowl botulism outbreak in S.an Jacinto Valley, Riverside County, California, 113- 114 History : of regulations on taking Pismo clams, 159-162 Holdeu, Frances F. : see Rosen and Holden Hubbard, R. L. and H. R. Sanderson : Grass reduces bitterbrush pro- duction, 391-398 Humboldt Bay : waterfowl food habits study, 41-53 I Ictaliirus catus: see catfish, white Ictalurus nehulosiis: see bullheads, brown Ictalurus piinctatus: see catfish, channel Invertebrates, marine : as indicators of pollution, 261-272 Iselin, Robert A. : An inexpensive well microtome for laboratory use, 419-420 J Juvenile stage : of bonito, 175-188 K Keller, Mathew : see Yocom and Keller Kelley, Don W. : see Cordone and Kelley Key : to crab zoea, 103-111 LaFaunce, Don A. : see McCammon and LaFaunce Landings : of tuna, 313-326 Leitritz, Earl : retirement notice, 421- 422 Limbaugh, Conrad : Life-history and ecologic notes on the black croaker, 163-174 Longlines : use to locate albacore, 73- 85 M Management : of brush at Tehama deer winter range, 357-389 ; recom- mendations for catfish fisherv at Clear Lake, 237-255 Marking : of channel catfish, 5-26 ; of deer for migration studies, 145- 152 ; of yearling king salmon, 343-355 ; use of tags on catfish at Clear Lake, 237-255 McCammon, George W. and Don A. LaFaunce : Mortality rates and movement in the channel catfish population of the Sacramento Valley, 5-26 McCammon, George W. and Charles M. Seeley : Survival, mortality and movements of white catfish and brown bullheads in Clear Lake, California, 237-255 McLean, Doaald D. : retirement notice, 422 Methods : of censusing California sea otters, 287-292; of censusing Pismo clams, 159-162 ; of census- ing salmon runs, 55-71 ; of con- structing inexpensive microtome, 419-420 ; of constructing small boat trawling gear, 87-95 ; of de- termining occurrence of albacore, 73-85 ; of distinguishing Coryne- bacterium pyogenes, 293-300 ; of manipulating chamise lands for deer, 125-144 ; of measuring pol- lution of marine waters, 261-272 ; of observing trout spawning, 27- 40 ; of predicting tuna catch by sea-surface temperatures, 313- 326 ; of studying brush manage- ment at Tehama deer winter range, 357-389 ; of studying post- larval and juvenile bonito, 175- 188 ; of studying the black croaker, 163-174 ; of studying the zoeal stages of crabs, 103-111 ; of tagging bear, 302-303 ; of tagging channel catfish, 5-26 ; studying deer migrations, 145-152 ; study- ing effects of grass on bitterbrush production, 391-398 ; studying re- turns of marked yearling king salmon, 343-355 ; studying sur- vival, mortality and movements of catfish at Clear Lake, 237-255 ; studying trout production at Castle Lake, 399-414 ; use of gill nets in skiff fishing, 327-333 Mexico : sardine catch off the Pacific Coast, 1958-59, 273-285 430 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME INDEX TO VOLUME 47-ContinuecI Miprotonic : description of incxiionsive tyiic I'ui- l;iii(ir;itor.v use, 41'.t-42() Migraliou: of clijuuiel c-iitfish, 7t-2('> ; of McCloud FUits deer, 145-151^ Mir. Robert; I).: The external inorphol- oay of the first zooal staf^es of the crabs, Comer maf/ister Dana, Cancer antennarius t^tiniiisoii. and Cancer anthonyi Rathbnn, 1(»:!-111 M3-3()U I'hillips, Julius B. : Range extensions for two California fishes, with a note on a rare fish, 41S ; Two unusual ceplialopods taken near Monterey, 41(5-417 I'inkas. Leo : Descriptions of postlarval and juvenile bonito from the eastern I'acific Ocean, 175-188 Plants: as food for waterfowl, 41-53 Plants, a(|uatic: influences of sediment, J.s;»-228 I'IcHroncodea phin'iiivs: see crabs, pelagic red Pollution : measuring in nnirine waters, 201-272 Polvchaetes: collected in sediment bot- tles. 261-272 I'opulatious, fish : influences of sedi- ment, 189-228 Postlarval stage: of bonito, 175-188 Purshia tridentata: see bitterbrush N Xeedham, Paul R. : Obserations on the natural spawning of eastern brook trout, 27-40 Nesting record for shovelers in Ilum- l)oldt County, 301 Net, gill : use in skiff fishing, 327-333 ; use to locate albacore, 73-85 Net puller : use in skiff fishing with gill nets, 327-333 Nimbus Hatchery: study of return of marked salmon 343-355 Xuwell. John C. : New northern record for black skip.iack {Euthijiinus lineatus) , 415 o Occurrence : of the flapjack devilfish off California, 41(>-417; of the giant .s(|uid off California, 41(j-417 ; of the popeye dory off California, 418 (hlorr/ileus heinioiiux colunihianus: see deer, Columbian black-tailed Oiirorhi/iicliKu tshtiirijIs'jKi: see salmon, king Oliistlioteuthis califoni iaiid : see devil- fish, flapjack Organisms, liottoin: influences of sedi- ment, 1 SI (-228 Otter, California sea: distribution and numl)ers, 287-2!t2 Range, geographic : of black skii)jack, 415 ; of coral-red rockfish, 418 ; of the round stingray, 335-33S Regulations : history in regard to taking Pismo clams, 159-102 Reish, Donald J. : The use of the sedi- ment bottle collector for monitor- ing polluted marine waters, 201- 272 Research : on siltation problems, 189- 228 Reseeding : of chamise brushlands, 12.j- 144 Reviews : A list of common and scien- tific names of fishes from the Cnited States and Canada, 110- 117; A(iuatic plants of the Pa- cific Northwest with vegetative keys, 232 : Conetco commercial fisliing gear manual, volume 1, .'>07 ; Diagnosis of veterinary parasitisms, 117-118; Ec-ir)2 Trawling : description of small boat ap- paratus, 87-95 Trolling: to loc^ito albacore, 73-85 Trout, cutthroat: Salrtio (•rermanni not a valid species, 257-259 Trout, eastern Ijrook : comparison with rainbow trout production at Castle Lake, 399-414 ; spawning observations, 27-40 Trout, rainbow : Castle Lake investiga- tions, 399-414 Tuna, bluetin : predicting catch by sea- surface temperatures, 313-326 u Vrolophns halleri: see stingray, round Vegetation : description of Tehama deer winter range, 357-389 w Wales, J. H. and D. P. Borgeson : Castle Lake investigation — third phase : rainbow trout, 399-414 W'niiK r. (Jeorgu II., Donald IL Fry, Jr., and A. Nelson Culver : History of yearling king salmon marked and released at Nimbus Hatchery, 343-355 Water : influence on deer movements, 145-152 Waterfowl : botulism in San Jacinto Valley, 113-114; food habits at Humboldt Bay, 41-53 ; record of shovelers nesting in Humboldt County, 301 Wolf, Robert S. and Anita Daugherty : Age and length comi)osition of the sardine catch ofE I'acific Coast of the United States and Mexico in 1958-59, 273-285 Year-classes: of the 1958-59 catch of California sardines, 273-285 Yocom, Charles F. : Shovelers nesting in Humboldt Countv, California, 301 Yocom, Charles F. and Mathew Keller : Correlation of food habits and alumd.ince of waterfowl, Hum- boldt I'.uy, California, 41-53 Young, Parke H. : Party boat logs show how skindivers fared during 1958 and 1959, 303-305 Zoea : of crabs, 103-111 44529 (-61 5,300 printed in calipohnia state rRiNriNC ofuce STATE OF CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME COMMISSION Notice is hereby given, pursuant to Sections 206, 207, 208 of the Fish and Game Code, that the Fish and Game Commission shall meet on October 9, 1961, at 9:30 a.m., in the Old State Building, First and Broadway, Los Angeles, California, to receive recommendations from its own officers and employees, from the Department of Fish and Game and other public agencies, from organizations of private citizens, and from any interested person as to what, if any, regulations should be made relating to fish. Amphibia, and reptiles, or any species or sub- species thereof. FISH AND GAME COMMISSION Wm. J. Harp Assistant to the Commission Notice is hereby given, in accordance with Section 206 of the Fish and Game Code, that the Fish and Game Commission shall meet on December 8, 1961, at 9:30 a.m., in the State Employment Building, Sacramento, California, to hear and consider any objections to its determinations and proposed regulations in relation to fish. Amphibia, and reptiles for the 1962 angling season, such determinations and orders resulting from hearing held on October 9, 1961. FISH AND GAME COMMISSION Wm. J. Harp Assistant to the Commission